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Bathymetrical Survey of 
Scottish Fresh-W ater Lochs 


‘Report on the Scientific ‘Results 
A eee aia 


With the Compliments of 
Sir Fohn Murray and Mr Laurence Pullar 


26 APR I9It 
Please acknowledge receipt to 
Challenger Office, 
Edinburgh, 
Scotland. 


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% q- 4 one anlar 


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<< pwict fl MARSH. 


BATHYMETRICAL SURVEY 


OF THE 


SCOTTISH FRESH-WATER LOCHS 


Report on the Scientific Results 


PRTC H 
| Per set of six volumes, £5, ds. 


Volume I. separate, £1, Is. 


All the Maps wm these volumes are dis- | 
sected and mounted on cloth. The | 


volumes are half-bound wn finest pig-skin, — 


SENS | 


OF THE 


SCOTTISH PRESH-WATER LOCHS - 


CONDUCTED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF 


Sirk JOHN MURRAY 


K.C.B., F.B.8., D.Sc, Ere. 
AND 
LAURENCE PULLAR 


K.Res. B32 E ReG:s: 


DURING THE YEARS 1897 to 1909 


Report on the Scientific Results 


Tt tt & 4 jSer Si cone 
; SS thie V5.8 Fes [Pi oe 
VOLUME I Fe SONG Mg 
é 295664 \ 


x NOVY 1933 


NY 
Na Ne eh eve 
es io ae a a7 
Omar muses 


EDINBURGH 
CHALLENGER OFFICE 
1910 


Dedicated 


TO THE MEMORY OF 


FREDERICK PATTISON PULLAR 


WHO WAS DROWNED 
WHILE ATTEMPTING TO SAVE THE LIVES OF OTHERS 
ON 15TH FEBRUARY 1901 


AT THE AGE OF TWENTY-FIVE YEARS 


He took an active part in the initiation 
of this systematic survey of the 
Scottish Fresh-water Lochs 


PREFACE 


Tuts publication consists of six volumes, two of text and 
four of maps, and gives an account of the work done, of 
the observations recorded, and of most of the results 
obtained, during an investigation into the bathymetry of 
the fresh-water lochs or lakes of Scotland between the 
years 1897 and 1909. 

Although the determination of the depths of the lakes, 
and of the general form of the basins in which they he, 
made up the principal work of the Survey, still a very large 
number of observations were carried out in other branches 
of the science of imnography. Many of these observations 
and the results were published from time to time, as 
the work proceeded, in scientific journals, while others 
now appear in print for the first time. 

Volume I. consists for the most part of new matter. 
It includes numerous articles dealing with the general 
results of the researches from the topographical, geological, 
physical, chemical, and biological points of view, a com- 
parison of Scottish lakes with lakes in other parts of the 
world, and various theoretical considerations. ‘These 
articles have been written chiefly by gentlemen who have 
taken an active part in the field-work of the Survey. 
This volume also contains an extensive bibliography of 
books and special papers referring to lakes. 

Volume IT. contains the special descriptions of the lakes, 
the maps of which appear in Volumes ITI., [V., V., and VI. 
Throughout the text will be found numerous index-maps, 
showing the drainage areas of the districts in which the 
lochs are situated, together with other illustrations. 

The bathymetrical maps have all appeared during the 
past eight years in the Journal of the Royal Geographical 
Society or in an extra publication of the same Society ; 
and some of the maps have also been published in the 


Vii 


Vill PREFACE 


Magazine of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society. 
These maps consist of two series. In the first series 
(Volumes III. and IV.), the contours of depth in the lakes 
are shown in shades of blue, and the contours of the height 
of the surrounding land are shown in brown shades of 
colour; in the second series (Volumes V. and VI.), the 
contours of depth are shown in shades of blue, the brown 
shades on the land being omitted. 

In addition to the bathymetrical maps, there are also 
a few maps showing the surface geology, the rainfall, and 
other physical features of some of the districts. 

These maps have all been prepared and printed by 
Dr J. G. Bartholomew, and we desire to express our in- 
debtedness to him for the care with which these have 
been produced, and for his assistance and advice in many 
directions. We are also indebted to Messrs G. Cornwall & 
Sons, Aberdeen, for their assistance and advice with regard 
to the binding of the maps, and to Messrs Neill & Co., Edin- 
burgh, for their advice in connection with the letterpress. 

We feel confident that the whole investigation has 
resulted in very substantial contributions to knowledge. 
Some of the observations—those regarding the temperature 
seiche, and the variation of the viscosity of the water with 
temperature, for example—throw much light on obscure 
oceanographical problems. Most of the observations 
could, with advantage, have been carried further, by means 
of improved instruments and methods suggested during 
the progress of the work, but it was found necessary to 
terminate the survey, at least in the meantime, and to 
review what had been accomplished. We are conscious 
of many shortcomings. 

In conclusion, we tender our best thanks to all who 
have assisted us in carrying these investigations to a 
successful conclusion. 

JOHN MURRAY. 
LAURENCE PULLAR. 


CHALLENGER OFFICE, EDINBURGH, 
February 1910. 


CONTENTS 


VOLUME I 


Titles 

Dedication . 

Preface, by Sir Joun Murray and Mr Laurence PuLiar 
Contents of each Volume . 

Statistical Tables of the Scottish Fresh-water Lochs, I. to VI. . 


Index to the Descriptions and Maps of the Scottish Fresh-water 
Lochs sounded by the Lake Survey 


Introduction, Methods, Instruments, and various Appendices, by 
Sir Joun Murray, K.C.B., F.R.S., D.Sc., etc. 


Seiches and other Oscillations of Lake-surfaces, observed by the 
Scottish Lake Survey, by Professor GrorcGe Curystat, M.A, 
Sec. Ris E:, ete. 


Temperature of Scottish Lakes, by E. M. Wepprersurn, M.A., 
LL.B., W.S., F.R.S.E. 


| Chemical Composition of Lake-waters, by W. A. Caspari, B.Sc., 
Phe hie: 


An Epitome of a Comparative Study of the Dominant Phanero- 
gamic and Higher Cryptogamic Flora of Aquatic Habit, in 
seven Lake Areas in Scotland, by George West 


Deposits of the Scottish Fresh-water Lochs, by W. A. Caspanrt, 
BSc. bh Deeb icy 


Biology of the Scottish Lochs, by James Murray, F.R.S.E.— 


I. The Biology in relation to Environment 
II. Census of the Species 
Some Distinctive Characters in the Fresh-water Plankton from 


various Islands off the North and West Coasts of Scotland, 
by Joun Hewitt, B.A. 


29 


OQ] 


145 


156 


x CONTENTS 


PAGE 
On the Nature and Origin of Fresh-water Organisms, by 

Wm. A. Cunnineton, M.A., Ph.D. . . 854 
Summary of our Knowledge regarding various Limnological Pro- 

blems, by C. Wersenserc-Lunp, Ph.D. Se woe 
The Scottish Lakes in relation to the Geological Features of 

the Country, by B. N. Peacu, LL.D., F.R.S., ete., and 

Joun Horne, LL.D., F.R.S., ete. . 439 
Characteristics of Lakes in general, and their Distribution over 

the Surface of the Globe, by Sir Joun Murray, K.C.B., 

ERS: DD Sc;ietc.” : ipl 
Bibliography of Limnological Literature, compiled in the 

Challenger Office by James CHuMLEY ; ; 659 
Index of Genera and Species ; seo 
General Index : : i pelOe 

VOLUME II 

Titles ; ; i 
Dedication . : , ; : Vv 
Preface, by Sir Jonn Murray and Mr Laurence Puttar . : vii 
Contents of each Volume . ; . ix 
Statistical Tables of the Scottish Fresh-water Lochs, I. to VI. “oo exyil 
Index to the Descriptions and Maps of the Scottish Fresh-water 

Lochs sounded by the Lake Survey ; ; i, rex 

PART I 


Descriptions of Scottish Fresh-water Lochs, the maps of which, showing . 
the land-contours in shades of brown and the lake-contours in 
shades of blue, are bound in Volumes III. and IV. :— 


PAGE 
Lochs of the Forth Basin : : é ’ 1 
Lochs of the Tay Basin 53 
Lochs of the Inver Basin ; : 148 
Lochs of the Roe Basin ; . 156 
Lochs of the Kirkaig Basin. : 159 
Lochs of the Polly Basin ; . 168 
Lochs of the Garvie Basin : ' ; 172 
Lochs of the Morar Basin . : ; 195 
Lochs of the Ewe Basin ; ; 210 
Lochs of the Shiel Basin : : : 24] 
Lochs of the Ailort Basin : Bn  24Q) 


Lochs of the nan Uamh Basin : : , 4 253 


CONTENTS 


Lochs of the Conon Basin 
Lochs of the Shin Basin 
Lochs of the Naver Basin 
Lochs of the Borgie Basin 
Lochs of the Kinloch Basin 
Lochs of the Hope Basin 
Lochs of the Beauly Basin 
Lochs of the Lochy Basin 
Lochs of the Ness Basin 


PART II 


Xl 
FAGEH 
261 
293 
309 
316 
real | 
324 
334 
DOO) 
379 


Descriptions of Scottish Fresh-water Lochs, the maps of which, showing 


only the lake-contours in shades of blue, are bound in Volumes V. 


ange 


Lochs of the Brora Basin 
Lochs of the Helmsdale Basin 
Lochs of the Wick Basin 
Lochs of the Wester Basin 
Lochs of the Heilen Basin 
Lochs of the Dunnet Basin 
Lochs of the Thurso Basin 
Lochs of the Forss Basin 
Lochs of the Laxford Basin 
Lochs of the Scourie Basin 
Lochs of the Badcall Basin 
Lochs of the Duartmore Basin 
Lochs of the Broom Basin 
Lochs of the Gruinard Basin 
Lochs of the Gairloch Basin 
Lochs of the Torridon Basin 
Lochs of the Carron Basin 
Lochs of the Alsh Basin 
Lochs of the Aline Basin 
Lochs of the Leven Basin 
Lochs of the Oban Basin 
Lochs of the Feochan Basin 
Lochs of the Seil Basin 
Lochs of the Melfort Basin 
Lochs of the Eachaig Basin 
Lochs of the Doon Basin 
Lochs of the Girvan Basin 
Lochs of the Stinchar Basin 
Lochs of the Ryan Basin 


PAGE 


xu CONTENTS 


PAGE 
Lochs of the Galdenoch Basin : SLOT 
Lochs of the Luce Basin : . 103 
Lochs of the Bladenoch Basin ne LOG 
Lochs of the Cree Basin : a : Kee 109 
Lochs of the Fleet Basin . : ; : ‘ 113 
Lochs of the Dee (Kirkcudbright) ea EAA 
Lochs of the Urr Basin y ate ; : 123 
Lochs of the Nith Basin : ; Bee 20) 
Lochs of the Annan Basin : : : : 129 
Lochs of the Tweed Basin ; 134 
Lochs of the Monikie Basin . : 141 
Lochs of the Lunan Basin 143 
Lochs of the Dee (Aberdeen) Basin. ; : ; 145 
Lochs of the Spey Basin Si? 
Lochs of the Lossie Basin : 162 
Lochs of the Findhorn Basin . 164 
Lochs of the Nairn Basin : aor 
Reservoirs of the Forth Basin . ; me 20) 
Lochs of the Clyde Basin ; : peo 
Lochs of the Etive Basin é e740) 
Lochs of Bute . : ; ; 84. 
Lochs of Lismore : ; 5 ’ ; al 
Lochs of Mull . Mantes hie ; : 173 
Lochs of Benbecula ; ; 177 
Lochs of North Uist. : , 183 
Lochs of Lewis ; : ; P3205 
Lochs of Orkney ; : 222 
Lochs of Shetland ; ail 
VOLUME III 
Titles 2 ‘ : ; ie i 
Dedication . , Vv 
Preface, by Sir Joun Murray and Mr Laurence Pubrar. vii 
Contents of each Volume . ix 
Statistical Tables of the Scottish Fresh-water rane toa 5 epexcvd 
Index to the Descriptions and Maps of the Scottish Fresh-water 
Lochs sounded by the Lake Survey : xlv 


Maps of the Lochs in the Basins of the Forth, Tay, Inver, Roe, Kirkaig, 
Polly, Garvie, Morar, and Ewe :— 
Lochs of the Forth Basin . Plates I. to XI. 
Lochs of the Tay Basin ris . Plates XII. to XXXIV. 


CONTENTS penn 


Lochs of the Inver Basin y Plates XXXV. and XXXVI. 


Lochs of the Roe Basin ; Plate XX XVII. 

Lochs of the Kirkaig Basin. Plate XXXVIII. 
Lochs of the Polly Basin Plate XX XIX. 

Lochs of the Garvie Basin { Plates XL. to XLII. 
Lochs of the Morar Basin : Plates XLIII. to XLV. 
Lochs of the Ewe Basin : Plates XLVI. to LI. 


VOLUME IV 


PAGE 
Titles : ; i 
Dedication . : ; : Vv 
Preface, by Sir Jonn Murray and Mr Laurence Puttar . vii 
Contents of each Volume . ; ix 
Statistical Tables of the Scottish Fresh-water Lochs, [. to VI. Ste svi 
Index to the Descriptions and Maps of the Scottish Fresh-water 
Lochs sounded by the Lake Survey : xlv 


Maps of the Lochs in the Basins of the Shiel, Ailort, nan Uamh, Conon, 
Shin, Naver, Borgie, Kinloch, Hope, Beauly, Lochy, and Ness :— 


Lochs of the Shiel Basin Plates LII. to LIV. 

Lochs of the Ailort Basin ; Plate LV. 

Lochs of the nan Uamh Basin. Plate LVI. 

Lochs of the Conon Basin Plates LVII. to LXIV. 
Lochs of the Shin Basin Plates LXV. to LXX. 
Lochs of the Naver Basin : Plates LXXI. to LXXIII. 
Lochs of the Borgie Basin Plates LXXIV. and LXXV. 
Lochs of the Kinloch Basin . Plate LX XVI. 

Lochs of the Hope Basin : Plate LX XVII. 

Lochs of the Beauly Basin Plates LXXVIII. to LXXXII. 
Lochs of the Lochy Basin ; Plates LX XXIII. to XC. 
Lochs of the Ness Basin Plates XCI. to CV. 


VOLUME V 


PAGE 
Titles ; : 7 i 
Dedication . : ; . Vv 
Preface, by Sir Jonn Murray and Mr Laurence PuLiar . , vil 
Contents of each Volume . ' ix 
Statistical Tables of the Scottish Fresh-water Lochs, I. to VI. xvi 


Index to the Descriptions and Maps of the Scottish Fresh-water 
Lochs sounded by the Lake Survey : : xlv 


X1V 


CONTENTS 


Maps of the Lochs in the Basins of the Brora, Helmsdale, Wick, 
Wester, Heilen, Dunnet, Thurso, Forss, Laxford, Scourie, Badcall, 
Duartmore, Broom, Gruinard, Gairloch, Torridon, Carron, Alsh, 


Aline, 


Leven, Oban, Feochan, Seil, 


Melfort, Eachaig, Doon, 


Girvan, Stinchar, Ryan, Galdenoch, Luce, Bladenoch, Cree, Fleet, 
Dee (Kirkcudbright), Urr, Nith, Annan, Tweed, Monikie, Lunan, 
Dee (Aberdeen), Spey, Slains, Lossie, Findhorn, and Nairn; and 
in the Islands of Bute, Lismore, and Mull :— 


Lochs of the Brora Basin 

Lochs of the Helmsdale Basin 

Lochs of the Wick Basin 

Lochs of the Wester Basin 

Lochs of the Heilen and Duane: 
Basins 

Lochs of the Thurso Basin 

Lochs of the Forss Basin 

Lochs of the Laxford Basin 

Lochs of the Scourie Basin 

Lochs of the Badcall Basin 

Lochs of the Duartmore Basin 

Lochs of the Broom Basin 

Lochs of the Gruinard Basin . 

Lochs of the Gairloch Basin . 

Lochs of the Torridon Basin . 

Lochs of the Carron Basin 

Lochs of the Alsh Basin 

Lochs of the Aline Basin 

Lochs of the Leven Basin 

Lochs of the Oban 
Basins 

Lochs of the Seil and) Meroe: Ae 

Lochs in the Island of Bute . 

Lochs of the Eachaig Basin 

Lochs of the Doon Basin 

Lochs of the Girvan and ranean 
Basins 

Lochs of the Ryan Been 

Lochs of the Galdenoch and eee 
Basins 

Lochs of the ier snarals Bian 

Lochs of the Cree Basin 

Lochs of the Urr Basin 

Lochs of the Dee (Kirkeudbright 


Basin 


and Recenen 


Plate I. 

Plate IT. 
Plate III. 
Plate IV. 


Plate V. 

Plate VI. 

Plate VII. 

Plates VIJI. to X. 

Plate XI. 

Plate XII. 

Plate XIII. 

Plates XIV. and XV. 
Plates XVI. and XVII. 
Plates XVIII. and XIX. 
Plate XX, 

Plates XXI. and XXII. 
Plates XXIII. and XXIV. 
Plate XXV. 

Plates XXVI. and XXVII. 


Plates XXVIII. and XXIX. 
Plates XXX. and XXXI. 
Plate XXXII. 

Plate XXXITI. 

Plates XXXIV. to XXXVI. 


Plate XX XVII. 
Plate XX XVIII. 


Plate XX XIX. 
Plates XL. and XLI. 
Plate XLII. 

Plate XLIII. 


Plates XLIV. and XLV. 


CONTENTS XV 


Lochs of the Fleet and Nith Basins . Plate XLVI, 


Lochs of the Annan Basin . ~y Plate XE Vill: 

Lochs of the Tweed Basin . . Plates XLVIII. and XLIX. 
Lochs of the Monikie Basin . . Plate L. 

Lochs of the Lunan Basin .  welate: Jee 


Lochs of the Dee (Aberdeen) Basin . Plates LII. to LIV. 
Lochs of the Slains and Lossie Basins Plate LV. 


Lochs of the Spey Basin ; . Plates LVI. to LXI. 
Lochs of the Findhorn Basin . . Plates LXII. and LXIII. 
Lochs of the Nairn Basin . Plates EXIyv, 

Lochs in the Island of Lismore . Plate LXV. 

Lochs in the Island of Mull . . Plates LXVI. and LXVII. 


VOLUME VI 


PAGE. 
Titles ; i 
Dedication . ; ; : Vv 
Preface, by Sir Joun Murray and Mr Laurence Puttar . Vii 
Contents of each Volume . ; : ; : ix 
Statistical Tables of the Scottish Fresh-water Lochs, I. to VI. . Xvii 
Index to the Descriptions and Maps of the Scottish Fresh-water 
Lochs sounded by the Lake Survey xlv 


Maps of the Lochs in the Islands of Benbecula, North Uist, Lewis, 
Orkney, and Shetland ; and in the Basins of the Etive and Clyde ; 
and of the Reservoirs in the Forth Basin :— 


Lochs in the Island of Benbecula . Plates LXVIII. and LXIX. 

Lochs in the Island of North Uist . Plates LXX. to LXXVII. 

Lochs in the Island of Lewis . . Plates: UXXVIIL. to 
LXXXIX. 

Lochs in the Orkney Islands . . Plates XC. to XCIV. 

Lochs in the Shetland Islands . . Plates XCV.to-CVI. 

Reservoirs of the Forth Basin . . Plates CVII. to CXVIII. 

Lochs of the Etive Basin ; by plates; * OX Xie sO XOX TIE. 
CXXVI. to CXXXI. 

Lochs of the Clyde Basin : =) Plates’ -CXKIVG. CXXV 


CXXXITI. to CXXXIV. 


In addition to the maps showing the depths of the 
lochs, the following maps are included in Vol. IIT. :— 


Plate I. Head-waters of the Forth—Orography and drainage areas. 
Plate We a = » —Surface geology. 
Plate Ill. Ay sf » —Mean annual rainfall, 


Plate XIV. Temperature Section of Loch Ericht. 
Plate XXXIV. Head-waters of the Tay—Surface geology. 
Plate XLII. Assynt District—Surtace geology. 

Plate LI. Loch Maree District—Surface geology. 


STATISTICAL TABLES OF THE 
SCOTTISH FRESH- WATER LOCHS 


(Surveyed during the years 1897 to 1909) 


Durine the course of the Lake Survey work 562 of the Scottish 
fresh-water lochs were surveyed. ‘These include all the principal 
lochs of the country, and a very large number of the smaller and less 
important ones. As a matter of fact, all lochs were surveyed on 
which boats could be found at the time the work was being carried 
out. To have included all the smaller highland and less accessible 
lochs and tarns would have very greatly increased the expense and 
the time involved. To transport a boat to many of the remote 
lochs in the Highlands would have entailed much labour and 
difficulty, not to speak of the objections of proprietors, keepers, and 
others, who do not wish to have grouse moors and deer forests dis- 
turbed at a time of the year when the lochs are most accessible. 

The general results of the survey work are, however, in no way 
affected by these smaller lochs having been excluded, for a great 
many lochs have been surveyed in all districts of the country. 

The following tables are intended to summarise the results which 
are given in detail in Volume II. of this Report. 

Table I. shows the lakes arranged according to their lengths. 

Table II. shows the lakes arranged according to their superficial 
areas. 

Table III. shows the lakes arranged according to their maximum 
depths. 

Table IV. shows the lakes arranged according to their mean 
depths. 

Table V. shows the lakes arranged according to the volume of 
water in each. 

Table VI. shows :— 

(a) The number of lakes surveyed in the various river basins ; 
(6) The number of soundings taken in the lakes of the various 


river basins ; 
xvii b 


Xvill THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


(c) The volume of water in the lakes of the various river basins 
in millions of cubic feet ; 

(d) The superficial area of the lakes in the various river basins ; 

(e) The extent of the drainage area in the various river basins, 
together with the ratio of the drainage area to the super- 
ficial area of the lakes. 

The information in ‘Vable VI. is extracted from the tables given in 
greater detail in the descriptions which will be found in Volume II. 
of this Report. 

From this table it will be seen that 562 lochs have been surveyed, 
and that the number of soundings recorded on the maps of these lochs 
is 59,195. The actual number taken exceeds 60,000. ‘The aggregate 
area of the water-surface is over 340 square miles, and therefore the 
average number of soundings per square mile of surface is 174. 

The aggregate volume of water contained in these 562 lochs is 
estimated at about 1,015,814 millions of cubic feet, or nearly 7 cubic 
miles. ‘The area drained by the lochs is about 6669 square miles, or 
about 194 times the area of the lochs. 


STATISTICAL TABLES X1x 


TABLE I 


Fresu-warer Locus oF SCOTLAND (SOUNDED BY THE Laker Survey) 
ARRANGED ACCORDING To LENGTH 


Length. | Length. 

Loch. Miles. ad | Miles, 

1. Awe(Etive) . : Be pena ar 55. Beoraid : 3°43 
2. Ness ; : . |. 24°28 56, Dun na Seilcheig 3°41 
3, Lomond . 5 : LW 2 2664 Gye ao thr : : 3°37 
fa shrels\ - >. ; el 7740 58. na Meide . ono 
5, Shin : ; : Wale gee 59. Avich 3°30 
CMa ee i ei eh |) 1495B. | 60: Stack 3°27 
fobricht ; . | 14°50 61. Affric 3°20 
8. Maree , : S346 62. Ossian 3°20 
9, Arkaig . : Art £2700 68, Skinaskink 3°16 
OM Niorar. .. : : PM AUGGS 64. Cliff : 3°16 
11. Lochy 9°78 65. Coir’ an Fhearna 3°15 
12. Rannoch . O70 66. Ba (Mull) — 3°04 
13. Katrine : 8°00 67. Obisary _ 3°03 
14. Langavat (Lewis) 7°86 68. Merkland 3°02 
15. Laggan 7°04 69. St Mary’s 3°02 
16. Quoich 6°95 70. nan Cuinne 3°00 
17. Fannich 6°92 71. Watten 3°00 
18. Karn 6°46 72. Trealaval . | 82°90 
19. Assynt 6°36 73. Cam : : : 2°76 
20. Naver 6°18 74. Loyne (Kast) . : Ss aves) 
21. Hope 6°13 75, Tummel : ; 2°75 
22) Wek... : ‘ 6°02 76. Suainaval. 2°68 
23. Fionn (Gruinard) 5°76 77. a Bhraoin , 2°66 
24, Doon 4 5°64 78. Beinn a’ Mheadhoin. 2°64 
25. Laidon 5°30 79. nan Eun (N. Uist) 2°63 
26. Treig 5°10 80. Fadagoa 2°60 
27.) Iauichart . 5°05 81. Garry (Tay) 2°55 
28. Garry (Ness) 4°90 82, Strom 2°54 
29. Mhor 4°84 83. Tulla . 2°50 
30. Harray 4°84 84, ‘Talla : : 2°47 
ole) Ken. 4°62 85. Fionn (Kirkaig) 2°40 
32. Hrisa : : 4°50 86. nan Geireann (Mill) . 2°39 
33. Scadavay (Hast) 4°50 87. Calder ; 2°32 
34, Laoghal . : 4°46 &8, Morie 2°30 
35. Clunie (Ness) 8 89. Ard 2°30 
36. Mullardoch 4°16 90. Grunavat. 2°26 
37. More (Laxford) aul 91. Ruthven . 2226 
38. Monar : 4°10 2 Mack 7. ‘ : 2:22 
39. Veyatie 4°05 93. Langavat (Benbecula) 2°20 
40. Glass : : : 4°03 94. Lochindorb 2°18 
41. Expansions of River Dee . 4°02 95. Ba(Tay) . Zt 
42. Oich 4°02 96. Bad a’ Ghaill 23 
43, Vennachar 4°00 97. Boardhouse 2°03 
44. Lubnaig : 4°00 98. Grennoch . : 2°02 
45. Damh (Torridon) 3°93 99. Dhughaill (Carron) . 2:02 
46. Lurgain . : 3°87 | 100. Skebacleit , t 2°00 
47. Scadavay (West) 3°80 | 101. Swannay . 2°00 
48. Stenness . 3°79 | 102, Hilde Mor 1°98 
49, na Sheallag 3°74 | 103. Migdale . : 1°92 
50. Fada (Ewe) 3°74 | 104. na Salach Uidhre 1:90 
51. Leven 3°65 | 105. Urigill 1°86 
52. Brora 3°53 | 106. Beannachan 1°85 
bo Voul 3°50 | 107. Arienas 1385 
54. a’ Chroisg | 3°47 | 108. Achall 1°83 


Xx THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


TABLE I—continuwed 


Length. 
Loch. Miles. Loch. 


109. na h-Earba (West) 
110.. Fada (N. Uist) . 

111. Woodhall . : : 
112. a’ Bhealaich (Gairloch) 
113. Thom , : : 
114. Lyon : ‘ 

115. Freuchie . 

116. na h-Oidhche 

117. Castle Semple . 
BMI ve ih ue. 
119. an Daimh (Shin) 
120. Baddanloch 

121. Chon (Forth) 

122: Nell ; 

123. Trool 

124, Heouravay : ; 
125. Leum a’ Chlamhain . 
126. Fiodhaig . 

127. Heilen 


80 | 169. Shurrery . 

°80 | 170. Harperrig ‘ 

79 | 171. Buidhe (Fleet) . 

‘78 | 172. na h-Earba (East) 
78 | 173. Hunder : 

‘74 | 174. Kirbister . 

74 | 175. Bunacharan 

‘73 | 176. an t-Seilich 

‘72 | 177. Martnaham 

72 | 178. Achray 

‘71 | 179. Rescobie : 

‘70 | 180. Beannach (Inver) 
70 § 181. Urrahag . 

*68 | 182. Loch 

68 | 183. Droma : 

68 | 184. Dubh (Gruinard) 
*62 | 185. Muckle Water . 

°61 | 186. an Gead ‘ 

20 Op licifams Loy, 


128. Olavat 60 | 188. Lowes (Tay) . 
T2950 Wad y : *60 | 189. Castle (Bladenoch) 
130. Menteith . 160.1190; Inbhir . 

131. Ashie "60 | 191. Maberry . 


132. a’ Bhealaich (Naver) 
133. a’ Bhaid-Luachraich . 
134. Creagach . 

135. Owskeich . 

136. Gladhouse 

137. an Dithreibh 

138. Scamadale 

139. an Ruathair 

140. Garve : 2 : 
141. a’ Chlair (Helmsdale) 
142, Fada (Gruinard) 

148. Mochrum . 

144. a’? Ghriama 

145. Threipmuir 

146. Girlsta 

147. Finlas 


60 192. Dee. 

‘57 =| 193. a’ Bharpa 

‘57 =| 194. Garbhaig . : 
56 | 195. an Duin (Spey) 
‘56 7 196. Tralaig . : 
55 197. an Stromore 

54 198. na Leitreach 
199. Oban nam Fiadh 
200. Sgamhain 

201. Calavie 

202. Killin 

203. nam Breac . 
204. an Hilein (Spey) 
205. Milton : ; 
206. Meiklie 

207. Auchenreoch 


He O71 OV OF OV OU OV 
ODOCOONWE 


ie 
[op) 


148. Poulary 208. Forfar 

149, an Tomain 209. Crogavat . 
150. Caravat 210. Kinord 
151. Lungard . 211. Benachally 
152. Dilate : 212. a’ Bhaillidh 
153. an Duin (N. Uist) 213.2 burret 

154, Crocach : 214. More Barvas 
155. Gorm Loch Mor 215. Gartmorn . 
156. Clait (Ewe) 216. Insh 

157. Lintrathen 217. Moy 


218. Borralan . 

219. Pattack 

220. Morlich 

221. Tingwall . 

222. an Staca . 

223. ic Colla 

224. na Craobhaig 

225. Vatandip . : : 
226. Gainmheich (South) . 
227. Wester ; 
228. Drunkie 


158. Black (Ryan) 

159. Strandavat : 
160. a’ Chuilinn (Conon) . 
161. Iubhair : 
162. Kernsary . 

163. Coulin (Kwe) 

164. Kilbirnie . 

165. Spiggie 

166. Hundland 

167. Knockie 

168. Loyne (West) 


rel grape epee gene gear ee ee snr gm ie tT et me ih a Le TE ae i Yt re ih Doe i ba re ec oe tere 
3 5 a, el aie Rees ae 
Ts 


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DODONWIAMAIAARWDWWDODOWE VND 


Wowwwwwwwwwwwor es 


DAG ~IATAT CO 


feb be pe fe ek ee et pe pet et 


wNwNnwnn ws 
WOE EOD 


a ee a OS OT SYN) 


DDNWWDE ER BRARDANIDCOOCNNNNWEADADMDDADMDUNGDOTOMHHwW 


fe ee ee ee ee ee ee et et tt et et et et et et et et et Pt et et 


SS6dd0d6SdSSdSSSSSNSSSOSNSS SHH 


SG OOCOOCONN WD 


STATISTICAL TABLES xx 


TABLE I—continued 


Length. Length. 
Loch, Miles, Loch. Miles, 


. Arklet 

. Doine 

. an Lagain 

. Skaill 

. Skene (Dee) 

, na Beinne Baine 
. Bodavat . 

. Cuil na Sithe 

. Daimh (Tay) 


289. na Creige Duibhe 
290. na Moracha 

291. Kindar 

292. Builg 

293. Kirk Dam 

294. Cro Criosdaig 
295. Hela. ; 

296. Chaluim . 

297. Skiach 


ONT 9 9 ST AIT 00 &H CW C CO 80 
MAAAABWUWADADODDOSCSCSO 


. Ailsh : : : 298. Hempriggs 
. Cuil Airidh a’ Flod . 299. Lochrutton 
. Alvie : 300, Airidh na Lic . 
» Gryte 301. Raoinavat : 
. na Cuaich 302. Gelly : : 
. Con (Tay) 303. Lundie (Garry) 
. Dungeon . 304. na Moine Buige 
. Skealtar 305. Araich-Lin 
. Clousta. 3 306. an Laig Aird 
Dubh (Gairloch) 307. Davan : 74 
Nant ; ‘ 308. nam Breac Dearga 74 
. Tollie 309. Muckle Lunga . 74 
. Hermidale 310. nan Deaspoirt . 74 
. Huna 311. Bran ’ 74 
. Bradan 312. Howie 74 
. Kitty 313. a’ Ghobhainn 73 


: Peppermill 314. Druim Suardalain 


. North-house 315. na Lairige ; 73 
. Ochiltree . 316. Stacsavat . : | 72 
. White (Ryan) . 317. an Drainc | 72 
. Ceo-Glas ((? 


318. Skeen (Annan) 
319. Sguod ; 
320. Broom 

321. Skerrow 

S29. mar bi ; , : ; 
323. Eileach Mhic’ ille Riabbaich 0°70 


. Allt an Fhearna 
. Higheach . 

. Achilty 

. Tankerness 

. More (Thurso) . 


SO S59 OS SSS OS O'S OO SS O'S OS OS SS) SO SS CO S'S SO OO > 
~ 
TS 


MOP SCPSOCOSC SSO SCSCSOSOOOCSCS CSO SOSC OOO S SC SOOSOSOO SSS SSO OS SCO OC OOS Ss SSCOC oC S SoHE 
OO OO GO GS G0 GO GO GO GO 9D GO 00 G0 COM WWD DDD DHWDAWMDDMMDMDDDDADHHSHOHDHSHHSASHSSHSHBHSHEHSHOEBHESSESSS 
SCHNNNNNNWWKR ERE RE REE ER ARDARDARUDANHDOSSSCCOCSSONNWWOER EEE ENAAANDMBDSOSS 


. a’ Bhaid Daraich 324, Tearnait . ‘ ‘ 0°70 
. Crombie Den 325. Syre ; : : 0°70 
. Lunn da-Bhra . 326. Caol na Doire . : 0°70 
. Drumellie 327. Long ‘ ; ‘ ! 0°70 
. @ Mhuillin 328, nan Lann ; : : 0-70 
Sian 329. Carlingwark . : 3 0°70 
. Achanalt . 330. Benisval . ‘ ; ‘ 0°70 
. Callater 331. Bad an Sgalaig 0°69 
. Lowes (Tweed) 332. Spynie . ‘ 0°69 
. Oban a’ Chlachain 333, Tarff ; : : 0°69 
. Ussie : 334, Tormasad . : ‘ 0°69 
. Lindores . 335. Seil . : : ; 0°68 
. Scarmclate : 336. Ghuiragarstidh ; ; 0°68 
. Truid air Sgithiche . 337. Baile a’ Ghobhainn . 0°68 
. a’ Bhuird 338. Crunachan : ‘ 0°68 
. na Moine 339, Rosebery . 0°68 
. Castle (Annan). 340. Drummond 0°68 
. Braigh Horrisdale 341. Kennard . 0°68 
. Ghuilbinn 342, Deoravat . 0°68 
. nah-Achlaise . 343. Clings . 5 : 0°68 
. St John’s. 344. na h-Airidh Sléibhe . 0°68 
. Awe (Inver) 345. Dornal . : ‘ 0°68 
. Giorra 346. Bogton 0°66 
am Luare=:, 347. Portmore . : : 0°66 
. Linlithgow 348, an Hilein (Gairloch) . 0°66 


XX THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 
TABLE Lee 

Length. Length 
Loch. nae ei Loch. Miles 
349. a’ Bhealaich (Alsh) . 0°66 | 409. Whinyeon 0°56 
350. Stormont . 0°66 | 410. a’ Chonnachair 0'56 
351. Morsgail . 0°66 | 411. an Nostarie 0°56 
352. Dibadale . 0°66 | 412. Whitefield 0°56 
3538. an t-Slagain 0°65 | 413. na Ceithir Eileana 0°56 
354. Ordie ; 0°64 | 414. Sron Smeur. 0°56 
355. Gleann a’ Bhearraidh 0°64 | 415. Gown (South) . 0°55 
356. Grass 0°64 | 416. Moraig t 0°55 
357. Raonasgail 0°64 | 417. Monzievaird 0°55 
358, Sealbhag . 0°64 | 418. Coire nam Meann 0°54 
359. Bosquoy . 0°64 | 419. Kilconquhar 0°54 
360. Valtos 0°64 | 420. na Stainge 0°54 
361. Beannach (Gruinard) 0°63 | 421. a’? Mhiotailt 0°54 
362. Arthur 0°63 | 422. Bruadale . 0°54 
363. Edgelaw . 0°62 | 423. Asta 0°53 
364. Bad a’ Chrotha. 0°62 | 424. Uanagan . 0°52 
365. Roer 0°62 | 425. Burga 0°52 
366, Craggie 3 0°62 | 426. Allan 0°52 
367. na Deighe fo Dheas : 0°62 | 427. an Losgainn Mor 0552 
368, Allt na h-Airbhe 0°62 | 428. Kemp. 0°52 
369. Doire nam Mart 0°62 | 429. Monk Myre 0°52 
370, an Laghair 0°62 | 480. nan Druimnean 0°52 
371. Dochart 0°62 | 431. Lochinvar 0°52 
372, Fiart ; 0°62 1 432. Flugarth . 0°52 
3738. an Tachdaidh . 0°62 | 433. a’ Buaille 0°52 
374. Clunie (Tay) 0°62 | 434, na Coinnich 0°51 
S70. ‘ 0°62 | 435. an Leoid . 0°50 
376. Dochard . 0°62 | 436. an t-Seasgain 0°50 
377. Scaslavat . } ; 0°62 | 437. Aithness . 0°50 
378. a’ Chlachain (Lewis) 0°62 | 438. Balgavies. 0°50 
379. Black (Etive) (Kast) . 0°62 | 439. Burntisland 0°50 
380. nam Faoileag 0°62 | 440. Harperleas 0°50 
381. Leitir Easaich . 0°61 | 441. Eldrig . 0°50 
382, a’ Choire . 0°61 | 442. Littlester. 0°50 
383. Harelaw 0°60 f 443. Kilcheran 0°50 
384. an Droighinn . 0°60 | 444. na Doire Daraich 0°50 
385. Leodsay 0°60 } 445. Tarruinn an Eithir . 0°50 
386. Isbister 0°60 | 446. na Sreinge : ; 0°50 
387. Burraland 0°60 |. 447. Mhic’ ille Riabhaich 0°49 
388. Sabiston . 0°60 |} 448. Hosta ‘ 0°49 
389, Snarravoe 0°60 | 449. Breaclaich 0°49 
390. Ederline . Oc60g 4 450.) Peerion s. ; 0°48 
391. Airidh na Ceardaich 0°60 | 451. a? Chlachain (Nairn) 0°48 
392, Dhomhnuill Bhig 0°60 }| 452. nan Eun (Ness) 0°48 
393. an [asgaich 0°59 | 453. Monikie Senn) 0°48 
394, Lochaber . 0°59 4 454. Punds 0°48 
395. Derculich. 0°59 4 455. na Craige 0°48 
396. Bhradain . 0°58 | 456, a’ Ghlinne Dorcha 0°47 
397. nan Gabhar 0°58 | 457. Moor Dam ‘ 0°47 
398. Phititlais 0°58 } 458. Lundie (Clunie) 0°46 
399. Craiglush. 0°58 | 459. Shechernich 0°46 
400. Butterstone 0°58 | 460. Liath 0°46 
401. Veiragvat 0°58 | 461. Essan 0°46 
402. Derclach . 0°58 | 462. Fithie 0°46 
403. Soulseat . 0°58 | 463. a’ Phearsain 0°46 
404. Gown (North) . : 0°57 | 464. nan Eun (Tay) 0°45 
405. Black (Etive) (West) 0°56 | 465. a’ Vullan 0°45 
406. Black (Etive) (Mid) . 0°56 | 466. Rae. 0°44 
407. White of Myrton 0°56 | 467. Holl. 0°44 
408. Dhiugaill (Torridon) . 0°56 | 468. an Dina . 0°44 


STATISTICAL TABLES xX 


TABLE I—continued 


Length. | Length. | 
Loch, Miles. Loch, Melee 
469. Brow 0°44 7. Brough 0°32 
470. Lochnaw . 0°44 . Geal. ; 0°32 
471. Dallas 0°43 : Kilchoan (Upper) 0°32 
472. Mill. : : 0°43 20. a’ Chaoruinn 0°32 
473. Dubh (Ailort) . 0°43 21. Sior . 0°32 
474. Muck ; 0°42 2, na Garbh-Abhuinn Ard 0°32 | 
475. Clickhimin 0°42 ; Kinghorn . : «ito GOS IER 
476. Harrow 0°42 . a’ Chladhaich , O'S], | 
477, Kirk ; 0°42 . nan Losganan . Os50ey 
478. Monikie (North) 0°42 . Hightae Mill 0°30 
479. Gamhna . 0°42 . Dubh-Mor 0:30" 7] 
480. Lochenbreck 0°42 . Beag 0°30 
481. na h-Ealaidh 0°42 529. Sand 0°29 
482. na Claise Fearna 0°42 . Duartmore 0:29 
483. nan Geireann 0°41 . Clubbi Shuns 0°29 
484. Lure 0°40 . Hostigates ()'28 
485. Sandy. 0°40 . Scoly 0:28 | 
486. nan Garbh Chlachain 0°40 . nan Rath. 0-28 | 
487. Bhac ; 0°38 5, Black (Tay) 0:28 | 
488. Brouster . 0°38 . Drumlamford 0:28 | 
489, Fleet 0°38 . nan Auscot : Oni 
490. Hoglinns . 0°38 . na Creige Léithe C2 if. 4 
491, Collaster . 0°38 . Cults 0:26 | 
492. na Beiste . 0°37 . Skae 0°26 
493. Mama 0°37 . Cornish 0°26 
494, Fyntalloch 0°37 . Kirriereoch ; 0°26 
495. Auchenchapel . 0°37 . Eion Mhic Alastair . 0°25 | 
496. Birka 0°36 . ha Beithe F 02594) 
497. Aboyne .° 0°36 . an Dubh (Lochy) 0:24 | 
498. na Garbh-Abhuinn 0°36 . an Tairbeirt Stuadhaich 0°23 
499. Hoil 0°36 | 547. Magillie 0°22 
500. Blairs : : 0°36 Pe Mutach 0722 
501. Gainmheich (North). 0°36 . Crann 0°22 
502. a’ Bhainne : 0°36 . Setter Or22 
503. Kilchoan (Lower) 0°36 . Pitlyal 0°21 
504. Tilt . 0°35 2. naGealaich Or2i 
505. Anna 0°35 53. Choire na Cloich 0°20 
506. Aslaich 0°35 . Dubh (Forth) 0°20 
507. Fingask . 0°35 - Loch on Eilean Subhainn | 
508. Dubh (Etive) 0°35 (Maree) O18. 7] 
509. Maol a’ Choire . 0°34 . Dubh (Ness) 0:18 | 
510. Laide 0°34 7. na h-EKaglais O16 | 
511. White (Tay) 0°34 . Uaine 0°14 | 
512. Duddingston 0°34 . St Margaret’s 0°13 
513. Kinellan . 0°33 ; Dhu (Portsonachan) 0:12 
514, Fender 0°38 . Allt na Mult O12 
515. Ree . 0°32 2. Rainbow . 0710 | 
516. Buidhe (Tay) O882; 


XX1V 


THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


TABLE II 


FresH-water Locus oF ScorLaND (SOUNDED BY THE LAKE Survey) 
ARRANGED ACCORDING TO SUPERFICIAL AREA 


Loch. 


te et tt Ot 


bow bp 
Lo} [SS 


wNonwNMhb bd wy 
CON SO OVP CO 


29. 


co 
oO 


oe ww 
wWOnwr 


PPE PLP KEP RPWWWH WW 
CON DOP WMH ODO ONS OF 


Ovrou 
Lp —eey te) 


Orn 
Co bo 


. Lomond 

. Ness. ? 
. Awe (Etive) 
. Maree 


Morar 
Tay . 
Shin 


. Shiel 

. Rannoch . 
. Ericht 

. Arkaig 

. Lochy 

. Leven 

. Katrine 

. Karn 

. Harray 

. Fannich 

. Fionn (Gruinard) 


Langavat (Lewis) 


. Assynt 

. Laggan 

. Quoich 

. Laoghal 

. Stenness . 
. yDreis 

. Hope 

. Naver 


. Skinaskink 


Doon 


. Dun na Seilcheig 
. Glass : ; 
2. Laidon 

. Luichart . 

. Garry (Ness) 

oy tuCkee ; 

a nisa: 

. Mhor 

. Vennachar : 
. More (Laxford) 

. Watten . 

. Fada (Ewe) 

. na Sheallag 

. Ken. : : 
. Damh (Torridon) 
. Calder : 
. Lurgain 

. Ba (Mull). 

. Avich ; 
. Seadavay (West) 
. Mullardoch 

. Monar 

. Obisary : : 
. a’ Chlair (Helmsdale) 


Area. 

Square Loch. 
Miles. 

27°45 54. nan Cuinne 
21°78 55. Coir’ an Fhearna 


14°85 56. Tulla : 

11°03 57. Clunie (Ness) 

10°30 58. Ossian . 

10°19 59. Bad a’ Ghaill 

8°70 60. Menteith . 

7°56 61. Cam 

7°37 62. a’ Chroisg 

aoe 63. Stack ; 

64. St Mary’s. 

65. Baddanloch 

66. Tummel 

67. Lubnaig . 

6&8. Ard. : 

69. Swannay . 

70. Suainaval . 

71. Veyatie 

72. Morie 

(oe) Balay) 

. Boardhouse 

75, Brora 

Hoe VI 

77. na Meide . 

78. Muick 

79. Lochindorb 

80. an Ruathair 

81. Affric : : : 
82. Beinn a’ Mheadhoin 
83, Urigill 

84. Oich 

“80 85. an Dithreibh 

‘76 86. Fada (N. Uist). 

“15 87. Merkland. : A 
‘70 88, nan Geireann (Mill) . 


DBOOONWHEEMDAOHKRUARYSYH ON 
DANMEOCAMHAMDUWORNNDODHOOME 
NI 
iS 


69 90. a’ Bhraoin 

26:1) 91, Arienas 

"46 92-)Rilts 

45 93. Owskeich . 

"44 94, Lintrathen 

37 95. Garry (Tay) 

36 96. Trealaval . 

SB 97. Grunavat. 

row 98. Gladhouse 

£6 99, Garve 

‘21 | 100. Fiodhaig . 

oi. 101. Caravat 

‘20 102. Ruthven . 

18 103. Beoraid . : . 
Di FE 104. Leum a’ Chlamhain . 
a7, 105. na h-Oidhche 

Ry 106. Freuchie . 


Pe OND MM NMWNYWWWWWW HOOD 


69 89. Expansions of River Dee . 


Area, 
Square 


Miles. 


HN MAA AMAA NTOA ABDAAADBDA GOOO*IANAUINDDDADADDBDDHDHDHBSHHBHHBHBBHBOOSBTDOHHHEHL 
EE OANUTODODOHMMDNDADBADNDBOOBRDDONWNNEMNUDDONNWEBREADOSOHOOMDNWOOMN 


SESS PSS Soa Oya oases Soo COeTeSe Seo a Nea SS) SIS) SPOS) StS [Si (Te IST 


STATISTICAL TABLES OY 
TABLE Il—continwed 

Area. Area, 

Loch, | Square Loch. Square 

Miles. Miles, 

107. Achall 0°52 | 166. Heilen 0°30 
| 108. nan Eun (N. Uist) 0°52 | 167. Skebacleit 0°30 
109. Ashie 0°52 | 168. na h-Achlaise . 0°29 
i110. Thom O52 1 169; Kinord 0°29 
Tata Strom : 0°52 | 170, a’ Bhaillidh 0°29 
112. a’ Bhaid-Luachraich . Opole leEunder - . : 0°29 
113. Nell O7500 7) £722 Truid air Seithiche : 0°29 
| 114. Fadagoa . 0°48 | 173. Moy : 0°29 
115. Talla 0-47 | 174. Gorm Loch Mor 0°29 
{ 116. Morlich 0°47 | 175. More (Thurso) . 0:28 
117. Scadavay (East) 0°46 | 176. Fad. : 0°28 
118. Creagach . 0°46 | 177. Knockie . 0°28 
119. Skene (Dee) 0°46 | 178. Drumellie ay 
i120. Grennoch 0°45 | 179. Pattack 0°27 
121. Insh : 0°44 | 180. an Daimh (Shin) O27 
122. a’ Bhealaich (Gairloch) 0°44 | 181. Maberry . 0°27 
123. Dhughaill (Carron) 0°44 | 182. Benisval . O27, 
124. Chon (Forth) 0°43 | 183. Clubbi Shuns : 0°27 
125. Loyne (East) 0°43. | 184. a’ Bhealaich eae Se ONOR2 f 
126. Hundland 0°43. | 185. Turret : 22/0 50°26 
127. Beannachan . 0°42 | 186. Calavie 0°26 
128. na h-Earba (West) 6°41 | 187. Woodhall | 0°26 
129. Migdale 0°41 | 188. an Staea . 0°26 
130. a? Ghriama | 0°40 | 189. Tollie 0°26 
131. Cliff | 0°40 | 190. Benachally all le) 
182 Dee. - . 0:40 [| 191. Crocach . =. °. | (0°25 
133. an t-Seilich 0°39 | 192. Achanalt . PE 0225 
134, Kilbirnie . 0°39 | 193. Bunacharan OF25 
135. Ailsh : 0°38 | 194. Rescobie . O25 
136. Hilde Mor ‘ 0°38 | 195. Skaill 0°24 
137. na Salach Uidhre 0°38 4 196. Clair (Ewe) 0 24 
138. Lyon 0°37 | 197. na Beinne Baine 0°24 
139. More Barvas 0°37 198. Milton 0°24 
140. Castle (Bladenoch) 0°36 | 199. Ochiltree . 0:24 
141. Shurrery . 0°36 {| 200. an Stromore 0°24 
142. Mochrum 0:36 | 201. Loyne (West) . 0°24 
143. Harperrig 0°35 | 202. Fada a 0°28 
144. Scamadale 0°35 | 203. Davan 0°23 
145. Girlsta 0°35 | 204. Ghuilbinn 0°23 
146. Kirbister . 0°35 | 205. na h-Earba (East) 0°23 
147. Lowes (Tay) 0°34 | 206. Garbhaig . 0:23 
148. Lungard . | 0°34 | 207. Gelly | 0°28 
149. Hempriggs | 0°34 | 208. Achilty 0°23 
150. Spigyie | O34 | 209. White (Ryan) . 0°23 
151. Arklet : 0°33 | 210. Black (Ryan) 0°23 
152. Fionn (Kirkaig) 0°33 | 211. Tankerness Orz3 
153. Eye. : : 0°38 212. Inbhir 0°23 
154. Allt an Fhearna 0°33 | 213. Tralaig 0°23 
155. Urrahag : 0°33 | 214. Trool 0°23 
156. Castle Semple . 0°32 | 215. Alvie 0°22 
| 157. Achray 0°32 | 216. Olavat 0:22 
158, Dubh (Gruinard) 0°32 | 217. Drunkie O22 
159. Meiklie 0°31 | 218. Gartmorn 0°22 
160. Kernsary . 0°31 | 219. Sgamhain 0°22 
161. Ussie 0°31 | 220. Fitty [Pee 
162, Scarmelate : 0°30 | 221. Finlas p 0722 
163. Castle (Annan) ; 0°30 | 222, Dilate | 0°22 
164. St John’s. ; | 0380 | 223. nam Breac be 2On22 
165. Threipmuir 030224: Nant |, “O°22 


| 


XXV1 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


TABLE [I—continued 


Area. Area, 
Loch. | Square Loch. Square 

Miles. Miles. 

225. Bad an Sgalaig 0°22 4 284. a’ Ghobhainn 

226, Eela 0°22 | 285. an Tomain : 

227. Doine 0°21 | 286. Dubh (Gairloch) 

228, Kindar 0°21 287. na Moracha 

229. Iubhair 0°21 288. an Draine 

230. Huna : 0°21 | 289, Chaluim . 

Deis Gainmheich (South) . 0°21 290, Roer 

232. Tarff : ; : 0°21 { 291. Lowes (Tweed) . 

233. Clunie (Tay) 0°21 | 292. Giorra : 

234. Strandavat 0°21 | 293. Peppermill 

235. Vaara : ; 0:21 294, Drummond 

236. Buidhe (Fleet) . 0°21 | 295. Oban nam Fiadh 

237. Killin 0°20 {| 296. an Nostarie 

238. Lochrutton 0:20 | 297. an Tachdaidh 

239. an Hilein (Spey) 0°20 } 298. an EHilein (Gairloch) . 

240. Skealtar : ; 0°20 } 299. Braigh Horrisdale 

241. na Craobhaig . : 0°20 § 300. na Moine . 

242. Muckle Water . : 3 0°19 | 301. Poulary 

243. Coirenam Meann . : 0°19 | 302. Dungeon . 

244, Langavat (Benbecula) : 0°19 | 303. Clings 

245. cans Dine Ne Waist) on: . | O19 | 804. Bodavat 

246. Skerrow . : : . 0°19 | 305. Stacsavat . 

247. a Bharpa ‘ : . | 0°19 | 806. Broom 

248. Araich-Lin ; : J i O13 5°) 3072 (Bradair 

249. na Cuaich : sila) 0:18 S808.) isbister 

2bOimOrdiew «0% ) =: : . | 018 1 309. Loch 

251, Gryfe 5 : : . | 0°18 | 310. Heouravay 

252. Coulin (Ewe) . . 0:18 | 811. Awe (Inver) 5 t 

258. a Chuilinn (Conon) . me fs (Oa Ne) 312. Auchenreoch . : mi 

254. Droma . : : 0°18 | 313. Allt na h-Airbhe | 

255. Borralan . : : 00°18 Si ipslasCrovavate. 


315: a7 Choines. 
316. ie Colla 

317. an Laghair 
318. a’ Bhuird: 
319. Dochard . 
320. na Leitreach 
321. Cro Criosdaig 
322. Kennard . 


256. Martnaham 

257. Beannach (Inver) | 
258. Daimh (Tay) . , e 
259. Tearnait . : : Eh 
260. Wester. : : ng 
261, can/Gead’ %: : j 4 
262. Syre : : ; : 
263. Clousta . ; : sa 


264. Butterstone 323. Burga ; 
265. Sguod : 324. Caol na Doire . 
266. a’ Bhaid Daraich : 325. Builg 

267. Lindores . : ; | 326, Stormont. 

268. Lundie (Garry) : | 327. Arthur 

269. Dornal : : aA 328. an t-Slagain . 
ZhOn WWrta. 329. »’ Bhealaich (Alsh) . 


271. Tingwall . 

272. Derculich . : ; at 
273. an Duin (Spey) oe 
274. Long : : ay 
275. Forfar 

276. Linlithgow 

277. Eortmores. 

278. Whinyeon 

279. Carlingwark ; : 
280. a’ Mhuilinn. : st 
281. nam Faoileag . . . | 
282. Skiach : : ; 
283. Kilconquhar 


330. Beannach (Gruinard) 
SS laSaplstoners : ; 
332. Druim Suardalain 
333. Deoravat . 

334. Monikie (South) 

335. Craiglush . 

3836. Doire nam Mart 

337. Crunachan 

338. Callater 

339. Sealbhag 

340. Skeen (Annan). 

341, an Dina . 5 
342. na h-Airidh Sléibhe f 


pear eG ey pee pear ea ee a ee fay eG a a ty ey ep ere pg ps pe pr ay pe ee eg fe py py ph pe pe Sy ee 
St SF DONWON NWN NWNMNWNNMNMWWKWOWWWWWWWWWWWWwWwWWR KR KP PRR KKH KB PRK KP KB BH OOOO OO OOO 


ph pe fe pe ee pea i pee ey fairy pg eg fe ay ee pe pa a pe pee 
MADARA AABWAD AS WANT TI 1 1 0 


CLO. Or OO O19 S11 1S SS 77S SSIS. SI S'S S'S 1S S102 1S 


STATISTICAL TABLES XXVll 
TaBLE [I—continued 
Area. Area, 
Loch. Square Loch. Square 

Miles. Miles. 
343. Ederline . O'll | 402. Veiragvat. 0°08 
344. an Lagain 0°11 | 403. Burraland 0°08 
345, Lochinvar O'1l | 404. Valtos 0°08 
346. Kemp 0°11 | 405. an Droighinn 0°08 
347. Soulseat . O11 | 406. Rosebery . 0°08 
348. an Leoid . O°1l | 407. Balgavies, 0°08 
349, Raoinavat 0-11 | 408. Clickhimin 0°07 
350. Bosquoy . 0°10 {| 409. Dochart 0°07 
351. Con (Tay) O10) 410 Holl 0:07 
352. Hosta. 0°10 | 411. Breaclaich 0°07 
353. na h-Kalaidh 0°10 | 412. Burntisland 0°07 
354, na Ceithir Hileana 0°10 | 413. na Lairige : 0°07 
355. Morsgail . 0°10 { 414. Oban a’ Chlachain 0°07 
356. Liath 0°10 | 415. Shechernich 0°07 
357. an Laig Aird 0°10 | 416. na Doire Daraich 0:07 
358. Phitiulais 0°10 | 417. Sandy 0°07 
359. Raonasgail 0°10 | 418. nan Gabhar 0:07 
360. Littlester . O07 bo: Bad a’ Chrotha 0°07 
361. Bruadale , 0°10 | 420. a’ Chlachain (Lewis) . 0°07 
362. Vatandip . : 0°10 | 421. Craggie : : 0°07 
363. Lunn da-Bhra . 0-10 | 422. Whitefield 0:07 
364, a’ Phearsain 0-10 | 428. Eldrig . 0°07 
365. Sloy. : 0:10 | 424. Monikie (North) 0°07 
366. Cuil Airidh a’ Flod . 0°10 | 425. Gown (North) . 0°07 
367. nan Lann 0°10 | 426. Lochnaw . 0°07 
368, EHigheach . 0°09 § 427. Dibadale . 0:07 
369. Spynie 0:09 | 428. Fleet : ; 0°07 
370. Ghuiragarstidh 0°09 | 429. Airidh na Lic . 0:07 
371, nam Breac Dearga 0-09 | 430. Brow 0°07 
372. na Moine Buige 0-09 | 431. Dhomhnuill Bhig 0°07 
373. Cuil na Sithe 0°09 | 432. Howie 0°07 
374, a’ Chlachain (Nairn) 0°09 | 433. Hoglinns . 0°06 
375. Gown (South) . 0°09 | 434. Auchenchapel . 0°06 
376. Bogton 0:09 | 485. Dallas 0°06 
377. na Sreinge 0°09 | 436. Monzievaird 0°06 
378. Punds 0°09 | 437. Aboyne 0°06 
379. North-house 0-09 | 438. Hoil : 0°06 
380. Kirk Dam 0°09 | 439, Harperleas 0:06 
381. nan Deaspoirt . 0°09 | 440. Moraig 0°06 
382. Muckle Lunga. 0°09 | 441. Fingask 0°06 
383. Aithness . : 0°09 | 442. an Iasgaich 0°06 
384, na Deighe fo Dheas : 0-08 | 443. nan Eun (Tay) 0:06 
385, Sron Smeur 0°08 | 444. Tarrutnn an Eithir . 0°06 
386. Hermidale 0°08 | 445. na Creige Duibhe 0°06 
387. na Stainge 0°08 | 446. a’ Chonnachair : 0°06 
388. a’ Bhradain 0°08 | 447. Mhic’ ille Riabhaich 0°06 
389. Moor Dam 0°08 | 448. Laide : , 0°06 
390. Leitir Easaich . 0°08 | 449, Dhugaill (Torridon) . 0°06 
391. Lochaber . 0:08 | 450. Flugarth : : 0°06 
392. a’ Mhiotailt 0-08 | 451. Black (Etive) (East). 0°06 
393. an Mhuire). 0°08 | 452. Harrow : ; 0°06 
394, a’ Ghlinne Dorcha 0:08 | 453. Derclach . 0°06 
395. Seil . ; 0°08 | 454. Crombie Den 0°06 
396. White of Myrton O;08™ 1455; Peerie: a. : 0°06 
397. Ceo-Glas . 0°08 | 456. Airidh na Ceardaich 0°06 
398. Leodsay 0°08 | 457. Gainmheich (North) 0°06 
399. Scaslavat . 0°08 | 458. na Bi : 0:06 
400. Tormasad 0°08 | 459. nan Druimnean 0°06 
401. Snarravoe 0°08 | 460. Lochenbreck 0°06 


xxvlt THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


TABLE []—continued 


| Area. Area. 
Loch. Square Loch. Square 
Miles. Miles. 


| 461. Black (Etive) (Mid) . 
AGQH IT Js » (West) 
463. Buidhe (Tay) 


is 4 bites 
5138. Allan ; 
514. Maol a’ Choire . 


| 464, Kinghorn 515. Tutach 
465, Essan 516. Mama 
| 466. Kirk 517. Kirriereoch 
467. Bhac 518. Brough . 
| 468. Mill. Silg; Kilchoan (Lower) 
| 469. Rae. 520. a’ Chaoruinn 


470. nan Garbh Chlachain 
| 471. Dubh (Ailort) . 
| 472. na-Coinnich © « 
| 473. Hileach Mhic’ ille Riabhaich 
| . na Garbh-Abhuinn 
475. na Claise Fearna ; 
. Baile a’ Ghobhainn . 
peceSAres Asta 
478. a’ Bhainne 
479. Harelaw . 
| 480. Birka : 
481. nan Eun (Ness) 
| 482. an Losgainn Mor 
/ 483. Dubh- Mor 
484. Gleann a’ Bhearraidh 
485. Fiart 
| 486. Edgelaw . 
487, Grass 
488. Lure 
489. na Craige. 
490. Blairs 
491. Fender 
492. Anna 
493. Monk Myre. : 
494, Eion Mhic Alastair . 
495. na Beiste. 
496. nan Geireann 
497, Beag 
498, Kilcheran. ; 
499. Lundie (Clunie) 
500. a’ Vullan. 
501. Gamhna . 
502. Uanagan . 
508. Collaster . 
504. Drumlamford 
505. Fyntalloch 
506. Kilchoan ee) 


521. Hightae Mill 

522. Fithie 

523. 1Oln 

524, na Beithe 

525, a’ Buaille. 

526. Cults 5 

527. na Garbh- Noha ENGL 
528. Skae : 

529, Aslaich . 

530. Dubh (Etive) 

531. Hostigates 

532. Duddingston 

533. Pitlyal 

534. Sand : 

535. White (Tay) 

. an t-Seasgain . 

537. Dubh (Forth) 

538. a Chladaich 

539, Scoly 

540. Crann 

541. Duartmore 

542. Kinellan . 

548. na Gealaich : J 
544, Cornish . : ; A 
545. nan Rath | 
546. Setter 

547. Magillie 

548, na h’ Eaglais 

549. Black (Tay) 

550. nan Atscot 

551. Uaine : 

552. an Tairbeirt Stuadhaich F 
553. Loch on Eilean Subhainn . 
554. na Creige Léithe 

555. an Dubh (Lochy) 

556. Rainbow . 

557. Dubh (Ness) 


> 
“I 
i 


~ 
“NI 
on 


507. “Reec. 558. Choire na Cloich 
508. Muck 559, nan Losganan . 
509. Geal 560. St Margaret’s 


561. Dhu (Portsonachan) 
562. Allt na Mult 


510. Browster 
511. Bran 


SSCS OOS SOOO SSCS COCO SOS CSCC CO OCSS COCO SC OOO SCO SCO SC OOOO OC OSS 
Moo ole Ko Roo lohoko holo Nokol lo lokokololo holo ko lolo koko Nolo lo koto lotto honor ro hone kono noire onkor—) 
SPREE RP RRP REP EBE EK Ba BE BB Bt Oe Ot OU Se Oe St Gt OU OU ON OU OU RON OU UH OUCH UH UG GU HH 

on 

CO 

oO 
SSOCOOCSSCOSCOCOOS OSC OO OOOSC OOO OSC OOO SSC OOO OOOO OS CO SCS Coo SoS 
Seccco SoCo O SC OOOO OOOO OOO OOOO COCO OOS OO OC OOO OOO COCO CO Oo OCG COCO 
SCOPE HE EEE THHWNYNWYNWYNYNW NHN KVNVHNWVNVYDWDWWBDWDWDWAWNDHNDHDHDBDDNDNDNDDD SO 


STATISTICAL TABLES 


TABLE III 


XX1X 


FresH-watrr Locus oF ScorLtaNnp (SOUNDED BY THE Laker Survey) 
ARRANGED ACCORDING 'ro Maximum Depru 


Loch. 


bo bw bo BD DD DD DD DD OH Ht oe 
CONT OS HH OD HH OO CONS OF CO DE 


Co & bO 
[+ SS) Ke) 


Ww &% 
Sok Co 


G9 9 09 
co cConNT 


Pe RR 
wWhHo 


Popp 
D> Oe 


i 
SOMONAMA wWrDoH 


. Morar 


Ness 
Lomond 
Lochy 
Ericht 
Tay . 


. Katrine 
. Rannoch . 


Treig 


. Shiel 

. Maree 

. Glass 

pr Arkaig. 

. More (Laxford). 
. Awe (Etive) 

. Earn 

. Assynt 

. Fannich 

. Quoich 

. Morie 

. Monar 

. Muick d 

. Fada (Ewe) 

. Affrie 

25. 
. na Sheallag 

. Laoghal 

. Skinaskink 

. Garry (Ness) . 
. Damh (Torridon) 
. Dun na Seileheig 
32) 
: Mullardoch 

. Avich 

. Hope : 

. Bad a’ Ghaill 
. Dhughaill (Carron) . 
. Beannachan " 
. Laggan 

ia Chroisg : 

. Beinn a’ Mheadhoin - 
. Luichart . 

. Shin 

. Beoraid 

. an Dithreibh 

. Lurgain 

47. ; A. 
. Dubh (Ailort) . 
. St Mary’s 

. Owskeich . 

. Coir an Fhearna 
. Obisary 

. Lubnaig . 


Suainaval 


Frisa 


Oich 


Max. 
Depth. Loch. 
Feet. 
LOU, 54. Scamadale 
754 55. ae (Gruinard) 
623 56. Ba (Mull) : : 
531 57. a’ Bhaid-Luachraich 
aya ies 58. Eck . : 
508 59, Ossian 
495 60. Lungard . 
440 61. Tummel 
436 62. Laidon 
420 63. Veyatie . 
367 64. Clunie (Ness) 
365 65. Cam 
359 66. na h- Oidhche 
316 67. a? Bhaid Daraich 
307 68. Gainmheich (South) . 
287 69. Hilt. éf ; ‘ 
282 70. Achilty 
282 71. Tralaig 
281 72. Arienas 
270 73. Nell : 
260 74. Dubh-Mor 2 5 
256 75. na h-Airidh Siéibhe . 
248 76, Garry (Tay) 
221 77. Bunacharan 
219 78. Vennachar 
Dig 79. nan Lann 4 
Pale 80. Dhugaill (Torridon) : 
216 81. Stack : 
Dito 82. Naver 
206 Soar Ard. 
205 84. Garve 
205 85, an Duin (Spey) 
197 86, Lyon 
188 87. an Laghair 
187 88. Eilde Mor 
180 89. Doon 
179 90. Insh 
176 91. Voil. : 
174 92. Langavat (Lewis) 
168 93. an t-Seilich 
167 94. Achray 
164 95. Drunkie . 
162 96. Daimh (Tay) 
159 97. Benisval . 
157 98, Raonasgail 
156 99. Dungeon . 
154 100. a’ Mhuilinn 
153 | 101. Garbhaig. : 
153 | 102. na Creige Duibhe 
153 103. Clair (Ewe) 
151 104, Kernsary . 
151 105. Nant 4 
146 | 106. a’ Bhealaich (Gairloch) 


O.O.6 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 
TABLE III1—continued 

Max. Max. 

Loch. Depth. Loch. Depth 

Feet. | Feet. 

107. Gorm Loch Mor 91 166. an Eilein te pey) 66 
108. Seil 91 167. Brora ; 66 
109. Mhor 91 168. Doine 65 
110. Fionn (Kirkaig) 90 169. Iubhair 65 
111. Grunavat. 90 170. Benachally 64 
112. Tarff ‘ 89 Nits Bad an Sgalaig. 64 
113. Dubh (Gruinard) 88 172. a’ Ghriama 64 
114. na Leitreach . 88 173. Loch on Eilean Subhainn . 64 
115, Baile a’ Ghobhainn . 88 174. na Meide . : 63 
116. Tollie 86 175. Ken 62 
117. Builg 86 176. Freuchie . 62 
118. Calder 85 177. an Tachdaidh . 62 
119. na Cuaich 85 178, Raoinavat 61 
120. Merkland 85 179. Dibadale . 61 
121. a’ Ghlinne Dorcha 85 180. Tingwall . 60 
122. Creagach . 84 181. Hunder 60 
123. Tulla 84 182. a’ Choire . ‘ 60 
124, Calavie 84 183, na Moine Buige 60 
125. Leven 83 184, Kilcheran 60 
126. Scaslavat . 82 185. Allt na h-Airbhe 60 
127, na h-Earba (West) 81 186. Gainmheich (North) 59 
128, Loch ; : 81 187. nan Druimnean 59 
129. a’ Chlachain (Nairn) 80 188. Lowes (Tweed) 58 
130. a’ Bhealaich (Naver) 80 189, Lochrutton 58 
131. Turret 79 190. Ederline . 58 
132. an Leoid . 19 191, na Beithe 58 
133. Fender 78 192. Fiart 58 
134, Menteith . 77 193. Drumellie 58 
135. Edgelaw . 77 194, Pattack 58 
136. Chon (Forth) 75 195. Aithness . 57 
137. Knockie . ; 75 196, Ashie 57 
138. Eion Mhie Alastair . 74 197. Hoglinns . 57 
139. Phitiulais : 74 198, an Losgainn Mor 57 
140. Girlsta 74 199, Clousta 57 
141. Caravat 74 200. Fleet ; 56 
142. a’ Bhraoin 73 201. nan Deaspoirt . 56 
143. Talla 73 202, Sealbhag . : 56 
144. Clings 73 203. Fada (Gruinard) 56 
145. Sgamhain 72 204. Skiach 55 
146. Kennard . 72 205. Trool 55 
147. Fiodhaig . 71 206. an t-Slagain 55 
148. Crocach (al 207. Liath | 55 
149, nam Breac : 71 208. Rosebery . 55 
150, Kilchoan (Upper) 70 209. Mill 55 
151. Leitir Easaich . 70 210. an Drainc | 55 
152. Alvie 70 211. Caol na Doire . iil 51D) 
153. nam Breac Dearga 70 212. Dilate [Eo 
154. Achall 70 213. Lochaber . Pe ais 
155. Lintrathen 70 214. Crogavat . 55 
156. Derculich 70 215. Gladhouse 55 
157. Clunie (Tay) 69 216, Eela 4 55 
168. a’ Mhiotailt 69 217. Lundie (Garry) | °54 
159. na h-Earba (East) 69 218. Harelaw . : | 84 
160. Ordie : 69 219. Crombie Den 53 
161. Grennoch 68 220. Lowes (Tay) 53 
162. Dubh (Gairloch) 68 221. a’? Phearsain 53 
163. Arklet 67 222. Gown (South) . 52 
164, Killin : 67 223. an Daimh (Shin) 52 
165. na Beinne Baine 67 224. Braigh Horrisdale 51 


STATISTICAL TABLES 


TaBLeE [1] —continued 


Max. 

Loch. Depth. 

Feet. 
225. Kem ; 51 
226. Leum a’ Chlamhain : 51 
227. an staca.. 51 
228. Lochindorb 51 
229. Moy 50 
230. Bran ‘ 50 
231. Black (Ryan) 50 
232. Inbhir 50 
238. Arthur 50 
234. na Craobhaig 50 
235. Scadavay (East) 50 
236. nan Eun us 50 
237. Giorra 49 
238. Migdale 49 
239. Woodhall 49 
240. Ghuilbinn 49 
241. Morlich 49 
242, Coulin (Ewe) : 49 
248. Gleann a’ Bhearraidh 48 
244, Doire nam Mart 48 
245. an Droighinn | 48 
246. Fingask 48 
247. Poulary 47 
248. Bodavat | 46 
249. Hoil 46 
250. Birka 45 
251. Fada (N. Uist) 45 
252. Meiklie : 45 
253. Kilchoan (Lower) 45 
254. Ree i : 44 
255. a’ Bhealaich (Alsh) 4 44 
256. Mama 5 44 
257. Expansions of River Dee . 44 
258. Craiglush 44 
259. an Tomain 44 
260. Skebacleit 44 
261. Uanagan . 43 
262, na Sreinge : 43 
263. a? Chuilinn (Conon) . : 43 
| 264. na h-Eaglais 43 
265. Dochard . 42 
266. Ruthven . 42, 
26eUrr. : 42 
268. Skealtar . 42 
269. Thom 42 
270. Baddanloch 42 
271. an Laig Aird 42 
272. Soulseat . 42 
273. Bhac : 42 
274. na Ceithir Wileans 42 
275. Long 42 
276. Breaclaich 4] 
277. Harperleas 41 
278. Portmore. 41 
279. Bhradain. 4] 
280, Heouravay : 4] 
281. Dubh (Forth) . 41 
282. Hermidale . 4] 
283. Hostigates a 41 


SOX 

Max. 

Loch. Depth 

Feet. 
284. Kindar 4] 
285. Gamhna . 4] 
286. Spiggie . 4] 
287. White of Myr ton 40 
288. Crageie 40 
289. Finlas : 40 
290. an Dubh (Lochy) 40 
291. Stacsavat 40 
292. Urigill 40 
293. Monzievaird 39 
294, na Lairige 39 
295. Fadagoa . 39 
296. an Tuire . 39 
297. nan Auscot 39 
298. Howie 39 
299, Burntisland 39 
300. Tearnait . 39 
301. na Claise Hema 38 
302. White (Ryan) . 38 
30a, Had . ; 38 
304, Beannach (Inver) 38 
305. Holl ; 38 
306. Kinghorn 38 
307. a’ Bharpa 37 
308. Ghiuragarstidh 37 
309. Scadavay (West) 37 
310. Dee . 3 36 
311. Allt an Fhearna 36 
312. Buidhe (Fleet) . 36 
3138. Black (Etive) (East). 36 
314. Skeen (Annan) 36 
315. a’ Bhuird 36 
316. Skae 35 
317. Trealaval . 35 
318, an Duin (N. Uist) 35 
319. na Beiste . : 35 
320. Loyne (Kast) 35 
321. Ussie 35 
322. an Nostarie 35 
323. Langavat (Benbecula) 34 
324, Gryfe : 34 
325. an Eilein (Gairloch) . : 34 
326. Ochiltree . . 34 
827. Auchenreoch . 34 
328, na Deighe fo Dheas . 34 
329. ic Colla : 34 
330. Coire nam Meann oo 
3831, Sron Smeur 30 
332. Eileach Mhic’ ‘aphaich 348) 
388. Skerrow 33 
334. Whinyeon 38 
335, Urrahag . 33 
336. Roer F oo 
337. White (Tay, ar. 32 
338, a? Chlatr (Helmsdale) 32 
339. Deoravat . 392 
340. Ceo-Glas . By 
341. Hosta 31 
342. Sloy 31 


XX X11 


THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


TaBLE III—continued 


Loch. 


343. 
344, 
345. 
346. 
347. 
348. 
349. 
350. 
351, 
352. 
353. 
oo4. 
355, 
356. 
| 357. 
| 358. 
359. 
360, 
361. 
362. 
063. 
364, 
365. 
366. 
367. 
368. 
369. 
370. 
Dials 
372. 
373. 
374. 
378, 
376. 
377. 
378. 
379. 
380. 
381. 
382. 
383, 
384. 
385. 
386. 
387. 
388. 
389. 
390. 
O91, 
392, 
393, 
394. 
395. 
396. 
397, 
398. 
399. 
400. 
401. 


Druim Suardalain 
nan Eun (N. Uist) 
Morsgail . 
Balgavies . 

Burga 

Chaluim . 

an Gead 

Ba (Tay) . 
Callater 
Harperrig 

Punds 

Kilbirnie . 

Forfar 

Harrow 
Martnaham 

Allan 

an Duna. 
Snarravoe ; 
na Salach Uidhre 
Beag 

Cults 

a’ Bhainne 

na h-Achlaise . 
Eigheach . 

nan Cuinne 
Clubbi Shuns 

a’ Ghobhainn 
Black (Etive) (Mid). 
Valtos 

nan Geireann 
Beannach (Gr uinard) 
a’ Chonnachair 
nan Rath 

Anna 

a’ Vullan. 
Linlithgow 
Muckle Lunga . 
an Ruathair 
Aslaich 

Rainbow . 
Monikie (South) 
Drumlamford 

na Gealaich 

na Coinnich 
Linn da-Bhra . 
nan Garbh Chlachain 
Vaara 

Veiragvat 

Kirk 

Huna 

Crunachan 
Butterstone 
Lundie (Clunie) 
Strandavat 

Ailsh , 

an Tairbeirt Stuadhaich 
Taruinn an Eithir 
Rescobie . 

Geal 


Max. 
Depth Loch. 
Feet. 
31 402. Bad a’ Chrotha 
31 403. a’ Buaille. 
31 404. Muck 
Si 405. Airidh na Geardaichn 
30 406. an Stromore 
30 407. Monikie (North) 
30 408. Duartmore 
30 409. nam Faoileag 
30 410. Black (tive) (West) 
30 411. Cro Criosdaig 
30 412. nan Eun (Ness) 
30 418. Borralan . 
29 414. Cliff 
29 415. Gartmorn. 
29 416. a’ Chaoruinn 
29 417. Leodsay 
29 418. na Moracha 
29 419. Choire na Cloich 
29 420. na Garbh-Abhuinn 
29 421. a’ Bhaillidh 
28 422. Muckle Water . 
28 423. Airidh na Lic . 
28 424. Pitlyal ; 
28 425. Oban a’ Chlachain 
28 426. Loyne (West) . 
28 427. Essan é 
28 428. Dubh (Ness) 
27 429. an Lagain : 
27 430. nan Geireann (Mill) . 
27 431. an t-Seasgain 
27 432. Castle (Annan) 
27 433. Carlingwark 
27 434. Peppermill ; 
27 435. Gown (North) . 
yh 436. Stenness . ; 
27 437. Auchenchapel . 
Qi 438. Crann 
26 439. Threipmuir 
26 440. Vatandip. 
26 441. Swannay . 
26 442. Rae 
26 443. Fitty 
25 444, Droma 
25 445. Tutach 
25 446. Kinellan . 
25 447. an lasgaich 
25 448. Fithie 
25 449. Lochenbreck 
25 450. Milton 
25 451. Fyntalloch 
25 452. Kirriereoch 
25 453. Moraig 
25 454, Whitefield 
25 455. Sguod ss. 
24 456. Cuil na Sithe 
24 457. Harray 
23 458. Maberry . 
23 459. na Stainge 
23 460. Magillie 


STATISTICAL TABLES 


TaBLE [I 1—continued 


Loch, 


. na Creige Léithe 

. na Craige 

: Hightae Mill 

a AStal 

. North-house 

. Mochrum. 

. Strom 

. Watten . , 
. Truid air Sgithiche : 
. Olavat 

. Mhic’ ille Riabhaiche 
2 Si : 
. Dereclach . 

. Kinord 

. Monk Myre 

. Scoly 

. Drummond ; 

‘ Castle (Bladenoch) 

. a Chlachain oe 
. Brouster . 

. Dochart 

. Aboyne 

. Dornal 

. Uaine 

. Oban nam Fiadh 

. Dhu (Portsonachan) . 
. Eldrig 

. Lindores . 

. Peerie 5 

. Dubh (Etive) 

. Burraland 

. Duddingston 

. Clickhimin 

. Tormasad. 

. Lochinvar 

. Collaster . 

. Broom 

. Boardhouse 

. na Doire Daraich 

. Davan 

3 Littlester ; 

. a’ Chladaich 

. Con (T: 
. Cuil Airidh a’ Flod , 
. Laide : ai 
. Gelly niet: : at 
. Achanalt . : 

. Shechernich 

. More Barvas 

. Maol a’ Choire . 
. Bradan 


ey ieee ei) 


CO 00 WOT HH MH OH WH WH H HOH 


Loch. 


XXxl1ll 


Max. 
Depth 


bj 
oO 
(qo) 
(oa 


2. Hempriggs 

. Dallas 

. na h-EKalaidh 

5. na Moine . 

. Flugarth . 

. Black (Tay) 

. More (Thurso) . 
. Dhomhnuill eee 
. Cornish 

. Kye. 

‘ Hundland 

. Shurrery .. 

. nan Losganan . 
. Araich-Lin 

. St John’s 

. Sandy 

. Awe (Inver). 
. na Garbh-Abhuinn Ard 
. Tankerness 

. Lure 

navi : 

. Moor Dam 

. Kilconquhar 

. Grass : 

. Skene (Dee) 

7. Spynie 

. Lochnaw . 

. Kirbister . 

. Bruadale . 

. Brow 

al Ga, 

. Blairs 

. Scarmclate , 
5. Castle Semple . 
. Heilen 

. Bosquov . 

. nan Gabhar . 
. St Margaret’s . 
. Kirk Dam ; 
. Bogton 

. Skaill 

. Sand 

. Brough 

-. S10r; 

. Stormont. 

. Allt na Mult 

. Sabiston . 

. Wester 

. Isbister 

. Buidhe (Tay) 

. Setter 


NO 09 CO 09 09 G9 CO HE RE BBB OL OT OU ON OL OT OL OL OUD DM AM MWA MM DH WW ys Sa st I I 7 1 41 © & 00 0&0 00 


XXXIV 


THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


TABLE IV 


FresH-water Locus oF SCOTLAND (SOUNDED BY THE LAKE Survey) 
ARRANGED ACCORDING to Mran Derpru 


Loch. 


a a 
COR OORST IO OO 


bo b tb 
bdo e+ © 


Lo bo 
He CO 


Soi SS) 
“IO 


abe 


ae a a oe 
POD EOD ONAN WN 


Ness 
Morar 
Lochy 
Treig 


. Katrine 


Tay. 


. Ericht 

. Rannoch , 

. Glass 

. Arkaig 

. Earn 

. Shiel ; 

d More (Laxford) 
. Maree ' 
. Morie 

. Lomond 

. Muick 

. Fannich 

. Suainaval. 

. Awe (Etive) 

. Quoich 

. na Sheallag 

. Fada (Ewe) 

. Assynt 

. Avich 

. Monar 


Affrie 


28. Dun na Seilchei ig 
. Garry (Ness) 

. Mullardoch 

. Frisa 

. a’ Chroisg 

. St Mary’s 

. Beoraid 

. Beannachan 

. Scamadale 

. Laggan 

. Luichart . , 
. Dhtghaill (Carron) : 
. an Dithreibh ; 
. Beinn a’ Mheadhoin . 
. Laoghal 

. Lungard . 

: Dubh (Ailort) . 

. Bad a Ghaill 
wetlope 

. Lurgain 

. Skinaskink : 
. Damh (Torridon) 
. Coir’? an Fhearna 
. Fionn (Gruinard) 
. Arienas 


Mean 
De; ith. 
Feet. 


— 433°02 


284°00 
228 95 


. | 207°37 


OO eo 


199-08 
. | 18921 
167 °46 


159 07 
152°71 
137°83 
132°73 
125°83 


. | 125-30 
. | 125-20 
ees 


116°30 
103°76 


| 10860 
| 104-95 
- 104°60 


103°47 


| 102°20 


101°10 
98°42 
98°33 
93°64 
84°00 
78°00 
Ci52 
76°40 
73°78 
72°93 
72°34 
70°42 
69 58 
67°68 
66°84 
66°65 
65°98 
65°36 
65°21 
63°68 
62°70 
61°90 
61°47 
60°90 
60°40 
58°91 
58°79 
so) 
56°60 


Mean 
Loch. Depth. | 
Feet. 
53. a’ Bhaid Daraich 55°60 
54. na h-Oidhche 53°95 
55. Achilty 51°78 
56. Shin é 51°04 
57. Dubh-Mor 50°93 
58. Eck. 50°16 
59, Bunacharan 50°11 
60. Clunie (Ness) 49°98 
61. Garry (Tay) 49°91 
62. Tummel . 48°03 | 
63. Ba (Mull) 47°42 
64. EKilde Mor 47°01 
65. Owskeich. 46°90 
66. Lyon ‘ 44°87 
67. na h- Aividh Sléibhe , 44°43 
68. Ard. 43°86 
69. Garve 43°60 
70. Lubnaig . 42°77 
71. Ossian 42°75 
72. na Cuaich 42°48 
73. Vennachar AD An 
74. Dubh (Gruinard) 42°33 
75. Clair (Ewe) . ' 42°10 
76. Gainmheich (South) . 41°80 
77. Oich 41°78 
78. an t-Seilich 41°30 
79. Tralaig 41°03 
80. Veyatie 41°00 
81. Voil. 40°94 
82. na Leitreach : 40°29 | 
83. Eion Mhic Alastair . 39°73 
84, Daimh (Tay) 39°12 
85. Naver : : 39°06 
86. Baile a’ Ghobnanna : 38°77 
87. Dhiugaill ogee 38°27 
88. Kernsary . : 38°17 
89. Tulla 38°08 
90. Calavie 37°91 
91. Cam 37°70 
92. Insh of ol 
93. an Laghair 37°23 
94. Kilt . on 2, 
95. nan Lann 37°03 
96. Nell. 36°80 
97. Seil . 365745 
98. a’ Bhraoin 36°60 
99. Lowes (Tweed) . 36°55 
100. Drunkie . 86°05 
101. Achray 36°01 
102. Stack 35°91 
103. an Leoid . 35°75 
104. na h- Earba (West) 35°62 


STATISTICAL TABLES XX KV. 


TABLE 1LV—continwed 


Mean | Mean 

Loch. Depth. Loch. Depth. 

Feet. Feet. 

105. Garbhaig . ‘ 4 wiieso4l) | 163. Benachally.” ” ; li 2ONOG 
106. Laidon . , : . | 85°19 | 164, Iubhair . : ; . | 24°96 
107. Talla : : ‘ . | 84°70 | 165. Langavat (Lewis) . S leen4s79 
108. Benisval . : : . | 84°68 | 166. Derculich : 3 ten 24 sa 
109. Scaslavat . ; : . | 34°65 | 167. Crogavat . ‘ ; .. | 24°66 
10. 7az Mihuilinn: ). . | 84°15 | 168. na Moine Buige ; Bilbe2aOe 
111. a’ Bhaid- Luachraich | . | 84°02 | 169. Gainmheich (North). 2 Ne 2450 
112. Creagach . : 3 , | 83°17 1.170. nam Breace Dearga. . . | 24°48 
NISy Doine ; : ; i iooske: Woe. Knoekier:: : ‘ . | 24°40 
114. Tollie , FA ool. felis 2e: dNiaint ; i |) 243i 
115. a Bhealaich (Gairloch) . | 82°74 | 173. Gorm Loch Mor : ot 24230 
116. na Creige Duibhe wily O2c490U Liat Arklet =. : ; yt e249 
117. Raonasgail : ‘ Beas aviv We Ply aye WA Gal bh an oy ‘ : she eae ols 
118. Kennard . : é So2 27) Welon wlhor, : ; : i 2a sie 
Ho Turret — . : ‘ le ole ao: Opal iy Lari : : : Hl 23389 
120. Fender . : Seo ag UsOmeoilabe 13 : ca e2aoO 
2 Dubh (Gairloch) ; . | 81°74 | 179. Lintrathen : : eee Saee 
122. Girlsta . : . | 8bc40 1-180. Black (Ryan) .. : Di 23-30 
123. a’ Bhealaich (Naver) | w31°20° (P18. Ederline |. : : MieZ oa 
124. na h-Earba (Kast) . S peal iw dio 2edehatrilaiss. ‘ ‘ PlauZomlo 
| 125. Edgelaw . ; , ~ ol 00 183. Mart A : : ; 23°13 
' 126. an Duin (Spey) : . | 80°38 1 184. Caol na Doire . ; - | 28°04 
127. a Mhiotailt . : . | 80°30 | 185. nah-Haglais.. : . | 22°84 
128. Allt nah-Airbhe . Si s0°l7 F186, Mingask™ ; ‘ ; . | 22°88 
129, Merkland . . | 30°14 | 187. Freuchie . ‘ : iaese 
130. a’ Chlachain (Nairn) . | 29°84 | 188. Harelaw . : : Vilaeezece 
131. Loch on Kilean Subhainn. | 29°70 | 189. Brora ; : ; . | 22°68 
132. Kilchoan (Upper) . . | 29°54 | 190. Dungeon . : : . | 22°64 
133. Chon (Forth) . ; . | 29°38 | 191. Liath : : , 2280 
134. Loch : ; : . | 29°22 | 192. Meikle . : : eae) 
135. Drumellie . | 29°18 | 193. Fleet ; ; ‘ ealee 2128 
136. Clunie (Tay) . : «| 29712> 194. Giorra’ ~: : a ile 0 
137. Grunavat : ‘ , | 228336" 1 1955, nan Hun (Tay) . it 2k Ge 
138. na Beinne Baine . | 28°33 | 196. Doire nam Mart : Th CABS} 
139. a? Ghriama : : . | 28°03 | 197. Ashie ; : : ai ez le 
140. nam Breac : : . | 27°94 | 198. Migdale . ; 5 foe eats 
1aleAchall ; : . | 27°83 — 199. Kilcheran ‘ : ry atleast Ol 
142. Dibadale . : : Hib Zina 200., Ken, , : , . | 21°00 
143. Builg : : : » le 2ear oa 200i. Caldera. ; : Se 20887, 
144. na Beithe : : 2 20°72) fF 202. nan: Deaspoirt eee O8 2 
145. a’? Ghlinne Dorcha . . | 27°65 | 203. Grennoch . ; : ke 2OeO2 
146. a’ Choire . : . |, 27°55 | 204. Dubh (Forth). . 5 Ais A070) 
147. an Daimh (Shin) : s A2017) | 205. Sealbhas’ . : ‘ . | 20°66 
148. Alvie : Q = |, 26302) |) 206; na‘Meide . ; : . | 20°61 
149. Sgamhain ; ; | 26770 oy 207.2) Lochaber’. ‘ ‘ 2 1ae20 757 
150. Doon 4 : : . | 26°71 | 208. Raoinavat : : WE 20256 
Hale Clingsains: ‘ : . | 26°55 | 209. Fionn é ; : .-| 20°40 
152. Ordie 3 : ‘ . | 26°32 [| 210. Lowes(Tay) . ‘ . | 20°40 
1538. Kemp . ; ‘ . | 26°23 [ 211. Kilchoan (Lower) . © le 20°30 
154. Hoglinns . : : . | 26°09 | 212. Leitir Easaich . : ml 9290 
155. an Drainc : ; . | 25°86 | 213. Menteith . ; , A DOT ss, 
156. Fiodhaig . : se) 25279) Fh 214" Woodhall é ; SiN LUSS6h 
LovvATt NUN, «|. : 5 . | 25°77 | 215. Leum a’ Chlamhain . ap abosba 
158. Obisary . : eco OF W216. a Phearsain |. : . | 19°44 
159. an EHilein (Spey) ; Ou Neadiie Moy, é : : 5 e193 
160. Mill : é 25°38: | 218). Thom : : 5 : 19°25 
161. Bad an Sealaig : e252 Oia 21 Oe Ebon : : : + 2909 
162. Rosebery . : : ‘ 25:20 | 220. Tingwall . : , : 18°88 


XXXV1 


Loch. 


. Aithness . 

. an Losgainn Mor 
= Lrool : 

. Coulin (Ewe) 

5. Braigh Horrisdale 
. Skiach ; 
. Hunder 

. Harperleas 

. an Tachdaidh . 
. Skeen (Annan). 
. Crombie Den 


na Sreinge 


. Stacsavat. 
niGryite : 

. Baddanloch 

. Fada ae 
Jaladee ; 
ero 

. Crocach 

. Uanagan . 

. han Auscot 

. Portmore. 

. na Craobhaig 

. EKela. 

; Caravat : : 
3. a’ Bhealaich (Alsh) , 
. Bhae 

. an Tomain 

. Gladhouse 

. an t-Slagain 

. Lundie (Garry) 

. Hostigates 

. Tearnait . 

. Craiglush. 

: Skealtar 

. Gown South) . 

7. Howie 

. nan Druimncant 

. an Staca ; 

. an Dubh (Lochy) 
. Kinghorn. 

. Craggie 

. Clousta 

. Skebacleit 

. Soulseat 

. an Laig ao 

. Ree. 


Leven 


. Bhradain . 

. an Droighinn 
. Monzievaird 
. Morlich . : 
. an Hilein (Gairloch) ‘ 
. Rainbow . f 
. Allt an Fhearna 
. Mama 

. Dee. 


. Kindar 


THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


TABLE [V—continued 


Mean 

Depth. Loch. 

Feet. 

18°84 | 279. Hileach Mhie’ ille Riabhaich 
18°65 | 280. Breaclaich 

18°39 | 281. White (Ryan) . 
18°29 | 282. Pattack ; 
18°10 | 283. Expansions of River Dee . 
18°09 | 284. na Ceithir Eileana 
18°08 | 285. White of Myrton  . 
17°88 | 286. a’ Chlair (Helmsdale) 
17°88 | 287. Monikie (South) 
17°87 | 288. Vaara : 

17°64 | 289. Black (Etive) (Bast) 
17°53 | 290. an Ruathair 

17°43 | 291. Ghuilbinn 

17°35 | 292. na Claise Fearna 
17°33 | 293. Beannach (Inver) 
1715 15294.) an Dunas 4 

17°13 | 295. Urigill 

17°04 | 296. Lochrutton 

16°80 | 297. White (Tay) 

16°80 | 298. Gleann a’ Bheatraiah 
16°79 |} 299. Anna 

16°79 | 300. Burga 

16:63 eo0d, (Bran 

16°59 | 302, Skerrow 

16°57 | 303. Bodavat 

16°53 | 304 a’ Ghobhainn 

16°50 | 305. Monikie (North) 
16°47 | 306. Snarravoe 

16°46 | 307. Hermidale 

16°42 1, 308, Hosta 

16°28 | 309. a’ Bharpa. 

16°26 | 310. Lochindorb 

16°16 | 311. nan Cuinne 

16°13 | 312. Morsgail . 

15°90 41 8l3.ea? Vullan’. 

15°88 | 314. Whinyeon 

15°69 S15. rr. 

15°61 | 316. Callater 

15°52 | 317. Burntisland 

15250) Tools. Dochard =. 

15°33 | 319. Birka 

5 vol 320. Beag 

15°27 | 321. Buidhe (Fleet) . 

15°21 | 322, Fadagoa 

15°19 | 323. Auchenreoch 

15°12 | 324. Harrow 

14°96 }| 325. Coire nam Meann 
14°87 | 326. Deoravat . 

14°$3 | 327. Spiggie 

14°78 | 328. Urrahag . 

14°70 | 329. Forfar 

14°62 | 330. an Gead 

14 89 } 331. Butterstone , 
14°33 | 332. Black (Etive) (Mid) . 
14°31 333. Ruthven . ; * 
14:29 | 334. Muckle Water . 
14°25 | 335, na Lairige 

14°22 18386 


. Harperrig 


Mean 
Depth. 
Feet. 


14°13 
14°09 
14°09 
14°07 
13 90 
13°81 
13°70 
13°65 
13°47 
13°44 
13°39 
13°34 
13°32 
13°28 
13°20 
13°12 
13°10 
13°08 
12°95 
12°79 
12°74 
12°65 
12°63 


12°63 . 


12°61 
12°59 
12°58 
12°55 
12°49 
12°47 
12°43 
12°42 
12°38 
12°33 
12°27 
12°22 
12°06 
11°99 
11°85 
11°84 
11°81 
11°80 
11°72 
TaorA0) 
11°69 
11°61 
11°60 
11°60 
11°59 
11°49 
11°43 
11°29 
11:29 
11527 
27, 
11°08 
10°97 
10°96 


337. 
338. 
| 339. 
340. 
341. 
342. 
348. 
(B44, 
| 845. 
346. 
347. 
348. 
3.49, 
350. 
351. 
| 852, 
| 353. 
354, 
B55. 
356. 
357. 
358. 
359. 
360. 
361. 
362. 
363. 
364. 
365. 
366. 
367. 
368. 
369. 
370. 
Sy Ale 
372. 
373. 
374. 
375. 
376. 
377. 
378. 
379. 
380. 
381. 
382, 
383. 
384, 
385. 
386. 
387. 
388. 
389. 
390. 
391. 
392. 
393, 
394. 


STATISTICAL TABLES 


Loch. 


an Nostarie 
Aslaich ; 
Drumlamford . 
ic Colla 
Gartmorn 

Cliff . 

an Tuire . 

na Beiste . : 
na Déighe fo Dheas . 
an Tairbeirt Stuadhaich 
Stenness . 

a’ Bhuird. 

Allan 

Geal : 

Loyne (East) 
Sron Smeur 
Druim Suardalain 
Fada (N. Uist). 
a’ Chuilinn (Conon) . 
Punds 

Roer : 
Ceo-Glas . 
Rescobie . 

Kirk 

na Gealaich 

Long : 
nan Kun (Ness) 
Poulary 

Vatandip . 
Balgavies . : 
Oban a’ Chlachain 
Kilbirnie . 

a’ Bhainne 
Finlas 
Martnaham 
Borralan , : 
na h-Achlaise , 
Gamhna . 

Skae 

Choire na Cloich 
a’ Chaoruinn 

na Moracha 
Swannay . 
Trealaval . 
Airidh na Lie . 
Cults 

Scadavay (West) 
Ghiuragarstidh 
Harray 

an Stromore 

a’ Chonnachair . 
Clubbi Shuns 

Cro Criosdaig . 
nam Faoileag 
Veiragvat : 
Scadavay (East) 
na Coinnich 
Strandavat 


TABLE I V—continued 


Mean 
Depth. 
Feet. 


10°95 
10°91 
10°82 
LOS 7 4 
10°75 
10°65 
10°60 
10°56 
10°54 
10°50 
10°43 
10°42 
10°40 
10°38 
10°32 
10°31 
10°30 


- 10°25 


10°22 
10°20 
10°16 


CO CO C0 OH WH HMMM MH WWW WH WH WMH WW WW WH WH HWM WH WOW OHO 
DODDBDDDODOHHEYHNYNHNWEAMNMAPBDAGSWAINWS 
SBI ODOMBDAEMDDABWHENNAVRNHNADWOHGOENMADUNSO 


Loch, 


. Peppermill 

. Castle (Annan) 

. nan Geireann 

. Lunn da-Bhra . 

. Watten 

*Ertlyall 

. Ailsh 

: Auchenchapel . 

. nan Rath. 

. Huna : 

. Langavat (Benbecula) 
. Sloy ; : : 


Ba (Tay) . 


. Whitefield 

. Ussie : 

. Chaluim . 

. Threipmuir 

. Inbhir . 

3, nan Eun (N, Uist) 
. Lundie (Clunie) 

. Crunachan 

. Ochiltree . 

. Lochenbreck 

. a Bhaillidh 

. an Lagain 

. Linlithgow 

. Fyntalloch 

. ua Craige. 

. Cuil na Sithe 

. Derclach . 

5. Fithie 

. Fitty 

7. Valtos 

. Leodsay 

. Heouravay : 

. Black (Etive) (West) 
. Maberry : ; 
2. Hightae Mill 

. han Garbh Chlachain 
. Kinellan . 

. Muck 

. Dubh (Ness) 

. na Creige Léithe 

. Strom 

. Kirriereoch 

. Sguod ‘ 

: Muckle Lunga . 

. Gown (North) : 
3. Carlingwark 

. a Buaille . 

. Essan 

. Crann 

. Mochrum . 

. Milton 

. North-house 

. Rae. i : 

. Castle (Bladenoch) 
. na Salach Uidhre 


XXXVI11 


Mean 
Depth. 
Feet. 


DODBHSOHHEHENNNWWHOK AK OAD 
MNONDHONNNWAODNNKNDAS 


ATS ST ONT SI ST NT CO CO CO GH CO CO CO CO OO CO CO OC CO CO 
co 
= 


7°57 


DADRA RAARAAARD 
CH ON Ot > > ~I ST GH 00 CO CO 
EADOWNWMONNON 


| 


XXXVI 


Loch. 


THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF 


TABLE 1V—continued 


Mean 


Depth. 


Feet. 


453. 
| 454. 
| 455. 
456. 
| 457. 
458. 
459, 
460. 
461. 
462. 
463. 
464, 
465. 
466. 
467. 
— 468, 
| 469. 
| 470. 
471. 
472. 
473. 
474, 
| 475. 
| 476. 
ATi 
478. 
| 479. 
| 480. 
481. 
482. 
483. 
484, 
485. 
486. 
487. 
488, 
489, 
490, 
491, 
492. 
493. 
494. 
495. 
496. 
497. 
498, 
499, 
500. 
501. 
502. 
503. 
504. 
| 505. 
506. 
507. 


Beannach (Gruinard) 
Lochinvar 


nan Geireann (Mill) 


Tarruin an Eithir 
Peerie : 

an Duin (N. Vist) 
Droma 

Eigheach . : 
Bad a’ Chrotha 
Boardhouse 
Aboyne 

Loyne (West) . 
Duartmore 
Collaster . 


Airidh na Ceardaich . 
Truid air Sgithiche . 


an t-Seasgain 
Scoly 

Eldrig 
Clickhimin 
Tormasad. 
Brouster . 
an lasgaich 
Moraig 


a’ Chlachain (Lewis) 


Syre 
Mazgillie 
Dornal 


Mhice’ ille Risbhareh 


Flugarth . 
Hempriggs 
Laide 
Duddingston 
Asta : A 
Maol a’ Choire . 
na Stainge 
Drummond 
Monk Myre 
Lindores . 
Gelly 

Kinord 

Dochart 

Broom 


Dhu (Portsonachan) 


Kirk Dam 
Tutach 

Awe (Inver) 
Sandy. 
Black (Tay) 
Skene (Dee) 
Burraland 
na h-Ealaidh 


na Garbh-Abhuinn . 


na Moine . 
Littlester . 


PP PP PPE PBB OLOLOU OOO OU OV OV OV OV OF OL OV OU OVO OV OV OV OV OV DUN OV SU OU OU OU OU OV OV Oy OV G2 2 G2 T. D DH BD GD DB DH 
NROdOBAMABADAWMAUID DODO DDDDDSHHEHHUDP ND WH DWAAMAMAAVYANDDASBSHOSDSCONNNOWEE 
NH NODdWOW SOD OONDDWDDADDOOHKRANWAATANERMUTOSONNWADOWWDROONIVTAEDITIES 


508. 
509. 
510. 
Sale 
512. 
513. 
514. 
515. 
516. 
517. 
518, 
519. 
520. 
521. 
522, 
523, 
524, 
525. 
526. 
527. 
528. 
529. 
530. 
531. 
532. 
533. 
534. 
535. 
536. 
537. 
538. 
539. 
540. 
541. 
542, 
543. 
544. 
545. 
546. 
547. 
548. 
549. 
550. 
551. 
552. 
5538. 
554, 
555. 
556. 
557. 
558. 
559. 
560. 
561. 
562. 


SCOTLAND 


Loch. 


Achanalt . 
a’Chladaich . ; 
Cuil Airidh a’ Flod . 
St John’s ; 
Bruadale . 
Araich-Lin 
Bradan 

Shurrery . 
Tankerness 

More Barvas 
Hundland 
Lochnaw , 

Oban nam Fiadh 
Olavat 

More (Thurso) . 
Kirbister . 

Hye . 

Sivechermch 
Davanes”. 
Dhomhnuill Bhig 
Lure 
Kilconquhar 
Cornish : 
na Doire Daraich 
Dallas 

nan Losganan . 
Uaine 

Con (Tay) 

na Bi 

Moor Dam F 
na Garbh-Abhuinn Ard 
Grass , 

Dubh (Etive) 
Spynie 

Blairs 

Brow 

Bosquoy . : 
Castle Semple . 
Heilen 

nan Gabhar 

St Margaret’s 
Scarmclate 

Tilt 

Bogton 

Brough 

Sand 

Sior. 

Skaill : 

Allt na Mult 
Buidhe (Tay) 
Isbister 

Sabiston . 
Stormont. 
Wester 

Setter 


Pete et HEE DON NNO NNYNMNYMNMNNNNNNDNWWD 


DARMMAAMAMOSD SOCOM AMATAMAM AWTS 
SOOSTSCOOCSCSOSOSSSCOSCSCOOSCOROSOGHAS 


STATISTICAL TABLES 


TABLE V 


XXX1X 


FresH-watErR Locus oF SCOTLAND (SOUNDED BY THE LakE SurvrEY) 


ARRANGED ACCORDING TO VoLUME OF WatER 
Volume Volume | 
in in 
Loch. Million Loch. | Million 
Cubic Cubic 
Feet. | Feet. 
1, Ness 263,162 | 53. Doon : oly 
2. Lomond 92,805 | 54. Beinn a’ Mheadhoin . 1,435 
3. Morar 81,482 | 55. an Dithreibh 1,366 | 
4, Tay 56,550 | 56. Tummel . 1317} 
5, Awe (Etive) 43,451 | 57. Ossian 1,224 | 
6. Maree 38,539 | 58. Tulla GZ 
7. Ericht 38,027 | 59. Beoraid . 1,156 
8. Lochy 37,726 | 60. Ard 1,150 
9. Rannoch 34,387 | 61. Lubnaig 1,144 
10. Shiel 27,986 | 62. Mhor 1,134 | 
11. Katrine . 27,274 | 63. Cam 1,063 
12, Arkaig 26,573 | 64. Veyatie . 1,062 
13, Earn 14,421 | 65. Arienas . 1,035 
14, Treig 13,907 | 66. Voil 1,000 
15. Shin 12,380 | 67. Stack 988 | 
16. Fannich . 10,920 | 68. Harray 951 
TA Assynt 8,731 | 69. Oich 890 
18. Quoich 8,345 | 70. Garry (Tay) 846 | 
19. Glass 8,265 | 71. Owskeich 846 
20. Fionn (Gruinard) 5,667 | 72. Obisary ; | 837 | 
21. Laggan . 5,601 | 73. Dhughaill (Carron) : 823 
22. More (Laxford) 4,928 | 74. Beannachan . : 819 
23. Laoghal 4,628 | 75. nah-Oidhche . 816 
24, Din na Seilcheig 4,599 | 76. Ken 792 
25. Fada (Ewe) 4,091 77. Calder 767 
26. Hope 4,032 | 78. Garve - 721 
27. na Sheallag 3,948 | 79. Stenness 716 
28. Garry (Ness) 3,794 80. Kilt 686 
29. Frisa ; 3,603 | 81. Scamadale 685 
30. Skinaskink 3,518 | 82. a’ Bhraoin 669 
31. Avich 3,327 | 83. Lungard 599 
32. Luichart . 3,288 84. Merkland 577 
38, Monar 3,213 85. Menteith 562 
34. Morie 3,201 | 86. Brora 5538 
35, Suainaval 2,843 | 87. Nell : ois 
36. Muick . 2,771 | 88. na Meide 498 | 
37. Mullardoch 2,553 | 89. Kilde Mor 493 
38. Naver 2,461 90. a’ Bhaid- Luachraich | 486 
39. Langavat (Lewis) 2,388 | 91. Baddanloch 479 
40. Eck : ; 2,881 | 92. Grunavat 478 
41. Leven .. 2,195 | 938. Lyon 46] 
42, Damh (Torridon) 2,183 | 94. Insh 454 | 
43. Affric 2,146] 95. an t-Seilich 448 | 
44, Lurgain 2,140 96, a’? Chlair (Helmsdale) 446 | 
45. a’ Chroisg 2,057 | 97. Talla 443 — 
46. St Mary’s 2,018 | 98. Creagach 429 
47. Vennachar 1,903 } 99. Fiodhaig 415 
48. Coir’ an Fhearna 1,886 | 100. na h-Earba (West) 408 
49, Bad a’ Ghaill 1,768 | 101. Lintrathen 405 
50, Laidon . 762 002. Achall: : 401 
51. Ba (Mull) 1,602 | 103. a’ Bhealaich (Gairloch) 398 
52. Clunie (Ness) . 1,533 | 104. nan Cuinne : 396 


>| 


THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


| 105. 
106. 
| 107. 
| 108. 
109. 
1g) 
Jala 
112. 
Its. 
114, 
115. 
Gs 
ie 
LES: 
119: 
120. 
121. 
122, 
1238. 
124. 
125. 
126. 
127. 
128. 
129. 
| 130. 
131. 
132. 
133. 
134. 
135. 
136. 
137. 
138. 
139. 
140. 
141. 
142. 
143. 
144, 
145, 
146, 
147. 
148. 
149. 
150. 
151. 
152. 
158. 
154, 
155. 
156, 
Lod, 
158. 
159, 
160. 
161, 


TABLE V—continued 


Volume 
in 
Loch. Million Loch. 
Cubic 
Feet. 

Dubh (Gruinard) 374 | 162. Lowes eS 
Chon (Forth) 358 | 163. Moy : 
Freuchie . 347 | 164. Fadagoa . 
Bunacharan 343 | 165. Trealaval 
Watten . 341 | 166. Bad an Sgalaig 
Kernsary 333 | 167. a’ Mhuilinn 
Achilty . 332 | 168. Boardhouse 
Achray 321 | 169. Black ya 
a’ Ghriama 314 | 170. Crocach . 
Ashie 309) el jilee Nant 
Girlsta 308 }| 172. Iubhair . 
Scadavay (West) 306 | 173. na Leitreach 
an Ruathair : 304 | 174. Hunder 
Leum a’ Chlamhain . 298 | 175. Dilate 
Lochindorb 291 | 176. an Eilein (Spey) 
Clair (Ewe) 287 | 177. Woodhall ; 
Urigill 285 | 178. Killin 
Thom 20h Ne L192: Dubh. (Gaizloch 
Calavie 27 Gea leOsedacit 
a’ Bhaid Daraich 270 | 181. an Laghair 
Caravat . 270 4182. an Duin (Spey) 
Gladhouse 269 | 183. Ordie . 
Tralaig 267 | 184. Allt an Fhearna 
Grennoch : 263 | 185, Fad : 
Expansions of River Dee 961 | 186. na h-Airidh Sléibhe . 
Benisval . 260 | 187. Skebacleit 
Gainmheich (South) . 246 | 188. Loyne (Kast) . : 
Tolle : 244 | 189. nan Geireann (Mill). 
Migdale . 242 | 190. Cliff 
Swannay 242 | 191. Trool 
a’ Bhealaich (Naver) 238 { 192. an Leoid. 
Garbhaig 228 193. nan Eun (N. Vist) 
Turret 222 | 194. Scadavay (Hast) 
Arklet 222 | 195. Spiggie . 
Drumellie 292 | 196, Allt na h-Airbhe 
Drunkie . 217 197. an Staca . 
na Cuaich 214 | 198. Fada (Gruinard) 
Ba (Tay). 206 | 199. an Drainc 
an Daimh (Shin) 205 | 200. Derculich 
Fada (N. Uist) 199 | 201. Harperrig 
Doine . 196 | 202. Kennard . 
Gorm Loch Mor 196 | 203. Pattack . 
Knockie . 194 | 204, Kilbirnie 
Lowes (Tay) 194 | 205. nan Lann 
Meiklie 193 | 206. Urrahag. 
Morlich . 192 | 207. a’ Choire 
na h-Earba (East) 191 208. Eela 
Daimh (Tay) 190 | 209. Loch 
na Beinne Baine 190 | 210. Clings 
Fionn (Kirkaig) 186 | 211. Strom 
Ruthven . 180 | 212. Raonasgail 
Benachally 178 | 213, Builg 
nam Breac 172 | 214. na Craobhaig 
Clunie (Tay) 170 § 215. White (Ryan) . 
Sgamhain 165 | 216. Coulin (Ewe) 
Alvie 163 | 217. Crogavat 
Dee 157 | 218. Skealtar 


Volume 
in 
Million 
Cubic 
Feet. 


157 
157 
156 
156 
151 
150 
150 
149 
148 
148 
147 
147 
146 
145 
144 
144 
137 
136 
136 
135 
134 
138 
132 
132 
131 
128 
123 
121 
118 
116 
114 
114 
112 
1 
110 
110 
109 
108 
108 
108 
108 
106 
105 
105 
105 
1038 
103 
108 
101 
i101 

94 

93 

93 

92 

90 

90 

90 


STATISTICAL TABLES 


TABLE V—continued 


xhi 


219. 
220. 
221, 
222. 
228. 
224, 
225. 
226. 
227. 
228. 
229. 
230. 
231. 
232. 
233. 
234. 
235. 
236. 
237. 
238. 
239, 
240. 
241, 
242, 
243, 
244, 
245. 
246. 
247. 
248. 
249, 
250. 
251, 
252. 
2538. 
254, 
255. 
256. 
257. 
258, 
259, 
260. 
261. 
262. 
263. 
264, 
265, 
266. 
267. 
268. 
269, 
270. 
271. 
272, 
273. 
274, 
275. 


Volume Volume 
in in 
Loch. Million Loch, Million 
Cubic Cubic 
Feet. Feet. 
Arsh 88 276. Muckle Water . . 57 
Dubh (Ailort) . - 87 277. a Bhealaich (Aish) . 56 
Dungeon 87 278, Maberry : 56 
Gryfe 87 279. Whinyeon 56 
Tingwall 87 280. Urr se 56 
Ghuilbinn 85 281. an t-Slagain 55 
Giorra 84 282. Baile a’ Ghobhainn . 55 
Arthur 83 283. a’ Ghobhainn . 54 
Kindar 83 284, an Gead 54 
Vaara 80 285. Butterstone 53 
Seil : : 79 286. Skeen (Annan) 53 
a” Chlachain (Nairn) 78 287. a? Phearsain 52 
Lundie (Garry) 78 288. na Creige Duibhe 52 
Caol na Doire . tal 289. Ochiltree. 52 
Kemp 77 290. Dibadale 51 
Skiach ld. 291. Forfar 51 
na h-Achlaise . 76 292. Hundland ; Dil 
Portmore 76 293. a’ Chuilinn (Conon) . 50 
Tearnait 15 294. Bodavat . 50 
Lochrutton 73 295. Inbhir : 50 
Scaslavat 73 296. nan Deaspoirt . 50 
an Tachdaidh . eg 2. 297. Borralan 49 
Castle (Annan) 72 298, Craiglush 49 
Clousta . 71 299. Hempriggs 49 
Ederline . : 70 300. Strandavat 49 
na Salach Uidhre 70 301. Huna 48 
a” Mhiotailt 69 302. Edgelaw 47 
an Tomain 69 303. Lochaber 47 
Rescobie . 69 304, Martnaham 47 
Buidhe (Fleet) 68 305. Soulseat 47 
Mochrum 68 306. Truid air Sgithiche : 47 
Skerrow | 68 307. Aithness ‘ 46 
Westie an ls 68 308. Fitty  . : 46 
Beannach (Inver) 67 309. Eion Mhic Alastair 45 
Doire nam Mart 67 310. Leitir Easaich . 45 
Phitiulais 67 311. Milton 45 
a’ Bharpa 66 312. More Barvas 45 
Dubh-Mor 66 313. an Laig Aird 44 
Stacsavat | 66 314. an Nostarie 44 
EhrerpmuiT, 66 315, Auchenreoch 44 
Castle (Bladenoch) 65 316. Dochard . 44 
Gartmorn 65 317. Hoglinns : 44 
Raoinavat : ; 65 318, Langavat (Benbecula) 44 
Dhugaill (Torridon) 63 | 319. Burga . 43 
Braigh Horrisdale | 62 |} 820. Gainmheich (North) 45 
inate ae: : 62 321. Monikie (South) 43 
a’ Bhaillidh 61 322. na Sreinge 43 
an Stromore 61 323, Roer 43 
Sealbhag 61 324, Shurrery 43 
a’ Ghlinne-Dorcha 60 325, an Duna 41 
Coire nam Meann 60 326. Fleet 41 
nam Breaec Dearga 60 327. Kinord 41 
Skene (Dee) 60 328. Kirbister : 41 
na Moine Buige ‘ 59 329. Loyne (West) . 40 
an Hilein (Gairloch) . 58 330. na Moracha 3 
Finlas ; 58 331. Poulary . 39 
Rosebery 58 332. Callater . 38 


xl 


THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS 


OF SCOTLAND 


TABLE V—continued 


Volume Volume 
in in 
Loch. Million Loch. Million 
Cubic Cubic 
Feet. Feet. 
333. Deoravat : 38 390. Monzievaird . A 24 
334. Gown (South) . 38 391. na Déighe fo Dheas . 24 
335, ic Colla 38 392. an Lagain 23 
336. na Ceithir Eileana 38 3938. Araich-Lin 23 
337, nam Faoileag . 38 394, Crunachan 23 
338. St John’s 38 395. Ghuiragarstidh 23 
339. a’ Bhuird 37 396. Lunn da-Bhra . 23 
| 840. Eye 37 397. na Beithe 23 
| 841. Hosta 36 398, na Lairige 23 
342. Mill ; 36 399. Sloy ’ 23 
| 343. Druim Suardalain 35 400. Sron Smeur 23 
344, Morsgail . ; 35 401. Balgavies : 22 
| 345. an Duin (N. Uist) 34 402. Beannach (Gruinard) 22 
346. Bhradain 34 403. Bhac 22 
347. Fiart 34 404, Burntisland 22 
| 348. Linlithgow. 34 405. Castle Semple . : 22 
349, nan Eun (Tay) 34 406. Black (Etive) (East) . 21 
350. Peppermill 34 407. Heilen ; : 21 
351, Chaluim . 33 408. Scarmelate 21 
352. Holl : 33 409. Drummond 20 
358. an Droighinn . 32 410. Kinghorn 20 
354. Droma . 32 411. na Claise Fearna 20 
355. Fingask . 32 412. Oban a’ Chlachain 20 
356. Gelly 32 413. Veiragvat : 20 
807: slong a 32 414, Airidh na Lic . 19 
358. More (Thurso) | 32 415. Broom . : 19 
359. Sguod 32 416. Cuil na Sithe . 19 
360. Achanalt 31 417. Eileach Mhic’ ille Riabhaich 19 
361. Carlingwark 31 418. Harrow : 19 
362. Cro Criosdaig . 31 419. Lochinvar 19 
363. Crombie Den 31 420, Awe (Inver) 18 
364. Fender 31 421. na Moine 18 
365. Harperleas 31 422, Uanagan 18 
366. Howie . 31 423. Black (Etive) (Mid) . ee 
367. White of Myrton 30 424, Muckle Lunga. ily 
368. Crageie 30 425. Oban nam Fiadh 17 
369. Harelaw . 30 426. Ree 17 
370. Hermidale 29 427. Whitefield 16 
371. Hoil : 29 428. Bradan 16 
372. Kilchoan (Upper) 29 429. Eigheach 16 
373. Tankerness 28 430. Gleann a’ Bhearraidh 16 
374, an Losgainn Mor 27 431. Kilchoan (Lower) 16 
375. Breaclaich 27 432, Kilconquhar 16 
376. Snarravoe PN 433, Leodsay 16 
377. Vatandip 27 434, North-house 16 
378. Dornal 26 435. Valtos 16 
379. Heouravay 26 436. a’ Chonnachair 15 
380. Kilcheran ; 26 437. a Vullan 15 
381. Monikie (North) 26 438. Birka 15 
382. nan Druimnean 26 439, Kirk : 1S 
383. Olavat 26 440. nan Eun (Ness) 15 
384. Punds 26 441. a’ Bhainne 14 
385. an Tuirc . 25 442, eG 8 : 14 
386. Davan 25 443, Anna 13 
387. Syre ‘ 25 444, Beag 13 
388. Ceo-Glas . 24 445. Bran , 18 
389. Lindores. 24 446. Bruadale 13 


STATISTICAL TABLES xli 
TABLE V—continued 
Volume Volume 
; in in 
Loch. Million Loch. Million 
Cubic Cubic 
Feet. Feet. 
447. Drumlamford . 13 505. na Doire Daraich 7) 
448, Hostigates 13 506. na Gealaich 7 
449, Littlester 3 507. Shechernich fk 
450. Lochenbreck i 508. Spynie is 
451. na h-EKalaidh 13 509. Wester i 
452, Skaill 13 510. a’ Buaille 6 
453. Auchenchapel . 13 511. an Dubh (Lochy) 6 
454. Bad a’ Chrotha : 12 512. Dallas 6 
455. Cuil Airidh a’ Flod . 12 5138. Hightae Mill 6 
456. Derclach . : 12 514. na Bi 6 
| 457. Geal : 1 515. na Garbh- ‘Abhuinn 6 
458. Kirk Dam 12 516. nan Atscot 6 
_ 459. na Coinnich 12 517. Monk Myre. 6 
460. Tormasad : ; iy) 518. Loch on MMilean Sabha 6 
461. a’ Chlachain (Lewis) 11 519. Bogton : 5 
| 462. Burraland 11 520. Brouster : 5 
463. Clickhimin lel: 521. Brow 5 
464, HEldrig 11 522. Isbister . 5 
465. Mama oe 523. Kinellan 5 
466. na Beiste aba 524, Kirriereoch 5 
467. na Stainge : ileal 525. Lure : 5 
468. nan Garbh Chlachain 11 526. nan Gabhar 5 
469. Peerie 1l 527. nan Rath 5 
470. Aboyne . 10 528, Pitlyal 5 
471. Allan 10 529, Sabiston . 5 
| 472. Aslaich . 10 530. Stormont 5 
473. Black (Etive) (West) 10 531. an t-Seasgain 4 
474. Con (Tay) : 10 532, Crann 4 
475, Dochart . 10 533. Duddingston 4 
476. Essan 10 534. Grass ‘ 4 
| 477. Gamhna . 10 535. Maol a’ Choire . 4 
478, na h-Eaglais 10 536. Tutach 4 
479. nan Geireann 10 537. Blairs 3 
480. Tarruinn an Eithir . 10 538. Cornish a 
481. Airidh na Ceardaich. 9 539. Duartmore 3 
482, an lasgaich : 9 540. Magillie . 3 
483. Laide 9 541. na Garbh- Abhuinn Ard 3 
484, Lochnaw 9 542, Scoly f 3 
485. Lundie (Clunie) 9 543, a’ Chiladaich 2 
486. Moraig 9 544. an Tairbeirt Stuadhaich 2 
487. Muck 9 545. Black (Tay) 2 
488. Rae 9 546. Brough 2 
489. Sandy 9 547. Buidhe (Tay) 2 
490. Flugarth 8 548. Choire na Cloich 2 
491. Fyntalloch : 8 549. Dubh (Etive) 2 
492, Mhice’ ille Riabhaich . 8 550. Dubh (Ness) 2 
493. na Craige 8 551. na Creige Leithe 2 
494, Skae : 8 552. Rainbow . 2 
495, White (Tay) 8 553. Sior 2 
496. a’ Chaoruinn 7 554. Tilt : 2 
497. Asta i 555. nan Losganan . ik 
498, Bosquoy , 7 556. Sand il 
499, ClubbiShuns . 7 557. Uaine. : Oz 
500, Collaster a 558. Dubh (Forth) . 0°6 
501. Cults . i 559. Setter 0°6 
502, Dhomhnuill Bhig 7 560. Dhu (Portsonachan) . 0°5 
5038. Fithie ii 561. St Margaret’s . 0°4 
ih 562. Allt na . Mult 0°1 


504, 


Moor Dam 


xliv 


TABLE VI 


THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


SHOWING SUMMARY OF PuysicaL REsULTS 


Volume 
Number | Number in 
Basins, of  ofSound-) Million 
Lochs. ings. Cubic 
Feet. 
Forth 13 3,825 36,5438 
Tay 59 6,851 | 151,858 
Inver, Roe, Kirkaig, Polly, 

Garvie | 21 2,540 20,355 
Morar 3 1,284 82,686 
Ewe 14 2.473 | 44,580 
Shiel, Ailort, nan Uamh . 6 1,191 28,967 
Conon ’ : 16 2,188 29,850 
Shin ; ; : : A: 1,564 14,538 
Naver, Borgie, Kinloch, 

Hope : ; dha 1,409 15,615 
Beauly 13 841 A227 
Lochy 12 2,570 85, 855 
Ness 33 4,385 280,923 
Brora, Helmsdale : 11 700 2,756 

| Wick, Wester, Heilen, 

Dunnet, Thurso, Forss_ | 9 681 1,319 

| Laxford, Scourie, Badcall, 

Duartmore . 10 994 6,679 
Broom, Gruinard ata at Ihe 
Gairloch, Torridon, Carron 12 1,098 4,921 
Alsh, Aline, Tevet s 10 570 2,067 
Oban, Feochan, Seil, Mel- 

fort. 13 855 1,328 
Bute, Eachaig . : ‘ 3 372 2,525 
Doon, Girvan, Stinchar, 

Ryan, Galdenoch . 13 1,028 1,935 
Luce, Bladenoch, Cree 15 594 427 
Fleet, Dee : 13 954 1,951 
Urr, Nith, Annan : 14 599 652 
Tweed, Monikie, Lunan, 

Dee, Slains . ; 16 879 5,762 
Spey : : 13 663 2,053 
Lossie, Findhorn, Nairn . 10 655 5,179 
Lismore, Mull, Benbecula 11 728 5,475 
North Uist 40 3,751 3,026 
Lewis 30 2,896 7,409 
Orkney 14 932 2,321 
Shetland. 31 107, 1,416 
Forth (Reservoirs) 20 1,065 998 
Etive DA 2,619 48,451 
Clyde 7 2,487 93,331 
Tay, Linnhe 3 106 79 

562 59,195 |1,015,814 
=6'9 
cubic 
miles 


FresH-waTER Locus oF SCOTLAND (SOUNDED BY THE LAKE SuRVEY) 


Area 
of Lochs 
in Square 
Miles. 


340 °22 


Drainage Area, 
Total | Ratio to 
in Square} Area of 
Miles. | Lochs. 
227 °66 13°38 
1099 °52 2702 
150°44 11°9 
65°63 ‘6°0 
185°51 12°5 
99°97 11°65 
366°33 31°5 
239°69 19°8 
239 °46 Oe 
215°26 of 4 
293°42 14°83 
689°14 20°1 
202°89 80°4 
 168:25| 34:9 
59°20 7/07 
111°50 15 ee 
98°46 25:2 | 
85°25 33°9 | 
34°03 20 -5yan 
44°89 | 21-7 4 
75°16 29-1 
35°43 16 <7 
298 °89 (fey 
Das LS ef 
121:°19 28°6 
SOLD OE elkoowonrn| 
42°41] 1IQAP Te 
35°54 9°5 | 
45°29 yO | 
151°98) 15°38 | 
90°36 Oeil 
51°89 9°7 
43°69 14:2 
307°55 16°9 
314°40 10°8 
8°51) 15:3 | 
6669°06 19°6 


INDEX TO THE DESCRIPTIONS AND MAPS OF 
THE SCOTTISH FRESH-WATER LOCHS? 
SOUNDED BY THE LAKE SURVEY 


[The descriptions are bound in Vol. II., the maps in Vols. ITI., IV., V., and VI.] 


Aboyne, Vol. II. Part II., p. 148; Vol. V. Plate LII. 
Achall, pe nics 9 SE ye cOO se sata Vo 50 OV 
Achanalt, plies ep 2O ie eV. 458,, eV ELT 
Achilty, Salt ORS Aamir Onan o) e405) ra ery tae! amen OO 
Premlatsecna a=) ,,. De Ip. O13 5, Ill.,,. XVI. 
Achray, ela se SLES we Jy Le gy. OV 
Affric, leg eae lk Petco cress EVE v5, XOX VET 
Ailsh, ee eel pe OOMi ee LV NIX, 
Airidh na Cear- 

daich, ae Ue as eI O a, NS. 5.) XX XS 


Midi iaghic es, UP, Ep. 210s) 3. VI 3. LXXXIE 
Airidh Sléibhe, 


na h- SM NET wore whe joss) er PNA. oe SITE 
Aithness, pope ets Ma Ls DeeeOO sickest PVila csqy es 
Allan, Plea tee Ui. hOSig. eae NS test ee 


Mlliigamnebhearmas oT 5. IE. p. ths. 5 - Vs ..5..H: 
Alitnah=Aarbhe, 5° UI ,,. Usp. 343: 53 V. .,. XID. 
Allt na Mult, ee UL ass le Ore. ss) Vly Xo, (ON ROT 


Alvie, go lily S.A dons a Ve, os, LEX. 
Anna, Plies: Vhlchps O40) a. Vs 15k DONTE 
Ard, tlhe ey.) UE palorn= oP Uber se SIX, 
Arich-Lin, So eins? Ra Ae ries soyck Wil aes Ee 
Arienas, PAM Ae sce ait lewmtoe COO. eases Ni atahc gat. = NAV, 
Arkaig, yews esp oo). AV) oa. TX XT, 
Arklet, ee Ug dee le ape gos) mass MEI: sy SEV 
Arthur, OS oe re leg pak 2 oe NM ene CPD 
Ashie, Bs ey alee dl er] Mohn ky, SOUL 
Aslaich, om stolen Otis ok. ae TV ks LCT: 
Assynt, Se 8 EOS oe Git CM EE No oN eee 4 Omer, GO, Gi 
Asta, de moss ela east) yg WEI CLIT. 


pmemencmapels ys Clo ss0 hep. 1225 \ 55 TEN) 4, XX XIE. 
Auchenreoch, lt Sete ee peal eae ye EM COT, 
Auscot, nan scree as seals ealynOos fast Vk oe eX VILL. 
Avich, ee ls per Ort coe Vis oe (EX XIT. 


1 The spelling of the names of the lochs is uniform with that used in the 6-inch 
Ordnance Survey maps. 
xlv 


xlv1 


Awe (KEtive 
basin), 

Awe (Inver 
basin), 


Ba (Mull), 
Ba (Tay basin), 
Bad a’ Chrotha, 
Bad a’ Ghaill, 
Bad an Segalaig, 
Baddanloch, 
Baile a’ Gho- 
bhainn, 
Balgavies, 


Beag, 


Vol. I. Part IIL. p. 270; Vol 


99 


Beannach (Gruin- 


ard basin), 
Beannach (In- 

ver basin), 
Beannachan, 
Beinn a’ Mhea- 

dhoin, 
Beinne Baine, na 
Beiste, na 
Beithe, na 
Benachally, 
Benisval, 
Beoraid, 


Bhac. 


Bhaid Daraich, a’ ,, 


Bhaid - Luach- 
raich, a’ 
Bhaillidh, a’ 
Bhainne, a’ 
Bharpa, a’ 
Bhealaich, a’ 
(Alsh basin), 
Bhealaich, a’ 
(Gairloch 
basin), 
Bhealaich, a’ - 
(Naver basin), 
Bhradain, 
Bhraoin, a’ 
Bhuird, @ 
Bi, na 
Birka, 
Black 


basin), 


(Etive 


II. 


pelkSy as 


THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


. VI. Plates CX XII. and 


CXXITI. 


III. Plate XXXVI. 


LXVI. 
VIE 
XVIII. 
XU. 
XVIII 
I. 


LXV. 
LI. 
XCIX. 


XVII. 


XXXVI. 
LVIII. 


LX XIX. 
LX XXII. 
XVII. 
CXXXI. 
XX XI. 
LXXXIX. 
XLIV. 
XXVIII. 
XI. 


ly, 
XXVI. 
XCVI. 
LXXI. 


XXIV. 


XIX. 


LXXIII. 
LVIII. 
XIV. 
LXX. 
CXXVI. 
XCVIII. 


CXXX. 


INDEX TO THE DESCRIPTIONS AND MAPS 


Black 
basin), 
Black 
basin), 
Blairs, 
Boardhouse, 
Bodavat, 
Bogton, 
Borralan, 
Bosquoy, 
Bradan, 
Braigh Horris- 
dale, 
Bran, 
Breac, nam 
Breac Dearga, 
nam 
Breaclaich, 
Broom, 
Brora, 
Brough, 
Brouster, 
Brow, 
Bruadale, 
Buaille, a’ 
Buidhe (Fleet 
basin), 
Buidhe (Tay 
Basin), 
Builg, 
Bunacharan, 
Burga, 
Burntisland, 
Burraland, 
Butterstone, 


(Ryan 


(Tay 


Calavie, 
Calder, 
Callater, 
Cam, 
Caol na Doire, 
Caravat, 
Carlingwark, 
Castle (Annan 
basin), 
Castle (Blade- 
noch basin), 
Castle Semple, 
Ceithir- 
Eileana, na 


Vol. 


II. Part IL., p. 


II. 
Il. 
I. 
Il. 
Il. 
If. 


100; Vol. 
a OO} era: 
PALO Ret aa. 
tia as 
si 4) AS et ee 
1 FONE ee 
COO Eee 
MOTD, has 

Oise: 

DOG as, 
ALO oe 
ZO eas 
SE ys 
903 ,, 
OO bass 
eee 

ZH S, ss 
- 240; ,, 
Lt ee 
a aca 
200 5) oe 
POON 4, 

OU ae 
15oe- ie 

DAS A hae 

a 

Oa ss 

Ceo L Kae 

O02 Ee 

B44; ,, 

Ae ee, 

TAGE x 5 

HG sas, 

Digs oc ca 

NO Giees 

ZOE 2). 

i ileced oe 

NO Waca we ss 

2Oieanee, 

OO a ames 


V. Plate X X XVIII. 


III. 
V. 
VI. 
VI. 
V. 
III. 
VI. 


VI. 
VI. 


DOOG 
LXII. 
XCIII. 
LXXXIX. 
2 OOGBE 
OOF 
XE: 
XXXVI. 


XVIII. 
XCI. 
xe. 


XCI. 
XXVIII. 
XX VII. 
i 


CIV. 
LX XXIII. 
LXX. 


LXX. 


Dae 
LXI. 
LXXXII. 


XCVII. 
X XIX. 


LXXXII. 
Vil. 

LI. 

XX XVIII. 
LVI. 
LXXV. 
XLIV. 


DOSE ViIE 


GT 
CX XXIII. 


LXXV. 


xlvu 


xlviu 


Ceo-Glas, 
Chaluim, 


Chaoruinn, a’ 


Chlachain, a’ 


(Lewis), 


Chlachain, a’ 
(Nairn basin), 
Chladaich, a’ 


Chlair, a’ (Helms- 


dale basin), 


Choire, a 
Choire na 


Cloich, 


Chon (Forth 


basin), 


Chonnachair, a’ 


- Chroisg, a’ 


Chuilinn, a 
(Conon basin), 


Clair (Ewe 


basin), 


Claise Fearna, na 
Clickhimin, 


Cliff, 
Clings, 
Clousta, 


Clubbi Shuns, 
Clunie (Ness 


basin), 


Clunie (Tay 


basin), 


Coinnich, na 


Coir’ an Fhearna, ,, 


Coire nam 
Meann, 
Collaster 


Con (‘Tay basin), 


Cornish, 


Coulin (Ewe 


basin), 
Craggie, 
Craige, na 
Craiglush, 


Crann, 


Craobhaig, na 


Creagach, 


Creige Duibhe,na ,, 


Creige Léithe, na 


Crocach, 


Cro Criosdaig, 


Il. 
II. 


II. 


Il. 
Il. 


I. 
I. 


If. 


II. 
If. 
IVb 


Il. 


If. 
If. 
II. 
I. 
I. 
If. 
Of 


Il. 


I. 
Il. 
ie 


i 
Il. 
Il. 
If. 


Il. 
II. 
II. 
II. 
II. 
II. 
II. 
If 
II. 
If. 
II. 


THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS 
> LiyPartails sp 

Peep: 
Dp: 


UN oF 


No “eo “eo ~ 


PUPP ST ST TTT? 


4 — 
Pd md bed bd ped pe fed md dp 


Ne Ne Ne we w ws 


pd 


167; Vol. 
a ee 
80; ,, 
All ea eee 
169A 
195 ; 29 
4) ” 
ALO nee 
QSELY vee 
13; 9 
200%. -., 
ZOD sn hess 
2OWe as 
hi ae 
2Ocemis 
oe i eee 
2A T Ss 
230 tae 
2OOs | se 
PASE” oe 
Boe ee 
1O Sees 
TOOTS 7: 
Dla seh ies 
D3 5 
QAO mrs 
993 5, 
96: 5, 
PAOD V ER, oe 
B02 th G 
86 ; ye) 
MOOT os 
263; 5, 
2 leisure. 
rod) os 
290.5. 5 
193 ; ” 
UO A 
21S ei. 


OF SCOTLAND 


V. Plate LXIV. 


IV. 


LXXVI. 
XXXI. 


LXXXI. 


LXIV. 
LXXV. 


ne 
CV. 


CX XIII. 


VE 
LX XVII. 
LVII. 


LVIII. 


XLIX. 
X. 
XCV. 
CVI. 

C. 

C. 
XCVIII. 


NCIS 


OOS 
LXXV. 
LX XIII. 


Il. 

C. 
XXVIII. 
XX XVII. 


MEDS 
LXIX. 
XXVI. 
XO! 
LVII. 
LXXXIX. 
LXXV. 
LVI. 
LXXV. 
XXXVI. 
LXXXIX. 


INDEX TO THE DESCRIPTIONS AND MAPS 


194; Vol. VI. Plate LX XVI. 
V. 


Crogavat, 
Crombie Den, 
Crunachan, 
Cuaich, na 
Cuil Airidh a 
Flod, 
Cuil na Sithe, 
Cuinne, nan 
Cults, 


Daimh (Tay 
basin), 

Daimh, an 
(Shin basin), 

Dallas, 

Damh_  (Torri- 
don basin), 

Davan, 

Deaspoirt, nan 

Dee, 

Dee (Expan- 


sions of River), 


Déighe fo Dheas, 


na 
Deoravat, 
Derclach, 
Derculich, 
Dhomhnuill 
Bhig, | 
Dhu = (Portso- 
nachan Hill), 
Dhugaill (Tor- 
ridon basin), 
Dhughaill (Car- 
ron basin), 
Dibadale, 
Dilate, 
Dithreibh, an 
Dochard, 
Dochart, 
Doine, 
Doire Daraich, 
na 


Doire nam Mart, 


Doon, 

Dornal, 

Drainc, an 
Droighinn, an 
Droma, 
Druimnean, nan 


Vol. 


De 


I Part I, p. 


LEE. 


xlix 


I. 


XX XIX. 


XXVII. 


LXIX. 
LXII. 


XX. 
LIV. 
LXXX. 
XLIV. 


XLV. 


LXVIII. 
LXX. 
XXXYV. 
AXXVI. 


LXXX. 
CX XIII. 
XX. 


XXII. 

LXX XVII. 
LIV. 
LXXVI. 
CXX VII. 
XX: 

VII. 


XXXVI. 

XXV. 

XXXIV. 

XLII. 

io 

CX XIII. 

XV. 

XOXO, 
dl 


| THE 


Druim Suarda- 
lain, 
Drumellie, 
Drumlamford, 
Drummond, 
Drunkie, 
Duartmore, 
Dubh = _(Etive 
basin), 
Dubh 
basin), 
Dubh = (Gair- 
loch basin), 
Dubh (Gruin- 
ard basin), 
Dubh (nan 
Uamh basin), 
Dubh (Ness 
basin), 
Dubh, an 
(Lochy basin), 
Dubh-Mor, 
Duddingston, 
Duin, an (Spey 
basin), 
Duin, an 
Uist), 
Duna, an 
Dungeon, 
Dun na Seil- 


cheig, 


(Forth 


(N. 


Eaglais, na h- 

Ealaidh, na h- 

Earba, na h- 

Earn, 

Eck, 

Ederline, 

Edgelaw, 

Fela, 

Kigheach 

Eilde Mor, 

Eileach Mhic 
lle Riabhaich, 

Eilein,an(Gair- 
loch basin), 

Eilein, an (Spey 
basin), 


Kilt, 


FRESH-WATER 
Vol. Il Partal. sp: 
tes Cray ee ee lO 
oy. Le Ep: 
55 ML ooh leo: 
a5 aL tage tates sane 
op ES Passes Le 
ee THe 
soe MLL ie xk st Brana 
so ae ase oe a 
ae aoa Gr 
say lle Sacto rele: 
se Cee Gag 6 
ee els « ovsstien will oto: 
Siege Cees (ars Co 
55 es voy esp 
§. as SEES 
Roma avenge bees) 
wii, Lisas eaatre sL ce 
of LE. oa Ep 
ae | aden) le 9 
yea Cees 6 lee 
oe lilieex sys lta: 
aot SSE Vid bo SR 1s 
sy PUA les Ds 
sh lee Nee: 
Pia O bei ee |) ene 
oo a 
5 PURINE pean: 
5 eS lee: 
5) Le ee 
ooo LE, oe la 
oP AE ee ep 
Pipe are ee Whe 
Pee 8 Aer ee (4 OF 


LOCHS 


153; Vol. 


105; 
98 ; 
119; 

3), 
BD > 


. 158; 


249 ; 


OF SCOTLAND 


99 


99 


III. Plate XXXVI. 


III. 
Ve 
Il. 
Hil. 
Vic 


VE 


We 
IV. 


XXX. 
XXXVI. 
XXXII. 
Vv: 

XIU. 


CXXVI. 
VIIL. 
XVIII. 
XVII. 
LVI 

XCI. 
LXXXIX. 
XXXI. 
CX. 
LVIL. 

LX XIII. 
LXXXIV. 
XLIV. 
LXIV. 
CXX. 
VIII. 

LX XX: 
XXII. 
XXXII. 
CX XII. 
CVIII. 
XCIX. 
XVII. 

X XVII. 
XVII. 
XVIII. 


LX. 
LV. 


INDEX TO THE DESCRIPTIONS AND 


Kion Mhic Ala- 
stair, 

Eldrig, 

Ericht, 

Kssan, 

Kun, nan (Ness 
basin), 

Eun, nan (North 
Uist), 

Kun, nan (Tay 
basin), 


Kye, 


Fad, 

Fada 
basin), 

Fada (Gruinard 
basin), 

Fada 
Uist), 

Fadagoa, 

Fannich, 

Faoileag, nam 

Fender, 

Fiart, 

Fingask, 

Finlas, 

Fiodhaig, 

Fionn (Gruin- 
ard basin), 

Fionn (Kirkaig 
basin), 

Fithie, 

Fitty, 

Fleet, 

Flugarth, 

Forfar, 

Freuchie, 

Frisa, 


Fyntalloch, 


(Ewe 


(North 


Gabhar, nan 
Gainmheich, 
Gamhna, 
Garbh-Abhuinn, 
na 
Garbh-Abhuinn 
Ard, na 
Garbhaig, 


99 


Il. 


DD) 


99 


rb) 


Map: 104:; 
ps aod 
Esp. 90); 


L, p. 406; 


Deep. USit 


99 ; 
281; 


| Ba a 
I; p. 
IL pee 84; 


Ep, 219: 


99 


V. 


Ul 


UL 
IV. 


oy) 


MAPS 


diy art Ip. 261; Vol. VE. Plate XX. 
II. 
Il. 
II. 


XX XIX. 


XII. to XIV. 


XX VII. 
CII. 
LXXI. 


XXVIII. 
LXIV. 


XXXII. 
XLVI. 
XVII. 


LXXII. 
LX XxX. 
LIX. 
LXXX. 
XX XI. 
LXV. 
XXX. 
XXXY. 
LXVIII. 


XVII. 
XXXVI. 


XLVI. 
XCLX: 
XXXII. 
XXXI. 
LXVII. 
XL. 


XC. 
XXXIX. 
LX. 


LXxXi: 


LX XII. 
XLVI. 


hi 


lu THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Garbh-Clachan, 


nan Vol 
Garry (Ness 
basin), a 
Garry (‘Tay 
basin), a 
Gartmorn, Rs 
Garve, ie 
Gead, an if 
Geal, ' 
Gealaich, na <5 
Geireann, nan x 
Geireann, nan 
(Mill), _ 
Gelly, . 


Ghiuragarstidh, ,, 
Ghlinne - Dor - 


cha, a 9 
Ghobhainn, a’ Fe 
Ghriama, a a 
Ghuilbinn, 53 
Giorra, 3 
Girlsta, 3 
Gladhouse, 9 
Glass, . 
Gleanna’ Bhear- 

raidh, 39 
Gorm Loch 

Mor, ” 
Gown, % 
Grass, . 
Grennoch, a 
Grunavat, 5 
Gryfe, 9 
Harelaw, 3 
Harperleas, - 
Harperrig, 9 
Harray, 9 
Harrow, . 9 
Heilen, 1D) 
Hempriggs, 99 
Heouravay, 9 
Hermidale, . 
Hightae Mill, e 
Hoglnns, 43 
Hoil, ” 
Holl, ” 
Hope, 29 
Hosta 2 


Sa Paste lt ap 
ADs sc ee: 
Were ee 
Thes,0 2h Sao: 
Tas) ae a0: 
|W Bas cme [a ho): 
ss cela 
Uae lb o 
es EE ao 
Te 6 Tp 
Tes, lla: 
16 Saemeersmmnu) [ic 
Tec alle. ep 
10 otal 0 her 6 
1D rn 
Le =.) ep 
I See 
Ee paeclk.ao 
Th) os, Map 
| ieee tee 36 
PS ae lap 
De 7 ee lsap: 
| Gere cama to 
Reel ap: 
Pee. Clap 
1 Feaeerrray) 8 REY) 
10 ect OSE 0) 
ees elicoap: 
ese lop 
TL. sel Sep 
LT, Gee E ap 
Ths... Tp 
Ls aap 
Ts. sep 
Ty Sh 
ET.) 55 ARs 
If... 4,,-2blap 
Thy. ap: 
Wa alee: 
Tees isp: 
TE 55: Lp: 
II. II., p. 


389 ; 


. 193; Vol 


. VI. Plate LX XV. 


IV. 


Il. 
VI. 
IV. 
IV. 
VI. 


XCV. 


XV. 
CXIV. 
LXIL. 

LX XXII. 
CXNIV. 
CX XIII. 
LXXII. 


LXXIV. 
CXVI. 
XLVII. 


LXXVI. 
XCEXG 
LXVILI. 
LXX XVII. 
XXVILI. 
XCVI. 
CVI. 
UNI. 


XXVIUI. 


LXIX. 
LVIL. 

CI. 

XLIV. 
LXXXVI. 
CXXXIV. 


CXIL. 
CXVI. 
CXI. 
XC: 
XLIV. 
V. 

III. 
LXVIII. 
LXVIII. 
XLVII. 
XCIV. 
XXXI. 
CXVII. 
LXXVIL. 
LX XIII. 


INDEX TO THE DESCRIPTIONS AND MAPS 


Hostigates, 
Howie, 
Huna, 
Hunder, 
Hundland, 


Tasgaich, an 
Ic Colla, 
Inbhir, 
Insh, 
Isbister, 
Tubhair, 


Katrine, 
Kemp, 

Ken, 
Kennard, 
Kernsary, 
Kulbirnie, 
Kilcheran, 
Kilchoan, 
Kalconquhar, 
Kallin, 
Kindar, 
Kinellan, 
Kinghorn, 
Kinord, 
Kirbister, 

_ Kirk, 

Kirk Dam, 
Kirriereoch, 
Knockie, 


Lagain, an 


(Shin basin), 


Laggan (Lochy 


basin), 
Laghair, an 
Laide, 
Laidon, 
Laig Aird, an 
Lairige, na 
Langavat 

(Benbecula), 
Langavat 

(Lewis), 
Lann, nan 
Laoghal, 
Leitir Easaich, 


Vol. 


Me Rart UES: 
ep: 
TL. p- 
II., p. 
Eesrp- 


Tsp. 
Lee p: 
Tp: 
5. p: 
be rek 
Psp: 


— 


se No Neo ~ ~ “se 


—_— 
I 


— 
Lele tend lel 


\ we i) ~ 


CIDP DPD PUPTTT + 


239): Vol. 


Gee ee 
Siew 
4) eee, 


ROS isa aes, 
OS ares 
NOS ees 
We 9 
LoOkS 455 
ud Ge 
Vist ames ey 

Tess 
405; 4, 
IW as 
Sis? oss 
2205m es 
266; ,, 
Aiiascce cas 
Sle, 5 
QOesw oe 
406;  ,, 
1295. 3; 
Pale eae e 
ZOO. Ass 
148; ,, 
2263 
Dotes! 
845s, 
LOOKS As. 
4043 ,, 
304; ,, 
364; ,, 
B38 5s 
402; ,, 
O35) 35 
303 ,, 
DLs. 55 
SO} 
QAOED hes 
4053 ,, 
JG, 
oles ~ 55 


Vi Blate Cc: 


XLVI. 
LXXI. 
LXXVIL. 
XNCHI. 


LXXV. 
LXXV. 
XXVI. 
LIX. 
XCI. 
POG 


IV. 

XCL. 
XLV. 
XXVI. 
XLVII. 
CX XXII. 
LXV. 
b.@.@.% 
CXVIILI. 
CII. 
XLVI. 
LXI. 
CXVI. 
LIV. 
XCILI. 
XLVITI. 
XXXIL. 
XLII. 
XCI. 


15D, S 


LXXXV. 
LX XIX. 
XCII. 
XVII. 

XI. 
XXVIL. 


LXVIII. 


XOX 
XCI. 
LXXV. 
XXXYV. 


lin 


liv 


Leitreach, na 
Leodsay, 
Leoid, an 
Leum a’ Chla- 
mhain, 
Leven, 
Liath, 
Lindores, 
Linlithgow, 
Lintrathen, 
Littlester, 
Loch, 
Lochaber, 
Lochenbreck, 
Lochindorb, 
Lochinvar, 
Lochnaw, 
Lochrutton, 
Lochy, 


Lomond, 


Long, 
Losgainn Mor, 
an 
Losganan, nan 
Lowes (‘Tay 
basin), 
Lowes (Tweed 
basin), 
Loyne, 
Lubnaig, 
Luichart, 
Lundie 
Clunie), 
Lundie 
Garry), 
Lungard, 
Lunn da-Bhra, 
Lure, 
Lurgain, 


Lyon, 


(by 
(by 


Maberry, 
Magillie, 
Mama, 

Maol a’ Choire, 
Maree, 


Martnaham, 
Meide, na 


Vol. 


THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


II. Part Il., p. 63; Vol. V. Plate XXIII. 


Il. 
IY. 


99 


I pelos: 
Ih npn 


TL spo eGe 
Lap: 
Laos 
Th sp? 
ep: 
Ppa 20% 
10 Eso 
Tap: 
II., p. 
J Gyo 
Lap: 
IU ie oy 
Lp: 
II., p. 


Lap: 
II., p. 


| Fo 3 


= 
rH 
orc 


=> 
anil allen sol 
— 


NO? 3N9. NO ND: 


bp 
Le Soe SS! Ee oS e SS ST  eee eS 
eo) 
o>) 


a 
anitanll-anllaall anil on 


Ne “ we Ne No \e 


99 


VI. 
VI. 


LXXV. 
CX XIII. 


1O§ 
XI. 
CI. 
CXL 
CXIII. 
XX XIII. 
CV. 
XXVIII. 
XLVI. 
XLIV. 
LXIII. 
XLIV. 
XX XIX. 
XLVI. 
LXXXIII. 
CXXIV. 
CXXV. 
XXX. 


and 


XXXI. 
CII. 


XXIX. 


XLIX. 
C. 

VI. 
LX. 
XCIX. 


XCVI. 
LXXXIL. 
XC. 
XXXVI. 
XL: 

XXI. 


XL. 
XXXIX. 
LVI. 
XXXVI. 
XLVI. 
XLVII. 

XXXVI. 
LXXI. 


and 


INDEX TO THE DESCRIPTIONS AND MAPS 


Vole arty 1p: 


ep! 
5 DIRS 


Meiklie, 
Menteith, 
Merkland, - 
Mhic’ Ile Ria- 
bhaich, 
Mhiotailt, a’ 
Mhor (Ness 
basin), 
Mhuilinn, a’ 
Miedale, 
Mill, 
Milton, 
Mochrum, 
Moine, na 
Moine Buige, na 
Monar, 
Monikie, 
Monk Myre. 
Monzievaird, 
Moor Dam, 
Moracha, na 
Moraig, 
Morar, 
More (Laxford 
basin), 
More (Thurso 
basin), 
More Barvas, 
Morie, 
Morlich, 
Morsgail, 
Moy, 
Muck, 
Muckle Lunga, 
Muckle Water, 
Muick, 
Mullardoch, 


Nant, 

Naver, 

Nell, 

Ness, 
North-house, 
Nostarie, an 


Oban a’ Chlach- 
ain, 

Oban nam 
Fiadh, 

Obisary, 


99 


by) 


II. 


99 


400; Vol 


16; 
299 ; 
165; 


408 ; 
BAT 


99 


99 


lv 


PVE Rlateserl 


IIl. 
IV. 


Xe 
LXVII. 


L. 
XXXVI. 


CIV. 

LX XXII. 
LXX. 
XLVI. 
XLII. 
XLI. 

Il. 

XVII. 
LXXXI. 
L. 

DOG 
XXXII. 
CXV. 
LXXI. 
XXVIII. 
XLII. 


VIII. 


VI. 

LX XXII. 
LXIII. 
LXI. 
LXXXVII. 
LXII. 
XXXVI. 
XCVIITI. 
XCI. 
LI. 
LXXX. 


CX XITI. 
LXXII. 
X XIX. 

XCI. and XCII. 
(Os 
XE 


LXXYV. 


LXXV. 
LXXVI. 


lvi 


Ochiltree, 
Oich, 

Oidhche, na h- 
Olavat, 

Ordie, 

Ossian, 


Owskeich, 


Pattack, 
Peerie, 
Peppermill, 
Phearsain, a’ 
Phitiulais, 
Pitlyal, 
Portmore, 
Poulary, 
Punds, 


Quoich, 


Rae, 
Rainbow, 
Rannoch, 
Raoinavat, 
Raonasgail, 
Rath, nan, 
Ree, 
Rescobie, 
Roer, 
Rosebery, 
Ruathair, an 
Ruthven, 


Sabiston, 

St John’s, 

St Margaret’s, 

St Mary’s, 

Sdilach Uidhre, 
na 

Sand, 

Sandy, 

_ Scadavay, 

Scamadale, 

Scarmclate, 

Scaslavat, 

Scoly, 

Sealbhag, 

Seasgain, an t- 

Seil, 

Seilich, an t- 


Vol. 


IP Part yp: 
10 ies fea lee, ‘op 
PTS 55... Lap: 
1 U err 1B ba 0 
Ts esa: 
| Oe all 0 
1G fF eee aed [een 0, 
| Ey peer SF oe 
es Laos 
Ls Lap 
10 Bear es) Ube) 
| Reap pd Ue op 
LTS os, ee: 
| eee UES joe 
Ss, ea: 
1D aie ane ye) Oba 6) 
[DIS W ie (dt 6) 
Dh Sg Gp: 
TY in ep: 
hs. seep: 
Ti 3s; SL: 
dU gmt WE) 
Le 2 Ep 
| 6 Cagereratel Ue 
Tt ser Ep 
1G ame Woe) 
Tes. Ea 
| Caereme 0 Birr 3) 
EE ss. ep: 
| apa cma kes ie) 
Tey sel 
Te, iy, olla 
Tes esp 
Ls Sleep 
DS lee 
DS 2 Leap 
| Goats Fo 
Bess Ep 
Pe Sleep 
| Rater oe! teen 
es Malem: 
TEE asc sletap: 
TE se en: 
1 retin! 155 0) 
10 rae ea) 0 Se 


107; Vol. 
DN Pa aad 

DUB) gs 
180 
85; ,, 
300.3), 55 
ARS oe 
Sole a. 
pies ais 
O55 wane 
SOiEr 
159 coe 
TAQ eas os 
2923 5, 
DOO ch ss 
23 (Eee. 
SOS, 5 
10634 =, 
a kekee a 
OSE. 
IIS 
Q1G6hales 
pag eas 
104; ,, 
Tes 
QOD Ga. 
OMe iss 

ALT 
ZU S 8 a 
OAD 

Molen Wee 
23 
Rae hed 
69 3 39 
aOR so 
O03 ae 
NSSzses. 
(Oe. 

Me. 
Pale oe 
84; ,, 
BAB Si 35 
OS ee ee 
Tae 
L5OG =; 


THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


V. Plate XL. 


IV. 
V. 
VI. 
IIl. 
IV. 
Hl. 


ye 
VI. 
VI. 


XCVILI. 
XIX. 
LXIX. 
XXVI. 
LXXXVI. 
XE? 


LXXXIX. 
XCI. 


~CXYV. 


XXXII. 
LX. 
XXX. 
CIX. 
XCIV. 
XCVII. 


XCIIL. 


XXX. 
CXXITI. 
XIX. 
LXXXIV. 
LXXXVIII. 
CXXXI. 
CXXI. 

LI. 
XCVIII. 
CVIIL. 

IGE 

CV. 


XCI. 
Vi: 

CX. 
XLIX. 


XXVI. 
LEV 
XCV. 
LXX. 
XXIX. 
IIl. 
LXX XVIII. 
XXVI. 
LXXxX. 
LEX Me 
XN 
LVIII. 


INDEX TO THE DESCRIPTIONS AND MAPS 
i 


Setter, 
Sgamhain, 
Sguod, 
Sheallag, na 
Shechernich, 
Shiel, 
Shin, 
Shurrery, 
Sior, 
Skae, 
Skaill, 
Skealtar, 
Skebacleit, 
Skeen (Annan 
basin), 
Skene 
basin, 
deen), 
Skerrow, 
Skiach, 
Skinaskink, 
Slagain, an t- 
Sloy, 
Snarravoe, 
Soulseat, 
Spiggie, 
Spynie, 
Sreinge, na 
Sron Smeur, 
Staca, an 
Stack, 
Stacsavat, 
Stainge, na 
Stenness, 
Stormont, - 
Strandavat, 
Strom, 
Stromore, an 
Suainaval, 
Subhainn, Loch 
on Eilean, 
Swannay, 


Syre, 


(Dee 
Aber- 


Tachdaidh, an 
Tairbeirt Stua- 
dhaich, an 
Talla, 
Tankerness, 


Tarff, 


Vo 


II. Part II., p. 245; Vol 
IT. 


Lp. 60; 


99 


ou 


lvu 


. VI. Plate XCV. 


V. 


Xexcls 

L. 

XVI 

X XXIII. 
LIL., LIU. 
TXV cv 
VIL. 
CX 
X LVI. 
XCIV. 
P0406 
LXXVIIL. 


XLVII. 


LILI. 
XLIV. 
XXVI. 
XXXIX. 
ie. 
CXXIV. 
CV. 

XX XIX. 
CIV. 

LV. 
XXVIII. 


EX. 
LXXXVI. 
XVI. 

XC. 
XXX. 
LXXIX. 
CII. 
LXXII. 
LXXXVI. 


XLVII. 
XCII. 
LXXIV. 


LXXAXII. 


LXX. 
XLVI. 
XCIL. 
XCI. 


lvin 
Tarruin an 

Eithir, 
Tay, 


Tearnait, 
Thom, 
Threipmuir, 
iit. 
Tingwall, 
Tollie, 
Tomain, an 
Tormasad, 
Tralaig, 
Trealaval, 
litera, 
Trool, 
Truid air 
thiche, 
Tuire, an 
Tulla, 
Tummel, 
Turret, 
Tutach, 


Sgi- 


Uaine, 
Uanagan, 


Valtos, 
Vatandip, 
Veiragvat, 
Vennachar, 
Veyatie, 
Voil, 


Vullan, a’ 


Watten, 
Wester, 
Whinyeon, 
White (Ryan 
basin), 
White 
basin), 
White of Myr- 
ton, 
Whitefield, 
Woodhall, 


(Tay 


Vol. 


If. Part IL., p. 
1350: 
1 BS oF 
IED: 
IL, p. 


Lisp: 
OB oy 


If. 


Il. 
I. 
Il. 
II. 
II. 
II. 
Il. 
Il. 
IL 


99 


THE FRESH-WATER 


. . 5 7 ee ee 


eo os oo 8 So 


pd pn 


Pee eee Tere 


LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


200; Vol 


80 ; 


. VI. Plate LXX. 


Ii. 


Ve 
VI. 
VI. 
Hil. 
Vil: 
III. 


XXIV. 

XXYV. 
XXY. 
CXXXIV. 
CXIL. 
XXVIII. 
CII. 
XLVII. 
LX XVI. 
LXXIL. 
».@:@.6 F 
LXXX. 
LXX XVIII. 
XLII. 


and 


Il. 

XX XVII. 
CX XVIII. 
XXIII. 
XXXII. 
LXII. 


XXXII. 
XCVIIL. 
XXXVI. 

X LILI. 
LXX XIII. 
LXL. 


C. 
LXXX. 
LXXXI. 
LXXII. 

ve 

XX XVIII. 
VII. 

CI. 


III. 
IV. 
XLIV. 


XXXVIUII. 
XXX. 
XX XIX. 


XX XIX. 
XLIV 


Eber RES r-W ARER LOGHS 
OF SCOTLAND 


LINER O DUCTION 


By Srr JOHN MURRAY, K.C.B., F.R.S., D.Sc., Eve. 


I.—Oricin AND Hisrory oF THE LakE SurvEY Work 


Durine the Challenger and some subsequent deep-sea expeditions 
I spent many years in the exploration of the physical and biological 
conditions of the great ocean basins. While preparing the scientific 
results of these expeditions for publication, it seemed to me that, for 
the purpose of comparison, a detailed examination of the fyord-like 
sea-lochs of the coasts of Scotland might yield very valuable informa- 
tion. In order to undertake an investigation of this kind it was neces- 
sary to have a small steam yacht fitted with the necessary arrange- 
ments for taking deep-sea temperatures, for dredging and trawling, 
and other like operations. With the assistance of Mr A. P. 
Henderson, the late Mr John Henderson (both of the firm of Messrs 
D. & W. Henderson, of Partick), and financial assistance from my life- 
long friend Mr Laurence Pullar, of The Lea, Bridge of Allan, I was 
able to build a small thirty-ton steam yacht, fully equipped for oceano- 
graphical investigations near shore. ‘This yacht was called the 
Medusa, and during the years 1884 to 1891 she was almost continu- 
ally employed in exploring the shallow waters and deep land-locked 
sea-lochs of the coasts of Scotland. During the same period a 
biological laboratory was carried on at Granton, near Edinburgh, 
and another similar laboratory in a large canal-barge, called The Ark, 
at Millport, Cumbrae, on the west coast of Scotland. This latter 
laboratory ultimately developed into the Robertson Museum and the 
laboratory of the Marine Biological Association of the West of 
Scotland, at Millport. Many valuable results were obtained by these 


investigations, in which Dr H. R. Mill, Mr J. T. Cunningham, 
1 


2 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Mr H. N. Dickson, the late Mr John Rattray, and many other 
physicists, chemists, and biologists took part.? 

While carrying on these researches in the sea-lochs of Scotland 
the Medusa made several excursions into the fresh-water lochs in the 
line of the Caledonian Canal—Loch Lochy, Loch Oich, and Loch Ness. 
Nothing could be more striking than the difference in the physical and 
Wlolosted conditions presented by the salt- and the fresh-water lochs. 
In dale water the maximum density point is below the freezing point, 
so that the colder water at the surface always tends to sink to the 
bottom. In fresh water the maximum density point is 39°:2 Fahr., 
so that water at this temperature tends to sink to the bottom, while 
water above or below 39°:2 Fahr. remains at the surface. This physi- 
cal fact governs the very different distribution of temperature and 


‘Cunningham, J. T., “On the Relations of the Yolk to the Gastrula in 
Teleosteans, aad in poner Vertebrate Types,” Quart. Journ. Mier. Sct., vol. xxvi., 
N:S.,‘p: 1, 1885. 

ieigavlersem. Jeo Sithie Tene and Schizopod Crustacea of the Firth of 
Clyde,” Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Glasgow, 1886. 

Murray, John, “The Physical and Biological Conditions of the Seas and 
Estuaries about North Britain”: Paper read before the Philosophical Society 
of Glasgow, 31st March 1886, and published in Proc. Phil. Soc. Glasgow, vol. xvii. 
pp. 3806-333, 1886. : 

Murray, John, “On the Effects of Winds on the Distribution of Temperature 
in the Sea- and Fresh-Water Lochs of the West of Scotland,” Scot. Geogr. Maq., 
vol. iv. pp. 345-365, 1888. 

Giinther, A., “ Report on the Fishes obtained by Mr J. Murray in Deep Water 
on the North-West Coast of Scotland, between April 1887 and March 1888,” 
Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xv. pp. 205-220, 1888. 

Cunningham, J. T., and R. Vallentin, “The Luminous Organs of Nyctiphanes 
norvegica,” Proc. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xiv. pp. 351-356, 1887; also Quart. Journ. 
Micr. Scv., vol. xxvii. pp. 319-348, 1888. 

Rattray, John, “‘ Revision of the Genus Awlacodiscus ; Revision of the Genus 
Aulisca,” Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc., 1888. 

islovile W. ES On ithe IDs Water Fauna of the Clyde Sea-Area (with map),” 
Journ. Linn. co Lond., Zoology, vol. xx. pp. 442-472, 1889. 

Murray, John, “On ae Temperature of the Salt- and Fresh-Water Lochs of the 
West of Scotland, at different Depths and Seasons, during the years 1887 and 
1888,” Proc. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xviii. pp. 189-228, 1891. 

Murray, John, and R. Irvine, “On Silica and the Siliceous Remains of 
Organisms in Modern Seas,” Proc. Roy. Soc. Kdin., vol. xviii. pp. 229-250, 1891. 

Mill, H. R., “The Clyde Sea Area,” Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvi. pp. 641 
and 664, 1892. 

Murray, John, and R. Irvine, “On the Chemical Changes which take place in 
the Composition of: the Sea-Water associated with Blue Muds on the Floor of the 
Ocean,” Trans. Roy. Soc, Hdin., vol. xxxvii. pp. 481-507, 1893. 

Murray, John, and R. Irvine, “On the Manganese Oxides and Manganese 
Nodules in Marine Deposits,” Trans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xxxvii. pp. 721-742, 
1894. 

And numerous other papers. 


INTRODUCTION 3 


circulation of the water in a salt- and a fresh-water lake, under the 
influence of wind and other physical agents. 

In a salt-water loch, again, there is a great profusion of life in 
depths of 500 and 600 feet, and many organisms from these depths, as 
well as large numbers of other organisms taken at the surface, exhibit 
most remarkable displays of phosphorescent light. In a fresh-water 
loch, from similar depths, and under the same climatic conditions, the 
dredge or trawl brings up not more than half a dozen dwarfed species, 
and the phenomenon of phosphorescent light has never been observed in 
fresh-water organisms. The organic matter associated with the muds 
and other deposits from a salt-water loch undergoes rapid decomposi- 
tion, and soon renders the water foul and unsuited for living creatures. 
In the deposits from a fresh-water loch, although chemical analysis 
shows abundance of organic matter, the water does not become foul so 
_ rapidly, and organisms may live in water associated with the deposits 
for days and weeks. ‘These phenomena are apparently connected with 
the activity of two species of bacteria in decomposing the sulphates in 
solution—Microspira desulphuricans in fresh water, and Microspira 
estuari in salt water. 

The above and many similar observations led me to conclude that 
a systematic survey of the fresh-water lochs of Scotland would in all 
likelihood result in many new additions to natural knowledge, and 
would be especially important for comparison with results in other 
departments of scientific endeavour. I found that many geologists 
were most anxious for a bathymetrical survey of these lochs, in con- 
nection with the discussion as to the origin of lake-basins. Fisher- 
men, and engineers who had to do with the water supply of towns 
and the development of water power, were also interested in this subject. 
On my initiation this matter was brought before the Councils of the 
Royal Society of London and of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 
After careful consideration both Councils during the years 1883 and 
1884 made very strong representations to the Government, urging 
that a bathymetrical survey of the Scottish fresh-water lochs should 
be at once undertaken in the interests of scientific progress. There 
was no practical outcome from these representations. ‘The reply of the 
‘Treasury, dated 17th September 1883, and signed by Mr Leonard 
Courtney (now Lord Courtney), was to the effect that a survey of the 
kind indicated did not come within the functions of the Admiralty, 
which only undertook work in the interests of navigation, nor of the 
Survey Department of the Office of Works (late Ordnance Survey), 
which limited its operations to the dry land, and that, however 
interesting from a scientific point of view, their Lordships were unable 


1 See notes by T. Jamieson in the Aberdeen Free Press, 19th November 1908, 
and in Nature, vol. xxix. p. 309, 1909, as to phosphorescent displays in Loch Builg. 


A THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


to sanction the proposed surveys. The correspondence on this subject 
will be found appended to this Introduction (Appendix I.). 

Bathymetrical charts of Loch Lomond and Loch Awe were 
published by the Hydrographic Department of the Admiralty about 
the year 1860, based on surveys undertaken by naval officers. Some 
of the general charts of the Scottish coasts published by the Admiralty 
show a few soundings down the centre of the lochs of the Caledonian 
Canal, but the charts of Loch Lomond and Loch Awe were the only 
systematic surveys of Scottish fresh-water lochs that existed at the 
time the above-mentioned representations were laid before the 
Government. It is true that previous to this date many Scottish 
proprietors and others had made most praiseworthy endeavours to 
ascertain the depths of many of the lochs, but these were generally not 
laid down on charts or made public. In the year 1887 Mr J. Y. 
Buchanan recorded a depth of 175 fathoms in Loch Morar; and in 
1888 I sounded all along this loch, and recorded a depth of 180 
fathoms at one spot. At about the same time both Mr Buchanan 
and I took very many soundings in Loch Lochy and Loch Ness. I 
had also taken many soundings in Loch Katrine and other Scottish 
lochs before attempting any systematic survey. In the year 1888 the 
late Mr J. S. Grant Wilson, of the Geological Survey, published in the 
Scottish Geographical Magazine an account of Lochs Tay, Earn, 
Rannoch, and Tummel, with special reference to the glaciation of the 
district, and he gave small contoured maps of these lochs, in which 
the position of some of the deeper soundings was laid down. ‘This 
represents the state of knowledge of the depths of the Scottish fresh- 
water lochs at the time when I commenced, with the assistance of 
my young friend the late Mr Fred. P. Pullar, to attack the problem 
in a systematic way about 1897. We were led to take up this self- 
imposed task because, as above stated, there was no hope of the work 
being undertaken by any Government department. 

A start was made with the lochs of the Forth basin, but a good 
deal of preliminary work had to be undertaken before quite satis- 
factory methods were arrived at for carrying on the work of the 
survey. Indeed, some of the lochs were surveyed two and even three 
times with different sounding-machines, and by different methods of 
determining the position of the soundings. When these initial 
difficulties were overcome the work proceeded as rapidly as the time 
at our disposal permitted, being at that time regarded as a holiday 
task. The first paper—on the lochs of the Trossachs and Callander 
district—was published in April 1900; and a second paper, dealing 
with the other lochs of the Forth basin and two lochs of the Tay 
basin, appeared in March 1901. 

It so happened that I had to visit the East during the winter of 


INTRODUCTION | OD 


1900-1901, going out by way of Canada and the Pacific, and return- 
ing by India and the Suez Canal. ‘There was at one time a 
suggestion that my young friend Mr Fred. Pullar should accompany 
me on this trip, but this was not possible for a variety of reasons. 
Our last day’s sounding to complete the work for the second of the 
above-mentioned papers was on Loch Leven, on the Ist September 
1900, and during lunch-time we amused ourselves by taking each 
other’s photographs (see figs. 1 and 2) with the kodak I was to take 
with me on the trip round the world. When we parted it was 
arranged that Mr Pullar should see the final paper on the lochs of 


Fic. 1.—The late Fred. P. Pullar, F.R.S.E. 


(From a photograph by Sir John Murray, taken on the shores of Loch Leven, 1st September 1900. 
Lunch-time on his last sounding expedition.) 
the Forth basin through the press, and further that on my return we 
should proceed with the survey of all the Scottish fresh-water lochs 
at our mutual expense. 

I returned to London from the East on the evening of the 16th 
February 1901, and on entering my hotel was handed a telegram 
announcing that my vigorous and talented young friend and _ col- 
laborator had lost his life on the previous day while gallantly 
attempting to rescue a number of people who, through an ice 
accident, had been immersed in Airthrey Loch, within a mile of his 
own home. Thus ended what promised to be a brilliant scientific 
career. His tragic death produced a profound sensation throughout 
the community where he was personally known, and among scientific 
and other friends in all parts of the world. Many appreciative 


6 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


notices of his death were published and local memorials established 
to his memory (see Appendix II.). 

This untoward event brought the lake survey work to a standstill, 
and it was my intention to abandon it altogether. Mr Laurence 
Pullar, the father of my young friend, wished, however, to see the 
work in which his son had taken so deep an interest brought to a 
satisfactory conclusion. He expressed his willingness to take his son’s 
place so far as possible, and, at all events, to set apart a sum of money 
to pay for such assistance as I might desire to carry on the work and 
to publish the results of the investigations. Mr Laurence Pullar 


Fie. 2.—Sir John Murray, K.C.B. 


(From a photograph taken by the late F. P. Pullar, F.R.G.S., during lunch-timie on their 
last sounding expedition together. Loch Leven, 1st September 1900.) 


desired to be assured on two points: first, that there was no likelihood 
of the Government undertaking such a survey in the near future ; and 
second, that this survey was considered by competent scientific 
authorities to be desirable and important from a national point of 
view. In these circumstances the question of the renewal of the 
survey work was brought before the Councils of the Royal Societies 
of London and Edinburgh, as well as before the British Association 
at its meeting in Glasgow in 1901. All these organisations passed 
resolutions stating that they learned with great satisfaction that 
arrangements were under consideration for the completion of the 
survey commenced by Sir John Murray and the late Mr F. P. 
Pullar, and confirmed the opinion as to the great scientific import- 


INTRODUCTION re 


ance of the investigation. ‘These resolutions are given in Appendix 
III. to this Introduction. 

Mr Laurence Pullar at once handed over to a small trust a sum 
of £10,000 in Consols to provide the means for carrying on the work 
on the lines that have been indicated. A copy of the trust-deed 
will be found in Appendix IV. to this Introduction. 
| Although His Majesty’s Government could not see its way to 

undertake a bathymetrical survey of the Scottish fresh-water lochs, 
still several public departments have taken a deep interest in the work 
and have given important assistance. A. letter was received from 
Colonel (now Sir) Duncan A. Johnston, R.E., Director-General of the 


Fie, 3.—Memorial Bronze to F. P. Pullar, by Sir G, A. Frampton, R.A., erected in 
Logie Churchyard, Bridge of Allan. 


In the central group the hero is shown supported by angel figures, whose wings form a canopy and 
throw shadows symbolical of the mystery beyond ; in front walk heralds carrying a laurel wreath, 
and behind others playing musical instruments. The legend is, ‘‘So He bringeth them unto 
their desired haven.” 


Ordnance Survey, stating that the Board of Agriculture had sanctioned 
the issue to the staff of the survey of two copies of the 6-inch ‘and 
one copy of the l-inch maps of the districts in which lakes were 
situated, one copy of the former to be returned to the department 
with the depths of the lakes laid down on it, with a view to the lake- 
contours being shown on the Ordnance Survey maps. ‘TI. Digby 
Piggott, Esq., C.B., Controller of His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 
wrote to the effect that no objection would be raised by his depart- 
ment, on the ground of copyright, to the reproduction of Ordnance 
Survey maps, and publication if desired, in connection with the Lake 
Survey, on the understanding that the source from which the repro- 
ductions were taken was quoted, and due acknowledgment made of 
the fact that the consent of the Controller had been obtained. The 


8 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


tracings of all these 6-inch survey maps, with the soundings laid down, 
were sent to the Ordnance Survey Office as the work proceeded, and 
are now in the possession of this Government department for safe- 
keeping and reference (see App. V.). The bathymetrical maps 
which are published in this work are all reduced to the scale of three 
inches to the mile. 

The late Admiral Sir W. J. L. Wharton, K.C.B., F.R.8., Hydro- 
grapher to the Admiralty, also promised the advice and assistance 
of his department. Through Mr J. J. H. Teall, F.R.S., Director- 
General of the Geological Survey, and Dr John Horne, F.RS., 
Director of the Geological Survey of Scotland, I was informed that 
the Board of Education had sanctioned the issue to the Lake Survey 
staff of a complete set of the Geological Survey maps of Scotland, 
and, in addition, had sanctioned the supply of information which 
might be asked for by the staff of the Lake Survey during the course 
of their investigations. ‘This latter privilege has been very largely 
taken advantage of, and Dr Horne and the other members of the 
Geological Survey in Scotland have rendered continuous advice and 
assistance, and directions were given for the preparation of maps and 
notes concerning the surface geology of some of the areas in which 
the lakes are situated. ‘These maps and notes form a valuable part 
of the present publications. 

All plans for carrying on the work having matured during the 
winter of 1901-1902, a staff was appointed,’ and a start was made 


1 Mr T. N. Johnston, M.B., C.M. (Edin.), F.R.S.E., was appointed first 
assistant and zoologist ; the late Mr James Parsons, B.Sc. (Lond.), chemist ; Mr 
James Murray, assistant zoologist; Mr T. R. H. Garrett, B.A., Jesus College, 
Cambridge, geologist ; Mr John Hewitt, B.A., Jesus College, Cambridge, zoologist ; 
Mr James Chumley, secretary, assisted by Mr Robert Dykes, in charge of office 
work. Mr R. M. Clark, B.Sc. Aberdeen, also devoted a large part of the 
summer to field-work in connection with the survey; and assistance was also given 
for short periods by Dr J. Sutherland Black, M.A., F.R.S.E., Sir John Jackson, 
LL.D., Mr D. C. M‘Intosh, M.A., Mr James Walker, C.E., and Mr 1. J. 
Scourfield. 

During the winter of 1902-3 Mr Parsons was appointed to a post on the 
Mineralogical Survey of Ceylon (he unfortunately lost his life in the jungle in 
March 1909), and Mr Garrett was appointed geologist to an East Borneo 
company, their places on the staff being taken by Mr R. B. Young, M.A., 
and Mr R. C. Marshall, MUA. ~ Miro.) Mo “Wedderburn, jMGAC Mir GE, 
Watson, B.A., B.Sc., Jesus College, Cambridge, and Mr Scourfield and others 
rendered assistance. In June 1903 Mr Young was appointed to a post in the 
South African College, and his place on the staff was taken by Mr J. H. M. 
Wedderburn, M.A., F.R.S.E. In January 1904 Mr E. R. Watson left to take 
up a professorship in Calcutta, and in August 1904 Mr J. Hewitt and Mr R. C. 
Marshall left, the former to take up a teaching appointment, and the latter to 
continue his studies. In June 1904 Mr G. West was appointed as botanist, 
resigning in April 1906 to take up his duties as assistant to the Professor of 


INTRODUCTION 9 


early in the spring of 1902 in the lochs situated in the more northerly 
part of the Tay basin, the survey being gradually extended to the 
lochs northwards of this region, and subsequently to all the river- 
basins on the mainland of Scotland, as well as the western and 
northern islands. | 

Up to the time of Mr F. P. Pullar’s death, 15 lochs had been 
surveyed ; during 1902, 154 lochs were surveyed; during 1903, 250 
lochs were surveyed; during 1904, 84 lochs were surveyed ; during 
1905, 33 lochs were surveyed; during 1906, 26 lochs were surveyed ; 
making a total of 562 lochs in all. These include all the important 
lochs in Scotland, and bathymetrical maps of each one are given in the 
accompanying volumes. The only Scottish lochs left unsounded were 
those which had no boats on them, or to which boats could not readily 
be transported. 

The actual sounding work thus extended from the beginning of 
1902 to the end of 1906, but biological observations in the field were 
carried on by Mr James Murray during the first half of 1907, until 
he left to take part in Lieutenant Shackleton’s Antarctic expedition ; 
and Mr E. M. Wedderburn also carried on physical observations in 
the field during the years 1908 and 1909. Nearly fifty persons have 
taken part in the work of the Lake Survey for longer or shorter 
periods, as well as numerous boatmen and assistants employed tem- 
porarily for a few days in different parts of the country. In all, over 
60,000 soundings were recorded in the Scottish lochs. 

Mr Laurence Pullar and I are very much indebted to all the 
members of the Lake Survey staff for their enthusiasm and devotion. 
Where all have worked so well, it is perhaps invidious to mention 
anyone specially; still, it may be but right to say that Mr T. N. 
Johnston, M.B., C.M., took a very large part in the general superin- 
tendence of the field work from 1902 to 1907, and that Mr James 


Botany in Dundee University College. In 1905 Mr Ch. Linder, D.Sc., and Mr 
L. W. Collet, D.Sc., took part in the work for short periods, and Mr C. H. 
Martin, B.A., devoted some months in the summers of 1905 and 1906 to the study 
of worms in various lochs. In the summer of 1905 Professor Chrystal undertook 
a systematic investigation into the seiches of Loch Earn and some of the neigh- 
bouring lochs, and in this work he was assisted by Mr J. D. Fulton, B.Sc., Mr 
William Watson, M.A., and Mr Peter White, M.A. Several foreign limnologists 
have visited the Scottish lochs, and have made observations on their fauna and 
flora, etc., for comparison with continental lakes, as for instance, Dr C. Wesen- 
berg-Lund of Lyngby, Denmark ; Dr H. Bachmann of Ziirich, Switzerland ; and 
Dr W. Halbfass of Neuhaldensleben, Germany. Father Odo Blundeli and Father 
Cyril von Dieckhoff, of St Benedict’s Monastery, Fort Augustus, rendered valuable 
assistance during and subsequent to the survey of Loch Ness. Recently Miss 
Stewart and Miss Drummond have been engaged in office work connected with 
the preparation of this report, and Dr W. A. Caspari has made an examination 
of the deposits from the various lochs from a chemical point of view. 


10 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Chumley had charge, during the whole period covered by the survey, 
of the accounts and payments of the staff, and of the instruments, 
charts, and note-books which were despatched to or returned from 
the workers in the field. Mr Chumley has also taken a large part in 
the preparation of the manuscript of this Report and the correction 
of the proof-sheets. This is especially true with regard to the special 
descriptions of the river basins and lochs. He has also superintended 
and been responsible for the planimeter measurements and calculations 
by the other assistants. Mr Chumley’s previous experience as my 
assistant in the preparation of the Challenger Reports in a very 
special manner qualified him for these duties. A list of all those who 
have taken part in the work of the survey is given in Appendix VI. 

We desire also to acknowledge the courtesy and assistance 
rendered by Scottish proprietors in the loan of boats, the help of 
keepers and other employees, and in many other directions. It is 
impossible to mention these by name in this place, but without their 
co-operation the work could not have proceeded. In some few cases 
the surveyors were looked on with a little suspicion, but the great 
majority of proprietors took a lively and intelligent interest in the 
survey. It was rather amusing at times to observe the result of the 
soundings on the inhabitants of districts in which the lochs are 
situated. As a rule, lochs, or some parts of a loch, are regarded as 
very deep or without bottom. When a loch with this reputation was 
found to be relatively shallow, the result would be questioned, and 
a feeling of affront or injury prevailed among the inhabitants of the 
district. 

The whole undertaking has occupied a large part of my time and 
thought during the past six or seven years, and has entailed a good 
deal of hard work both in the field and in the study. On the other 
hand, it has been a great pleasure to have been closely associated 
in this work with my old friend Mr Laurence Pullar, with the 
members of the staff, and all those who have voluntarily offered 
assistance for longer or shorter periods in one direction or another. 


IJ].—Meruops anp InsrruMEnts 


Sounding-Machines.— The first attempts at sounding the 
Scottish lochs were made with the ordinary hempen hand-line. ~ It. 
is possible to sound small and shallow lochs in this way, but to 
have used this method in the deeper and larger lochs would have 
taken a very long time; besides, the slow rate of hauling in this line 
would have increased very greatly the difficulty of determining the 
position of the soundings owing to the drifting of the boat. In order 
to accelerate the work it was necessary to procure a portable wire 


INTRODUCTION im 


sounding-machine that could be used in small rowing-boats. ‘lhe 
only instrument of this kind available in 1895 was one constructed by 
Dr Ule, and exhibited at the Sixth International Geographical 
Congress in London (1895). This apparatus was purchased by Mr 
Fred. P. Pullar, and with it numerous soundings were taken in Loch 
Morar, Lochs Frisa, Ba, and Uisg in Mull, and also in Lochs Katrine, 


——S 


Fie. 4.—F. P. Pullar Sounding- Machine. 


Lubnaig, Voil, and Doine. It proved most unsatisfactory, for after 


a few months’use the registration of the depths was found to be 
quite untrustworthy, and it was consequently discarded. Subsequently 
Mr F. P. Pullar designed the sounding-machine represented in fig. 4, 
and now known as the F. P. Pullar sounding-machine.t This in the 


1 The sounding-machine (see fig. 4) is constructed of steel cycle-tubes, which are 
held in position by means of gun-metal brackets, and is divided into two sections 
in order to pack into as little space as possible for transport. The jirst section 
consists of a bracket, carrying two upright tubes, with an adjustable clamp (K), 


12 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


hands of the Lake Survey staff has worked admirably and accurately. 
Fig. 5 shows the method of using the machine from a small boat; it 
can be used in a similar manner from a steam launch or yacht. The 
Pullar sounding-machine was used in all the larger lochs, but for 
small hill-lochs, difficult of access, it was found advisable to construct 
several small machines (see fig. 6), which could be carried in the hand 
or,on a bicycle, and be easily attached to a rowing-boat. A hand- 
line was used in these machines, marked in feet in the usual way. 


Fic. 5.—Method of Sounding. 
(From a photograph by Lady Murray.) 


Although the soundings took a much longer time, still this instru- 
ment proved most satisfactory for hill-lochs in remote positions. 


by means of which the machine is fixed to the gunwale of the boat. Over the 
ends of the two upright tubes, at the disconnecting joint (L), is slipped the second 
section of the machine, consisting of two horizontal tubes, to which the drum with 
the sounding wire, measuring pulley, indicating dials, grease-box, etc., are all 
fixed. The drum (A), which carries the wire, isa small suspension wheel, with 
a U-shaped rim, tangent spokes, and gun-metal hub. The hub has cone bearings, 
which can be screwed up, so that any wear may be allowed for. The rim of the 
drum is capable of holding over 1000 feet of three-strand galvanised steel wire 
(F). On the hub of the drum is fixed a bronze pinion-wheel, in gear with another 
pinion-wheel fitted with a crank handle (B), by means of which the wire on the 
rim of the drum may be wound in, and on the other side of the hub is an adjust- 
able band-brake (E) intended to regulate the speed of the wire when running 
out. There is also a stop for the purpose of preventing the weight from running 
out when the machine is not in use. The wire, after leaving the drum, takes a 


INTRODUCTION 13 


A small Lucas sounding-machine was presented to the Lake Survey 
by the Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Company, and, 
although rather heavy for constant transport, was used with great 


Fic. 6,—Small Sounding- Machine for use in small and shallow lochs, 


success In the larger lochs for sounding and taking temperatures in 
deep water. This machine and one of the Pullar sounding-machines 


complete turn round a measuring pulley (G), then through a grease-box (M), and 
over a guide pulley (H) to the weight (1), which takes the form of a sounding- 
tube constructed to procure a sample of the deposit, with flap-valve (J) at the 
foot, the wire being attached to the weight by means of a splice and clip- 
hook. The measuring pulley has a circumference of nearly one foot (measured 
through the centre of the wire it is exactly one foot), so that for every foot of 
wire which runs out the measuring pulley makes one revolution. The motion 
of the measuring pulley is transmitted to a series of indicating dials (1, 2, 
and 3), one recording feet, another tens, and a third hundreds of feet. When 
the weight strikes the bottom the motion ceases, and the depth may be read 
off the indicating dials. The dials fitted to the present machine read only to 
a depth of 999 feet 6 inches, but by the addition of an extra dial greater depths 
could be sounded. 


14 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


were sent in 1905 to Lieutenant Robert Peary for use in his Arctic 
expeditions across the polar ice. 

Methods of Determining Positions of Soundings.—At the 
outset much time was spent in trials as to the best method of deter- 
mining the positions of the soundings :—1, by the sextant from the 
boat; 2, by signals from the boat, when a sounding was taken, to 
observers on the shore; and 3, by running lines with two poles placed 
one behind the other on shore. All these methods took a great deal 
of time, and the fixing of the position was complicated by the drifting 
of the boat with both wind and water currents. After repeated trials 
and a comparison of results, it was found that the most accurate 
method was to take the soundings as quickly as possible while rowing 
across the lochs from one point to another. Before making a section 
across a loch, the boatman was trained for some time to ascertain the 
distance covered in ten, fifteen, twenty, and fifty strokes with the 
oars. It was usual to row from a definite point on one side of the 
loch to a definite point on the other side, keeping objects one behind 
another in line. The distance between these two points was ascer- 
tained from the 6-inch Ordnance Survey maps, which were throughout 
used for plotting the position of the soundings. The soundings were 
taken, say, every thirty strokes of the oars, and the total number of 
soundings was placed equally along the line, thus distributing any 
errors. ‘This method was found to be extremely accurate for long, 
narrow lochs; it is less correct in wide lakes without islands. Fre- 
quently the position of soundings near shore was ascertained by 
measurement with tape-lines or cords, several hundred feet in length, 
stretched. from the shore. In addition to cross lines, soundings were 
usually taken in several positions between the lines. When any 
special features were indicated by the soundings, several series were 
taken radially from a fixed point.’ 

The level of the surfaces of the lochs at the time of sounding was 
obtained by measurement with a surveyor’s level and staff? to the 
bench-marks along the shores of the lochs. In the case of lochs at a 
high altitude it was frequently not possible to refer the surface to a 
bench-mark by levelling, owing to the great distance, and the spot 
levels were unsatisfactory. However, special Lake Survey marks were 
placed along the shore, showing the height of the surface at the time 


1 For the purpose of maintaining position in running lines of soundings across a 
loch, mirrors of alignment of different forms were used—one supplied by Chabaud 
of Paris from the designs of Professor Thoulet ; by means of these mirrors an 
object on shore behind the surveyor is kept in line with another object on shore um 
front of the surveyor. 

2 A surveyors dumpy level and figured staff, as well as small Abney levels, 


were used for this purpose. 


INTRODUCTION IE 


of the survey. Only in exceptional cases was it necessary to apply 
corrections to the soundings for a rise or fall of the surface during 
the sounding operations. 

Preparation of the Maps.— When the survey of a loch had been 
completed, the 6-inch Ordnance Survey map, with soundings laid 
down in position by the surveyors, and the sounding-book relating 
thereto, together with any special notes, were forwarded to the office 
in Edinburgh, where clean tracings on cloth were plotted, carefully 
compared with the sounding-book; and contour-lines of depth drawn 
in at equal intervals. ‘The areas within the consecutive contour-lines 
were then measured with the planimeter, and the volume of water 
contained in the loch, and the mean depth, calculated. The area 
draining into the loch was measured with the planimeter on the 1-inch 
Ordnance Survey map, and all particulars as to elevation, number of 
soundings taken, length, breadth, depth, area, and drainage area were 
entered in a large book ruled for the purpose. The tracings were then 
handed to Mr Bartholomew, who prepared copies on thin paper, 
with the printed names, etc., inserted in position. These were 
carefully revised in the office, and then reduced by photography to 
half-size (#.e. to the scale of 3 inches to the mile) and transferred 
to stone, all the maps in these volumes being on that scale. After 
the publication of the printed maps the tracings on cloth were 
forwarded to the office of the Ordnance Survey for preservation and 
for future reference. 

Temperature Observations.—These were made in most of the 
lochs by means of Negretti & Zambra’s deep-sea thermometers, 
which were immersed to different depths by the sounding-line and 
reversed by a messenger sent down the line. Different forms of 
frames and mechanisms for reversing the thermometers were ex- 
perimented with, and it was found that the Scottish frame with side 
lever, originally designed in connection with the work of the Granton 
Marine Station, was the most satisfactory (figs. 7 and 8).! Several 

1 In fig. 7, F is the frame attached to sounding-line by the clamp V and the 

short spiral C. 

T, thermometer turning in frame on pivots p p. 

P, iron pin passing through holes at hh, and projecting into groove at top of 
thermometer case at G. 

L, lever, one end passing through a hole in P, the other forked to enclose 

sounding-line. 

S, spiral spring keeping lever down. 

B, messenger, which by its action on the lever raises pin P and inverts 

thermometer. 
fis a catch which is caught by the tooth ¢ on spring s when thermometer is 
inverted. 


B’, messenger which is released by inversion of thermometer. 
Fig. 8 shows the construction of the messengers B and B’. 


16 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Miller-Cassella maximum and minimum deep-sea thermometers 


SS 
PAK: Pah 


a 
OURAN RTD. 


HIG: 7. 


aS 


Feo as 


Fe 


Se: 
a 
si 
BS 
AS 
Ri 


(Buchanan’s pattern) were also 
in use during the survey. In 
order to make a more profound 
study of temperature changes 
in a loch, an installation of 
electric thermometers, consist- 
ing of platinum resistance ther- 
mometers and a  Callendar 
recorder, was set up at Fort 
Augustus, on Loch Ness. ‘The 
recorder was placed in the 
boat-house of St  Benedict’s 
Abbey, and the thermometers 
were operated from the deck 
of a small yacht called the 
Rhoda, anchored in 300 feet 
of water and distant about 
300 yards from the boat-house ; 
a four-ply cable connected the 
recorder with the Rhoda. This 
same apparatus was later set 
up in Loch Garry by Mr E. M. 
Wedderburn in the spring of 
1908. A sunshine receiver 
which could be lowered to any 
depth in place of the platinum 
thermometers also formed part 
of the equipment. Experi- 
ments were also made with a 
thermophone outfit, purchased 
in America, for recording the 
temperature. 

Electrical Experiments.— 
Advantage was taken of Lake 
Survey facilities to make some 
experiments on a point of 
theoretical importance, viz. the 
ionisation of air when _§sur- 
rounded by thick layers of 
water. A charged electroscope 
was immersed in Loch Ness at 


various depths, and the rate of leakage of the charge under these 
conditions was compared with the rate in ordinary circumstances. 


INTRODUCTION M7 


This electroscope consists of a copper cylinder, containing a brass 
conductor, insulated by being supported on a quartz rod, and having 
at its upper end a slight brass rod, carrying a gold leaf, the deflection 
of which indicated the leak of the electrical charge. ‘The experiments 
showed that, by surrounding the electroscope-case with a layer of 
water 120 feet thick, the conductivity, and therefore the ionisation, 
of the contained air is reduced, but not to less than 75 per cent. of 
the value which it has when the instrument is standing on dry land. 

Seiches.—The first authentic seiche recorded in Scotland was 
observed by members of the Lake Survey staff in May 1902, while 
sounding Loch 'Treig, the amplitude being measured by placing a 
foot-rule in the water. A Sarasin limnograph was purchased in 1902, 
and set up at Fort Augustus, on Loch Ness, in June 1903. A second 
Sarasin limnograph was purchased in 1904; while in 1905 Professor 
Chrystal introduced several modifications, and had an improved 
form of the instrument constructed for use on Loch Earn. <A 
statoscope was also employed by Professor Chrystal in connection 
with his seiche work, as well as barographs and sensitive barographs. 
These instruments are described in Professor Chrystal’s article 
forming part of this volume. 

Transparency.—Systematic observations on the depth at which 
discs of various colours disappeared from view when immersed in the 
waters of Loch Ness were made in July, August, October, November, 
and December 1903, and January 1904. This depth for white discs 
varied from 14 feet on 27th August, after heavy rain during the 
night, to 24 feet on 4th August. On 27th October a white disc 
was visible to 16 feet, a yellow disc to 15 feet, and a blue disc to 
12 feet. The yellow disc could not be distinguished from the white 
disc so soon as it had descended about a foot, and the blue disc 
appeared quite green at that depth. 

Similar experiments were made in other lochs, but it was found 
that the transparency of the water varied so much, according as the 
rivers were in flood, and according to the development of the plankton, 
that these observations were continued only when local circumstances 
made it desirable. 

Currents.—In his recent work on Loch Garry and Loch Ness, 
Mr Wedderburn has made use of an Ekman current meter. 

Biological Observations.—On one occasion, the Mermaid, the 
steamer belonging to the Marine Biological Association of the West 
of Scotland, was hired for several weeks, and, being specially fitted 
for trawling and dredging operations, a minute exploration of the 
deep waters of Loch Lochy and Loch Ness was possible. The other — 
lochs were explored from rowing-boats or small steam launches with 
the usual nets and dredges in use among naturalists, such as tow-nets 


2 


18 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


made of coarse and fine materials, as well as the special nets designed 
by Apstein and Nansen. During his biological investigations, Mr 
James Murray established many temporary fresh-water laboratories, 
where microscopic work was carried on, and the same may be said of 
Mr George West with reference to his botanical work in connection 
with the survey. 

Lake Deposits.—These were collected in a variety of ways, 
according to the depth and other conditions, and the quantity of the 
sample desired. For the most part the samples were obtained in long 
brass tubes about half an inch in diameter, attached to the lead of 
the sounding apparatus. When a section of the deposit was required, 
the tubes were arranged to project nearly two feet beyond a heavy 
lead, which forced the tube fully eighteen inches into the deposit in 
some instances, a section of that length being occasionally procured. 
These tubes had a valve at the upper end. As a rule the tube was 
much shorter, and a butterfly valve was at times placed at the lower 
end especially when there was reason to suppose that the deposit was 
sandy. A bucket dredge was used from a steam-yacht or rowing-boat 
when a large sample of the deposit was required. 


APPENDIX I 


Jl. THE SECRETARY OF THE Roya Socrety oF EDINBURGH TO THE 
SECRETARY OF H.M. TREASURY 


Royal SocIETY OF EDINBURGH, 
llth July 1888. 

S1R,—In consequence of the investigations now being carried on with reference 
to the physical and biological conditions of the Scottish fresh-water lakes, and 
also because of the importance, in certain branches of geological inquiry, of 
knowing the form of the basins occupied by these lakes, it has been prominently 
brought under the notice of the President and Council of this Society, that no 
bathymetrical survey of these lakes exists. 

I have, therefore, been requested by the President and Council to ascertain 
from H.M. Government if there is any probability of this work being soon under- 
taken, and, at the same time, to state that it would be a great satisfaction to the 
President and Council to learn that instructions had been issued by the Lords 
Commissioners of H.M. Treasury to the Officers of the Ordnance Survey, or of the 
Hydrographic Department of the Admiralty, to undertake a survey of a few of 
these lakes similar to the excellent ones already made of Loch Lomond and Loch 
Awe—say Lochs Morar, Maree, Lochy, Assynt, Shin, Tay, Ericht, Rannoch, Earn, 
Doon (in Ayrshire).—I am, etc., 

(Signed). Ps G> Tarr, 
Secretary, Royal Society, Edinburgh. - 


INTRODUCTION 19 


Il. Tar Secretary or H.M. TREASURY TO THE SECRETARY OF THE 
RoyvaL SociETY OF EDINBURGH 


TREASURY CHAMBERS, 
17th September 1888. 


Sir,— With reference to your letter of the 11th of July last, and the reply from 
this Board, dated the 10th ultimo, relating to a proposal to execute a bathymetrical 
survey of certain fresh-water lakes in Scotland, I am directed by the Lords Com- 
missioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury to acquaint you that my Lords are informed 
that the nautical surveys of Loch Lomond and Loch Awe, referred to in your 
letter, were undertaken by naval officers in the interests of navigation, and that 
the same considerations do not apply to the other lochs, of which surveys are 
suggested in your letter. 

My Lords are also informed that the proposed bathymetrical surveys do not 
come within the functions of the Survey Department of the Office of Works (late 
Ordnance Survey). 

Under these circumstances, my Lords regret that they are unable to sanction 
the proposed surveys. I have the honour to be, ete., 

(Signed) LronaRD CouRTNEY. 


‘ III. Discussion IN THE HOUSE or LORDS 


In March 1884, in reply to Lord Balfour of Burleigh in the House of Lords, 
Lord Sudeley said :-— 

“Tn reply to the noble Lord, I have to state that the operations of the Gidnantte 
Survey have been hitherto eee to such portions of the ground in the vicinity 
of fresh-water pools, and inland sheets of water generally, as are above the lowest 
water-levels. It is quite true, as the noble Lord has stated, that Loch Lomond 
and Loch Awe were surveyed, but that was undertaken by naval officers in the 
interests of navigation, The Government consider that a bathymetrical survey of 
all the lochs of Scotland would clearly be outside the function of the present 
Ordnance Survey of Scotland, which is already completed. Even if it were 
desirable, as the noble Viscount [Bury] has suggested, men would be taken off 
their work in England and the southern counties to carry this work out, and the 
general survey would be very much delayed. Such investigation would, no doubt, 
be most interesting from a scientific point of view in certain branches of geological 
inquiry to ascertain the forms of the basins occupied by the lakes. The Govern- 
ment will give the suggestions made by the noble Lord full consideration, and 
there will ne no objection to lay the papers on the table. 


LV. Tuer SECRETARY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON TO THE 
SECRETARY OF H.M. TREASURY 


THE RoyAL SOocIETY, 
BuRLINGTON House, 2nd May 1884. 


Srr,—The President and Council of the Royal Society have had under con- 
Bideration a communication from the Royal Society of Edinburgh, from which it 
would appear that the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury have stated 
that they are unable to sanction a bathymetrical survey of certain of the Scottish 
lochs, as proposed by the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 


20 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


I am directed by the President and Council of the Royal Society to assure my 
Lords that they fully share the regret expressed by the Royal Society of Edinburgh 
that my Lords should have arrived at such a decision. 

Neither from a topographical nor from a geological point of view can the 
survey of the United Kingdom be considered complete so long as the depths of 
the several inland waters remain unknown, and the absence of adequate data, 
concerning not only the Scottish lochs, but other large inland waters of the 
United Kingdom, forms, and will continue to form, a very serious obstacle to 
geological research. 

The President and Council do not desire to urge upon my Lords any elaborate 
surveys entailing a large expenditure. They have reason to believe that the most 
important objects of the proposed surveys would be gained if series of soundings 
were carried across the important lakes not yet bathymetrically surveyed, at 
moderate intervals in each case. The exact closeness of the lines of soundings 
and the interval between each two soundings in each line must, in great measure, 
be determined at the time of observation according to the results which are from 
time to time obtained ; but it has been suggested that lines of soundings at about 
a quarter of a mile interval, with soundings about 100 yards apart, would probably 
be found generally useful. 

The President and Council venture to remind my Lords that the carrying out 
of such a bathymetrical survey is much facilitated by the fact that the contours of 
the lakes in question have all been already accurately laid down ; also that the 
inland waters of the continent have been carefully surveyed by the several 
European Governments ; and that, though in Scotland only Lochs Lomond and 
Awe have been surveyed (notwithstanding that some of the others are used for 
purposes of navigation), and the English lakes not at all, several of the Irish lakes 
were sounded by the Admiralty surveying officers in the years 1834-39 and in 
1846. 

The President and Council fully appreciate the difficulty which presents 
itself to my Lords in the facts that such bathymetrical surveys as those proposed 
do not fall within the province of the Survey Department of the Office of Works, 
and that, since the object sought is not one concerning navigation, they are foreign 
also to the duties of the Admiralty. The object, indeed, of the proposed survey 
may be most fitly spoken of as geological, but the Geological Survey has no means 
of carrying out such a work. | 

The President and Council would, however, venture to urge upon my Lords 
that the proposed survey, though of great scientific importance, is limited in scope 
and special in character, and so far not of a nature lkely to establish an undesir- 
able precedent, and they sincerely trust that my Lords may be led to reconsider 
their decision, and may see their way to make some arrangements by which a 
bathymetrical survey of the various inland waters of the United Kingdom not 
yet so surveyed may be speedily carried out.—I have, ete., 

(Signed) M. Fostmr, 
Sec. Ls. 


APPENDIX II 


A SMALL volume of press notices, pulpit references, and extracts from private 
letters, all bearing on the ice accident on Airthrey Loch and the death of 
Mr Fred. P. Pullar, was printed and privately circulated at the end of 1901. 
Memorial prizes were given at the High School at Stirling, extending over a 
number of years. Sir John Murray offered three memorial prizes of £50 each 


INTRODUCTION 21 


in*connection with the Marine Biological Laboratory at Millport, in which Mr 
Fred. Pullar took a great interest. The following notice was written by Sir 
John Murray’s secretary, who was much associated with Mr Pullar during his 
many visits to the Challenger Office in Edinburgh and his work in connection 
with the initiation of the Lake Survey :— 


Ee LAGE Hs. ie Umma Re 


‘A melancholy interest attaches to the paper on the Scottish Lochs which 
appears in this number of the Geographical Journal and Scottish Geographical 
Magazine, owing to the tragic death of one of the authors, Mr F. P. Pullar, since 
the paper was passed for press. On February 15, while several hundred persons 
were skating on Airthrey Loch, in the grounds of Airthrey Castle, near Bridge of 
Allan, the ice suddenly gave way, and a number of people were precipitated into 
the water. Mr Pullar, who was a strong, muscular young man and a powerful 
swimmer, at once rushed to the rescue of those who were immersed, plunging into 
the water and floating ice with his skates on. He successfully assisted three of 
them to land, and then went to the succour of a young lady who was in an 
exhausted condition. It is confidently asserted by spectators, some of whom 
were submerged in their efforts to assist, that he might easily have saved himself 
had he relinquished his burden: this he refused to do. He supported the young 
lady for some time, but before help reached them his strength failed, and they 
both sank, their bodies not being recovered till three-quarters of an hour 
afterwards. This sad event cast a gloom over the whole district, and great 
sympathy was expressed for his bereaved parents, and for his only sister, who had 
just left the ice before the accident occurred. On February 19 he was buried 
in Logie Churchyard, attended by an immense concourse of mourners, and amid 
every expression of sorrow and sympathy. 

“Frederick Pattison Pullar was born at Bridge of Allan on the 20th December 
1875, and was the only son of Laurence Pullar, Esq., of The Lea, Bridge of 
Allan, and nephew of Sir Robert Pullar of Perth. In his earlier years he 
was rather a delicate child, and much of his education was conducted at home 
under private tutors. Later on his health improved, and his education was 
continued at the Stanley House School, Bridge of Allan, and the High School of 
Stirling. Afterwards he attended the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical 
College in Glasgow, where he exhibited a marked ability for mathematics, 
mechanics, and applied science generally. He ultimately entered his father’s 
business, but devoted a good deal of his time to scientific pursuits and studies. 
By his frank and genial nature he became endeared to the large number of 
workpeople employed by the firm of Robert Pullar & Sons. 

“ About five or six years ago, while cruising in his father’s yacht, the Freya, 
he, under the guidance of Sir John Murray, commenced to take an interest in 
oceanographical observations and problems, exhibiting a lively devotion to the 
practical work carried on at the Marine Biological Station at Millport. He 
enthusiastically embraced the study of meteorology, and established at his 
father’s residence at Bridge of Allan a complete meteorological observatory, his 
instruments including deep earth thermometers. He became a member of the 
Royal Meteorological Society and of the Scottish Meteorological Society, 
sending in reports regularly to the last-mentioned Society during the 
past five or six years. He presented a complete set of meteorological 
instruments to the Scottish Hospital which proceeded to South Africa last year 
under Professor John Chiene. A room in his father’s house was fitted up as 


22 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


his own private workshop, in which he had many ingenious and interesting 
mechanical, electrical, and photographic contrivances, together with considerable 
geological collections. He was an enthusiastic cyclist, and within the last year or 
two had three or four kinds of motor vehicles. He had an intimate knowledge 
of these machines, and his advice was frequently sought by automobilists ; 
indeed, he proceeded to the scene of the disaster in a motor car, which was 
standing at the side of the loch when he met his death. He was an Associate of 
the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, and an active member of the Automobile 
Club. 

“About three years ago, in conjunction with Sir John Murray, he undertook 
a systematic bathymetrical survey of all the lochs of Scotland, and here his 
mechanical knowledge and inventive genius were at once exhibited by the 
improvements he made in the apparatus for taking the soundings. A portable | 
machine was constructed from his designs, which could be firmly and rapidly 
fixed to the gunwale of the boat from which the soundings were to be taken. He 
also carried out many improvements in the methods of taking temperatures by 
means of deep-sea thermometers, in the plungers used for procuring samples of 
the deposits, and in the apparatus for the capture of organisms at intermediate 
depths. At the time of his death, among other improvements, he had in con- 
templation the construction of a motor engine which could be applied to the 
propulsion of both a car and a boat, so that he might carry with him from his 
home a boat for taking soundings, transfer the engine to the boat, and re-transfer 
it when the work was finished to the car again. The publication of the results of 
the researches in the Scottish lochs was commenced last year, the first instalment, 
dealing with the lochs of the Callander and Trossachs district, being published in 
the Geographical Journal and Scottish Geographical Magazine in April last ; and 
the present number contains a further instalment, dealing with the remaining 
lochs in the Forth basin. The survey of some other lochs has been completed, 
but the results are not yet in a state for publication. 

“‘ In September last Sir John Murray left Britain for the purpose of carrying 
out explorations on Christmas Island, in the Indian Ocean, and it was arranged 
that the paper in this Number should be put into form and passed for press by 
Mr Pullar, with assistance in the Challenger Office. Sir John Murray returned 
to London on the evening of February 16, and on arrival at his hotel was handed 
a telegram announcing the death of his young friend on the previous day. They 
had made arrangements to devote most of the coming summer to the sounding 
of the lochs, with a view to the speedy completion of the entire survey: this 
important work will necessarily be interrupted by Mr Pullar’s lamented death. 

“Mr Pullar was elected a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society in 1896, 
and he was also a Fellow of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society ; last month 
he was admitted to the Fellowship of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 

“Mr Pullar was beloved by all who knew him. He was a man of great bodily 
and mental activity, lively disposition, generous and brave, knowing no fear. His 
friends were justified in believing that a great future jay before him. His 
promising career has been cut short by an act of devotion. He sacrificed his 
life in an heroic endeavour to save the life of another. 


His life was gentle ; and the elements 
So mix’d in him, that Nature might stand up 
And say to all the world, ‘ This was a man !’ 
“ JAMES CHUMLEY. 
‘* CHALLENGER OFFICE, 
‘‘ EDINBURGH, 27th February 1901.” 


INTRODUCTION 23 


APPENDIX III 


Copy oF RESOLUTION PASSED BY THE COUNCIL OF THE ROYAL 
Society or Lonpon, JUNE 1901 


Mr Tratt informed the Council that a number of Fellows and others inter- 
ested in the subject had heard a statement by Sir John Murray with reference 
to a bathymetrical, physical, and biological survey of the fresh-water lakes of 
Great Britain and Ireland. It appeared that the Council had urged the import- 
ance of a bathymetrical survey of the principal fresh-water lakes of the country 
in a letter to Her Majesty’s Government, dated 2nd May 1884, and that a survey 
on the lines therein indicated had been commenced, so far as Scotland was con- 
cerned, by Sir John Murray and Mr F. P. Pullar, but had been unfortunately 
interrupted by the accidental death of the latter gentleman. Mr Laurence 
Pullar (the father of Mr F, P. Pullar) had now intimated to Sir John Murray 
that he was willing, on certain conditions, to set aside a sum of money to enable 
this survey to be completed, and to be extended to all inland bodies of water. 
The conditions were as follows :— 

(1) That there was little likelihosd of this survey being undertaken by any of 
the Government departments. 

(2) That Sir John Murray would himself undertake the general superintend- 
ence of the survey and the publication of the results. 

(3) That, in the opinion of the Council of the Royal Society, it was important 
from a scientific point of view, in addition to the bathymetrical survey recom- 
mended in their letter of 2nd May 1884, to undertake at the same time an investi- 
gation into the physical and biological conditions of the fresh-water lakes. 

As soon as the Council had declared their opinion, Sir John Murray was 
prepared to draw up an approximate estimate of the cost uf the work for 
Mr Pullar’s consideration. 

It was resolved—That the Council confirm the opinion expressed in their 
letter to Her Majesty’s Treasury of 2nd May 1884, as to the great scientific 
importance of a bathymetrical survey of the fresh-water Jakes of the United 
Kingdom, and that they have learned with great satisfaction that arrangements 
are under consideration for the completion of the survey commenced by Sir John 
Murray and Mr Pullar, and are of opinion that the scientific value of the 
survey will be greatly increased if it embraces a study of the biological and 
physical conditions of the lakes. 


EXTRACT FROM A MINUTE OF MEETING OF THE COUNCIL OF THE ROYAL 
SocleTY OF EDINBURGH, HELD ON 24TH May 1901 


The Council heard a statement from Sir John Murray with reference to 
a bathymetrical survey of the fresh-water lochs of Scotland, to the effect that 
Mr Laurence Pullar was willing, on certain. conditions, to set aside a sum of 
money to enable the survey to be completed which had been commenced by Sir 
John Murray and Mr Pullar’s son, Mr F. P. Pullar, but which had been inter- 
rupted by the unfortunate death of the latter gentleman by accident. 

Mr Pullar was prepared to do this provided Sir John would himself under- 
take the general superintendence of the survey and the publication of the resuits ; 
provided, also, that the Council still regarded such a survey as important from a 
scientific point of view, and that it had been, and was likely in future to be, 
satisfactorily carried out on the lines suggested by the Council in the year 1884. 


24 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Sir John had been requested to prepare an approximate estimate of the cost 
of completing the survey for Mr Pullar’s consideration, and he now asked the 
Council for suggestions as to any scientific observations that might with advantage 
be undertaken in connection with the survey. There was much discussion with 
regard to researches which might be carried out in fresh-water lochs, and Sir John 
was asked to assure Mr Pullar that the Council learned with much satisfaction 
that arrangements were in contemplation for carrying to a successful completion 
the admirable survey which had been commenced by Sir. John and Mr Pullar’s 
son, Mr F. P. Pullar, who was a member of the Society, and whose death they 
all deplored. 


CONFERENCE OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION, SEPTEMBER 1901 


At the meeting of the British Association in Glasgow in September 1901, the 
President of the Geographical Section (Dr H. R. Mill) was enabled to announce 
that definite arrangements had been made to carry on the work. <A conference of 
the Geographical, Geological, and Zoological Sections was held on 16th September, 
1901, for the purpose of considering the scheme of the survey ; the discussion was 
taken part in by Dr Mill, Professor Bonney, Dr John Horne, Mr Isaac Thompson, 
Colonel Johnston, Mr Ben. N. Peach, Mr R. M. Clark, Professor Watts, Mr Barrow, 
Mr Cunningham Craig, Mr Dickson, Dr Fullarton, Mr W.S. Bruce, Mr Greenly, 
and the Rev. Frank Knight, and many valuable suggestions were thrown out 
as to the scope of the work. At the conclusion of the discussion, Dr Horne 
formally moved, on behalf of the meeting, the great gratification they all felt 
that this investigation should be carried out by means of the munificence of 
Mr Pullar, and under the administration of Sir John Murray ; the resolution was 
seconded by Mr Peach, and unanimously adopted. 


APPENDIX IV 


Books of Council and Session 


ExTRACT REGISTERED TRusTt-DEED BY LAURENCE PULLAR, EsQ., IN FAVOUR 
OF ROBERT JENKINS AND OTHERS 


Av Edinburgh the Twenty-fifth day of October One thousand nine hundred and 
one the Deed hereinafter engrossed was presented for registration in the Books of 
the Lords of Council and Session for preservation and is registered in the said 
Books as follows :— 

I, Laurence Pullar of The Lea, Bridge of Allan, Considering that in or about 
the year Eighteen hundred and eighty-four the Royal Society of London and the 
Royal Society of Edinburgh addressed communications to her late Majesty’s 
Government urging the importance of a bathymetrical survey of the principal 
fresh-water lakes of the United Kingdom, and that a survey on the lines 
indicated in these letters was commenced, so far as regards Scotland, by Sir John 
Murray, K.C.B., and my son, the late Frederick Pattison Pullar, but that 
the said survey was interrupted by the accidental death of my son through 
drowning on the fifteenth day of February last; and considering that both of 
said Societies recently passed resolutions to the effect that the completion of the 
said survey is a matter of great scientific importance, but notwithstanding this 
there is little likelihood in present circumstances of the survey being taken up by 
any of the Government departments ; and considering that I have now resolved, 
as a memorial of my son, to provide the Funds which I am advised will be 


INTRODUCTION 29 


required for completing the said survey and publishing the results thereof—a 
work which my son had much at heart: Therefore I do hereby undertake forth- 
with to invest in the names of Robert Jenkins, Agent of the Union Bank of 
Scotland, Bridge of Allan, John Blair, Writer to the Signet, Edinburgh, and 
myself, the sum of Ten thousand pounds, such sum to be invested in the purchase 
of Consolidated Stock of the United Kingdom (Consols), which Consolidated 
Stock and any investment or investments that may from time to time be 
substituted for the same, and the interest or other annual income of such 
Consolidated Stock or other investment or investments, I direct shall be applied 
by the said Robert Jenkins, John Blair, and myself, and the survivors and 
survivor, or by such other person or persons as may from time to time be assumed 
into the Trust hereby created (all of whom are hereinafter included under the 
expression “ the Trustees”) as follows: (First) In paying all charges which may be 
incurred in the administration of the Trust, including in such charges all 
travelling and personal expenses which the Trustees may incur in attending 
meetings or otherwise in connection with the business of the Trust ; (Second) In 
carrying on and completing or providing for carrying on and completing the 
said survey, being a bathymetrical survey of the principal fresh-water lakes of the 
United Kingdom, including an examination into the biological and physical 
conditions of the lakes, and in publishing the results of such survey and ~ 
examination ; Declaring that while I hereby give to the Trustees full powers to 
arrange for the conduct of the said survey and all matters connected with or 
incidental thereto, it is my special desire that they shall commit to the said Sir 
John Murray, so long as he is willing to undertake the same, the superintendence 
of the work and the publication of the results, and the disbursing of all outlays in 
connection therewith. And (Third) In paying to myself or my executors the 
balance, if any, of principal and income which may remain after fulfilling the 
foregoing purposes. And I hereby provide and declare that if I should die so 
soon after the delivery of these presents as to render Government Duties exigible 
on the Fund hereby settled, my executors shail be bound to pay such Government 
Duties and so free and relieve the Trustees thereof; And I also provide and 
declare that the Trustees shall have all the powers, privileges and immunities of 
gratuitous Trustees according to the law of Scotland, and in addition thereto the 
following powers and immunities, viz. power to appoint such officers, including 
any one or more of their own number, as they may consider necessary for 
executing or carrying out the work or adininistration of the Trust, and to pay such 
officers such salaries or other remuneration as they (the Trustees) may from time 
to time consider proper, also power from time to time to make such arrangements 
and lay down such rules as may in their opinion be requisite or expedient for 
securing the convenient and efficient carrying out of the work of the Trust; And 
I further provide and declare that the Trustees shall be the sole judges as to when 
the Trust purposes have been fulfilled ; and that they shall not to any extent or 
in any way be responsible to me or to my heirs or executors, or to .any other 
person or to any society or others whatsoever, for the proper execution of the work 
of the said survey or for any operations, matters or things in connection therewith 
or for the safety of the certificates, bonds or other documents which may from time 
to time be held for the Trust Funds, or for the securities or investinents upon 
which the Funds may from time to time be invested or lent out, or for any 
depreciation in the value of the investments, or for the honesty or solvency of 
those to whom the same may be entrusted. And I consent to registration hereof 
for preservation ; In Witness Whereof these presents written on this and the 
preceding page by William Blacklock, Clerk to Davidson & Syme, Writers to the 


26 © THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Signet, Edinburgh, are subscribed by me at Perth on the thirtieth day of August 
in the year Nineteen hundred and one before these witnesses James Morison, 
Accountant, Perth, and James M‘Currach, Clerk to J. & R. Morison, Accountants, 
Perth. (Signed) Laurence Pullar, James Morison, Witness, James M‘Currach, 
witness. 

We, Laurence Pullar, Robert Jenkins and John Blair, all designed in the 
foregoing Trust Deed, do hereby respectively accept the office of Trustee thereby 
conferred on us ; In Witness Whereof these presents written by the before-designed 
William Blacklock are subscribed by us all at Edinburgh on the twenty-fifth day 
of October in the year Nineteen hundred and one before these witnesses Robert 
Connon and David Porter, both clerks to the also before-designed Davidson & 
Syme, (Signed) Laurence Pullar, Robt. Jenkins, John Blair, Robert Connon, 
Witness, David Porter, Witness. 

ExtracteD from the Register of Deeds, etc., in the Books of Council and 
Session on this and the eight preceding pages by me, Keeper of said Register. 

(Signed) J. A. CAMERON. 


(On 8th June 1903 Mr John Blair, W.S., died, and in April 1904 his son, 
Mr William Blair, W.S., was assumed Trustee in his stead.) 


APPENDIX V 


I. LETTER FROM THE DIRECTOR OF THE ORDNANCE SURVEY 


ORDNANCE SURVEY OFFICE, 
SOUTHAMPTON, 17th October 1901. 

Dear S1r,—With reference to your letters of the 9th and 12th instant, the 
Board of Agriculture has sanctioned the issue to you of two copies of the 6-inch, 
and one copy of the l-inch map of the districts in which lakes are situated, one 
copy of the former to be returned to this Department with the depths of the lakes 
laid down on it, with a view to the lake contours being shown on the Ordnance 
Survey maps. 

As soon as you are ready to receive any of these maps they will be sent to you, 
if you will kindly indicate those you wish to have first. 

With regard to the transfers you desire, the copyright in the Ordnance Survey 
maps is vested in the Controller, Stationery Office, to whom formal application 
should be made for permission to reproduce or reduce, according to circumstances, 
the Ordnance Survey maps for insertion in your publications. If he gives the 
sanction required, I am authorised to supply to you transfers from the 6-inch scale 
maps.—Yours very truly, (Signed) Duncan A. JOHNSTON, 


Colonel. 
Sir JOHN Murray, K.C.B., etc. 


Il. LetTER FROM THE CONTROLLER OF H.M. STATIONERY OFFICE 


STATIONERY OFFICE, 
5th December 1901. 
Srr,—I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 2nd 
instant, and to acquaint you that no objection will be raised by this Department 
on the ground of copyright to the reproduction of Ordnance maps, and publication 
if desired, in connection with the Lake Survey to be undertaken under the Pullar 
Trust, on the understanding that the source from which the reproductions are 


INTRODUCTION 20 


taken is quoted, and due acknowledgment made of the fact that the consent of 
the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office—in whom the copyright is by H.M. 
Letters Patent vested—has been obtained. 

The consent of the Stationery Office to the supply of transfers by the Director- 
General of the Ordnance Survey is not necessary.—I have the honour to be, Siz, 
Your obedient Servant, (Signed). Di Prgorr: 


Controller. 
Sir JoHN Murray, K.C.B., 
45 Frederick Street, Edinburgh. 


APPENDIX VI 


List OF PERSONS TAKING PART IN THE LAKE SURVEY 


In addition to those enumerated below, we were especially indebted to the 
Lord Abbot, Father Odo Blundell, Father Cyril von Dieckhoff, and other 
members of the Benedictine Monastery at Fort Augustus for placing at our disposal 
the boat-house of the Monastery for the limnograph and apparatus connected with 
the electric thermometers, as well as for many other services. 


Sir John Murray, K.C.B., F.B.S. 

Laurence Pullar, F.R.S. E, E.R.G:S. { { Directors. 
T. N. Johnston, M.B., C.M., F.R.S.E., zoologist. 
James Murray, FRS.E, Agios Avaligeaise 
John Hewitt, B.A., zoologist. — 

R. M. Clark, B.A., 

D. J. Scourfield, F.R.M.S., 
R. C. Marshall, M.A., 

C. Linder, D.Sc., 

CEs Martins BA, 

James Parsons, B.A., chemist. 
T. R. H. Garrett, B.A., geologist. 
RB. Young, M-A.; B.Sc., 
L. W. Collet, D.Sc., 

West, botanist. 

M. auedoenpunnt MAY LLB, Wies.5 plysicist: 
R. Watson, 'B.A., B.Sc., 

. H. M. Wedderburn, D.Sc., 
W. Watson, M.A., 

P, White, M.A.., 

JD: Ruiter: M. AD SC. 

J. Sutherland Black, M.A., LL.D. “earners work. 
Sir John Jackson, LL.D., 
D.C. M‘Intosh, M.A., 
James Walker, C.E., 

EF. G. Pearcey, se. 
Prof. G. Chrystal, M.A., physical observations. 
Prof, C. G. Knott, M.A. 
Father Odo Blundell, 
Father Cyril von Dilelaness e 

Dr C. Wesenberg-Lund, biological obser Salen 
Diels Beers 
Mrs Bachmann, 


99 


99 


99 


G. 
E. 
E. 
J 


99 bP] 
ae) 99 


9 bP] 


99 99 


oP) ry) 


28 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


E. Blades, M.A., B.Sc., calculation work. 
Hugh Drummond, boatman. 

Allan Grant, 
William Fraser, 
Archibald Fraser, 
Philip Campopell, 
William Macdonald, 
A. Shennan, i 

James Chumley, secretary. 

Robert Dykes, office assistant. 
William Bee, 
C. E. Wragge, 
Miss Stewart, 
Miss Drummond, M.A., B.Sc. ,, ‘5 
W. A. Caspari, Ph.D., chemist. 


” 


SEICHhs AND OTHER OsClLLLATIONS OF 
PA -sWUREACKES, OBSERVED BY. THE 
SCOTTISH LAKE SURVEY 


By Proressor G. CHRYSTAL, M.A., Sec. R.S.E., etc. 


HIsroricab 


Every observer of Nature is aware how inconstant a thing is the 
level of a lake at any particular point of observation. Every passing 
puff of wind, a diving duck, a rising trout, a steady breeze, a storm- 
wind, a landslip, all affect it less or more. But there is one kind of 
denivellation which is more commonly present than any other, and 
yet is so apt to escape the ordinary observer unprovided with special 
apparatus, that until about six years ago it could not truly be said to 
be known in the lakes of Scotland. On an absolutely calm day, when 
there is neither wind nor rain nor snow, and the surface of a lake is 
mirror-smooth, and to the unaided eye seems absolutely motionless, 
careful measurement, even with such a rough apparatus as a foot-rule, 
will very often—in some lakes, nearly always—show that the surface 
of the water at any point is continually rising and falling with a 
rhythmical movement. Simultaneous observations at different parts 
of the shore will show that the whole of the water of the lake 
participates in this movement. The movement may be simply 
harmonic, 2.e. like the swing-swang of a clock-pendulum ; or it may 
be more complicated, and, although there may be synchronism 
between the movements in different places, these movements may not 
be everywhere alike. To take the simplest of all cases, there may be 
no vertical movement at a particular place (called the uninode), with 
vertical movements increasing in range! towards the end of the lake 
on one side of the uninode, and on the other side simultaneous 
vertical movements always in the opposite direction, increasing in 
range towards the other end of the lake. As will be explained 


1 By the “range” of a seiche at any point is meant the vertical distance 
between high and low water. Half this distance is called the “ amplitude.” 
29 


30 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


presently, these vertical movements of the water are accompanied by 
horizontal movements of even greater range, but these are much more 
difficult to measure, or even to detect. The lake oscillation thus 
roughly described is the simplest variety of what is called a Seiche. 
A seiche in general may be summarily described as a standing or 
stationary oscillation of the whole lake. As will be more fully 
explained presently, the word “standing” or “stationary” applies 
to the form of the surface, and indicates that there is no trans- 
lation or progression of the wave-form as in an ordinary train of 
surface waves. 

The word “seiche” has been used, and the phenomenon which it 
denotes known popularly, from time immemorial on the Lake of 
Geneva. The first accurately recorded scientific observation of a 
seiche seems to have been made by Fatio de Duillier, a well-known | 
Swiss engineer, in 1730. In the Scots Magazine for 1755 (p. 593 and 
elsewhere) seiches are described, which were caused in several of the 
lakes of Scotland, and in particular in Loch Lomond, by the earth- 
quake of Lisbon on the morning of lst November 1755. The period 
of this seiche in Loch Lomond seems to have been about ten minutes, 
and its maximum amplitude 23 feet. In his great monograph on the 
Lake of Geneva, vol. 11. p. 50, Forel gives an account of the earlier 
observations of seiches, and refers in particular to one observed at 
Kenmore on Loch ‘Tay in 1784, which lasted several hours, having a 
period of seven minutes, and a maximum range of nearly 5 feet. 

The seiches of the earlier observers were in all cases of exceptional 
amplitude, and seem to have been regarded as occasional phenomena 
due to exceptional causes. Even in comparatively recent times there 
appears to have been a belief that seiches were peculiar to the Lake 
of Geneva. It seems to have been J. P. E. Vaucher, Pastor, and 
Professor successively of Botany and Church History at Geneva, who, 
in a memoir written between 1802 and 1804, and published in the 
memoirs of the Physical Society of Geneva in 1833, first pointed out 
that seiches are not confined to Léman, but are to be found more or 
less in all lakes; that they may have all ranges up to 5 feet or more; 
and may occur at all seasons of the year, although their occurrence 
seems to be affected by the state of the atmosphere. He also pointed 
out that the range of the seiches in Léman increases towards its 
western end, and that the seiches at its eastern end are not more 
marked than those observed in other lakes. 

But our really accurate knowledge of the phenomena of seiches 
dates from the commencement of Forel’s own observations at the 
harbour of Morges, on the Lake of Geneva, in 1869. He may with 
justice be called the Faraday of seiches. He worked at first with 
a small portable apparatus (plemyrameter), and later (1876) with a 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS 31 


self-registering limnograph installed at Morges, and a portable limno- 
graph of simpler construction. In 1877 Plantamour established a 
magnificent self-registering limnograph at his villa at Sécheron, near 
Geneva, which ee been in continuous operation since. In 1879 
Sarasin devised his portable limnograph, with which observations were 
made at Tour de Peilz, Chillon, Rolle, and various other stations on 
Léman, and also upon other Swiss lakes. In 1880 the French 
Government engineers also installed a fixed lmnograph at Thonon, 
with which observations have been made under the superintendence 
of Delebecque, Du Boys, and Lauriol. 

During the last twenty years a large number of enthusiastic 
observers have followed the lead given by Forel and his fellow- 
countrymen ; and we have now a great mass of information regarding 
the seiches in lakes in various parts of the world,’ from the 15-hour 
seiches observed by Henry in Lake Erie, which is 396 km. long, to 
the seiches of 14 seconds observed by Endrés in a small pond whose 
length was only 111 m. 

Systematic observation of seiches in the lakes of Scotland is of 
very recent origin. On 22nd May 1902, Dr Johnston and the late 
Mr J. Parsons, using merely a foot-rule, made a determination of the 
uninodal period of Loch Treig. In the same year Mr James Murray 
made similar determinations for Lochs Laggan, Arkaig, Morar, Fada, 
Maree, and Chroisg, and Mr J. Hewitt for Lochs Shiel and More. 
Mr Murray also detected the binodal seiche of Lochan Fada, and in 
1903 Mr T. R. H. Garrett obtained a good approximation to the 
uninodal period of Loch Ness. All these observations were made 
with a foot-rule, and make no pretence to great accuracy. The 
uninodal periods found, some of which are given in the table below 
on p. 53, varied from 9 min. for Loch 'Treig to 31 min. for Loch Ness, 
and the ranges from 0°38 cm. to 3°7 cm. 

In June 1903 a self-recording Sarasin limnograph was erected at 
Fort Augustus under the superintendence of Mr E. M. Wedderburn, 
who was afterwards assisted in the observations by Messrs James 
Murray and E. R. Watson. In May 1904 a Dines-Shaw microbaro- 
graph, provided by the Moray Fund of the University of Edinburgh, 
was set up alongside of this limnograph. ‘The observations were 
continued till May 1905, the instruments having been in the charge 
of the monks of the Order of St Benedict from October 1904 to May 
1905. This valuable series of observations has not as yet been 
exhaustively discussed, but Mr Wedderburn has deduced from them 


' See the extension of Forel’s bibliography appended to my paper on the 
Hydrodynamical Theory of Seiches, Trans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xli. p. 599, 1905 ; 
also, for the most recent information, an excellent paper by Halbfass, ‘“ Der 
heutige Stand der Seiches-Forschung,” Zectschr. Ges. Hrdk. Berlin, 1907, p. 6. 


32 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


the values of the uninodal and binodal periods of Loch Ness, which 
are given in the table on p. 53 below. 

During a week in July 1904, Mr E. M. Wedderburn made 
observations on Loch Earn with a roughly constructed self-recording 
limnograph of his own design. ‘The results obtained were somewhat 
fragmentary, but they sufficed to suggest the very successful series of 
observations afterwards made on the lake in question. 

In October 1904 Mr Wedderburn installed a Sarasin limnograph 
on Loch Treig, and with the assistance of Mr Duncan Robertson, one 
of Sir John Stirling Maxwell’s gamekeepers, continuous observations 
were carried on until the well of the limnograph was destroyed by a 
storm in the following month. From these observations were deduced 
the two periods for Loch Treig given in the table on p. 53 below. 

In 1903 my attention was drawn to the subject of lake oscillations 
by Sir John Murray, and on 16th February of that year, at a meeting 
of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, I gave at his request an address 
chiefly intended to furnish a seiche-programme for the Scottish Lake 
Surveyors. In this address I gave a summary of the mathematical 
theory of stationary lake oscillations, which was afterwards published 
as a memoir “On the Hydrodynamical Theory of Seiches,” Trans. 
Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xh. p. 599, 1905. In a memoir “On the Calcu- 
lation of the Periods and Nodes of Lochs Earn and Treig, from the 
Bathymetrical Data of the Scottish Lake Survey,” Trans. Roy. Soc. 
Edin., vol. xli. p. 823, 1905, Mr E. M. Wedderburn and myself 
applied the hydrodynamical theory to calculate the seiche periods 
of these two Scottish lakes. In what follows these papers will be 
denoted by H.'T.S. and C.P.N. respectively. 

In 1905 I organised an investigation of the seiches of Loch Earn, 
to be accompanied by observations for comparison on Lochs Tay and 
Lubnaig. As the greater part of the rest of this paper is simply a 
summary of the methods and results of this investigation, I need 
merely say here that Mr James Murray, under my direction, was in 
charge of the work during the months of June and July, and that I 
was myself in immediate command during August and September, 
when I had the valuable assistance of Messrs P. White and 
W. Watson. In aid of this work, in addition to the funds of the 
Lake Survey, we had a small grant from the Government Fund 
for Scientific Research. We also had the advice and assistance of 
Mr W.N. Shaw, Director of the Meteorological Office, London, which 
were of great help on the meteorological side of our enterprise. ‘The 
detailed report on this work (“ An Investigation of the Seiches of 
Loch Earn by the Scottish Lake Survey”) has now been published in 
the T'rans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xlv. p. 361, 1906, and vol. xlvi. 
p. 455, 1908. ‘This report will hereafter be referred to as LS.E. 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS Sys) 


The space at my disposal here will not permit me to enter into 
the history of recent seiche investigations outside of Scotland, 
although they have been many and important. For these I may 
refer the reader to the bibliography appended to H.T.S.; to the 
excellent article by Professor Halbfass,! the investigator of the 
Madiisee; and to an admirable review published in Petermann’s 
Geographische Mitteilungen, Heft ii. p. 16, 1908, by Dr Anton 
Endrés, who is himself one of the most distinguished of modern 
seiche investigators. 


LimnocrarHic APPARATUS USED IN THE SurvEY oF Locus Earn, 
Tay, AND Lusnaic 


One of the simplest and most effective of the instruments for 
measuring the denivellation of a lake is the index lmnograph, 
originally devised by ‘Endrés. Fig. 9 shows the form used by the 
Scottish Lake Surveyors. The essential parts are the float, and its 
sheltering well and access tube; a piece of fly-fishing line, passing 
from the float over a small pulley to a counterpoise; and an index, 
attached to the pulley, which indicates on a scale, that can be made 
as large as may be desired, the rotation of the pulley, which is of 
course directly proportional to the rise or fall of the float. The 
observer is provided with a piece of squared paper, the horizontal 
divisions of which represent half-minutes, and the vertical divisions 
the readings on the limnograph scale. An observation is made every 
half-minute, and a corresponding dot made on the recording paper. 
Through these dots is drawn with a free hand a curve which is called 
a “ limnogram.” 

For many purposes it is desirable to have a continuous record, 
extending over a considerable time, for both night and day. For this 
purpose a special instrument was constructed after my design, which 
is called the “ waggon recorder” (fig. 10). It is really a combination 
of the essential principles of the older limnographs of Plantamour and 
Sarasin. The string of the index limnograph is replaced by a 
Chesterman’s steel tape, which passes horizontally over two pulleys, 
between which it drags backwards and forwards a little waggon 
carefully mounted by means of three wheels, which run two on one 
and one on another of two parallel rails. The waggon carries an 
ordinary stylographic pen, so mounted as to write on a long strip of 
paper which is moved horizontally by rollers driven by clockwork. 
As the motion of the paper is perpendicular to the motion of the pen, 
caused by the rise and fall of the water, the result is the same as 
before, only the work and the patience are now transferred from the 

1 See footnote on p. 31. 


3 


/ 


34 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


living observer to the waggon and the clock, and the record is 
absolutely continuous. 

Figs. 11 and 12 will give an idea how the instrument is mounted 
by the lake-side, so as to resist the combined efforts of rain, wind, 
and waves to make an end of the observations of the limnographer. 


Fie. 9. 


The precautions taken were by no means unnecessary, for, as already 
mentioned, in November 1904 part of the Sarasin limnograph under 
Mr Wedderburn’s charge on Loch Treig was destroyed during a storm, 
and there were times during the months of August and September 
1905 when I trembled for the security of our installations. 

Fig. 13 shows a form of limnograph which I devised for investi- 
gating the nature of the embroidery on the limnograms. It consists 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS 35 


essentially of a large and very sensitive barograph (Richard 
statoscope), DSS, which is connected with a closed well, W, placed 
partly in, partly out of, the lake. The rise and fall of the lake-level 
causes a corresponding rise and fall of the water-level inside this 
closed well, thereby increasing and diminishing the air-pressure in the 


Fre. 10. 


cylinder, SS, into which are fixed the barograph capsules, which are 
thus compressed and extended like the bellows of a concertina. This 
compression and extension are transferred by a system of multiplying 
levers, working the pen which writes on the recording drum, D. 
The inertia of the working parts is very small, and the sensitiveness 
to alteration of pressure is fifteen or twenty times that of an ordinary 
mercury barometer. The instrument will therefore show quite plainly 
extremely small denivellations of the lake, and it can be made more 


36 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


or less sensitive by increasing or diminishing the diameter of the well. 
By merely turning the stopcock, and shutting off the communication 
with the well, we turn the instrument into a very sensitive barometer. 
The curve which it traces is thus changed, at a moment’s notice, from 
a limnogram into a barogram, so that we can alternately record the 


Harerelats 


denivellation of the lake and the variation of the atmospheric pressure. 
If, instead of closing the stopcock C, it is left open, and the other 
end of the tube CC allowed to communicate with the open air through 
a capillary tube of properly chosen length and bore, the statoscope 
will act exactly like the Dines-Shaw microbarograph, with the 
advantage of a larger time-scale. The instrument itself I call a 
statolimnograph. 


| SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS OT 


In addition to the statolimnograph, and four index limnographs, 
which were worked at constantly varying points, we had three fixed 


tlbtistaahn tinscocancinie 
i a 


4 

& ¢ 
oS 

PA re metcanahatoneasninnk 


i = 07 Ore 


4 
/ 


NE (eh PAA. 


limnographs—one near St Fillans (the waggon recorder), one near 
the binode (a Sarasin), and one near the uninode (a Sarasin). The 


last, unfortunately, was useless for a good part of the time, partly 
because its clock went out of order, partly because the Sarasin 


38 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


gearing proved too crude to deal with the delicate seiches of Loch 
Earn ; and it was near the end of the time at my disposal before we 
were able to remodel it and the other Sarasin on the plan of the 
waggon recorder which worked so well at St Fillans. 

Besides the limnographic apparatus, we had quite a battery of 
meteorological instruments—three microbarographs of the Dines-Shaw 
pattern, and a Dines pressure anemograph, which was installed near 
my house at Ardtrostan, and worked beautifully. One of the 
microbarographs was placed at Ardtrostan, one at the west end of 
Loch Earn, and one at Killin, at the west end of Loch Tay. At each 
of these places were also ordinary barographs, which were controlled 
by means of observations made twice a day with a standard baro- 
meter in charge of Messrs White and Watson. As the observations 
made with the triangle of microbarographs were found to possess a 
certain amount of independent meteorological interest, an account of 
them was published separately in a paper “On the Theory of the 
Leaking Microbarograph, and on some Observations made with a 
Triad of Dines-Shaw Instruments,” Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxviii. 
p. 437, 1908. 


Various CausEs OF THE DENIVELLATION REGISTERED IN A 
LIMNOGRAPH 


The ordinate of the limnogram taken at any particular station on 
a lake shows the height at different times of the lake-surface at that 
station above a certain arbitrarily chosen level. Retardation and 
damping due to the instrument being allowed for, the limnogram 
gives the total denivellation at the station due to all causes what- 
soever. 

The examples reproduced in fig. 14 are from Loch Earn, all 
taken by the waggon recorder near St Fillans. They give a good 
idea of the great variety in the form of the limnographic record, and 
of the complexity of the phenomena to be explained. The two upper 
curves are very smooth, and furnish excellent examples of what we 
call the configuration period of a dicrote seiche. ‘The third curve is 
an example of the strongly marked embroidery which appears on the 
limnogram during stormy weather. ‘The fourth curve is an example 
of a sieche in moderately calm weather broken by varying weather 
conditions. ‘lhe fifth curve, except for the slight wind embroidery, 
gives an example of an almost pure sinusoidal curve; it was taken 
near one of the points on the lake, which we shall presently define as 
binodes, and furnishes a test of the mathematical theory. 

Among the various causes which may affect the level of a lake, the 
following may be enumerated :— 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS 39 


1. Volume Denivellations.—Caused by precipitation or evapora- 
tion. These are usually of slow variation, easily traced to their 
causes, and evidently not directly concerned with seiche phenomena. 

2. Persistent Wind Denivellations.—Due to the heaping up of 
the water at one end of a lake, or in shallow places, where the bottom 
friction prevents the development of an under return current to 
counteract the surface wind current. ‘These denivellations are slow 
and irregular in their variation, and again easily traced to their 
cause. | 

3. Fluctuating Wind and other Denivellations.—Due to the 
propagation of trains of waves on the surface of the lake by the 


v 
Ny v 


WW Wey) 


passage of wind-squalls, and associated with the rapid variations of 
wind pressure shown by the self-registering anemograph. Such wave 
trains may also be started by passing steamers or other accidental 
causes. 

4. Swell Denivellations.— After a persistent wind has blown for 
some time over a stretch of water of a certain length, a kind of 
dynamical equilibrium is established between the wind and the water, 
and the surface becomes covered with more or less regular trains of 
progressive waves. Owing to reflection at banks and retardation at 
shores and shallows, and also to unsteadiness of the wind, there is an 
interference of superposed trains, which spoils the wave pattern, and 
prevents absolutely regular periodicity in the denivellation at any 


40 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


given 7 point. The general effect is, however, a fairly regular pattern 
of small progressive waves of apparently constant length, usually 
diversified by wave maxima at approximately equal intervals. ‘This 
system persists for some time after the wind falls, and in this stage 
is usually spoken of as “ swell.” 

5. Seiche Denivellations.—These are stationary oscillations of 
the whole lake, having nodes (7.e. places of no vertical motion), 
ventral points (%.e. places of no horizontal motion), and periods 
depending only on the configuration of the lake-basin. 

The last three forms of denivellation—which for shortness we 
may call solitary wave, swell, and setche—all make themselves felt on 
the imnogram ; and it may be worth while to dwell for a little on 
the distinction between them, which is often imperfectly understood. 

Solitary Wave.—Suppose water to be poured to a depth of 
about three inches into a shallow rectangular trough, say 6 feet 
8 inches long and 84 inches broad. If a vertical board nearly as 
broad as the trough be inserted at one end, and a moderately sudden 
sweep made towards the other end, a hump will be raised on the 
surface of the water, which travels along the trough without very 
rapid alteration of form, is reflected at the end, and travels backwards, 
and so on. Observation shows that the particles of water are 
affected by this wave only while the hump is immediately over them. 
If the trough were infinitely long, they would come to rest after the 
solitary wave had passed away. Each particle comes to rest in a 
position at, or at least near, its original one. It is the wave form, 
and not the constituent water, that really travels, as may be seen by 
watching a splash of red ink siren on the top of the wave as it passes. 
Theory Fl observation agree in giving the formula V = ,/ (gh) for the 
velocity of the highest point af che. solitary wave, where = is the 
acceleration due to gravity, and h the depth. 

It is important to observe that a wave of this kind, travelling 
backwards and forwards in a lake of uniform breadth, depth (h), oe 
length (2), would produce a periodic disturbance at one end of the 
ae having a period 27/,/(gh). It should be noticed, however. that 
the curve on the limnogram ae not in general be a sinusoid, like 
the lowest curve in fig. 14, but something more of this shape: 
————_—_———_ ~—_ ——. where periods of positive denivellation 
alternate with periods of no disturbance. 

Progressive Waves generated by a Wind Current.—Next 
suppose water to be poured into a tank 12 feet long, 2? inches wide, 
fitted with a parabolic bottom, concavity upwards, till the depth at 


1 The dimensions given here and in what follows are taken from apparatus 
actually used in demonstrations during a lecture at the Royal Institution in 
London, much of which is reproduced in this article. 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS 41 


the middle is 4 to 6 inches. Suppose the greater part of the top of 
the tank to be covered over and a current of air to be blown along 
the surface. So long as the current is below a certain strength (0°45 
mile an hour), there is no disturbance of the mirror surface; above 
that limit, and under a velocity of about 2 miles an hour, there is 
disturbance which is transient, @.e. does not long survive the disturb- 
_ ing causes (cats’-paws). For higher current velocities a regular train 
of so-called progressive waves is formed, which increase in height and 
in length as we go down the wind. In nature, the water is com- 
paratively calm at the windward end of the lake, but more—it may 
be very much—agitated at the other. Even at their greatest, these 
waves in such a tank as that above described are very short (say 
A=0°25 foot); their period also is short (say TT=0°22 sec.). By 
watching a thin stream of red ink dropped from a pipette into the 
water in the tank, it may be seen that the oscillatory disturbance, of 
which these progressive waves are the manifestation, dies away on 
descending from the surface downwards, and is not appreciable at any 
great depth. Apart from the drift current near the surface set up by 
the wind, the motion of the individual water particles is in closed 
elliptic orbits. From the formulee 


it is easy to calculate the velocity of propagation and the period of 
these waves. 

For Loch Earn, common values would be about \ = 20 feet, 
T=2 sec., V=10 feet per sec. =6°8 miles per hour. 

Generation of a Seiche by Horizontal Stirring at the Nodes.— 
Following a method due to the two young experimenters, Messrs 
White and Watson, to whose results I shall presently refer, it 1s 
easy to start a seiche in a long parabolic tank such as described 
above. ‘This is done by stirring horizontally in the middle of the 
tank, with a period of about 5 sec. In a parabolic tank this period 
happens to be independent of the depth of the water; in general 
it depends on the shape of the basin in which the liquid is confined 
and on gravity, but on nothing else. ‘The result will be found to be 
a motion, quite different in kind from the two cases just described, 
called a pure uninodal seiche. It is a periodic wave motion, but the 
wave form does not travel as in the two former cases. At first 
sight it would appear as if the surface particles merely moved 
vertically upwards and downwards, except at one point called the 
node, where there is little or no perceptible vertical motion of the 
surface. In reality the water particles describe rectilinear orbits of 
various lengths, inclined at various angles to the horizon. These are 


42 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


drawn to scale for a selection of different particles in the middle part 
of fig. 15; the upper part of the figure is a similar diagram for a 
tank of rectangular longitudinal section. The nature of the motion 
at various places may be demonstrated by dropping in red ink as 
before. In the present case the whole of the water is in motion, and 
the striking thing is that all the water particles keep exact time, like 
a company of well-drilled soldiers. Each particle is at the end of its 

orbit at the same time; each at the arrow-marked end at the same 
time; and so on. ‘This collaboration is expressed mathematically 
by saying that the particles are always in the same phase, although 


Fia. 15. 


the directions and lengths ot the orbits vary from point to point. 
It is a matter of wonder that this should be the case for two particles 
12 feet apart in our experimental tank; but it seems well-nigh in- 
credible, though unquestionably true, that the same holds good for 
two water particles at the two ends of the Lake of Geneva—that is to 
say, 45 miles apart. It was therefore not an obvious remark, but a 
brilliant generalisation, which Forel made long ago, when he asserted 
that the seiches of the Lake of Geneva were standing oscillations, 
similar in nature to the one which may be started in a 12-foot tank. 
By stirring with a period of about 2} sec. at a distance from the 
end of our miniature lake=0°21/, a standing oscillation of another 
description is raised, with two nodes each somewhat nearer the ends 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS 43 


of the lake than a quarter of its length, and a ventral point in the 
middle. At the ventral point the motion of the water is wholly verti- 
cal, whereas at the two nodes it is wholly horizontal. This kind of 
motion is called a pure binodal seiche. The orbits of the particles at 
various parts of the liquid will be understood from the lowest part of 
fig. 15. 

With equal ease a trinodal seiche may be stirred up. 

It should be noticed that the uninodal water surface for a para- 
bolic lake is always a plane, which oscillates about the nodal line 
between the full-drawn and the dotted positions in fig. 15. For the 
same kind of lake the binodal water surface is a parabola, which varies 
in position and curvature between the dotted and full-drawn positions. 

In the case of a lake of uniform depth, the corresponding surface 
curves are sinusoids, as shown in the upper part of fig. 15. 


HypropyNamMIcaL THEORY 


In a memoir (H.T-S.) already referred to I have discussed the 
theory of seiches in an elongated lake on the assumption that a seiche 
may be treated as a “long” stationary wave. So far as seiches of the 
lower nodalities are concerned, this amounts to assuming that the 
square of the ratio of the range of the seiche at the ends of the lake 
to the length of the lake is negligible. 

From this discussion it results that :— 

1. In any given lake, pure seiches of all degrees of nodality, 
ze. uninodal, binodal, trinodal, etc., are possible; and any actual 
seiche is either one of these or a superposition of several of them. 
A compound seiche, which is a superposition of two pure seiches, 
we call a dicrote seiche; and so on, following the nomenclature 
of Forel. 

2. When the lake is of uniform breadth and depth, the periods 
are proportional to— 

1 1) ye) 1 


= > oe ae . (harmonic series) 


and the quarter wave length, #.c. the distance from each node to the 
next ventral point, is the same all over. 

3. When the depth or breadth, or both, varies, the periods are in 
general no longer commensurable. Thus, for a complete parabolic lake 
the y-nodal period is given by T,=-l/ /{v(v+1)gh}, where 7 is the 
length and A the maximum depth; that is to say, the periods are 
proportional o 


1 1 1 ] 


44 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Again, for a lake whose longitudinal section (or normal curve) is a 
certain quartic curve, Ty =/ /(v?+.), where » and ¢ depend on the 
dimensions of the lake, and ¢ may be positive or negative, according to 
circumstances. 

4. Hence it follows that the ratio of the binodal to the uninodal 
period may be less than, equal to, or greater than 4, according to 
circumstances—a fact which seems to have puzzled seiche observers 
considerably. Indeed, I have shown that quartic lakes can be 
imagined in which the periods T,, T,, T,,... may be as nearly all 
equal as we please. 

5. The positions of the nodes are given by the roots of certain 
equations y,(a@)=0; and the ventral points by the roots of certain 
other equations ¢,(v7)=0. The roots of these equations interlace 
with each other; but the quarter wave lengths are not, in 
general, equal, as in the case of the lake of uniform breadth and 
depth. 

6. The following tables, founded on calculations partly by myself 
(H.T.S.), partly by Dr Halm, will convey a clear idea how the ratios 
of the periods and the positions of the nodes may vary in lakes of 
uniform breadth but different shapes of floor :— 


Lake with CANS Nie Shey bas clara bd Be 
concave parabolic floor . : 577 ‘408 mo ll// 
plain horizontal ,, . : 500 333 250 
convex parabolic ,,_ . ; ‘472 312 234 
convex quartic soi ae ; °447 ‘293 ‘218 


POSITIONS OF NODES 


: Uninodal | Binodal Trinodal Quadrinodal 
ss Seiche. | Seiche. | Seiche. Seiche. 
concave parabolic floor . : w=0 tO 0; +°775 | +°340; +°862 
plain horizontal __,, + 500 0; +°667 | +:250; +°750 
convex parabolic ,, . 0 #473. 0) 50 6820 224 eee al 
convex quartic —_,, 0 +°447 | 0; £°600 | +-202; +°684 


_ where w is the distance of a node from the centre of the lake, half the 
length being taken as unity. 

7. A shallow or other obstruction, or a deep near a node, greatly 
affects the corresponding period, a shallow increasing the period, a 
deep decreasing it. Also a shallow attracts the node towards itself, 
and a deep repels it. Thus, for example, the binodes in a parabolic 
lake are nearer the ends than in a rectangular one. 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS 45 


If the obstruction at a node is very great, it may render the cor- 
responding seiche unstable, or prevent its occurrence altogether. 
This explains the absence in certain particular lakes of certain seiches 
_ of the theoretically possible series. 

8. When the breadth and the form of the transverse section of an 
elongated lake vary as well as the depth, provided these variations are 
not too abrupt, it can be submitted to calculation by introducing two 
new variables, viz., ¢, which is the product of the area of the transverse 
section by the breadth of this section at the surface ; and v, which is 
the area of the surface of the lake between the trace on the surface of 
the transverse section corresponding to ¢, and any other similar line 
chosen for reference. In order to submit the lake to calculation, its 
line of maximum depth is taken and laid out straight, and practically 
the lake is treated as if it were a lake of uniform breadth and 
rectangular cross section, whose longitudinal section is the curve, the 
abscissa and ordinate of any point on which are v and o respectively. 
This curve I call the normal curve of the lake. 

Judging by the results for Lochs ‘T'reig and Earn, these assump- 
tions are sufficiently correct for ordinary concave lakes at least. 

9, It will be obvious that a seiche, properly so called, differs 
essentially from an ocean tide. ‘The origin of a seiche, and the 
absolute and relative magnitudes of the pure seiches of which it is 
composed, no doubt depend on external circumstances; but the 
periods and the positions of the nodes of the component seiches 
depend merely on the configuration of the lake-basin, and on the 
surface-level of the water at the time. In a tide, on the other hand, 
the periods are dependent on external disturbing agencies, chiefly the 
sun and moon. In the language of physicists, a seiche is a free 
oscillation ; a tide a forced oscillation. 

Du Boys’ Theory.—My predecessor in the mathematical theory of 
seiches, M. Du Boys, gave, seventeen years ago, in his interesting 
‘¢ Hissai théorique sur les Seiches,” an approximate method for calculat- 
ing the periods of a seiche. He treats the seiche as the interference of 
two solitary waves travelling backwards and forwards in the lake, the 
velocity of propagation being at each section that due to the greatest 
depth there. He thus arrives at the formula 


oft dx 


T,==/ ——=. 
vio /(gh) 


L 
The symbol i _ dx - sumply means the time that a man would take 
» N( gh) 


to travel from one end of the lake to the other along the line of 
greatest depth, his speed at each point being that which a stone 


46 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


would have after it has fallen from rest through a distance equal to 
half the depth at that point. 

This formula is exact for a lake of uniform breadth an depth, 
but errs in excess for a lake having a concave, and in defect for a © 
lake having a convex, bottom. But the approximation becomes 
better as the nodality rises ; and, for that and other reasons, his rule 
is very useful in limnographic calculations. 

Experimental Verification of the Hydrodynamical Theory.— 
In order to satisfy myself of the applicability of the theory of long 
waves to seiches in an elongated lake, I asked Messrs White and 
Watson, two of Professor Macgregor’s students, to make for me a 
series of experiments on waves in a tank fitted with various longi- 
tudinal sections. The conditions in the laboratory experiments were 
very much less favourable for the theory than in actual lakes. For 
example, the ratio of the depth to the wave length in the experiments 
ranged from 1/40 to 1/4, as against !/4500 in the case of Loch Earn. 
Nevertheless, for the lower nodalities the observed and calculated 
periods agreed within the limits of experimental error, as will be seen 
by the following tables :— 


1. SEICHES IN A CONCAVE SYMMETRIC COMPLETE PARABOLIC LAKE (§ 27, H.T.S.) 


N. B.—All linear measurements are in centimetres ; the periods are given in seconds. 


/ 


A a O a A 


72 
(wr) =W(1 aes ) 
a 
(a= 70 Cia = 10-9.em. | 


| Position of 


a. alee | ls AN, T; Binode”, 
ane Gen | 
| obs. | cale. | obs. | cale. | obs. | eale. | obs. | cale. | obs. | cale. | obs. | cale, 
: ! Se Raed iereaes | 
10°9 Droge -OOm oie /omiblaaio | Lae ALP | Oey} "95 “80 OTH "567 577 
9-4 | 2:98 | os U7 PGS, Boo | sc 1G acta Beso wore llee DOO Nal ae oriam 
6°2 2°98") 9°99) 72 | 173. seer bes Ete ie ees ee aoe 573 IT 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS A7 


2. SEICHES IN A CONCAVE SEMI-PARABOLIC LakkE (§ 34, H.T.S.) 


0 a A 


la=/0)em. 5 */=10"9)em, | 


Position of es 
aN Te Uninede © Positions of Binodes~ . 
h a @ 
OSs | calen!) sobs,” ||) calle: obs. cale. obs. | cale. | obs. | cale. 
10°9 TES YASS Nie igrasm ea "95 593 Ou 3291340) | 8500/6 °86 1 
9°4 Teagasc 95 95 580 Sail, °331 °340 | °838 | °861 
oye Le eine 96 95 "582 aM SOOmIeoe0 nt o2or Soul 


3. SEICHES IN A CoNvrkx SYMMETRIC PARABOLIC LAKE (§ 87, H.-T.S.) 


mN O a A 
A 
h(a) = h{ 1+) 
a 

i | ate Position of Binode ~. 
h a ve 

obs. cale. obs. eale, obs. cale, 

2°5 35°7 2°70 DD 1°24 1:29 AAA 2472 

5°4 x0) 2°58 2°59 123 | 1-25 "457 472 


4, SEICHES IN A CoNCAVE TRUNCATED QUARTIC Lakk (§ 52, H.T.S.) 


Al Q O Q A 


Wa 10 | 8 ome eo2 ome sOGot le oOu 464c10 ..,, ae BAL nee ons es sais 
mess 1.556) 1-5 VP 162)) °88)°85 | 67 |. "57 4 \) "43 | 48 (| 334 | 744 | *29 | 39 
m2) 102 | 38.5 | 27027) 2°02 | 1°13. ]1:102) “80 | 748)... nee a oe ie | 


obs. | calc. | obs. | calc. | obs. | cale. | obs. | cale. | obs. | cale. | obs. | calc. | obs. | calc. 


25 


48 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


The determination of the nodes was subject to a large experimental 
error, but the agreement with the theory for the lower nodalities was 
also as near as could be tested. | 

The tables for the complete and semi-parabolic lakes afford a 
verification of the curious theoretical result that in lakes of that form 
the seiche periods are independent of the rise and fall of the lake surface. 


CoMPOSITION OF SEICHES, AND THE ANALYSIS OF A LimMNnocGRrAaM 
BY ReEstpUATION 


If two seiches of the same period, whose amplitudes and phases 
may be different, be superposed, the result is a seiche of the same 


period whose amplitude and phase can be calculated, and are not in 
general the same as the amplitude and phase of either of the com- 
ponent seiches. This will be understood from the seven cases given in 
fig. 16, in which the thin and dotted lines represent the component 
seiches, and the thick line the resultant compound seiche, the ordinate 
of which is the algebraic sum of the ordinates of the components. 

In the particular case, No. vi., where the amplitudes of the com- 
ponents are equal, their periods equal, and their phases differ by half a 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS 49 


wave length, the result is that the one entirely destroys the other. In 
No. vii. the periods are equal, and the resultant has the same period, but 
a phase different from either of the components. This explains why 
a physical cause disturbing an existing seiche in a lake may in certain 
cases have the effect of altering its amplitude or its phase without 
affecting its period, or may destroy the existing seiche altogether. 

Nos. iv. and vy. show the effect of superposing two seiches of the 
same amplitude, but of slightly differing periods. ‘The result is a 
dicrote seiche which presents to the eye the appearance of a seiche of 
a single definite period but of periodically varying amplitude—a 
phenomenon analogous to the beats caused by two musical notes 
which are nearly but not quite in unison. 

If the periods of two components approximate to a simple 


ZES 


a 16 b, Ts =6-92" ik f - eee 


= 


t 
c 


oN SAY ANA, We JNA AP 


is e Fe | 
e From e faF 7 =/4;45 From gio hh, 7, =/#-51' y 


from k fe, ts 14 50’ 


Ric. 17. 


numerical proportion, say 9:5, as in the case of the uninodal and 
binodal seiches of Loch Earn, the result is a limnogram with a 
periodically recurring configuration like a wall-paper, the individual 
waves of which approximate to the waves of one of the two compon- 
ents if the amplitude of that component preponderates, but which 
fluctuates if the two amplitudes are not very different. It will be seen 
that the thick curves in Nos. 1., ii., and iii. imitate very closely the 
smooth dicrote seiches reproduced in Nos. 1 and 2 of fig. 14, which were 
drawn one fine day near St Fillans by the unguided hand of Loch Earn. 

Conversely, these principles may be used in the difficult process of 
analysing an actual limnogram, so as to discover the periods of the 
components of the seiche which it records. At the bottom of fig. 17 
is reproduced part of a fine limnogram obtained by Mr James 
Murray from Loch Earn by a series of half-minute observations with 


an index limnograph, which extended over eight hours. By count- 
4 


50 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


ing and measuring between two nearly symmetric minima, it is 
readily found that the longest period is about T,=14°5 min. On 
the hmnogram is now superposed a tracing of itself, displaced to the 
left through a distance 14°50/2=7-25, and the two curves are com- 
pounded by taking at each point half the sum of their ordinates. In 
the resulting curve, A—U in fig. 17, the uninodal seiche is destroyed, 
or at least greatly reduced. It would be destroyed altogether if the 
value of 'T, obtained were quite accurate. The other component 
seiches are altered in a known way as regards phase and amplitude, 
but the periods are unaltered. The result is a curve still impure, but 
with a well-marked period of T,=8°11 min. Eliminating this com- 
ponent as before, we get the uppermost curve, which gives a period 
of T,=6°02 min. These are good approximations to the first three 
periods of Loch Earn. The approximation may be refined by now 
residuating out (as we got into the habit of calling this process) the 
binodal and trinodal, and redetermining T, from the purified curve ; 
then residuating out 'T, and improving the value of T,; and so on. 

This kind of analysis differs essentially from the application of 
Harmonic Analysis, which is quite useless—indeed, often very mislead- 
ing—unless the periods are given beforehand, and only the amplitudes 
and phases of the components have to be determined. 


Funcrions oF THE Wri and Access TUBE 

The analysis of limnograms by the process of residuation naturally 
leads me to mention a method by means of which a lake may be 
made in some degree to analyse or purify its own limnograms. 

The first purpose for which the well or closed cylinder enclosing 
the fioat of a limnograph was introduced was no doubt to shield the 
float from wind, breaking waves, and the meddlesome fingers of the 
passers-by. But it can be utilised for a further purpose. Suppose, 
to begin with, that the cylinder is altogether closed from the lake ; 
then, of course, the float will not be affected by any disturbance of 
the lake-level. Next suppose that an access tube of very small bore 
is fitted. ‘Then, owing to the smallness of the bore, the fluid friction, 
and the smallness of the differences of pressure at its two ends due to 
the denivellation of the lake, a considerable time. is required before 
a given small denivellation runs into the cylinder enough water to 
produce the full effect on the float. If the outside denivellation has 
a long period, this is of little consequence as regards the amplitude of 
the motion of the float, the only marked result being that the maxi- 
mum height of the float lags behind the maximum height of the out- 
side disturbance. If, however, the period of the outside denivellation 
is very short, it has passed away before the flow through the access 
tube has had time to exert any sensible influence on the float, and the 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS Dil 


amplitude of the corresponding displacement of the recording pen is 
very small—it may be, quite imperceptible. 

Applying the theory of fluid friction in tubes given in a classical 
memoir by Osborne Reynolds, it is easy to calculate the damping of the 
amplitude, and the lag of any pure seiche, due to a given well and tube. 

If a be the diameter of the well, 6 the diameter, and J the length, 
of the access tube; and 


x = 281364/la? (reduction constant), 
then an outside periodic disturbance 
y=Asin nt 
is rendered inside the cylinder by 


«=A cos nr sin n(t— 7) ; 
where 7 is given by 
tan nr = n/x. 
This means that there is a lag of + seconds; and the seiche amplitude 
is damped in the ratio cos nr: 1. 
The two following tables show the effects of different well and 
access tubes on seiches of widely differing periods :— 


SARASIN LIMNOGRAPH AT THE BINODE 


(60 feet— 1830 cm.,-a—35 cm:, 0— 14 inches =—3°/5em. ~—-2483; 


db Tid T COS NT 
sec sec. 
870 00463 4°02 "9996 
486 "00828 4°02 "9986 
342 01175 4°02 9973 
60 06351 3°81 "9215 


INDEX LIMNOGRAPH WITH 6-INCH WELL, AND 6 FEET TUBE OF 4-INCH, 
+-INCH, OR 33;-INCH BORE 


(=182 cm.,.a@—1d°cm. 


G27 em, b='63 cm. b=°47 cm. 

pees lltiitsks) x = 010838 x = 003355 
Ah 7/T T cos nT 7/T T cos NT 7/T T cos nT 
sec . sec. sec. sec. 
870 } 0064 | 5°59 9992 0937 | 81°5 8320 "1808 157°3 "4213 


486 | ‘0115 5°58 9974 "1390 | 67°6 6421 "2096 101°8 "2512 
342 | °0163 5°57 "9948 "1569 | 538°7 5078 wm2udy | 72° 797 
60 | ‘0843 5°06 8630 "2336 | 14°0 "1028 "2449 | 14°7 0320 


52 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


By properly adjusting the relation of the access tube to the well, 
the limnogram may, therefore, not only be stripped of its embroidery 
of short-period disturbances, but to a considerable degree the pro- 
minence of seiches of higher nodality may also be reduced, and thus 
to some extent the lake made to do its own residuation. 

Fig. 18 shows the lag and damping as seen in actual practice. 
The two limnograms AB and DE were taken with a 6-inch well 
and an access faite 6 feet long and 3-inch diameter; but the part 
CD was taken with two access tubes each 6 feet long but 4-inch 
diameter. ‘The curves A to B and C to KE, save for the short break at 
D when the tubes were changed on one of the two limnograms, were 
taken simultaneously at the same spot. The lag and the damping 
may be seen on comparing CD with the corresponding part of AB, 
also the greater smoothness of CD as compared with AB and DE, 


LAS | OA AN 
NIALL ANS 
ae f4— ALAS 


® 5 10 1s 20 x 30 35 40 as 50 55 60 65 mir 


Fic. 18. 


although the embroidery on these latter parts is very imperfectly 
rendered in these limnograms, which were plotted from eye observations. 


Comparison oF THE HypropynamicaL THEORY witH OBsERVa'TION 


The hydrodynamical theory of seiches is merely a development 
of the fundamental idea of Forel that a seiche is a standing oscillation 
of the lake as a whole, whose periods and nodes are dependent solely 
on the form of the lake-basin. ‘The further this idea is carried into 
detail, the more of the varied seiche phenomena it is found to explain. 
Perhaps the best account of the present state of our knowledge of 
this matter will be found in the excellent review by Endrés already 
referred to. 

Before proceeding to minuter details regarding Loch Earn, the 
following pair of tables compiled from various sources may help the 
reader to appreciate the variety of seiche phenomena, and to under- 
stand the relation as to seiches between home and foreign lakes :— 

1 T ought also to refer the reader to a very thorough and highly interesting 


discussion by Defant of the seiches of the Lake of Garda, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss. 
Wien, Bd. cxvii., 1908, published since the above was written. 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS 53 


SoME ForEIGN LAKES 


Depth in Feet. 
; Length in 
Lake. Period T;. Milos, 
Max. | Mean. 
Erie. ; t ; . 3 : 960-840 250 180 ae 
George .. : : : ; 131 18 ee 16 
Geneva. ¥ / . ; ; io 45 1014 500 
Constance : A ones ; , 56 4l 827 295 
Neuchatel ; A ; ; : 50 24 502 210 
Ziirich : 5 ; , : : - 46 18 470 144 
Lucerne . ; ; : : : 45 24 ay ae 
Walen : . : é : ; 15 10 496 
Traun 3 f : ; ‘ : 10 (if 627 
Brienz , : : : 3 A 10 9 856 
ScottisH LAKES? 
Periods. Depth in Feet, 
Ty Length 
RE. f, |in Miles, 
T, To : Max. f Mean. 
Ness . 2 . , . 31°5 Tes 2°06 24 754 433 
May : , ; . | 28°4 16°4 1°73 15 508 199 
Laggan. : : sa" 26°6 5 La: 7 174 68 
Lubnaig. : : . | 24°4 nee igs 4. 146 43 
Arkaig ; : ; 24 abe Pas 12 359 153 
Maree caf te i : 15 ai a0 13 367 125 
Earn : : ; ; 14°5 8°] 1°79 6 287 138 
Morar : 3 : . 14 ao ae ae 1 1017 284 
Fada . : ; : : 11°5 6 sou 4 248 102 
Chroisg ; py eae a ts Seg 3 168 74 
Treig. f ‘ 9°2 oe Leh 5 436 207 


PeEriops AND Noprs or Locu Earn 


In order to calculate the periods and nodes of Loch Earn, twenty- 
nine points on its normal curve were determined from the bathymetrical 
data of the Scottish Lake Survey. <A pair of parabole with a 
common vertex and vertical axis were then determined to fit these 
points as nearly as possible. This was to some extent an arbitrary 
‘process, and to avoid possible bias a particular application of the 
method of least squares was used to determine the parabolic constants. 
The nature of the fit will be seen from fig. 19. There is good general 
agreement between the punctuated normal curve and the biparabolic 
curve, but also considerable deviations in certain places. It was 


_ | Except for Lochs Treig, Ness, Earn, and Tay, the determinations are very 
rough. 


o4 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


expected a prior? that these would not greatly affect the periods, 
at least those of lower nodality; but it is obvious from the Hydro- 
dynamic Theory itself that such deviations near to nodes might 
considerably affect their position. 

To give an idea of the accuracy that is possible under the most 
favourable circumstances in determining the periods of a lake, I 
subjoin some of the tables that were used in determining the first 
three periods of Loch Earn. The station, the instrument, and instru- 
mental adjustment are the same in each table, but not the same in 
any two tables for the same period. In the second column of each 
table is given the height of the surface of the lake above a certain 
arbitrarily fixed level. In calculating the mean from each table the 


NORMAL CURVE FOR EARN. 
te) 


Fie. 19. 


weight of each value of the period was taken to be proportional to 
the number of oscillations used in calculating that value. 

Naturally the period most accurately determined is the uninodal. 
It will be seen that the mean of the results from Tables I., I]., and 
III. is 14°524, which differs by less than ‘005 from any one of the 
three. Probably, therefore, the determination of the uninodal period 
of Loch Earn differs from 14°52 by less than 1 in 1452, say -07 per 
cent. The extreme accuracy of this determination of the uninodal 
period of Loch Earn, and incidentally also of the binodal period, is 
due to the great regularity and persistence of the seiches of this lake, 
and to the fact that the ratio T,/T, is very nearly equal to 9/5; so 
that there is a well-marked “configuration period” in the dicrote 
of the uninodal and binodal seiches, which can be utilised in the 
determinations. 


a - 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS 


I. OBSERVATIONS WITH THE WAGGON RECORDER NEAR ST FILLANS 
(Picnic PoINT) 


Date. Staff. ihe | Number of 
1905. Feet. Minutes. | Oscillations. 

Aug. ik 2°07 14°64 4] 

Ee 133 | 1:95 14°30 19 

14 | 1°88 14°54 15 

we 14° 1°88 14°60 39 

me 15 | 1°82 14°67 10 

Ap aleve | 1ES2 14°56 AG 

: 16 1°78 14°57 - | 57 

a 17 1°72 eae | 49 

- 18 | 1°80 14°50 76 

ie 20 | 2°27 14°55 65 

* 21 | 2:20 ALG Ave a 15 | 

. 22 2°30 14°57 45 | 

- 25 2°25 14°56 72 
Sept. 2 1°90 14°58 38 

- 3 | 1°85 14°63 40 

i 5 1°83 14°54 al 

- 6 1°80 14°45 40 

3 17 2°80 14°49 30 

i 18 2°48 14°45 36 

; lis || 2°48 14°47 66 

mn 18 2°16 14°47 14 | 

a 1S 2°16 14°55 30 

a 18 2°16 14°53 44 

is 20 | 2°00 14°57 274 

es 23 1°82 14°52 24 

, 28-27  1'82-1°65 14°52 375 

. 24 1 80 14°53 79 

25 1°76 14°50 95 

Pe 26 1°70 14°53 100 

a 27 1°66 14°52 101 


Weighted mean T, =14°529. 


II, OBSERVATIONS WITH THE SARASIN (AT Low SPEED) NEAR THE E. BINODE 


Date. Staff, T}. Number of 

1905. Feet. Minutes. | Oscillations. 
Aug. 6 2°25 14°56 41 
Ne 7 2°25 14°47 42 
ar 7 2°25 14°51 85 
e 8 De 185 14°52 75 
a 9 2°10 14°53 75 
As 20 2330 14°62 48 
- 22 2°40 14°51 56 
. 22 2°40 14°45 74 
A 24 232 14°54 118 
Sept. i 2°07 4°55 30 
% 3 1°85 14°52 50 
5 4 ei 14°53 95 
i. 24 1°80 14°55 64 
a 25 1°76 14°49 106 
5 26 ne /0 14°54 100 
;, 28-26 | 1°82-1°68 14°52 270 
Pe Di 1°66 14°51 93 


Weighted mean T, = 14°524. 


qn 


26 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


II]. OBSERVATIONS WITH THE SARASIN (AT HIGHER SPEED) NEAR THE 


EK. BINODE 
Date. Staff. T}. | Number of 
| 1905. Feet. Minutes. | Oscillations. 
| Sept. 9 | © 2:60 14:64 15 
le eee 14} 2°60 14°54 10 
Pee mermer Men mere ey 45 
| ayeet dO lan BOpSOue daleu mia ce 10 
bee: 20 200 | 14°44 25 
| ie 22 1°87 | 14-51 50 


IV. OBSERVATIONS WITH THE WAGGON RECORDER NEAR ST FILLANS 


Weighted mean T, =14°521. 


(PrIcnic PoINT) 


aoe 
Minutes. 


Number of 


- Oscillations, 


| Re DD DD DD mH RH RH Hb DS WORRIES Ob 
APOKMHMHDWBDOWNNATIATDOHDS 
HAOAIAaDOWNOCOONONONN OON 


OV OV 


Q0 CO CO 00 CO 00 00 00 GO GO CO 00 GO OG GH CO & HO 
DODOHOOHHEHH OOOO OHHSGH 
DODDOMNANNOWDAMANTNWONW 


5 
6 


V. OBSERVATIONS WITH THE WAGGON RECORDER NEAR ST FILLANS 


Weighted mean T,=8°086. 


(Pronic Point) 


Weighted mean T,;=6°'005. 


Date. Staff. Ae 
1905. Feet. Minutes. 
Aug. 12 2°07 6°14 
aS 13 1°95 5°89 
ee 21 2-20 5°91 
¥ 29 2°22 5°98 
i. 29 229 6-01 
hs 30 215 6:07 
7 el 2°10 6°00 
Sept. 3 1°85 5:93 
a 23 | 1°82 6-008 


Number of 
Oscillations. 


36 
29 » 
45 
36 
48 
65 
60 
36 
58 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS on 


In Table VI. are entered side by side the values of the various 
periods deduced from the whole series of observations, the values 
(up to 'T,) deduced from the Hydrodynamical Theory, and the values 
deduced from the formula of Du Boys. It will be remembered that 
this last formula agrees better and better with the Hydrodynamical 
Theory as the nodality rises, and finally gives the same result. 


VI. CoMPARISON OF CALCULATION WITH OBSERVATION 


| fee on ligiby, T, by T, 
‘ ES: Du Boys. observed. 
il 14°50 L7e8 1. 14°52 
2 8°14 8°91 8°09 
3 5°74 5°94 6°01 
4 4°28 4°45 3°99 
5 3°62 3°56 3 ‘48-3 °60 
6 2°93 2507 2°88 
7 : 2°55 te 
8 2°23 
9 1°98 eh 
10 178 1°70? 
et 1°62 ae 
| 12 1°48 1°54? 
| 13 L737 1°36? 
| 14 1-97 Si? 
15 aS) 1°15? 
| 16 td 1:09? 
| 17 1°05 aN 


The identification of the quadrinodal and quinquinodal periods 
respectively rests merely on the comparatively close agreement of 
certain observed numbers with each other and with the quadrinodal 
and quinquinodal periods deduced from the Hydrodynamical Theory 
and from Du Boys’ formula. No phase observations were available 
to assist the identification. 

There is still greater uncertainty regarding the higher periods, 
most of which rest only on a single series of oscillations. Possibly 
T=2°88 is the sextinodal period. It must, however, be borne in 
mind that the smaller the period, the greater is the danger of con- 
fusion with progressive wave disturbances, with possible transversal 
seiches, or even with secondary local oscillations due to indentures in 
the shore of the lake. 

During the observations the mean level of Loch Earn varied 
through a range of nearly 20 inches (over 50 centimetres), but a 
careful examination of the tables of values of the periods under 
different circumstances does not appear to show any correlation 
between the depth of the lake and the various periods. It follows 
that in the case of Loch Earn, within the range of the observations, 
the periods are independent of the depth. 


58 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


From the theoretical point of view, there is nothing surprising in 
the result just arrived at. Let us consider elongated lakes of uni- 
form breadth, and assume that the same normal curve continues to 
represent the lake-basin when the mean level rises or falls. For 
a lake whose longitudinal section is a rectangle T,=2J/r ,/(gh). 
Hence, since in this case J is constant, as increases all the periods 
diminish. If the longitudinal section is parabolic, then T,= 
ml) /{vv+1)gh}.1 In this case J is proportional to /h; hence all 
the periods are independent of the depth of the lake. It is easy 
to see from the analysis in H.T-\S., p. 628, that the same is true for 
a biparabolic lake. If the longitudinal section be rectilinear and 
symmetrical, shelving at both ends, then T,,=27//j, /(gh).? In this 
case / is proportional to h, andj, is a mere number depending only 
on the nodality ; hence T, is proportional to ,/h—that is to say, all 
the periods increase when h increases. Generally speaking, we may 
expect the rise of the mean level in a lake to increase its periods if 
the rise greatly increases the horizontal surface of the lake; and to 
decrease the periods, if the rise increases the horizontal surface very 
little. It appears from the observations of Forel® and Ebert‘ that 
the Lake of Geneva and the Starnberger See belong to the latter 
category ; and Halbfass® has found that the Madiisee belongs to 
the former. Loch Earn occupies an intermediate position; the 
constancy of its periods is therefore an indication that the assumption | 
of a biparabolic normal curve is a good first approximation. 

The calculated positions of the nodal lines of Loch Earn are 
shown by red lines on the map which accompanies the paper C.P.N. 

The difficulties anticipated ® in determining the nodes by direct 
observation were more than realised in practice. When the range 
of the seiche is large, there is nearly always a great deal of wind- 
embroidery of an irregular character, which it is impossible to 
eliminate entirely either by damping the limnograph or by residuat- 
ing the limnogram. Also, where the amplitude is small, there is 
almost always sensible disturbance arising from an aperiodic variation 
of the lake level, probably due to the heaping up of the water on 
the shallow shore, an effect which will vary with the slope of the 
beach. The varying slope also affects the range of the seiche at the 
margin of the lake to an extent which it would be difficult to calculate 

1 HLTS., p. 622. 

EDS), p. oe8: 
Le Léman, t. 11. p. 122. 

4 “Periodische Seespiegelschwankungen beobachtet am Starnberger See,” 
Setaber. kgl. bayer. Akad. Wiss., Bd. xxx. p. 458, 1900. 

5 “ Stehende Seespiegelschwankungen im Madtisee in Pommern,” Zeztschr. f. 


Gewdsserkunde, Bd, vi. p. 65, 1902. 
COC EAN: 3 p:-800; 


wo pw 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS ag 


with any degree of accuracy. Both these causes introduce uncertainty 
in the method of observing with index limnographs on two sides of 
the node where the seiche is found in opposite phases, and then 
deducing its position by interpolation. A mere null method would 
scarcely lead to a satisfactory result, unless under exceptional 
circumstances which did not occur during the observations. Of the 
many attempts made, only a few led to limnograms which could 
be utilised; and in every case the curves had to be purified by 
residuation. 

Uninode.—The two best pairs of observations gave almost exactly 
the same position for the southern end of the uninode, and led to the 
conclusion that it lies about 105 yards west of the position given in 
the paper on the Calculation of the Periods and Nodes of Lochs 
Earn and Treig. This is precisely what was expected, as the actual 
normal curve (C.P.N., p. 825) rises above the assumed biparabolic 
curve on the west and falls below it on the east of the calculated 
position of the uninode. It would be useless to calculate what the 
amount of divergence ought to be, because the uncertainty of one of 
these determinations, as shown by the observations themselves, is +65 
yards, and of the other +129 yards, the latter being more than the 
divergence itself. ‘The exact agreement of the two determinations is 
probably an accident. 

Eastern Binode.—T'wo determinations agreed almost exactly in 
placing the Eastern Binode about 117 yards west of the calculated 
position; but the uncertainty of these determinations was +94 
yards in the one case and --59 yards in the other. 

Western Binode.—'The best pair of observations gave a position 
for the southern end of the Western Binodal line 305 yards west of 
the calculated position. A divergence in this direction was to be 
expected from the shape of the true normal curve in the neighbour- 
hood, but the amount is somewhat surprising. ‘There can be little 
doubt of the correctness of the observation, because it was confirmed 
by another pair of observations, one made almost exactly at the 
position above indicated, the other 250 yards farther east. The 
latter gave on residuation a well-marked binodal seiche, the former 
none that could be recognised. 

Eastern Trinode.—The best observation available places the 
southern end of the Eastern Trinodal line 88 yards west of the 
calculated position. ‘The uncertainty of the determination, however, 
exceeds 120 yards, so that it cannot be said for certain whether the 
actual trinode is really west or east of the calculated position ; from 
the shape of the normal curve we should expect a considerable 
divergence to the east. 

Middle Trinode.— Unfortunately the observations for the de- 


60 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


termination of the Middle Trinode were rendered useless by casual 
wind-disturbances. 

Western Trinode.—No observations of sufficient accuracy were 
available. 


Errecr oF MErkoROLOGICAL CONDITIONS UPON THE DENIVELLATION 
oF LakEs 


General Character of the Seiches on Loch Earn.—Owing to 
the comparatively regular shape of its basin, and the fact that the 
depth is considerable compared with the length, the seiches on Loch 
Earn are very regular and very persistent. Also, probably because 
its longest axis 1s more or less parallel to the paths of the major and 
minor atmospheric disturbances,’ Loch Earn is very rarely free from 
seiches. During 1070 hours, from 10th August to 28th September, 
the waggon recorder at Picnic Point was almost constantly in action ; 
yet only 24 hours of calm? were recorded. During 1350 hours, from 
12th October to 7th December, while the waggon recorder was in 
action at Lochearnhead, there were in all about 90 hours of calm. Of 
these, 81 hours were made up by continuous stretches of 21°, 37", and 
23" on 4th, 16th, and 20th November. 

The greatest ranges observed in August and September were 
79 mm., 66 mm., 73 mm., 55 mm., 55 mm., 63 mm., on 19th and 
21st August and 3rd, 7th, 8th, and 9th September respectively. Only 
one very exceptional range was observed between 12th October and 
7th December, viz. 55 mm. on 7th December. 

The range of the seiche at St Fillans is usually over 10 mm. A 
rough estimate showed that during the 1070 hours of observation at 
Picnic Point the range of the seiche was over 30 mm. during 214 
hours; and during the 1350 hours at Lochearnhead it was over 30 
mm. during 57 hours only. It follows that, whether we test by hours 
of calm, by hours of excess over 30 mm., or by occurrence of 
exceptional ranges, the period from 12th October to 7th December 
showed much less seiche activity than the period from 10th August 
to 28th September. 

In more or less settled weather, by far the commonest seiche 
configuration on Loch Earn is a uninodal and binodal dicrote.? 
This varies between the two extremes where the binodal on the one 


Hise suny; paper, “On the Theory of the ea Microbarograph, etc.,” Proc. 
R. Ss H., vol. xxxvii. p. 454, 1908. 

2. e. whole range of seiche less than 2 mm. 

3 For brevity, in what follows such a seiche will be denoted by “ UB-dicrote.” 
Similarly, ‘“‘ UBT-tricrote” would mean a tricrote seiche with uninodal, binodal, 
and trinodal components, and occasionally the amplitudes (half ranges) of these 
components will be denoted by U, B, T, respectively. 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS 61 


hand and the uninodal on the other are scarcely noticeable, but the 
seiche in our observations was hardly ever either purely uninodal or 
purely binodal. In these seiches the 5—9— configuration period caused 
by the interference of the uninodal and binodal components is usually 
reproduced with the most beautiful regularity, sometimes for a whole 
day or even longer. For example, in the seiche observed at Lochearn- 
head from 16th to 22nd October 1905, which lasted about 63 days, 
Saye tor 27, configuration periods, only six of these periods were 
found too short by one uninodal, and three too long by the same 
amount. It is probable that the gradual change of phase ac- 


aT doch Eaun Atrunaode AL-G 05. 


fQ 10-3q 4 “30 


cmH, 


3 doch Carn = Btinode 27.9.05 


940 0:30 1°30 


10 ( 


3 doch bao. 27-9 0S: 


Fic. 20. 


companying the rise and fall of the amplitudes of the components 
more than compensated for the fact that 9/5 is not so close an 
approximation to T/T, as is the sixth convergent, 70/39. 

In times of storm, or even moderate wind, there is, of course, a 
strong embroidery of various kinds, but usually the UB-dicrote 
configuration can be seen through all the confusion, and it soon 
becomes the prominent feature when the weather begins to settle. 

At this point we may indicate how the lake can be made to 
analyse its own seiches. Fig. 20 shows three simultaneous limno- 
grams, the lowest one taken at Picnic Point, about 480 yards from 
the eastern end of the lake, the middle one taken near the binode, 


Microbarograms. 


Limnograms. 


62 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


the uppermost one taken near the uninode. All three are somewhat 
embroidered by the wind, but the St Fillans seiche is a UB-dicrote, 
the middle one a nearly pure uninodal, and the uppermost one a 
nearly pure binodal. ‘The figure is at once an interesting confirma- 
tion of Forel’s theory, and a verification of the approximate accuracy 
of the mathematical theory of Loch Earn regarded as a biparabolic 
lake. 


CompaRIson OF Locu Earn wirs Locus Tay anp Lusnaic 


The seiches of Loch ‘Tay present the strongest possible contrast to 
the seiches of Loch Earn. No clear dicrote or other easily recognisable 


Kitliry 16-10-08. 


, 
| 


9 ‘5 6 7 8 g 
KAochearntheaid 1610-05 
3 Ars 4 om 6 ; 7, 8 a 
tocheanhead, 
1610°:OS5 


toch Jay CciM 
Hittin : 
16-10-0F 
SaaS é 7, 8 9 
tocheartnhead 


20 10.05 mM. 


Eire s2ie 


configuration is ever seen. Often it 1s not easy even to recognise the 
uninodal seiche. The contrast may be partly realised by looking at 
the two pairs of limnograms in fig. 21. In the first pair is seen 
the beginning of the long seiche on Loch Earn above mentioned, 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS 63 


alongside of the simultaneous seiche on Loch Tay—which was the most 
regular one found on that lake between 4th October and 9th November 
1905. The second pair is the end of the long seiche on Loch Earn 
with the simultaneous one on Loch Tay, whose irregularity is typical. 
As yet our knowledge of the seiches and meteorological conditions 
of Loch Tay is not sufficient to enable us to explain this difference, 
but it may be pointed out here that Loch Tay is relatively a shallower 
lake than Loch Earn, it is more crooked, and the relation of its axial 
line to the path of the minor atmospheric disturbances is different. 
This divergence of conditions occurs in an exaggerated form in 
the case of Loch Lubnaig, which is very shallow, has a very irregular 
basin, and lies across the path of the atmospheric disturbances. 
Accordingly, only four cases were found in which a definite seiche 
could be recognised in Loch Lubnaig, having a period of about 24 
min., and in each case only a few undulations could be counted. One 
of these seiches is shown in fig. 22. During the rest of the six 


Zech Eubaacg, L7/e/os. 


re 
Oe ah (a ‘3 


res 22: 


weeks of observations nothing was found but wind embroidery and 
sub-permanent wind denivellation, such as would be naturally expected 
in a shallow lake. About this negative result there seems to be little 
room for doubt, as the indications of the converted Sarasin limno- 
graph were controlled by occasional observations with the much more 
delicate index limnograph. 

For our disappointment in Lochs Tay and Lubnaig we find 
consolation in the beautiful seiche behaviour of Loch Earn, which we 
regard as a small but elegant daughter of the Lake of Geneva, the 
great mother of seiches. 


ORIGIN oF SEICHES 


Forel and his followers, Du Boys, Von Cholnoky, and others, have 
discussed the causes of seiches ; and recently Endrés, in his important 
memoir on the Chiemsee, has confirmed the conclusions of his prede- 
cessors, and added some fresh details of great interest. In what follows 
we shall not advance anything of great wouliay but there are two points 
of interest that may be worthy of the reader’s notice. In the first 
place, the use of the Dines-Shaw microbarograph enabled us during 


64 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


our observations on Loch Earn to follow continuously the minute 
variations of the atmospheric pressure with an ease and certainty 
hitherto unattainable.t Also, in Part V. of my “ Report on the In- 
vestigation of the Seiches of Loch Earn by the Scottish Lake Survey,” 
the mathematical theory of the effect of pressure disturbances of 
various kinds on an ideal lake, of form not very remote from Loch 
Earn, has been worked out,? so as to show that the usually assigned 
cause of seiches, viz. the minor local fluctuations of the barometric 
pressure, is in reality sufficient to cause the disturbances observed, 
and is not a negligible quantity on ordinary lakes, such as the tidal 
action of the moon can be shown to be.? 

Regarding those causes of seiches which have never yet been 
proved to be other than accidental, it may be of interest to record the 
fact that during our observations, viz. on 21st September 1905, at 
23" 33™, we were favoured with what Dr C. Davison,* in a paper on 
the Ochil earthquakes, calls a “ principal earthquake.” The esti- 
mated duration of the shock was 3°4 sec. Some of the members of 
my family who heard it, took it for the rumble of a train passing at 
an unusual hour on the opposite side of Loch Earn. 'The centre of 
disturbance seems to have been about 19 miles 8S. 39° E. of St Fillans, 
and the normal to Dr Davison’s isoseismal 4 makes an angle of about 
63° with the axis of Loch Earn. At the moment the waggon 
recorder was not working, but the converted Sarasin at the binode 
was running at high speed (158 mm. per hour) and giving a smooth 
trace. The circumstances were as favourable as could be conceived 
for showing any seiche disturbance due to the earthquake, but none 
can be identified. ‘There is, of course, no reason to expect that the 
rapid oscillations of ordinary earthquakes could cause seiches. Still, 
negative evidence in special cases is not without value, because in ex- 
ceptional cases, such as the Lisbon earthquake of 1755, seiches have 
been produced, and we do not as yet know the reason why. 

Observers are now agreed that the development of seiches usually 
accompanies. local disturbances of the barometric pressure whose 
duration if they are transitory, or period if they are periodic, does not 
differ greatly from the period of the seiche in question. The observa- 
tions on Loch Earn fully bear out this conclusion. Disturbance on 
the microbarogram is always accompanied by disturbance on the 
limnogram, although the magnitudes do not always correspond. 


1 A separate account of the observations with the microbarographs has been 
published in the Proc. Roy. Soc. Hdwn., vol. xxviil. p. 487, 1908. 

2 Trans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xlvi. p. 499, 1908. 

3 Except in very large lakes, such as Erie. See Endroés, Petermann’s Mitt., 
Hetta1, p. 16, 1908. 

4 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. 1xiii, p. 366, 1907. 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS 65 


Sometimes a violent disturbance on the microbarogram is accompanied 
by a moderate or slight disturbance on the limnogram, and _ occasion- 
ally the disturbance on the limnogram is much greater than might 
at first sight be expected from the microbaric disturbance. The 
mathematical theory (and indeed common sense apart from recondite 
theory) indicates the reason for this. If an increase of pressure 
operates on one half of a symmetric parabolic lake during half the 
period of the uninodal seiche while the water in that half is falling, 
it will evidently work the whole time towards increasing the amplitude 
of the seiche. Also, if there were to be increase of pressure for half- 
periods alternately on the. two sides of the uninode, always tending 
to drive the water in the direction in which it was going, it is obvious 
that a very small increase might end by producing a very large seiche. 
As a matter of fact, a considerable rise of seiche is occasionally found 
when the microbarogram is comparatively smooth, but in such cases 
a closer examination usually shows a faint undulation with a period 
not very different from that of the seiche which is generated. 

On the other hand, if an increase of pressure is supposed to act 
on one half of the parabolic lake during the whole period of the 
uninodal seiche, or if it is distributed equally on both sides of the 
uninode, it is easy to see that the final result in altering the range of 
the seiche will be nil, however long the increase of pressure may act. 

Absence of microbaric disturbance is accompanied by absence of 
seiche disturbance ; that is to say, either there is no seiche at all, or 
an existing seiche continues unaltered. Under these circumstances 
the limnograms from Loch Earn are of great beauty. As an example, 
mention may be made of a record taken by the converted Sarasin 
near the binode from 28rd to 27th August. ‘This shows a regular 
uninodal seiche with an average range of 6 to 7 mm., which continued 
for over eighty-nine hours. During all that time the microbarogram 
shows only very slight disturbance—faint undulations, occasionally 
periodic. The range of the seiche is not absolutely constant, but 
sometimes rises and sometimes falls gradually, the minimum being, 
say, 4°5 mm. and the maximum 8 mm. (corresponding to 7 mm. and 13°6 
mm. at St Fillans). There is nowhere any sudden change of phase. 

Examination of the limnograms shows that seiches may be 
generated “ suddenly,” #.e. attain their full range in one or two oscilla- 
tions, or may be generated “ gradually,” é.e. the full range may be 
attained only after a considerable number of oscillations. 

Among the causes that might generate seiches suddenly the follow- 
ing may be considered :— i 

1. The sudden release of a static denivellation of the whole lake- 
surface, due to the progression of the general system of the atmo- 


spheric isobars. 
, 5 


66 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


2. Sudden release of a denivellation, caused by the transport of 
water from one end of the lake to the other by a wind which has blown 
in one direction for a time and then fallen calm or reversed its 
direction. | 

3. A sudden denivellation in one part of the lake due to very rapid 
flooding. 

4. A sudden denivellation due to a heavy fall of rain, snow, or 
hail over a part of the lake. This might be partly static, i.e. due 
merely to the gravitation of the precipitated water; or it might be 
partly dynamic, 2.e. due the impact of the precipitated water. 

5. Sudden alteration of the atmospheric pressure, due to the 
passage over parts of the lake of a local atmospheric disturbance 
(squall), such as is indicated by a disturbance on the microbarogram. 

6. The impacts of wind-gusts on the lake-surface. 

Among causes that might be expected to generate seiches gradually 
may be mentioned :— , 

7. The action over portions of the lake-surface of small fluctua- 
tions of the barometric pressure which happen to synchronise more or 
less nearly with some of the seiche periods of the lake. 

8. Action similar to last of fluctuation in the velocity and pressure 
of the wind, as shown in the anemogram. 

1. Effect of the Progression of the General System of the 
Isobars.—In order to form an idea of the potency of cause 1, let us 
take an extreme case. The greatest gradient noticed on the weather 
charts for August and September 1905 was 2°5 mm. of mercury, 2.¢. 
34 mm. of water, in about 30 sea miles. Taking the length of Loch 
Earn as 6 miles, this would give a difference of pressure between the 
two ends of 6°8 mm. of water. At a distance of about 50 miles on 
the chart the gradient had fallen by about one-fifth. Taking an 
extreme supposition, viz. that the system of isobars travelled with a | 
velocity of 30 (mile/hour) in the direction of the maximum gradient, 
which is further assumed to be in the axis of Loch Earn, then the 
decrease of pressure difference in an hour would be 6°8x 3/25. A 
variation of this kind (supposing the gradient uniform over Loch 
Earn) can only generate the uninodal of Loch Earn, the period of 
which may be taken roughly to be 15™. If the time of action be now 
supposed to be the most favourable, viz. 74™, and the increase of the 
gradient to be uniform in time, then, by the mathematical theory 
above referred to,' the increment in the range of the uninodal seiche is 


0:3'x 3/25 10'— 051) 1mm. 


An alteration of this amount would, of course, be invisible on the 
limnograms. It seems hopeless, therefore, to look for an explanation 


1 Trans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xlvi. p. 513, 1908. 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS 67 


of ordinary seiches in the variations of the general system of isobars 
shown in the daily weather charts. 

2. Effect of Wind Denivellation.—It is well established by the 
researches of Sir John Murray that a wind which has prevailed for 
some time causes transport of the water of a lake in the direction in 
which the wind is blowing, and the observations of von Cholnoky on 
Lake Balaton show that in shallow lakes this wind denivellation may 
be considerable, and that its sudden release may give rise to seiches. 

After a long and careful examination of our hmnograms, we have 
arrived at the conclusion that this kind of denivellation is very small 
on Loch Earn under ordinary circumstances, and is rarely an effective 
cause of seiches. It is, however, not easy to judge of this matter. 
When the wind is light, the effect is very small, and cannot be 
separated from the denivellations due to precipitation and evapora- 
tion, and to variations in the barometric gradient. When the wind 
is high it is usually accompanied by considerable fluctuations of the 
barometric pressure, or by rainfall, or by both; and again the 
difficulty of separating the causes arises. That wind denivellation 
should be small on Loch Earn is not surprising, for, looking at the 
ratio of its depth to its length, we must classify it as a deep lake, and 
in such lakes, as is now well known, the return under-current readily 
forms, and prevents the accumulation of wind denivellation. 

The seiche of 3rd September 1905 (fig. 23) is interesting in the 
present connection, and also because it was accompanied by the 
strongest gale experienced during the two months of observation. 

For some hours before midnight the wind had been very light, 
and at 2" it was practically calm. About 2° 37™ the wind began to 
rise, and in an hour it had reached a mean velocity of about 15 
(mile/hour). The velocity fluctuated between 6 and 15 till 7°, when 
a very sudden rise began. By 7" 30™ the average velocity had risen to 
35, with extremes of 45 to 50. About 8" 30™ there was a sudden drop 
to about 25, then a more gradual drop to 10 at 9° 20". After that 
the gale rose again to a mean velocity of 35 to 40, with extremes 
occasionally reaching 53. After lasting four hours, the gale began 
to abate about 15", and then fell more or less uniformly to calm 
about 20", there being two rather sudden lulls at 17" and 19" 20", 

Throughout the whole of this time the microbarogram is much 
disturbed. During the strongest parts of the gale it shows the 
characteristic wind blurring, and throughout there are fluctuations 
of various periods: e.g. 7:2’ at 2°, 5-6’ at 4° 30™, 13:6’ at 8» 30, 
Wy at. 16". | 

Till about midnight there had been a fairly regular UB-seiche 
with a small trinodal component, the total range of the whole being 
about 31 mm. Soon after midnight, that is, more than two and a 


68 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Siriadtios tan 3.9 05 


ee oT sti el tng ror $f 


Microbarogram. 


Sp Ss 6 yi & a 


SO MH. 


SAMUSLON 3 G OF 


Anemogram, 


G35 


ua i i ‘NN 


Limnogram, 


Microbarogram, 


Wl as 12. /3 , es Sb iP ae /8 79 


AA Ot lary 3.9:-085. 


: 
< 

Mfrs 12. “3 /ty 1S 7 /y¥ 18 19 
E g Pienix Poimk 3 9.05. 
’ asia AVN Ne ih Ue hwy 
ae 


Mf His /2 /3 18 
Fie. 23. 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS 69 


half hours before the wind began to rise, the limnogram begins to 
show serious disturbance. This disturbance becomes strongly marked 
at 55, when the total range of the seiche reaches 60 mm., and there 
is a strong development of seiches of higher nodality, in particular 
of one having a period of about 2-9”. 

At 7", when the wind suddenly rises into a gale, there is no very 
marked change in the seiche. But between 8" 30™ and 9? there is 
an increase in the total range from 56 mm. to 78 mm., due no doubt 
to the simultaneous microbaric disturbance, which has a period of 
about 13°6™. After this the seiche tends to settie down into a UB- 
dicrote, strongly embroidered with higher components while the gale 
lasts. It is worthy of note that at 14", zc. seven hours after the 
gale commenced, the mean level of the lake at Picnic Point near 
St Fillans has only risen about 6 mm. About 16” there is a decrease 
in the total range of the seiche from 64 mm. to 51 mm. ‘This may be 
due partly to the drop in the wind, but much more probably to the 
simultaneous microbaric disturbance, which has a period of about 
17", and would strongly affect the uninodal component of the seiche. 

The range of the disturbance on the microbarogram was a little 
under 2 mm., and the data from the triangle of microbarographs 
showed that it travelled along the lake with a velocity of 53 miles an 
hour. For rough purposes and for convenient calculation we may 
take 48 instead of 53, and suppose the period of the pressure dis- 
turbance and also the uninodal period to be 15”, and the circumstances 
as to phase to be the most favourable possible. ‘The mathematical 
theory! then gives 3 mm. for the addition to the amplitude of the 
uninodal in 15". The effect after two undulations will therefore be 
6 mm., that is, an alteration of 12 mm. in the range of the seiche, 
which, as it happens, is within a millimetre of the value observed. 

3. Case in which a Seiche was probably caused by a Flood.— 
Fig. 24 shows the limnogram, taken near the binode, of a seiche 
disturbance beginning at 16" 9°6™ on 4th August 1905. The upward 
slope is due to a sudden rise in the lake caused by heavy rain. On 
the 3rd there had been ‘96 inch of rain, and on the 4th 2:03 inches, 
the greatest rainfall observed during August and September. The 
limnograms taken at the uninode and Picnic Point are similar, except 
that the former shows merely a feeble binodal seiche, while the latter 
has a well-marked trinodal superposed on the uninodal seiche. 

The wind on the 4th was light and easterly, but a well-marked 
barometric depression, travelling with a velocity of about 18 
(mile/hour), passed in a direction towards N. 15° E., probably a 
little to the west of Loch Earn, the centre being nearest about 
O52" on. the oth. 

1 Trans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xlvi. p. 516, 1908. 


Microbarograms. 


Limnogram. 


70 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


The microbarograph at Ardtrostan shows a somewhat gradual 
drop of 2 mm., followed by a sharp rise of 4 mm. between 15" 44™ 
and 16" 3™. 

It does not appear that either the passage of the main depression, 
or the minor fluctuation attending it, could have caused the sudden 


/o 
g 
8 
Za 
6 
o 
be 
3 
2 
Ale 


Fig, 24. 


initial rise shown on the limnogram at 16" 9°6™. Both of these 
causes would indeed have worked, if at all, in the opposite direction. 
We are therefore driven to the probable conclusion: that the 
uninodal seiche was caused by the flood. A glance at a map of the 
neighbourhood shows that the area—Glen Beich, Glen Ogle, Glen 
Droma, Glen Ample, and Glen Voirlich — which drains into the 
western half of Loch Earn much exceeds that—Glen Tarken, Allt an 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS 71 


Fionn, and Finglen—which drains into the eastern half. It appears 
from the limnogram that for some time after the flood commenced 
the level of the whole lake was rising at the rate of ‘32 mm. per 
minute. In half the period of the uninodal seiche this would give 
arise of 23mm. Supposing this flood at the very beginning to be 
thrown only on the western half of the lake, there would be a 
disturbance equivalent to an increase of atmospheric pressure of 
4-6 mm. of water. Acting during half the uninodal period, this, by 
the mathematical theory,' would produce uninodal and trinodal seiches 
having extreme amplitudes of 6°38 mm. and 2°8 mm. If the first 
incidence of the flood were concentrated on, say, the western quarter 
of the lake-surface, the resultant seiche would, of course, be still 
greater. ‘lhe rise shown at the binode was actually about 5°5 mm., 
which corresponds to an extreme amplitude for the uninodal seiche of 
94mm. It is therefore quite possible that the seiche may have been 
wholly due to the sudden flood on the western half of Loch Earn, 
and there appears to be no other way of accounting for it. 

4. Effect of Rainfall.—In order to obtain an idea of the effect of 
heavy rainfall in causing a seiche, suppose a cloudburst to fall on the 
eastern half of Loch Earn (idealised into a symmetric parabolic lake). 
If « denote the rainfall in centimetres per second, v the velocity of 
the rain-drops as they reach the surface of the lake, p the pressure at 
time ¢ after the shower begins, then 


p=o(v+gt) (dyne/cm.”) 
=ov/g+ot (gm./cm.*) ; 


or, if the pressure be measured in millimetres of water, 
p = 10c0v/g + 10ct 
=qtri, say. 


Suppose that the shower begins when the uninodal seiche 
culminates, and that it lasts for half the uninodal period. Then, if 
0k, denote the alteration in the amplitude of the uninodal seiche at 
the end of the lake, by the mathematical theory ” 


ok, = 29+ PT, 
where $q is due to the impact, and 37'T’, to the static effect of the 
precipitated water. 


To take an extreme case,’ let ¢ =°2/60=°1/30, v=700. Then, 
taking 'T, = 15 x 60 as a round number, g = ‘024, »=1/30. Hence 


ok 030 22-5 —23 mim. isay. 


1 Trans, Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xlvi. p. 508. 
2 1Ovd.. pr O12, 
° See Hann, Lehrbuch der Meteorologie (1906), pp. 270, 275. 


72 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


The result would therefore be a seiche having a range of 46 mm. Jt 
will be noticed that the effect arising from the impact, viz. ‘036, is 
negligible. 

T ‘he conclusion thus arrived at bears out the inference of Endros ! 
regarding the effect of a rainfall of 7 mm. during 20" upon the 43™ 
seiche of the Chiemsee. Such a fall on one half of a parabolic lake 
having a 40™ period would generate a uninodal seiche having a range 
of 10°5 mm. 

There is little doubt that in some of the cases, to be. cited 
presently, the precipitation played an important part; but the 
observations of Shaw and Dines on the effect of passing rain-clouds 
in raising the barometric pressure tend to place difficulties in the way 
of separating the effect of precipitation from the barometric pressure 
proper. It would appear that the pressure to which the lake reacts 
so delicately is equal to the pressure before the rain has fallen—that 
is, while it is still in the cloud in the form of vapour ; but the matter 
requires and deserves further investigation. 

5. Effect of Squalls.—On 11th August, 8° to 9", a prolonged 
depression on the microbarogram is associated with a prolonged 
elevation on the limnogram. ‘The release of this denivellation caused 
a considerable uninodal seiche (see fig. 25). 

On 7th September, about 8" gon. occurred the greatest barometric 
fluctuation of short duration observed.2 The extreme range was 
ns mm. (Aq.), the total duration about half an hour. It came from 

E. 56° N. with a velocity of propagation of 19 (mile/hour), the velocity 
along the lake being about 30. 

ine will be seen ane fig. 26, the effect was to increase the total 
range of the seiche from about 18 mm. to 50 mm., and to generate a 
strong BT-dicrote. It is worthy of remark that the rise in the wind 
follows about an hour after the barometric disturbance. To the spiky 
anemogram which then follows corresponds a strongly embroidered 
seiche, which shows no increase in maximum range. I have tried, 
but unsuccessfully, to find a period in the anemogram corresponding 
to that of the seiche-embroidery, viz. T’=1°5™ to 1°6™. 

On 8th September, between 16" and 17", a well-marked barometric 
disturbance, having a range of 3mm. to 4mm. (Aq.), caused a change 
of phase in the previously existing UB-seiche, and also a considerable 
increase of range. This UB then persisted for nearly 24°, until about 
13° 15™ on the 9th September its configuration was utterly destroyed 
by the great barometric disturbance shown in fig. 27. This disturb- 
ance lasted nearly two hours, and caused a maximum depression of 
14 mm. (Aq.); it came from W. 62° S. to W. 67° S., and travelled 


1 Seeschwankungen beobachtet am Chiemsee (1903), p. 108. 
* For further details see my paper, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxviii. p. 457. 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS 73 


with a velocity of 17 to 22 (mile/hour), z.e. with a velocity of 33 to 51 
along the lake. The sections of the disturbance at Killin and 
Lochearnhead on the one hand, and at Ardtrostan on the other, were 


2/6" Mndtvostan 1 -8-05. 


Microbarograms. 


Aochearnhead bchoot N° 8° OS 


U 


COM aden Jie: 0 5: 


Byer Ne Ne! at MN ey Py 


Some Cotte ON) (ey ie 


THrs - 8 7 gG 70 // 


Pecmie Point 8-05 


Mayra! ae Pepin af At 


Limnograms. 


Ta ATS S G 70 a 
Fie. 25. 


very different. The minimum was rounded and pretty flat at the two 
former places, but cuspidal at the latter. Again, at Killin and 
Lochearnhead the minimum was followed by a_ sharp-pointed 
maximum, with an almost perpendicular rise, while at Ardtrostan the 


Anemogram. 


Limnogram. 


74 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


recovery after the minimum is very gradual, and there is only a little 
wart corresponding to the peaks at the other two stations. 
It is interesting to notice that the minimum of the disturbance, 


although it destroys the configuration of the UB, and generates one 


of the best-marked BT-dicrotes observed, yet produces no great 
change in the total range of the seiche. It does produce a small rise 
of level at Picnic Point of 7 mm. to 11 mm. This is confirmed by 
the limnogram taken at the binode, where at that time the Sarasin 
was running at high speed (160 mm. per hour). This shows a rise of 


AROTROSIAN Ygla | | | Eas 
ae oe ne 


eae 
or ee 
A Nascar 


ASE a ea 
a tt A ath Nt 


LOCH EARN $t-FirLaNns 7-905 


rH oh 10 Uj re ae Nis a , es 
%,-T, Ovcrofe ete Hiat Ft 


level of 5 mm., and a diminution in the range of the uninodal seiche 
of about 8 mm. ! 

At 14° 13™ there is a sudden rise of level of about 14 mm., 
evidently due to the intense action of the maximum of oe 
developed towards the western end of the lake, which there is nothing 
to counterbalance on the eastern part. It is after this point that lhe 
new BT configuration becomes conspicuous. As will be seen from 
the anemogram, the barometric and seiche disturbances at 14" were 
associated with a very sudden rise in the average wind velocity from 
5 to 25 (mile/hour). 


ine : : PRA ROME 
‘anna ease ana SBprnego: 


toe 
EGON AICO N UE = 


12 


Microbarograms. 


Anemogram., 


Limnogram. 


3 


40 


CM. 


M.H 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS 


Arnrdinostanm 9°qg.05. 


Srdtrostt ru G9 g 0x 


Ene 27- 


Wo 


76 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


The Glen Ogle Storm.—One more instance of the connection 
between abrupt barometric and seiche disturbances may be given, as 
it was one of the most remarkable observations made on Loch Earn. 

On 23rd August, after a dead calm during the night and heavy 
rain in the early morning, at 8" 20™ there was a light breeze, W., 5 
(mile/hour). There was low cumulus on the hills to E. and N.E., but 
there was bright sunshine, and the clouds (3) in general were high. 
The main drift was from S.E., but there was a mackerel formation 
apparently moving in a different direction ; also a mare’s-tail showed 
to S.W. 

‘The waves were running from W.—a slight swell, diversified by 
oil bands, which were seen at intervals throughout the day. 

From 8" 20™ to 12" 30™ the wind was light, fluctuating with a 
rough period of 12. At 12" 30™ there was a sudden gust of 15 
(mile/hour). After that the wind rose somewhat, and fluctuated for 
about 5 hours between 0 and 13 (mile/hour) mean velocity. It was 
unusually gusty, and at 14” 5™ an extreme velocity of 25 (mile/hour) 
was registered. At this moment a black rain-cloud came down Glen 
Ogle, and reached over the western part of the lake as far as 
Ardvoirlich, where it stopped. 

At 14° 50™ there came on a sudden rain-shower, the wind being 
then W. by S. After this there was rain at intervals till 20" 18", an 
especially heavy shower at 17" 20". 

At 20" 18™ the wind was W.S.W. and variable. 

At 14" '7™ a microbaric disturbance passed Ardtrostan, travelling 
with a velocity of 15 (mile/hour) from W. 60° N. (36 along the lake). 

One of the Lake Survey staff was looking at the uninodal limno- 
graph, and saw it record the sharp depression shown in fig. 28, just 
as the squall came up. For some time before, the limnographs at 
the uninode, binode, and Picnic Point had been drawing almost 
straight lines. The seiche weather had, in fact, been the calmest 
known in the two months of observation. 

The maximum depression (4 mm.) at the uninode and the 
maximum elevation (5 mm.) at the binode were nearly simultaneous, 
the latter apparently following about 1$™ after the former. Un- 
fortunately, owing to the irregularity of the clock at the uninode, 
certainty on this point is not attainable. 

It seems clear that an abrupt elevation of the surface travelled 
along the eastern part of the lake. The first rise began at the binode 
at 135 55°31™, and at Picnic Point at 14° 5:24”, that is, 9°93” later. 
The first maximum (5 mm.) is seen at the binode at 14" 1:05", and 
at Picnic Point at 14° 10-57, that is, 9°52™ later. The velocity of 
propagation of the first rise would thus be 6:0 (mile/hour), and of the 
first maximum 6°3 (mile/hour), and it is interesting to notice that 


Microbarograms. 


Anemogram. 


Limnograms. 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS Teh 


by the time the wave has reached Picnic Point a shallow minimum 
has developed in front of the maximum. If the wave had travelled 
as a solitary long wave, it would have taken only about 7™ to travel 
from the binode to Picnic Point. 

After the wave reached St Fillans it seems to have been reflected 
backwards and forwards between the ends of the lake, at first with a 
good deal of irregularity, but gradually it developed the character- 


Yrdttostan 23-805 
bite 


Su Rey aera 3 
43. Hrs My 15 16 


ee hoch baw. ft Fillans 23.805. 


/3 Hrs “4 iS fe) 5 1S 
Fic. 28. 


istics of a regular dicrote seiche. There are two points (easily seen 
on the binodal limnogram), viz. 16" and 17" 20™, where the range of 
the seiche was suddenly increased, evidently by barometric disturb- 
ances which occurred at these times. ‘The increase at 17° 20™ may 
have been partly due to the heavy shower. 

At 17° 20™ on the 23rd the dicrote is fully developed (QU =11°5, 
2B=7°0). It retains its character, with gradually decreasing range, 
until a little before 24" on the 24th. About that time the micro- 
barograph at Killin shows disturbances with periods T=10", 


78 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


T=15'6", and there is an alteration of the UB from 2U=3-°7 mm., 
2B=1:'7 mm. to 20=11'4 mm., 2B=1:0 mm. The dicrote then 
remains steady until 22" on the 25th, when it undergoes a sudden 
disturbance, which rapidly destroys its configuration. This sudden 
disturbance and the almost total destruction of the seiche about 
5 hours later are difficult to explain by the meteorological conditions, 
unless they were due to variations of the wind. 

6. Effect of the Impact of Wind-Gusts.—Inasmuch as a wind 
velocity of 10 (mile/hour) is calculated to produce a pressure of about 
15 mm. (Aq.) by direct impact on a small area, it is reasonable to 
expect that the impact of wind-gusts, especially in the case of lakes 
enclosed by high hills, may at times cause seiches. ‘There are, how- 
ever, various difficulties in obtaining data on the subject. It is 
difficult to determine the angle of impact of the wind-blasts. Then 
it is uncertain whether the wind ever falls at the same angle and at 
the same time over large parts of the surface of a lake. The appear- 
ance of the lake-surface on windy days very often suggests the contrary. 
What we frequently see are patches of wind disturbance progressing 
over the lake-surface with varying velocities. 

Then again it is difficult to separate the effect of wind impact 
from the disturbances of the ordinary barometric pressure which 
always accompany high winds. 

It has not been possible to deduce any definite results from the 
observations under the present head. 

7. Effect of Periodic Fluctuations of the Atmospheric Pres- 
sure.—The observations on Loch Earn afforded many examples of 
this cause of seiches. It must, however, be understood that strictly 
periodic fluctuations of the barometric pressure of short period rarely 
if ever occur. ‘There are often, however, fluctuations extending over 
an hour or two in which the undulations are approximately of equal 
‘length, and still oftener two or three consecutive undulations of 
approximately the same length. Such fluctuations are described in 
what follows as periodic, and by the “ period” is meant the average 
of the intervals between the passage of corresponding phases (say 
maxima) of two successive undulations at the same point. 

It follows from theory, and is confirmed by observation, that a 
periodic disturbing cause is most effective when its period is not very 
different from that of the seiche in question. In practice, however, 
the disturbing effect is considerable even if there is considerable 
divergence between the two periods. It should also be noticed that, 
even theoretically, if we consider only one or a limited number of 
oscillations, and neglect the viscosity, the maximum effect does not 
correspond to exact equality of the two periods." 

1 See Trans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xlvi. p. 514. 


Microbarogram. 


Limnogram. 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS ig 


We have already given incidentally some examples of the 
effect of a periodic disturbing agency, and shall now add a few 
more. ; | 

16th September.—About 6" (see fig. 29) a succession of four very 
regular waves of barometric disturbance, having a period of 13:3", 


nai 
M Ardtvostan 16°9° 05. 


Fic. 29. 


generated a very regular UB-dicrote, which lasted about 15". The 
uninodal component gradually diminished, as will be seen from the 
following measurements :— 


| 
| Hour. QU. DB: 
h. mm. | mm. 
Ca. 10 22.°9 4°5 
1G 17°9 4-1 
cael 9°8 ay) 


i 


16th October, 4°-9" (see fig. 21, above).—A very interesting 
example, showing both positively and negatively the effect of a 
periodic barometric disturbance, is obtained by contrasting the 
limnograms taken simultaneously on Loch Tay at Killin, and on Loch 
Earn at Lochearnhead, 'The period of the microbaric disturbance is 
about 29™, and it will be observed that it greatly increases the uni- 
nodal seiche of Loch Tay, the period of which is about 28°4™. 
Indeed, the uninodal thus produced was the best found on Loch 
Tay. On the other hand, this strong barometric disturbance produces 
little or no effect on the smooth UB-dicrote which was in progress 
on Loch Earn, because the periods of its components are 14°52™ 
and 8:09". 

25th October, 35-8" (fig. 30).—Microbaric disturbances of period 
7'5™ to 8:0" brought out the binodal of Loch Earn (T,=8-09™) and 
the quadrinodal of Loch Tay (T,=8'6™). 


80 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Tth December, ca. 14° 30™ (fig. 31).—About this hour was 
observed the greatest total range of seiche found on Loch Tay, viz. 


/ A7s 2 3 ; uo Ss b ye 8 
: Hitity 25-10:08. 
ey 
5 / 
io) 
© 
= 
= Rim. 
ae Pochearnhead 25-10-05 
4 1.ATS 2; 
0 Aittun 25-10-05. 
S oircue 
a> 
Iie Miele esa GV ie 7 
/ Yrs Z J ag S 6 i 
Fie. 30. 


80 mm. At that moment the range on Loch Earn, which at 8" had 
been as much as 55 mm., was only about 25 mm. The explanation of 


LIMITS, 3 ‘Ly li /b6 Ty, 18 


————— <a ee ee. ae 


KMhkn J 1208. F 


PS ttle ill a - Ana N ronrtnon, f ‘i ae 


Microbarogram. 


oe Hem 7/2055 


HWA fd Ww Nah Naty iw hia IMs Ig a sng’ ae 


, ih otk that GAA 
i Ades Aino 
| 


15° . ? 7 hh 


Limnograms. 


Y2 rs 43 


MiGs ole 


this is doubtless to be found in the well-marked period of 26:5" shown 
in the microbarogram between 12" and 16°. , 

14th August.—Fig. 32 shows an interesting case of the gradual 
development of a UB-dicrote seiche. 'The anemogram shows a fall of 


Microbarograms. 


Anemogram. 


Limnogram. 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS 81 


wind during this development, but it seems to have been too gradual to 
be the effective cause of the seiche. There can be little doubt that the 
true cause was a periodic microbaric disturbance, which is very faintly 
indicated in themicrobarograms taken at Ardtrostanand Lochearnhead. 

The present is one of many examples found in the course of the 
observations which prove that a lake-surface is much more sensitive to 
minor fluctuations of the atmospheric pressure than any barometric 
apparatus hitherto constructed. 


Sudtiostwn = 14:8-05. 


US ed ey Se esr a) 


Hrs i / dis 4 se 4/ 
Kbit 
ss Oa Oe ec 
_ lb “75 uz L/€ 19 {20 EL 
Ahocheatnhnead, 


Hrs 18 /G 20 a 
Fie.-32. 


Many more examples might be produced, but probably the 
above are sufficient to establish that the synchronism of quasi- 
periodic disturbances of the atmospheric pressure with the seiche- 
periods of a lake is a frequent cause of seiches. It is true that the 
resonance experiments which Nature performs in her own rough 
laboratory have not the nice exactitude of those devised and carried 
out in a physical institute. But then it is not the way of Nature to 
flaunt her beauties before the unappreciative, or to press the secret 
principles of her action upon the attention of the unreflecting. 


Lazporatory EXPERIMENTS ILLUSTRATING THE ORIGIN OF SEICHES 


The method of generating seiches by stirring at the nodes, which 
was described above (p. 41), probably does not correspond to anything 
6 


82 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


observable under ordinary circumstances in a lake;! but the experi- 
ment is interesting in view of the important discovery recently made 
by the Japanese observers,” that the secondary oscillations in many of 
the bays on the coast of Japan are seiches, having a node at the mouth 
and a loop at the bottom of the bay. These oscillations, which are 
sometimes of considerable range, are apparently due to resonance with 
_ comparatively inconspicuous undulations in the external oceanic swell, 
the periods of which are equal to some of the natural periods of 
the bay. 

It was also possible, by means of a trough like that described 
above, but of different dimensions (length, 5 feet ; breadth, 4 inches ; 
depth, 5 inches; depth of water, 3 inches), to illustrate during a 
lecture at the Royal Institution the generation of seiches in an ordinary 
lake by periodic variations of the surface pressure. By laying a sheet 
of tin on the top of the trough, an air-channel was formed over the 
surface of the water. Through this channel air could be blown by 
means of a Blackman’s fan, oer by working a slider timed by the 
metronome, the air-current could be made intermittent. When the 
whole of the surface was covered over by the sheet of tin, the effect of 
the current, whether steady or intermittent, was merely to generate a 
train of progressive surface waves. But, when only half he length of 
the miniature lake was covered in, an intermittent current having the 
proper period generated a uninodal seiche. When a strip of tin 
dipping into the water at the end of the covering sheet just over the 
middle of the water was used to block the air-current, after a few 
alternations of the blast the amplitude of the generated seiche was such 
as to cause the water to splash over the ends of the trough. 

In like manner, by covering in the tank up to the theoretical 
position of the binode, a binodal seiche was generated, the parabolic 
surface of which at its culmination had about the same curvature as 
the parabolic bottom of the trough. 


Own tHE VIBRATIONS WHICH CAUSE THE EMBROIDERY ON 
THE LIMNOGRAM 


To the oscillations of a lake-surface having a period of less than 
2™, which under certain circumstances cause a regular or irregular 
embroidery on the hmnogram, Forel gave the name of vibrations. 
The complete explanation of these vibrations can hardly be said to 
have been given as yet. ‘hey are, however, of great interest, because 


1 Endros, however, has given examples in point, in some cases of constricted 


lakes, where a seiche in one part forces a seiche of the same period in another part. 
2 “Secondary Undulations of Oceanic Tides,” by Honda, Terada, Yoshida, and 
Isitani, Journal of the College of Science, Imperial University, Tokio, vol. xxiv. 


p: 1 (1908). 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS 83 


there is some reason to believe that in part at least they reflect in 
miniature the action of the causes which produce the storm-waves 
of the ocean, our knowledge of which is still far from complete, 
although they are of such vital importance to seafaring men, 

Inasmuch as our first object was to determine as accurately as 
possible the seiche-periods and the positions of the nodes of Loch 
Earn, the limited time at our command was allotted and our apparatus 
disposed mainly for these two purposes, and it was not until near 
the end of our observations, after the extemporisation of the stato- 
limnograph, that much attention was given to the vibrations of the 
lake. We cannot, therefore, pretend to offer much towards a final 
solution of the problem of the vibrations; but we may record a few 
observations which seem to enhance the interest of the question, and 
may ultimately prove useful in its final solution. 

The embroidery caused by these vibrations, as may be seen by 
studying some of the figures in this article, varies considerably in 
form, and may be regular or irregular according to circumstances. It 
must also be remembered, as was long ago pointed out by Forel, 
that, owing to.the damping effect of the well and access tube, each 
limnograph reproduces more or less of these vibrations according to 
its adjustment. The statolimnograph, used with a wide access tube, 
owing to the very small inertia of its moving parts, is best adapted 
for this purpose. 

Although occasionally the embroidery continues regular for a 
considerable time, and appears to have a perfectly definite period 
and constant or at least slowly varying range, as a rule its configura- 
tion changes rapidly, and any regularity is transient. ‘his makes 
it very difficult to analyse it into harmonic components, even if 
analysis into a finite number of such components were possible. 

In our observations the maximum range of the vibrations varied 
from 0 to 21 mm.; an average value might be about 6 mm. At 
times the range of the vibrations (e.g. fig. 33) exceeded the range of 
the seiche, so that the former quite obscured the latter. 

The periods observed showed much less variation. In the limno- 
grams taken with the waggon recorder and Sarasin instruments, the 
period ran from 1°35" to 2™; in the statolimnograms, from °42™ to 
‘79™, It must be remembered, however, that in the latter the short- 
period embroidery obscures that of longer period, and in the former 
the vibrations of shortest period are damped out. For the ordinary 
limnograms the average of the periods might be put at 1:-47™. The 
period that actually occurred oftenest in the cases examined was 1°5™. 

The embroidery was never observed unless there had been sufficient 
wind to cause progressive surface waves, and it subsided at once when 
these waves disappeared. ‘The observations of Halbfass, Endrés, and 


Anemogram, 


Statolimnograms. 


84 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


others show that it is usually more marked when the limnogram is 
taken at the leeward end of the lake: it may be very marked there 
and almost or altogether absent at the windward end. It also depends 
on the amount of shelter at the point of observation. 

In most cases the occurrence of embroidery is accompanied by the 


301 a | Si aAtuertomn 13°99. 0s 


ATi 


Te oa 


ariperneae Ssasscrecss 


cou aeee : SSESeeeeeecee Scececeerce 


Hew secaaacas Ly jie ie hh yea? ep oT} ah Wi 


ih ie ao He 


iii il fii aii ce Mi he es 


eee BHU faigaes eric 
TEE Cy HEE gies 


FE] TT] 


Jae 
Ty 
EES Sea eee se Sess Sail peceseeesece 
acess = 


soeaseeeeesseceseezs 
Seeeeeceecceee pees’ 
Seeessnees iene: 


Rinesees saan 


spaces Steet 
a Setucsscesscecaetces alee 


ae a Se Al ae Eueuetantitte ateeeee ea Barts ReetecereceetenEteere ese ne 
. oe Satan: Ae Serene a ce 


Fia. 33 


characteristic wind blurring on the microbarogram, or else by fluctua- 
tions of very short period and very small range. In some cases the 
fluctuations could be counted, and in one or two their period seemed 
to coincide with the period of the lake vibrations. ‘The sensibility 
of the microbarographs used and the number of interpretable cases 
were not sufficient, however, to justify any general conclusion. 
Attempts were made to connect the periods of the lake vibrations 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS 85 


with the periods of the wind fluctuations, as indicated on the anemo- 
gram, but without success, possibly owing to the fact that the time scale 
of the anemograph was so short that it was impossible to count the 
wind fluctuations with any certainty. 

The simultaneous limnograms taken on Lochs Earn and ‘lay 
during October and November 1905 were examined to see whether 
there was any connection between the vibrations on the two lakes 
pointing to a common atmospheric cause. It was found that the 
average of ‘the maximum ranges and of the periods was much the 
same for both lakes, but there seemed to be no connection between 
the occurrence of a particular range or a particular period in the two. 
The range might be high in both lakes and the periods different ; or 
the periods nearly the same and the ranges different ; or there might 
be vibrations of considerable range on one of the lakes, and none, or 
only the merest tremor, on the other. 

Several suggestions have been or may be made regarding the 
nature of these lake vibrations. 

1. ‘They might be longitudinal seiches of very high nodality. This 
was the suggestion put forward tentatively by Forel, after trying in 
vain every other explanation that occurred to him. 

If the period of 1:47™ were due to a longitudinal seiche, the number 
of the nodes would be 12 or 13. It is easy, bv regarding Loch Earn 
as a symmetrical rectilinear lake,! to calculate roughly the positions 
of the nodes. It would therefore be possible, by means of careful 
experiments with two or more self-registering instruments, such as 
the statolimnograph, to obtain positive or negative evidence regard- 
ing the truth of the hypothesis that the vibrations are wholly or 
partially plurimodal longitudinal seiches. 

In the present state of knowledge the balance of evidence seems to 
be against this hypothesis. A plurinodal seiche is a simultaneous 
oscillation of the whole lake. If, therefore, a vibration were a 
plurinodal seiche, it should be apparent simultaneously at both ends 
of the lake, whereas we know that it may be present at either end 
and apparently absent at the other. Also, if it be a plurinodal seiche, 
it should be present simultaneously at nearly opposite points on the 
two sides of the lake. 

Repeated attempts were made to detect correlations of phase, by 
stationing observers on the two sides, and signalling the maxima or 
minima of the vibrations; but it was quite impossible to establish 
either coincidence or opposition of phases. Observations were also 
made with the statolimnograph at a point opposite the limnograph 
near the eastern binode, while the latter was running at high speed 
(2:96 mm. per minute). Not only were there no apparent coincidences 

Hysees ETS sap-.689: 


86 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


of phase, but the binodal imnograph showed a well-marked vibration 
whose period was 1°35", while the best-marked period of the em- 
broidery on the statolimnogram was °44™ to -47™1 

2. The vibrations might be transversal seiches of the lake. In my 
memoir on the Hydrodynamical Theory of Seiches I expressed some 
doubt whether seiches of this kind could be stable in an elongated 
lake. But in a paper already mentioned? Dr Endrés has stated that 
he has, by means of phase observations, definitely established the 
existence of a transversal seiche of period 1°56™ in the Tachinger 
See, and shown that both it and the seiche between Morges and 
Evian, observed by Forel and suspected by him to be transversal, as 
well as certain other cases of the same phenomenon, agree very well 
with the hydrodynamical theory. My doubt on this matter must 
therefore be abandoned. Dr Endrés’ view is that only part of an 
elongated lake takes part in the transversal oscillation, and that the 
establishment of a cross seiche is favoured by the existence of bays on 
the two sides of the lake, the ends of which determine the axis of 
the seiche. This view is strongly supported by the results of the 
Japanese observers regarding secondary tidal oscillations in the bays 
of the coast of Japan already referred to. 

There remain, however, two aifficulties as regards Loch Earn. I 
have calculated by means of a parabolic approximation the periods of 
the cross seiches for various breadths of Loch Earn. and find values 
which average 1:85", the smallest being 1°83”, the greatest 2:30". The 
section at the eastern binode, where the observations above referred 
to were made with the statolimnograph and the Sarasin limnograph, 
is very nearly parabolic in shape, and the period there would be 1:9™ 
or more, which exceeds any of the periods observed in the embroidery 
by more than any likely error, either of observation or calculation. 

Then there is the further fact, already mentioned, that no cor- 
respondence of phase could be detected, although it was anxiously 
looked for, and indeed at first expected. 

3. Ancther cause of the embroidery of the limnogram may 
possibly be found in progressive surface waves and wave groups. 

Everyone is aware that the effect of a persistent wind, which has 
blown for some time along a lake-surface, is to produce a progressive 
train of waves travelling down the wind. The height and also the 
length of these waves depends on the “ fetch,” ze. the length of water 
over which the wind has blown, as well as on its velocity. ‘The range 
and the wave-length both increase as we go “ down the wind,” until 
at last the wave-crests break and “ white horses” are formed. ‘Then 
a sort of dynamical equilibrium is established, and the range and 


1 See fig. 33, where the statolimnograms in question are reproduced. 
2 Petermann’s Mitt., Heft 11., 1908. 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS 87 


wave-length increase no longer, unless the waves run into shallow 
water. ‘This progressive surface wave motion may persist for a con- 
siderable time (in the ocean for days) after the wind has fallen, in the 
form of swell, and it may be propagated into regions where there has 
been no wind. In ordinary circumstances, owing to the continual 
variation in the strength of the wind, and in the case of lakes probably 
also to reflections from the shores, at any particular moment not one 
train of waves is generated, but many of slightly differing wave-length 
and differing phases. ‘These trains interfere and cause a succession 
of wave maxima, commonly called ‘* wave groups.” 

Several observations of the periods of surface waves and wave 
groups on Loch Earn were made by counting the waves or wave maxima 
which passed a given point in a certain time. This is easy in the case 
of the wave maxima; not so easy in the case of the single waves, 
which have a bewildering habit of losing themselves by running into 
and through each other and through the maxima. Still, the results 
were fairly concordant. The observations were made at the eastern 
binode and at Picnic Point during westerly winds of various kinds. 
The average of the periods for single waves was °035™, the smallest 
and greatest values being 024" and :045™. The most usual value 
of the period for the groups was ‘5™ to ‘66™, the least and greatest 
values observed being ‘33™ and 1:17". For the single waves ranges of 
6 in. to 12 in. were common; but on one stormy day ranges of 2 ft. 
to 3 ft. were observed. 

From a set of observations made at my request by Mr James 
Murray on Loch Tay, the following data were calculated for that lake. 


‘T is the period, ) the wave-length, and v the velocity of propaga- 


tion for the single waves; T,, A,, v,, the corresponding magnitudes 
for the wave groups. The observations were made at Kallin, when 
there was no wind, on swell coming in from the lake and running in 
water 13 ft. 6 in. to 12 ft. deep.’ 


For Single Waves 
Oli N18 tL toro it. — 1s. to.2o (tt./see;) — 12 too 17 {mile/hour), 


For Larger Groups of 4 to 6 Maximum Waves 


On ome 125 2)it tone Sioauts 0) —. 8:4 80) O75, (rby/SEC.)i—o-/, LO 4°3 
(mile/hour). 


For Smaller Groups of 9 tg 3 Maximum Waves 


i 08s toi \,—42 tt, to 63 ft., v,—8'4 to 0:3 (ft. /sec.)—5:7 to 4-3 
(mile/hour). 


1 The velocity of a “long wave” in which would be about 20 (ft./sec.). 


88 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


It‘is obvious that the single waves could not cause the ordinary 
and most prominent periods in the embroidery, which run from about 
‘5™ to 1:5"; but there is no doubt that they cause the thickening or 
blurring of the hmnogram which usually appears when the wind is high. 
On the other hand, the periods of the wave groups are nearly coincident 
with some of the more prominent periods of the embroidery. Part of 
this embroidery may therefore be due to wave groups, but more observa- 
tions are required to settle the matter beyond doubt.! 

4. In a paper “On the Relation between the Velocity of the 
Wind and the Dimension of Oceanic Waves, with an Explanation of 
the Waves of Longer Period on Open Coasts,” ? Professor Borgen has 
suggested that the secondary tidal oscillations and waves of un- 
usually long periods occasionally observed on open coasts, where the 
circumstances do not seem to justify the assumption of a seiche, may 
be due to difference and summation waves (whose theoretical existence 
arises from the non-applicability of the theory of the linear super- 
position of small motions). Such waves would be analogous to 
the difference and summation tones of Helmholtz. It is quite 
possible that an explanation of this kind may apply in part to lake 


1 [tis much to be desired that further observations should be made on the period, 
wave-length, and velocity of propagation of single waves and wave groups, in lakes, 
on sea-coasts, and in the open sea. Sailors have many opportunities for such 
observations ; and physicists might devote some attention to the matter, when 
they take an open-air vacation from the ardent pursuit of the electron. It is 
curious how ignorant we still are regarding some of the most important hydro- 
dynamical phenomena, notwithstanding something like a century and a half of 
continued researches, both mathematical and experimental. We know very little, 
for example, regarding the action by whith the wind increases the range and the 
length of the waves as we pass to windward. 

We are told (see Lamb’s Hydrodynamics, p. 569, 1906), and it is easy to under- 
stand, that a wind whose velocity is greater than the velocity of progression of a 
train of waves must increase their range ; but what is the explanation of the increase 
of wave-length ? Observations, some of which are mentioned below, have strongly 
suggested the following as the modus operand: :—The dynamic instability of the 
surface after the wind has reached a certain velocity leads to the generation of 
wave trains of slightly varying length and phase. These trains interfere and pro- 
duce wave maxima. The wind, so long as it travels faster than the wave maxima, 
will increase the range of the waves near the maxima more than elsewhere. 
Thus the periodically occurring wave maxima will be elevated into independent 
wave trains no longer resolvable into the previous harmonic components. Thus 
a new train of progressive waves will be formed of considerably greater mean range 
and mean wave-length than before, but of slightly differing ranges and wave- 
lengths. These again will interfere, and through the action of the wind generate 
- other trains of still greater mean range and mean wave-length ; and so on, until 
the process is stopped by the breaking of the wave crests. This is merely a 
speculation, without sufficient basis, either theoretical or experimental ; but the 
subject seems to call for investigation, and its practical importance is undeniable. 

2 Annalen der Hydrographie und maritimen Meteorologie, Heft i., 1890. 


7 | 


SEICHES AND OTHER OSCILLATIONS 89 


vibrations, but we have no evidence to produce for or against such 
a hypothesis. 

5. Towards the end of the survey of Loch Earn, some obser- 
vations were made with the statolimnograph (unfortunately there 
was time to make only a few) which point to yet another explanation 
of some part, especially the more irregular part, of the embroidery 
on the limnograph. 

In fig. 33 are placed together two statolimnograms, which were 
taken in close succession at two stations near to each other on the 
northern shore of Loch Earn, during a moderate westerly breeze 
[mean velocity 12 to 16 (mile/hour), extreme velocity occasionally 
24 (mile/hour)|. The upper one was taken in a sheltered bay to 
leeward of the delta of the Glentarken Burn, the lower about 100 
yards farther west, to windward of the delta. The bay was com- 
paratively calm, disturbed only by the swell propagated into it from 
the wind waves rolling outside. The difference between the two 
limnograms is very striking. 'The maximum range of the embroidery 
to windward is much greater, and the pattern is much more irregular 
and complicated. What remains to leeward has much the same 
prominent periods as observed to windward, viz. -4™ to ‘5™, but it is 
obvious that the intervening promontory has screened off a great 
part of the vibrations. ‘The part thus screened off could only consist 
of surface waves of short. length, and could not consist either of 
longitudinal or of transverse seiches. 

Again, I often watched the statolimnograph slowly inscribing 
indentations, such as those which are so marked in the lower 
limnogram in fig. 33, and noticed over and over again that it would 
set one down in an interval of total or comparative calm. On 
looking to windward when this happened, a black line would be seen 
on the water some distance off, indicating a coming wind-squall ; 
then presently would be heard the rustle of the wind in the trees 
overhead, and the increased prattle of the waves among the pebbles 
on the beach would show that the squall had reached the observer. 
In short, the lake-vibration had gone before, and the wind had 
followed after. ‘The explanation seems to be that the squall exerts a 
horizontal traction on the water and causes a drift current. By and 
by this current becomes greater than the compensating return 
current underneath. ‘Thus a hump (or a group of waves) is raised on 
the surface, which is propagated in the water with a speed usually 
exceeding the velocity of the wind in a moderate breeze. ‘This is, in 
fact, in small a phenomenon with which sailors are familiar on a 
large scale, when they point to the long swell which records or 
presages a distant storm at sea. 

I obtained a striking confirmation of this view in the course of an 


90 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


observation planned to test a totally different hypothesis. I had 
supposed that the vibrations might be due to some extent to simul- 
taneous abrupt or periodic disturbances of the atmospheric pressure. 
As explained above (p. 36), the statolimnograph can be used in 
rapid alternation as a limnograph and as a microbarograph. Fig. 34 
shows the result of an observation of this kind. The limnogram is 
deeply embroidered; the microbarogram is all but straight. Since 
the sensitiveness of the Richard statoscope is fifteen to twenty times 
that of a mercury barometer, the ordinate of the microbarogram 
represents the air-pressure on a larger scale than a water barometer. 
If we allow for the damping effect of the well and access tube on the 
half-imimute vibrations, we shall be under the mark if we admit that 


avn Neandimnagraph. Stalescope . 5.4.93 om. Fin Tbe, Uernale, Limmogram 
F-O85. mas menses Nada 


FEET dye szaciriessez iss ssarosesssSbaoes, 
se sersraretsyiss fegeiee: paedeshe cise tdesseeceseanece ge 


ol 
Ef iazate psceeersecersais BES sresecvsseHereasreee Srrrsszeene! PAPEETE Pt ty 


oo 


sscccee See eceeeseeeces Sats pos 
Suara eeaeen oe ee ee 2 
Seance SorsceaaegssscensTeace Seesetceerceanageres SaULeeteeseseeceesescsen a7 < 


PiGso4. 


the statolimnograph magnified the range of these vibrations three 
times. The obvious conclusion is that there was no disturbance of 
the atmospheric pressure of an order sufficient to cause directly the 
embroidery observed on the limnogram. It follows that it must 
have been due to some cumulative atmospheric cause whose action 
originated at a distance from the observers, and I am inclined to look 
for this cause in the surface waves, solitary or periodic or quasi- 
periodic, caused by the heaping action of the wind. It is, of course, 
obvious that such action as this would be screened off by a promontory 
or an island, and would be most marked at the windward end of a 
lake. ‘This cause was suggested, under the name of Wiendstau, by 
‘Endrés in his classical memoir on the complicated seiches of the 
Chiemsee, which has done so much to enlarge our knowledge of lake 
oscillations. 


TEMPERATURE OF SCOTTISH LAKES 


By E. M. WEDDERBURN, W.s. 


Hisrory oF TEMPERATURE OBSERVATIONS IN ScorrisH Lakes 


~Scorranp holds an honourable position in the history of the rise 
of Limnology as a science, and only yields the first place to Switzer- 
land in this respect. 

The first observations on the temperature of the water in deep 
lakes were made. by Saussure, and the careful manner in which they 
were made is described by him in his Voyages dans les Alpes, \T79- 
1796. The first observations on the temperature of Scottish lakes 
were not much later, for in the years 1812 and 1814 Mr James 
Jardine, C.E., carried out series of observations at different depths 
in Loch Tay, Loch Katrine, and Loch Lomond, which were published 
by the late Dr Alex. Buchan in 1872.1 ‘These observations were also 
described by Sir John Leslie in 1838 in his T'reatese on Various 
Subjects of Natural and Chemical Philosophy (Edinburgh, 1838, p. 281), 
and in the article “Climate ” by him in the eighth edition of the Encyclo- 
pedia Britannica (vol. vi. p. 777), where he expressed the view (now 
shown to be erroneous) that the seasonal variation of temperature in 
deep lakes was limited to fifteen or twenty fathoms. 

As these observations were the first to be made in Scotland, it may 
be of interest to quote Sir John Leshie’s account of them, especially 
as it shows that, although one of the earliest writers on lake tempera- 
tures, he had grasped the essential elements of the subject :— 

“ But the rays which fall on seas or lakes are not immediately 
arrested on their course; they penetrate always with diminishing 
energy, till, at a certain depth, they are no longer visible. This depth 
depends without doubt on the clearness of the medium, though 
probably not one-tenth part of the incident light can advance five 
fathoms in most translucid water. The surface of the ocean is not, 
therefore, like that of the land, heated by the direct action of the 

TUPTOC10Yy. Soc. Edin. vol. vil. p. 791, 
91 


92 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


sun during the day, since his rays are not intercepted at their 
entrance, but suffered partially to descend into the mass, and to 
waste their calorific power on a liquid stratum of ten or twelve feet 
in thickness. | 

“But the surface of deep collections of water is kept always 
warmer than the ordinary standard of the place, by the operation 
of another cause, arismg from the peculiar constitution of fluids. 
Although these are capable, like solids, of conducting heat slowly 
through their mass, yet they transfer it principally in a copious flow 
by their internal mobility. The heated portions of a fluid being 
dilated, must continue to float on the surface; while the portions 
which are cooled, becoming consequently denser, will sink downwards 
by their superior gravity. Hence the bed of a very deep pool is 
always excessively cold, since the atmospheric influences are modified 
in their effects by the laws of statics. 


“Through the friendship of Mr James Jardine, civil engineer, we 
are enabled to give the results of his observations on some of the 
principal Scottish lakes, which, as might be expected from him, 
were conducted with the most scrupulous accuracy. ‘The instrument 
which he employed for exploring the temperature at different depths, 
was free from the ordinary objection; being a register thermometer, 
let down in a horizontal position, which could acquire the impression 
in not many seconds, and might be drawn up leisurely, without risk 
of subsequent alteration. It would appear that the variable impres- 
sions of the seasons do not penetrate more than 15 or 20 fathoms ; 
that below this depth, an almost uniform coldness prevails, ‘Thus 
in the deepest part of Loch Lomond, on the 8th September 1812, 
the temperature of the surface was 59°°3 of Fahrenheit ; at the depth 
of 15 fathoms, 43°°7; at that of 40 fathoms, 41°°3; and from that 
point to about 3 feet from the bottom, at 100 fathoms, it decreased 
only the fifth part of a degree. Again on the preceding day, the 
superficial water of Loch Katrine being at 57°:3, the thermometer, 
let down to 10 fathoms, indicated 50°°6; at the depth of 20 fathoms 
it marked 43°°1 ; at the depth of 35 fathoms it fell to 41°71 ; and on 
the verge of the bottom, at 80 fathoms, it had only varied to 41°. 
At the same place, on the 3rd September 1814, the heat of the 
surface was 56°°4; at the depth of 10 fathoms, 49°-2; at that of 
20 fathoms, 44°; at that of 30 fathoms, 41°°9; and at that of 80 
fathoms, 41°:3.” 

Jardine’s observations stand by themselves in Scotland for a 
period of nearly sixty years, although the study of lake temperatures 
was engaging attention on the Continent and in America; but Sir 
Robert Christison revived interest in the matter by describing, in 


TEMPERATURE OF SCOTTISH LAKES 93 


his Presidential Address to the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1872,' 
observations which he had made in Lochs Lomond, Tay, and Katrine 
during the years 1870 and 1871. Sir Robert Christison demon- 
strated the existence in these lochs of a substratum of relatively cold 
water of considerable thickness, which underwent little or no seasonal 
change. He also noted the existence of a discontinuity between the 
temperature of the upper and lower layers of water, which has been 
found to play such an important part in the temperature of fresh- 
water lakes. 

Dr Buchan? next interested himself in the observations of 
Jardine and Christison, and by a comparison of the temperature of 
the cold substratum with the mean temperature of the air, he arrived 
at the conclusion that it is the mean temperature of the cold half 
of the year which determines the temperature of the lowest stratum 
in deep lochs. 

On the return of the Challenger Expedition Mr J. Y. Buchanan 
took up the study of lake temperatures, and his explanation of the 
manner in which ice is formed on lakes was another step in the 
advance of limnology. But perhaps the most important contribution 
to the literature of the subject during last century was Sir John 
Murray’s paper, published in 1888, on the effect of winds on the 
distribution of temperature in the sea and fresh-water lochs of the 
west of Scotland? Dr John Aitken was interested in Buchanan’s 
observations, and drew attention * to the importance of wind currents 
in reducing the temperature of lakes considerably below the maximum 
density point before freezing took place, and may justly be considered 
one of the pioneers of lake-temperature investigations ; but previous 
to Sir John Murray’s investigations very little account was taken of 
the effect of wind on the temperature distribution of lakes, and 
Continental limnologists do not yet seem to have realised the import- 
ance of the facts brought to light by him. From that date onwards 
there has been a considerable quantity of observations, made, amongst 
others, by Sir John Murray, Mr J. Y. Buchanan, and Dr H. R. Mill, 
which materially add to our knowledge of the distribution of tempera- 
ture in lakes. 

_ About the year 1897 the late Mr Fred. P. Pullar began a system- 
atic survey of the lochs of Scotland in conjunction with Sir John 
Murray, and their scheme of work included an examination of the 
temperature conditions of various lochs surveyed. After his death 


1 Proc. Roy. Soc. Hdan., vol. vii. p. 567. 

2 OF wai 

3 Scott. Geogr. Mag., vol. iv. p. 345. 

4 “The Distribution of Temperature under the Ice in Frozen Lakes,” Proc. 
Roy. Soc, Edin., vol. x. p. 409, 1880. 


94 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


the survey was carried on under the direction of Sir John Murray 
and Mr Laurence Pullar, and temperature observations were made in 


RIGS 3b. 


practically all the lochs surveyed. In 
Loch Ness observations were made in the 
years 1903, 1904, and 1905, which in their 
completeness are, I believe, unique in 
the history of limnology, though in the 
light of after experience the observations 
leave much to be desired. I have sub- 
sequently endeavoured to examine the 
temperature changes occurring in fresh- 
water lakes experimentally, and during 
the first half of the year 1908 I was able 
to make numerous observations in Loch 
Garry, Inverness-shire, which are of great 
value as confirming deductions based on 
the observations in Loch Ness. An at- 
tempt has also been made (the first of 
its kind) to observe directly currents in 
lakes, with a view to a better understand- 
ing of the temperature changes which 
have been observed. 

Reference may be made in passing to 
the different kinds of thermometers which 
have been used from time to time in mak- 
ing temperature observations in lakes. 
The instrument which is chiefly used 
now is the Negretti & Zambra reversing 
thermometer. _ It consists of a mercury 
thermometer with a constriction in: the 
bore of the stem about an inch above 
the bulb. As long as the thermometer 
is upright the mercury is continuous from 
bulb to stem, but if the thermometer be 
turned upside down, the mercury breaks 
at the constriction, and the portion in the 
stem falls down. The stem is graduated 
from the point to the bulb, so that the 
temperature at the moment of inversion 
is read off on the stem. This thermo- 
meter is enclosed in a strong glass case to 
protect it against the pressure to which 


it is subjected when immersed in water, and the whole is fitted 
in a metal frame which can be attached to the sounding-line. 


TEMPERATURE OF SCOTTISH LAKES 95 


The forms of the frame for the reversmg thermometer are various, 
one of the forms largely used by the Scottish Lake Survey having 
been designed by the late Mr Parsons (see fig. 35), at one time 
engaged on the Survey, and afterwards principal mineral surveyor in 
Ceylon; but the essence of all the frames is that on a spring catch 
being released the thermometer is inverted. In the usual form of 
frame the spring is released by allowing a weight, called a messenger, 
to slide down the sounding-line till it strikes the thermometer frame. 
The form of messenger to which I am most partial is a bar of metal 
twisted into a spiral, which can then be wound on to or off the 
sounding-line without fear of loss (see fig. 36). This form of 
messenger was designed by Mr William Macdonald, my boatman and 
observer on Loch Garry. By means of these thermometers observa- 
tions may be rapidly taken, the rapidity being increased by attaching 
thermometers to the sounding-line at intervals; two or three or more 
thermometers may be used on one line at the 
same time, and thus simultaneous observations 
of temperature at the several depths may be 
obtained. 'The thermometers had, of course, 
to be immersed for some time to allow of their 
taking up the temperature of the water sur- 
rounding them; and it was found by experi- 
ment that, where there were no great differences 
of temperature in the course of the observa- 
tions, three minutes was sufficient time to allow. 

The early observers worked under great 
disadvantages, having to use an ordinary 
thermometer in one of two ways. In one method a thermometer, 
with many coats of non-conducting material, was lowered to the 
desired depth, and left for many hours to take up the temperature 
of the surrounding water. ‘The protective coatings prevented 
any appreciable alteration in the temperature while being raised 
to the surface, and the thermometer could then be read. The 
other method was to bring up a sample of water from the desired 
depth in a suitable form of bottle or bucket, and then measure the 
temperature of the water when it reached the surface. It will be at 
once apparent that these methods were far from perfect, but in the 
hands of observers like Saussure they were used with great accuracy, 
and the observations may be relied on implicitly. 

Subsequently many varieties of self-registering thermometers 
adapted for observing deep-water temperatures were designed, but 
in connection with these it is only necessary to mention the names 
of Cavendish, Six, and Aimé. The Millar-Casella maximum and 
minimum thermometer, which is a form of Six’s thermometer, is 


Pieao6: 


96 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


frequently used for observing deep-water temperatures ; but a maximum 
and minimum thermometer can only be used where it is known that 
there is a continuous rise or fall in temperature from the top to the 
bottom, for the thermometer only gives the maximum and minimum 
temperatures to which it has been subjected while being lowered and 
raised, and this is not necessarily the temperature at the depth to which 
it has been lowered. ‘The reversing thermometer is, however, not open 
to this objection, as it registers the temperature at the time it is made 
to turn upside down, irrespective of the temperature of the water 
through which it passes while being raised or lowered. 

During the Loch Ness observations use was made of platinum 
resistance thermometers in conjunction with a Callendar recorder. 
Some observations with resistance thermometers had previously been 
made in America by Mr Warren, who used a telephone to measure 
the changes in resistance of a platinum thermometer, and one of his 
instruments was used by the Survey. Dr F. M. Exner? also used 
ingenious electrical resistance thermometers in the Wolfgangsee 
with considerable success, but no observations on a large scale had 
previously been attempted by electrical means.” The object of the 
electrical installation was to obtain a continuous record of tempera- 
tures at any depth. ‘The arrangement used was designed for the 
Lake Survey by the Cambridge Scientific Instrument Co., Ltd., 
and is referred to in my paper on lake temperatures. It was not 
altogether satisfactory, but the experience gained in working with 
it would probably enable the observers to design an apparatus which 
would work well; and this method of observation, giving, as it does, 
continuous records of the temperature, has great advantages over 
observations made with mercury thermometers. 


Errect oF CoNFIGURATION AND GEOGRAPHICAL Postrion 
ON THE TEMPERATURE OF A LAKE 


It is difficult to enumerate all the factors which play a part in 
determining what shall be the temperature of the waters of a lake, 
but these factors may be discussed under the following heads :— 
(1) the depth of the lake and the area of its surface, (2) its altitude, 


1“Messungen der tiiglichen Temperaturschwankungen in verschiedenen 
Tiefen des Wolfgangsees,” Sitzwngsber. Akad. Wiss, Wien, Bd. cix., Abt. i.a, 1900. 

“Uber eigentiimliche Temperaturschwankungen von eintigiger Periode im 
Wolfgangsee,” zbed., Bd. cxvii., Abt. 11.a, 1908. 

2 A thermo-electric junction was used to measure temperatures in the Lake of 
Geneva in 1836 by MM. Bequerel and Breschet (B2bl. Univ. Geneve, t. vii, p. 173, 
1837). This is probably the first attempt to measure lake temperatures by 
electrical means. 

3 See Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xlv. p. 410. 


TEMPERATURE OF SCOTTISH LAKES Di 


(3) its latitude, (4) its orientation, (5) its surroundings, and (6) its 
general shape. 

(1) The Effect of Depth and Superficial Area.—The part 
which the size of a lake plays in the determination of the temperature 
of its waters may easily be understood by imagining two lakes situated 
side by side, and thus subjected to similar external influences. In 
the first place consider the case of two lakes of the same surface 
area, but of unequal depths. For present purposes it may be assumed 
that the only channel by which heat enters or leaves a lake is by the 
surface, so that the two lakes which are to be considered have equal 
opportunities of gaining or losing heat. But if one lake is deeper 
than the other it contains a greater quantity of water, the tempera- 
ture of which will be raised or lowered by the heat entering or leaving 
the lake by the surface. A concrete example will illustrate my 
meaning. Assume that the lakes have rectangular basins and that 
the deeper of the two is 400 feet deep and the shallower 200 feet 
deep. Further, assume that at the time when they begin to gain 
heat the waters of the deeper lake have a uniform temperature of 
40° and the waters of the shallower lake a temperature of 37°. By 
the time the water of the deeper lake has an average temperature 
of, say, 50°, there must have entered through the surface 10V_ units 
of heat, where V represents the volume of the lake. As the surface 
of the shallower lake has the same area, the same quantity of heat 
should have entered its waters; but as the volume of the shallower 
lake is only V/2, its mean temperature will have been raised 20° by 
the 10V units of heat which have entered at the surface. That is 
to say, its mean temperature will be 57°. This example is very 
crude and has not much reference to actual facts, but it is sufficient 
to show the importance of depth in determining the temperature of 
alake. In the same way a rough measure of the importance of surface 
area can be obtained. Consider two lakes similarly placed and of equal 
volume, but the surface area of the first double that of the second. As 
the heat is supposed to enter solely by the surface, the first lake will 
receive twice as much heat as the second; and as the volume of the 
two lakes is the same, a rise of 20° in the mean temperature of the 
first lake would correspond to a rise of 10° in the mean temperature 
of the second. ‘This is, of course, an extreme case, but it serves 
to illustrate the importance of surface area in determining the 
temperature of a lake. 

The size of a lake has another effect, which is well illustrated by 
some of the observations in Scottish lakes referred to at the end of 
this paper (see page 135). ‘The longer and the straighter the axis of a 
lake is, the more effect has a wind blowing along its surface in mixing 
the water and producing currents. The ratio of depth to length in a 


98 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


lake has a considerable influence in determining the depth to which 
wind-produced currents are felt; and it is found that comparatively 
deep lakes which are small always have a greater range of temperature 
from top to bottom than longer lakes of equal depth. 

(2) Effect of Altitude.—The effect of altitude on the temperature 
of a lake requires no elaboration. Altitude enters into the tempera- 
ture of the atmosphere, and so into the temperature of the lake, for 
conduction from the atmosphere is one of the methods in which heat 
is communicated to a lake. Rarefaction of the atmosphere has also a 
small effect on the rate of conduction to or from a lake. Lakes at 
considerable altitudes have usually small drainage areas, and this too 
must be taken into account ; sometimes the quantity of water caught 
in the drainage area of a lake in the course of a year is sufficient to 
fill the lake-basin several times over, and it is evident that such a lake 
cannot be considered a stagnant body of water. ‘The effect of water 
flowing into a lake, however, is chiefly felt at the surface, and the 
bottom temperature is not greatly affected, for, in general, drainage 
water is In summer warmer than the bulk of water in the lake, and 
in winter colder, and therefore remains on the surface.! 

(3) Effect of Latitude.—In the same way latitude is a factor 
determining the temperature of a lake, owing to the difference in 
atmospheric conditions, and in the incidence of the sun’s rays 
brought about by difference in latitude. Difference in latitude 
produces great changes in the range of temperature to be found in 
lakes. ‘Thus in the Lake of Geneva the mean surface temperature in 
the harbour of Geneva for the years 1853 to 1875 for the month of 
February was 40°°9 Fahr., and for the month of August 65°°6—a 
range of nearly 25°. In Loch Ness, the means at Fort Augustus for 
these months for two consecutive years were respectively 41°°9 and 
54°-9 Fahr.—a range of only 13°, or little more than half the range 
in Lake Geneva. And it is not only the yearly range that diminishes 
with latitude, but also the temperature gradient in the lake. In low 
latitudes the heating is comparatively rapid, so that much greater 
temperature gradients are found. Thus in the Wolfgangsee (which 
is a lake with a maximum depth of 375 feet) from the surface to a 
depth of 70 feet there was a fall in temperature of 30° Fahr., whereas: 
in Loch Ness a fall jof 10° or 11° in a similar distance was all that 
was found, and the greatest range observed in any Scottish lake was 
21°°2 in Loch Achilty (see page 137). As will be seen in the 
sequel, large temperature gradients such as these have an important 
bearing on the temperature changes which occur in lakes. 

(4) Effect of Orientation.—The effect of orientation of a lake 1s 
not at first sight so apparent. By orientation is meant the direction 

' But see pages 100-101. 


TEMPERATURE OF SCOTTISH LAKES Ss) 


in which the lake trends—north and south, or east and west. ‘The 
orientation of a lake is important, as it determines whether the 
prevailing winds sweep along the whole length of the lake, or whether 
they merely blow across it. The effect of winds on a lake will be 


discussed in considerable detail later, but it may be stated that 


winds are of great importance in determining the temperature 


distribution, for they are the means of mixing the waters at the 


surface, which have been heated or cooled, with the deeper layers of 
water, thus helping to make temperature changes felt to a greater 
depth than would be possible by conduction or radiation. If the 
prevailing winds blow along the length of the lake they have a much 
greater mixing effect than if they merely blow across it. 

(5) Effect of Surroundings.—It is at once evident that the natural 
surroundings of a lake are very important. If the lake is surrounded 
by high hills, as is the case with many of our Scottish lakes, the pre- 


_ vailing winds will nearly always be deflected to blow along the lake, 


thus exercising a greater mixing effect than if they blew across it or 
at an angle. Again, one lake may be greatly sheltered from winds by 
surrounding hills and woods, while another, similar as regards size and 
shape, may be exposed to every wind that blows. ‘The presence of hills 
also has its effect in directly cutting off sunshine from reaching the sur- 
face of the lake, and in the formation of clouds which obscure the sun. 

(6) Effect of General Shape.—It is evident that the shape of the 
basin of a lake has a considerable effect in determining its temperature 
conditions. The effect of the wind is different in deep and shallow 
lakes, as already indicated. Lakes with shelving shores also behave 
differently in some respects from lakes whose shores are steep. 
Narrow lakes in confined glens cannot be compared with broad and 
open sheets of water. 

These and many other points will be dealt with later, but I may 
state here that I have been criticised for generalising from a lake: 
such as Loch Ness, which is deep and narrow compared with other 
lakes. The criticism is fair, but it only shows the necessity for 
complete observations in lakes of all kinds. Forel insists that each 
lake has its own individuality, and that only by a careful and 
complete study of each lake can we approach the truth. Complete 
observations in a great number of lakes are not available, but it seems 
improbable that the temperature conditions observed in Lochs Ness 
and Garry should not have their counterpart in all lakes. 


Meruops py wuico a Lake Garns or Loses Heat 


What are the methods by which a lake can gain or lose heat? 
Some methods may be mentioned merely to be set aside as being too 


100 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


trivial to consider in the present state of our knowledge. Among 
such methods may be mentioned the mechanical effect of the action 
of the wind on the surface of the lake, the beating of the waves on 
the shore, condensation and evaporation at the surface, the heat 
generated by organisms in the water and by decaying matter. These 
and others doubtless all have their effects, but these effects must be 
small.t_ Moreover, they are more or less constant all the year round, 
and so cannot contribute appreciably to the changes from the cold 
of winter to the heat of summer and the subsequent cooling of the 
waters, which present the chief problems in dealing with the tempera- 
ture conditions of lakes. 

The more important factors which require to be dealt with are: 
(1) the influences of rivers and rain, (2) radiation, (3) conduction, 
(4) convection, and (5) wind. 

(1) Effect of Rivers and Rain.—It is difficult to estimate the effect 
of rivers and streams entering a lake, both because of the rapid 
changes which the temperature of streams undergoes, and because of 
the difficulty in determining the bulk of water entering the lake. A 
shallow stream very quickly heats up when the sun shines upon it and 
upon the stones which form its bed, while in winter melting snows 
cool the waters of streams, even in mild weather, nearly to freezing 
point. In large and deep lakes, such as Loch Ness, rivers have no 
marked effect on the cycle of changes which takes place. They do, 
of course, affect the quantity of heat entering or leaving a lake, but 
they do not leave any distinct trace on the temperature distribution. 

The effect of rainfall is also not directly traceable. Rain quiets 
the waves, and so retards to a small degree the mixing of the surface 
layers. As a rule, the rain-water is of a higher temperature than the 
surface-water, and so its direct effect is limited to the surface layers. 

Sometimes, however, after rain-storms, or when snows are melting, 
the rivers entering a loch come down in spate, and their effect is 
distinctly traceable. Some smaller lakes become transformed into 
mere enlargements of the streams entering, and there is a wholesale 
transference of the waters towards the outlets. When it is remem- 
bered that lakes of the dimensions of Loch Ness rise sometimes five 
or even ten feet in a very short period, it will be seen that even in 
large lakes the effect of rivers and rain is not negligible. The 
behaviour of lakes during spates gives some information as to what 
becomes of water entering: if the river-water is of higher tempera- 
ture than the surface-water, it remains on the surface and spreads 
over it; but if the river-water is colder than the surface-water, as is 
sometimes the case, it sinks until it reaches water of like temperature 
with itself, and there intrudes itself. In this way, during big spates, 


1 See paragraph on freezing of lakes as to effect of rapid evaporation (page 114). 


TEMPERATURE OF SCOTTISH LAKES 101 


large wedges of water are sometimes found at considerable depths in 
the neighbourhood of rivers of the same temperature as the river- 
water. These wedges gradually flatten out and spread themselves 
between the upper warm water and the colder water below—unless, 
indeed, the rivers bring down quantities of matter in suspension, 
which make the water heavy, and carry it, although perhaps warmer 
than the surface-water, down to considerable depths. 

(2) Radiation.—Radiation is a source of gain of heat which 
affects the cycle of temperature changes in a lake more directly than 
rivers do, but it is a factor which is frequently overestimated. At 
first sight it may seem that direct insolation is the chief source of gain 
of heat in a lake, but it is not so. Although the sun’s rays may be 
perceptible to depths of 100 feet or more (the depth being dependent 
on the nature of the water and the amount of matter in suspension), 
the heat rays do not penetrate to anything like so great a depth. 
There is also a large quantity of heat reflected from the surface, 
especially when the surface is calm and mirror-like. Dufour! found 
in the Lake of Geneva that more than one-half of the radiant energy 
received at the surface of the lake was directly reflected. 

Dr Knott? has calculated for the latitude of Edinburgh the solar 
energy which crosses unit surface in a given time from insolation, and 
he finds that per square centimetre— 


Energy supplied during summer months = 114,840 gram calories. 
Energy supplied during winter months = 19,080 ,, if 


This gives, say, 134,000 gram calories per square centimetre per 
annum for the solar supply, or for the whole of Loch Ness a supply 
of 7°2 x 10" gram calories. The actual amount of energy stored up 
in Loch Ness, as calculated from the temperature observations, was 
19x10" gram calories,? so that about three-quarters of the heat 
supplied was lost by reflection and radiation from the lake surface, 
and by the various other methods by which a lake loses heat. 

This seems a reasonable result, and it is confirmed by the observa- 
tions In Loch Garry, from which it appeared that five-sixths of the 
heat supphed was lost. 

Dr Knott’s calculations were for the latitude of Edinburgh, but 
his values are probably correct within the limits of error for Loch 
Ness and Loch Garry. 

It is a natural question to ask to what depth the sun’s rays are 
appreciable. Forel, by means of a black-bulb thermometer, found 
that at a depth of 1 metre the direct effect of sunshine was 


1 See Forel, Le Léman, vol. ii. p. 333, 1895. 
2 See Proc. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xxiii. p. 296, 1901. 
3 See page 134. 


102 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


considerable, but he does not seem to have carried his observations 
to any greater depth. In Loch Ness, by means of an electrical 
sunshine receiver used with the Callendar recorder, the sun’s rays — 
could hardly be detected at a depth of 15 feet, though they were 
quite appreciable at a depth of 10 feet. Ata depth of 5 feet it was 
impossible to distinguish between the effect of sunshine and cloud. 
Attempts were also made to detect radiation from the loch during 
the night, but they were unsuccessful. 

The observations show that the direct effect of the sun’s rays is 
not appreciable to any great depth, and that they do not directly 
cause the temperature changes which occur and are appreciable even 
at the bottom of the deepest lakes.! 

In the shallow water round the shores of a lake, especially where 
the shores are shallow and shelving, the effect of the sun’s rays is 
more appreciable than in deep water, as the stones lying on the shore 
and in the shallow water are heated up, and consequently it is a 
common experience to find the shore waters of a much higher 
temperature than the water in the centre of the lake. For a similar 
reason water which contains a large amount of matter in suspension 
will gain more heat through radiation than water which is relatively 
purer. 

(3) Conduction.—There is a certain amount of heat gained by 
conduction from the atmosphere—in fact, this is considered by 
Richter? to be the main source of gain or loss of heat by fresh-water 
lakes. The coefficient of conduction of water is 0°074, while that of 
mercury is 0°91. It is thus seen that propagation of heat by 
conduction is extremely slow. But through the action of wind, etc., 
the water heated up at the surface by conduction or otherwise is 
quickly mixed with colder water, so that there is frequently a 
considerable difference between the temperature of the water at the 
surface and the temperature of the atmosphere, favouring a trans- 
ference of heat by conduction. 

There is also a gain of heat through conduction from the earth 
which forms the basin of the lake, but this is an almost negligible 
factor ; it has been calculated that the heat supplied from this source 
would only be sufficient to raise the temperature of a layer of water 
8 inches thick about 1° Fahr. in a year. 

1 See also page 110. See Fitzgerald, Roy. Dublin Soc. Proc., vol. v. pp. 169-170, 
1886. He made some observations in Lough Derg (Ireland) in sunny weather, 
and from a calculation of the amount of heat entering the water he thought that 
only about one-fiftieth or less was used in heating it, the rest being probably 
spent in evaporation. He does not state how his calculations were made, but it 
is probable that he neglected the effect of wind and convection currents in 
reducing the temperature gradient at the surface. 

2 See “Seestudien,” Geogr. Abhandl., Bd. vi. p. 121, Wien, 1897. 


TEMPERATURE OF SCOTTISH LAKES 108 


(4) Convection. — Radiation and conduction are the principal 
ultimate sources of gain or loss of heat. Currents produced by 
convection and by wind are the principal causes of the temperature 
distribution found in lakes. In spring and summer, when the surface- 
water is being rapidly heated up, there forms at the surface a layer of 
water of much higher temperature than the layers immediately below 
it, and convection currents are set up which equalise the temperature 
near the surface. I have observed at Dores, on Loch Ness, in perfectly 
calm weather and out of reach of river influences, the surface 
temperature to change as much as 6° Fahr. in two minutes. Again, 
in calm frosty weather there is a similar action of convection currents, 
the surface-water is rapidly cooled down, and the resulting difference 
of temperature between the water at the surface and the lower layers 
is equalised or minimised by convection currents. These currents 
were clearly demonstrated by the electrical recorder used on Loch 
Ness. Even the cooling which takes place in the course of cold spring 
evenings is followed by rapid convection currents, which were at 
times shown in a startling manner by the recorder. 

Convection currents are, however, not limited to the surface. 
When the discontinuity layer (see page 117) and the temperature 
seiche are in evidence, there are convection currents set up in the 
neighbourhood of the discontinuity. It is inevitable that there 
should be such currents where there are two layers of water of 
widely different temperatures in contact, especially as the tempera- 
ture seiche and wind currents cause relative motion between the 
two layers. 

(5) Wind.—The effect of wind in determining the temperature 
changes in lakes has never, I think, been given its due place. ‘To the 
effect of winds more than to any other thing I attribute not only the 
cycle of changes which occurs in a lake, but also the absolute quantity 
of heat which becomes stored up in it. If one could imagine a lake 
which is never troubled with winds, and the waters of which are ever 
calm, the problem of its temperature changes would be very easy of 
solution—there would be no wind currents to carry warm water to 
‘its depths and no temperature seiche. There would be no sudden 
differences in temperature from top to bottom, but a gradual change 
throughout. The transference of heat from top to bottom would take 
place almost entirely by conduction, and, as has already been seen, the 
transference of heat by conduction is very slow. 

The detailed examination of the effect of winds will be more con- 
veniently dealt with after an explanation of some of the phenomena 
which appear. Mention is only made of it at this point for the sake 
of completeness. 


104 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


CLASSIFICATION OF LAKES 


It is customary to divide fresh-water lakes into three classes, depend- 
ing on the change of density of water with temperature. For con- 
venience of reference the following table gives the density of pure water 
at intervals from the freezing point up to 70° Fahr., warmer than 
which it is rare to find water in Scottish lakes :— 


Temperature. Density. 
32° Fahr. 0°99987 
39 1°00000 
45 0°99992 
50 0°99973 
55 0°99943 
60 0°99904 
65 0°99857 
70 0°99800 


It is seen from the table that water has a maximum density point 
about 39° Fahr., and it is this fact which renders possible the freezing 
of the surface of lakes. _Fresh-water lakes are classed as: (1) those 
whose waters never fall below 39° Fahr., (2) those whose waters always 
have a temperature lower than 39° Fahr., and (3) those whose waters 
are sometimes above and sometimes below 39° Fahr. The names given 
to these classes respectively—tropical, polar, and temperate—are not 
very appropriate, suggesting as they do that one class of lakes belongs 
to the tropics, another to the polar regions, and the third to the 
temperate zone. ‘This is not so, but the names have now obtained 
such general recognition that it is not advisable to discard them. 

In Scotland there are no lakes of the polar type or class. In a 
lake of this class the temperature of the water never rises above the 
maximum density point. As a consequence of this the coldest water 
is always at the top, the lower layers having a higher temperature ; 
at the bottom the water may have a temperature of 39° Fahr., but 
no higher—otherwise the lake would not be of the polar class. Such 
lakes can only be found in the polar regions or at great altitudes, and 
in them the cycle of temperature changes is the reverse of what is found 
in tropical lakes. It will be explained later how in tropical lakes 
the temperature of the water is nearly uniform in winter, and how 
stratification sets in as the summer advances. But in polar lakes it 
is in summer that a uniform temperature is found throughout the 
lake. As winter draws on the lake becomes thermally stratified, as 
will be seen by reference to Forel’s diagrams (figs. 37-39), which are 
reproduced by permission. 571; P. - - - are depth measurements ; 
the horizontal scale measures time; ,, 175, M3. - . My, Mo, Mg- - . are 
isothermals showing the depth at which the temperatures of m,, m,, mz 

. Nyy M,N, . . . are to be found at any period of the year. The 
isothermal for the maximum density point is represented by a double 


TEMPERATURE OF SCOTTISH LAKES 105 


line. Isothermals for temperatures above this are represented by 
the lines m,, m,, m,. . ., and for the temperatures below this by the 
MiMes*71,, 755 223 -. 

By far the greater number of Scottish lakes belong to the tem- 


Heating Heating | Cooling 
Sry [Sema] Ann | Wn | Spring [Sm] Aton | Wa 
fe 


RW RASS 
AIRS SIR 
Pp AAR Te 


Direct Shatificalion | InveweS") Direct 8”) Invewe 5" 


Fic. 37.—Temperate Lakes, 


perate class. In summer and autumn the temperature is all above 
39° Fahr., the warmest layers of water are at the surface, and the 
temperature of the water decreases the deeper down it is situated. 
In winter and spring the water has all become cooled down below the 


Cooling 


| Spring Summer Autumn | | Winter | Spring | | Summer Aufumn | Winter 


{ RSTO SST 


mt FYE ASST 
4 SSS eee 


i 


~ 


+> 
tw 


Ditect Stratification 


Fic, 38.—Tropical Lakes. 


maximum density point, and the condition of the lake is similar to 
what is found in polar lakes all the year round—the coldest water 
being at the surface. 

The larger and more important of Scottish lakes belong to the 
tropical class. Owing to their depth the temperature of their waters 
never falls below the maximum density point. At the bottom the 


106 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


temperature may be 39° Fahr. or higher, and the layers nearer the 
surface are all of an equal or higher temperature. 

A lake may in winter belong apparently to two classes. A. series 
of temperatures taken in a shallow bay will reveal a lake apparently 
of the temperate or polar type, the colder water being at the sur- 


Healing Cooling |Heating | Cooling 
Spring |Summer| Autumn | Winter | Spring ‘Summer Aufumn | Winter 
oO . . 
‘ Stee Ss Sera oa SC ee a Saas 
~ : os : i 1 vei eo > ~ . > SS x 


‘ 
0 f] oY) 
‘ 
1 
s . \ DN 
SS Ss . 


Fie. 39.—Polar Lakes. 


face, or the surface may even be covered with ice; while a series of 
temperatures taken in the deepest portions of the lake will indicate 
that it belongs to the tropical class—the temperature being all over 
39° Fahr. Further reference to this state of affairs will be made 
when discussing the formation of ice, but an illustration is given in 


Fia. 40. 


fig. 40, which represents the section of part of a lake-basin, and shows 
temperature distribution where one part of the lake belongs to the 
temperate class and another part to the tropical class. This diagram 
is also reproduced from Le Léman with Forel’s kind permission. 

It is the tropical class which is of the greatest mterest to the 
limnologist, as it includes the grandest and largest of our inland 


TEMPERATURE OF SCOTTISH LAKES 107 


waters. It will make what follows more intelligible if the nature of 
the temperature changes taking place in lakes of this class in the 


course of the year 1S briefly indicated. A similar series of changes 


DEPTH 


will take place in temperate lakes during the summer and autumn, 
for in these seasons distribution of temperature is similar to that 
found in tropical lakes. 

The most convenient starting-point from which to consider the 
temperature of such lakes is spring, when the water is all of uniform 
temperature. As summer comes on, the lake gains heat and becomes 
stratified. This is evidenced by a gradual rise in temperature of the 
surface layers, the increase being also noticeable at considerable 


FIRST PHASE SECOND PHASE THIRD PHASE 
TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE 


DEPTH 
DEPTH 


Fic. 41. ines 42% Hie. 43: 


depths ; the falling off in the rate of increase from the surface to the 
bottom is very rapid. At the end of summer there is a short period 
during which there is very little loss or gain of heat, but during 
which important changes take place. Figs. 41 and 42 show the nature — 
of the distribution of temperature in spring and summer. The spring 


type is represented by a straight line, the lake being of uniform 


temperature from top to bottom. The summer type is a smoothly 
curved line, showing rapid changes of temperature at the surface and 
very slow changes at greater depths. Fig. 43 shows the autumn type, 
when the discontinuity layer (or Sprungschicht') has made its appear- 
ance. ‘There is at the surface a layer of water, say 50 feet in depth, 

1 Sprungschicht is the word used by Continental writers. I prefer to use the 


word “‘discontinuity,” or “discontinuity layer,” to describe the nature of the tempera- 
ture distribution. American writers speak of the thermocline.” 


108 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


of nearly uniform temperature. Below this there is a layer of water 
of rapidly varying temperature—the discontinuity layer; and below 
that again there are the abysmal waters of the lake, also of fairly 
uniform temperature. | 

After the lake has become stratified in this fashion, it is, as 1t were, 
divided into two compartments separated by the discontinuity layer. 
As the season progresses, there is a transference of heat from the 
upper to the lower layer by conduction, convection, and otherwise, 
with the result that, while the upper layer is falling in temperature 
by parting with its heat by way of the surface, it is also parting with 
some of its heat to the lower layer, which goes on rising in tempera- 
ture, even though the lake as a whole is losing heat. ‘The upper 
layer of uniform temperature increases in depth, the discontinuity 
layer gradually sinks deeper, and the difference in temperature 
between the upper and lower layers decreases, until finally the loch is 
again of uniform temperature from top to bottom. 

This is in brief the cycle of changes which takes place in lakes of 
the tropical class without reference to the effect of winds and currents. 
In lakes of the polar class there is no room for the great differences of 
temperature found in tropical lakes—differences which may amount 
to 20° Fahr. or more.’ In polar lakes there is only room for a varia- 
tion of about 7° Fahr.—from freezing point to the maximum density 
point. In addition to that, at the coldest period of the year, and for 
a large part of the year, the lake is covered with ice, which prevents 
the waters being disturbed by wind, and in consequence the distribu- 
tion from top to bottom is almost wholly influenced by conduction, 
and the curve representing the change of temperature from top to 
bottom is logarithmic. In summer there is a general mixing up of 
the water by wind influences, etc., so that it becomes all of uniform 
temperature. 

In lakes of the temperate class there is a mixture of the polar and 
tropical classes. In winter and spring the lake behaves as a polar 
lake, and in summer and autumn as a tropical lake.1 


' An elaboration of Forel’s classification was proposed by Mr Whipple, 
Director of Mount Prospect Laboratory (“Classification of Lakes according to 
Temperature,” American Naturalist, 1898, vol. xxxii. p. 25). He divided each of the 
three classes into three orders according as the bottom temperatures (1) are 
practically constant at or near the point of maximum density, (2) undergo annual 
fluctuations but are never very far from the point of maximum density, (3) are 
seldom very far from the surface temperatures. This subdivision was thought to 
be important from the point of view of the periods of so-called stagnation and 
circulation in lakes; but unless the surface of a lake is protected from the action of 
the wind by a covering of ice, there is no stagnation period, and the subdivision 
does not appear to be of great interest. (See remarks on circulation of lakes, 
Dp: 1218) 


TEMPERATURE OF SCOTTISH LAKES 109 


Before going on to deal more in detail with the temperature in 
fresh-water lakes reference may be made in passing to the difference 
of the conditions in salt Jakes. The differences in density which may 
occur in the same lake owing to varying degrees of salinity produce 
complications. As an example of the temperature distribution which 
is possible, reference may be made to the lakes of Austria-Hungary,} 
some of which contain as much as 25 per cent. common salt. In 
Lake Medve, which has an average depth of 32 feet, the surface 
temperature during summer varies from 68° to 86° Fahr. Below the 
surface the temperature rises gradually, and at a depth of about 
4 feet reaches a maximum of about 133° Fahr., after which it again 
falls to about 86° Fahr. at a depth of 18 feet. Other lakes show simi- 
larly a median zone of water of high temperature, and the point of 
maximum temperature is also found to be the point of maximum 
salinity. 


SurFACE "TEMPERATURES 


As it is through the surface that a lake gains and loses its 
greatest quantity of heat, the investigation of surface temperatures is 
always of importance, although it is not so interesting as the investi- 
gation of abysmal temperatures. 

The observation of the temperature of the surface is, of course, 
easier than the observation of the temperature of deep water, as 
an ordinary mercury thermometer may be used. As a rule, when 
observing surface temperatures the reversing thermometer was used 
and immersed in the water at the surface. In this way it is not 
actually the temperature of the uppermost layer of water which is 
measured, but a sort of average of the temperature of the first 9 or 
12 inches of water at the surface. The observation of the tempera- 
ture of a thin film at the surface would be a matter of considerable 
difficulty, even on perfectly calm days, and I am not aware that any- 
thing has been done in this direction. 

In calm weather a diurnal variation in the temperature at the 
surface can be distinctly traced; but when there is a wind blowing, 
this diurnal variation is masked by the changes produced by the wind. 
Forel had at his command a great number of observations made 
in the Lake of Geneva, and by taking the means of morning and 
evening observations he found that the average diurnal variation was 
about 2°°5 Fahr., the maximum variation being about 8° Fahr. He 

1 See Professor Kaleczinsky, Scott. Geogr. Mag., vol. xvili. p. 317, 1902, and 
vol. xx. p. 216, 1904. Professor Kaleczinsky suggests that deposits of rock-salt 
will take place more rapidly in winter than in summer because of the reduced 


temperature of the water, and that deposits during summer will chiefly consist of 
anhydrite. The stratification of the deposits thus indicates their age. 


110 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


also states that the water at the surface to a depth of 2 or 3 feet is 
of nearly uniform temperature. ‘This is true after passing the first 
thin-surface layer, but I believe the thin surface film, the tempera- 
ture of which is so difficult to measure, undergoes much greater 
variation than Forel indicates. ‘There is often at the surface a very 
steep temperature gradient, and this is never better shown than when 
there is a thin covering of ice forming at the surface, showing the 
surface temperature to be very nearly 32° Fahr., whilst the reading 
obtained by a mercury thermometer, the bulb of which is immersed 
an inch or so below the surface, is seldom lower than 34° or 35° Fahr. 
‘The extent of the diurnal variation is greatly dependent on the 
size of the surface waves and the strength of the wind, so that obser- 
vations on different days are not comparable with one another. 
Another point, however, is of more importance than this, and that 
is the depth to which direct insolation—direct heating by the sun’s 
rays—takes place. Rightly or wrongly, I distrust all deductions 
made by Richter and others as to the depth to which heating takes 
place by direct radiation. Convection and conduction. currents 
determine the depth to which heating takes place, and these currents 
are dependent on other factors than the strength of the sun’s rays 
and the angle at which they meet the surface. - Only two factors 
need be mentioned—(1) the effect of wind and the action of the 
waves, to which I shall return ; and (2) the composition of the water 
and the quantity of matter in suspension, upon which the trans- 
parency of water depends. ‘The diathermancy of water is small, and 
the heat rays are largely absorbed after passing through the first few 
millimetres of water, so that radiation into a loch is not appreciable 
at considerable depths ; and radiation out of a loch during the night 
is even slower, for Soret found that the diathermancy of water was less 
for dark rays than for light rays. In Melloni’s' experiments on the 
diathermancy of liquids it was found that, when the source of heat 
was an Argand lamp with glass chimney, only 11. per cent. of the rays 
was transmitted through a layer of distilled water 9°21 mm. thick. 
Attempts have been made to measure the depth to which direct 
radiation is appreciable. Forel observed in the Lake of Geneva, by 
immersing a thermometer with blackened bulb at varying depths, 
that in midsummer at a depth of 1 metre the black-bulb thermo- 
meter read as much as 15° Fahr. higher than the ordinary thermo- 
meter. Interesting observations were also made in Loch Ness by 
means of the Callendar recorder, which was at times used to measure 
the difference in resistance between a bright and a blackened platinum 
wire immersed at various depths. When this bolometer was immersed 
at greater depths than 5 feet it was impossible to distinguish between 
1 Annal. Chimie et Physique, sér. 2, t. lili. p. 5, 1833 ; t. lv. p. 337, 1834. 


" TEMPERATURE OF SCOTTISH LAKES aed 


sunshine and cloud; but to a depth of about 15 feet it was possible 
to distinguish between night and day by means of the records 
obtained. With the bolometer in air the deflection shown on the 
scale of the recorder was 150 times as great as when the bolometer 
was immersed at a depth of 10 feet. 

At first sight these observations in the Lake of Geneva and in 
Loch Ness seem irreconcilable, but this is not necessarily so, for the 
waters of Loch Ness are not so transparent as the waters of the Lake 
of Geneva, partly due to the composition of the water, and partly, no 
doubt, due to particles of matter in suspension in the water, which 
absorb radiant heat. The effect of the sun’s rays on the Lake of 
Geneva will also be greater than on Loch Ness, owing to the lower 
latitude of the former, but 20 feet may be taken as an upper limit to 
the depth to which direct radiation is appreciable. 

How then is heat propagated to great depths? Convection 
currents begin whenever the isotherms are not horizontal, and this to 
a small extent aids the propagation of heat to deeper waters. Con- 
duction also carries the heat gained at the surface from radiation, and 
from contact with the atmosphere, to the lower layers. Weber 
estimated the depth to which heat would penetrate into a lake in the 
course of a year, by conduction solely, at 6 metres. Itis thus apparent 
that if the heating were due to radiation, conduction, and convection 
alone, the changes in the course of a year would be limited to the first 
20 or 30 feet of water; but instead of this, temperature changes can be 
detected even at the bottom of the deepest lakes. 

This is due to some extent to warm waters brought down by rivers, 
which, if they are rendered heavy by matter in suspension, sink down 
into, and mix with, the colder waters of the lake. But the chief agency 
in distributing heat throughout a lake is wind-produced currents, 
which thoroughly mix the surface water, heated by radiation and con- 
duction, with the rest of the water of the lake, and which bring up 
from the depths of the lake cold water to be in turn heated at the 
surface. 

Many local variations of the temperature of the surface are notice- 
able. Owing to the action of winds, the warm water on the surface 
of a lake is carried to the lee end of the lake, with the result that 
a greater quantity of warm water is met with at the lee end than at 
the windward end. 

Heating and cooling of water take place more rapidly near the 
shore than in the deep parts of the lake, because of the greater quan- 
tity of matter kept in suspension by the beating of the waves on the 
shore, and also because the shores themselves absorb radiant heat much 
more rapidly than the water does, and thus help to heat up the shore 
waters. 


LLY, THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Other local variations are due to the state of the surface of the 
lake, which in some parts may reflect more heat than in others, and so 
produce local differences. The inflow of rivers also produces local ' 
differences. 

Even at one point of the surface there may be rapid changes of | 
temperature, especially in early summer and in autumn, when heating 
and cooling are most rapid. Some interesting records showing this 
were obtained in Loch Ness by means of the platinum thermometers. 
During frosty weather the curves obtained by the recorder were of a 
much more ragged nature than the curves obtained in mild weather. 
The embroideries on the curves were caused by small changes of 
temperature which were probably due to convection currents mixing 
the water which had been cooled at the surface with the warmer 
water below. 

Towards the end of May 1904 the records of temperature at the 
surface began to show rapid changes of great amplitude. So erratic 
did the curves obtained by means of the Callendar recorder appear that 
they were at first attributed to instrumental errors. But the changes 
were checked by means of mercury thermometers. It was not possible, 
either, to attribute the changes to wind, for they occurred on the 
calmest days. Nor can they have been due to river influences, for they 
were also observed at Dores, where there is no river entering the loch 
to make the observations suspicious. On one occasion, in two minutes 
the surface temperature was found to change as much as 6° Fahr. On 
another occasion, when there was a quantity of pollen from flowers on 
the shore suspended in the loch, it was observed from the motion of 
the particles that different layers of water were moving in different 
directions, and the surface waters were evidently in a very agitated 
condition, although the surface of the water was quite calm. ‘These 
and other observations indicate that, while the lake is gaining in heat, 
even in calm weather the surface-water to a depth of 5 or 10 feet is 
constantly being mixed up by convection. Were this not so, large 
temperature gradients would be observed at the surface, and this is 
the exception and not the rule. 


ForMAtion oF Ick 


It is only in lakes of the polar and temperate classes that freezing 
can take place. It must be borne in mind, however, that a lake may 
not always be in the same class. Ina year with a mild winter it might 
fall to be classified as a tropical lake, while in another year with a 
severe winter it might come within the class of temperate lakes. More- 
over, it does not follow that because a lake is of the temperate or polar 
class it will become frozen over during the winter. The classification 


TEMPERATURE OF SCOTTISH LAKES 113 


depends solely upon the water reaching its maximum density point ; 
but when that point is reached, the water is in a condition which 
makes freezing possible. Before that point is reached, water cooled by 
contact with the air or otherwise is heavier than the water immediately 
below it, and accordingly it sinks until it is mixed with the water 
through which it falls, or until it reaches water of equal density. In 
this way warm water is always brought to the surface, and freezing is 
practically impossible. 

But when the maximum density point has been reached, the water 
which is cooled at the surface no longer sinks. Its tendency is to 
remain at the surface, and as the rate of conduction in water is small, 
freezing will readily take place in water at and below the maximum 
density point. 

It is possible for some of the water in a lake to be above the 
maximum density point while the remainder is below. Fig. 40 shows 
the temperature distribution to be found in such a case. ‘There are 
not many actual observations of such a temperature distribution 
recorded, but it is a matter of common observation that shallow bays 
in a lake, which as a whole is very seldom covered with ice, may freeze 
over readily ; and in most cases this means that, while the bulk of the 
water in the lake is above the maximum density point, there is water 
round the shores that has been cooled below that point. 

As a matter of fact, however, the water in a lake is usually cooled 
considerably below the maximum density point before freezing takes 
place. ‘There is usually a lapse of time between the date at which 
the water in the lake has been cooled to the maximum density point 
and the date at which the air temperature falls below freezing point. 
During this time the water in the lake is gradually falling in tempera- 
ture, and owing to the circulation of the water produced by the wind, 
the whole body of water contained in the lake, and not merely the 
surface layer, falls in temperature. Thus Buchanan found that the 
mean temperature of the water under the ice in Loch Lomond was 
34° Fahr., or about 5° below the maximum density point, and in 
Linlithgow Loch 37° Fahr. 

Freezing takes place most readily in calm weather, as the effect 
of winds and storms is to mix the water cooled at the surface with 
the water below it. At times the freezing takes place all over the 
surface of the lake in one night, while at other times it begins at the | 
shores, and the ice gradually creeps in to the centre of the lake. This 
latter is the manner in which lakes with shallow shores freeze. As 
previously explained, the water round about shallow shores cools more 
rapidly than the water in the centre of the lake, and so freezes more 
readily. When once a fringe of ice has formed round the shores, 
there are set up convection currents from the shore towards the 


8 


Wk THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


warmer portions of the lake, and for a time these currents will be 
vigorous. But when these currents have cooled down the surface of 
the open water sufficiently, and have slackened in consequence, a 
portion of the water round about the ice-fringe becomes frozen before 
it can reach the warmer water in the lake, and when this stage is 
reached freezing proceeds rapidly. ; 

In many of the Scottish lakes, however, the shores are steep, and 
freezing takes place over the whole surface at once, without the 
formation of a shore fringe. Freezing in such lakes usually takes 
place during a calm night in spring with a-sharp frost, and an open 
sky which favours radiation and evaporation from the lake. ‘The 
surface is at first covered with a network of ice-crystals, and then by 
a thin sheet of ice. One fact about this mode of freezing, which at 
first sight is remarkable, is that lakes that have never had ice on them 
during winter—that is, say, up to the end of February—may be covered 
with a sheet of ice in a single night during spring. The reason for 
this is that in spring there are frequently calm nights with intense 
frosts—spring frosts, as they are called—which are favourable for 
the rapid formation of ice. Evaporation is very active, owing to the 
relative dryness of the atmosphere in spring, and on a clear, dry night 
a wet surface may be from five to ten degrees lower than a dry one. 
In addition to this, all through the winter the water in a lake is 
continually losing heat, and it is in early spring, before heating of the 
water begins to take place, that its temperature is lowest and freezing 
takes place most readily. In the spring of 1908 observations were 
made in Loch Garry, and though at no time was the loch completely 
covered with ice, on several occasions during March large portions of 
the surface were covered with ice in a single night—with a thickness 
of as much as half an inch. 

But freezing of this nature does not necessarily take place uniformly 
over the surface of the lake. Ice forms in irregular patches stretching 
long arms out into the lake. Sometimes there may be open water at 
the shores, and ice over the deepest parts of the lake. Frequently ice 
forms about the mouths of small streams, for the waters entering the 
lake may be very nearly at freezing point, and will float on the surface 
of the water in the lake and freeze readily. But this is not enough 
to account for the irregular formation of ice. Isolated patches occur 
well out from the shores, and not connected with them at all. ‘This 
may partly arise because some parts of the lake are more sheltered 
than others from local breezes, which disturb the surface and produce 
mixing of the surface layer with the warmer water below, so prevent- 
ing freezing. 

There is another possible explanation of the patchy formation of 
ice. Everyone who is familiar with the appearance of the surface 


TEMPERATURE OF SCOTTISH LAKES TES 


of sheets of water must have frequently noticed oily patches (taches 
Vhuile), which are popularly supposed to herald rain. The origin 
of these patches is not definitely known—it may be that oily 
substances are brought down by streams. Many explanations have 
been put forward, but none are conclusive. Their effect, however, is 
to produce variations in surface tension which hinder the formation 
of surface ripples. Schneider,! in the Obersee, found that water in one 
of these oily patches was 2°°3 Fahr. colder than water with ripples on 
it in the immediate neighbourhood. ‘This was, however, probably 
accidental, for numerous observations were made in Loch Ness with 
a view to correlating the appearance of these oily patches with 
temperature differences, but without result. It is possible that 
freezing takes place more readily on these oily patches, although 
Forel? and Halbfass? are of opinion that their effect is negligible. In 
forming their opinion, however, they had in view alteration in the 
rate of evaporation and radiation produced by the oiliness of the 
surface, and not the fact of the absence of ripples and small waves 
which mix the surface-waters. If there is less mixing of the surface- 
water in these oily patches, freezing will take place over them more 
readily than over the rest of the lake. It was observed in Loch 
Garry that where ice was melting an oily patch formed on the 
surface of the water. 

Another phenomenon connected with the freezing of lakes may be 
due to the same cause as the patchy formation of ice. It is a matter 
of common experience that, when a lake freezes over, there are 
frequently treacherous places on the ice, portions which remain 
unfrozen, or only become covered with a relatively thin sheet of ice. 
Popular theory attributes these to wells sending up a supply of 
water above freezing point to the surface of the lake. ‘This may be 
a real explanation in many cases, but it must be remembered that 
either the force of the spring or well must be very strong and prevent 
freezing by the currents it produces, or else the water of the spring 
must be of less density than water at 32°, when it will rise to the 
surface. This means that the spring water must have a temperature 
of at least 47°. 

Forel has discussed a number of possible explanations,! and 
he favoured the view that the mawvaises places, as he called them, 
were simply portions of water which had been kept open by 
ducks, swans, and water-fowl when ice was forming on other parts 


of the lake. 


1 “Ter Obersee bei Reval,” Arch. fiir Brontologre, Bd. ii., Berlin, 1908. 
2 Bull. Soc. vaud. Scr. nat., t. xxxiv. p. 498, 1898. 

3 Petermann’s Mitt., Erganz. 136, p. 82, 1901. 

4 Bull. Soc. vaud. Scr. nat., t. Xxxiv. p. 272, 1898. 


116 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


In lakes which do not freeze all over, but only round the shore, or 
in shallow parts, as in Loch Lomond, there is always a circulation 
of water going on. ‘The water which is cooled at the ice-fringe is 
carried by convection currents towards the open parts of the lake, 
its place being taken by warm water rising from the bottom; but 
when once the whole surface is covered with ice there is no circula- 
tion of this sort. Nor is there any circulation produced by winds, 
as the covering of ice prevents the winds forming any currents 
in the lake. The only disturbing influence is water brought down 
by rivers, which during severe frosts is of small quantity and 
of very low temperature, so that it freezes shortly after entering 
the lake, and produces thickening of the ice round the river- 
mouths. 

But it is not only in calm weather that ice is formed on a lake. 
Even when the surface of the lake is disturbed by wind and waves, 
freezing will take place if the temperature is sufficiently low. I have 
not myself observed freezing taking place in this manner, and I am 
therefore indebted to the accounts of other writers. The freezing 
commences by the formation of isolated flakes or crystals of ice, half 
an inch in diameter or less. By the action of the waves, all these 
flakes are kept separate from one another ; but by rubbing together 
the edges are worn off, and the flakes assume a circular form. The 
small particles worn off by friction between these small pieces gather 
round their edges, and surround them with a margin or wall of 


friable ice, which has the effect of making the ice-flakes, or pancakes, . 


as they are called, sink deeper in the water. These pancakes 
gradually increase in thickness by the freezing of the water round 
them, in the same way as an ordinary sheet of ice increases in 
thickness, and also increase in diameter by the accession of small 
floating ice-crystals, until they assume a diameter of as much as three 
feet, always surrounded by the wall composed of small fragments of 
ice. It isa result of the mode of formation that the section of these 
pancakes is more or less elliptical, being thickest at the centre and 
gradually becoming thinner towards the edges. Whenever the 
surface of the water becomes calm all the pancakes freeze together, 
and the surface becomes covered by a continuous, though rough, 
sheet of ice, and thereafter the lake behaves as one which has frozen 
over in calm weather, and the ice-sheet gradually grows thicker until 
a thaw sets in. 


If an ice-sheet, formed in calm weather, partially covers the lake, . 


and stormy weather and continued low temperature follow, ice grows 
to the windward by the accretion of ice-crystals. These form even 
in disturbed water, and, coming in contact with the edge of the ice, 
freeze to it. Ice grows to the leeward by the extension of ice-crystals 


TEMPERATURE OF SCOTTISH LAKES Lg 


over the water. ‘The result is that the ice to windward is rough and 
white, while that grown on the other side of the sheet is clear and 
crystalline. 

Much interesting information about the phenomena accompanying 
the formation of ice is contained in Dr von Cholnoky’s “ Das Eis 
Balatonsees,”! to which reference is made. Lake Balaton is pre- 
eminently suitable for a study of ice-formation, as its shallowness 
makes it respond readily to variations in atmospheric temperature. 
During the winter of 1892-3 the ice attained a thickness of about 
18 inches. ; 


Toe Disconrinutry Layer 


The general character of the discontinuity layer has already been 
described, but without reference to its cause. Both in Loch Garry 
and in Loch Ness the growth of the discontinuity was carefully 
observed, and it was found that whenever the atmospheric conditions 
were such that there was no accession of heat to the lake, there was 
a tendency for the formation of a layer at the surface of uniform 
temperature, and a consequent discontinuity at the bottom of this 
uniform layer. ‘There are two principal causes for the formation of 
the uniform layer :—(1) Owing to the cooling of the surface- water 
during cold days and during the night, vertical convection currents 
arise which equalise the temperature of the water ; (2) these vertical 
currents are not appreciable to any great depth-—probably to not 
more than 10 feet. But the circulation produced by the wind 
deepens this layer and equalises the temperature to considerable 
depths. 

The time of year at which the discontinuity makes its appearance 
varies with different lakes. In the great and deep tropical lakes, 
such as Loch Ness, it does not appear so early as in small lakes of the 
temperate class, for in these small lakes the surface temperature 
rises much more rapidly than in large lakes, and in consequence the 
time at which the lake ceases to gain heat arrives sooner than in 
large lakes. Thus in Loch Garry the discontinuity was distinct in 
July, and even in June, whereas in Loch Ness it was not distinct till 
about a month later. Varying seasons must also be taken into 
account with regard to the period at which the discontinuity appears. 

The growth of the discontinuity in Loch Garry at a depth of 
from 50 to 75 feet is shown by the following observations, made in 
June, at a time when, owing to dull and cold weather, the rate of 
increase of heat in the loch was arrested, and there was an actual 
decrease :— 


1 Resultate der wissenschaftlichen Erforschung des Balatonsees, Bd. 1. Th. 5, 
Sec. 1V. 


Piles THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


OBSERVATIONS AT CENTRE OF LocH GARRY, JUNE 1908. 


Depth. | 6th. | 8th. | 9th. |10th.|11th. |12th. |13th. | 15th. |16th. |17th. |18th. |19th. | 20th. 


Surface | 56°8 | 52°2 | 53°1 | 52°8 | 52°8 | 52:0 | 51°9 | 51°8 | 51°4 | 51°9 | 52:0 | 52°2 | 52:0 

25 feet | 50:5) 51°75) 50°08 o2OnRo IO a2. On oles Pode baleol 25.51 Sal oles Roles oles 
sOOrES: 48:0 | 50°9 | 48°9 | 48°7 | 49-0 | 50°4 | 51°0 | 51°3 | 51°1 | 51°0 | 50°5 | 50°5 | 50°9 

Ome 47°0 | 49:0 | 47°0 | 47:0 | 46°7 | 47°0 | 46°8 | 46°7 | 47°6 | 47°0 | 47°6 | 47°5 | 47°38 
iO Ore 46°0 | 45°9 | 46 4 | 46°2 | 462 | 46°4 | 46°3 | 46°3 | 46°0 | 46°3 | 46°2 | 46°4 | 46°2 
LOOMS 45°8 | 45°7 | 45°9 | 46'0 | 46:0 | 46-0 | 46°0 | 46-0 | 46-0 | 46:0 | 46°0 | 46°0 | 46:0 
20 0e 45°56 | 45°5 | 45°8 | 46:0 | 45°8 | 45°9 | 45°9 | 46°0 | 46°0 | 46°0 | 46°0 | 46°0 | 46°0 


The discontinuity is not always well marked. Fig. 47 shows a 
typical distribution of the isotherms in Loch Ness. It is drawn from 
the observations made on 17th September 1904. The diagram 
represents a longitudinal section of the lake, the depth scale being 
much exaggerated in comparison with the horizontal scale. On this 
diagram isothermal lines are drawn for every two degrees Fahr. 
This diagram will be referred to later in dealing with the effect of 
winds, but it is referred to here in order to show that the discontinuity 
may be very marked at one end of the lake, as shown by the bunching 
together of the isotherms, and not nearly so marked at the other end. 
On the date in question there was a fall in temperature through 50 
feet of 9°-4 at Dores (at the north-east end of the lake), while at Fort 
Augustus the greatest rate of fall was 4°:0 in 50 feet—considerably 
less than half. 'The temperature gradient was at times very large on 
Loch Ness, falls of 5° in 25 feet being common, and at times the fall 
was as great as 8° in 25 feet. 

With such rapid temperature gradients, it is not strange that in 
the neighbourhood of the discontinuity there are rapid changes of 
temperature. These were well shown by means of the electrical 
thermometers and recorder. Fig. 44 is a reproduction of one of the 
records obtained on 18th August 1904, with the platinum thermometer 
at a depth of 100 feet. Temperature is measured along the abscissa, 
and time along the ordinate. ‘The embroideries on the curve cor- 
respond to variations in temperature up to 2° Fahr. 

It may be that more than one discontinuity is formed in a lake. 
If two discontinuities are formed, the lake is divided into three layers. 
An example of this was found in the Wolfgangsee, and will be 
referred to later. 

The depth at which the discontinuity is found varies greatly with 
different lakes. In Loch Ness it first made its appearance at a depth 

of about 100 feet; but in comparatively shallow lakes the discon- 


1 The temperature scale of the recording thermometer was not accurately 
determined, but the range of temperature shown on the diagram is about 5° Fahr. 


TEMPERATURE OF SCOTTISH LAKES fess 


tinuity is of course at much less depths—in 20, 30, or 40 feet, 
depending on the depth and contour of each individual basin. In 


: 1 

:  gth August 1904. 5 

rf thetivomete at iooteet. a 

en 

MN an 

“ pom 

3 f 

a 

: geste, 

a = 

to - Sees 

> 
ae : 
Fie. 44. 


Loch Garry the depth at which it first became distinct was about 
40 feet. 


120 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Stormy weather has the effect of emphasising the discontinuity, 
and also of increasing the depth at which it is to be found. The 
thickness of the uniform surface layer gradually increases as the 
season progresses. ‘The difference in temperature between the upper 
and lower layer diminishes until eventually the discontinuity of 
temperature vanishes altogether. 


Errecr oF WINDs 


The effect of wind in producing currents and in forming the discon- 
tinuity layer has been studied experimentally! by driving a current 
of air along the surface of the water contained in a long glass trough. 
The apparatus consisted of a glass trough 152 em. long, 10°5 em. 
wide, and 12°5 cm. deep, fitted with a parabolic bottom. A con- 
tinuous blast of air could be driven along the trough by means of an 
electrically driven rotary fan. The top of the trough was covered 
over for nearly its whole length, and the trough was as a rule filled to 
within about two inches of the top. The wind-current was directed 
along the channel between the cover of the trough and the surface 
of the water. 

It was not found possible to experiment with water of varying 
temperature. The temperature gradient in a loch (or the rate of 
change of temperature with depth) is small. If the temperature 
gradient in the experimental tank were made the same as in a natural 
basin, very small differences of temperature would require to be 
experimented with. Where the temperature gradient is made large, 
conduction and convection currents become of very much greater 
importance than they are in a natural loch; and as the depth to 
which the disturbance of surface-waves is felt is relatively much 
greater in an experimental trough than in a natural basin, the 
equalising effect of surface disturbances is also much greater. If the 
gradient in the experimental trough is made comparable to ‘the 
natural gradient, the range of temperature is very small—so small 
that the experiments would not have been possible. 

The temperature changes occurring in lakes are mainly due to 
the difference in density of water at various temperatures, and if in 
experimenting the differences in temperature are very small, the 
differences in density will be too small to make experiments depending 
on these differences practicable. The device adopted was that of 
imitating the differences in temperature by differences in density. 
In this way it is easy to exaggerate the differences in density which 
in a lake are due to temperature, and so to make the experiments 
more manageable, and the effect of conduction is thus eliminated. 


! See Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin. vor xx vill. py 2; 1907. 


TEMPERATURE OF SCOTTISH LAKES rt 


For the most part, brine solutions were used—a dense solution 
representing the coldest water in the loch, and water of less salinity 
representing the warmer and lighter layers. 

The results of these experiments may be stated as follows :— 

(1) During the period of the year when the differences of tempera- 
ture in the lake are small, there is a vertical circulation of all the 
water due to currents of wind, and the return current which supplies 
water to take the place of water driven along by the wind at the 
surface is appreciable to the bottom of the lake. This was also 
thought to be the case from temperature observations in Loch Ness 
and other lakes, which show that in winter, during stormy weather, 
the isothermals of the lake may be nearly vertical, necessitating the 
existence of a current reaching to the bottom of the lake, though 
probably a very slow one; and indeed the uniformity of temperature 
in a lake at certain seasons of the year is, I think, sufficient proof 
that there is a circulation of the water. 


OIRECTION OF WIND 
lars Ns SE oe 


A&B ~- DISCONTINUITY LAYER 

C — SURFACE CURRENT 

D — PRIMARY RETURN CURREN?7 
E — SECONDARY SURFACE CURRENT 
F — SECONDARY RETURN CURRENT 


Fia. 45, 


(2) When the temperature gradient in a lake becomes marked 
the density gradient is also marked, and produces its effect on the 
current systems. It is thought, a priori, and from the observations in 
the experimental tank, that during this period the depth at. which 
the return current is felt grows gradually less as the difference in 
density increases, and that by the time the discontinuity layer is 
formed the return current is strongest in the neighbourhood of the 
discontinuity. 

(3) The observations in the experimental tank also indicated that 
below this return current at the discontinuity, which I call the primary 
return current, there is a secondary return current in the opposite 
direction to the primary return current, and induced by it, but in the 
same direction as the surface current. The system of currents which 
is thought to exist is shown in fig. 45.1. Such a secondary return 
current would necessarily be very slow. Temperature observations 


* Recently J. W. Sandstrém has described a similar system of currents in his 
“ Dynamischen Versuchen mit Meerwasser,” Ann. der Hydrographic, Heft i., 1908. 


122 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


in Loch Ness, however, made after gales, show considerable distortion 
of the isotherms at the bottom of the lake, which can only be 
explained by the existence of currents reaching to the bottom. 
The observations on 31st August 1903 may be taken for the sake of 
example. They are shown in fig. 46, which is constructed in the 
same way as fig. 47, on a diagram representing the south-west half 
of the lake. For temperatures below 44° Fahr. the isothermals are 


Fic. 46. 


drawn for each tenth of a degree; above 44° they are drawn for 
each degree. 

A typical distribution of the isotherms in a lake during autumn 
is shown in fig. 47. They are bunched together at the end of the 
lake towards which the wind is blowing, and radiate like a fan 
towards the opposite end. This distribution can be easily explained 
on the assumption that the current system is as has been described. 
The first effect of the wind is the accumulation of a large quantity 
of warm water at the lee end of the lake, and in consequence the 
upper isotherms slope downwards from the windward end. The 


I00 Ft 


TEMPERATURE OF SCOTTISH LAKES 123. 


return current along the discontinuity surface has the same effect 
on the lower layer of water as the wind current has on the surface 
of the water, and in consequence the lower isotherms slope down- 
wards from the end of the lake from which the return current begins, 
that is, from the lee end of the lake, and with a slope in a direction 
opposite to that of the upper layer, producing a fan-like arrangement. 
In consequence, the discontinuity always appears sharper at the lee 
end of the lake than at the windward end. 

During the year 1908 the author, along with Mr W. Watson, 
carried out some observations on the currents in Lochs Garry and 


54°. 


500 - 


600 - 


700+ 


Fic. 47. 


Ness by means of Ekman’s propeller current-meter. The I.och 
Garry observations indicate clearly the existence of a return current 
reaching to the bottom of the lake. Fig. 48 is drawn from observa- 
tions made on 31st March, when the temperature of the water at the 
surface was 88°°7 Fahr., and at the bottom 38°°8 Fahr., and shows 
how the westerly current at the surface, caused directly by the action 
of a strong west wind, was felt to a depth of about 50 feet, and how 
below that depth there was an easterly current which within 20 feet 
of the bottom of the lake had a rate of 3 centimetres per second. 

The rate of the current is measured along the abscissa axis, the 
unit being centimetres per second. The depth of the current is 
measured along the ordinate axis, the units being feet. The portion 
of the current to the right of the zero line represents a westerly 
current, z.e. in the same direction as the wind. The portion to 


124 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


the left represents a return current in the opposite direction to 
the wind. 

Observation in Loch Ness was difficult for various reasons, but 
measurements made in the spring of the year showed very slow 
currents at depths of from 500 to 600 feet. Numerous observations 
were also made in Loch Ness after the discontinuity had appeared, 
and although the results obtained were extremely complicated, it 


ae eer oe <ce 
504e 


150: 


200" 


no WE VP OP LSS 6 VO UI8 [ele /t 8 0a Ae 
ae i 
Keely yarry !908 7 a 
Fic. 48. 


appeared that the return current took place above the discontinuity, 
sometimes very near the surface. It also appeared that the return 
current was nearer the surface at the windward than at the lee end 
of the lake, which is natural, as it might be expected that they would 
follow the direction of the isotherms (see fig. 47). 

Below the discontinuity the currents were during the autumn so 
slow that they could scarcely be detected by means of the current- 
meter, but as winter progressed they became appreciable to greater 
and greater depths. 

An investigation of the circulation in lakes is important from the 


TEMPERATURE OF SCOTTISH LAKES 125 


biological as well as from the physical point of view, for on the circu- 
lation chiefly depends the amount of oxygen available for animal life 
which is found at the bottom of lakes. The quantity of oxygen at 
the bottom of a lake should be greatest in early spring, unless the 
lake has for a considerable period been covered by a sheet of ice. 
For during winter the whole lake is in circulation, and the whole 
body of water in the lake may become aerated. At the end of 
autumn the quantity of oxygen at the bottom of the lake should be 
at a minimum, as throughout summer and autumn the bottom waters 
are practically stagnant, and the available oxygen is used up by 
animal life and decaying matter. In the Lake of Geneva, however, 
the amount of oxygen at the bottom of the lake at the end of autumn 
was found to be practically the same as at the surface of the lake, 
which indicates that absence of life at the bottom of the deeper 
Scottish lakes must be due not to absence of oxygen but to other 
causes.! 

If, however, the lake is frozen over for a considerable period the 
aeration of the water may not be so perfect, and indeed all the 
available oxygen in the water may be used up. This was found to 
be the case in Linlithgow Loch during a severe winter, when eels, 
which were abundant in the lake, in the search for oxygen forced 
their way into the drains from the town of Linhthgow in_ such 
quantities that the drain-pipes were choked. 


Toe TEMPERATURE SEICHE 


Where two liquids of different densities rest one on the top of the 
other and do not mix, very slow waves may be propagated in the 
lower liquid; the most important example of waves of this nature is 
the “dead water” which is found in salt-water fjords, and in the 
neighbourhood of melting ice, where fresh water from rivers or from 
ice runs over the surface of the salt water without mixing with it, 
and forms a layer of some thickness at the surface. The progress of 
vessels in such water is at times greatly retarded, owing to the 
resistance caused to the vessel by its producing very slow waves in the 
salt water beneath. 

Another example of waves produced in the lower of two liquids of 
different densities is to be found in lakes when the discontinuity is 
marked between the upper warm: water and the lower cold water. 
At such times it is possible to have a seiche of very long period in the 
lower layer. In a lake of rectangular section, and where the dis- 


1 See paper by Dr W. A. Caspari, p. 145; Professor E. A. Birge, “The 
Respiration of an Inland Lake,” Popular Sctence Monthly, vol. lxxii. p. 337, 
1908. 


126 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


continuity is abrupt, the period of such a seiche is given by the 
formula 


where ¢ is the period of the seiche, / the length of the loch, p and p’ 
the densities of the cold and warm layers respectively, and h and h’ 
the depths of the cold and warm layers respectively. 

But even when the discontinuity is not very abrupt, a tempera- 
ture seiche may take place. Fig. 49 gives the observations made 
at Fort Augustus, on Loch Ness, at the surface and at depths of 
50, 100, 150, and 200 feet, during July and August 1904. During 
August observations were made every two hours. ‘Time is measured 
along the abscissa axis, and temperature along the ordinates. The 
first curve represents observations made at the surface, the second at 
50 feet, the third at 100 feet, the fourth at 150 feet, and the fifth at 
200 feet. It will be seen that in the month of July changes in 
temperature which occur at the surface, due to changes in wind, 
etc., are traceable to all depths. But in August, when the discon- 
tinuity has become marked, the changes at and below 100 feet are 
independent of the changes at the surface, and have roughly a period 
of three days. A rough calculation of the period of a temperature 
seiche from the above formula gives a value for the period of the same 
order of magnitude. With a view to further test the theory of a 
temperature seiche, as explaining the oscillation in temperature 
observed below the discontinuity, observations were made simul- 
taneously at both ends of Loch Ness, and near its centre. The 
observations at the centre did not show oscillations of a period of 
three days, but they showed oscillations of a period of about one and 
a half days, which was probably due to a binodal seiche. The 
explanation of the absence of the longer-period oscillations is that 
the observations were made at or near a node. The observations at 
the two ends of the lake showed a rough opposition in phase, so that 
little room is left for doubt as to the nature of the oscillations. 

It was suggested by Halbfass that the temperature seiche might 
be peculiar to Loch Ness, or at least to very deep lakes. No 
observations existed in other lakes sufficient to show the presence or 
absence of such a seiche,? but the observations in Loch Garry in 1908 
show that even in a lake with a mean depth of only 78 feet periodic 
temperature oscillations take place. Fig. 50 gives observations made 

1 See Lamb’s Hydrodynamics, p. 354. 

2 When making observations in Loch Garry I was not aware of Exner’s 
observations in the Wolfgangsee. 


a 


TEMPERATURE OF SCOTTISH LAKES 127 


in July 1908, and an oscillation with a period of about twelve hours 
can be traced. ‘This period also agrees wonderfully with the period 
calculated from the formula given see 

The amplitude of the ee ition is sometimes enormous. In Loch 
Ness an amplitude of nearly 200 feet was observed in August 1904, 


er 


yh I Nyaa phew 
5 
d tal aa iA 4 


Surface 47 


- on ae 


a2es 
ne 


50 feer 45° 


: lM A 
: io NMI r af (| | \ 
a Ah my 


33 h 
7 | \ 
\ 


LE Au eel 


50° ! 


| 
nl 


200 Feet ‘e ae " as iy \ enon MV ie | uM yl LJ | 


— 


123456769 OU RBABEW BODE 22232005 C62 eee SOS 12S ES 6 TT 9 WOU 1 E615 6 18 0 20 2F O8 OF OEE 


Joly August 


Fig. 49. 


which is, of course, far greater than any amplitude which could occur 
in an ordinary seiche. 

The period of the temperature seiche, as will be seen from the 
formula, varies according to the difference in temperature and the 
depths of the upper and lower layers. As the autumn progresses the 
difference in temperature between the layers diminishes, the depth of 
the upper layer-increases, and the depth of the lower layer decreases. 


, 


128 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


The effect of all this is to increase the period of the seiche; and in 
Loch Ness the gradual lengthening of the period was detected. Thus, 
while in August the period was about three days, in November it was 
found to be between five and six days. 


Pew WIG AS PLL RI 23 OLAS SSA AI VIGO] SR pele Se 
eee 
LX Garry /908 OEE, 24th fonty 2 Str fwkiy 


Fia. 50. 


Observations of extreme interest were made by Dr Felix. M. Exner 
in the Wolfgangsee in July and August 1907. He worked with six 
electrical resistance thermometers, which were immersed at the follow- 
ing depths :— 


Thermometer No... IT. II. III. IV. Ve VI. 
Feet. ; , pet sent 6:2 13:'4 23°8 40:0 69°3 


TEMPERATURE OF SCOTTISH LAKES 29 


The observations were designed to supplement observations made 
in 1899, on the depth to which the sun’s rays penetrate. Owing 
to a beautiful temperature seiche, which was in progress during the 
observations, not much light was thrown on this point; but results 
of greater importance were obtained. 

Observations were made at the six depths every three hours, with 
one or two breaks for repairs to instruments, etc. The observations 
from lst to 6th August are shown in fig. 51. Those obtained by 
means of the first three thermometers show irregular changes of 
‘ temperature, doubtless due to changes of wind and other causes 
which directly influence the temperature of the water at the surface. 
The most remarkable point about these observations is the frequent 
inversion of temperature that occurs. Some of these irregularities 
are probably instrumental ; but the weather was changeable, and, owing 
to the high surface temperature, the surface cooling on cold, cloudy 
days must have been rapid, and may well have caused inversion of 
temperature. 

The observations with thermometer IV., however, at a depth of 
about 24 feet, show a large temperature seiche, with a period of 
almost twenty-four hours.’ The range of the temperature for one 
oscillation was nearly 14° Fahr. The Wolfgangsee has a maximum 
depth of 374 feet and a mean depth of 155 feet, and from the experi- 
ence in Scottish lakes one would not have expected to find a discon- 
tinuity at so shallow a depth as to give a temperature seiche at a 
depth of 24 feet. When Exner’s observations were commenced, on 
20th July, the surface temperature was only 63°, as compared with 
about 70° in the beginning of August, and there was not much 
evidence of a temperature seiche at 24 feet. It is probable that a 
discontinuity was formed at a shallow depth during the changeable 
weather which followed the beginning of the observations. There 
was a discontinuity at about 40 feet when observations were com- 
menced with thermometers V. and VI. on 24th July. This discon- 
tinuity was still quite distinct on Ist August, but in addition there 
was a less marked discontinuity at about 25 feet. The effect is most 
instructive. The observations with thermometer V. show a tempera- 
ture seiche of opposite phase to the seiche shown by thermometer IV., 
and this seiche is also shown by thermometer VI. ‘The reason, as 
Exner indicates, must be that there was an oscillation of the large 
body of cold water below, say, 40 feet, and a separate oscillation, of 
opposite phase, in the layer of .water between the upper and -lower 
discontinuity. 

It is remarkable that the period of the oscillations should happen to 
be exactly twenty-four hours, and Exner suggests that the period may 
be forced by a periodicity in the wind. Such a periodicity would have 

9 


F 
% 


1 


48 


46 


130 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


the effect of producing periodic currents at the surface, and if the natural 
period of the seiche were sufficiently near the period of the wind, this 
would be a very effective cause! Taking the depth of the discon- 
l 


i a 3. 
Wotfyangace August 1907 
Fic. 51. 
tinuity as 24 feet, the length of the lake as 36,000 feet, the mean 
temperature of the water above and below the discontinuity as 67° 


1 The effect is greatest when the period of the lake is less than the forcing 
period. See Chrystal on the Seiches of Loch Earn, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xlvi. 
p. 514, 1908. | 


RH 


TEMPERATURE OF SCOTTISH LAKES od 


and 49° respectively, and the mean depth of water below the discon- 
tinuity as 135 feet, an application of the formula on page 126 gives for 
the period of the temperature seiche twenty hours, which is sufficiently 
near to the observed period to give colour to the theory of forcing. 

Seiches of the amplitude which is observed must produce consider- 
able currents, especially in the neighbourhood of the surface of 
separation. Assuming that the boundaries of the different layers are 
sharp, slipping between the layers is necessary, and rough calculations 
for Loch Ness show that in the case of a temperature seiche with an 
amplitude of 100 feet (this means that the range of depth at which 
water of a definite temperature is to be found is 100 feet) the 
currents due to the motion of the water particles would have a 
velocity of about 2 or 3 centimetres per second in each layer, 
or at the surface of separation a relative rate of, say, 5 centimetres 
per second. 

During the experiments in the trough containing liquids of 
different densities I was able to illustrate experimentally the nature 
of the temperature seiche. The effect of the wind current at the 
surface was to accumulate the liquid of lowest density towards the 
lee end of the trough, and so produce a tilting of the discontinuity 
layer. When the wind current was stopped or reduced, the surface 
of discontinuity could be seen to oscillate slowly up and down about 
the centre of the trough until it came to rest in a horizontal position. 

The credit for the discovery of the nature of the temperature 
seiche belongs to Mr E. R. Watson, B.Sc., at one time a member of 
the Lake Survey, and now Professor of Chemistry in the Libpur C.E. 
College, Calcutta; but the discovery was foreshadowed by Professor 
J. Thoulet in his “Contribution a PEtude des Lacs des Vosges,” ! 
where he says:—‘‘Son eau (2.e. Longemer) avait donné naissance, 
vers 8 metres de profondeur, 4 la couche de transition thermique 
brusque, au sein du lac, et cette couche elle-méme, sous limpulsion de 
la masse d’eau animée du mouvement dd a son courant et qui lui 
arrivait a l'une de ses extrémités, s’est’ mise a osciller longitudinale- 
ment et transversalement, comme une sorte de seiche intérieure 
provoquée par une action mécanique, et Voscillation s'est communiquée 
en satténuant jusqu’au fond... . J’ai tenu cependant a confirmer 
mon opinion par une expérience synthétique. Dans ce but, j’ai 
superposé, dans une auge en verre, de Peau saturée de carbonate de 
potasse, de alcool coloré en rouge et du pétrole. Il m’a suffi de 
laisser tomber dans le vase des gouttes d’alcool pour communiquer un 
mouvement ondulatoire synchrone aux trois couches liquides.”? The 
Lake Survey observers were at the time of observation ignorant of 


1 See Bull. Soc. Géogr. Paris, t. xv. p. 572, 1894. 
4 Op. ctt., pp. 31, 32 (sep.). 


132 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


the work of Thoulet, but it is strange that a period of ten years 
should have elapsed before any further remark was made on the 
temperature oscillations in lakes. 


ABYSMAL ‘TEMPERATURES 


At the bottom of the deepest of our lakes there is a body of 
water which varies little in temperature from one year’s end to another, 
and the temperature of this abysmal layer depends largely on the 
temperature of the preceding winter; but the wind-storms during 
the year also have a considerable effect in determining abysmal 
temperatures. In winter all the water in the lake becomes of a 
uniform temperature, and it is about this temperature that the water 
at the bottom of the lake remains during the ensuing summer. But 
the abysmal temperature is not quite constant. Thus, in Loch Morar 
at 1010 feet, on 29th March 1903, a temperature of 41°°8 Fahr. was 
observed ; while at a depth of 1000 feet, on 23rd October the tempera- 
ture was 43°-0 Fahr., showing an increase of as much as 1°°2 Fahr. during 
the year. There is not always so great an increase; thus, in 1887 
a number of serial temperatures were taken by Sir John Murray 
which show a practically constant temperature of 42°°0 Fahr. at 
great depths throughout the whole year. In Loch Ness, however, 
the range at a depth of 700 feet both in 1903 and 1904 was from 
41°-3 to 42°-6 Fahr.—a range of 1°3. In Loch Katrine, with a 
maximum depth of 495 feet, the range of temperature at the bottom 
is from 3 to 4 degrees. In Loch Garry (Ness basin), with a depth of 
213 feet, the range in 1908 was about 10° Fahr.—from 37°°5 to 47°:0. 

Sir John Murray has pointed out the influence of winds in vary- 
ing the abysmal temperatures.|_ Examining the three lochs of the 
Caledonian Canal, he found that the bottom temperatures varied from 
year to year, but rose or fell simultaneously in all three lochs. The 
bottom temperatures in Loch Ness in August and September in eight 
different seasons are given in the following table :— 


Mean Air 
Mean of Observa-| Temperature of | 
Year, tions over 600 | Previous Winter, | 
feet. November to | 
April. 
1877 42°°6 Fahr. 38°°5 Fahr. 
1878 42°°4 40°°7 
1879 41°°2 34°°0 
1880 42°°5 39°°4 
1887 42°°4 39°°5 
1892 42°°9 38°°2 
1903 42°°4 41°-2 
1904 42°°3 39°°4 


1 Scott. Geogr. Mag., vol. xiii. p. 1, 1897. 


‘TEMPERATURE OF SCOTTISH LAKES 133 


Following the exceptionally severe winter of 1878-79 there is a 
very low abysmal temperature, but in the other cases the connection 
between the winter temperature and the abysmal temperature is not 
apparent. The effect of the wind is more apparent, for in 1877 and 
1892, when the bottom temperatures were high, the summer winds 
were much above the average. ‘These observations indicate clearly 
that the highest point abysmal temperatures reach during a year 
depends on the strength of the winds, especially in summer, while 
the lowest point depends on the winter temperature and also on the 
strength of the winds during the winter—the stronger the wind in 
winter the lower the temperature, the stronger the wind in summer 
the higher the temperature. 

The Loch Garry observations were interesting from the point of 
_ view of the abysmal temperatures, for it was found that until the 
formation of the discontinuity the bottom temperature rose by fits 
and starts following on strong winds. 

On 6th May 1908 the temperature at the surface and at 200 feet 
was respectively 44°°5 and 41°:2, there having been little variation in 
the bottom temperature during the previous ten days. Owing to 
stormy weather, no observations were made on the 7th, but on the 
8th the bottom temperature had risen to 42°, a rise of 0°8°, showing 
the influence of currents produced by winds. A more marked case 
occurred about a week later. On 15th May the surface temperature 
was 46°°3, and at the bottom the temperature was 42°°3, showing a 
very slight rise in the bottom temperature. On the 16th and 17th 
the wind was very strong and no observations could be made, but on 
the 19th it was found that the bottom temperature had risen 1°°7, 
to 44°-0. There was a continuance of moderately strong winds, 
with the result that the bottom temperature had risen to 44°°5 by 
22nd May, and to 45°-0 by the 27th. Variable winds were experienced 
till 5th June, when the bottom temperature was only 45°°2, showing 
little variation for the previous nine days; but the wind increased on 
the 5th, and observations on 6th June showed a bottom temperature 
of 45°°5, and on the 10th 46°°0. ‘Thereafter the winds were light 
and the weather was cold, with the result that a discontinuity was 
formed. ‘The bottom temperature remained about 46°°0 until the 
end of June, and during the month of July there was a gradual and 
fairly continuous rise, accompanied by moderate and variable winds, 
to 46°°5. On 6th September, when an isolated observation was made, 
the temperature at the bottom was 47°:0, showing that the gradual 
rise in bottom temperature was continued. After the formation of 
the discontinuity the rise in the bottom temperature was very gradual, 
and this is explained by the difference in the effect of winds after the 
discontinuity is formed. 


134 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Errect of Lakes oN THE CLIMATE OF THEIR SURROUNDINGS 


The temperature of the atmosphere is one of the factors determining 
the temperature distribution in lakes; but lakes, especially those of 
considerable size, also have an effect on the temperature of the 
atmosphere. 

In the case of Loch Ness and Loch Garry rough estimates were 
made of the quantity of heat given out by the lakes during autumn 
and winter. The estimates were based on a calculation of the 
maximum and minimum quantities of heat in the lakes in summer 
and winter respectively, as determined from actual temperature 
observations. Similar observations were made by Forel in the Lake 
of Geneva. 

The results were as follows :— 


: 
| : uantity set 
_ Total Quantity ae per Sa sa 
Lake | of Heat set free. Centimetre of 
: | Gram Calories Seer 
| x 1016, Ninn 1 re 
Gram Calories. 
Geneva . ; : 43°6 | 75,000 
WEN oscars at cibed tals 1:9 | 34,000 
Reriatt guenr hc | ‘] | 20,000 


| 
| 
| | | | 


The quantity of heat set free per unit area by the Lake of Geneva is 
very much greater than that set free by Loch Ness, and that set free 
by Loch Ness is greater than that set free by Loch Garry. It would 
appear, then, that the larger a lake is, the greater the quantity of 
heat it is able to set free in autumn and winter, not only as a whole, 
but per unit surface. The reason of this is probably that in large 
lakes the period at which heat begins to pass from the lake occurs 
later than in small lakes, whose temperature rises comparatively 
rapidly. In them the point at which there is equality between 
the surface temperature and the average temperature of the 
atmosphere occurs earlier than in large lakes, and consequently the 
point up to which the latter gain heat by conduction from the 
atmosphere is later in the year, and a greater quantity of heat is 
stored up per unit area. 

The difference in latitude between the Lake of Geneva and Loch 
Ness, and the climatic conditions, also account in part for the 
difference between the two lakes. 

The quantity of heat set free is enormous in the case of the Lake 
of Geneva. According to Forel, it is equal to the heat set free by 
the combustion of 54 million tons of coal. A similar calculation 


TEMPERATURE OF SCOTTISH LAKES 135 


for Loch Ness shows that the quantity of heat set free is equal 
to the heat which would be set free by the combustion of 2°4 million 
tons of coal—also a very large quantity. Without going into 
meteorological statistics, it may be stated that the winters along the 
shores of Loch Ness are so mild that snow never hes on the ground 
for any length of time. It is also said that potatoes and other 
root-crops may safely be left in the ground all winter without danger 
from frost. 

There is another method in which lakes influence the temperature 
of the atmosphere. During the period of freezing there is a consider- 
able quantity of latent heat set free; and again, when the ice-sheet 
melts in spring, a considerable quantity of heat is absorbed. ‘There 
is a resulting tendency, in the neighbourhood of lakes which become 
frozen over, for a spell of frost to be less severe at its commencement, 
but to be protracted longer than it would otherwise be. 


CoMPARISON OF ScorrisH LAKES 


Temperature observations were made in nearly all the lakes visited 
by the Lake Survey, and the observations are given in the descriptive 
reports. From the fact that the observations were made at widely 
different periods of the year, and that usually only isolated observa- 
tions were possible, it is difficult—indeed, I think, impossible—to base 
a comparison of the lakes, from the point of view of temperature, on 
these observations. ‘The general factors which enter into and determine 
the temperature of different lakes have been mentioned in the preceding 
pages, and in what follows I wish to notice briefly some of the observa- 
tions in the Scottish lakes which call for special remark. 

1. Observations were made in Loch Calder (Forss basin) on 
6th October 1902, showing the temperature at the surface to be 51°°4 
Fahr., and near the bottom 51°-2—a difference of only 0°2. The 
area of the loch is 1:32 square miles, the maximum depth 85 feet, 
the mean depth 21 feet, and it lies about 205 feet above sea-level. 
Loch Brora stands 93 feet above sea-level, has a maximum depth of 
66 feet, and a mean depth of 23 feet, its area being 0°88 square mile. 
From these data no great difference in temperature would have been 
expected between these lakes, but observations made in Loch Brora 
on 22nd October 1902 showed a surface temperature of 45°°8 Fahr. 
and a bottom temperature of 45°°0. The temperature gradient is 
greater than in Loch Calder, and the difference in temperature between 
the two lakes is surprising, especially as the mean air temperature for 
October 1902 was about 46°. 

2. Loch na Sheallag (Gruinard basin) has a maximum depth of 
217 feet, a mean depth of 103 feet, and an area of 1°37 square miles. 


136 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Observations made on 14th August 1902 showed a surface temperature 
of 55°-0 Fahr. and a bottom temperature of 47°°9. Loch na h-Oidhche 
(Gairloch basin) has a maximum depth of 121 feet, a mean depth of 
54 feet, and an area of 0°54 square mile. One would have expected 
to find a higher bottom temperature in this lake than in Loch na 
Sheallag, but observations made on 7th August 1902 showed a surface 
temperature of 51°-0 and a bottom temperature of 46°°8. I am not 
acquainted with these lochs, and there may be something in their 
position and surroundings to account for these differences of tempera- 
ture, but the differences are not prima facie easy to explain. | 

3. Loch Damh (Torridon basin) has an area of 1:32 square miles, 
a maximum depth of 206 feet, and a mean depth of 59 feet. 'Tempera- 
ture observations in this lake on 21st August 1902 showed a tempera- 
ture at the surface of 56°°5 Fahr. ; at 100 feet, 48°°5; and at 200 feet, 
42°-2—a temperature usually found in August only at the bottom 
of the deepest lakes. The simplest explanation, and the one which 
I favour, is that an error of 5° was made in reading the thermometer, 
and that the temperature at 200 feet was 47°°2. A mistake of this 
sort is not uncommon with observers. 

4. The observations in Loch Dungeon (Dee basin) are also surpris- 
ing. In the deepest part of the lake (depth 94 feet) the following 
temperatures were recorded on 6th August 1903 :—surface, 53°:2 Fahr. ; 
60 feet, 52°°2; 70 feet, 45°°2 ; 90 feet, 44°°6. If the observations are 
reliable they show a very marked discontinuity between 60 and 70 
feet, and for a lake with a mean depth of only 23 feet the bottom 
temperatures are very low. The lake is divided into three basins, 
and this may account for the low temperatures. 

5. Loch Muick [Dee (Aberdeen) basin] has an area of 0°85 square 
mile, a maximum depth of 256 feet, and a mean depth of 116 feet. 
Compared with its area and length (24 miles) Loch Muick is a deep 
lake, and accordingly there is a considerable range in temperature 
from top to bottom. Observations were made on 8th July 1905, and 
gave temperatures as follows :—surface, 56°71 Fahr.; 50 feet, 47°°2 ; 
100 feet, 44°°3 ; and 225 feet, 43°:0. 

6. Loch Frisa (Mull) may be contrasted with Loch Muick. It 
has a length of 43 miles, 2 maximum depth of 205 feet, and a mean 
depth of 76 feet. Observations made on 17th August 1904 showed 
a temperature at the surface of 59°:1 Fahr. ; at 50 feet, of 58°-7 ; and 
at 175 feet, of 55°-2—11 or 12 degrees higher than at a similar depth 
in Loch Muick, showing how important a factor is the relation 
between length and depth. ‘The difference may be partly accounted 
for by the fact that the observations in these two lakes were made in 
different years. Buta range from top to bottom of only 4° Fahr. 
in a lake over 200 feet deep is exceptional. 


TEMPERATURE OF SCOTTISH LAKES Pad 


7. One or two examples have been given of very low temperatures 
in lakes of moderate depth. Loch Shiel is of interest as an example of 
the converse. Observations taken on 9th July 1902 showed a tempera- 
ture of 45°°3 Fahr. at a depth of 400 feet, and of 56°:5 at the surface. 
The length of Loch Shiel is over 17 miles, and the mean depth is 133 
feet,so that it is easy to understand this comparatively high temperature. 

8. Loch Dubh (nan Uamh basin) has a maximum depth of 153 
feet, but has a length of under half a mile, so that the ratio between 
depth and length is large—1 to 15. This ratio is only equalled by 
the small loch on Eilean Subhainn in Loch Maree, in which no 
temperature observations were made. Observations in Loch Dubh on 
12th July 1902 showed a bottom temperature of 43°°5 Fahr. and a 
surface temperature of 59°:0, which contrast sharply with the observa- 
tions made in Loch Shiel a week earlier. 

9. After Loch Dubh, Loch Fender (Tay basin) is the loch with 
the largest ratio between depth and length. It is only one-third of 
a mile in length, but has a depth of 78 feet, the ratio being 1 to 22. 
Observations made on 5th June 1903 showed a surface temperature of 
58°-0 Fahr. and a bottom temperature of only 42°°4. The difference 
between the bottom temperatures of Loch Dubh and of Loch Fender 
is easily accounted for by the difference in the date of the observations. 

10. A contrast is afforded by Lochs Assynt (Inver basin) and 
Lurgain (Garvie basin), in which observations were made on 16th and 
9th September 1902 respectively. Loch Assynt is about 64 miles long, 
has a maximum depth of 282 feet, and a mean depth of 101 feet. 
Loch Lurgain is under 4 miles long, and has a maximum depth of 156 
feet and a mean depth of 61 feet. The latter loch is crescent-shaped, 
so that the force of the wind must be somewhat broken in blowing 
along its surface. The axis of Loch Assynt, on the other hand, is 
nearly straight, and the lake has the reputation of being very stormy. 
This must account for the fact that in Loch Assynt the surface 
temperature was 53°°7 Fahr. and the bottom temperature 52°-0—a 
range of 1°°7; while in the smaller and shallower Loch Lurgain the 
bottom temperature was 50°:3 and the surface temperature 56°°-1— 
a range of 5°°8. | 

11. In Loch Achilty (Conon basin) observations are available in 
consecutive years. ‘The loch is 119 feet deep, and only 1500 yards 
long—a ratio of 1 to 39, so that a low bottom temperature was to 
be expected; but the range of temperature observed is very large. 
Observations made on 11th August 1901 showed a temperature at the 
surface of 63°°5 Fahr., and at 70 feet 42°°3 Fahr.—a range of 21°:2 ; and 
on 23rd August 1901 a temperature at the surface of 61°°9 Fahr., at 
30 feet 52°-0, and at 60 feet 42°-°8—a range of 197-1. On 21st August 
1902 the surface temperature was 58°:4 Fahr., and the temperature 


138 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


at 100 feet 44°-9—a range of 13°°5. ‘These are remarkable ranges to™ 


find so late in the year as the third week of August. Large tempera- 
ture gradients are common in the beginning of summer, when the 
bottom waters have not yet become heated up, and when strong sun- 
shine rapidly heats up the surface-water—e.g. Loch Monzievaird 
(‘Tay basin), in which a range of 20°°6 Fahr. in 36 feet was observed 
on 8th June 1903. The low temperature of the bottom waters of Loch 


Achilty is probably due (1) to its comparatively great depth, (2) 


to its comparatively small drainage area, and (3) to its sheltered 
position. ‘The month of June (when a lake is most sensitive to winds) 


was in the year 1901 very free from easterly winds, while in the year — 


1902 there was a great excess of easterly winds. As Loch Achilty 
is more exposed to east than to west winds, this may account for the 
higher bottom temperature observed in 1902. 

12. In Loch Glass (Conon basin) a very low bottom temperature 
of 42°3 Fahr. was observed on 27th August 1902. The loch. is 
4 miles in length, with a maximum depth of 365 feet. The axis of the 
lake runs from north-west to south-east, which is at right angles to the 
direction of the prevailing winds. It is also slightly crescent-shaped, 
and it is probable that it does not get the full force of wind-storms. 

In order to make a rough classification of the Scottish lakes, I 
endeavoured to find out which of them had never been known to 
freeze, or which only froze in very exceptional winters: It will readily 
be understood that it was frequently difficult, and sometimes impos- 
sible, to obtain information about lakes in remote parts of the 
Highlands, but I owe a debt of gratitude to the many gentlemen who 
took trouble in giving me information. 

The following are the lakes which, so far as I have been able to 
ascertain, seldom freeze over completely :— 


Maximum Mean a. 
Loch. Depth. Depth. Remarks. 
Feet. Feet. 
Morar . 1017 284 The deepest of Scottish lakes. 
Nessa. : 754 433 Occasionally freezes round shores. 
Lomond ; ; 623 121 Freezes among the islands in severe 
frosts. 
Lochy . : é 531 229 Shallows at north-east end freeze - 
in very severe winters. 
Ericht . 512 189 Was nearly, if not wholly, frozen 
over in 1895. 
Tay.” =. 508 199 Was nearly frozen over in 1895. 
Katrine . 495 199 
Rannoch , : 440 167 | Was frozen over in 1895. | 
| Treig . 436 | 203 _Three-quarters of the loch were | 
frozen over in 1895, but the 
| tradition is that it had never 
| _ been frozen over at all previous 
Vivecto thats 


TEMPERATURE OF SCOTTISH. LAKES 139 


Maximum Mean a 
Loch. Depth. Depth. | Remarks. 
Maree . : : 367 125 Seldom, if ever, completely frozen 
i over (see Scott. Met. Journ., 
1908, p. 223). 
Glass. ; : 365 159 This is one of the lakes referred to 
above. 
Arkaig . : ; 359 153 | 
More (Sutherland) . 316 126 | Was frozen all round its shores in 
i 1895. 
Awe ; : ae 307 105 The arm in the Pass of Brander 
| freezes over in severe frosts. 
' The main loch was frozen from 
' Loch Awe Station to within a 
mile of Portsonachan in 1881. 
; The eastern bay freezes in 
| moderate winters. 
Harn. ° oot 287 138 ' Is never entirely frozen over. In 
| 1895 it was frozen round the 
shores. 
Assynt . 4 282 101 Was frozen over for about 4 miles 
| from the north-west end in 
1895, but the south-east end 
| | never freezes over. 
Fannich ‘ nel 282 109 Was frozen over in 1895. One 


correspondent informed me that 
it had a thin coating of ice one 
morning in March after a severe 
frost. 

Quoich . : : 281 105 Frozen over in 1895, when sound- 
ings were made by boring holes 
in the ice. It has not been 
frozen since. 


Monar . : 260 98 Frozen over in 1881, 1891, 1895, 
and nearly so in 1897. 
Bhaid Daraich .| 121 _~ 56 Lies quite close to the sea, and has 


only been once frozen in the last 
thirty years, if my informant is 
correct. In consequence, the 
lake was supposed to be ex- 
| | tremely deep. ; 
Achilty . . : 119 52 | Referred to above; was said by 
' one correspondent to have been 
frozen only once within the last 
twelve years. Another corre- 
_ spondent informed me that a 
single night of sharp spring 
frost was enough to cover it 
with ice. 


It will be seen from the foregoing notes that the information 
received from various sources was not always consistent, and I cannot, 
of course, give any guarantee of its accuracy. Among the larger of 
the lakes about which no information was obtained I may mention, 
Lochs Shiel, Muick, Fada, Suainaval, Sheallag, etc. 

Information was obtained as to a number of other lakes, and this 
information is summarised in the following table :— 


140 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 
Maximum Mean 
Loch. Depth. Depth. Remarks. 
Feet. Feet. 
Morie 270 125 Freezes in moderately severe 
frosts. 
Affric 221 94 Bays freeze readily. Whole lake 
| covered: with ice in a single 
| night in spring. 
| Skinaskink 216 60 Freezes in very severe winters. 
| Frozen in 1880 and 1895. 
| Garry (Ness) . 213 78 Freezes in moderate winters. 
| Covered with ice in a single | 
| | night in early spring. 
Dun na Seilcheig 205 85 | Seldom frozen except in spring, 
| | when it frequently is covered 
with ice in a single night. 
Frisa . 205 | 76 Freezes readily. 
Mullardoch 197 78 6 - 
| Avich 188 98 Freezes in calm weather. One 
| correspondent states that in 
December 1907 there was a thin 
coating over the whole loch for 
the first time for twelve years. 
Bad a’ Ghaill 180 62 Frozen over in 1895. In calm 
| weather considerable portions 
freeze, but the whole loch does 
not freeze readily. 
Beannachan . 176 70 Freezes in moderate winters. 
Laggan . 174 68 Said not to have been frozen com- 
pletely since 1895. 
a’ Chroisg 168 74 Freezes all over in spring with a 
moderately severe frost. 
Beinn a’ Mheadhoin 167 65 Freezes readily. 
Luichart 164 67 Last frozen in spring of 1908. 
Does not freeze till spring. 
Shin 162 51 Freezes in moderate winters. 
Frozen in spring of 1907. 
Lurgain 156 61 Not very often completely frozen 
over. Freezes readily round 
edges, 
. Oich 154 42 Freezes readily. 
Owskeich 153 47 | Thickly coated with ice in 1895. 
| Not completely covered since 
then. 
Lubnaig 146 | 43 Freezes readily. 
Ba (Mull) 144 47 Freezes in moderate winters. 
Ossian . 132 43 Freezes readily. 
Lungard 129 64 iy a 
Laidon . 128 35 33 x 
Veyatie 126 41 - 6 
Clumie: . 123 50 . 5 
Gainmheich . 120 42 es 


Information was also obtained about a number of smaller lakes all 


of which froze readily. 


Sir Arthur Mitchell, K.C.B., in editing Macfarlane’s Geographical 
Collections for the Scottish Text Society, has given interesting notes 


on Scottish lakes which are reputed not to freeze. 


TEMPERATURE OF SCOTTISH LAKES 141 


It may be of interest to compare the information given in Mac- 
farlane’s Collections with later data. 

Loch Dun na Seilcheig, in Inverness-shire, is said never to freeze in 
winter, but to freeze with a night or two’s sharp spring frost. ‘This 
is curiously similar to information recently received from natives of 
the district, and is considered reliable. 

“ Our famous Loch Ness never freezes.” The reason has already 
been explained. Dwellers on the shores of great lakes are as a rule 
greatly puzzled to account for the fact that the lakes do not freeze, 
and still more by the fact that water removed from the lakes freezes 
readily. One boatman, wishing to keep his boat from getting dry 
while laid up for the winter, filled it with Loch Ness water. The 
result was not what he anticipated, for the water in the boat froze 
solid, and burst his boat to pieces. : 

Samuel Johnson was much interested to hear that Loch Ness never 
froze, but had hardly a proper appreciation of the cause. “If it be 
true,” he wrote, “ that Loch Ness never freezes, it is either sheltered by 
its high banks from the cold blasts, and exposed to those blasts which 
have more power to agitate than congeal; or it is kept in perpetual 
motion by the rush of streams from the rocks that enclose it. Its 
profundity, though it be such as is represented (140 fathoms), can 
have little part in this exception, for though deep wells are not frozen, 
because their water is excluded from the external air, yet where a 
wide surface is exposed to the full influence of a freezing atmosphere, 
I know not why the depth should keep it open. Natural Philosophy 
is now one of the favourite studies of the Scottish Nation, and Loch 
Ness well deserves to be diligently examined.” 

Loch Katrine is said never to freeze, and this agrees with reports 
recently received from the district. 

Andrew Symson, writing in 1684 of the White Loch of Myrton 
(Luce basin), says it is “very famous in many writers who report that 
it never freezes in the greatest frosts ; whether it had that vertue of old 
I know not, but sure I am it hath not now, for this same year it was 
so hard frozen that the heaviest carriages might have carried over it.” 
Curling has taken place on the loch on several occasions. 

Loch Maree is said never to freeze. The only information obtained 
at this time was that an old gentleman, who had lived on the shores 
of Loch Maree for thirty-five years, never saw the loch frozen but on 
one occasion, very early in the morning, when he fancied a mouse might 
run across on the film of ice formed from Ardblair to the islands. 

That Intelligent Knight Sir George Mackenzy,” in a letter written 
about the year 1674, makes the following remarks :—“ I had notice of 
a Phenomenon that I judged odd, and considerable searching into the 
nature of cold, which is,—A little lake in Stratherrick which never 


142 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


freezes all over, even in most vehement frosts, before February, but 
one night’s frost thereafter will freeze it all over, and two nights then 
will make the ice of a very considerable thickness. ‘This I did inquire 
after very sollicitously from the honestest and soberest of the adjoining 
Inhabitants and it was verified by so many that there was left no place 
to doubt the truth of the matter of fact. I have since heard of two 
other lakes, one of which is on lands belonging to myself called Loch 
Monar, of a pretty largeness, which steadily keeps the same method, 
and I have inquired after it by many who have affirmed it to me on 
their own knowledge. There is another little Lake in Straglash at 
Glencarrich on lands belonging to one Chissolm ; the Lake lies in a 
bottom *twixt the tops of a very high hill, so that the bottom itself is 
very high. ‘This Lake never wants Ice on it in the middle, even in the 
hottest summer, though it thaws near the edges. And this Ice is 
found on it, though the sun by reason of the reflexion from the hills 
in that country is very hot, and Lakes lying as high in the neighbour- 
hood have no such Phenomenon. “Il'is observable also, that about the 
borders of this Lake the Grass keeps a continual verdure, as if it were 
in a constant Spring and feeds and fattens beasts more in a week than 
any other grass doth in a fortnight. The matter of fact I have fully 
examined in both these, but to hit the cause requires a better philo- 
sopher than I am.” 

Loch Monar is referred to above. The loch in Stratherrick is 
probably the small Loch Scriston, which was not sounded by the Survey. 
Apparently, however, it is very rarely frozen over. ‘The reference to 
the lake which is never free from ice even in the hottest summer is of 


course apocryphal. 


Note.—Since the foregoing article was written there have been 
published two papers which indicate that the temperature observations 
of the Lake Survey are of considerable importance as throwing light 
on temperature changes occurring in the ocean. The first of these 
papers is by Professor Otto Pettersson (Publications de Circonstance, 
No. 47), describing oscillations in the deep water of the Skagerak with 
a period of fourteen days, which he thinks may be explained as a deep- 
water tide. The author has tried to show (Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., 
vol. xxix. p. 602) that these oscillations may be explained in the same 
way as the temperature seiche in fresh water. ‘lhe second paper is 
by Helland-Hansen and Nansen in the Report on Norwegian Fishery 
and Marine Investigations (vol. 11., 1909, p. 87), where “ puzzling 
waves” are discussed at some length. The authors say: “As far as 
we can see, it is one of (the) greatest problems (of Oceanography) 
that most urgently calls for a solution.” It seems probable that 
the explanation of the temperature seiche also applies to them. 


TEMPERATURE OF SCOTTISH LAKES 143 


- The importance of viscosity of water has not hitherto been con- 
sidered in relation to lake temperatures, but it is a well-established 
fact that the viscosity of water at 25° C. is only about one-half that 
of water at 0° C. Biologists have recognised the importance of this 
in regulating the forms and disposition of plankton animals. It seems 
likely that this change of viscosity with temperature is equally im- 
portant in the circulation of lakes. Whenever there is a discontinuity 
in temperature there is a mobile liquid resting on a relatively viscous 
liquid. The tendency of this must be to confine wind-produced 
currents to water above the discontinuity, and so to strengthen the 
effect of the difference in density between the upper and lower layers 
of water. ‘The difference in viscosity may, in fact, be as important as 
the difference in density in determining the circulation. 

While we are in the region of speculation, I may be permitted 
further to suggest that there is an analogy between the temperature 
seiche in lakes and the movements in the upper air. ‘There again we 
have two layers of different density one above the other, and the rapid 
changes in temperature at great heights may be due to causes similar 
to those which produce large variations of temperature in the neigh- 
bourhood of the discontinuity layer in lakes. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


The following is a list of papers dealing with the fresh-water lakes of 
Scotland. There is also a considerable literature dealing with salt-water 
lakes, but as the conditions in salt-water basins are quite different from 
the conditions in fresh-water basins, I have restricted the bibliography to 
the fresh-water lakes. The chief contributions to the study of the 
temperature of salt-water basins have been made by Sir John Murray 
and Dr H. R, Mill. 

In addition to the following papers, reference should be made to the 
various Lake Survey Reports. 


1838. Leslie, John, T'reatises on Various Subjects of Natural and Chemical 
Philosophy, p. 281. 

Leslie, John, article “Climate,” Eighth Edition, Encycl. Brit., 

vollvie pl 07. | 

1871. Buchan, Alexander, “ Remarks on the Deep-water Temperature 
of Lochs Lomond, Katrine, and Tay,” Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., 
vol, vii. p. 791. (Gives Jardine’s observations in Lochs Lomond, 
Katrine, and Tay.) 

Christison, Robert, ‘“‘ Opening Address to the Royal Society of Edin- 
burgh, 1871-72,” Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. vii. p. 567. (The 
author describes the existence of a discontinuity in temperature. ) 

1872. Buchan, Alexander, “ Remarks on the Deep-water Temperatures 
of Lochs Lomond, Katrine, and Tay,” Brit. Assoc, Report, vol. 
li 207: 


144 


1875. 
1879, 


1880. 


1886. 


1888. 


1891. 


1897. 


1904. 


1907. 


1908. 


1909. 


THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Buchan, Alexander, ditto, Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc., vol. xvii. p. 73. 
Buchanan, J. Y., “ Note on the Distribution of ‘Temperature under 
the Ice in Linlithgow Loch,” Proc. Roy. Soc, Edin., vol. x. 


pp. 56, 68. 
Buchanan, J. Y., “On the Freezing of Lakes,’ Nature, vol. xix. 
p. 412. 


Aitken, John, “On the Distribution of Temperature under the 
Iee* in Frozen Lakes... Proc. Roy. Soe Edin. i vols x. ps 4.09) 
(This is the first paper to draw attention to the effect of winds 
on the distribution of temperature in lakes.) 

Buchanan, J. Y., “ Distribution of Temperature in Loch Lomond 
during the Autumn of 1885,” Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xiii. p. 403. 

Morrison, J. T., “On the Distribution of Temperature in Loch 
Lomond and Loch Katrine during the past Winter and Spring,” 
Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1886, p. 528. 

Murray, John, ‘On the Effects of Winds on the Distribution of 


Temperature in the Sea- and Fresh-water Lochs of the West of 


Scotland,” Scott. Geogr. Mag., vol. iv. p. 345. 

Murray, John, “On the Temperature of the Salt- and Fresh- 
water Lochs of the West of Scotland,” Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., 
vol. xviii. p. 139. 

Murray, John, “Some Observations on the Temperature of the 
Water of the Scottish Fresh-water Lochs,” Scott. Geogr. Mag., 
VOle XUdee (5 dy 

Watson, E. R., ‘‘ Movements of the Waters of Loch Ness, as 
indicated by Temperature Observations,” Geogr. Journ., vol. 
xxiv. p. 430. (This is the paper in which Mr Watson describes 
the discovery of the Temperature Seiche.) 

Wedderburn, E. M., “The Temperature of the Fresh-water Lochs 
of Scotland, with special reference to Loch Ness,” Trans. Roy. 
Soc, Edin., vol. xlv. p. 407. 

Wedderburn, E. M., “An Experimental Investigation of the 
Temperature Changes occurring in Fresh-water Lochs,’ Proc. 
Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxviii. p. 1. 

Wedderburn, E. M., ‘The Freezing of Fresh-water Lakes,” 
Scott. Met. Journ., ser. 3, vol. xiv. p. 219. 

Wedderburn, E. M., “ Notes on the Temperature of the Water in 
Loch Ness,” Geogr. Journ., vol. xxxi. p. 49. 

Wedderburn, E. M., “Temperature Observations in Loch Garry,” 
Proc. Roy. Soc, Edin., vol. xxix. p. 98. 

Wedderburn, E. M., “ Temperature Conditions in Scottish Lakes,” 
Rep. Brit. Ass., 1909, p. 624. 

Wedderburn, E. M., “ Dr O., Pettersson’s Observations on Deep- 
water Oscillations,’ Proc. Roy. Soc, Edin., vol, xxix. p. 602. 

Wedderburn, E. M., and Watson, W., “Current and Temperature 
Observations in Loch Ness,” Proc, Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxix. p. 619. 


THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF 
LAKE WATERS 


By W. A. CASPARI, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.LC. 
(Assistant to Sir John Murray, K.C.B.) 


CompaRATIVELy few of the world’s lake waters have been submitted 
to chemical examination. As a rule, only the more highly saline and 
abnormal waters are analysed for the interest of the thing. Analyses 
of ordinary waters are seldom undertaken except to test their 
potability, or with reference to their industrial application; but 
nearly all potability analyses, and many industrial analyses, are in- 
complete and of little use to the limnologist. On the whole, 
however, a fair number of full analyses of lake and river waters have 
by now been accumulated. Sufficient data being thus at hand, it 
may here be expedient to review briefly what is known, from the 
chemical standpoint, about the waters of inland lakes. 

In discussing the chemistry of lacustrine waters we have to 
distinguish sharply between two types of lakes, viz. those which 
discharge into an outflow, and those which form the terminus of a catch- 
ment area. The vast majority of lakes belong to the former type ; 
they are filled with continuously renewed water, and act, as it were, 
as temporary reservoirs of the system of rivers flowing into them. 
As regards chemical composition, the water of such a lake will 
represent an average, or rather an integral, of the waters of its 
affluents ; the additional matter brought into solution from the bed 
and sides of the lake itself is of vanishing importance, because the 
area of land acted upon is small (as compared with river conditions) 
in proportion to the bulk of water, and because there is little or no 
mechanical erosion in a lake, except within the sphere of wave-action 
around the shore-line. There is thus no difference in principle 
between lake water and river water, provided the lake be not a 
terminus. Ultimately the water of a given lake will depend, for its 
chemical composition, on the nature of the country traversed by the 
rivers which feed it. 


At all points of its course, a river receives contributions of 
145 10 


146 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


- soluble substances, both through the activity of its own waters and 
by drainage from the surrounding soil; these substances are derived 
chiefly from the dissolution of rocks, with or without preliminary 
chemical decomposition, in which not only water but also carbonic 
acid and humic acid play a part. ‘The general geochemical effect of 
flowing waters may be described as the action of a very dilute solution 
of carbonic acid on the earth’s crust, resulting in a continual trans- 
ference of matter to the ocean. Thus it is impossible for any river 
to be quite free from dissolved solids; but, on the other hand, the 
breaking down of rocks into soluble matter is an exceedingly slow 
process, and is very far indeed from keeping pace with the supply of 
pure meteoric water. Hence river waters, regarded as solutions, are 
necessarily of extreme dilution. ‘The formation of anything like 
concentrated solutions only occurs in enclosed basins, e.g. the ocean 
or terminal lakes, as will be illustrated on a later page. Of the 
elements found in solution, the foremost are calcium, magnesium, 


potassium, and sodium, as ranking among the most abundant. 


constituents of the lithosphere; further, sulphur (as sulphates) and 
chlorine, as being, though less abundant, of highly soluble tendency ; 
whereas silicon, aluminium, and iron, the most abundant elements of 
all, are but insignificant items, owing to their insoluble tendency. 

Wherever there are sedimentary formations, that is, in most parts 
of the world, there is sure to be calcium carbonate in some form ; 
this substance readily goes into solution, up to certain limits, in water 
containing carbonic acid, and, though it is very liable to be extruded 
by other solutes, or by. removal of free carbonic acid, is to be regarded 
on the whole as the principal solute in rivers and fresh-water lakes. 
The precise form in which the various inorganic constituents exist in 
solution cannot here be dealt with at length. Broadly speaking, 
they are present not as definite salts, that is, combinations of an acid 
and a base, like sodium chloride, magnesium sulphate, etc., but as 
ions. Basic and acidic constituents, in fact, exist independently in 
solution, whilst salts as such are practically limited to the solid state. 
The result is that, if ever two ions, derived originally no matter from 
what salts, are in solution together to such an extent that the salt 
combined from them would be supersaturated, that salt is precipitated 
out of solution as a solid. 

The presence of calcium carbonate in a water which otherwise 
contains only sulphates and chlorides causes the water to show a 
weak alkaline reaction towards delicate indicators; but it is im- 
portant to note that, when a water is spoken of as “alkaline,” it 
owes its alkalinity not to calcium but to the alkali metals, sodium 
and potassium. These latter, when leached out of igneous rocks, 
are not accompanied by a strong acidic principle (e.g. Cl or 5O,) 


THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF LAKE WATERS 147 


to balance them, but may be supposed, for the sake of clearness, 
to go into solution as carbonates; now carbonic is a very weak 
acid, so that these carbonates behave in solution in much the same 
way as uncombined bases or hydroxides, and give to the water a 
decided alkaline reaction, which would grow stronger (whereas alkalinity 
due to calcium carbonate would disappear) on evaporation, As a 
matter of fact, both calcium and the alkali metals are in solution as 
bicarbonate rather than normal carbonate, but it is less confusing for 
present purposes to think of only the latter as present. Alkaline 
waters, then, are those which may be regarded as containing a clear 
excess of sodium or potassium carbonate, and alkalinity can, in most 
cases, be detected from a statement of analysis if there is more carbonic 
acid reported than would be equivalent to the amount of lime present. 

In addition to these mineral derivatives, many organic substances, 
originating from the decay of animal and vegetable matter, find their 
way into inland waters. Little is known as to their nature, and a 
satisfactory quantitative statement of them is an impossibility ; more- 
over, they tend to be rapidly broken down, chemically and bacterially. 
Hence, generally speaking, solid organic solutes may be neglected by 
the physiographer. An exception, however, is to be made in the case 
of peaty waters. These contain humus, a degradation-product of 
vegetable matter, which is somewhat resistant to oxidative destruction, 
and is understood to. impart an enhanced solubility to iron (in the 
ferrous state) and to silica. Dissolved in lake waters, humus has the 
property of inhibiting some forms of animal and plant life, and there 
is reason to believe that it aids greatly in the decomposition of 
minerals. It is a substance of high tinctorial power; hence, notwith- 
standing the strikingly deep colour of many peaty waters, the organic 
matter dissolved in them is trifling in actual amount. Peaty waters 
are very common, indeed predominant, in the Scottish rivers and lakes. 

The matter held in solution by rivers varies both in quantity and 
quality with the geology and climate of the drainage area. In 
temperate climates the majority of river waters tend to a certain 
normal composition. ‘They contain seldom more than 0-2 part per 
thousand of total solids, about one-half of which will consist of 
calcium carbonate held in solution by free carbonic acid; sulphates 
come next in order of quantity, followed at some distance by chlorides, 
whilst magnesium and the alkali metals amount to only a few units 
per cent. ‘This composition stands in glaring contrast to that of sea- 
salt, in which we have in descending order of percentages chlorine, 
sodium, sulphates, magnesium, calcium. Various abnormalities in 
the dissolved matter of river waters may be brought about by special 
local conditions of the drainage area: not only may the bulk of 
solutes be considerably increased, but the proportion of certain single 


148 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


ingredients may be enhanced, as follows :--Sedimentary formations 
impregnated with sodium chloride (e.g. those of marine origin) 
increase the chlorine; beds of gypsum or pyrites the sulphates (sul- 
phatic waters); peaty lands, owing to the solvent action of humic 
acids, the iron and silica; igneous rocks the sodium and potassium 
(alkaline waters); chalk or limestone the calcium carbonate (hard 
waters). High chlorine contents may also be traced to. the near 
neighbourhood of a sea-board, and to the influence of human life and 
activity on the drainage area. The effect of local peculiarities is of 
course much greater on small than on large rivers, which latter 
represent a summation of many tributary waters. 

Rivers flowing through arid countries tend to develop quite 
another type of water. In the first place, the rainfall is scanty, 
whence a high percentage of total solids in the river water. Secondly, 
the scarcity of vegetation results in a dearth of carbonic acid, which 
is chiefly derived from decaying vegetable matter. Now, calcium 
carbonate can only exist in solution in presence of free carbonic acid : 
hence this ingredient dwindles to a minimum. Further, the alkali 
metals leached out of igneous (felspathic, basaltic, micaceous) rocks 
attach preferentially carbonic acid to themselves, and form sodium 
and potassium carbonates, which in turn throw out of solution an~ 
equivalent of any other calcium salt, e.g. sulphate, which may be 
present ; and the geology of arid regions is frequently of a nature to 
bring the alkalies into special prominence in the waters. In such 
waters, therefore, when they are not rendered predominantly chloridic 
or sulphatic by special local conditions, we commonly find as principal 
solutes sodium and potassium carbonates, calcium in any form being 
in a vanishing minority. The waters, in fact, are alkaline, and can 
be recognised as such by the ordinary litmus test. 

It need scarcely be pointed out that the abnormal waters referred 
to above, whether they be unusually chloridic, sulphatic, or alkaline, 
are, with regard to the inland waters of the world at large, exceptional. 
The majority of discharging lakes, then, may be supposed to be 
filled with a water which holds exceedingly little matter in solution, 
and that chiefly calcium carbonate. Details may be gathered from 
the subjoined analyses of lake waters.‘ No apology is offered, or 
needed, for stating these and subsequent analyses in. the modern 
rational form, according to which constituents present mainly in the 
ionised state are reported as ions, whilst any carbonic acid present 
over and above what is required to form normal carbonates is sup- 
pressed. The item CO, in the analyses is not a result of direct deter- 

1 Nearly three hundred analyses of spring, river, and lake waters, mostly 


American, are quoted, with references, by F. W. Clarke, Bull. U.S. Geol. Survey, No. 
330, 1908, from which publication several of the analyses here given are extracted. 


THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF LAKE WATERS 149 


mination, but is arrived at by difference, and represents the surplus 
acid required for neutrality after Cl and SO, have received their equiva- 
lent of bases. Organic matter is left entirely out of account in the 
analytical statements. Since of all possible combinations calcium 
carbonate is the one which is nearest its limit of solubility, it is a 
useful and not wholly misleading convention in interpreting analyses 
to pair off Ca with CO, first of all, any surplus CO, being regarded 
as combined with the alkali metals, and any surplus Ca with SO,. 


Loch 
Lake of Lake Lake Lough Baile a’ 
Geneva Champlain Baikal Neagh (|Ghobhainn, 
(Freundler).!) (Leighton).? (Schmidt).*) (Hodges).+) Lismore 
| | (Tetlow).® 
Bee ei thenees : 0-169 0-067 0-069 0-155 0-220 
| 
Ca. 27°8 21°2 23°4 RM a, 38°5 
Mg 4:0 4:2 3°5 1:3 0-2 
Percent- | Na ib:2 8°8 5°8 15°4 0°3 
age com- | K . 09 a 3°4 nee 0°4 
position of< COs Ofae 45°8 | 49°8 36°9 58°2 
dissolved | Cl. Vile uOLO 1°8 [i ee 57 0°9 
matter. | SO, “ich (bean TA | 6°9 Og, trace 
SHO alia 353 5°6 | 2-0 3°3 1°2 
(AlFe),O,| trace 1°6 | 1°4 Ges 0°3 
| | 


The first three are examples of more or less normal waters, that 
of the Lake of .Geneva having a somewhat sulphatic tendency. In 
Lough Neagh there is excess of chlorine and of iron, due respectively 
to wind-blown salt from the sea, and to the passage of its affluents 
through peaty country. This water and those of Lakes Champlain 
and Baikal are slightly on the alkaline side. The last analysis shows 
a typical hard water existing in a limestone country: the amount of 
dissolved matter is large, and it consists almost exclusively of calcium 
carbonate. As a Scottish loch water this is quite exceptional ; the 
mainland loch waters generally are exceedingly pure ; e.g. both for 
Loch Ness and Loch Katrine ® 0°029 part per thousand of total solids 
(organic included) are reported. Even purer are the Lake District 
waters, ¢.¢. Thirlmere, with 0°020 part per thousand. 

1 Forel, Le Léman, ii. p. 581, 1895. 

2 U.S. Geol. Survey, Water Supply Paper 121, 1905, 

3 Bull. Acad. St Petersburg, xxiv. p. 423, 1878. 

4 Chem. News, xxx. p. 108, 1874. 

ePior, MOY. S00... XxV. p.-970, 1905. 

6 From an analysis of this notoriously soft water, kindly supplied by Mr F. W. 
Harris, City Analyst of Glasgow, it appears that carbonates are almost or entirely 
absent, whilst sulphates preponderate somewhat over chlorides ; calcium makes 
up 12 per cent. of the solids, and magnesium is reported in traces only. 


150 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Turning now to lakes not furnished with outlets, we meet with a 
variety of waters which contain relatively high proportions of dissolved 
matter, and show great eccentricities in their chemical composition. 
Ordinary lakes are merely temporary storehouses of the soluble 
substances extracted from the surrounding land on their way to the 
sea. ‘Terminal lakes, on the other hand, usurp the function of the 
sea itself as the final repository of these substances. In such lakes 
the loss of water by evaporation is ipso facto equal to, or greater 
than, the supply from affluents and rainfall. Consequently all the 
dissolved matter of inflowing rivers is gradually accumulated in the 
lake water, and, generally speaking, the older the lake, the more 
highly charged its waters will be. The total solids may thus rise to 
hundreds of parts per thousand. 

Profound alterations in the nature of the dissolved matter are 
involved by this process of concentration. In the first place, the 
predominant calcium carbonate of river waters is present only by 
virtue of free carbon dioxide in solution. Now this latter must 
remain approximately in equilibrium with the carbon dioxide of the 
atmosphere, and cannot, therefore, accumulate to any extent: on the 
contrary, it tends to be ousted more and more as the water increases 
in salinity. The result is that calcium carbonate must be eliminated, 
usually by precipitation as calcareous tufa, travertine, or oolite. In 
exceptional cases the oceanic mode of elimination, viz. by biological 
agencies, comes into play. The deposition of calcium carbonate 
begins at an early stage in the history of an enclosed lake, long before 
any other constituents are separated out. This transference of calcium 
from the dissolved to the undissolved state is one of the most salient 
phenomena of terminal lakes and of the ocean, and goes on con- 
tinuously so long as there is an influx of continental waters. 

The further changes which may take place as the concentration 
of lake water progresses follow from the solubilities of the various 
possible salts concerned. It will be remembered that any cation can 
pair off with any anion, so that as soon as the saturation-lmit of a 
salt corresponding to any pair has been transgressed, that salt will 
begin to separate out. Leaving calcium carbonate on one side, we 
find that calcium sulphate would be the first salt to pass out of 
solution as gypsum or anhydrite. This precipitation only occurs at 
an advanced state of concentration, even when the lacustrine and 
affluent water is of the normal type. When the inflowing waters 
contain a slight excess of alkali, existing as sodium and potassium 
carbonates, calcium carbonate is thrown down by double decomposi- 
tion, and the separation of calcium sulphate is to a corresponding 
extent averted, whilst soluble sulphates accumulate in the water. 

When the total solids have passed beyond 20 per cent., sodium 


sx 


THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF LAKE WATERS Lol 


sulphate or carbonate, or magnesium sulphate, may crystallise out, 
according to the composition of the solutes and the temperature. 
The proviso as to temperature is necessary, because the solubility of 
sodium sulphate increases in an exceptional degree with temperature ; 
in fact, there are waters which are unsaturated for this salt in summer 
and deposit it in winter. Beyond 30 per cent., sodium chloride 
begins to separate out. Magnesium chloride remains in solution to a 
point not far short of actual desiccation.! 

The following analyses of terminal lake waters illustrate the 
diversity which the composition of such waters can assume, and the 
great difference between them and river waters :— 


pom 


gas | det. | Pane |2e -/8.5/ 82. | 3 
g2|228u|S¢22 |ses9 | 228 | See. | 9: 
Soe | ones elas | See | e882 8 |e 5 
$36 |aaa~ | 2°35 | dae | UE | 238 | oz 
geo} awo | § Se)4 oS se a 
Dissolved matter : 4 | 
Parts per thousand. 38 EY 148°5 | 2°2 199°2 12°6 | 35°0 
cs (Ca. 0°39 if 0°32 0°66 1°0 2rd ee 1cd 
q& |Mg Del 0°57 2°5 33 oot Bone | 8% 
Sh |Na. 31°7 37°6 340 | = -35°8 32°9 24°5 | 30°6 
oo | K. see 1-2 0°78 ok 17, 0°60 | 11 
238 4 CO; Ores 20 Fee 40°9 - 0-93 | 0-2 
eee | OLBr 28°2 Piglet 5 753 15°7 557 41-8 | 555 
eee SO, 37°1 11°9 5-0 2°9 Groin 2878 | cs 
es |Sid, 0°04 0°85 0-27 lc 01 ue 
S, (AlFe),02 0°02 trace 0°45 


In these lakes deposition of sodium salts has not yet begun, or is 
at an early stage. Lake Sarat represents a concentrate of normal 
river waters, Lakes Van and Palic of alkaline waters. In Lake Urmi 
and Great Salt Lake we see the effect of an elimination of calcium 
sulphate and find sodium chloride accumulating; both are lakes of 
very high salinity. It will be observed that the dissolved solids of 
these two lakes closely simulate those of the ocean in composition ; 
but this is more or less accidental, and is by no means to be regarded 


1 These statements are to be regarded as simplifications. Asa matter of fact, 
the crystallisation of concentrated natural waters is an exceedingly complicated 
affair, owing to the numerous double salts which can and do separate from solution. 
The physical chemistry of the subject for the special case of sea-water has been 
worked out with remarkable thoroughness, and may be referred to in Van’t Hoft’s 
Ozeanische Salzablagerungen (2 vols., Brunswick, 1905-09). 

2 Bujor, Ann. Scr. Uni. Jassy, i. p. 158, 1901. 

3 Comptes rendus, xxi. p. 1111, 1845. 

4 Proc. Roy. Soc., xxv. p. 312, 1899. 

5 Jahrb. geol, Reichsanstalt, vi. p. 361, 1901. 

6 J. E. Talmage, “'The Great Salt Lake,” Scott. Geogr. Mag., XVll. p. 635, 1901. 

7 Karaboghaz iieeredition Reports (in ighneshivi St. Petersburg, 1902. 

8 Challenger Reports (Phys. Chem. Chall. Exp., Part I. p. 203), 1884. 


152 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


as a general tendency. ‘The resemblance is due partly to the disappear- 
ance of calcium sulphate from solution, and would not have existed at 
a period when the lakes were no more concentrated than the ocean ; 
partly also it results, at least in the case of Great Salt Lake, from an 
inflow of exceptionally chloridic river waters. On the other hand, the 
Caspian, which actually began life as an arm of the ocean, has become 
much more sulphatic, being fed largely by alkaline waters. So 
pronounced is the accumulation of sulphate, that when, in the 
Karaboghaz Gulf, local concentration of Caspian water takes place, 
sodium sulphate (Glauber’s salt) is thrown down. 

We have seen how the early stages in the concentration of lake 
waters produce, by elimination of calcium, waters in which sodium is 
the chief metal. When, to go a step further, a lake is so near the 
end of its career that it has for a long time deposited sodium salts, 
magnesium becomes predominant. The waters now contain much 
magnesium chloride and sulphate, and resemble in every way the 
artificial ‘* bitterns” or mother-liquors which remain when common 
salt is manufactured by crystallisation out of sea-water. The waters 
tabulated below are familiar examples of this. The Karaboghaz is 
merely a gulf of: the Caspian Sea, in which large deposits of sodium 
sulphate and chloride have crystallised out. Lake Elton, an oceanic 
derelict, has deposited salt and gypsum, and is said to yield a crop of 
magnesium sulphate in the winter. ‘The Dead Sea is a concentrate of 
Jordan water, an abnormal river water of which an analysis is adduced 
for comparison. 


Karaboghaz Lake Dead River 
Gulf Elton Sea Jordan 
(Schmidt).! | (Erdmann).?| (Terreil).? | (Anderson).4 


Dissolved matter : . ; IRQ: : 

Parts per thousand. aoe e ee meee et 

‘Ca 3 0°10 6°6 79 

Mg 15°8 17°5 15'9 9°5 

Percentage composi- _ ae ul he ae 
tion Shen ehed CO, af 0°0 se 12°7 

; Cl, Br 5374 64°2 70°0 49°4 

: SO, 17°4 6°8 0°24 3°6 
SiO, bk Me trace 0°15 


| 
| 


The final state towards which these waters, which are more or less 
of the oceanic type, tend is that of a solution of little else than 
1 Bull. Acad. St. Petersburg, xxiv. p.:177, 1878. 

4" Pogg: Ann., Xxx pia se): 
> Comptes rendus, lxi1. p. 13829, 1866. 
* Rep. U.S, Dead Sea Hapedition, p. 202, 1852. 


THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF LAKE WATERS 1538 


magnesium chloride. But if the waters subjected to concentration 
are alkaline, the result will be very different. As concentration 
proceeds the preponderating sodium carbonate tends to throw not only 
calcium but also magnesium out of solution, and the final liquors will 
consist almost entirely of sodium salts, viz. carbonate, sulphate, and 
chloride. In certain rare instances boric acid originating from 
volcanic vents has found its way into lakes. Its presence. in solution 
seems to be confined to highly saline alkaline lakes, and this may be 
due to the fact that where calcium and magnesium are present in: 
appreciable quantity, boric acid would tend to be eliminated as 
insoluble borates ; whereas in alkaline concentrates it would persist in 
solution as borax (sodium pyroborate). 

During the world’s history many lakes must have dried up 
completely after accumulating a large store of salts. In moderately 
humid climates this cannot have happened often, but when it did 
happen, an inverse process of re-solution must have gradually set in. 
Thus the saline residues would lose first magnesium and then sodium 
salts, whilst calcium sulphate and carbonate might well survive into 
recent geological periods. Rock-salt deposits generally, and especially 
the sodio-magnesio-potassic deposits of the North German Plain, are 
monuments of bygone lakes of sea-water, cut off from the ocean ; pro- 
bably, however, these are instances not of desiccation to the last 
drop, but of copious deposition of salts followed by withdrawal of the 
mother-liquors. Far less resistance is offered to the formation and 
survival of saline residues in arid regions; many such, of very variable 
composition, are known to exist, some of them being exploited com- 
mercially, especially in the Nile Valley, Central Asia, and the United 
States. Since arid regions, as we have seen above, are apt to produce 
alkaline waters, these deposits consist as a rule largely or mainly of 
sodium carbonate, occasionally with a considerable proportion of 
borax. 

Of a very different class of solute, which is never absent in lake 
waters, viz. the dissolved gases, there is but little to be said. Whilst 
this department of hydrology has received a great deal of attention 
from oceanographers, experimental data as to the gases dissolved in 
lakes are, so far, scanty and isolated; and it is to be admitted that 
the subject bristles with physical and chemical complications, and 
presents no small experimental difficulties. Pure water in contact 
with air takes up oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide up to definite 
limits of saturation. The amount of each gas taken up is directly 
proportional to its partial pressure, decreases, though not in a simple 
relation, with increasing temperature, and lastly depends on a solubility 
constant which varies somewhat widely from gas to gas. As an effect 
of their respective solubilities, oxygen and nitrogen go into solution 


154. THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


not in their atmospheric ratio (1: 4) but in the ratio of approximately 
1:2. When we come to natural waters, we find that high salinity 
lowers the absolute solubility of gases somewhat, and that carbon 
dioxide is greatly affected by the chemical affinity for it of dissolved 
carbonates. With regard to the latter gas, all hitherto published 
data are untrustworthy as to the amount in solution in the gaseous, as 
distinct from the ionised, state, and we are not likely to become better 
informed until a sound experimental method of measuring the tensien 
of the gas in solution becomes universal. The saturation-solubilities 
of oxygen and nitrogen, at partial pressures of } atm. and 4 atm. 
respectively, as in air, are set down in the following table, expressed 
in c.c. at O° and 760 mm. per litre of liquid :-— 


Oxygen. Nitrogen. 


Pure water at 0° C. : : A 10°29 18°56 
ane Ales LD Ls UL eee 7°22 13°63 
eat: aah wee eer diet 5°57 10°94 

Sea-water (salinity =34 per cent.) at 0° . 8°36 14°40 

3 ‘s %, at 15° . 5°84 11°12 
bs re at 30° . 4°50 9°26 
| 


In the best-explored lake, that of Geneva, a series of experiments 
showed the content of oxygen to be 6°8-7°6 c.c. per litre, and nitro- 
gen 14°6-15°9 c.c. per litre, at various depths and at temperatures 
ranging from 4° to 9° C. There was very little variation from the 
surface down to 300 metres (984 feet), which is doubtless due to the 
even vertical temperature of the lake and the complete circulation 
which it consequently enjoys. ‘The amounts of gas dissolved are seen 
to be rather below saturation in the case of oxygen, and very near 
saturation in the case of nitrogen. Very different are the waters of 
the Caspian: in the South Basin 5°6 cc. of oxygen at 100 metres 
(328 feet), tailing down to 0°73 cc. at 715 metres (2345 feet), are 
recorded ; in the North Basin 2°3 c.c. at 150 metres (492 feet) down 
to 0°13 cc. at 575 metres (1886 feet). Here the bottom waters are 


altogether destitute of oxygen, and there is no animal life below 400. 


metres (1312 feet). Wherever the bottom waters are inadequately 
ventilated, reduced sulphur compounds are apt to be generated in the 
deposits, and this sometimes leads to the presence of an abnormal gas in 
solution, namely sulphuretted hydrogen. 

The quantity of gas held in solution in any part of a lake is 
governed by a multiplicity of factors. It depends first of all on 
the circulation of the lake: thus lakes of uniform temperature, 
especially the shallower ones, are well aérated from top to bottom; 
lakes with a discontinuity layer (Sprungschicht) receive an ample 


, al 


THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF LAKE WATERS 155 


supply of gas in the upper, and very little in the lower, waters ; 
frozen lakes are cut off from the atmosphere and are gradually 
depleted of oxygen until thawing sets in. In this connection wide 
seasonal variations may be expected. In the second place, the gases 
are much shuffled about by the organic life of the lake waters. 
Animals and most bacteria consume oxygen and produce carbon 
dioxide. A defect of oxygen therefore means a scanty fauna, and 
this may involve important economic consequences, e.g. when the 
bottom waters of a lake are unable to harbour fish which require 
coolness in summer. On the other hand, chlorophyll-bearing plants, 
which are, of course, restricted to the photic zone, consume carbon 
dioxide and give in return oxygen. Thus, at springtime the upper 
waters of lakes have frequently been found supersaturated with 
oxygen owing to the luxuriance of algae; in pond-waters the abnormal 
content of 24 c.c. per litre has even been reported. Here again, 
then, seasonal variations are all-important. Nitrogen is little 
influenced by animal or plant life; but, in sea-water at any rate, 
some bacteria are known which assimilate nitrogen, and others which 
set it free as gas from nitrogen compounds. 

These superficial considerations will suffice to show that the 
biological economy of lakes is intimately bound up with the dissolved 
gases, and it may be hoped that the study of these gases, experimental 
difficulties notwithstanding, will play a greater part in limnology 
than it has done heretofore. 


AN EPITOME OF A COMPARATIVE: SEUDIGOR 
THE DOMINANT PHANEROGAMIC AND 
HIGHER CRY PTOGAMIC FLORA OF AOUARIG 
HABIT, IN SEVEN LAKE AREAS OF SCOTLAND. 
(With nine Plates.) 


By GEORGE WEST 


PAGE 
Part I[,—INTRODUCTION . LSS 
if I].—Systematic List OF THE PLANts, AND A Papi SHOWING 
THE POSITIONS OCCUPIED BY PLANTS IN THE LAKES i l6s 
,  Lil.—TxHe Lakes :— 
Area I. The Ness District . ; : aMloG 
» LI. The Island of Lismore : ; me aL 
» LI. The Nairn District . : 215 
>; LV. NW. Kirkeudbrightshire.~. ; ‘ Sanita) 
>» . Vv. 8.Hy Kirkcudbrightshire . 4) 1283 
» WI. Wigtownshire : 5 Bis 
7. VIL Bite and Kinross. ~~ : : 246 


29 


IV.—THE PLATES ; E : é Hees 260 


PART I.—INTRODUCTION 


THis paper is mainly an epitome of work done on behalf of the 
Scottish Lake Survey under the direction of Sir John Murray and 
Mr Laurence Pullar, the full details of which have been already 
published by the author in the ‘following , contributions to the 
subject :— 

(1) “A Comparative Study of the dominant Phanerogamic and 
Higher Cryptogamic Flora of Aquatic Habit in ‘Three Lake Areas of 
Scotland” (with fifty-five plates), Proc. Roy. Soc. Hdin., Session 
1904-5, vol. xxv. pp. 967-1023, 1905. 

(2) ** Notes on the Aquatic Flora of the Ness Area,” Geogr. Journ., 
vol. xxx1. pp. 67-72, Jan. 1908. 

(3) “ A Further Contribution to a Comparative Study of the 
dominant Phanerogamic and Higher Cryptogamic Flora of Aquatic 
Habit in Sota Lakes” (with sixty-two te Proc. Roy. Soc. 


Edin., Session 1908-9. 
156 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES boy 


From the first dawn of modern science until almost the middle 
of the last century, the chief aim of those who interested themselves 
in vegetation, beyond the ornamental, useful, or medicinal properties 
of plants, was in the accumulation of dried specimens into herbaria, — 
in the grouping of the plants into families so as to exhibit as nearly 
as possible their natural relationships, in giving names to the various 
species, and in appending to each a curt diagnosis of a few prominent 
external features in a language that could be understood only by the 
initiated; the great desiderata of botanists being, to have a vast 
number of species in their collections, and to be constantly adding 
still more. To a certain extent these studies were useful, but it was 
most unfortunate for the cause of science that such desires and 
methods should have dominated the fields of botany so long. With 
the advent, however, of such master-minds of science as Charles 
Darwin, Herbert Spencer, Hermann Miiller, Julius Sachs, the Hookers, 
and many others a new era arose, and then botanists began to con- 
sider plants under the refulgent rays of the new light which these men 
had kindled: the real study of nature then began. Instead of the 
ultema Thule of botanists being the addition of one more plant to their 
lists, men began to thirst for a knowledge of the phenomena of plant 
life and its causation—for, in fact, a Philosophical Botany. In his 
Principles of Biology, Herbert Spencer gave the keystone to the arch 
when he wrote therein :—‘ Everywhere structures in great measure 
determine functions; and everywhere functions are incessantly modi- 
fying structures. In nature, the two are inseparable co-operators ; 
and science can give no true interpretation of nature, without keeping 
their co-operation constantly in view.” 

The first plant life that occurred upon the earth was probably of 
aquatic habit, and water has ever continued the very soul of vegetable 
existence, without which its life is impossible. 

When the ancestors of our present terrestrial phanerogamic flora 
began their phylogenetic development from aquatic forms of plant 
life, their first need must have been an efficient water-transporting 
system. As the new forms began to extend into places more remote 
from watery environments, sv the need for rapidly carrying water 
through the plant-body would increase. ‘Those forms unable to re- 
spond to this requirement would die out, and their places would be 
occupied by others more fitting. After enormous epochs of time, 
during which the struggle of adaptation has proceeded apace, it comes 
about that at the present day the terrestrial plants that dominate the 
surface of the earth are chiefly those that have best succeeded in pro- 
viding themselves with an efficient water-transporting system. With 
phanerogams of aquatic habit there is no necessity for the elaborate 
development of this arrangement. When, therefore, a normal ter- 


158 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


restrial plant is compared with one of aquatic habit, it is found that 
their external and internal morphology differ markedly. On the 
other hand, plants that inhabit very moist environments exhibit an 
intermediate stage. 

From the foregoing remarks it must not be imagined that our 
aquatic flowering plants are the representatives of the ancestral stock 
from which the terrestrial types have arisen. It is rather the 
opposite, for there are good reasons for considering the existing 
aquatic phanerogams to have taken their origin from terrestrial types ; 
not because they were first driven off the land by more robust 
competitors, as is sometimes stated, but, more probably, because 
certain mutable forms have exhibited a tendency, as some do even 
now, to take on the aquatic habit, that mode of living being more 
agreeable to their requirements. Many plants have both aquatic and 
‘terrestrial forms: when submerged, their structure will exhibit the 
points of typical aquatic types: when growing out of the water, they 
tend towards the morphological structure of terrestrial plants: such 
plants are amphibious. What then is the difference between these 
two opposite forms of plants ? 

The normal terrestrial plant takes in the greater part of its water 
and nutrient salts from the hygroscopic water of the soil by means 
of the osmotic action of delicate hairs and tissue situated near the 
extremity of the rootlets. This sap, beyond providing for the 
maintenance of turgidity, is of little use to the plant until it has 
been conducted into the leaves. ‘There, with the carbon derived 
from the atmospbere, it is converted into various substances for the 
present and future requirements of the plant and its offspring. 
Hence the necessity to such plants for the means of rapidly transport- 
ing this ascending sap from the root-tips to the leaves. The stem 
being aerial, there is no necessity for the storage of a very large 
amount of air. In accordance with the cecological conditions that 
exist where they grow, terrestrial plants have to provide themselves 
with a more or less thickened cuticle in order to prevent the untimely 
evaporation of the sap. 

The physical properties of water induce in aquatic plants con- 
ditions of structure quite different. Water and the nutrient salts 
in solution are absorbed by the whole of the submerged plant-body. 
Instead of being under the obligation to search for food-salts, fresh 
supplies are constantly being brought by the currents, which, owing 
to physical and mechanical causes, are of never-ceasing occurrence. 
Being therefore semi-independent of the root. system, the latter has 
usually but feeble development and is often not produced at all. In 
order that this general absorption may take place, and the sap being 
in no danger of undue evaporation, no thick cuticle is developed on 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES Loo 


the submerged portion. This explains why aquatic plants wilt so 
rapidly when exposed to the air. The epidermal cells of aquatic 
plants often contain chloroplasts, which is not the case in terrestrial 
plants. Absorption not being restricted to the tips of distant roots, 
a less elaborate sap-transporting system will suffice. Owing to the 
support afforded by water, the lignified elements of the vascular 
bundles are often reduced to a minimum; the tissues are mostly 
parenchymatous and the walls of the cells are thin. Being shut off 
from an adequate supply of air, aquatic plants have to arrange for 
the storage of considerable quantities of this necessity; they have 
therefore provided themselves with very large reservoirs in the form 
of intercellular spaces. ‘These air-spaces are often very large and con- 
tinuous ; a person may, for example, quite easily blow through the 
petiole of a water-lily six or seven feet long. ‘The air in these inter- 
cellular spaces varies with the metabolic activities, and is often held 
under a negative pressure. 

Terrestrial plants, being obliged to protect themselves against 
the excessive evaporation of their sap by means of a waterproof 
cuticle, which is also impervious to air, are under the necessity to 
provide a means by which an interchange of the external air with 
that of the intercellular spaces may be brought about; at the same 
time this interchange must be under the complete control of the 
individual. All this is accomplished by means of stomata and lenticels. 
The latter are quite unknown in aquatic plants as there is no second- 
ary thickening, and the stomata only occur upon organs exposed to 
the air, as upon the upper surface of floating leaves. Aquatic plants 
often exhibit a marked variance between their submerged and floating 
leaves. Ranunculus peltatus, Potamogeton heterophyllus, and Apium 
inundatum may be cited as examples, all of which may have broad 
floating leaves and narrow, thread-like submerged ones. Terrestrial 
plants, however, may exhibit similar features in their upper and lower 
leaves, but for a different reason. 

The flora of rapidly flowing water is limited to such species as 
root firmly in the substratum. Such water contains a much greater 
supply of air than does still water; consequently plants that thrive 
in this kind of habitat have relatively smaller internal air reservoirs 
than have those plants that inhabit still ponds and lakes; they also 
have a greater development of mechanical tissue. In rapidly moving 
water, plants have a much greater supply of food-salts presented to 
them in the form of matter in solution than is the case in still water 
of the same composition. This, in conjunction with the pull exercised 
upon them by the current, has a tendency to induce the production 
of a larger plant-body, their stems and leaves being elongated in the 
direction of the stream. As a result of this excessive vegetative 


160 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


development, such plants frequently flower less profusely than would 
be the case were they living in still water, owing to the antagonism 
existing in all organic beings between the vegetative and the re- 
productive systems. 

From certain points of view plants may increase in interest and 
value in ratio to their rarity; of equal worth philosophically are 
those plants that occur in great abundance. The former being 
scattered as individuals, or as small associations over restricted areas, 
are possibly at present of but small import in the economy of nature. 
The commoner plants, however, by reason of their dontinance and 
abundance, become important agents, not only as a plant-covering 
to the earth, but also in the effect they produce in the physiography 
of a country: barren tracts become heath or forest by the extension 
of vegetation ; lakes are converted into morasses, moors, or even into 
land suitable for agriculture by the accumulation of plant-remains. 
Such natural operations tend to increase the wealth and _ social 
prosperity of man. As examples on the other hand, the sudden 
increase of a baneful fungus may bring ruin to thousands of 
agriculturists, and carry famine to the million ; or morasses in hilly 
districts may slide into cultivated valleys, and completely overwhelm 
sites of human activity and wealth. ‘These and many other phenomena 
are brought about by the predominance of certain classes of plants. 
How great, therefore, are the interests awakened upon the fields of 
practical thought and knowledge by the abundant and dominant 
plants in their never-ceasing antagonism with one another and with 
other forces of nature ! 

The investigations described in the pages that follow were under- 
taken chiefly to show which are the dominant plants, of higher 
organisation, in some of the lochs of Scotland, and their distribution 
therein ; together with a few observations upon the leading factors 
that control the growth and extension of such plants. 

During the last great glacial epoch it is certain that all forms of 
the higher plants were banished from the greater portion of Scotland. 
Towards the end of that era, as the mantle of ice and snow began to 
retreat, so would plants encroach again over the country from the 
region to the south where its influence had been less severe. What 
precise causes influenced most this gradual northward march of 
aquatic and terrestrial plants cannot now be determined, but un- 
doubtedly they were such as affect the distribution of plants at the 
present day. The plants, no doubt, followed the lines of least resist- 
ance and greatest traction, not only in their geographical advance but 
also in their adaptations of structure and function to the varying 
environments. ‘These lines must necessarily be ramified and involved, 
perhaps to an insoluble degree, yet on them are the secrets of plant- 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 161 


geography to be discovered, on the basis of physiological anatomy 
and plant-psychology. By such methods a most interesting inquiry 
would be—What is the equilibrium that has been attained between 
the forces of resistance and traction that has caused certain species to 
arrive at, and remain in, restricted areas ? 

The two great factors that contribute towards the distribution 
of the plant-covering over the surface of the earth, and through its 
waters, are food and climate. Notwithstanding the conditions for 
plant life being so often remote from the ideal, yet the plastic power 
that plants possess of adapting themselves to the various combina- 
tions of edaphic and climatic conditions is so great that there are 
comparatively few spots in which some plant or other is not able to 
thrive and carry on its metabolic activities. With aquatic plants the 
influence of the substances, food or otherwise, held in solution in the 
water, is vastly greater than that of climate. 

The edaphic conditions dominating the flora in the majority of 
highland peaty lochs are indirectly influences of climate. Indeed, the 
rock-basins that contain the lakes are themselves chiefly the result of 
climatic effects, because they were scooped out during a former period 
of glaciation. This is also to a great extent true of the lowland 
lochs, such, for example, as those of Fife. The study of the lake 
flora leads, therefore, to the consideration of the cause of a glacial 
epoch, and is thus the usher to a most abstruse problem. 

The yellow-brown colour of the waters of the Highland districts 
is a matter of common observation, and is due to the water-supply 
from the mountains percolating through enormous quantities of peat 
_ before reaching the lakes. This, then, would appear to be an edaphic 
influence, and so it is, but the existing conditions—the presence of 
peat on the mountains—have been brought about by direct climatic 
influence. ‘The climatic conditions that obtain in the exposed 
portions of the Highlands are more favourable to the natural produc- 
tions of moorland than of either forest or grass-land. These three 
formations of dominant types of vegetation—moor, forest, and grass 
—are antagonistic to one another, the tendency being for the moor- 
land vegetation to extend from the higher situations over the natural 
forest and grass-land of the lower altitudes, to their extinction. The 
principal natural causes for the victory of moor over forest and grass 
are:—(1) wind, which is much less antagonistic to moor plants 
than to trees, because the former are much nearer the earth, and 
therefore feel the destructive desiccating action of wind very much 
less than trees do; besides which the dominant moor plants have 
protective adaptations against wind which trees seldom possess ; (2) 
the peculiar acid humus that is formed so abundantly, in the form of 
peat, from the remains of certain dominant moor plants, and which 


JU 


162 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


acts inimically towards trees and most lowland grasses. These 
natural conditions have undoubtedly been unwittingly hastened 
during the past two thousand years by the destructive influence of 
man on forest. ‘Then, in this country, forest is antagonistic to the 
grass-land of the lowlands because of climatic influences.* 

It is the presence of the peat extract in the water that is the 
dominating factor governing the flora in peaty lochs. Its presence 
excludes directly a number of aquatic or semi-aquatic plants that 
might otherwise thrive there. It obliterates any small quantity of 
calcium carbonate that might be present, and thus renders the water 
untenable to calciphilous plants. On the other hand, certain calci- 
fugal plants, having become accustomed to tolerate the presence of 
humic acids, abound. I scarcely know that one should say the latter 
thrive the better through lack of competition with the former, for 
commonly it is not because competition for available space is so great, 
but because the local conditions favour the dominant production of a 
few individual species. 

By reason of the preserving action of humic acids, the organic 
remains in shallow water about the shores of the lakes do not readily 
decay, but undergo a slow process of disintegration, and form a sort 
of liquid peat. Owing to this action, suitably situated shallow places 
about peaty lakes become reclaimed by the growth of land-winning 
plants quicker than is the case in lakes that are free of humic acids. 
A similar preserving action prevents the rapid decay of organic remains 
. at the bottom of the lakes, and in cases where the latter are com- 
paratively shallow, and where a large amount of foreign vegetable 
detritus is carried in by streams, etc., this substance accumulates at the 
bottom and prevents the development of plants that would otherwise 
thrive there. ‘This is a common feature in the lochs of Area IV. 

The peat extract darkens the water, and this restricts the depth 
zone to which submersed aquatics will grow, because they are unable 
to carry on photosynthesis beyond a very limited depth, owing to 
want of light. In peaty water, therefore, the photic zone, throughout 
which there exists sufficient hight for the proper development of the 
higher plants, does not extend to a greater depth than about 30 feet, 
and is frequently very much less than that. 

The extreme depth to which such plants as Nitella opaca and 
Fontinalis antipyretica will flourish in peaty water may roughly be 
estimated by multiplying by four the greatest depth at which one 
can see the gravel at the bottom, when looking over the shaded side 
of a boat about midday in the summer, when the sun is shining 
brilliantly, the water being perfectly calm, and the boat still. Such a 


1 The involved complications brought about by these factors cannot be 
explained here, for want of space. 


FLORA. OF SCOTTISH LAKES 1638 


depth in Loch Ness and others is from 7 to 8 feet; in many peaty 
lochs, however, this depth is considerably less. This multiplier, 
however, does not hold where the multiplicand is considerably greater. 
Thus at Loch Fiart, on the island of Lismore, the bottom may be 
seen at a depth of 25 feet under the above conditions, but plants do 
not thrive there at a greater depth than 45 feet. Possibly this is 
because the less refrangible rays of the spectrum, which are most 
necessary for photosynthesis, become insufficient at greater depths, 
although the rays of shorter wave-length may penetrate to greater 
depths in sufficient quantity to fulfil the requirements of the metabolic 
activities that are dependent upon them. It must be borne in mind 
that the yellow-brown colour of the water of peaty lakes probably 
neutralises the photo-chemical action of the violet rays at no great 
depth. It is known that Rhodophycez thrive in the sea to at least 
a depth of 250 feet, but in all probability their reddish colour 
accentuates the photo-chemical action of the very feeble yellow-green 
rays! that penetrate such a depth of water. In similar manner a 
photographic plate becomes more sensitive to certain rays when its 
film is stained with suitable colours. Thus a film stained with 
erythrosin becomes sensitive to green and yellow. Exact information 
on these points in various waters of Scotland is much needed. 

In the littoral region of the sea are found well-marked zones of 
vegetation, in which the plants of one trespass but little upon the 
domain of the others. This is to a great extent dependent upon the 
rise and fall of the tide. In fresh water, however, such well-differ- 
entiated zones cannot be distinguished. Still it appears that certain 
plants usually grow in certain relative positions, where some species 
form distinct colonies; but many others frequently, and in fact 
generally, encroach very much upon one another (vide 'Table, p. 193). 
It is, perhaps, convenient to imagine a set of zones for both the semi- 
aquatic and the submerged flora of a loch, but the plants are in no 
way enslaved to any set rule, excepting that many are restrained 
by certain cecological and physical conditions as mentioned hereafter 
(p. 164). As an example of a species that readily adapts itself to 
varying conditions, mention may be made of Fontinalis antipyretica. 
This plant grows in water of all depths down to 40 feet, as at Lismore ; 
it also grows equally well in the rocky bed of a burn that has water 
in it only during floods, as near Inchnacardoch Bay, Loch Ness ; again, 
it is frequently found in swiftly running streams, as well as near 
waterfalls. | 

As has been already indicated, a most important factor in the dis- 

1 The rays for maximum photosynthesis in the red seaweeds are the yellow- 


green ; these penetrate water sufficiently for photosynthesis to about five times the 
depth that red rays do. 


164 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


tribution of submerged plants over the bottom of a lake is the amount 
of suitable light available. It is, therefore, usual to distinguish three 
different zones according to the intensity of the received light. These 
zones vary in magnitude in different localities, in accordance with the 
amount of suspended matter in the water, together with the declivity 
of the sides of the lake-basin. The following are recognisable :— 

(1) A photic zone, throughout which there exists sufficient light 
for the proper development of the higher flora. This zone may extend 
to a depth of 40 feet as at Lismore, to only 12 feet as at Loch Kemp, 
or in many lochs even much less. Deeper than this zone there is— 

(2) A dysphotic zone, in which a few of the higher plants, stragglers 
from the photic zone, may struggle to exist. This zone is normally 
occupied by members of the lower cryptogamic flora that are able to 
thrive with a minimum of light. Deeper still there is— 

(3) An aphotic zone, in which no light-demanding organism can 
exist. 

The last glacial epoch, ‘after destroying the vegetation of Scot- 
land, immediately began the formation of more numerous lake-basins for 
the reception of a greater aquatic flora after its disappearance. Not 
only this, but other results of glaciation are found actually dominat- 
ing the vegetation in certain of the lochs at the present moment. 
At Lochs Oich and Lochy, for example, the sides of the adjacent 
mountains are coated with glacial drift-gravel. ‘This gravel is brought 
into the lochs by the numerous burns in great abundance, and 
deposited upon the shores. Under the erosive power of the waves, 
the constant movement of this gravel upon the littoral entirely prevents 
the growth of aquatic phanerogams over a considerable area of the 
margin of the lochs. Again, in many places a steep escarpment, due 
to glacial action, enters a lake immediately, so that water too deep 
for phanerogams occurs without any shore whatever; instance Loch 
Ness opposite Invermoriston, where a depth of 652 feet may be sounded 
at 120 yards from the margin. Here we see the indirect effect of a 
past epoch upon the flora of existing lakes, the lakes themselves being 
the direct result of that period. 

Climate also affects the local distribution of the plants in each loch 


more or less. The prevailing and frequently strong winds are 


westerly ; consequently there is upon the eastern shore of a lake a very 
considerable and oft-recurring wave-action. Acting upon a rocky or 
stony shore, this erosive power entirely prevents the growth of the 
higher plants in the shallow water where its influence is felt. Unless 
sheltered by adjacent hills, all the lakes will therefore be almost or 
quite devoid of vegetation on their eastern shores, whilst the western 
shores, and bays sheltered from the prevailing wind, may have an 
abundant vegetation. ‘The Algee of the seashore may be cited as an 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES Go 


example, on the other hand, that plants can develop, and luxuriantly 
too, on a rocky shore subjected to powerful erosion; but the case is 
here entirely different. The seeds of phanerogams, excepting the 
tropical Podostemacez, have no power to firmly attach themselves to 
rocks and stones, as have the spores of seaweeds. Still we do find, 
even in exposed parts of the lakes, fixed rocks often covered with 
mosses, hepatics, Algae, etc. Wind is also an important factor in 
dwarfing the semi-aquatic vegetation about the littoral region of the 
lakes; especially is this the case with those that are situated in the 
more elevated and exposed positions. 

The sudden rise or fall of water to any great or prolonged extent 
is inimical to the well-being of plants in the lochs, particularly so if 
the water is extremely peaty. ‘This is very pronounced at Loch Mhor, 
where an ever-changing level—due to the rainfall on the one hand, | 
and the water used by the British Aluminium Company at Foyers on 
the other hand—does not allow a flora to grow at all. 

The great variation between the summer and winter temperatures 
of the water of the higher mountain lochs doubtless affects the flora 
to a greater extent than in those of lower altitude. ‘These hill lochs 
are often shallow, and the comparatively small body of water may 
become heated to 70° Fahr. in summer, and may frequently be covered 
with ice in winter and spring, the ice often remaining upon such 
lochs until April. Before its final disappearance, large shoals of 
broken ice grind upon the shores with surprising power and noise, 
and would destroy any littoral vegetation within its influence. Con- 
sidering that such floating ice shifts about the loch with every change 
of wind, it is scant wonder these hill lochs are so often found devoid of 
marginal vegetation. In the great body of water of the large and 
deep lochs of lower altitude, the temperature is more equable, winter 
and summer records not varying more than 10° to 20° Fahr., and 
such lochs seldom freeze. 

In the peaty lochs the aquatic plants are usually remarkably free 
of epiphytic organisms and also of mud. Humic acids, and perhaps 
carbonic acid too, in the waters almost extinguish molluscan life. 
Consequently, one does not find the aquatic vegetation destroyed by 
these creatures as is commonly the case where certain of them, especially 
Limneeee, abound. There being little or no calcium bicarbonate in 
peaty waters, there is consequently no incrustation of calcium carbonate 
upon the aquatic plants. A necessary corollary to such antecedents is 
that no lime deposit resulting from the metabolism of plants is being 
laid down in these peaty lochs, as is the case where the water is charged 
with calcium bicarbonate. In the lochs at Lismore, for instance, the 
mud at the bottom is gray in colour, and feels gritty to the touch, 
which is due to the lime from the plants. 


166 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


The mud occurring in peaty lochs is seldom of the black, evil- 
smelling kind, such as is commonly found in non-peaty lochs. This 
will be explained subsequently (p. 215). 

Many plants, e.g. Phragmites communis, Sparganium ramosum, 
Alisma Plantago, etc., always grow more luxuriantly when the mud is 
black and fetid; but other plants, e.g. various species of Sphagnum, 
Isoetes lacustris, Lobelia Dortmanna, etc., are unable to endure that 
kind of mud, not directly because of its presence, but because other 
factors, e.g. difference in food-salts, are correlated with the presence of 
this or that kind of mud. A number of other plants are comparatively 
indifferent, e.g. Castalia speciosa, Menyanthes trifoliata, Carex rostrata, 
etc. It would be interesting to grow aquatic plants artificially in 
cecological conditions opposed to their usual natural habitat, and to 
study the results. 

From the foregoing and subsequent statements it will be readily 
understood that the flora of the lochs is subjected to many varying con- 
ditions. Now, in order to maintain a proper tone of health a plant has 
of necessity to respond in suitable ways to all the varying external 
impressions. A plant is therefore in a constant and continual state of 
change, owing to the never-ceasing mechanical, physical, and chemical 
changes of its unstable environment. ‘The plastic nature of many 
plants enables them to modify their organs in reciprocation to any 
fairly constant set of environmental conditions; and it is in this 
endeavour to accommodate themselves for the maintenance of 
healthy existence in inhospitable places, that certain deviations from 
the normal forms of more kindly environments are to be accounted 
for. That such forms should receive definite specific, or in some 
cases even varietal, names is open to grave doubt. Physiologists 
and experimental botanists are becoming more and more sympathetic 


towards the simplicity of the astute George Bentham; and whilst . 


recognising, as did Bentham, the numerous forms fixed and transient, 
such are regarded as unit forms in the phylogenesis, or in the retro- 
gression of a species. Owing to the variability of individuals, a 
species is sometimes held to consist of an aggregate of various forms 
or units which deviate more or less from a type form, 7.e. from the 
species proper. Such unit forms some botanists elevate to the rank 
of varieties and even species. In the British Flora by George 
Bentham, 5th ed., 1887, there are, for example, seven species of 
Hieracium; whilst in the Manual of British Botany by Charles 
Babington, 9th ed., 1904, by H. and J. Groves, almost the same 
material is made to yield ninety-seven species, besides numerous 
named varieties. ‘To such extreme tenuity have the diagnoses of these 
variable plants been drawn that the most learned authorities are 
often unable to distinguish the different species by one another’s 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 167 


descriptions. Besides the above-mentioned, another reason for 
variation is presented in the case of aquatic plants that have within 
comparatively recent times undergone the transformation from 
terrestrial to aquatic habit. We may well suppose the character of 
such to be very variable and unstable—to be, in fact, veritable puzzles 
to the botanical collector. When we find in a plant such instability 
of character for no apparent reason, we may a posteriori assume the 
probability that a somewhat recent evolution has taken place from 
terrestrial progenitors. 

In many districts mountain lochs may be distinguished by the 
presence of certain plants, as, for example, Isoetes lacustris, Lobelia 
Dortmanna, Juncus fluitans, Callitriche hamulata, Sparganium 
minimum, etc., and by the absence of reeds at the margin. But in 
the Loch Ness Area such is not always the case, the presence or 
absence of any such plants being no criterion of the elevation of a 
loch. All the plants enumerated are to be found at so low a level as 
Loch Ness (52 feet above sea); and a reedy margin sometimes occurs 
in quite highland situations, whilst it is almost absent in such low- 
lying lochs as Oich and Ness. The reason for the presence or absence 
of certain plants is not altogether one of elevation, but is rather due 
to the supply of food-salts, and the amount of exposure of the water 
to winds, coupled with the nature of the shore. The mountain lochs 
usually drain a very small area, poor in food-salts and rich in acid 
humus ; consequently, only those plants are found in them that can 
obtain their requirements from an apparently scanty food-supply, 
combined with the presence of humic acids. Such plants are those 
that have been associated with mountain lochs. Lowland lakes 
usually drain a wider area, and soils poor in peat and rich in food- 
salts, which, although indispensable to most plants, are poison to 
others. In the area of Lochs Ness and Oich there is but a small 
amount of soil rich in food-salts available for drainage, compared 
with the soil poor in food-salts and rich in acid humus. Consequently, 
the effect of drainage from a small, rich food-area is almost ex- 
tinguished by the humic acids, and in such lowland lochs the 
vegetation is identical in species with that of the highest mountain 
lochs. Again, in Lochs Oich and Ness (and, of course, others) there is 
practically no reedy margin, neither does such a formation occur in 
many mountain lochs. ‘The reason for this is the nature of the shore, 
combined with the erosive power of the waves, leaving food-supply 
altogether out of the question. On the other hand, in mountain 
lochs with a sheltered peaty or muddy shore, as in lowland lakes of 
like nature, there is a reedy or sedgy margin. Highland lochs are 
usually in situations fully exposed to the fierce winds, and their shores 
are rocky or stony; consequently, they have few plants about their 


168 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


margins. Their water, being generally poor in food-salts and rich in 
humic acids, has a restricted flora; but the same conditions may 
obtain in the lowlands, when the flora of the lochs will be similar to 
the flora of those on the mountains. On the other hand, a highland 
loch having a supply of food-salts, with a suitable shore and sheltered 
from prevailing winds, may quite well have the character of a low- 
land loch regarding its flora (see Plates). 

In the list of the plants hereafter, the numerals following the 
name of each plant after the authority, refer to the areas at the lochs 
in which the plant occurs, as follows :— 


Area I. The Ness district. 
¥ Il. The Island of Lismore. 
,, III. The Nairn district. 
5»  1V. N.W. Kirkcudbrightshire. 
i V. S.E. Kirkeudbrightshire. 
»» VI. Wigtownshire. 
» VII. Fife and Kinross. 


My friend Mr James M‘Andrew, who resided many years in 
Kirkcudbrightshire, and whose discoveries in the geographical dis- 
tribution of plants have so greatly enriched the written records of 
the flora of this and the adjoining counties, especially amongst the 
Cryptogams, has rendered me many services. Naturally, he has had 
opportunities of observation there that have been denied to me; the 
records that he has kindly furnished, where my own were deficient, 
are acknowledged by being placed in brackets with his initials. 


PART II.—LIST OF THE PLANTS 


RANUNCULACEA 

Ranunculus aquatilis, Z., I, I1., IL, IV., V., VI., Vil It was 
frequently impossible to determine the exact form of the 
Batrachian Ranunculi that were observed, owing to the absence 
of flowers, fruit, or other data by which the numerous forms 
are distinguished as species. When such was the case I have 
simply enumerated the specimen in hand as Ranunculus 
aquatilis. 

Ranunculus Drouetii, /. Schultz, V., VI., VIL. Not general, although 
occasionally found, in lowland lochs. 

Ranunculus Baudotii, God7., VII. Preceding remarks apply to 
this species also, but it is more abundant. 

Ranunculus circinatus, Szbth. L., very scarce. VI., VII., occa- 
sionally abundant in lowland lochs; at Kilconquhar Loch, 


Tae. | 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES i169 


for example, it covers a large area of the water and presents 
a magnificent spectacle when in flower. 

Ranunculus peltatus, Schrank, IV., V., VI., VII. Widely dis- 
tributed and sometimes very abundant. 

Ranunculus heterophyllus, Weber, IV., V. Occasionally very 
abundant; in Loch Ken, for instance, it overgrows consider- 
able tracts of shallow water at the margin. of the loch, and 
when in flower is extremely picturesque. 

Ranunculus Lenormandi, F. Schultz, V. On mud at the margin of 
lakes, but scarce. 

Ranunculus hederaceus, LZ. I., very scarce. VII., frequent on the 
muddy shores of lochs. In Areas IV., V., and VI. it is frequent 
about streams, etc., but is seldom seen at the lochs. 

Ranunculus sceleratus, /.,,. VII. On muddy shores, but very scarce. 

Ranunculus Lingua, L., V., VII. On marshy ground about lowland 
lochs; restricted in distribution, but abundant where it does 
occur. 

Ranunculus Flammula, L., I., II., HI., 1V., V., VI., VII. Normal 
forms are abundant nearly everywhere below 1000 feet above 
sea-level. 

Ranunculus scoticus, Marsh., 1.,1V. Abundant on the shores of 
mountain lochs. 

Ranunculus Flammula, 2. A prostrate form rooting profusely 
at the nodes, similar to var. pseudo-reptans but much larger, 
is sometimes found upon the stony shores of lochs in all the 
Areas, but is especially abundant at Loch Ken. 

Ranunculus Flammula, JZ., var. pseudo-reptans, Syme, VII. 
Scarcely distinguishable from the true R. reptans. It has, 
however, a broader achene which is more suddenly contracted 
into a beak than R. reptans, and the stem structure differs 
in having 3 vascular bundles, instead of 5—7 as in R. reptans. 

Ranunculus reptans, L., VU. On flat, exposed sandy places, that 
are either bare or covered with short turf, all around Loch Leven. 

Ranunculus Flammula, Z., var. natans, Pers., IV. Submersed, with 
a stem 12 to 30 inches long, having a few radical leaves 3 to 
8 inches long, with a small spathulate or elliptical lamina § to 
1 inch long. A number of roots and a fascicle of leaves, similar 
to the radical leaves, but smaller, are given off from every node. 
It is very abundant in the neighbourhood of Lochs Recar, 
Ballochling, ete. 

Caltha palustris, Z., I, II., II., IV., V., VI., VII. An abundant 
plant about lowland lochs, especially in Area VII. 

Caltha palustris, L., var. minor, Syme, 1.,1V. On the shores of moun- 
tain lochs. No doubt this is a depauperated form of C. palustris. 


170 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


NYMPHH ACEH 7 

Castalia speciosa, Salsb., I, II., IV., V., VI, VII. Very common 
and abundant, especially where the water is not very peaty. 

Castalia speciosa, Salisb., var. minor, DC.,1.,1V. In mountain lochs. 
Probably a depauperated form of C. speciosa. 

Nympheea lutea, Z., IT., IV., V., VI., VII. Common and abundant, 
often overgrowing large areas, but seldom seen in the hill lochs. 

Nymphzea lutea, Z., var. intermedia, Ledeb., V., VII. Grows with 
the larger form and sometimes alone, chiefly in the lower 
portion of Loch Ken, where it is very abundant. Rare in 
Area VII. 

Nymphea pumila, Hoffm., L., IV. Not common; chiefly at Lochs 
Meiklie, Ken, and Stroan. 


CRUCIFER 4 

Radicula officinalis, Groves, II., III., V., VI., VII. Seldom 
abundant at the lakes. 

Radicula palustris, Manch, V., VI., VI. Occurring sporadically 
about the shores of lowland lakes. 

Radicula pinnata, Manch, V. Distribution very restricted. 

Cardamine pratensis, L., I., II., IIL, IV:, V., Vi, VU. Almost 
ubiquitous, but frequently sparse. A form which multiplies 
vegetatively by buds, that arise from the base of the leaflets, 
occurs at Loch Gelly. 

Subularia aquatica, Z., I., a few plants occasionally observed. 
IV., V., VI., often very abundant. 


VIOLACE# 
Viola palustris, Z. I., I1., III, only as scattered specimens upon 
the shores of lakes. IV., V., VI., VIL, frequently abundant in 


lowland situations. 


ELATINACEA 

Elatine hexandra, DC., VI. Very abundant in places. Two 
forms occur:—When submersed the plants are of a delicate 
texture, pale green, with elongated leaves, and seldom flowering. 
When exposed on mud or sand they are much more robust, 
dark reddish green, with short leaves, and flower profusely. 
In this condition the plants much resemble small specimens of 
Peplis Portula in both form and colour. 


CARYOPHYLLACEA 
Sagina nodosa, Fenzl, VII. In matted growth on sandy or stony 
shores ; scarce. 


-| 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 1a) 


Stellan ulioinosa, Mearn, Ij1h, 1., 1V.; V., VI, VIL Widely 
distributed, but seldom very abundant. 

Stellaria palustris, Retz., V. Scarce. 

Silene maritima, With., I. About the shores of Loch Ness. 


HY PERICACE 4 
Hypericum humifusum, L., V. Wet sandy and gravelly shores ; 
not common, and usually a straggler from an adjoining 
heath. , 
Hypericum elodes, £., 1V., [V., J: M‘A.], VI.. Sometimes very 


abundant, but always in peaty water. 


ROSACEA 
Spier, Olimananl., libs Il Ve Vi VL VIE Widely 
distributed and frequently very abundant, but chiefly about 
lowland lakes. 
Comarum palustre, L., I, IT., IMT, 1V., V., VI., VII. -Remarks on 
the preceding species apply to this also. 


LYTHRACE“ 

Peplis Portula, Z., I., IV., V., VL, VII. Aquatic and terrestrial 
forms are common abeut the shores of lochs, but chiefly 
lowland. A very robust terrestrial form was found at Loch 
Barhapple ; whilst at Loch Doon a submersed form grew to a 
depth of 3 feet in abundance. 

Lythrum Salicaria, L., IDL, IV., V., VI., VII. Frequently very 
abundant on the shores of lochs, chiefly lowland, but rare in 


Area VII. 


ONAGRACEA 

Epilobium angustifolium, Z., I., VI. Very scarce at the lochs. 

Epilobium palustre, Z., IL, VI., VII. Usually with other herbage 
in marshy places on the shores of lochs. 

Epilobium tetragonum, L., 1V., VII. Scattered sporadically in a 
similar way to the preceding, but this is a less frequent species, 
and is usually scarce. 

Epilobium hirsutum, Z., I., VII. Seldom abundant, but occasion- 
ally dominant over a small area of marshy shore. Of common 
occurrence in ditches and by rivers. 


HALORAGACE 
Hippuris vulgaris, eee lle. I oN evils poem VLSA <5? VIL. 
Occasionally very abundant. 


, Myriophyllum alterniflorum, DC., L, IIL, IV., V., VI., VII. 


Le THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Generally very abundant, but it usually seems to require 
water that is more or less peaty. In lowland non-peaty lochs 
that receive the drainage of villages M. spicatum takes its 
place. It is very exceptional to find the’ two species in the 
same water. 

Myriophyllum spicatum, Z., I., V., VI., VII. Abundant where 


the water is not peaty ; see remarks on the preceding species. 


CALLITRICHACEA | 

Callitriche vernalis, Koch, VI., VII. Not common, but sometimes 
occurs in sheltered bays or in shore pools. 

Callitriche stagnalis, Scop., I., II., 1V., V., VI.,.VII. Terrestrial and 
aquatic forms are rather common in shallow places and pools 
about the shores of non-peaty lochs. 

Callitriche hamulata, AKiitz., I., IIL., IV., V., VI., VII. Widely dis- 
tributed in peaty water, and particularly abundant in Area I., 
where it occurs in almost every loch, and is frequently a 


dominant species. It is usually found without the floating 


rosettes ; but in a few places—Loch Stroan, for example—the 
two forms occur. 

Callitriche autumnalis, Z., V., VI., VII. This fine species is 
widely distributed in non-peaty lowland lochs, and it is 
frequently very abundant and even dominant. 


PORTULACE 
Montia fontana, L. Aquatic form, syn. M. rivularis, Gemel., I., 
II., V., VI., VII. A very common plant about the shores of 
some of the less peaty lochs, both in aquatic and terrestrial 
forms. 


SAXIFRAGACEA 
Parnassia: palustris, £., 1.,°1L; -lV., [V5 Vio J) MOAR var 


Occasionally represented on boggy shores. 


UMBELLIFER 4 
Hydrocotyle- vulgams,. 70... 1.) INSTT Vee Tee 
ordinary form abounds nearly everywhere on the shores of 
lochs. At Barlockhart Loch there occurred a floating form 
. having stems from 30 to 50 inches long, and leaves only 
about half an inch in diameter. 
Apium nodiflorum, Retchd., V., VII. Scarce, seldom seen as a con- 
stituent of a loch flora. . 
Apium inundatum, Reichb., I., 1V., V., VI., VII. Sometimes very 
abundant, but always in water that is not very peaty. It 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 173 


usually occurs from the margin to 3 feet, and occasionally 
even to 6 feet deep, reaching the surface from that depth. 

Carum verticillatum, Koch, IV., V., VI. This is one of the 
characteristic plants of the lowland parts of Galloway; in 
wet meadows, moors, and about the shores of lochs. 

Cicuta virosa, L., V., VII. As a member of a loch flora I have 
only observed this plant at Carlingwark Loch, where it is 
abundant, and at Otterston Loch. 

Sium angustifolium, L.,[VI., J. M‘A.], VII. Always scarce. 

Cinanthe crocata, L., 1., IV., V., VI. In the lowland parts this is a 
common plant on the marshy shores of lochs. 

Angelica sylvestris, L., VII. Occasionally on marshy shores. 


RUBIACE 
Galium palustre, L., 1, IV., V., VI., VII. Frequent on the marshy 


shores of lochs, although scarce in Area I. 


VALERIANACE 
Valeriana officinalis, L., IV., V., VI., VII. Sometimes abundant at 
the marshy shores of lowland lochs. It occurs in Area I., but 
upon one occasion only were a few specimens observed at a loch. 


COMPOSIT 4 

Eupatorium cannabinum, L., II., VI. Only observed at Lismore 
and about the lochs of the Mochrum district (see p. 241). 
[Often found in damp places by the seashore of Wigtown 
and Kirkcudbright.—J. M‘A. | 

Gnaphalium uliginosum, L., VI., VII. Sometimes it forms a loose 
sward on damp shores. 

Bidens cernua, L., V., VI. Distribution restricted, and plants 
usually scarce. 

Senecio aquaticus, Hil, I., I. IV., V., VL, VII. Frequent about 
the shores of lowland eee 

Serratula tinctoria, L., IV. This southern plant is well established 
in dry bushy places about the shores of Loch Ken. 

Cnicus palustris, Wedld., VII. In this Area it is frequently very 
abundant about marshy shores. In other Areas, although a 
common plant, I have not seen it in any abundance on the 
shores of the lakes. 


CAMPANULACE# 
Lobelia Dortmanna, L., I., III., IV., V., VI., VII. Frequently 


very abundant, but only in lochs that are more or less 


peaty. 


174 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


GENTIANACE 
Menyanthes trifoliata, Z., IL, IL, IIL, IV., V., VI., VII. This 
species is ubiquitous and thrives under all kinds of environ- 
mental conditions. 


BORAGINACE A 

Myosotis palustris, Weth.; including M. scorpioides, M. repens, 
M. strigulosa, and M. cespitosa. I., IL, III., IV., V., VI., VII. 
The characters distinguishing these are so interwoven that it 
is frequently impossible, in the field, to decide upon the variety 
in hand. Although common, they are of but small importance 
as a constituent of a loch flora; I have therefore included the 
whole in the aggregate palustris. 'They occur chiefly about 
lowland non-peaty lakes. 

Symphytum officinale, L. Seldom found upon the shores of lochs, 
but it does rarely so occur in Area VII. , 


SCROPHULARIACE4 | 
Scrophularia aquatica, L., 1, 1V., V.,[VI., J.M‘A.]. Always scarce. 
Scrophularia nodosa, L., IV. Abundant about the shores of Loch 
Ken and a few other places. A few plants occur sporadically 
about the lochs of Area I. | 

Mimulus Langsdorffii, Donn, V., VII. Well established on the 
muddy, marshy shores of several lakes. 

Pedicularis palustris, U.,.1.. 11, INL, TV: V...V 15 Vv il Common 
and widely distributed. 

Veronica scutellata, L., V., VI., VII. Seldom abundant. 

Veronica Anagallis, Z., II., V. Scarce. 

Veronica Beccabunga, L., I., V., VI., VII. Rare in I., but in the 
other Areas it is often abundant about the shallow margins of 
lowland lakes, and frequently overgrows the shore. 


LABIAT A 

Mentha aquatica, L., IV., V., VI., VII. Often abundant on the 
marshy shores of lowland lochs. It also occurs in Areas I. and 
III., but very sparsely. 

Mentha. ‘sativa; £., 15 IEW, 1V..V.5 Viwvil = Abundaniwin 
lowland districts about marshy shores. ‘The var. rubra, Huds., 
occurs, but less frequently, although in Area I. it is much 
more plentiful at the lochs than the type. 

Mentha arvensis, L., I., III., VI., VII. The type or one of the 
varieties sometimes occurs on the dry, gravelly shores of the 
lowland lochs. 


a 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 175 


Scutellaria galericulata, L., I., V., VII. Sometimes abundant, but 
usually scarce. 

Stachys palustris, L., IV., V., VIL. Sporadically upon the shores 
of lowland lakes. 

Lycopus europeus, L., V., VI., VII. Preceding remarks apply to 


this species also. 


LENTIBULARIACE4 

triculanayvulearns, te. 0.10% Ts DV: V. ViIo Vil, “Generally 
distributed, but less abundant in the southern than in the 
northern Areas. 

Utricularia intermedia, Hayne, I., IV., VI. Common in the hill 
lochs of Area I, but much less abundant in the southern 
Areas. I have seen it in pools in Area VII., but not in the lochs. 
Ihave never seen any Utricularia flowering in a loch; they 
appear to be continually reproduced by hybernacula. 


PRIMULACEH 

Lysimachia nemorum, L., I., IV., V., VI., VII. Occasionally on 
the shores of lowland lochs, never abundant. ; 

Lysimachia Nummularia, Z., I., IV., V., VI., VII. Remarks 
similar to the last. 

Lysimachia vulgaris, L., I., V., VI., VII. Only observed at one loch 
in Area I., and restricted to a very few lochs in the other Areas. 

Anagallis tenella, Murr., V. On the shores of a very few lowland 
lochs, but seldom abundant. 

Samolus Valerandi, Z., II. Only observed at Loch Kilcheran. 


PLANTAGINACE 
Littorella lacustris, Z., I., I1., II., IV., V., VI., VII. Abundant 
everywhere. 
Plantago lanceolata, L. Often conspicuous by its abundance on 


the stony shores of lochs in agricultural districts, especially in 
Area V. 


POLYGONACE 4 

Rumex Hydrolapathum, Huds., V. Scarce. The water-docks are 
of rare occurrence at the lakes under consideration. 

Polygonum amphibium, L., I., I, IV., V., VI, VII. Aquatic and 
terrestrial forms are abundant, but chiefly in lowland places. 

Polygonum Hydropiper, L., I., IV., V., VI., VII. Rarely seen 
at the lochs in Area I., but in the southern Areas it is frequent, 
although seldom in great abundance. 


176 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Polygonum Persicaria, Z., VI., VII. Sometimes abundant on the 
shores of lowland lochs. 

Polygonum aviculare, L., VI., VII. Sometimes overgrows the drier 
parts of the shores of lowland lochs. 


CERATOPHYLLACE.® 
Ceratophyllum demersum, L., VII. Otterston Loch is the only 
record for the lakes under consideration, and it grows there in 
extraordinary abundance. 


AMENTIFER# 
Alnus glutinosa, Gert., I., IL, UI., 1V.. V., VI., VII. Frequent. 
Betula glutinosa, Fries, I., I., HI, 1V., V., VI, VII. Frequent. 
Myrica (Gale, 0.1. IV .; V.V le Erequent: 

Salix aurita, Z., I., IT., If1., IV., V., VI., VII. Frequent. 

The above four species are the most dominant trees or shrubs 
that occur naturally in wet places about the shores of lakes. 
Many other species and genera occur, especially about the 
lowland lakes, but mostly on drier ground. These and the 
damp-loving species of Salix, Populus, etc., that are found, 
generally bear evidence of having been planted for shelter, 
ornament, or other purposes. 


HY DROCHARIDACEA 
Anacharis Alsinastrum, Bad., VII. Particularly abundant in Loch 
Leven, but less so than formerly on account of the raids made 
against it by the angling authorities. [VI., Monreith Loch, 
—J. M‘A.| 


IRIDACE 4. 
Iris Pseud-acorus, £., I., If, II., V., VI., VII. Frequent; often 
overgrowing a considerable patch of littoral marsh, but rare 


about the hill lochs. 


ALISMACEA : 

Alisma Plantago, Z., I., IL, V., VI., VII. Rare in I. and IL, but 
often abundant about the lowland lochs of the other Areas. <A 
curious submerged form occurs at Loch Gelly, and a weak, 
narrow-leaved form was found at Loch Fiart. 

Alisma ranunculoides, L., UL, 1V., V., VL, VII. Widely distributed, 
but seldom abundant. Dwarf forms about 14 inches high occur 
in the exposed sandy shores of Loch Leven and other places. 
An entirely submersed form about 3 inches high with quite 
subulate leaves is occasionally found and is quite abundant at 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES NATL 


Loch Corsock. 'There it flowers under water to a depth of 
3 feet; without the flower-stalk these submersed forms look 
extremely like Isoetes lacustris. 


JUNCAGINACEAL 
firielochiny palustre; ilk, IE atv.) V1). ;Scarce, and sporadically 
scattered about the shores of lochs. 


MELANTHACE/ 
Yofieldia palustris, Huds., I. About shores in peaty places; not 
common. 
Narthecium ossifragum, Huds., I., IV., V., VI. On peaty shores, 
but seldom abundant. 


JUNCACE 

Juncus effusus, L., I, I1., IM. 1V., V.; VI., VIl.: Abundant every- 
where, often covering large areas of ground. 

Juneus conglomeratus,, 2, f, IfL, 1V., V., Vi... Vil. On drier 
ground than J. effusus, and much less abundant. 

Juncus glaucus, Khrh., VII. Not uncommon in some of the other 
Areas, but I have only observed it on the shores of the lochs 
in Area VII. 

Juncus bufonius, L., I., 1V., VI, VII. Frequent about the shores 
of many lowland lochs, but less common at the hills. Its var. 
fasciculatus, Bert., is sometimes found growing in dense 
prostrate tufts on exposed sandy shores. 

Juncus lamprocarpus, Khrh. (=ZJ. articulatus, L.), I., IL., UL, IV., 
V., VI, VII. Abundant on the shores of lochs, especially 
where the water is more or less peaty. 

Juncus acutiflorus, Hhrh. (=J. sylvaticus, Reichard.), I., U., U1., 
IV., V., VI., VII. Abundant on the shores of lochs, but it is 
perhaps more plentiful about non-peaty lowland lochs than 
J. lamprocarpus. 

When it could not be readily determined which of the two 
last species a specimen was referable to, I have called the 
plant J. articulatus. They both vary greatly, but I think 
most of the reduced forms so frequently met with are from the 
acutiflorus group. 

Juncus supinus, Manch, I., IV., V., VI., VII. A more protean 
species than the last-mentioned. The normal type is of 
terrestrial habit and is found on the shores of lakes. Opposed 
to this is a submerged aquatic plant, with tresses of numerous 
hair-like leaves and without flowers; one might therefore 


easily be puzzled as to their identification. By careful search- 
12 


178 


THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


ing, however, a whole chain of intermediate forms may be 
found. The clue to the submerged hair-like leaved forms 
(Juncus fluitans, Lam.) is found in shallow places with but a 
few inches of water. Here are found forms bearing degraded 
and abortive flowers, with the leaves of the submerged plant. 
In drier places are found intermediate forms again, often with 
degraded flowers, and frequently viviparous at the nodes 
and inflorescences. The terrestrial forms may resemble 
J. bufonius or certain varieties of J. acutiflorus. These 
terrestrial forms are usually erect, about 6 inches high, having 
leaves with very obscure septa and slightly channelled, flower- 
ing, and not often viviparous; such represent J. supinus, 
Mench, Another form, more czespitose and dwarfed, with 
finer leaves, in wetter situations, flowering, not often viviparous, 
may be regarded as var. uliginosus. Then there is a prostrate 
form resembling supinus in size, but with finer leaves, inflores- 
cences more abundant, and in whorls, often viviparous; this 
may be taken as var. subverticillatus. Then there are the 
half-submerged forms with abortive flowers and hair-like 
leaves from which may be recognised the submerged form with 
tresses of hair-like leaves, and non-flowering—var. fluitans. 
The last form is extremely abundant in nearly all the waters 
of Area I., from the highest mountain loch to Loch Ness, but 
there the other varieties as well as the type are all scarce. In 
Areas IV. to VII. the terrestrial forms are more abundant than 
in the Ness Area, whilst the aquatic form, var. fluitans (Juncus 
fluitans, Lam.); is less dominant than in the Ness Area; it is, 
however, fairly abundant in most of the peaty lochs of IV. 
and VI., but in V. and VII. it is scarce. These forms are of 
extreme interest; in them, apparently, may be traced the 
phylogenesis of an extremely abundant and dominant aquatic 
plant, from plastic terrestrial and sub-aquatic forms which are 
not now dominant in these Areas. 


TYPHACE# 
Typha latifolia, Z., II., V., VI., VII. Chiefly on the shores of 


lowland lochs, but not common, nor is it often abundant. 


Typha angustifolia, Z., V., VII. Of more restricted distribution 


than the last, but where it does occur it is usually in greater 
abundance and covers a considerable area. 


Sparganium ramosum, Auds., I., I., HI. V., VI., VI. More 


abundant in VII. than elsewhere, chiefly on the rich, boggy 
margins of lowland lochs. Dwarf varieties occur as well as 
the large normal form. 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 17) 


Sparganium simplex, Huds., V., VII. In similar situations to the 
last species, but usually much less abundant. Weak forms 
with elongated floating leaves also occur, usually in a foot or so 

of water. The var. longissimum, /’ries, occurs at Loch Fitty. 

Sparganium natans, L., 1, 1V., V., VI., VII. Rather frequent in 
I. and IV.; scarce elsewhere. Chiefly in peaty lochs of but 
moderate elevation. 

Sparganium minimum, Fries, I., IV., VI. Abundant in Area I., 
but in the other districts it 1s generally scarce and mostly con- 
fined to the hill lochs. A terrestrial form with leaves and 
inflorescences only a few inches high occurs at the margin of 
hill lochs in Area I. This small terrestrial form seems to be 
a reversion from the aquatic form towards a terrestrial type 
which was probably the habit of the ancestral stock. It seems 
to me that the most degenerate form of S. minimum and the 
most robust condition of S. ramosum are connected by numerous 
intermediates. Perhaps experimental culture, on the right 
lines, with S. ramosum would produce all the others. 


LEMNACE 4 
Lemna trisulca, L., VII. Rare in the lochs, and only in those well 
sheltered by trees, with luxuriant marginal vegetation, and 
non-peaty water. 
Lemna minor, Z., VII. Distributed as above, but more frequently 
met with in the lochs. It isa common plant in ditches, etc., 
in all Areas below about 500 feet elevation. 


POTAMOGETONACE 4 

Zannichellia palustris, L., var. brachystemon, Gay, VII. Rare in the 
lochs, as a rule, but extremely abundant in Kilconquhar Loch. 

Potamogeton natans, L., IL, I., HI., IV., V., VI., VII. Abundant 
everywhere. ‘The typical form occurs most plentifully in non- 
peaty lowland lochs. In peaty water it frequently becomes 
reduced, and then resembles forms of P. polygonifolius, 
although the two can usually be distinguished by characters 
exhibited by leaf, fruit, ete. 

Potamogeton polygonifolius, Pouwrr., I., 1V., V., VI., VII. Abundant, 
particularly in peaty water. It varies greatly, and the typical 
form is usually less abundant than the form approaching P. 
natans. In the opposite direction of variation is a form which is 
very abundant in Loch Recar and the adjoining district (Area 
IV.). This is a very distinct variety, with elongated, rather 
pellucid leaves that are beautifully netted near the midrib, 
known‘as var. pseudo-fluitans, Syme. 


L180 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Potamogeton rufescens, Schrad., V., VI., VII. Sometimes abundant, 
but not acommon species. ‘The variety spathulifolius, Fescher, 
occurs in Black Loch (Area VII.). 

Potamogeton heterophyllus, Schreb., UI., V., VU. In lowland 
lakes, but not a common lake plant, although extremely 
abundant in Loch Cran (Area IIJI.). 

Potamogeton lucens, L., L, II, 1V., V., VI., VIL: gFrequently 
abundant ; the very large forms are usually in non-peaty lochs. 

Potamogeton Zizi, Koch, IV., VI., VII. Sometimes very abundant, 
especially in Area VII. 

Potamogeton crispus, L., I., VI., VII. Not acommon species, nor 
often in abundance. At White Loch, Castle Kennedy (Area 
VI.), and in other lochs near it, a beautiful form occurs, 
having wide, bright-red midribs to the leaves. 

Potamogeton perfoliatus, L., I, II., 1V., VI., VII. Frequent, and 
sometimes abundant. 

Potamogeton prelongus, Wwf, IL, IV., V., VI., VII. A deep- 
water species (6-20 feet). Scarce in Area I., more frequent 
in the other districts, but seldom very abundant. 

Potamogeton Friesii, Rupr., V. Only in Carlingwark Loch. 

Potamogeton pusillus, L.,1., 1.,1V., V.. VI., VII. Scarce in Area L., 
frequent in the other districts. ‘The narrow-leaved form—var. 
tenuissimus, M. & A.—occurs occasionally in rather deep water. 

Potamogeton obtusifolius, Mert. & Koch, Il., V., VI., VII. Some- 
times abundant. At Barlockhart Loch a dwarf bushy form 6-8 
inches long occurred in shallow water, normal forms being abun- 
dant in the deeper water. The var. fluvialis, Lange & Mort., 
occurs in deep water at Burntisland Reservoir, Lismore, etc. 

Potamogeton filiformis, Pers., H., VII. Frequently abundant, 
particularly so at Loch Fitty, where, in some places, the ripe 
fruits of this plant, with those of P. pusillus, washed up on 
the shore formed a considerable stratum. 

Potamogeton flabellatus, Bab., VII. Very abundant in Town 
Loch, Dunfermline. 

Potamogeton pectinatus, L., VII. Scarce. [VI., rare. Ravenstone 
Loch, near Sorbie.—J. M‘A.| It is abundant in Duddingston 
Loch, near Edinburgh. 

Mr A. Bennett kindly examined a number of difficult forms of 

Potamogeton for me. 


CYPERACEA 
Schoenus nigricans, L., VI. About the peaty shores of lochs; not 
common, nor often abundant. [Frequent in damp _ places 


along the seashore of Wigtown.—J. M‘A. | 


wn : 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 181 


Cladium Mariscus, Br., VI. Very abundant about lochs in the 
Mochrum district. On Anabaglish Moss several small lochans 
are entirely surrounded by it. 

Rhynchospora alba, Vahl, IV., VI. Sometimes abundant on 
shores of boggy peat. A very common moorland plant in 
these Areas. | 

Heleocharis palustris, Br., I., I., I1., IV., V., VI., VII. Ubiquitous 
and variable, sometimes 3 feet. bibl at other places, where 
exposed to wind, only a few ches high. One such dwarf 
form, with short, stout, very scaly Bate and few flowering 
stems, which were about 4 inches high, was overgrowing an 
exposed sandy shore at Loch Grennoch. On a sandbank at 
Loch Ness there was a form in which the rhizome had discarded 
the diageotropic habit and assumed negative geotropism in 
order that it might not be buried too deeply by the accumulat- 
ing sand. 

Heleocharis multicaulis, Sm., IV., V., VI. Sometimes abundant 
in the more or less peaty lochs; leaves often floating on the 
surface, and occasionally viviparous at the extremities. 

Heleocharis acicularis, Sm., IV., VI., VII. Not a common plant, 
but occasionally Spundanr: It forms a sward on the wet 
sandy or muddy shores of lochs, and enters the water to a 
depth of about a foot; sometimes, however, to a depth of 
3 or 4 feet, in which case the plants are much elongated. 

Scirpus fluitans, Z., [V., VI. Common in the peaty lochs of these 
Areas, and sometimes very abundant. 

Scirpus setaceus, Z., VII. On sandy shores; scarce. 

Seirpus lacustris, £., 1, IN., III, 1V.,. V., VI, VIL. - Widely 
distributed and abundant in either peaty or non-peaty lochs. 
I have seen the stems 14 feet long—6 feet above the surface 
of water 8 feet deep. The long, linear, grass-like leaves I 
have only seen in water 3-8 feet deep. 

Eriophorum vaginatum, L., I., IV., VI., VII. Sometimes upon the 
peaty shores of hill lochs, particularly in Area I. 

Eriophorum polystachion, Z., I., II., IV., V., VI., VII. More 
frequent than the last-mentioned, especially upon the more 
or less peaty shores of lowland lakes; less abundant in the 
mountains. 

Carex dioica, L., I. Shores of mountain lochs ; not common. 

Carex elata, A/l., I. A carpeting form with diageotropic rhizomes 
in wet places, and a cespitose form with negative geotropic 
rhizomes forming tussocks in water 2 or 3 feet deep. Inchna- 
cardoch Bay, Loch Ness. | 

Carex disticha, Huds., VII. On sandy-muddy shores; scarce at 


182 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


the lochs. [In meadows at the head of Loch Ken and near 
Carlingwark Loch.—J. M‘A. | 

Carex paniculata, Z., VII. Forms large tussocks and occupies a 
considerable area of deep bog at the west end of Otterston 
Loch. [VI., Dowalton Loch.—J. M‘A.]. 

Carex aquatilis, Wahi. I., II., IV., VII. Both the small and the 
large lowland forms (elatior, Bab.) are sometimes very 
abundant; at the head of Loch Ken specimens over 6 feet 
high were observed. 

Carex Goodenovii, Gay, IL, IIL, IV., V., VI., VIL Widely 
distributed and often very abundant about the shores of both 
lowland and sub-alpine lochs; on drier parts of the shores of 
the latter very dwarf forms are frequent. 

Carex flava, L., I., IIL, IV., V., VI, VIL. The type and its 
varieties are frequent upon the shores of lochs, but seldom in 
abundance. 

Carex flacca, Schreb., I1., 1V., VII. Not uncommon; chiefly about 
lowland lochs, where it is occasionally very abundant. Tall 
and dwarf specimens occur. 

Carex flacca, Schreb., var. stictocarpa, Druce, III., IV., V., VI., VI. 
Scattered specimens are frequent, but it seldom occurs in any 
abundance. 

Carex binervis, Sm., I., IV., VI. On boggy, peaty shores; usually 
scarce. 

Carex filiformis, Z., I., IV., V., VI. Frequent and abundant at 
the margins of alpine and sub-alpine lochs, where it 1s some- 
times the only abundant species of this genus, and takes the 
place of C. rostrata. | 

Carex hirta, Z., VII. Not general about lochs, but it grows in 
abundance on the exposed sandy shores of Loch Leven, where, 
in common with several other plants, it assumes a dwarf 
habit, growing only from 4 to’8 inches out of the sand. — -It 
grows there much after the manner of Carex arenaria on the 
sandy seashore, and, like it, binds the sand with its long 
scaly rhizomes. 

Carex rostrata, Stokes, I., II., III., IV., V., VI., VII. Probably the 
most abundant and dominant plant of all at the margins of 
lochs, in either peaty or non-peaty water up to 24 inches deep. 
By its large and rapid growth, a considerable amount of 
detritus is thrown down annually; it is therefore a most 
important plant in converting shallow places about lochs into 
terra firma. 

Carex vesicaria, L.,I.,1V. Similar in habit to C. rostrata, but it is 
not so robust and requires less water. It is not nearly so 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 183 


common as C. rostrata, although occasionally it is very 
abundant. , 

Carex acutiformis, Khrh., V. As a constituent of.a loch flora I 
have only observed this plant at Carlingwark Loch. 


GRAMINE 
Phalaris arundinacea, L.,1., 1V., V., VI. VII. Scarce in Area I. 
_ In the other areas it is rather common about the margins of 
the lowland lochs. 

Phragmites communis, 7’rim., I., II., III., 1V., V., VI., VII. A very 
dominant and abundant species in lowland or highland, peaty 
or non-peaty lochs. On rich, muddy shores of wind-sheltered 
lochs it attains great luxuriance, often being 8 or 10 feet 
high in such situations, and overgrowing large areas. 

Deschampsia czespitosa, Beauv., I., IV., V., VI., VII. A very usual 
member of the shore flora of lochs, but generally in small 
quantities. | 

Glyceriastiiaitans, Br) 4... 00.) Wan IV., Vi, Vi... VIL. Widely 
distributed, but seldom in great abundance. ‘The leaves of 
aquatic forms float on the surface, whilst those of terrestrial 
forms are erect in the air. 

Glyceria aquatica, Wahlb., V., VII. Seldom seen at the lochs, but 
occasionally it does occur in great abundance; instance 
Carlingwark Loch, Lindores Loch, ete. 

Alopecurus geniculatus, Z., is very abundant on the sandy-muddy 
shore of Town Loch, Dunfermline. 

Agrostis vulgaris, With., is ‘very abundant at the same place and 
also at Lindores Loch. Small patches or isolated specimens of 
these two grasses, with other terrestrial species, are frequently 
found mixed with the semi-aquatic vegetation of the littoral. 
Frequently too the grass sward of a moor or meadow adjoining 
a loch enters the water, and, contrariwise, aquatics such as - 
Littorella lacustris leave the water and compete for terra firma 
against the land plants. Aquatic and terrestrial zones of 
vegetation, in such cases, are undeterminable. 


EQUISETACEA 

Bquisetum! limosum, :,1,,.01., M1. 1V.,.V., Vi. VIE. This is 
another very abundant species ; large associations occur at the 
margins of lochs of all descriptions. It prefers deeper water 
than Carex rostrata; sometimes it occurs even in water 
5 feet deep. When the two are growing in the same locality, 
which is very usual, the colonies are always distinct from one 
another, with the Equisetum out in the deeper water. 


184 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Equisetum arvense, L., and E. palustre, Z., are occasionally found 
overgrowing sandy or stony shores, in which case, unless 
sheltered by other vegetation, they are always prostrate and 
dwarfed, and sometimes form a sward. 


MARSILEACE 
Pilularia globulifera, Z., VI. Rare, but occasionally very abundant 
—at Loch Dernaglar, for example. 


LYCOPODIACE.H® 

Isoetes lacustris, L., I., IV., V.; VI. Very general in the peaty hill 
lochs, but neither so abundant nor so variable in form in the 
southern Areas as in Area I. It usually forms a bottom 
carpet at depths of from 2 to 20 feet. In some lochs of the 
Ness Area these specimens are about 4 or 5 inches long, with 
stout, erect leaves, forming stiff little plants. In other places, 
apparently under similar conditions but with darker peaty 
water, the leaves are 18 inches long, weak and recurved. 


CHARACE4 

Messrs H. and J. Groves most kindly gave me the benefit of their 
unrivalled knowledge of these plants, and identified a number 
of difficult forms. On the whole, the Characez are less 
abundant in Areas IV.-VI. than in Areas J.-III.; they are 
also abundant in VII. 

Nitella opaca, 4g., I., IV., V., VI., VII. Generally distributed in 
peaty lochs. In Area I. it occurs at a greater depth, namely 
30 feet, than any other plant, save Fontinalis antipyretica. 
In Areas IV.-VII. I have never dredged it from a greater 
depth than about 16 feet, nor, indeed, have I found any of the 
higher plants at a much greater depth in these Areas. Reasons 
for this will be given on subsequent pages. Slender forms, 
approaching var. attenuata, H. & J. G., occur in Loch Ness, 
and others of that Area. 

Nitella translucens, 4g., I., VI.. Rare; only observed at Loch 
Meikhe in 8-10 feet of water, and at similar depths in the 
Mochrum district. A very large form in a barren state, 
extremely like translucens, was referred by Messrs Groves to 
N. flexilis, or N. opaca. It was abundant in Loch Ken and 
Woodhall Loch, at 6-8 feet deep. 

Chara aspera, Welld., IL, UI., V., VII. Frequently abundant in 
lowland non-peaty lochs, or in lochs, that receive the drainage 
of villages. Sometimes it is incrusted with lime. In some 
lochs this plant occurs in prodigious quantity. In Loch 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 185 


Leven, for example, hundreds of acres of the bottom are 
covered by it. In that loch it occurs at depths of from 
1 to 15 feet, but is most abundant at 4 to 8 feet deep. The 
varieties of this species are also common, and frequently occur 
with the type—vars. subinermis, Miitz., and desmacantha, 
H. & J. G., being the most usual. 

CharamiractiswOcs7 els) Le lV Vv. NINES © Occurs im, ‘both 
peaty and non-peaty waters. In the former case it is usually 
free of lime; in the latter it is generally more or less incrusted 
with that substance. ‘The common form in peaty lochs is 
the var. delicatula, Braun. Both forms are occasionally very 
abundant. 

Chara vulgaris, £., VII. This does not appear to be a common 
form in the lochs, but it occurs occasionally—at Loch Leven, 
for example. 

Chara hispida, Z., var. rudis, Braun, II., VI. In the former Area 
this occurs as a large coarse plant at depths of 25-35 feet, and 
is much incrusted with lime. In the latter Area it occurs in 
shallower water, is much smaller, and but slightly incrusted. 

Chara contraria, 4. Br., IV., VIL. Regarding a slightly incrusted 
form in shallow water at Loch Whinyeon, Messrs Groves write :— 
“« A very interesting little plant immediately between C. contraria 
and C. vulgaris, but we think it best placed under the former.” 


‘The Bryophyta often form a very conspicuous portion of the shore 
flora of lochs in Areas IV. and VI.—very much more so than 
in Areas I.-III. By instituting a careful search for these 
plants a very long list might be arranged, particularly in Areas 


IV. and VI. 


SPHAGNACEA 
Sphagnum intermedium, Hoffm., 1V., VI., VI. On boggy shores 
of peaty lochs. 
Sphagnum cymbifolium, Hhrh., I., 1V., VI., VII. On bogey shores 
of peaty lochs. 
Sphagnum acutifolium, Hhrh., I., IV., V., VI., VII. One or other of 
its numerous forms is common on boggy shores of peaty lochs. 
Sphagnum cuspidatum, Hhrh., I., 1V., VI. Frequent in the water 
in bays, etc., of small peaty lochs, as well as on their boggy 
shores. The variety plumosum is less frequent. 
Sphagnum subsecundum, Nees., I., 1V., VI. In similar habitats to 
the last, but less frequent; sometimes in rather deep water. 
The variety viride, Bouwl., occurs in some of the lochs of Area I, 
but is scarce. 


186 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 
POLY TRICHACEH 


Polytrichum commune, LZ. ‘his common moorland moss is occa- 
sionally plentiful on peaty shores. 

Catharinea undulata, Web. & Mohr, IV. A common moss, but 
it rarely occurs in any abundance at the lochs, it being a more 
or less terrestrial plant. At Loch Minnoch, however, submersed 
rocks were abundantly clothed with an aquatic form of it. 


DICRANACEH 

Dichodontium pellucidum, Schp., IV., VI. Common on rocks of 
the shores of lochs in hilly districts. 

Blindia acuta, B. & S., L, IV., V., VII. On wet or submerged 
rocks ; common about the shores of hill lochs. 

Dicranella squarrosa, Schp., IV. Often abundant on the wet, 
boggy shores of hill lochs. D. heteromalla, Schp., is also 
frequent, but on drier ground. 

Dicranum fuscescens, Jurn., IV. Rocks on the shores of hill 
lochs ; common. 

Dicranum Scottianum, J'urn., 1V. As above, but less common. 


FISSIDENTACE 4 
Fissidens adiantoides, Hedw., I., IV. Often abundant in wet 
places on rocky shores. 


GRIMMIACE 4 

Grimmia apocarpa, Hedw., IV., VI. Common on the dry parts 
of rocks about the shores. 

Grimmia apocarpa, Hedw., var. rivularis, Web. & Mohr, IV., VI. 
Frequently abundant on wet and submersed rocks, occasionally 
down to 5 or 6 feet deep. In other areas it is scarce at the lochs. 

Rhacomitrium lanuginosum, Brd., IV. Often a conspicuous 
object in this area, upon the rocks of the shores. 

Rhacomitrium heterostichum, Brid., IV. Various forms of it are 
common in similar situations to the last. 

Rhacomitrium aciculare, Brid., I., IV., V., VII. Frequent upon 
wet and submersed rocks; but sometimes only near the 
embouchures of burns. 

Rhacomitrium protensum, Braun, IV. Sometimes abundant on 


wet rocks. When luxuriant, as at Loch Dungeon, it has a: 


very pleasing appearance. 

Hedwigia ciliata, Hhrh., IV. The type and the var. leucopheea, 
B. & S., frequently cover the syenite rocks that abound upon 
the shores, or crop out of the water, as islands, in the lochs of 
this Area. 


FLORA OF: SCOTTISH LAKES - 187 
TORTULACE 4 


Trichostomum tortuosum, Divon, IV. Occasionally abundant on 
the littoral rocks of the hill lochs. 


ORTHOTRICHACE | 
Orthotrichum rupestre, Schleich., IV., VI. A common moss on 
rocks about the shores of lochs in hilly districts. 


MEESIACEH 
Aulacomnium palustre, Schwaeg. In wet places about shores, or 
even in the water; frequent in all the areas. 


BARTRAMIACE4 

Philonotis fontana, Brid., I., IV. On wet shores or at the margin 
of the water, common in IV., but occurs in other Areas 
sparingly. P. calcarea, Schp., occurs on the bog 
the south-east end of Loch Leven. 

Breutelia arcuata, Schp., IV. On rocks; generally scarce at loch 
shores, but it grows in magnificent luxuriance at Loch 
Dungeon. 


gy shore at 


BRY ACE 

Several species of Bryum occur, but seldom in abundance. B. 
alpinum, Huds., is sometimes noticeable on rocks of the hill 
lochs in Area IV. B. bimum, Schreb., occurs in scattered 
patches on wet or boggy shores, here and there, in all the 
Areas ; similarly does B. pallens, Sw. At Burntisland Reservoir 
a curious form of the last-mentioned was very abundant in 
water to about 18 inches deep, on the clayey bottom. Mr 
H. N. Dixon, to whom I submitted specimens, replied as 
follows :—* Mr Nicholson, to whom I sent the Burntisland 
Reservoir Bryum, agrees with me that while, at first sight, 
it resembles B. neodamense, it is really an altered form of 
B. pallens.” 

Mnium punctatum, Z., IV. Frequently abundant on wet, some- 
what sandy shores; also in the other Areas, but seldom in any 
abundance at the lochs. . 


FONTINALACE 
Fontinalis antipyretica, L., I., IL, IV., V., VI., VII In Area I. 
it is very abundant everywhere, from half-submerged rocks 
to a depth of 30 feet. In II. it is less abundant in shallow 


water, but an attenuated form is common in deep water, even 
to a depth of 40 feet. In Areas IV.-VII. I have not obtained 


188 THE -FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


it from a greater depth than 10 feet. In V. and VII. it is 
less common than elsewhere. 

Fontinalis squamosa, L., IV., VI. Sometimes plentiful, but not 
a common moss in the lochs. 


HOOKERIACE 
Pterygophyllum lucens, Brid., IV. Abundant about the wet shores 
of the hill lochs, mostly on the soil. 


LEUCODONTACE4 
Pterogonium gracile, Swartz, IV. On shore rocks; frequent and 
abundant at lochs amongst the hills. 


LESKEACE# 

Heterocladium heteropterum, B. & S§., IV. This delicate species 
is seldom found at the lochs. It was, however, very abundant 
as a submersed aquatic at Loch Grennoch, even to a depth of 
10 feet. 


HY PNACEA 

Climacium dendroides, Web. & Mohr, V., VII. Occasionally 
abundant on boggy shores. 

Hyocomium flagellare, B. & S., IV. Frequent on shore rocks. 

Brachythecium rivulare, B. &. S., I, IV., VI., VII. On dry and 
submersed rocks, frequent. 

Kurhynchium rusciforme, Milde, L., IV. In habitats similar to 
the last. It is also common in the other Areas, but is scarce 
at the lochs. At the south end of Loch Doon it was very 
abundant at a depth of 3 to 5 feet, occurring there with 
Fontinalis antipyretica. 

Hypnum riparium, Z., VII. Not common at lochs, but it is 
abundant on stones at Burntisland Reservoir. 

Hypnum stellatum, Schred., IV., V., VI., VII. Often abundant on 
boggy shores. 

Hypnum fluitans, 2., 1., 1V., Vi, VII. In Area Tits) rather 
scarce about the shores of lowland lochs. In the other Areas 
it is common about the hill lochs. 

Hypnum uncinatum, Hedw., I., IV. On rocks of the shores of hill 
lochs. | 

Hypnum revolvens, Swartz, IV., VII. On wet shores, chiefly of 
the hill lochs. 

Hypnum commutatum, Hedw., IV., VII. Remarks similar to the 
last. 

Hypnum falcatum, Brid., 1., 1V., VII. In habitats similar to the 
two preceding species. 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES rag 


Hypnum ochraceum, J'urn., I. About the shores of mountain 
lochs ; not abundant. 

Hypnum vernicosum, Lindb., [V. Common at Loch Minnoch. 

Hypnum cupressiforme, L., IV. Forms of this common moss 
frequently cover rocks on the shores in this Area. In the 
other Areas it is much less abundant at the lochs. 

Hypnum scorpioides, L., I., II., IV., VI., VII. Mostly about the 
wet or boggy shores of hill lochs. Scarce at the lochs of Areas 
I. and VII. In Area II. a very large form of this moss was 
abundant about the rhizomes of Scirpus lacustris at depths of 
3 to 5 feet. 

Hypnum scorpioides, L., forma ad var. miquelonense, Hen. & Card., 
proxime accedens., I. In Lochs Ruthven, Ness, and Uanagan, 
in water 5 to 10 feet deep. , 

Hypnum stramineum, Dichs., I., VII. Abundant in shallow places 
about lochs in Portclair Forest, also at Loch Fitty ; scarce else- 
where. [IV., V., J. M‘A.] 

Hypnum trifarium, Web. & Mohr, I. In some of the lochs in 
Portclair Forest. 

Hypnum cuspidatum, L., 1., 1V., V., VI., VII. Common in marshy 
places about lochs; sometimes in great abundance, and 
frequently growing in the water. It is less abundant in I. 
than in the other Areas noted. 

Hylocomium squarrosum, B. & S., I., IL, DIL, IV., V., VI., VII. 
A common and often abundant moss on wet shores, chiefly in 
lowland districts, in all the Areas; particularly in IV. and VI. 


JUBULEH | 
Frullania tamarisci, Dum., IV. Frequently covering damp rocks by 
the shores of the higher lochs. 


PORELLEA 
Pleurozia cochlearitormis, Dum., IV. Occasionally conspicuous on 
boggy shores of the higher lochs. 


PTILIDE# 
Anthelia julacea, Dum., IV. Occasionally its grey-green tufted 
patches form a conspicuous object on the wet sandy or peaty 
shores of the mountain lochs. 


SCAPANIOIDE 4 
Scapania undulata, Dum., I., IV., VI. Abundant on rocks and 
stones at the margins of hill lochs, both submersed and out 
of the water. It also occurs in VII., but rarely. 


190 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Diplophyllum albicans, Dum., IV. Sometimes covers the shore 
rocks of the hill lochs. 


EPIGONIANTHE 4 

Chiloscyphus polyanthos, Dwm., V. Occasionally abundant on wet 
shores, and in the pools. 

Mylia Taylori, Gr. & Benn., IV. On wet shore rocks, or on wet 
sandy shores. Large patches of it are occasionally abundant at 
the hill lochs. 

Nardia compressa, Gr. & Benn., I., IV. Abundant on wet and 
submersed rocks, chiefly at the higher lochs. Sometimes a 
considerable area of submersed rocks and stones, to a depth 
of 3 feet, is covered with a dense carpet of this hepatic: instance 
Lochs Enoch, Dungeon, etc. 

Nardia emarginata, Khrh., I., TV. On wet rocks and shores, and 
often in the water; rather less abundant than the last- 
mentioned. Chiefly at the hill lochs. 

Nardia scalaris, Gr. & Benn., IV. On wet sandy-peaty shores of hill 
lochs; often abundant. 

The following species are frequently found covering wet places 
about lochs, particularly on shady banks, under rocks, ete., in all 
the Areas, especially IV.:—Pellia calycina (T'ayl.); P. epiphylla, 
Lindb. ; Conocephalus conicus, Dum. ; and Marchantia polymorpha, 
L. The last-mentioned is.often found in the water of bogs as well 
as in drier places. 

Several species of Jungermannia are met with on the shores of the 
more elevated lochs, but always in small quantities. 

Amongst the mountains of Area IV. many lochs are bordered 
more or less by great rocks which are frequently covered in a most 
prolific manner with masses of lichens. A description of the flora 
of these lochs would be incomplete were it not, under such circum- 
stances, to notice the most predominant and conspicuous species of 
these lichens. They are as follows:—Platysma glaucum, WNy/. ; 
Cetraria aculeata, F’r.; C. muricata, Ach.; Parmelia lanata, Wadllr. ; 
P. omphalodes, LZ. ; Alectoria jubata, Nyl. ; Lecanora tartarea, Ach. ; 
Spheerophoron coralloides, Pers. ; Lecidea geographica, Scher. 


ALG 
A few dominant species that were noticed :— 
Batrachospermum moniliforme, Roth, I., IV. Abundant; very 
scarce in the other Areas. 
Batrachospermum vagum, foth. I. Scarce. IV., VI. Frequent ; 
very scarce in the other Areas. : 
(Edogonium capillare, Z., HI. Only noticed in abundance here. 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES Lol 


Enteromorpha intestinalis, Link, II., VU. Particularly plentiful 
in Kileonquhar Loch and Loch Fitty. 

Ulothrix equalis, Kiitz., and its var. cateeniformis, Rabenh. In all 
the Areas, but particularly in IV. 

Conferva fontinalis, Berk. [ = Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum, Miitz. |. 
Very general in lochs that receive drainage from villages. 

Cladophora fracta, Kiitz., I, VII. Occasionally very abundant. 

Cladophora crispata, Roth., VII. Occasionally abundant. 

Cladophora flavescens, 4g., V., VII. Sometimes very abundant in 
lochs that receive the drainage of villages. 

Cladophora canalicularis, Roth., VI., VI. Abundant; less so in 

* the other Areas. It covers stones and rocks about the shores 
of lochs that receive the drainage of villages and farms. It is 
often covered with a prodigious quantity of diatoms. 

Cladophora glomerata, Kiitz. Very abundant in some lochs of 
Areas IY. and VI., covering stones and rocks from the margin 
to 7 feet deep. 

Mougeotia sp. Sometimes very abundant in I. and IV. 

Zygogonium ericetorum, De Bary, I., IV. Often very abundant 
in water near the shores of the hill lochs. 

Zygnema Vaucheri, 4g., I., IL, 1V., VI. Frequent. 

Spirogyra crassa, Aiitz., III. Only noticed in abundance here. 

Porphyridium cruentum, Ndg., VI. Wet mud at Barhapple Loch, 
exposed through drought, was in places coloured red by this 
organism. 

Gleeotrichia Pisum, T’hur., VI. Occurs in such extreme abundance 
as a plankton organism in Soulseat Loch that the water, in 
some of the little creeks, is of the consistency of liquid mud. 

Anabeena circinalis, Rabenh., VII. ‘The water of Kinghorn Loch, in 
places, had the appearance of pale green paint, due to the vast 
quantity of this organism. 

Melosira granulata, Ralfs., VI. Occurs, as a plankton organism, in 
White Loch, Castle Kennedy, in such abundance that the 
discoloration of the water (p. 243) is, in part, due to it. 

Dickieia and similar gelatinous Diatomacex, I., IV. Sometimes 
abundant at the margins of the hill lochs. Other diatoms, of 
course, abound everywhere. 

I have frequently found submersed plants of the higher orders 
injured by the luxuriant growth of filamentous Alge. In Loch 
Skerrow and Loch Grennoch, for example, quantities of Scapania 
undulata were in a defunct condition through being overgrown with 
Ulothrix equalis, Batrachospermum vagum, Binneleane tatrana, etc. 
In Area I. many moor and hill plants, that are either scarce or 
entirely absent in the south, grow in great profusion. The following 


192 ‘THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


may be mentioned as being conspicuous by their frequent abundance :— 
Antennaria dioica, Arctostaphylos Uva-Ursi, A. alpina, Betula nana, 
Cnicus heterophyllus, Cornus suecica, Rubus Chamzemorus, Cystopteris 
fragilis, Drosera intermedia, Empetrum nigrum, Galium_ boreale, 
Trientalis europzea, etc. In the district of New Galloway, and, in 
fact, throughout the country for miles around, there are a few 
abundant plants that form a characteristic feature of this neighbour- 
hood. ‘They are as follows:—Jasione montana and Lepidium 
heterophyllum in dry places, Carum verticillatum and Qénanthe 
crocata in damp and wet places. 

In the original publications a detailed list of plants is given 
for each loch or series of lochs. In this epitome, however, such’ local 
lists have been omitted. ‘The two hundred and thirty-four illustra- 
tions, with their descriptive legends, that accompany the original 
papers have also been left out, but a few new ones have been inserted 
here. 

The following comparative table has been arranged in order to 
show at a glance the most conspicuous and dominant plants (i.e. 
those forming definite associations) of peaty and non-peaty lochs, 
together with the positions they usually occupy therein. The plants 
may be divided into seven groups (see below), and those in each group 
are so arranged that the species inhabiting the driest ground or the 
shallowest water are placed first, and those occupying the deepest 
water last; the whole table being kept as nearly as possible in the 
same order. The figures following the species indicate in feet the 
average depths at which they occur, a medium between the two 
extremes being the most usual habitat. 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES HTS 


COMPARATIVE TABLE 


Peaty Mooruanp Locus wIitH 
CLteaR WatTER 


Non-Pgeaty LOwLanp Locus wWitH 


Curar WATER 


1. The Drier Marsh Species 


Bryophytes on shore rocks often 


abundant. 


Deschampsia cespitosa. 
Juncus effusus. 

Juncus bufonius. 

Mentha sativa. 
Eriophorum polystachion. 
Eriophorum vaginatum. 
Phalaris arundinacea. 
Juncus supinus. 
Ranunculus Flammula. 


Bryophytes on shore rocks usually 


scarce. 


Gnaphalium uliginosum. 
Deschampsia czespitosa. 
Carex hirta. 

Juncus conglomeratus. 
Spirea Ulmaria. 
Juncus effusus, 

Juncus bufonius. 
Mentha sativa. 

Phalaris arundinacea. 
Carex disticha. 
Ranunculus Flammula. 


2. Marsh Species with ther Bases usually in Semi-Laqud Mud, 
or even in Water 


Various bog mosses, including 


species of Sphagnum and Poly- 
trichum. 


Caltha palustris. 

Carex Goodenovii. 

Carex vesicaria. 

Carex aquatilis (dwarf form). 
Juncus articulatus, shore-1. 

Comarum palustre, shore-1. 

Hypericum elodes, shore-1. 


Various bog mosses, excluding 


species of Sphagnum and Poly- 
trichum. 


Caltha palustris. 

Carex Goodenovii. 

Mentha aquatica. 

Iris Pseud-acorus. 
Ranunculus Lingua. 

Alisma Plantago. 

Sparganium ramosum, shore-1. 
Juncus articulatus, shore-1. 
Carex paniculata, shore—1. 
Typha latifolia, shore—1 
Glyceria aquatica, shore—1. 
Comarum palustre, shore-1. 
Sparganium simplex, shore-1. 
Epilobium hirsutum, shore-1. 


13 


194" 


Peaty Moortanp Locus—contd. 


THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


| Non-Peaty Lowianp Locus—contd. 


3. Semi-Aquatic Species that send up from the Water a strong Aerial Flowering 
Stem, but without special Submerged or Floating Leaves 


Menyanthes trifoliata, shore—1. 
Heleocharis palustris, shore—14. 
Carex rostrata, shore—2. 

Carex filiformis, shore—2. 

Carex elata, shore—2. 

Cladium Mariscus, shore—2. 
Phragmites communis, shore—3, 
Equisetum limosum, 1-5. 


Menyanthes trifoliata, shore—1. 
Heleocharis palustris, shore—14. 
Typha angustifolia, shore-1. 
Carex flacca, shore—1 3. 

Carex rostrata, shore—2. 

Carex filiformis, shore—2. 

Carex. aquatilis (elatior), shore-2. 
Phragmites communis, shore—3. 
Equisetum limosum, 1-5. 


4, Semi-Aquatic Species that send up from the Water a strong Aerial Flowering 
Stem, having also Submerged or Floating Leaves that often differ from 


the Aerial ones 


Glyceria fluitans, $—-13. 
Heleocharis multicaulis, $—14. 


bo 


Sparganium natans, 1-3. 
Scirpus lacustris, 2-7. 


“ hy fa 
Glyceria fluitans, $-14. 
Hippuris vulgaris, 1-6. 
Scirpus lacustris, 2—7. 


5. Aquatic Species that grow up into the Water from the Bottom more than a 


foot in height, and usually with at least some Leaves that reach the 


surface and float there 


Species of the following genera 
of Algze are characteristic of peaty 
lochs; they cover rocks, 
rarely float in the water of bays, 
ete :—Ulothrix, Mougeotia, Zygo- 
gonium, Zygnema, and Batracho- 
spermum. 


Polygonum amphibium, shore—4. 
Apium inundatum, 1-4. 
Potamogeton rufescens, 2-10. 
Castalia speciosa, 2-10. 
Nympheea lutea, 2-12. 
Potamogeton polygonifolius, 2- 
12. 
Potamogeton natans, 2-20. 


Nympheea pumila, 7-15. 


other | 
submerged plants, etc., or more | 


The following genera of Alge 
are characteristic of lowland lochs, 
and masses of them often float at 
the surface :—Enteromorpha, Clado- 
phora, Spirogyra, and CEdogonium. 


Polygonum amphibium, shore-4. 
Apium inundatum, 1-4. 
Ranunculus peltatus, ete., 1-7. 
Potamogeton heterophyllus, 1-10. 
Castalia speciosa, 2-10. 
Nymphea lutea, 2-12. 
Potamogeton polygonifolius, 2- 
lez 
Potamogeton natans, 2-20. 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES hes) 


Peaty Mooritanp Locus—contd. | Non-Preaty Lowianp Locus—contd. 


6. Aquatic Species that grow up into the Water from the Bottom usually more than 
a foot in height, but never or rarely producing Leaves that float on the surface 


Bryophytes on submerged rocks 
often abundant, especially the 
following species :—Blindia acuta, 
Eurhynchium rusciforme, Fontinalis 
squammosa, F. antipyretica, Sca- 
pania undulata, Nardia emarginata, | 
N. compressa, ete. 

Utricularia intermedia, 3-3. 

Scirpus fluitans, 1-5. 

Callitriche hamulata, 1—10. 

Juncus fluitans, 1—10. 

Myriophyllum alterniflorum, 1- 

10. 

Potamogeton pusillus, 2-10. 

Utricularia vulgaris, 1-15. 

Potamogeton Zizii, 3-15. 

Potamogeton lucens, 3-20. 

Potamogeton prelongus, 5-20. 

Potamogeton perfoliatus, 5-20. 

Chara fragilis, v. delicatula, 2-25. 

Nitella opaca, 3-30. 

Fontinalis antipyretica, shore—35. 


Bryophytes on submerged rocks 
almost absent, but the following 
species sometimes occur :—Blindia 
acuta, Eurhynchium  rusciforme, 
Fontinalis antipyretica, ete. 


Ranunculus circinatus, ete., 2-8. 
Zannichellia palustris, 2-8. 
Potamogeton flabellatus, 2-8. 
Potamogeton pectinatus, 2-8. 
Potamogeton filiformis, 2-8. 
Myriophyllumalterniflorum, 1-10. 
Callitriche autumnalis, 2-10. 
Potamogeton. Friesii, 2-10. 
Myriophyllum spicatum, 2-10. 
Ceratophyllum demersum, 2-10. 
Nitella translucens, 2-10. 
Anacharis Alsinastrum, 2-10. 
Potamogeton obtusifolius, 2-10. 
Utricularia vulgaris, 1-15. 
Chara fragilis, 1-15. 
Potamogeton pusillus, 2-20. 
Potamogeton crispus, 2-20. 
Potamogeton Zizii, 3-20. 
Potamogeton lucens, 3-20. 
Potamogeton prelongus, 5-20. 
Potamogeton perfoliatus, 5-20. 
Chara fragilis, v. delicatula, 2-25. 
Chara aspera, 2-25. 

» Nitella opaca, 3-30. 
Chara hispida, v. rudis, 10-35. 
Fontinalis antipyretica, shore—40. 


7. Aquatic Bottom-carpeting Species, usually but a few inches high (excluding 


flowering stalks) 


Heleocharis acicularis, shore—4. 
Subularia aquatica, shore-4. 
Littorella lacustris, shore—5. 
Pilularia globulifera, $-3. 
Lobelia Dortmanna, 3-6. 
Isoetes lacustris, 2—20. 


Heleocharis acicularis, shore—4. 
Littorella lacustris, shore—5. 
Elatine hexandra, shore-8. 


196 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


PART IIJ.—THE LAKES 


Full particulars as to the dimensions, depth, and other physical 
features of the lakes sounded by the Lake Survey will be found in 
Vol. II. 


AREA: I 


This area is chiefly one of mountain and moor lying in a condition 
of untamed nature. The only areas of cultivation are either in the 
glens or on the lower upland slopes ; but excepting in the most favour- 
able parts, farming cannot be said to be a very thriving occupation. 
There is very little sheep-farming, because the hills are required for 
deer. ‘The only large manufacturing industry is that of the British 
Aluminium Company at Foyers, which is located there because of a 
convenient and adequate water supply. A considerable number of the 
inhabitants find occupation in the rearing of game, as the district 
is largely devoted to sport. In some places there are plantations of 
considerable size, but a scientific system of profitable sylviculture is not 
the general practice, the trees usually having been planted to afford 
shelter to houses and farms, or for game. 

The scenery is frequently very beautiful, as those who have passed 
by steamer through the Caledonian Canal will admit. The wildest 
scenery, however, is only to be found amongst the mountains, and 
these are frequently difficult of access. "The dominant moor vegetation 
usually consists of plants of the orders Ericacez and Sphagnacee ; 
but in many places this natural vegetation is being destroyed by 
burning, in order to further the expansion of grasses and grass-like 
plants which afford food to the numerous deer. In consequence of 
this natural vegetation the mountains and moors are nearly every- 
where covered with peat. The rain-water, therefore, which falls upon 
the mountains has to percolate through enormous quantities of peat 
before reaching the lochs, so that their water is, as a rule, brown and 
peaty. ‘This peat extract has a great influence upon the flora of the 
lochs, as has been already mentioned. Only in a few districts where 
there are bands of limestone, such as on the hills north of Glen 
Urquhart, or where peat is practically absent, are there lochs whose 
water is not distinctly peaty. In fact, the yellow-brown appearance 
of the water cannot be overlooked by the most casual observer when 
passing through the Caledonian Canal, of which Lochs Ness, Oich, 
and Lochy form the greater part. 

We may begin our inspection of the lochs of this area at Loch 
Ness; thence we pass by way of Loch Oich to some mountain lochs 
north of Lochs Lochy and Oich. From there we proceed to the 
lochs lying on the desolate mountains both to the south and north of 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 197 


Glen Moriston. Crossing the picturesque Glen Urquhart, we visit 
the sheets of water to the north. ‘Then passing eastwards at the 
north end of Loch Ness, we inspect a series of lochs on the hills to 
the east, working our way southwards towards Carn a’ Chuilinn, and 
finishing the tour at Fort Augustus. The original paper contains 
102 illustrations of the lochs, ete., of this area. 

Loch Ness is the largest fresh-water loch in Scotland; it is 24 
miles long by # of a mile to 2 miles broad. It is also one of the 
deepest of the Scottish lakes, and drains an area of nearly 700 square 
miles. Its surface is 52 feet above sea-level. It is situated in a 
depression, with mountains rising almost precipitously from its waters 
on either side, throughout its whole length. At the north-east and 
south-west ends, however, the land is low-lying and comparatively 
flat, being, in fact, the strath, or bottom of the valley, known as the 
Great Glen, that bisects the Highlands from Loch Linnhe to the 
Moray Firth. ‘The lower slopes of the adjacent mountains are 
abundantly clothed with forest to the water’s edge. This sylvan 
scenery, associated with the effect produced by other plant formations 
on the mountains above, combined with occasional crags of grey 
or red rock boldly projected, gives this superb sheet of water a 
magnificence of its own that can seldom be surpassed. Abundant 
and beautiful as is the terrestrial flora, that of the water is extremely 
scanty ; the causes which bring about this paucity have already been 
mentioned. One may traverse miles of the shores of this lake and 
find scarcely an aquatic plant, unless it be the lithophilous Bryophyta 
or Algze, that defy the erosive power of the waves to remove them 
from the rocks. The only places in Loch Ness where aquatic plants 
are abundant are Urquhart Bay, Inchnacardoch Bay, about the south- 
west portion from Borlum to the railway pier, where the water is 
comparatively shallow, with a pebbly, sandy, or muddy bottom ; also, 
but more scantily, about the estuaries of the rivers Moriston and 
Foyers, and in a few small sheltered bays here and there about the 
lake. Generally the shore is so steep that deep water occurs close to it. 
Opposite Invermoriston, for example, a depth of 652 feet occurs at 
120 yards from the shore. This great depth so near the shore is, of 
course, exceptional, but it serves as an example to show the impossi- 
bility of there being an abundant bottom flora of the higher forms 
under such circumstances. Owing to the matter held in solution by 
the water, the photic zone, throughout which there exists sufficient 
light for the proper development of the higher plants, does not extend 
in this loch beyond a depth of about 30 feet. It therefore follows 
that, on account of the steepness of the sides, the limit of depth for 
the higher plants is reached, as a general rule, within a few feet of 
the shore. Then it must be remembered that everywhere, except in 


Irs THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


sheltered bays or creeks, no phanerogams can exist at the bottom 
within 4 or 5 feet of the surface, on account of the erosive action 
of the waves; so that there remains a very narrow zone available for 
such plants, and as a rule none occur. ‘This is a common feature not 
only of Loch Ness, but of all the large lochs that I have examined. 

The sudden rise and fall of the water of Loch Ness,-due to its 
being fed by eight good-sized rivers as well as by about forty burns, 
yet having but one effluent, must be mentioned as being a further 
factor antagonistic to the well-being of plants. The records kept by 
the Canal authorities at Fort Augustus give the maximum rise of 
7 feet 4 inches from the lowest in dry periods to the highest in wet 
weather. A rise of 2 feet within a few hours is quite a usual 
occurrence. This becomes more comprehensible when it is remembered 
that a rainfall of 24 inches means the addition of 100 millions of tons 
of water to the drainage area, most of which speedily finds its way 
into the loch. At Loch Mhor there is a rise and fall of 22 feet, 
caused by artificial agency; the effect of this upon vegetation is there 
very evident. 

At the south-west end of the loch, from Borlum to the em- 
bouchure of the river Tarff, the shore consists of gravel and sand, 
and forms a large high beach. On the crest and rear of this beach 
there is a considerable flora, ranging, in accordance with the ceco- 
logical conditions, from xerophilous plants in the more elevated parts 
to hygrophilous vegetation at a lower level. Behind the beach there 
is an extensive marsh containing the plants usual to such an environ- 
ment that are common to the district. Along this beach no semi- 
aquatic plants occur in the loch, on account of the waves. From the 
beach the aquatic flora extends over the bottom from about 5 feet 
to 30 feet deep, the chief plants being Littorella lacustris, Isoetes 
lacustris, Myriophyllum alterniflorum, Nitella opaca, and Fontinalis 
antipyretica; an occasional plant of the two last-mentioned may be 
found even to a depth of 40 feet. The bottom here is mostly of 
gravel down to 30 or 40 feet; in deeper water mud _ obtains. 
The Caledonian Canal entrance into Loch Ness has a luxuriant 
aquatic flora upon its embankments, but this is almost limited to 
Lobelia Dortmanna, Juncus fluitans, Callitriche hamulata, and Myrio- 
phyllum alterniflorum. From here, past the embouchure of the 
river Oich to the point beyond the railway pier, the flora is ex- 
tremely scanty. There is practically no shore; the rocks have 
occasional patches of Nardia emarginata or Scapania undulata, and 
are sometimes green with Zygnema. Rounding the point, we enter 
Inchnacardoch Bay. ‘The water over a considerable area of this bay 
is less than 20 feet deep, with a sandy or muddy bottom which bears 
«© luxuriant vegetation. The only island of Loch Ness—Cherry 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES ~ ois, 


Island—is at the entrance to this bay. It is very small, and is over- 
grown with dwarf trees. The aquatic flora of the bay, although 
extremely abundant, is almost restricted to the following species :— 
Littorella lacustris, Lobelia Dortmanna, Isoetes lacustris, Myrio- 
phyllum alterniflorum, Juncus fluitans, Chara fragilis, var. delicatula, 
Utricularia vulgaris, Nitella opaca, Fontinalis antipyretica, Potamo- 
geton natans, P. lucens, Callitriche hamulata, Sparganium natans, 
Glyceria fluitans, Polygonum amphibium, Menyanthes _ trifoliata, 
Equisetum limosum, Carex rostrata, and a large number of other 
marsh plants, including Carex elata, which forms tussocks that stand 
up out of the water, as well as assuming a carpeting habit on drier 
ground. 

Leaving this bay, we meet with scarcely any aquatic plants, except 
such as may occur in little bays, until Invermoriston is reached. 
Here again there is a paucity in the variety and quantity of aquatic 
plants, nothing calling for special remark. 

From Invermoriston to Urquhart Bay, a distance of some ten 
miles, there is nothing in the way of aquatic flora to demand atten- 
tion. In Urquhart Bay, however, conditions prevail similar to those 
of Inchnacardoch Bay, the bottom being of firmer sand down to a 
depth of 20 or 25 feet; but beyond this, mud occurs everywhere. It 
should be noticed that in Borlum Bay, which receives the full force 
of easterly gales, the mud deposit on the bottom only begins at 
‘depths of from 30 to 40 feet—that is, about 10 feet deeper than in ~ 
the somewhat sheltered Urquhart Bay, where the vegetation is 
similar to that of Inchnacardoch Bay, but the marsh plants are more 
varied in species and grow more luxuriantly. At Urquhart Bay two 
rivers enter Loch Ness: the Enrick, draining the populous and highly 
cultivated Glen Urquhart, and the Coiltie, from Balmacaan Forest, 
which also drains a considerable area of cultivation. The nitrogenous 
substances and the lime from a district north of Glen Urquhart 
brought down by these rivers, undoubtedly to a certain extent, ex- 
tinguish the action of the humic acids over a considerable delta that 
has been formed by these streams, and upon it a dense vegetation of 
the marsh and woodland types has developed. The water of the 
bay, however, owing to the great bulk of the loch, is probably but 
very little, if at all, modified by the rivers; the similarity of the 
aquatic vegetation to that of other portions of the loch bears out 
this remark. 

Passing out of Urquhart Bay, there is little more, regarding aquatic 
plants, to arrest our attention in Loch Ness. At the north-east end 
of the loch, from Lochend to the lighthouse at the entrance to Loch 
Dochfour, there is a remarkably large, high, stony beach. During 
westerly gales, the waves, gathering strength from the whole length 


200 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


of the loch, break with great force upon this shore. At Dores Bay a 
similar but smaller and less stony beach may be seen. 

A few aquatic plants are found in Foyers Bay, but only such as 
are common in the loch. ‘The bay has been formed by detrital matter 
brought into the loch by the river Foyers. So great has been the 
amount of detritus brought down by this swift river that the bottom 
of the loch opposite its delta has been silted up to the extent of about 
200 feet in vertical height. ‘The works of the British Aluminium 
Company are situated at Foyers Bay. The selection of this remote 
spot as the site for an extensive mechanical industry is due to the 
watér of the river Foyers affording a cheap motive power for the 
large turbines and dynamos that generate the enormous electrical force 
required for the operations of the Company. From Foyers to Borlum 
there is practically no shore flora, and where the bottom is agreeable 
to the development of submerged plants, only those species that are 
found elsewhere about the loch thrive. The submerged rocks are 
frequently covered with Algze and Bryophyta, chiefly forms of Zygnema, 
Nardia, and Scapania (see Plates V. and VI.). 

Loch Uanagan is situated in the Great Glen, about a mile south- 
west of Fort Augustus; it is about half a mile long, and is 43 feet deep 
in its deepest part. Its shores, which enter the water at a gentle 
slope, are sandy or stony, and its water is rather peaty. The affluent 
at the south-west end has introduced a large amount of detrital matter 
into the loch; a considerable area of shallow water thus formed is 
covered with vegetation. At the opposite end of the loch, although 
the water is shallow, there is little vegetation, owing to the erosive 
power of the waves caused by the prevailing westerly winds. The 
general features of the aquatic and marsh flora are similar to what is 
found in the shallow water and marshes of Loch Ness; there are, 
however, differences. Here we have a colony of Scirpus lacustris, the 
largest specimens of which rise 5 feet above the surface of water 
7 feet deep. There is an abundant bottom carpet of Characeae— 
Chara fragilis, var. delicatula, from the margin to 20 feet deep, and 
Nitella opaca from 10 to 30 feet deep. A considerable variety of 
other species occurs in this loch. From the north-west shore of the 
loch rises a considerable hill; this is covered with coniferous trees 
extending beyond the length of the loch and over the hill to the bank 
of the Caledonian Canal. 

Passing along the Canal from Fort Augustus to Loch Oich, we 
encounter, in places where the Canal has been made through small and 
shallow lochs, a very abundant aquatic flora. The submerged sides 
of the Canal are also well clothed. All the plants, however, are those 
quite common to the waters of the district, and call for no special 
comment, except that Coiltry Loch is in parts simply filled with five 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 201 


dominant plants, namely, Lobelia Dortmanna, Isoetes lacustris, 
Littorella lacustris, Juncus fluitans, and Callitriche hamulata. 

Loch Oich is the highest of the lakes in the Great Glen; it is four 
miles long, with shores and islands abundantly wooded. Set amongst 
lofty and rugged mountains, it presents a magnificent piece of 
highland scenery. ‘The water is peaty, and, as a considerable area of 
the loch is so shallow that the bottom is within the photic zone, 
there is an abundant submerged flora, although restricted in variety, as 
at Loch Ness. The shores of this loch are stony or sandy, with a 
very sparse vegetation or none whatever. Notwithstanding the 
innumerable small bays and shallow shores, there is very little 
marsh, so that plants of this habit are not abundant. The Calder 
Burn has brought down a great amount of detrital matter into the 
loch, forming large gravel banks, but these are almost destitute of 
plants. The paucity of marsh and shallow-water vegetation in this 
loch must, I think, be due to the abundance of stones and sand and 
scarcity of mud. The hills hereabout are faced with glacial drift- 
gravel, which is brought into the loch by burns and deposited along 
the shores. This gravel is extremely antagonistic to littoral phanero- 
gams, because it is continuously shifting under the power of the waves. 
These long, narrow lochs running in the direction of the prevailing 
winds always have barren shores, owing to the waves having power 
over practically the whole of the loch; this is more especially the 
case if the shores happen to be of gravel. 

Loch Lochy is not properly in the Ness Area, as it drains into 
Loch Linnhe. Some dredging operations by the Mermaid, at depths 
of from 100 to 500 feet, furnished exactly similar results to those 
obtained at Loch Ness, namely, non-fetid mud, a limited quantity of 
vegetable detritus, no living plants of the higher types, and a 
restricted number of bacteria and animals of low organisation. 
Beyond this I have only examined the north-east end of the loch, 
which is practically the same in character and flora as Loch Oich ; 
the water, however, is less peaty. ‘The mountains here also are faced 
with glacial drift-gravel, through which the numerous watercourses 
have carved enormous gullies, bringing down the gravel into the loch. 
By this action, two burns upon opposite shores have brought into the 
loch at Kilfinnan almost enough material to divide the loch in twain. 

Lochan Coire Glas, in Glen Garry Forest, is an extremely wild 
little loch about 1600 feet above sea-level. Mountains rise pre- 
cipitously from its margin to over 3000 feet, closing it in on three 
sides like an amphitheatre. Gusts of wind descending the mountains 
strike the loch with terrific force, notwithstanding its apparently 
sheltered position. This loch is gradually being silted up with 
detritus washed in by burns, or rather waterfalls, that descend the 


202 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


mountains. A sandbank in the middle of the loch is covered with 
Heleocharis palustris. A limited number of other plants also occur 
here, but all those that grow on the shores are very much dwarfed. 

Lochan Diota is a small pool at an elevation of about 1000 feet, 
situated to the north-west of Loch Lochy. It is shallow, and is 
overgrown with a number of plants common to this Area. 

Loch Lundie is north of Glen Garry, at an elevation of 445 feet 
above sea-level. The shores are flat and peaty, sandy, or stony. 
‘The water is peaty, and there is an abundant flora. Marsh plants 
grow luxuriantly on its western shores, but the eastern shores are 
comparatively bare; the western side is also well wooded. A large 
island on the east is covered with dwarf birch and alder. Some of 
the shallow bays on the west are entirely filled with Phragmites. 
communis, others with Scirpus lacustris. Isoetes lacustris is extremely 
abundant, and carpets the bottom from 2 to 20 feet deep; in the 
deeper water the specimens were frequently 18 inches long. A 
considerable variety of other plants occurs both in the water and 
upon the shores. 

Lochan Doire Chada is a small peaty loch situated between 
Loch Lundie and Loch Oich. The west side is composed entirely 
of a deep and dangerous bog, sparsely covered with dwarf Phragmites 
communis, Carex rostrata, etc. The east side is stony and destitute 
of plants, whilst quantities of the dead stems of Phragmites had been 
washed high on the shore by winter storms. This loch affords an 
excellent example of the difference between an eastern and a western 
shore due to winds. <A very restricted variety of plants grows at 
this loch. 

On the west of Loch Ness, among the mountains, there are 
a great many lochs at an average elevation of about 1200 feet ; some, 
however, are over 1600 feet above sea-level. These fall naturally 
into groups, because the different series are separated by deep glens. 
They may be arranged as follows :—Taking the glens as boundary 
lines, there are the lochs on the mountains south of Glen Moriston, 
those on the mountains between Glen Moriston and Glen Urquhart, 
Loch Meiklie in Glen Urquhart, and the lochs on the mountains 
north of it. The lochs of these groups very closely resemble one 
another, both in general physical features and in their floras; it does 
not, therefore, seem necessary to describe each loch separately, 
especially as most of them are of but little botanical interest, con- 
sequently they will be described in groups. 

South of Glen Moriston.—-All the lochs situated in this group 
have peaty water. Their western shores usually have a more or less 
extensive area of marsh, upon which flourish plants common to the 
Area. Their eastern shores are universally stony or rocky, and 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 203 


always almost or quite destitute of plants; whilst trees are entirely 
absent. The plants that flourish at one or another of these lochs are 
as follows :—Littorella lacustris, Lobelia Dortmanna, Isoetes lacustris, 
Fontinalis antipyretica, Chara fragilis, var. delicatula, Nitella opaca, 
Juncus fluitans, Callitriche hamulata, Potamogeton natans, P. poly- 
gonifolius, P. lucens, Myriophyllum alterniflorum, Utricularia inter- 
media, Sparganium minimum, Glyceria fluitans, Menyanthes trifoliata, 
Comarum palustre, Equisetum lmosum, Heleocharis palustris, Carex 
rostrata, C. Goodenovii, C. aquatilis, C. binervis, C. dioica, Eriophorum 
vaginatum, E. polystachion, Triglochin palustre, Juncus effusus, J. 
articulatus, Caltha palustris, Ranunculus Flammula, Hydrocotyle 
vulgaris, Sphagnum acutifolium, S. cuspidatum, var. plumosum, 
Hypnum stramineum, H. trifarium, Rhacomitrium aciculare, Scapania 
undulata, Nardia compressa, Batrachospermum moniliforme, Zygnema 
Vaucheril, etc. 

Crossing Glen Moriston, through which flows a splendid river, a 
desolate mountain region is entered, remarkable for the great number 
of its lochs. With the exception of dwarf birch or mountain ash 
on the islands of a few of them, their shores are treeless and frequently 
entirely devoid of vegetation, excepting on the western side. Their 
waters are without exception peaty, often extremely so. Occasion- 
ally Betula nana is found spreading over a rocky shore. This plant is 
very abundant on the moors of the district, and is often of considerable 
size, the largest specimens having stems as thick as one’s wrist; they 
are, however, always prostrate. ‘The lochs of this extensive region, 
containing about 100 square miles of mountain and moor, are 
characterised by a general paucity not only in variety, but frequently 
also in quantity, of phanerogamic plants. It often happens that the 
plants, particularly those of the littoral zone, are very much dwarted. 
A small terrestrial form of Sparganium minimum grows at the margin 
of some of these lochs. Dwarf forms of Castalia speciosa and 
Menyanthes trifoliata, sometimes growing on exposed peaty mud, are 
frequently met with. The most abundant marsh plants are Carex 
rostrata, C. filiformis, C. Goodenovil, and Equisetum limosum. 
These sometimes cover very considerable areas of marshy ground, 
but, unless there is some exceptional condition present, such associa- 
tions never occur on the eastern shores. At Loch a’? Mheig, which 
is sheltered from westerly winds by hills, the marginal vegetation is 
encroaching upon the water in crescent formation on all sides of the 
loch. This is due to the wind-sheltered position, to the shallow and 
regular, basin-like inclination of the bottom, and to the detrital 
matter brought into the loch by a burn. In this particular case the 
conditions are exceptional for favouring marsh development on the 
eastern side; the plants concerned are chiefly Carex rostrata and 


204 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


C. Goodenovii. On some of the higher hills of this district 
Arctostaphylos alpina is very abundant. The chief plants at this 
group of lochs are as follows :—Littorella lacustris, Lobelia Dortmanna, 
Isoetes lacustris, Fontinalis antipyretica, Nitella opaca, Chara fragilis, 
var. delicatula, Juncus fluitans, Myriophyllum alterniflorum, Callitriche 
hamulata, Utricularia vulgaris, U. intermedia, Potamogeton natans, 
P. polygonifolius, P. lucens, P. pralongus, Menyanthes trifoliata, 
Castalia speciosa, Sparganium natans, S. minimum, Caltha palustris, 
Heleocharis palustris, Equisetum limosum, Glyceria fluitans, Carex 
rostrata, C. filiformis, C. aquatilis, C. Goodenovii, C. binervis, Erio- 
phorum vaginatum, E. polystachion, Juncus articulatus, J. supinus, 
Triglochin palustre, Ranunculus Flammula, Sphagnum various sp., 
Blindia acuta, Brachythecium rivulare, Hypnum cuspidatum, H. 
uncinatum, Philonotis fontana, Scapania undulata, Nardia emarginata, 
N. compressa, Batrachospermum moniliforme, Zygnema Vaucherii, ete. 

Loch Meiklie is situated in Glen Urquhart, at an elevation of 
365 feet above sea-level. It differs from the lochs of this area 
hitherto considered. Its shores are beautifully wooded, and mostly 
stony or sandy; but about the embouchure of the river Enrick at 
the west end there is a considerable swamp. Some of the sheltered 
bays, notably towards the north-east, have also swampy margins. 
Besides moorland, this loch also drains a small area of cultivation ; 
its water is, therefore, less peaty than usual, although it contains a 
considerable amount of matter in suspension. At the marsh at the 
west end of the loch, the plants are arranged in succession somewhat 
as follows, proceeding from the drier ground towards the water :— 
Juncus effusus, J. articulatus, Carex rostrata, Phragmites communis, 
Equisetum limosum in water 2 to 5 feet deep, Castalia speciosa in 
water 4 to 8 feet deep, Nymphea pumila in water 8 to 10 feet deep ; 
beyond the last-mentioned, at the bottom, Potamogeton pusillus, 
var. tenuissimus, P. lucens, Utricularia vulgaris, and Nitella trans- 
lucens. All these associations are of course mixed with other plants, 
but those mentioned are dominant over a certain area. The Castalia 
speciosa association is extremely well developed here, and presents a 
magnificent spectacle. A considerable number of other plants also 
occur at this loch. 

Ascending the hills north of Glen Urquhart, there are many 
mountain lochs differing somewhat in character from any hitherto 
seen, although some are of the usual mountain type. Many of the 
lochs on these hills have a great abundance of Castalia speciosa in 
its normal form, the associations of which frequently extend in huge 
crescents, chiefly about the western side of the lochs or in bays. 
There is also in many cases a luxuriant swamp of Scirpus lacustris, 
etc. The general vegetation of the lochs, although restricted in 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 205 


species, is more exuberant than that usually seen in hill lochs, and 
in fact closely resembles that of wind-exposed lowland lochs. This 
is probably due to two causes :—Ist, the lochs are sheltered from the 
prevailing wind by adjacent hills ; 2nd, moorland peat is not abundant 
above the level of the lochs, so that their waters are less peaty than 
usual ; besides which seams of limestone occur in these hills, and its 
influence is undoubtedly felt in the lakes. Otherwise than by the 
greater luxuriance of some of the species, and excluding the large 
associations of Castalia speciosa and Scirpus lacustris, the flora of 
this group of lochs resembles that of those just described. 

Adjoining the beach of Loch Ness at Aldourie there is a small 
lake entirely surrounded and covered with vegetation. From Loch 
Ness shore, where not a single water plant can be observed, thirty 
paces bring one to this little loch, which is entirely overgrown with 
aquatic plants. Surely, but for the unsuitable shore of the former 
loch, some of these plants would occur in it also! Other similar 
lochs of small size occur hereabout, and another, but larger, is situated 
behind the great beach at the north-east end of Loch Ness. The 
vegetation at these sheltered lochs grows with much greater 
exuberance than the same species at the hill lochs. Besides a number 
of common plants, the following occur at one or another of these 
smaller lochs:—Montia fontana, Apium inundatum, Lysimachia 
vulgaris, L. nemorum, and a curious form of Juncus acutiflorus 
having flowers and nodes viviparous, the young Bane from the nodes 
being quite large. 

East of Loch Ness there is a series of lochs, many of considerable 
size, lying at elevations of from 600 feet to 1000 feet above sea-level. 

Loch Ashie is 718 feet above sea-level, and is situated upon an 
open moor. It is about a mile and a half long, with flat and stony 
shores and rather peaty water. On the east side a bleak and dreary 
moor rises gradually from the loch ; on the west the shores are clothed 
with coniferous forest. ‘Towards the south-west the land has been 
recently deforested, so that this portion is as featureless as the eastern 
shore. This loch has a very poor flora, particularly upon its shores. 

Loch Bunachton is an extremely desolate sheet of water, situated 
in the bottom of a vast treeless moor. It is smaller than the last- 
mentioned, but otherwise resembles it in character and flora. 

Loch Culcairn is a recently constructed artificial lake, and the 
water, which is very peaty, presents little of botanical interest. Origin- 
ally there existed on the site a small tarn and extensive peat-diggings. 
The dam is at the north end. 

Lochan Dubh, at Dunlichty, is a sana) peaty pool entirely 
surrounded with coniferous forest. It is of no particular botanical 
interest. 


206 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Loch a’ Chlachain is 684 feet above sea-level. The surrounding 
country is extremely wild and rocky. ‘The water is clear, owing to 
the fact that the area of peat drained by it is comparatively small. 
This loch drains Loch Dun na Seilcheig, which in turn drains Loch 
Ceo-Glas. The whole catchment area of these lochs consists largely of 
bare rock, covered in many places with enormous patches of Arcto- 
staphylos Uva-Ursi. Heather and peat are often restricted to the 
interstices between the bare boulders ; consequently the water of these 
lakes is unusually clear, but doubtless very poor in plant food-salts. 
The rock-bound shore of Loch a’? Chlachain is not conducive to a 
littoral flora; plants are consequently scarce excepting at the west 
end, where the shore is flat owing to detrital matter deposited 
by the affluent. This part is covered with marsh vegetation, which, 
like that in the water, consists only of the common types found 
throughout this Area. 

Loch Dun na Seilcheig is one of the largest lochs in the Ness 
Area. It is a magnificent sheet of water 34 miles long by one 
mile wide, and is 703 feet above sea-level. Nothing was seen here 
save such plants as are common throughout the Area. 

Loch nan Gead’as is a small pool at the south-west end of Loch 
Din na Seilcheig, and is joined to it by a narrow channel which has 
wide, marshy flats on either side. This loch is more or less surrounded 
by a swamp, which bears an abundant vegetation. From the land 
towards the water there are zones of the following plants :—Myrica 
Gale, Comarum palustre, Carex rostrata, Equisetum limosum, and 
Castalia speciosa, besides which there are a number of other ordinary 
plants. 

Loch Céo-Glas is a long, narrow loch 763 feet above sea-level, and 
situated below Tom Bailgeann. ‘The south-east shore has colonies of 
Carex rostrata and Phragmites communis in sheltered bays. ‘The 
north-west shore is bare and stony. At the south-west end there is an 
extensive marsh, covered with Equisetum limosum, Carex rostrata, ete. 

Lochan a’ Choin is a small loch in a partially cultivated district. 
The water is peaty. ‘The western shore is flat, consisting of muddy 
peat, and is overgrown with a considerable amount of vegetation, 
which presents the usual features of the district. The eastern shore is 
stony and bare of plai.ts. 

Lochan nan eun Ruadha is near the last-mentioned, but is much 
larger and is very bare of plants. ‘The south-west side has deep water 
quite up to the thick peat bank, so that there is no shore whatever. 
The eastern and northern portions have a shore of stones and rocks, 
and a very sparse vegetation. ‘The western side has a marshy area, 
which is chiefly occupied by groups of Phragmites communis. 

Loch Ruthven is a fine sheet of water some two miles long and 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 207 


700 feet above sea-level, with peaty water. ‘The east and west ends 
are silted up with sand, so that there is a considerable area of shallow 
water at both ends, but more especially so at the east end. ‘The 
shores are frequently sandy—more so than is general; they usually 
enter the water at a gentle inclination, and vegetation is abundant. 
The shallow areas at each end of the loch are often densely carpeted 
with the ordinary plants. ‘The water is of a darker tint than that of 
Loch Ness; on that account the photic zone does not extend beyond 
a depth of 23 feet, which, however, includes the greater portion of the 
bottom, as the loch is shallow. At the time of my visit the water was 
much more turbid at the east than at the west end; this was probably 
due to the shallow area at the west end being of much less extent 
than at the east end. The greatest average depth and bulk of water 
being at the west end, the sediment at the bottom is below the 
influence of the waves. At the east end, however, a large area is 
within this influence, and the sediment is easily raised. Moreover, 
for some days previous to my visit there had been a continuation of 
stiff westerly winds. The flat, sandy shore at the east end is covered 
with moorland vegetation. Looking from the rear of the shore 
towards the water, the foreground is thickly clothed with Calluna 
vulgaris, Myrica Gale, Juncus squarrosus, Nardus stricta, Deschampsia 
flexuosa, Juncus effusus, etc. Nearer the water the plant-covering 
becomes thinner, then isolated clumps of plants stand up out of the 
sand, and finally even these disappear, so that close to the water 
nothing remains but bare sand. At the north-east end of the loch a 
large bay is filled with Equisetum limosum ; its existence here is due 
to the shelter afforded by a wooded hill from the westerly winds, and 
it is interesting to notice how abruptly the association terminates 
where the protection afforded by the hill ends. At the west end of 
the loch there is a large sandy flat several acres in extent; this is 
almost entirely overgrown with Juncus effusus, the tussocks of which 
are closely compacted, near the water, but thin out considerably as 
the land becomes drier, and finally give way altogether to meadow- 
land. There are also large colonies of Carex rostrata and Phrag- 
mites communis. I have never found elsewhere such an abundance 
of Utricularia vulgaris as occurs at this loch at depths of from 5 to 
10 feet. There was also a great abundance of that fine moss, 
Hypnum scorpioides, app. var. miquelonense, at. similar depths. 
Besides those already mentioned, the following plants occur here, and 
this forms a representative list of the flora of other lochs in this 
district :—Littorella lacustris, Lobelia Dortmanna, Isoetes lacustris, 
Fontinalis antipyretica, Nitella opaca, Chara fragilis, var. delicatula, 
Myriophyllum alterniflorum, Juncus fluitans, Potamogeton _pusillus, 
| P. lucens, P. prelongus, P. polygonifolius, P. natans, Callitriche 


I 


208 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


hamulata, Polygonum amphibium, Sparganium natans, Glyceria 
fluitans, Carex rostrata, C. Goodenovi, C. aquatilis, C. flava, Heleo- 
charis palustris, Eriophorum  polystachion, Comarum palustre, 


Menyanthes trifoliata, Caltha palustris, Triglochin palustre, Pedicu-_ 


laris palustris, Cardamine pratensis, Ranunculus Flammula, Spirea 
Ulmaria, Hydrocotyle vulgaris, Scapania undulata, Nardia emarginata, 
Conferva, Zygnema, Batrachospermum, etc. 

An Dubh Lochan is a small loch near the last-mentioned. It is 
entirely surrounded by a wide swamp, owing to which the water is 
almost unapproachable. ‘The plants are those usual to the district. 

Loch a’ Choire is situated a little to the north of Loch Ruthven, 
at an elevation of 865 feet above sea-level. ‘he water is not very 
peaty. The south-east shore is flat, mostly sandy, and merges 
gradually into moorland. Otherwise the shores are rocky or stony, 
excepting for sandy bays here and there. Abruptly from its north- 
west shore there rises a considerable hill, the upper portion of which 
ends in a bold, perpendicular escarpment. The scanty vegetation 
consists of a few of the species common to the district. 

Loch Dunmaglass is partially an artificial loch, the original one 
having been extended by the construction of a dam at the north- 
east end. Meall Nochd rises almost perpendicularly from its western 
shore, and the flank of Beinn Dubh-choire, on the east, is also steep. 
Being closed in by precipitous and bare rocky mountains, having but 


little peat, its water is clear and only slightly peaty. The scenery 


is very wild. It is remarkable for being the only loch in the Ness 
Area in which I found Hippuris vulgaris, but only the submerged 
shoots occurred. The other plants of the loch are of the species 
usual to the district. 

Loch Mhor.—In this large loch I found not a trace of any living 
plant. It is over 600 feet above sea-level, and the water is extremely 
peaty. Originally there were two lochs on this site, Loch Farraline 
and Loch Garth. In order to secure a constant and efficient supply 
of water for their turbines, the British Aluminium Company at 
Foyers, who own the lochs, undertook operations by which the two 
lochs were joined. By this work the level of the lower loch was 
raised some 20 feet, by means of a dam, whereby one large loch was 
formed having a_ total length of about five miles; and this was 
named Loch Mhor. ‘The Company’s turbines utilise an enormous 
amount of water; consequently, in accordance with the rainfall, the 
surface level of the loch is continually changing, the difference 
between maximum and minimum being about 22 feet. Now, the 
water of this loch is so dark that, reasoning from other cases, I 
should imagine no plants could exist at a greater depth than 10 or 


12 feet. The consequence, therefore, of an extra 20 feet of this. 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 209 


dark water was to kill out the whole of the aquatic flora of the original 
lochs, and the ever-changing level has not favoured the introduction 
of a new flora; in fact, I doubt if an aquatic flora could exist there 
under the present conditions. Not only were all the aquatic plants 
of the original lochs destroyed, but the entire littoral flora was also 
extinguished by drowning, so that, when the water is low, the 
remains of the old littoral trees and shrubs, which have not yet 
decayed, form a desolate picture of death and destruction. 

Between Loch Mhor and Loch Ness there are a few small lochs 
that are very similar to one another in both their physical features 
and their flora. Their water is usually peaty, and their shores on the 
east side are frequently more or less stony, whilst the western shores 
are generally marshy. Most of them have large associations of 
Castalia speciosa, which, with copiously wooded shores and a general 
luxuriance of vegetation, give them a decidedly lowland appearance. 
The plants, however, notwithstanding the general exuberance of 
growth, are such as are usual to the peaty lochs of this area. On 
the west side of Loch an Ordain there is an extensive marsh, which is 
overgrown with Carex rostrata as the dominant plant. In the middle 
of the marsh, however, there is a circular pool in which the water 
is too deep for the Carex, and one side of this is overgrown with 
Castalia speciosa. Such circular pools, forming a portion of a larger 
loch, are known under the unpleasant appellation of ‘‘ murder-holes.” 
In the seven Areas described in this paper I have only seen two other 
well-formed holes of this kind, namely, at Loch Kilcheran in Lismore, 
and Loch Neldricken in Kirkcudbrightshire. 

Loch Kemp is beautifully situated amongst hills, some of the 
lower slopes being wooded with birch. The shores are mostly rocky, 
the water is very peaty, and the vegetation is extremely scanty. 
When looking over the side of a boat the bottom is quite invisible 
at a depth of 5 feet. On the north-east side the bottom, within the 
photic zone, is toa great extent incrusted with a hard, brittle layer, 
about half an inch thick, resembling moor-pan; no plants grow on 
this substance. In other places there is a bottom carpet of Littorella, 
Lobelia, and Isoetes to a depth of 12 feet; beyond this depth 
there are no plants. The other plants observed here are as follows :— 
Callitriche hamulata, Juncus fluitans, Utricularia vulgaris, Potamo- 
geton natans, Castalia speciosa, Equisetum limosum, and Carex rostrata, 
but none of them were abundant. Any other littoral plants were merely 
isolated specimens of common species here and there among the rocks. 

Loch Knockie is about one and a quarter miles long. It much 
resembles. Loch Kemp in general features, but its water is less peaty, 
and vegetation is rather more plentiful. The photic zone extends to 
a-depth of 25 feet, at which depth Nitella opaca grows. Carex 

14 


210 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


rostrata, Equisetum limosum, and Phragmites communis abound in ~ 
sheltered bays. No unusual features, nor any but ordinary plants, 
were observed. There are several islands in the loch; its shores are 
well wooded, and it presents a very pleasing piece of highland scenery. 
Loch nan Lann possesses great natural beauty. It is smaller than its 
neighbour, Loch Knockie, which in general features it closely resembles. 
Its flora is composed of species usually found in the lochs of this Area. 
Loch Tarff is 956 feet above sea-level; its shores are mostly 
stony and rocky, and its water is peaty. It les in an open, wind- 
exposed position on the moor. It has several small islands, the 
largest of which is the breeding-place of a great number of gulls. 
This island is overgrown with stunted birch, alder, and willow, with 
an undergrowth of Calluna, etc. The branches of the trees are 
thickly invested with the lichen Alectoria jubata, which gives them 
a fantastic appearance. Another island has an undergrowth of 
Epilobium angustifolium and Capnoides claviculata; a third has an 
abundance of Cnicus heterophyllus; yet none of these plants appear 
to be abundant anywhere else near the loch. Ranunculus hederaceus 
occurs sparingly on the shore. A considerable number of other plants 
grow in and around this loch, but merely those of common occurrence. 
Loch Killin is situated at an elevation of over 1000 feet above 
sea-level, in a narrow and deep glen overshadowed by mountains. 
Its shores are rocky, excepting at the south end, and its water is 
peaty. <A lofty and precipitous escarpment enters the loch on its 
western side.’ ‘The. aquatic flora is that which is quite common to 
other peaty lochs. Mention must, however, be made of the large 
quantities of Glyceria fluitans and Sparganium natans that occur in 
the water, particularly at the south end. An interesting feature of 
this loch is the remarkable amount of detrital matter brought into it 
by the river Killin. ‘The bottom of the glen south of the loch forms 
a flat strath, about two miles long, consisting of the alluvial sand and 
gravel brought down by the river. ‘Towards the loch many acres of 
this strath are covered with Juncus effusus, having grass etc. between 
the tussocks. The south shore of the loch consists of this alluvium, 
and it forms a beach of gravel and sand of considerable extent ; it is, 
in fact, simply an extension of the strath upon which vegetation has 
not yet grown. Standing at the margin of the loch and looking up 
the strath, we see extending out over the gravel, from the main body 
of the vegetation farther up, patches and isolated plants of Nardus 
stricta, Deschampsia flexuosa, Festuca ovina, Molinia ceerulea, Scirpus 
ceespitosus, etc. In the rear of these plants, isolated tussocks of 
Juncus effusus occur as the vanguard from the large association 
farther up the strath; such sward as exists between these tussocks is 
mostly composed of dwarf and densely matted Equisetum arvense. 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 2 


About six miles to the south-east of Fort Augustus, between 
the mountains of Carn a’ Chuilinn and Cairn Vangie, is an extensive 
plateau some 2200 feet above sea-level, wild and desolate in the 
extreme, and known locally under the sobriquet of “Siberia.” Upon 
this plateau there are about twenty lochs, which are probably the 
highest series of lochs in the British Islands. Their shores are 
mostly rocky and stony, their water is invariably peaty, and not 
only their shores but the whole plateau is entirely devoid of trees. 
The terrestrial vegetation of this district is of the moorland type, 
Calluna and grass-like plants dominating. Where littoral marsh 
occurs, it is always on the western side of the lochs or in sheltered 
bays. Carex rostrata grows most luxuriantly—in fact, the largest 
specimens I have seen of this species were at these lochs. Equisetum 
limosum also grows well in some of the lochs; but I have observed 
that when growing near the Carex rostrata associations they scarcely 
grow taller than the latter, whereas in the lowlands they grow twice 
as high, or even more. ‘These two species usually grow near one 
another at the margins of the lochs, the Carex always being next the 
land. Now, as they only grow on the western sides of the lochs, the 
Carex is of course always to the windward of the Equisetum, which 
is thereby sheltered from the prevailing wind. I think that is the 
reason for the latter not overtopping the former, because the 
desiccating action of the wind at this elevation must be considerable, 
and its effect would be much greater upon the growing apex of the 
Equisetum than upon the leaves of the Carex. No boat being 
available, I could not obtain evidence regarding the bottom flora of 
these lochs, beyond what I could glean from their margins ; but the 
following plants were found, some of them being dwarfed :—Littorella 
lacustris, Lobelia Dortmanna, Isoetes lacustris, Fontinalis antipyretica, 
Chara fragilis, vars., Juncus fluitans, Myriophyllum alterniflorum, 
Callitriche hamulata, Utricularia intermedia, Sparganium minimum, 
Potamogeton polygonifolius, P. natans, Equisetum limosum, Carex 
rostrata, C. Goodenovii, C. aquatilis, Eriophorum vaginatum, E. 
polystachion, Caltha palustris, and Ranunculus Flammula. Wet 
and submerged rocks were often covered with Scapania undulata, 
Nardia compressa, Blindia acuta, etc. Species of Sphagnum abound 
on boggy shores. In sheltered places Batrachospermum moniliforme, 
Zygnema Vaucherii, etc., are plentiful. Armeria maritima grows 
upon some of the littoral rocks. A few of the lochs have islands, and 
these are sometimes occupied by colonies of gulls, which breed there. 


AreEa II 


The island of Lismore is situated in the entrance to Loch Linnhe, 
off the coast of Argyllshire; it is 10 miles long by 14 miles broad at 


212 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


the widest part. Here the conditions are absolutely different from 
those existing in the Ness Area. There is no moorland peat 
formation at Lismore that can possibly drain into the lakes. The 
geological formation throughout the island is limestone. In reply to 
a question regarding this limestone, the Geological Survey write :— 
“’The Lismore limestone belongs to the metamorphic rocks of the 
Highlands, and is probably the equivalent of the Blair Athole lime- 
stone.” ‘The land is almost entirely in a more or less cultivated state ; 
a fine, bright green grass sward covers a large portion of the island. 
The bright green appearance of the grass-land is worthy of mention ; 
it at once arrests the eye, as being something different from what 
usually occurs in the Highlands. Large numbers of cattle and sheep 
are maintained upon the island, so that instead of humic acids an 
appreciable supply of ammonia salts will be likely to gain access 
to the lakes. The climate is mild, as the number of luxuriant 
Fuchsia shrubs in the gardens of the cottagers testifies. The three 
lochs on Lismore are but slightly elevated above sea-level, and are 
sheltered from wind by adjacent low hills. A marked difference between 
these and the lochs of the Ness Area is, that the waters of these lochs 
are heavily charged with calcium carbonate. Calcium carbonate is 
not itself directly a plant-food, but with many plants the presence of 
calcium salts will lead to the increase of their absorption of ammonium 
and potassium salts. By other plants the presence of calcium in large 
quantities cannot be tolerated. It is not at present possible to give a 
comparative analysis of the water of several of the lakes under investi- 
gation. It may, however, be interesting to give an analysis of the water 
of Loch Baile a’ Ghobhainn at Lismore, by Dr W. E. Tetlow, along 
with one of the water of the Lake of Geneva, as published by Forel. 
One litre (or one million parts) contains (parts or) milligrams :— 


Lake of Loch Baile a’ 
Geneva. Ghobhainn. 
Sodium and potassium chlorides . IRS) 3°725 
Sodium sulphate : : : ; 15°0 er 
Sulphuric acid. : : : ‘ ae trace 
Ammonium sulphate . ; : : trace te | 
Ammonia . ; ; : ; : ne trace 
Calcium sulphate : ; Aes 47°9 ar | 
Basic calcium phosphate. : : Pe 0094 
Calcium nitrate . : : : ; ILO) oe 
Nitric acid . ; ‘ : : ZF trace 
Calcium carbonate (rae) 151°161 
Silica . 3°7 2°635 
Lithium ; : a trace 
Alumina and ferric oxide 1°9 cre 
Iron carbonate ; 8 1°158 
Magnesium carbonate . 7 1°414 
Organic matter and loss ASO 30°913 
Total solids : 157 parts 191 parts 
in one million | in one million | 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 213 


In contradistinction to the lakes of the Ness Area, the water of 
the Lismore lakes is pellucid. It is so clear that one may look over 
the side of a boat and see the bottom through 25 feet of water. 
In consequence of their clearness, the photic zone for the more 
highly organised plants is less restricted than in the Ness Area. The 
shores also present quite a different aspect from those of the peaty 
lochs. Here the rocks and stones are covered with an incrustation of 
lime, which gives them a peculiar sponge-like appearance. The 
rounded, water-worn, and polished stones found on the shores of Loch 
Ness are not to be seen at Lismore. As the lakes are sheltered from 
the wind by low hills, their shores are not subjected to frequent and 
powerful erosion by the waves; they are consequently more or Jess 
surrounded with a littoral vegetation. Many of the plants in these 
lochs are heavily coated with an incrustation of carbonate of lime, a 
phenomenon unknown in the Ness Area. Myriophyllum spicatum, 
for example, is so burdened in this way that the plants are mostly 
unable to rise to the surface for the purpose of pollination; as the 
plants remain submerged, fertile specimens of this species are con- 
sequently not common in these lochs. Calcium carbonate (CaCO,) is 
but slightly soluble in pure water; the presence of carbonic acid, 
however, enables the water to take up considerable quantities in the 
form of bicarbonate [Ca(HCO,),], and hard water results from its 
occurrence in this soluble state. As the result of assimilation by 
plants inhabiting hard water, the carbonic acid is absorbed and the 
insoluble calcium carbonate precipitated. It is this precipitate that 
forms the incrustation on the plants. ‘The lime incrustation on the 
stones of the shore is formed by minute lithophilous Algze, in the 
process of their metabolism, in a similar manner to that by which the 
same substance is deposited on the stems of aquatic phanerogams. I 
have only seen similar lime-incrusted stones at one other place in 
Scotland, namely, Rescobie Loch in Forfarshire, but the phenomenon 
probably occurs wherever lime is abundant. 

The lime-incrusted Characeze are extremely abundant in the 
lochs of Lismore, and carpet the bottom with dense masses of their 
brittle shoots, from the margin down to 40 feet deep. When a boat 
is brought near the shore, one can hear the Chara grating upon her 
bottom with a rasping noise. Besides the showers of lime flakes 
that are continually falling from living aquatic vegetation, after the 
death of the plants any remaining lime incrustation will be broken 
up and it, too, deposited upon the bottom of the loch. In this way 
a lacustrine deposit of lime is being laid down at the bottom of these 
lakes, mixed with diatoms and other organic remains. The analysis 
of the water proves it to be rich in plant food-salts, and this is borne 
out by the exuberance of the vegetation. 


214 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


From the foregoing statements it will be inferred that the flora of 
the lakes at Lismore differs considerably from that of the lakes in the 
Ness Area. ‘Three illustrations are given in the original paper. 

Loch Fiart is situated in the south portion of the island, and is 
about two-thirds of a mile long. It has a reedy margin composed 
of Phragmites communis and Scirpus lacustris. 

Loch Kilcheran is nearly two miles north of Loch Fiart, and, 
like it, has a reedy margin of the same plants, which at the north end 
cover an extensive area. <A circular pool is shut off from the main 
body of the loch by these plants, at the north end, forming thereby 
a “ murder-hole.” 

Loch Baile a’ Ghobhainn is situated in the north portion of the 
island. It is about two-thirds of a mile long, and agrees with the 
other lakes in having a similar reedy margin. The south end is 
occupied by an extensive tract of Scirpus lacustris, and at the north 
end, in the rear of a zone of the same plants, there is an extensive 
bed of Phragmites communis, which had been cut for economic 
purposes. 

Not only in the reedy margin, in the water, in the shores, and in 
the general aspect do these three lochs agree with one another, but 
also in their general flora, so that the following lst of species may 
stand for any one of them :—Littorella lacustris, Chara aspera, var. 


desmacantha, 2 to 20 feet deep; C. fragilis, var. delicatula, 10 to 20 


feet deep; C. hispida, var. rudis, 25 to 35 feet deep. All these 
species of Chara are heavily incrusted with lime. Fontinalis anti- 
pyretica, to a depth of 40 feet ; Hypnum scorpioides, a very robust 
form, 3 to 5 feet deep; Utricularia vulgaris, to 12 feet deep; Myrio- 
phyllum spicatum, to 10 feet deep (vide ante) ; Potamogeton perfoliatus, 
10 to 24 feet deep; P. natans, to 20 feet deep; P. pusillus and its 
var. tenuissimus, 2 to 12 feet deep ; P. lucens, P. filiformis, Nympheea 
lutea, and Castalia speciosa. Hippuris vulgaris is very luxuriant and 
abundant to a depth of 10 feet, with the flowering stems above the 
surface even from that depth. Looking over the side of a boat, 
the subaqueous meadow of foliage formed by the barren shoots of this 
elegant plant was a sight not easily forgotten. Scirpus lacustris, 


Equisetum limosum, Phragmites communis, Glyceria  fluitans, - 


Menyanthes trifoliata, Polygonum amphibium, Heleocharis palustris, 
Comarum palustre, Sparganium ramosum, Carex rostrata, C. Goode- 
novii, C. aquatilis, C. flacca, Samolus Valerandi, Alisma Plantago, 
Radicula officinalis, Myosotis palustris, Iris Pseud-acorus, Eriophorum 
polystachion, Cardamine pratensis, Stellaria uliginosa, Pedicularis 
palustris, Triglochin palustre, Juncus effusus, J. articulatus, Caltha 
palustris, Veronica Anagallis, Senecio aquaticus, Montia fontana, 
Parnassia_ palustris, Hydrocotyle vulgaris, Ranunculus Flammula, 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 215 


Lythrum Salicaria, Epilobium palustre, Spiraea Ulmaria, Eupatorium 
cannabinum, Cladophora fracta floating in the water and about 
aquatic plants, and Zygnema Vaucherii on smooth rocks, ete. 

A comparison with the lists of plants growing in the peaty lochs 
of the Ness Area will show that some of the most dominant plants 
there, e.g. Lobelia Dortmanna, Isoetes lacustris, Callitriche hamulata, 
Juncus fluitans, etc., are absent at Lismore; whilst certain species 
flourish in the lochs of the island that do not occur in the Ness Area. 


Arka III 


The Lakes near Nairn differ in many respects from those of the 
two Areas already described. The lochs in the foregoing Areas 
mostly owe their existence to the action of glaciers, and are frequently 
situated in deep valleys overshadowed by hills, or in excavations upon 
the mountains themselves, rock and precipice being a characteristic 
feature of their rugged and frequently treeless shores, while considerable 
and often great depth is a marked feature. Here, however, there are 
extensive sheets of water existing in mere depressions among former 
sandhills of the sea-shore. ‘Their shores are flat, muddy, and, but 
for the artificial forest about them, featureless. Where vegetation is 
abundant the mud is deep and evil-smelling when disturbed. In the 
two. former Areas described a continuous flat and muddy shore has 
not occurred, neither has the mud often been of the stinking kind. 
True, in many of those lochs the windward shore presents a consider- 
able stretch of bog, reclaimed from the loch by the accumulations 
formed by many generations of plants or by the detrital matter from 
a stream. It is, however, nearly always a more or less liquid peaty 
matter, not often evil-smelling when disturbed. This stinking mud, 
such as is commonly found in non-peaty lakes, e.g. Duddingston Loch 
near Edinburgh, results from the rapid decomposition of animal and 
vegetable remains. ‘The decomposition of organic matter in these non- 
peaty waters takes place with far greater rapidity than in water charged 
with humic acids. In the first stages of decay the albuminoids are 
peptonised ; then the carbohydrates become disorganised and pass in 
gaseous condition into the surrounding water. With the advance 
of putrefaction comes the formation, among other substances, of 
ammonia, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulphide. It is the last- 
mentioned that gives the mud of non-peaty lakes such an offensive 
odour when disturbed. In the presence of humic acids this rapid 
putrefaction does not occur. Instead, the albuminous bodies become 
humified, and disintegration takes place slowly by a kind of carbon- 
ising process. At the bottom of Loch Ness, for example, vegetable 
remains, such as leaves, twigs, etc., first become brown, then black 


216 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


and brittle, gradually crumbling to powder, apparently without the 
generation of obnoxious gas. Large woody stems become very hard 
and black. Putrefaction in this case appears not to take place, but 
rather a kind of desiccation—if one may apply this term to a sub- 
aqueous process. Likewise the mud from the bottom of Loch Ness 
has not the slightest offensive odour, neither does it stain one’s hands 
as the fetid kind does. Another cause for the difference existing 
between the lakes of the two areas under consideration 1s, that in the 
deeper waters of the Ness Area there is a large portion of the bottom 
of the lochs quite destitute of aquatic vegetation. ‘The scattered 
organic detritus is therefore comparatively much less there than in 
the shallow lakes at Nairn, which have an abundant vegetation all over 
their bottoms. ‘The refuse-eating fauna and bacteria existing at 
the bottom are consequently in the former case able to maintain an 
equilibrium between supply and demand, and the lake bottom consists 
essentially of the non-fetid excrement of these creatures. In lakes 
whose floor is wholly carpeted with vegetation, the supply of organic 
detritus is greatly in excess of the demand of any refuse-eating fauna 
that may exist, and therefore fetid mud results from the processes of 
unhindered decomposition. In these lakes there is little evidence of 
lime, and little or no acid peat extract. The water is somewhat 
. stagnant, and, from the considerable amount of decomposing organic 
matter, it presentsa turbid and unwholesome appearance. In these 
respects this district again differs from the two former Areas considered. 
In consequence of the lea situation, and with surrounding forest, 
these lakes are much sheltered from wind. Although in close proximity 
to the sea, the water is not brackish. 

The littoral vegetation is in general more luxuriant here than in 
the peaty lochs; it also occurs all around the lochs more or less, and 
not particularly at the west side, as in the lochs of Area I. Five 
illustrations are given in the original paper. 


Loch Cran is about one-third of a mile long, and conforms with | 


the description already given. It is very shallow, and has a bottom 
carpet of Chara aspera and Potamogeton heterophyllus over the greater 
portion of it, besides a considerable number of other plants both on 
the bottom and at the margin. 

Loch Loy is somewhat larger than the last-mentioned, being 
about a mile long; a considerable portion of it, however, is very 
narrow. No boat being available at the time of my visit, I could not 
examine its bottom flora beyond the margins. In this respect it 
probably resembles Loch Cran, but it is said to be deeper. Typha 
latifolia grows abundantly on some parts of its shore. In some places 
the shore is flat, and consists of sandy mud without vegetation. ‘This 
loch is more closed in by trees than the last-mentioned, and at one part 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES ysl eff 


of the narrow western portion, Carex rostrata grows completely across 
it. ‘The following plants occur at these leche :-—Tiittorella lacustris, 
Lobelia Dortmanna, Chara aspera, Myriophyllum alterniflorum, 
Utricularia vulgaris, Potamogeton heterophyllus, P. natans, Hippuris 
vulgaris, Callitriche stagnalis, Scirpus lacustris, Equisetum limosum, 
Typha latifolia, Phragmites communis, Sparganium ramosum, Heleo- 
charis palustris, Carex rostrata, C. flacca, var. stictocarpa, C. flava, var. 
argillacea, Menyanthes trifoliata, Comarum palustre, Iris Pseud-acorus, 
Radicula officinalis, Myosotis palustris, Alisma ranunculoides, Juncus 
articulatus, J. effusus, J. conglomeratus, Caltha palustris, Cardamine 
pratensis, Stellaria uliginosa, Pedicularis palustris, Mentha arvensis, 
M. sativa, Ranunculus Flammula, Hydrocotyle vulgaris, Spiraea 
Ulmaria, Enteromorpha Rb Spirogyra crassa, Gidogonium 
capillare, ete. 

The Culbin Sandhills atom these lochs. The progress of the 
sand over the land has been arrested by planting a zone of Pinus 
sylvestris, and by the same means land already taken possession of by 
the sand has been reclaimed. These sandhills are to be classed amongst 
the largest in Britain, and many interesting features in plant cecology 
may be seen there. 


AREA IV 


Kirkcudbrightshire may be advantageously divided into two Areas 
by a line passing from Gatehouse of Fleet across the county in a 
north-easterly direction towards Thornhill in Dumfries-shire. All the 
lochs in Kirkeudbrightshire north-west of this line, including those 
on the border of Ayrshire in the neighbourhood of Loch Doon, are 
mostly of the nature of highland lochs. This district is characterised 
by mountain and moor; indeed, some of the highest mountains of 
Scotland, south of Perthshire, are found here. The lonely grandeur 
of its wild scenery, notwithstanding the paucity of purple heather, 
gives it rank amongst the foremost of Scotland’s charms. Owing to 
the lack of good roads, the absence of footpaths, and the exceedingly 
rough and often impassable nature of the ground, the tourist seldom 
penetrates to the remote fastnesses where lies the wildest of the 
fascinating scenery. The mountains, for the greater part rounded 
and reduced by intense glaciation, are, where the rock is not 
altogether bare of soil, covered with grass-like associations of plants, 
which afford pasturage to enormous numbers of sheep. The pre- 
dominance of grass-like associations over the mountains and moors, 
instead of heather, has a great influence upon the flora of the lakes, 
and will be described in due course. Not only that, but the pastoral 
life induced thereby stamps the inhabitants with characteristics 
different from those of the people living in localities that are chiefly 


218 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


devoted to sport, and engenders a higher type of ethics and a superior 
social organisation amongst the rural folk. 

We may begin the examination of the lochs of this large Area at 
Loch Doon, proceed to those on the hills to the west and south-west 
of Loch Doon; thence by way of Lochs rool, Dee, Grennoch, 
Whinyeon, Ken, Lochinvar, etc., to Loch Dungeon, and finish our 
tour on the eastern slopes of the Rhinns of Kells. ‘The original paper 
contains forty-five illustrations of the lochs, etc. of this Area. 

Loch Doon is the largest sheet of fresh water in Scotland south of 
Loch Lomond ; it is 5$ miles long by 14 miles wide in its widest part. 
Its surface is 673 feet above sea-level. Its depth, in the deepest part, 
is 100 feet, but generally it is not over 50 feet deep. Its water is 
rather peaty, and its surroundings are almost treeless. The shores 
are exceedingly rocky or stony, save for a sandy bay now and again. 
Everywhere it is surrounded by mountains and moors, which are 
covered, for the greater part, by grass-like associations of plants. The 
population of the district is extremely scanty ; the only houses are 
those of shepherds or small farmers, and the total number of these will 
scarcely exceed a dozen throughout its whole drainage area. ‘The 
scenery, as may be gathered from the foregoing remarks, is wild and 
lonely ; yet the broad outlines of the loch, flanked by mountains 
picturesquely silhouetted, give it a grandeur peculiarly its own. 

The shores of this loch are, for the major part, entirely bare of 
aquatic vegetation. Indeed, the erosive power of the waves on the 
rocky margins allows no opportunity for the development of aquatic 
plants; and even in the sandy bays that occur here and there, the 
same power, acting on the shifting sand, prevents any considerable 
growth of littoral vegetation. Occasionally in pools, situated on 
large rocks or in sheltered creeks, a few specimens of Carex Goodenovii 
or Phalaris arundinacea may be seen. A few similar species, with 
scattered specimens of Juncus articulatus and J. supinus, occur on wet, 
sandy places; and between the rocks, here and there, patches of 
Sphagnum cymbifolium or Fontinalis antipyretica may be observed, 
but always in small quantity. Nor do the littoral rocks bear any 
wealth of Bryophytes, although a few of the commoner sub-alpine and 
lowland species may be found. On the whole, it may broadly be 
stated that Loch Doon is destitute of either an aquatic or semi- 
aquatic marginal flora. 

At a few feet above the normal water-level quantities of lichens 
clothe the rocks, and give the littoral a distinctive character. ‘The 
most abundant of these lichens are Lecidea geographica, Parmelia 
omphalodes, and Spherophoron coralloides. ‘The first-mentioned 1s 
so plentiful, and so completely does it overgrow the rocks, that 
many parts of the shore are for considerable distances coloured bright 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES Zalng 


yellow, and the zone to which its abundance is restricted presents a 
remarkable appearance. This zone is in reality at the ancient water- 
level of the loch previous to a reduction of its level by about 7 feet 
-some 150 years ago. This lowering of the level was brought about 
by the construction of two tunnels for the effluent, instead of the 
natural outflow, for the double purpose of reclaiming land at the 
margin and admitting salmon to the loch. Why the Lecidea should 
be so abundant at the old water-level I am unable to explain. 

I dredged this loch in a great many places from end to end, but 
beyond an average depth of about 7 feet I could obtain no evidence of 
the existence of any living plants at the bottom. Yet in suitable 
places the bottom from 2 to 7 feet deep often bears an abundant 
vegetation, which occasionally may be ‘continued into shallower 
water; instance Littorella lacustris in a few little sheltered sandy 
creeks. The extinction of the submersed bottom flora at so shallow a 
depth as 7 feet is distinctly remarkable, because it is not. brought 
about, as in some cases (p. 208), by the discoloration of the water. 
Here the bottom can be seen at a depth of 7 feet, when looking 
over the side of a boat, without the use of any apparatus beyond 
shading the eyes with one’s hat in order to shut out the light reflected 
from the surface of the water. Reasoning, therefore, from similar cases 
of translucency, some vegetation should extend to a depth of 28 feet 
or more (p. 163). It has already been indicated (p. 217) that the grass- 
like associations of plants which cover the moors and mountains have 
_ an influence upon the flora of the lochs in this Area. At the first 
consideration one would imagine that the influence exercised upon 
the bottom flora of a loch by the substitution of grass-like plants 
over the moors for associations of Ericaceze would be that of less 
peat extract getting into the water. Such, however, is scarcely the 
case, because the moors have an abundance of ancient peat below the 
grass, formed there previous to the development of the sheep-rearing 
industry. ‘The influence is caused in a way one would little expect. 
In winter the dead leaves of the grass-like plants covering the moors, 
chiefly Molinia caerulea, which grows very luxuriantly here, but also 
Nardus stricta, Scirpus caespitosus, etc., are blown or washed into the 
burns and drains, and are thence carried into the lochs. There, 
owing to the antiseptic action of the peaty water, these remains do 
not readily decay, but accumulate from year to year, and become 
spread out over the loch bottom in’ enormous quantity, and, of 
course, this stratum of dead grass prevents the growth of a bottom 
flora wherever it lies. The depth to which its influence extends 
varies somewhat in different lochs, and even in any one particular loch. 
In Loch Doon, at the south end, where the loch receives its principal 
supply of this grass from the rivers Gala Lane and Carrick Lane, 


AG) THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


it spreads over the bottom to within 5 feet of the surface of the 
water, and at other parts of the loch to about 7 feet below the 
surface. From these depths it is spread over the whole loch bottom 
more or less. Even at a depth of 50 feet the dredge came up choked 
with this deposit, which was almost black, but not of a particularly 
evil odour. The deposit in the loch must be the accumulation of 
many years, through the process of decomposition being so slow in 
the peaty water. At Loch Stroan (p. 227) a large amount of such 
dead grass is washed upon the east shore by the winter floods. 
Loch Stroan is a small, shallow loch, and in flood-time there is a very 
considerable current passing through it from the river Dee, so that a 
portion of the grass must be carried down the river into Loch Ken, 
besides that which is deposited high upon its own shore. Yet, 
notwithstanding these losses, Loch Stroan has an abundant supply of 
this material on its bottom. In the neighbourhood of Loch Trool 
there is much less grass available, and the bottom flora of that 
loch extends to a depth of 16 feet (p. 225). 

The plants that flourish in Loch Doon are those common to 
highland peaty lochs. ‘There was a curious submersed form of Peplis 
Portula growing to a depth of 3 feet, and Eurhynchium rusciforme 
at a depth of 3 to 5 feet, both flourishing at the south end of 
the loch. (For plants of Area IV. consult pp. 168-192.) 

On the south-west of Loch Doon there is a large and somewhat 
circular elevated, treeless moor, three or four miles in diameter, 
surrounded by mountains on every side, and presenting the aspect of 
some huge amphitheatre in utter ruin. Rugged rock and deep bog 
vie with one another for possession of the space. Here a gurgling 
burn divides the combatants. There a broad lane! dashes over its 
rocky bed with foaming impetuosity; whilst ever and anon a slow, 
deep, sinuous river winds its labyrinthine course through some level 
stretch of moss, scarcely more stable than the river itself. Numerous 
lochs, characterised by stretches of coarse white sand intercalated here 
and there on the otherwise rocky or peaty shores, are sprinkled over 
this lonely and wild moor. Here flourish in great abundance two 
interesting forms of plants that I have met with nowhere else in 
Scotland, namely, Ranunculus natans and Potamogeton pseudo- 
fluitans, the former being a variety of R. Flammula and the latter a 
variety of P. polygonifolius. 

Loch Recar is one of the largest of the lochs on the above-men- 
tioned moor. It is about a mile across in either direction, and has a 
very irregular outline. The water is somewhat peaty, but, considering 
the moorland situation, remarkably clear and bright. ‘The shores are 
rocky or peaty, but, on the east side particularly, large bays are filled 


1 A stream is often termed a lane in this part of Scotland. 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 221 


with coarse white sand which is the result of the disintegration of the 
syenitic granite in which the loch is set. This sand is found chiefly 
on the eastern shores, in consequence of the erosive power of the 
waves caused by the prevailing westerly winds. ‘lhe somewhat scanty 
vegetation is much more abundant on the western than on the eastern 
shores, saving that aquatic plants are much more plentiful in the long 
and narrow neck of water leading to the effluent on the east side 
than elsewhere in the loch. 

Loch Macaterick is about a mile south of the last-mentioned 
loch, and is about the same size; the outline also is very irregular. 
This loch is almost cut in twain by two promontories which jut out 
from opposite sides of the shore near the middle. Like Loch Recar, 
it has a long, narrow effluent on the east side. ‘There are also several 
small islands. ‘The hill Macaterick rises boldly from the south shore ; 
similarly but less boldly Maccallum rises from the south of Loch 
Recar. In the shores, water, and vegetation this loch also resembles 
Loch Recar. 

Loch Slochy is half a mile south-west of Loch Recar. It is of some 
considerable area, but very shallow, and consequently almost entirely 
overgrown with associations of marsh plants, which spread over the 
adjoining boggy moor, so that in many places one has difficulty in 
discovering where the water ends and where the shore begins. This 
loch is well on the way towards the formation of another of those 
deep bogs with which the district already abounds. Phragmites 
communis and Equisetum limosum are the most abundant plants. _ 

Loch Ballochling is a small sheet of water having the same 
general features as Loch Recar. It illustrates well the difference 
between east and west shores caused by the prevailing westerly winds ; 
the west side has an abundance of plants, whilst the east side consists 
chiefly of sandy bays almost without vegetation. The most abundant 
plants at this loch are :—Carex rostrata, C. filiformis, Potamogeton 
polygonifolius, and Ranunculus natans. 

Loch Goosie is about a mile west of the last-mentioned loch, 
and is similar to it in general features. Its dominant plants are 
Phragmites communis and Potamogeton polygonifolius ; the beautiful 
moss, Pterogonium gracile, was abundant on the dry rocks of the 
shore. 

Loch Brecbowie is about a mile north-west of the last-mentioned, 
and is at a greater elevation than any of the foregoing lochs. It is 
prettily situated amongst hills, in a pass leading from Loch Goosie 
to Loch Bradan. Waterhead Hill rises immediately from its east 
side. The margin is sinuous, and the very narrow zone of shore 
between the water and the moor is rocky, stony, or sandy ; its general 
features are otherwise similar to those of the preceding lochs. Carex 


222 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


rostrata, Equisetum limosum, Phragmites communis, Lobelia Dort- 
manna, and Littorella lacustris are its most abundant plants. 

Descending northwards from Loch Brecbowie for about a mile, 
one comes to Lochs Bradan and Lure, which are connected together 
by a narrow channel. Except fora plantation of conifers about the 
ruins of Craiglure Lodge, these lochs are entirely surrounded by a 
treeless, grassy moor. ‘Their shores are rocky or stony, and the water 
is shightly peaty. On an island in Loch Bradan are the ruins of a 
small castle, but there is now little more to be seen than what is 
presented by a stone sheep enclosure. The vegetation here is very 
scanty, and of the same type as that which occurs in the lochs 
previously mentioned. 

Passing over the hill by way of he little pool—Loch Dhu, 
which contains nothing of particular interest,—one crosses the Girvan 
Water and enters the desolate moor in which are situated Derclach 
Loch and Loch Finlas, connected by a narrow channel, and together 
forming the source of the water supply for Ayr. These lochs present 
nothing of botanical interest beyond a number of the plants common 
to the preceding lochs. ‘They have a small extent of shore, which 
is mostly either rocky or peaty. The water is clear but slightly peaty, 
and the vegetation is scanty. 

Proceeding from the head of Loch Doon towards Loch Enoch, 
by way of the glen drained by the Gala Lane, between the two moun- 
tain ranges, of which Merrick on the west and Corserine on the east 
are the highest points, one passes over the site from which Loch Doon 
obtains its chief supply of Molinia czerulea. Here is a stupendous 
bog five miles long by a mile or so wide, almost everywhere treacherous 
to walk upon, and in some places quite impassable. A characteristic 
feature of this bog is the luxuriant growth of Molinia caerulea, which 
is often about 18 inches high. ‘The same grass also dominates the 
hillsides, but there it is much shorter. 

After receiving numerous tributary streams the Gala Lane, for 
the last three miles of its course, is of some considerable size, and 
only in a few places can it be crossed, dry-shod, by jumping with 
alacrity from rock to rock across its bed. Sometimes it passes swiftly 
down a rockv incline; generally, however, it meanders its tortuous 
course, slow, deep, and wide. In such places flourishes a vegetation 
abundant in quantity but poor in variety, or its bottom may be 
covered with dead grass like that of Loch Doon, in which case no 
living vegetation occurs. Carex rostrata forms a marginal zone of 
varying width, and in the water Potamogeton natans, P. polygoni- 
folius, Castalia speciosa, and Juncus fluitans are the dominant species. 
The last is so abundant that it appears to fill the river in places— 
yet in Loch Doon it is scarce. 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 223 


Loch Enoch is 1617 feet above sea-level, and is the most elevated 
of a series of unique alpine lochs situated in a singularly rugged 
mountain region. It occupies a very wind-exposed position, which 
probably accounts for the sand of its shores being finer than that of 
other lochs in the district. Its outline is very irregular, and there are 
several small islands, the largest of which has upon it a small pool; 
hence the name Loch-in-loch, of which its better-known name, Loch 
Enoch, is said to be a contraction. ‘There are several bays that have 
a shore of beautiful white sand produced from the disintegrated 
syenitic granite, of which these mountains are largely composed. 

The shores of Loch Enoch, with the exception of the sandy bays, 
are rocky, and the water is exceptionally clear and sparkling, although 
slightly peaty. The flora is very poor in species. On the west side 
Sparganium natans is abundant in bays, and there are several small 
associations of Carex rostrata in bays on the west and north sides. 
Isoetes lacustris, Lobelia Dortmanna, and Littorella lacustris carpet 
the bottom in places. Juncus fluitans is very abundant, whilst 
Myriophyllum alterniflorum is scarce; Batrachospermum vagum, 
Zygogonium ericetorum, and Nardia compressa are abundant on the 
submerged rocks. Besides those mentioned, phanerogams are scarce, 
but the littoral rocks are clothed with a variety of Bryophytes. 

Loch Neldricken.—Proceeding a few hundreds of yards to the 
south-east of Loch Enoch, one comes to a narrow ridge of rugged 
rock connecting Dungeon Hill with Craignaw. From this spot, called 
the Nick of the Dungeon, an excellent bird’s-eye view is obtained of 
Lochs Neldricken and Valley. These lochs are similar in general 
features to Loch Enoch—clear, brilliant, slightly peaty water, white 
sandy bays, otherwise rocky shores and with very irregular outlines. 
The vegetation is also similar and usually scanty. On the north- 
west side of Loch Neldricken there is a very regularly shaped “ murder- 
hole” formed in a somewhat circular bay or arm of the loch, the 
shallow margin of which affords a suitable situation for sedge-like 
plants. ‘The bottom I presume sinks suddenly and regularly, like a 
basin, at some distance from the shore to a greater depth than these 
plants can accommodate themselves to; consequently they end 
abruptly and present an even circular outline at the place where the 
water is too deep for further advance. ‘The plants surrounding this 
* murder-hole” are in three well-marked zones, as follows :—Adjoining 
the shore Carex rostrata, then a zone of Equisetum limosum, followed 
by a narrow zone of a plant which, from distant examination with a 
telescope, was apparently a large form of Carex rostrata, but as 
specimens could not be obtained it was impossible to exactly identify 
the species. In many places the sandy shores are covered with great 
patches of Nardia scalaris and Anthelia julacea, and the littoral 


224 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


rocks also are frequently overgrown with Bryophytes common to the 
district. 

Loch Valley, as already indicated, is adjacent to the last-mentioned 
and receives its outfall. The physical and botanical features are 
similar to those of the adjacent lochs already described, but it has in 
addition Carex filiformis and Menyanthes trifoliata. 

Loch Narroch is quite a small circular sheet of water at the east 
end of Loch Valley, which in physical and botanical features it 
resembles. The marginal submerged rocks were covered with remark- 
able quantities of Algze, chiefly of the genera Batrachospermum, 
Ulothrix, Zygogonium, Zygnema, and Mougeotia. 

Round Loch and Long Loch of Glenhead are both to the south 
of Loch Valley ; they are, however, at a lower elevation and smaller. 
They much resemble the foregoing lochs, and, so far as I could glean, 
are of little botanical interest. 

Loch Dee, which is 1} miles long and ? mile wide, is the largest 
of this series of lochs. It is situated at an elevation of 739 feet above 
the sea, amidst wild and lonely scenery, about five miles south of 
Loch Enoch. Although at a lower elevation, it is similar in general 
features to that and the neighbouring lochs, excepting that the sand of 
its shores is not white, but of a brownish tinge; the water also differs in 
being somewhat more peaty. ‘The flora is extremely poor and presents 
nothing uncommon to the district. Bryophytes abound on the shores 
and on the exposed rocks. Very conspicuous also are the lichens which 
cover numerous rocks by the shore; the most plentiful of these are :— 
Platysma glaucum, Cetraria muricata, Parmelia lanata, P. omphalodes, 
Alectoria jubata, Sphzrophoron coralloides, and Lecanora tartarea. 

Dry Loch, Round Loch, and Long Loch of the Dungeon.—These 
are small sheets of water, each a few hundreds of yards long, and 
they are all connected by a stream which first flows out of the Dry 
Loch, that being the highest of the three; this stream ultimately 
becomes the river Dee. Their shores are stony or peaty, and the 
water is slightly peaty but clear. These lochs are situated at the 
highest and wildest part of the glen, between Dungeon Hill and 
Craignaw, and the scenery around is extremely fine. ‘They have no 
feature of botanical interest beyond a number of such plants as are 
contained in the other lochs of the immediate neighbourhood. 

Loch Trool is 246 feet above sea-level, and is 1} miles long by 
4+ mile wide. It is approached from Loch Dee through a narrow, 
rugged, and trackless pass about three miles long. This loch affords 

a splendid piece of highland scenery, which is probably unequalled 
south of Perthshire. Mountains rise from the shores almost through- 
out its whole length, their lower slopes being clothed with either 
coniferous or deciduous-leaved trees. This loch much resembles 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 225 


Loch Oich, but is smaller. The water is clear but slightly peaty. 
At the west end the margin is formed chiefly by peaty banks; 
elsewhere, except at the east end, which is flat and boggy, the 
shores are stony, rocky, or sandy, or the steep hillside enters the water 
directly without the intervention of ashore. ‘The upper portions of 
the adjacent hills above the tree zone are mostly clothed with 
bracken and grass formations. The rank growth of the latter 
is here, however, much restricted, so that in comparison with Loch 
Doon there is but a small quantity of dead vegetation available for 
covering the loch bottom. Having noticed the relative scarcity of 
rank Molinia about the neighbourhood of this loch, I was anxious 
to discover to what depth aquatic plants flourished at its bottom. 
Careful dredging revealed the fact that the living vegetation here 
extends to a depth of 16 feet; at greater depths the dead remains 
of Molinia, Carex, etc., cover the bottom, and no plants flourish within 
this zone. ‘The flora of the loch is poor in the number of species, 
but some of the plants occur in great abundance. About the west 
end, at which is the effluent, the loch is narrow, shallow, and bears 
a considerable vegetation. Beds of Carex rostrata are abundant, and 
on drier parts of the boggy shore these are gradually or suddenly 
exchanged for other marsh plants. At the east end the affluent 
passes through an extensive delta, which is overgrown with marsh 
plants common to the district. The shore rocks, which are not 
a particular feature of this loch, bear a number of common 
Bryophytes, ete. 

Loch Grennoch, by Cairnsmore of Fleet, is a fine sheet of water 
2 miles long by 2 mile wide, at an elevation of 691 feet above sea- 
level, in a somewhat open and wind-exposed position among grass- 
covered mountains. Its shores are treeless, except for a plantation 
around a small fishing lodge at the south-west end, below Craigronald. 
The water is véry clear, and but slightly peaty. The shore is rocky, 
with the exception of numerous bays of white syenitic sand. The 
exposed littoral rocks bear a number of common Bryophytes and 
lichens, but to no great extent. The aquatic flora is very poor in 
species, and the semi-aquatic plants of the shore are also poor in 
species and in numbers, the greater portion of the shore being almost 
devoid of such plants. Juncus alpinus, Vil/., and a dwarf xero- 
philous form of Heleocharis palustris (p. 181), grow upon the drier 
parts of some of the sandy’bays. In certain of these bays the copious 
sand is blown up into miniature dunes, capped with Calluna, etc., 
and resembling a sandy sea-shore on a small scale. The bottom is 
for the most part very rocky, but there are considerable areas of sand 
or gravel extending from the margin to a depth of 8 or 10 feet. 
These areas are usually covered more or less with some of the bottom- 


15 


226 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


carpeting species, Littorella lacustris, Lobelia Dortmanna, and Isoetes 
lacustris being the most abundant. All these plants are here over- 
grown to a great extent with Algze (p. 191). These plants, however, 
bear no external evidence of injury by the Algz; but Nardia 
emarginata and Scapania undulata, both of which grow abundantly 
on submerged rocks, were much injured by the dense growth of such 
epiphytes upon them. In some parts, particularly at the south end, 
Sphagnum subsecundum and Heterocladium heteropterum (p. 188), 
mixed with Scapania undulata, were very abundant at the bottom 
from 2 to 8 feet deep—an uncommon situation for such plants. 
They may have been brought into the loch by one of the burns in 
time of spate, and then become adapted to the submerged environ- 
ment. I could obtain no evidence of the existence of living plants 
in this loch beyond a depth of about 10 feet, not because of the 
presence of vegetable detritus nor of the opacity of the water, but 
because in deeper, and often in shallower water too, the bottom is 
very rocky. I have noticed in many lochs that a rocky bottom is 
nearly always destitute of the higher plants, that is, when the bottom 
could be seen or felt with a pole having teeth at the end, or with 
a heavy hook attached to a hne. By bumping such instruments over 
the bottom of a loch, the vibrations carried to one’s hand up the 
wood or cord give an indication of the constitution of the bottom— 
mud, sand, gravel, rock, etc. Dredging over a rocky bottom is, of 
course, impossible, leaving out of the question the certainty of losing 
the apparatus. 

Loch Fleet is a somewhat oval sheet of water, surrounded by tree- 
less hills, and situated about a mile east of Loch Grennoch. It is 
about a third of a mile long, and is 1113 feet above sea-level. The 
margin is rocky, and there is very little shore suitable for the develop- 
ment of littoral phanerogams. ‘The water is clear, and but slightly 
peaty. The flora is scanty, and is restricted to the common types 
found at Loch Grennoch. 

Loch Skerrow is situated amongst wild, rocky moorland scenery, 
four miles east of Loch Grennoch, at an elevation of 414 feet above 
sea-level. It is a shallow loch, with a very rocky shore, and with 
clear, slightly peaty water. Its bottom is covered with rocks, which 
frequently rise above the surface of the water. ‘The larger of these 
island-rocks are often capped with vegetation of the moorland type, 
such as Calluna vulgaris, Vaccinium Myrtillus, etc. More numerous 
are the rocks which rise to just below the surface of the water. ‘These 
necessitate caution in navigating a boat, and obviously such a rocky 
bed greatly hinders dredging operations. Sandy portions of the 
bottom, down to 12 feet deep, bore an abundant vegetation, but of 
limited variety ; otherwise there was little to be noted excepting at 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES Day 


the margins and in shallow, sheltered bays. Many of the shore rocks 
were covered with a luxuriant growth of lichens, particularly with 
Parmelia omphalodes. Noteworthy also was the abundance of Bryo- 
phytes upon the littoral rocks, and in damp places. 

Loch Stroan.—The Airie Burn, which flows from the north-east 
corner of Loch Skerrow, joins the river Dee after flowing northwards 
for about two miles. ‘Thence the Dee, impetuous nearer its source, 
slowly meanders deep and wide through a flat allavium, eastwards, 
for about a mile and a half, and then it flows into Loch Stroan. The 
north-west shore of this loch consists chiefly of sandy or muddy flats, 
the result of the detrital matter brought into it by the river Dee; 
this is continuous with the extensive alluvial flats through which the 
river flows before entering the loch, and is overgrown near the water 
with Carex rostrata, etc. Farther away from the loch the drier 
portions are covered with moorland herbage of the grass-like type. 
Elsewhere the shores are stony or rocky, with a gentle inclination, 
merging gradually into grassy or heathery moor. WN shghtly 
peaty, aie water is clear and bright, so that vegetation at ie bottom 
may be observed at a depth 3 10 feet. Sponeils fluviatilis and 
Anodonta cygnea are both abundant in this loch. The bottom of 
Loch Stroan is to a great extent sandy or muddy, but no living 
vegetation occurs at a greater depth than 20 feet, as one might expect 
would be the case from a consideration of the clearness of the water. 
The reason is that beyond a depth of 15 to 20 feet the loch bottom is 
covered with the remains of grass-like moorland vegetation brought 
into the loch by winter floods as at Loch Doon (p. 219). The dead 
remains do not come so near the surface here as at Loch Doon, 
because of the scour caused by the river Dee in flood-time.- In this 
case the bulk of such material is derived from the flat, marshy ground 
extending a few miles to the west of the loch, through which the 
river flows. On the east shore of the loch there is a great bank of 
such dead material, that has been deposited high above the normal 
water-level ; this, like that at the bottom of the loch, consists chiefly 
of the common moorland and marsh species of Carex, Scirpus, and 
Molinia. ‘This loch has an abundant and varied flora, and a number 
of uncommon plants occur plentifully. 

Loch Whinyeon is somewhat circular in outline and about half a 
mile in diameter, occupying an exposed position over 700 feet above 
sea-level, three miles north from Gatehouse of Fleet. The water is 
clear and but very slightly peaty. he shore is everywhere stony or 
rocky, and consists chiefly of broken shale, the beds of which are fre- 
quently very highly inclined. The flora of the shore, as well as of the 
water, is extremely poor, but a number of Bryophytes clothe the 
littoral rocks. 


228 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Lochenbreck Loch has a rhomboidal outline, each side being about 
a quarter of a mile long. It is situated at an elevation of 651 feet 
above sea-level, about seven miles N.N.E. from Gatehouse of Fleet, 
and has the characteristic features of a bare highland loch, modified 
by a plantation of coniferous trees on its eastern shore. The shores 
are stony, and the water is clear and slightly peaty. The flora is of 
the ordinary type, excepting an abundance of Heleocharis multicaulis. 

Woodhall Loch is three miles north-east of the last-mentioned. | 
It is 17 miles long by 4 mile broad, at an elevation of 173 feet 
above sea-level. Being somewhat wind-sheltered by low hills and 
surrounded by meadow, grassy moor, or deciduous wood, it presents 
the general features of a lowland loch, saving that its water is very 
slightly peaty. Here and there a gravelly bay occurs, but frequently 
the moor or meadow-land abuts upon the water without the interven- 
tion of a shore. Where a strip of shore does occur, it is narrow, 
stony, and frequently covered with Juncus articulatus. The west side 
has a reedy or sedgy margin almost continuous throughout its length, 
but on the east side the reeds are mostly restricted to the bays. At 
either end there are large associations of Equisetum limosum; the 
specimens of this plant at the north end are very large, rising 
3 or 4 feet out of water 6 feet deep. The bottom of this loch, from 
a depth of about 8 feet to the deepest part, is covered with the dead 
remains of vegetation, which prevents the growth of plants upon the 
bottom at a greater depth than 8 feet. 

At some parts of this loch the following successive zones of plant 
associations were observed, starting from the shore :—(1) Juncus effusus, 
J. lamprocarpus, J. acutiflorus, and Ranunculus Flammula, all more 
or less mixed; (2) Carex rostrata or C. filiformis; (3) Heleocharis 
palustris; (4) Phragmites communis; (5) Equisetum limosum; (6) 
Scirpus lacustris; (7) Potamogeton natans, P. polygonifolius, and P. 
lucens, mixed ; (8) Nymphzea lutea, Castalia speciosa, and Potamogeton 
hatans, mixed ; (9) carpeting the bottom below these zones, wherever 
[here was space, Lobelia Dortmanna and Littorella lacustris. 

This loch forms a somewhat transitional stage between a typical 
peaty highland loch and a typical lowland one. 

Blate’s Mill Loch is a small circular pool within a few hundreds 
of yards of the east shore of Woodhall Loch. It is surrounded with 
a zone of Carex rostrata and Equisetum limosum, with quantities of 
Nympheea lutea, Castalia speciosa, and other plants common to the 
district. 

Mossdale Loch is a peaty pool half a mile from New Galloway 
railway station. It contains a few plants common to the neighbour- 
hood, but, like the last-mentioned, appears to be of no further 
botanical interest. 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 229 


Loch Ken is one of the largest lochs in this part of Scotland, 
being only exceeded in size by Loch Doon. The loch proper is 
generally considered to lie between the grounds of Kenmuir Castle 
and the Boat of Rhone railway viaduct ; this portion is 44 miles long 
by 4 mile wide. The river Dee joins the loch a little below the 
viaduct, and is continued as a narrow lake, in some places, however, 
half a mile wide, considerably to the south of Crossmichael. This 
lake-like portion extends the loch a further distance of over 4 miles, 
and is usually recognised as a part of the river Dee, although to the 
uninitiated it belongs to Loch Ken, and must be considered so from 
a botanical point of view. This sheet of water is thus about 8} miles 
long, and varies in width from a hundred yards to half a mile. Like 
Woodhall Loch, Loch Ken presents a mixture of the highland and 
lowland types of lochs, not only in its flora and physical conditions 
but also in scenic effect. At the head of Loch Ken the slight peati- 
ness of the water is modified by the drainage received from the 
villages and cultivated areas through which the Water of Ken flows. 
Both in the species and in the luxuriance of the vegetation at the 
northern end of the loch, there is evidence of a greater supply of 
food-salts than is usual in peaty lakes. The water, although slightly 
peaty, is clear. In many places the shore consists of stones rn rocks, 
which are usually angular or but shghtly water-worn, and afford 
support to a very scanty flora. A narrow strip of such shore usually 
passes at once into meadow, moor, or woods. In other places the 
loch is bordered by bog, which makes it difficult to distinguish any 
line of demarcation between land and water. More rarely the shore 
may be sandy, or the water may be bordered by a bank without the 
intervention of a shore. In that portion of the loch above the rail- 
way viaduct vegetation seldom occurs at a greater depth than 6 or 7 
feet ; beyond that depth clay, mud, or vegetable detritus covers the 
bottom to the exclusion of living plants. In the lower portion, 
about Parton and Crossmichael, there is in places a bottom flora 
down to a depth of 12 feet. This is accounted for by the great body 
of peaty water from the river Dee scouring the bottom and washing 
vegetable detritus either into deeper places or down stream. It is 
also interesting to note that Isoetes lacustris, a plant very impatient of 
water rich in normal plant food-salts, was not found nearer the head 
of Loch Ken than the vicinity of Burned Island, whence it occurred, 
but quite sparingly, down to the viaduct; after the loch had 
received the water of the river Dee, Isoetes became abundant, and 
continued so down to below Crossmichael. At the head of the loch, 
where the river Ken and the Knocknairling Burn enter, there is a 
very considerable area of deposit from the rivers, consisting of gravel, 
sand, or mud in a more or less marshy condition. These flats are 


230 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


covered with a very luxuriant vegetation, as previously mentioned. 
There were great masses of Carex rostrata, which could be dis- 
tinguished at a considerable distance, when blown by the wind, by 
their glaucous leaves; colonies of Carex vesicaria by their green 
leaves but otherwise similar growth to C. rostrata; and associations 
of Carex elatior by their superior height and broad, green, flowing 
leaves waving in the breeze lke a luxuriant field of grain. Then 
there were large areas covered with a dense jungle of Phalaris 
arundinacea and Deschampsia czespitosa growing 4 or 5 feet high, 
besides a variety of other plants in various places. Nympheea lutea 
is very abundant in some parts of the loch, particularly near the 
head, where the surface of the water is covered for hundreds of yards 
by its leaves and flowers. Scirpus lacustris grows very luxuriantly 
throughout the whole area of the loch, and so, in some places, does 
the ordinary marsh vegetation of the littoral bogs. In some places, 
especially near the viaduct where shelter from wind is provided by 
adjoining woods and by the narrowness of the loch, Ranunculus 
heterophyllus covers the surface of the water with its white flowers and 
floating leaves, forming one of the characteristic features of this 
portion of the loch. Occasionally a dry stony shore is overgrown 
with a large prostrate form of Ranunculus Flammula which roots 
copiously at the nodes; this is probably the R. radicans of Nolte. 

From the viaduct to below Crossmichael the general features are 
somewhat similar, but, being more remote from hills and moors, the 
lowland type becomes quite assertive and the gently inclined shores 
quickly merge into meadow-land or bog. Here again Scirpus lacustris 
occupies large areas of the margin; there are also large associations 
of Phragmites communis, Equisetum limosum, Heleocharis palustris, 
Carex aquatilis, C. rostrata, C. vesicaria, C. Goodenovii, etc. A large 
barren form of either Nitella opaca or N. flexilis occurs abundantly 
about and below the embouchure of the Dee; this variety is also 
found in Woodhall Loch, and was probably transported from there 
by water, as the effluent of Woodhall Loch flows into the Dee near 
New Galloway railway station. Near Burned Island there are vast 
beds of Nitella opaca, but it does not extend beyond a depth of 
7 feet. Bryophytes are generally scarce, and in many places even 
absent altogether from the littoral zone. ‘The most favourable place 
for such plants is about the north end of the loch, and there a 
number of species occur on the shore, including a few rarities. 
Filamentous Algze are scarce. For the long list of plants found at 
this loch the original paper must be consulted. 

Barscobe Loch is about three miles north-east of New Galloway. 
It is about a quarter of a mile long, and is situated in the midst 
of a treeless, hilly, grass moor, which everywhere meets the water, so 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 231 


that there is no shore. The water is quite clear and scarcely peaty. 
On the east side there are thin beds of Carex rostrata. On the west 
side there are associations of Scirpus lacustris and Carex rostrata. On 
grassy bogs, which occur here and there at the margin, the usual bog 
plants occur. Nothing of particular interest was noticed at this loch. 

Loch Brack is a mile north-east of Barscobe Loch, and is similar 
to it in general features, but smaller. Between the grass moor and 
the water a narrow zone of Juncus acutiflorus intervenes more or 
less all round the loch. An average number of common plants occur, 
but nothing of special interest was observed here. 

Loch Howie is two miles north-east of Barscobe Loch, and is 
larger than it, being three-quarters of a mile long, but very narrow. 
In general features it again resembles Barscobe Loch. There are 
associations of Phragmites communis and Scirpus lacustris, whilst 
Carex filiformis occupies situations usually taken up by C. rostrata. 
A number of common plants occur here, but nothing of special 
interest was noticed. 

Loch Skae is a small oval loch about a quarter of a mile long, 
situated half a mile east of Loch Howie. ‘The general flora is similar 
to that of the three lochs just mentioned, but the physical features 
are different. The surrounding moors have more heather and peat ; 
the scenery, particularly on the east, is rocky and wild; the water 
is a little more peaty, and the east shore is rocky or stony. — Isoetes 
lacustris, Utricularia intermedia, and Potamogeton polygonifolius 
are more abundant here than at the other three lochs. The rocks 
on the east shore are overgrown with mosses, chiefly Hypnum 
cupressiforme and Rhacomitrium aciculare. About the margin there 
are associations of Phragmites communis, Carex rostrata, and C. 
filiformis. 

Lochinvar is four miles north-east of Dalry. It is about half a 
mile long and one-third of a mile wide, and is situated at an elevation of 
737 feet above sea-level in a depression of a hilly, grass and heather 
moor. The scenery around is bare, desolate, and, with the exception 
of a few conifers about the gamekeeper’s house, treeless. The water 
is very clear, and but slightly peaty. Generally the moorland 
vegetation approaches almost to the water’s edge, so that there is 
practically no shore. The bottom is rocky nearly everywhere, and, 
with the exception of a few species which are abundant in some 
parts, the flura is extremely poor. ‘There are no formations of 
marsh plants about the shores; such of these plants as do occur are 
either as scattered specimens or in a few very small groups. ‘The 
submerged plants are more interesting, although these too are very 
poor in species; yet four species of Potamogeton are abundant in 
some places. 


232 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Loch Dungeon is seven miles north-west of Dalry, at an elevation 
of over 1000 feet above sea-level, Beautifully situated at the base of 
rocky and precipitous mountains, it forms a magnificent, although a 
treeless, piece of highland scenery, wild in the extreme, particularly 
on the south and west shores, where the mountains rise almost per- 
pendicularly from the water’s edge. ‘This loch is irregularly shaped, 
being almost cut in twain at one part by a rocky promontory from 
the south shore and by gravel from a moraine, washed into the loch 
by a burn, forming a peninsula from the north shore. The loch is 
about a mile long by a quarter of a mile broad, and is 94 feet deep. 
Its water is extremely brilliant and clear, and its shores are mostly 
rocky or stony. Excepting associations of Equisetum hmosum and 
Phragmites communis in some of the bays, the littoral flora is very 
scanty. ‘The submerged rocks about the shores, as well as those 
exposed, frequently exhibited a wealth of Bryophytes. The sub- 
merged phanerogams were not very abundant, there being merely a 
few of the common species. 

Loch Minnoch is a mile north of Loch Dungeon. It is only 
a quarter of a mile long, but is beautifully situated amidst rugged 
hills. The water is very clear, being, in fact, the water of Loch 
Dungeon which flows into it by the Hawse Burn. This burn, which 
enters the loch on its south side, has brought into it a large amount 
of detrital matter, causing a shallow area and a considerable bog on 
that side of the loch. ‘This shallow area is overgrown with Equisetum 
limosum, etc., whilst the bog, which is covered with appropriate 
vegetation, merges imperceptibly into moor. ‘The west shore is peaty, 
and it, together with the south shore, forms a suitable habitat for a 
considerable number of plants of the marsh type. The north and 
east shores are rocky, and bear a very scanty vegetation. The sub- 
merged phanerogams appear to be poorly represented by a few 
ordinary species. A number of Bryophytes are common on the shore 
rocks, and a curious form of Catharinea undulata covers rocks to the 
depth of a foot or more. . 

Loch Harrow is rather larger than the last-mentioned, and about 
half a mile north of it. ‘The shores are more stony, and there are 
fewer associations of littoral plants, otherwise it is similar. 

The moor about the three last-mentioned lochs is mostly covered 
with grass-like associations, Molinia czerulea being the most abundant. 

The three last-mentioned lochs agree, in the paucity of their flora, 
with those on the Merrick range a few miles to the west. The 
scarcity of water-birds about these and other mountain lochs is pro- 
bably a factor to be considered when forming a theory to account for 
the poverty of species in the flora of such lochs. Doubtless mountain 
lochs offer but an inhospitable asylum to the majority of our water- 


“7? <2 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 233 


fowl. That such birds are active agents in the distribution of aquatic 
plants is beyond doubt. They are also great destroyers of the less 
robust vegetation, especially in shallow water, and are frequently the 
cause of the sudden disappearance of an association of plants from 
some particular part of a shore. ‘To cite an example: I have known 
Scirpus*setaceus quite obliterated from a sandy shore, whilst other 
plants new to that lake were introduced ; and such changes amongst 
the minor associations of plants are constantly occurring. 


AREA V 


Having now passed by a circuitous and zigzag route over the 
majority of the lochs situated in north-west Kirkcudbrightshire, 
where the highland type predominates, let us examine south-east 
Kirkcudbrightshire, where many of the lochs are lowland in character. 
This district is almost wholly devoted to agricultural pursuits. The 
land is frequently very rich, and the farmers are prosperous and noted 
for their wealth. he undulating and often well-wooded country is 
frequently beautiful. There are no large towns, but the country is 
studded with numerous villages, and, for an agricultural district, it is 
well populated. There are comparatively few lochs, and we may 
begin their inspection at Loch Corsock, and passing over the Area 
by way of Lochs Erncrogo, Glentoo, Carlingwark, and Lochaber, 
finish our tour at a group of small lochs lying to the south of 
Dalbeattie. The original paper contains thirteen illustrations of the 
lochs, etc., of this Area. 

Loch Corsock is a somewhat triangular sheet of water situated in 
an upland district, whose moorland character has been modified by 
cultivation. It is six miles north of Crossmichael, at an elevation of 
540 feet above sea-level, and the water is somewhat peaty. The 
western shores are flat and muddy or peaty, and have an extensive 
vegetation, whilst the eastern shores are rocky and stony, with 
only a few plants. On the south-west side there is an extensive 
marsh, now partially drained. The west, north, and north-east 
sides are clothed with coniferous wood, and there is also a small 
plantation of the same kind on the south side. The loch is therefore 
wind-sheltered to a considerable extent, although open to the south- 
west. Alisma ranunculoides was abundant, and many specimens were 
flowering at a depth of 3 feet below the surface, as well as the normal 
terrestrial form about the margins of the loch. A considerable 
number of phanerogams grow here, but, save for a few abundant 
species, Bryophytes are scarce. 

Loch Roan is a somewhat triangular sheet of water two miles 
north of Crossmichael. The west, north, and east margins are 


234 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


clothed with wood, chiefly coniferous, to the water’s edge; whilst the 
south shore abuts upon meadow-land. Where the shores are gravelly 
or muddy there is little vegetation, but where boggy the usual 
marsh plants occur. ‘This is the reservoir for the water supply of Castle- 
Douglas, and presents little of botanical interest beyond a few common 
plants, such as associations of Carex rostrata and Equisetum limosum 
upon the south shore. There were, however, two unusual members 
of a shore flora, namely, Hypericum humifusum in dry places, and 
Anagallis tenella on wet sand. 

Loch Erncrogo is about a mile north-east of Crossmichael. It 
is a small loch of the lowland type, about one-third of a mile long, 
and, being more or less surrounded by marsh, there is little shore. 
Outside the zone of bog, rich agricultural land prevails, excepting on 
the west side, where there is a plantation of conifers. The chief 
features here are the great colonies of Carex rostrata, beyond which 
the shallower areas of the loch, particularly at the north end, are 
overgrown with Castalia speciosa, Nymphzea lutea, and Equisetum 
limosum. A large number of other plants grow here also, but 
usually more or less intermingled with one another, and not in 
definite and distinct associations, as frequently happens with some 
species. ‘This, I suppose, is due to the gentle inclination of the 
boggy shore towards the water, and to the general conditions being 
equally agreeable to many species, without being particularly favour- 
able to a few only. 

Loch Dornell is also a small loch, and occupies a somewhat 
exposed situation in an agricultural and moorland district two miles 
west of Crossmichael. ‘The water is very clear, the shores are stony, 
and, besides associations of Carex rostrata and Phragmites communis 
in the bays, there is no great development of the littoral flora. 
Nearly everywhere the stony shore has a thin, narrow zone of Juncus 
articulatus, often mixed with Ranunculus Flammula, at the margin 
of the water. 

Meikle Dornell Loch is a small circular pool, half a mile west of 
the last-mentioned, and connected with it by a burn. This little 
loch is surrounded by low hills, and the water is bordered by peaty 
banks, so that no shore intervenes between it and the moor. It is 
almost surrounded by a belt of Phragmites communis. ‘here are 
also a number of other common plants, 

Loch Glentoo is four miles west of Castle-Douglas. It lies in a 
hollow of the moor, and appears to have occupied a much larger area 
at one time, if one may judge by the extent of low marshy ground 
around it. The margins of this loch are treeless, and its water 1s 
peaty. From the north and west shores outwards, the loch is half 
overgrown with great beds of Phragmites communis mixed with 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 235 


Scirpus lacustris, and about the shores Carex rostrata and C. filiformis 
abound. About the south-west end the growth of marsh vegetation 
is very dense, and merges gradually into moor through an area of 
bog. Occasionally the shore is stony, but generally only a peaty 
bank divides the water from the moor. ‘The flora resembles that of 
the next loch. 

Loch Bargatton occupies an open position on the moor, half a 
mile south-west of the last-mentioned. It is somewhat circular in 
outline, and the water is peaty. The eastern shores are stony and 
rocky and comparatively bare of plants. ‘The western side is over- 
grown with dwarf Phragmites communis, which also occurs in bays 
at other parts of the loch. This loch and Loch Glentoo, although at 
an elevation of only about 200 feet above sea-level, resemble lochs of a 
highland type in their floras, because of their exposed position on the 
open moor and their peaty water. 

Carlingwark Loch forms a pleasing addition to the prosperous 
little town of Castle-Douglas. The loch is connected with the river 
Dee by a narrow canal, which is about a mile and a half long. This 
canal was cut for the transport of marl up the river Dee, even as far 
as the Glenkins. Marl was discovered in abundance in and about 
the loch, and was formerly in great demand by agriculturists for 
fertilising their land, instead of lime. ‘There are several islands 
wooded with poplars, willows, alders, etc., which add to the picturesque 
appearance of the loch. An unpleasing feature is that the sewage 
of the town is drained into the loch, which, although about 105 acres 
in extent, is very shallow, except at the sites of the old marl-pits, so 
that in hot, dry summers the residents of the town are inconvenienced by 
unpleasant odours and the risk of disease. ‘The water at the south 
end is fairly clear and bright, but at the north end it is somewhat 
turbid and dead-looking, which is probably the result of the drainage 
from the town. The vegetation also has doubtless been affected 
thereby, for the semi-aquatic flora is composed of a large number of 
species, most of which grow in great luxuriance ; whilst the submerged 
aquatics, although extremely abundant, are restricted in variety, 
possibly because the abnormal abundance of food-salts in the water, 
combined with the general shallowness of the loch, has favoured the 
excessive increase of a few species to the exclusion of others. I have, 
in fact, seen few lakes with such exuberant vegetation as occurs here. 
The margin is frequently marshy, and overgrown with a dense growth 
of reed or sedge, particularly in the south portion of the loch. At 
other places, especially at the northern end, the flat shore is either 
stony, or of muddy sand, and nearly everywhere such shores are 
covered near the water with Cladophora flavescens, mixed with 
(Edogonium, Spirogyra, etc., and the same species float on the surface 


236 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


of the loch, occupying large areas in sheltered bays. Such floating 
Algz are a constant feature in lowland lochs where the water is 
polluted with sewage. Many submersed plants had a deposit of 
calcium carbonate upon their leaves, particularly Myriophyllum 
spicatum. Fresh-water mussels occur in extraordinary abundance 
in various parts of this loch, some of the specimens measuring 
7 inches in length. The roots and rhizomes of numerous plants, 
especially Glyceria aquatica, were frequently found covered with the 
young of these molluscs. The shallow portions of the south end of 
the loch are being rapidly encroached upon by the marsh vegetation, 
if one may judge by the wide area of bog, which in turn is being 
converted into meadow-land by the accumulation of the remains of 
plants that grow there. It would be very instructive to have a series 
of exact measurements, from various lochs, extending over a 
number of years, in order to show the rate of this encroachment upon 
the water, together with the rate of conversion of the bog behind 
into terra firma. A feature of this loch is the vast quantity of 
Potamogeton Friesi1 that chokes the loch in some parts. <A 
number of other rare plants occur in abundance, together with the 
more usual species, for a list of which the original paper may be 
consulted. 

Auchenreoch Loch is six miles north of Dalbeattie. It is a mile 
in length, with a maximum breadth of nearly one-third of a mile, and 
is surrounded by agricultural land. The water is clear and not 
peaty. The main road from Dumfries to Castle-Douglas adjoins the 
east shore of the loch throughout its length. At the north-east end 
there are associations of Scirpus lacustris standing out in the water ; 
nearer the shore a large area is covered with Phragmites communis, 
behind which there is a marsh with the usual plants. ‘These con- 
ditions extend for some distance down the loch towards the south- 
west end. At other places there is a narrow strip of stony shore with 
meadow beyond, or there is scarcely any shore, grass land coming 
down quite to the water. 

Milton Loch is about a mile east of the last-mentioned. It is 
about a mile long by half a mile wide, and is surrounded by agri- 
cultural land. The water is clear and not peaty. ‘The shores are 
flat and stony, and merge imperceptibly into meadow or arable land, 
except where bordered by trees or public roads. ‘There are no 
associations of marsh plants entering the loch; such as occur are 
merely a few species as stragglers over the stony shore, Alisma 
ranunculoides being one of the most abundant. Chara fragilis, var. 
delicatula, and Chara aspera, var. subinermis, are abundant on the 
bottom of the loch. | 

Lochrutton Loch’is three miles east of Loch Milton, and is three- 


a — 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES Dae 


quarters of a mile in length, with a maximum breadth of half a mile. 
This loch is the reservoir for the water supply of Dumfries, and the 
water is clear, not peaty. An extensive, deep marsh at the south end, 
which has been cut off from the loch by a dam, is overgrown with 
common plants. The shores of the loch are mostly stony, and it is 
surrounded by cultivated land. It presents very little of botanical 
interest. The three last-mentioned lochs occupy bleak, wind-exposed 
situations in an area of active agriculture, and the scenery around is 
tame and uninteresting. 

Lochaber Loch is eight miles north-east from Dalbeattie. It is 
surrounded with low hills, the lower slopes of which are wooded, 
chiefly with coniferous trees, to the water’s edge, excepting on the 
west, where the country is open and agricultural land prevails. The 
water is slightly peaty, and the marginal flora is poor in variety. 
At the south-east end there are associations of Scirpus lacustris, 
Equisetum limosum, and Carex rostrata, none of which grow so tall 
and luxuriant as might be expected from the lowland situation. At 
the west side, where the shore is boggy, there are associations of 
Phragmites communis, but the specimens are dwarfed, also of Carex 
rostrata, Equisetum limosum, Castalia speciosa, and Menyanthes 
trifoliata. Otherwise the somewhat flat and stony shores are either 
bare of vegetation, or sparsely clothed with a few common plants. 

Auchenhill Loch, which is four miles south of Dalbeattie, is the 
smallest of a group of four lochs. It is about a quarter of a mile 
long by one hundred yards wide, and is a typical lowland pool 
situated amidst pleasant pastoral scenery. There are no trees at its 
margin, but it is more or less surrounded by a zone of Phragmites 
communis, behind which there is a border of marsh merging im- 
perceptibly into meadow. In front of the Phragmites a belt of 
Castalia speciosa almost encircles the loch, and behind the former an 
area of bog, overgrown with the usual marsh plants, surrounds the 
whole. 

Barean Loch is about half a mile east of the last-mentioned, but 
it is considerably larger, and has an irregular outline. The water is 
rather peaty. It is picturesquely surrounded by low hills, some portions 
of which are cultivated, while the remainder consists either of moor or 
of wood ; the margin of the loch is also well wooded. It is more or less 
surrounded by a sedge or reed marsh, composed chiefly of the following 
species :—Scirpus lacustris, Phragmites communis, Equisetum limosum, 
and Carex rostrata. A number of common submersed aquatics occur 
in the water, amongst which may be especially mentioned Apium 
inundatum, because it grows here to a depth of 7 feet, and reaches 


the surface from that depth, although in such deep water it does not 
fruit freely. 


238 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Clonyard Loch is a quarter of a mile south-west of Barean Loch ; 
it is smaller, but the features are somewhat similar. It is surrounded 
by a sedge or reed swamp composed chiefly of Scirpus lacustris and 
Carex rostrata; there is also an association of ‘Typha latifolia, as well 
as minor colonies of Phragmites communis and Equisetum limosum. 
In the water outside the swamp zone there is a broad belt of Castalia 
speciosa. 

White Loch is the largest of this group, being about half a mile 
long by a quarter of a mile broad. It is half a mile south-east of the 
last-mentioned, and the public road from Douglas Hall to Dalbeattie 
adjoins its western shore. 'The neighbouring district is a mixture of 
moor, cultivated land, and plantation, and the water is rather peaty. 
Where not marshy, the shores are sandy or stony, with a few syenitic 
rocks. It is a little more than 100 feet above the level of the sea, 
which is about a mile distant, and, although distinctly lowland in 
general aspect, yet a number of plants usually associated with peaty 
highland lochs flourish here. This is probably because the loch has 
not been interfered with, whilst the surrounding moor has been brought 
under partial cultivation. Littorella lacustris, Lobelia Dortmanna, 
Isoetes lacustris, Nitella opaca, and Fontinalis antipyretica, for example, 
all grow in this loch. Phragmites communis forms a belt around a 
great portion of the loch, especially on the east. On the west side 
there is a large association of Typha angustifolia, as well as minor 
groups of the same at other parts of the loch. In the water, beyond 
the Phragmites and ‘Vypha, associations of Scirpus lacustris occur, 
whilst Carex rostrata and Equisetum limosum occupy other sites. 

At none of the lochs of this Area (V.) was there any particular 
abundance of Bryophytes, such as occurred about the lochs of Area IV. 


ArgEa VI 


Wigtownshire is remarkable for its great tracts of monotonous, 
treeless, and dreary peat moor. In comparison with the adjoining 
Kells district, almost the whole county appears flat and tame. ‘The 
relaxing and enervating atmosphere of south-east Kirkcudbrightshire 
is here in many places intensified. Agriculture is the dominant 
industry, particularly dairy-farming, and beyond the intractable 
moss-hags the land is frequently very rich. ‘The population is 
chiefly centred in the areas of agriculture. The extensive moors are 
but thinly peopled, and there are no large towns. hose sheets of 
water that are situated on the open moors resemble highland lochs 
in their general features, although none that I have visited are at a 
greater elevation than 400 feet above sea-level. Those lakes that are 
within the zone of active agriculture are decidedly of the lowland type. 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 239 


Stormy weather considerably hindered work, so that during the 
time at my disposal I was unable to visit some of the lochs situated 
in outlying places, and difficult of access under any conditions. In 
particular I regret having to omit those in the north of the county, 
within and without the Ayrshire border, because these are less likely 
to have undergone alteration by the hand of man. We will begin 
the examination of the lochs of Wigtownshire at Black Loch, which 
is north of Kirkcowan, and take a zigzag course westward until we 
finish at the lochs that are situated in the neighbourhood of Stranraer. 
In the original paper there are twenty-four illustrations of the lochs, 
etc., of this Area. 

Black Loch is the smallest of a series of three, and is situated 
five miles north-west of Kirkcowan. It is about a quarter of a mile 
long, is surrounded by a treeless moor, and its water is rather peaty. 
The only strip of shore is at the east end; elsewhere a bank of peat 
separates the water from the moor. ‘The aquatic plants are chiefly 
at the west end of the loch, and bottom-carpeting species, such as 
Littorella lacustris, are scarce. About the margin there are associa- 
tions of Phragmites communis, Scirpus lacustris, Equisetum limosum, 
Carex rostrata, C. filiformis, and Castalia speciosa. There are a few 
common mosses on the shore rocks at the east end, otherwise Bryo- 
phytes are scarce. 

Loch Heron is a somewhat rectangular sheet of water, nearly as 
large again as the last-mentioned, and situated half a mile to the 
south-west of it. There is a plantation of conifers upon the south 
and east shores; otherwise it is surrounded by cultivated land or 
moor. ‘The water is clear and slightly peaty. The shores are stony, 
or in some places there is a peat bank entering the water without the 
intervention of a shore. ‘There are scattered associations of the 
following plants about the margin :—Phragmites communis, Carex 
rostrata, Scirpus lacustris, and a few sparse patches of Equisetum 
limosum. — Littorella lacustris and Lobelia Dortmanna carpet the 
bottom in places, and there is a fair number of other submersed 
aquatics. 

Loch Ronald is close to the last-mentioned, and is about a mile 
long. ‘There is a plantation of conifers on the east side, otherwise it 
is surrounded by agricultural land or moor. The water is very clear, 
and the shores are stony, flat, and from a botanical aspect almost 
featureless, much resembling Loch Ashie in Inverness-shire. Here 
and there a bank of peat 8 or 10 feet high dips into the water with- 
out the intervention of ashore. There are two small associations of 
Equisetum limosum and one of Scirpus lacustris, all at the south- 
west end, and groups of Carex rostrata in the efuent. I was not 
able to obtain the use of a boat, because it had been previously 


240 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


engaged; but a close examination of the barren shore, for the 
remains of submersed plants, suggested a scarcity of vegetation in 
the water. Although these three lochs possess a fair number of 
plants between items yet they are not of much interest botarieaee 
so far as I could find. 

Clugston Loch is a small sheet of water three miles south of 
Kirkcowan, with slightly peaty water, and surrounded by moor. The 
shores are rocky or peaty, and, beyond colonies of Carex rostrata, 
C. Goodenovii, and Equisetum limosum, there are no large associa- 
tions of semi-aquatic plants. A number of other common species 
flourish on the shores and in the water. 

Loch Wayoch is the most northerly of a group of lochs situated 
on a dreary, boggy moor, many miles in extent. The last-mentioned 
loch is indeed upon the same moor, but at its outskirts, where the 
ground is less boggy, whilst the scenery is enlivened eastwards by the 
edna area of cultivation. An old resident informed me that 
during his life the view of the country beyond the moor (ze. looking 
from Anabaglish southwards) had been considerably curtailed owing 
to the gradual elevation of the intervening moss.’ Exact measurements 
of such development over a long period would not be without interest. 

This loch is four miles south-west of Kirkcowan, and is a some- 
what circular pool 200 yards across. ‘There is no shore, the water 
being surrounded by deep bog differing only from the moor in being 
more ready to engulf the unwary. I succeeded in getting within a 
few feet of the water, and was surprised to find that it was beautifully 
clear and apparently not peaty. Another interesting fact was the 
presence of an association of ‘Typha latifolia, a plant usually associated 
with the evil-smelling mud of lowland lakes rather than a lochan in 
the midst of a peat moor. Other uncommon members of the marginal 
flora were Cladium Mariscus and Hypericum elodes, while the bulk of 
the encircling vegetation was composed of a variety of the usual 
species. Amongst a number of Bryophytes that flourished in the 
surrounding bog, the interesting Cephalozia Sphagni was abundant. 
On the drier parts of the bog Calluna and Myrica have spread from 
the adjacent moor, where Cladonia uncialis occurs in extraordinary 
abundance. 

Fell Loch is larger than Loch Wayoch and half a mile south-east 
of it. The water is peaty and the bottom is of peat. A number of 
plants common to the district occur in it. 

Black Loch is close to the last-mentioned and similar to it, but 
the water is not so peaty, and there is less vegetation. Cladium 
Mariscus and Carex filiformis are abundant here, amongst other 
commoner plants. 


1 A wet moor with much Sphagnum, etc., is frequently called a moss. 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 241 


Mochrum Loch is half a mile south of the last-mentioned, but is 
much larger, being about one and a half miles long by nearly one- 
third of a mile broad. ‘The north and north-east sides are wooded, 
chiefly with coniferous trees. There are numerous islands scattered 
over the loch; these also are wooded, and give a pleasing feature to 
the otherwise bare scenery. There is very little shore to this loch, 
merely a narrow strip of rocks or stones intervening between the 
water and the moor or wood; neither are there any sandy bays, but 
occasionally there is a stretch of peaty shore. ‘The outline is very 
irregular. The loch is very shallow, the average depth being only 
7 feet, and the bottom is frequently rocky. Excepting where rocky, 
the bottom is covered with plants. ‘The water is clear, scarcely peaty, 
and the bottom can be seen through 7 feet of water even in dull 
weather. It is difficult to account for the very slight peatiness of the 
water of this and neighbouring lochs. As they are situated in the 
midst of a spongy peat moor, one would expect to find the water quite 
peaty. As no burn of considerable size enters either this or Castle 
Loch adjoining, presumably they are fed chiefly by springs which 
may, of course, have no connection with the water of the moor. It 1s 
probable, however, that some constituent, such as an alkali, of the under- 
lying rock may neutralise the peat extract, thus rendering the water 
clear; the presence of certain calciphilous plants, e.@. Eupatorium 
Cannabinum, suggests lime also. 

A large number of plants are recorded from this loch in the 
original paper; some of these are species that are not usually found 
in lochs on peat moors, and their presence here is no doubt due to 
the neutralisation of the acid humus in the water. The marginal 
flora is rather scanty, as there are no large associations of dominant 
marsh plants. The Bryophytes of the shore, with the exception of 
Hypnum cupressiforme which covers rocks, and Sphagnum sp. in 
peaty places, are not abundant. 

Castle Loch is half a mile west of the last-mentioned, which it 
much resembles. There are a few trees at the north end and on one of 
the islands, which also has upon it the remains of a small castle. The 
surrounding country is bare, open moor. This loch is studded with 
numerous rocky islands, the largest being occupied by cormorants 
hundreds of which breed there. The shores are rocky, and the bottom 
is rocky nearly everywhere. The water is clear like that of Mochrum 
Loch, and the average depth is 64 feet. I carefully examined the 
bottom of this loch, as well as the stormy nature of the weather would 
allow, but could obtain no plants from the water, save Fontinalis 
antipyretica and F. squamosa, which are abundant on the rocks. 
The bottom appears to be quite destitute of plants, save the two 
Species just enumerated. ‘This is remarkable, especially when the 


16 


242 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


adjoining Mochrum Loch has such an abundant aquatic flora. Mr 
David M‘Dowall, the keeper, informed me that he had never seen any 
plants upon the net when netting the loch. The water was remark- 
ably free of plankton organisms, the tow-net gathering extremely 
little (end of August), but Mr M‘Dowall told me that in early summer 
the water is thick and green with some organism that dies away to- 
wards the end of July. Perhaps the presence of this organism in the 
spring accounts for the absence of plants in the water. The scanty 
vegetation of the rocky shore was of no particular interest, being 
similar to that of Mochrum Loch, but less abundant. Lythrum 
Salicaria and Phalaris arundinacea were the most plentiful species. 

On Anabaglish Moss, to the north-west of Castle Loch, there are 
a number of small lochans of some interest, because of the abundance 
of their vegetation, which includes some unusual species—Cladium 
Mariscus, Schcenus nigricans, and Hypericum elodes being abundant. 

[Monreith Lake, near Port William, is entirely surrounded by 
wood, affording shelter to many rare species of water-fowl. In 
addition to the usual marsh and aquatic plants, which grow here very 
luxuriantly, this lake is becoming choked up with Anacharis Alsinas- 
trum.—J. M‘A. | 

[Dowalton Loch, near Sorbie, was once an extensive sheet of water, 
but about sixty years ago it was almost emptied by cutting a deep 
outlet at its eastern end. Since then it has become overgrown with 
a dense growth of marsh plants, but cannot yet be said to be of much 
use agriculturally.—J. M‘A.] 

[South of Whithorn are numerous small lochs becoming gradually 
overgrown with vegetation, amongst which several uncommon species 
of Carex may be found. Further south, and to the west of the Isle 
of Whithorn, there are several small lochs in which grows the beauti- 
ful Chara polyacantha.—J. M‘A. | 

Barhapple Loch is four miles east of Glenluce, on an extension 
of the same moor as Castle Loch is on, from which it is distant about 
four miles. It is a circular loch, about a quarter of a mile across, 
with dirty, peaty water. ‘The north side is bordered by a dense 
association of Phragmites communis, whilst the same plant occurs 
scattered over the peaty and muddy south shore. On the west side 
there is a considerable extent of marsh, dominated by Carex rostrata, 
C. filiformis, etc. On the east the shore is peaty or gravelly, and is 
bordered by a bank of peat 4 to 6 feet high. Interesting forms 
of Juncus bufonius, J. supinus, and Peplis Portula occur on the south 
side. ‘There were very few mosses and no hepatics about the shores 
of this loch. 

Loch Dernaglar, half a mile south of the last-mentioned, is 
somewhat circular in outline, and about a third of a mile across. The 


a 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 243 


moor around is flat and treeless, and the water is peaty. Banks 
of peat usually separate the water from the moor, but occasionally 
the shore is stony or is formed of flat rock, particularly on the east 
side, which is rather bare of littoral vegetation. The western margins 
are marshy, especially near the affluent, and support a considerable 
vegetation, associations of Scirpus lacustris, Phragmites communis, 
Carex rostrata, C. filiformis, and C. Goodenovii being dominant. 
Amongst other plants, Pilularia globulifera, Subularia aquatica, 
Heleocharis multicaulis and viviparous forms of it, were all abundant 
here. 

Whitefield Loch is three miles south-east of Glenluce. It has an 
angular outline, is about half a mile long, and is a good deal enclosed 
by trees, with cultivated land or moor beyond. The water is 
slightly peaty; the shores are stony, and for the greater part bare 
of vegetation. The most noticeable feature of the shore flora is the 
abundance of Lythrum Salicaria. Besides a number of plants usual 
to the district, I saw nothing here of particular interest. 

Barlockhart Loch is a small circular pool about a mile south-east 
of Glenluce. It is surrounded, excepting on the west, by low hills of 
the pasture or cultivated types, and the water is not peaty. The 
loch is enclosed by a zone of Phragmites communis, beyond which, in 
the water, is an association of Castalia speciosa and Nymphiea lutea, 
which also extends around the loch, and between the two at the east 
end an association of Equisetum lmosum is interposed. Behind the 
Phragmites there is a strip of marsh with Salix aurita and Alnus 
glutinosa in places, as well as a number of the usual bog plants. A 
curious floating form of Hydrocotyle vulgaris occurred here, and dwarf 
bushy forms of Potamogeton obtusifolius, as well as the normal forms 
of both. In the original paper a long list of plants is given for this 
and the foregoing lochs. 

White Loch is nearly a mile long by half a mile broad, and is one 
of the largest of a group situated about three miles east of Stranraer. 
White Loch and the adjoining Black Loch are within the private 
grounds of Castle Kennedy, the seat of the Earl of Stair, and are 
ornamental waters to Lochinch House, although left as far as possible 
in a natural condition. They are surrounded by lawns or meadows 
which are furnished with groups of ornamental trees, an island on the 
west side of the White Loch being also beautifully wooded. There is 
no extent of shore anywhere, meer is there any considerable develop- 
ment of marsh vegetation ; but here and there narrow zones of marsh 
plants, 1 to 10 feet wide, intervene between the water and the 
grassy banks. ‘The water is not peaty, but is so turbid and greenish- 
coloured that the bottom cannot be seen at a greater depth than 
18 inches when looking over the side of a boat (7.e. in August). 


244 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Plankton organisms are the cause of this turbidity, more especially 
the diatom Melosira granulata. There is neither affluent nor effluent 
to this loch, save a shallow boat canal connecting it with the adjoin- 
ing Black Loch, the water of which is dark and peaty (presumably | 
these facts guided the nomenclator of the lochs). The water is there- 
fore more or less stagnant, a condition favouring the increase of 
certain plankton organisms. A feature of both this and the Black 
Loch is the narrow border of Heleocharis palustris that prevails nearly 
everywhere, growing luxuriantly to a height of 3 feet, with very 
large inflorescences. Elatine hexandra grows exposed upon the shore, 
also in the water to a depth of 2 feet. Myriophyllum alterniflorum 
and M. spicatum both grow abundantly in this loch, which is 
rather unusual. Amongst several species of Potamogeton a very 
large form of P. lucens should be mentioned, and a beautiful form of 
P. crispus with broad leaves which have a wide red midrib; the latter 
is found in other lochs of this neighbourhood. Bryophytes are 
scarce. 

Black Loch adjoins the last-mentioned. It is over a mile long, 
but is narrow, particularly at the north-west end. The surroundings 
are similar to those of the White Loch, but the water is brown and 
peaty, and, although plankton organisms abound, the bottom can be 
seen through 3 feet of water when looking over the side of a boat. 
The shore is similar to that of the White Loch, but the flora is more 
varied. Usually water from 7 to 10 feet deep occurs within a few 
feet of the shore. To a depth of about 7 feet a few of the usual 
plants may be found, but they are by no means abundant, as the 
bottom is generally stony. At greater depths than 7 feet I obtained » 
no living plants, but an abundance of dead vegetable remains, 
as at other shallow peaty lochs with no current to scour them. 
At the north-west end there is a circular basin connected with the 
loch by a narrow channel. This is almost surrounded, excepting on 
the south-west side, by a narrow border of Phragmites communis, 
Typha latifolia, and Scirpus lacustris; whilst the surface is largely 
overgrown with Nympheza lutea. At the south-east end of the loch 
there is a marsh with the usual common plants. Bryophytes are 
everywhere scarce. 

Cults Loch is half a mile east of the last-mentioned. It is a 
small circular loch, with non-peaty water, surrounded by meadow- 
land. At the north-west and south-east sides there are small bogs ; 
at other places a narrow zone of marsh chiefly occupied by Juncus 
effusus intervenes between the water and the pasture. There is little 
of botanical interest here, beyond a number of common plants. 

Loch Magillie is about a mile south-west of the White Loch. 
It is a small oval loch with clear water which is not peaty, and with 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 245 


no visible affluent or effluent. The loch is situated in a hollow, and 
the meadow-land, which surrounds it on three sides, runs down almost 
to the water’s edge, a narrow strip of stony shore intervening. This 
shore is chiefly occupied by Juncus effusus, with which a few other 
plants are mingled. At the south-west side there is a plantation 
between the loch and the adjacent road. ‘The maximum depth is 
14 feet. and the bottom is almost entirely covered with vegetation. 
Lobelia Dortmanna and Isoetes lacustris are both very abundant, 
which is surprising when the surroundings are taken into considera- - 
tion; their presence probably indicates a poor supply of food-salts in 
the water. 

sSoulseat Loch is close to the above, but is not connected with it. 
It has an irregular outline, is about half a mile long and over a 
quarter of a mile broad. The surrounding features are similar to 
those of Loch Magillie, as also is the margin. The west shore has 
a zone of Heleocharis palustris, as at the White Loch, behind which, in 
some places, there is a narrow strip of marsh, with the usual variety 
of plants. At other parts a narrow border of stones intervenes 
between the water and the meadow ; this shore, as at Loch Magillie, 
is occupied by Juncus effusus. The stones from the margin to a 
depth of 2 or 3 feet are often thickly overgrown with Cladophora 
canaliculata, etc. A marked feature of this loch is the vast quantity of 
plankton organisms, which render the water quite turbid, in addition 
to which there are such enormous numbers of Gloeotrichia Pisum 
that in some parts the water resembles pale green paint. No doubt 
the turbidity of the water of this loch accounts, in some measure, 
for the poor bottom flora. The Rev. Mr Paton, whose manse is 
pleasantly situated on a peninsula jutting into the loch, informed me 
that in the winter the turbidity disappears, and then it is possible to 
see the bottom at a depth of 6 feet. Obviously the clearness of the 
water in winter has no effect upon the extension of a bottom flora 
of phanerogams. No plants occur at a greater depth than 6 feet ; 
in deeper water there is a deposit of vegetable detritus lymg upon 
mud. Ranunculus circinatus and Callitriche autumnalis are the only 
dominant submerged phanerogams, and both are extremely abundant. 
Potamogeton perfoliatus abounds in a few spots; Littorella lacustris 
and Nitella opaca occur, but not plentifully. No other submerged 
plants were found. Bryophytes are practically absent, excepting a 
few of the common marsh species. 

There are three small lochs lying close to the railway about a 
mile west of Castle Kennedy station. ‘The easternmost one is dry, 
and the site covered with Juncus effusus and other marsh plants. The 
others are entirely overgrown with aquatic vegetation, and are so sur- 
rounded with extensive marsh that the water cannot be approached. 


246 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


{Lochnaw partakes of much the same characteristics as Monreith 
Lake (p. 242), being also surrounded with wood. Carex pendula 
grows upon its shores.—J. M‘A. ] 

There are some pools situated upon the Sands of Luce. Thinking, 
from the nature of the surroundings, that they might afford some- 
thing of interest, I was disappointed to find they had dried up. In 
the original paper there is a short note on the vegetation of the 
Sands of Luce, which extend about six miles along the coast and 
reach a mile and half imland, the highest dunes being at some 
distance from the sea. The greater portion of the ground, however, 
is flat and moor-like, and, in contrast to the almost bare dunes, such 
parts have a complete plant-covering, the dominant plants being 
Ammophila arundinacea, Carex arenaria, Salix repens, Hylocomium 
triquetrum, Rhacomitrium canescens, and its variety ericoides, Calluna 
vulgaris, and Pteris aquilina. In some places there are grassy swards 
which are closely cropped by rabbits. 

Arta VII ‘ 

In Fife and Kinross a few lochs of a semi-highland character may 
be found on the higher hills. The greater number of the lochs in 
this district, however, are distinctly of a lowland type, and many of 
them have a very rich flora, comparatively rare plants often occurring 
in great abundance. ‘The central and western portion of Fife is re- 
nowned as a coal-producing district, and whilst thousands of the 
inhabitants enrich themselves by bringing mineral wealth from the 
bowels of the earth, others, nearly everywhere, are actively engaged 
in agricultural operations. ‘The rich soil readily responds to the 
methods of modern farming, and even the less favourable spots are, 
under the stimulus of scientific treatment, made to grow valuable 
crops, Instead of being relegated to the unproductive realms of sport. 
Besides this, numerous manufacturing industries are carried on upon 
a large scale in many places, and the great extent of sea-coast gives 
occupation to a considerable number of fisher-folk. This Area is 


therefore a densely populated one, and the greater number of its 


lochs have had their natural features considerably altered by the 
hand of man. Suitably situated lakes have been converted into 
reservoirs for providing the larger towns and villages with water. 
In some parts, especially in East Fife, the public water supply 
presents a serious problem that has not always been satisfactorily 
solved, owing to the comparatively small rainfall and the absence of 
suitable water in the form of lochs or streams. As an example of 
this difficulty, it may be mentioned that the water supply for the 
Newport district is brought across Strath More, the Sidlaw Hills, 
and the Firth of Tay from Lintrathen in Forfarshire. In some 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 247 


parts new lochs have been created by the construction of dams, ete. 
In other places shallow sheets of water, that could be put to no useful 
purpose, have been drained and the sites utilised for agriculture ; 
whilst in a few cases lochs are used as receptacles for sewage. The 
only lochs of this area that retain their natural conditions are the 
smaller ones on the Cleish Hills. 

The Carboniferous and Old Red Sandstone series of rocks, which 
largely prevail, have in former epochs suffered considerable contortion 
from volcanic activities, and large areas are covered with lavas, tuffs, 


and dolerite sills. Suffice it to mention Burntisland Bin, Largo Law, 


May Island, and Norman’s Law as eloquent monuments of that period. 
The country is hilly, but not mountainous, yet in many parts the 
scenery is beautiful. Instance the undulating country to the west of 
Loch Leven and of the Howe of Fife, or the charming scenic effect 
produced by the rapid alternation of hill and dale in the neighbour- 
hood of Aberdour, Burntisland, Newburgh, and Newport. Contrast 
the weird monotony of the flat links of Tents Muir with the bold 
perpendicular crags of May Island. Contemplate the picturesque 
grandeur of the Firth of Tay, equalled but not surpassed by the 
vaster expanse of beauty afforded by the lower reaches of the Firth 
of Forth. ‘Turn from the grimy atmosphere of the sordid mining 
villages, and from odoriferous Kirkcaldy, to the wilder portions of the 
Lomond, Cleish, and the eastern slopes of the Ochil Hills, where one 
is forcibly reminded that Philistia has not yet completely triumphed 
over the rural glories of Fife and Kinross. 

Our inspection of the lochs of Area VII. may begin at Lindores 
Loch, in the neighbourhood of Newburgh, and after visiting others in 
the same district, we cross the county in a south-easterly direction to 
Kilconquhar Loch, near Elie. Thence we travel westwards, following 
a zigzag route, by way of Clatto Reservoir, Carriston Reservoir, Loch 
Gelly, Burntisland Reservoir, Loch Fitty, and others, to the lochs 
situated on the Cleish and Lomond Hills, thence to Loch Leven, 
and finally to the Isle of May. The original paper contains forty 
two illustrations of the lochs, etc., of this interesting area. 

Lindores Loch is situated two miles south-east from Newburgh, 
amidst a beautifully wooded and agricultural country where hill and 
dale follow one another in quick succession. The loch is nearly a 
mile long and half a mile broad. Its water is not peaty, but is 
turbid and dead-looking. In many places there is deep, black, fetid 
mud, upon which submersed aquatics do not seem to flourish well. 
In several places, but particularly at the north-west and south-east 
ends, as well as on the east side, there are large associations of marsh 
plants. In other places there is a narrow strip of stony or sandy- 
muddy shore merging into meadow-land. Such shores are usually 


248 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


more or less overgrown with Juncus acutiflorus. This is particularly 
the case at the west side. Along a considerable portion of the east 
side runs the public road from Newburgh to Kirkcaldy. This is shut 
off from the loch by a wall which usually enters the water, and no 
marsh plants occur there. At other places on the east side there is 
a stony or sandy shore, similar to that on the west side, but usually 
with less vegetation. In the middle of the loch there is an island 
formed by a muddy flat, and densely overgrown with Phragmites 
communis. Many submersed plants have a deposit of lime upon 
their leaves and stems, and, as is commonly the case with lochs of 
this nature, filamentous Alge, particularly Cladophora flavescens, 
abound. ‘The striking features of the vegetation of this loch are 
the large quantities of the followmg plants:—Typha angustifolia, 
Glyceria aquatica, Scirpus lacustris, Phragmites communis, Phalaris 
arundinacea, Polygonum amphibium, Nympheea lutea, Ranunculus 
circinatus, R. peltatus, and Myriophyllum alterniflorum, all of which 
occur in pure colonies over large areas of the loch, as well as mixed 
with other plants in some of the associations From the middle of 
the east shore a flat peninsula juts out into the loch. ‘This is con- 
siderably overgrown with a number of the above-mentioned plants, 
particularly Typha angustifolia, as well as other species. 

Black Loch is a small oval pool, surrounded by agricultural land, 
about a mile south-west of the last-mentioned. Excepting for a 
portion of the south shore, this loch is so entirely surrounded by marsh 
that the water cannot be approached. Its water is not peaty, but 
clear and bright, and is entirely encircled by a zone of Castalia 
speciosa and Nympheea lutea, the latter being next the shore. At 
the south side no other plants occur between these and the gravelly- 
muddy shore, but elsewhere there is a zone of Equisetum lmosum 
between the Nymphzea lutea and the land. Here and there all 
around the loch there are associations of Glyceria aquatica on the 
shore side of the Equisetum. In some places, particularly at the 
west end where there is a large bog, the Equisetum limosum is 
followed by Carex rostrata, and that in turn by Juncus effusus on the 
drier ground. Utricularia vulgaris abounds in the water. 

Lochmill Loch is beautifully situated amongst the hills two miles 
south-west from Newburgh, which it supphes with water. ‘It is about 
a quarter of a mile long, and half that in width. Low hills with 
grassy or cultivated sides surround it, excepting at the east end 
which is more open. ‘There are plantations of coniferous and 
deciduous trees about the adjacent hillsides. Although peat occurs 
on the higher hills immediately to the south and west, it is doubtful 
if any appreciable quantity of peaty water gains access to the loch. 
There is not much marshy ground, although at the effluent at the 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 249 


east end, as well as here and there about the shore, small areas of 
marsh occur. Excepting for the marshy areas and a rocky part on 
the south-west, the shores consist of muddy gravel, and merge imper- 
ceptibly into the grassy banks. ‘The water is clear, not peaty, and 
apparently of a steely grey colour, probably due to the copious 
deposit of black mud on the bottom, which arises from the rapid 
decomposition of a very luxuriant aquatic flora. Many of the 
submersed plants are heavily coated with a deposit of calcium 
carbonate, and others, particularly Littorella lacustris, are overgrown 
to an extraordinary degree with Diatomaceee. On the north side 
there is a large association of Polygonum amphibium, which is 
frequently mixed with Potamogeton natans, and a belt of the latter 
extends along the outside of the Polygonum in deeper water. A 
similar phenomenon also occurs upon the south side. Potamogeton 
Zizii and P. lucens are both very abundant, and cover large areas of 
the bottom to a depth of 10 feet. Heleocharis acicularis not only 
occurs in the water to a depth of 3 feet, but also forms a sward upon 
the dry shore. A large number of other plants occur here, but 
Bryophytes, with the exception of a few ordinary marsh mosses, are 
scarce. 

Kilconquhar Loch is about two miles north of Elie. It is a very 
shallow circular loch about half a mile across, and is so completely 
surrounded with marsh and reed swamp that the water can only be 
approached at a few places; consequently there is no definite shore. 
The village of Kilconquhar is situated on the north side of the loch, 
and the gardens from the adjacent cottages run down to its margin. 
The ornamental grounds of Elie House, which are wooded or park- 
like, adjoin and beautify the south side. Upon the east and west sides 
the loch is surrounded by agricultural land. The bottom of the loch 
at the north and west sides consists of deep black mud; but at the 
south and east sides the bottom is less muddy, and in many places is 
formed of firm sand. Near the shore the depth of water is from 
3 to 5 feet, but towards the middle it is somewhat deeper, seldom, 
however, exceeding 7 feet. The water is clear, but has a stagnant 
appearance, which may be described as dead, in comparison with 
the sparkling water of a pellucid highland loch. In consequence 
of such favourable physical conditions, the whole of the bottom of 
this loch is more or less overgrown with plants. The marginal swamp 
vegetation is chiefly composed of associations of the following 
plants :—Scirpus lacustris, Equisetum limosum, Phragmites communis, 
Heleocharis palustris, Carex rostrata, Hippuris vulgaris, Typha 
latifolia, Epilobium hirsutum, Menyanthes trifoliata, Sparganium 
ramosum, and Phalaris arundinacea. The plant associations in the 
water are chiefly of the following species :—Polygonum amphibium, 


250 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Potamogeton pusillus, P. filiformis, Zannichellia palustris, var. 


brachystemon, Myriophyllum  spicatum, Callitriche autumnalis, 
Ranunculus circinatus, R. Baudotii, Chara aspera, etc. In many 
places large masses of Cladophora flavescens and Enteromorpha 
intestinalis were floating about at the surface. There are a few 
common bog mosses, but such are not abundant, as favourable situa- 
tions are scarce. It should be mentioned that Polygonum amphibium 
and the two species of Ranunculus cover a large area of the loch, and 
when in flower present a unique spectacle. 

Halton Reservoir is a small irregularly shaped sheet of water 
situated about two miles north of Largo. It has been formed by the 
widening of the natural gorge of the Halton Burn, and by the con- 
struction of a dam at the lower end. At the time of my visit the 
water had fallen about 12 feet below the full water-level, leaving 
upon the exposed mud the remains of a number of aquatic plants. 
Some of these were growing in terrestrial form upon the mud, 
e.g. Myriophyllum spicatum, Polygonum amphibium, Ranunculus 
peltatus, Potamogeton natans, Callitriche stagnalis, etc. Chara 
fragilis is extremely abundant, and Gnaphalium ulginosum forms a 
sward upon the sides near the full water-level. When the water is 
low this is not a very attractive place, because it has the appearance 
of a flooded quarry with a scanty vegetation upon its sides. 

Clatto Reservoir is situated about three miles south of Spring- 
field, in an upland district of which Clatto Hill is the highest point. 
It is a narrow sheet of water about three-quarters of a mile long, 
made by building a dam across the east end of the valley through 
which flows the Ceres Burn. The water is clear and not peaty, and 
is bordered in many places by a zone of marsh, or a narrow strip of 
stony shore may intervene between the water and the grassy banks. 
A plantation of coniferous trees skirts a portion of the south shore, 
otherwise the surrounding country is of the agricultural type. 

At the south-east end an arm to the reservoir has been formed by 
constructing a dam across an adjacent valley and excavating a con- 
nection. At the west side of this arm there is a large marsh similar 
in its features to one at the west end of the main body of water. A 
considerable number of plants occur at this reservoir, but I did not 
notice anything of particular interest. 

Carriston Reservoir is a circular sheet of water, a quarter of a 
mile across, situated two miles north-east of Markinch, in a rich 
agricultural district. It was formed by the construction of a long 
dam across a valley through which flowed a tributary of the river 
Leven. ‘The water is clear and not peaty. ‘The dam occupies most 
of the west side, and there is not much shore on the south, as a bank 
which is faced with stone-work frequently enters the water. On the 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 251 


north and east there is a flat sandy or muddy shore, and the small 
amount of marsh vegetation about this loch occurs there. On the 
north shore there is a mixed plantation and a few isolated trees ; 
otherwise there are no trees in the immediate vicinity of the water. 
Heleocharis acicularis forms a dense sward on parts of the sandy- 
muddy shore to a greater extent than I have seen elsewhere ; it also 
enters the water to a depth of 3 or 4 feet. On some parts of the 
exposed shore terrestrial forms of Myriophyllum spicatum were 
abundant, and in some places Gnaphalium uliginosum and Juncus 
bufonius formed a dense sward. MHeleocharis palustris is abundant 
near the winter water-level, but the plants are dwarfed, probably 
because they are left comparatively dry in the summer, owing to the 
water receding from them. Ranunculus pseudo-reptans, resembling 
externally Ranunculus reptans, is much more abundant here than at 
any part of the shores of Loch Leven. Bryophytes are scarce, and the 
other vegetation is somewhat restricted in species. 

Kinghorn Loch is a small rectangular sheet of water close to 
Kinghorn. ‘he water is not peaty, but is turbid and dead-looking. 
The west shore, which is flat and muddy, merges gradually into 
meadow-land, and this is the only part where there is any abundance 
of marsh vegetation. ‘The east shore is stony and rocky, a consider- 
able portion of it consisting of bare volcanic rock. Upon the north 
and south sides there is scarcely any shore. The most interesting 
feature noticed at this loch was the vast quantity of Anabena Flos- 
aquee, var. circinalis. In many places this alga was so abundant, on 
27th May 1905, that the water resembled pale green paint. Poly- 
gonum amphibium is very abundant on the west side of the loch, 
and a limited number of other plants were also observed. 

Loch Camilla is a small oval sheet of water about four miles east 
of Cowdenbeath. The water, which is not peaty, is rather turbid, 
and is surrounded by agricultural land. ‘The shores on the east are 
stony, and bear but few plants, but at the west end there is a con- 
siderable development of marsh vegetation. A large association of 
Equisetum limosum, mixed here and there with patches of Hippuris 
vulgaris, stands out in the water. Nearer the land there is a large area 
of Carex rostrata, behind which a wide stretch of bog, that gradually 
merges into meadow-land, is covered with a variety of plants. 
Ranunculus hederaceus, in both terrestrial and aquatic forms, occurs 
here. ‘There, are also similar forms of R. peltatus, and a curious 
terrestrial form of the latter having purple blotches on the peltate 
leaves suggestive of a crossing with R. hederaceus. A number of 
Bryophytes are abundant at this marsh, and amongst them 
Marchantia polymorpha in aquatic form. 

Loch Gelly is an oval loch, about three-quarters of a mile long 


202 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


situated two miles east of Cowdenbeath, and close to the village of 
Lochgelly. The loch is surrounded by low hills, except on the west 
side, where the country is quite open as far as Cowdenbeath. The 
district around is of the agricultural type, with a few acres of rough, 
boggy pasture at the west end of the loch, which was probably a 
portion of its bottom at a former period. The margins of this 
shallow loch are so gently inclined that only in a few places can 
a boat be brought within 20 feet of the shore. The surrounding 
land at the north and east slopes gently towards the water, and is 
covered with a fine, close grass sward, about which there are a few 
large deciduous trees. This meadow-land gives place near the 
water’s edge to a narrow shore of dirty sand or gravel, with a few 
larger stones; but except for a few sparse parehes of Littorella 
ae: is, etc., there 1s no vegetation on these shores. ‘The west shore 
consists chiefly of a Phragmites swamp, behind which there is 
a considerable area of boggy pasture, as previously mentioned. 
At the north-west corner, however, the bog is occupied by species 
of Carex, etc. The south shore has a zone of marsh throughout 
its length, immediately behind which there is a narrow plantation 
of conifers, mixed here and there, on the damper spots, with 
alders, poplars, willows, etc. For several years this loch was 
used as the common receptacle for the sewage of the populous 
mining district around. The inflowing burn at the west end was then 
an evil-smelling open sewer 6 or 8 feet wide; consequently the 
water of the loch was extremely foul. The local sanitary authorities, 
however, became enlightened regarding, the danger of this mode 
of sewage disposal, and forthwith adopted a more modern method. 
Meanwhile certain colliery owners found in the affluent a convenient 
means of disposing of their mine water, as well as the waste from 
coal-washing machinery, so that now the burn resembles a stream of 
ink, and the loch is being silted up with a deposit of coal dust. The 
influence of such filthy additions is seen over the whole of the loch, 
particularly at the west end, where the deep, black mud has an 
insufferable odour. When the loch received the sewage, the water 
had a turbid, unwholesome appearance, and was everywhere crowded 
with plankton organisms, besides which all objects about the shores 
were covered with filamentous Algze, chiefly Cladophora fracta, whilst 
there were innumerable floating masses of Enteromorpha intestinalis 
and Cladophora flavescens. Now the water is black and dead-looking, 
and the Algz have considerably diminished, especially the Cladophore, 
whilst everything is covered with black filth. The marginal vegeta- 
tion previously mentioned is luxuriant, although somewhat restricted 
in variety, but the submersed plants are scarce, which is not surprising 
when one considers the vicissitudes through which the loch has passed. 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES. 253 


Standing out of shallow water there are pure groups of Iris Pseud- 
acorus 5 feet high, and the same occurs at Loch Fitty. Some very 
large clumps of Cardamine pratensis were also found here. Many of 
these were propagating. vegetatively by the production of plantlets 
from buds at the base of the leaflets. Near the boat-house on the 
north-west shore there is a great bed of Potamogeton pectinatus. <A 
curious submersed form of Alisma Plantago growing in 18 inches 
of water, with delicate linear-lanceolate leaves floating on the surface 
and linear submersed ones, was abundant. A number of other plants 
found at this loch are listed in the original paper. 

Burntisland Reservoir is an irregularly shaped sheet of water, 
situated amidst picturesque surroundings two miles north of Aberdour, 
and lying between the hills of Dunearn, Balcam, and Cullalo. — It 
was formed by the construction of a short dam at the south-west end. 
Upon the south side the loose rock and soil have been protected by 
stone-work, which in most places enters the water. Excepting a few 
lichens and Bryophytes, no vegetation occurs either along this wall 
or at the dam, but at all other parts of the margin vegetation is 
abundant. ‘The shores, where bare of plants, are either gravelly or 
muddy, and the water, which is not peaty, has a slightly turbid 
appearance, due to the somewhat impure water of one of the affluents 
and to the-erosion of the muddy shore by the waves. These matters, 
however, are about to receive attention from the authorities at 
Burntisland, who own the reservoir, and the proposed alterations 
will, I fear, eradicate a number of interesting plants from this locality. 
About the affluent at the east end there is a considerable extent of 
marsh, which, near the water, is covered with Equisetum limosum 
and Heleocharis palustris. From this place to about the middle of 
the loch, where there is a large bay, the flat shore, which is usually 
exposed in the summer by the falling of the water-level, is sandy or 
muddy and is covered with vegetation. Littorella lacustris grows 
out of the water and for some distance up the shore. Then there is 
a broad zone of Heleocharis palustris, with which a few other species 
of plants are mixed. Above that a narrow strip of Spiraea Ulmaria 
grows at the winter water-level, where the storms deposit a supply 
of rich detrital matter, and behind this there is a luxuriant grass 
meadow. Similar conditions also prevail along the east side of the 
bay already mentioned. The wide zone of Heleocharis is cut every 
summer, and dried for use as bedding for cattle, but chiefly in order 
to prevent the dead stems being washed into the loch during winter, 
as the decay of so large a quantity of vegetable detritus would pollute 
the water. A large number of plants grow at this reservoir, for which 
the original paper may be consulted. Amongst others the following 
plants, of less common occurrence at lochs, were found here :—Interest- 


204 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


ing terrestrial forms of Littorella lacustris, an aquatic form of Bryum 
pallens, Riccia crystallina, Potamogeton obtusifolius, var. fluitans, 
Myriophyllum spicatum and M. alterniflorum growing together, 
Juncus glaucus, Veronica scutellata, ete. 

Otterston Loch is a small sheet of water two miles west of 
Aberdour. It is closed in by low hills, and is entirely surrounded by 
luxuriant deciduous trees, which also cover a small island in the 
middle. The water is not peaty and, although clear, it has a dead, 
stagnant appearance. The loch is of an ornamental nature, and 
Otterston House stands upon its north side, whilst the public road 
borders it on the north-east. Except on the west side, where there 
is an extensive and treacherous bog, the loch is bordered nearly every- 
where by low walls or grassy banks, so that there is practically no 
shore, but in several places marsh vegetation overgrows the banks. 
At the west end the mud at the bottom is deep, black, and fetid ; 
there is much less mud at the east end, where some parts of the 
margin are sandy, or a narrow zone of stones may even occur. 
Ceratophyllum demersum is so abundant that the loch is almost 
choked with it, and in the summer when the plants are at the surface, 
the manipulation of a boat over the water is a matter of some difficulty. 
Doubtless many plants that otherwise would thrive in this loch are 
excluded by the Ceratophyllum. It does not, however, appear to be 
able to hold its own in the marginal zone against a large association of 
Polygonum amphibium which grows there. Considerable portions of the 
bog at the west end are covered with associations of Menyanthes tri- 
foliata, Ranunculus Lingua, and Carex paniculata. ‘The last-mentioned 
grows in large tussocks, and dominates the greater portion of the 
bog. A considerable number of other plants grow at this loch, the 
most uncommon species being :—Zannichellia palustris, Lemna trisulca, 
Cicuta virosa, and Scirpus sylvatica near the loch (Pl. I. and II.). 

Loch Fitty is situated amidst a mining and agricultural district, 
three miles west of Cowdenbeath. It is a mile long by one-third of a 
mile wide. ‘The water is clear, but it has a flat, dead appearance, 
especially so in autumn when the vegetation, particularly Chara, is 
decomposing. ‘The shore at the north side is stony or gravelly, and 
almost destitute of marsh plants. At the south side a portion of the 
shore is composed of shale, which has been thrown out from an adjacent 
mine, and a number of aquatic plants occur in the pools and little bays 
formed by the irregularities of this substance. At other places upon 
this side of the loch the shore is gravelly or sandy, and bears more 
plants than is the case upon the opposite side. At the west end the 
affluent enters the loch, previous to which it has a very sinuous course 
for about a mile through an alluvial flat consisting of agricultural or 
meadow-land, doubtless at one time covered by the water of the loch. 


| 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 255 


Near the loch this flat merges gradually into a bog several acres in 
extent. At the east end there is a similar but much less extensive 
bog. The loch is shallow throughout its area, a depth of 10 feet 
being seldom exceeded, and a considerable portion of the bottom is 
covered with Chara fragilis and its var. delicatula, besides a large 
number of other plants. The stones about the shores are everywhere 
thickly covered with Cladophora canalicularis and C. flavescens, both 
of which bear an extraordinary quantity of Diatomacee, chiefly of the 
genera Diatoma, Gomphonema, and Cocconeis. A fine tow-net used 
in the middle of the loch at the end of September caught a very pure 
collection of Asterionella formosa. Many of the submersed plants 
were incrusted with lime, which proves the presence of that substance 
in the water. Here and there are pure groups of Iris Pseud-acorus, 
with leaves 4 or 5 feet high, standing out of the water as little 
islands. Nine species of Potamogeton and one variety flourish in this 
loch, most of them in abundance, and, besides a large number of common 
plants, the following which are of less frequent occurrence were 
observed :—Anacharis Alsinastrum, Sparganium longissimum, Carex 
aquatilis, Juncus glaucus, Veronica scutellata, and Hypnum stra- 
mineum. Scirpus lacustris and Phragmites communis grow here, but, 
strange to say, both are quite dwarfed compared with their usual 
luxuriance in similar lowland lakes. 

Town Loch, which is only a few hundred yards long, is about two 
miles north of Dunfermline, and close to the mining village of Town- 
hill. At the time of my visit the water had fallen several feet owing 
to dry weather, and a large expanse of uninviting shore, composed of 
sandy gravel, mud, and coal dust, was exposed. At the full water- 
level there is a zone of vegetation composed chiefly of plants of the 
damp meadow type, with which are mixed some of those species usually 
associated with the shores of a loch. ‘The water is extremely foul, as 
the loch is used as a receptacle for sewage. ‘Three plants dominate 
the water, namely, Chara fragilis, Potamogeton flabellatus, and 
Polygonum amphibium. The Chara was the type form of fragilis, 
and in a very prolific condition. 

Loch Glow is situated in an open position on the Cleish Hills. 
These hills are for the most part covered with a grass-like formation 
of plants, below which there is peat. The loch is the largest of a 
series of four ; it is three-quarters of a mile long by half a mile broad, 
and is 900 feet above sea-level. The original loch has been deepened 
by the construction of a short dam at the east end, and it is now 
used as a reservoir. The water is clear, but slightly peaty. The 
north shore is rocky, stony, or more rarely sandy, and the south shore 
is mostly peaty. Rearing in mind its wind-exposed position, and the 
unsuitable nature of the shores, it is not surprising that semi-aquatic 


256 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


plants are practically absent. A few leaves of Littorella lacustris, 
that had been cast upon the shore, were the only evidence of sub- 
mersed aquatic plants that I could discover without the aid of the boat, 
which at the time of my visit was out of repair. Possibly there are 
plants upon its bottom, but so far as I could find, this loch is devoid 
of botanical interest. 

Black Loch is a small sheet of water about a mile west of Loch 
Glow, and is surrounded by hills. ‘The water is somewhat peaty, and 
there is scarcely any shore, save a few stony places here and there, as 
the grassy moor terminates in a bank at the water’s edge. There is a 
thin association of Phragmites communis stretching along the south 
shore. Carex rostrata and Equisetum limosum occur in patches 
about the margin, Nymphza intermedia grows at the west end, 
whilst Potamogeton rufescens, var. spathulifolius, grows there, and at 
other parts of the loch as well, in great abundance. A number of 
common plants were also noticed at this loch. 

Loch Dow is a small oval sheet of water, situated in a hollow of 
the grassy moor, half a mile north-east of Loch Glow. The water is 
slightly peaty, and the stony or rocky shores on the north and east 
are narrow, with a sparse vegetation, or the moor meets the water 
without the intervention of a shore. Extending around the south 
and west sides there is an extensive bog, mostly occupied by Carex 
rostrata, which advances into the water on the one hand and merges 
into the grass formations of the moor on the other hand. A number 
of other common plants occur here. 

Loch Larg is a few hundreds of yards north of the last-mentioned, 
and is very similar to it, excepting that its eastern shore is more 
stony. There is a flat, boggy area along the west side, which is 
covered, near the water, with Carex rostrata. Adjoining the moor 
this bog is overgrown with Calluna vulgaris, Polytrichum commune, 
P. gracile, Sphagnum cymbifolium, 8. mtermedium, etc. <A_ slight 
but sudden rise of the ground causes an abrupt termination to the 
vegetation just mentioned, and in its place associations of grass-like 
plants, amongst which Scirpus cespitosus is dominant, extend towards 
the moor. ‘The line of demarcation between the Calluna and the 
grass-like formations is quite sharp, and probably marks the original 
extent of the loch. A number of plants commonly found at hill 
lochs occur here, including several Bryophytes which flourish at the 
two foregoing lochs as well. 

Harperleas Reservoir is situated on the Lomond Hills, at an 
elevation of 848 feet above sea-level. It is about half a mile long, 
and is of an irregular shape, with clear but somewhat peaty water. 
It has been formed by the construction of a long dam at the east 
end. The south shore is either stony or muddy, and at some places 


ee 
i. 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES 257 


the bank enters the water without the intervention of a shore. At 
the north and west the shore is flat, and muddy or peaty, and is 
covered with a luxuriant vegetation, whilst there is very little at the 
south shore, and none along the dam. <A zone of Equisetum lmosum 
extends along the greater part of the north side, intermingled with 
Littorella lacustris, which runs up the shore and forms a dense sward 
in some places. Occasionally considerable areas of exposed mud were 
covered with Juncus fluitans, which was reverting to the terrestrial 
type, J. supinus, which it somewhat resembled. Other normally 
submersed plants were assuming a terrestrial habit and forming a 
meadow-like sward upon the exposed shore, particularly Ranunculus 
aquatilis, Heleocharis acicularis, Polygonum amphibium, Potamo- 
geton polygonifolius, and P. heterophyllus. The normal aquatic 
form of the last-mentioned was very abundant at this loch. Those 
left upon the exposed mud were developing new aerial leaves, similar 
to the coriaceous floating ones, but smaller, the thin submersed leaves 
having completely withered away. At the north-west end a portion 
of the shore presented a remarkable appearance, through being 
covered with dead tussocks of Molinia czrulea, which had been 
drowned during some period when the water-level was abnormally 
high. 

A little to the east of Harperleas is Ballo Reservoir, both being 
situated on an upland plateau which forms the south flank of the 
East and West Lomond Hills. These reservoirs are surrounded by 
moor of the grass or heather type, or a superior pasture-land which 
is due to cultivation. Harperleas Reservoir is treeless, but Ballo has 
a plantation of conifers upon its south-west shore. ‘There are also 
a few plantations in the neighbourhood of the reservoirs, which 
pleasantly relieve the sameness of the moor and add a picturesque 
charm to this pleasant, although small, stretch of upland country. 

Ballo Reservoir has a somewhat pear-shaped outline, with the 
narrow end towards the south-east. It is about a mile long by 
half a mile wide at the broadest part. In general features it much 
resembles Harperleas Reservoir, but there is less variety in the 
species of plants. At the north-west end there is an extensive peaty- 
muddy flat, covered with an association of Juncus effusus. This 
flat area extends out into the loch for some distance, and, in the dry 
season, is exposed by the falling of the water. It is covered with 
Littorella lacustris, Heleocharis acicularis, and Juncus fluitans, all of 
which assume the terrestrial habit when the water has receded. At 
the same end of the loch, but nearer the north side, Hydrocotyle 
vulgaris extends over a considerable area and forms a dense sward. 
Equisetum limosum forms a zone along a portion of the north shore, 
as at Harperleas Reservoir, behind which there is a strip of boggy 

17 


258 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


ground covered with Carex, etc., and at one place there is an 
association of Typha latifolia. ‘The shore along the north and east 
is flat and peaty, and a wide strip of it, exposed by the falling of the 
water, was more or less covered with Juncus fluitans which was 
reverting towards the terrestrial type. A number of species were 
observed at these reservoirs besides the above-mentioned, amongst 
them the following which are not very common in Area VIL. :— 
Fontinalis antipyretica, Callitriche hamulata, Peplis Portula, Veronica 
scutellata, and Ranunculus pseudo-reptans. 

Loch Leven is situated in the lowest part of a somewhat oval 
strath, which is beunded by the Cleish Hills, Benarty Hill, the 
Lomond Hills, and the Ochil Hills. It is somewhat pear-shaped in 
outline, with the apex lying to the south-east. It is 32 miles long 
by 22 miles wide at the broadest part. The surface of the loch is 
350 feet above sea-level, and as the land for some distance around 
is below the 400-feet level, it must, at a former period, have been very 
much larger. It was artificially reduced in size in 1845, when its level 
was lowered 44 feet. On account of the shallow marginal zone this 
slight lowering of the level reduced the area by about 1400 acres. 
For its size it is an extremely shallow loch, the greater portion of it 
being less than 15 feet deep. Indeed, along the east shore an area 
nearly three miles long by nearly a mile broad is mostly less than 
9 feet deep. It has, however, two depressions, each having a depth of 
about 80 feet—one to the west of St Serf’s Island, and the other to the 
north-east of Scart Island. If the effluent were lowered 22 feet, so as 
to reduce the level of the loch by that amount, about 3000 acres of 
land would be reclaimed. ‘There are six islands in the loch. The 
largest of them, called St Serf’s Island, has an area of about 80 acres ; 
it is quite treeless, and is utilised as a rabbit-warren. Castle Island is 
covered with trees, and has an extent of about 5 acres. The other 
islands are quite small. The shores are everywhere flat and usually 
sandy, particularly on the east side, where the sand is sometimes blown 
into small dunes. More rarely the shore is composed of stones, or 
there is no shore because meadow-land comes down to the water’s edge. 
In a few places there is a narrow zone of marsh extending a consider- 
able distance along the shore, as, for example, upon both the east and 
south sides opposite St Serf’s Island. In many places there are large 
quantities of vegetable remains, chiefly those of Chara and Anacharis, 
lying upon the shore at the winter water-level. ‘The flat shores of this 
loch are in many places very much exposed to wind, and due to this 
influence is the fact that some plants, which ordinarily grow erect, here 
assume a prostrate habit; such, for example, as Equisetum arvense, 
Juncus bufonius, J. acutiflorus, J. supinus, Ranunculus Flammula, 
etc. There are two or three associations of Phragmites communis, 


FLORA OF SCOTTISH LAKES AID 


as well as of Heleocharis palustris and Equisetum limosum, that enter 
the water here and there; otherwise there are no plants of the semi- 
aquatic type in the water of the loch. ‘The water is fairly clear, 
and not appreciably peaty. The bottom of the loch, from the shore 
to a depth of about 15 feet, consists largely of firm sand, which is, 
however, frequently dirty and mixed with mud. Where the bottom 
is of this nature it is usually carpeted with Chara aspera, or its var. 
subinermis, to a depth of 14 or 15 feet. The growth of these plants 
at a depth of from 4 to 8 feet is prodigious, but they thin out 
towards the shallower water on the one hand, and towards the deeper 
water on the other. Nitella opaca occupies considerable areas, also 
where the bottom is sandy, and at similar depths to the Chara, but it 
has a tendency to be most abundant in slightly deeper water than 
that m which the maximum growth of the Chara occurs. On the few 
areas where the bottom, from near the margin to a depth of 15 feet, 
is of mud—for example, at the west side of the loch and in the bay at 
the east end of St Serf’s Island—Anacharis Alsinastrum grows with 
such extraordinary vigour that in the summer, when these plants are 
near the surface, it is very difficult to row a boat through them. At 
greater depths than about 16 feet no living vegetation of the higher 
type occurs, and mud covers the bottom nearly everywhere. ‘This 
mud, which is usually blackish with a somewhat offensive odour, was 
in August crowded with worm-like larvee at many parts of the loch. 
Among a number of other plants which grow in the water the most 
abundant is probably Potamogeton perfoliatus. The boat-keeper at 
the loch informed me that, previous to the extensive development 
of the Anacharis, this Potamogeton was extremely abundant, and 
that it had been partially exterminated by the former plant. A 
considerable number of plants grow at this loch, amongst which the 
following are not of frequent occurrence in Area VII. :—Carex aquatilis, 
C. hirta, which grows on the sandy shores like C. arenaria on the sea- 
shore, Alisma ranunculoides, Lysimachia nummularia, and Ranunculus 
reptans. A few Bryophytes occur in marshy places, but are not 
abundant, excepting on parts of the south shore. 

The Isle of May is situated at the entrance to the Firth of Forth, 
and I was induced to visit this isolated spot in order to investigate a 
small loch which is there, thinking it might afford something of interest 
because of the numerous water-birds that visit the island during their 
migrations. ‘The loch, which is quite small, is situated in a ravine 
that divides the island obliquely in the direction S.E. by E. and 
N.W. by W. From the rocky and precipitous nature of the ravine 
one might imagine the pool to be a little lochan high on the 
mountains. The extensive engine-house at the east end, and the 
cement dams at both the east and west ends, however, quickly dispel 


260 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


such a pleasant illusion. ‘The water, which is maintained at a depth 
of about 7 feet by the dams, is used for the engines that generate 
the electricity for the lighthouse and the compressed air for the fog- 
horn. No aquatic phanerogams or higher cryptogams exist either in 
the water or about the shores of the loch, but the water is coloured 
yellowish-green by the abundance of minute Myxophyceee, Bacteria, 
Infusoria, and Entomostraca, and by the waste water from the 
adjacent engine-house. The water is so discoloured that the bottom 
can only be seen at a depth of a few inches, and the engineer informed 
me that the discoloration is maintained throughout the year. It must 
not be imagined, however, that the cliffs about the loch are bare of 
vegetation, for besides grassy slopes and banks, the rocks and crannies 
are clothed with a variety of plants such as are common to the 
maritime cliffs of the adjacent mainland. An account of the terres- 
trial plants is given in the original publication. 


In conclusion, I desire to express my obligation to Sir John 
Murray and Mr Laurence Pullar for the assistance they have at all 
times freely given me, without which these pages could never have 
been written. I should like also to thank Mr James Chumley for 
his generous help, so freely given on many occasions. 


UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, 
DUNDEE. 


PART IV.—THE. PLATES 


2 el — ae. 


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PuaTte III. 


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George West. 


LocHAN CREAG MADAIDH, PERTHSHIRE. 


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Pratt [X.—An example to show that the area of cultivation by the steep 
sides of the larger highland lochs is restricted to the lower slopes of the 
mountains, A view across Loch Tay from Kepranich looking N.W. The two 
crofts—Wester and Easter Cloanlawers—are seen on the opposite side of the 
loch, which is here two-thirds of a mile wide. The small area of cultivation is 
easily distinguished by the dykes which enclose the fields; the lighter patches 
near the houses are oat-fields. The lower hill on the left with a few coniferous 
trees is Creag Dhubh, behind which appears Ben Lawers, the mountain on the 
right being Meall Garbh. The trees on Creag Dhubh were mostly blown down . 
by the great storm of November 1893, those seen in this picture being the 
survivors (vide p. 161 and Plate IV.). 


PLATE IX. 


George West. 


View across Locu Tay 


, PERTHSHIRE 


THE” DEPOSITS OF THE SCOTTISH 
FRESH-WATER LOCHS 


By W. A. CASPARI, B.Sc., Ph.D., FIC. 
(Assistant to Sir John Murray, K.C.B.) 


Ix the course of the survey of the fresh-water lochs of Scotland 
some seven hundred samples of bottom-deposits were brought up, 
and eventually sent to the Challenger Office at Edinburgh. No 
systematic plan was adopted in collecting the deposits, and therefore 
some lochs are represented by a large series of samples, others by 
only a few, and others again (small lochs and reservoirs) by none 
at all. ‘To some extent this is due to the practical difficulties of 
sampling, in that the sounding-tube frequently came up empty, or 
the material slipped out before it could be secured. Nevertheless, 
the material at hand is both plentiful and interesting. It has now, 
therefore, at the suggestion of Sir John Murray, been submitted to 
laboratory examination. 

With a few exceptions, the Scottish lochs have deposits which 
differ scarcely at all from loch to loch. The great majority of the 
mainland lochs exist under closely similar conditions: they he in 
a country of fairly uniform mineralogical aspect, are provided with 
an inflow and an outflow of soft peaty water, receive a large supply 
of vegetable refuse, and are remote from thickly populated districts. 
Consequently the floors of the various lochs tend to be carpeted with 
much the same kind of deposit, and it is possible to deal generally 
with the deposits as if they belonged to one huge lake. Only in 
certain island lochs on the one hand, and in small and comparatively 
stagnant lochs on the other, are local peculiarities developed, which 
will be referred to in due course. 

Scottish loch deposits in general may be classified into three 
main varieties, viz. :— 

(1) Sand or Grit. 
(2): Clay: 
(3) Brown Mud. 
261 17d 


262 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Three other types of deposit occur sporadically and are by way of 
being rarities, viz. :— 
(4) Diatom Ooze. 
(5) Ochreous Mud. 
(6) Calcareous Deposits. 


1. SANDS, ETc. 


Wherever the bottom of a loch lies under briskly moving water, 
as within the sphere of wave-action or at the inflow of a rapid river, 
the deposits are graded by elutriation, and the finer material is carried 
away. ‘The residue will consist of coarse and heavy mineral grains 
comparable to sea-sand. Sandy loch deposits, then, are only found in 
shallow depths, and usually near the shore-line. They consist chiefly 
of quartz, felspar, and mica, and are free, or nearly so, from clayey 
matter; the more vigorous the elutriating agency, the more does 
quartz tend to predominate. Sandy deposits are often discoloured by 
organic matter, which is apparently not washed away so easily as 
clay ; also by limonite, existing as a tenacious incrustation on quartz 
grains. An analysis of a sand from Loch Ness, 30 feet, has been 
published in an earlier paper of the Survey.!. In the majority of 
Scottish lochs, which are more or less steep-sided and U-shaped in 
section, the layer of sandy deposit may be supposed to extend from 
bank to bank, underlying deposits of finer material in the inner part 
of the loch, and being itself underlain by yet coarser grains and 
pebbles. This scheme of stratification was well illustrated by some of 
the Survey soundings, in the rare cases when it was possible to bring 
up a long plug in the sounding-tube. As regards the origin of 
sandy deposits, it is clear, since they are too coarse to be transported 
to any extent by water, that they are derived from the rocks 
immediately surrounding the loch. They are, as it were, autochthonous, 
and differ in this respect from the material of the finer mineral 
deposits (Clays), which may in part have arrived from great distances. 


Wired Clones 


The term Clay is here applied to any mineral deposit which is 
sufficiently fine-grained and coherent to have a certain plasticity in 
the wet state. In the Scottish lochs Clays and Brown Muds shade 
off into one another through an infinity of gradations; we may 
regard as typical Clays those specimens (and they are plentiful 
enough) which contain practically no organic matter, and are 
farthest removed from the Brown Mud end of the series. Such 


1 Geogr, Journ., vol. xxxi. p. 60, 1908. 


DEPOSITS OF THE SCOTTISH FRESH-WATER LOCHS 2638 


lacustrine Clay is of a very light greyish or yellowish tint, and is 
much paler than any submarine inorganic deposit. It consists 
chiefly of finely divided quartz and mica, with minor proportions of 
felspathic, chloritic, and ferro-magnesian minerals.’ There is always 
present a certain amount of clay proper, 7c. amorphous hydrated 
alumino-ferric silicate, which imparts to the deposit its plastic 
character; but the amount is often very small, and always much 
smaller than in oceanic Clays. 

Without resorting to an exhaustive analysis, an indication of the 
proportion of true clay in these deposits may be gained from their 
ignition losses. Organic matter being absent, ignition loss will 
represent the water of hydration of the clay present plus that of the 
mica present. Five samples of pale Clay, which gave little or no 
coloration with caustic soda solution, and were therefore regarded as 
free, or nearly so, from organic matter, were thus assayed; they were 
weighed out after drying at 110° C. 


Deposit Loss at Low Total Loss 
| : Red Heat. over Blast. 
Loch Assynt, 83 feet . ar | 3°93 per cent. | 
Ik 45, Ness, eae . ' a 1°95 ied 
eo wuuecwam. 59 4. : 3°48 a 
ma rebate Ol <6 * 8 . | 3°30 per cent, 4°24 mi 
ot) Maree, 566. ,,. . | 2°96 3°44 oe, | 


Since ideal clay (A1,0,,28i0,,2H,0) would give off over 14 per 
cent. of water on ignition, these figures speak for themselves. A 
rough attempt at discriminating between water of clay and water of 
mica was made on the last two samples, by igniting first at low red 
heat and then over the blast. If it were desired, the method might 
be made one of considerable accuracy by careful temperature 
adjustment, direct weighing of the disengaged water, and addition of 
sodium carbonate or lead peroxide in the final ignition. As it is, the 
Loch Earn sample shows about 23 per cent. of clay and 20 per cent. 
of mica, the Loch Maree sample about 21 per cent. and 11 per cent. 
respectively. 

Clays are met with in all the larger lochs. The absolute depths 
at which they occur are of course very variable; but generally speak- 
ing they are characteristic of relatively shallow water, and they are 
never found, except as thick under-layers, at the bottom of deep 
basins. They constitute the natural silt or alluvium of lochs, com- 
posed of the geological detritus of the surrounding country. Clays 
may be introduced directly by erosion of the banks or indirectly 


' For analyses of Clays and determinations of minerals see loc. cit. 


264 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


from affluent rivers; they form the substratum of all lacustrine 
deposits, and it depends largely on hydrodynamical conditions whether 
they shall remain exposed or become covered with another kind of 
deposit. Wherever the water is in gentle motion, sufficient to wash 
away organic debris but not vigorous enough to produce sands, there 
will be a surface deposit of Clay. The sedimentation of Clay is 
continually proceeding all over a loch (except at parts of the shore- 
line), but most rapidly at the embouchures of affluents. On comparing 
lacustrine with oceanic Clays one is struck by the comparative paucity 
of argillaceous matter in the former; this is due partly to the greater 
age of the ocean, in which the chemical degradation of silicates has 
been able to progress further than in lakes, and partly to the tendency 
of true Clay to remain suspended in fresh, as distinct from salt, water, 
and to be carried out to sea. Again, the Clays of the Scottish lochs 
are conspicuously less ferruginous than those of the deep sea, which 
is doubtless due to the marked solvent power on iron compounds of 
peaty waters. Although much of the iron thus extracted returns to 
the loch deposits in organic combination (Brown Mud), the greater 
part is probably lost irrevocably to the mainland and eventuates at 
the bottom of the sea.! 


3. Brown Mups 


Brown Mud is the Scottish loch deposit par excellence. Its 
characteristic constituent is an impalpable brown humus-like product 
of the decay of vegetable matter. This substance usually shows no 
coarse remnants of tissue and is quite amorphous, though often 
coagulated into tiny balls. It is found occurring mingled in all 
proportions with the other kinds of loch deposits. Brown Muds, 
even the most typical, are never purely organic, but are invariably 
mixtures of vegetable and mineral detritus. ‘The organic component 
contains iron (and a little manganese) in combination, and when wet 
Brown Muds are preserved in bottles iron is often found to be leached 
out, and to form a scarlet limonitic scum at the upper surface in 
contact with air. 

As to the chemical nature of the organic component of Brown 
Mud little can be said, in view of our scanty knowledge of the 
chemistry of humus. It is separable into two distinct portions. 
The one, which may be referred to as alkali-humus, dissolves 
readily in dilute alkalies or ammonia, giving a deep brown solution. 
From this solution acids bring down a dark brown flocculent substance 
which is very sparingly soluble in water or alcohol, dissolves partially 
in glacial acetic acid, and contains iron. A specimen of alkali-humus 


1 Cf. Murray and Irvine, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xviii. p. 240 (footnote), 1891. 


DEPOSITS OF THE SCOTTISH FRESH-WATER LOCHS 265 


(a) derived from a mixture of Brown Muds, and another (0) from a 
Loch Lurgain mud, 146 feet, were examined quantitatively, after 
drying at 110° C. They contained :— 

(a) (0) 
On total substance, iron as Fe,O, . me 1-97 per cent, 6-1 per cent. 
Carbon 51°8 , 53°4 
Hydrogen 5:0 " 46 


oe 


On non-mineral portion only , 

Alkali-humus is not free from nitrogen, but to determine in what 
form and amount this element is present more material would be 
needed than was at disposal. The organic matter not dissolved by 
alkali is a light yellowish-grey, not markedly ferruginous powder, 
which evidently consists of disaggregated but not fully decomposed 
vegetable tissue; under the microscope it appears as a mass of 
amorphous fragments with a few cells and shreds of fibre interspersed. 

Some idea of the quantity of.organic matter in Brown Muds and 
other loch deposits may be gained from the subjomed determinations 
of carbon. Six deposits were taken, namely :— . 

(1) Loch Lurgain, 59 feet, a slightly sulphuretted Brown Mud. 

(2) Loch Frisa (Mull), 175 feet, a dark-coloured Diatom Ooze. 

(3) Loch Veyatie, 95 feet, a typical Brown Mud. 

(4) Loch Rannoch, 323 feet, a Brown Mud in an incipient stage 
of passing into Ochreous Mud. 

(5) Loch Gainmheich, 22 feet, a stiff brown Clay. 

(6) Loch Assynt, 23 feet, a typical Ochreous Mud. 

Of Nos. 1-5 the fine washings were separated (coarse minerals 
insignificant except in No. 4, 20 per cent., and No. 5, 52 per cent.) ; 
No. 6 was dealt with as a whole; the materials were dried at 110° C. 
Ignition losses were determined on one portion of each sample, and 


combustion analyses were carried out on another, with the following 
results :— 


| 
| | By Combustion. 
Ienition | a mete eens Clea Mi 7 Organi¢ 
No. “Loss. | Matter. 
Carbon. Water. Loss. 
1 | 27°68 per cent. 11°95 per cent. |14°76 per cent. | 26°01 per cent. | 23°9 per cent. 
2 | 18°27 ree alle" 09 13°51 3 16°84 12°2 55 
3 | 37°08 ei ee L828 3 19°87 35 35°73 i. 36°D He 
4. | 24°24 BD | 11°60 cs 13°59 os 23°06 i 23 °2 a 
5 9°86 An 2°82 - 6-119 4 8°43 ie 5°6 
6 | 12°68 ts | 1°26 a: 10"11 E 11°34 ie 2°5 5S 


The carbon in the vegetable matter associated with Brown Muds 
amounts roughly to 50 per cent.; hence the figures in the last column, 
obtained by multiplying the carbon percentages by two, represent 


266 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


approximately the proportion of organic matter present, and afford a 
measure of the simultaneous deposition of humus and mineral silt. It 
will be seen that even the richest Brown Mud (No. 3) still contains 
fine minerals to the extent of about two-thirds. The discrepancy 
between the ignition-losses in the first column (over the blowpipe) 
and those in the fourth (at dull red heat) is due to the water of 
constitution of the micaceous residue. From the high ratio of water 
to carbon in Nos. 1 and 5 the presence of notable admixtures of 
argillaceous matter may be inferred; the same disproportion in No. 2 
is Aeenented for by diatomaceous silica, and in No. 6 by limonite. 
The ignition-residue, representing mainly mineral silt, of the 
Brown Mud No. 3 showed on analysis :— 


SiO ; . 56°62 
AIO: lene) 
Hes; ee WIS 
MnO 0:94 
CaO ; ; 1°47 
MgO 1°28 
K,O : 4°29 
Na,O : 1:08 

100°70 


Since the crystalline minerals present are known to consist almost 
entirely of quartz and mica, the very respectable content of manganese, 
and much of the ferric oxide, would appear to have been brought 
into the deposit along with the organic matter. A portion of the 
iron is, as we have seen above, an integral constituent of the humus- 
like sediment ; the clear caustic-soda extract from 1 gram of No. 3 
yielded, on precipitation with acid, 0°29 gram of alkali-humus, the 
ash of which contained 0-023 gram of Fe,O,. 

Brown Mud is found at all depths; in the same loch it usually 
occurs, as a surface-deposit, at lower depths than pale Clay. In well- 
marked depressions of a loch-bottom, and under comparatively stagnant 
water generally, it is the invariable sediment. 

As to the origin of the organic constituent of Brown Mud, there 
can be no doubt that it is derived ultimately from the decomposition 
of vegetable matter. Much plant-refuse, such as leaves, twigs, etc., 
is imported into lochs, especially in autumn and winter, and a 
partially decayed compost of such is not uncommonly observed as a 
layer over the Brown Mud proper. ‘The immediate remains of this 
refuse account for the organic deposit insoluble in alkali. But the 
dark amorphous free alkali-humus has all the appearance of 
having been Bren teer rather than formed zn stfu; moreover, it 


DEPOSITS OF THE SCOTTISH FRESH-WATER LOCHS 267 


would be difficult to account for the loosely combined iron in it except 
by precipitation. From the experiments of Spring! we know that 
dissolved humus and ferric iron coagulate each other under the action 
of sunlight, whilst on the other hand there is certainly much iron in 
the ferrous state dissolved in peaty water. It appears probable, then, 
that alkali-humus is a chemical precipitate of insoluble iron humate, 
which has been sent down from the upper waters by the oxidation of 
a soluble iron compound, the latter being either ferrous bicarbonate 
or a combination of ferrous iron with perhaps a quite distinct form 
of humic acid. The precipitate is not of a permanent nature, but is 
slowly oxidised away, whilst the iron contained in it goes back into 
solution in the ferrous state ; in support of this the absence of huinus 
in the clay underlying Brown Mud, and the exudation of iron from 
wet Brown Mud samples (see above, p. 264), may be mentioned. 
Iron thus seems to act as an oxygen-carrier ‘in the breaking-down of 
vegetable debris. 

The elimination of organic matter from a loch, however slow the 
process may be, and whatever its mechanism, must depend in the last 
resort on the supply of atmospheric oxygen to the loch waters. ‘There 
rarely seems to be a sufficient excess of oxygen in the deepest waters 
of lochs to keep the bottom clean by purely chemical oxidation ; and 
the disposal of vegetable debris by direct fermentation into methane 
and carbon dioxide? is apparently inhibited, or much hampered, by 
peaty water. Hence in depressions of the bottom, where vegetable 
debris tends to collect by simple gravity, there is sure to be a shortage 
of oxygen, and Brown Mud is the staple deposit. Small lochs, again, 
which receive more vegetable refuse per unit area than large ones, 
may be, and often are, wholly carpeted with Brown Mud. Wherever 
Brown Mud is absent on the floor of a loch it may be inferred that 
there is either a brisk movement of the bottom water, a copious supply 
of dissolved oxygen, or a gradient too steep to afford lodgment to 
vegetable debris. 

A special variety of this class of deposit may be termed Sulphur- 
etted Mud ; it consists of Brown Mud containing ferrous sulphide, 
and is characterised by a colour approaching black and a smell of 
sulphuretted hydrogen. Free sulphur, due to the partial oxidation 
of sulphides, is always present. Sulphuretted muds are occasionally 
met with in the large Highland lochs, but only in the deepest hollows, 
or at an inflow of drainage from an inhabited ‘spot. In the small 
lochs of the Hebrides, Orkney, Shetland, and the lowlands, where the 
water 1s as a rule comparatively stagnant and not peaty, they occur 
very frequently, and in many cases constitute the sole deposit. Their 

' Bull. Acad. Belg., t. xxxiv. p. 578, 1897. 
” Hoppe-Seyler, Zeitschr. Physiol. Chem., Bd. x. p. 401, 1886. 


268 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


existence may be regarded as a certain indication that oxygen is not 
merely low in quantity, but altogether absent, in the bottom waters. 
The sulphur in them, which cannot well arise from the reduction of 
sulphates, as in sea-water,! owes its origin to the decomposition of 
vegetable or animal proteids. Since animal debris is much richer in 
sulphur than vegetable, Sulphuretted Mud is the more likely to be 
formed, the greater the supply of animal matter from the loch-waters 
or from outside. It may be remarked that, however black and fetid 
such a mud may be, the actual content of sulphur is always exceed- 
ingly small,’ as the following figures for two deposits reeking of 
sulphuretted hydrogen show :— 


| 


| Ferrous Free | 
| Sulphide. Sulphur. 
| 
| 
1, Kirk Loch, Lochmaben, 23 feet . 0°17 per cent. | 0°059 per cent. 
2. och Harray, Orkney.) 27%), 925|10-22 Ph 0:04 ae 


4. Diarom OozeEs 


Whilst a stray Diatom here and there may be observed in almost 
any loch-deposit, especially in Brown Muds, patches of deposit occur 
in some lochs of which the bulk is composed of Diatom skeletons. 
Such deposits may be recognised at once by their lack of coherence. 
Of five Diatom Oozes noted, four are white, with a slight yellow 
discoloration due to clayey matter; these are from Lochindorb, 
Loch Allt an Fhearna, 15 feet, Loch Assynt, 175 feet, and Loch an 
Duna (Lewis). The fifth, from Loch Frisa (Mull), 175 feet, is dark 
when wet, and dries to a mouse-coloured powder ; this deposit consists 
of Diatom frustules mixed with a good deal of humus, and quantita- 
tive particulars of its carbonaceous ingredient have been given above 
(p. 265). By extracting with very dilute caustic soda and determining 
the silica dissolved, information can be obtained as to the amount of 
diatomaceous silica present. T'wo of the deposits enumerated above 
gave the following figures for soluble silica :— 


Loch Frisa, 175 feet, : Ole penicent: 
Loch Allt an Fhearna, 15 feet, # 20871 


=) 


The water combined with this silica cannot be satisfactorily 
determined unless exceptionally pure Diatom Oozes should happen to 
be available, and no attempt was made with the material at disposal. 
It would be interesting, however, to know something about this 


' Murray and Irvine, Trans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xxxvil. p. 481, 1893. 
2 Cf. also Buchanan, Proc. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xviii. p. 17, 1891. 


DEPOSITS OF THE SCOTTISH FRESH-WATER LOCHS 269 


constituent, because one would on theoretical grounds! expect the 
silica of fresh-water Diatoms to be slightly more hydrated than that 
of marine Diatoms ; the latter is supposed to attach to itself about 
8 per cent. of water.” 

The Diatom species dominant in these five deposits, for the 
determination of which I am indebted to the courtesy of Professor 
G. S. West, of the University of Birmingham, are the following :— 


Lochindorb . Navicula major. 

Surirella robusta, var. splendida. 
Loch Allt an Fhearna . Melosira distans. 

Surirella robusta, var. splencida. 
Loch Assynt . . Epithemia Hyndmanni. 
Loch an Duna . Cyclotella compta. 

Surirella robusta, var. splendida. 
Loch Frisa . Cyclotella compta, var. radiosa. 


5. Ocureous Mops 


Ochreous deposits are distinguished by a high content of limonitic 
iron, which gives them a pronounced red colour. Besides limonite 
they contain the inevitable admixture of Clay, and always more or 
less organic matter; as the proportion of the latter decreases, the 
colour becomes more brilliant. Good examples of Ochreous Muds 
are found in Loch Ness, 600 feet ; Loch Laoghal, 51 feet; and Loch 
Assynt, 77 feet. An analysis of the first-named (“ Ferruginous Mud”) 
has already been published ;? it shows 244 per cent. of total ferric 
oxide. The Loch Assynt sample is the purest, 7.e. most ferruginous, 
specimen hitherto met with, and has a fine Venetian red tint; the 
organic matter (see above, p. 265) is trifling in amount. A mineral 
analysis of this deposit gave the following results :— 


Total ignition loss. 12°68 
SiO, ; 13°60 
OR | 13°62 
He,O; : ; 55°49 
MnO, 1°89 
CaO 0°86 
MgO : 0:92 
CH nine ps 0-95 
Na,O ; 0:57 

100°58 


1 Spring and Lucion, Zeitschr. anorg. Chem., Bd. 11. p. 195, 1892. 
2 Challenger Report on Deep-sea Deposits, p. 212, 1891. There is, however, room 


for revision here ; the analysis on p. 212 points to 64 per cent. rather than 8 per cent. 
3 Geogr. Journ., vol. xxxi. p. 58, 1908. 


270 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Almost all the iron was found to be capable of extraction by moder- 
ately concentrated hydrochloric acid (viz. 55°2 per cent. Fe,O,). The 
predominant ingredient of the deposit was identified under the micro- 
scope as limonite in small amorphous grains, mean diameter 0-01 mm. 

There appears to be a genetic connection between Brown Muds 
and Ochreous Muds, inasmuch as examples of Brown Mud in pro- 
gressive stages of limonitisation are met with. This suggests that 
the ochreous matter may be a decomposition-product of ferruginous 
humus. Ochreous deposits are of highly localised occurrence, and 
must have originated either in a local supply of iron (as from 
chalybeate springs), or in a local concentration of iron pre-existing 
in the deposits or waters of a loch. For the former hypothesis there 
is no tangible evidence. It appears more probable that iron humates, 
dissolved in the loch-water or insoluble in the deposits, encountered 
a current of water strongly charged with atmospheric oxygen, reaction 
taking place with formation of limonite and liberation or destruction 
of humus-acids. As for precipitation of limonite from the water, 
this could only occur if there were extremely little organic matter in 
solution, since, so long as humic acid is in excess, not limonite, but 
insoluble iron humate, goes down.! We are left to conclude, then, 
that Ochreous Muds are formed in situ by the oxidation of Brown 
Muds—whether directly, or through the agency of bacteria,? must 
be left undecided. The humus of Brown Muds, as we have seen, 
holds in combination a considerable amount of iron, which at one 
time must have been in solution in the loch-water, and at a still 
earlier stage must have been leached out of minerals by dissolved 
humic acids. It will be noted that the best examples of Ochreous 
Mud occur in deep water, where a mass of humus capable of leaving 
a tolerably thick layer of limonite may have had opportunity to 
accumulate. Whatever be the origin of lacustrine limonite, its 
formation and existence must certainly be bound up with an excess 
of dissolved oxygen in the adjacent waters. 


6. CatcarEous Deposirs 


It will have been noted that no mention has been made in the 
foregoing pages of calcium carbonate, which plays so important a part 
in the deposits of the ocean and of lakes on the continent of Europe. 
Not a trace of this substance was found in any of the deposits from 
Scottish mainland lochs,® and the reason clearly is that the country is 

1 Of. Spring, loc. cat. 

2 Uf. Van Bemmelen, Zeitschr. anorg. Chem., Bd. xxii. p. 313, 1900, where 
references to the literature of iron-bacteria are given. 


3 Although there is a limestone formation of some magnitude at the eastern 
end of Loch Assynt, the twenty odd deposits from this loch, the floor of which 


DEPOSITS OF THE SCOTTISH FRESH-WATER LOCHS 271 


poor in lime, the limestone formations being both rare and exiguous. 
Not only, therefore, is no lime brought into the loch-bottoms as 
detritus, but also the waters are too soft to harbour a flourishing lime- 
secreting fauna, such as might give rise to deposits of biological 
calcium carbonate. Peaty waters, also, may be admitted to have a 
solvent action on lime which tends to prevent its deposition or 
secretion ; but as it is, the Scottish loch and river waters find next to 
no calcareous material upon which to exert their powers. In those 
exceptional regions where limestone formations predominate we may 
expect to find lime on the floors of lochs. A case in point is the 
island of Lismore, from which four calcareous bottom-samples were 
brought, viz. :— 


(1) Loch Baile a Ghobhainn, 2 feet, CaCO,=91 per cent. 


(2) 99 Z ote) Oe ae Gi 
(3) Loch Fiart, . ; ae $3 53 
(4) Loch Kilcheran, — . » 60) 3: Be, AO. sist 


The calcareous matter consists of crystalline calcite in small 
fragments, with here and there a piece of snail-shell; it is, properly 
speaking, a biological precipitate, having been formed by the agency 
of phanerogamous aquatic plants,! which withdraw carbonic acid from 
the very hard water of these lochs, and cause the deposition of 
calcium carbonate around their stems. Deposits 2-4 are Brown Muds 
mixed with lime. 

Not a single mainiand deposit was observed to be calcareous. A 
sample with 75 per cent. of calcium carbonate was taken, oddly enough, 
from Loch Swannay in Orkney, which is not a limestone country. 
The deposit occurs under 8 feet of water at a spot where a patch of 
Potamogeton is reported, and this plant is doubtless responsible for 
its formation. Other bottom-samples from the same loch are quite 
free from lime. 


ScorrisH LocwH anp OckEanic Derposrtrs CompareD 


The general conditions which govern the formation of loch deposits 
have been indicated to some extent in describing the several classes of 
deposits. It is not uninstructive, in this connection, to compare the 
floor of the lochs with that of the ocean. 

All subaqueous deposits owe their being to three distinct processes, 
V1Z. -— 

(1) Importation of solid matter from land. 
was exceptionally well sampled, were found to be quite free from calcium 
carbonate. It would have been interesting, in this connection, to know something 


about the content of lime in the loch-water. 
1 West, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxv. p. 968, 1905. 


272 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


(2) Precipitation, biological or purely chemical, from the over- 

lying waters. 

(3) Decomposition and synthesis of matter at the bottom. 

These agencies operate very differently in the lochs and in the sea, 
and the aqueous media also are very different; hence it is not 
surprising that lacustrine and oceanic deposits should show more 
points of contrast than of similarity. 

(1) All the mineral matter at the bottom of a lake is derived by 
erosion from the surrounding country, either through direct wave- 
action on shore, or through the medium of affluent rivers. It is thus 
wholly * terrigenous,” whereas of the floor of the ocean only a limited 
strip around the continental coast-lines answers to this description. 
Inorganic lake deposits, then, are essentially similar to terrigenous 
oceanic deposits, consisting of clastic debris of continental minerals 
with more or less clay, and having a finer grain the greater their 
distance from briskly moving water. Oceanic terrigenous deposits, 
however, undergo certain submarine modifications which are peculiar 
to sea-water as a medium: by the decomposition of (animal) organic 
waste within them they acquire an intimate admixture of fine 
carbonaceous matter, whilst the iron within them is partially reduced 
from the ferric to the ferrous state; or, again, through the activity of 
bacteria which reduce the sulphates of sea-water, ferrous sulphide may 
be formed within them. ‘These processes are carried out by the aid of 
bottom-living animals or bacteria, and produce the Blue Muds, a class 
of deposit which has no real analogue in the Scottish lochs, in the 
peaty waters of which there is no abyssal fauna to speak of and 
bacterial life is at a minimum. It is noteworthy that a blue-grey 
Clay resembling Blue Mud comes into existence at the bottom of the 
Lake of Geneva,! where there is plenty of biological activity in the 
abyssal regions. On the other hand, dacustrine mineral deposits are 
_ subject to organic contamination of a kind unknown in the sea, in 
that they may become charged with the humus which results from the 
decay of vegetable matter. Humus in the Clay of the Scottish lochs, 
however, does not tend to be degraded further to the condition of the 
black carbonaceous constituent of Blue Mud; this again may be 
accounted for by the absence of an abyssal fauna. As regards the 
mineral detritus in terrigenous deposits, 1t is qualitatively much the 
same in the lochs and the ocean. Detrital calcium carbonate, which 
does not exist in the lochs and does not reach the bottom in the ocean, 
occurs, however, in the lakes of Switzerland and Northern Europe as 
calcareous mud. 

(2) A most important factor in the formation of submarine deposits 
is the animal life with which the ocean swarms. More than a third 

1 Forel, Le Léman, t. 1. p. 119, 1892. 


DEPOSITS OF THE SCOTTISH FRESH-WATER LOCHS 273 


of the floor of the ocean is covered with dead calcareous shells 
(Globigerina Ooze) fallen from above, and large areas also are 
composed of siliceous skeletons (Diatom Ooze and Radiolarian Ooze). 
These oozes consist of inorganic material which has been precipitated 
by biological agencies out of solution in the sea. Such deposits play 
but an insignificant part in lakes. It is clear that, even if the requisite 
forms of life were present, there could not be much precipitation of 
calcium carbonate in lakes, seeing that there are only 30 to 40 parts 
per million of calcium in normal soft lake-water, whereas in sea-water 
there are about 400 parts per million. Apart from the sparse frag- 
ments of large shells occasionally found near shore, calcareous matter 
seems never to exist in the deposits of Scottish mainland lochs. 

Such calcareous deposits as have been found in island lochs are 
products of vegetable life, and are thus comparable to the coccoliths 
and rhabdoliths of deep-sea deposits. Calcium carbonate secreted by 
plants, especially algae, is a not unimportant constituent of Danish 
lake deposits! On the whole, however, it may be said that, whilst 
submarine lime is wholly of biological, that of lake-deposits is mainly 
of detrital, origin. 

Diatomaceous deposits are occasionally met with in the lochs, as 
recorded above. As compared with oceanic Diatom Oozes, they con- 
tain more clayey silt, and they are free from the lime which invariably 
accompanies their oceanic analogues. ‘There is reason to believe that 
peaty water such as that of the lochs is, if anything, richer in silica 
than that of the ocean. If, in spite of this, diatomaceous lake-deposits 
are somewhat uncommon, the reason may be either that sea-water is 
relatively a kindlier medium for this form of life, or that dead Diatom 
frustules are redissolved more rapidly in loch water. 

Peaty water carries in solution a certain amount of iron existing 
as soluble humate, a solute which is absent or insignificant in ocean- 
water. Brown Mud, as we have seen above, appears to be partially 
derived from this source, and would in so far be classifiable as a 
precipitated deposit. Anything like Brown Mud is unknown at the 
bottom of the open sea, since precipitated humus is rapidly cleared 
away by bottom-living animals. A comparison of Loch Ness with 
a similarly shaped and environed salt-water loch, such as Loch Fyne, 
is instructive in this respect. Both lakes exist under similar condi- 
tions, but the former holds fresh water and the latter sea-water ; the 
result is that Brown Mud accumulates at the bottom of Loch Ness, 
whilst in Loch Fyne the bottom is kept comparatively clean and free 
from vegetable organic matter. 

(3) Decomposition of minerals is much the same process in oceanic 
as in fresh water. Alkalies, calcium, and magnesium are eliminated, 


1 Wesenberg-Lund, Studzer over Sékalk, etc., p. 154, Copenhagen, 1901. 
18 


274 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


water of hydration is taken up, and the result is clay. It has been 
mentioned that submarine clayey deposits are in a far more advanced 
stage of decomposition, ?.e. contain far more clay proper, than 
lacustrine ones. ‘This is due not to a more powerful corroding action 
on the part of sea-water, but rather to the greater geological age 
of submarine deposits. The continual transportation of fine suspended 
argillaceous matter from land into the ocean is also to be reckoned 
with. 

Except in quantities of 1 or 2 per cent. at the utmost, there 
is no organic matter in deep-sea deposits. ‘The little (mainly animal) 
that reaches the bottom is rapidly oxidised away or consumed by 
the bottom-living fauna. ‘The lochs are in a very different case. 
Here there is a plentiful influx of dead vegetable matter—more than 
the available supply of dissolved oxygen can cope with. This debris 
decays as far as the humus stage, instead of being broken down to 
carbonic acid; the humus accumulates in combination with iron, 
and becomes in effect the characteristic lacustrine deposit. It is 
interesting to observe the vicissitudes of iron in the two media. In 
a loch we find the Clays much paler, that is, less ferruginous than 
deep-sea Clays, and a continual interchange of iron between the water 
and the bottom-deposits is going on; whilst the Brown Muds lock 
up a good deal of iron (and manganese) and tend, if exposed to 
oxidising conditions, to become ever more ferruginous. ‘The con- 
centration of iron as limonite or siderite in clay-ironstone and 
bog-ores is in fact peculiar to fresh water. In the sea, on the other 
hand, if we disregard the minor, and up to the present inexplicable, 
concentration of iron in glauconite, the career of this element is 
uneventful and ends with ferruginous Clay. 

It is scarcely necessary to point out that in lakes nothing similar 
to the vast areas of oceanic Red Clay, which substance is produced 
by the decomposition 7 sztw of volcanic silicates, need be expected ; 
indeed, no lake is large enough to contain regions which, with 
respect to the deposits, might be termed “ pelagic.” 


PIOLOGY, OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS 


By JAMES MURRAY, F.R.S.E. 


PARE] 
THE BIOLOGY IN RELATION TO ENVIRONMENT 


INTRODUCTION 


Durine the five years of the existence of the Lake Survey, 562 lochs 
have been surveyed. Biological collections were made in nearly all of 
those lochs, and more than 400 of these collections have been examined. 
Usually only a single collection of plankton was taken in each loch; 
but in Loch Ness and a few other lochs it was possible to study the 
biology more thoroughly, and to examine the littoral and abyssal 
regions also. From a biological survey made in this manner it is hardly 
possible to make generalisations of any value. Each loch being 
examined only once, and the survey being carried on almost at all 
seasons of the year, the lochs cannot even be fairly compared one with 
another. ‘The amount of difference found between the plankton of 
different parts of the country may in part arise from the fact that 
they were examined at different seasons of the year. ‘This is the more 
probable since it is known that fresh-water plankton is very uniform 
over vast areas. Despite this difficulty, it is, however, certain that 
some very interesting facts in the distribution of plankton organisms 
can be ascertained from an examination of these collections. Their 
chief use, in the meantime, is to enable a census of the inhabitants 
of the Scottish lochs to be made—very imperfect, certainly, but of 
some value to special students, as offering a large body of facts not 
readily got together. 

The biological survey was concerned solely with the Invertebrata 
among animals, and chiefly with the microscopic Algze among plants. 
Of the Vertebrata, the only class which is conspicuous among true 
lacustrine animals, the Fishes, had already been the subject of 
much special study. ‘The same may be said of the aquatic birds ; 


and the other classes of Vertebrata—Mammalia, Reptilia, Batrachia 
215 


276 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


—are of little importance in connection with lakes. In the Inver- 
tebrata, on the other hand, there was a vast field, very partially 
explored in this country, the chief work having been done on the 
Crustacea by Dr Scott. The Phanerogamia and higher Cryptogamia 
were only studied by the Lake Survey in a few districts; but the 
microscopic Algae, occurring in the plankton, were important in all 
the collections. 

In this first part of the paper the biology of the different 
parts of the lakes is first studied—the open water, the margin, the 
bottom—then the distribution, origin, etc. In. the “Census of 
Species” given in Part II., only those lochs are taken into account 
which were bathymetrically surveyed, in order that the biological 
report may strictly correspond with the bathymetrical. A_bio- 
logical examination was made of many lochs not otherwise surveyed, 
and some interesting facts thereby added to our knowledge ; but such 
facts will not be treated of here. 

The distribution of some 700 species through more than 400 lochs 
offers difficulties in regard to its presentation in useful and convenient 
form. ‘To give it in tabular form would need a large number of tables. 
While some of the plankton species have been found in nearly every 
loch, other species have been found in only one or two, or at any rate 
in very few lochs. There is no reason to believe that most of these 
latter are really more restricted in their distribution than the others. 
Many lochs may have been visited when those species were not in 
season; but the main reason for the inequalities in the number of 
records for different species is that the margins of the lakes, where 
the major part of the life resides, could only be examined in a few 
instances. The distribution might be more concisely tabulated by 
grouping the lochs into districts, but even thus the records would be 
so very inadequate and unequal as to be actually misleading, and it is 
doubtful if such tables would serve any good purpose. There are, 
of course, some species which are believed to be really rare or 
restricted in distribution. ‘Those which, though not rare, have. well- 
marked limitations of range, will be treated in a special section on 
Distribution. Those which are rare or sporadic in occurrence will 
be referred to in the notes on the species which follow the list of 
species in each class. In this census it may be assumed that species 
not specially remarked upon in the notes are fairly generally distri- 
buted over the country. 


THE PLANKTON 


An understanding of the character of the plankton of the Scottish 
lochs may be obtained by considering, first, the features in which it 


BIOLOGY OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS AAT 


agrees with the plankton of the rest of Europe, and the world 
generally, then the special peculiarities which distinguish it. Before 
doing so it will be necessary to examine the composition of the 
plankton. The number of organisms which have been taken in 
the plankton-collections, z.e. in the open water of the lochs, is very 
considerable. On a scrutiny of the lists of species taken in the 
plankton-nets it is found that a large number of them must be ex- 
cluded as not truly belonging to the plankton. This results from 
the narrow form of most of the larger lakes, which makes it easy for 
littoral forms to be driven out to the open water during storms. 
The same effect is produced in broad but shallow lakes by the stirring 
up of the muds, by which bottom forms become mixed with the true 
plankton. The plankton is very often impure, but experience teaches 
what are the true plankton organisms, and, moreover, in the larger 
lakes very pure collections may be got after a period of calm weather. 
Excluding casuals, the plankton lists are not very extensive. 

The relative frequency of the species in the following lists is 
indicated by only three terms, general, local, and very local. It is 
judged that more accurate discrimination is not at present possible. 


ZOOPLANKTON 


Crustacea.— Diaptomus gracilis, Sars. General. 
D. laciniatus, Lillje. Local. 
D. laticeps, Sars. Local. 
D. wierzejski, Richard. Local. 
Cyclops strenwus, Fischer. General. 
Diaphanosoma brachyurum, Liévin. General. 
Holopedium gibberum, Zaddack. General. 
Daphnia hyalina, Leydig. General. 
Bosmina obtusirostris, Sars. General. 
B. longirostris (Miill.). Local. 
B. coregonit, Baird. Very local. 
Polyphemus pediculus (Linné). General. 
Bythotrephes longimanus, Leydig. General. 
Leptodora kindtit (Focke). General. 


Rotifera.— Floscularia pelagica, Rouss. ? Local. 
Conochilus volvox, Ehr. General. 
C. unicornis, Rouss. General. 
Asplanchna priodonta, Gosse. General. 
Polyarthra platyptera, Ehr. General. 
P. euryptera, Wier. Local. 
Triarthra longiseta, Ehr. Local. 


278 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Anurwa cochlearis, Gosse. General. 
Notholca longispina, Kell. General. 
Gastropus stylifer, Imhof. ? Local. 
Plesoma hudsoni, Imhof. Local. 

P. truncatum, V.evander. Local. 


Protozoa.— Nebela bicornis, West. Very local. 
Raphidiophrys conglobata (Greeff). ? Local. 
R. pallida, F. E. Schulze. ? Local. 
Clathrulina elegans, Cienk. Local. 


In addition to the 30 species above enumerated, there may be 
some doubt as to whether some of the commonest casual species 
might not be included in the plankton. Sida crystallina is very 
commonly captured in the open water, though the possession of the 
remarkable sucker would lead one to suppose that it would always 
frequent the weedy margin. <Alonopsis elongata is still more 
frequently got in the open water, even of the largest lakes, though 
never in great abundance. F'urcularia reinhardti is quite common in 
the plankton ; but it is such a ubiquitous species, living in streams, 
ponds, and even in the sea. that it cannot be considered proper to 
any situation. Synchata: the various species of this genus are often 
reckoned in the pelagic fauna, but they so rarely occur in the larger 
lochs, except near shore, that I regard them as pond species. SS. 
tremula is perhaps most frequent in the larger lochs, S. pectinata 
is common in small lochs and ponds, and S. grandis has only once 
been noted. 

Arcella, Cyphoderia, and a few other Rhizopods are pretty fre- 
quent in the plankton, but still, I think, casual. 

Of the 30 species in the list it may be said of several of them 
that they are too rare, or too little is known of them, to decide 
whether they are true plankton species in the Scottish lochs. 
Bosmina coregont, only known in two of the lochs, is included because 
Dr Wesenberg-Lund gives it as usual in the lake plankton of the 
great Central European plain. Nebela bicornis is included because its 
hyaline character seems to indicate fitness for a pelagic life, and its 
discoverer only found it in the plankton (of Loch Shiel). A single 
example was got in Loch Ness. ‘Two species of Raphidiophrys are 
known to be in Loch Ness from Dr Penard’s researches, and one 
species in Loch Rannoch. ‘They may be common. 

The case of Clathrulina elegans is peculiar. It is frequent, 
especially in the great lakes, but is by no means general in its dis- 
tribution. It is usually only the skeletons that are found, rarely 
encysted animals, and only once (in Loch Lochy) were they found 
with the pseudopodia extended. 


BIOLOGY OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS 279 


PHYTOPLANKTON 


The number of vegetable organisms in the plankton collections 
is much greater than that of animals, and it is much more difficult 
to assign them their true positions, whether true plankton organisms 
or casual. It is not intended to give full lists here, as these would 
almost coincide with the lists in the ‘* Census of Species.” 

All the Chlorophycez in the lst (about 150 species, of which 
about 120 are Desmids) were obtained in the plankton nets, A large 
proportion must be casuals, washed out from the peat-bogs, etc. 
These figures may be compared with those given by Messrs W. and 
G. S. West,! who have recorded nearly 200 Chlorophyceee for the 

Scottish lochs, about 150 being Desmids. 
) As I cannot pretend to the knowledge necessary to select from 
our long list the true plankton Desmids, Messrs West’s list of 44 
species is here transcribed. I would be inclined to somewhat extend 
the list. 


Desmids.—Gonatozygon monotewnium, De Bary. 
— Genicularra elegans, West. 
Closterium kiitzingu, Nig. General. 
Euastrum verrucosum, Ehr. General. 
Micrasterias mahabuleshwarensis, Hobson. Very local. 
Cosmarium contractum, Kirchn. 
C. depressum (Nig.). 
C. abbreviatum, Racib. 
Xanthidiwm antilopeum (Bréb.). General. 
AX. subhastiferum, West. Local. 
X. controversum, West. Local. 
Arthrodesmus incus (Bréb.). General. 
A. quiriferus, West. 
A. crassus, West. 
A. triangularis, Lagerh. 
Staurastrum dejectum (Bréb.). Local. 
SS. curvatum, West. Local. 
S. gaculiferum, West. General. 
S. megacanthum, Lund. Local. 
S. cuspidatum, Bréb. 
S'. nelegans, West. 
S. longispinum (Bail.). Local. 
S. brasiliense, Nordst. Local. 
S. grande, Buln. Local. 


S. brevispinum, Bréb. 
1 Trans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xli. pp. 477-518, 1905. 


280 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


. dunatum, Ralfs. General. 

. aversum, Land. 

. subnudibrachiatum, West. 

. teliferum, Ralfs. 

. erasum, Bréb. 

. pseudopelagicum, West. Local. 
S. paradoxum, Meyen. General. 
S. gracile, Ralfs. General. 

S. anatinum, Cooke and Wills. Local. 
S. ophiura, Lund. Local. 

S. furcigerum, Bréb. Local. 

S. sevangulare (Buln.). Local. 

S. arctiscon, Ehr. Local. 
Spondylosium pulchrum (Bail.). 
Desmidium graciliceps (Nordst.). 
D. coarctatum, Nordst. 

D. occidentale, West. 

Hyalotheca mucosa, Ehr. General. 
H. neglecta, Racib. 


RARKHKHHA 


Several of these are not in the survey list, and it is to be noted 
that in many cases the species occurs in the plankton under special 
varieties, not here specified, as it is only intended to indicate what 
species are, under some form, to be regarded as naturalised in the 
plankton. 


Other Chlorophycez.-—26 species (Messrs West 44 species). 
Myxophycez.—10 species (Messrs West 21 species). 
Peridiniaces. —Peridiniwm sp. 

Glenodiniwm sp. 

Ceratium hirundinella, Mill. General. 
. C. cornutus (Ehr.). Local (or casual). 

Flagellata.— Mallomonas sp. General ? 

Dinobryon. Several forms common. 


Diatoms.—The list of Diatoms is very poor, numbering only 
some two dozen species, whereas Messrs West found about 60. Most 
of these they regarded as casual, and the small list of true plankton 
species, here transcribed, only numbers about 20 species. 


Tabellaria fenestrata (Lyngb.). General. 

T. flocculosa (Roth.). General. 

Fragilaria crotonensis (A. M. Edw.). Local. 
Asterionella formosa, Hass. General. 

A. gracillima, Heib. General. 

Eunotia pectinahs (Kutz.). 


BIOLOGY OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS 28] 


Navicula major, Kutz. 

Vanheurckia rhomboides (Ehv.). 
Surirella biseriata (Bréb.). 

S. robusta, Ehr. General. 

Synedra ulna (Nitzsch.). 

Melosira granulata (EKhyv.). 
Amphipleura pellucida, Kiitz. 
Rhizosolenia longiseta, Zach. Local. 
R. eriensis, H. L. Sm. Local. 
Cyclotella (several species). 


A brief analysis of the preceding lsts will prepare us for a com- 
parative study with the rest of Europe. The species marked in the 
list as “ general” are almost universal in the lochs of the mainland, 
and usually in the islands also. Those marked “local” have well- 
marked limits in their distribution, though they may be very common, 
and may even be in every part of the country, but only in a small 
proportion of lochs. ‘Those marked “very local” are only known 
in a few lochs. Those having no such indication are insufficiently 
known, or at least the collections do not furnish sufficient information, 
and such must be sought elsewhere. 

Zooplankton.—The list contains 14 Crustacea, 12 Rotifera, and 
4 Protozoa. 15 species (9 Crustacea and 6 Rotifera) are generally 
distributed in the lochs; 15 species are considered local. 

Half of the generally distributed Crustacea are found all the year 
round—Diaptomus gracilis, Cyclops strenuus, Daphnia hyalina, and 
Bosmina obtusivostris. The others have a limited season—Holopedium, 
Polyphemus, Bythotrephes, Leptodora, Diaphanosoma. 

All the generally distributed Rotifera appear to persist through- 
out the year. For some of the species there is hardly enough evidence 
to prove this, but at all events they are found throughout summer, 
autumn, and early winter, and in early spring they are present 
(Asplanchna bearing viviparously) before the larger lakes begin to 
rise in temperature. 

Phytoplankton.—Apart from the Desmids and Diatoms, no 
analysis of the phytoplankton will be attempted, as Dr Bachmann 
discusses these in his paper.? 

I have indicated in the list 9 Desmids and 5 Diatoms which 
appear to be generally distributed. They are: Closterium hiitzingit, 
Euastrum verrucosum, Xanthidium antilopeum, Arthrodesmus incus, 


1 See Bachmann, “ Vergleichende Studien tiber das Phytoplankton von Seen 
Schottlands und der Schweiz,” Archiv f. Hydrobiologie u. Planktonkunde, Bd. iii. 
p. 1, 1907. To include the dozens of species recorded by Bachmann in their 
proper places would involve rewriting this article; the reader is therefore 
referred to the work itself, 


282 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Staurastrum jaculiferum, S. lunatum, S. paradoxum, S. gracile, 
Hyalotheca mucosa; Tabellaria fenestrata, T’. flocculosa, Asterionella 
formosa, A. gracillima, Surirella robusta. 

Of the Peridiniaceze only Ceratiwm hirundinella can be definitely 
set down as “general,” though a species of Peridinium (P. tabulatum ?) 
is very frequent. 

The 2 species of Asterionella are indicated as general, but this | 
is rather misleading, as neither species is distributed all over the 
country. Messrs West are inclined to regard both forms as extremes 
of the same species, and it is intended to indicate that Asterionedla, 
in one form or other, is in almost every loch. 

Dinobryon is found in most lochs, but no one form is “ general.” 

Mallomonas is probably “ general,” but if so, has been frequently 
overlooked, as might from its small size be expected. 

There are thus altogether only some 29 organisms, or equal 
numbers of animals and plants, which can be regarded as generally 
distributed in the Scottish plankton. These figures leave out of 
account certain groups of phytoplankton, at present under study. 

Few of these species ever become dominant in the plankton, to 
the extent of colouring the water or rendering it turbid. Several of 
the Crustacea (D. gracilis, C. strenuus, Holopedium, Daphnia, Bosmina) 
may do so. 

Of the Rotifers, Asplanchna, from its large size, most readily 
dominates the plankton, but has only rarely been observed to do so. 
Notholca longispina has on occasion rendered the collections brick- 
red, and somewhat affected the transparency of the water. <Anurwa 
cochlearis and Polyarthra platyptera have, in small lochs, contributed 
considerably to the turbidity. 

Ceratium hirundinella is frequently the dominant organism for 
a season, and occasionally renders the water turbid. No one species 
of Desmid is ever conspicuously dominant, but often an aggregation 
of many species, all abundant, gives the character to the plankton. 

The organisms most commonly greatly predominating in the 
water, so as to produce the phenomenon of “flowering,” are not 
found among the most generally distributed species. ‘Those are 
among the casual species, chiefly Myxophycee (Anabaena, Clathrocystis, 
etc.), or less commonly Chlorophycez (Volvo, etc.). 

Seasonal Variation.—The seasonal variation in the composition 
of the plankton is, on the whole, but slight ; although, as it is chiefly 
exhibited among the largest Crustacea, it produces conspicuous 
differences. ‘The four commonest plankton Crustacea, Draptomus 
gracilis, Cyclops strenuus, Bosmina obtusirostris, and Daphnia hyalna, 
remain all the year round in Loch Ness, and have been frequently 
taken in winter in smaller lochs, though in some of these they may 


BIOLOGY OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS 283 


have a resting season, as in some lochs at high elevations only C. 
strenuus is found at the end of winter. The other Crustacea have a 
seasonal limitation. 

All the commonest plankton Rotifers also persist all the year 
round. The season at which a summer species appears in different 
lochs is affected by climate, and by the volume of the lochs. In 
small lochs which quickly warm up in summer they appear early ; 
in larger lochs which remain longer cool they may appear months 
later. No precise limits for the seasonal range of the different 
species can be given, as most lochs were visited only once; but the 
earliest and latest dates at which they have been observed may be 
indicated. 

Holopedium.—Karliest appearance noted, end of April 1903, near 
Inverness ; latest, October 1903, also near Inverness. 

Leptodora.—Karliest, May 1902, in the Ness basin. In Loch 
Ness it was present from July till November 1903—in October males 
appeared, and in November they predominated. 

Bythotrephes.—Karliest, Loch Ruthven, end of April 1903 ; latest, 
November 1903, Loch Ness. 

Polyphemus.—Earliest, middle of April, Ness basin; latest, Loch 
Laoghal, Sutherland, October 1902. In Loch Ness it was found only 
from July to September. 

Diaphanosoma brachyurwm.—Earliest, near Oban, May 1903; 
latest, W. Ross, October 1904. 

Latona.—Karliest, 'Tay basin, May 1903; latest, E. Ross and 
Galloway, August. 

Diaptomus laciniatus.—Earlest, June 1904, Ness basin; latest, 
October 1902, Sutherland. 

D. wierzej skii.Farliest, May 1904, North Uist; latest, October 
1902, Sutherland. 

The seasonal range above indicated cannot be trusted as giving 
the true limits, except for those species (Leptodora, Bythotrephes, 
Polyphemus) which live in Loch Ness. The lochs in which the other 
species live have not been visited earlier or later than the dates given. 
Some of them may endure longer in the season, or even possibly all 
the year round. 

The seasonal variation of the phytoplankton cannot be indicated 
with any precision Loch Ness, which alone has been systematically 
examined during a whole year, has a very meagre phytoplankton. 
All that can be said about the phytoplankton in this connection is 
derived from single observations of each loch. 

Flowering of the Water.—In the great lakes a marked “ flowering” 
has never been seen at any season. In Loch Lomond there was what 
Dr Bachmann described as a “* Wasserbliithe” in August 1905, though 


284 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


the Algze did not form streaks or patches on the surface, but could 
be seen floating scattered through the water. 

A distinct ‘ flowering ” due to Chlorophyceze has been seen in a 
shallow loch as early as July. The phenomenon was commoner in 
the autumn, in August, and especially in September, among the 
northern lochs, and was generally caused by Myxophycez (Anabaena, 
Oscillatoria, etc.). 

In contrast to this summer and autumn “ flowering,” some lochs 
of considerable size (Loch Earn, St Mary’s Loch) flowered in mid- 
winter, when the water was coolest. These lochs had clear water in 
summer when the Algz were scarce, but became more or less turbid 
from the abundance of vegetable life in winter. | 

Temperature in relation to Plankton.—In respect of the tempera- 
ture of the water, as affecting the biology, Scottish lochs fall into 
two classes-—those which do not freeze in winter, and those which 
do freeze. The climate of Scotland is so temperate that no 
lochs are in normal winters frozen over for long periods, as they 
are in Europe generally. The smaller lochs may be frozen over 
for a few days, or a few weeks, several times in the course of the 
winter. The distinction between the two classes of lakes is, however, 
quite sharp. 

The first class contains lochs of such a size that an ordinary 
winter is not sufficiently long to cool them below the maximum 
density point of water. Their minimum temperature is therefore 
nearly 40° Fahr., and the larger lakes seldom cool to within several 
degrees of this. The volume of water which prevents cooling below 
this point in an ordinary winter also preveuts undue heating in 
summer, and the characteristic of these lakes is the small annual range 
of temperature, rarely reaching 20°°0 Fahr. This very temperate 
climate must be of great importance to the inhabitants of the lakes, 
and might be expected to reduce seasonal change to a minimum. 

The second class contains lakes which cool sufficiently in an 
ordinary winter to cause them to freeze from time to time. The 
minimum temperature of these lakes may be anything down to freezing 
point, but it is rarely that anything less than 35°:0 is recorded in the 
water beneath the ice. 

A temperature of 35°:0 has only been noted in very shallow lochs, 
aud more usually, when the ice is broken over fairly deep water, a 
temperature of just about maximum density pomt is found. Lochs 
shallow enough to freeze in winter are also likely to become greatly 
heated in summer. These lochs have therefore a much higher annual 
range of temperature. It is rarely that any Scottish loch reaches a 
higher temperature than 64°:0 Fahr., so that the extreme range even 
for small lochs is only about 30°-°0—very much less than the range in 


BIOLOGY OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS 285 


the shallow Continental lakes. Even so far north as Denmark the 
annual range seems to be about 10°-0 Fahr. greater; in the great 
Balatonsee of Hungary it is much higher—nearly 50°°0 Fahr. The 
greater range of temperature will favour seasonal variation. The 
higher summer temperature will be likely to encourage a richer fauna 
and flora; the low winter temperature will be unfavourable to life. 
An exceptionally severe winter may cause some of the smaller lochs 
of the first class to be for a time transferred to the second. 

We are not in a position to trace the actual relation of the life- 
changes throughout the year to the changes of temperature, except 
in the case of Loch Ness, which may be taken as a fair type of the 
first class. That loch was examined regularly for more than a 
complete year. Loch Morar has been examined at all seasons, but 
irregularly and at long intervals. Several lochs which freeze in winter 
have been examined in midsummer and in midwinter. 

In the great lakes which never freeze there is no very marked decrease 
in the quantity of organisms in winter. Many of the species persist 
all the year round; but as those which are absent in winter are the 
most conspicuous of the Crustacea, the difference between the winter 
and the summer plankton appears rather striking. Holopedium, 
Polyphemus, Bythotrephes, and Leptodora are all absent during a part 
of the year. 

Cosmopolitan Element in the Plankton.—For information as to 
the general plankton of Europe and other regions I am mainly 
indebted to various papers by Dr Wesenberg-Lund, who has made 
wider comparative studies of plankton. 

Only those species which are generally distributed over Scotland 
can be taken into account in comparing the plankton of Scotland 
with that of Europe generally. The animals which are dominant or 
common both in Scotland and the rest of Europe are: Diaptomus 
gracihs, Daphnia hyalina, Diaphanosoma brachyurum, Leptodora 
kindtw, Conochilus unicorns, Asplanchna priodonta, Polyarthra 
platyptera, Anurwa cochlearis, Notholca longispina, Ceratium hirun- 
dinella, and Asterionella. 

All of these, according to Dr Wesenberg-Lund, belong to the 
general plankton association of the great European plain, or are 
even cosmopolitan. 


PECULIARITIES OF THE ScorTtTisH PLANKTON 


The Scottish plankton differs from the plankton of the, Central 
European plain and from the cosmopolitan fresh-water plankton 
in several respects. The most striking peculiarity is the extraordinary 
richness of the phytoplankton in species of Desmids, shared only, in 


286 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


anything like equal degree, by the plankton of the Irish lakes. The 
next feature of importance is the conspicuous Arctic element in the 
plankton Crustacea. A third element is the absence or comparative 
rarity of some of the species commonest in the general European 
plankton. Another peculiarity is the very local distribution of some 
of the Crustacea and many of the Desmids. 

The Desmid Flora.—Some 200 species of Desmids have been 
found in the Scottish lochs. Making the greatest allowance for 
casual species, there still remain 50 or more true plankton species. 
Sometimes as many as 50 species, including casuals, are found together 
in one loch. There is nothing like this elsewhere in European 
lakes, where, as a rule, there are no Desmids, or only a few species. 
The nearest approach to the condition of matters which obtains in 
Scotland is found in Scandinavia and Finland, where a number of 
the Scottish species occur. In a recent report on the Swiss Alpine 
lakes, Tanner-Fillemann! states that the Schonenbodensee is 
relatively rich in Desmids, 19 species being recorded. 

Various attempts have been made to account for the great richness 
of our Desmid flora. Dr Wesenberg-Lund attributes it to the peaty 
character of the water. Messrs West likewise attribute it to the 
absence of lime and presence of humic acid, but they further consider 
that the richest Desmid flora is found in lochs lying in the Older 
Palaeozoic rocks. A connection has been suggested between the 
heavy rainfall and the abundance of Desmids. There can be no 
doubt, as pointed out by Messrs West, that the abundance is not due 
to species washed out from peat-bogs. There are many well-marked 
pelagic species which appear to have been long established in the 
lochs, and are rare in the peat-bogs. 

No doubt the peaty water is favourable to the increase of the 
Desmids, but neither of these explanations sufficiently accounts for 
the restriction of this Desmid flora to the British Isles. There are 
Older Palaeozoic rocks and peat-bogs enough elsewhere in Europe, 
and no doubt lochs with peaty water in moorland districts. ‘The 
lochs possessing the Desmids are not exclusively among the Older 
Paleozoic rocks; many of them lie partly or wholly among drift, 
and this over rocks of various ages. The means of dispersal from 
loch to loch are easy, and might permit of their distribution over the 
whole country, and into other countries, as rapidly as is known to be 
the case with Crustacea and Rotifers. There are also many peaty 
lochs among the Older Palaeozoic rocks which have not the character- 
istic Desmids. 

In view of all these facts, it seems to me that the prime factor in 
restricting these Desmids to certain regions must be climatic. 

lull, Herbs Boiss. ser 2) ti vale LOOT 


= ats 


BIOLOGY OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS 287 


Differences in the chemical properties of the water may account for 
local differences in the abundance of the Desmids. Most of the lochs 
rich in Desmids are near the sea-board, and those which are farthest 
removed from it are at considerable elevations. ‘lhe region occupied 
by these lochs partly coincides with the distribution-area of some of 
the more local of the Arctic Crustacea. 

European Species rare or absent in Scotland.—A number of 
species, dominant in the lakes of the European plain, are here rare or 
local, or they are entirely absent. Draptomus graciloides is absent ; 
Bosmina coregonit is very rare; Hyalodaphnia cucullata is believed to 
be very rare; Bosmina longirostris is very local. 

The blue-green Algae, though often conspicuous enough, are not 
so generally dominant ; and the Diatoms, though present, are unim- 
portant. 

Dr Wesenberg-Lund further regards as belonging to the cosmo- 
politan stock certain Rotifers which are rare or local in the Scottish 
lochs, though common enough in other situations: Notholca striata, 
a pond species, rare at the margins of lakes; Anwrwa aculeata, very 
rare, and only in small lakes; T?rarthra longiseta, frequent in lakes, 
but by no means general, and absent from the great lakes. 

Arctic Element.—The Arctic element in the Scottish plankton is 
very important. The Arctic species of Crustacea are Holopedium 
gibberum, Bythotrephes longimanus, Daphnia hyalna, Bosmina 
obtusirostris (= B. arctica, Lillje.), Cyclops strenuus, Diaptomus laticeps, 
D. lactniatus. As several of these species are among the permanent 
inhabitants of the lakes, which persist throughout the year (Daphnia, 
Bosmina, Cyclops), and some of the others are among the largest 
species, and are generally distributed (Holopedium, Bythotrephes), 
the Arctic element is clearly the dominant one in the Scottish 
plankton. 

Distribution of the Plankton.—The distribution of the species 
in the lochs will be considered in a special section. Here the general 
features only, which give the special character to the Scottish plankton, 
will be dealt with. Of the 200 species of animals and plants which 
have been found in the plankton collections, probably about one-half 
should be regarded as casuals. The remaining 100 species are not 
all equally distributed over the country. Many are so rare, or the 
information about them is so scanty, that the study of their distribu- 
tion would serve no purpose. 

About 30 species are generally distributed. Many of the others 
are confined to the western half of the country, or to the extreme 
north, or they are very local or quite sporadic in their occurrence. 

Diaptomus laciniatus and D. laticeps are irregularly distributed 
over the central, western, and northern counties; D. wierzejskii is 


288 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


limited to the extreme north and west, especially the islands; D. 
gracilis is almost confined to the mainland and nearer islands, and 
appears to be absent from most of the outer islands, both in the west 
and the north. 

Comparatively few of the Desmids are generally distributed ; the 
great majority are limited to the western half of the country, and 
are by far most abundant in Sutherland and the Outer Hebrides. 

Vertical Migration of the Plankton.— Although few observa- 
tions on this subject were made, they denionstrate a diurnal migration 
of considerable amount. Collections were made at short intervals 
during a day and night. It is not easy to demonstrate migration in 
the case of animals which are distributed from the surface to a depth 
of, say, 100 feet or more; but in the case of Leptodora, which during 
the day is usually only to be found at some distance below the surface, 
the migration is very evident. On the occasion in question Leptodora 
was only in the deeper collections during the day, and immediately 
after dark it was abundant at the surface. The migration must have 
been very rapid. There was also a very marked increase in the total 
quantity of the larger plankton organisms during the night—Daphnia 
and Diaptomus gracilis, at least, having come from the deeper layers 
to the surface. On a subsequent occasion, in calm weather, with full 
moon, no Leptodora was found in the surface collections after 
nightfall. 

Seasonal Change of Form.—lIt is generally believed that some 
pelagic animals become more elongate in summer, the spines of others 
become longer. Dr Wesenberg-Lund some years ago formulated a 
theory that many plankton organisms changed their form in corre- 
spondence with the changes of temperature throughout the seasons. 
It was supposed that animals which in winter were able to maintain 
their position in the water with comparative ease would be liable to 
sink when the water reached a higher temperature, in consequence of 
the lower specific gravity of the water, unless modified so as to offer 
greater resistance to the downward movement through the water. 
But as the difference of specific gravity produced by the change in 
temperature would be very small, it was afterwards suggested by 
Ostwald that the changes of form were necessitated in a much greater 
degree by the varying viscosity of the water at different temperatures, 
and this view has been accepted by Dr Wesenberg-Lund. 

It has not been possible to throw any light on this subject from 
the study of the Scottish lochs. There were in different lochs all 
the different forms of Asplanchna, Daphnia, Bosmina, etc., which are 
supposed to be the seasonal forms, and especially there was an extreme 
range of forms of Ceratiwm hirundinella, but in the only lochs examined 
throughout the year such change appeared to be exceedingly small. 


BIOLOGY OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS 289 


Bosmina longispina was found in Loch Morar all the year round. 
In Loch Ness, Daphnia having rounded head, and Daphnia more or 
less galeate, were found all the year round. ‘These lochs are among 
the largest lochs, and the annual range of temperature is very low. 
It may be that smaller lochs would give more definite results.? 


Tue Lirrorat REGIon 


The littoral region is the most populous part of a lake. The 
existence of a rooted chlorophyllaceous vegetation is only possible 
there, and this in turn supports a rich littoral fauna which otherwise 
could not exist. The moderate temperature of the open water of 
lakes is unfavourable to the growth of many forms of life, but the 
weedy margins, becoming heated in warm weather, favour the growth 
of many forms which are most at home in ponds. As there are no 
peculiar abyssal species, and as most of the true plankton species may 
be taken even among the weeds, the littoral region, well studied, gives 
an epitome of all the life of the lake. 

The species inhabiting the littoral region need not, then, be 
detailed. ‘The whole ‘Census of Species” forming the second part of 
this paper may be taken as equivalent to the littoral fauna and flora. 
As, however, the number of plankton species is small, and that of 
abyssal species still smaller, it follows that the majority of the species 
are confined to the littoral. 

Insect larvee of many kinds are found under stones or among 
weeds, only Chironomus being commonly found in the plankton or 
the mud. The great majority of the Cladocera, and the Copepods 
of the genus Cyclops and the family Harpacticidee, are only found 
in this region. ‘The Water-Mites only occasionally stray into the 
plankton. Nearly all the Rotifers, all the Gastrotricha and Tardigrada, 
exist only in this region. ‘The Mollusca, except for the one Prsidiwm 
and a stray Limnwa, are only found here. The Rhizopods are all 
found in the littoral region, but nearly all are supposed to extend 
into the abyssal. The Chlorophycez are in favourable localities 
more abundant in the plankton, yet the majority of the species 
are littoral. 

The littoral region has a mixed population. All lacustrine 
animals and plants are aquatic in the sense that they can only perform 
all their functions when surrounded by (at least a film of) water. 
Yet is it true that perfectly aquatic species form only one section 
of the community, and that another large section consists of animals 
and plants called terrestrial One group of such species is the 
so-called semi-aquatic plants, some of which can live permanently 


1 See paper by J. Hewitt, p. 335. 
9 


290 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


immersed in water, but can live equally well on land if their roots 
can have sufficient moisture. Another group of rather different nature 
contains animals which live among moss. ‘They are only functional 
when surrounded by water, yet they do not die (or need not) when 
their habitat dries up. These animals are in various ways protected 
against desiccation, and though they are only active when moist, 
they can survive droughts. Most of these animals are so completely 
adapted for this intermittent life (they pass through a resurrection 
at every shower of rain) that they are often unable to survive pro- 
longed immersion if the water becomes in the least stagnant. The 
water of the larger lakes remains so fresh and well-aerated that such 
animals, casually introduced, it may be, live well and appear often 
to be permanently established in lakes. | All but one or two species 
of the Bdelloid Rotifers and 'lardigrada, of which orders there are 
altogether nearly 100 species in the Scottish lakes, belong to this class 
of terrestrial animals. 

Ouly the shallow lochs, and sheltered bays in the larger lochs, 
have the marginal vegetation which supports the rich microfauna and 
microflora. 'The exposed shores are generally bare and stony, and 
perfectly devoid of higher vegetation. The stones are usually 
covered with a coating of slime, which is shown by the microscope 
to consist of Diatoms. When the lochs fall lowest, usually about 
July or August, the dried Diatoms form a white zone. It is the only 
instance of Diatoms becoming conspicuous in the lakes, though rarely 
Asterionella or Tabellaria take a share in colouring the water. 


THe ApsyssAL Fauna 


The abyssal fauna is very scanty, and, so far as the observations 
go, very uniform in different lochs. The data available are, however, 
insufficient. ‘There is no abyssal flora. 

It is necessary to define the term abyssal, as here used, and to make 
comparison with the values given to the term elsewhere. Forel 
defines the abyssal region in the Lake of Geneva as beginning at 
about 100 feet, or immediately beyond the limit of chlorophyllaceous 
vegetation. He divides it into three parts: (1) the superior zone, 
down to about 200 feet, or the limit of actinic action in summer ; 
(2) the inferior zone, from about 200 feet to the edge of the central 
plain; (3) the zone of the central plain. In this abyssal region, 
approaching so near the surface and the shore, there is a con- 
siderable flora, consisting almost entirely of lower Algze, chiefly 
Diatoms, but including one Moss. The fauna comprises 79 species, 
established or erratic, the great majority of which are not peculiar 
to this region; but a certain proportion of species, as indicated 


BIOLOGY OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS 291 


by their specific names, are supposed to be peculiar to the abyssal 
region of lakes, or even of this particular lake. This number is 
given by Forel,! but Dr Penard has since greatly extended the 
number of abyssal Rhizopods, whatever may have been done in 
other classes. 

In Scotland, abyssal life can only be spoken of with any confidence 
in the case of Loch Ness. The dredgings in Loch Morar, during the 
first year of the Survey, all failed, no doubt through lack of experience 
with the apparatus. Other lochs in which the dredge was used are 
not deep enough to be comparable with Loch Ness, though there was 
a similar fauna. Forel’s definition of the abyssal region cannot be 
mechanically applied to Loch Ness. The central plain, though it 
exists in the principal lakes having the U-shaped cross-section which 
is supposed to indicate erosion by glaciers, is too limited in extent to 
be distinguished from the sloping sides, in biological studies at any rate. 
The steeply sloping sides of the Scottish lakes may account for an 
important difference in the distribution of life in them. It has been 
found that a large proportion of the littoral species may in Loch 
Ness extend to a depth of about 300 feet, so that, if we gave the 
littoral and abyssal regions the same limits as in the Lake of Geneva, 
we would have a more extensive abyssal fauna than in that lake; 
yet this fauna would have no peculiarities whatever entitling it to 
be called abyssal, but would be merely an extension of the littoral 
fauna. 

It is necessary to have a definition of abyssal which will fit the 
peculiar conditions of the Scottish lochs. The term is here used, 
then, to indicate those species of animals (and plants, if there were 
any) which are so well established in or on the muds of the 
bottoms of the lakes that they are generally distributed over the 
mud, and likely to be found in any part examined. Thus defined, 
a well-marked association of animals appears, the permanent in- 
habitants of these muds. They occupy the central plain, if you 
will, but none of them are peculiar to it. They all extend into 
the littoral region, from which I suppose them to be derived. ‘The 
region is defined by one negative character, the absence of all other 
species. 

The depth at which the abyssal region begins varies in different 
lochs. In Loch Ness the abyssal association of species is fairly pure 
at depths of over 300 feet, a few littoral species being casual at 
greater depths. In Loch Earn the same association is found almost 
as pure at 200 feet. In St Mary’s Loch it is found at 100 feet, but 
with a larger proportion of casual species. 

The small abyssal association comprises :— 

1 Le Léman, t. il. p. 242, 1904. 


292 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


1 Mollusc.— Pisidiwm pusillum (Gmel.). 

3 Crustacea.— Cyclops viridis, Jurine. 
Candona candida (Miull.). 
Cypria ophthalmica, Jurine. 

3 Worms.—  Stylodrilus Gabretew, Vejd. 
Oligocheete, not determined. 
Automolos morgrensis (Du Plessis). 


1 Insect.—  § Chironomus (larva). 
Infusoria.— Several, ectoparasites on Pistdiwm and Cyclops, not 
determined. 


Of casual occurrence at great depths are :— 


A brown species of Hydra, Loch Ness, 500-600 feet (J. Hewitt). 
Limneca peregra (Mill.), Loch Ness, 400 feet. 

Proales daphnicola, ‘Thompson, Loch Ness, 500 feet. 

Lynceus affinis, Leydig, Loch Ness, 500 feet. 


At depths of from 250 to 300 feet about 40 species were found, 
excluding Rhizopods :-—Crustacea, 14 species; Rotifera, 16 species ; 
Gastrotricha, 2 species; Tardigrada, 2 species; Infusoria, several 
species ; Insect larvae, Mites, Worms, etc. These records were obtained 
from one or two dredgings only, and the list could doubtless be 
greatly extended. 

Of Rhizopods, the most numerous group in the abyssal collections, 


practically all the species known in the lochs have been recorded for | 


depths of 300 feet and more. ‘These records are not satisfactory, as 
many of them are founded on dead shells which may belong to species 
not capable of living at those depths. 

Supposed Peculiar Abyssal Forms.—Though I have made the 
general statement that no peculiar abyssal species have yet been 
found in the Scottish lochs, some of the workers at special groups 
have suggested that certain abyssal examples are more or less peculiar. 

Automolos morgiensts (Du Plessis).—Mr Martin says that examples 
dredged at 500 feet in Loch Tay were without eyes. He does not 
suggest making a distinct variety or species on this account. In 
animals which have mere pigment spots as (so-called) eyes, it is not 
difficult to understand how, after living for many generations beyond 
the influence of light, the eye-spots might disappear. ‘Though they 
can hardly be regarded as organs of vision, they doubtless function 
in relation to light. It is otherwise with the more highly developed 
eyes of Cyclops viridis, one of the most constant abyssal forms down 
to 750 feet. It appears to breed in the abyssal region—at least 
females carrying eges are continually found. When brought to the 
surface from 700 feet these creatures, which may be presumed never 


BIOLOGY OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS 2938 


to have seen the light before, give every sign that they can make good 
use of their eyes. They grovel down among the mud, apparently 
seeking shelter, and they prove, by the lively way in which they dodge 
the threatening pipette, that they possess good, serviceable eyes. 

Stylodrilus Gabretew, Ve}d.— According to Martin, this species is 
general at depths of over 100 feet, and is sporadic in its occurrence in 
shallower water. In my experience both the abyssal Oligocheetes, of 
which Stylodrilus is one, are frequent at much less than 100 feet, 
but this is the nearest approach to a species limited to the abyssal 
region. 

Rhizopods.—It is among Rhizopods that the largest suggested 
abyssal element is found, and the evidence for it is sufficiently slender. 
Dr Penard, who has found so many abyssal Rhizopods in the Lake 
of Geneva, has been good enough to examine collections from 
Loch Ness. Admitting that the great majority of the species found 
belong to the habitual land fauna, especially to that of bogs, he claims 
that some half a dozen forms, mainly varieties, are such as he has 
found to be characteristic of deep lakes. Elsewhere I have given 
reasons for differing from Dr Penard’s conclusions on this point.! It 
seems to me unsafe, in dealing with the most plastic group of the 
Protozoa, to regard as peculiar species examples found in peculiar 
habitats, which only differ minutely in the form of external shells. 
Such forms might be produced by the peculiar conditions of the 
habitat on the individual during growth, and might not indicate 
established varieties at all. Be that as it may, Dr Penard agrees 
that the evidence is insufficient to warrant any definite conclusions. 

Physical Conditions in the Abyssal Region.—The most 
important physical conditions affecting the animals in the abyssal 
region of the lochs are, first, the uniform temperature, and second, 
the absence of light. The pressure cannot be considered important 
to organisms filled with watery fluid of almost the same specific 
gravity as water; and, as a matter of fact, animals brought from a 
depth of 750 feet to the surface seem to suffer no inconvenience, and 
can be kept alive for some time. Light and darkness appear also to 
be matters of indifference to a great many Invertebrata, though some 
are very sensitive to changes. 

The abyssal region of the lakes which exceed 300 feet in depth 
possesses one of the most equable climates to be found anywhere. 
Any change which takes place is secular, and confined within very 
narrow limits. The temperature may not vary one degree over a 
period of years. It is the winter temperature of the whole loch. 
The summer heat has not time to penetrate to these depths before the 


1 “ Rhizopods and Heliozoa of Loch Ness,” Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxv. p. 609, 
1905, 


294 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


winter cooling begins. Smaller lochs, which are affected to the bottom 
by the heat of summer, enjoy a similar equable climate during the 
greater part of the year, and the temperature of the bottom water is 
only raised a few degrees in summer. Only in very shallow lochs 1s 
there a greater range of temperature. Even in the deeper lakes a gale 
of exceptional duration may temporarily change the temperature of 
the abyssal region, but it will quickly return to the normal. The 
temperature of the bottom water of the deeper lakes is in the 
neighbourhood of 42°:0 Fahr. 

Such a uniform and comparatively mild climate might be supposed 
favourable to many forms of animal life. Though climates offering 
extremes of temperature may produce the more robust forms of life, 
it is often found that regions where equable conditions prevail are 
occupied by many forms which desire to take hfe easy. Yet the 
abyssal region of the lakes is but sparsely peopled; only about a 
dozen species live there. 

What determines the restriction of the abyssal population ? 
Those animals which have become naturalised in the deep muds 
appear to be all indifferent to changes of temperature, light, etc., as 
they are found in all situations. An animal with good eyes, like 
Cyclops viridis, may deliberately choose the darkness of the muds. 
It appears to be of a timid disposition, and to be always trying to 
hide itself. Ifthe abyssal region is mainly recruited, as there is reason 
to believe, by animals which have accidentally fallen or slid down the 
steep slopes of the lakes, then most of the littoral species might be 
introduced in this way. If so, why do so few survive? Are some of 
the abyssal conditions inimical to most species? Is the unfavourable 
condition the scarcity of oxygen in available form? It was formerly 
supposed that life at great depths, even in the sea, was impossible 
from this cause. 

It is now known that, owing to currents set up by wind, and 
perhaps still more to the “internal seiche” which may originate in 
such currents, the water at the bottom of the lakes is less stagnant 
than was supposed. Matter in suspension in the water may carry 
down air to the bottom. Still, from all causes the renewal of the 
oxygen in the abyssal region must be very slow. Many of the abyssal 
animals are able to exist in very impure water, from which air is 
excluded. When an abyssal collection is tightly corked up, the 
different species exhibit different degrees of power to exist in these 
conditions. The Molluscs are most sensitive, and die at once; the 
Worms are most tenacious of life. 

Animals having fair swimming powers, and eyes sufficiently sensitive 
to light, may be able to save themselves from the catastrophe of 
falling into the abyss. Some of the plankton Cladocera appear by 


BIOLOGY OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS 295 


their diurnal migrations to indicate great sensitiveness to minute 
variations of light, and the littoral species may have the same powers. 


DISTRIBUTION 


One of the departments of biology which it is hoped will be in 
some degree advanced by the labours of the Lake Survey is the study . 
of distribution. Complex and difficult as is the investigation into the 
causes of the distribution of animals and plants over the globe, such 
as it is at the present day, vast accumulations of facts are needed 
before we are in a position even to tackle the problems with any 
hope of successful solution. 

The part played by climate in Fuel about the present dis- 
tribution, the gradual changes of ates fhe modification of species 
under this influence, the present and past forms of the continents and 
oceans, the alterations of sea-level, the facilities for transference 
between more or less widely separated regions, and in recent times 
the influence of man since commerce became universal,—all together 
render the problem of distribution one of the most complex and 
difficult, yet for that reason one of the most fascinating, studies for 
naturalists. 

If generalisations are attempted from insufficient data, very 
erroneous conclusions may be made. In no branch of natural 
history can it be said that the materials available are adequate for 
the exhaustive study of distribution. It thus happens that the 
commonest drudgery of the local naturalist, the mere collector’s work 
and the tabulating of species, if conscientiously and accurately done, 
gains an importance and interest mayhap undreamt of by the col- 
lector. The abundant records obtained by the Lake Survey, though 
got haphazard while other work was being done, at all seasons of the 
year, and without any definite plan in which the biology was con- 
sidered, nevertheless present a serviceable mass of information. Each 
record, with its locality, is a definite fact, which can be used and 
assigned its proper place by special students of distribution. 

The more delicate problems of distribution will not be solved by 
mere compilers of lists of species in different regions of the world. 
Each naturalist gives his own value to the terms “species” and 
“variety,” and if every man’s contribution to the structure be com- 
piled without knowledge, the results may not justify the trouble. 
The valuation of the lists of species will have to be made, for each 
group, by men who know the whole group, and will know the values 
of species and variety, and the various shades of affinity within the 
group. While waiting for this ideal system of studying distribution, 
we must make our catalogues as best we may, and compare them 


296 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


together when made for such light as they can vield us, and for 
suggestions as to future work. 

As to the distribution of the great majority of the 724 species 
recorded in the lists, it must be said that very little is known. The 
littoral region, where life is most abundant, has only been occasionally 
studied. Many of the species are only once recorded, yet there is no 
reason to believe them rare. ‘The species which are cosmopolitan or 
generally distributed are indicated by the word “ general” in the lists. 

The distribution of the majority of the species will not be dealt 
with at all. In this place there will be studied in detail the distribu- 
tion of a few species which are fairly well known, and are not of 
general occurrence, and some which are very local or rare. In dealing 
with some little-known species, such indication as is possible will be 
given of their world-distribution. 


ZOOPLANKTON 


Mollusca.—Of the two large bivalves in the lochs, Unio Marga- 
ritifer (L.) is the general species in the Highland lochs, and Anodonta 
cygnea (L.) is the Lowland species. 

Hydrachnida.—Lebertia tau-insignita (Lebert). This species, 
discovered in the Lake of Geneva, in the abyssal region, is common in 
Scotland, and is not solely abyssal in this country. It was supposed 
to be one of those forms which found analogous conditions in the 
littoral region of northern lakes, and in the abyssal region of more 
southern lakes. Several other animals are in the same category. 
The recent discovery that the British species, recorded under the 
name of L. tau-imsignita, is really some other species, modifies this 
view. All the records, therefore, require revision. 

Huitfeldtia rectipes, Thor.—A northern species, inhabiting (so 
far as previously known) only Scandinavia. In Scotland it has only 
as yet been recorded for Orkney, where it was discovered in 1906. Ii 
is there the commonest species. 

Tardigrada. — Echiniscus gladiator, Murray. — Pretty widely 
spread in Scotland, and not peculiarly lacustrine; it is now known 
from the Faroes (Sellnick), somewhere in the Pacific region (Richters), 
and British Columbia. 

E. wendti, Richters.—Scottish and Arctic. Richters doubts if 
the animals in these two regions are the same. 

E. spitsbergensis, Scourfield.—Scottish and Arctic. Pretty widely 
spread in Scotland. 

Macrobiotus ambiguus, Murray.—Scottish, Swiss, and Arctic. On 
ground-moss and lake margins in Scotland; on a deeply submerged 
moss (abyssal) in the Lake of Geneva. 


BIOLOGY OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS 297 


Crustacea.—Genus Diaptomus.—lIt is a curious fact that, although 
the three northern species of Draptomus occur together in many 
districts, each is almost completely isolated, judging from the records 
available. There are rarely two of them in the same loch. ‘There 
are over a hundred lochs in which one or other of these species is 
present, yet there are only nine lochs in which two or more of them 
were found, only two lochs in which all three were associated. 

In thirty-six lochs D. gracilis was found in company with one of 
the northern species, and in only two lochs (nan Cuinne and Baddan- 
loch, in Sutherland) were all four of the pelagic species present. A 
fifth British species, D. Castor, has only been found in ponds, but 
Dr Scott has seen it in a few lochs. 

What are the conditions causing this isolation of species occupy- 
ing the same region? Is it the physical or chemical properties of 
the water of the different lochs ?—all can live together in some lochs. 
Is it climate ?>—the different species will occupy adjacent lochs, among 
the same formations of rocks, and apparently identical surroundings. 
Is it altitude?—D. laciniatus, D. laticeps, and D. gracilis range 
from almost sea-level to 2500 feet, at least. D. wierzejski has a 
lower vertical range, and is more thoroughly isolated, occupying by 
itself extensive regions. ‘The restriction in this case may well be 
climatic. 

A second species, too immature to be identified, was often found in 
lochs ; if mature individuals were found in their season, it might appear 
that there is more mixing of the species than is at present supposed. 

Diaptomus lacinmiatus, Lillje.-—This species has been recorded by 
the Lake Survey in 37 lakes—7 in Central and West Inverness ; 9 in 
Sutherland ; 6 in Ross (apart from Lewis); 13 in Lewis; 1 in the 
Clyde basin (Loch Lomond); and 1 in Ayrshire (Loch Doon). 

As it has a limited season, having been observed only during four 
months (from June to October), its range might be somewhat extended 
if all the lochs could be examined at the right season. As the records 
stand, they show an essentially Western and Highland species, the only 
locality in the south of Scotland being a truly alpine lake. The most 
easterly records of the Lake Survey are in Sutherland, though Mr R. 
M. Clark found it a little farther east, in the western corner of 
Aberdeen, an alpine district. It ranges in altitude from lochs just 
above sea-level (Loch Shiel, etc.) to 2500 feet in Inverness. Consider- 
ing that it is most abundant in Lewis, it is curious that there are 
no records for Uist, nor for Orkney and Shetland. 

It is one of the species, according to Dr Wesenberg-Lund, 
belonging to Ekman’s ‘ boreo sub-glacial™ region, and outside of 
Scotland is known in Scandinavia, North Russia, and the alpine lakes 
of Switzerland. 


298 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


D. wierzejskit, Richard.—The Lake Survey has 30 records of the 
occurrence of this species. It has a much more restricted range than 
D. laciniatus, and is mainly confined to the extreme northern and 
western fringe of the country. ‘There are 3 records for Sutherland ; 
1 for Caithness; 2 for Lewis; 3 for Uist; 20 for Shetland; and 1 for 
Ross (strange to say, in the extreme east). The western islands were 
visited when the Draptomus was in most lochs too young to be iden- 
tified, and Dr Scott’s records show that it is much commoner in the 
Outer Hebrides—he notes it in 8 lochs in the small island of Barra 
alone,—and in Shetland he gives many additional localities. Dr Scott 
found it in Mull, which is its southern limit in Scotland; its eastern 
limit on the mainland is St John’s Loch, in Caithness. It is the 
common, and almost the only, species in Shetland, but has not been 
noted in Orkney. It is the only species found in Uist, except the 
closely related D. laticeps, only distinguishable when fully mature. 

Its general distribution, so far as known, is apparently dis- 
continuous: it occurs in Spain, Germany, and North Russia. In 
altitude it is not known to ascend so high as D. laciniatus, the highest 
locality from which I have noted it being Loch Maol a’ Choire, in 
Sutherland, 900 feet above sea-level. A great many of the lochs 
where it occurs are very little above sea-level. 

D. laticeps, Sars.—This is the commonest and most generally 
distributed of the northern species of Diaptomus. 'Though mainly 
a Highland species, it is recorded from a reservoir near Edinburgh. 
The Lake Survey has 46 records for it—5 for Perthshire; 12 for 
Inverness; 7 for Sutherland; 2 for Caithness; 3 for Orkney ; 1 for 
Shetland ; 1 for Ross-shire: 10 for Lewis; 3 for Uist; 1 for Argyll, 
and 1 for Edinburgh. It is found at all elevations, from the slightly 
tidal Loch of Harray, in Orkney, to about 2500 feet in Perthshire. 
Out of Britain I only know the species as Scandinavian. 

D. gracilis, Savs.—The commonest species in Scotland, as in Europe 
generally, its distribution only calls for remark because of the apparent 
total absence from the Shetland Isles and North Uist. In the Orkneys 
it has been noted only in two lochs. 

On the mainland it is almost universal, but is occasionally replaced 
by one of the three northern species (D. laciniatus, D. laticeps, or D. 
wrerzejskit). Usually it accompanies those species where they occur. 
In only one district, N.W. Sutherland, did it appear to be absent from 
most of the lochs. 

Asellus and Gammarus.—Though both these Crustacea, the largest 
in the lochs, are common, they are seldom found both in the same loch. 

Mysis.—The Mysis in the lochs is apparently a migrant, not a 
relict, and its scattered distribution and rarity are probably deter- 
mined by the scarcity of suitably situated lochs. Only one of the 


er 


BIOLOGY OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS 299 


lochs where it occurred is tidal (Loch Wester); the others are little 
above sea-level. 

Latona setifera (Miill.).—There are only 12 records of this beauti- 
ful animal—1 loch in Ross (Loch Ussie); 4 in Inverness (Lochs Ness, 
Oich, Laggan, and na h-Earba); 6 in Perth (Lochs Kennard, Sron Smeur, 
Tilt, na Bi, Rannoch, and Laidon); and 1 in Kirkcudbright (Loch 
Trool). Dr Scott’s records show a wider range, giving extra localities 
in Perth and Inverness, and many records for the Shetland Islands. 

Bosmina longirostris, Miull., and B. obtustrostris, Sars.—The Arctic 
species, B. obtusirostris, is all but universal in Scotland, being absent 
only from some small lowland districts, chiely in the south-east. 
B. longirostris occupies these lowland districts, usually in the variety 
cornuta. There is reason to believe that B. longirostris often exists 
along with B. obtustvostris in the Highland region, the former as a 
littoral, the latter as a plankton form. 

B. coregont, Baird, is only known from two lochs—Loch Heilen 
in the extreme north (Caithness), and Castle och in the extreme south 
(Dumfries). 

Ophryoxus gracilis, Sars.—Only recently detected in Britain by 
Mr Scourfield, and only known in two of the lochs of the Caledonian 
Canal (Lochs Ness and Lochy), and in the Canal between these lochs. 
In Europe it is purely a northern species, only found in countries 
bordering on the Arctic Ocean. In the United States it is found 
farther south, in Minnesota and Wisconsin. 

Llyocryptus acutifrons, Sars.—Known in two far-separated districts 
in Britain, Sutherland and Norfolk. 

Candona elongata, Brady and Norman.—The only known stations 
for this species, Lough Neagh in Ireland, and Loch Din na Seilcheig, 
near Inverness, Scotland, offer a puzzle in distribution, but it cannot 
be said that the intervening region has been sufficiently well searched 
to demonstrate their real isolation. 

Rotifera.—Conochilus volvox, Ehr., and C. unicornis, Rouss.— 
Both are generally distributed and are sometimes found together, 
though rarely. The dominant species in Scotland is C. unicornis. 

Microdina paradova, Murray.—Common among the marginal 
vegetation of pure lochs in Scotland, and also in streams; it is as yet 
unknown elsewhere except in the Lake of Geneva, and in New Zealand. 

Philodina hamata, Murray, P. laticeps, Murray, and P. laticornis, 
Murray.—Though only as yet recorded from Scotland, these species 
are likely to be as widely diffused as the Gammarus with which they 
are found. P. hamata is only known in two lochs, far apart (Loch 
Tay and St Mary’s Loch), and P. laticornis in two lochs of the 
Caledonian Canal (Lochs Ness and Lochy). P. daticeps is commoner. 

Callidina angusticollis, Murray.—One of the most thoroughly 


300 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


cosmopolitan of all animals; it is found in both polar regions, the 
tropics, and in all the continents. 

C. longiceps, Murray.—Very rare in Scotland, being only known in 
one loch; this curious species has been found in two widely separated 
parts of Africa, Uganda and Cape Colony, and in Fiji and Hawaii. 

C. crucicornis, Murray.—Apparently very rare and local; only 
known in two places in Scotland, Loch Rannoch and Fort Augustus 
(abundant in one small bog hole at the latter place); also W. Ireland. 

C. armata, Murray.— Apparently rare, only known till recently 
from the Caledonian Canal and lochs on it; its range has been 
extended to Orkney by its discovery in the Loch of Harray. 

Rotifer trisecatus, Weber.—Not very rare in ponds, though rare 
in lakes. 

Polyarthra euryptera, Wier.—Though exact details of its distribu- 
tion are not yet available, it is known that this species has a pretty 
wide range, especially in the north and west. 

Triarthra longiseta, Ehr.—Pretty generally distributed, but local. 
It may be that this species and Floscularia pelagica have a limited 
season, which might account for their seeming comparative rarity. 

Albertia bernardi, Hlava.—I am informed by Herr Hlava that 
the species of Albertia recorded by me! as A. intrusor, Gosse, is really 
A. bernardi, and I correct my mistake accordingly. I know not 
whether the true intrusor also occurs in Stylaria in this country. I 
only know one species. 

Notommata pumila, Rousselet.—This appears to be really a rare 
species. ‘The conspicuous characters of the toes make it unlikely that 
it would be overlooked. 

Proales daphnicola, Thompson. -—The single occurrence, on a worm 
at a depth of 500 feet in Loch Ness, of this species, usually found 
on Crustacea, is one of the curious, isolated facts for which there is 
yet no explanation. | 

Furcularia reinhardti, Ehr.—Frequent in the plankton of lochs, 
also in the littoral region, in streams, and in the sea; the species 
varies so greatly in size that there is some doubt as to its identity 
in all cases. 


Arthroglena lutkeni, Berg.—This species, found at the Loch of 


Swannay in Orkney, was not seen alive, but was identified by the 
characteristic toes. 

Dinocharis similis, Stenroos.—Though only yet seen in Loch Ness, 
it is likely that it has been confused with D. tetractis, which is 
supposed to be extremely variable. 

Polychetus collinsi, Gosse, and P. subquadratus, Perty, though 
littoral forms, are not infrequently found in the plankton, and on one 

1 Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xlv. p. 178, 1906. 


el 


BIOLOGY: OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS 301 


or two occasions they have been abundant in the plankton of the 
smaller lochs. 

Cathypna ligona, Dunlop.—This species appears to be rare or 
extremely local. It is such a peculiar form that it is little likely 
to be overlooked. Where it occurs it is often abundant. 

Colurus tesselatus, Glascott.— Another species which, though small, 
is unmistakable, and apparently rare. 

Noteus quadricornis, Ehr.—Usually found in very shallow lochs. 
It was, however, pretty abundant in the plankton of Talla Reservoir, 
in the deepest part, within a year of the filling of the reservoir. 

Eretmia cubeutes, Gosse.—Mr Rousselet, from the side of the 
Rotifera, considers that the Rotifer Hretmza is simply some species 
occupying a Rhizopod shell; Dr Penard, from the side of the 
Rhizopods, comes to the same conclusion. It would be interesting 
to know what Rotifer does this, and if the combination is habitual. 
From the little I have seen of the dead Rotifers in the shells, I am 
inclined to think that it is some species which normally adopts the 
hermit-crab mode of living. 

Gastropus stylifer, Imhof.—After the half-dozen species universally 
distributed in the plankton, one of the commonest species is G. 
stylifer. It is very generally distributed; its brilliant colouring 
causes it readily to catch the eye when present; it has been noted in 
more than 70 lochs, yet it appears to be to some extent local. 


PuHyTorpLANKTON 


Phanerogamia.—Stratiotes aloides, L.—The Water-Soldier was 
only observed in the little Loch Fithie, near Forfar, which it almost 
filled in its season, the plants being very large. 

Elodea canadensis, Miche.—This introduced plant is a pest in 
many lowland lochs. 

Muscine.—Hypnum scorpioides, 1.—Though Fontinalis is the 
commonest littoral moss, H. scorpioides is more frequently submerged 
to a considerable depth. In lake-bottoms it is considerably modified 
from the terrestrial form, and is pronounced by Mr H. N. Dixon and 
M. Cardot to be very near to var. miqguelonense, Ren. and Card. The 
specimens submitted to those specialists were from Loch Ruthven. 
A-similar form from the Peerie Water, in Orkney, is considered by 
Mr Dixon to be an undescribed variety. 

Floridez.—Sacheria (=Lemanea).—This curious plant, which 
usually affects running water, has been twice seen in Scottish lochs— 
abundantly at the overflow of Loch Vennachar, and sparingly in 
Loch Ness, on submerged rocks at Port Clair. 

Desmids.—The distribution of the Desmids will not be traced in 


302 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


detail, except for a few species. Desmids are abundant in the lochs 
of the Highland region, and are of very little importance in the 
Lowland region. As there are few lochs in the Lowland region, 
Desmids are common in the majority of the lochs. In the Highland 
region a few species, usually small and inconspicuous, are generally 
distributed. A much larger number, including the majority of the 
large and beautiful plankton species, are greatly restricted in their 
range. ‘They are in the greatest abundance in the north, in 
Sutherland and Lewis. Messrs West declare the plankton of Loch 
Fadagoa in Lewis to be the richest they ever examined, and Desmids 
are especially abundant in it. Several lochs in Sutherland are but 
little inferior to Loch Fadagoa. These Desmids are fairly repre- 
sented here and there in lochs of the west coast, and some alpine 
lochs of the central counties, Perth and Inverness, have a _ rich 
Desmid flora. In Ayrshire a few alpine lochs recall the abundance 
of Sutherland. 

Micrasterias murrayt, West.—Only known as yet in two widely 
separated localities, Sutherland and Ayrshire. The type is in Loch 
an Ruathair, in Sutherland; a triquetrous variety in Lochs Doon 
and Bogton, Ayrshire, two lochs on the same river. The species 
appears to be very near to, and probably derived from, W. papillifera, 
Bréb. 

M. mahabuleshwarensis, Hobson, var. wallicht (Grun.).—The 
distribution of this variety (the type of the species not being found 
in Britain) is very curious. It is in three lochs of the Tay basin, 
(Lochs Bhac, nan Eun, and Shechernich), three in E. Sutherland 
(Lochs an Ruathair, nan Cuinne, and Leum a’ Chlamhain), and two 
in Shetland (Lochs Littlester and Burraland). 

M. radiata, Hass = M. furcata, Ralfs.—This species is almost as 
local as M. mahabuleshwarensis. It occurs.in a few lochs in Perth and 
Inverness, is generally distributed all over Sutherland, though only in a 
small proportion of the lochs, and extends into Lewis (Loch Fadagoa) 
and Caithness. 

M. conferta, Lund, var. hamata, Wolle.—Fairly common in the 
north, especially in Sutherland. 

M. apiculata (Ehr.), var. fimbriata (Ralfs)—Common in the north. 

M. brachyptera, Lund.—Loch Ness; Sutherland ; and Lewis. 

M. verrucosa, Bissett.—Though Roy and Bissett have recorded 
this species from many localities in the east, it only once occurred in 
Lake Survey collections, in Loch Ness. 

Xanthidium subhastiferum, West, var. Murrayi, West. This 
remarkable Desmid, which should be regarded as a form rather 
than as a variety, is only known from Loch Morar, where it is very 
abundant. ‘Though its form is altogether peculiar, Mr W. West, on 


BIOLOGY OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS 303 


first inspecting a drawing of it, suspected its affinity to XY. swbhast- 
ferum, an opinion since justified by the finding of many examples 
having one semicell of the type and the other of the variety. It 
appears like an incipient species; yet, considering its abundance 
in Loch Morar, and the facilities for dispersal into other lochs im- 
mediately adjoining, its restriction to this loch is remarkable. ‘The 
continual occurrence of semicells of the type and variety in the 
same example shows how little fixity the form has. All this sug- 
gests the query whether the physical properties of the water of a 
loch may not give rise directly to peculiarities of species. ‘The 
absence of the family Daphnidse from Loch Morar is another un- 
explained fact in distribution. 

Palmellaces.— Tetraédron limneticum, Borge.—Confined to the 
extreme north of the mainland; only known from Loch an Ruathair 
in Sutherland, and Lochs Shurrery and More in Caithness : a Scandi- 
navian species. 

Diatoms.— A sterionella gracillima, Heib., and A. formosa, Hass.— 
Although Asterionella is one of the commonest plankton organisms, 
the two species are rarely found together. Messrs West doubt 
whether the two species, which differ chiefly in the relative slenderness 
of the cells, are really distinct, and the fact that they are not to any 
extent mixed in the lochs gives support to this theory. Though both 
are widely distributed, 4. gracillima appears to be more a Highland 
and western form, A. formosa more Lowland. In some small Lowland 
lochs A. formosa is greatly reduced in size, and the colonies are 
cruciform, having only four cells. 

Fragilaria crotonensis, A. M. Edw., var. contorta, West.—'The 
type of the species is common in the north and west, but the 
strikingly beautiful variety is of much more restricted range. It 
is only known in Sutherland, where it was first obtained in some 
small lochs on the west coast. Afterwards it was found in three lochs 
of the Helmsdale basin, in E. Sutherland, Lochs nan Cuinne, Baddan- 
loch, and an Ruathair. It was from plankton from Loch an Ruathair 
sent to Mr West that the variety was described. 

Vhe filaments are short, apparently of a definite and uniform 
length, and are very strongly twisted, so that each looks like a pair 
of fans joined together. 

Tabellaria fenestrata (Lyngb.) and TJ’. flocculosa (Roth.).—Both 
species are usually present together. 7". fenestrata is very often in 
spiral colonies (var. asterionelloides). The stellate form of T'. flocculosa 
is, on the other hand, very rare, and has only been seen in one or 
two lochs. 


004 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


ON THE BEARING OF THE BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE AS TO 
THE ORIGIN AND AGE OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS 


We cannot hope to derive from the study of the biology any 
positive information as to the mode of origin and possible age of our 
lakes. We look to geology for approximate answers to such questions. 
When geology has pronounced upon them, we may examine the 
biology in its bearing upon the supposed origin and age, and seek 
confirmation or the reverse. 

If the lakes are excessively ancient (geologically speaking), we may 
reasonably expect a fauna and flora rich in peculiar forms. If they 
are but of yesterday, we may expect a fauna and flora easily derived 
from surrounding regions. If it is admitted that there have been 
several glacial periods, separated by long intervals, it may be that 
some of the Scottish lakes are of respectable antiquity, considered 
merely as lakes or depressions in valleys. As, however, each glacial 
period would interrupt the life of the lake, destroying the individuals 
and annihilating any peculiar species which might have originated in 
it, it follows that, as a biological entity, each lake dates only from 
the termination of the last glacial period affecting the region where it 
is found. Again, if there has been, since the last glacial epoch, suffi- 
cient elevation of the land to convert depressions of the sea-bottom 
into fresh-water lakes, such lakes, in respect of the investigation into 
fresh-water life, date only from the time when fresh water replaced 
salt in the basin. If any lakes have originated in the latter way, 
there might be found survivors of the marine fauna which formerly 
occupied the basin. 


CoMPARISON WITH OTHER EuropEan LAKES 


Various European lakes possess what are supposed to be survivals 
of a marine fauna or a peculiar fresh-water abyssal fauna. 

Lake of Geneva.—As the most fully studied of European lakes, 
we will consider that lake most carefully. Professor Forel enumerates 
79 species. Excluding vertebrata, which we cannot compare with 
his, there are 65 species of abyssal animals. As his abyssal region 
begins very near the surface, and the majority of the species are not 
peculiar to it, we are only concerned here with the small number of 
peculiar species. On the most conservative estimate, about 20 of 
those are peculiar species, discovered for the first time in the Lake of 
Geneva, many of them restricted to that lake, and supposed to be 
specially adapted to abyssal conditions. They are chiefly Crustacea, 
Mollusca, and Worms. 

In dealing with these facts there are many reasons for being 


BIOLOGY OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS 305 


cautious. The different groups are treated by different men, each 
with his own estimate of specific values, and in some groups the 
specific differences separating the abyssal species seem to be exceedingly 
minute. The Lake of Geneva has been more carefully studied than 
most other lakes, and we may expect it to appear that many of the 
species are really widely diffused. ‘This is already known of several 
species. Dr Penard, in a quite recent work,' states that he has found 
48 Sarcodina, characteristic of great lakes, in the Lake of Geneva. 
26 species are very well marked, and not readily traceable to species 
of the plain; 14 species, while quite distinct, can be easily traced 
to their origin; 8 are varieties merely. ‘The minutest differences help 
in understanding the origin of species, when the relative values of the 
different species are discriminated so carefully as in that important 
work of Dr Penard. 

Making due discount for species of doubtful value, there are in 
the Lake of Geneva a number of very distinct species, which seem 
specially adapted for abyssal conditions. Professor Forel concludes? 
that the abyssal fauna originated from the littoral, by migration and 
adaptation. There is no suggestion that any of the aby el species of 
the Lake of Geneva are of marine origin. 

It can now be stated that a number of animals, which were 
supposed to be confined to the abyssal region of the Lake of Geneva, 
exist elsewhere, and that they are not exclusively abyssal. Several of 
Dr Penard’s abyssal Rhizopods are found in shallow waters and even 
in peat-bogs in Scotland. Lebertia tau-insignita has been frequently 
recorded for Scotland, and from shallow waters as well as deep. It 
has quite recently been ascertained, however, that some of the 
Scottish specimens recorded under this name were really another 
species, and doubt is thus thrown on all the records. 

Macrobiotus ambiguus, a Tardigrade recently discovered in Scot- 
land and Spitsbergen, is not in these countries an abyssal species, or 
even especially lacustrine. It has been found among land moss, and 
in shallow waters. In the Lake of Geneva its eggs were found in 
great numbers on the submerged Thamniwm lemani, obtained at a 
depth of 200 feet by Professor Forel in 1906. As the identification 
of Tardigrada from the eggs alone is rather uncertain, it was with 
great satisfaction that I observed the young issue from some of the 
Swiss eggs, and found that they agreed perfectly with the Scottish 
and Arctic examples. This species was not found among Fontinalis 
from the margin of the lake. A plausible explanation of such dis- 
tribution suggests itself. It might be supposed that an Arctic 
species would only find congenial temperature conditions by descend- 

1 Les Sarcodinés des Grands Lacs, Geneva, Le 


4 Le Léman, t. 11. p. 294, 1904. 
20 


306 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


ing to the cool depths of the southern lake; but such an explanation 
is discounted by the animal occurring in Scotland, and: especially in 
the northern islands, where the climate is so mild. 

Other Swiss Lakes.— Later investigations by Penard, Zschokke, 
and others have shown that some at least of the species supposed to 
be exclusively abyssal are present in other Swiss lakes. Asedllus 
foreli, Niphargus foreli, Macrorhynchus lemani, Plagiostoma lemani, 
and many of the Rhizopods, are found in some or in many other lakes. 
Zschokke, in a quite recent work? which I have been unable to 
consult, enumerates 100 species which he found in the Lake of Lucerne 
at depths of 170 metres and more. He divides the species into two 
classes : (a) littoral forms, which have migrated downwards; and (0) 
genuine abyssal forms, which represent relicts of a stenothermal post- 
glacial fauna. 

Forel contends that true abyssal species are completely isolated 
in each lake, and cannot be disseminated from one lake to another. 
Cross-breeding between species in analogous situations in different 
lakes will thus be completely precluded. This view appears to be the 
only one tenable, in the present state of knowledge. Abyssal species 
might have their distribution provided for by means of floating eggs, 
etc. ; but there has been no suggestion that such means of dissemina- 
tion actually exist. Yet there are peculiar abyssal species identical 
in different lakes, completely isolated from one another. 

Forel argues consistently that in each lake the abyssal forms have 
originated independently, in stu, and he traces each to the parent form 
among littoral species. If the independent origin in each lake is not 
admitted, an alternative view is that the abyssal forms are survivals 
of a time when conditions were different, when all the lakes where 
they are found were united, or when the climate was such that these 
species would find their suitable environment in the littoral region. 
In either case migration would be possible. The abyssal fauna would 
in this view be, like the marine relict fauna, a relict fauna, but surviv- 
ing from earlier fresh-water conditions. 

The study of the Scottish lakes, where the amount of abyssal 
peculiarity is very small, favours Forel’s view that the abyssal fauna 
originated in each case im situ. He shows that the amount of modifi- 
cation of the abyssal species is very small, and that they should rank, 
from the morphological point of view, as simple varieties. ‘The only 
species apparently greatly modified in adaptation to abyssal con- 
ditions, the blind Crustacea, Asedlus and Niphargus, are derived from 
the subterranean blind species, and but slightly modified. 

The abyssal species in different lakes are, then, only parallel modifi- 


! Arch. Hydrobwol. Planctonkunde, 11., 1906, Heft 1, pp. 1-8 (quoted in Journ. 
Roy. Micr. Soc., 1907, p. 296). 


3 a ee 


BIOLOGY OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS 307 


cations, produced by the peculiar environment. ‘They may be rather 
forms or states of the littoral species than varieties or distinct species. 

From the point of view of development the Lake of Geneva is 
very young. ‘The amount of modification produced by the abyssal 
conditions is inconsiderable. If the lake is ancient, measured by 
ordinary standards of time, the modification of species by the peculiar 
environment must be very slow. 

The Danish Lakes.—‘The Danish lakes, investigated by Dr 
C. Wesenberg-Lund, are all shallow, and a peculiar abyssal fauna is 
hardly to be expected. Dr Lund, in a very instructive paper,' notes 
SIX species of marine origin, whether migrants or relicts, in the Danish 
lakes. The three free Crustacea among them, Mysis  relicta, 
Ponteporeia affinis, and Pallasiella quadrispinosa, are the common 
relict animals in a great many countries. 

Other Lakes.—In the paper above cited Dr Lund gives an 
account of the occurrence of these relict species in Sweden, Norway, 
Russia, Germany, Britain, and North America. 

The Scottish Lakes.— 4 byssal Fauna.— Although in the Scottish 
lakes about 20 species of animals are found thoroughly established 
in the abyssal region, none of the peculiarly abyssal forms of the 
Lake of Geneva have been found, except Automolos morgiensis and 
some half-dozen varieties of Rhizopods. Automolos morgiensis is now 
known to be widely diffused over Central Europe. In the Lake of 
Geneva as in Loch Ness it exists in the littoral region as well as in 
the abyssal. Its derivation from the littoral is thus easy, and 
migration from one lake to another is rendered possible, so that it is 
not necessary to postulate an independent development in each lake. 

It would be premature to assert that the peculiar abyssal fauna is 
absent from the Scottish lochs. The observations are very few, 
except in Loch Ness. The collections have not been seen by 
specialists in abyssal faunas, except in the case of the Rhizopods 
worked up by Dr Penard, who did note some few forms which he 
considers peculiar to deep lakes. Possibly if the Mollusca, Crustacea, 
and Worms were seen by naturalists acquainted with the fauna of 
deep lakes, they might detect peculiarities of form among the abyssal 
examples. 

It can only be said definitely that Loch Ness has been examined 
so frequently by different naturalists with various apparatus that it is 
unlikely that any conspicuous peculiar forms have been overlooked. 
If Loch Ness fairly represents the Scottish lochs, there is an exceed- 
ingly meagre abyssal fauna, without a single peculiar species. All 
the species are clearly derivable from littoral species, and indeed the 


1 “Sur Pexistence d’une Faune Relicte dans le lac de Fureso,” Bull. Acad. Roy. 
des Scr. et des Lettres de Danemark, 1902. 


308 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


abyssal examples do not as a rule differ perceptibly from littoral 
examples. 

What bearing have these facts upon the age of Loch Ness 
relatively to the Lake of Geneva? The poverty in abyssal species 
and even varieties does suggest that there has been a much longer 
time for the modification of species in the Lake of Geneva than in 
Loch Ness. Slight though the modification in the Lake of Geneva 
may be, it is still less, or practically nil, in Loch Ness. 

There is one factor in the development of species which must be 
considered in comparing these lakes. In the development of varieties, 
and eventually of species, isolation plays an important part. When 
a species migrates into a new environment, selection will at once 
begin to adapt the species to the environment; but if there is no 
degree of isolation, cross-breeding will prevent or retard the change. 
One would expect the rapidity of change to depend to a large extent 
on the degree of isolation. In a great lake like the Lake of Geneva 
the first migrants to the central plain might remain long without 
recruits from the littoral. Cross-breeding with more recent migrants 
might be so infrequent as not to retard the action of selection. 
There might thus originate in the central parts of the lake races 
better adapted to the abyssal conditions, which might then gradually 
occupy all the region for which they were specially fitted. 

Whether the actual history of the abyssal fauna of the Lake of 
Geneva in any way corresponds with that theory, in Scotland such an 
origin would be unlikely. The central plain of the lakes is never 
extensive. ‘The steep sides bringing numbers of involuntary migrants, 
these could readily traverse any part of the central plain, mingling 
with the earlier natives. Migration from the shore might thus give 
rise to no peculiar forms. The facts at any rate accord with this 
theory. 

Fauna Rehcta.—None of the marine relicts, or more recent 
migrants, have been found in the Scottish lochs. We had on Loch 
Ness, Loch Lochy, etc., the benefit of the assistance of Dr Wesenberg- 
Lund, who was acquainted with the relict fauna in the Danish lakes, 
and who used the same apparatus and methods in Scotland which 
were successful in obtaining the relicts in Denmark. Mysis has been 
found in several lochs, but those were all very close to the sea and 
near sea-level, so that migration would be easy. Those examples 
which have been determined were all M. vulgaris, never M. relicta. 

Origin of the Scottish Lacustrine Fauna and Flora.—The deriva- 
tion of the whole lacustrine population presents no difficulty, since it 
has been possible to trace the abyssal fauna directly to the littoral, 
without even perceptible modifications. The plankton is a mingling 
of the common European species with Arctic species. ‘The cosmo- 


BIOLOGY OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS 309 


politan species may enter the lochs by ordinary migration. It is 
probable that if the plankton could be annihilated it would be 
replaced by ordinary migration within a few years. Eggs and spores 
of many of the species can be dried up without injury, and may be 
carried through the air as dust from one lake to another. Others 
which could not bear desiccation might be conveyed among mud 
adhering to the feet of aquatic birds, and in various other ways. So 
great is the facility with which plankton species can be transferred 
from one lake to another, that the chief difficulty has been to account 
for the restricted distribution of certain species. 

An experiment, which by good fortune we were able to make in 
Scotland, illustrates the rapidity with which plankton may find its 
way into a loch. A large artificial lake having been constructed, 
several miles in length, of considerable depth, and separated by many 
miles from any other lake, an examination of the water was made 
several times during the first year. In the course of a few months 
many of the cosmopolitan species found their way in, and increased 
till they were as numerous as in an old-established loch. 

The Arctic species in the Scottish plankton might be derived from 
Scandinavia by ordinary migration. Considering the great extent of 
sea which now separates the two countries, the probability of direct 
migration is slight, and a more reasonable theory is that they are 
survivors from a period when Arctic conditions prevailed over a great 
part of Europe. 

The littoral fauna and flora may be equally readily disseminated, 
as they are more constantly liable to desiccation than the plankton, 
and more of the species may be protected against annihilation by the 
production of resting eggs or spores. A large proportion of the 
littoral population is not exclusively aquatic, but belongs to that 
extensive family supported by mosses and similar plants, the members 
of which resume their activity every time the moss is moistened. 
Such organisms need not migrate directly from lake to lake, but may 
find intermediate resting-places anywhere. 

Wallace, in his Island Life, makes a review of the biology of 
the British Isles, and remarks on the very small number of endemic 
species (the Red Grouse, one Moss, and so forth). ‘The numerous 
species or varieties of Salmonidz, restricted to certain lochs, are 
referred to, in relation to the question of the length of time that 
Great Britain has been an island. The duration of the insular 
character of Great Britain is quite apart from the duration of its 
lochs. These may be older than the island. Fresh-water lochs 
being isolated by as efficient a barrier as the sea would be, the 
existence or non-existence of the English Channel does not in any 
way affect them. 


310 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


SUMMARY 


‘The facts and conclusions as to the biology of the Scottish lochs, 
dealt with in the preceding pages, may be briefly recapitulated. 

Geographical Situation.—Biologically, Scotland occupies an 
intermediate position between the Central European plain and the 
Arctic regions. In situation Scotland hes so near the Arctic Circle, 
being at the latitude of Labrador and Alaska, that it might be 
reckoned an Arctic land. The climate is, however, so modified by 
the proximity of the Atlantic Ocean, with its warm currents, that it 
is extremely temperate, and the result is a mingling of Arctic and 
Southern species, the Arctic, however, predominating. 

Fauna and Flora.—724 species have been identified in the Lake 
Survey collections, the great majority being microscopic. ‘he fauna 
includes 447 species, all Invertebrata; the flora comprises 277 
species. ‘They are distributed in the various Classes, Orders, or 
Families in the following proportions :— 


Mollusca . 7 Phanerogamia . ie OL) 
Hydrachnida 17 Equisetaceze 
Tardigrada . 9380 Selaginellaceze . ] 
Insecta 7 Characesz . 6 
Crustacea . ~) fo: eViusel : 18 
Bryozoa.. : Toye blepaticzs a: : ee 
Worms . 25. Floridese, |. Q 
Rotifera . 181 Chlorophycese . hh Ae 
Gastrotricha , 2  Bacillariacese . eG 
Coelenterata ; I e Miyxophiyceces ac. 10 
Porifera 1 Peridineacese . 4, 
Protozoa. he Ol 

447 aT) 


New Species.—In the course of the work 29 previously unknown 
species have been found, chiefly in the neglected groups of the Tardi- 
grada and Bdelloida (13° Tardigrada, 1 Oligochzte, 11 Bdelloida, 
1 Desmid, 1, Flagellate, 2 Algze). 

New British Records.—Practically the whole of the Tardigrada 
(30 species), and 25 species of Rotifera (including the new species), 
are additions to the British fauna. Three species of Crustacea were 
found for the first time in Great Britain, one (Candona elongata) 
being previously known in Ireland. Many of the Sarcodina, and some 
Desmids and Mites, are also additions to the British lists, but the 


precise numbers could not be given without more sifting of literature 
than time permits of. 


BIOLOGY OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS dll 


The Plankton.—There are about 30 species of animals and 
80 plants of common occurrence in the plankton. 15 of the animals 
and 13 of the plants are generally distributed—the others are more 
or less local. Most of the local species are confined to the west and 
north of the mainland, and the islands. The chief characteristics of 
the plankton are the abundance of Desmids, and the predominance 
of Arctic species of Crustacea. 

The seasonal change is but slight, especially in the larger 
lochs. Most of the Arctic species are only present in summer and 
autumn. 

The temperature of the larger lochs has a very small annual range, 
rarely reaching 20° Fahr., and there is rarely any approach to 
“ flowering,” but such as there is may occur in winter. 

A diurnal migration of the plankton has been noticed, the larger 
Crustacea coming to the surface after dark. The plankton animals 
are normally abundant in the larger lakes down to a depth of 200 
feet and more. Leptodora appears to make the journey from this 
depth to the surface with great rapidity, as it has been found to 
arrive at the surface meme cly after sunset. 

Iittoral Region.—The margins of the lakes, though usually some- 
what deficient in higher vegetation, possess in favourable localities a 
very rich microfauna, of Tardigrada, Worms, Rotifera, Infusoria, etc., 
only partly worked out. 

The Abyssal Region.—The muds of the deeper lakes support 
a very sparse population, of about a dozen species—1 Mollusc, 
3 Crustacea, 3 Worms, | Insect, and several Infusoria. Many others 
are casually found in the abyssal region, and in Loch Ness upwards 
of 40 species of animals have been found at a depth of about 
300 feet. 

There are no peculiar abyssal forms in the lochs, unless a few 
Rhizopods found by Dr Penard be considered as such. No relicts of 
a marine fauna have yet been found in the lochs. The physical con- 
ditions characteristic of the abyssal region are total darkness, equable 
temperature, great pressure. The poverty of this region may be 
attributable to a deficit of oxygen in available form. 

Origin of the Fauna and Flora.—As no relict fauna has yet 
been found in the lakes, there is no reason for supposing that any part 
of the lake-fauna has had a marine origin, or has come through the 
intermediary of a great inland sea or lake, such as has been postu- 
lated to explain the distribution over the great European plain. 
And as there is likewise no peculiar abyssal fauna, or peculiar forms 
at all in the lakes, the tracing of the origin of the population found 
in them now is comparatively simple. Ordinary migration will 
account for the greater part of it, and this may be extremely rapid. 


312 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


The admixture of Arctic and southern forms may be accounted 
for by changes of climate, the Arctic species coming south during a 
cold period. The abyssal fauna, clearly derived from the littoral and 
not at all modified, may have originated quite recently. 

These conclusions agree perfectly with those of Professor Forel, 
though in the Lake of Geneva the abyssal fauna has undergone 
some modification. The biology of the lakes indicates a very 
recent origin. 

Phosphorescence.—No trace of luminosity has been observed among 
the fresh-water plankton-fauna, though it has been looked for under — 
suitable conditions. The chemical composition of fresh water would 
no doubt lead one not to expect luminosity, yet it seemed worth 
while to look out for it, and put the negative result on record.! 


CONCLUSION 


The shortcomings of this Report are sufficiently obvious—the 
inequality of the work, and the total neglect of large sections of 
the field. | Many points of interest in the biology are not touched 
upon, for lack of time to do so adequately. ‘The including of previous 
work in the same field, especially the work of Dr Scott and Messrs 
W. and G. 8S. West, which would have greatly added to the value 
of the compilation, was prevented by lack of time to go over the 
literature with sufficient care. 

Finally, the interruption of the work when still far from complete, 
and the consequent necessity for bringing it to a conclusion somehow, 
caused parts of it to be written with a haste which is highly undesir- 
able when accurate results are aimed at. Nevertheless, with all these 
disadvantages, it seemed well that some summary of the biological 
work done by the Lake Survey should be attempted. If it fail in all 
other respects, it at least provides a trustworthy series of records of 
the life in the Scottish lochs, which should be of some service to other 
students. 


1 Tt is stated that Loch Builg in Aberdeenshire occasionally exhibits luminosity, 
but the observations recorded are not conclusive, and both the occurrence and its 
cause call for further investigation (see article by Thomas Jamieson in the 
Aberdeen Free Press, Nov. 19, 1908). 


BIOLOGY OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS 313 


PART II 


CENSUS OF THE SPECIES 


Mollusca.—No study of the shells has yet been made by the 
Lake Survey. Information will be found in Dr Scott’s papers. <A 
few species only were noted. 


1. Limneea peregra (Miill.). Common. 

L. ovata (Drap.). (Zeste Dr Wesenberg-Lund.) 

. Planorbis contortus (Mull.). Abban Water (teste Dr Lund). 

. Ancyclus fluciatilis, L. Common. 

. Pisidiwm pusillum (Gmel.). (Teste J. W. Taylor.) In the 
bottom muds down to 750 feet. 

6. Anodonta cygnea (L.). Common, especially in Lowland lochs. 

7. Unio margaritifer (1..). Common in the large Highland lochs. 


Hydrachnida.—The Water-Mites of the Scottish Lochs have not 
been adequately studied. A few species have been named by Mr 
C. D. Soar and Mr Wm. Williamson, but these represent so few lochs 
that nothing can be said as to distribution. Mr Williamson found 
that the common species in all the collections from Orkney was 
Huitfeldtia rectipes (Thor.), a species not previously recorded for 
Britain, and indeed unknown save in Norway. Dr Johnston found 
the larvee of a Mite alive, in great numbers, in the stomach of a trout. 


Or He OO 2 


8. Atax crassipes (Miull.). Common. 
9. Prona obturbans, Pierzig. Loch Rannoch §. 
10. P. paucipora, Thor. Loch Rannoch f, Loch Laidon. 
11. P. fuscatus, Herm. Dubh Lochan. 
12. P. carnea, Koch. Perth and Sutherland. 
13. P. rufa, Koch. Sutherland. 
14, P. aduncopalpis, Herm. Loch Uanagan. 
15. Pionacercus, sp. Loch Rannoch. 
16. Oxvus ovalis, Mill. Loch Rannoch. 
17. Hygrobates longipalpis, Herm. Common. 
18. A. reticulatus, Kram. Loch Ness, Loch Morar. 
19. Hydrochorentes ungulatus, Koch. Dubh Lochan. 
20. H. krameri, Pier. Loch Ness. 
21. Lebertea porosa, Thor. Loch Ness. 
22. Hydrachna globosa, De Geer. Common. 
23. Huatfeldtia rectipes (Thor.). Common in Orkney. 
24. Arrhenurus, sp. St Mary’s Loch. 


Tardigrada.—Of the 41 species of Tardigrada recorded for Scot- 
land, 30 have been found in the lochs. Since the publication of the 


314 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


paper on Scottish Tardigrada,' two species, Macrobiotus tslandicus and 
M. macronyx, have been deleted from the list, and M. tetradactylus has 
been added. Few of them are exclusively aquatic species. Most of 
them are at home among ground moss, and are casual in lakes. Four 
species are truly aquatic—WM. dispar, M. ambiguus, M. hastatus, and 
M. annulatus. 'Three others are only known in this country from lake- 
margins—Echiniscus reticulatus, M. papillifer, and M. pullare. 


25. Hchiniscus arctomys, Ehr. Common. 
26. Lb. mutabihs, Murray. Common. 
27. E. gladiator, Murray. Loch Ness, Loch Morar. 
28. £. wendti, Richters. Loch Morar, Loch Earn, Loch ‘Vay. 
29. HE. reticulatus, Murray. Loch Morar, Loch Ness, Loch Earn. 
30. EL. othonna, Richters. Loch Ness, Loch Earn. 
31. EL. granulatus, Doy. Loch Morar, Loch Ness, Loch Tay. 
32, E. spitsbergensis, Scourtield. Loch Morar, Loch Earn. 
33. EH. quadrispinosus, Richters. Loch Morar, Loch Ness. 
34. Milnesium tardigradum, Doy. Loch Ness. 
35. Macrobrotus hufelandi, Sch. Common. 
36. M. intermedius, Plate. Loch Morar. 
37. iM. echinogenitus, Richters. Common. 
38. M. dispar, Murray. Loch Tay. 
39. M. ambiguus, Murray. Loch Ness. 
40. M. pullari, Murray. Gryfe Reservoir. 
41. M. hastatus, Murray. Loch 'Tay. 
42. M. oberhduserit, Doy. Loch Ness. 
43. M. ornatus, Richters. Loch Ness. 
44, M. tuberculatus, Plate. Loch Morar. 
45. M. sattleri, Richters. Loch Earn. 
46. M. papillifer, Murray. Loch Ness, Loch Morar. 
M. annulatus, Murray. Loch Morar. 
48. M. tetradactylus, Greeff. Loch Ness. 
49. Diphascon chilenense, Plate. Common. 
. spitzbergensis, Richters. Loch Ness. 
. angustatum, Murray. Loch Ness. 
. scoticum, Murray. Loch Morar. 
. bullatum, Murray. Loch Leven. 
. oculatum, Murray. Loch Ness. 


Or 
NS) 
Sos Ss 


Insecta.—There was no entomologist on the Lake Survey staff, 
nor were Insects even specially collected, except in a few lochs, and 
those among the deeper lochs, where insect life is not very abundant. 
Incidentally a few species have been noted. A few beetles, etc., 


1 Trans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xlv. p. 642, 1907. | 


~ iad 


BIOLOGY OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS 315 


submitted to Mr Percy H. Grimshaw are reported upon at the end of 
this paper. 


55. Chironomus (Blood-worm).—Larvee very common; found in 
| the plankton-nets and also in mud, as deep as 750 feet in 
Loch Ness. 

56. Corethra.—Larvee occasionally abundant in lochs, though 
commoner in ponds. 

57. Oxyethira, sp.—Larvee of this Caddis, in beautiful flask-like 
green cases, are often abundant in the margins and 
bottoms of lochs, sometimes going down to considerable 
depths, as in Loch Eilt and Loch Oich; Inchnacardoch 
Bay, Loch Ness. 

58. Dytiscus marginalis, L. Loch Earn. 

59. Haliplus fulous, L. Harperleas Reservoir. 

60. H. ruficollis, De G. Harperleas Reservoir. 


61. Corixa striata, Ficb. WHarperleas Reservoir. 


Larve of many Diptera, Trichoptera, Perlide, Ephemeride, etc., 
have been collected. 

Crustacea.—Being the most conspicuous animals in the plankton 
of the lochs, the Crustacea have received more attention than the 
more microscopic animals. The Crustacea of the littoral region 
have been studied by Mr Scourfield in two systems of lochs, and Mr 
Scourfield has further assisted by naming any species sent to him. 
The list contains 78 species, most of which are common and generally 
distributed. Ilyocryptus acutifrons, Sars, and Ophryoxus gracilis, 
Sars, were not previously known to live in Britain. Fuller informa- 
tion about the distribution of the species, with an account of many 
species not observed by the Lake Survey, will be found in Dr Scott’s 
papers on the Inland Waters of Scotland (Scot. Fish. Board Reports, 
1890 to 1899). 


Isopoda.— 62. Asellus aquaticus, L. 
Amphipoda.—63. Gammarus pulex, Fabr. 
Schizopoda.—64. Mysis vulgaris, Thomps. 
Copepoda.— 65. Diaptomus gracilis, Sars. 
66. D. laciniatus, Lillje. 
67. D. laticeps, Sars. 
68. D. wierzejsku, Richard. 
69. Cyclops affinis, Sars. 
70. C. albidus (Jurine). 
T1. C. bicuspidatus, Claus. 
72. C. fimbriatus, Fischer. 
73. C. fuscus (Jurine). 


316 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


74. 
WO 
76. 
bihides 
78. 
qo 
80. 
81. 
82. 
83. 
84. 
85. 
86. 
87. 
88. 
89. 
90. 
Cladocera.—91. 
92. 
93. 
94. 
95. 
96. 
97. 
98. 
99. 
100. 
101. 
102. 
103. 
104. 
105. 
106. 
107. 
108. 
109. 
110. 
lols 
Tg: 
113. 
114. 
Ls: 


1 Includes the three forms: C. serrulatus, s. str., C. varius, and C. macrurovdes. 
2 Includes B. longispina. 


. languidoides, Lillje. 

. languidus, Sars. 

. macrurus, Sars. 

. nanus, Sars. 

. prasinus (Jurine). 

. serrulatus,! Fischer. 

. strenwus, Fischer. 

. vernalis, Fischer. 

C. viridis (Jurine). 

Canthocamptus crassus, Sars. 

C’. hirticornis, Scott. 

C. horridus, Fischer. 

C. minutus (Claus) = C. lucidulus, Rehberg. 
C. pygmeus, Sars. 

C. zschokkei, Schmeil. 

Moraria brevipes, Sars. 

Achtheres percarum, Nordmann. 
Stda crystaliina (Mill.). 
Diaphanosoma brachyurum, Liévin. 
D., leuchtenbergianum, Fischer. 
Latona setifera (Mill.). 
Holopedium gibberum, Zaddach. 
Daphnia hyalina, Leydig. 
Scaphloberis mucronata (Mill.). 
Stmocephalus vetulus (Miill.). 

SS. exspmosus (Koch) ? 
Ceriodaphma quadrangula (Mill.). 
Bosmina longirostris (Mill.). 

B. obtustrostris,? Sars. 

B. coregoni, Baird. 

Ophryoxus gracilis, Sars. 
Ilyocryptus sordidus (Liévin). 

I. acutifrons, Sars. 

I. agihs, Kurz. 

Lathonura rectirostris (Miull.) ? 
Streblocerus serricaudatus (Fischer). 
Drepanothrix dentata (Kuren.). 
Acantholeberis curvirostris (Miull.). 
Eurycercus lamellatus (Miull.). 
Camptocercus rectirostris, Schédler. 
Acroperus harpe, Baird. 

A lonopsis elongata, Sars. 


OOOO ese oH 


BIOLOGY OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS O17 


116. Lynceus * intermedius, Sars. 

117. L. affinis, Leydig. 

118. L. rusticus, Scott. 

119. Leptorhyncus falcatus, Sars. 

120. Graptoleberis testudinaria (Fischer). 

121. Alonella excisa (Fischer). 

122. A. nana (Baird). 

123. Peratacantha truncata (Miill.). 

124. Pleuroxus? levis, Sars. 

125. P. uncinatus, Baird ? 

126. Chydorus ovalis, Kurz. 

127. C. sphaericus (Miill.). 

128. C. barbatus (Brady). 

129. Monospilus dispar, Sars. 

130. Polyphemus pediculus (Linné). 

131. Bythotrephes longimanus, Leydig. 

132. Leptodora kindti (Focke). 
Ostracoda.—133. Cypria ophthalmica (Jurine). 

134. Cypris fuscata (Jurine). 

135. C. obliqua, Brady. 

136. Cyclocypris laevis (Mill.). 

137. C. serena (Koch). 

138. Candona candida (Miull.). 

139. C. elongata, Brady and Norman. 


Bryozoa.—No fresh-water Bryozoa were collected by the Lake 
Survey, no doubt chiefly because there was no one on the staff 
acquainted with the group. Dr Wesenberg-Lund, of Denmark, a 
specialist in the group, did not find any during his visit to Scotland, 
but he examined very few lochs. That Bryozoa exist in the lochs is 
known from the work of Mr Hood, of Dundee. He has collected 
8 species, and 7 of these, enumerated below, were found in lochs 
in Perthshire sounded by the Lake Survey. Mr G. West found stato- 


blasts of a species in a small loch in Fife which was not surveyed. 


140. Paludicella ehrenbergit, Van Ben. 
141. Fredericella sultana, Blam. 

142. Plumatella fruticosa, All. 

143. P. repens, L. 

144. P. emarginata, All. 

145. P. punctata, Hancock. 

146. Cristatella mucedo, Cuvier. 


1 Lynceus guttatus has been found in Loch Morar and elsewhere. 
2 Pleurozus trigonellus was found in a pond between Mallaig and Loch Morar. 


318 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Worms.—Of the various classes which are united under the con- 
venient name of Worms, no one, except the Rotifera, has been studied 
systematically in more than a few lochs. Mr C. H. Martin gave some 
time to the study of the worms of Loch Tay and Loch Lomond, 
and I am indebted to him for the majority of the names in the 
following list. Mr John Hewitt also named a few species from 
Loch Ness and some other lochs. ‘Though Worms do not appear to 
be very numerous in the lochs, no doubt the number (25) recorded 
below is far short of what might be expected from more careful study. 
So little attention has been given to the Worms that it would serve 
no purpose to attempt to trace the distribution. Most of the species 
in the list are only recorded for one or two lochs, but there can be 
no doubt that most of them are in all the lochs. 


Oligocheta,.— 


148. 
149. 


Hirudinea.— 


Nematoda.— 


158. 
Acanthocephala.—159. 


147, 


». C. sexoculata. 


157. 


Molosoma ehrenbergi, Oerst. Lochs Ness, 
Morar, ete. ; common. 

iE., sp. (green-spotted). Loch Ness. 

Stylodrilus Gabretew, Vejd. (teste C. H. 
Martin). Abyssal; occasionally in shal- 
low water. 


. Stylaria lacustris, LL. Common. 
. iS. domondi (Martin). 
. Lumbriculus, sp. (teste J. Hewitt). 
. Chetogaster, sp. 
. Mirudo medicinalis, L. Loch Earn. 
. Clepsine bioculata, Sav. 


Loch Lomond. 
Common. 


Loch Tay (teste 

~C. H. Martin). 

Loch Tay (éeste C. H. 
Martin). 

Gordius, sp. Loch Lochy. Found by Dr 
J. F. Gemmill (teste C. H. Martin). 

Eubostrichus ? sp. Loch Lomond. 

Echinorhynchus proteus, Westumb. In trout, 
larva in Gammarus (teste Martin). 


Cestoda.— 160. Bothriocephalus plicatus. In Salmo fario 
(teste C. H. Martin). 
161. Archigetes sieboldii (Ratz.). In Stylaria 
(teste C. H. Martin). 
Turbellaria.— 162. Polycelis nigra, Ehr. (teste J. Hewitt). 
163. Dendroceelim lacteum, Oerst. (teste Hewitt). 
164. Microstoma lineare, Oerst. Loch Tay (C. H. 
Martin). 
165. Stenostoma leucops, O. Schm. Loch Tay 


(C. H. Martin). 


BIOLOGY OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS omg 


166. Mesostomum viridiatum. Loch 'Tay (C. H. 
Martin). 

167. M. prorhynchus, Loch Tay (C. H. Martin). 

168. Vortex truncatus, Ehr. Loch Tay (C. H. 
Martin). 

169. Polycystis goette?, Bresslau. 

170. Automolos morgiensis (Du Plessis). Lochs 
Ness, Tay, Earn. 

171. Gyrator notops. 


Nores ON THE SPECIES 


Mirudo medicinalis, L.—Found in Loch Earn, the medicinal leech 
may readily be supposed to have been introduced. Dalzell, however, 
records it from a smaller and remote loch in the same district. 

Eubostrichus? sp.—Certes' wrongly included in the genus 
Eubostrichus, Greeff, a curious worm, the position of which is not yet 
definitely settled. In the head is a long trumpet-shaped body which 
is said by Certes to be a dart, which can be protracted. The body 
is annulate, and each ring bears six spines, which form six longi- 
tudinal rows on the body. The form found in Loch Lomond is 
undoubtedly related to that provisionally named Kudbostrichus guernet 
by Certes, but differs in having numerous spines on each ring, which 
do not form distinct longitudinal rows. 

Microstoma hneare, Oerst.—Mr Martin found this species in Loch 
Tay feeding on Hydra, and carried out a very interesting investigation 
into the subsequent history of the nematocysts of the Hydra. 

Automolos morgiensis (Du Plessis).—At depths of 20 feet to 500 
feet in Loch Tay, over 700 feet in Loch Ness. Mr Martin states 
that those dredged from 500 feet in Loch Tay had no eyes. 

Stylodrilus Gabretew, Vejd.—Like Automolos morgiensis, this is an 
abyssal species. It is general at depths of over 100 feet, but is 
sporadic in shallower waters. 

Rotifera.— A larger number of Rotifers is recorded for the 
Scottish lochs than of any other class of animals or plants. This 
may be partly due to the fact that they are very numerous,—by closer 
work the list might easily be extended to 300, perhaps 400 species,— 
but may be partly accounted for by the attention paid to them, and 
the facility with which they can be transmitted alive to specialists. 
Some other classes which are poorly represented in these lists— 
Infusoria, for example—may be really more numerous. ‘The single 
family of Desmids contains more species than any one family of 
Rotifers, and the Diatoms are probably equally numerous. Eleven 


' Mission Screntifique du Cap Horn, Paris, 1889, p. 48. 


320 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


species of Rotifera previously undescribed were found in the Scottish 
lochs. ‘These are Microdina paradowxa, Philodina flaviceps, P. humerosa, 
P. hamata, P. laticornis, Calhdina angusticollis, C. longiceps, 
C. annulata, C. crucicornis, C. armata, and Notommata pumila. 


Rhizota.— 172. Floscularia campanulata, Dobie. 
173. F. ornata, Ehr. 
174. F. pelagica, Rouss. Frequent. 
175. F. mutabilis, Bolton. Rare. 
176. Stephanoceros eichhorni, Ehr. Rare. 
177. Geastes crystallinus, Ehr. 
178. G. brachiatus, Huds. Frequent. 
179. GQ. serpentinus, Gosse. 
180. Pseudecistes rotifer, Stenroos. Rare. 
181. Conochilus volvox, Ehr. Common. 
182. C. wnicornis, Rouss. Common. 
Bdelloida.—183. Microdina paradoxa, Murray. Frequent. 
184. Philodina roseola, Ehr. 
185. P. citrina, Ehr. 


186. P. erythrophthalma, Ehy. 

187. P. megalotrocha, Ehr. Frequent. 
188. P. brevipes, Murray. Frequent. 
189. P. flaviceps, Bryce. Common. 
190. P. nemoralis, Bryce. 

191. P. decurvicornis. Murray. 

192. P. acuticornis, Murray. Frequent. - 
193. P. rugosa, Bryce. 

194. P. plena (Bryce). 

195. P. alpiwm (Ehr.). 

196. P. brycet (Weber). 

197. P. humerosa, Murray. Rare. 
198. P. hamata, Murray. Rare. 

199. P. latwceps, Murray. Frequent. 
200. P. laticornis, Murray. Rare. 
201. P. macrostyla, Ehr. Common. 
202. P. aculeata, Ehr. 


203. Callidina hevodonta (Berg.). Rare. 


204. C. raepert (Milne). Rare. 

205. C. angusticollis, Murray. Common. 
206. C. pusilla, Bryce. Rare. 

207. C. longiceps, Murray. Rare. 

208. C. leitgebu, Zel. 

209. C. annulata, Murray. 

210. C. aspera, Bryce. 


BIOLOGY OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS O21 


OUI 
15h 
213. 
214. 
215: 
216. 
Qi 
218. 
219. 
220. 
eee 
es 
aes 
224. 
225) 
296. 
Boe 
298. 
229: 
230. 
931. 
Q32. 
233. 
234. 
235. 
236. 
237. 
Qos. 
239. 
Ploima.—240. 
241. 
242. 
243. 
Q44., 
Q45. 
246. 
Qa, 
248. 
249, 
250. 
Oeilk 
ee 
253. 


254, 


. crenata, Murray. 

. lata, Bryce. 

. pulchra, Murray. 

. plicata, Bryce. Common. 

. quadricornifera, Milne. Common. 
. habita, Bryce. Common. 

. chrenbergn, Janson. 

. pupillosa, ‘Thompson. 
multespinosa, ‘Thompson. 

. aculeata, Milne. Rare. 

muricata, Murray. Rare. 
crucicornis, Murray. Rare. 

. symbrotica, Zel. 

. armata, Murray. Local. 

. tetraodon, Ehr. 

. russeola, Zel. 

. magna, Plate. 

Rotifer vulgaris, Schrank. Frequent. 
R. neptunius, Milne. Rare. 


OS BY 2S 22 GG Gre: Serene 


R. cttrinus, Ehr. 

R. tardus, Khr. Frequent. 

Rh. longirostris (Janson). Common. 
R. trisecatus, Weber. Rare. 

R. macroceros, Gosse. Frequent. 

R. socrahs (Kellicott). Frequent. 
Adineta vaga (Davis). 

A. gracilis, Janson. 

A. barbata, Janson. 

A. tuberculosa, Janson. 

Murocodon clavus, Ebr. 

Microcodides chlana, Gosse. 

M. robustus (Glascott). 

Asplanchna priodonta, Gosse. General. 
Ascomorpha ecaudis, Perty. 

Syncheta pectinata, Khr. 

S. tremula, Ebr. 

S. oblonga, Ehr. 

S. grandis, Zach. Rare. 

Polyarthra platyptera, Ehr. General. 
P. euryptera, Wier. Local. 
Triarthra longiseta, Khr. Local. 
Notops hyptopus, Ehr. 

A lbertia bernardi, Hlava. Lochs Ness and Rannoch. 


Taphrocampa annulosa, Gosse. Loch Ness. 
21 


322 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Qa: 
256. 
2D: 
258. 
259. 
260. 
261. 
262. 
263. 
264. 
265. 
. P. parasita, Ehr. 

. P. caudata, Bilfinger. 

. P. sordida, Gosse. 

. P. daphnicola (Thompson). Rare. 


é 


WS *@ & aS : 


=F =<) be) p= 


w 2 © 


POPU SCHUM 


es) 


WM *W WD @ W WwW W LW 
CO CO 
CO CO -~! Sd 


co 
So 


ae 


T'. selenura, Gosse. 
Notommata aurita, Ehr. 
N. brachyota, Ehr. 

N. tripus, Ehr. 

N. torulosa (Duj.). 

N. pumila, Rouss. 

N. forcipata, Gosse. 
Copeus cerberus, Gosse. 
C. spicatus, Huds. 

C. caudatus, Collins. 
Proales petromyzon, Ehr. 


Pleurotrocha parasitica, Jennings. 
Furcularia longiseta, Khyr. 
F’. reonhardti, Ebr. 

F. forficula, Ehr. 

FF’, quadrangularis, Glascott. 
Eosphora najas, Ehyr. 

E. digitata, Khr. 

Diglena grandis, Gosse. 

D. forcipata, Ehr. 

D. circinator, Gosse. 

D. ferox, Western. 


. D. uncinata, Milne. 

. D. dromius, Glascott. 

. Arthroglena lutheni, Berg. 
. Rattulus lophoessa (Gosse). 
. R. longiseta, Schrank. 

. FR. scipio (Gosse). 

. Diurella porcellus (Gosse). 
. D. brachyura (Gosse). 

. D. tenwor (Gosse). 


D. tigris, Mill. 


. Dinocharis tetractis, Ehr. 

. D. simihs, Stenroos. 

. D. pocillum, Ehr. 

. Polychetus collinsn, Gosse. 

. P. subquadratus, Perty. 

. Scaridium longicaudatum, Ehr. 
. Stephanops stylatus, Milne. 

. S. tenellus, Bryce. 


BIOLOGY OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS 323 


oo. 
300. 
301. 
302. 
303. 
304, 
305. 
306. 
307. 
308. 
309. 
310. 
311. 
312. 
313. 
O14. 
315. 
316. 
Oli. 
318. 
319. 
320. 
321. 
O22. 
323. 
324. 
3205. 
326. 
D2. 
328. 
329. 
330. 
ol. 
332. 
333. 
334. 
335. 
336. 
337. 
338. 
339. 
340. 
341. 


342 


Diaschiza gibba (Khr.). 
). tenuior, Gosse. 

. sterea, Gosse. 

. lacinulata, Mill. 

. ventripes, Dix-Nutt. 
. hoodir, Gosse. 

. tenuiseta, Burn. 

. eva, Gosse. 

‘alpina mucronata, Ehr. 
S. mutica, Perty. 
Euchlanis tyra, Huds. 
E. oropha, Gosse. 

E. dilatata, Ehr. 

E. deflexa, Gosse. 

E. triquetra, Ebr. 
Cathypna luna, Ehy. 

C. rusticula, Gosse. 

C. gona, Dunlop. 

C. latifrons, Gosse. 
Distyla flewilis, Gosse. 

D. depressa, Bryce. 
Monostyla lunaris, Ehr. 
M. cornuta, Ehr. 

M. bulla, Gosse. 
Metopidia lepadella (Khr.). 
M. solidus, Gosse. 

WM. rhomboides, Gosse. 

M. acuminata, Ehr. 

M. triptera, Ehr. 

M. oxysternum, Gosse. 
Colurus bicuspidutus, Ehr. 
C. leptus, Gosse. 

C. obtusus, Gosse. 

C’. tesselatus, Glascott. 
Pterodina reflexa, Gosse. 
P. patina, Ehr. 

P. truncata, Gosse. 

P. ceca, Parsons. 

P. elliptica, Ehr. 
Brachionus pala, Ehr. 

B. angularis, Gosse. 
Noteus quadricornis, Ehr. 
Anurca cochlearis, Gosse. 
A. aculeata, Ehr. 


S SS -Sisseis 


324 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


343. A. hypelasma, Gosse. 

344, Notholca longispina, Kell. 
345. N. folkacea, Ehr. 

346. N. striata, Ehyr. 

347. Hretmia cubeutes 2 Gosse. 
348. Plasoma truncatum, Levander. 
349. P. hudsoni, Imhof. 

350. P. triacanthum, Berg. 

351. Gastropus stylifer, Imhof. 


352. Anapus testudo, Lauterborn. 


Gastrotricha.—Several species of this neglected but highly 
interesting order have been observed. Lack of precise information 
and literature prevented the identification of any but two of the 
commonest species. 


353. Chatonotus larus, Mill. Loch Ness. 
354, Ichthydiwm podura, Mill. Loch Ness. 


Coelenterata.—The distinctions between the several species of 
Hydra are not very precise, and appear to be sometimes no more 
than differences of colour. 


355. Hydra vulgaris, Pallas. Lochs Ness and Oich. 


H. rubra and H. fusca are noted for Lochs Ness and Tay, but I am 
not certain whether these can be separated from the common Hydra. 
The distinct green species (H. viridis) has not been observed in the 
lochs, but Mr Scourfield found it in a pond between Mallaig and 
Loch Morar. 


Porifera.—356. Spongila lacustris, Carter. Spicules are fre- 
quently found in the tow-nets. 


Finger-like stalks of a sponge have been found in Loch a’ Mhuilinn, 
Beauly basin, and in Loch Meiklie (G. West). Mr J. Hewitt also 
reports gemmule of Spongidla from Loch a’ Vullan (Ness basin). 

Ciliata.—Only a few species of ciliate Infusoria were identified, 
chiefly in Loch Ness. 


357. Amphileptus gigas, C. and L. Loch Ness. 

358. T'rachelocerca olor, Mull. Loch Ness. 

359. T'rachelius ovum, Ehr. Loch Ness. 

360. Toxophyllum meleagris, Mull. Frequent. 

361. Chetospira muscicola, Loch Ness. 

362. Stentor viridis, Loch Ness. 

363. S. caruleus, Ehr. Frequent. 

364. S. neger, Ehr. Lochs Oich and Uanagan. Frequent. 
365. S. polymorpha, Mill. Loch Ness. 


BIOLOGY OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS 325 


366. S. pediculatus, From. Loch Ness. 

367. Aspidisca turrita (Ehr.). Loch Ness. 

368. Vorticella campanula, Ehr. Loch Morar. 

369. Ophridiwm versatile, Mill. Common in the smaller lochs, 
colonies reaching to a diameter of 6 inches. 

370. Shells of Tintinnidiwm were frequent in the northern lochs, 
and a 

371. Tintinnus, species not identified, was living in the Loch of 
Stenness in Orkney. 


Sarcodina.—For work of any value on the Rhizopods and 
Heliozoa the Lake Survey is indebted to Dr Penard, of Geneva, the 
members of the staff having done nothing further than to extend the 
knowledge of distribution. 


Amecebeea.—372. Amwba granulosa, Grub. 
13. A. radiosa, Bhr. 
Testacea.— 374. Cochliopodium bilimbosum (Auerbach). 
375. Difflugia acuminata, Ehyr. 
376. D. arcula, Leidy. 
377. D. bacillifera, Pen. 
378. D. constricta, Ehr. 
79. D. corona, Wallich. 
380. D. curvicaulis, Pen. 
381. D. globulosa, Duj. 
382. D. gramen, Pen. 
383. D. lanceolata, Pen. 
384. D. lobostoma, Leidy. 
385. D. pristis, Pen. 
386. D. pyriformis, Perty. 
387. D. urceolata, Carter. 
388. Centropyaxis aculeata, Stein. 
389. Pontigulasia bigibbosa, Pen. 
390. Lecquereusia modesta, Rhumbler. 
391. L. spiralis (Ehr.). 
392. Heleopera petricola, Leidy. 
393. H. rosea, Pen. 
394, Hyalosphenia papilio, Leidy. 
395. H. cuneata, Stein. 
396. H. elegans, Leidy. 
397. Nebela americana, 'Varanek. 
398. N. barbata, Leidy. 
399. N. bicornis, West. 
400. N. bursella, Vejd. 
401. N. carinata, Archer. 


326 
402 


Filosa.— 


Foraminifera.— 


403. 
404. 
405. 
406. 
407. 
408. 
409. 
410. 
411. 
412. 
413. 
414. 
415, 
416. 
417. 
418. 
419, 
420. 
421. 
4.22, 
4.23. 
424, 
425, 
426. 
427, 
428. 
4.29, 
430. 
431. 
432. 
Aphrothoraca.— 433. 

434, 
Chalarothoraca.—435. 

436. 

437. 

438. 

439. 

440, 
Desmothoraca.— 441. 


THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


N. caudata, Leidy. 

N. collaris, Leidy. 

N. crenulata, Pen. 

N. flabellulum, Leidy. 

N. lageniformis, Pen. 

N. milttaris, Pen. 

N. tubulosa, Pen. 

N. vitreea, Pen. 

Quadrula symmetrica, Schultze. 
Arcella hemispherica, Perty. 

A. vulgaris, Ehr. 

A. discoides, Ehr. 

A. artocrea, Leidy. 

Cyphoderia ampulla (Ehr.) 
Campascus minutus, Pen. 
Assulina seminulum, Leidy. 

A. minor, Pen. 

Corythion dubium, 'Taranek. 
Luglypha alveolata, Du). 

E. brachiata, Leidy. 

E. ciliata (Ehr.). 

. compressa, Carter. 
Placocysta spinosa, Carter. 

P. lens, Pen. 

Paulinella chromatophora, Lauterborn. 
Pseudodifflugia horrida, Pen. 
Sphenoderia lenta, Schlumb. 

iS. dentata, Pen. 

T'rinema euchelys (Khr.). 

T'. lineare, Pen. 

Gromia ngricans, Pen. 
Actinophrys sol, Ehr. 
Actinospherium eichhorni (Ehr.). 
Acanthocystis chatophora, Schrank. 
A. myriospina, Pen. 

A. turfacea, Pen. 
Pomphalyxophrys exigua (Hert. and Less. ). 
Raphidiophrys pallida, Schultze. 
R. conglobata (Greeff). 
Clathrulina elegans, Cienk. 


Suctoria.—On Cyclops viridis, dredged from the bottom of Loch 
Ness, there were often numbers of a tentaculiferous parasite. 


442, Podophrya cyclopwm, C. and L. (identified by Mr Scour- 


BIOLOGY One lnE SCOTTISH LOCHS 327 


field). Forel! gives P. cyclopwm as found in the pelagic region, and 
Acineta elegans, Imhof, as occurring on Entomostraca in the abyssal 
region. 

Flagellata.—443. Dinobryon.—How many species of Dinobryon 
are to be admitted I know not. In the Scottish lochs are found 
the forms or species divergens, Imh. ; cylindricum, Inh. ; stipitatum, 
Stenr. ; and elongatum, Inmh. 


444, Mallomonas plossh, Perty. Common. 
445, Synura wvella. Khy. 

446. Uroglena volvox, Ehr. Loch Uanagan. 
447. Cryptomonas ovata, Ehr. 


Phanerogamia.—The following list of flowering plants is in 
great part extracted from a paper by G. West,? who examined some 
of the lochs of the Ness and other basins. Though I have added a 
few plants which were not found in the lochs visited by Mr West, 
this list is shorter than his. As Mr West remarks in his paper, while 
there is no doubt about the aquatic plants, there is room for difference 
of opinion as to what semi-aquatic plants should be admitted, and I 
have drawn the line closer and omitted many of his semi-aquatics. 
Some plants are so adaptable that they are capable of living a per- 
tectly aquatic or completely terrestrial life. 


448, Ranunculus hederaceus, L. 
449. R. flammula, L. 

450. RR. circinatus, Sibth. 

451. Caltha palustris, L. 

452. Castalia speciosa, Salisb. 
453. Nymphwa lutea, L. 

454. N. pumila, Hoftm. 

455. N. alba, L. 

456. Comarum palustre, L. 
457. Peplis portula, L. 

458. Lythrum sahcaria, L. 

459. Epilobium palustre, L. 
460. Hippuris vulgaris, L. 
461. Myriophyllum alterniflorum, D. C. 
462. M. spicatum, L. 

463. Callitriche stagnalis, Scop. 
464. C. hamalata, Kiitz. 

465. Montia fontana, 1.. 

466. Hydrocotyle vulgaris, L. 


1 Le Léman, vol. iii. p. 131. 
* Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxv. p. 967, 1905. 


328 . THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


467. 
468. 
469. 
470. 
AT 1. 
. Menyanthes trifoliata, L. 

. Myosotis palustris, With. 

. Veronica anagallis, L. 

. Scrophularia aquatica, I. 

. Mentha sativa, L. 

. Utriwularia vulgaris, L. 

. U. intermedia, Hayne. 

. Littorella lacustris, L. 

. Polygonum amphibum, L. 

. P. hydropiper, L. 

. Iris pseudacorus, 1... 

. Alisma plantago, L. 

. Stratiotes aloides, L. 

. EHlodea canadensis, Mich. 

. Juncus effusus, L. 

. J. bufonius, L. 

. J. artaculatus, L. 

. Lypha latifolia, L. 

. LT. angustifoha, L. 

. Sparganium ramosum, Huds. 
. S. natans, L. 

. Potamogeton natans, L. 

. P. polygonifolus, Pourr. 

. Po lucens, U. 

. P. prelongus, Wulf. 

pale CRESS. Mle, 

. P. perfohatus, L. 

. P. pusillus, L. 

. P. filiformis, Pers. 

. Ruppia maritima, L. 

. Zannichelha palustris, L. 

. Helocharis palustris, Br. 

. Scirpus lacustris, L. 

. Carex elata, All. 

. C. aquatils, Wahl. 

. C. rostrata, Stokes. 

. C. vesicaria, L.. 

. Phalaris arundinacea, L. 

. Phragmites communis, Trin. 


Apium inundatum, Reichb. 
C£nanthe crocata, L. 
Cicuta virosa, L. 

Gakhum palustre, L. 
Lobelha dortmanna, L. 


| 


BIOLOGY OF THE 


ole 

512. 
Equisetacee.— 513. 
Selaginellacez.—51 4. 
Characez.— Billo: 
516. 
SA 
518. 
519. 
520. 
521. 
a2. 
523. 
S24. 


Muscine.— ~- 


Hepatice.— 


Floridex.— 
D42., 
Chlorophycex.— 543. 
S44, 
D405. 
546. 
DAT. 
548. 


549. 


541. 


SCOTTISH LOCHS 329 


Glyceria fluitans, Br. 

G. aquatica, Sm. 

Equisetum lmosum, L. 

Tsoetes lacustris, L. 

Nitella opaca, Ag. 

N. translucens, Ag. 

Chara aspera, Willd. 

C. fragilis, Desv. 

C. feetida, Al. Br. 

C. hispida, L. 

Sphagnum cuspidatum, Ehr. 

Rhacomitrium aciculare, Brid. 

Grimmia apocarpa, Hedw. 

Cinchdotus fontinaloides (Lamarck). 
Morar. 


Loch 


. Philonotis fontana, Brid. 

. Fontinalis antipyretica, L. Very common. 
. Porotrichum alopecurum (L.). 
. Climacium dendroides, W. and M. Loch Ness, 


Loch Morar. 


Loch Lomond. 


. Brachythecium rivulare, B. and S$. 
. Lurhynchium rusciforme, Milde. 
. Hypnum fluitans, L. 

. A. falcatum, Brid. 

. A. ochraceum, 'Yurn. 

. H. scorproides, L. 

. A. stramineum, Dicks. 
. HI. cuspidatum, L. 

. Pterogonum gracile, Swartz. 
. Ulota hutchinsiae (Sm.). 

. Scapania undulata, L. 

. Nardia emarginata, Ehy. 


Loch Ness. 


Algee 


Batrachospermum moniliforme, Roth. 
Sacheria (Lemana), sp. 

Bulbocheete, sp. 

Qdogonium capillare, L. 
Enteromorpha intestinalis (1..) 
Draparnaldia glomerata (Vauch.). 
Conferva fontinalis, Berk. 
Cladophora fracta, Dillw. 
Mougeotia, sp. 


330 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


550. 
551. 
Desmidiaces.—552. 
553. 
554A. 
555. 
556. 
5DT. 
558. 
559. 
560. 
561. 
562. 
563. 
564. 
565. 
566. 
567. 
568. 
569. 
570. 


al 
572. 
573. 
574. 
575. 
576. 
Danie 
578. 
579. 
580. 
581. 
582. 
583. 
584. 
585. 
586. 
587. 
588. 
589. 
590. 
591. 


592. 


Zygnema vauchern, Ag. 

Spirogyra crassa, Kiitz. 

Gonatozygon monotenium, De Bary. 

Spirotenia condensata, Bréb. Common. 

Penium spirostriolatum, Barker. Loch Rannoch. 

Netrium digitus (Khr.). Common. 

N. interruptum, Bréb. Loch Ness. 

N. nagelit (Bréb.). Loch Ness. 

Closterium calosporum, Wittr. Loch na Meide. 

cornu, Khe) irequemt 

. costatum, Corda. Loch Ranroch. 

. didymotocum, Corda. Frequent. 

. ehrenbergu, Menegh. Caithness. 

. hutzingu, Nig. Common. 

. ineatum, Ehr. Loch Rannoch. 

. dunula (Mill.). Common. 

. ralfsu, Bréb. Loch Ness. 

. rostratum, Ehr. Loch Ness. 

. setaceum, Ehr. Common. 

. striolatum, Ehr. Loch Rannoch. 

Pleurotaniwn coronatum, Bréb. Common in 
the north. 

P. nodosum (Bréb.). Sutherland. 

Docidium undulatum, Bail. 

T'etmemorus granulatus (Bréb.). Common. 

Euastrum affine, Ralfs. Common. 

. ansatum, Ralfs. Common. 

bidentatum, Nig. Common. 

. binale (Yurp.). Common. | 

. crassum (Bréb.). Common. 

. denticulatum (Karchn.). Common. 

. didelta (Turp.). Common. 

. divaricatum, Lund. Loch Rannoch. 

. nerme (Ralfs). Sutherland. 

oblongum (Grev.). Common. 

. pectinatum (Bréb.). Common. 

. sinuosum, Lenorm. Loch Ness. 

. verrucosum, Ehr. Very common. 

Micrasterias americana (Ehr.). Loch Ness. 

M. apiculata, Ehr. Common in the north. 

M. brachyptera, Lund. Loch Ness. 

M. conferta, Lund. Common in the north. 

M. denticulata, Bréb. Common. 

M. jenneri, Ralfs. Loch Ness. 


SEBEL ON say oy SS) 


Bebb bbb bees 


597. 
598. 
599. 
600. 
601. 
602. 
603. 
604. 
605. 
606. 
607. 
608. 
609. 
610. 
OLDE 
612. 
613. 
614. 
615. 
616. 
617. 
618. 
619. 
620. 
621. 
622. 
623. 
624. 
625. 
626. 
627. 
628. 
629. 
630. 
631. 
632. 
633. 
634. 
635. 


BIOLOGY OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS 301 


593. 
594. 
595. 
596. 


M. mahabuleshwarensis, Hobson. Very local. 

M. murrayi, West. Sutherland; Ayrshire. 

M. papilhifera, Bréb. Common. 

M. pinnatafida (Kitz.). Loch na Doire Daraich, 
Sutherland. 

M. radiata, Hass. Local. 

M. rotata (Grev.). Common. 

M. sol (Ehr.). Common. 

M. thomasiana, Arch. Common. 

M. truncata (Corda). Common. 

M. verrucosa, Bissett. Loch Ness. 

Aanthidium aculeatum, Ehr. Loch Rannoch. 

X. antilopeum (Bréb.). Common. 

AX. armatum (Bréb.). Common. 

X. controversum, West. Local. 

X. cristatum, Bréb. Common. 

X. subhastiferum, West. Local. 

Cosmarium botrytis (Bory). Common. 

C. brebissont, Menegh. Ross. 

C. capitulum, Roy and Biss. Sutherland, Ross. 

C. connatum, Bréb. Sutherland. 

C. crenatum, Ralfs. Sutherland. 

C. cucumis (Corda). Perth; Sutherland. 

C. galeritum, Nordst. Loch Ness. 

C. humile (Gay). Sutherland. 

C. ovale, Ralfs. Frequent. 

C. pachydermum, Lund. Perth; Sutherland. 

C. phaseolus, Bréb. Caithness. 

C. plicatum, Reinsch. 

C. punctulatum, Bréb. Perth; Inverness. 

Ceralfsi. prep, ) Perth: 

C. reniforme (Ralfs). Local. 

C. subspeciosum, Nordst. Frequent. 

C. tetraophthalmum (Kiitz.). Sutherland. 

Cosmocladium constrictum, Arch. Frequent. 

Staurastrum anatinum, Cooke and Wills. 

S. angulatum, West. Sutherland. 

SS. arctiscon, Ehr. Frequent, but local. 

S. aristiferum, Ralfs. Loch Naver, Sutherland. 

iS. aversum, Lund. Common. 

iS. avicula, Bréb. Common. 

S. bifidum, Bréb. Loch Bad a’ Ghaill. 

S. brachiatum, Ralfs. Loch nan Cuinne. 

S. brasiliense, Nordst. Frequent, but local. 


oo2 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


636. 
637. 
638. 
639. 
640. 
641. 
642. 
643. 
644. 
645. 


646. 
647. 
648. 
649. 
650. 
651. 
652. 
653. 
654. 
655. 
656. 
657. 
658. 
659. 
660. 
661. 
662. 
663. 
664. 
665. 
666. 
667. 
Volvocines.— 668. 
669. 
670. 
671. 
Palmellaceze.—672. 
673. 
674. 
675. 
676. 
677. 
678. 


S. brevispinum, Bréb. Local. 

iS. curvatum, West. Common. — 

SS. cuspidatum, Bréb. Common. 

S. dejyectum, Bréb. Frequent. 

iS. erasum, Bréb. Local. 

S. furcigerum, Bréb. Common. 

SS. gracile, Ralfs. Common. 

S. grande, Buln. Local. 

S. hibernicum, West. Sutherland. 

S. melegans, West. Loch Skinaskink, Suther- 
land. 

S. gaculiferum, West. Common. 

S. longispinum (Bail.). Local. 

iS. dunatum, Ralfs. Common. 

S. megacanthum, Lund. Local. 

S. ophiura, Lund. — Local. 

SS. paradoxum, Meyen. Common. 

S. pilosum (Niig.). 

SS. polymorphum, Bréb. Common. 

S. pseudopelagicum, West. Common. 

S. sexangulare (Buln.). Local. 

S. subpygmeum, West. Sutherland. 


S. turgescens, De Not. Perth and Sutherland. 
S. teliferum, Ralfs. Caithness ; Sutherland. 
iS. tumidum, Bréb. Sutherland. 


iS. vestitum, Ralfs. 

Arthrodesmus incus (Bréb.). Common. 
A. convergens, Ehr. Frequent. 

A. triangularis, Lagerh. Sutherland. 
Spharosoma, sp. 

Desmidium swartzu, Ag. Local. 
Hyalotheca mucosa (Dillw.). Common. 
Gymnozyga moniliformis, Ehr. Perth, Inverness. 
Volvox globator, L. 

Kudorina elegans, hr. 

Pandorina morum (Mill.). 

Chlamydomonas adherens, Bach. 

Pediastrum boryanum, 'Turp. 

P. duplex, Meyen. 

Dactylococcus, sp. 

Scenedesmus antennatus, Bréb. 

S. obliquus (‘Lurp.). 

Raphidium, sp. 


Selenastrum bibratanum, Reinsch. 


BIOLOGY OF THE SCOTTISH LOCHS 398 


679. 
680. 
681. 
682. 
683. 
684. 
Diatomacez.—- 685. 
686. 
687. 
688. 
689. 
690. 
691. 
692. 
695. 
694. 
695. 
696. 
697. 
698. 
699. 


700. 


701. 
702. 
703. 
7TO4. 
705. 
706. 
707. 
708. 
709. 
710. 
Myxophycee.—711. 
ae. 
718. 
714. 
qpsy 
HebG: 
foley 
gales, 
719. 
720. 


Tetraédron limneticum, Borge. 
Botryococcus brauni, Kutz. 
Dictyospheruum ehrenbergianum, Nag. 
Nephrocytium agardhianum, Nig. 
Urococcus insignis (Hass. ). 
Eremosphera viridis, De Bary. 
Fragilaria crotonensis (A. M. Edw.). Local. 
Rhizosolenia, sp. Local. 

Cyclotella radtosa. 

C. compta, Kiitz. Sutherland. 
Stauroneis anceps, Khr. 

Navicula gibba, Kutz. 

N. alpina, Kitz. 

N. nobilis, Kitz. 

N. major, Kitz. 

Vanheurckia rhomboides, Bréb. 
Gomphonema acuminatum, Ehr. 

G. dichotomum, Kiitz. 

Achnanthes exilis, Kitz. 

Eunotia lunaris, Ehy. 

E. gracilis, Khr. 

E. bidens, Ehr. 

Synedra pulchella, Kiitz. 

S. ulna, Ehr. 

Surirella robusta, Ehr. Common. 
Asterionella formosa, Hass. Common. 
A. gracillima, Heib. Common. 
Tabellaria fenestrata, Kitz. Common. 
T’. flocculosa, WKiitz. Common. 
Campylodiscus, sp. 

Melosira, sp. 

Tetracyclus lacustris, Ralts. 

Rivularia, sp. 

Gleotricha, sp. 

Nostoc, sp. 

Anabena flos-aque (Lyngb.). Common. 
A. corcinalis, Kitz. Common. 
Oscillatoria, sp. 

Clathrocystis wruginosa (Kiitz.). Common. 
Gilaocapsa, sp. 

Calospherium kutzingianum, Nig. Common. 
Gomphospherva lacustris, Chodat. 


Dinoflagellata.—Only a few of the commonest species have been 


identified. Further 


information will be found in Messrs West's 


334 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


‘** Fresh-water Plankton of Scottish Lochs.”! Messrs West distinguish 
12 species. 


721. Peridinium tabulatum, Ehr. Common. 

722. Ceratiwm hirundinella, Mill. Very common. 
723. C. cornutwm (Ehr.). Frequent. 

724. Glenodiniwm cinctum, Ehr. Loch Ness. 


INSECTS. 


Mr Grimshaw has examined a small collection of insects, and 
given us some notes upon them. Most of them were in immature 
stages, and the species could not be identified, but Mr Grimshaw has 
indicated the families, and, where possible, the genera. The insects in 
the following list were all collected in Loch Ness. 


Gerris ? coste, H. Schff. (nymph). 
Corixa preusta, Fieb. 

C. fabrictt, Fieb. 

C. 2? distincta, Fieb. 


Ephemeride, nymphs of two species ; nymph of a large species 
probably belonging to the genus Baétis. 
Trichoptera, larvee. Cases and larve of Oxyethira or other 
Hydroptilid. 
Perlida, larvee. 
Culex sp., pupa. 
Chironomide, larvee. 
Platambus maculatus, L. 
Halhplus fulous, L. 
Hydroporus septentrionalis, Gyll. 
Laccobius minutus, L. 


1 Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xli. p. 493, 1905. 


SO Vil Olan CLIVE, CEDAR ACIEHRS: TN oT 
PREPSER= WATER PLANKTON’ FROM 
VARIOUS ISLANDS OFB EEE: -NOR TH 
AND WHST COASTS OF SCOTLAND 


By JOHN HEWITT, B.A. 


Ir is now fairly well established that there is a great uniformity in 
the fresh-water plankton from all parts of the world; the means of 
dispersal of the numerous organisms constituting this assembly have 
been so efficient, and their adaptability to various environmental 
conditions, such as temperature, light, and chemical composition of 
the water, so great, that plankton from the Arctic and from the 
tropical regions have a great number of species in common. Neverthe- 
less, there is a decided though somewhat inconspicuous differentiation 
according to climate, and, for example, it has been shown! that there 
is a certain association of zooplankton which belongs particularly to 
the Arctic and subalpine lakes; and moreover it has been known 
for a long time that in one family, the Diaptomidee, the delimitation 
of the species is quite sharp, the English species of Diaptomus being 
unknown in the lakes of the New World; and when in addition to 
such considerations we take into account the relative abundance and 
variation of cosmopolitan forms which have predilection for certain 
environmental conditions, it becomes possible to roughly divide the 
world into several zoological regions which coincide with areas of 
different climatic conditions. 

It has been pointed out by Mr James Murray? that Scotland 
occupies a more or less intermediate position between two such 
regions, and that northwards the plankton contains the Arctic and 
subalpine association, whilst in the lowlands the plankton is more 
closely related to that from the great European plain. 

1 Sven Ekman, “Die Phyllopoden, Cladoceren, etc., der nordschwedischen 
Hochgebirgen,” Zool. Jahrb, Abt. Syst. Geogr. Brol., Bd. xxi., 1904. 

2 James Murray, “ Distribution of the Pelagic Organisms in Scottish Lakes,” 
Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin., vol. xvi. p. 51, 1905. 

335 


336 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


The islands (Shetlands, Orkneys, Lewis, North Uist, Benbecula, 
Mull, and Lismore) with which I am dealing in this present paper 
all have the northern type of plankton, but they do not agree 
together so completely as might have been expected; and the 
differences are sufficiently marked to enable one to readily distinguish 
between a tow-netting from the Shetlands, the Orkneys, or Lewis. 
In reality the Lewis plankton is very like, though not quite identical 
with, that of Ross-shire, whilst the Shetlands and Orkneys have each 
a more distinctive plankton. Nevertheless, if a complete list of all 
the species found in the Shetland lochs be compared with lists from 
the Orkneys or from Lewis, the differences will appear rather small, 
being for the most part varietal rather than specific. In this paper 
I am dealing with only three species of the plankton assembly, viz. 
Daphnia longispina, Bosmina obtusirostris, and Ceratiwm hirundinella, 
and it will be seen that the Daphnia, and to a less extent the Bosmina, 
are present as fairly definite varieties in the several regions considered. 
I think it very probable that investigation would bring out very 
similar facts for a number of other species of the plankton, e.g. 
Bythotrephes longimanus, Leptodora hyalina, various Rotifers and 
Desmids. 

It should be mentioned that the material available for the 
following comparisons was simply the tow-nettings taken on the 
various lochs at the time when the Lake Survey happened to be 
stationed there; consequently each loch is represented by only one 
gathering; but as the various islands were visited by different 
members of the Survey staff at about the same time of the year, 
and that the best season for plankton-collecting, a comparison is 
justifiable. An examination of plankton from a number of lochs 
on each of these islands has provided the following distinctive 
characters :— 

For the Shetlands, examined 30th June to 11th August 1903, 
a very definite variety of Daphnia, a small form of Bosmina obtusi- 
rostris, a marked abundance of Diaptomus wierzejskiu, and apparently 
total absence of Diaptomus laciniatus, a general rarity of Holopedium 
gibberum, Bythotrephes longimanus, Leptodora hyahna, Polyphemus 
pediculus, and Diaphanosoma brachyura, and a great abundance of 
Ceratium hirundinella. 

For the Orkneys, examined 15th to 27th August 1903, another 
variety of Daphnia; otherwise much like the Shetlands. 

For Lewis, examined 10th July to 21st August 1903, Daphnia of 
a smaller type, a larger form of Bosmina, a marked abundance of 
Diaptomus laciniatus and apparently absence of Diaptomus gracilis, an 
abundance of Holopediwn gibberum, Leptodora hyalina, Diaphanosoma 
brachyura, Bythotrephes longimanus, and Polyphemus pediculus, rarity 


FRESH-WATER PLANKTON 337 


of Ceratium hirundinella, and finally a specially rich development of 
Chlorophycee. 

For North Uist and Benbecula, an abundance of Diaptomus 
weerzejskt and apparently absence of Diaptomus laciniatus ; otherwise 
much like Lewis. The plankton material from Mull and the small 
island of Lismore is too small to justify an exact comparison with the 
above-mentioned areas, but I shall refer to it later on. 

In the four areas which we have just distinguished the lochs differ 
somewhat in physical features :—(1) The Shetland lochs are mostly 
shallow, some few are relatively deep, and they are elevated 20 to 300 
feet above sea-level ; (2) the Orkney lochs are all broad, shallow, and 
flat-bottomed, and they are elevated about 50 feet ; (3) of the lochs 
surveyed in Lewis, the greater part are relatively deep, some few are 
shallow, and they are elevated 100 to 400 feet above sea-level; (4) 
the North Uist and Benbecula lochs are nearly all shallow, a few are 
of moderate depth, and they are elevated only a few feet above sea- 
level. As regards the temperature of the waters in these same areas, 
there appears to be a small but decided difference, the Shetland lochs 
being colder than those of the other areas. In the following table I 
have given the surface temperatures taken in all the lochs of the islands 
which were visited by the Survey. As will be seen, the Lewis and 
Shetland lochs were surveyed contemporaneously, and at that time the 
Shetland lochs were superficially several degrees colder than those of 
Lewis; and I am supposing also that in general a like difference in 
thermal conditions would obtain for all the upper strata where the 
plankton organisms live. In North Uist and Benbecula the survey 
commenced in the second week of May, when the surface temperature 
was about 49° Fahr. After that a rapid warming of the waters took 
place, and by the fourth week in May the lochs had a surface tempera- 
ture of over 60° Fahr., and early in June a maximum reading of 68° 
Fahr. was recorded. It should be noted, however, that the difference 
in the whole thermal conditions of these lochs is often not so great as 
would seem to be the case from a consideration of surface temperature 
alone, for in the heated lochs of early June there was actually found to 
be a very rapid fall of temperature in passing from the surface to the 
lower layers of water, in several cases a range of 16° Fahr. occurring 
in a vertical distance of only 20 or 25 feet. On the other hand, the 
colder lochs of early May had a more or less uniform temperature 
from top to bottom ; further, it will be seen that the deeper lochs 
remained cooler than the shallower lochs of the same neighbourhood. 
So in all the areas under consideration, especially in North Uist, the 
tow-nettings were taken from lochs differing quite appreciably in their 
thermal conditions, and later on we shall see to what extent the 


plankton varies accordingly. 
22 


338 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


I must mention that the tow-nettings from the Shetlands, the 
Orkneys, and from Lewis were taken in the same year, 1903, but North 
Uist and Benbecula were surveyed in 1904. 


TABLE SHOWING SURFACE TEMPERATURES (FAHR. SCALE) OF MOST OF THE LOCHS 
SURVEYED IN SHETLAND, ORKNEY, Lewis, NoRTH UIST, AND BENBECULA. 


A ea . N. Uist and 
Shetland. Orkney. | Lewis. Benboculel 
2nd week in May | 49°2, 51:0, 47m 
49°0, 49°2, 49°3 
3rd 5 a : ne Ae ae 52°5,, 5220 
4th _,, or Ry a 61:0, 64°0, 63:0 
1st week in June : ne he de 59°2, 61:0, 60°4, 
64°6, 59°0, 63°0, 
67'0, 66°7 
IRON yo, “ we As ape 61:0, 58°8, 60°2 
athy . 33, a : 5623,350-6 oF ie 60°0, 59:2; 55:0 
59°2, 59°7, 55 :2im 
DOs 
1st week in July 1) ODS 5102 0.4 SEbs as as 59°2, 58°0 
56'8 
Onde: a * PsD4eli nb 3200408, 5 Ae 56'9, 55°38 
55°8, 55°70, 5474 
3rd . mn 56°8, 57°5, 54°8, is 56 
58°0, 54°2 
4th ,, » . | 55°5,,56°0, 54:9 bas 6125; #161285.59°0) = 
56°56," 70707) 
Ist week in August 54°8, 05:2, 56°4, 58°0, 60°1, 58°0, 
56°4, 53°8, 55°8, 59:0, 60°0, 58°2* 
56°0 
2nd” 5. - : 57°9, 58°0 57°0 59:0, 57°83, 
58-0, 58:0 * 
ard? © os; = : an 60°25, 58°0)'55-0; DOS2a Oo on 
58°5 avails bya! 
4th ,, A : Me Dis Olao, G10 
1st week in September es 64°6, 62°0 
| 3rd fs ie me 54°6, 53°5 


* indicates a loch whose mean depth is over 20 feet. 
+ indicates a loch whose mean depth is over 100 feet. 


FRESH-WATER PLANKTON 309 


Daphnia longispina, O. F. Miller.—The Daphnias of all the 
lakes under consideration are varieties of this protean species, and 
it occurs under different forms in the several areas. ‘There is not 
sufficient material to justify a definite answer respecting the amount 
of seasonal variation that obtains for this species in our lakes, but 
the evidence, so far as it goes, would imply that seasonal variation, 
if it occurs at all, is not very pronounced, and I am inclined to regard 
the varieties dealt with below as fairly permanent local forms. 

In the island of Lewis, a tow-netting from any one loch contains 
Daphnias of varied shape and size; usually the majority are slender 
forms with long posterior spines and galeate heads, whilst a few are 
larger and stouter creatures with rounded and protruding foreheads 
and shorter posterior spines. If young are present, they are relatively 
stout forms with slightly galeate heads and long posterior spines. 
When just about to leave the brood-pouch of the parent, the young 
Daphnia has a perfectly rounded head with no indication of galeation. 
Only on one occasion have I met with an exception to this rule: in 
Loch Valtos (15th August 1903) a late embryo, still in the parent’s 
brood-pouch, had just the first beginnings of a galea on the head. In 
the same tow-netting there were advanced embryos which had perfectly 
rounded heads, so far as the outer shell was concerned; but within 
that shell the very delicate skin was slightly peaked, and at the 
succeeding moult the creature would have a correspondingly galeate 
head. But, as a general rule, however galeate the parent may be, 
its newly hatched young have rounded heads. Nevertheless it very 
quickly becomes galeate, and at every moult up to a certain stage 
the Daphnia becomes more pronouncedly so. Eventually the galeated 
Daphnias begin to produce parthenogenetic eggs, the number of 
individuals in a brood being very few, sometimes only one; but 
these adults, if such they may be called, still continue to grow, 
becoming at each moult stouter and at the same time less galeate. 
I have several times seen examples of such adults just at the moulting 
stage, and in such cases the new skin was seen to be closely approxi- 
mated to the old one over the whole surface of the body, excepting the 
tip of the posterior spine and the anterior part of the head, where the 
new galea was considerably less acute than the old one (see Plate XIII. 
fig. 1, Loch Frisa). This reduction of the galea may continue until it 
disappears entirely and the creature has an absolutely rounded head. 
Not infrequently, however, the oldest Daphnias of a tow-netting 
show a reminiscence of the juvenile peak in the shape of a slight 
angularity on that part of the head (see Plate X. fig. 3, Loch Valtos). 

In the specimen just referred to from Loch Frisa the tip of the 
newly formed posterior spine did not reach up to the end of the old 
one, the new spine being shorter than the old one by about one-sixth 


340 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


the length of the latter; this shortening of the spine, which at first 
is nearly as long as the body, and eventually may not be longer than 
one-sixth of the body-length—and, as we shall see, is reduced to a 
mere stump in the Orkneys—commences, I believe, at the early 
moults of the young and continues throughout life, being more 
pronounced, however, in the later stages of the animal’s life. 

In the island of Lewis there are lakes of widely different depth 
and shape, and there are corresponding differences in the temperature 
of these lakes; nevertheless the Daphnia varied but slightly from 
lake to lake. In Loch Suainaval (24th July), which is of great 
depth and has a small limnetic area, the adults have just an indica- 
tion of a galea, while the young ones are decidedly galeate, but not 
much so. In Loch Langavat (16th July), a large loch of some depth, 
Daphnia was rare, and the only specimens found were adults with 
protruding foreheads, but no galea. In Loch a’ Chlachain (10th July), 
a shallow loch, the young are pronouncedly galeate, and the adults 
but shghtly so. In Loch Dhomhnuill Bhig (14th August), a shallow 
loch, the adults are round-heads and the young ones galeated. In 
Loch 'Trealaval (7th August) the old ones had round heads, the 
young ones were galeate, but not much so, and the youngest specimens 
were only very slightly galeate. In Loch Cro Criosdaig (4th August) 
all the Daphnias were slightly galeate. In these several forms the 
eye varies in size; generally it is relatively small in the galeated 
Daphnias, and moderate-sized or large in the round-head forms. 

From this short. sketch of the life-history of Daphnia longispina 
in the lakes of Lewis, it will be seen that Daphnia galeata, s. str., 1s 
here to be regarded as a juvenile form, whereas elsewhere—on the 
continent of Europe, for instance—such is not the case, for there this 
galeated form, though not a permanent species, attains its maximum 
size, and produces ephippia without losing the galea. The conclusion 
I have arrived at is based simply on the facts just detailed, viz. that 
from 10th July up to 21st August, during which time tow-nettings 
were taken from more than twenty lochs, the Daphnias of any of these 
lochs were of all sizes and of all stages of galeation, and that generally 
the most galeate forms were quite without summer eggs, whilst the 
largest forms, which also were the egg-bearing forms, had only slight 
galeation or had completely rounded heads. Sven Ekman states that 
in the mountain lakes of North Sweden the spring Daphnias belong 
to the forma mecrocephala, Sars ; later on appears the forma obtusifrons, 
Sars, and the summer generations are of the forma galeata, Sars. It 
would appear, however, that in Lewis the differentiation into these 
several forms has only just commenced, and that, whilst there is a 
strong tendency towards galeation in the summer generations, this 
for the most part affects only the young, whilst the adults remain 


FRESH-WATER PLANKTON 341 


much the same throughout. According to Mr 'T. Scott, the galeated 
forms in Loch Oich and other lochs of the Highland region, whilst 
exhibiting some amount of variation, nevertheless on the whole 
preserve a large crest up to and throughout the egg-bearing period, 
and the males are all provided with a prominent crest; on the other 
hand, in the lakes of the islands under consideration I have never seen 
crested males, though in the very few cases where males were seen 
the females were galeated. It appears, therefore, that in some of the 
mainland lochs Daphnia galeata is a permanent form, so far as the 
summer season is concerned. 

In the lakes of Lewis I have occasionally noticed that the Daphnias 
are only represented by two stages (e.g. the very galeate form without 
eggs, and the slightly galeate form with eggs), without many inter- 
mediates, as 1f the brood-formation were simultaneous throughout the 
adult Daphnia population, a phenomenon well known in the lakes of 
the Continent ; but this is unusual in Lewis, and apparently a Daphnia 
produces in succession several series of summer eggs, with the result 
that Daphnias of all stages of the life-history are to be found at any 
time. In several of these lochs the older Daphnias had a purple 
coloration on some part of the valves, due to the deposit of pigment 
in granular form between the two chitinous layers of the valve ; often, 
too, the internal body-tissues were tinged with a suffused purple colour. 
But coloration was most marked in the Diaptomus of Lewis, which 
was almost invariably a vivid blue, but occasionally was red. 

Ephippium-bearing females were only rarely seen; in fact, I have 
taken them only in Loch Fadagoa (9th August), and the heads were 
rounded. I was unable to discover the males. 

The adult round-head Daphnia of Lewis is about 1:8 mm. in 
length (including spine), the eyes are moderate-sized or large, and it 
agrees fairly well with the variety obtusifrons, Sars, or in a few cases 
the variety mecrocephala, Sars. 

The Daphnias of North Uist and Benbecula were on the whole 
very similar to those of Lewis. The younger adults had a rather 
large and slightly galeate head, whilst the body was small and carried 
only one summer ege ; the older ones had a smaller but rounded head, 
and the body was larger and carried three, four, sometimes six, or 
even eight summer eggs—the one figured from Loch Vieragvat had 
eight but this is rather exceptional. 

There were considerable differences in the surface temperatures of 
the lochs, as North Uist was visited in the early summer, just when 
the thermal changes were most rapid. In Loch Skealtar, examined 
9th May 1904, the surface temperature was 47°°7 Fahr.; its adult 
Daphnias had rounded heads, many of them having a faint indication 
of a peak, whilst the young were slightly but not markedly galeate. 


342 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


In Loch Vieragvat, examined 12th May 1904, with a temperature of 
49°°3 Fahr., the old Daphnias were large and stout, with the head 
quite rounded, some of them, however, showing indication that they 
had been galeate; the young were all quite definitely galeate, but not 
much so. In Loch na Coinnich, examined 7th June 1904, with a 
surface temperature of 68°°0 Fahr., some of the adults were large, the 
spine short and slender, the heads rounded, and they carried about 
seven or eight embryos; other adults—and these were numerous—had 
just a small galea (see Plate XI. fig. 2) and fewer summer eggs; the 
young were rather more galeate than in the lochs just mentioned. In 
Loch an Iasgaich, examined 9th June 1904, surface temperature 66°:0 
Fahr., much the same conditions prevailed, except that Daphnias 
with completely rounded heads were wanting, though the oldest 
specimens had almost lost their galea. In Loch Langavat (Benbecula), 
examined 4th July 1904, with a surface temperature of 58°:0 Fahr., 
the adult Daphnias were mostly non-galeate, and the young ones very 
pronouncedly galeate. It seems very probable, then, that galeation in 
the Daphnias does increase, though not to a great extent, with the 
warming of the waters in summer. 

In one or two lochs the adult Daphnias had a deposit of purple 
pigment on the post-ventral region of the valves, as was also the case 
in a few Lewis lochs; and I have seen very similar pigmentation in 
autumnal Daphnias from the lakes of Sutherland and Ross-shire. In 
Loch Maol a’ Choire (Inver basin), a small lake at a considerable 
elevation, the pigment was deposited in two dorsal areas—one just 
behind the head, and the other posteriorly ; more usually, however, 
such Daphnias have only one pigment spot, situated, as in North Uist, 
post-ventrally. Sven Ekman records the same kind of coloration in 
the D. galeata of Puorek Lake. 

No males or ephippium-bearing females were seen in the North 
Uist and Benbecula lochs during this period. 

In the small, fertile island of Lismore the waters contain an 
abundance of lime salts, and the margins of the lakes have a rich 
molluscan fauna. The lochs (Baile a’ Ghobhainn, Fiart, and Kilcheran), 
which are relatively deep, were examined 12th to 16th August 1904, 
when the temperature was high; Daphnia was apparently absent 
altogether from Loch Fiart, and in the other two lochs it had 
completely rounded head with no trace of galeation either in adults or 
in young forms (see Plate XIII. tig. 3). The head is of characteristic 
shape, the ventral margin being quite straight ; this corresponds fairly 
well with the Daphnia hyalina, forma typica, of Leydig. In Loch 
Baile a’ Ghobhainn ephippium-bearing females were found. 

In the island of Mull, two lochs (Ba and Frisa), both rather deep, 
were examined on 16th and 17th August 1904. Daphnia was absent 


FRESH-WATER PLANKTON 343 


from Loch Ba; in Loch Frisa, the temperature being 59°:1 Fahr., the 
oldest Daphnias had round heads, other adults had slight galeation, 
the middle-aged Daphnias were definitely galeate, and the very 
youngest had completely rounded heads. ‘They were on the whole 
very like the North Uist or Lewis forms. 

_ The Orkney Islands were visited 15th to 27th August 1903, when 
Daphnias were abundant in all the lochs examined. An Orkney 
Daphnia is very distinct from any so far considered, being considerably 
larger, and the head being of a very characteristic shape. ‘The young 
are slightly peaked, have long posterior spines, and, though some- 
what larger, they are in general shape much like the young of Lewis. 
The middle-aged Daphnia is stouter, the head is relatively larger and 
more galeate, and the posterior spine is already considerably reduced 
in length; the adults are very large and stout, the posterior spine Is 
reduced to a thickened stump, brown in colour, and the large head, 
which is slightly peaked, protrudes excessively inferior to the eye. 
The adult carries about nine summer eggs. Sometimes the reduction 
of the galea in the adult is complete; in one loch, Loch Kirbister, 
galeation in the younger forms is but slight, whilst in Loch Harray 
there seems to be no attempt at galeation. In this latter case, however, 
the Daphnias were forming ephippia; unlike those from the other 
Orkney lochs, the posterior spine showed no tendency to reduction, 
and on the whole there was a greater resemblance to the Shetland 
forms than to the typical Orkney Daphnia. 

Some of these Orkney lochs were visited again three years later 
(August 1906), and exactly the same type of Daphnia was found, 
so that this is evidently a permanent form, at any rate so far as 
the summer months are concerned. 

The total length of a typical adult from an Orkney loch is 
2°75 mm. (including the stumpy spine). ‘These Daphnias are quite 
the largest I have seen; the Shetland forms are longer, as the spine 
is not so much reduced, but otherwise they are not so bulky as the 
Orkney Daphnias. Mr ‘T. Scott? has observed individuals as long 
as 3°4 mm. in Loch Oich, but these had a long galea and a moderate 
posterior spine. 

The Shetland Islands were visited 30th June to 8th August 1903, 
when Daphnia was abundant. In these lochs there was no trace 
whatever of galeation, and in all stages the rounded head was un- 
usually large; they are quite distinct from the obtusifrons and 
microcephalic forms of Lewis. ‘The young have posterior spines 
which are as long as the body, not including the head ; the posterior 
spine undergoes gradual reduction until in the adult it may become 
only one-eighth or one-tenth of the body-length. Such short spines 

1 Seventeenth Annual Report, Fishery Board for Scotland, Part II]. p. 196, 1899. 


o44 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


are thick and brown, but not stumpy like those of the Orkney Islands. 
The adults have large eyes, they bear five or even as many as nine 
summer eggs, and the total length, including the spine, is about 2°8 mm. 
In general, it seems to be most nearly allied to the var. rosea, Sars, 
but differs in the absence of coloration. In several lochs males were 
abundant; they looked very like the younger females, and the spine 
was not at all reduced. Males were taken in Loch Spiggie, 4th July 
1903; Loch Littlester, 7th August 1903; Loch Chiff, 4th August 1903; 
Loch Clousta, 12th July 1903; and Loch Vaara, 13th July 1903; 
ephippia were seen in Loch Littlester. 

As regards the formation of ephippia and the occurrence of males, 
these seem to be rather uncommon phenomena in the Scottish lakes 
during the autumn months. ‘They have been seen in the five Shetland 
lochs above mentioned, 4th July to 7th August 1903; in Loch Baile a’ 
Ghobhainn, 13th August 1904; in Loch Ness, 29th August 1903, also 
6th October 1898; in Loch Oich, 7th October 1898; in Loch @ 
Mhuilinn, near Fort Augustus, 27th August 1903; in Loch an 
Lagain, 25th September 1902; in Loch an Tuirc, 14th September 
1902; in Loch Maol a’ Choire, 13th September 1902; in Loch More 
(Caithness), October 1903; in Loch Harray, 22nd August 1903; and 
in Loch Fadagoa, 9th August 1903; but as these few records are all 
we know of from some hundreds of lochs examined during the summer 
and autumn months, we must suppose that, if ephippial formation 
is a normal function in the life-history of a Daphnia, it must take 
place in the winter months, and in fact Mr T. Scott found them 
frequently in December. 

In the lochs of Shetland, then, they occur several months earlier. 
So far as our records go, ephippial formation never occurs in the 
lakes of the Highland region earlier than August; but, curiously 
enough, ephippium-bearing Daphnias were taken in Edgelaw Reservoir 
(near Edinburgh) as early as 7th July 1903, and, according to Mr 
Scott, in Duddingston Loch (Edinburgh) on 15th June 1898, in which 
loch also they were found on 16th September 1898 and also on 15th 
December 1897, and in Forfar Loch on 16th June 1898, and again 
on 15th September 1898. 

But the lochs just mentioned are of small size, and being com- 
paratively shallow the plankton fauna is subject to the extremes of 
temperature conditions and perhaps even to partial desiccation ; in 
such an environment the ephippial function becomes more important 
than in the large lochs where more uniform conditions prevail. 

Bosmina obtusirostris, Sars.—The plankton Bosmina in all the 
areas belonged to the species B. obtusirostris, Sars; in no case have 
I met with B. longirostris, and only once B. longispina, Fr. Leydig. 

The Bosmina obtusirostris varied somewhat in size and general 


FRESH-WATER PLANKTON 349 
shape, but still I think all the different forms should be included 


under this species s. str. A very variable character is the length 
of the mucrones; usually the mucro is long in the young individuals, 
and with age it becomes shorter and shorter, in some few cases almost 
disappearing in the adults. Often the long mucro of the young is 
notched ventrally (see Plate XIV. fig. 9), but at every moult the notch- 
ing becomes less marked, and in the adult there is usually no trace of 
such notches, though occasionally they persist: on the other hand, many 
long-spined young have no indication of notching. On examining 
the late embryos while still within the brood-pouch, we find that 
there the mucro reaches its highest development, relatively at any 
rate, and there too the notching is most conspicuous ; in such embryos 
the mucrones function as hooks for keeping the shell valves approxi- 
mated, the two hooks crossing each other, either hook folding over 
the opposite valve (see Plate XIV. fig. 15). And I suspect that the 
notching of the mucro has some reference to the same function. Now, 
seeing that the mucro of the adult Bosmina obtusirostris varies 
considerably in length in the various lochs, and is frequently much 
reduced in size with age, we may suppose that it serves no very 
important function in the adult, and it seems probable that the 
above-mentioned is one of its chief functions, though doubtless the 
long mucrones of the young are useful as balancing organs. 

In the island of Lewis, Bosmina obtusirostris 1s usually abundant 
in any loch. The adult is of large size, sometimes almost 1 mm. long, 
the mucro included; the dorsal contour is rounded, the body is 
relatively high, the post-dorsal angle is obtuse, sometimes so much so 
that it almost disappears, the brow is protruding, the eye rather 
large, the rostrum is short and straight, the mucro is short, and the 
series of spines on the abdominal claw includes nine or ten spines. 
In the young, however, the body is relatively much more elongated, 
the posterior half of the dorsal contour is straight, the post-dorsal 
angle is less obtuse, the brow is not prominent, the rostrum is curved 
and long, the mucro is long, and the abdominal claw has only 
about four or five spines. Such is the Bosmina of Loch a’ Chlachain 
(Plate XIV. fig. 11), Loch Bodavat, and others. 

In other lochs of Lewis (Langavat, 'Trealaval, Skebacleit, etc.) we 
have very much the same form, differing, however, in that the rostrum 
is still shorter, but the mucro is ieee in the fowl hatched young 
the long mucrones are notched, and the notching persists even in the 
adult specimens, though it is not very marked. Between the forms 
with short mucro and those with long mucro there is every grade of 
intermediate. 

In Loch Scaslavat the Bosmina was small, and it had a purple 
coloration ; it belongs to the same variety, however, as the above. 


346 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


In Loch Suainaval, the deepest loch of Lewis, and also in Loch 
Stacsavat, which receives water from Loch Suainaval, the Bosmina 
was quite different from that found elsewhere; it was rather larger, 
the mucro was very long, and so also was the rostrum; the adults 
carried as many as twelve eggs each. It agrees with B. longispina, 
var. macrocerastes, and is quite distinct from the long-spined forms 
of B. obtusirostris. 

In North Uist and Benbecula the Bosmina was in general very 
like that of Lewis. In many lochs the adult specimens were some- 
what more elongated and the rostrum longer than in the Lewis lochs, 
but here too in the very oldest forms it was found that the rostrum 
shortened and the curvature of the dorsal contour increased ; further, 
with age the animal became more procumbent, in some few cases the 
mucro was much reduced—in Loch nan Geireann (Mill) the mucro 
was almost absent—but in most lochs it was of moderate size or 
long. ‘The number of eggs carried by adults varied from two to 
seven. In some cases the head was almost as much depressed as in 
the var. procumbens. 

In the island of Mull the Bosmina of Loch Ba was distinctly 
different from that of Loch Frisa. The adults of Loch Ba were small, 
rounded forms carrying only one egg; the dorsal contour was rounded, 
and the post-dorsal angle was quite absent, having merged in the 
curve of the back; the mucro was moderate-sized, the brow was not 
prominent, the rostrum was straight and of medium length. The 
young were more normal, being elongated, and having a definite post- 
dorsal angle (Plate XIV. figs. 5 and 6). On the other hand, the 
Bosmina of Loch Frisa was a larger form, the mucro was long, being 
occasionally though not usually serrated ventrally; it was very like 
the ordinary forms from Lewis or North Uist. 

In the island of Lismore Bosmina was common in all ies lochs. 
It belongs to exactly the same type as that of Lewis or North Uist. 
The young have rather longer spines than usual, and these are con- 
spicuously notched, but the notching is not found on the small mucro 
of the adult Bosmina (Plate XIV. figs. 7, 8, 9, and 10). 

In the Orkney and Shetland Islands Bosmina was rare; in very 
few lochs was it at all common. The adult was of much the same 
type throughout the two areas; it differs from that of Lewis mainly 
in size, being markedly smaller; also the adult carries fewer eggs, 
usually one only, sometimes two, and rarely as many as four; and 
further, the number of spines of the abdominal claw is always small, 
being only five. ‘The young are elongated, the mucro is. long, and the 
rostrum is long; the adult is relativ ay shorter, the mucro is invariably 
short, the rostrum is short, sometimes very short, the brow is pro- 
minent, and the eye moderate-sized or large. In sloughing specimens 


FRESH-WATER PLANKTON O47 


the reduction of the mucro and rostrum at the moult is plainly seen. 
This Bosmina is a small form of B. obtustrostris, s. str. 

Ceratium hirundinella, Miller.—The Peridinese are represented 
by various species in our lochs, the most abundant being Ceratiwm 
hirundinella. This organism varied very considerably even within the 
same area, and although on the whole the Shetland Ceratium was 
widely different from that of Lewis, these are not to be considered 
as distinct and fixed varieties, but probably as temporary adaptation 
forms ; it would appear that the organism is exceedingly plastic, and 
its numerous forms are, I think, the expression of varying physical 
conditions, such as temperature. 

In the small island of Lismore all three lochs (Fiart, Kilcheran, 
and Baile a’? Ghobhainn) had this species in great abundance, but, 
curiously enough, the Ceratium of Loch Baile a’ Ghobhainn was quite 
unlike that of Lochs Kilcheran and Fiart. ‘The tow-nettings were 
taken at the same time (13th to 16th August 1904); the lochs are all 
moderately deep—over 20 feet in mean depth,—and the surface 
temperature was fairly high, being in Loch Baile a’ Ghobhainn 62°°7 
Fahr. ; unfortunately, we have no record of the temperature of the 
other two lochs, but it is very unlikely that it could be appreciably 
lower than that of Loch Baile a’ Ghobhainn, especially as the latter 
is larger and deeper. All the specimens of Ceratium hirundinella 
found in Loch Fiart and Loch Kilcheran were small, stumpy, and 
rather spinose; the fourth spine was either absent altogether, or only 
very slightly developed; the first spine was short, as also were the 
second and third, which, moreover, were either parallel or not much 
divergent (Plate XV. figs. 1 and 2). In Loch Baile a’ Ghobhainn all 
the specimens were large; the spines were long and smooth, the 
fourth being usually quite as well developed as the third; the 
third and fourth spines were widely divergent from the second 
spine (Plate XV. fig. 3). I cannot give any explanation of these 
marked differences in lochs where the physical conditions were appar- 
ently identical. 

In Loch Frisa (Mull), examined 17th August 1904, the surface 
temperature being 59°°1 Fahr., the Ceratium was much like that of 
Loch Fiart; there was some variation in the length of the fourth 
spine, but it was always short or nearly absent (Plate XV. figs. 4 
and 5). 

Ceratiwm hirundinella was rare in the lochs of North Uist and 
Benbecula, though it occurred in about half the lakes examined. 
On 9th May 1904, in Loch Skealtar, with a surface temperature 
of 47°:7 Fahr., the majority of the individuals were rather small; the 
spines were short, the fourth spine being ill developed or wanting; a 
few specimens were more slender, the fourth spine was present, and 


348 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


the second, third, and fourth spines were spreading, though not much 
so (Plate XV. fig. 13). 

On 11th May 1904, in Loch nan Eun, with a surface temperature 
of 52° Fahr., the forms were rather large and slender, the second and 
third spines long and divergent, whilst the fourth spine was wanting 
or ill developed (Plate XV. fig. 12). 

On 19th May 1904, in Loch nan Geireann (Mill), the surface 
temperature being 52° Fahr., the individuals were much like those 
of Loch Fiart. 

On 24th May 1904, in Loch Scadavay, the species was comparatively 
large and slender ; the first, second, and third spines (especially the 
first) were elongated, but the fourth spine was ill developed (Plate 
XY. fie, 16): 

On Ist June 1904, in Loch 'Tormasad, at a temperature of 63°°0 
Fahr., all the individuals were rather slender and long-spined ; but 
whilst most had no fourth spine, others had a well-developed one. 

On 3rd June 1904, in Loch Hunder, were rather large forms with 
elongated, wide-spreading arms, the fourth spine being moderately 
developed (Plate XV. fig. 11). 

On 6th June 1904, in Loch a’ Bharpa, Ceratium was much the 
same as In Loch Hunder. 

On 18th June 1904, in Loch Hosta, the individuals were much like 
those of Loch Fiart. 

On 25th June 1904, in Loch a’ Ghlinne-Dorcha, the surface tem- 
perature being 55°:0 Fahr., the fourth spine was well developed, and 
the second, third, and fourth were wide-spreading and long. 

On the same date, in Loch Crogavat, at a temperature of 55°°2 
Fahr., the spines were long and slender, but the fourth spine was 
absent ; the same kind occurred in Loch an Iasgaich on 9th June 
1904, at a temperature of 66°-0 Fahr. 

On Ist July 1904, in Loch Olavat (Benbecula), the individuals 
were rather small and the spines were short, though the fourth was 
moderately developed. 

In the island of Lewis, Ceratiwm hirundinella was found in many 
lochs, but in no loch was it abundant. 

On 29th June 1903, in Loch Raonasgail, with a surface tempera- 
ture of 59°-0 Fahr., were found slender forms with elongated spines, 
but the fourth was ill developed. 

On 17th July 1903, in Loch Langavat, the temperature being 
56°-1 Fahr., all the spines were long, the fourth being fairly well 
developed, and the second, third, and fourth spines were widely 
divergent (Plate XV. fig. 10). 

On Ist August 1903, in Loch Bodavat, the surface temperature 
being 60°-0 Fahr., the individuals were large; all the spines were 


FRESH-WATER PLANKTON 349 


slender and elongated, the fourth spine being as well developed as 
the third, and the second, third, and fourth spines were widely 
divergent. In this loch Ceratiwm hirundinella reached the furthest 
limit of its development (Plate XV. fig. 6). 

On 12th August 1903, in Loch Skebacleit, the fourth spine was 
ill developed, but the second and third spines were long and diverging. 

On 14th August 1903, in Loch nan Deaspoirt, the surface tempera- 
ture being 58°:0 Fahr., all the specimens seen were rather small, and 
the fourth spine was ill developed (Plate XV. fig. 9). 

On the same date, in Loch Dhomhnuill Bhig, were found compara- 
tively slender forms with well-developed fourth spine; the surface 
of the organism was somewhat prickly (Plate XV. fig. 7). 

On 15th August 1903, in Loch Valtos, the Ceratium was much 
the same as in Loch Dhomhnuill Bhig. 

In the lochs of the Orkney and Shetland Islands Ceratiwm 
hirundinella was very abundant. 

Orkney.—On 15th August 1903, in Loch Kirbister, with a 
surface temperature of 57°°0 Fahr., the individuals were small, the 
fourth spine was moderately developed, and the other spines were 
rather short. 

On 22nd August 1903, in Loch Harray, the surface temperature 
being 55°-0 Fahr., the fourth spine was always present, though small ; 
the other spines were reduced in length, sometimes considerably so, 
as in Plate XV. fig. 18. 

On 27th August 1903, in Loch Hundland, the surface temperature 
being 62° Fahr., some specimens were like those of Lewis, the third 
and fourth spines being fairly well developed and diverging rather 
widely ; other specimens had no fourth or only a very small one, 
whilst all the other spines were fairly long (Plate XV. figs. 24 and 25). 

Shetland.—Here the individuals were always small, the spines 
short, and the bedy surface coarsely reticulate. 

On 2nd July 1903, in Loch Tingwall, the surface temperature 
being 55°°3 Fahr., the second spine was fairly long, but all the others 
were relatively short, the fourth being almost absent (Plate XY. 
fig. 20). 

On 4th July 1903, in Loch Spiggie, the surface temperature being 
56°°8 Fahr., the fourth spine was usually absent, and all the other 
spines were short; in general shape the organism was stumpy, its 
central body being large (Plate XV. fig. 19). 

On 5th July 1903, in Loch Brow, the Ceratium was very like that 
of Loch 'Tingwall; many specimens had a small fourth spine. 

On 14th July 1903, in Loch Collaster, with a surface temperature 
of 53°:0 Fahr., the fourth spine was small or absent, the second spine 
was long, but the third spine was short (Plate XV. fig. 22). 


300 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


On 15th July 1903, in Grass Water, the fourth spine was absent, 
the second and third spines were parallel, the second being long. 

On 17th July 1903, in Clings Water, the surface temperature being 
54°°8 Fahr., there was much the same kind of Ceratium as that in 
Grass Water (Plate XV. fig. 23). 

On 24th July 1903, in Loch Burraland, the fourth spine was 
absent and all the other spines were comparatively short ; the body 
was relatively large and coarsely reticulate. 

On 4th August 1903, in Loch Cliff, the surface temperature being 
56°°3 Fahr., the fourth spine was absent, and the second and third 
spines were small. 

On 6th August 1903, in Loch Snarravoe, the fourth spine was 
always present, though small; all the other spines were somewhat 
reduced, though not much so; on the whole, however, it can be 
described as a small and stumpy form. 

‘he interpretation of the extreme variability of Ceratiwwm hirundi- 
nella from different lochs is not very obvious, though doubtless the 
temperature is an important causative factor. ‘That this variation is 
not erratic, but has some relation to the physical conditions of the 
environment, is shown by the fact that in the Shetland Islands, where 
the temperature and other conditions are tairly uniform, the Ceratium 
is all of one type; moreover, generally speaking, all the individuals 
of any loch in any of the areas are either identical or they differ but 
slightly amongst themselves, and we do not find the two extremes in 
any one loch, though they do sometimes occur in different lochs of 
the same neighbourhood. 

We ees seen that in the Shetland Islands the organism was 
always small, stumpy, and coarsely reticulated, the spines short, and 
the fourth spine absent or small; in the Lewis lochs, on the other 
hand, we found a larger and more slender form, the spines were long, 
the fourth spine being sometimes as well developed as the third. 
And considering only the North Uist and Benbecula lochs, it was 
usual to find in the lakes of late spring a small short-spined form 
with no fourth spine or only a very small one, whilst in summer, when 
the waters were warmer, the Ceratium was of a large and slender type. 
And as I have already mentioned, the Shetland lochs were on the 
whole colder than those of Lewis, so that quite possibly the differ- 
ences between the extreme forms are consequent on the difference in 
thermal conditions. 

Nevertheless, I cannot think that this is the whole explanation of 
the difference, for in a number of cases—e.g. Loch Langavat (Lewis), 
17th July 1903, surface temperature 56°°1; Loch a’ Ghlinne-Dorcha 
(North Uist), 25th June 1904, surface temperature 55°°0 Fahr.; Loch 
Crogavat (North Uist), 25th June 1904, surface temperature 55°:2 


FRESH-WATER PLANKTON Sul 


Fahr.; and Loch nan Eun (North Uist), 11th May 1904, surface 
temperature 52°°0 Fahr.—the Lewis and North Uist lochs, at a 
temperature practically identical with that of the Shetland lochs, had 
the large and slender form of Ceratium. And as regards the develop- 
ment of a fourth spine, it is largest when the temperature is high, and 
generally speaking its development progresses simultaneously with the 
elongation and divergence of the second and third spines; and yet in 
a number of cases—e.g. Loch Raonasgail (Lewis), Loch an Iasgaich 
(North Uist)—in lochs at a high summer temperature the fourth spine 
was very ill developed, though the other spines were long and the 
organism large and slender; and again, in the small stumpy forms of 
some Shetland and Orkney lochs the fourth spine was relatively well 
developed, and was actually larger than that in some of the slender- 
formed Ceratiums of Lewis and North Uist (compare Lochs Kirbister 
and Harray with Lochs nan Deaspoirt and nan Eun). 

It may be that the Ceratiums of each loch in any area whatsoever 
will vary according to the temperature of the water, becoming large 
and slender and four-spined if the summer temperature be high 
enough, and small, stumpy, and three-spined in winter, and that the 
differences of form in lochs of like thermal conditions are due to a 
varying sensitiveness of the species, or to the presence of some unknown 
restraining factor in varying degree. 


EXPLANATION OF THE FIGURES 


PLate X 
Fig. 1. Juvenile Daphnia from Loch Raoinavat (Lewis). 
Biey 2. Adult " re $3 5 
ee G5 55 4 >  Valtos sf 
Fig. 4. Juvenile - F 
Fig. 5. Late embryo of a Loch Waltos Daphne 
Fig. 6. Young Daphnia from Loch na Craobhaig (Lewis). 
ions 7. Olden & " 
Fig. 8. Egg-bearing Daphnia Ne om Loch a’ one (Lewis). 
Pig 9: ¥ », nan Deaspoirt (Lewis). 
Fig. 10, Wincrace phalie aerate from Loch Fadagoa (Lewis). 


PuaTE XI 
. Juvenile Daphnia from Loch an Tomain (North Uist). 
. Egg-bearing Daphnia from Loch an Tomain (North Uist). 
. Juvenile Daphnia from Loch an Iasgaich (North Uist). 
. Egg-bearing form from Loch Olavat (Benbecula). 
. Adult Daphnia of Loch Vieragvat (North Uist). 
. Juvenile Daphnia of Loch Vieragvat 
& HF » Skealtar 


ee 


99 


coRcoMc>MicoRicoMicoRc> 
aloe Ee onto 


4) 


302 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Me 


ge IQ Ie Is 
Se) 


ieee 
= 
os 


ae oe 


ag Oe 


ee 
I ° 


Se 


se 


ge’ da’ 0g’ de’ oe 0 oe 08" eda’ 08 


Moye ae ey ey 


Dig i i. 


hry 

—_ 

we 
“TD ot SB OO DO 


om 


Puate XII 
Juvenile Daphnia from Loch Boardhouse (Orkney). 
Older 9 ” ” ” 
Adult 39 ” 


> Baralana (cheecay 
a e Juv ene Daphnias from Loch Snarravoe (Shetland), 
. Head of adult Daphnia 


29 29 2) 29 


Piatre XIII 


. Head of a sloughing Daphnia in Loch Frisa (Mull). 

. Juvenile Daphnia of Loch Frisa (Mull). 

Adulé es » Kilcheran (Lismore). 

. Bosmina of Loch a’ Chonnachair (North Uist), a procumbent 


form. 


. Bosmina from Loch nan Atscot (Benbecula),. 


i of Loch Skealtar (North Uist). Note the large 
eye and the protruding brow. 


Pirate XIV 


. Bosmina of Loch Brough (Shetland). 


Clubbi Shuns (Shetland). 


oP) 


. Young Bosmina of Loch Tingwall (Shetland). 
. Bosmina (old) of Loch Clickhimin 


99 


af of Loch Ba (Mull). 


. Juvenile Bosmina of Loch Ba (Mull). 
. Bosmina of Loch Fiart (Lismore). 


of (juvenile) of Loch Fiart (Lismore). 


. Notched mucro of same, 
. Late embryo of a Loch Fiart Bosmina. 
. Bosmina from Loch a’ Chlachain (Lewis), 


- 7" »  Langavat is 


. Juvenile Bosmina from Loch Suainaval (Lewis). 
. Adult - 
. The crossed mucrones in a late embryo from Loch nan 


>) 9 33 


Geireann (Mill) (North Uist). 


. End of abdomen of Bosmina from Loch Ba (Mull). The 


specimen was sloughing, and the newly formed row of 
spines is out of position as a result of post-mortem 
retraction. 

End of abdomen of Bosmina from Loch Stacsavat (Lewis). 


PLateE XV 


Figs. 1 and 2. Ceratium from Loch Fiart (Lismore). 


Fig. 3. 


Ceratium from Loch Baile a’ Ghobhainn (Lismore). 


PraTE X., 


ARAL 
ENVATA 


John Hewitt. 
DAPHNIA IN THE LocHS OF LEwIs. 


PLATE XI. 


John Hewitt. 
DAPHNIA IN THE LocHsS OF NorTH UIST AND BENBECULA, 


Prat Xl. 


John Hewitt. 
DAPHNIA IN THE LOCHS OF ORKNEY AND SHETLAND. 


PLATE XIII. 


John Hewitt. 


DAPHNIA AND BosMINA IN THE Locus oF Muu, LismMornE, AND Norru UIst. 


PLATE XIV. 


c 
cy 
o 
wo) 


I 
rad 
10 
SE, 
— 14 
oe : 
15 


2 


John Hewitt. 


cS 
cy 
as 
a 


16 


BosMINA IN THE LOCHS oF SHETLAND, MULL, LisMorE, LEWIs, AND Norru UIst, 


PLATE XV. 


Ze 
Ze 
Zi]. 


John Hewitt. 


CERATIUM IN THE Locus or LismorE, Mutt, Lewis, Norrn Uist, BENBECULA, 
ORKNEY, AND SHETLAND, 


FRESH-WATER PLANKTON 353 


Figs. 4 and 5, Ceratium from Loch Frisa (Mull). 
Fig. 6. Ceratium from Loch Bodavat (Lewis). 

Bie f. = - » Dhomhnuill Bhig (Lewis). 
Rigs. 7 bi ,, Raonasgail (Lewis). 
Bis :9, i as ,, nan Deaspoirt (Lewis). 
big: 10: $5 ‘ ,, Langavat (Lewis). 

Rie Ie % is »  Hunder (North Uist). 
Ro gl 2: ., i , man Eun . 
PiginL3. 3 S » Skealtar x, 

Fig. 14, is * » Hosta za 

1b ead Wye is Pe »  Olavat (Benbecula). 
Fig. 16. . : ,, Scadavay (North Uist). 
Fig. 17. és = ,, Kirbister (Orkney). 
Bioy 18, y A Sy) elarray, BA 

Fig. 19. - 3 ,, Spiggie (Shetland). 
Hig 20: * ie 5  Lingwall ra 

Bis. 21. a 4 Clit es 

Big. (22: . Ss Collaster p 

Bigs 23. ‘5 fr, lines Water (Shetland). 


Figs, 24 and 25, Ceratium from Loch Hundland (Orkney), 


23 


ON THE NATURE AND ORICING CE 
FRESH-WATER ORGANISMS 


By WILLIAM A. CUNNINGTON, M.A., Ph.D. 


Ir is a well-known fact that the forms of life found in fresh water are 
usually very different from those found in the sea. Everyone is aware 
that carp live in fresh water, and that bladder-wrack is to be found 
on our coasts, and not in rivers and ponds. But the matter goes 
further than this, and a more detailed study shows that there is quite 
a large number of forms perfectly characteristic of fresh water and 
not occurring in the sea, while another series is equally distinctive of 
the ocean and unknown in the fresh waters of the globe. It will 
perhaps be well to consider first the animals (fauna), and afterwards 
the plants (flora), of these two great divisions of aquatic life. 

When we study the general characters of a normal fresh-water 
fauna, and contrast them with those of a marine fauna, we soon 
become aware of an overwhelming preponderance of species in the 
ocean.t ‘That is not to say that the waters of rivers and lakes are 
not well stocked, but that they are stocked by a far smaller number 
of different forms, which is not surprising when we consider the 
insignificant total extent of fresh water, compared with the vast size 
of the ocean. 

Amongst the Vertebrata proper, it is principally the fishes which 
have retained an aquatic mode of life. Excluding the wading and 
diving birds, we have a few truly aquatic mammals and reptiles, 
which have undoubtedly acquired this habit of living secondarily. 
The Amphibia, mainly aquatic in early life, are mostly terrestrial in 
their adult state, but, as far as they inhabit water at all, live in 
fresh water and never in salt. Coming to the fishes, then, we find 
that the great majority of the known species are inhabitants of the 
sea, the extensive group of the Elasmobranchs being almost entirely 


1 Cf. Quinton, “L’eau de Mer Milieu organique,” Paris, 1904. The author 
contrasts (p. 55 et seq.) the orders, etc., represented in the sea, with those known 
to occur in fresh water. 

354 


NATURE AND ORIGIN OF FRESH-WATER ORGANISMS 355 


marine. On the other hand, the small but interesting group of lung- 
fishes (Dipnoi) is wholly fluviatile, while many ‘Teleostean fishes are 
common inhabitants of our rivers and lakes. 

Descending in the scale, we find both the Tunicates and Amphiovus 
unknown save in the sea. 

Among the Arthropoda we find examples of both typical fresh- 
water and typical marine forms. The insects, myriapods and 
arachnids, are mainly terrestrial animals, but nevertheless a number 
of adult insects, and a still larger number of insect larvae, are 
inhabitants of ponds and streams, while the family of the Hydrach- 
nidz is almost entirely confined to fresh water. The Crustacea, 
being principally aquatic, afford examples of both groups. Of the 
lower forms, the Cirripedia are entirely marine; the Copepoda and 
Ostracoda are abundant both in the sea and in fresh water, though 
present in greater variety in the sea; and the Branchiopoda are most 
common in fresh water. ‘The great majority of the higher Crustacea 
are marine, the Cumacea and Stomatopoda exclusively so, and the 
other groups to a very large extent. ‘The Isopoda, however, together 
with a number of terrestrial forms. includes the characteristic fresh- 
water genus Asellus ; in like manner the genus Gammarus, species of 
which are common in fresh water, occurs amongst the Amphipoda. 
The Decapoda too, in addition to a great many marine types, contains 
the crayfishes, Astacus and its allies, certain prawns (Palaemon, 
Caridina, etc.) and crabs (principally Potamonidee), which are 
characteristic of fresh water. 

All the Brachiopoda are marine, and so are most of the Polyzoa, 
although the sub-group of the Phylactolemata is confined to fresh 
water. ‘Turning to the Mollusca, we find a number of types belong- 
ing both to the Gasteropoda and to the Lamellibranchiata which are 
well known in, and characteristic of, various fresh waters, though these 
divisions have a much larger number of species in the sea. Amongst 
others, we may indicate Planorbis, Limnwa, Paludina, and Unio from 
fresh water, and Buccinum, Trochus, Patella, and Cardium from the 
ocean, as being typical genera belonging to the two groups. The 
Cephalopoda are found only in the ocean. 

A considerable number of what we may popularly call “ worms” 
are internal parasites, and so fall outside the scope of our inquiry. 
Of more highly organised forms, the Polycheta are all but entirely 
marine, while the Oligocheta, with a few marine and many terrestrial 
types, yet includes a number (such as Nats and T'ubifew) which are 
characteristic of fresh water. The leeches are for the most part 
terrestrial and fresh-water, though some forms inhabit the sea; and 
the Nemertinea, on the other hand, are principally marine forms, 
although a few are known from fresh water. Amongst the flat-worms 


306 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


we find a number of 'Turbellaria (such as Planaria), which are common 
inhabitants of ponds and streams, but many other genera are terres- 
trial or marine. 

The small group of the Rotifera is an overwhelmingly fresh-water 
one, there being, however, some species found in brackish water, and 
a few which are marine. 

In the case of the Echinodermata, we have a striking example of a 
very large assemblage of forms, not one of which, so far as we know, 
exists outside the sea. It is, in fact, the only instance of a really large 
group confined to one medium without a single exception, and it has 
a special interest accordingly. 

With very few exceptions, the phylum Ccelenterata is similarly 
marine. In the subdivision Hydrozoa alone, a very few forms 
inhabit fresh water, the most important being Hydra and Cordylophora. 
Thus, as in the majority of cases we have considered, there are certain 
exceptional forms which are sufficient to disprove any general state- 
ment as to habitat. 

The sponges are almost as strikingly salt-water forms as are the 
Coelenterata. Out of some fifty known families, a single sub-family 
only has fresh-water representatives, but the principal fresh-water 
genus—Spongilla—is widely distributed in the rivers and lakes of 
most parts of the world. 

Amongst the simplest forms of life, the Protozoa, we find a number 
of organisms which are familiar objects in fresh water, and yet the 
majority live in the sea, where they play a very important role. 
Most of those in the sub-groups Lobosa (including Am@ba and 
Diffilugia) and Heliozoa (Actinospherium, etc.) have a fresh-water 
habitat ; but the Foraminifera are overwhelmingly marine, and the 
Radiolaria entirely so. Finally, the Ciliata, with forms such as 
Vorticella and Paramacium, is a sub-group well represented in fresh 
water, and so is the Flagellata, with Huglena; but both of these 
contain also a considerable number of marine types. 

It will now be evident that we know of some aquatic forms which 
are usually absent from the ocean, in addition to others which are 
seldom or never found in fresh water, and it may be well to enumerate 
again the most striking examples. In the sea we do not find 
Amphibia, Dipnoi, or phylactolematous Polyzoa. Further, there are 
in the ocean comparatively few insects and insect larvee, Hydrachnidee, 
Branchiopoda, Oligocheeta, leeches, and Rotifers. On the other hand, 
the following groups do not live in fresh water: Cephalochordata, 
Tunicata, Cirripedia, Cumacea, Stomatopoda, Brachiopoda, Cephalo- 
poda, Polycheeta, and Echinodermata. Besides these, the Elasmo- 
branchs, Decapod Crustacea, Nemertinea, Coelenterata, and sponges 
are only poorly represented apart from the sea. 


NATURE AND ORIGIN OF FRESH-WATER ORGANISMS 357 


Although an overwhelming majority of salt-water species is 
characteristic in the case of animals, this is not so in the case of plants. 
It is difficult to be very precise in a matter which involves the 
counting up of an immense number of aquatic species, but there 
seems some evidence for believing that the number of fresh-water 
forms is actually in excess of those which inhabit the sea. Be this as 
it may, we can safely state that there is no such striking disproportion 
as certainly exists in the animal kingdom, aud that the waters of the 
globe, both salt and fresh, are inhabited by very many forms of 
vegetable life. 

Of the higher plants, a large proportion of the Phanerogams are 
purely terrestrial; but, with the exception of the Gymnospermeze 
(among which, however, swamp-plants occur), most of the larger 
groups contain species of aquatic habitat. ‘The marine flora includes 
comparatively few Phanerogams, which belong to the families 
Hydrocharitacez and Potamogetonacese, the so-called sea-grass 
(Zostera marina) being a very common and widely distributed example. 
There are no marine Dicotyle. The Phanerogams of fresh water, on 
the contrary, belong to the most diverse orders of Angiosperms, and 
far exceed in number of species those of salt water. Of importance 
amongst the Dicotyle are the Nympheeacez, all fresh-water forms ; 
certain Ranunculacese (Batrachiwm); Ceratophyllacez ; Halorhagi- 
daceze (Myriophyllum) ; and Utriculariaceee. Of Monocotylee we may 
mention the following families :—Alismacez ; Potamogetonacez (with 
Potamogeton natans) ; Naiadacez ; and Lemnacee. 

It is amongst the Cryptogams, however, that we find the number 
of aquatic forms really great. Nevertheless, the Pteridophyta and 
Bryophyta are of little importance, for both of these groups are 
entirely unrepresented in the sea, although a few examples are known 
from fresh water. Of Pteridophyta, various Salviniacese (Salvinia 
and Azolla), Marsiliacese, and Isoetacese ([soetes lacustris) occur in 
fresh water, and of Bryophyta a rather larger assemblage, among 
which we may mention Riccia fluitans, Fontinalis antipyretica, 
Hypnum, and Sphagnum. 

The Thallophyta, then, constitutes the great proportion of both 
salt- and fresh-water plants, but the classes differ markedly in their 
distribution between the two media. The Characeze, with the well- 
known genera Chara and MNitella, are exclusively fresh-water forms. 
Both the Pheophycez and Rhodophycez, on the other hand, are very 
widely distributed, and are represented by many species in the sea, 
while in fresh water there occur only a few isolated examples. Among 
the most important of these Alga we may indicate the genera 
Laminaria, Fucus, Sargassum, and Chondrus from the ocean, and 
Batrachospermum from fresh water. 


308 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


The importance of the class Chlorophyceze is much greater in 
fresh water than in salt. The whole of the order Conjugatee, includ- 
ing the unicellular Desmidiaceee, is confined to fresh water, in which 
there are no more characteristic types than such as Spirogyra, 
Zygnema, Cosmarium, Staurastrum, Micrasterias, and Nanthidium. 
Other characteristic fresh-water Chlorophycez belong to the genera 
Scenedesmus, Pediastrum, Oedogoniwn, Cladophora, and Vaucheria. 
Familiar marine forms are Ulva, Caulerpa, and a species of Clado- 
phora. 

The two groups Diatomaceze and Peridinese together furnish the 
main mass of the vegetable plankton in the sea, but while the Diatoms 
are also of some importance in fresh water, the Peridinez are 
represented by comparatively few forms. Among the latter, mention 
may be made of a cosmopolitan fresh-water type, in Cerutiwm 
hirundinella. 

The Myxophycez and Bacteria are both more generally distributed 
in fresh water than in salt. Of the former, the Oscillatoriaceze are 
represented in the sea, and certain Bacteria are abundant in shallow 
water near the coast. Still, these two groups are more prominent in 
fresh water, both as regards the number of forms and the number 
of individuals, there being among the Myxophycez several genera 
(Oscillatoria, Gomphospheria, Clathrocystis, Anabaena), species of which 
may appear in such quantities in lakes as to produce the phenomenon 
known as * water-bloom.” 

We may now, as in the case of the animal kingdom, briefly gather 
together the most striking points in the distribution of fresh- and salt- 
water plants. In the sea we find no Dicotyle, Pteridophyta, 
Bryophyta, Characeze, or Conjugate, and only comparatively few 
Monocotyle. In fresh water there are no groups containing aquatic 
plants which are quite unrepresented, but the Peridineze occur only to 
a limited extent, and the Phazophyceee and Rhodophycez in very 
small numbers. 


By our rather detailed examination of the organisms of fresh and 
salt waters, it has become clear that there is a very definite series of 
forms perfectly characteristic of the one medium or of the other. 
There are, however, some striking cases known, which would seem at 
first sight to entirely disprove this statement. ‘The Caspian Sea, in 
spite of its name, is in some regions, and particularly in the surface 
layers, less than one-fifth as salt! as the ocean, and thus may almost 
be considered a fresh-water basin. Yet the fauna includes many 
forms which we cannot but regard as typically marine. In addition 
to characteristic fresh-water animals (St/urus, Cyprinus, Astacus), we 


1 Quinton, op. cat., p. 215. 


NATURE AND ORIGIN OF FRESH-WATER ORGANISMS 359 


find a seal, a herring, certain Cumacea and Schizopoda, the mollusc 
Cardium edule, a Polychate worm, and two Foraminifera of marine 
type. Lake Baikal, in Eastern Siberia, which is one of the largest 
fresh-water lakes in the world, is similarly inhabited by a seal, also 
by certain Harpacticoid Copepods and a Polychete worm. 

It is no wonder, then, that cases such as these, in which sea-organisms 
are living in fresh-water basins, have aroused wide interest. An 
inquiry into the past history of these inland seas affords some clue 
(particularly in the case of the Caspian) as to the meaning of the 
anomalies. During the early part of the ‘Tertiary period, the 
Caspian appears to have belonged to a great sea which then covered 
the southern part of Russia, and was in direct communication with 
the ocean. Only since then has it become gradually cut off from the 
sea and gradually freshened. If this is indeed the case, it is not 
difficult to believe that the marine forms which have been mentioned 
are forms which have persisted in the lake since it was actually a 
portion of the ocean. 

Inland basins which seem to be the modified remainders of isolated 
portions of the ocean are sometimes spoken of as relict seas 
(Relihtenseen), and the Caspian is manifestly an example of such. 
The case of Lake Baikal is by no means so satisfactorily proved from a 
geological point of view ; but however that may be, it is clear that in 
certain instances, at any rate, the existence of what we have called 
marine animal types in fresh water is merely an indication of the 
origin of that fresh-water basin, and not of a lack of distinctness 
between the two great groups of aquatic animals. 

If, then, certain apparent exceptions do not really invalidate our 
conception of a difference between marine and fresh-water organisms, 
we of necessity ask the question: Why are certain forms present in 
one case and not in the other? This at once takes us to the root of 
matters, for it not only involves a study of organisms in relation to 
their environment, but suggests the additional question: How did 
fresh-water life originate ? 

At the present day, the most varied forms of life, both animal! 
and vegetable, are found in fresh water. Representatives of most of 
the principal groups are known, from the Protozoa up to the mammals 
themselves, and from the lowest Algze to the flowering plants. Yet 
there seems no escape from the conclusion that life had its origin in 
the ocean, and that all the fresh-water organisms with which we are 
acquainted must have been derived either directly or indirectly from 
that source. 

Our study of the different groups concerned has shown that, while 
certain cases exist in which the forms all inhabit one medium or the 
other, in the greater number of cases some types are capable of exist- 


360 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


ing In the sea and others in fresh water. This is in itself an indica- 
tion that no very wide gulf is actually fixed between fresh-water and 
marine organisms, and that in point of fact, given suitable conditions, 
representatives of the most diverse classes have been able to accom- 
modate themselves to life in a medium of greater or less density. 

But we have direct evidence on this head in certain cases. The 
probable existence of relict seas has already been referred to, and they 
presuppose the survival of ocean forms in fresher water, although the 
gradual modification may have taken place in past geological time. 

Yet there are instances known which seem clearly to show that 
the process of accommodation to a different medium still proceeds, 
and that quite a number of forms are capable of withstanding 
important changes in salinity. The hydroid polype Cordylophora 
lacustris was orginally discovered in brackish water ; it is common in 
the Norfolk Broads, where there is a considerable admixture of sea- 
water, and is known elsewhere as an estuarine form. Still, it has been 
able to migrate into entirely fresh water, for it has been found in the 
Seine near Paris, in the fresh-water tanks of the Jardin des Plantes, 
and has actually invaded the water-mains of the city of Hamburg.! 

Another case which indicates the possibilities for an even more 
sensitive type, is that of Crambessa tagi, a large Discomedusan which 
commonly ascends the river Tagus until it reaches comparatively fresh 
water.” 

A more extreme example, embracing animals from several groups, 
is afforded by the fauna of certain artificial ponds at Port Canning, 
Lower Bengal.? Situated in the neighbourhood of the Ganges delta, 
these ponds are sometimes in communication with the estuary, from 
which they have undoubtedly derived the marine forms which interest 
us. At other times, however, they are completely isolated, and may 
become even more strongly saline than the sea through continued 
evaporation, or during the rainy season may become nearly fresh. 
The most striking of the marine types referred to, which are capable 
of withstanding such profound changes in the nature of the water, 
are a sea-anemone (Metridiwm), a Hydromedusan with hydroid 
stage (Jrene), a Cirripede (Balanus), a cheilostomatous Polyzoan 
(Membranipora), and a Polychaete worm. 

Finally, there is an interesting account given by von Kennel? of 
the inhabitants of a lagoon on the east coast of Trinidad, which at 
times is flooded by the sea, and at other times becomes almost 


1 Semper, The Natural Conditions of Hxustence as they affect Animal Life, 5th 
ed., London, 1906, p. 152. 

2 Haeckel, Zevtschr. f. wiss. Zool., Bd. xix., 1869, p. 509. 

> Annandale, Records Indian Museum, vol. 1., 1907, p. 35. 

4 Arb. Zool. Inst. Wiirzburg, Bd. vi., 1883, p. 276. 


NATURE AND ORIGIN OF FRESH-WATER ORGANISMS 361 


entirely fresh. Together with typical fresh-water types such as 
tadpoles and gnat larvae, he found quite equally common a species 
of Mysis, a. Polychete worm (Nerets or nearly allied form), and a 
small Hydromedusan which he has named Halmomises. A striking 
feature of this case is that these truly marine types appear to flourish 
better in the fresher than in the brackish water, for in the latter 
only occasional specimens were found. 

Additional facts recorded by von Kennel,'! concerning the fauna 
of the river Ortoire in Trinidad, have special significance as indicating 
the manner in which a river may be directly colonised by animal forms 
from the sea. In the wide estuary of this slowly flowing river, the 
tide makes itself felt for miles above the mouth, and, having but a 
very languid current to contend against, is enabled to carry up 
certain marine animals, some of which, being capable of withstanding 
the increased freshness of the water, have settled down permanently 
at considerable distances from the sea. ‘The following forms are 
mentioned as having been found more than eight miles from the river- 
mouth, apparently perfectly adapted to life in fresh water: a species 
of mussel (Mytilus), a species of Pholas, and a Polychete worm. 

Nor is there wanting certain experimental evidence on this question 
of change of medium. Beudant” experimented with a series of 
marine molluscs (he included the Cirripede Balanus), which he 
attempted to gradually accustom to living in fresh water. By a. 
sufficiently slow addition of fresh water, he obtained at last a number 
of different forms living on, apparently uninjured, in water which was 
perfectly fresh, although other species had succumbed in the process. 
In the converse of this experiment, which consisted in accustoming 
fresh-water molluscs to water increasingly salt, very similar results 
were reached. It was thus abundantly proved that a number of 
molluscan species (and Balanus) could live undisturbed in either sea- 
water or fresh. 

But while laying emphasis on the fact that the freshness has not 
prevented representatives of most diverse classes from colonising 
inland waters, we have intentionally disregarded certain cases in 
which this freshness does appear to constitute an impassable barrier. 
We know from experimental evidence, and we infer from cases like 
those in Bengal and Trinidad, that a number of animal types, at all 
events, are extremely sensitive to changes in salinity, and cannot 
survive more than a slight variation in this respect. Why this is so 
in some cases and not in others, we are rather at a loss to explain. 
Whether this character has been acquired by more specialised types, 
and not by lower and more generalised ones, we can only guess; but 

1 Op. cit., p. 2°74. 
4 Vide Semper, op. cit., p. 153. 


362 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


we are fairly safe in saying that such sensitive forms must be restricted 
in their range, and are little likely to colonise fresh water. 

‘The evidence which has been cited seems to suggest that our lists 
of fresh-water and salt-water forms, while indicating correctly the 
general tendencies of the groups in question, are liable to be modified, 
as exploration brings to light types which are adapted to a different 
state of existence. We are justified in saying that in most instances 
it is not really impossible for representatives of this or that group to 
exist in either fresh or salt water as the case may be, for increase of 
knowledge has repeatedly brought to light cases which are exceptions 
to the ideas previously held. Our proposition that fresh-water forms 
have been derived from the ocean is clearly supported by the evidence 
we have at our disposal, and a good deal of this concerns a transfer- 
ence from sea-water, as we now know it, to water which is brackish 
or fresh. 

We have, however, no reason to suppose that the water of the 
ocean has always been just as saline as it is at present; indeed, we 
have every reason to believe that its salinity has been slowly increas- 
ing through countless ages, by the addition of salts dissolved out of 
the land-masses. Quinton has collected testimony to prove that, on 
the one hand, the sea of former epochs was essentially the same in 
chemical composition as that of to-day, but that, on the other hand, 
the concentration of the salts in the water was very considerably less.” 
If, then, we know of organisms which have been able to accomplish a 
greater change in recent times, it is not hard to believe that many 
forms gradually achieved a lesser change during past geological ages. 

A further discussion of this is not necessary here; but granting 
that the earliest known forms of life were inhabitants of the ocean, 
and that the non-salinity of rivers and lakes was, in most cases, no 
insuperable bar to colonisation, we have to look for other reasons 
which may explain why only certain forms (and a very small 
assemblage, in the case of animals) have succeeded in establishing 
themselves. There are, indeed, other factors which have had as great 
or even greater influence in hindering the migration into fresh water 
as the difference in salinity, and these we may proceed to enumerate. 

In the front rank we may place the prevalence in the sea of 
delicate, feebly-swimming organisms, or forms having weak free- 
swimming larvee, for it is obvious that these could not contend against 
the seaward current of rivers and streams. ‘The very exceptional 
occurrence of jelly-fish in fresh water is, for instance, probably due to 


1 Op. cit., Ppa 235. 

2 Ibid., p. 446. The figures given are 3°5 per cent. of dissolved salts, as an 
average for the existing ocean, and 0°85 per cent. for the primitive ocean in which 
we believe life to have originated. 


‘ ap | 
P| 


= 


NATURE AND ORIGIN OF FRESH-WATER ORGANISMS 3863 


the fact that they float at the mercy of every current; while among 
the groups which are poorly or never represented in fresh water we 
find a large proportion of forms which pass through a free-swimming 
larval stage. ‘That this factor has been of great importance is con- 
firmed when we examine those organisms which have effected a 
conquest of fresh water, for we find that in the majority of cases a 
free-swimming stage during development has been suppressed. 

Of almost equal significance are the temperature differences 
between the waters of the ocean and of inland areas. It is quite evident 
that comparatively small masses of water, such as even the largest 
rivers and lakes, are more liable to variations of temperature than the 
vast waters of the ocean. In the tropics, a comparison between the 
ocean and a really large lake may show differences of little importance ; 
but on the other hand, where the mass of water is small, as in ponds 
and streams, the contrast becomes very marked, and there is the 
additional danger that the water may entirely dry up. In temperate 


and colder climates there are often greater extremes, and in many 


cases equal danger to life, on account of the freezing of the water. 
The inhabitants of the more uniformly warm ocean, which is never 
subject to drying up or to freezing, will certainly find a difficulty in 
colonising where there are these undesirable features, and in fact it is 
only the forms which can fully adapt themselves to such altered circum- 
stances that can make the change. 

While these conditions have probably checked migration in a 
number of instances, there are types belonging to several groups 
which have become able to withstand high or low temperatures, 
as the case may be, or have devised means of surviving desiccation 
and freezing. 

A few examples will serve to show the extremes which can be reached 
by forms which have been successful colonists. Certain Algz and 
Bacteria have been found living in the water of geysers at temperatures 
up to 80° C., and a fish (Haplochromis desfontaimest) lives in Tunis in 
hot springs with a temperature of 75° C. 

On the other hand, it is well known that most of our familiar 
plants are not killed by frost, though their vital activities are sus- 
pended, and a temperature of a little over 0° C. is sufficient for vigor- 
ous growth in the case of our earliest spring flowers and the plants of 
alpine and polar regions. There are animals, too, which can survive a 
temperature below freezing-point, but the cold in many cases induces 
a complete cessation of the ordinary functions of life. Frogs and 
toads, many fishes, and certain Mollusca can undoubtedly withstand 
such cold and resume their normal existence on the necessary increase 
in warmth. Further, it is a fact that the seas in the Arctic and 
Antarctic regions are often well stocked with life (largely Algee and the 


364. THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


lower Crustacea), in spite of a temperature little above, and sometimes 
definitely below, 0° C. 

However, it is particularly in the case of fertilised ova that the 
power of resisting extreme cold is most marked, for in several groups 
specially protected winter eggs are produced, which appear able to 
survive almost any degree of cold. ‘There are the gemmules of the 
Spongillidee, and the hard-coated winter eggs of certain Turbellaria 
and Rotifers; also the resistant eggs of a number of Entomostraca 
(including the ephippial eggs of the Cladocera), and the so-called 
statoblasts of fresh-water Polyzoa. ‘These are produced by the parent 
on the approach of cold weather, and in the spring give rise to new 
individuals, to replace the adults which have perished. 

Some observations of Brauer confirm our belief that the winter 
eges are produced with the detinite object of resisting cold, and at the 
same time afford an interesting example of how inherited characters 
may continue to exert their influence under altered conditions. He 
found that the eggs of a certain species of Branchipus would not 
develop at all, until after they had been reduced to the temperature 
of melting ice. 

Complete desiccation is a condition which is fatal to all organic life, 
so that those forms which are able to survive the drying up of a pond 
or stream have acquired some means of retaining a sufficient amount 
of moisture to make their continued existence possible. As this is 
obviously an unfavourable condition, it is not surprising that organisms 
lead during it a latent life which is strikingly comparable to that 
induced by extremes of cold. The African mud-fish (Protopterus) 
buries itself in the mud, and secretes an impervious cocoon in which 
it can exist for months, until the coming of the rainy season. Some 
adult Rotifers are capable of encysting themselves, and, in this state, 
of surviving long periods of drought, and the same is true of immature 
specimens of a species of Cyclops, and of certain Protozoa (Amaba and 
Infusoria). 

It is nevertheless but a small assemblage of forms in which the 
adult is able to resist desiccation, compared with the much larger 
assemblage in which the power of resistance is confined to the repro- 
ductive bodies. This is precisely what we have seen to be the case as 
regards resistance to extreme cold; indeed, the two phenomena are 
closely akin, and it is not perhaps surprising that a protective coating 
_to the fertilised ovum suitable for the one purpose should afford 
adequate protection in the other. , 

In the vegetable kingdom, many Fungi and Algae produce highly 
resistant spores which serve for the perpetuation of the species, and 
the seeds of the higher aquatic plants can survive a dryness which 
would kill the parent stock. Among animals, resistant reproductive 


a! 


nee 


ov 


NATURE AND ORIGIN OF FRESH-WATER ORGANISMS 365 


bodies, called by various names, are to be met with in several different 
groups, as we have already seen, and in certain cases where two dis- 
tinct methods of reproduction exist, it is incipient drought alone which 
causes the production of these bodies before the adults succumb to the 
impossible conditions. In other cases, notably among the Cladocera, 
there are two fairly well-marked periods during which specially re- 
sistent ova are produced, the one during the summer, as a precaution 
against desiccation, and the other at the beginning of winter, to ensure 
protection from the frost. 

In a manner perfectly analogous to what we have seen in the case 
of cold, it is found that the eggs of a species of Apus will not develop 
unless they have been dry for a considerable period.’ 

The most important reasons why fresh water has not proved easy 
to colonise have now been discussed, but there remain a few other 
points to be indicated, which may doubtless exert an influence at 
times. Organisms are directly affected by their interconnection with 
each other. ‘That is to say, in certain cases they are dependent on 
one another to such a degree that the absence of one entirely pre- 
cludes the presence of another which might otherwise be perfectly 
able to adapt itself to new conditions. This may be a matter of food- 
supply: a higher animal, for example, cannot extend its range into a 
medium in which its food, whether animal or vegetable, does not 
exist, so that if from any cause a river or lake were conspicuously 
deficient in this respect, it would stand little chance of receiving 
voluntary migrant forms from the ocean. There may be also a less 
obvious interdependence, concerning protection and shelter for a 
defenceless type. 

Lastly, any impurity of the water of streams and lakes would act 
as an efficient barrier in many cases. The impurity might be merely 
mechanical, and due to large quantities of mud held in suspension, or 
chemical, and caused by the presence of salts or acids in solution. 
Examples of the former are well known, where during certain periods 
of the year rivers become well-nigh uninhabitable. Other rivers, 
and more particularly lakes, may carry in solution unusual quantities 
of lime or manganese salts, or may contain a considerable admixture 
of humic acid, and these conditions would be unfavourable to the 
majority of ocean types. 

Before passing to other considerations, it may be well to again 
call attention to the fact that certain fresh-water organisms exhibit 
structural peculiarities which have undoubtedly been produced by 
existence under non-oceanic conditions. ‘That is to say, actual 
morphological features have been created which in many instances 
enable them to be recognised as fresh-water forms. Some of these 

1 Semper, op. cit., p. 175. 


366 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


have been already indicated. The horny-coated resistant eggs, to 
which reference has been made, are structures characteristic of various 
fresh-water animals. ‘The suppression of a free-swimming larval 
stage in certain cases may be accompanied by structural changes in 
the parent, having as their object the protection of the ova. Again, 


there is less need for stout protective armour in fresh water (particu- . 


larly in ponds), so that fresh-water Gasteropods, for example, are 
usually distinguishable by their thin shells from their marine allies, 
which are fitted to withstand the breakers of the sea-shore. 

In pointing out, however, the external characteristics which are 
directly due to the conditions under which these animals live, we 
would strongly emphasise the necessity for excluding such features as 
far as possible, when deciding the systematic position of any animal. 
It is only by. doing so that we can gain a satisfactory idea of the 
true interrelationships of forms some of which have remained permanent 
inhabitants of the ocean, while others have secondarily become adapted 
to life in fresh water. 

Having examined in some detail a number of facts which bear 
directly on the colonisation of fresh water from the sea, we must now 
proceed to consider the means by which this process actually took 
place. It is obvious that fresh-water organisms must have attained 
their present distribution in one of three ways: (1) by a direct, 
active or passive, migration from the sea; (2) by becoming terrestrial 
or swamp-loving in nature, and secondarily adapting themselves to 
life in fresh water; (3) as a result of the isolation and subsequent 
freshening of some portion of the sea, due to movements of the earth’s 
crust.!_ No doubt fresh-water organisms have been derived from marine 
by all three of these methods, but it is by no means easy to assert which 
of them has played the most important part. In passing to the con- 
sideration of the methods in more detail, we must seek to determine 
whether the known fresh-water forms possess characteristics which 
would fit in with the suggested explanations, and we may also indicate 
the particular manner in which the more important groups achieved 
this material change in their environment. 

Treating in the first instance the subject of active migration,? it is 
clear that this means is only open to strongly-swimming forms or to 
such as walk or crawl on the bottom, for these alone would be able to 
invade rivers from their mouths, and so effect a permanent settlement 
within them or within any associated basin of water. We think at 


1 Of. Sollas, ‘The Origin of Fresh-water Fauna,” in The Age of the Earth, and 
other Geological Studies, London, 1905, p. 178. 

2 We are dealing for the moment only with the emerging of marine types to 
become members of a purely fresh-water series. Migration from one area of fresh 
water to another is a separate question. 


ee a 


NATURE AND ORIGIN OF FRESH-WATER ORGANISMS 367 


once of the fishes, most of which are probably capable of directly 
colonising our rivers and streams, and some of which (salmon, eel, 
sturgeon, lamprey) are still in the habit of migrating from salt water 
to fresh. Then there are certain Crustaceans which may very well 
have actively invaded fresh water. These are the crabs, prawns, and 
crayfishes, which by swimming or crawling would be capable of making 
headway against the current of a river. 

An examination into detail shows us that these forms have 
acquired characteristics which have fitted them for colonising fresh 
water in the way suggested. Most fresh-water crabs, unlike their 
marine allies, which are liberated from the egg as free-swimming larvee 
(Zoea), remain in the shelter of the female’s abdomen until they have 
reached their adult form, while the young of the crayfish remain 
attached to the swimmerets of the female until able to lead an inde- 
pendent existence. In the case of fresh-water prawns, we appear to 
have merely an increase in the amount of food-yolk, which at least 
ensures that the larvae are set free at a more advanced stage than the 
corresponding marine types. ‘This is actually to be seen within the 
limits of a single species, in the case of the prawn Palemonctes 
vulgaris, which is known to inhabit both the sea and fresh water. 
The eggs of the individuals living in the latter are larger, and hatch 
out at a later stage, than the eggs of marine specimens. All the 
modifications just pointed out have, of course, the one object—that 
of enabling the young to retain the hold upon fresh water which their 
parents have acquired, by the more or less complete suppression of a 
free-swimming larval form, which would be at the mercy of every 
current. 

We may perhaps be justified in including the genera Asellus and 
Gammarus among the types which have actively migrated from the 
sea; in both cases the eggs are retained within the brood-pouch until 
the adult form is approximately reached. ‘The leeches too we can 
consider as forms which may have actively colonised fresh water, for 
they are powerful swimmers, can attach themselves firmly to rocks or 
stones, and either deposit the eggs in a horny cocoon or carry them 
upon the ventral surface of the parent. 

That a number of the Mollusca which we find in fresh water 
migrated directly from the ocean there can be little doubt. Both 
Lamellibranchs and Gasteropods could actively accomplish this, for, 
though slowly creeping forms, they would in time reach great distances 
from the mouth of a river or stream. Here again we have striking 
examples of how—to avoid the danger of being swept out to sea—the 
free-swimming larval forms characteristic of their marine relations 
have become suppressed. In the well-known genus Bythinia, for 
example, eggs well provided with food-yolk are attached to stones 


368 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


and water-plants, and the young emerge in practically the adult 
condition. In Paludina, a stage further has been reached, for the 
ova are retained within the body of the parent, and the young are 
born alive. ‘This is similarly the case in the fresh-water bivalves 
Cyclas and Pisidiwm, which are provided with brood-pouches in 
which the eggs develop. 

Turning to consider passive migration from the sea, we realise 
that, if this has taken place, it must have been mainly by the trans- 
port of sessile or feebly-swimming forms, through the agency of those 
which are actively locomotive. We have already seen how tidal 
influence may carry certain marine organisms for some miles inland, 
but this process could not effect the colonising of more than an estuary, 
and that only under exceptional circumstances. While it is likely 
that a considerable number of small organisms, both animal and 
vegetable, are passively carried from the shores of the ocean into 
rivers and lakes, it is improbable that many survive the sudden change 
in environment. It is conceivable, for instance, that ova or encysted 
animals might be left dry upon the beach, and transported by winds 
to fresh-water surroundings, but there is not much likelihood that 
they would successfully accommodate themselves to the altered 
conditions. Again, quite a number of diverse organisms might be 
carried from the sea-shore to fresh water sticking to the feet of 
wading birds, and some forms might adhere to active immigrants 
such as fishes and perhaps Crustaceans. 

A case which seems fully proved, in which animals have been con- 
veyed by fish directly from the sea to fresh water, is that of the 
parasitic fish-louse Argudus. Species inhabiting both fresh and salt 
water have long been known to occur, but it was reserved for Wilson ! 
to prove by experiment that, in certain instances at any rate, the 
change of medium produced little effect, even if suddenly made. 
Other parasitic forms which are probably direct but passive immi- 
grants from the sea are Lernwocera, Achtheres, and a Bopyrid.? 

A truly remarkable example of sessile forms which take advantage 
of the locomotory power of fishes may find fitting mention here. 
We refer to the interesting reproductive habits of the fresh-water 
mussels Anodon and Unio. he ova undergo partial development 
within the parent, but, arriving at the larval stage known as the 
glochidium, are expelled into the water, provided with a long 
adhesive filament. If the latter comes into contact with a passing 
fish, the little larva becomes attached, and by means of the sharp 
spines on its shell secures its hold. The epithelial layers of the fish 
soon grow to enclose the embryo in a definite cyst, and within this 


1 Proc. U.S. Mus., vol. xxv., 1903, p. 648. 
2 Semper, op. cit., p. 147. 


NATURE AND ORIGIN OF FRESH-WATER ORGANISMS 3869 


the further development takes place, aided probably by nutriment 
obtained from the host by means of outgrowths penetrating the 
tissues. When the young mussel is fully formed, the cyst bursts, and 
the mussel falls to the bottom to assume a sedentary life. Whether 
this wonderful method afforded the means by which the mussels were 
enabled to colonise fresh water is doubtful. It is more probable 
that the process has been entirely evolved since they assumed a fresh- 
water habitat, and that its object has been to assure adequate distri- 
bution within the limits of that medium. 

We have now to deal with the second method by which organisms 
primarily marine have come to inhabit fresh water, namely, by 
becoming terrestrial or swamp-loving in nature, and secondarily 
adapting themselves to a fresh-water life. In the first place, we 
are fully justified in supposing that the forms belonging to groups 
overwhelmingly terrestrial in character come into this category, and 
are modified land forms and not direct immigrants. ‘This is in all 
probability the case with the majority of the higher plants ; indeed, 
amongst the Angiosperms there are species living in swampy sur- 
roundings which can perfectly withstand changes from an almost 
wholly terrestrial to a partially submerged existence. 

It is equally obvious that the Mammalia are an essentially 
terrestrial group, and that therefore fresh-water mammals (as, of 
course, marine mammals) have become secondarily adapted to a very 
different mode of life. The same is presumably true of the insects 
and arachnids which are now constituents of the fresh-water fauna. 
Finally, we may mention certain fresh-water Gasteropods, which 
belong to the great group of air-breathing forms (the Pulmonata) and 
so may be supposed to have secondarily arrived in our rivers, lakes, 
and swamps. Among the most common genera belonging to this 
group are Lamnaa, Planorbis, and Ancylus. 

The third method by which fresh-water organisms have been pro- 
duced—by the isolation and freshening of portions of the sea—is a 
wholesale method, which must have acted upon a number of most 
diverse forms. It is, of course, clear that in a basin isolated by earth- 
movements from the sea there would probably be many organisms 
totally unable to accustom themselves to a fundamental change in 
salinity, however gradually that change might be accomplished. 

There are certain indications afforded us as to which forms could 
survive, both by the experiments of Beudant and by the instances of 
partial direct colonisation by marine types which have already been 
discussed. We have also seen sufficient evidence that this process has 
actually been at work, but it is nevertheless practically impossible to 
point out the groups which have become inhabitants of fresh water in 


this manner. ‘The temptation is to assume that all the organisms in 
24 


\ 


370 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


our fresh-water flora and fauna not easily accounted for by one of the 
other methods are the modified descendants of those left in detached 
marine basins, but there is no justification for such an extreme view. 
Speaking broadly, we may say that those forms which are too feeble 
to migrate actively from the sea, and are unprovided with any means 
for securing their transport passively, are those which we should 
account for by this third method. It is very evident, however, that 
these questions involving the relations of organisms to their surround- 
ings are of extreme complexity, and demand a degree of knowledge 
far beyond the small beginnings hitherto made. In many instances 
we may be suggesting theories which are quite far-fetched, and sub- 
sequent discovery may show much simpler explanations. 


We turned our attention in the first instance to the very striking 
differences which exist between marine and fresh-water organisms, no 
matter in what quarter of the globe we compare them. If we turn 
now to a comparison between the fresh-water organisms of different 
parts of the world, we find an equally striking similarity between 
them. This uniformity of fresh-water organisms, sufficiently marked 
when we knew little outside the bounds of Europe, has become more 
and more strongly emphasised as information has been collected from 
the remoter regions of the world. It is not asserted that forms from 
widely separated fresh-water areas are necessarily identical, but we 
frequently find generic, and sometimes specific, resemblances, while 
there is a general uniformity far more pronounced than any to be 
observed in marine organisms. There are, of course, differences of a 
minor nature due to differences of climate, and these we must treat 
of in detail elsewhere; but we are concerned for the moment only 
with the very natural query: Why does this very definite uniformity 
exist ? 

Some of the facts which appear to offer a clue have already been 
indicated. We have examined at some length the dangers and 
difficulties to which forms colonising fresh water are exposed, and have 
pointed out the means adopted by different groups for overcoming 
them. Knowing this, we can explain why certain types only are to be 
found in all the fresh waters of the globe—they alone have been able 
to adapt themselves to the peculiar conditions. But when we leave 
on one side the actual origin of fresh-water life, and study the 
agencies which have secured the distribution of these forms from one 
centre to another, we gain more light on our problem at once. 

It will be remembered that, under the heading of active and 
passive migration from the ocean, several methods were referred to 
which would be equally capable of effecting a general distribution 
within the limits of fresh water. It was no part of our proposition 


Pal 


mS 


NATURE AND ORIGIN OF FRESH-WATER ORGANISMS 371 


that the process of colonisation took place everywhere simultaneously, 
and to an exactly corresponding extent; indeed, that would not 
entirely explain the phenomenon, for we know that artificial reservoirs 
and ponds become in time stocked with characteristic forms. But 
at the present day, as in the past, plants and animals which have 
accustomed themselves to life in fresh water, wherever that may have 
taken place, tend to become widely distributed from their centre of 
origin. 

The agencies which have effected this distribution are to a large 
extent those we have already discussed in the other connection, but 
we shall see that their relative importance is not necessarily the same, 
and that there are certain others to be mentioned. Active swimming 
or crawling animals, such as fish, certain Crustacea, and molluscs, would 
be able to make their way from one river-system to another, probably 
at a wet season of the year. We may add to the list of actively 
migratory forms several aquatic insects (such as Dytiscus and Nepa) 
which are known to be powerful flyers, capable of making long 
excursions by night. 

But passive transportation has probably been the most effectual 
agent in securing the spread of fresh-water organisms. This may be 
by the aid of active forms, such as birds or insects, or by purely 
mechanical means, but it is in either case directly associated with the 
power of resisting unfavourable surroundings, which we know has been 
so notably acquired in many instances. Darwin himself studied this 
matter many years ago, and gives some suggestive facts in his great 
work, The Origin of Species. 

There seems little doubt that the enormous range so characteristic 
of many fresh-water and swamp plants is largely due to the seeds 
being carried long distances in mud adhering to the feet and beaks of 
wading birds. ‘This is doubtless also the means of transport for the 
resistant reproductive bodies of various fresh-water animals. An 
experiment which Darwin carried out certainly suggests that a number 
of molluscs may be distributed in a similar way, attached as small 
newly-hatched individuals to the feet of aquatic birds. 

Turning from birds to insects, we have evidence that sometimes, 
at all events, strongly-flying forms have carried with them in their 
flight small bivalves firmly adhering to a leg. We have seen how 
the locomotory power of fishes has been made use of by the mussels 
Anodon and Unio, but fishes may be instrumental too in effecting the 
distribution of certain plants. Fresh-water fish often swallow various 
seeds, which may retain their power of germination when passed after 
some time in the feeces. 

A further example of passive migration is interesting as being due 
to artificial assistance. This is the case of Dretssensia polymorpha, a 


372 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


small mussel which appears to have spread enormously within recent 
years in our European river-systems. By the byssus, which is 
characteristic of these forms, it has attached itself to ships and rafts, 
and so procured transport from place to place. It should be noted 
that Dreissensia still retains a free-swimming larva, which thus secures 
the distribution of the species through all parts of a river below that 
to which the adult has been carried. 

We have already referred to dispersal by the agency of wind. 
There is no doubt that this is most important in the case of small 
invertebrates which are able to encyst themselves, and in the case of 
those forms producing ova which can resist desiccation. Certain 
Rotifers, a species of Cyclops, and some Protozoa come into the 
former category, but into the latter comes a much greater number of 
types. We include the gemmules and statoblasts of sponges and 
Polyzoa, the summer eggs of various Entomostraca, and the horny- 
cased egos of Hydra and the Rotifers. No doubt we may add to the 
list the seeds and spores of diverse aquatic plants. 

The matter is peculiarly interesting in the case of Rotifers, which 
often appear in sporadic fashion in widely separated areas thousands 
of miles apart. We are as sure as we can be of anything in this 
somewhat speculative domain, that this remarkable discontinuous 
distribution is due to the transport of the ova (in some cases perhaps 
the encysted adults) by means of wind. ‘The eggs are very minute 
bodies, few of them exceeding a three- hundredth of an inch in length, 
and many considerably smaller, so that they are specially adapted for 
transport with dust by the aerial currents which circle the globe. 
The finding of isolated specimens in remote districts, more striking 
amongst the Rotifers than in the case of most other animals, is a 
direct index of the minuteness of their resistant ova, which affords 
special facilities for wind-transport. 

One other means may be mentioned as occasionally effecting the 
dispersal of fresh-water organisms, and that is the agency of floods. 
In flood-time barriers of river-systems may break down; but without 
going as far as this, we may conceive of local varieties, or even species, 
being swept from their point of origin in some backwater, and widely 
distributed within the same river-basin. Isolated ponds and lakes 
may receive in times of flood many organisms from a distance, or on 
the other hand they may have peculiar and characteristic forms 
carried out of them by the overflowing waters. 

Enough has now been said to make it clear that the organisms 
which actually constitute the present-day fresh-water flora and fauna 
are unceasingly subject to dispersal within the limits of that medium, 
by a variety of different means. This being so, what is more likely 
than that these organisms should assume and retain a uniformity 


NATURE AND ORIGIN OF FRESH-WATER ORGANISMS 373 


which, while not precluding differences of a minor degree, is far in excess 
of that observable in the ocean, where the conditions of life are so 
profoundly distinct ? 

While the incessant dispersal of forms tends to hinder the creation 
of new varieties and species, it must tend to produce types which are 
hardy and adaptable, and therefore thoroughly fitted to survive. In 
this connection a suggestion has been put forward which goes a little 
further than we have ventured, but without denying the essential 
truth of our assertion. It is that the uniformity of fresh-water 
organisms is due to the persistence of the hardy adaptable types of 
cosmopolitan distribution, and the dying-off of local types, as a 
result of altered conditions. The local varieties, which under more 
favourable circumstances might have attained specific rank, are 
regarded as having frequently succumbed to the combined effects of 
changing conditions and the relentless competition of more adaptable 
generalised forms. It may beso; but, although our present knowledge 
of this intricate problem is very far from complete, there is no need 
to look beyond the exceptional capacity for dispersal for an explana- 
tion of this phenomenon. 

This, then, is the conclusion we arrive at respecting the general 
uniformity of the organisms of fresh water. We are able also to 
assert confidently that fresh-water organisms are the modified descend- 
ants of marine ancestors, and we have indicated at considerable 
length the different ways in which we conceive the colonisation of 
inland waters to have taken place. On the earlier question we set 
ourselves—that of the existence of only certain forms in fresh water 
—it is more difficult to reach a conclusion. Many causes have been 
enumerated, each of which may have had its effect in preventing this 
or that type from leaving the littoral zone for the inland waters of a 
continent, but we are still confronted with exceptions which we 
cannot explain, both of forms which have unexpectedly succeeded in 
migrating, and of others which have incomprehensibly failed to do 
so. We are, in fact, face to face with some of the most profound of 
Nature’s problems, and while we may safely predict that increasing 
knowledge will throw light upon many obscure matters, the time is 
far hence when we shall be able to unravel the complex effects pro- 
duced on living matter by the influence of animate and inanimate 
surroundings. 


SUMMARY OF OUR KNOWLEDGE 
REGARDING VARIOUS LIMNOLOGICAL 
PROBLEMS 


By Dr C. WESENBERG-LUND 


CONTENTS 
PAGE 
INTRODUCTION ' 5 : 374 


Part I,—ConrriBuTion TO THE GENERAL GEOGRAPHY oF THE Lakes 375 
Arctic lakes—North European lakes-—Baltic fresh-water 
lakes—Central European alpine lakes—Tropical lakes— 
General remarks. 
IIl.—TuHE PLANKTON COMMUNITIES, THEIR GEOGRAPHY AND LIFE- 
HIsToRY ae : ves : R399 
Explanation of the cosmopolitanism—Means by which the 
cosmopohtanism is brought about: (a) different modes of 
reproduction ; (>) variation, seasonal and local—Influence 
of the Ice Age on the fresh-water plankton—Summary. 
» LII.—Main Prosiems or Future LImMNoLoGicat INVESTIGATIONS 426 
IV.—BIBLIOGRAPHY . 5 : : . 433 


INTRODUCTION 


On a visit to Copenhagen in July 1909 Sir John Murray asked me to 
give him my views on matters connected with fresh-water lakes, their 
variations with latitude, and other physical and chemical conditions, 
as also regarding the variation of the organic life, especially the 
plankton, from pole to pole. 

It must be remembered that a detailed review of the variations 
in the outer conditions (2.e. variations in the physical and chemical 
conditions of the lakes) from the pole to the equator would be the 
same as an account of the general geography of the lakes; this can 
hardly be done satisfactorily at present, at any rate not by the 
author, as he does not have sufficient mastery over all the elementary 
arguments on which an account of our present knowledge is necessarily 


dependent. Further, it must be remembered that our knowledge of 
374 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 379 


the physical and chemical conditions of the lakes of the tropics is 
extremely slight. What I have tried to do in the following, with 
regard to the Arctic, North European, Central European lakes of the 
level country (Baltic lakes) and the ‘alpine lakes, has been to bring 
together the available information concerning the topography and 
general geography of the lakes: morphometry, bathymetry, littoral 
region with littoral vegetation, character of the soil in the drainage 
area, precipitation, temperature, chemistry, colour, and transparency 
of the lake-water. In Part II. I have tried to give a sketch of the 
plankton communities, their geography and life-history ; and in Part 
III., according to Sir John Murray’s special wishes, to expose my views 
with regard to the main problems of future limnological investigation. 


PART I.—CONTRIBUTION TO THE GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
OF THE LAKES 


THe Arcric Laxss 


If we try to form a picture of the arctic lakes, we have unfortunately 
but few certain facts to rely upon. It is only by means of general 
descriptions of the nature of the arctic regions that a vague and 
uncertain sketch, which must be corrected and added to in future, 
can be given. During the last ten years I have read many accounts 
of travels in the arctic regions, hoping to find accounts of arctic lakes. 
From this literature I shall attempt to give an outline of the nature 
of arctic lakes and the conditions of life which they offer their 
organisms. 

The rainfall is stored as large snow and ice-masses, of which 
but a small part, and that only for a short period of the year, breaks 
forth from the ice into the lake-basins in the form of torrential rivers. 
Vhe country surrounding the lakes is perpetual snow, naked rock 
or sparingly coated (moss-covered) rocky slopes, sometimes wide 
tundras frozen throughout the whole or at any rate the greater part 
_ of the year. 

No account of the stzes and depths of arctic lakes on which to 
found a general description is available. ‘The descriptions of travellers 
convey the general impression that the arctic lakes are comparatively 
small. In the real lakes the littoral zone is always narrow, the pelagic 
region reaching up to the shore. The primary lake bottom is rock 
or rough sand and gravel. The height of the water will undergo 
considerable variations: high water in spring, low water in autumn. 
In lakes near the margin of the ice, where the affluents are rivers of 
cold water from the inland ice, the water is surcharged with par- 
ticles of clay. The filling up of the real lake-basins probably proceeds 


376 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


very slowly ; the material deposited is mainly sand and clay with a 
slight admixture of organic material. Porsild (1902, p. 207 +) remarks 
that the bottom material was never finely pulverised mud, but 
generally large, well-preserved’ particles. The deposited bottom 
material was odourless, and thus probably destitute of bacteria, all 
processes of decomposition going on very slowly. 

The transparency and colour of the water vary a good deal: in the 
clay-filled lakes the water is grey and the transparency very slight ; 
in lakes not directly fed by rivers from the inland ice the water may 
be exceedingly clear and the transparency great (Vanhoffen, 1897, 
p- 169). With regard to the chemical composition of the lake-water 
we do not know anything, but we may advance as an hypothesis that 
whilst farther south the chemical nature of the lake-water, the quantity 
and quality of decomposed and suspended organic and inorganic 
constituents, are dependent upon the heterogeneous nature of the 
surrounding country of the lake territory and vary from lake to lake, 
this is hardly so much the case in the arctic zone, where the differences 
in the nature of the surrounding country are not so great; further, 
we may suppose that the lake-water will prove to be exceedingly poor 
in lime everywhere in the arctic regions. 

Our knowledge of the temperature of the lakes is also very in- 
complete. We know only that the arctic lakes are open but few 
months of the year. Many of the lakes examined by Ekman (1904, 
p. 10) in Sarek were never quite free from ice. ‘Three small lakes 
were covered with ice of a thickness of 2 m. even on the 27th July 
1903, and are supposed to thaw only in very warm summers. ‘The 
lakes examined by Greely on Grinnell Land at 82° N. lat. were free 
from ice only during one and a half months, from the middle of July 
to September. A great many high arctic lakes are thus no doubt of 
Forel’s type of polar lakes, the surface temperature of which never 
exceeds 4° C. and the bottom temperature of which is SVAN, 
They have always “inverse stratification,” the water resting 1n layers 
almost throughout the year, the colder above the warmer ; 1n summer 
they have a very short period of circulation (Forel, vol. 11. p. 303). So 
far as I know, the temperature of such lakes is only known from theo- 
retical considerations. ‘The only lake of whose temperature we have 
some knowledge, and, as far as I know, most like Forel’s type 
of polar lakes, is the large deep Torne Trask in Swedish Lapland. 
According to Ekman (1904, p. 8), it was still almost homothermous 
on the 25th July 1900, four weeks after it had thawed, with a 
temperature of 31° C. at the surface and 3°3° C. from 70 to 85 m. 
Even in July the lake had thus not yet attained the temperature of 


1 The full reference to the literature cited will be found in the bibliography at 
the end of the paper. 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS B40 


4° C. and the stratification was still “inverse.” In the middle of 
July 1903, however, the lake had a temperature of +9° C. at the 
surface, from which it appears that even this lake cannot, at any rate 
not every year, be classed among the polar lakes. From another lake, 
high northern even if not arctic, the lake of Enare, sometimes frozen 
ten months of the year (?), we have fairly detailed data of temperature 
(Pettersson, 1902, p. 13); but these, in my opinion, seem so improbable 
(on the 6th August, 10° C. at a depth of 80 m.) that they can hardly 
be considered as quite reliable. In many of the shallower lakes, even - 
those situated under well-marked arctic conditions, the temperature 
indeed rises to 10-14° C., on warm sunny days in summer even to 
15° C. (Vanhoffen, 1897, p. 173; Ad. Jensen in Wesenberg—Lund, 
1907, p. 67; Ekman, 17°5°, 1904, p. 12), but according to the last- 
mentioned the temperature rapidly sinks again. In such lakes, con- 
sequently, there are two or probably many periods of circulation, but 
these occur very shortly after each other, and are limited by a long 
winter period of stagnation. 

In order to judge of the conditions which the arctic lakes may 
offer to the organisms and especially the plankton, it must further be 
remembered that, taken on the whole, the arctic lakes are extremely 
dark, as their waters throughout the greater part of the year rest in 
complete darkness below several metres of snow-covered ice. As a 
sort of compensation, the lakes which thaw during the short arctic 
summer, when the days and nights differ but slightly, will be greatly 
lighted up for a short period owing to the great purity of the water. 

We do not know anything of the extreme limits for the vegeta- 
tion in the arctic lakes. As a matter of fact, the Characez are 
fairly common in arctic lakes, but we are not aware whether they 
form here a special Characea zone. On the other hand, from Kruse’s 
(1898, p. 386) and Porsild’s (1902, p. 200) descriptions we know that 
Hypna at all events goes down to about 3m. or even more. Nearer to 
the shore a zone of Potamogeton may be found (Porsild, 1902, p. 206) ; 
but, all in all, the belt of vegetation in the real lakes of the arctic zone 
is very narrow. Of great interest is the observation of Porsild (1902, 
p. 204) that the surface of the precipitous cliffs 1s covered with a 
coarse felt of stalked Diatom colonies. ‘That the vegetation in more 
southern small lakes, ponds, and pools is extremely rich is a well- 
known fact; many valuable descriptions of this vegetation and its 
life-conditions have been recorded in Warming’s (1888, p. 127) paper, 
and further by Rosenvinge (1898, p. 239), Hartz (1898, p. 42). 
Kruse has drawn an interesting picture of the transformation of lakes 
into pools or tundras (1898, p. 384). 

The arctic lakes, in contrast to the southern lakes, are characterised 
by their great monotony ; uniform conditions are offered by the fresh 


378 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


water to its organisms everywhere in the arctic zone from lake to lake 
as well as in all localities within the same lake. 


Tor Norra Evropkan J.Akks 


The uniform character of the arctic lakes does not characterise the 
lakes of the northern temperate zone. The country surrounding 
the lakes is most varied: perpetual snow, naked rock, but much 
oftener beds of moss and peat which creep round the mountain crests 
and clefts ike a mantle, in Scotland about ? m. thick, and through 
which the water oozes on its way down to the water-basins; wide 
bogs, forests with humic acid ground, and in part, but to rather a 
slight extent, arable land. 

The height of the surface of the lakes above the level of the sea is 
extremely variable. The zone contains numerous mountain lakes, 
especially in Norway and North Sweden, elevated into completely 
arctic conditions, and many, e.g. several Scottish lakes, very near the 
level of the sea. The shape of the lake-basins is often long and 
narrow ; a great many may no doubt be considered as exceedingly 
large pre-glacial river-beds, formed by erosion (see Ahlenius, 1900, 
p- 28; 1905, p.17); their depth is often very considerable. More than 
half of the twenty-seven European lakes whose depth exceeds 200 m. 
lie in Norway and Scotland, and the four deepest lakes of Europe are 
in Norway (Hornindalvatn, 486 m.) and Scotland (Loch Morar, 329 m.) 
(see Holmsen, 1898-9, p. 1; Helland, 1872, p. 538; John Murray, 
1904c, p. 67, and Halbfass, 1903-4, p. 221). Most of the lakes are of 
medium size or small; still, the zone includes several large lakes—the 
great Swedish and Finnish-Russian lakes. A great many, especially the 
Scottish and many Norwegian lakes, have exceedingly precipitous sides 
with depths of more than 100 m. near land. The shores are generally 
covered with rubble-stones, dislodged and rounded by the waves; in 
front of the river mouths we often find large, well-marked delta 
formations, in sharp contrast to the firm rocks. Still, a littoral region 
is probably in many cases, especially in the deeper lakes, fairly 
sharply delimited from a pelagic region, differmg from the latter by 
greater variations in temperature. Only in very few cases is the bottom 
naked rock; the primary lake bottom is probably always covered by 
secondary deposits. In Scottish lakes it can be stated that lime is 
absent except where the rocks are limestone, and most probably also 
in the great majority of Scandinavian lakes, especially those north of 
the large Swedish lakes. In so far as the surroundings mainly consist 
of snow and the ground is frozen in winter, the height of the water 
will undergo regular periodical variations, being highest in early 
summer and decreasing later; where the surrounding country is 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 379 


moss-covered mountain slopes, always saturated with water, and 
rarely frozen, every period of heavy rains will at all times of the year 
send immense masses of water down into the lake-basins. In both 
cases the height of the water undergoes very considerable variations, 
but these are in the former case periodical, in the latter quite irregular 
(Scotland). 

The chemical composition of the water is much less uniform than 
in the arctic regions. On the whole, it must be considered poor in 
lime; during its passage through layers of moss and peat a consider- 
able portion has absorbed large quantities of humic acids; the lakes 
are further filled with organic material to a much higher degree than 
the arctic lakes, and this in suspended form is carried out into the 
lakes from the surrounding territory. Owing to the steep course of 
the affluents, this material is very rough; and, owing to the steep 
rocky sides of the lakes, much of this rough material (branches, leaves, 
hay, fruits) in unpulverised form is carried out even into very great 
depths (100 m. and over). Here the material, owing to the preserving 
action of humic acids, does not decay, but undergoes only a slow 
process of disintegration, the result of which is a remarkable sort of 
liquid brown peat (G. West, 1905, p. 968). Lakes with clay-filled 
water such as often occur in arctic regions are no doubt rare. The 
transparency of those lakes in which the water is coloured by humic 
acids (especially the Scottish) is very slight, generally only 5-7 m., 
and the colour of the water is brown (Bachmann, 1907, p. 7). Some 
of the Norwegian lakes are remarkable for their exceedingly great 
transparency, 14-18 m. (Huitfeldt-Kaas, 1906, p. 130); brown lakes 
are rare. Huitfeldt-Kaas mentions that the transparency of the 
water in Norway is much more influenced by detritus than by plankton 
(p. 126). The lakes are for the rest subject to the same fate as 
the surrounding territory; their surface receives only little direct 
sunlight ; the rainfall is everywhere great; through long periods of 
the year, especially in Scotland, immense clouds and fogs shroud the 
country and persist longest in the valleys where the lake-basins occur. 
The low summer temperature with the usually very humid atmosphere 
do not allow of any appreciable evaporation from the surface, and 
consequently no great concentration of the water takes place in 
summer. ) 

This zone presents greater variations in temperature than perhaps 
any other. It contains some lakes which, like several of the large 
Scottish lakes, must be classed among the tropical lakes, with water 
at a temperature >4° C. throughout the year, e.g. Loch Katrine, the 
temperature of which hardly sinks below 4°°44 (Pettersson, 1902, 
p. 8; Forel, 1901b, p. 35), and Loch Ness, the surface temperature of 
which rarely sinks below 5° C., and which at any rate never freezes ; 


380 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


and quite polar lakes, which as a rule are covered with ice throughout 
the year. Between these two extreme limits all conceivable transitions 
occur. 

It may further be mentioned that the annual range of temperature 
variation for all the lakes of the zone is slight, and for many probably 
slighter than in any other zone. In the Scottish mountain lakes at 
the surface the yearly temperature variation is only about 5-13° C. 
(Loch Ness, 41°°5-56°°3 Fahr., Wedderburn, 1907a, p. 412); for 
certain Norwegian high mountain lakes only about 0-2° (Holmsen, 
1902); 'Thingvallavatn 1-11°, Myvatn 0-124" (Wesenberg- Lund, 
1906, pp. 1105 and 1140); Myjésen 0-12” (Pettersson, 1902, p. 14); 
Huitfeldt-Kaas, 1905, reports 17°°3, but this temperature hardly 
occurs every year; Ladoga 0-9°°9; Wettern 0-13°:32 (Pettersson, 
1902). ‘The ice phenomena of Norway have been specially studied 
by Holmsen in his fundamental work (1902), by Ahlenius (1900, p. 28) ; 
see further Holmsen (1902, pp. 1-15); owing to the more special 
character of this exceedingly interesting literature it is merely men- 
tioned here. 

This comparatively low summer temperature is common to all 
the lakes of this zone; only exceptionally it may probably exceed 
12-14° C. The bottom temperature of many of the deep lakes does 
not sink below 4° C. In the temperate lakes of the northern European 
zone we find two periods of circulation (spring and autumn), separating — 
a long winter period of stagnation from a short summer period of 
stagnation; during the greater part of the year “inverse stratifica- 
tion” prevails. In these lakes we meet with the so-called “Sprung- 
schicht,” which only exceptionally occurs in the lakes of the arctic 
zone, and at any rate has hitherto hardly been discerned there. 
Ahlenius found it in Saggat lake, about 68° N. lat. (1900, p. 35). 
In many cases, at any rate, we may account for the formation of a 
“Sprungschicht” in the following way:-—The variations in the 
temperature of the air, day and night, are now so great throughout 
such long periods of the summer half-year that uniform heating of 
the surface water is no longer possible. Owing to the cooling of the 
surface at night and during periods of cold weather, vertical currents 
which equalise the temperature arise; in different seasons they reach 
different depths. Above these depths a somewhat uniform tempera- 
ture is consequently met with; below them the temperature slowly 
decreases towards the bottom. The decrease in heat proceeds more 
slowly the deeper the water, most quickly at the upper limit, 2.c. nearest 
the lower limit of the upper uniform, warm layer. Here the varia- 
tions in temperature may be so great that they proceed by jumps, 
and therefore this layer, according to the usage introduced by Richter, 
is generally called “‘Sprungschicht ” (thermocline by the Americans). 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 381 


In temperate lakes it will generally appear in June, and sink deeper 
and deeper in the course of summer until it reaches its deepest point 
in autumn and then disappears during the cooling processes. 

It appears from the researches in Mjosen, Wetter, and Ladoga 
that the “ Sprungschicht ” is at its deepest point, at about 20-30 m., 
in the beginning of September; the change in temperature may here 
amount to 3-5° C. Quite different phenomena have been observed 
by Wedderburn (1907a, p. 407; 1907b, p. 1) in Loch Ness. 

I am inclined to believe that a great many northern temperate 
lakes, especially those of the tropical type, are most probably 
characterised by the deep-lying position of the ‘ Sprungschicht,” or, 
in other words, by the great thickness of the layer of water where the 
temperature is uniform. ‘The reason is perhaps partly the small 
quantities of plankton in these northern temperate lakes, partly the 
effect of wind upon water-basins of an almost always very elongated 
form, though principally the mild winters in the western parts of 
the zone. 

It is clear that the currents in these lakes are much stronger than 
in the polar lakes, a fact which is of very great importance for the 
migration of the plankton. ‘The seiches have been studied by 
Holmsen (1898, p. 1) in Norwegian lakes, but especially by Chrystal 
(1905a, p. 599; 1905b, p. 637) and Chrystal and Wedderburn (1905, 
p. 823) in Scottish lakes. 

Of the vegetation in the lakes and its arrangement in zones 
we know exceedingly little. The vegetation in the Scottish lakes 
was studied by G. West (1905, p. 967), that of the Faroes by 
Ostenfeld (1906, p. 62). From Iceland, Norway, and the northern 
parts of Sweden and Finland we have very little information. The 
vegetation in the lakes seems always to be very slight; we do not 
know to what depth the wholly submerged vegetation belts of 
Characee and Fontinalis penetrate; in the Scottish lakes it is 
commonly not great, according to West, on account of the dark, 
peaty water. A remarkable difference between the lakes in this and 
the following zone is that the Potamogeton belt is not very distinct ; 
the belt of Phragmites and Scirpus so characteristic of the Baltic lakes 
is either weakly developed or quite absent. The low temperature, 
the shores as a rule steep and covered with rolling stones, the wave 
erosion, the slight detritus formation, the fact that the water is 
usually slightly transparent and the percentage of lime generally 
small, are all instrumental in causing the vegetation belts of the 
North European lakes to be weakly developed. 

In localities where the transparency is greater, the percentage of 
lime in the water great, and where the shores are evenly sloping, we 
find lakes where the vegetation belts are as broad as those of the 


382 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Baltic lakes (G. West, 1905, p. 968). Here the Characew go down to 
20-25 feet, and Fontinalis antipyretica even to 40 feet (G. West, 1905, 
pp. 982-983). 

The conditions offered to organisms by the real lakes and by the 
small ponds and pools differ greatly; in the latter especially, the 
variations in temperature are very great, principally in spring. There 
is therefore a very considerable difference between the fauna and 
flora of the pools and of the large lakes, especially in the southern 
parts of the zone. ‘There is, however, but little information on these 
matters as yet. 


Tue Batrric Fresu-warer Lakes 


A great many researches enable us to judge of the conditions of 
life in the Baltic lakes; the most important will be mentioned in 
the sequel. 

Many countries bordering upon the Baltic are very rich in lakes, 
especially Finland, Pomerania, and Prussia, to a somewhat less degree 
South Sweden, and Denmark least of all. The great majority of all 
these lakes are in some way indebted to the Glacial Age for their 
origin. ‘Their number was formerly much greater, and the area of 
the present lakes also much larger. From a series of valuable papers 
we can judge of the origin of the North German lakes, their topo- 
graphy and geography (see especially Geinitz, 1886, p. 1 ; Wahnschaffe, 
1891, p. 1; Bludau, 1894, p. 1; Steusloff, 1907, p. 427; Halbfass, 1901, 
p: -1,/1908a, pp. 592 and=706;"" Braun, 71903 ap. hOOT apse 
Sehigo, 1900, p. 1, 19058, 7p.) 1, 1907, "p.).1; Wlel SOs oe eo3: 
p. 25; Penck, 1894, vol. ii. p. 266; Keilhack, 1887, p. 161). 

From Sweden we have principally Trybom’s investigations of the 
lakes in Jonk6ping and Malmohusliin (1893, 1895, 1896, 1899, 1901). 
The Swedish explorations give us information regarding the glacial 
lakes of former times and the kind of soil left by them. It has been 
shown how lakes have been dammed up by the masses of ice of the 
Glacial Age, and how, on the retreat of the ice, the water has 
hollowed out enormous valleys by erosion and left a drained lake-bottom 
consisting of clay and sand. In the case of several lakes it appears that 
the ice has kept the height of the water far above that of the present 
time, so that a number of the present small separate lakes were formerly 
only one large lake. On all this see especially Gavelin (1907, p. 1), 
Munthe (1907, p. 1), Westergard (1906, p. 408), Bobeck (1906, 
p- 481). 

For Danish lakes we have no corresponding literature; here only 
Madsen (1903, p. 1) can be cited. 

It is common to the lakes recorded here that they hardly deserve 
this name. All come under Forel’s definition of pond-lakes, and 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 383 


innumerable transitional stages occur everywhere between such as 
exhibit as much of the lake character as it is possible to find in the 
region dealt with and the smallest ponds and drying-up pools. One 
of the features to a great extent characterising the landscape of 
the Baltic district is just its great number of small lakes, ponds, 
and pools. 

Characteristic of all the lakes of this zone is their uniform 
appearance. First and foremost, nearly all are lakes of the level 
country; their height above the sea varies little and is very rarely 
over 200 m. Only in Riesengebirge, Eifel, and Schwartzwald do 
some more elevated lakes occur. The country surrounding the lakes 
exhibits everywhere a similar appearance: never perpetual snow, 
rarely naked rock, but fertile forests, meadows, and arable land, in 
part bogs and heaths. ‘The ground is nearly everywhere loose and 
easily worked, and consists mainly of humus, clay, and sand, often 
mixed with considerable quantities of lime. ‘The lakes are generally 
of small size, rarely over 3000 hectares, and all shallow ; the depth rarely 
exceeds 30-40 m., and attains at most about 70m. The shape of the 
lake-basins is often circular; steeply sloping sides are rare, and there 
is generally a very broad littoral region, on the windward side 
covered by sand or gravel, on the lee side by detritus, peat formations, 
etc. (Klinge, 1890, p. 264). The bottom mostly consists of soft lake- 
bottom deposits. the so-called lake “gytjes,” very rich in organic 
material and very often highly charged with lime; the quantity of 
lime is often so great that the bottom layer may be directly used 
as marl to improve the arable soil. 

Great variations in the height of the water do not generally occur. 
Neither sudden thaws nor violent torrents will produce appreciable 
variations in the height of the water, as the loose ground everywhere 
absorbs the moisture and the slope is so slight. Owing to the low 
banks, even a slight sinking of the surface of the water is very visible, 
and involves a very great restriction in the area of the lake in 
autumn. ‘The decrease in the height of the water naturally results 
in an increasing concentration. 'This becomes much more evident 
as, on account of the slight declivity of the land, the water is on the 
whole slowly renewed, and especially so in summer. 

With regard to temperature also the lakes of this zone present 
great similarities. Polar lakes do not occur, tropical lakes hardly 
ever—they are at any rate rare. ‘The great majority are frozen during 
a shorter or longer period of the year, yet only exceptionally for 
more than three months. It happens in certain years that the lakes, 
on the whole, do not freeze at all. A very high summer temperature 
is common to all the lakes; it probably always exceeds 18° C., not 
rarely it is 24-26°, and may even be higher. Owing to the slight 


384 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


depth of the lakes, the summer temperature at the bottom is probably 
everywhere >4° C. The surface temperature varies in the course of 
the year at any rate from 0° to 24-26° C. The high summer tempera- 
ture is to a great extent due to the broad littoral zone, the water of 
which in early summer is heated above the temperature of the air in 
direct sunlight. The heat collected is distributed by currents through 
the whole water of the lake. Owing to the shallowness and small 
size of the lakes, they follow the variations in the temperature of the 
air on the whole fairly exactly. The summer period of stagnation is 
probably longer than the winter period throughout the greater part 
of the zone. In all the deeper lakes there is a very distinct main 
“ Sprungschicht,” which in late summer probably occurs at a depth 
of 20-25 m. On the temperature in Baltic lakes see further 
especially Halbfass (1901, p. 60), Ule (1898, p. 32), and Seligo (1905b, 
p. 201). 

The transparency, which, as is well known, depends almost ex- 
clusively on the amount of material dissolved in the water, is always 
slight; greatest in winter (7-8 m.), less in summer (rarely over 
4-5 m.): see Halbfass (1901, p. 78) and Ule (1892, p. 63). Seiches 
have been studied by Halbfass (1903b, p. 16; 1904, p. 65). 

The colour! of the Baltic lakes is hardly ever blue, as it may be 
exceptionally in alpine lakes, the water of which is purer; it is rarely 


' There is a long series of researches dealing with the colour of fresh water. 
The older literature is cited in Forel (vol. ii. p. 462). In recent times there are 
investigations by Spring (1883, p. 55; 1886, p. 814 ; 1896, p. 94; 1897, p. 578 ; 
1899b, p. 99 ; 1905, p. 101); Klunzinger (1901, p. 321 ; 1902, p. 338); Ule (1892, 
p. 70; 1894, p. 1; 1901, p. 16a); Autsess (1903, p. 1; 1904a, p. 186; 1904b, 
p. 678; 1905, p..1). 

There are two theories to explain the variations in the colour of the water— 
the one physical (diffraction theory), which maintains that the colour can be con- 
sidered ‘‘als Farbe triiber Medien” ; the other chemical, which considers the colour 
as a special property. The investigations of v. Aufsess, made for a great part 
in lakes under different conditions, specially show that the latter view is the 
right one. It is simply and solely the solution of different substances which are 
carried down to the lakes in various ways which gives the water a colour 
differing from the pure blue. The substances which cause variations in the 
colour are chalk and organic humous materials. Large amounts of chalk give a 
ereen colour; large quantities of dissolved organic substances vary the colour 
through green over to yellow. The green lakes occur chiefly in chalk areas ; the 
yellow and brown waters are found especially in the regions where large masses 
of decomposing plant materials occur. It is in the first instance the geological 
nature of the lake-basin and of the lake’s drainage area which determines the colour 
of the lake-water. So far as one can judge simply from observations of the colour 
of lake-water and from some knowledge of the geological nature of the drainage area, 
I may say that all I have seen on my numerous journeys most distinctly indicates 
that v. Aufsess’s view is right. According to Bourcart (1906, p. 108), inorganic 
salts, especially calcareous salts, have no colouring influence at all. Ferric salts 
also may produce a change of colour, especially in bog-water (Spring, 1897, p. 578). 


Po 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 385 


greenish-blue, but often green; the abundant supply of humic 
substances washed out of the ground by the rivers generally causes 
the colour to be of a more or less brownish tint, but hardly ever 
so intense as that of the Scottish lakes (see especially Ule, 1898. 
pp. 69-72). This brown colour is, so far as I understand, more con- 
spicuous in North German and South Swedish than m Danish lakes, 
of which the larger, in my opinion, cannot be said to be brown but 
much rather green, perhaps owing to the great quantity of lime in 
the water. The brown tones of colour are most distinct in small 
lakes and in summer; the green colour in spring, soon after the ice 
has broken up. The influence of the plankton on the original lake- 
colour will be referred to later. 

As to the chemical composition of the lake-water I need only refer 
to the greatly varying abundance of lime from lake to lake. ‘The 
chalky nature of the surrounding country, of course, exercises a very 
great influence. ‘The waters of lakes situated in moraine clay rich 
in lime have higher percentages of lime than those in territories with 
sandy ground. ‘This zone, in contrast to the foregoing, may no doubt 
on the whole be said to contain many lakes having a high percentage 
of lime. Those which are remarkable for their greater transparency, 
purer water, and colours of a more greenish tinge have generally a 
richer organic life than waters with a small percentage of lime and 
coloured more or less brown by the humic acids. In describing the 
conditions in the Baltic lakes, and not least the chemical composition 
of the lake-water, it ought to be remembered that many of these 
lakes have formerly been in much more intimate touch with the sea 
than now. In the so-called beach-lakes the degree of salinity varies 
very much ; even in the true inland lakes, where, of course, it is slight, 
it may sometimes exceed 10 in 100,000 parts (Halbfass, 1901, p. 90). 
Concerning the quantity of dissolved organic material little is as yet 
known; it is most probably on the whole pretty great—greater in 
shallow than in deep lakes, greatest in autumn and least in winter 
(Halbfass, 1901, p. 94). 

The broad littoral zone is covered with vegetation, everywhere 
arranged in very uniform belts, first a belt of Scirpus and Phragmites, 
and then a belt comprising species of Potamogeton with P. lucens and 
P. perfoliata as main forms, and outside that again a belt of Characex 
mainly formed by species of Chara which hardly descends deeper than 
about 5-7 m.; a Nitella belt is absent or weakly developed, but 
amongst the Characeze and also outside the latter we find a peat- 
forming community of sterile submerged mosses, in our lakes at 
any rate going out as far as 9 m., in South Swedish lakes as far as 
7m. (Carlsson, 1902, p. 27). The main forms are Amblystegium 


scorproides and Fontinalis antipyretica. I have known this moss belt 
25 


386 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


for a long time, though it has been little studied. Outside this belt, 
again, it has sometimes, but not always, been possible to find a so-called 
“ Grundalgenzone” (Brand, 1896, p. 8). On the vegetation in the 
Baltic lakes see especially Warming (1897, p. 164), Ostenfeld (1905, 
p- 377), Baagée and Kolpin Ravn (1896, p. 288), Carlsson (1902), 
Brand (1896, p. 1), Klinge (1890, p. 264). In the littoral zone we 
further find an extremely rich animal life. Many species of Mollusca 
with an enormous number of individuals are to be found, and enormous 
quantities of insects are also hatched there. 

The lakes of this zone are specially characterised by the important 
part played by the organic life. It is not here, as in the other zones, 
the lakes which impose conditions to which the organisms must adapt 
themselves ; it is the organic life which has got the upper hand of the 
lakes, transforming them through fundamental changes in the shape 
of the lake basins and in the chemical and physical qualities of the 
water. 

Through the influence of the waves and the ice the material of 
the littoral zone which decays in autumn undergoes pulverisation. 
The detritus thus formed mixed with the large quantities of clay, 
lime, and organic material carried in by the rivers, together with the 
plankton, produce precipitation, filling up and transforming the 
original lake-basins. ‘The lake-bottom is covered by enormous layers 
of material originally mainly organic, which through the action of 
the bottom fauna and bacterial flora is transformed into clay and cal- 
careous gytjes. The filling-up process always begins in the primary 
inlets of the lakes, so that the lakes are rounded and approximate 
to the circular shape. The result of the filling-up process is the 
rapid closure of the lake-basins: one lake after another becomes 
closed; tracts of land rich in lakes become dry plains or give place 
to peat-bogs and meadows, a process which but rarely goes on so 
rapidly farther north. Owing to the large quantities of plankton, 
the nature of the bottom is to a great degree determined by the 
quality of the plankton (Diatom gytjes, Cyanophycea gytjes, Chitin 
gytjes; Wesenberg-Lund, 1901, p. 110). 

The rich life of the littoral region further influences to a high 
degree the thermic conditions. The fact that the temperature of 
our lakes in summer can rise so high is due, I believe, to a very great 
extent to the organic life in the littoral region. On warm summer 
days temperatures of 30-35° C. may occur in the dark, warmth- 
abstracting, and warmth-producing heaps of detritus. Similar tem- 
peratures are also found in the Sphagnum and Hypnum moss-beds often 
found at the upper ends of the creeks in our large lakes, and also in 
the dense vegetation of Myriophyllum, Hydrocharis, and other plants 
which le much nearer to the free surface of the water. That these 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 387 


beds of vegetation are able to collect considerable amounts of warmth 
is well known through Kerner’s investigations, and the phenomenon 
has been described later by Brinkmann (1905, p. 27). Neither of 
these seems to know that the enormously high temperatures (30° C.) 
occurring in the upper layers of the vegetation are very distinctly 
limited to the surface; at about 1 m. below the surface the tempera- 
ture is often only 15-18° C. Thrusting an arm down through such a 
Sphagnum-bed warmed by the sun, we get an intense feeling of cold 
in the tips of the fingers and a feeling of great warmth up at the 
shoulders. I believe that the great warmth which thus arises in the 
littoral region is carried by the waves, especially on days when the 
wind rises before cooling begins, out over the lake, and is of benefit 
to the surface of the lake. ‘To demonstrate further the importance 
of the littoral zone as a warmth-producing factor, I give here some 
observations from recent years. 

On 3rd March 1907, when Fures6 was everywhere covered with 
about 12 cm. of ice, the temperature towards the shore in about 
6 cm. of water about # m. from the margin of the ice was not less 
than 7° C. (sheltered thermometer); bright sunshine, time from 
noon to 4 p.m. ‘The air temperature in the shade was +0°°5 C.; 
at 5 p.m. the temperature of the water at the same place had 
gone down to +1°:5, the air temperature to —0°:5. Shortly after 
the free margin of water had certainly become coated with a thin 
layer of ice. 

On 28th March 1907, when the temperature of the air in the shade 
at 2 p.m. was about 10° C., the temperature of the surface-water in 
Ksroms6 in the pelagic region was 2°°5. On the north coast of 
Néddeboholt, close to the shore, exposed to the land wind from 
N.N.W., the temperature of the water was 5°°1; but on the south 
side, on the borders of the vegetation, in bright sunshine, 17°°2; in 
the ground only about 4 m. from the water’s edge, 7°°2C. At the 
same time numerous bog-hollows in Grib forest were still covered 
with ice. In a Sphagnum-moss which was strongly lighted by the 
sun, and whose sides were completely frozen and hard as stone, the 
thermometer a few cm. below the surface of the Sphagnum-bed 
registered 12° C. 

On 12th April 1906 one of the experimental ponds belonging to 
the Fresh-water Biological Laboratory was still covered with ice on 
the sheltered side and the margin frozen; on the opposite, sunny side 
the temperature was 77°C. On 29th March 1907 all three experimental 
ponds were on the sheltered side, which at this time of year never 
has any sunlight, covered by 6 cm. of ice. The temperature of the 
air in the shade was 11° C. at 2 p.m. The temperature of the water 
on the sunny side of the ponds, amongst the vegetation, was 14-17" C. ; 


388 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


at the margin of the ice, out towards the open water, 3° C. The 
temperature of the ground on the edge of the water, on the sunny 
side, was 12° C. 

A continuous series of warm, bright days at the end of March 
(10-11° C. at midday) and in the beginning of April raised the 
temperature of the pelagic region in the small ponds unusually high 
(6-8° C.), whilst during the same period the temperature in the pelagic 
region of Furesé rose only 1°—from 2°71 to 3°:1 in the course of four 
days, 28th to 31st March. In the following three weeks, when the 
temperature of the air never rose above 5°°6 C. and was generally 
lower, the temperature of the water in the ponds nevertheless steadily 
rose to 67 C.; the surface temperature in the pelagic region of 
Fures6 rose immediately after the above-mentioned warm days (28th 
to 31st March) to 4° C. and continued to rise to 5°°7, at which tempera- 
ture the surface of the lake remained to the last days of May. These 
high water temperatures cannot possibly be due to the warmth of 
the sun at that time, as the air temperature was throughout lower 
than the water temperature. In my opinion, it was in the first 
instance the high temperatures occurring in the littoral region in 
very early spring which imparted a surplus of warmth to the pelagic 
regions of the lakes and ponds, a warmth retained later; and 
further, it was the warmth-collecting quality of the littoral region 
which absorbed every sunbeam cast upon it in the foggy, rainy 
April, that was later of benefit to the pelagic region. Various 
things seem to me to indicate that under our climatic conditions the 
monthly average temperature of the water in the summer months 
in the pelagic region of our lakes will be above the average tempera- 
ture of the air. That, on the other hand, the littoral region becomes 
extremely cold during the period of cooling is a well-known fact 
which I need not discuss here. As I have the impression, however, 
that the importance of the littoral region as a store of warmth, at 
least in the Baltic lakes, is less well known, I have dwelt upon the 
subject here at some length. 

What also acts in these lakes as a warmth-absorber, and, under 
the influence of the processes of putrefaction, as a warmth-producer, 
is the enormous quantity of plankton, especially during the periods of 
the water-bloom, which is produced in the lakes in the warm summer 
months. We have unfortunately no data to show how high these 
temperatures may rise. 

Further, the rich organic life influences the colowr of the water 
in the Baltic lakes; the true colour has, so to speak, never been 
seen, being almost always determined by the plankton, that is, by 
the particular coloured bodies in the plankton organisms which have 
their maximum at the moment in the lake (on this point see especially 


- LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 389 


Klunzinger, 1901, p. 321, and 1902, p. 338; also Zacharias, 1902, 
p. 700, 1903, p. 296). As these plankton organisms are different in 
the different lakes and vary during the seasons in each lake, the 
colour of the lake undergoes much greater variation than in other 
zones. We may say that as a rule the brownish-yellow Diatom-colour 
characterises our lakes in spring and autumn, the blue-green Cyano- 
phyceze-colour in summer; in cold and deep lakes the brownish- 
yellow colour is also preserved in summer, but this is due to Ceratium 
hirundinella. Sometimes other tinges of colour break in and replace 
the former quite suddenly and for a’short time. Thus the Oscillatorize 
gave Furesé a whitish tint in May 1903, and the Lyngbya a cherry- 
red tint in September and October 1902. Botryococcus Braunii 
sometimes gives a reddish colour to several of our lakes. In mild 
winters the lakes keep the Diatom-colour. It is in early spring that 
the plankton has least influence on the colour, but even then the 
true colour of the lake is not apparent, as just at that time the huge 
masses of detritus give it a brownish or greyish tint. The true 
colour of the lake-water is most apparent in May, when the Diatom 
maxima are almost over and the large Cyanophyceze maxima have 
not yet begun and the detritus has gone to the bottom (see Wesenberg- 
Lund, Prometheus, 1906, p. 785). An impression of the enormously 
large quantities of plankton which are developed, especially during the 
Cyanophyceze maxima, is obtained by filtering the water, which then 
shows a faint milky colour, most probably caused by the Phycocyan 
set free in the processes of putrefaction. How far these observations 
from the Danish lakes also apply to the lakes in the remaining part 
of the zone is at present unknown. In North Germany, Ule and 
Halbfass have remarked upon the great importance of the plankton 
in determining the natural colour of the lake. Compared with the 
alpine lakes we may say that the Baltic lakes almost always have 
in reality ‘¢ water-bloom.” 

The organic life, especially the enormous quantities of plankton, 
reduces also the transparency. 'The great yearly variations in trans- 
parency may always with certainty be traced back to corresponding 
variations in the amount of plankton. Whereas in the high-alpine 
lakes the quantities of detritus reduce the transparency, this is only 
to a slight extent the case at least in the greater part of the Danish 
lakes, except immediately after the ice breaks up and the drifting ice 
has scratched up the bottom. The quantity of plankton (water-bloom) 
may be so great that it acts as a wave-subduer. More than once I 
have seen a gale blowing the greater part of the water-bloom down into 
a corner of a lake, and in the centre raising high waves with spray ; 
nevertheless on the windward side the surface was almost smooth, with 
but a long swell through the thick water filled with water-bloom. 


390 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


The composition of the lake-water is also chemically influenced by 
the organic life. In summer, when the water is only to a very slight 
degree renewed and the evaporation is great owing to the high tem- 
perature, a further concentration takes place from the decomposition of 
the great quantity of organic material. ‘The water, especially in the 
shallow lakes, thus almost assumes the appearance of soup, which is no 
doubt of the greatest importance in determining the maximum develop- 
ment of many Infusoria, Chlorophycez, Flagellata, and Myxophycee. 
The phytoplankton may play a principal part in the production of 
oxygen, probably to a less degree in lakes than in ponds (Knauthe, 
1898, p. 785; 1899, p. 783). In bright sunshine the Volvocinex and 
Euglena of the ponds can secrete such large quantities of oxygen under 
the influence of light that the water may contain up to 24 c.c. oxygen 
per litre. Corresponding quantities do not occur, indeed, in the lakes 
(9-12 c.c., Halbfass, 1901, p. 96). The quantity of oxygen does not, 
as a rule, attain in lakes the limit of saturation, or at any rate exceeds 
it but slightly (Halbfass, 1901, p. 96). 

Within recent times the view has come more and more to the 
front that the reduction of the carbonic acid in lake-water, and there- 
with the deposition of lime, is in greater or less degree due to the 
activity of organisms. In fresh water these organisms are the green 
plants and molluscs. If the water at a given tension is saturated 
with calcium bicarbonate, then for every gram of carbonic acid which 
is taken by the plants during the assimilation processes from the water 
and used to build up organic materials, 2°3 gm. CaCO, are precipitated. 
The molluses “ absorb calcium bicarbonate, retain the monocarbonate, 
but the carbonic-acid-forming bicarbonate is liberated” (Krogh, 1904, 
p. 382). 

Some authors are inclined to see in the action of the organisms the 
chief source of the reduction of the carbonic acid (Dupare for the 
lake d’ Annecy, 1894, p. 199 ; Halbfass, 1901, p. 93, and Passarge, 1901, 
p. 144, for several North German lakes ; and for the lower-lying alpine 
lakes, Bourcart, 1906, p. 118). A co-operating part in the reduction 
of the carbonic acid is ascribed to the organisms by Delebecque 
(1898a, p. 222; 1895, p. 790). Dr Krogh takes up a special position. 
He comes to the main result that the organisms “in the long run 
are altogether incapable of either adding to or diminishing the lime 
deposits in a lake” (p. 882). Krogh supposes, in fact, that nearly all 
the organic material of plants “is in due course again decomposed, 
whereby the carbonic acid is completely recovered”; for the molluscs, 
he maintains that the liberated carbonic acid “ will increase the 
tension of the water, causing it to dissolve from the lme deposits of 
the bottom, from dead shells, and, indeed, from whatever source, exactly 
the quantity of lime which the living mussels have taken from it.” 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 39] 


Within later years a long series of investigations have been pub- 
lished: Davis (1900a, p. 485; 1900b, p. 498; 1901, p. 491), Wesenberg- 
Lund (1901, p. 1), Passarge (1901, p. 79), Frih and Schroter (1904, pp. 
196-199), Weltner (1905, p. 277), Steusloff (1905, p. 1), Marc le Roux 
(1907, p. 347). We have all arrived at the same result, that the lime 
deposits are due largely, if not entirely, to organisms. Passarge (1901, 
p. 144) even maintains that these can cause lime deposits on a large 
scale. Ramann at first seemed to take up a. special position. He 
believes “dass die Seekreide aus der Zersetzung geléster Kalkhumate 
hervorgeht welche dem Seewasser aus benachbarten Gebieten zuge- 
fiihrt werden” (1905-6, p. 161; 1905, p. 44; and 1906, p. 174). 
Ramann has accepted the explanation of the origin of the true lake 
lime given by Passarge and myself, but seems still to maintain his 
own with regard to “ Wiesenkalk,” which he is no doubt entitled 
to do. I hope, however, to be able to return to this explanation later. 
It must therefore be concluded that Dr Krogh at present stands 
quite alone with his above-mentioned views. In my plankton work 
(1908, pp. 291-293), to which I here refer, I have contested the views 
of Dr Krogh. 

The “organism” which has probably most of all modified the 
natural conditions in the Baltic lakes is man. In thickly populated 
territories, where castles and monasteries were often built near lakes 
and where towns arose under shelter of the castles, where later on 
water-mills and factories were worked by the effluents and affluents of 
the lakes, the lakes were drawn into his range of interest. Originally 
they were only of importance to man as fishing-grounds, later he 
learned to use parts of their vegetation (Phragmites and Scirpus) ; but 
after having destroyed the stock of fish, and the lakes had become like 
dead capital on his acreages, he utilised them in another way. ‘The 
great desiccation projects began, and lake by lake disappeared ; in part 
through drainage, in part more indirectly through forest exploitation, 
a diminution of the lake area has in many places taken place. It 
must, on the other hand, be remembered that at possibly still more 
places man has kept the height of the water in the lakes above the 
normal level by means of locks and sluices. It is at any rate certain 
that the renewal of water in most lakes is dependent on the discretion 
of man. ‘The comparatively small and shallow lakes with their often 
small affluents and outlets and their slight fall have made this possible. 
No less has he influenced the chemical composition of the lake-water. 
Substances alien to the latter (chlorine and ammonia) are in increasing 
quantities conveyed to it through the refuse from towns and the 
chemicals from factories (see especially Marsson, 1903, p. 60, 1904a, 
p. 1, 1904b, p. 125; Kolkwitz, 1905, p. 1, 1906, p. 370, with list of 


literature). 


392 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


THe Central European ALPINE LAKES 


In no other zone have the lakes been so closely studied as here ; 
this is mainly due to Forel’s fundamental investigations, but in 
addition to these we may also note the following works: Austrian 
Alpine Lakes (Richter, 1891, p. 189; 1897), Halstdttersee (Lorenz v. 
Liburnau, 1898, p. 1), The Lakes of Reschen Scheideck (Milner, 1900, 
p. 1), The High Lakes of the East Alps (Bohm, 1886), The Lakes of 
the German Alps (Geistbeck, 1884-5, p. 203, with list of literature), 
Starnbergersee (Ule, 1901, p. 1), Lakes of Jura (Delebecque, 1898a, 
and in many small papers), The Swiss Alpine Lakes (Zschokke, 1900 ; 
Bourcart, 1906; Bachmann, 1907, p. 1), Ziirtch (Pfenninger, 1902, 
p. 1), Vierwaldstdttersee (Amberg, 1904, p. 1), Montiggler Lakes 
(Huber, 1905), Lac d Annecy (Marc le Roux, 1907, p. 220), Schoenen- 
bodensee (‘Tanner-Fullemann, 1907, p. 15), Bodensee (Bauer and Vogel, 
1894, p. 5; Klunzinger, 1906, p. 97, etc.). 

In these, and in a very great number of smaller, partly plankto- 
logical papers, we find exceptional material to judge of the general 
physical conditions in these lakes. Only the following more general 
characteristics need be mentioned here. 

The height above the level of the sea differs greatly; the great 
majority are over 400-500 m. above sea-level, thus at least three 
times as much as the majority of the Baltic lakes. A great many are 
in the regions of perpetual snow. ‘The country surrounding the 
lakes is frequently covered by glaciers, but mostly consists of mountain 
slopes, forest ground, and to a less degree of arable land. ‘The rivers 
hollow out their beds mainly in solid rock, not in loose, easily movable 
kinds of soil. 

The lower-lying alpine lakes are often remarkable for their con- 
siderable size and their elongated, often irregular shape and considerable 
depths of 100 m. or more. The high alpine lakes are relatively small, 
with slight depths, often under 40 m., and mostly much shallower. It 
is principally the greatest depth which is slight; the mean depth (the 
relation between the volume and area of the lake) is on the other hand 
often great in high lakes (Bourcart, 1906, p. 104). The littoral zone 1s 
generally narrow; the shores are frequently formed of high, steep 
mountains, rising abruptly from the lake, with great depths near land ; 
it is mainly in front of the river mouths that we find more evenly sloping 
shores (deltas). 'The primary lake-bottom is probably everywhere 
covered by soft bottom deposits, less rich in organic material than in 
the foregoing zone, but chemically varying according to the nature 
of the surrounding country—very calcareous in the lakes of the 
Jura mountains, poor in lime especially where the lake is fed from 
melting snow. 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 393 


The height of the water undergoes very considerable variations in the 
course of the year, especially where the lake is fed from melting snow ; 
the renewal of the water proceeds unequally at the various seasons— 
most rapidly in spring, when immense quantities of water during thaw 
pour into the lakes. Owing to the great evaporation in summer and 
the decrease in all affluents the level of the water sinks greatly; the 
degree of concentration combined with great but regular variations 
in transparency, colour of water, etc., therefore undergoes consider- 
able oscillations. On the great changes in level in the high alpine 
lakes see Zschokke (1900, p. 17). 

Information regarding the temperature in many lakes of this zone is 
to be found in numerous records of many authors. It is not my inten- 
tion to give here a summary of our knowledge of lake temperatures in 
general, but merely to emphasise those features which are characteristic 
of the lakes in each zone. After having studied this literature, it has, 
however, been impossible for me, apart from the little advanced here, 
to discover any features which might be said to characterise the alpine 
lakes in contrast to the Baltic lakes. 

Temperature varies greatly, of course, but presents, on the other 
hand, a certain amount of uniformity hitherto hardly sufficiently 
noticed. ‘There are lakes which must be designated as completely 
arctic, frozen even in the middle of summer or with masses of ice 
floating on their surface and the summer temperature hardly exceed- 
ing 2-3° C. Such lakes are mentioned by Monti: Lac de Séracs (at a 
height of 2370 m. ; the surface was in September covered with ice, and 
the temperature at surface was only 2° C.; 1906, p. 131), Lac de Grand- 
Domeénon in the massif of Belledonne (Delebecque, 1898a, p. 170), 
Lac d’Arrius (Delebecque, 1898a, p. 171). The lake of St Bernard 
hospice, at a height of 2445 im., is closed up in certain years for 330 
days: it closed on the 22nd October and was not open till the 15th 
September (Zschokke, 1900, p. 35). The majority are no doubt tem- 
perate lakes, but approach the arctic type more or less: there are 
lakes which one year may be designated as arctic, in others as tem- 
perate. Concerning all these lakes there is much extremely interesting 
information in Zschokke’s excellent chapter on temperature in high 
alpine lakes (1900, p. 20). In the same zone in which we find these 
lakes, situated under more or less arctic conditions, the temperature 
of which at any rate in certain years does not exceed 4° C., we find 
distinctly tropical lakes which never freeze—Lac Léman (Forel, vol. 11. 
p- 395) and the North Italian lakes—or only exceptionally—Bodensee, 
seven times since the year 1227 (Geistbeck, 1884-5, p. 364:)—or only ex- 
ceptionally and in part—Vierwaldstiittersee (B. Amberg, 1904, p. 142). 
However much all the lakes of this zone differ in regard to winter 
temperatures and ice conditions, their summer temperatures are some- 


394 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


what similar. This is never appreciably high, and the great variability 
which might be expected in lakes of which some are of the con- 
spicuously tropical type, others, owing to the exceedingly long 
duration of the ice-covering, almost of the arctic type, is not met with. 
Neither Vierwaldstittersee (Amberg) nor the Lake of Ziirich 
(Pfenninger) generally exceed 22° C. even in the warmest summer 
time, Lac Léman at most 23° C. Lakes under even almost arctic 
conditions may, on the other hand, have temperatures which, though 
of brief duration, are high (12-15° C.) (see Zschokke, Pitard, Monti). 
Even in lakes frozen during about 300 days in the year, the summer 
temperature still attains 6° and probably more. ‘The reasons for the 
comparatively slight difference in summer temperature are principally 
that the affluents are to a pretty considerable extent derived from 
glaciers and thus everywhere carry very cold water, that the littoral 
zone, which in the Baltic lakes plays the great heating part, is of 
small extent in the alpine lakes, that the organic processes in these do 
not work with such an intensity as to raise the temperature, and 
finally, that many of the less highly situated lakes and those from 
which we have most information are very large lakes with great depths, 
while the high alpine lakes are small and comparatively shallow lakes. 
Zschokke maintains, as the result of the records of the temperature in 
lakes over 1500 m. above sea-level, that the summer temperature does 
not exceed the deep-lake temperature in the less highly situated, 
somewhat large lakes; still, I think that it might also be emphasised 
as a biological factor, that these high alpine lakes so often attain 
relatively high temperatures. Whether the latter temperature extends 
over short or long periods is of slight importance: the main point, 
according to my opinion, is that the temperature is reached. One 
thing is at any rate certain: all differ from the Baltic lakes in having 
a lower summer temperature (even in the larger of the latter lakes 
this is often about 24° C.); further, many of them have a much smaller 
range of temperature variation. In Lac Léman it is, for instance, 
only 4-22° C., in the high alpine lakes rarely over 0-12°, in the Baltic 
lakes 0-25°. Finally, it may be emphasised that the warming up and 
cooling in the various lakes, according as these approach the tropical 
or the arctic type, differ greatly, and that the length of the summer 
and the winter periods of stagnation respectively, as well as of the 
periods of circulation, must likewise vary much more in the lakes of 
this than of the other zones. 

The water is on the whole remarkable for its great transparency ; 
in the Lake of Geneva the white disc has been visible even at a depth 
of 21 m. in February, in July at a depth of only 4 m. (Delebecque, 
1898a, p. 179). The mean for transparency in the Lake of Geneva 
is 10°2 m., in Vierwaldstiittersee 9:4 m., in the Lake of Ziirich 6°5 m., and 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS Boo 


in Bodensee 5-4 m. (Amberg, 1904, p. 73; see also Geistbeck, 1884-5, 
p- 387). In the high alpine lakes also the transparency may be very 
great, up to 22 m. (Delebecque, 1898a, p. 185); but in the majority 
it is much less. It must, however, be kept in mind that the trans- 
parency has nearly always been measured in summer, when, as a matter 
of fact, it is least. In the Montiggler lakes, Huber (1905, p. 43) has 
shown that the transparency of the water is greater in summer than 
in winter. Rivers coming directly from glaciers carry immense 
quantities of pulverised material into the lakes; in this case the 
lakes have milky water and are but slightly transparent (Bourcart, 
1906, p. 107). Of the wonderful crystalline ice of the alpine lakes, 
and the very great depths at which the pebbles of the bottom may 
be seen, we have many records (see Geistbeck, 1884-5, p. 368). 

The colowr of the water is, as is well known, blue, bluish-green, or 
green ; but the blue lakes, those which have 1-4 in Forel’s scale, are 
rare (Lake of Geneva, d’Annecy, etc.). The majority are green, Forel’s 
scale 5-9 (Lake of Ziirich, Vierwaldstittersee bluish-green ; for the 
rest I may refer to Amberg, 1904, p. 80). Yellowish-brown lakes 
also occur, not rarely with colours exceeding Forel’s No. 9 (Forel, 
Delebecque, Bourcart). 

With regard to the chemical nature it need only be mentioned 
here that Bourcart has clearly shown the close agreement between the 
petrographic nature of the surrounding country and the chemical 
composition of the lake-water (1906, pp. 120-127 ; see also Delebecque, 
1898a, p. 205). Zschokke (1900, p. 38) records that high alpine lakes, 
owing to the lower atmospheric pressure and the slight vegetation, are 
of themselves poor in oxygen, although the mountain brooks supply 
somewhat the want in this regard. The absence of outlets from 
factories and on the whole of detritus of every kind, and thus of all 
oxidisable substances, has the effect, on the other hand, that the loss 
of oxygen during the oxidation processes is slight. 

The organic life of the lakes does not influence the physical and 
chemical qualities of the water in the alpine lakes, nor the filling up of 
the lake-basins, nearly so much as in the Baltic lakes. The plankton 
only exceptionally determines the colour of the water (Oscillatoria), 
and has hardly any appreciable effect upon the nature of the bottom, 
as 1s often the case in the lakes of the Baltic zone (Chitin-, Diatom-, 
Cyanophycea-gytjes), but influences certainly to a_ considerable 
degree the transparency. In the high alpine lakes the quantity of 
plankton is, as a rule, small; still, even high alpine lakes may be very 
rich in plankton (Zschokke, 1900, p. 302), but this is then thought to 
be due to abnormal phenomena (affluents from the St Bernard hospice). 

The steep coasts prevent the occurrence of the broad vegetation 
belts which are so characteristic of the Baltic lakes; the conditions 


396 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


for the Scirpus-Phragmites growths especially are in numerous cases 
not present; on the other hand, the outermost vegetation belts, 
especially the Characew, with a fairly well-marked Nitella zone of 
13-30 m., reach much greater depths than in the Baltic lakes (Lake 
of Geneva and Bodensee.) ‘The higher we go up the mountains the 
more the importance of the vegetation belts as nutrition for the 
animals decreases (Zschokke, 1900, p. 14). In lakes above 1600 m. they 
generally play a secondary part. Yet Potamogeton, Sparganium, and 
especially Batrachiwm grow as high up as 2100-2500 m. A very great 
part of the vegetation in the high alpine lakes is for the rest made up 
of Characezee; where these are absent Confervaceze, Diatoms, and 
Desmidiaceze, in addition to the phytoplankton, are in the majority ; 
they form the “ Feutre organique” (Forel, vol. 1. p. 119, Lake of 
Geneva), ‘‘ Gefilz” (Lorenz v. Liburnau in Hallstattersee, depth of 
40 m., 1898, p. 189), “ Grundalgenzone ” (Brand, Starnbergersee, 1896, 
p. 8). Zschokke records that these algze coverings in the high alpine 
lakes are of all the more importance as producers of oxygen, as the 
water above 1800 m., according to Boussingault, only absorbs, as stated 
above, small quantities of oxygen, owing to the diminished atmo- 
spheric pressure. 

The main work on the flora in the alpine lakes of this district 
is Magnin’s La végétation des lacs du Jwra, 1904. The belts are 
the same as in our lakes: the Scirpus-Phragmites zone, the Nuphar- 
Potamogeton natans zone, the Potamogeton lucens-perfolkatus zone, the 
Characee zone. <As specially characteristic of the lakes of Jura, 
Magnin mentions the great development of a Nuphar zone (pp. 374, 
408). He further remarks on a considerable difference between 
the flora in lime districts, specially characterised by many. Characex, 
and in the silicate districts, and maintains that not only the Characez, 
but also the Potamogeton, attain their greatest development in high 
mountain lakes, not in the less highly situated lakes. 

Even if the organic life is instrumental in causing the decalcifica- 
tion of the lake-water and the richness in lime of the lake-bottom, it 
is hardly of so great importance here as in the Baltic lakes: in part 
owing to the lower summer temperature, in part because a much 
greater amount of the organic material of the lake is destroyed in the 
lake itself and again acts, through the carbonic acid set free during 
the destruction processes, as lime dissolving. The blue-green algee 
especially (Lake of Geneva, Neuchatelersee, Chodat, 1897, p. 289, 
1898, p. 49; lac d’Annecy, Le Roux, 1907, p. 347) and the Characeze 
seem to play the most prominent part as decalcifiers. 

It must be said that, as a rule, the deposits derived from plankton 
and from the littoral region are not nearly so instrumental in closing 
up the lakes as in the Baltic region. The filling up and the dis- 


yt 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 397 


appearance of the lakes proceed more slowly in the alpine than in 
the Baltic lake-area, and are most probably due more to the material 
carried along by the rivers, which is mainly inorganic, than to the 
organic material produced in the lakes. It appears, however, from 
Bohm’s records, that the alpine lakes also disappear, that in the ‘Tirol 
118 alpine lakes have disappeared since 1774; and from Walser’s, that 
of 149 lakes in North-East Switzerland 75 smaller ones have quite 
disappeared and 16 have been greatly reduced since 1668, in the course 
of about 250 years (vide Huber, 1905, p. 1; see also Frih and 
Schréter, 1904, p. 20). The influence of man on the filling up of the 
lakes and on the chemical quality of the water is probably hardly so 
great as in the Baltic lakes. 

It appears from the foregoing that the alpine lakes present much 
greater similarities with the North European and arctic lakes than 
with the lakes of the Central European lowland; a detailed demon- 
stration of this is quite superfluous. A great many phenomena which 
we have been able to record from the alpine lakes may certainly also 
be pointed out in the North European and arctic lakes, but have not 
been dealt with here, as we do not know anything as to their trans- 
parency or colour. ‘The agreement of the physical conditions in the 
high alpine lakes with those in the arctic lakes has sufficiently often 
been advanced, recently by Zschokke ; in most regards they also present 
quite the same appearance. Still, in one regard which has hitherto 
probably not been sufficiently emphasised they differ greatly, viz. in 
light. 'The long dark arctic winter night is not paralleled by anything 
in the high alpine lakes: the yearly quantity of light received by the 
alpine lakes is many times greater than that of the arctic region. In 
those cases where the high alpine lakes are covered with ice but free 
from snow, or where the snow does not cover the whole surface, this 
much greater quantity of light will, at any rate for the phytoplankton, 
be a principal factor in rendering active life possible where it is 
impossible in arctic regions. 


TropicaAL LAKEs 


Omitting the Mediterranean lakes, since only future investigations 
can show whether these are to be regarded as a special type, we 
may briefly deal with the tropical lakes. 

We may first of all mention the enormous quantity of light which 
penetrates the surface of the water, and also that the amount of light 
as compared with that in higher latitudes is not subject to such great 
and regular annual variations as is the case in the temperate and 
especially the arctic regions. Further, it must be remembered that the 
annual range of temperature variation is probably relatively shght— 


398 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


much less than in the temperate zone, where it reaches from below zero 
to about 30° C. In no other part of the world, except perhaps the 
arctic, will we find lakes with such small annual temperature variations 
as in the tropics. Owing to the high temperatures, the evaporation 
from the surface and the drying up of the rivers in the dry season will 
produce great concentration of the water and great variation in its 
level. In the dry season large water-basins will be dried up, and in 
the rainy season again filled with water. The heavy rain in the rainy 
season will, owing to the enormous amount of decaying organic 
material, carry vast quantities of suspended material into the lakes, 
which, combined with the great quantities of organic material held in 
solution in the water owing to the high temperature, will produce the 
dark-coloured water which characterises so many of the tropical fresh- 
water lakes. 


We have now endeavoured to obtain, as far as possible, an insight 
into the variations in fresh-water lakes from the pole to the equator. 
I wish further merely to call attention here to a physical phenomenon 
of the fresh-water lakes which has only come to light during the last 
few years. It is a well-known fact that the specific gravity and the 
viscosity of the water vary in accordance with the temperature. At 
25° C. the viscosity of pure water is just half as great as at 0°; the 
specific gravity varies in accordance with the viscosity, but in a much 
less degree. Quite provisionally we may suppose that the viscosity of 
the fresh water is reduced concomitantly with the rising temperature in 
the direction from north to south, and undergoes the greatest regular 
annual variations in that zone, 2.e. the temperate zone, where the 
annual variations in temperature are greatest. It is evident that the 
variations in viscosity and specific gravity, since the supporting power 
of the fresh water, and therewith the conditions for buoyancy, are 
dependent on these variations, are of the greatest importance to 
plankton organisms. 

In accordance with the plan laid down in the beginning, we shall 
now consider the communities of plants and animals in fresh-water 
lakes and their variations in the higher latitudes. In fresh-water 
lakes we may distinguish between three great communities: the 
littoral, the abyssal, and the plankton communities. Of the abyssal 
communities in the fresh water we know very little; they very prob- 
ably contain many cosmopolitan species, but Lovén’s explorations in 
the Swedish lakes, the Russian investigations in the Baikal Lake, and 
Moore’s in the African lakes have shown that the abyssal fauna of the 
fresh water contains many very peculiar organisms, more definite know- 
ledge of which will have to be obtained from future investigations. 

With the littoral communities we are best acquainted. Hitherto 


wed 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 399 


no one has tried to bring together what is known regarding the 
changes these communities undergo systematically and biologically in 
the direction from north to south, nor can we attempt to do so here 
in this brief sketch. We shall restrict ourselves to remarking merely 
that these communities follow the same laws which control the life of 
land and sea. ‘They reach their highest development in the tropics ; 
for every latitude from north to south we meet with new types both 
in the vegetal and in the animal kingdom. Still, it must be main- 
tained that the littoral fauna and flora of fresh water, especially amongst 
the lower organisms, contain many cosmopolitan species, and that even 
amongst the higher a great many enjoy an extremely wide distribution. 

With regard to the plankton communities our knowledge until 
about 1890 was very insignificant. In the last twenty years the 
investigation of the European fresh-water plankton has been carried 
out with great energy ; some knowledge of the arctic and the tropical 
fresh-water plankton (especially that of the great African lakes) has 
been gained. 

During the last ten years I have been much occupied with plankton 
studies, and in my work on Plankton Investigations in the Danish Lakes, 
1904-8 (Copenhagen), I have endeavoured to bring together all that 
could throw light on the life-histories of the plankton forms. In the 
following, in accordance with Sir John Murray’s wishes, I shall try to 
give the main points of these investigations, taking as my starting- 
point one of the greatest peculiarities of the fresh-water plankton, 
viz. its cosmopolitanism. From this as basis and as a means to 
understanding the nature of this cosmopolitanism the opportunity 
is afforded of mentioning the lines of investigation which have in recent 
years specially occupied the investigators in this great field of work. 


PART II.—THE PLANKTON COMMUNITIES, THEIR 
GEOGRAPHY AND LIFE-HISTORY 


The fresh-water plankton is characterised by its well-marked cosmo- 
politanism. I consider this cosmopolitanism as an established fact for 
a great many plankton organisms, and I believe that it can be seen 
with distinctness from most of the plankton papers of recent times. 
This subject has been more closely discussed in chap. x1. of my 
Plankton Investigations. In their interesting work, The British Fresh- 
water Phytoplankton, 1909, chap. xi1., Messrs West have maintained 
that it does not hold good for the Desmidiaceze. It may be remarked, 
however, that a very large number of these can only with difficulty be 
regarded as true plankton organisms, especially the true, typical lake 
plankton which was exclusively In my mind. Further, it must be 


400 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


remembered that by far the greater part of our knowledge of the 
Desmid flora, and especially of the tropical, is based upon Messrs West’s 
own excellent investigations. Other times may come and other in- 
vestigators whose detailed views of species may perhaps not be the 
same as Messrs West’s; it is thus quite possible that the boundaries 
between the regions given by Messrs West will be abandoned. 

Against my opinion it can further be said that in the high arctic 
zone some types are apparently absent, that the great African lakes 
are characterised by their remarkable Diatom plankton, and that some 
few genera and species (Sida limnetica, Limnosida frontosa) are re- 
stricted to rather limited areas; only the Diaptomidee, according to 
our present classification and knowledge, seem to have a distribution 
which is fairly sharply delimited for each species. 

It must be emphasised that the fresh-water plankton communities, 
in contrast to all other communities on land or in water, everywhere 
contain the same types, nearly everywhere the same species. The 
arctic or North European zone and the tropical zone have a very 
large number of species in common. This applies especially to the 
Diatoms, Cyanophycex, Chlorophycex, and Flagellata; farther, amongst 
the Rotifera, Anwrea aculeata, Polyarthra platyptera, Asplanchna 
Brightwelli, Triarthra longiseta, species of the genera Branchionus, 
Pedalion ; amongst the Cladocera, Bosmina longirostris and B. coregoni, 
Ceriodaphnia cornuta, Daphnia hyalina, Chydorus sphericus ; amongst 
the Copepoda, Cyclops serrulatus, C. Leuckarti, C. oithonotdes, etc. In 
no other community is so great a number of species common to the 
whole world: only very few new types are found on comparing the 
plankton of northern latitudes with that of southern. Considering to 
what a degree the different plant and animal communities, terrestrial 
as well as marine, change from the pole to the equator, and how no end 
of new types appear for every degree of latitude as we proceed to the 
south, the cosmopolitanism of the fresh-water plankton must first and 
chiefly be emphasised as its greatest peculiarity and one of its greatest 
puzzles, which we are at present unable to solve with certainty. The 
phenomenon is confirmed by every new research ; future investigations 
may indeed increase the number of exceptions, but the fundamental 
result of this review will hardly be changed. 

Compared with this phenomenon, the supposed maintenance of 
sharply delimited areas of distribution for certain fixed genera and 
species is of quite secondary importance. If we try by means of such 
areas, which appear at present apparently natural and well defined 
for some species within certain groups of animals, to divide the fresh- 
water plankton into similar well-marked zoo- and phyto-geographical 
territories like those of other communities, we find that the attempt 
quite fails. | 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS AO] 


Another very peculiar fact connected with the above-mentioned is 
that the almost inconceivable richness of forms which characterises all 
communities, both terrestrial and marine, in the tropics, has no parallel 
in the tropical plankton. It seems as if the greatest development 
of the fresh-water plankton is much more to be sought for in the 
temperate zone. 


EXPLANATION OF THE COSMOPOLITANISM 


As is well known, many scientists explain the cosmopolitanism of 
the fresh-water plankton as having resulted from passive migration. 
As distributing agencies birds, wind, and the currents of the ocean are 
principally mentioned. ‘These means of migration may of course be 
of some moment, yet I wish to call attention to a fact which has hardly 
been taken into due consideration, viz., that they can only be of any 
importance when acting over immense periods of time. With regard 
to plankton it must especially be remembered that its resting organs, the 
organs supposed to be transmitted by the above agencies, are wanting 
over large areas, which further diminishes the probability of passive 
migration with regard to lake plankton throughout great parts of the 
world. All in all, the supposition set forth by many authors, that the 
migration by means of wind, waves, and birds is taking place with 
great intensity, must, according to my view, be considered as unten- 
able. The quantity of live germs which are transported by the 
above-mentioned agencies to new localities and there germinate and 
acquire new areas for the species is probably only shght. With regard 
to birds it must be kept in mind that they migrate on an empty 
stomach, and that migratory birds are almost always clean when they 
journey (Andersen in Ostenfeld, 1901, p. 116). Too much stress has 
been laid upon the few instances in which fresh-water organisms have 
been found attached to the feathers and feet of birds. In contradic- 
tion to the signification attributed to water as a distributing factor, 
speaks the well-known fact that lakes lying on a line and fed by the 
same river often exhibit quite different plankton communities. This 
especially holds good with regard to the zooplankton. In my 
opinion, noue of the means of distribution at the disposal of this 
. plankton which we know of at present can explain its enormous 
distribution. Only one factor, viz. tame, can perhaps give us a sug- 
gestion as to the correct interpretation of the phenomenon. 

Until the facts give some other explanation, I have formed the 
picture that this same fresh-water plankton, which in a horizontal 
direction has at present a more uniform appearance than any other 
community, has also vertically presented the same appearance during 
all times. The fresh-water plankton is amongst the oldest communities 
of the earth, 'The researches of recent times have shown us what an 


26 


A02 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


enormous part the plankton plays as fundamental food-material for 
the animal life in the water. To assume that the waters of the past 
did not contain the same fundamental food-material would lead to 
the most absurd consequences. 

The reason for this food-material having on the whole remained 
unchanged from the oldest times until now is, in part, that it has been 
in a less degree than any other community exposed to complete 
extinction and new formation consequent upon the great convulsions 
of the earth; in part also, because of its powers of spreading, by 
means of which it would be able to recapture the areas from which it 
had been driven at any time. 

That this community has contributed much towards the formation 
of the crust of the earth (limestone, petroleum, etc.) is certainly incon- 
testable; that its particular forms have not been able to persist 
permanently owing to their delicate skeletons, upon which their 
occurrence as plankton organisms always depends, is by no means 
unnatural. In several cases, however, it has been supposed that 
either the plankton organisms or forms nearly related occurred in 
very old deposits. Thus, the blue-green algae Girwanella problem- 
atica (Silurian), which together with other Cyanophycez are said to 
form the oolitic structure of rocks (Ordovician age in the Girvan 
strata); the Pertdintwm pyrophorum described by Ehrenberg from 
cretaceous rocks, which seems hardly to be distinguished from Per- 
dinium divergens of the present day ; Coccospheres and Rhabdospheres 
in the Lias deposits; the large Diatom deposits from the tertiary 
and cretaceous series, but curiously enough not from earlier deposits 
(see Seward, 1898, p. 117)—-all these indicate that it is only to the 
lack of investigations and the nature of the material that our slight 
knowledge of fresh-water plankton in earlier times is due. 

Further, it must be remembered that numerous forms of the 
bottom and littoral fauna and flora to which the plankton organisms 
are related are extremely old forms. We need only mention the 
Ostracoda of the palaeozoic times. Nothing in the structure of the 
Daphniz justifies us in considering these as much younger than the 
Ostracoda, their nearest relatives. That the Daphniz appear only 
in the upper Miocene mud deposits from the old lakes in the Egerer 
and Falkenauer basin is certainly due, in part, to the preservation of 
these forms being much more difficult, and in part to the ephippia 
having been misunderstood (see also Brehm and Zederbauer, 1906b, 
(06. ST 

If future researches raise the hypothesis that the fresh-water 
plankton of the world is collectively a cosmopolitan community to a 
scientific theory, the explanation of this should be sought for in the 
immense age of this community. With this view in mind, we may 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 403 


attribute to the birds, wind, and water a greater importance as dis- 
seminating agencies. 


MEANS BY WHICH THE COSMOPOLITANISM HAS BEEN BROUGHT ABOUT 


I. Different Modes of Reproduction.—If it should now be 
asked, What means do the species possess to enable them to adapt 
themselves to the varying and different demands imposed upon the 
individual organisms, partly in Greenland, partly in the large African 
lakes, attention must specially be directed to the following points. 

It may be regarded as a well-known fact that a great part of the 
lower fresh-water fauna and flora, and probably more than we know of 
at present, have special resting-stages in which the species remains 
under unfavourable conditions; e.g. resting-cells in Cyanophycee, 
resting-spores in Diatoms, cysts in Chlorophyceee, Flagellata, and 
Infusoria; resting-eggs in Rotifera, Cladocera, and Copepoda. In 
many cases these resting-stages proceed from special modes of repro- 
duction; a great many plankton forms have several, generally two, 
modes. It further appears that the plankton forms employ the 
different modes of reproduction to a different degree in different 
climates: in certain zones one kind of reproduction prevails, in 
another, the other. In arctic regions reproduction in the Cladocera 
is only to a slight degree parthenogenetic, and is mainly digonic ; the 
farther south we go the more parthenogenetic reproduction prevails, 
and the “sexual” becomes restricted to certain short periods. Quite 
the same thing is probably also displayed in the Rotifera. It is also 
certain that if the conditions differ very much in different localities, 
though in the same latitude, then reproduction also differs in these 
localities. In arctic regions reproduction is the same in pools and 
lakes, whereas farther south it differs in lakes and in ponds even for 
the same species. The pelagic races in the south pass from being 
dicyclic in ponds to monocycly and thence to acycly in lakes. The 
tendency to acycly increases in the pelagic races from north to south. 
D. hyalina and the Bosminw are everywhere monocyclic in arctic 
regions ; in the Baltic territory D. hyalina is dicyclic in ponds, at any 
rate in certain districts; in the lakes there is a decided tendency to 
acycly ; in the lower-lying alpine Swiss lakes D. hyalina is distinctly 
acyclic, in the high alpine di- or mono-cyclic. ‘Though not so con- 
spicuous, very similar phenomena have been discovered in the Rotifers, 
and the very same can also be pointed out for many other lacustrine 
(bottom and littoral) groups of animals, in which either two sorts of 
eggs are met with (thick-shelled resting-eggs and thin-shelled summer 
eggs), or in which various modes of reproduction occur, the digonic or 
monogonic (parthenogenesis, gemmation, partition). The two modes 


404 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


of reproduction are not equally common under all climates and in all 
localities. For the Ostracoda, Bryozoa, Planaria, Dinoflagellata, and 
possibly also Phyllopoda I shall here not enter into more thorough 
details, but refer the reader to the following literature :—Ostracoda 
(S. Jensen, 1904, p. 21); Bryozoa (Wesenberg-Lund, 1896b, p. 350, and 
1907, p. 71); Planaria (Zschokke, 1900, p. 86; Thinemann, 1906, 
p- 68; v. Hofsten, 1907, p. 4; Steinmann, 1906, pp. 199 and 213; and 
to valuable papers by Voigt); Ceratiwm hirundinella (Zederbauer). 
In certain latitudes and under certain conditions monogonic reproduc- 
tion prevails; under others, digonic reproduction. ‘This phenomenon, 
which, so far as I know, has hitherto not been sufficiently noticed in the 
animal kingdom, is exceedingly well known in plants. It is well 
known to all botanists that numerous plants under certain conditions 
and in certain latitudes only have vegetative reproduction, and that 
different conditions determine vegetative reproduction. It is just in 
the varying modes of reproduction and the ability the organisms 
possess of utilising mainly sometimes the one sometimes the other, 
that we must seek for one of the main causes of the quite pheno- 
menal power of adaptation and the consequently wide geographical dis- 
tribution of the plankton organisms (see Wesenberg-Lund, 1907, p. 70). 
It must be regarded as a well-known fact that the maxima of the 
plankton organisms seem to occur at certain fixed temperatures. If 
the temperature of the lake is too distant from these, the plankton 
organism concerned does not occur there (Cyanophycee rarely in high 
arctic lakes); if the right temperatures only prevail for a short time, 
the organism remains in resting-stages throughout the greater part of 
the year; where they prevail for a long time the resting-stage is but 
short. In arctic regions Ceratiwm hirundinella is only free and pelagic 
during a few weeks of the year; in the Baltic lakes, from April till 
October; in the North Italian lakes it is perennial. Daphnella does 
not occur in arctic lakes; it is a periodical form in the Baltic lakes, 
perennial in the Italian lakes; Anabaena circinalis is periodical in — 
Danish lakes, perennial in the Swiss lakes. The duration of the 
resting-periods decreases towards the south, and in this we find an 
interesting parallel to the life of higher plants in different zones. We 
are thus able to show that the different use of the two modes of 
reproduction, the result of which is the different sort of eggs, germs, 
etc., is one of the chief means by which the plankton organisms 
are able to adapt themselves to the varying conditions in the different 
parts of the world. 

II. Variation.—A second fact on which the cosmopolitanism of 
the plankton organisms depends is the extraordinary capability each 
species has of changing form. It is therefore necessary shortly to 
deal with our knowledge regarding the variation of the plankton 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 405 


organisms. ‘The theories and suppositions set forth in the following 
are based upon abundant material: here, of course, only the main 
points can be advanced ; with regard to all details I may refer to my 
main work. 

1. Seasonal Variation—The plankton organisms of the fresh 
water may at different seasons have quite’a different appearance. ‘This 
fact is, in my opinion, connected with the above-mentioned regular 
oscillations in viscosity and specific gravity of the fresh water. As the 
rate of sinking at 25° C., 2.e. in the summer, is probably twice as great 
as in the winter, the organisms, unless they are able to augment their 
buoyancy in the summer half-year, will smk down into deeper water- 
layers ; thereby they will be shut out from the light and high tem- 
peratures which for other reasons form a life-condition for them. 

We are now able to show that very many plankton organisms, 
and especially the perennial, are subject in the course of the year to 
regular morphological variations which are exactly in accordance 
with the variations in the bearing power of the fresh water. As far as 
we are able to understand these variations, it seems as if the organisms, 
by means of either an increase in the cross-section resistance or an 
increase in the superficial area by diminution of volume, try to 
diminish the rate of sinking, and that just in the season (summer) 
when the rate of sinking is greatest. These variations of the fresh- 
water plankton organisms we call “ seasonal variations.” 

We may now mention some examples. 

It has been noticed that the Hyalodaphniee (fig. 52") in the summer 
half-year increase their longitudinal axis to a very high degree. 
While the distance from the eye to the point of the crest in the 
winter half-year is only about 100 u, it is in summer up to 700 un. The 
most correct interpretation of this very peculiar fact is probably 
that the prolongation of the crest causes a shifting of the centre of 
gravity of the body; the effect of this again is that the original 
vertical axis, with each beat of the swimmerets, becomes the horizontal, 
the result of which is an increase in the cross-section resistance. In 
other Cladocera (Bosmina coregoni, fig. 53) the body in the summer 
half-year is higher than long, in the winter half-year longer than 
high ; in summer the antennee are more than twice as long as in the 
winter half-year. In some Rotifers (Asplanchna, fig. 54) it is known 
that the body, which in winter is almost isodiametric, is in summer 
about five times longer than broad. Here the aim is probably to 
remove the shape of the body in summer as far as possible from the 


' With regard to the figs. 52-62 it must be remembered that the size of the 
figures is quite conventional ; the same species is in the different figures drawn 
in different sizes, and young brood and growth stages are often figured larger than 
mature animals. 


406 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


spherical form and make it cylindrical or torpedo-like, since the 
cylindrical form, supposing that the body is held horizontally during 
sinking, is able to afford a greater cross-section resistance than the 
spherical. Some flagellates (Ceratiwm hirwndinella) project horizon- 


Ye 15 % ie zy, i 1 F % wy, te ea), UX, 5, % mp, % 
21 22 del 2 4 4 5 9 12 44 14 15 
a mM, % %  % OM 
21 16 wB 


° 


HA ai 


Fic, 52. —Seasonal variation in Hyalodaphnia cucullata (Fureso) and Daphnia hyalina 
(Esromso). The two may best be regarded as two races (modifications, phenotypes) 
of the same species. In summer the crest is much higher than in winter, and the 
whole form more slender. The upper row of figures gives the date, the lower the 
temperature of the water in degrees C, 


tally from the side of their body a long spine which, as it is inserted 
at right angles to the direction of sinking, augments the cross-section 
resistance. Very many organisms belonging to all the animal 


Is ub he thn 15], ‘is I ih ve He 
1 


_ PoppeeeapR 


Fic, 53.—Bosmina coregont, seasonal variation (Julso), In the summer half-year the 
animal is higher than long; in the winter half-year, longer than high ; the antenne 
are more than twice as long in summer as in winter. The eye is lar gest in winter. 
This seasonal variation we do not understand. 


plankton groups try, through diminution of the volume, to augment 
the surface. In this case the surface is often covered with a coating 
of small asperities; also by this means a diminution in the rate of 
sinking is probably attained. 

Even if the physical interpretations are not in all cases quite satis- 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 407 


factory, one thing is at any rate quite unquestionable: the structures 
they are intended to explain are indisputable facts; that the plankton 
Daphnids, for example, are longer and narrower in summer than in 
winter is a fact beyond doubt. The plankton investigations have 
further given the following very interesting result. During the 
formation of all those structures on which the increase in the buoyancy 
power depends, all plankton organisms follow paraliel lines. However 
different their organisation may be, the development of the buoyancy 
apparatus takes place simultaneously (May, June); they reach their 
extreme development simultaneously (mid-summer), and they are reduced 
simultaneously (October, November). From this, and because the 
highest development of the buoyancy apparatus unquestionably takes 
place just at the season when the rate of sinking is highest (summer), 
we conclude that the variations in the buoyancy or supporting power 
of fresh water, following the variations in temperature, are the outer 
mducements which lead to the seasonal variations as the answer to these 

% % % % &% 

a 8 az, 12 13 


solu lY wy 


Fie. 54.—A Rotifer, Asplanchna priodonta. In May, almost isodiametric ; 
in July, four times longer than broad. 


on the part of the organism. 'Yhe variations in viscosity and specific 
gravity on the one side and the seasonal variations on the other 
stand in the relation of cause and effect. In 1900,’ when this theory 
was set forth, we had not the slightest idea of the manner in which 
the variations took place. It was therefore quite natural that the 
theory, in the eyes of many, seemed only a loose hypothesis. It is 
naturally not to be expected that a scientifically educated naturalist 
should have confidence in a theory based on the observation that 
the very same species in summer is five times longer than in winter, 
or that another species in winter is many times greater than in 
summer, and that without any means of interpreting the manner in: 
which these great variations in body structure take place. 

One of the reasons why the study of the variation in plankton 
organisms has only advanced with the greatest difficulty, is that the 

1 See Wesenberg-Lund, ‘“‘Von dem Abhingigkeitsverhaltniss zwischen dem 
Bau der Plankton-organismen und dem specifischen Gewicht des Stisswassers,” 


Biolog. Centralbl., vol. xx. pp. 606, 644, 1900; with regard to the viscosity, see 
Ostwald, ‘‘ Zur Theorie des Planktons,” Biolog. Centralbl., vol. xxii. p. 596, 1902. 


A408 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


conclusions one is obliged to draw are of serious importance in 
systematic aspects. Everyone who has systematic knowledge of the 
animal and plant groups dealt with here knows that the specific 
characters are based especially just on the course of the contour-lines ; 
this applies to the plankton Diatoins, Desmidiaceze, Ceratium, Rotifers, 
and Cladocera. As we may now assume that wide limits, just with 
regard to the course of these contour-lines, can be considered as a 
conditio sine qua non for the occurrence of all these organisms in the 
pelagic region, we see that these contour-lines in the plankton 
organisms must be subject to the greatest possible variation. So 
long as there was not the least conception of this, the study of the 
plankton led to innumerable species being set up, which have now 
been reduced to some few: 30 Anurzea species have become 4, about 
100 Bosmina species and varieties 2, about 100 Daphnia species and 
varieties 1 or 2. I have called the old species “ races,” and objection 
has been raised against this, perhaps with justice: they should most 
probably rather be called modifications (or ‘“‘ Phenotypes,” Johannsen). 

It is very obvious that the naturalists who have dealt with these 
groups systematically and have created the many species should find 
it difficult to allow these species to be reduced to definite generations, 
broods, skin-changes (casts), produced by and adapted to definite 
outer conditions. Opposition towards the new views is quite natural. 
When, however, the naturalists of the older school treat the newer 
views of the species within the plankton community as loose theories 
which can be dealt with by loose, cursory criticism, whilst at the same 
time they demand that their views are to be considered as resting on 
an exact, scientific basis, they must be taken to task. Whatever 
systematic conception is taken as basis, one thing all should be agreed 
upon: the notion of species within the lower organisms is always 
of a distinctly hypothetical nature. 'The setting up of the numerous 
species within the plankton organisms was not at all of a less 
theoretical nature than to reduce them to some few, as at present. 
In every view of species there is a certain element of the investigator’s 
own individuality. With some the conception of species becomes more 
and more restricted with years: these are the naturalists who are 
so fortunate as to be honoured with the title ‘ exact scientists.” 
With others the conception becomes ever wider and wider; it is 
different at different times and hardly the same within the different 
countries.? 


1 In a work just published (“ On Syncheta fennica, sp.n.,” Journ. Roy. Mrer. Soc., 


1909, p. 170), Rousselet contests my view of the Syncheta species as seasonal 


forms. When Rousselet maintains that I have “expressed the opinion” that the 
Syncheta species “are only seasonal variations of one species,” this seems to me 
a bad starting-point for his criticism, and one which he is scarcely entitled to 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 409 


Just because the new direction in planktology has to such a high 
degree given naturalists the opportunity of observing how variable 
the conception of species within this sphere of work is, it is difficult 
to understand the demand of the older systematists, that their view 
of the species must be the only right one. 


make. On p. 73 of my plankton work I have expressed myself very carefully. 
I say: “I still believe it very probable that the ‘species’ are stages in a variation 
series ; but whether these stages are fixed species in the sense that the variation 
series consists of a number of temporary species following each other, or whether 
the transformations are only connected with certain generations and broods of 
the same species, we do not at present know.” I have thus stated expressly that 
I was unable to determine with regard to the species mentioned whether they 
were true species or only seasonal forms ; and I pointed out also that the material 
on which my account was based had been procured by others (M. Voigt). Nothing 
of this is mentioned by Rousselet in his criticism. 

Rousselet maintains that the species mentioned cannot be seasonal variations 
since, according to his statement, they are all found at the same time. This 
objection is not of any importance, as I have pointed out expressly on p. 251. 
This will naturally be the case with the seasonal variations at most times of the 
year. The one form does not disappear on the same day that the other arrives ; 
but whilst the one is decreasing numerically the other is increasing—a fact which 
will be observed by anyone who follows regularly the forms throughout the year. 
Stragglers or relicts there must always be of all the numerous forms: I have even 
found S. pectinata and tremula side by side in winter. What interests me most 
in this matter is, has Rousselet at any time found “8S, grandis” in the months 
of February and March? With Rousselet’s statement that “the periodic and often 
very sudden disappearance and reappearance of various Rotifers is a well-known 
fact, and the Syncheeta follow the same habits,” I am naturally in agreement. 
But the fundamental matter here, just this “sudden disappearance and reappear- 
ance,” is not apparently for Rousselet a problem which requires a solution. Now I 
have endeavoured to give a solution to just this problem by regarding the Syncheta 
as species, in Rousselet’s sense if preferred, but vicarious seasonally, with different 
times for breaking up the resting-stages and different requirements as to tempera- 
ture. But Rousselet seems to have quite overlooked this or misunderstood it. 

Further evidence that the above-named Syncheeta species are in reality species 
and not seasonal forms is found by Rousselet in this, that “of all plankton 
Rotifers the Syncheta are the most vigorous swimmers, and quite able to 
counteract by their cilia any slight tendency to sink that may be due to a decrease 
in the density and viscosity of the water in summer.” To this I would remark, 
in the first place, that if Rousselet had ever seen a Ploesoma Hudsoni swimming 
he would scarcely have taken the Syncheta to be the most vigorous swimmers ; 
but in the second place, and more especially, whence can Rousselet obtain even 
the remotest evidence for the view that the wheel-organ of the Syncheeta is able 
to counteract the fluctuations in the density and viscosity? Here, as not so 
seldom elsewhere, we find the “exact” systematist, without even a shadow of 
scientific evidence, throwing out random postulates and requiring them to be 
believed. At the same time he subjects to a superficial and one-sided criticism 
the views of naturalists who for years have studied the phenomena on which 
the views rest out in nature itself, under conditions with which the systematist 
has no acquaintance, and even though these views are put forward in an exceed- 
ingly cautious form. 


410 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


The interpretation of the phenomena has, however, been the 
object of rather extensive studies, published in 1908. I take the 
liberty of merely mentioning the principal points in the investigations, 
and for the rest refer the reader to my main work. 

The seasonal variations do not occur, as hitherto believed, 
gradually through even transitional stages; wherever the researches 
have been made at the right time or where samples have been taken 
at sufficiently short intervals, it has been proved that the seasonal 
variations are mainly completed in the cowrse of a very short time, 
about two to three weeks. It has been noticed, for example, that there 


nde 
po VG 


O 


fO 


Fic. 55.—Ceratiwm hirundinella, Asplanchna priodonta, Daphnia hyalina, Hyalo- 
daphnia cucullata, Bosmina coregoni (Fureso and Julso). Upper row: summer 
forms with increased floating power, June. Lower row: the same species as winter 
forms with less floating power, May. 


are species, ¢.g., Asplanchna priodonta, which in the course of about 


three weeks increase their longitudinal axis about five times; that the 


distance from the eye to the point of the crest in Hyalodaphnia increases 
from about 100 « to 600 u in the course of three to four weeks (Juls6) ; 
and that the flagellum in Bosmina coregonit grows from 360 ju to 800 ju 
(Juls6) in the same time. This means that whilst the joint stock of 
individuals in the species first had the measurements 100 «4 (Hyalo- 
daphnia) and 360 « (Bosmina coregont) (lower row, fig. 55), the great 
majority of the individuals have got the new sizes about three weeks 
later (upper row, fig. 55). 

The time when the variations are completed is the same for all 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 411 


forms. At a temperature of 12-14° or 14-16° C., which in the 
Baltic lake territory mainly occurs at the end of May and beginning 
of June, all seasonal variations are fully formed. Diatoms change 
their shape of colony, in Ceratiwn hirundinella the fourth horn is 
developed, or new, narrower, and longer seasonal forms are observed, 
the longitudinal axis in Asplanchna increases in certain localities, the 
series of variations in Synchata and Anwrewa arise, the growth in the 
tip of the crest in Daphnia and Hyalodaphnia proceeds, the hump in 
Bosmina coregont grows upwards and the first pair of antennae increase 
in length; B. longirostris as well as many others of the above-named 
forms decrease in size. At the same time the summer forms appear 
with their highly developed floating apparatus, viz., Holopedium, 
Bythotrephes, Diaphanosoma, Leptodora. By an abrupt change the 
whole plankton community has by form variations decreased its rate 
of sinking and augmented its floating capacity; the rate of sinking 
for the plankton of June is therefore much less than for the plankton 
of May. 

Towards winter the species has again the external appearance 
which we are accustomed to regard as normal. Simultaneously the 
summer forms with their often highly bizarre appearance disappear. 

What has happened in these three weeks, in which the whole 
plankton changes its form and augments its floating capacity? The 
investigations have now established the following facts. 

The demands made by the variations in the outer conditions on 
the floating power of the species can generally not be satisfied by the 
transformation of the single mature individuals. In Diatoms it is 
probable that some species, on the rate of sinking increasing, occur 
in colonies instead of singly, or, if they are generally colony forms, 
they change the shape of colony through the use of gelatinous masses, 
which are different qualitatively as well as quantitatively (T'abel- 
laria); the individual itself remains, so far as is known, as a rule 
unchanged. With regard to the Cladocera and Rotifers it may be 
pointed out, that if the demands become too great, the individual 
may respond to them by migrating to deeper waters, the temperature 
of which agrees more with that under which the organisms were 
hatched and grew up; but doubtless the response most frequently is 
death. The demands made by the variations in outer conditions are 
mainly met by the species in such a manner that the individuals 
before death produce new broods in which, when hatched, the demands are 
on essential points already satisfied. Thus we also find that those 
individuals which have survived the winter in water layers with high 
bearing-power, and which are distinguished by relatively plump form, 
die out in spring. In the brood-pouches of the round-headed winter 
forms we find broods with pointed heads in the above-named three 


A412 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


weeks (figs. 56 and 57). During growth (fig. 58), and before the mature 
stage is reached, the body form is further remodelled: the result is a 
long and slender form, more suited to the new demands. After 
maturity the body is usually fixed in form; it grows further, but 
retains practically the same proportions as in the last stage before 


A B C 


Fic. 56.—Two round-headed spring females (A and B) with pointed-headed young in the 
brood-pouch ; OC, a pointed-headed autumn female with round-headed young in 
brood-pouch. 


maturity. This spring generation, which becomes the true bearer of 
the seasonal variation, is thus on the inception of maturity furnished 
with a different and greater floating power than the foregoing. The 
latter has been designated the last generation in the series of winter 


ee ie ea 
iol 16 16 i ct 4 2 1 


Kecacancandla 


Fic. 57.—Hyalodaphnia cucullata. Seasonal variation in the newly hatched young 
(Furesé). The young are hatched with high crest in summer, but round-headed 
and without crest in winter. Highly magnified. 


generations ; the former, the first in the series of summer generations. 
The direction now taken by the variations increases in all successive 
generations until the water has attained its highest ‘temperature ; but 
ae difference between two successive generations is now never so 
great as between the two above mentioned, when the temperature 
of the water is lower (14-16° C.). Sometimes the demands made by 
the outer conditions on the floating power of the species are so great 


| 
dee | 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS A13 


that they can no longer be met. The research shows that in Hyalo- 
daphnia brood- and growth-stages often occur of an extremely high 
and weak structure, but these are not found again in mature animals : 
they occur only when the temperature of the water is at its highest, 


cp, ERGs ORES 70) PSR 1A Catena a 
16 16 4 2 2 3 12 


decoareal 


Fie. 58.—Hyalodaphnia cucullata. Seasonal variation in the growth-stages (Fureso). 
During growth the crest in the summer half-year increases so much that it is 
almost as long as the valves; in the winter half-year the crest does not grow at all. 


and their lifetime seems always very short. The view which I 
have taken of the phenomenon is that the claims of the outer 
conditions laid at this time on the species are so great that each 
individual may well meet them but has 


been forced so near the limits of the 

variability of the species that the individual 

pays for its extreme by sterility. The most i ‘ 
extreme variations produced by outer condi- 

tions can thus not be inherited. (Fig. 59.) 

In the beginning of autumn, the great | 
increase in the parts of the body which 
\ 


have to counteract the rate of sinking 
ceases during growth. Somewhat later, 


generations are produced in which, on 
Fic. 59.—Hyalodaphnia cucul- 


hatching, the crest is shorter and does not Vann das dualet. whcoh: 
increase during growth. ‘Towards the the demands for increased 
; : : ; floating power have forced 
winter the species has again the exterior beyond the limits of elasti- 
which we are accustomed to regard as city of the species. They 
do not attain to the mature 

normal. stage, and in any case do 

In what manner does the individual not produce eggs. 


transform itself? We must restrict ourselves to the following remark. 
There is reason for believing that the outer conditions which produce 
the seasonal variations principally assert themselves, or at any rate 
make their influence felt, just at the period succeeding the new moult. 
If this holds good, then the seasonal variations, i.e. the faculty of the 


414 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


animal for adapting itself to the variations in outer conditions, are 
dependent on the intensity with which the moults proceed. In this 
the explanation might perhaps be sought as to the phenomenon 
which, of all those connected with seasonal variations, has always 
appeared to me the most puzzling. It is easily understood why the 
organisms in spring, when the rate of sinking rises, transform their 
bodies so that the floating power becomes greater; but in all the 
earlier researches I did not see for a long time how to explain 
why these floating apparatus when once formed are again drawn in 
towards winter. Their formation in spring is necessary, and may well 
be thought of as brought about through selection, but I was unable 
to see any necessity for their being drawn in in autumn. If it were 
possible to show, however, that the body is only transformed during 
and soon after the moults, and that the frequency of the latter is 
dependent on outer conditions—first and foremost on temperature, so 
that they proceed most rapidly and frequently at high and increasing 
temperatures, more slowly and rarely at lower and decreasing—the 
explanation would also be found here of the phenomenon that the 
Cladocera are transformed in spring but in autumn cease transform- 
ing. Thus the return to the common race would not occur because 
the organisms no more “ needed” floating apparatus and therefore 
drew them in, but for the very simple reason that the organisms when 
the moulting processes ceased were practically not able to transform 
themselves. 

The very peculiar fact that the seasonal variations do not proceed 
gradually but by a sudden change, which occurs in all plankton at the 
same period (May, June), when the temperature is at 12-14° C., and 
is completed in the course of two to three weeks, makes us understand 
that the seasonal variations really may be of the greatest significance for 
the plankton organisms. 

2. Local Variation.—We are now able to understand how the 
seasonal variations take place, and how the plankton organisms of the 
fresh water are able, by means of variations in the body form, to follow 
the variations in the buoyancy power of the fresh water. 

The investigations on which my results have been based were not 
carried out in a single lake, but in many, so that I was able not only 
to follow the seasonal variations in many lakes, but also to study the 
local variation of the plankton organisms. 

These studies gave the following, very peculiar, main results. 
Although the seasonal variations, which have everywhere the same 
object, proceed on parallel lines in different localities, considerable 
differences may nevertheless assert themselves both with respect to the 
amount of variation in each locality and with respect to details in the 
manner in which the organism meets the demands for variation in 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS A415 


floating power. I shall here restrict myself to the remark, that there 
are species of which every lake may practically be said to have rs own 
race. ‘These racial characters seem invariable from year to year ; 
this is especially the case with some Daphnids (D. hyalina, Bosmina 
coregont). Thorough investigations have further given the following 
results. 

It has been proved for Rotifers as well as for Cladocera that, how- 


Fic. 60.—Daphnia hyalina. Upper row: summer races from different Danish lakes. 
Lower row: winter races from the same lakes. The summer races differ very much 
from each other ; the winter races are almost of the same appearance. 


ever far the local variation is carried, these races, wherever the research 
has been made, fall back in winter upon one and the same common race, 
which m each species ts invariably the same in all localities investigated 
(fig. 60). On the seasonal variations beginning in spring, the local races 
proceed from this common form. The fact that this common winter 
form has been shown to be the homogeneous element from which all 
summer races proceed and to which all return, is to my mind of no small 
importance. When first I got a clear understanding of this pheno- 


416 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


menon, it struck me as very peculiar. In D. hyalina it was extremely 
striking to see this very same race in the course of only two to three 
weeks (May, June) everywhere changing into slender forms with pointed 
heads, the external appearance of which, moreover, was in every lake 
quite different. But still more remarkable was it to see how all these 
various summer races, when autumn came, slowly dropped their racial 
characters and in winter ended in the same clumsy, round-headed form 
common to all lakes. What means have we now to understand the 
sudden appearance of the very many summer races in spring, and to 
understand the appearance of the common winter race ? 

‘The occurrence of the numerous local races is favoured by the 
frequent monogonic reproduction in plankton organisms (asexual 
formation of auxospores in Diatoms; not constant and regular con- 
jugation, but mainly reproduction by partition in Ceratiwm; con- 
spicuous tendency to acycly in Rotifera and Cladocera). Directions 
of variation once begun can therefore continue undisturbed ; no cross- 
ing from conjugation, and consequent disturbance and interruption in 
the directions of variation commenced, takes place. Resting-stages, 
resting-cysts, resting-eggs, etc., which as a rule are also the means of 
distribution of the species, are lost with the falling out of digonic re- 
production. In this way the races are separated; each locality 
becomes an exclusive world to them; they do not receive any impulses 
from without, and the racial characters can be preserved over great 
areas. 

The main causes of the disappearance of the sexual reproduction 
of the plankton organisms may be sought for in the fact that the pro- 
duction of the resting-stages, and especially their thick, chitinous 
skeletons, made so great claims on the mother-organisms that their 
organisation came into conflict with the demands made by the outer 
conditions ; 7.e., in many localities the resting-stages made the mother- 
organisms too heavy. The result would be then, that the individuals 
forming resting-stages would sink down into deeper layers and _ perish. 
We are therefore able to understand the disappearance of resting- 
stages through selection. 

How are we further able to understand that all the numerous 
summer races fall back into one and the same winter race ? To under- 
stand this phenomenon we must look beyond the boundaries of the 
small country in which these investigations have been carried out, and 
go back to other periods in the life-history of our globe. 

On comparing my own with the investigations of others in arctic 
alpine lakes, I was able to show in 1905, and later in 1906, that seasonal 
variations are restricted to the low-lying lakes of the temperate zone, and 
are absent from the arctic, alpine, and North European lakes in which 
the temperature did not for some time remain over about 12-16" C., 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 7 


and in which great annual fluctuations of temperature did not occur 
(fig.61). The investigations in alpine lakes in Switzerland and Austria 
have given quite the same result, whereas the seasonal variations in the 
lowland lakes of the same countries take place quite as in the Baltic 
lakes. Just as the seasonal variations in our lakes do not take place 
at temperatures above 12-16° C., they are not traceable in lakes 
which never reach this temperature. Where the claims for increased 
floating power are not pressed, those structures by which it is 
augmented will not be formed by the organism. 

It is still more peculiar that not only the seasonal variations but 
also the local variations almost totally disappear under arctic con- 


8 ss) 10 a 12 1 3 4 & 


a ee 
Sr ae 
cate 


Fic, 61.—Daphnia hyalina in Esromsi, Denmark (above), and in Myvatn, Iceland 
(lower). In Esromsé we have a conspicuous seasonal variation, in Myvatn this is 
absent. In Esroms0, Daphnia hyalina overwinters as a free-swimming organism, 
in Myvatn only in ephippia. 


ditions. On an area so small as Zealand, D. hyalina has in almost 
every lake a special, well-defined race. If, on the other hand, we com- 
pare examples from Greenland, Iceland, Sarek in Sweden, and from the 
northern parts of Finland it will be seen that the race characters 
have almost disappeared. Adl these forms may without any difficulty 
be referred to one or two types easily distinguishable from the summer 
forms of southern countries! (fig. 62). Now it has further been 


1 The peculiar phenomenon that the local variation is lost in the high north is 
in full accordance with the fact that the species of Daphnids with which we have 
to do in the arctic region, like the plankton organisms in large lakes, have 
preserved the digonic propagation. Everywhere where investigations have 
been made it has been shown that resting-eggs are formed ; sexual propagation, 
which prevents race-formation, is still retained ; and the resting-stages, the means 


of distribution, are carried by means of rivers and wind from lake to lake. 
a7 


418 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


shown that this very same common race, which inhabits the fresh 
waters of the Arctic and which is nearly related to the race from the 
high alpine lakes in Switzerland, is the very same race which in winter 
mhabits the Baltic fresh-water lakes and from which the numerous local 
summer races proceed (fig. 62, upper row, compared with fig. 60, 
lower row). 

We have now obtained the material from which it is possible to 


Reaepac 
db). 0 6G ¢ 


Fic. 62.—Daphnia hyalina. Upper row: summer forms from lakes which rarely or 
never reach a temperature of about 12-16° C, (Achensee, Brehm; Sarek, Ekman ; 
Thingvallavatn, Wesenberg-Lund; Myvatn, Wesenberg-Lund; Kola, Levander ; 
Mjosen, Huitfeldt-Kaas). Lower row: summer forms from lakes which annually 
reach more than 12-16° ©. (Viborgso, Wesenberg-Lund ; Esromso, Wesenberg- 
Lund; Tjustrupso, Wesenberg-Lund; Vastergotland, Lilljeborg ; Pomerania, 


Seligo; Haldsd, Wesenberg-Lund). The local variation is very inconspicuous in 
the cold lakes, but very prominent in the warm lakes. 


understand why all the local summer races are in our lakes condensed 
into one single race in the winter time. 


INFLUENCE OF THE Ick AGE ON THE FRESH-WATER PLANKTON 


During the tundra period the northern part of Central Europe 
was covered with innumerable lakes and pools which remained after 


The colonies of the single lake thus escape isolation, and race-formation cannot 
occur. The main cause why a species is able as plankton organism only to form 
its resting-stage in the Arctic is probably that the arctic lakes have not the high 
summer temperatures. Thus, also, the rate of sinking is never so great in the 
northern lakes, and the mother-animals are therefore able to form and carry 
the resting-stages, which undoubtedly increase the weight of the animals. 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 419 


the ice had retired. All these fresh waters have probably been 
populated by the same, at all seasons almost invariable, common races 
which even nowadays predominate in those parts of the globe where 
an Ice Age still prevails, or are close to the boundaries of the ice. 
As the temperature rose the lakes became differentiated, and lake- 
types with different biological conditions came into existence; the 
race primarily common to all lakes was split up into various small 
races. Through selection, those mother-animals which produced 
resting-eggs disappeared ; the loss of resting-stages was followed by 
isolation of the colonies and fixation of the races. The result was a 
very distinct local variation. With the improvement in the climatic 
conditions the necessity for increased powers of floating was modified 
in proportion as the specific gravity and viscosity changed. As the 
temperature rose and the bearing power of the fresh water in the 
summer diminished, the plankton organisms had only one of two 
things to do: either to accommodate themselves to the claims for 
increased floating power, or perish. By increasing and developing 
such processes as counteracted the increasing rate of sinking, the 
seasonal variations arose. The deeper basis of the causal connection 
between the variations in the plankton organisms and those in the 
bearmg power of fresh water is therefore to be sought for in the 
amelioration of the climatic conditions which began after the Glacial 
Age, the consequent higher temperature of the water, and at the 
same time the continually increasing rate of sinking. As a concomi- 
tant of the amelioration of the conditions may also be emphasised 
better nourishment. My opinion is partly based on the fact that all 
seasonal and local variation is absent, or at any rate is not con- 
spicuous, in the arctic region, partly on the fact that all southern 
local races fall back upon the same winter race, which of all races is 
that which is nearest related to the present arctic race of the species 
concerned. This winter race is therefore to be regarded as a reminis- 
cence preserved from periods remote in the development of our races of 
the present day. 

Just as in the course of a year we see those modifications brought 
about which have been developed in the course of the thousands of 
years which separate us from the remote periods when our waters were 
inhabited only by the poorly equipped arctic races of the present day, 
so we can probably observe quite the same development when we 
study, lake by lake, locality by locality, the conditions in a country 
which reaches the temperate zone in the south and the region of 
eternal snow in the north. 

According to this view, the local variations of the plankton 
organisms may be said to be arranged in series of forms (Formenrethen, 
Sarasin, Plate, Neumayer, etc.). The causes of the origin of these 


420 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


series of forms are different. With regard to the plankton organisms, I 
believe that they are connected with the more varied and transitory 
changes in the surroundings caused by the melting of the ice and the 
subsequent improvement in the climatic conditions after the Ice Age. 
As all the changes in the shape of the plankton organisms tend to 
reduce the rate of sinking, all being mutually connected and _ parallel 
with the rising temperature and the decreasing viscosity, vertically 
through time as well as horizontally from north to south, I conclude 
that for the plankton organisms it is a conditio sine qua non to follow 
the variations in the supporting power of the fresh water, which again 
are dependent upon temperature and concentration. As we now 
further know that the temperature, though with fluctuations, has 
risen from the Glacial Age to the present day, I would also con- 
clude that the rising temperature subsequent to the improvement in 
climate after the Glacial Age was the direct external stimulant 
responsible for the occurrence of these series of forms. 

As the difference between summer and winter temperatures and 
the consequent yearly variation in the supporting power of the water 
continually increased over more extensive areas, the species were con- 
stantly forced nearer to the limits of their range of variation on 
endeavouring to adapt themselves to the decreasing supporting power. 
The sexual periods in the pelagic colonies of the large lakes were at 
the same time more and more on the decline, and consequently local 


races arose. Through seasonal variations these races adapted them-. 


selves to the buoyancy conditions of the locality, and through selection 
the single links during wanderings arranged themselves in series of 
forms from north to south. 

I have long held the view that the way in which variations in the 
outer conditions contribute to the occurrence of morphological series 
of variations is, that a biological separation has preceded the morpho- 
logical division. Behind the morphological variations are the biological; 
both are but rarely printed on paper or preserved in museums, but he 
who lives much in nature has them before his eyes every day. Outer 
conditions first influence the mode of life of the organisms; the 
modifications in the latter through increased or decreased use of 
certain functions or structural characters then cause those differences 
to appear by means of which the different stages in the morphological 
chains can be distinguished. ‘The division of the species brought 
about by variations in outer conditions often remains in the biological 
stage. Outer conditions separate a species into a number of groups 
of individuals differing biologically, but not to be distinguished 
morphologically. Examples of this must be sought for at present 
mainly among the lowest organisms, yeast and bacteria; but there 1s 
no doubt that even if the number of such biological species known 


Pa 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 42] 


within the higher many-celled organisms is but small, the reason lies 
far more in the great difficulty of these researches than that such cases 
are rare. Examples are known, however, of insects which, transferred 
from Europe to America, completely change their habits; viz. the 
bean beetle in Europe (Haltica rufipes), which in America attacks 
fruit-trees ; Anthrenus scrophularix, which in Europe feeds on blossom- 
ing fruit-trees, but in America lives in houses and causes great 
damage to carpets and furniture. Further species occur, ¢.g., among 
gall-flies, morphologically not to be distinguished, but biologically 
very different, and producing galls of great diversity in appearance 
(Cynips caput-meduse, C. calicis). Also, the attacks of the Kea upon 
the New Zealand sheep may be mentioned. 

From these biologically separated groups of individuals the 
morphological form series may arise, the specific biological functions 
produced by external circumstances causing variation in outer shape. 
The reason why such cases are so rare is the great difficulty of 
following the development or of finding any fixed stages in the chains 
of forms which might show the development. As examples may be 
noted the biological division of species of parasitic insects with regard 
to the different animals on which they live and their consequent 
variation in colour (Sajé, 1904, p. 372); the nut-cracker (Caryo- 
catactes nucifraga), which in Siberia lives on the seeds in the cones of 
the Siberian cedars, in Kurope mainly on nuts, acorns, ete. ; i Siberia 
its beak is longer and narrower, in Europe stronger (Weismann, 1902, 
p. 378); here we possibly have to deal with a horizontal series of 
forms derived from a morphological series, which again has had its 
starting-point in biologically separated groups. 

It hardly requires to be pointed out that the single links in a chain 
of forms are naturally not arranged either horizontally (through space) 
or vertically (through time) with such great regularity that the forms 
with the best buoyancy apparatus are invariably found farther south 
or in higher earth-strata than those with less developed apparatus. 
During the melting period of the ice there have been times when the 
temperature fell after rising; and in many tracts of land where the 
climatic conditions might ordinarily be considered as temperate, 
localities occur with temperatures many degrees lower than the normal 
for the latitude of those parts. Far to the north, on the other hand, 
there are places, for example on the southern faces of mountains, where 
the temperatures are much higher than the normal for the region 
(G. Andersson, 1902, p. 1; 1906, p. 45). At such periods and localities 
there will naturally be some irregularities in the chain of forms. At 
times and places, possibly with higher temperatures, forms will appear 
with a greater development of the apparatus for floating than those in 
recent geological strata and farther south, just as the reverse may 


422 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


also occur. The evidence of such breaks in a chain of forms is not in 
the least in opposition to the view set forth here regarding the old 
collective species as chains of forms. 

Though I believe, as above stated, that these series of forms 
originate in the extreme north, this does not at all mean that the 
arctic forms with which the series begin owe their origin to the 
Glacial Age; of this nothing is decidedly known, and I consider this 
opinion quite erroneous. 

In recent years different scientists have tried to explain many 
facts connected with remarkable distribution or peculiarities relating 
to the biology of the plankton organisms as caused by the Ice Age. 
Some authors have advanced the idea that the whole fresh-water 
plankton should be regarded as a society which has immigrated into 
the fresh-water lakes from the Arctic Sea during the Ice Age. In my 
opinion, this idea is quite erroneous. The home of the fresh-water 
plankton must mainly be sought for m the littoral and bottom regions 
of the lakes, and most of the fresh-water plankton organisms may be 
designated as bottom and littoral forms which have adapted them- 
selves more or less to pelagic life and made themselves independent of 
bottom and bank, where the great majority still pass a shorter or 
longer period of their lives. Reasons for this view I have set down in 
chap. xii. of my Plankton Investigations. With regard to the 
influence of the Glacial Age on the fresh-water plankton I share the 
view that we have been too hasty in making the Glacial Age 
responsible for the occurrence of forms at localities outside the true 
centre of distribution of the species, and for remarkable biological 
facts relating to the biology of the plankton organisms. Without 
going into details, I shall here merely summarise my opinions as 
follows. In the hfe-history of the fresh-water plankton the Glacial 
Age has only been a phase of transient importance: it has influenced 
the history of this community as well as of all other communities, but 
less than most. ‘The individuals of the species which lived within the 
territories overtaken during the Glacial Period have suffered from this, 
but not the other individuals. This period lasted long enough to leave 
its mark on some characteristics of the species influenced by it. It 
affected their nutrition, their reproduction, and their shape. At the 
end of the Glacial Period races of these very old species, even then 
distributed over the whole earth, occurred in the northern part of the 
temperate zone, and owing to the Glacial Period they had become 
adapted to arctic or subarctic climatic conditions. The special 
characters impressed upon them by the Ice Period still persist, as is 
shown by the present races returning in winter upon the old races 
of this period (the present arctic races) and by their predilection for 
low temperatures. 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 423 


The new conditions which the temperate zone after the end of the 
Glacial Age offered its organisms have, on the other hand, also acted 
long enough to leave their mark on structure and mode of life. Such 
marks are the variation, local as well as seasonal, both of which are 
nothing but the efforts of the organisms to adapt themselves to the 
development of more favourable biological conditions consequent 
upon the milder climatic conditions. The differentiation in the 
outer conditions involved differentiation in structure. 

How have these extensvve researches on the variation m the Northern 
and Central European fresh-water plankton influenced our conception 
of the species? We must in this paper be content to deal mainly 
with the Cladocera and leave the remainder to the future. 

I have here come to the point which is the goal of so many other 
comprehensive studies. I confess openly that I have held conflicting 
views at different times, but I believe that the result which I have 
arrived at lately is for me permanent. However honest and sincere 
one’s researches may be, and however much one tries to be impartial, 
in such domains one is, in my opinion, only able to see what one is 
“born” to see, z.e. the combination of claims and conditions which 
is the reflection of one’s self. I consider it highly probable that if 
other observers with other natural gifts had procured the material 
shown here and had now to say the final word, they would express it 
differently from what I should. Man cannot, on the whole, get 
beyond what he thinks is the nearest truth. 

According to my view, the researches clearly show the almost 
incredible elasticity of the plankton organisms and their adaptability 
to variations in outer conditions. For many extremely different 
organisms the research has more or less distinctly shown that a 
transformation takes place in the shape of the organisms, which is 
uniform in its final results and everywhere parallel with certain fixed 
local and seasonal variations in outer conditions. This harmony 
between the variations in outer conditions and those in the shape of the 
plankton organisms is, #7 my opinion, so conspicuous that I do not doubt 
but that the latter are the outcome of the former. It seems to me 
that but few researches have been able to display so clearly the 
influence of outer conditions on the organisms; but even with 
regard to this point the mere subjective view cannot, as above noted, 
be excluded. According to my opinion, the salient point is that the 
research has proved the causal connection between the shape or form 
of the plankton organisms and certain regular variations in outer 
conditions. Which of the two really “strikes the first blow” in the 
mutual play between organism and outer conditions, whether the 
organism is forced or permits itself to be forced, is in my opinion a 
contest of words, and provisionally may be left alone. Through this 


424 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


research I believe I have had my eyes opened to the influence which 
outer conditions may directly have on the transformation of the 
organism; a somewhat secondary part is indeed also played by 
selection. 

We may return now to the question—How are we to consider all 
these single links in the chains of forms, all these local variations ? 
Do they belong to one and the same species, or may they simply be 
regarded as ‘ Standortsmodificationen” which, as soon as the in- 
dividuals are taken back to the localities where they originally lived, 
return to the original form of the local race from which they sprung ? 
In other words, are they comparable with the form series of Celebes 
snails described by the brothers Sarassin, or have we to do with 
chains of forms of geographically separated species fixed by inherit- 
ance, corresponding to those demonstrated by Wettstein in Euphrasia 
(1896) and Gentiana (1896, p. 307; 1900, p. 305), and after him by 
Sterneck in Alectorolophus (1901, p. 1)? 

On this matter we can at present form no definite judgment. 
It is for the rest obvious that researches on the formation of species 
in plankton organisms, as they penetrate more deeply into diverse 
domains, will yield quite different results. What is wanted here is 
experiment: until we have such before us each one may retain his 
own subjective opinion. 

As for me, I believe that a great part of the local variations are to 
be regarded as in fact constant forms (petits espéeces of the botanist), 
which may, however, be connected with forms not constant, but which 
under other conditions either return to or develop into one another. I 
therefore bring all the forms under single large collective species : 
D. longispina, B. coregoni, etc. If it should be objected that this 
standpoint is not quite consistent, I would answer that it is the 
nearest approach to nature, where all is in a fluctuating condition, in 
constant process of development. ‘The sharp boundaries are man’s 
work: any greater precision in description than the subject permits 
oversteps the aim, and should, in my opinion, be avoided. ‘This in- 
vestigation has therefore tended more to delete the boundaries between 
forms than to make them more fixed. 


Summary.—We have now endeavoured to give a brief review of 
the investigations of recent years on the variation of plankton 
organisms. ‘That this variation is advantageous for the plankton 
organisms, and one of the means by which the cosmopolitanism of 
the fresh-water community is rendered possible, is in my opinion very 
probable. 

Owing to their form-changing power, the organisms are able to 
adapt themselves to the variations in the rate of sinking, and conse- 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 425 


quently to shorten the resting- -periods more than nor mally. This causes, 
as a rule, an increase in the number of individuals in the locality con- 
cerned, and is thus favourable to the species. It may be supposed that 
the supporting power of fresh water, as mentioned above, is different 
in different latitudes, and the possibility is not excluded that it 
diminishes from north to south. I am inclined to believe this, because 
the variability of the species, as mentioned above, is not equally great 
in the arctic and high alpine lakes and is shght in the North Euro- 
pean. On the other hand, it is greatest in the Baltic lakes, 2.e. the 
variability of the species is smallest where the variations in the 
supporting power are smallest, and greatest where these are greatest. 
All these variations tend to augment the cross-section resistance, and 
thus to diminish the rate of sinking of the organisms. We may there- 
fore say that the cross-section resistance of the organisms increases 
from north to south. 

Further, it has been shown with regard to many of the most well- 
marked plankton organisms, that a decrease in volume takes place in 
the direction from north to south ; it therefore seems as if the organ- 
isms also undergo a relative increase in superficial area consequent 
upon a decrease in volume. Both phenomena agree very well with the 
fact that both the increase in cross-section resistance and the increase 
in superficial area owing to diminution in volume are in each locality 
most prominent in summer. Local as well as seasonal variations tend 
mainly to increase the form-resistance on the rise of temperature, viz. 
on the rate of sinking probably on the whole increasing. 

In order to disprove or confirm these views, knowledge of the 
appearance and mode of life of the plankton in tropical fresh-water 
lakes is necessary. We know nothing of the reproduction there, nor 
of the variations, either local or seasonal. The little to be gathered 
from the literature seems to suggest that adaptations to the extremely 
high summer temperatures, in so far as they come under the concep- 
tion of change in shape, consist less in an increase of the cross-section 
resistance through extensive formation of floating apparatus, and more 
in an increase of the superficial area due to a decrease in volume. 
With this increase in superficial area there is in the tropical fresh- 
water plankton an apparently distinct tendency towards making the 
surface rough by means of numerous closely placed roughnesses, 
reticulations, etc. It is a remarkable fact that no organism has yet 
been observed in tropical fresh-water lakes which through extensive 
formation of floating apparatus is specially adapted to water with 
high temperatures and slight supporting powers: the Hyalodaphniz 
in Victoria Nyanza seem quite similar to our own. The most con- 
spicuous structure I know of is the very large mucrones in Bosminee 


from the river Amazon (Stingelin, 1904c, Tab. 20, f. 6). 


426 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


I am inclined to believe that the plankton organisms, under the 
continually increasing demands of outer conditions upon them from 
north to south to diminish the rate of sinking, have down to a certain 
zone, which may perhaps be placed in the Mediterranean area, mainly 
responded to these demands by an increase in the cross-section resist- 
ance. As the species during this process of adaptation approached 
too near to their limits of variation and the demands for diminishing 
the rate of sinking still continued, they took to the method of increase 
in superficial area through decrease in volume; in this way possibly 
some racial characters disappeared. If this should prove correct, 
an interesting difference appears between the tropical fresh-water 
plankton and the tropical marine plankton, which is characterised 
by its immense formation of spines, processes, etc. The former has 
met the demand for diminishing the rate of sinking by increase in 
superficial area through decrease in volume; the latter, by an increase 
in cross-section resistance by means of an extensive formation of spines, 
processes, skin-folds, gelatinous membranes, etc. 

In all structures tending to increase the cross-section resistance, 
2.e. the temporal variations, I am inclined to see the means by which 
the organisms try to answer the annual variations in the supporting 
power of the fresh water in a given locality, and in the increase in 
superticial area from diminution of volume the means by which the 
organisms during the distribution in the direction from north to south 
try to counteract the increasing rate of sinking in the same direction. 

It would be in full accordance with this theory if further investi- 
gations should prove, on the one hand, that the seasonal variations 
are only small in the tropics, because there, as well as in the arctic 
regions, the annual range of temperature in the plankton region of 
larger lakes is relatively shght; and, on the other hand, that the 
superficial area, through diminution of volume and rich development 
of asperities, is greatest, because the supporting power of fresh water, 
though rather constant throughout the whole year, is less than in any 
other part of the globe. 

These suppositions are only put forward as working theories for 
future explorers of the tropical fresh-water lakes. 


PART III.—MAIN PROBLEMS OF FUTURE LIMNOLOGICAL 
INVESTIGATIONS 


Sir John Murray has further done me the honour to ask me to indi- 
cate here what kind of work I consider most needed at present in the 
science of limnology. I wish to call special attention to two points. 

As already mentioned, we lack almost all knowledge of the tropical 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 427 


lakes. No thorough investigations have been carried out with regard 
to their temperatures, and the other physical and chemical condi- 
tions are quite unknown. With regard to the life of the littoral 
flora and fauna we have only cursory and rather casual descriptions 
and observations; the abyssal fauna we only know for some of the 
large African lakes, and as regards the plankton our knowledge is 
very unsatisfactory (Apstein, Lake Colombo, 1907, p. 201). I am of 
opinion that it is in the tropical lakes that we shall find the proofs of 
the correctness of many of the above-named theories. Shall we find 
seasonal variations in the plankton organisms of the tropical lakes ? 
Is the local variation very conspicuous? Is the average size of the 
different plankton organisms smaller than in the temperate lakes ? Is 
_the propagation chiefly digonic or monogonic? What part is played 
by the resting-stages in the life of the species? What is the period- 
icity of the plankton organisms? Do they make vertical wanderings ? 
Is the relation of the tropical fresh-water plankton to that of the 
ocean closer than that between the lake plankton and oceanic plankton 
of the temperate zone? Is v. Martens’ supposition, ‘ Die Aehnlich- 
keit der gesammten Siisswasserfauna mit der gesammten Meerfauna 
nimmt vom Pol gegen den Aequator zu,” indisputable and of the 
same validity for all associations in the fresh-water lakes ? 

In my opinion, a thorough exploration of one of the great tropical 
lakes 2s one of the most desirable oljects for the promotion of limnology. 
Attention is drawn involuntarily to the great African lakes, where 
Moore’s investigations have given such valuable scientific results, and 
where the German investigations and those of the Messrs West have in 
so high a degree increased our knowledge of the fresh-water flora. 
That this investigation will be both very expensive and, owing to the 
climatic conditions, probably much more dangerous than many oceanic 
and polar explorations is unfortunately bevond doubt. 

When preparing my work on the plankton for the press I looked 
over the whole literature relating to fresh-water plankton, and was often 
astonished at the very great differences in the interpretation of the 
biology even of the most common plankton organisms. From the 
foregoing we have seen that the plankton, both with regard to their 
morphology and their biology, follow different lines in different lati- 
tudes. ‘The great differences in the interpretation of the biology and 
morphology by different investigators are therefore quite natural. 
What we in planktology as well as in every other part of limnology 
most of all need is simultaneous, coherent investigations in different 
latitudes from north to south. We need such investigations with 
regard to temperature. ‘This has for a long time been clear to 
limnologists (John Murray, Forel, Pettersson, 1902); and a first paper 
on simultaneous temperature observations in Lakes Enare, Mjésen, 


428 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 
Wetter, Ladoga, Loch Katrine, Lake of Geneva, has been published ; 


still, temperature observations in the tropical lakes are wanting, and 
those for the arctic lakes are unsatisfactory. The investigations made 
are, as a first attempt, of great interest, but they by no means exclude 
the necessity for further observations. If such simultaneous tempera- 
ture investigations could be combined with limnographical and chemical 
researches at different latitudes, we should in a couple of years be able 
to get wide fundamental views which all researches in these vast fields 
of labour at this moment lack. 

In the foregoing we have dealt with the cosmopolitanism of the 
fresh-water organisms, especially that of the plankton. We can point 
out many species of plankton organisms which are just as much at 
home in the dark, ice-cold arctic lakes as in the hot tropical lakes ; 
e.g., amongst Rotifers we know about ten species, amongst Crustacea 
Daphnia hyalina, species of Bosmina, among Diatoms the Melosiras. 
It is just with regard to these species that great differences in the 
views of their morphology and biology prevail. What is wanted 
here is regular fortnightly investigations carried out simultaneously 
in different latitudes. From these we should get a clearer understand- 
ing of the above-mentioned different uses of digonic and monogonie re- 
production in different latitudes; we should get a much more thorough 
knowledge of the form-series of the plankton organisms, and un- 
doubtedly learn many more than those we now know (Diatoms, 
Desmids, Calanidze, Rotifera) ; from these investigations much material 
for the great questions with regard to the origin of species might be 
gained, 

As is well known, the different North and Central European 
States have joined in the great scientific co-operation, the interna- 
tional exploration of the sea. A corresponding international limno- 
logical exploration needs neither such great apparatus nor the 
enormous sums which the exploration of the sea demands. All that 
is necessary is to have for a period of one or two years a few scientifi- 
cally educated men placed at six or seven localities arranged in almost 
the same longitude from the north to the equator. We should use 
one or two places of observation in the arctic regions (Greenland and 
Lake Enare), in Scotland, and in the great Swedish lakes, in the Baltic 
lakes, in a high alpine lake, in the Lake of Geneva, and in the great 
African lakes. If a similar series of observations could be carried out 
in America, and if a station could be founded on the Baikal Lake, 
these would be of great use. ‘To carry out this plan, neither great 
congresses nor many committee members or great sums granted by 
Governments are necessary, but only a very few scientists agreeing in 
the main points and with relatively modest funds, which in most cases 
will not exceed what scientific societies or bodies interested in this kind 


eas 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS A429 


of exploration at present expend. It must be remembered that such 
observations in Scotland, in the great Swedish lakes, in the Baltic 
lakes, and in the Lake of Geneva, as well as in many of the American 
lakes, may be connected with investigations already being carried out, 
and by investigators who at these places have already studied the 
very same phenomena. In all these localities the investigations will 
be relatively cheap: neither money nor the right men would be 
difficult to get. The great difficulties arise only in the case of the 
arctic and tropical lakes, and, as far as I can see, especially the 
latter. Here it is probably necessary to restrict the demands, and 
to remember that it is not altogether necessary that the scientists 
should live during the whole year at the locality; they might leave 
the plankton collecting and temperature observations to men who 
during the stay had been trained for that purpose. The material 
collected should be given into the hands of a committee, who should 
determine its further elaboration. Sooner or later this plan will 
undoubtedly be carried out. Whether the present is the right 
moment, I do not know; but I do not see why it should not be. 

Whilst pointing out what, in my opinion, is most needed to 
promote limnology, I wish at the same time to indicate briefly the 
lines which, in the present position of the science, may be regarded as 
already worked out. When the plaukton investigations began, very 
many small papers relating to the pelagic fauna or flora of fresh water 
appeared. Many of these papers were the result of a single excursion, 
and the plants and animals were cursorily determined. Papers of this 
kind are now indeed rare, but they have by no means quite disappeared. 
It must be strongly emphasised that all papers of this kind, if they 
are only the result of a single excursion and the collection only 
contains common forms, are of exceedingly little scientific use. This 
holds good especially for the material obtained from the temperate 
zone. For example, no scientist who has made an excursion in a 
stretch of woodland thinks of communicating to the scientific world 
that he has found violets and wild flowers; but just as unnecessary 
is it to communicate that one of the thousands of Baltic lakes is 
populated with D. hyalina, Polyarthra platyptera, and other cosmo- 
politan species. Publications of this kind should no longer be printed 
in scientific periodicals. 

During the last ten years we have obtained from different 
countries a number of lake descriptions; they belong almost all to 
the temperate zone, principally to the Baltic or Swiss lakes. We 
find in these papers a pot-pourri of very many different branches of 
natural science: physics, chemistry, geology, meteorology, zoology, 
botany, all treated and finished off in one or two hundred pages. 
The starting-point for these publications is that a lake is a sharply 


430 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


limited piece of nature with its own laws to which the organisms 
are compelled to accommodate their organisation. The great model 
is Forel’s excellent monograph, Le Léman. All these papers deal 
with the regular annual variation in temperature, the transparency 
of the water, a little in regard to environment, a list of organisms— 
never complete and only thoroughly carried out for those groups 
which most interested the author. In the biological parts we find 
casual remarks, but really the only remarks of scientific value. All the 
papers finish with a chapter giving the results of the investigations, 
the peculiarities of the physico-chemical conditions combined with 
the characteristics of the organic life, intended to give us a clear 
understanding of this one lake as different from other lakes. These 
chapters are almost identical in all the papers. 

In my opinion, the whole of the above tendency in limnology has 
perhaps been correct and useful during its infancy; now, I think it 
must be regarded as a stage in evolution which we have outgrown. 
If a lake has to be thoroughly explored, it is of course necessary 
to have a preliminary idea of the lake, its physico-chemical conditions, 
and its biology, but only rarely is it necessary to publish this 
material. It is just such preliminary explorations that the above 
papers represent, and beyond them the investigations of the lake 
concerned only seldom extend. 

When this preliminary exploration has been done, the more 
thoroughly scientific work should begin. We will, for example, 
suppose that the littoral region of the lake is to be explored. If so, 
there is no sense in studying all the organisms simultaneously. The 
expert linnologist will quickly find out some few species which 
ought specially to be investigated; from the observations on the 
morphology, biology, etc., of these, carried out every fortnight for 
a year, questions will arise which can only be answered through 
investigations of the surrounding medium. ‘This study will there- 
fore involve others, and will naturally lead to the study of the whole 
littoral region, its organisms and conditions of life. 

At present all such studies can in a very high degree be furthered 
by means of fresh-water biological stations. If we remember all 
the excellent investigations on the biology of fresh-water organisms 
(Daphnids, Apus, Trematodes, Cestodes, water-insects, Volvox, many 
phanerogams) which have been carried out for a long time, long 
before any one had even the slightest idea of what a biological 
laboratory was, and further that such laboratories have existed for 
about twenty years, we might really expect that, under the much 
better conditions for the study of the fresh-water organisms, knowledge 
of their biology might have been more advanced in these last twenty 


years. This, however, 1s by no means the case. The laboratories have . 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 431 


scarcely increased our knowledge with regard to the life of higher 
plants, water-insects, and almost the whole organic life of the littoral 
zone. Even in regard to the plankton it is strange to note how few 
really new facts with regard to the individual plankton, animal or plant, 
the biological laboratories have brought to light. These principally 
deal with the biology of plankton diatoms and plankton Myxophycee. 
The main reason is, that many of the laboratories are bound by 
obligations to the fishery, which in my opinion neither promotes the 
fishery nor the lmnology; but also, partly, that the studies as 
mentioned above have been carried out on far too wide a base. It 
must be admitted that this method, when the biological stations 
began their work, was tempting and perhaps also necessary. Now- 
adays, it must be demanded from the laboratories, that regular study 
of the single organism on the spot where et hves and where tt grows 
is in future one of thew chief tasks. Situated in nature itself, the 
laboratories have the great advantage of never wanting material, as 
also that the organisms can be studied at the very place to which 
they primarily belong. It is in nature itself that the investigations 
of the fresh-water laboratories should be carried out, and_ the 
incestigators must learn to transfer the experimental work and the 
biological observations from the aquaria to nature itself. By means 
of marked animals and plants, studied at regular short intervals the 
whole year round, this is very well possible. In my opinion, it is 
from such studies that these laboratories will be able to increase our 
knowledge of the biology of the fresh-water fauna and flora in a 
very high degree. Studies of this kind have hitherto been carried 
on only with regard to the plankton—in general for the whole 
plankton community at once, and only very rarely for a single 
plankton organism. 

When similar investigations on the same or other organisms are 
carried on in other latitudes, we will gradually get the biology of the 
species elucidated, not only at the different seasons of the year, but 
also at the different localities. Then, by and by, the material will be 
brought together on the basis of which we shall be able to build up 
what in the infancy of the science of limnology could of course only 
vainly be attempted. 

If the investigations are carried out as now sketched, it will be 
understood that a very great deal of the time of the investigators will 
be spent on excursions. From the explorations in nature, questions 
arise which can only be solved either by histological or by detailed 
anatomical investigations, or, if they belong to the vast field of 
heredity, by cultivation and experiment carried on for a long time 
under special conditions. For all these studies our investigators will 
hardly find sufficient time; nor do they in reality belong to the main 


432 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


work of the fresh-water laboratories. Hitherto they have always 
been accomplished in the anatomical and physiological institutes in 
the University cities, and there I think they ought to remain. What 
is needed is a much more thorough co-operation between the fresh- 
water laboratories and the University institutions. This co-operation 
is lacking at this moment, partly because the fresh-water laboratories 
have misunderstood their main tasks and tried to study as if they 
themselves were University institutes, which they usually are unable 
to do, and which originally was by no means their aim. I am 
also inclined to think that the University institutes are a little 
contemptuous of the studies carried on by the laboratories in 
nature. If this originates from the common impression of the 
investigations hitherto, this is intelligible; if it originates from the 
supposition that the work accomplished by these laboratories is only 
to be regarded as pioneer work, thus implying inferiority in its scientific 
aspect as compared with all contributions to the solution of the 
great problems of life made by the University institutes, this is quite 
a misunderstanding. In our days only very few can carry out an 
investigation in all branches which lead to a solution of the question 
concerned : he who digs the gold out of the earth is not he who coins 
it, but the gold-digger is not on that account made the subject of 
reproach. 

Before the new step above outlined in the development of the 
fresh-water laboratories can be accomplished, some time will certainly 
elapse. The laboratories themselves must educate the scientists who 
are able to carry out these studies. University education, as 1t now 
is, usually diverts the student from living nature: the young naturalists 
produced by the Universities have a much more intimate knowledge 
of nature preserved in alcohol and formalin. When they leave the 
Universities, stained and embedded nature is much more likely to 
occupy their attention and arouse the spirit of inquiry than living 
nature. It is the study of the living organisms in nature itself 
which must be regarded as an independent phase in nature study. 
In my opinion, it is just this study we need, and the fresh-water and 
marine laboratories should make it their first aim to bring it into 
existence. 


LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 433 


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1898. KnautHE, k.—Der Kreislauf der Gase in unseren Gewassern, Biolog. Centralbi., 
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1899. —— Beobachtungen iiber den Gasgehalt der Gewiasser im Winter, zbid., XIX. 
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1905. KotKwitz, R.—Die Beurteilung der Talsperwasser vom biologischen Standpunkt, 
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1906. 


Die biologische Selbstreinigung der natiirlichen Gewisser und Mykologie und 
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1904. Krocu, A.—On the tension of carbonic acid in natural waters, and especially 
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1898. Krusrz, C.—Vegetationen i Egedesminde Skergaard, bid., XIV. 348. 


1898. Lorenz v. LipurnaAv, J.—Der Hallstitter See: eine limnologische Studie, Mitth. 
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1903. MapsEn, V.—Om den glaciale, isdeemmede S¢ ved Stenstrup paa Fyen, Danmarks 
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1904. Macnin, A.—Les lacs du Jura, No. 4: monographies botaniques de 74 lacs 
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1904 (2) a Marsson, M., LInDAU, G., SCHIEMENS, P., ELSNER, M., PROSKAUER, B., und 
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1906. Monvi1, R.—Recherches sur quelques lacs du massif du Ruitor, Annales de Biologie 

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1907. Muntrun, H.—Den skanska issjofragans innebord, Sverriges geolog. Undersikining, 
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1901a. 


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436 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


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1906. 


Hinteilung und Benennung der Schlammablagerungen, Monatsber. d. Deut. 
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LIMNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 437 


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1906. eee ee A.—Planaria alpina auf Riigen und die Eiszeit, Geograph. Gesell- 
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1893. Tryspom, F.—Ringsjoni Malmohus Liin, Meddel, fran Kongl. Landtbruksstyrelsen, 


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1892, ULE, W.—Die Bestimmung der Wasserfarbe in den Seen, Deen Mitt., 
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1898. ——- Beitrag zur physikalischen Erforschung der baltischen Seen, Porschungen 
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1891. WAHNSCHAFFE, F.—Die Ursachen der Oberfuichengestaltung der Norddeutschen 
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438 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


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1908. —— Plankton Investigations of the Danish Lakes, Copenhagen, I.-II. 


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1896. WETTSTEIN, R. v.--Monographie der Gattung Fuphrasia, Arbeiten aus d. botan. 
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1902. ZAcHARIAS, O.—-Uber die. Ergriinung der Gewasser durch die massenhafte 
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1908. 


Uber Griin-, Gelb- und Rotfarbung der Gewasser durch die Anwesenheit 
mikroskopischer Organismen, Forschungsber. Plon, X. 296. 


1904a@. ZEDERBAUER, E.—Ceratium hirundinella in den Osterreichischen Alpenseen, 
Oesterreich. botan, Zeitschr., No. 4-5, 1 (sep.). 

1904+. ——Geschlechtliche und ungeschlechtliche Fortpflanzung von Ceratiwn hirundin- 
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1900. ZscHoxKE, F',—Die Tierwelt der Hochgebirgseen, Denkschr. d. Schweiz. naturf. 
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FRESH-WATER BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY 
OF THE UNIVERSITY, COPENHAGEN, 
18th September 1909. 


iby SCOMTIisSh WAKES IN RELA PION 
TO THE GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 
OF THE COUNTRY 


By B. N. PEACH, LL.D., F.R.S., anp J. HORNE, LL.D., F.R.S. 


Brrorr discussing the question of the probable origin of the rock-basins 
in Scotland, a brief account will be given of the geological structure 
of the country and of the development of its topographical features 
prior to the Ice Age. Thereafter the successive stages in the glacia- 
tion of the region will be described and their relation to the dis- 
tribution of Scottish lakes will be discussed. 


GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF SCOTLAND 
LEWISIAN GNEISS 


In the North-West Highlands the oldest rocks are typically 
developed. Consisting of Lewisian gneisses and schists, they form a 
belt along the western seaboard of Sutherland and Ross from Cape 
Wrath to Loch Torridon, and appear in Rona, the northern part of 
Raasay, Coll, Tiree, and the Outer Hebrides. The detailed examina- 
tion of the region between Cape Wrath and the island of Raasay by 
the Geological Survey points to the conclusion that the Lewisian 
Gneiss may be resolved into (1) a fundamental complex, composed 
mainly of gneisses that have affinities with plutonic igneous products, 
and to a limited extent of crystalline schists which may be regarded 
as of sedimentary origin; (2) a great series of igneous rocks intrusive 
in the Fundamental Complex in the form of dykes and sills. 

The rock groups of the Fundamental Complex that have affinities 
with plutonic igneous products have a more or less definite geographi- 
cal distribution; the first district extending from Cape Wrath to 
Loch Laxford, the second from near Scourie to beyond Lochinver, 
and the third from Gruinard Bay to the island of Raasay. In the 


central area (Scourie to Lochinver) pyroxene gneisses and _ ultrabasic 
439 


440 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


rocks are specially developed, while granular hornblende rocks and 
biotite gneisses are characteristic of the northern and southern tracts. 
Sometimes these rocks appear like ordinary eruptive masses, some- 
times with crude mineral banding, and yet again with well-defined 
foliation. 

The schists of sedimentary origin have a limited development 
north of Loch Maree and near Gairloch. The prominent members of 
the series are quartz-schists, mica-schists, graphitic-schists, limestones, 
and dolomites, with tremolite, garnet, and epidote. They are there 
associated with a massive sill of epidiorite and hornblende-schist. 

After the development of the early mineral banding of the 
gneisses, the Fundamental Complex was pierced by a remarkable series 
of igneous intrusions in the form of dykes and sills; comprising 
ultrabasic rocks (peridotite), basic rocks (dolerite and epidiorite), and 
acid rocks (granite and pegmatite). The evidence in the field points 
to the conclusion that the ultrabasic rocks cut the basic, and that the 
granite dykes and sills were intruded into the gneisses after the 
eruption of the basic dykes. 

After the intrusion of these various igneous materials, the whole 
region was subjected to terrestrial stresses which affected the gneisses 
of the Fundamental Complex and the dykes which traverse them. 
These lines of movement traverse the Lewisian plateau in various 
directions, producing planes of disruption, molecular rearrangement 
of the minerals, and the development of foliation in the gneiss and 
dykes. In these zones of shearing the coarse pyroxenic gneisses are 
replaced by granulitic biotite and hornblende gneisses, and the basic 
dykes merge into bands of hornblende-schist. 

After the cessation of these terrestrial movements, and before the 
deposition of the sediments that now form the overlying Torridon 
Sandstone, the Lewisian Gneiss underwent prolonged denudation. In 
the north-west of Sutherland, between Durness and Loch Laxford, the 
surface of these ancient rocks was worn down to a comparatively level 
plane; but farther south, in Assynt and onwards to Loch Torridon in 
Ross-shire, 1t was carved into a series of deep narrow valleys with 
mountains rising to a height of about 2000 feet. 


TORRIDONIAN 


Throughout the North-West Highlands the Torridon Sandstone 
rests on the various members of the Lewisian Gneiss with a violent 
unconformability, which must represent a vast lapse of time. This 
formation is divisible into three groups: a lower, composed of 
epidotic grits and conglomerates, dark and grey shales with calcareous 
bands, red sandstones and grits; a middle, consisting of a great 
succession of false-bedded grits and sandstones ; an upper, comprising 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 441 


chocolate-coloured sandstones, micaceous flags, dark shales and 
caleareous bands. The total thickness of this great pile of sediment- 
ary deposits must be not less than 10,000 feet. 

‘The Yorridonian strata can be traced from the precipitous head- 
lands of Cape Wrath to Applecross, where they form pyramidal 
mountains of great height. They reappear to the east of this undis- 
turbed area, among the displaced masses affected by the post-Cambrian 
movements, notably in Assynt, in the area extending from Kishorn to 


Loch Alsh, in Sleat, and in Rum. 


CAMBRIAN 


The Torridon Sandstone is overlain unconformably by an im- 
portant series of fossiliferous strata comprising quartzites, fucoid 
shales, Salterella grit, dolomites, and limestones. The age of these 
sediments has been definitely fixed by the discovery in the fucoid beds 
of trilobites belonging to the Olenellus zone—the lowest division of 
the Cambrian system. In the neighbourhood of Durness these 
dolomites and limestones reach their greatest development, and are 
there divisible into zones, some of which have yielded cephalopods, 
gasteropods, lamellibranchs, brachiopods, and sponges. It seems 
probable that the greater part of the Durness limestone represents 
the middle and upper divisions of the Cambrian system, and possibly 
the base of the Lower Silurian rocks of North America. 

An interesting series of plutonic igneous rocks, ranging in com- 
position from quartz-syenite to nepheline-syenite and _ borolanite, 
appear in the Cambrian strata of Assynt, which are accompanied by 
numerous sills and dykes comprising felsites, porphyrites, and 
vogesites. ‘These intrusions are later than all the Cambrian rocks of 
the region, and older than the post-Cambrian movements. 

The fossiliferous Cambrian strata are followed eastwards, and in 
certain sections are visibly overlain by a great development of 
crystalline schists, which Murchison regarded as conformable with 
the underlying sediments. But this theory of natural sequence was 
not accepted by Professor Nicol, who contended that the superposition 
of the Eastern schists on the Cambrian rocks was due to earth- 
movements. The detailed examination of the region by Bonney, 
Lapworth, Callaway, and the Geological Survey has confirmed 
the accuracy of Nicol’s main conclusions. For, by means of lateral 
compression or earth-creep the strata have been thrown into a series 
of inverted folds which culminate in reversed faults or thrusts, the 
effect of which is to bring lower over higher beds. ‘This reduplication 
of the strata by inverted folds and reversed faults is an accompaniment 
of the great horizontal displacements by which thick slices of Lewisian 
Gneiss, Torridon Sandstone, Cambrian rocks, and the Eastern Schists 


442 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


have been driven westwards for miles. In other words, the rocks in 
that region behaved like brittle, rigid bodies which snapped across, 
were piled up, and thrust westwards in successive slices. 

These great displacements were accompanied by differential 
movement of some of the rocks, which resulted in the development of 
new structures. ‘These features are especially developed at or near 
the Moine thrust-plane, which is the most easterly of the powerful 
lines of disruption. ‘There we find that the Lewisian Gneiss, Torridon 
Sandstone, and Cambrian quartzite are sheared and rolled out, 
presenting new divisional planes parallel to that of the Moine 
thrust. 

Regarding the age of these post-Cambrian movements, it is 
obvious that they must be later than the Cambrian dolomites and 
limestones, and older than the Old Red Sandstone; for the basal con- 
vlomerates of the latter rest unconformably on the Eastern Schists, and 
contain pebbles of quartzite, dolomite, and limestone derived from 
the Cambrian rocks of the North-West Highlands. 


METAMORPHIC ROCKS EAST OF THE MOINE THRUST-PLANE 


East of the Moine thrust-plane, whose outcrop runs from the 
eastern shore of Loch Eireboll $.S.E. to Loch Alsh, we enter the wide 
domain of the metamorphic rocks of the Highlands, which extend to 
the Highland border. ‘T'wo prominent types of crystalline schists 
(Moine Series of the Geological Survey) have been traced over wide 
areas in the counties of Sutherland, Ross, Inverness, and across the 
Great Glen to the Grampians. ‘These consist of granulitic quartzose 
schists and muscovite biotite schists which appear to be of sedimentary 
origin. ‘They are associated with recognisable masses of Lewisian 
Gneiss, which present many of the structures so characteristic of the 
fundamental rocks along the western seaboard of Sutherland and Ross. 
From the relations which these rock-groups bear to each other in the 
field, the inference has been drawn that the Moine schists represent a 
sedimentary series resting unconformably on the Lewisian Gneiss, the 
latter being brought to the surface along inverted folds and exposed 
by denudation. In the east of Sutherland, foliated and massive 
granites appear which are intrusive in the Moine schists and produce 
contact metamorphism. 

In the Eastern Highland belt, ranging from the counties of Banff 
and Aberdeen through Perthshire to Argyll, the Moine series is 
replaced by metamorphic rocks, undoubtedly of sedimentary origin, 
which have been termed the Dalradian series by Sir A. Geikie. “These 
have been divided into certain lithological groups which have been 
traced more or less continuously from Banff and Aberdeen to Kintyre. 
There seems to be an apparent order of superposition in these sub- 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 443 


divisions as the observer passes northwards from the Highland border 
to the crest of the Grampians, which may or may not be the original 
sequence of deposition. In Perthshire the groups are met with in 
apparent descending order, as given below :— 


12. Blair Atholl limestone and leaden schist. 
1L. Quartzite (Schichallion). 

10. Black schist with thin limestone. 

. Calcareous sericite schist (Ben Lawers). 

. Garnetiferous mica-schist (Pitlochry). 

. Loch Tay limestone. 

. Garnetiferous mica-schist. 

. Schistose epidotic grits (Green Beds). 

. Ben Ledi grits and schists. 

. Aberfoyle slates. 

Leny grits. 

. Cherts, black shales, and grits of the Highland border. 


Ne) 


MH bo ow BH oO D> =I OO 


It is worthy of note that contemporaneous volcanic rocks (lavas, 
tuffs, and agglomerates) are associated with the sediments of groups 1, 
10, and 11; for the structures of the pillow lavas are still well preserved 
in certain areas where they have escaped deformation, notably in north 
Glen Sannox, Arran, and near Tayvallich, south of the Crinan Canal, 
in Argyllshire. Moreover, before planes of schistosity were developed 
in these Dalradian strata, they were pierced by intrusive sheets of 
basic igneous rock (gabbro and epidiorite) and acid material (granite), 
both of which shared in the movements that affected these schists. 

The age of these Dalradian sediments is still unsolved. In the 
memoir on “The Silurian Rocks of Scotland” the Geological Survey 
correlated the cherts and pillow lavas of the Highland border (group 1) 
with the Arenig cherts and volcanic rocks of the Southern Uplands ; 
but though radiolaria have been detected in the Aberfoyle cherts, the 
evidence cannot be regarded as sufficient to prove this correlation. 
Indeed, recent researches in Anglesey and the Lleyn peninsula in North 
Wales suggest that they may belong to pre-Arenig, if not pre-Cam- 
brian, time. The presence of annelid tubes in the quartzites of Islay, 
Jura, and of the adjoining mainland is not sufficient to link these rocks 
with the Cambrian quartzites of the North-West Highlands ; for, not- 
withstanding such evidence, they might well be of older date. In 
this connection, however, it is instructive to remember that in the 
south-west of Islay there is a mass of gneiss of Lewisian type similar 
to that in the North-West Highlands, overlain unconformably by 
sedimentary strata, which have been correlated with the lower and 
middle divisions of the orridon Sandstone. Unfortunately the 
sequence ends here, as both the gneiss and overlying sediments are 
separated by a line of disruption or thrust-plane from the quartzites 
and fucoid beds in the eastern part of the island. 


444 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Much uncertainty prevails regarding the original sequence of de- 
position of the Dalradian sediments, the tectonics of the various rock 
groups and their relations to the Moine series along the chain of the 
Grampians. Various theories have been advanced to solve these 
problems, but each of them leaves difficulties unsolved. It has been 
contended that there is an ascending sequence from the Leny grits and 
Aberfoyle slates (groups 2 and 3) to the quartzite of Schichallion 

group 11), the latter being the highest member of the series. But 
whatever may be the ultimate solution of these questions, it is clear 
that the crystalline schists of the Moine series and the Dalradian 
rock groups were affected by a common system of folds, the strike of the 
axial planes trending north-east and south-west. Great recumbent 
folds with an amplitude of several miles, accompanied by lines of dis- 
ruption (thrust-planes), were produced, which are a striking feature in 
the Glen Nevis and Glencoe areas. Another result has been the 
development of a fan-shaped arrangement of the folding along an axis 
extending from Ben Lawers in Perthshire to Loch Awe in Ar coilleihe 

The cr y' stalline schists of the Eastern Highlands were pierced by 
a later series of plutonic rocks comprising granites and diorites which 
now form large areas along the Grampian chain. Certain of these 
are undoubtedly of Lower Old Red Sandstone age, but the presence of 
granite boulders in the basal conglomerates of that formation in 
Argyllshire shows that some of the non-foliated granites in the High- 
lands must be of older date. 

From this brief outline it appears that the metamorphic rocks of 
the Highlands, between the Moine thrust-plane and the boundary 
fault extending from Stonehaven to the Firth of Clyde, include rock 
groups peenoine to different geological periods, though linked 
toasts by a common system of Heide. A broad mountain chain 
of metamorphic strata may have a in the Central and Eastern 
Highlands in Cambrian and Silurian time. Some, however, contend 
that there is no conclusive evidence of the existence of such a chain 
till the period of elevation that preceded the close of Silurian time. 


SILURIAN 


The geological structure of the Silurian tableland of the Southern 
Uplands is extremely complicated, due partly to the non-fossiliferous 
character of many of the strata, partly to the inversion of the rocks 
over wide areas, and partly to the variation in the types of sedimen- 
tation, ranging from oceanic to shallow water and shore conditions. 
But by means of the vertical distribution of the graptolites Professor 
Lapworth has demonstrated the true order of succession of the strata. 
The evidence obtained in the course of the detailed examination 
of the region points to continuous sedimentation from Arenig to 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 445 


Ludlow and Downtonian time, except in the north-west area, where 
local unconformabilities occur. 

The strata are arranged in a series of flexures, the axes of which 
run in a north-east and south-west direction parallel to the longer 
axis of the tableland. Frequently the folds are inverted, both limbs 
dipping in the same direction, and hence mere superposition is of no 
value in determining the order of succession of the sediments. 
Moreover, the types of sedimentation of the Llandeilo, Caradoc, and 
Llandovery strata to be found in the Central Moffat region differ 
in a marked degree from those that occur along the northern margin 
of the tableland, and particularly in the neighbourhood of Girvan. 

One prominent rock group—the lowest in the sequence-—preserves, 
with rare exceptions, its uniform lithological characters throughout 
the uplands. Consisting of cherts and mudstones, the former contain- 
ing radiolaria and the latter hingeless brachiopods, they belong partly 
to Upper Arenig and partly to Lower Llandeilo time. ‘The cherts, 
which have been formed from radiolarian deposits, and the mudstones 
indicate an oceanic phase of sedimentation. ‘Their horizon is clearly 
defined, for they are overlain by black shales (Glenkiln) with grapto- 
lites of Upper Llandeilo age, and they rest on volcanic rocks, containing, 
in the Girvan area, cherty mudstones and graptolitic shales yielding 
Middle Arenig graptolites. The greatest development of Arenig 
volcanic rocks occurs near Ballantrae in Ayrshire, where they consist 
of diabase and diabase-porphyrite lavas, agglomerates, and_ tufts, 
pierced by various plutonic masses, including serpentine, gabbro, 
dolerite, and granite. ‘They reappear, however, on numerous anticlines 
along the northern margin of the tableland and elsewhere throughout 
the uplands, where they are overlain by the radiolarian cherts. 

The subdivisions of the Moffat series overlying the radiolarian 
cherts and Arenig volcanic rocks established by Professor Lapworth 
in the central portion of the tableland, viz. Glenkiln shales (Upper 
Llandeilo), Hartfell shales (Caradoc), and Birkhill shales (Llandovery), 
imply conditions of deposition near the verge of sedimentation ; for 
they consist of black shales, cherty bands, and mudstones, with rare 
intercalations of coarser sediment. The total thickness of these 
divisions of the Silurian system in the Moffat region does not exceed 
300 feet, but when traced north-westwards to the margin of the 
tableland they are represented in the Girvan area by upwards of 
5000 feet of strata. The gradual increase in thickness of these 
divisions in this direction is due to the fact that the land from which 
the sediment was derived lay to the north. 

The members of the Moffat series appear at the surface in a 
series of sharp anticlines amid a broad development of younger 
sediments of 'Tarannon age, comprising conglomerates, grits, grey- 


446 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


wackes, flags, and shales, which are repeated by folding over a belt 
of ground twenty miles across in the central part of the tableland. 
Along the northern margin of this belt the Birkhill shales (Llandovery) 
are replaced by coarser sediments, and are represented by grits, 
greywackes, and shales with thin carbonaceous seams yielding dwarfed 
representations of Lower Birkhill graptolites. 

The northern belt of the uplands, which stretches from the 
northern slope of the Lammermuir Hills south-westwards by Leadhills 
and Sanquhar to Loch Ryan and Portpatrick, is composed of Arenig, 
Llandeilo, and Caradoc strata, which rise from underneath the younger 
‘Tarannon sediments of the central region. In the northern tract 
these divisions of the system show lateral variations of the strata. 
For example, the Hartfell black shales (Lower Caradoc) undergo 
modification, and graptolites appear in thin black seams interleaved 
in flaggy shales or in dark sandy shales. The barren mudstones 
(Upper Caradoc) of the Central Moffat region are represented in the 
northern belt by grey micaceous shales (Lowther shales), greywackes, 
and grits, with lenticular masses of limestone, which, at Wrae and 
Glencotho, are associated with volcanic rocks. In like manner the 
Glenkiln shales lose their normal characters, and their graptolites are 
found in thin dark seams in sandy bands interbedded with greywackes 
and shales. 

In the Girvan region, as shown by Professor Lapworth, these 
lateral modifications of the strata are more strongly marked, for the 
Moffat series is there represented by a vast thickness of conglomerates, 
grits, greywackes, flagstones, shales, and limestones. ‘To the north of 
the Stinchar valley, in the Girvan and Ballantrae region, the Llan- 
deilo and Caradoc rocks rest unconformably on an eroded platform of 
Arenig volcanic rocks, but south of the Stinchar valley this uncon- 
formability disappears. 


Along the southern margin of the uplands the Tarannon rocks of. 


the central belt pass conformably upwards into Wenlock and Ludlow 
strata, which yield fossils characteristic of these subdivisions. 

North of the Silurian tableland, and within the area occupied by 
the Old Red Sandstone, near Lesmahagow and in the Pentland Hills, 
various inliers of Upper Silurian rocks are exposed, ranging from 
Wenlock to Downtonian time. The distinctive paleontological 
feature of these inliers is the remarkable fish fauna found in the Ludlow 
and Downtonian strata. The latter division consists of red and 
yellow sandstones and conglomerates with shales and mudstones, 
forming passage beds between the underlying Ludlow rocks and the 
overlying Old Red Sandstone, like the Downton rocks of Shropshire. 
The discovery of ostracods, phyllocarid crustaceans, eurypterids, and 
fishes—an assemblage of organic remains identical in some respects 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 447 


with that of the underlying Ludlow rocks—led to a change in the 
classification of these strata by the Geological Survey. ‘Though 
formerly grouped with the Old Red Sandstone, the Downtonian strata 
are now regarded as forming the highest subdivision of the Silurian 
system in the south of Scotland. 

The Silurian strata are pierced by various igneous masses, com- 
prising granite, quartz-diorite, and hyperite, together with numerous 
dykes of porphyrite, diorite, and mica-trap. From the relations 
which they bear to the Silurian strata and to the Upper Old Red 
Sandstone, it is evident that they are of Lower Old Red Sandstone age. 
Other igneous intrusions of later date traverse the tableland, to which 
reference will be made in the sequel. 

Towards the close of Downtonian time the Silurian strata were 
elevated and subjected to prolonged denudation ; for, both in Ayr- 
shire and the Pentland Hills, the basal conglomerates of the Lower 
Old Red Sandstone, containing greywacke pebbles derived from the 
old tableland, rest unconformably on the folded and eroded edges of 
the Silurian rocks. In Lanarkshire this unconformability has not 
been detected, as there seems to be a passage in that district from the 
one formation to the other. At that period also the crystalline 
schists of the Highlands must have formed a prominent land barrier 
towards the north before the deposition of the Lower Old Red Sand- 


stone sediments. 


THE OLD RED SANDSTONE 


The series of deposits belonging to the Old Red Sandstone are 
generally supposed to have been laid down in inland lakes, owing to 
their distinctive lithological characters and the nature of their 
organic remains. Instead of a profusion of marine forms we find 
abundant remains of land plants, ganoid fishes whose living represen- 
tatives are now found in rivers and lakes, eurypterids, bivalve crus- 
taceans, and myriapods. But, whether lacustrine or marine, it is clear 
that the whole series presents different lithological characters from 
those of the underlying Silurian and overlying Carboniferous rocks. 

The sediments of the Old Red Sandstone may be grouped in three 
great divisions—the lower, middle, and upper—a classification based 
partly on the fish remains and partly on the land plants found so 
abundantly on certain horizons. 

The representatives of the lower division occur to the south of 
the Grampian chain, and in the Central Lowlands form parallel 
belts—the one extending from the coast of Kincardineshire and 
Forfarshire to the mouth of Loch Lomond and the Firth of Clyde, 
the other from the Pentland Hills south-west to Ayrshire. The 
centre of this basin is occupied by Carboniferous and Triassic strata. 


448 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


The deposits of the lower division may be arranged in three groups : 
(1) a lower, consisting of conglomerates, sandstones, and flags with no 
volcanic rocks; (2) a middle, composed almost wholly of lavas, 
tuffs, and agglomerates ; (3) an upper, consisting of conglomerates, 
sandstones, flags, and mudstones. ‘The members of the upper group 
are splendidly developed in the centre of a great trough extending 
from Stonehaven by the Braes of Doune to near Drymen—a distance 
of 100 miles; while the lavas and ashes of the middle group rise from 
underneath these and form a prominent arch in the Sidlaws and 
Ochils. ‘The members of the lower group are exposed on the coast at 
Stonehaven, where, at their northern limit, they are truncated by a 
powerful fault which brings them into conjunction with the meta- 
morphic rocks of the Highlands. As already indicated, this great 
dislocation stretches from the Kincardineshire coast to the Firth of 
Clyde, and through part of its course brings different members of 
this formation against each-other. On the north side of the fault, 
between Crieff and Cortachy, there is a development of coarse trappean 
conglomerates with thin beds of lava occupying the horizon of the 
volcanic series and resting unconformably on the metamorphic rocks, 
while the underlying beds are absent or sparingly represented. It is 
apparent from this overlapping of the strata that there must have been 
a gradual depression of the Highland barrier, and that as the waters 
of the lake crept northwards the crystalline schists of the Highlands 
were buried under the accumulating sediments of the higher groups. 

The foregoing subdivisions are conspicuously developed in the belt 
that borders the northern margin of the Southern Uplands. In this 
case also the Lower Old Red Sandstone is bounded by a great fracture 
extending from Midlothian to the Firth of Clyde, whereby this 
formation has slipped downwards against the Silurian tableland to 
the south. In the Pentland Hills the volcanic series, comprising ande- 
sites, rhyolites, and tuffs, forms conspicuous features in the landscape 
and is traceable at intervals along the belt south-westwards into 
Ayrshire. Beyond the Silurian tableland, in the Cheviots, these 
volcanic rocks are well developed, and they form a broad plateau in 
Lorne, Argyllshire, where they are associated with sediments which 
have yielded fish-remains of Lower Old Red Sandstone age. They like- 
wise appear in the Glencoe region and on the crest of Ben Nevis. 

A striking feature of this period is the extent and variety of the 
plutonic intrusions (granite, diorite) in the Highlands and Southern 
Uplands, to which reference has already been made. 

In the great northern area, where the middle or Orcadian series 
of the Moray Firth, Caithness, Orkney, and Shetland appears, there is 
a marked divergence in the character of the strata and the fish fauna 
from that on the south side of the Grampians. Murchison clearly 


PLATE XVI. 


Scottish Lake Survey Report. 


Fillion diave. Sawer rad GEOLOGICAL MAP OF SCOTLAND. 


Sen, Wotuane re 
Pe, 


Af 


Aninararchan PR 


Cou, 
» Tobe 


Pifo Ness 


ww lile of May 


| 
Note To CoLourins. 
SEDIMENTARY 
Mesozolo & Permian 


[| carboniferous 


id Red Sandstone 


METAMORPHIC 


Dalradian & 
jatern Schiats 


FEB cevisian cneiss 
IGNEOUS 
Basalt Li a 
renriany | MD Feit ES tarts 


Plutonic Rocks 


ER Forriconian 
55 t 


PALAOzOIC Utes Rocks 
& ARCHAAN trusive Dolerites 


HR Piitonic rocks 


F ———__ Fauits 


Longitude Weat. 5 of Greenwich 


eB Miles 
252 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 449 


recognised this divergence as represented in Caithness, and referred 
the flagstone series to the middle division of the Old Red Sandstone— 
a view which has been strengthened by the researches of Dr ‘Traquair 
in recent years. In that county, conglomerates and sandstones occur 
at the base, and graduate upwards into grey and blue bituminous 
flagstones charged with fish-remains, and succeeded by the sandstones 
and flags of John o’ Groats. On the other hand, Sir A. Geikie 
contends that the Orcadian series north of the Grampians are the 
equivalents in time of the Lower Old Red deposits south of that chain. 
He further holds that the admitted paleontological distinctions 
between the two areas are probably not greater than the contrast 
between the ichthyic faunas of adjacent but disconnected water basins 


at the present time. 


The Upper Old Red Sandstone everywhere rests unconformably on 
the older rocks, but graduates upwards into the Carboniferous forma- 
tion. The nature of this unconformability clearly shows that the 
members of the lower division, including the volcanic rocks, were 
elevated, folded, and subjected to extensive denudation before the 
deposition of the Upper Old Red strata. In places valleys or hollows 
were excavated in the Silurian tableland during this period of erosion. 

The strata consist of conglomerates, sandstones, marls, and corn- 
stones, from which a characteristic assemblage of fish-remains has been 
obtained. North of the Grampians they appear in the coastal belt 
of Elgin and Nairn, in Caithness, in the island of Hoy, and in Shet- 
land. They usually form a fringe round the basal beds of the 
Carboniferous system in the Central Lowlands and along the southern 
flanks of the Silurian tableland. 


CARBONIFEROUS 


The records of the Carboniferous formation are of great im- 
portance. The succession of sandstones, shales, limestones, coals, and 
ironstones composing this system have been carefully studied, owing 
partly to their economic value, and partly to the rich fauna and flora 
embedded in the rocks. Scotland possesses a large development of 
these rocks, though owing to subsequent folding and denudation 
they have been confined mainly to the Central Lowlands and the 
Border territory. The detailed examination of the Carboniferous 
areas shows that the strata are arranged in a series of basins much 
intersected by faults; the crests of the anticlinal folds being occupied 
by the lower subdivisions of the formation, or by rocks of older date. 
One of the best examples of this disposition is the great Lanarkshire 
basin, which is bounded on the north by the Campsie Fells, on the 
west by the Renfrewshire and Eaglesham Hills, on the south by the 
Old Red Sandstone of Lesmahagow and Lanark, and on the east by 

29 


450 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


the Lower Carboniferous rocks of Linlithgowshire. The highest 
subdivisions of the system occupy the centre of the basin, and the 
lower members crop out round the margin in normal order, except 
where the regular succession has been disturbed by faults. The same 
features are displayed in the Midlothian and Ayrshire basins. 

The beginning of the Carboniferous period was characterised by a 
remarkable outburst of volcanic activity, whose relics now form 
prominent topographical features in the country. In Haddingtonshire 
they form the Garleton Hills; in Midlothian they are to be found in 
Arthur’s Seat, Calton Hill, Craiglockhart, and at Corston, south of 
Mid-Calder. ‘They sweep in a great semicircle from Stirling along 
the Campsie and Kilpatrick Hills to the Clyde at Bowling, thence 
by the Renfrewshire Hills and Gleniffer Braes to the high grounds 
near Strathaven—a distance of 70 miles. Still farther west, they 
give rise to prominent features in Bute, the Cumbraes, Arran, and in 
Kintyre. Beyond the Silurian tableland they constitute a belt of 
ground curving round the west side of the basin of Lower Carbon- 
iferous rocks in Berwickshire and Roxburghshire, and near the Border 
territory they can be followed continuously by Langholm and 
Birrenswark to Annandale. The lavas belonging to this period of 
vulcanicity consist mainly of various types of basalt, and more acid 
varieties comprising mugearites and trachytes. An interesting feature 
connected with these extrusions is the number of orifices still to be 
found, representing the vents from which the materials were dis- 
charged. ‘They are usually arranged in a linear manner, and are now 
filled with basalt, trachyte, and volcanic agglomerates. 

The Carboniferous formation as represented in Scotland may be 
arranged in four great divisions :—(1) the Calciferous Sandstone series 
at the base; (2) the Carboniferous Limestone series ; (3) the Millstone 
Grit ; (4) the Coal Measures. 

The Calciferous Sandstone, when typically developed in the Central 
Lowlands, comprises two subdivisions: (1) the Cementstone group ; (2) 
the Oil-shale group, the latter passing upwards into the Carboniferous 
Limestone series. The lower subdivision, typically represented at 
Ballagan, near Strathblane, is composed of grey, blue, and red shales 
and clays, white or yellow sandstones and cementstones, from which 
fragments of plants and fish scales have been obtained. The deposits 
in the Central Lowlands seem to have been laid down under estuarine 
or lagoon conditions; but on the south side of the Silurian tableland 
along the Scottish Border marine bands occur in the strata now 
grouped with the cementstones, thereby implying incursions of 
the sea. 

The overlying Oil-shale group consists of grey, blue, and blac 
shales, oil-shales, thin bands and nodules of clay-ironstone, limestones, 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 451 


massive white and yellow sandstones, with occasional coal seams. 
Land plants, ostracods, and fish-remains are abundant, indicating 
estuarine conditions; while the presence of shales with marine fossils, 
and of limestones with corals, crinoids, brachiopods, and gasteropods, 
heralds the marine conditions so prevalent in the lower part of the 
Carboniferous Limestone series. The members of this group reach a 
thickness of several thousand feet in the Lothians and in Fife, but in 
the western districts a part of this sequence of sediments is repre- 
sented by contemporaneous volcanic rocks, to which reference has 
been made. 

The Carboniferous Limestone series is divisible into three groups: 
a lower, comprising several beds of limestone, with sandstones, shales, 
some coals and ironstones; a middle, containing several workable 
seams of coal, with clay-band and black-band ironstones associated 
with sandstones and shales, but not with limestones; an upper group 
of three or more limestones, with thick beds of sandstones and coals. 
This triple classification is remarkably persistent throughout the 
Central Lowlands from Fife to Ayrshire, but in the Border region 
beyond the Southern Uplands the middle coal-bearing group is 
poorly developed. 

The characteristic feature of the lower and upper subdivisions of 
the Carboniferous Limestone series is the presence of limestones 
charged with marine organisms. The Hurlet Limestone with its 
underlying coal and alum shale is usually regarded as marking the 
base of the series ; but the boundary is merely an arbitrary one, for, 
as already indicated, marine limestones occur in the upper part of 
the Calciferous Sandstone series. ‘The base of the Upper Limestone 
group is marked by the Index Limestone—so named because it over- 
lies the valuable coals and ironstones of the middle subdivision, and 
its top is represented by the Castlecary seam or its equivalent. 

No contemporaneous volcanic rocks are associated with the 
Carboniferous Limestone series in the western part of the midland 
valley, but in Linlithgowshire they are prominently developed. In 
that district the volcanic eruptions began towards the close of the 
Calciferous Sandstone period, and continued till near the close 
of the Carboniferous Limestone. Occasionally there were quiescent 
intervals, when corals, crinoids, and molluscs migrated to those 
volcanic banks and built up bands of limestones and calcareous shales. 

Next in order comes a succession of white, yellow, or red sand- 
stones merging into grits and fine conglomerates, fireclays of 
economic importance, thin lmestones, bands of ironstone, and a few 
thin coal seams. Where no faults intervene, this formation can be 
traced as a belt of variable width round the margin of the true Coal 
Measures, a feature which is conspicuously developed in the Mid- 


452 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


lothian coal-field. In Ayrshire the members of this division are 
absent or poorly developed, and their place is taken by an interesting 
series of basaltic lavas and tuffs. Evidence of contemporaneous 
volcanic action on this horizon has also been obtained in Arran and 
in Campbeltown. 

From a study of the fossil flora Dr Kidston has arranged the 
Carboniferous rocks in two divisions, the boundary between the two 
being drawn in the lower part of the Millstone Grit in the Central 
Lowlands: a classification which has been reached independently by 
Dr Traquair from the evidence supplied by the fossil fishes. Reference 
ought to be made to the remarkable assemblage of lamellibranchs, 
resembling the lamellibranch fauna of the Coal Measures of Nebraska 
and Illinois of North America, which has been obtained from the lower 
part of the Millstone Grit and described by Dr Wheelton Hind. 

The Coal Measures, which form the highest division of the 
Carboniferous system, comprise an upper group, consisting of red 
sandstones, shales, fireclays, marls, and a band of Spirorbis limestone, 
and a lower group of great economic value, containing numerous 
coal seams, clay-band and black-band ironstones, bituminous shales, 
fireclays, and white and grey sandstones. From an examination of 
the fossils it is evident that, during the deposition of the true Coal 
Measures, fresh or brackish water conditions must have prevailed 
generally throughout the Scottish basins. Marine bands with 
brachiopods do occur, but they are rare. ‘The constant repetition of 
coal seams with sandstones, shales, and ironstones shows that land 
conditions must have been in the ascendant, followed at intervals by 
slight submergence. 

Within the Silurian tableland of the Southern Uplands a basin 
of Carboniferous strata rests unconformably on the Silurian rocks 
and forms the Sanquhar coal-field. From the relations of the younger 
strata to the older series it is clear that long before the Coal Measures 
were laid down the old tableland must have been carved into hills 
and valleys; in short, Nithsdale must have been a valley in Carbon- 
iferous time. At the south end of the Sanquhar basin there are 
some isolated patches of strata belonging to the Carboniferous Lime- 
stone series, which, in the adjoining basin of ‘Thornhill, are much 
more largely developed. When traced northwards these disappear, 
till in the Sanquhar basin the Coal Measures rest directly on the 
old floor. Such evidence points to the irregular subsidence of the 
old tableland of the Southern Uplands. 

Evidence has been obtained of the former extension of Carbon- 
iferous rocks within the Highland area. At Ardtornish, Morvern, 
Professor Judd discovered sandstones and shales with thin seams of 
coal which yielded Carboniferous plants, but we have no means of 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 453 


ascertaining how far these rocks may have extended over the northern 
land barrier. 

Reference must now be made to the intrusive sheets of igneous 
materials occurring on various horizons, which give rise to conspicuous 
features in the landscape. One group is composed of olivine-dolerite 
and teschenite, which, in the Lothians, seem to have been injected 
into the Lower Carboniferous rocks before the Coal Measures were 
deposited. Another series, consisting of quartz-dolerite, occurs both 
as sills and east and west dykes, and belongs in all probability to the 
close of the Carboniferous period. 

Powerful subterranean movements again ensued after the deposi- 
tion of the highest members of the Carboniferous system. The great 
succession of sediments that had accumulated during this period were 
upheaved and subjected to erosion. 


PERMIAN AND TRIASSIC 

The series of deposits next in order consist of red’ and grey sand- 
stones and marls that have been referred partly to Permian and partly 
to Triassic time. In the present stage of inquiry it is difficult to 
define the precise position in the geological sequence of some of these 
sediments owing to the absence of definite paleontological evidence. 
Partly from the lithological characters of the strata and partly from 
the nature of the organic remains, Ramsay inferred that these rocks 
were laid down in inland lakes or enclosed basins, thus implying 
continental conditions. 

In the south of Scotland they occupy various isolated areas, as, for 
example, (1) in the south of Arran, (2) in the centre of the Ayrshire 
coal-field, (3) at Thornhill, Dumfriesshire, (4) on the shores of the 
Solway, (5) at Lockerbie, (6) at Moffat, (7) at Loch Ryan. Of 
special interest are the contemporaneous volcanic rocks underlying 
these sandstones in Ayrshire and at Thornhill, regarded by Sir A. 
Geikie as of Permian age. In the region surrounding these volcanic 
rocks, from Muirkirk to Dalmellington, numerous vents or necks pierce 
the strata including the highest Carboniferous rocks. Formerly the 
sediments at these various localities were regarded as of Permian 
age, but this classification has been modified by more recent research. 
The discovery of fossils characteristic of the Avicula contorta zone | 
(Rheetic) and of Lower Liassic age in Arran led to the grouping of 
the sandstones and marls in south Arran with the Trias. The red 
sandstones overlying the volcanic rocks of Ayrshire and those at 
Thornhill have been ranged with the Trias of south Arran on ltho- 
logical grounds. Again, the sediments stretching along the coastal 
belt from Annan to Canonbie have been grouped with the Bunter 
sandstones of Cumberland, which in the latter region are succeeded by 


4954 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


the Keuper sandstones and marls and the Lower Lias. On the other 
hand, the well-known footprints obtained from the sandstones near 
Dumfries and Corncockle Moor are regarded by some investigators 
as proving the Permian age of the sediments in which they are found. 

At the base of the great succession of Mesozoic rocks in the 
Highlands we find a sequence of conglomerates, sandstones, and marls 
which have been grouped with the Trias. They occur in the north- 
east of Scotland, the western seaboard of the Highlands, and the Inner 
Hebrides. The development of these rocks near Elgin is of ex- 
ceptional importance on account of the remarkable assemblage of 
reptilian remains which they have yielded. Following the discoveries 
of Amalitzky in Northern Russia, Mr E. T. Newton and other 
authorities have suggested that these reptiliferous sandstones belong 
partly to Permian and partly to Triassic time. 

On the western seaboard of the Highlands they occur at Gruinard 
Bay, where they are thrown down by powerful faults against the 
Torridon Sandstone. ‘They appear again at Applecross, at Ardna- 
murchan, in Raasay, and in Sleat, where they graduate upwards into 
the Lower Lias. Elsewhere, as, for example, at Inch Kenneth, Gribun, 
och Alvie, and Morvern, they are covered unconformably by 
Upper Cretaceous strata, or by contemporaneous volcanic rocks of 
Tertiary age. 

JURASSIC 

The Jurassic rocks of Scotland occur in areas far apart from each 
other: on the east coast of Sutherland, in the basin of the Moray 
Firth, along the Western seaboard of the Highlands, and in the Inner 
Hebrides. ‘They are relics of deposits ranging from the Lower Lias 
to the Upper Oolite, once extensively developed in the northern part 
of the kingdom, and preserved from destruction partly by powerful 
faults and partly by a covering of contemporaneous volcanic rocks of 
Tertiary age. The largest development in the north-east of Scotland 
forms a narrow belt, about 16 miles in length, on the coast of Suther- 
land, from Golspie to near the Ord of Caithness. Patches of Jurassic 
rocks appear again at the base of the Ross-shire cliffs, to the north 
and south of the Sutors of Cromarty. In both of these areas they 
have been let down by faults against the crystalline schists and Old 
Red Sandstone. The dislocation at the base of the Ross-shire cliffs 
is a continuation of that which traverses the Great Glen and forms 
such a striking feature in the topography of the country. The 
precise age of these faults is uncertain, but they must be more recent 
than the Upper Oolite, inasmuch as these rocks have been affected 
by the movements. It is not improbable that the fracture traversing 
the Great Glen may be of much more ancient date, reaching back to 
Old Red Sandstone time, if not to an older period. 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 455 


In the West Highlands the Jurassic and Cretaceous strata occur 
at intervals over an area measuring about 120 miles from north to 
south and about 50 miles from east to west. Long after their 
formation they were buried under a succession of lavas and intrusive 
sills of igneous rock of 'Tertiary age. Round the edges of the volcanic 
plateaux, or where the streams have cut deep trenches through the 
overlying igneous rocks, the mesozoic strata are exposed anew. 

The researches of Professor Judd have shown that in the Jurassic 
rocks of Scotland there is a constant alternation of estuarine and 
marine strata, presenting considerable variations at different localities. 
For example, the estuarine sandstones, conglomerates, and shales at the 
base of the Lower Lias in Sutherland are overlain with micaceous 
clays and shelly limestones, with characteristic marine forms; while 
the lower Oolite is composed mainly of estuarine strata, consisting of 
sandstones, shales, and coals. On this latter horizon the well-known 
coal seams are met with, one of them reaching a thickness of 4 feet. 
Again, in the Middle Oolite there are several important marine zones 
alternating with estuarine strata ; of the former, the “ roof-bed” of the 
Main Coal is an excellent example, consisting of sandstone passing 
into a limestone charged with ammonites and belemnites belonging 
to the horizon of the Kelloway rock in Yorkshire. Finally, the 
Upper Oolites are represented in Sutherland by a splendid develop- 
ment of sandstones, shales, grits, and brecciated conglomerates indica- 
ing estuarine conditions. 

In the West Highlands the same recurrence of estuarine and 
marine conditions is observable, though in a less prominent form. At 
certain localities sandstones and thin coal seams are to be found at 
the base of the Lias, while between the Lower Oolite and the Oxford 
Clay a great estuarine series is intercalated, consisting of sandstones, 
shales with much carbonaceous matter, and limestones made up of 
comminuted shells. According to Professor Judd, nearly 3000 feet of 
Jurassic strata are exposed in the West Highlands from the base of 
the Lias to the Oxford Clay, to which must be added about 1000 
feet of beds representing the Upper Oolite in the north-east of 
Scotland, so that the total thickness of these rocks cannot be far 
short of 4000 feet. 


CRETACEOUS 


Between the Jurassic and Cretaceous strata of the West Highlands 
there is a prominent unconformability, indicating striking changes in 
the physical geography of the region and extensive denudation of the 
deposits that had accumulated during previous periods. During this 
interval the floor of the sea must have been elevated and the Jurassic 
sediments must have been removed, either’ in whole or in part, from 


456 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


certain localities. The precise date of this elevation cannot be 
definitely determined. As already indicated, no representatives of the 
Upper Oolite have been detected in the West Highlands, the highest 
Jurassic rocks being of Middle Oxfordian age. ‘The continuity of the 
record in that region is further interrupted by the absence of equiva- 
lents of the Weald and of the Lower Greensand, for the lowest 
Cretaceous rocks yet recorded belong to the Upper Greensand. These 
consist of glauconitic sands, becoming calcareous and passing into 
shelly limestones, belonging to the Pecten asper zone. According to 
Professor Judd, these strata are succeeded by estuarine sandstones 
followed by beds of white chalk with flints .containing Belemnitella 
mucronata, while at the top of the series occur sandstones and marls 
with plant-remains and thin seams of lignite. From the character of 
the strata in this brief succession it is evident that they point to an 
alternation of estuarine and marine conditions similar to that which 
characterised the deposition of the Jurassic rocks. 

In the north-east of Scotland relics of Cretaceous strata have been 
found at various localities, but not in the position in which they were 
originally deposited. ‘The evidence suggests that they have been 
more or less affected by glacial action since their formation. One of 
the best-known localities is at Moreseat in Aberdeenshire, where a fine- 
grained sandstone with colloid silica has yielded fossils characteristic 
of the Aptien stage of France or the Lower Greensand of the Isle of 
Wight. Lower Cretaceous fossils with a Neocomian facies have been 
recently recorded by the Geological Survey from a patch of concre- 
tionary sandstone in Caithness. Such evidence is of importance, as it 
points to the deposition of Lower Cretaceous strata either on or near 
the north-eastern seaboard of Scotland. In the drifts of the counties 
of Aberdeen, Banff, and Caithness numerous blocks of chalk and chalk 
flints with fragments of Znoceramus have been found. It is highly 
probable, therefore, that Upper Cretaceous rocks may occupy portions 
of the sea floor bordering these north-eastern counties. 


TERTIARY 


At the close of the great succession of mesozoic rocks there is a 
further blank in the geological history of Scotland. ‘The records 
belonging to older Tertiary time point to extraordinary volcanic 
activity, when sheets of lava were piled on each other to a considerable 
depth, with occasional intercalations of beds of limestone and shale 
containing plant-remains, which were deposited during intervals of 
quiescence. ‘These volcanic plateaux stretch over an extensive territory, 
reaching from Antrim by the Inner Hebrides to the Faroe Isles. In 
the West Highlands they are typically developed in Skye, Mull, 


Ardnamurchan, Morvern, Eigg, Muck, and Canna. ‘The researches of 


ee 
Sm 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 457 


Mr Harker in Skye have shown that the volcanic sequence there con- 
sists almost wholly of lavas of basic and sub-basic composition, except 
on the northern border of the Cuillins, where acid lavas and tuffs have 
been recorded. In places at the base of the volcanic series there are 
local accumulations of agglomerates and tuffs, but these are of rare 
occurrence in the great succession of lavas. 

Before the outbreak of vulcanicity the strata of pre-Tertiary age 
were subjected to earth-movements and extensive denudation. Hence 
the volcanic rocks rest, in places, on different members of the Jurassic 
and older systems, and in other localities on Upper Cretaceous strata. 

The volcanic rocks are pierced by masses of coarse gabbro typically 
represented in the Cuillin Hills, and by bosses of granophyre which 
form the well-known conical mountains between Sligachan and 
Broadford. These plutonic rocks likewise appear in Rum, Ardna- 
murchan, Mull, and St Kilda. Another characteristic feature of the 
period is the injection of sills of dolerite, which in places pass trans- 
gressively from one horizon of the volcanic sequence to another. But 
perhaps the most remarkable feature outside the volcanic plateaux is 
the extraordinary number of basalt dykes filling rents or fissures, 
extending for miles across the surface of the country. ‘They have 
been traced from Yorkshire to the West Highlands, and they stretch 
over an area ranging from the north of Ireland to the north of 
Scotland and probably to Orkney. According to Professor Judd, 
the lavas were discharged from great central volcanoes, the relics of 
which are now represented by the plutonic rocks of Skye, Rum, Mull, 
Ardnamurchan, and St Kilda. On the other hand, Sir A. Geikie 


contends that the lavas issued from innumerable fissures, a view which 


has been adopted by Mr Harker in the Geological Survey memoir 
on “The Tertiary Igneous Rocks of Skye.” 

The only organic evidence bearing on the age of the great basaltic 
plateaux is supplied by the leaf beds occurring between the lava-flows 
at Ardtun in Mull. The researches of Mr Starkie Gardner point 


to the conclusion that the flora may be of Eocene age, and hence the 


extrusion of the volcanic rocks may belong to the earliest division of 
Tertiary time. 


EVOLUTION OF THE TorpoGRAPHICAL FEATURES OF SCOTLAND 
IN Pre-GuaciaL TmeE 


A careful study of Scottish topography, especially of the river 
systems, leads to the theoretical conclusion that the existing features 


have been carved out of a solid block, the upper surface of which must 


have sloped towards the south-east, as suggested by Mr Mackinder 
in his volume on “ Britain and the British Seas.” 


458 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


From the brief outline already given of the geological history of 
the country, it is evident that the youngest rocks entering into the 
structure of this plateau consist of the Eocene volcanic and plutonic 
rocks of the West Highlands with the accompanying series of basalt 
dykes. Hence the elevation of the plateau must date from that 
period, and the excavation of the valley systems must have been 
effected during the later divisions of Tertiary time. The Mesozoic 
sediments must also have entered largely into the structure of the 
block, though they have been mostly removed by denudation. Much 
of the evidence relating to the topography of the country at the close 
of the prolonged volcanic activity in Eocene time is, as might be 
expected, both fragmentary and indefinite, but the available data 
bearing on the development of the surface features of Scotland can 
be satisfactorily explained on the foregoing hypothesis. 

In Scotland three great planes of denudation can be recognised :— 
(1) the High Plateau or peneplain, varying from 2000 to 3000 feet 
in height, with Ben Nevis, the Cairngorm Mountains, and other peaks 
appearing as monadnocks; (2) the Intermediate Plateau, the upper 
limit of which is about 1000 feet ; (3) the Continental Shelf, extend- 
ing to the 100-fathom line at the edge of the Atlantic Rise and the 
Faroe Channel. Each of these represents a protracted period of denu- 
dation, with the sea acting, in each case, as the base-level of erosion. 

At the initiation of our river systems, Scotland lay mostly, if not 
wholly, on the south-east slope of the uplift, and formed part of a 
continental area continuous with Ireland on the south-west and with 
Scandinavia on the north-east. Across this inclined plateau the 
consequent rivers drained south-eastwards into a Miocene sea stretch- 
ing from the north of France to beyond Schleswig Holstein. 'The 
north-west declivity of this land surface extended to the edge of the 
Continental Shelf, or, in other words, to the edge of the Atlantic- 
Arctic Ocean Rise, and was therefore steeper and shorter than the 
other. Hence the consequent rivers flowing in a north-westerly 
direction had greater erosive power than those draining to the south- 
east. ‘Thus they were able to entrench themselves in valleys and 
ultimately, by cutting backwards, to encroach on the domain of those 
flowing to the south-east. 

On the mainland of Scotland subsequent denudation has cut the 
High Plateau into three main blocks, in each of which similar con- 
ditions of drainage occur, viz.: (1) a long drainage system towards 
the south-east along the remains of the old consequent valleys ; 
(2) a shorter and steeper one to the north-west by obsequent streams 
running in the old consequent valleys; (3) a subsequent easterly and 
westerly drainage system due in large measure to the grain of the rocks. 
These blocks are situated as follows :— 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 459 


1. The Northern Block, comprising the area to the north-west of the Great 
Glen and Loch Linnhe. 

2. The Central Block, extending from the Great Glen south-eastwards to the 
Virths of Forth and Clyde. 

3. The Southern Block, stretching from the low plain between the Firths of 
Forth and Clyde to the English Border and the Solway Firth. 


The dominant factor that led to the sculpturing of the continental 
uplift into these individual masses was the existence in each case of a 
core of crystalline schists or older paleeozoic strata surrounded by 
younger formations with feebler powers of resistance. ‘The former 
still constitute the elevated portions of these blocks, while the weaker 
strata have given rise to the existing plains and lowland areas. 
Shatter belts situated along lines of fault or dislocations of the strata 
have exercised a considerable influence in producing the isolation of 
these individual masses. ‘The development of the lowland belts in 
the north-eastern areas was aided by the resuscitation of ancient 
land surfaces which had been deeply buried by younger strata. 


SCULPTURE OF THE NORTHERN BLOCK (NORTH-WEST HIGHLANDS) 


As might be expected, the remnants of the old consequent drainage 
system are best preserved in the two northern blocks. A study of an 
orographical map of Scotland shows that in the area north-west of 
the Great Glen the main valleys occupied by the original consequent 
rivers are continued to the West Coast, though now partly drained 
by obsequent streams. In such cases the cols form low passes. A 
further study of the behaviour of the watershed of the Northern 
Block tends to support this conclusion. For example, the water- 
parting bends far to the east along the valleys occupied by the main 
streams, while in the case of the tributaries it swings far to the west, 
thus showing that the south-easterly flowing streams had first possession 
of the ground. 

The geological evidence indicates that the grain of the crystalline 
schists had little if any influence in determining the trend of the 
consequent streams, which is transverse to the strike of these schists. 
An apparent exception occurs in the Laxford area of Lewisian gneiss, 
where the strike of the gneiss coincides with the trend of the valleys ; 
but the geological history of that region shows that the valley system 
must have been initiated at a time when the Lewisian rocks were 
buried under strata the strike of which ran N.N.E. and S.S.W. 

Shatter belts accompanying more or less vertical lines of fault and 
trending in two directions—one N.W. and 8.E., and the other N.E. 
and $.W.—helped to some extent to produce the drainage system in 
this northern region. ‘The lnes of fracture along Loch Maree and 
Loch Inchard may be cited as instances of the former, and those 


460 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


extending from Glenelg to Strath Conan and along the Great Glen 
are striking examples of the latter. 

On the eastern portion of the Northern Block the grain of the 
younger strata tended to deflect the rivers from their south-east 
course. ‘The disposition of the Old Red Sandstone and the mesozoic 
strata not only shows that they must have entered largely into the 
structure of the High Plateau, but also that they were thrown into 
two basins intersected by the Great Glen fault, the axes of these 
basins being approximately north-east and south-west. In these 
weak structures the grain of the rocks became a prominent factor in 
deflecting the rivers from their south-east course, and, during the 
period of maximum elevation, in reducing the area to a plain in 
which the old divides were nearly obliterated. From a study of 
charts of the sea floor it would appear that two main trunk rivers 
were established, following the strike of the weak strata and the 
shatter belts produced by the Great Glen fault and the dislocation 
skirting part of the Sutherland coast. The more northerly one seems 
to have flowed parallel to the present coast-line of Sutherland, 
Caithness, and Orkney, intercepting all the consequent streams as far 
south as the Dornoch Firth and ultimately draining into the Faroe 
Channel ; the other parallel to the coast of Nairn, Moray, Banff, and 
Aberdeen, following what is probably the strike of the secondary 
strata, and at one time, either directly or by means of longitudinal 
tributaries, tapping all the consequent rivers westwards to Loch Eil. 

The Cromarty Firth is evidently the submerged valley of a 
subsequent stream following the centre of the syncline between the 
two great shatter belts, which intercepted and deflected all the old 
consequent streams now draining into it. Again, the main subsequent 
river between Inverness and Nairn, whose course is now covered by the 
Moray Firth, tapped and deflected the consequent stream which 
formerly occupied the site of the Beauly Firth. 

Along the eastern portion of the Northern Block the intermediate 
plateau and the coastal belt are mainly carved out of Old Red 
Sandstone, but in certain localities they consist of the old floor of 
crystalline schists from which the covering of Old Red Sandstone has 
been removed. Various outlying masses of this formation furnish 
striking proof of its former extension over the high plateau of the 
Northern Block, as for instance in Strath Vaich, Ross-shire, the 
heights on either side of Strath Brora, and the Griams in Sutherland. 

The development of the plain of North Sutherland and Caithness 
resembles in many respects that of East Sutherland and Easter Ross. 
Here the weak strata that remain are composed of Old Red Sandstone. 
A main trunk stream appears to have cut back from the Faroe 
Channel, west of and parallel to the long axes of Shetland and 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 461 


Orkney, thence westwards along the strike of the Old Red Sandstone 
strata by the north coast of Sutherland. The tributaries of this 
river in some cases followed the pre-Old Red Sandstone valleys in 
the old floor of crystalline schists, filled with the basement rocks of 
that formation. As these ancient valleys coincide with the strike 
of the schists, the streams, by cutting backwards along the grain of 
the rocks, have been enabled to intercept a great part of the head- 
waters of the original south-east consequent streams and deflect them 
towards the north. ‘The River Naver is an excellent example, for it 
has succeeded in capturing the upper portion of the Helmsdale 
consequent stream from below Loch Naver to the sources of that 
river. 

Reference has already been made to the structural evidence 
suggesting that the subsequent or longitudinal rivers draining into 
the Moray Firth intercepted the old consequent streams of the 
Northern Block as far west as Loch Eil. While this was in progress, 
however, the weaker mesozoic strata overlying the paleozoic and 
schistose rocks in the west were also being removed by rivers cutting 
back from the Atlantic Rise, and forming the plain of the Minch, 
during the period of the production of the Continental Shelf. Another 
drainage system seems to have followed the line of the North Channel 
and reached the shatter belt of the Great Glen somewhere about the 
Firth of Lorne. Along this hne of weakness it seems to have cut 
backwards, intercepting in turn the consequent streams of the 
Northern Block. The order in which the streams were appropriated 
is probably shown by the decreasing depth of the valleys from west 
to east. The Sound of Mull, Loch Eil, and Loch Arkaig represent 
depressions initiated by the old consequent streams of the Northern 
Block. 

The prominent physical features in the Outer Hebrides are due to 
a ridge of Lewisian Gneiss which has been isolated by the denudation 
of the western rivers draining to the edge of the Continental Shelf. 
Skye, which originally formed part of the mainland, has been dis- 
connected by similar processes of denudation. The mountainous 
tracts of that island, of Rum, and Mull are due partly to the resistant 
nature of the Tertiary plutonic masses and associated volcanic rocks, 
and partly to the influence of faults which have brought up portions 
of the old floor of crystalline schists and overlying Torridon Sand- 
stone. : 

As already indicated, the 100-fathom line was the base-level of 


erosion at the period of maximum elevation. Inwards, however, the 


plain now represented by the Minch acted as the base-level of the 
obsequent streams. Owing to their steeper gradient, the rivers 
flowing west ultimately developed flat-bottomed valleys, and, as they 


462 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


pirated some of the head-waters of the eastern streams, the volume 
and erosive power of the east-flowing rivers were diminished pari passu 
with the increase of energy of those in the west. It is an interesting 
and suggestive fact that the Northern Block is trenched by cross 
valleys running from sea to sea, the passes at the watershed being 
mostly below 800 feet level, while the mountain masses on either side 
often rise to 2000 or 3000 feet above sea-level. ‘These topographical 
features may reasonably be accounted for by the relation of the 
obsequent streams flowing west to the old consequent rivers draining 
eastwards across the continental uplift. 


SCULPTURE OF THE CENTRAL BLOCK (GRAMPIAN HIGHLANDS) 


In the Central Block the conditions affecting the evolution of the 
topography of the region resemble to some extent those just described. 
A core or axis of crystalline schists trending north-east and south- 
west, with plutonic igneous masses, forms the dominant feature, which 
is surrounded by less resistant sedimentary strata and contempor- 
aneous volcanic rocks. 

As might be expected, the remnants of the old consequent streams 
are best preserved in the centre, and along the south-east slope of 
this block, especially along a belt of country several miles broad near 
the Highland Border. This belt is composed mainly of highly 
inclined schistose grits of great durability, flanked by weaker strata to 
the north-west and south-east, and is traversed by consequent or 
transverse streams flowing towards the south-east. Within this belt 
the rivers have been occupied in deepening their valleys. There 
has been no capture from neighbouring consequents, which is in 
marked contrast with the behaviour of the same streams on the 
north-west and south-east, as will be shown in the sequel. 

North of this belt the grain of the rocks has had a_ powerful 
influence in modifying the drainage system, so that the Tay-Garry, 
about the centre of the block, is the only old consequent stream that 
extends back continuously into the interior of the region. The rivers 
flowing into the Moray Firth on the north-east, and the sea-lochs 
and sounds on the west, illustrate the potency of this factor in a 
remarkable manner. In the most northerly belt of the Central 
Block there are remnants of the old transverse valleys now occupied 
by obsequent streams draining into the Moray Firth. 

The plain on the south-east side of the Moray Firth is due to the 
removal, in whole or in part, of a succession of comparatively weak 
strata separated from each other and from the underlying crystalline 
schists by planes of denudation and unconformability. The Mesozoic 
strata and the Upper Old Red Sandstone formed part of the original 
covering that has now been removed; but the representatives of the 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 463 


~ Middle Old Red Sandstone had probably the greatest development 


among the younger formations in the Central Block. Indeed, the 
slope of the country from the High Plateau to the Moray Firth is 
partly due to the resuscitation of the old floor of crystalline schists 
on which they were laid down. The apparently abnormal direction 
of the shore-line from Fort George to Kinnaird Head, bounding the 
present plain, is probably due to the strike of the planes of uncon- 
formability in that region, at the base of the Trias, at the base of 
the Upper and of the Middle Old Red Sandstone. 

The drainage towards the Moray Firth was probably established 
at an early date. The disposition of the Old Red Sandstone and 
younger strata and the trend of the shatter belts favoured the action 
of the subsequent streams, so that the successive divides were broken 
down and the disjointed members of. the old consequent rivers were 
made tributaries of the subsequent system of drainage. ‘The Spey is 
the most striking example, for it seems to have been able to cut back- 
wards so as to intercept the old consequent streams of the Northern 
Block as far west as Loch Eil, though subsequently compelled to 
yield part of this ground to invaders from the north and _ west, 
especially to tributaries of the Great Glen. 

The plain in Eastern Aberdeenshire is evidently due to the 
removal of Old Red Sandstone and probably mesozoic strata. The 
trunk river that received the drainage of the greater portion of this 
low-lying tract ran parallel to the existing eastern coast-line of the 
Northern Block, and intercepted all the consequent streams probably 
as far south as the ‘Tay. The Ugie, the Ythan, and the Ury are 
remnants of old consequent streams that crossed this plain. 

The Dee valley has been determined largely by the grain of a 
belt of crystalline schists lying between large masses of granite on 
either side. The history of the Upper Dee and Don suggests that 
these rivers were the first to occupy that portion of the High Plateau. 
For it has been clearly shown that the Feshie captured the head- 
waters of the Geldie, and that the Avon beheaded the Upper Don at 
Inchrory, thus deflecting the drainage at these points towards the 
Spey. The ‘lilt—a ine of the 'Tay—has also pirated the Tarf 
from the Dee. 

The behaviour of the rivers in that part of the Central Block 
lying to the south of the Highland Border fault between Stonehaven 
and the Firth of Clyde has been studied and described by several 
observers in recent years. Brief allusion may here be made to some 
of the salient points and their bearing on the evolution of the topog- 
raphy of that region. 

The Lower Old Red Sandstone along this belt consists of a 


succession of conglomerates, sandstones, and marls with intercalated 


464 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


volcanic rocks, the latter being typically developed in the Ochils and 
Sidlaw Hills, where they form a_ well-marked arch. Between this 
outer range and the Highland Border, the overlying sedimentary 
strata, composed of sandstones and marls, le in a trough now 
represented by Strathmore and the Howe of the Mearns. The 
Upper Old Red Sandstone rests with a strong unconformability 
on the lower division of that formation, outliers of it being found 
at intervals on the coast of Forfarshire and Kincardineshire. In 
this region, as in the Pentland Hills, there is clear evidence for 
maintaining that the members of the Lower Old Red Sandstone 
were folded and denuded before the strata of the upper division 
were deposited. 

A glance at a geological map shows that the rivers Tay, North 
Ksk, and Bervie traverse the marginal belt of the Highlands in deep 
consequent valleys, thence cross the plain occupied by the Lower 
Old Red conglomerates, sandstones, and marls, and breach the volcanic 
arch of the Ochils and Sidlaw Hills. Ultimately they joined the 
trunk river that flowed northwards along the East Coast.  It_ is 
obvious that, at the time of the initiation of these consequent streams, 
Strathmore and the Howe of the Mearns had no existence. There 
must have been a graded slope from the margin of the Highlands 
towards the south-east. ‘The behaviour of the rivers on entering the 
belt of weak strata along Strathmore reveals the processes by which 
the existing topographical features were brought about. Thus the 
Isla, a subsequent tributary of the Tay, by working north-eastwards 
along the weaker Lower Old Red strata, has captured several of 
the old consequent streams draining the Highland Plateau from 
the Ericht to the Upper Isla. The deflection of these waters 
into the Tay led to the initiation of obsequent streams draining 
into the Isla on the north-west slope of the Sidlaw Hills, and the 
formation of wind-gaps across the volcanic arch, of which the 
hollow traversed by the Dundee and Alyth Junction Railway is a 
good example. 

In like manner the South Esk, which may be regarded as a 
subsequent tributary of the North Esk, by working south-westwards 
along the same weak strata has tapped the old consequent streams 
of the Highland Plateau as far to the south-west as the Prosen. 
Again, the Luther Water, a subsequent branch of the North Esk 
from the north-east, has captured several minor consequent rivers. 
Wind-gaps resulting from this deflection are still to be found in 
that portion of the Sidlaw range; one conspicuous example occur- 
ring to the east of Marykirk. Similar phenomena on a smaller 
scale are observable where the Bervie River crosses the Howe of 
the Mearns. 


| Scottish Lake Survey Report. ORO Y COTLAND. PLATE XVII. 


2 


gh 


Scottish Take Survey Report OROGRAPHICAL AND BATHYMETRICAL MAP OF S 


COTLAND. PLATE XVII. 


Note To 
COLOURING 


Heights 


in Feet Ae 


WATERSHEDS ————e 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 465 


SCULPTURE OF THE MIDLAND VALLEY 


Although an arbitrary line extending from the Firth of Forth 
to the Firth of Clyde was chosen as the boundary between the 
Central and Southern Blocks, we may here refer to the Midland 
Valley as a whole, as both sides have many features in common. 
This tract, measuring about 120 miles in length and about 50 miles 
in breadth, is bounded on the north-west by the Highland fault 
reaching from Stonehaven to the Firth of Clyde, and on the south- 
east by the fracture defining the northern margin of the Southern 
Uplands. | 

It has already been shown in the geological section that the 
sediments entering into the structure of the Midland Valley belong 
chiefly to the Old Red Sandstone and Carboniferous formations, with 
which are associated contemporaneous volcanic rocks. The strata 
are arranged in the form of a compound syncline with subsidiary 
minor folds, the longer axes of which are more or less parallel to the 
bounding faults, thus giving rise to a prominent grain of the rocks 
in a north-east and south-west direction. There is ground for 
maintaining that the Midland Valley was originally buried under 
Triassic and younger sediments, which, for the most part, have been 
removed by denudation. 

As soon as the trunk system of drainage had been established at 
the time of greatest elevation, the weak sedimentary strata, attacked 
in flank, soonest gave way, and the system of drainage characterised 
by subsequent streams gained the ascendancy. ‘The volcanic plateaux 
offered greater resistance to the denuding agents, and hence their 
outcrops assumed the form of intervening ridges, while the areas 
occupied by the sediments have been worn down into plains from 
which rise isolated hills and knobs representing major igneous 
intrusions and volcanic necks. These hills of circumdenudation are 
of extreme interest, as they are still breached by the old consequent 
rivers draining the Highland Plateau, and they contain wind-gaps 
indicating the deserted channels of some of these consequent streams. 

Reference has already been made to the behaviour of the Tay, 
North Esk, and Bervie rivers in the north-east portion of the 
Midland Valley. The Forth above Stirling has had a similar history 
to that of the Tay during the period of greatest elevation. It seems 
to have formed an affluent that passed southwards close by St Abb’s 
Head to join a stream that drained the Tees, the combined rivers 
flowing north-eastwards across the plain of the North Sea. The old 
buried channels of the Forth and of its tributaries the Bonny, the Devon, 
and the Almond plainly indicate the greater elevation of the land 


during the evolution of the present topographical features. Like 
30 


466 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


the other east-flowing streams, the Forth occupied the ground first, 
and, by working along the weak belts, captured the old consequent 
rivers of the Central Block as far west as Loch Long. Subsequently 
the streams working inwards from the west have regained part of 
this drainage area. 

Striking examples of wind-gaps are represented by Glen Farg and 
Glen Eagles in the Ochils, the Endrick-Carron hollow across the 
Campsie Fells, and the Blane-Glazert depression between the Campsie 
and Kilpatrick Hills. 

On the south of the Midland Valley the Pentland Hills form 
another ridge of circumdenudation. The course of the river Lyne, 
which traverses this ridge, furnishes remarkable evidence of the 
former existence of topographical features that have long since 
vanished. Rising on the north side of this chain, where it has been 
beheaded by tributaries of the Water of Leith, it still flows through 
these hills as a consequent stream, maintains the old course across 
the West Linton plain, and enters the Southern Uplands in a 
matured valley. In this chain there are two additional instances of 
old consequent rivers, the North Esk and its tributary the Glencorse 
Water, which, beginning on the northern slope of these hills, cross 
them in deep valleys. On emerging from the ridge of Lower Old Red 
Sandstone volcanic rocks, the Glencorse Water enters the plain 
occupied by Carboniferous strata where it has been captured by 
the Esk and made tributary to the Forth. 

Brief allusion may now be made to the probable development of 
the western drainage of the Midland Valley. The trunk river flowing 
along the course of the North Channel, by working its way backwards 
across the mesozoic strata spread over the plain now occupied by 
the Firth of Clyde, captured the old consequent streams up to that 
now represented by the lower part of Loch Fyne. By following the 
weak strata of the Upper Old Red Sandstone and the Cementstone 
Group beneath the Carboniferous volcanic rocks of Renfrewshire, it 
deflected the old drainage system of the Cowal region and the heights 
near Loch Lomond, which, for a time, flowed eastwards to the Forth. 
Beyond this point it probably was aided in its recession by taking 
advantage of one of the hollows established by a tributary of the 
Forth. On reaching the Clyde basin above Dalmuir it captured the 
lower portion of the river Clyde, which, as an obsequent stream, had 
for a time discharged its waters into the Forth. 


SCULPTURE OF THE SOUTHERN BLOCK (SOUTHERN UPLANDS) 
The Southern Block, as already indicated, has a core of Silurian 
strata, with a persistent north-east and south-west strike, pierced by 
large igneous masses, and more or less surrounded by less resistant 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 467 


sediments, whose remains are traceable across parts of the plateau. 
Remnants of the old consequent river system established before the 
isolation of the three blocks are still preserved in the southern region, 
of which the Nith is the finest example. 

On the south side of the plateau the subsequent or longitudinal 
system of drainage has been set up by rivers attacking the weak 
sediments in flank. Thus the Tweed, working from the east, along 
the less resistant Carboniferous and Upper Old Red Sandstone strata, 
eventually followed the grain of the Silurian rocks, and by these 
means was able to intercept all the old consequent drainage west- 
wards to beyond the centre of the plateau. South of the plain of the 
Merse, remnants of the old transverse streams again appear; for the 
Coquet, Rede, and Tyne, rising on the north side of the Cheviot 
range, cross it in well-marked hollows. 

The tributary of the North Channel River, flowing along what is 
now the plain of the Solway Firth, cut its way backwards along the 
younger sediments. In the higher reaches of this stream, the Liddel, 
by following the grain of the Lower Carboniferous rocks, captured 
some of the smaller streams belonging to the Tweed system. The 
Solway-Liddle tributary deflected, from Luce Bay eastwards to the 
Esk, the old consequent rivers that crossed the Southern Block. 

On the north side the development of the Central Plain has 
obliterated most of the courses of the old consequent streams, but 
the Doon on the west and the Clyde in the middle have maintained 
the old direction of their valleys by becoming obsequent streams. 
Frequent reference has been made in geological literature, and 
particularly by Sir A. Geikie, to the remarkable course of the river 
Nith. The infant stream rises on the north slope of the Southern 
Uplands, and flows northwards from the Silurian plateau to the plain 
of Carboniferous strata, along which it runs in an easterly direction 
for five miles to New Cumnock, where it changes its course to the south- 
east in the direction of the Solway. ‘The easterly course of the 
stream above New Cumnock was doubtless determined by a subsequent 
tributary of the old consequent river that crossed the plateau before 
the isolation of the three blocks. 

As in the northern and central regions already described, there 
is evidence to show that, in the Southern Block, the eastward-flowing 
streams extended farther to the west than at present, and that portion 
of their territory has been captured by rivers draining to the west 
and south-west. The Tweed may be instanced as an excellent 
example of these mutations. By means of its tributary, now repre- 
sented by the Biggar Water, it cut backwards till it captured the 
old consequent Clyde, a large part of which it rendered obsequent. 
It also appears to have receded far to the west by appropriating the 


468 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


upper portion of this same consequent, of which the Duneaton and 
Douglas Waters were already subsequent tributaries. As the North 
Channel River and the Lower Clyde cut backwards through weak 
Carboniferous strata more rapidly than the tributaries of the Tweed 
among the durable Silurian rocks, they eventually captured the 
territory which had been temporarily annexed by the Tweed. 

A feature of special interest in connection with the topography 
of the Southern Block is the resuscitation of old paleozoic land 
surfaces in the course of the development of the existing physical 
features. Thus we find evidence of the existence of a transverse 
valley system of pre-Upper Old Red Sandstone age, of which Lauder- 
dale is a characteristic example. In this ancient hollow, sediments 
of Upper Old Red Sandstone age were laid down which are now 
being eroded by the Leader Water. Another, but less obvious, valley 
is still buried under sandstones and conglomerates belonging to the 
same period, stretching across the Eastern Lammermuirs from Long- 
formacus to Dunbar. 

Nithsdale and Loch Ryan are instances of pre-Carboniferous 
hollows, for they are still floored in part by Carboniferous strata 
which are remnants of more extensive deposits. In the case of Loch 
Ryan, the Carboniferous rocks must have undergone considerable 
denudation before the deposition of the overlying red sandstones of 
Permian or Triassic age. Annandale furnishes striking evidence of 
a valley system dating back to paleeozoic time, as the breccias (Permian 
or Triassic) which floor the present valley near Moffat contain 
blocks of fossiliferous Lower Carboniferous strata that once filled 
these hollows. The hollow of Eskdalemuir is another example, for 
the deep staining of the Silurian rocks points to the removal by 
denudation of red strata from that area. Again, in the Abington 
region outlying patches of Carboniferous strata and breccia of 
Permian or Triassic age rest unconformably on the old Silurian floor 
in such a manner as to suggest that the Clyde took advantage of these 
weak sediments while cutting backwards as an obsequent stream. 

Along the western edge of the Upper Old Red Sandstone south of: 
Melrose there are examples of a secondary system of smaller valleys 
following the grain of the Silurian rocks, which contain outliers of 
Upper Old Red Sandstone. Recent observations point to the 
existence of such sediments in the valley of the Ettrick far to the 
west of Selkirk. 

The relation of the Upper Old Red Sandstone to the Silurian 
rocks along the northern slope of the Moorfoot and Lammermuir 
Hills shows that part at least of the steep northern declivity was a 
feature established in Upper Old Red Sandstone time. Similar 
instances of the resuscitation of the old land surfaces along the north- 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 469 
west face of the Cheviots might be adduced, where Upper Old Red 


Sandstone and Carboniferous strata rest on an ancient platform of 
Silurian and Lower Old Red Sandstone volcanic rocks. South of 
Jedburgh, there are isolated hills carved out of Lower Old Red Sand- 
stone lavas at the close of that period, which are now restored by the 
partial removal of Upper Old Red strata that once enveloped them. 

The evidence now adduced, in brief outline, reveals the extensive 
denudation of the ancient Silurian tableland during various geological 
periods, and the behaviour of the ‘Triassic sediments indicates that 
mesozoic strata entered into the structure of the Southern Uplands 
and of the Midland Valley at the time of the initiation of the river 
systems during the ‘Tertiary period. 


GLACIATION OF SCOTLAND 


In the preceding section, dealing with the evolution of the topog- 
raphy of the country, reference has been made to the fact that in 
pre-glacial time Scotland stood at a higher elevation above the sea- 
level than it does at present. Mining operations in the basins of the 
Forth and Clyde have conclusively shown that coal-seains have been 
worked up to the margins of pre-glacial river-channels now filled 
with various superficial deposits. For example, the bottom of one of 
these ancient river courses at Grangemouth is 240 feet below present 
sea-level. 

But in Scotland no deposits of later Tertiary time have yet been 
detected which might throw light on the changes that preceded the 
advent of the Ice Age. In England, however, valuable evidence is 
supplied by the later Tertiary formations. The older Pliocene 
deposits on the Norfolk coast, which are all of marine origin, were 
laid down at some distance from land, in a warm temperate sea. On 
the other hand, the Newer Pliocene strata indicate a gradual refrigera- 
tion of climate. Professor James Geikie and Mr Clement Reid have 
shown that the land and fresh-water mollusca of the lower part of the 
Red Crag are mainly of South European types, while those of the 
higher zones from the Upper Red Crag to the Weybourn Crag 
present a more northern facies. It is evident, therefore, that during 
these stages the seas of East Anglia must have been connected with the 
Arctic Ocean, and that the North Sea may have been occupied by an 
Arctic fauna. ‘These facts point to the submergence of the Contin- 
ental Shelf and the severance of Britain from Scandinavia across the 
plain of the North Sea. 

The succeeding Cromer Forest Bed, consisting of a series of 
estuarine and lacustrine strata laid down under temperate condi- 
tions, points to a greater extension of land surface than now prevails, 


470 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


the southern half of the North Sea forming a plain watered by the 
Rhine. The Yoldta (Leda) myalis bed, resting transgressively some- 
times on the Forest Bed and sometimes on the Weybourn Crag, 
indicates .a slight depression of the estuary, and the prevalence of 
boreal and arctic conditions. At the top of this sequence we find 
the arctic fresh-water bed with plant-remains, proving a great 
lowering of temperature, which, in the opinion of Mr Clement Reid, 
may have allowed the seas to be blocked with ice during the winter, 
and glaciers to form in the hilly districts. From these data it would 
appear that at this stage in Norfolk the relative position of land and 
sea must have been much the same as at the present time. Evidence 
tending to support this conclusion has been recently obtained in the 
south of Ireland. In view of these data, there can be little doubt 
that the refrigeration of climate which culminated in the glacial 
period was a slow and gradual process. 

Before proceeding to describe the glacial phenomena of Scotland, 
we ought to call special attention to the fact that the main valley 
systems of the country and the dominant features of the High 
Plateau had been determined in pre-glacial time. The prolonged 
glaciation of the mainland and the outer islands produced important 
modifications of these physical features, which have survived to the 
present day. 

Throughout Scotland there is overwhelming evidence of the 
intense glaciation of the northern part of Britain. ‘The phenomena 
point to (1) a period of maximum glaciation, when the Scottish and 
Scandinavian ice-sheets coalesced on the floor of the North Sea; (2) 
a period of valley glaciers which became confluent in certain areas. 
Each epoch is characterised by different centres of ice dispersal, by 
different methods of ice erosion,and by distinctive glacial accumulations. 


MAXIMUM GLACIATION 


During the period of maximum extension the ice must have 
enveloped the whole country and radiated from three great centres ; 
the first being situated in the Northern Block, to the north-west of 
the Great Glen; the second, in the Central Block, between the Great 
Glen and the eastern border of the Highlands; and the third, in 
the Southern Uplands. The ice-shed of the Northern Block ran 
approximately north and south, and over a large part of the area 
lay to the east of the present watershed; that of the Central Block 
appears to have had a short axis trending generally east and west, 
and situated in the region of the Moor of Rannoch; while that of 
the Southern Block ran in a north-east and south-west direction 
along the crest of the Southern Uplands, from Broadlaw in Peebles- 
shire to the Merrick in Kirkcudbrightshire. Beyond these main 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 471 


areas of ice dispersal there were minor centres, as, for instance, in the 
Cuillin Hills in Skye and in the Cheviots. 

The ice radiating from the three main centres coalesced on the 
intervening plains, and moved towards the Continental Shelf on either 
side. ‘Thus the ice from the Eastern Highlands invaded the Mid- 
land Valley, and met the sheet from the Southern Uplands as far 
south as the Pentland Hills and the Lammermuirs on the east, and 
Muirkirk and New Cumnock on the west; the confluent streams 
moving towards the North Sea and the Firth of Clyde. Again, the 
glaciers from the mountains of Ross and Inverness crossed the plain 
of the Moray Firth and invaded the coastal belt of Nairn, Elgin, 
and Banff. 

As already indicated, the ice flowing eastwards off the mainland of 
Scotland united with the Scandinavian mer de glace on the floor of 
the North Sea. One branch of the combined ice-field moved north- 
wards from the Firth of Forth, and, skirting the coast-lines of 
Kincardine and Aberdeen, ultimately overrode Caithness, Orkney, 
and Shetland on its onward march to the Atlantic. The southern 
branch, pressed back by the Scandinavian sheet, was deflected south- 
wards, and invaded the plains of England south of Flamborough 
Head. 

On the north coast of Sutherland the ice advanced in a north- 
west direction under the influence of the mer de glace that passed 
over Caithness and Orkney. Along the western seaboard, from 
Cape Wrath to Kintyre, the general movement was outwards across 
the Continental Shelf, with important local deflections due to the 
physical features of the Western Isles. During the maximum exten- 
sion the ice from the mainland crossed the Minch and overtopped 
the Outer Hebrides; it coalesced with the local sheet of the Cuillin 
Hills, and the combined streams surmounted the basalt plateau to 
the north of these mountains. 

South of Loch Fyne the Highland stream advanced towards the 
Firth of Clyde, where it united with the ice from the western portion 
of the Southern Uplands, and moved southwards towards the Irish 
Sea, a branch being deflected westwards across Kintyre under the 
influence of the sheet radiating from the north of Ireland. 

No reliable estimate can be given of the thickness of this extensive 
ice-field, but it must have reached great dimensions when none of 
the peaks of the mainland rose as nunataks above the surface of the 
ice, when the outlying islands were overtopped and the intervening 
sounds were occupied by the mer de glace. Professor James Geikie 
suggests that some of the mountains in Harris may have protruded 
above the ice-field. 

The phenomena attributable to the ice during the period of 


A472 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


maximum extension may thus be briefly summarised:—(1) The 
grinding up of the cover of rotted rock and loose debris due to 
subaerial waste in the later divisions of Tertiary time; (2) the 
scooping out of loosened material along shatter belts or great lines of 
fracture ; (3) the differential erosion of the rocks entering into the 
geological structure of the country, dependent upon the variation in 
the powers of resistance of the strata, on the thickness and slope of the 
ice, and on the grinding power of its basal layers charged with sand, 
clay, and stones ; (4) the consequent steepening of opposing rock-faces, 
of escarpments, of mountain sides, the deepening of valley floors, the 
planing of cols, and the general lowering of the rocky plateaux. 

Thus we find in those cases where the trend of the valley coincided 
with the direction of ice-flow during the maximum extension, that 
V-shaped valleys became U-shaped—a form characteristic of glaciated 
mountain regions. The projecting spurs were removed, and a lack of 
adjustment was produced between the over-deepened trunk valleys 
and their tributaries. The latter are termed hanging valleys, owing 
to the steep gradient at which they enter the trunk valleys. Another 
result of the abrasion by the ice, which will be more fully dealt with 
in the sequel, was the production of one or more rock-basins along 
the course of the valley, dependent upon the topographical features, 
the geological structure, and the erosive power of the ice in each case. 

The distribution of the ice in the region situated to the north- 
west of the Great Glen, where the ice-shed lay to the east of the 
watershed over part of the area, caused a drainage of ice across the 
low cols in the old transverse valleys. Hence, owing to the excessive 
erosion which they experienced, these low cols form flats often 
studded with lochans, many of which are true rock-basins. Where 
the side streams debouch on the cols they form deltas, which deflect 
the drainage to the east or west, or impound the waters and thereby 
give rise to lakelets. 

The glacial accumulation characteristic of this period is the 
boulder clay, with lenticular sheets of sand and gravel, which forms 
an extensive covering in the Lowlands, and stretches up the 
valleys of the Southern Uplands, and to a limited extent in the 
Highlands. Its remarkable thickness in certain localities, and its 
continuity in the Lowlands, furnishes impressive testimony of the 
modification of the country during the period of maximum extension 
of the ice; but though the area which it covers on the mainland seems 
large, it is in reality small compared with the covering which must 
have been spread over the Continental Shelf. 

During the retreat of the great mer de glace, marginal lakes were 
formed between the ice-front and the slopes of the hills from which 
the ice had melted away, thus giving rise to terraces of sand and 


a 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 47538 


gravel, at a height in some cases of several hundred feet above the 
present level of the sea. Typical examples of such phenomena, 
resulting in the modification of the drainage of the country, have 
been described by Professor James Geikie as occurring on the slopes 
of the Eaglesham and Strathavon Hills, and by Professor Kendall 
and Mr Bailey on the northern declivity of the Lammermuir Hills. 

At certain localities in Scotland, as for instance at Clava, near 
Inverness, and on the west coast of Kintyre north of Machrihanish, 
deposits of clay with arctic shells are found beneath boulder clay, 
which differ-in character and origin from the shelly boulder clay of 
Caithness, Orkney, Ayrshire, and Wigtownshire. ‘The shelly clays at 
the former localities are marine deposits, which indicate a depression 
of the land before the maximum extension of the ice, while the shelly 
boulder clays have been formed by land ice, which in its onward 
march had previously passed over a portion of a sea floor. 


LATER GLACIATION 


During the later glaciation the centres of ice dispersion were 
wholly changed. Instead of three great areas of distribution on the 
mainland, each mountain group seems to have nourished its own 
system of glaciers. It is true that for a time the glaciers became 
confluent, and that the ice passed over intervening cols from one line 
of drainage to another. But as a rule the direction of the ice-flow 
coincided with the trend of the valley system. Thus we find that in 
certain areas the ice moved in a direction precisely opposite or 
oblique to that during the continental ice-phase. A change so 
marked seems to afford reasonable ground for maintaining that these 
glacial epochs may have been separated by an inter-glacial period. 

The phenomena characteristic of the later glaciation are typically 
developed in the Highlands. All the main valleys were filled with 
trunk glaciers fed by innumerable tributaries draining the various 
mountain groups. In the tract lying to the north-west of the 
Great Glen the glaciers seem to have reached the sea-level in nearly 
all the firths of the East Coast, and in nearly all the sea-lochs and 
sounds on the western seaboard. On the north shore of Sutherland 
the ice apparently moved out to sea, and formed a more or less 
continuous ice-front extending from the borders of Caithness west- 
wards as far as the Kyle of Tongue, while lobes of ice occupied Loch 
Kireboll and the Kyle of Durness. What may be conveniently de- 
scribed as ice-cauldrons were set up in Central Sutherland, and in the 
district of Loch Monar on the borders of Ross-shire and Inverness-shire. 

Even the remote Orkney and Shetland Isles, and the hills of 
Lewis and Harris in the Outer Hebrides, nourished their own 
independent glaciers. 


A74 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


In the region situated between the Great Glen and the Midland 
Valley, glaciers occupied the main valleys, and formed in certain areas 
lobes of ice on the plain. They reached the sea-level in most of the 
western fjords, but not on the East Coast. An ice-cauldron was 
established on Rannoch Moor—an area surrounded by lofty mountains 
—which was drained by a few principal gaps. 

In the Southern Uplands there was only a limited development 
of valley glaciers. In the Lammermuir Hills and the Moorfoots no 
deposits characteristic of this period have been detected. Westwards 
we find evidence of small ice-streams in the valleys draining Broadlaw, 
Hartfell, and Ettrick Pen, the Lowther and Queensberry Hills, and 
the mass of high ground culminating in Cairnsmore of Carsphairn, 
between Sanquhar and the sources of the river Ken. The great 
cauldron between the Kells and Merrick ranges was so thickly filled 
with ice that glaciers issued from all the main gaps, bearing granite 
boulders for a considerable distance from their parent source. ‘The 
greatest confluent glacier of this period in the Southern Uplands 
was formed by the ice that issued from the central cauldron by Glen 
Trool, which, uniting with the Minnock glacier, fed by various 
tributaries on the western declivity of the Merrick range, spread far 
over the plain. 

There is a marked difference between the conditions of erosion of 
the continental ice-sheet and those of the valley glaciers. During 
the former phase, as already indicated, the ice-shed was largely 
independent of the existing watershed, and the movement was 
frequently across the valleys. No rock debris could fall on to the 
surface of the mer de glace on the mainland, and the main escape 
of the melt-water was beyond the limits of the present land surface. 
During the later phase the glaciers mostly radiated from the main 
mountain groups and followed the trend of the valleys. At the 
same time the prominent crags furnished materials which were borne 
downwards to lower levels on the surface of the ice. The glaciers 
interrupted the drainage of bare areas and thus received a supply of 
water, which doubtless raised the temperature of the ice to the critical 
melting-point relative to pressure, thus ensuring more rapid flow. 
This water, combined with that set free from the ice, often under 
great hydrostatic pressure, must have circulated on the floor ‘in 
hollows below water-level, thereby abstracting the “flour of rock,” 
increasing the erosive action of the ice. These phenomena show 
that during the later glaciation ice-erosion was mainly concentrated 
on the valley floors, which would tend to over-deepen the main 
valleys and produce rock-basins in them. 

The glacial accumulations characteristic of this period are well 
defined. Where the great valley glaciers debouched on the plains, 


ba MAP SHOWING DIRECTION OF ICE FLOW AND PROBABLE ICE FRONT 
IN NORTH-WEST EUROPE DURING MAXIMUM GLACIATION. = py. xvatr. 


20 15 10 10 


o 

& — 
2g 
Kod «AT om 


een 
\ 10 
et 


Oe 
The Edinburgh Geographical Institute 


J.G.Bartholomew, 


} rn n ‘ 
(0) 50 100 200 300 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 475 


concentric ridges of gravel and morainic material indicate their lower 
limits. Within the valleys the hill-slopes are terraced with lateral 
moraines, and the floors are strewn with mounds and ridges, often of 
horseshoe shape, marking stages in the farther retreat of the ice. 
That old wind-gaps between adjoining ridges were used as overflow 
channels is shown by the occurrence of gravels at these levels where 
only dry hollows now exist, and by the occurrence of rock notches across 
comparatively steep slopes. ‘These phenomena, which are of common 
occurrence in certain districts of the Highlands, point to temporary 
drainage deflected by the ice, which continued long enough to enable 
the streams te entrench themselves. Sometimes lakes of considerable 
extent were impounded by ice-barriers, as in the case of the Parallel 
Roads of Glen Roy, where each terrace marks the temporary margin 
of a lake the height of which is determined by the level of the lowest 
col free from ice. Another characteristic feature of this period of 
retreat of the glaciers is the deposition of a series of fluvio-glacial 
gravels due to the escape of melt-water, which led to the reassortment 
of the morainic material, sometimes round masses of ice isolated from 
the retreating glaciers. 

The last phase of the later glaciation was characterised by the 
occurrence of small glaciers in the high corries, which sometimes gave 
rise to small rock-basins, terminal moraines, and groups of mounds. 
In the North-West Highlands these local glaciers survived to a late 
period in the geological history of the country, as they rest on the 
deposits of the 50-ft. beach at the head of Loch Torridon. 


THe Distrieurion AND PrRoBpaBLE ORIGIN OF ScorrisH LAKES 


The numerous lakes in Scotland, ranging in size from small tarns 
on the high plateaux and pools on the drift plains to large sheets of 
water in the valleys, may be arranged in the following groups :—: 


i. Lochans lying in hollows in, or surrounded by, peat. 

i. Lakes due to the action of the wind: (1) by the interruption of drainage 
in the case of sand-dunes, as, for instance, Loch Strathbeg near 
Fraserburgh, Loch Wester in Caithness, and numerous lakes on the 
west side of South Uist ; (2) by the removal of disintegrated rock, as, 
for example, on high granite plateaux. 

ii. Lakes due to river action: (1) those formed on flat cols by cones of debris, 
of which Loch na Bi, near Tyndrum, is an instance ; (2) crescent-shaped 
or ‘“‘oxbow” lakes resulting from the isolation of stream-meanders on 
flood-plains. 

iv. Lakes due to wave action on the seashore, where sheets of water are 
enclosed by gravel bars (Loch Sine, on the west side of Loch Eireboll). 

v. Lakes caused by chemical action on limestone plateaux (Loch Borralaidh 
and Loch Croisaphull near Durness, Loch Maol a’ Choire or the Gillaroo 
Loch near Inchnadamff). 


476 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


vi. Lakes resulting from the irregular distribution of the drift: (1) those 
lying in boulder clay ; (2) those resting on morainic deposits ; (3) those 
situated partly on drift and partly on solid rock ; (4) kettle-holes caused 
by the accumulation of fluvio-glacial sand and gravel round isolated 
masses of ice during retreat. 

vil. Lakes occupying rock-basins, which may be thus classified: (1) plateau 
rock-basins, (2) valley rock-basins, (3) corrie rock-basins, (4) those 
lying along shatter belts due to faults. 

By far the largest number of Scottish lakes is included under the 
last two groups of the above table. There is little room for controversy 
regarding the origin of the various lakes in Scotland, except those 
lying in true rock-basins. We will now proceed to consider the 
probable origin of the latter series in the light of the evidence which 
has already been presented regarding the geological structure, the 
topography, and the glaciation of the country, with the aid of the 
fresh data obtained by the Lake Survey. 


PLATEAU ROCK-BASINS 


The plateau basins are extremely abundant in the coastal belt 
occupied by the Lewisian gneiss on the western seaboard of Sutherland 
and Ross, and also in the Outer Hebrides, where the rocks are re- 
markably bare of drift. They may, however, occur at any elevation. 
Contrasted with the valley rock-basins they are comparatively small 
and shallow. ‘Their distribution is very irregular, and altogether 
independent of drainage. ‘The soundings show that their floors are 
uneven, and that in some cases, as in the Outer Hebrides, four or five 
separate basins occur in one lake. 

To account for them by differential movement would not only 
necessitate a special subsidence in each case, but several irregular 
movements for each lake containing several distinct basins. It is 
no doubt true, as described in the section relating to geological 
structure, that the Lewisian.rocks are traversed by shear planes and 
disruption lines which modified the structures of these rocks in pre- 
Torridonian time ; but such movements cannot possibly account for 
these shallow, irregular depressions. This theory seems to us so 
improbable as to be quite untenable. 

On the other hand, evidence has been adduced in the section deal- 
ing with glaciation to show that this coastal belt was crossed by an 
ice-sheet that filled the Minch and overtopped the Outer Hebrides, 
whose thickness could not have been less than several thousand feet. 
Throughout the Lewisian Gneiss plateau there are clear proofs of 
the moulding of the surface features by glacial action, and of the 
differential erosion of the rocks by ice. The lake soundings show 
that weak structures have there undergone the greatest modification, 
which may be reasonably attributed to the action of this agent. In 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 477 


view of this evidence, the phenomena presented by these plateau basins 
may be satisfactorily explained by the action of land ice. 


VALLEY ROCK-BASINS 


Valley rock-basins are more important topographical features, and 
the question of their origin has excited keener controversy. One 
condition of prime importance in the formation of such basins is the 
production of graded valley floors, reduced to a base-level either with 
regard to the sea or to barriers of hard rock with intervening weaker 
strata. These flat reaches might then be converted into rock-basins 
either by differential crustal movements with or without lateral com- 
pression, or by land ice, which is capable of eroding below the action 
of running water, as suggested by Sir A. C. Ramsay. It need hardly 
be pointed out that aqueous erosion is incapable of producing the 
characteristic phenomena of valley rock-basins. 

The soundings of the Lake Survey have established certain points 
which are highly suggestive in connection with the question of the 
origin of such basins, ‘They show (1) that these depressions are 
U-shaped in cross-section, like the contour of the glaciated valleys in 
which they lie; (2) that there is a lack of adjustment between the large 
valley rock-basins and tributary streams, the relation between them 
being analogous to that between trunk streams and tributary hanging 
valleys; (3) that while the large lakes have usually comparatively flat 
floors, many of them have several distinct basins ; (4) that the deepest 
soundings frequently occur where the constriction of the valley is 
greatest ; (5) that the steepest slopes are often found at concave bends 
in the larger rock-basins, where it can be shown that the differential 
erosion of the ice must have been most powerful. 

All these phenomena indicate that valley rock-basins present 
many of the features which are characteristic of glacial action. But 
in addition to these points we will now proceed to show that the 
distribution and form of many of the rock-basins in Scotland are 
produced under complex local conditions dependent on the geological 
structure, pre-glacial topography, and differential ice-erosion of the 
particular regions in which they occur. 

A study of an orographical map of Scotland shows that valley 
rock-basins are almost confined to those highly dissected regions 
where deep through valleys have been established between high 
mountains, and where the cols form low divides or passes in the exist- 
ing watershed of the country. In the section dealing with topography 
we have endeavoured to point out that the westerly and northerly 
flowing streams have, by capture, reversed the drainage and produced 
a series of through valleys. Such features are specially developed 
in the western portions of the Northern, Central, and Southern 


478 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Blocks into which the country is divided. The evidence bearing 
on the glaciation of these areas clearly indicates that these depressions 
acted as outlets for a larger volume of ice than could have been ob- 
tained from the catchment basin of the valley containing a particular 
rock-basin. In the Northern Block, where during the maximum glacia- 
tion the ice-shed lay to the east of the existing watershed, these 
conditions must have had a marked influence on the direction and 
volume of the ice-flow. In the western part of the counties of 
Sutherland and Ross, Lochs More, Stack, Veyatie, Lurgan, Loch na 
Sheallag, and Loch Fada may be quoted as examples of lakes that 
originated under these conditions. Loch Maree is similarly situated, 
and some of the sea-lochs in that region are true fjord basins. In 
North Sutherland, where deep through valleys draining northward 
from the central plateau have been established, similar rock-basins 
are to be found, as, for instance, Loch Hope, Loch an Dithreibh, 
Loch Laoghal, Loch Naver, and Loch Coir’ an Fhearna. 

It is a remarkable fact that rock-basins are extremely rare in the 
Monadhhath and Cairngorm Mountains, and the Eastern Grampians, 
where there are extensive areas of undissected plateau. In these 
regions the valleys are open and comparatively shallow ; they have an 
almost uninterrupted slope, and they lead up to lofty ground. A similar 
contrast is observable in the Southern Uplands; for in the Moorfoot 
and Lammermuir Hills in the eastern part of that tableland, lakes 
occupying rock-basins have not been recorded, while far to the west 
among the high grounds of Galloway they are prominently developed. 
It will be shown in the sequel that the Galloway rock-basins are 
dependent upon the remarkable topographical features of that region 
which resulted in extreme differential erosion during both periods of 
glaciation. 

The distribution of many of the Scottish rock-basins further shows 
that individual lakes and even groups of lakes are ponded by rocky 
barriers that form prominent features in the geological structure of 
the country. A remarkable series illustrating these characteristics, and 
comprising, among others, Loch Katrine, Loch Ard, Loch Chon, 
Loch Lubnaig, Loch Voil, and Loch Earn, and the upper part of 
Loch Lomond, occurs on the border of the Eastern Highlands in 
Perthshire. In that region the rocky barrier consists chiefly of meta- 
morphic schistose grits (the Ben Ledi and Leny grits) trending in 
an east-north-east and west-south-west direction, which are followed 
inland by weaker strata composed of phyllites and mica-schists. Loch 
Katrine may be taken as the most striking example of the group, as 
it displays in a remarkable manner certain features which, in our 
opinion, point to differential erosion by ice. In the geological notes 

1 See Appendix. 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 479 


descriptive of this lake we have stated that for a distance of four 
miles west from Brenachoil Lodge to Stronachlachar—about half of the 
total length of the loch—the lake has a comparatively flat bottom 
enclosed by the 400-feet contour line. The deepest sounding is 495 
feet, which is situated at the eastern limit of this basin, nearly due 
south of Brenachoil; and the chart shows that the soundings gradually 
increase in depth eastward to Brenachoil. ‘The position of the 
deepest sounding is of special interest; for the strata which there 
occupy the floor of the lake consist of schistose micaceous grits in 
front of the massive Ben Ledi grits and epidotic grits (Green Beds) 
which form the great rocky barrier at and above the outlet of the lake. 

A study of an orographical map shows that the depressions 
containing these lakes are connected by low passes with valleys lying 
farther to the north; and hence, during the period of confluent glaciers, 
the volume of ice would be greatly increased and maintained for a 
considerable time. 

Another series of valley rock-basins illustrating the relation of 
geological structure to differential ice-erosion occurs in the North- 
West Highlands, where the lakes lie in weaker 'Torridonian strata and 
the barrier consists of the harder Lewisian Gneiss. In the Coigach 
district of West Ross-shire a chain of lakes—viz. Lochs Bad a 
Ghaill, Rudha na h’Aclise, and Lurgain—is ponded by a ridge of 
Lewisian Gneiss once deeply buried beneath the Torridon Sandstone 
till the denuding agents that formed the valley exposed its top. 
Loch a Bhealaich and Loch Damh, on the north and south sides of 
Loch Torridon respectively, he in Torridonian strata with a similar 
barrier of Lewisian Gneiss. The sea-lochs Little Loch Broom and 
Upper Loch Torridon, which are small fjord basins, fall into the same 
category. 

Loch Shin is an excellent example of a lake ponded by a rocky 
barrier. It les more or less along the strike of the crystalline schists 
of the Moine series in the old consequent valley of the Shin, and its 
barrier consists of a belt of the same rocks invaded and indurated by 
a plexus of granite intrusions which have rendered them highly 
resistant. 

No less striking instances are those elongated rock-basins in the 
valleys of Coruisk (Loch Coruisk) and Camasunary (Loch na Creubh- 
aich) in Skye, which have been fully described by Mr Harker. The 
determining condition in both cases was the same, a marked 
constriction of the valley towards its lower end, which must have 
occasioned a heaping up of the ice. Mr Harker states that in 
Coruisk the constriction was caused by the Sgt Dubh ridge running 
out eastward from the main range; while in the Camasunary valley 
the same effect was produced by the convergence southward of the 


480 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


flanking ridges Blathbheinn on the east, and Druim an Ejidhne, 
Sgurr an Eidhne, and Sgurr na Stri on the west. 

Among Scottish rock-basins, perhaps the most convincing ex- 
amples of the relation of differential ice-erosion to topography are 
those that radiate from what may be described as ice-cauldrons. The 
first group to which attention may be directed occurs in the 
mountainous district of Galloway, where a cauldron-like hollow re- 
presenting a drainage area of sixty square miles is situated between 
the Kells and Merrick ranges of hills. The hollow is due to the 
differential weathering of the granite mass extending from Loch 
Doon to Loch Dee and its surrounding aureole of altered Silurian 
sediments which have been indurated by contact metamorphism with 
the granite. The lofty hill ranges bounding the central granite mass 
are composed of these altered sediments, and these are breached 
by the rivers Doon, Dee, Girvan, and the Trool, a tributary of the 
river Cree. 

The Doon, an obsequent stream in a through consequent valley 
still partly drained by the consequent Dee, has base-levelled a large 
part of the interior granite mass, and has formed a watershed with the 
Dee in a deep valley, upon a low flat col studded with lochans. ‘The 
Trool though breaching the barrier at a lower level than the other 
streams, has not been able to remove so much of the interior granite, 
and hence drains a higher part of the plateau. The river Girvan 
enters the cauldron on a higher level than the Doon, and has therefore 
been beheaded by tributaries of the latter stream. Hence by the 
action of these streams the granitic detritus has been removed at a 
quicker rate than the debris of the altered Silurian sediments. Loch 
Doon, the chief outlet, drains nearly two-thirds of the central plateau, 
while the remainder of the catchment basin is about equally shared 
by the Dee and the Trool, the part drained by the Girvan being 
extremely small. 

In the description of the glaciation of the Southern Uplands we 
pointed out that this mass of high ground formed an axis of dispersion 
during both periods of ice extension, when a large reservoir of ice 
must have accumulated in the central cauldron, which discharged deep 
streams by the respective gaps. 


Loch Doon, occupying the floor of the largest gap, has been 


described as a typical rock-basin showing clear traces of glaciation 
round its shores, on its rocky islets, and at its outlet, where well- 
striated roches moutonnées appear. The deepest sounding (100 feet) 
occurs where the valley is constricted by the northern range of altered 
Silurian sediments abutting against the loch east of the Wee Hill of 
Craigmullach. Below this point the lake widens, and its floor there 
forms a shallower basin, where. it emerges from the higher hills on to 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 481 


the lower ground. The barrier at its outlet consists of massive gritty 
greywackes belonging to the Silurian system. 

Loch Dee is situated near the south-eastern gap, and partakes of 
the character of a plateau basin and of a valley rock-basin; for there 
must have been a considerable escape of ice by the col at the head of 
the Black Laggan valley, though the drainage of that stream is 
northward towards the cauldron. The long narrow peat-moss 
traversed by the Cooran Lane to the north of Loch Dee probably 
conceals a silted-up valley rock-basin. 

Loch Trool, occupying the south-western gap, is a typical rock-basin 
excavated along the strike of the altered Silurian strata. The deepest 
sounding (55 feet) occurs near the head of the lake, where the valley is 
most constricted ; and the basin gradually shallows where it enters the 
low ground of Wigtownshire. As in the case of Loch Doon, there is 
here nee dices of differential ice-erosion on the shores and rocky 
islets of the lake. 

Loch Girvan Eye, at the head of the river Girvan, is a small rocky 
tarn evidently due to ice-erosion. Several plateau rock-basins occur 
on the floor of the central cauldron, as for instance Lochs Macaterick, 
Lochricawr, and Enoch, which drain into the Doon, and Lochs 
Neldricken and Valley, which discharge into the Trool. The last of 
these is ponded by moraines, but the granite is exposed not far below 
the outlet. 

Rannoch Moor, embracing an area of about 180 square miles, 
also appears to have acted as an ice-cauldron, radiating ice through 
gaps in the surrounding high ground. It now forms a plateau with 
a general height of about 1000 feet, composed mainly of granite, with 
encircling mountains rising to a height of over 3000 feet, consisting 
chiefly of crystalline schists of sedimentary origin. Several lines of 
fault or shatter belts traverse the granite and surrounding schists in 
a north-east and south-west direction. Situated about the middle of 
the Central Block, it is drained by streams that have breached the 
mountain barriers and have base-levelled large areas of the Moor. 
The river Tummel—a tributary of the Tay “Tice accomplished more 
work in this direction than any of the other streams. The geological 
history of the Rannoch plateau closely resembles that of the Galloway 
cauldron just described. From its situation also it served as a reservoir 
for the accumulation of ice during both glaciations. 

It is a remarkable fact that rock-basins are situated in many of 
these gaps, where the volume of ice issuing from the central cauldron 
would be greatest and its erosive power, subject to local conditions, 
would be increased. Loch Rannoch, situated in the widest gap, is a 
fine example of a rock-basin ; for though at the lower end the river 
Tummel on issuing from the lake flows along an alluvial flat for a 


31 


482 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


distance of three miles as far as Dun Alastair, a rocky barrier appears 
at the latter point in the river and on the hill-slopes. This barrier 
culminates in Schichallion (3547 feet) and Beinn a’ Chuallaich (2925 
feet) on either side of the valley. The ice moved down the valley 
from the Rannoch Moor, and it is worthy of note that the deepest 
sounding (440 feet) occurs in the centre of the largest and most 
easterly of the three small basins between the mouth of the Dall Burn 
and the foot of the loch, the locality being within two miles of Kin- 
loch Rannoch. Farther down the same depression, Loch Tummel 
furnishes another instance of a rock-basin, the rocky barrier appearing 
in the stream and on the hill-slopes at Allean House, about a mile 
below the mouth of the lake. 

Loch Ericht, along a line of shatter belt, is situated in one of the 
outlets from the Rannoch cauldron. ‘The loch forms a simple basin, 
which is deepest where the valley is most constricted, and it shallows 
as it approaches the wider valley of the Spey. Loch Ossian—a true 
rock-basin—occurs in another gap, and likewise Loch Treig, which 
runs along a line of fault. The latter is a simple rock-basin, and, like 
many of the other lochs, is deepest where the constriction is greatest. 
A chain of small rock-basins occurs in the Leven valley, and another 
instance (Loch Triochatan) is to be found in Glencoe. Loch Tulla, 
located near the outlet of several through valleys, presents features 
characteristic of the plateau type and of the valley type of rock-basin. 

A small ice-cauldron is situated in the Monar region on the 
borders of Ross-shire and Inverness-shire, whose floor is about 700 feet 
above sea-level, while the surrounding mountains rise to above 3000 
feet. The only valley issuing from this central area is Glen Strath 
Farrar, at the head of which lies Loch Monar, a true rock-basin. In 
our notes descriptive of this basin (see Vol. II. Part I. p. 351) we have 
pointed out that the ice radiating from this cauldron during the 
period of confluent glaciers flowed eastward down Glen Strath Farrar, 
and streamed northward through some of the passes towards the 
Orrin and Glen Fhiodhaig, and westward in the direction of the 
valley of the Ling. At a later stage it escaped only by Strath Farrar. 
The rocks forming the barrier of Loch Monar are well seen in the 
gorge of Garbh-uisge, about half a mile below its present outlet, where 
they consist of massive siliceous Moine schists plicated along vertical 
axes trending north-east and south-west. Loch Calavie—a small 
rock-basin—is situated on one of the passes leading towards the Ling 
valley, and other rocky tarns are to be found near the low cols 
separating the Monar basin from the Meig and the Orrin. 

A series of valley rock-basins, comprising Lochs Arkaig, Garry, 
Loyne, Clunie, Affric, Beinn a’ Mbheadhoin, Mullardoch, and 
Bunacharan, occur in the Northern Block where the rivers leave the 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 483 


high plateau and debouch on the Great Glen, or on the intermediate 
plateau and coastal plain of the Beauly Firth. It is worthy of note 
that each of these lakes occupies the same relative position in each 
valley, where the trunk glacier had received its main accessions of ice 
from the tributary glens and before it proceeded to fan out. 

Another group of valley rock-basins occurs in Easter Ross. In 
the central portion of that county, the River Bran and the Black 
Water, tributaries of the Conon River, drain a low plateau occupied 
by granulitic Moine schist and augen gneiss, which is bounded on the 
east by more elevated ground extending from Sgutrr a’ Mhuilinn 
north-eastward to Ben Wyvis, composed of muscovite-biotite gneiss. 
During the period of confluent glaciers, the central low plateau acted 
as a reservoir of ice, part of which passed outwards through the main 
gaps in which Loch Luichart and Loch Garve are situated. Another 
portion was deflected northward by Ben Wyvis, and moved down the 
valley of the Glass, in which les Loch Glass. 


CORRIE ROCK-BASINS 


Corrie rock-basins are of minor importance, for they are invariably 
smal] and shallow and confined to mountainous regions. They occupy 
the floors of cirques or corries, with rocky barriers in front and with 
prominent cliffs of rock behind them. Round the lip of each tarn 
there is clear evidence of differential erosion by ice under extreme 
pressure due to the downward movement of the mass. Sometimes 
the rocky barriers are concealed by moraines deposited by the 
corrie glaciers. 

On the northern declivity of the Ben More range in Assynt, 
Sutherlandshire, there are excellent examples of corrie rock-basins. 
For instance, Loch a’ Choire Dearg and Loch a’ Choire Ghuirm are 
situated at a height of about 1750 feet on the north shoulder of 
Glas Bheinn (2341 feet), and lie on a glaciated floor of Lewisian 
gneiss, while the walls of the cirque are composed of Cambrian 
quartzite. Several additional examples occur along the base of the 
escarpment of Cambrian quartzite extending eastwards to Ben More, 
the finest being the tarn at the head of Coire Mhadaidh Bheag at a 
height of 2500 feet. The glaciated floor of this rock-basin is com- 
posed of Torridonian and Lewisian rocks partly encircled by cliffs of 
Torridon Sandstone and Cambrian quartzite. 

Loch Toll an Lochainn is one of the best examples of this type of 
basin in the North-West Highlands. It occurs at a height of 1700 
feet in the An Teallach range, Ross-shire. The lake is floored by 
well-claciated Torridon Sandstone, and is surrounded on three sides 
by cliffs of massive grit belonging to the same formation. Again, in 


the hollow between Sgtrr na Lapaich (3775 feet) and Riabhachan 


484 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


(3696 feet) on the confines of Ross-shire and Inverness-shire, two 
instances occur in a double corrie at a height of 2250 feet. They lie 
on a well-glaciated floor of hornblendic gneiss with prominent cliffs of 
muscovite-biotite gneiss rising behind them. 

Mr Harker has noted the occurrence of the following corrie rock- 
basins in the Cuillins :—Coir’ a’ Bhasteir at an altitude of 2250 feet ; 
Coir’ a’ Ghrunnda, 2220 feet; Coir’ an Lochain, 1815 feet; Coire 
Labain, 1805 feet, which he ascribes to excessive ice-erosion in the 
head portions of the valleys. 


ROCK-BASINS ALONG SHATTER BELTS 


Reference has already been made to many rock-basins lying along 
lines of fault or shatter belts. The soundings of the Lake Survey 
show that, as a rule, they form simple basins with comparatively flat 
floors, and U-shaped in cross-section. Like the valley rock-basins 
free from shatter belts, they are an integral portion of the valley 
system in which they occur. The members of this group are of most 
common occurrence in the highly dissected plateaux where the 
normal valley and plateau basins are most abundant. In all those 
regions where valley rock-basins are absent the shatter belts are 
hollowed out relatively to the trunk streams which cross them. 

Loch Ness is perhaps one of the best examples of this group, for it 
lies along the line of fault traversing the Great Glen. It is ponded 
partly by glacial deposits and fluvio-glacial gravels, and partly by 
raised beaches; but as it is deeper than any part of the bed of the 
North Sea between Scotland and the Norwegian Deep, there can be 
little doubt that it isa rock-basin. The soundings show that it possesses 
the typical form of a rock-basin. Like other depressions, it received 
great accessions of ice from either side, and was subjected to extreme 
erosion by the ice moving north-eastward towards the Moray Firth. 

In brief, a careful consideration of all the available evidence has 
led us to the conclusion that the distribution and form of Scottish 
rock-basins bear a direct relation to the geological structure, topog- 
raphy, and glaciation of the particular regions in which they occur, 
and that such basins merely represent a phase of the differential 
erosion of the whole country by the action of land ice. 

In the preparation of this paper and of the notes descriptive of the geological 
features of the rock-basins, we have freely availed ourselves of the information 
embodied in the maps and memoirs of the Geological Survey of Scotland. We 
desire further to acknowledge our obligations to the officers of the Geological 
Survey for valuable assistance rendered during the progress of the Scottish Lake 
Research investigations. 

In addition to the publications of the Geological Survey of Scotland, the more 


important works which have been consulted in the preparation of this paper are 
given in the subjoined list. 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 485 


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1901-8. PENcK, A., and E, Brickner—Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter (Leipzig). 


1903. KENDALL, P. F., and H. B. Murr.—On the evidence for glacier-dammed lakes in 
the Cheviot Hills, 7rans. Edin. Geol. Soc., VIII. 226. 


1904. Nansen, F.—The bathymetrical features of the North Polar Seas, with a discus- 
sion of the continental shelf and previous oscillations of the shore line, The 
Norwegian North Polar Expedition, 1V., 1898-96 (Lond. ). 


1904. Wricut, W. B., and H. B. Murr.—The pre- glacial raised beach of the south 
coast of Ireland, Sc. Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc., N.S., X. 250. 

1906. Frew, J., and F. Morr.—The Southern een from Gourock, Scot. Geogr. 
Mag., XXII. 435, 1906; The Southern Highlands from Dumgoyn, 2did., 
XXIII. 322; The Southern Highlands from Glasgow, ibid., XXIII. 367, 1907. 

1906. CouteT, L. W., and T. N. JoHnsTon.—On the iirastion of certain ee in 
the Highlands, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., XVI. 107. 

1907. MackinpErR, H. J.—Britain and the British seas. Isted., 1902. 2nd ed., 1907 
(Oxford), 

1907. LampLueu, G. W.—On British drifts and the. interglacial problem [Presidential 
address to Section C], Rep. Brit. Assoc., York Meeting, 1906, 532. 

1908. KenpaLt, P. F., and E. B. Battey.—The glaciation of East Lothian south of the 
Garleton Hills, Trans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., XLVI. 1. 

1908. M‘Narr, P.—The geology and scenery of the Grampians and the valley of 
Strathmore (Glasgow). 

1909. Davis, W. M.—Glacial erosion in North Wales, Quart. Jowrn. Geol. Soc. (Lond.), 
XV 2512 


1909. Grips, A. W.—On the relation of the Don to the Avon at Inchrory, Banffshire, 
Trans. Edin. Geol. Soc., 1X. 227. 


Notr.—The admirable orographical maps published by J. Bartholomew, Edinburgh, 
have been of the greatest service to us in studying the evolution of Scottish topography. 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 487 


ule P EIN IDIEX 
GEOLOGICAL NOTES ON SCOTTISH LOCHS SOUNDED BY THE LAKE SURVEY 


AsoyNne.—Loch ponded by drift. 

Acuati.—Valley rock-basin in Moine schists, piled up Lewisian Gneiss, 
and Torridonian strata below Moine thrust-plane. 

AcuHanaLt.—Vol., II. Part I. p. 289.* 

Acuitty.— Vol. II. Part I. p. 290. 

ACHLAISE, NA H-.—Shallow loch ponded by drift lying on moraine-strewn 
surface of schist and granite. 

Acuray.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 48. 

Arrric.—Valley rock-basin in granulitic schist ; with two deltas at Affric 
Lodge. 

AisH.—Vol. II, Part I. p. 307. 

ArripH NA Crearpaicu.—Irregular rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

ArripH NA Lic.— Hollow in Lewisian Gneiss, probably ponded by drift. 

AIRIDH SLEIBHE, NA H-.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

AiTrHNeEss,—Rock-basin in altered Old Red Sandstone and _ intrusive 
igneous rocks, partly drift-dammed. 

Au.ian.— Hollow among moraines. 

ALLY an FurArna.—Hollow in morainic material resting on Moine schists. 

ALLT NA H-ArrBHE,—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Atvir.—Kettle-hole in fluvio-glacial deposits. 

Anna.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Araicu-Lin.— Drift-dammed loch resting on crystalline schists. 

Arp.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 51. 

Arienas.—Rock-basin in crystalline schists at foot of escarpment of 
Tertiary volcanic rocks overlying Cretaceous strata; probably 
determined by the line of fault that truncates the south-eastern end 
of the Morvern plateau. 

ArkaiG.—Simple valley rock-basin in crystalline schists and granite. 

ArkLet, —Vol, II. Part I. p. 49. 

ArTHUR.—Small rock-basin near edge of Criffel granite massif, partly 
ponded by drift. 

Asuie.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 431. 

AsLAicH.—Small, narrow drift-dammed loch in schists. 

Assynt.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 187. 

Asta.—Rock-basin along strike of crystalline schists and metamorphic 
limestone ; may be in part due to solution. One of the Tingwall 
lochs, Shetland. 

AUCHENREOCH.— Drift-dammed loch. 


* Volume II. contains geological notes on those lakes not described in this Appendix, 
the reference being given here in each case, 


A488 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Avtscot, NAN.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Avicu.—Rock-basin in quartzites, phyllites, limestones, and epidiorites 
(Loch Awe group). Like Loch Awe, the upper end of this loch is 
in part surrounded by a high terrace of sand and silt 200 feet above 
the present surface of the lake, which must have been formed when 
the rest of the rock-basin was occupied by a lobe of ice projecting 
from the Loch Awe glacier. The height of this terrace was 
determined by the level of the col at the head of the valley over 
which the loch must have drained westwards into the Barbreck river 
towards Loch Craignish. 

Awe (Etive basin).—Valley rock-basin, mostly along the strike of 
crystalline schists, composed of altered sedimentary and igneous 
rocks (Loch Awe group), and partly along the shatter-belt of the 
Pass of Brander fault, in consequence of which the loch forks. The 
lake has two basins. The more southerly and longer one from Ford 
to the island of Inistrynich follows the strike of the strata, while the 
other coincides for some distance with the Pass of Brander shatter- 
belt and then bends nearly at a right angle towards the mouth of 
the river Orchy. The two basins are separated from each other by 
a comparatively shallow plateau, on which the rocky islands are 
situated. ‘The study of the glaciation of the region shows that, 
during the confluent glacier period, the Pass of Brander, although 
of pre-glacial origin, was not sufficiently wide to drain off all the ice 
poured into the head of Loch Awe by the convergent glens of the 
Shira, the Orchy, and the Lochy, From the soundings of the Lake 
Survey it may be inferred that the ice that passed through the Pass 
of Brander worked along the comparatively weak belt of shattered 
rock in the pass, thus producing the peculiar L-shaped basin shown 
in the charts. The surplus ice streamed across the shallow plateau, 
and, gaining accessions from the Ben Lui and Ben Buidhe mountain 
masses, moved towards the south-west end of the lake. As the 
valley narrowed, the abrading action of the ice was increased, which 
resulted in the longer and deeper basin along the strike of the 
strata. The phenomena at the south-west end of the loch show 
that, at a period during the retreat of this confluent glacier, the 
Craig an Tairbh pass was choked by the ice, and the melt-water 
of the glacier escaped across a high col into the river Add above 
Kirkmichael Glassary. Thereafter it streamed through an inter- 
mediate gap into the Add by the lower end of the Kilmartin valley ; 
and subsequently, when the ice had farther retreated, by the Craig 
an Tairbh pass itself into the same valley above Kilmartin, During 
the recession a lobe of ice became detached and occupied the site 
of Loch Ederline, and was there surrounded by the fluvio-glacial 
gravels from the melt-water of the glacier. A still farther retreat 
of the glacier left a lake occupying the south-west part of the 
existing Loch Awe, the level of which was determined by the 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 489 


height of the Craig an Tairbh pass, where the rocks still retain the 
pot-holes eroded by the old glacial stream. The continued 
recession of the ice was slow enough to allow a terrace of beach 
and delta material to accumulate along the ice-dammed lake. 
Subsequently, when the Pass of Brander was free from ice, the lake 
assumed a form approaching the present outlines. Since glacial 
time the upper part of the northerly rock-basin has been much silted 
up with the alluvia of the converging streams, and small delta lakes 
are being formed by the advancing sediment. The contours at the 
upper end of the loch show that the slope there is that of an 
advancing delta, 

Awe (Inver basin).—Shallow basin ponded by drift with morainic debris 
on Cambrian quartzite and Olenellus beds. 

BA (Mull),—A valley rock-basin in granophyre, intrusive into igneous 
rocks of the Tertiary volcanic plateau in Mull. The lines of fissure 
followed by the great series of basalt dykes which traverse the 
plateau, seem to have determined the direction of the valley, and 
consequently the trend of the lake. Its water-level is raised by a 
dam consisting of raised-beach material. 

BA (Tay basin).-—-Shallow, drift-dammed loch lying on moraine-strewn 
surface of the granite mass of Rannoch Moor, the moraines forming 
numerous islands and headlands. 

Bap a’ Curotua.—Rock-basin in Torridon Sandstone nearly silted up. 

Bap a’ Guatwti.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 190. 

Bap an Scatata.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

BappaNLocu.—Drift-dammed shallow loch in wide valley carved out 
of granulitic quartz-biotite schists and muscovite-biotite gneiss 
and granite veins. 

BaiteE a’ Guospuainn.—-Rock-basin in limestone and black schist due 
partly to ice action and partly to solution. The limestone overlies 
the black schist or slate, which acts as the retentive layer and forms 
the bed of the loch along the line of an eroded anticline ; the surface 
of the water determining the line of saturation of the limestone 
which occupies the synclinal folds (see Loch Fiart). 

Ba.eavies.— Lake ponded by drift upon Lower Old Red Sandstone strata. 

Beac.—Part of the same valley rock-basin as Loch Clunie. 

Beannacu (Gruinard basin).—Fills hollows among moraines resting on 
Lewisian Gneiss. 

Beannacu (Inver basin). —Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss, so called from 
the numerous islands (roches moutonnées) with which it is studded. 

Beannacuan.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 289. 

Beinn a’ Mueapuoin.—Valley rock-basin connected with Loch an Laghair. 

Beinneé BaArine, na.—Lake lying partly in crystalline schist and partly in 
drift, situated on watershed. 

BrtsTE, NA.—Small hollow in boulder clay resting on Torridon Sandstone. 


Beitue, nA.—Kettle-hole in 100-ft. raised beach. 


490 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


BenisvaL.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Broraip.—Valley rock-basin in granulitic schists and muscovite-biotite 
gneiss in valley drained by the river Meoble, along which ice flowed 
from the head of Loch Eil into Loch Morar. 

Buaip Daratcn, a’.—Hollow in Lewisian Gneiss, the barrier consisting 
in part of raised-beach material. It is probable that the bed of 
the loch is a rock-basin which was occupied by ice during the 
deposition of the beach. 

Byam Luacuraicn, a’.—Irregular rock-basin in Torridon Sandstone, 
partly ponded by drift. 

BuarLuipu, a’.—Minor rock-basin studded with moraines on the course 
of the Leven, now covered by the water of the great dam for the 
Leven Power Works. 

Buainne, a’,—Lochan in schist ponded by drift. 

Buarpa, a’.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Buearaicu, A’ (Alsh basin), or Loch of the Pass.—Rock-basin in granulitic 
schists on pass at head of the Glomag—practically on the watershed 
between Strath Affric and the Elchaig, over which ice streamed 
from the east during the maximum glaciation and the subsequent 
confluent glacier stage. It is one of a series which almost invariably 
occur where ice has passed over a low watershed in a through valley. 

Buearaicu, A’ (Gairloch basin).—Rock-basin situated in valley, open at 
both ends. The lower end of the loch lies upon the Lewisian Gneiss, 
while the upper end is bounded on both sides by the overlying 
Torridon Sandstone. The valley throughout the greater part of the 
glacial period acted as an outlet for a greater volume of ice than 
could have been obtained from its own catchment basin, and the 
basin occurs just where the ice must have been most constricted. 

Buearaicnu, a’ (Naver basin).—Rock-basin in granulitic schists. Situated 
in valley open at both ends, which became one of the outlets for the 
ice radiating from the cauldron of Central Sutherland during the 
maximum and confluent glacier stages of the glacial period. It is 
merely the upper portion of Loch Coir’ an Fhearna, 

Burapain.—Rock-basin in Moine schist. 

Buraow, a’—Rock-basin in granulitic quartz-biotite schists, in part 
determined by the line of shatter-belt of the Fasagh fault. 

Buuirp, A’.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Bi, na.—Lies on an open pass on the watershed of Scotland, where the 
Lochy, a tributary of the Orchy, had appropriated the head-waters 
of a branch of the Tay, and through which ice from the Tay valley 
passed over into Loch Awe, thus lowering the col. The loch lies on 
morainic material, and is ponded by the deltas of the small side- 
streams which the outflow is unable to remove, the gradient being 
too gentle. 

Birka.—Small rock-basin on granite of Roeness Hill, Shetland. 

Brack (Etive basin).—Chain of small rock-basins in the volcanic rocks of 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 491 


the Lorne plateau. The valley in which they lie was evidently an 
arm of the sea during the stage of the 100-ft. beach, since a fringe 
of that beach is traceable at intervals round the lakes.  Fluvio- 
glacial deposits, due to melt-water from the lobe of ice which passed 
down the Lonan valley into Loch Nell, occur along the western end 
of the chain of lakes. 

Brack (Ryan basin).—Kettle-hole in fluvio-glacial gravels of 100-ft. 
beach ; has been continuous with the White Loch, from which it is 
now disjoined by the delta of Sheuchan Burn. 

Buack (Tay basin).—Kettle-hole on pass between Lindores and the 
Howe of Fife. 

Buarrs.—Kettle-hole in fluvio-glacial deposits. 

Boarpuousrt.—Hollow in flagstones of Middle Old Red Sandstone age, 
ponded by drift. 

Bopavat.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Boaron.— Partly a rock-basin in Coal Measures, and partly drift-dammed ; 
now much silted up by the river Doon, which flows through it. 

Borratan.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 191. 

Bosquoy.—Resting on Middle Old Red flagstones, and ponded by drift. 

Brapan.—Drift-dammed lake lying on Lower Silurian greywackes and 
shales. 

Braich HorrispaLte.—Rock-basin partly in Lewisian Gneiss and partly 
in Torridonian rocks. 

Bran.—One of a group of small rock-basins on a floor of Old Red Sand- 
stone and crystalline schists along the south-east side of Loch Ness. 
At Loch Bran the platform is cut in schists from 600 to 700 feet 
above the level of Loch Ness. The streams draining these lochs, of 
which the Foyers is one, occupy hanging valleys relatively to Loch 
Ness, towards which they descend by a succession of rapids and 
waterfalls. 

Breac, NaM.—Irregularly shaped rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss, with 
numerous islands and uneven floor. 

Breac Dearea, NamM.—Rock-basin in hollow traversing the Middle Old 
Red Sandstone rocks on the northern face of Meallfourvounie. 

Breaccraicu. — Rock-basin. 

Broom.— Drift-dammed. 

Brora.—Valley rock-basin in granulitic schists where the valley becomes 
constricted between the Middle Old Red Conglomerate hills, Ben 
Smeorail (1592 feet) on the north and Ben Horn (1708 feet) ‘on the 
south. Four separate basins occur on the floor of the lake. 

Broucu.— Resting on Old Red Sandstone and ponded by drift. 

Brouster.—Chain of lakes in valley carved out of altered Old Red 
Sandstone strata. 

- Brow.—In drift, separated from Loch Spiggie by delta of Burn of Hill. 

BruapaLte.— Upper part of Loch Urrahag. 

BuaiLie, a’.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 


492 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Buipue (Fleet basin, Sutherland).—Rock-basin in crystalline schists, 
water-level now raised by artificial embankment. 

Butwu_e (Tay basin).—Drift-dammed. 

Buite.—Ponded by moraines at both ends, and lying ina glaciated hollow 
on the pass between the Builg-Avon and Glen Gairn streams. 

Bunacuaran. —Vol. II, Part I. p. 353. 

Burea Water.—Rock-basin in altered Old Red Sandstone. 

BurnTIsLanp,—Artificial reservoir on Lower Carboniferous volcanic 
platform. 

Burratanp.-—Small rock-basin in granite and schists. 

Burrerstone.— Partly drift-dammed, in hollow along line of shatter-belt 
of Highland Border fault. 

Catavie.—Vol. II, Part I. p. 353. 

Catper.— Rock-basin in Caithness flagstones. The south-eastern straight 
shore-line is determined by a line of fault which can be traced 
northwards to the Forss Water. 

CattatTer.—Valley rock-basin in Highland schists (phyllites, black schist, 
and quartzite). 

Cam.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 189. 

Caot NA Dorre.—Rock-basin in Moine schists. 

Caravat.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss; tide sometimes enters the 
loch. 

Car_inewark.—Hollow in drift resting on greywackes and shales. 

Caste (Annan basin).—Kettle-hole in fluvio-glacial deposits ; one of the 
Lochmaben lochs. 

CastLe (Bladenoch basin).—Rock-basin in Silurian greywackes. 

CastLe SempLe.— Drift-dammed, probably a large kettle-hole formed by a 
lobe of ice isolated from the retreating northern glacier, round 
which fluvio-glacial deposits were laid down. The loch is now 
largely silted up by detritus introduced by tributary streams. 

Ceiruir Erteana, Na.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Cro-Gias.—Small rock-basin draining into Loch Duin na Seilcheig on 
plateau above Loch Ness (see Loch Bran). 

CuaLtuim.— Shallow drift-dammed loch with moraines forming islands and 
promontories. 

CHAORUINN, A’.—Rock-basin in crystalline schists and epidiorite. 

Curacualn, a’ (Lewis).—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss, through which the 
river Creed flows. i 

Cuiacualn, A’ (Nairn basin).— Rock-basin, partly drift-dammed. 

Cuxiapaicu, A’.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

CuiAir, a’ (Helmsdale basin).—Part of same drift-dammed hollow as 
Baddanloch. 

Cuorre, a’—Resting partly on schists and partly on drift on platform 
above Loch Ness. It flows into Loch Ruthven. 

Cuon (Forth basin).—Vol. II. Part I. p. 50. 

Curorse, a’.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 289. 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 493 


Cuuruinn, a’ (Conon basin).—Vol. II. Part I. p. 289. 

Crair (Ewe basin).-—Vol II. Part I. p. 240. 

CiaisE FEARNA, NA.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

CiickHiMIN.— Drift-dammed in hollow of Old Red Sandstone. 

Curr.—Ponded by gravel at the margin of the present beach. 

Curncs Watrer.—Rock-basin in altered Old Red Sandstone strata, partly 
drift-dammed. 

Ciousta.—Resting partly on Old Red Sandstone and partly on drift. 

Ciussi Suuns.—Small rock-basin in granite of Roeness Hill, Shetland. 

Ciuniz (Ness basin).—Valley rock-basin in schists and granite; simple 
U-shaped basin with irregular sides strewn with moraines. 

CiuniE (Tay basin).—Small shallow lake ponded by drift. 

Cornnicu, Na.—Ponded by drift. 

Corr’ AN FurArna.—Rock-basin along strike of crystalline schists in valley 
open at both ends, which drained part of the ice from Central 
Sutherland (see Loch a’ Bhealaich). 

Corre NAM Meann.-——Rock-basin in Moine schists. 

Co.tiasTer.—Partly on rock and partly in drift. 

Cornisu.—Ponded by drift in hollow near the edge of the Loch Doon 
granite mass. 

Coun (Ewe basin).—Vol. II. Part I. p. 240. 

Craceie (Oykell).—Rock-basin in Moine schists. 

CraIGEe, NA.—Small drift-dammed loch lying on crystalline schists. 

Crann.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 289. 

CraosHalG, NA.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Creacacu.—-Vol. II. Part I. p. 329. 

Creice Lerrue, na.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss separated by a bar 
of stones from Loch nan Garbh Chlachan. 

Cro Criospaic.—-Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Crocacu.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 188. 

Crocavat.-—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Cromair Den.—Artificial reservoir in hollow cut out of boulder clay and 
Lower Old Red strata by stream. 

Crunacuan.—Remnant of a loch in drift nearly silted up. 

Cuaicu, NA.—Rock-basin in Moine schists. 

Curt Arripu a’ FLrop.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss, 

Cur, na Sitrue.—Ponded by drift. 

CuInNnE, NAN.—Hollow in drift resting on Moine schists. 

Cutts.—Kettle-hole in fluvio-glacial deposits of 100-ft. raised beach. 

Dain, an (Shin basin).-——Vol. II. Part I. p. 307. 

Daimmu (Tay basin).—Rock-basin in crystalline schists, 

Datias.—Kettle-hole in fluvio-glacial deposits. 

Damu (Torridon basin).—Rock-basin in valley open at both ends. The 
lower end of the lake lies in Lewisian Gneiss, which here forms a 
pre-Torridonian hill projecting through the basal members of the 
Torridon Sandstone, and the remainder rests on that formation. 


AQ94 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


The upper part of the loch, which is outside the valley, follows the 
line of shatter-belt of the Fasagh fault. The valley in which the 
greater part of Loch Damh is situated formed an outlet for the 
large mass of ice that flowed into Loch Torridon. It is evident 
that the Lewisian Gneiss has resisted erosion more successfully 
than the Torridon arkoses. 

Davan.—In glacial deposits. 

Derasporrt, NAN.—Irregular rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss; one of a 
chain of similar rock-basins. 

Derr.— Rock-basin in granite, partly ponded by drift. 

DeieneE Fo Duras, Na.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Deoravatr.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Derc.iacu,—Small rock-basin in greywackes, -whose waters flow into 
Loch Finlas. 

Dercuticu.— Rock-basin in phyllites and limestone. 

DuomunuiLt Buie.—Irregular rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Dut (Portsonachan Hill).—Resting partly on drift and partly on meta- 
morphic rocks, 

Duveaitt (Torridon basin).—Rock-basin in Torridon Sandstone along line 
of shatter-belt. 

Duveuartt (Carron basin).—Ponded by moraines and_ fluvio-glacial 
material. The deepest part is probably a rock-basin lying in 
crystalline schists and Cambrian strata along the line of the Moine 
thrust-plane and the Glenmore fault. The lake evidently extended 
along the valley to Craig, but has been silted up by the alluvium 
of the Carron and its tributaries. 

DrsapaLe.—Corrie rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Ditate.—Small rock-basin in crystalline schists, draining into Loch 
Sheil. 

Dirureisn, an.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 331. 

Docuarp.—Rock-basin in crystalline schists. 

Docnart.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 138. 

Dorne.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 45. 

Dorre Daraicn, Na.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Dore nam Marvr.—Rock-basin in crystalline schists, probably along 
shatter-belt (see ante, Loch Arienas). 

Doon.—Typical rock-basin in Lower Silurian strata and granite. It has 
two distinct basins. ‘The upper and deeper one lies in the granite, 
its barrier being composed of the belt of hornfels that crosses the 
loch near the Wee Hill of Craigmulloch; the lower one is situated 
in Silurian strata, whose outlet is a tunnel driven through a well- 
glaciated roche moutonnée of greywacke. The Gull Islands and the 
shores of the Ford of Moak consist of moraines, while the islands in 
Garpel Bay are roches moutonnées. 

Dornat.—Ponded by boulder clay and moraines, resting on Silurian 
greywackes. 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 495 


DroiGuHINN, AN.—Rock-basin in voleanic rocks of Lorne plateau. 

Droma.—Ponded by moraines and alluvium, partly artificial. It is 
situated on the main watershed of the North-West Highlands. In 
this case the ice-shed must have lain far to the east of the present 
watershed, as shown by the distribution of boulders of the well-known 
augen gneiss of Inchbae, which can be traced across to Loch Broom. 
Such watersheds have almost invariably had the gradients on each 
side lessened, while many have been hollowed into rock-basins. 

Drum Suarpatain.—One of a chain of rock-basins in Lewisian Gneiss, 
along the course of the stream that drains Glen Canisp. 

DruImngeaN, NAN.—Rock-basin along strike of phyllites, partly drift- 
dammed. 

Drumiamrorp.—Hollow in boulder clay and moraine matter resting on 
Silurian greywackes and shales. 

Dronkie.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 49. 

DuartTmMorE.—Small rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss on the Duartmore river. 

_Dusnu (Etive basin).—Small shallow pool among moraines on the Lower 
Old Red volcanic plateau of Lorne. 

Dusu (Forth basin),—Lochan in drift much silted up. 

Dusu (Gairloch basin).—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss, draining into 
Loch Bad an Sgalaig. 

Dusu (Gruinard basin).—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss, part of the 
Fionn Loch rock-basin, from which it is separated by a bar of 
moraine matter with only a shallow strait. 

Dusu (Ness basin).—Ponded by drift. 

Dvusyu (nan Uambh basin).—Rock-basin in crystalline schist on watershed 
between the heads of Lochs Eilort and nan Uamh. . 
Dusu-Mor.—-Rock-basin in epidiorite and schists of Loch Awe group at 

base of escarpment of the Lorne volcanic plateau. 

Duppineston.—Remnant of a much larger lake, now mostly silted up, 
originally ponded by blown sand of the 100-ft. raised beach. From 
the position of Duddingston Loch with regard to the crags of Arthur’s 
Seat, it is probable that part of it is a true rock-basin. 

Dury, an (Spey basin).—-Rock-basin in Moine schist on the pass between 
the Tromie, flowing into the Spey, and the Edendon Water, flowing 
into the Garry and thence to the Tay. 

Duin, an (North Uist).—Tidal loch; probably a rock-basin in Lewisian 
Gneiss. | | 

Dwtna, an.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss, 

Duncron.—Rock-basin partly ponded by drift in greywackes and shales 
of Silurian age. The barrier at the outlet is a moraine, but the 
deeper part of the loch must be a rock-basin. 

Dtw na Sertcneic.—Rock-basin resting partly on crystalline schists and 
partly on Old Red Sandstone, with some moraines lying on the 
rocky barrier at the outlet. 

Eacuats, NA H-.-—Kettle-hole in fluvio-glacial deposits of 100-ft. raised beach. 


496 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Ea.aipH, Na H-.—Shallow loch, mostly in alluvium, and separated from 
Loch More by a moraine and from Loch Stack by alluvium. It was 
formerly continuous with Loch Stack, but has been disconnected by 
a cone of alluvium. 

EarsBa, NA H-.—Rock-basin in crystalline schists, now forming separate 
lakes owing to alluvial cones or deltas. The basin is U-shaped, and 
lies in a valley between high mountains. 

Earn.— Vol. II. Part I. p. 138. ° 

Eck.-—Valley rock-basin across the strike of the crystalline schists in the 
valley of the river Cur; in reality a watershed rock-basin. The 
head of the lake is much silted up. 

EpERLINE.—Typical kettle-hole surrounded by high terraces of fluvio- 
glacial gravels and lake deposits. It probably lies in the continuation 
of the Loch Awe rock-basin, but has evidently been formed during 
the retreat of the great Loch Awe glacier, when a detached lobe 
of ice was left on the present site of the lake, round which the 
fluvio-glacial gravels were laid down (see Loch Awe). 

EpeeLraw.—Artificial reservoir in valley cut out of drift and Lower 
Carboniferous strata. 

Keita Watrer.—Resting partly on drift and partly on rock composed of 
schists and granite. 

Eraureacu.—Expansion of the river Gaur; rock-basin in Rannoch Moor 
granite massif along line of the Loch Laidon shatter-belt. 

Eitpe Mor.—Rock-basin in crystalline schists and Glencoe quartzite, 
along line of shatter-belt that determines the direction of Loch 
Leven on the one side and Loch Treig on the other, 

ErieacH Muic ite RrapyarcH.—Small rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss ; an 
expansion of the Little Gruinard river, which drains the Fionn Loch. 

Emer, an (Gairloch basin).—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss and 
Torridon Sandstone. 

E1em, an (Spey basin).-—Kettle-hole in fluvio-glacial deposits. 

Ei_r.—Rock-basin in granulitic schists, containing three minor basins 
separated by rocky barriers. 

Erion Muic Avastair.—Kettle-hole in fluvio-glacial deposits of 100-ft. 
raised beach. 

Ex.pric.—Ponded by drift. 

Ericut.—Rock-basin in granulitic schists and granite along the line of 
the Loch Laidon shatter-belt. It occupies a valley open at both 
ends, which acted as one of the outlets for the ice from the Rannoch 
Moor cauldron. The basin is deepest where the hollow is most 
constricted, and ceases where it opens into the wider valley of Glen 
Truim. The barrier which separates the end of the loch from Glen 
Truim is moraine-covered. 

Essan.—Ponded by drift, and resting “on limestone and schist, and 
situated practically on the watershed. 

Eun, nan (N. Uist).— Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 497 


Eun, nan (Tay basin).—Small tarn on high plateau. A rock-basin in 
dark schist and limestone, which may be partly due to solution. 

Eye.— Vol. IJ. Part I. p. 290. 

Fap.—Partly rock-basin and partly drift-dammed along the line of 
shatter-belt of Toward Point fault, bringing Upper Old Red Sand- 
stone into conjunction with Highland schistose rocks. 

Fapa (Ewe basin).—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss, Torridon Sandstone, 
and Cambrian strata. The upper end is crossed by the shatter-belt 
of the Fasagh fault, which also determines its outlet. 

Fapa (Gruinard basin).—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Fapa (N. Uist).—Irregular rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Fapacoa.—Irregular rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss, along the strike of 
the rocks. 

Fannicu.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 288. 

FaorLeaG, NAM.—Irregular rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss, 

Frenper.—Partly in crystalline schists and partly drift-dammed. 

Frart.—Rock-basin in metamorphic limestone associated with black 
schist along crest of anticline, partly due to ice erosion and partly to 
solution. The black schist underlies the limestone and forms the 
retentive layer, the level of the lake determining the saturation of 
the limestone in the synclines (see Baile a’ Ghobhainn, ante, p. 489). 

Fintas.—Partly a rock-basin in Lower Silurian greywackes, and _ partly 
ponded by drift. 

Fropuaic.—Rock-basin in granulitic schists. 

Fionn (Gruinard basin).—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss, drained by the 
Little Gruinard river, which leaves the loch by a series of rapids 
and waterfalls. It is one of the few Scottish lakes which fork down- 
wards towards its outlet—a fact of great importance in relation to 
the theory of ice-erosion, as shown by Penck. 

Fionn (Kirkaig basin).—Vol. II. Part I. p. 188. 

Firure.—Resting on Old Red Sandstone, and ponded by drift. 

Firry.—Partly artificial, and lying in drift. 

Fireet.— Resting partly on rock (granite) and partly in drift. 

Fiucartu.—Partly drift-dammed and partly a rock-basin in schist. 

Forrar.—Kettle-hole ponded by drift. 

Freucnie.—Partly a rock-basin in schists and partly ponded by drift. 

Frisa.—Valley rock-basin in Tertiary volcanic plateau, Mull. The 
direction of the valley has evidently been determined by the lines 
of fissure followed by the great series of Tertiary basic and acid dykes. 
The valley is open at both ends, and thus received a larger volume of 
ice than would have fallen to its share had it been closed at the head. 

FyntaLitocu.—Hollow in boulder clay resting on Silurian greywackes. 
It drains into Loch Ochiltree. | 

Gapuar, NAN.—Drift-dammed shallow loch at foot of Glen Gour. It 
must have been filled with ice when the raised beaches at Corran 
were being formed. 


32 


498 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


GainMHEIcH.—Valley rock-basins in lLewisian Gneiss and Torridon 
Sandstone. 


Gamuna.—Kettle-hole in fluvio-glacial materials. 

GaRBH-ABHUINN, NA.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

GarsBu-ABHUINN Arp, NA.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Garsuaic.—Vol, II. Part I. p. 239. 

GaARBH-CLACHAN, NAN.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Garry (Ness basin).—Simple rock-basin down as far as Garbh Eilean, 
below which there is a shallow expansion with a waterfall near the 
outlet. 

Garry (Tay basin).~—-Rock-basin in granulitic schists along shatter-belt. 
The steep-sided valley in which it lies has been pirated from the 
Spey system by a tributary of the Tay. The great suite of 
moraines emanating from this valley, traceable far down the Garry, 
shows what a powerful glacier must have occupied the site of this 
loch during the later glaciation. 

GartTMorn.—Artificial reservoir on boulder clay resting upon Upper 
Carboniferous strata. 

Garve.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 289. 

Geap, an.—Vol. IT. Part I. p. 353. 

Geat.—Typical delta loch cut off from Loch Lomond and enclosed in the 
advancing delta of the Falloch. Loch Buidhe at the head of Loch 
Lubnaig has a similar origin. 

Geavaicu, NA,.—Moraine-dammed on quartzite and epidiorite. 

GEIREANN, NAN.—Tidal loch; probably a rock-basin along the strike of 
the Lewisian Gneiss. 

GEIREANN, NAN (Mill).—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Ge__ty—Partly artificial, in drift resting on Lower Carboniferous strata. 

GuiuraGarstipH.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 240. 

GuLINNE-Dorcna, A’.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

GuHoBHAINN, A’.~—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss, 

GurtiaMA, a’.—Rock-basin in Moine schists. 

GuurLeinn.—Valley rock-basin in Strath Ossian. 

Grorra.—Rock-basin in crystalline schists. 

Girista.—Rock-basin in crystalline schists and metamorphic limestones ; 
may be partly due to solution. 

GLapHousE,—Artificial reservoir in wide valley carved out of Upper Old 
Red Sandstone and overlaid by boulder clay. 

Grass.—Vol, II. part I. p. 290. 

GLEANN A’ BurarratipH.—Rock-basin along fault throwing down the Lower 
Old Red volcanic rocks of the Lorne volcanic plateau against the 
underlying sediments and crystalline schists. 

Gorm Locu Mor.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 307. 

Gown.—Ponded by moraines and fluvio-glacial gravels of the Achnasheen 
terraces. 

Grass Water.—Lying in boulder clay. 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 499 


Grennocu.—Rock-basin in the granite massif of Cairnsmore of Fleet. 

Grunavat.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Gryre.—Artificial reservoir, partly in boulder clay and partly in Lower 
Carboniferous volcanic rocks of the Renfrewshire plateau. 

Haretaw,—Artificial reservoir on Malleny Burn. It occupies a hollow 
cut out of boulder clay overlying Lower Carboniferous rocks. 

Harperveas.—Artificial reservoir, partly in boulder clay and partly in 
Lower Carboniferous strata. 

Harprerric.—Artificial reservoir in wide open valley, partly in Lower 
Carboniferous rocks and partly in boulder clay covered in places by 
peat and alluvium. 

Harray.—Rock-basin in Middle Old Red flagstones, separated from the 
Loch of Stenness by a shallow rock-floored channel over which salt 
water from Loch Stenness occasionally flows. 

Harrow.---Partly ponded by drift and partly a rock-basin in greywackes 
and shales. 

Herten.--Impounded on north side by blown sand of Dunnet Links. It 
lies partly in boulder clay and partly in Caithness flagstones. 

Hempriaes.—Shallow loch in boulder clay lying on Caithness flagstones. 

Herouravay.—Irregular rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Hermipate.—Irregular rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Hicutar Miri.—Kettle-hole in fluvio-glacial deposits. One of the 
Lochmaben lochs. 

Hoe.iwns.—Small rock-basin in Upper Old Red Sandstone of Hoy. 

Ho.i.— Artificial reservoir, partly in boulder clay resting on Lower Car- 
boniferous strata and intrusive dolerite. 

Hope.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 328. 

Hosta, —Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Hostigates.—Rock-basin in Old Red Sandstone. 

Howie.—Partly in Silurian greywackes and partly drift-dammed. 

Huna.—Partly in Lewisian Gneiss and partly ponded by drift. 

Hunper.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Hunp.anp. —Partly in Old Red flagstones and partly in boulder clay. 

Tascatcu, aN.—Hollow in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Ic Cotta.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Insuir.—Minor rock-basin in granite and schist studded with moraines. 
One of the outlets from the Rannoch Moor ice-cauldron, now 
covered by the Leven reservoir (see Loch a’ Bhaillidh). 

InsH.—Remnant of a much larger lake in the Spey valley ponded by 
moraines and fluvio-glacial deposits from the Glen Feshie glacier 
at a time when the Spey glacier failed to reach and coalesce with 
it. The lake is now almost silted up by the Spey. 

Ispisr—ER.—Ponded by drift. 

Tusnarr.—Vol., II. Part I. p. 138. 

Katrine —Vol. II. Part I. p. 48. 

Kemp.—Rock-basin on the platform above Loch Ness (see Loch Bran). 


200 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Ken.—Succession of shallow rock-basins along the course of the 
Kirkeudbrightshire Dee and its main tributary the Ken. They lie 
across the strike of the Silurian greywackes and shales. 

Kennarp.—Lies partly in drift and partly on rock. 

Kernsary.—Vol. IT. Part I. p, 239. 

KiLpirNiE.—Ponded by drift and now much silted up. It is situated 
near the watershed in a valley open at both ends which formed an 
outlet for the Highland ice escaping from the Clyde valley. 

KitcHErRAN.—Rock-basin in limestone resting on schist, resembling Loch 
Fiart and Loch Baile a’ Ghobhain already described. 

KitcHoan.—Small rock-basins in dark slates and epidiorites—the most 
southerly one is along a line of fault which brings down the Lorne 
volcanic rocks against the Craignish phyllites and limestones. 

Kitcongunar.—Kettle-hole in 100-ft. raised beach deposits. 

Kitiin.— Valley rock-basin in schists. 

Kinpar.—Small basin partly in Criffel granite and partly ponded by drift. 

KINELLAN.—Partly in Middle Old Red Sandstone strata and partly in 
drift. 

KincHorn.—Reservoir. Hollow in drift. 

Kinorp,—Ponded by fluvio-glacial deposits. 

KirpistER,—Drift-dammed on Middle Old Red flagstones. 

Kirk.—Kettle hole in fluvio-glacial gravels ; one of the Lochmaben lochs. 

Kirk Dam.—Part of Loch Fad (Bute), separated from it by an artificial 
dam (see Loch Fad). 

Kirriergeocu.—Ponded by drift resting on Silurian greywackes and 
shales, 

Kwnockie.—Partly a rock-basin and partly drift-dammed. 

Laearn, An (Shin basin).—Drift-dammed. 

Lacean (Lochy basin).—Rock-basin, partly ponded by moraines and 
fluvio-glacial deposits. The loch is of special interest owing to its 
situation, which is practically on the watershed between the Spean 
and a tributary of the Spey. In pre-glacial time the Spean pirated 
a large part of the Spey system, and thus a through valley was 
established which became an outlet for a large volume of ice during 
the glacial period, whereby the col was subjected to intense erosion. 
Loch Laggan is the remnant of the temporary ice-dammed lake 
whose limits are now defined by the 800-ft. parallel road, the level 
of which was determined by the col between the Spean and the 
Spey. The river Pattack has silted up the upper part of Loch 
Laggan. 

Lacuair, an.—Valley rock-basin in granulitic schists continuous with 
that of Loch Beinn a’ Mheadhoin, from which it is separated only by 
delta deposits (see Beinn a’ Mheadhoin). 

Larwe.—Ponded by drift. 

Latpon.—Shallow rock-basin in Rannoch Moor granite massif along 
line of shatter-belt. The Dubh Lochan is a very shallow expansion 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 501 


along a tributary valley, this part of the loch being strewn with 
moraines. 

LairicgE, NA.—Rock-basin on the pass between Loch Tay and Glen Lyon. 
It is important chiefly on account of its position, which is expressed 
by its Gaelic name, signifying the Loch of the Pass. 

Laneavat (Benbecula).-—Rock-basin along strike of Lewisian Gneiss, 
Rocky islands also elongated along strike. 

Laneavat (Lewis).—Long valley rock-basin across the strike of the 
Lewisian Gneiss. It contains several minor basins along the strike 
of weak rocks, eight or more of which are below the 25-ft. contour 
line, four below the 50-ft. line, and three below the 75-ft. line. The 
loch is manifestly due to ice erosion. 

LaNnN, NAN.—Small rock-basin in schists on same stream as Loch Knockie. 
It is one of a chain of lakes already referred to, situated on a 
plateau overlooking Loch Ness (see Loch Bran). 

Laoauav.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 329. 

Leitir Easatcu.-—-Vol. I]. Part I. p. 188. 

Leirreacu, Na.—Rock-basin in Moine schist along line of shatter-belt 
of Strath Conon fault, which here determines the direction of the 
valley of the Elchaig. Loch Muirichinn, at the head of the valley, 
is a lake of similar origin, placed at or near the watershed between 
the river Elchaig and the river Ling, the pass having formed one 
of the outlets from the Monar ice-cauldron. 

Lropsay.—Tidal loch in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Leroi, aN.—Rock-basin in Lorne volcanic plateau. 


Leum a’ Cutamuain.—Rock-basin in granulitic schists situated where the 


ice became constricted in passing between the outliers of Old Red 
Conglomerate forming the two Ghriam hills in the east of Sutherland. 

Lreven.—Large kettle-hole in fluvio-glacial and lake deposits. It must 
have been occupied by a lobe of the Forth glacier while fluvio- 
glacial material from the Tay glacier was poured into the Kinross 
valley through the passes of the Ochils, Originally of larger 
dimensions, it has been drained partly naturally by the river Leven 
and partly artificially. The shores of the loch are composed mostly 
of its own alluvia, or of deltas laid down by tributary streams. 

Liatu.—Partly a rock-basin and partly ponded by drift. 

Linpores.—Kettle-hole in fluvio-glacial deposits formed during the 
retreat of a lobe from the Tay glacier pushed into the Dunbog 
valley, which poured its melt-waters over the passes into the great 
temporary ice-dammed lake that filled the Howe of Fife, a remnant 
of which is now represented by Ramornie Loch. Other kettle-holes 
occur in these deposits (see Black Loch). 

LinuirHcow.—Ponded by drift. Probably a kettle-hole in fluvio-glacial 
deposits left by a lobe of the Forth glacier during its retreat near 
the end of the period of maximum glaciation. 

LintratHEeNn.—Rock-basin in Lower Old Red Sandstone and Conglomerate, 


902 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


the dam consisting of the Lintrathen porphyry. The loch is much 
silted up by the Melga Water, which flows through it. 

Lirriester.—In drift on gneiss, 

Locu.—Rock-basin in schists and limestones between the quartzites of 
Ben-y-Ghloe. 

Locnaser.—Lies partly on granite, partly on Silurian greywackes, and 
partly on glacial deposits. 

Locuensreck.—In drift resting on Silurian greywackes and shales. 

Locurnpors.— Hollow in fluvio-glacial deposits. 

Locuinvar.—Lying partly on Silurian greywackes and shales and partly 
in drift. 

Locunaw.—Small lochan, partly in greywackes and partly drift-dammed. 

Locurutron.— Partly in Silurian greywackes and shales and partly in drift. 

Locuy.—Rock-basin along shatter-belt of Great Glen fault. 

Lomonp.—This lake may be regarded as a typical valley rock-basin lying 
across the strike of the strata in a valley in great part excavated by 
one of the original consequent streams of Scotland draining towards 
the south-east. 

The loch may be divided into two sections :—(1) an upper or 
Highland section, extending from its head to Luss and the islands 
of Inchlonaig and Inchtavannoch lying in metamorphic rocks; 
(2) a lower or Lowland section, extending from the above-mentioned 
islands to the foot of the loch, partly in Highland schists but chiefly 
in strata of Old Red Sandstone age. 

The upper section is situated in a narrow valley whose direction 
is in great part determined by a system of joints and faults with 
a nearly north-and-south trend. Before the glacial period the con- 
sequent river had excavated a channel across the belt of schistose grit 
which now forms the barrier between the upper and lower sections. 
Throughout the Ice Age the direction of the ice-flow in the present 
region was southerly—that is, approximately, down the loch. The 
basin lies in comparatively soft mica-schists where the valley is 
narrowest and steepest. It is bounded by the 400-ft. contour line, 
and contains two minor basins below the 500-ft. line, within one 
of which occurs the deepest sounding (623 feet), Near Rowardennan 
the outcrop of the Ben Ledi grits crosses the lake, and the upper 
or deep basin suddenly gives place to a shallow plateau with two 
islands, the deepest sounding here being only 49 feet. It is doubt- 
less true that the Douglas Burn has laid down a delta extending 
into the lake from the west shore, and that a spit has been formed 
at Rowardennan on the eastern bank; but the shallow plateau is 
not due to these accumulations. It may rather be said that its 
existence led to the deposition of these materials. 

Below this barrier a second but shallower basin occurs in the 
upper section. Here the valley widens, and the hills, though high, 
recede to some extent. The lake, however, does not appreciably 


a 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 503 


widen near the upper end of the basin, probably because the rocks 
consist of alternations of strong and weaker schistose grits. This 
basin is continued in a north-and-south direction till it reaches an 
outcrop of strong grit forming Ross Point which juts far out into the 
loch from the eastern shore. The grit is obliquely truncated by a 
fault that brings the mica-schists against the Luss slates on the west 
side of the lake. Hence the rock-basin is continued round the 
Ross Point in the softer strata. Beyond this promontory the loch 
widens in the line of outcrop of the Luss slates. Below Luss, the 
slates are succeeded by massive pebbly grits, forming a shallow 
plateau on which are situated the islands of Inchtavannoch and 
Inchlonaig. Below the 100-ft. contour line only a narrow channel 
between Inchlonaig and Strathcashell is to be found crossing this 
rocky barrier, the others being much shallower. 

In the lower section of the loch the valley widens, and opposite 
the Endrick and the Fruin it merges into the Lowland plain. This 
change in the configuration of the surface may be attributed to the 
Highlands schists having been covered by strata of Old Red Sand- 
stone age. The sudden widening of the loch below the islands of 
Inchtavannoch and Inchlonaig is evidently due to the removal in 
pre-glacial time of the Upper Old Red sandstones and conglomerates 
from the old plain of denudation of Highland schists upon which 
they were originally laid down, Between a line drawn across the 
lake from Rossdhu House to Arrochymore Point and the Highland 
Border fault, which traverses the islands of Incheailloch and Inch- 
murrin, the floor of the loch is formed of Upper Old Red Sandstone 
strata, which there dip at comparatively low angles to the south-east. 
The shatter-belt of the Highland fault is here much indurated with 
carbonates, and is flanked on the south side by nearly vertical beds 
of Lower Old Red conglomerate. These together form a prominent 
barrier and a chain of islands. ‘The conglomerates are succeeded by 
the softer sandstones dipping less steeply to the south-east. As 
might be expected from the widening of the valley and its coal- 
escence with the plain, this part of the lake is shallow. The lowest 
portion may not be a rock-basin, for the valley of the Leven is floored 
with raised beach deposits and alluvium. 

There is evidence to prove that in late glacial time the lower 
part of the loch was an arm of the sea, for deposits of clay with 
arctic shells are found at Rossdhu and on Inchlonaig, which are 
supposed to belong to the 100-ft. raised beach. This shelly clay 
has not been met with higher up, from which it may ke inferred 
that the upper part of the lake was occupied by the retreating 
glacier during the time of its deposition. If this correlation be 
correct, there must have been a recrudescence of glacial conditions, 
for the Inchlonaig deposits are overlain by a red shelly boulder clay 
which can be traced far beyond the present foot of the lake. The 


004 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


remains of the lower raised beaches are found at intervals nearly 
up to the head of the loch, so that during their formation the ice 
had retreated from the whole valley. 

Since that time, Loch Lomond has been silted up to some extent 
by the Fruin and the Endrick near its foot, and by the Falloch at its 
head, and the delta of the Falloch has isolated a part of the lake, 
thus forming the Geal or White Loch, a typical delta lake. 

Loscarnn Mor, an.—Rock-basin in schists and epidiorite, with morainic 
material along its banks. Its lower end has been silted up by 
streams entering it from the south. 

LosGanan, NAN.—A mere pool in drift. 

Lowes (Tay basin).-—Ponded by drift resting on schistose grits. 

Lowes (Tweed basin).—Upper end of St Mary’s Loch, and separated 
from it by deltas (see St Mary’s Loch). 

Loyne.—A chain of shallow rock-basins in Glen Loyne, partly silted up. | 

Lupnaic.—Vol. IJ. Part I. p. 45. 

Lurcuart.—Vol., II. Part I. p. 288. 

Lunpie (Glen Garry).—Irregularly shaped loch, partly a rock-basin and 
partly ponded by moraines. 

Lunearp.—Typical valley rock-basin in crystalline schists near the head 
of Glen Cannich. 

Lown pA-Bura.—Shallow lake with moraines practically on the watershed. 

Lure.—Ponded by drift resting on Silurian greywackes and shales. 

Lureain.—Vol II. Part I. p. 190. 

Lyon.—Valley rock-basin in crystalline schists along line of Tyndrum 
fault. 

Maserry.—In boulder clay and moraines overlying Silurian greywackes 
and shales. 

Maeituie.—Kettle-hole in fluvio-glacial deposits. 

MAma.—Rock-basin in schists, separated from Loch na Creige Duibhe 

by delta of Allt Dearg. 

Maou a’ Cuoire.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 191. 

Maree.—Composite rock-basin, partly along the Glen Docherty shatter 
belt, and partly in Lewisian Gneiss and Torridon Sandstone outside 
of this line of disturbance. The horizontal displacement of the 
geological structure lines in the neighbourhood of Kinlochewe, and 
the shattering of the rocks are prominent features of this disruption. 
It also has a down-throw of 1000 feet to the north-east. It enters 
the lake at its head, and runs near the northern shore to a point 
opposite Eilean Subhainn, where it leaves the loch and _ traverses 
the precipitous slope behind Ardlair. Beyond that mansion-house 
it once more enters the lake, passes down the River Ewe to within 
a mile of Poolewe, and extends north-west to Camas Mor east of 
the Rudh’ Re. 

The soundings show that the lake contains three basins. The 
upper one, extending from the head of the loch to a point opposite 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 505 


Kilean Subhainn, is U-shaped, the deepest portion occurring where 
the valley is most constricted, between Ben Slioch (3217 feet) on 
the north and Meall a’ Ghubhais (2882 feet) on the south. Between 
Regoilachy and Coppachy the effect of a branch fault in weakening 
the strata is shown by the widening of the basin and the loop of the 
250-ft. contour line in that portion of the lake. 

The Ardlair basin, beyond the islands, is a composite one. The 
north-west portion, north of Rudh’ Aird an Anail, is situated in the 
line of the great shatter-belt, and is U-shaped; but the wider and 
deeper part of the same basin, lying between that promontory and 
Eilean Ruairidh Mor, is evidently due to the removal of comparatively 
weak strata, consisting of the lowest division of the Torridon Sand- 
stone, from the old floor of Lewisian Gneiss on which it was deposited. 

The Slattadale basin rests in Torridonian strata, belonging partly 
to the Applecross grits and partly to the weaker beds of the 
Diabaig group. A striking feature of this part of the lake is the 
number and size of the islands, which are composed mostly of massive 
Torridon sandstones and grits. One of these, Eilean Subhainn, 
contains a rock-basin 64 feet in depth. 

The river Ewe, which drains the loch, has cut a channel through 
the deposits of the 50-ft. raised beach, and runs for about half a 
mile over Torridonian strata before entering the sea. 

Loch Maree evidently extended farther up the valley, but it has 
been silted up by the streams that converge near Kinlochewe. This 
part of the lake was probably comparatively shallow, as Eilean na 
Craoibhe, near the head of the existing loch, is a moraine more or 
less levelled by the action of the waves. 

Martnanam.— Kettle-hole in fluvio-glacial deposits. 

Merpe, na.—Rock-basin in Moine schists. It drains into Loch Naver, 
and is situated on the pass leading to the Kyle of Tongue, along one 
of the outlets of the Mid-Sutherland ice-cauldron between Ben 
Loyal and Ben Hope. 

Merkiir.— Remnant of partly silted up rock-basin in crystalline schists 
in Glen Urquhart. 

MenteituH.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 52. 

Merkiann.—-Rock-basin in Moine schists, partly ponded by drift and 
partly silted up. 

Muic ’Itte Rrasuarcu.—Ponded by moraines. 

Muroraitt.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 189. 

Muor (Ness_basin).—Artificial reservoir for Foyers Aluminium Works, 
It covers the site of Lochs Garth and Farraline, small rock-basins on 
the plateau above Loch Ness (see Loch Bran). 

Muuiuinn, a’.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 353. 

MiepaLe.—Partly in crystalline schists and partly drift-dammed. 

Miti.—Kettle-hole in fluvio-glacial gravels, One of the Lochmaben lochs. 

Mitron.—Ponded by drift resting on Silurian greywackes and shales. 


206 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Mocurum.—Rock-basin in Silurian greywackes. 

Morneg, NA.—Small drift-dammed loch on one of the main branches of the 
Helmsdale river. 

Morne Buiee, NAa.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Monar.— Vol. II. Part I. p. 352. 

Monikig.—Artificial reservoirs in boulder clay resting on Lower Old Red 
Sandstone. 

Moor Dam.—Artificial reservoir in boulder clay resting on Upper Carbon- 
iferous strata. 

Moracua, Na.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Morar.—Typical rock-basin in granulitic schists. Although the head of 
the loch lies only a few miles from the watershed, there are several 
low passes in a high mountainous region connecting it with the 
valleys draining into the Great Glen (1) by Glen Pean (under 500 
feet) into Loch Arkaig valley, (2) by Glen Dessary (under 1000 feet) 
into Glen Kingie towards Glen Garry, (3) by Loch Beoraid over the 
col (under 1000 feet) into Loch Eil, besides other higher gaps. 
During part of the glacial period the ice must have streamed over 
these passes and concentrated upon Loch Morar. At the lower end 
of the lake, where the valley widens there is a shallow platform with 
roches moutonnées. The ridge between Loch Morar and Loch Nevis 
is studded with small lakes, evidently due to ice-erosion. 

More (Laxford basin).—Ponded by moraine in a valley carved out of 
Lewisian Gneiss, Cambrian strata, and the overlying Moine schists. 
Although the barrier between Loch More and Loch Stack is a 
moraine, there is every reason to believe that the rock-basin of Loch 
Stack is continuous with that of Loch More. 

More (Thurso basin).—Remnant of a larger loch through which the 
Thurso River flows. It lies in a hollow of the drift; but it seems 
highly probable that the drift conceals a rock-basin, as the river 
at Dirlot is excavating a rock gorge through the local basement 
members of the Caithness flagstones into the underlying schists. 

More Barvas.—Ponded by blown sand in a hollow of the Lewisian 
Gneiss. 

Morie.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 290, 

Morticu.— Probably a kettle-hole in morainic and fluvio-glacial material. 
The hill-slopes above are terraced with moraines, each marking a 
pause in the retreat of the Spey glacier during the later glaciation. 
The head of the loch has been silted up for a long distance by 
alluvial deltas. 

Morseait.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Moy.—Ponded by moraines and fluvio-glacial deposits, which were 
probably laid down against an isolated mass of ice during the retreat 
of the Findhorn glacier. 

Mucx.—Probably drift-dammed in hollow along line of Glen Muck fault 
where it traverses Silurian greywackes and shales. 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 507 


Muckie Lunea.—Rock-basin in granite. 

Muckte Water.— Ponded by drift at head of valley excavated in Middle 
Old Red flagstones. 

Mutcx.,—Simple rock-basin at edge of Lochnagar granite massif. Many 
Scottish lakes occur in a similar position, probably due to the zone 
of hornfels which usually surrounds the later granite masses being 
less tractable than the granite. 

Mu.iarpocu.—Valley rock-basin in granulitie schists in Glen Cannich. 

Nant.—Rock-basin in Lower Old Red volcanic rocks of the Lorne 
plateau. 

Naver.—Valley rock-basin along the strike of Moine schists, and partly 
ponded by drift. The hollow in which Loch Naver is situated was 
one of the outlets for the ice from the Mid-Sutherland area. 

Ne.ti.—Lies in hollow partly in the Lorne volcanic plateau, partly in 
the underlying Lower Old Red sediments, and probably in the floor 
of schistose rocks on which they rest. The barrier consists of 

_gravels of the 100-ft. raised beach and morainic material, while 
moraines form islands in the loch. It is therefore highly probable 
that a lobe of the great confluent glacier which emanated from the 
Highland glens and crossed part of the Lorne plateau occupied the 
site of Loch Nell when this beach was being laid down by the sea. 
Evidences of the retreat of the glacier are abundant in Glen Lonan. 
The loch has been reduced in size by the deltas of the River Lonan 
and the Cabrachan Burn. 

Ness.—Long U-shaped flat-bottomed rock-basin along the Great Glen 
fault. The lower end of the loch is ponded by glacial, fluvio- 
glacial, and raised beach deposits. 

Nortu-HousE.—Rock-basin in altered Old Red Sandstone and intrusive 
igneous rocks. 

Nosrarig£, AN.—Small shallow loch partly in granulitic schists and partly 
drift-dammed. It is situated on the watershed. 

Osan a’ Cuiacuain.—Small tidal loch, partly a rock-basin, in Lewisian 
Gneiss. 

Osan NAM FrapH.—Ponded by drift overlying Lewisian Gneiss and 
partly tidal. 

Oxisary.-—Complex rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss, full of strike basins 
and islands, one of which encloses a small lochan. There are fifteen 
basins below the 25-ft. contour line, ten below the 50-ft. line, 
and one below the 75-ft. line. The loch is partly tidal. 

Ocui_treE.—Ponded by drift resting on Silurian greywackes. 

Oicu.—Rock-basin along the shatter-belt of the Great Glen, reduced in 
size by the delta of the Garry. It may be part of the same rock- 
basin as Loch Lochy, and is separated from it only by drift and 
alluvium. 

Oipucue, NA H-.—Valley rock-basin in Torridon Sandstone. 

Oxavat.—Shallow rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 


508 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Orpie.— Partly a rock-basin in schists and partly drift-dammed. 

Ossian.—Rock-basin in one of the valleys draining the Rannoch Moor 
ice-cauldron. The loch is deepest where two lofty mountains 
approach it on either side, viz. Beinn na Lair (3060 feet) on the 
north and Cairn Dearg (3084 feet) on the south, the surface of the 
lake being 1268 ft. above O.D. 

Owskeicu.— Vol. II. Part I. p. 190. 

Parrack.—Partly on rock and partly ponded by drift. 

PeerieE Water.—Lying in drift. 

PeppERMILL.-—Artificial reservoir in boulder clay resting on Upper 
Carboniferous strata. 

Puearsain, A.—Rock-basin in epidiorites and crystalline schists. 

Puitit.ais.—In fluvio-glacial deposits, and ponded by alluvium. 

PortmMore.—Artificial reservoir in hollow carved out of Silurian grey- 
wackes and shales, partly covered by boulder clay. 

Poutary.—Narrow valley rock-basin, 

Punps Water.—Ponded by drift. 

Quvorcu, --- Valley rock-basin in schists, much silted up near the head. Loch 
na Cuilece (Loch of the Reeds) is a small lochan nearly enclosed by 
the delta deposits. 

Rar.-—Partly rock-basin in Torridon Sandstone and partly drift-dammed. 

Rannocu.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 137. 

Raornavat.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

RaonasGatL.— Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

RAtu, Nan.—Kettle-hole in fluvio-glacial deposits of 100-ft. raised beach. 

Ree.—Partly in Silurian greywackes and partly in drift. 

Rescopige.—One of a chain of small lochs in the open valley of Strath 
More, ponded by glacial gravels lying on Lower Old Red Sand- 
stone strata. 

Rorer. —Rock-basin in crystalline schists. 

RosEserY.—Artificial reservoir in gorge cut in drift and Lower Carbon- 
iferous strata. : 

Ruatuair, aN.—Ponded by drift. It is situated in the wide open valley 
of Upper Helmsdale, which has been carved out of granulitic schists 
and granite. 

Rutuven.— Rock-basin in crystalline schists on the platform on south- 
east side of Loch Ness (see Loch Bran). 

Sagpiston.—Hollow in drift overlying Middle Old Red flagstones. 

St Joun’s.—Rock-basin in Caithness flagstones of Middle Old Red Sand- 
stone age. At the outlet the water flows across the shattered strata 
along the line of the Brough fault, throwing down the Upper Old 
Red sandstones of Dunnet Head against the flagstones, 

St Marearet’s,—Attificial loch in Queen’s Park, Edinburgh. 

St Mary’s.—Ponded by alluvium. The lake lies mostly along the strike 
of Silurian greywackes and is situated in a valley open at the head 
towards Moffatdale. The Moffat Water, by working along a shatter- 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 509 


belt, has appropriated the highest tributaries of that valley. During 
the maximum glaciation the ice moved eastward from Moffatdale 
across the col. The level of St Mary’s Loch has been raised by 
the deltas of the Kirkstead and Dryhope Burns. The Meggat delta 
has been carried far into the lake, and makes an appreciable feature 
on its floor. The Loch of the Lowes has been separated from St Mary’s 

Loch by two converging deltas, and the upper end of the former 

lake has been silted up for some distance up the river Yarrow. 

The valley above the loch is over-deepened relatively to its tributaries, 

so that the main river has great difficulty in distributing the material 

(deltas) brought down by the side streams. All these phenomena 

point to the action of ice in lowering the gradient of the valley 

above the foot of the loch. 

Minor rock-basin in granite and schist, studded with 
moraines, now covered by the reservoir of Loch Leven Aluminium 
Works. | 

Sanp.—Ponded by blown sand. 

Sanpy.——In drift, artificially impounded. 

Scapavay.—-Irregular rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss, with numerous 


SALacw Umpuee, NA. 


strike-basins and rocky islands strewn with glacial debris. 

ScamapaLE.—Valley rock-basin in Lorne voleanic plateau, partly along 
a line of fault. The loch is partly ponded by morainic and fluvio- 
glacial deposits, terraces of which occur at intervals along its sides 
and at the lower end, as if the material had been delivered from the 
front of the glacier which occupied the site of the loch at the time 
of their formation. 

ScarMcLATE.—Lying in boulder clay in a wide open valley in Caithness 
flagstones. 

ScastavaT,— Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

SEALBHAG.— Rock-basin in granulitic schists. 

SEASGAIN, AN T-.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss, part of Loch ’Ic 
Colla. 

Se1t,—Rock-basin in Lorne volcanic plateau. 

SEILICH, AN T-.—Rock-basin in Moine schists in Glen Tromie. 

SeTrer.——In drift resting on Old Red Sandstone. 

Scamuain.—Rock-basin in Moine schists, the lower end of which has been 
silted up by the alluvium of Allt Coire Crubaidh, through which the 
river Carron winds till it reaches the head of the rock gorge at 
Glencarron. The rock-basin is still further filled with morainie and 
delta material along its sides and at its head. 

SHEALLAG, NA.—Simple valley rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss, which has 
been silted up for a mile or two at its head by morainic and fluvio- 
glacial materials and alluvium. 

SureL.—Rock-basin in schists. Its characteristic straight feature suggests 
that its long axis coincides with a line of fault. Like most of the 
western fresh-water lochs, it lies in a deep valley open at both ends, 


210 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


with high mountains on either side. Hence during the glacial 
period, when the ice-shed was independent of the present watershed, 
such valleys received a larger volume of ice than could have been 
obtained from their own catchment basins. It is evident that such 
was the case with Loch Sheil, for the lake deepens at its head 
where the valley becomes constricted, and the deep basin is con- 
tinued till the valley widens at the foot and the lake bends towards 
the west. A depression of 20 feet would convert Loch Sheil into 
a typical fiord, and a depression of a little over 50 feet would unite 
it with Loch Eil and transform the districts of Ardgour, Morvern, 
and Ardnamurchan into an island. The head of Loch Sheil has been 
partly silted up by the Finnan and Callop and by the deposits of 
the 50-ft. beach. 

Suin.—Typical valley rock-basin in granulitic Moine schists, with several 
minor basins, some of which are probably separated by rocky 
barriers; but one of them is certainly produced by the delta of 
the river Skiag extending below water nearly across the loch, and 
forming a favourite fishing-ground. At Shinness the lake branches 
into Loch Vanavie, a shallow tributary among moraines. Loch 
Shin lies along the principal outlet from the Mid-Sutherland 
ice area. 

SuuRRERY.—Partly a rock-basin in Caithness flagstones and partly drift- 
dammed. 

Sior Locus.—Shallow lochs ponded by drift in hollows of volcanic rocks 
of the Lorne plateau. 

SkaE.—Partly in Silurian greywackes and partly drift-dammed. 

Sk aiLtt.—Rock-basin in Old Red flagstones. 

SKEALTAR. —Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

SKEBACLEIT.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

SKEEN (Annan basin).—Ponded by moraines in corrie or coomb in grey- 
wackes and shales (see Sir A. Geikie’s Scenery of Scotland, 3rd edit., 
p. 349). 

SKENE (Dee basin).—Ponded by drift resting upon granite. 

SkERRow.—Partly a rock-basin and partly in drift on granite of Cairns- 
more of Fleet massif. 

Sk1acu.—Partly in schist and partly drift-dammed. 

SKINASKINK.—A rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss and Torridon Sandstone. 
It contains several minor basins. 

SLAGAIN, AN T-.—Rock-basin in Torridon Sandstone, partly ponded by drift. 

SNARRAVOE.—Rock-basin in crystalline schists and metamorphic lime- 
stones, partly drift-dammed. 

SoutsEat.,—Kettle-hole in fluvio-glacial beds on 100-ft. raised beach. 

Spicci1g.—Impounded by a barrier of blown sand lying across the mouth 
of a shallow valley floored by boulder clay, which rests on granite, 
schist, and Old Red Sandstone. It is separated from Loch Brow 
by a delta laid down by the Burn of Hill. 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 9511 


Spyniz.—Shallow lake in raised beach deposits, and probably ponded by 
the westward-travelling beach which deflects the Lossie westward 
to Lossiemouth. It was connected with the sea within historic 
times. 

Sreince, NA.—Rock-basin in schists, limestone, and epidiorite. One side 
of the lake is traversed by a line of fault along which successive 
intrusions of basic and acid dykes have been injected and small 
voleanic vents have been drilled in Tertiary time. 

Sron Smeur.—Rock-basin in granite. 

Sraca, AN.—Ponded by drift. It lies on the watershed of the high 
plateau between the rivers Morriston and Enrick (Glen Urquhart). 

Stack.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. It encloses two parallel basins 
along separate bands of gneiss and foliated granite. The main rock- 
basin is probably continuous through Loch na h-Ealaidh to Loch 
More. Loch Stack was formerly much more extensive, as it is 
surrounded by high terraces of alluvium which are continued down 
the Laxford for over two miles below the present outlet, and up as 
far as Loch na h-Ealaidh (see Loch More). 

StacsavaT.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Sraincr, NA.—Ponded by moraines. 

Stenness.—Tidal loch, only fresh at surface, partly ponded by drift, which 
probably lies in a rock-basin in the Middle Old Red flagstones. It 
is separated from Loch Harray by a shallow channel with rocky floor 
over which the salt water sometimes flows out of Loch Stenness into 
Loch Harray. 

Strranpavat.— Hollow in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Strom.—Rock-basin along strike of crystalline schists; a tidal loch. 

Srrumore, AN.—Tidal loch, 

SuaINavaL.—Valley rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Swannay.—Ponded by drift resting on Middle Old Red flagstones. 

Syre.—Shallow, irregular lake in moraine drift. 

Tacupaipu, an.—Vol, II. Part I. p. 353, 

TAIRBEIRT STUADHAICH, AN.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss, 

Tatia.—Artificial reservoir in valley excavated in Silurian greywackes 
and shales. The floor of the valley is covered by boulder clay and 
alluvium. 

TanKERNEss.—In drift which rests upon Middle Old Red flagstones. 

Tarruin AN Erruir.— Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Tay.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 138. 

TrArNaAIT.—Partly in schists and partly in drift. 

Tuom.—Artificial reservoir probably on site of smaller loch, in Lower 
Carboniferous rocks of the Renfrewshire plateau. 

Tureipmuir.—Artificial reservoir in forking valley carved out of Lower 
Carboniferous and Upper Old Red Sandstone strata partly covered 
by boulder clay. 

Titt,— Partly a rock-basin along the line of the Glen Tilt shatter-belt. 


a2 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


The loch is in a through valley between the Tilt and the 
upper Dee. 

Tinewati.—Rock-basin lying along the strike of crystalline schists and 
metamorphic limestones. 

Totum.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 240. 

Tomarn, AN.—Irregular rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss, studded with 
islands (roches moutonnées). 

Tormasapv.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Travaic.—Rock-basin in schists and epidiorite, with voleanic rocks of 
Lorne plateau on each side. 

TreaLavaL.—lIrregular, shallow loch, probably a rock-basin in part, 
lying in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Treic.—Rock-basin in schists along the Loch Leven and Loch Etive 
shatter-belts. It lies in a valley open at both ends, which has been 
one of the outlets from the Rannoch Moor ice-cauldron. 

Troot. —Rock-basin in Lower Silurian greywackes, situated in one of 
the valleys draining the Galloway ice-cauldron, 

Truip ark SeiTHicHEe.—-Hollow in drift. 

Tuirc, an.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 188. 

Tutia.—Rock-basin in Moine schist, partly along Loch Laidon shatter- 
belt. The lake occupies one of the outlet passes from the Moor 
of Rannoch ice-cauldron, the Orchy having pirated the upper 
tributaries cf the Tay in pre-glacial time. During the retreat of 
the later glaciers, the outlet valley must have been blocked by 
ice from the high ground to the west, as there are two terraces 
of silt which extend far up the valley of the Tulla above the 
lake. Loch Tulla has been silted up to some extent by tributary 
streams. 

Tumme.,—Vol. II. Part I. p. 137. 

Turret.—Rock-basin in schistose grits, partly ponded by moraines. 

Tturacu.—Kettle-hole in fluvio-glacial deposits. 

Uanacan.—Small rock-basin in shatter-belt of Great Glen. 

Uriaitt.— Vol. II. Part I. p. 191. 

Urr.—Partly in Silurian greywackes and partly ponded by drift. 

Urranac.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Usstr.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 290, 

Vaara.—Partly a rock-basin in altered Old Red Sandstone strata and 
intrusive igneous rocks, and partly dritt-dammed. 

Vatros.—Irregular rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Vatanpie,—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

VerracvatT.—Rock-basin in Lewisian Gneiss. 

Vennacuar.—Vol. II, Part I. p. 49. 

Veyatie.—Vol. IJ. Part I. p. 188. 

Vorr.—Vol. II. Part I. p. 45. 

Vuttan, a’.—Hollow in glacial deposits. 

Warren.—Shallow loch ponded by boulder clay in wide open valley. 


LAKES IN RELATION TO GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 9513 


The Caithness flagstones floor a large area of the loch along its 
northern shore. 

WestTER.—Partly in boulder clay, and ponded by blown sand. The sea 
sometimes enters the loch during exceptionally high tides. 

Wuinyeon.—Rock-basin in Silurian greywackes and shales. 

Wuire (Ryan basin).—Kettle-hole in fluvio-glacial deposits cut off from 
the Black Loch by the delta of Sheuchan Burn. 

Wuite or Myron (Luce basin).—Ponded by drift. 

WuiTEFIELD.—Ponded by drift. 

WoopHaL_.—Partly a rock-basin across the strike of Silurian greywackes 
and shales, and partly in drift. 


MAPS 


Plate XVI., p. 448. Geological Map of Scotland, giving the broad distribution of 
the rock-groups, and illustrating the geological section of this paper. The 
Lewisian Gneiss of the North-West Highlands is distinguished from the 
metamorphic strata lying between the Moine thrust-plane and the fault 
along the eastern border of the Highlands. Each of the paleeozoic systems, 
excluding the Permian, is shown by one colour. The Permian and 
mesozoic strata are together indicated by one colour. The contemporaneous 
and intrusive igneous rocks of Tertiary time are differently expressed from 
those of palzeozoic age and older date. The important disruptions giving 
rise to shatter-belts are defined by thick black lines. 

Plate XVII., p. 464. Orographical and Bathymetrical Map of Scotland, showing 
the relief of the land surface and the depth of the surrounding sea. It is 
introduced for the purpose of comparison with the geological map, to show 
the relation between the geological structure and the development of the 
surface contours. 

Plate XVITI., p. 474. Map showing Direction of Ice-flow and Probable Ice-front 
in North-West Europe during Maximum Glaciation. It indicates the main 
centres of ice-dispersion in Scotland during the climax of glacial conditions, 
the union of the local ice-sheets with that of Scandinavia, the probable path 
of the combined ice-field across the Continental Shelf, and the conjectural 
ice-front along the Atlantic and Arctic Rise. 


33 


Definition. 


THE CHARACTERS BIGS: Oba al Ais isan) 
GENERAL, AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION 
OVER THE SURFACE OF THE GivOpE 


By Sirk JOHN MURRAY, K.C.B., F.R.S., D.Sc., Ere. 


CONTENTS 
PAGE 
INTRODUCTION E : i : : : : pe eos 
Definition — Distribution — Source of water — Precipitation and 
evaporation — Genetic relationship—Temperature—Deposits 
—Motions—Organisms—Compared with oceanic islands— 
Hydrosphere—Classification by physical characters—Classifi- 
cation by temperature—Classification by origin. 
LAKES CONNECTED WITH INLAND DRAINAGE AREAS ; : . 824 
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE . ‘ i , : . 2d26 
Eural-Asia— North Africa—North America. 
SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE . ; i : , P A 562 
Australia—South Africa—South America. 
LAKES CONNECTED WITH RIVERS FLOWING DIRECTLY INTO THE OCEAN . 572 
Kurope—Asia—Africa—North America—South America—-Aus- 
tralia—Tasmania— New Zealand. 
CRATER LAKES : , ’ : : ‘ : . 644 
Europe —Asia—Atrica—America—New Zealand. 
ANTARCTIC LAKES . : ; : : . . 649 
SUMMARY i ; F : : : ; i . 649 
TABLES OF THE PRINCIPAL LAKES OF THE WORLD ‘ 652 


Arranged according to: I., superficial area; II., volume; IIL, 
maximum depth ; IV., altitude. 


INTRODUCTION 


AurHoucH this work deals specially with the fresh-water lochs of 
Scotland, still it seems desirable to review briefly the distribution and 
peculiarities of lakes in general. 'The Scottish lakes are all in a region 
which has in recent geological times been covered by an ice-sheet. 
By way of contrast it will be interesting to look at the lakes in other 
similarly glaciated regions, and at lake regions where there is no evidence 
that ice has played any part in the formation of the lakes. 


The generally accepted definition of a lake is a mass of still water 
514 


sae 


ea 


CHARACTERISTICS. AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 915 


situated in a depression of the ground not continuous with the ocean. 
The term is sometimes applied to widened parts of a river, and some- 
times to bodies of fresh or brackish water which lie along sea-coasts at 
sea-level, and may even be in direct communication with the sea. In 
English, the terms pond, tarn, loch, mere, and salt-pan are applied to 
smaller bodies of water according to their size and position on the 
land-surfaces. The science dealing with the study and description of 
lakes is called Limnology! and Limnography. 

Lakes are nearly universally distributed. ‘They are sometimes so Distribution. 
large that an observer cannot see objects situated on the opposite 
shore, owing to the surface of the lake assuming the general curvature 
of the earth’s surface; but the vast majority are of relatively small 
size. They occur at all altitudes; some large lakes in Tibet are 15,000 
feet above the level of the sea, while the Dead Sea is 1268 feet below 
sea-level. They also vary greatly in depth and volume of water. 

In describing the Scottish fresh-water lochs they have been 
arranged according to the river basins in which they are situated, for 
it has been found that lakes are in a very special manner associated 
with the drainage areas and river systems of the globe. The primary 
source of lake-water is atmospheric precipitation, which may reach gouree of 
the lakes through rain, springs, rivers, melting ice and snow, and the “*'*™ 
immediate run-off from the land-surfaces. ‘This water contains sub- 
stances both in suspension and solution. ‘The suspended matter is 
deposited for the most part on the bed of the lake, and the matter in 
solution is borne to the ocean, or accumulates in the lakes situated in 
the lowest reaches of inland drainage areas. 

In catchment basins where precipitation exceeds evaporation the Precipitation 
lakes have an outlet, and the outflowing rivers pour their waters ee oe 
ultimately into the ocean. ‘The water in the lakes of these catchment 
basins is continually being renewed, consequently the salts in solution 
do not accumulate; the water is drinkable, and the lakes are called 
fresh-water lakes. 

In catchment basins where evaporation exceeds precipitation— 
which is the case in all inland drainage areas—the running water of 
the system does not reach the ocean. In consequence, while the 
lakes in the higher reaches of an inland drainage area have outlet 
rivers, and their waters are fresh and drinkable, the salts in solution 
in the lakes towards the lower portions of these catchment basins 
accumulate and render the water undrinkable; hence we find in these 
situations what are called salt lakes.” 


1 Aiuyn,a lake ; Adyos, a discourse. The word “ limnography ” is used sometimes 
in discussions of the variations in the level of lakes as shown by the limnograph. 

2 It is to be understood that here and in the sequel the word “ salt” connotes 
not merely common salt, viz. sodium chloride, but any compound of an inorganic 


Genetic 
relationship. 


516 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


In areas which have relatively recently been raised above the sea, 
and in areas which have recently been covered with an ice-cap, the 
river systems are young or adolescent, and lakes are numerous. 
Through the action of the ordinary agencies of disintegration and 
denudation lakes continually tend to disappear, their outlets being 
cut down, and their basins being filled up with detrital matter and 
organic growths.. Hence in mature river basins there are relatively 
few lakes, unless the river system has been rejuvenated by mountain 
growth.! 


base with an inorganic acid ; that is, the word “salt” comprises such compounds 
as calcium carbonate, sodium sulphate, magnesium chloride, etc., whilst sodium 
chloride will be referred to as such or as ‘common salt.” Similarly, the words 
“saline” and “salinity” are to be understood as applying to total dissolved solids 
and not to an individual salt, whether sodium chloride or any other. As regards 
the term “alkaline,” it will suffice for present purposes to define alkaline waters 
as those which hold an excess of sodium carbonate (with more or less potassium 
carbonate) in solution. 

1 This genetic history of lakes and river basins is well outlined by Professor 
Davis in the following extracts (Scvence, vol. x. pp. 142-148, 1887) :— 

““When anew land rises from below the sea, or when an old land is seized 
by active mountain-growth, new rivers establish themselves upon the surface in 
accordance with the slopes presented, and at once set to work at their long task 
of carrying away all of the mass that stands above sea-level. At first, before the 
water-ways are well cut, the drainage is commonly imperfect: lakes stand in the 
undrained depressions. Such lakes are the manifest signs of immaturity in the 
life of their drainage system. We see examples of them on new land in Southern 
Florida ; and on a region lately and actively disturbed in Southern Idaho, among 
the blocks of faulted country described by Russell. But as time passes, the 
streams fill up the basins and cut down the barriers, and the lakes disappear, A 
mature river of uninterrupted development has no such immature features 
remaining. The life of most rivers is, however, so long, that few, if any, com- 
plete their original tasks undisturbed. Later mountain-growth may repeatedly 
obstruct their flow; lakes appear again, and the river is rejuvenated. Lake 
Lucerne is thus, as Heim has shown, a sign of local rejuvenation in the generally 
mature Reuss. The head waters of the Missouri have lately advanced from such 
rejuvenation ; visitors to the National Park may see that the Yellowstone has 
just regained its former steady flow by cutting down a gate through the mountains 
above Livingston, and so draining the lake that not long ago stood for a time in 
Paradise Valley. The absence of lakes in the Alleghany Mountains, that was a 
matter of surprise to Lyell, does not indicate any peculiarity in the growth of 
the mountains, but only that they and their drainage system are very old. 

‘The disappearance of original and mountain-made lakes is therefore a sign 
of advancing development in a river. Conversely, the formation of small shallow 
lakes of quite another character marks adolescence and middle life. During 
adolescence, when the head-water streams are increasing in number and size, and 
making rapid conquest of land-waste, the lower trunk-stream may be overloaded 
with silt, and build up its flood-plain so fast that its smaller tributaries cannot 
keep pace with it: so the lakes are formed on either side of the Red River of 
Louisiana, arranged like leaves on a stem; the lower Danube seems to present 
a similar case. The flood-plains of well-matured streams have so gentle a slope 


Os 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 9517 


From this point of view it will be at once evident that rivers are 
frequently older than the present topography of the land-surfaces ; 
they can often cut their way through folds of the crust as rapidly as 
these arise across their course. It is equally evident, on the other 
hand, that lakes must be regarded as but transient features of the 
ever-changing surface of the earth. They come and go, arise and 
become extinguished with the varying cycles of topographic develop- 
ment, and with the climatic changes of the regions in which they are 
located. 


The temperature of the water in lakes varies with the latitude Temperature. 


and with the altitude. It is subject to much variation, depending 
on the depth, the mass of water, and the superficial area of the lake, 
that is, the extent of surface exposed to the sun and sky. 'The 


that their channels meander through great curves. When a meander is abandoned 
for a cut-off, it remains for a time as a crescentic lake. When rivers get on so 
far as to form large deltas, lakes often collect in the areas of less sedimentation 
between the divaricating channels. Deltas that are built on land, where the 
descent of a stream is suddenly lessened and its enclosing valley-slopes disappear, 
do not often hold lakes on their own surface; for their slope is, although gentle, 
rather too steep for that: but they commonly enough form a lake by obstructing 
the stream in whose valley they are built. Tulare Lake in southern California 
has been explained by Whitney in this way. 

“The contest for drainage area that goes on between streams heading on the 
opposite slopes of a divide sometimes produces little lakes. The victorious 
stream forces the divide to migrate slowly away from its steeper slope, and the 
stream that is thus robbed of its head waters may have its diminished volume 
clogged by the fan-deltas of side-branches farther down its valley. Heim has 
explained the lakes of the Engadine in this way. The Maira has, like an Italian 
brigand, plundered the Inn of two or more of its upper streams, and the Inn is 
consequently ponded back at San Moritz and Silvaplana. On the other hand, 
the victorious stream may by this sort of conquest so greatly enlarge its volume, 
and thereby so quickly cut down its upper valley, that its lower course will be 
flooded with gravel and sand, and its weaker side-streams ponded back. No 
cases of this kind are described, to my knowledge, but they will very hkely be 
found ; or we may at least expect them to appear when the northern branches 
of the Indus cut their ways backwards through the innermost range of the 
Himalaya, and gain possession of the drainage of the plateaus beyond ; for then, 
as the high-level waters find a steep outlet to a low-level discharge, they will 
carve out canons the like of which even Dutton has not seen, and the heavy 
wash of waste will shut in lakes in lateral ravines at many points along the 
lower valleys. 

“Tn its old age, a river settles down to a quiet, easy, steady-going existence. 
It has overcome the difficulties of its youth, it has corrected the defects that arose 
from a period of too rapid growth, it has adjusted the contentions along the 
boundary-lines of its several members, and has established peaceful relations with 
its neighbors: its lakes disappear, and it flows along channels that meet no 
ascending slope on their way to the sea. 

“Certain accidents to which rivers are subject are responsible for many lakes. 
Accidents of the hot kind, as they may be called for elementary distinction, are 


Deposits. 


O18 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


influence of the winds in producing currents, and the greater or less 
abundance of salts in solution, also affect the temperature conditions, 
as well as the quantity of atmospheric gases absorbed from the air 
at the surface and distributed by currents and convection throughout 
the mass of water in the lake. 

The deposits in lakes consist of gravels, sands, marls, clays, and 
muds, the variations in these depending largely on the geology of the 
country in which the lakes are situated. Usually the muds in the 
deeper parts of lakes contain a large amount of organic matter, which 
is chiefly of vegetable origin, and in this respect they differ from 
marine deposits. It occasionally happens that diatomaceous deposits 
are formed in lakes, especially where the detrital matter from the 


seen in lava-flows, which build great dams across valleys: the marshes around 
the edge of the Snake River lava-sheets seem to be lakes of this sort, verging on 
extinction : crater lakes are associated with other forms of eruption. Accidents 
of the cold kind are the glacial invasions : we are perhaps disposed to overrate the 
general importance of these in the long history of the world, because the last one 
was so recent, and has left its numerous traces so near the centres of our civiliza- 
tion ; but the temporary importance of the last glacial accident in explaining our 
home geography and our human history can hardly be exaggerated. During the 
presence of the ice, especially during its retreat, short-lived lakes were common 
about its margin. . . . We owe many prairies to such lakes. The rivers running 
from the ice-front, overloaded with sand and silt, filled up their valleys and 
ponded back their non-glacial side-streams ; their shore-lines have been briefly 
described in Ohio and Wisconsin, but the lakes themselves were drained when 
their flood-plain barriers were terraced ; they form an extinct species, closely 
allied to the existing Danube and Red River type. As the ice-sheet melts away, 
it discloses a surface on which the drift has been so irregularly accumulated that 
the new drainage is everywhere embarrassed, and lakes are for a time very 
numerous. Moreover, the erosion accomplished by the ice, especially near the 
centres of glaciation, must be held responsible for many, though by no means for 
most, of these lakes. Canada is the American type, and Finland the European, 
of land-surface in this condition. The drainage is seen to be very immature, but 
the immaturity is not at all of the kind that characterized the first settlement of 
rivers on these old lands: it is a case, not of rejuvenation, but of regeneration ; 
the icy baptism of the lands has converted their streams to a new spirit of lacus- 
trine hesitation unknown before. We cannot, however, expect the conversion to 
last very long: there is already apparent a backsliding to the earlier faith of 
steady flow, to which undisturbed rivers adhere closely throughout their life. 

‘““Water-surface is, for the needs of man, so unlike land-surface, that it is 
natural enough to include all water-basins under the single geographic term 
‘lakes.’ Wherever they occur,—in narrow mountain-valleys or on broad, level 
plains ; on divides or on deltas ; in solid rock or in alluvium,—they are all given 
one name. But if we in imagination lengthen our life so that we witness the 
growth of a river-system as we now watch the growth of plants, we must then as 
readily perceive and as little confuse the several physiographic kinds of lakes as 
we now distinguish the cotyledons, the leaves, the galls, and the flowers, of a 
quickly growing annual that produces all these forms in appropriate order and 
position in the brief course of a single summer.” 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 9519 


adjoining land is small in quantity. In salt lakes, again, there may 
be a chemical precipitation of salts on the floor of the lakes. 

In addition to a rise and fall of the surface of the lake due to Motions. 
the varying amount of rainfall in the region, there may be a rise at 
one end of a lake produced by the heaping up of water through 
strong winds and gales, and, in addition to the ordinary waves, 
standing waves, called seiches, have been detected in most lakes. At 
the boundary-line separating layers of water of different temperature 
and density, what are called “temperature seiches” have been dis- 
covered in the Scottish and other lakes. 

Lakes are inhabited by a great variety of organisms, but both Organisms. 

species and genera are much less numerous than in the ocean, and 
some whole classes—the Echinoderms, for example—are unrepresented. 
The ocean was almost certainly the original home of living beings, 
and relatively few species have been able to establish themselves in 
the less congenial fresh water.' In very deep lakes the bottom fauna 
is represented by only a few species, or life may be wholly absent, 
with the exception of bacteria. In temperate regions there appears 
to be active vertical circulation of the water, even in the deepest 
lakes, at least twice a year, when the maximum density point (39"'1 F., 
— 4° C.) is reached at the surface. In tropical regions, however, it is 
probable that, owing to an absence of, or much less active, vertical 
circulation, there may be insufficient oxygen to support animal life 
at the bottom of very deep lakes. ‘There is a well-marked cosmo- 
politanism in the plankton organisms of lakes. Indeed, the fresh- 
water plankton is regarded as the oldest community of organisms on 
the earth. 

Lakes may be compared to oceanic islands. Just as an oceanic Compared | 
island presents many peculiarities in its rocks, soil, fauna, and flora, Mees 
due to its isolation from the masses of continental land, so does a 
lake present individuality and special peculiarities in its physical, 
chemical, and biological features, owing to its position with reference 
to the drainage from the surrounding land, and its separation from 
the mass of waters represented by the great oceans. 

The surface of the earth, with which we are daily in direct contact, 
is composed of lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere, and these Hydrosphere. 
all interpenetrate. Lakes, rivers, underground water, the water of 
hydration in the lithosphere, and the water-vapour of the atmosphere, 
must all be regarded as belonging to outlying portions of the 
hydrosphere, which consists mainly of the waters of the great ocean 
basins. 


Lakes may be classified in a great variety of ways, but no method 


1 R. Quinton, L’eau de mer malteu organique, Paris, 1904. 


Classification 
by physical 
characters. 


Classitication 
by tempera- 
ture, 


520 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


of classification which has yet been proposed can be regarded as 
completely satisfactory. 
Lakes have been arranged according to :— 


(1) Their superficial area. 

(2) Their cubic contents of water. 

(3) Their depth. 

(4) Their latitude. 

(5) Their elevation above or below sea-level. 


(6) Their being salt or fresh. 


All these classifications must be regarded as more or less artificial. 
Some of the principal lakes, arranged according to these methods, 
will be found at the end of this paper. 

Another system is to arrange lakes according to their temperature 
conditions. For instance, Forel divides lakes into three types—polar, 
temperate, and tropical—and bases the distinction upon bottom 
temperatures as follows :— 


(1) Tropical type: temperature of deep layers varies from and 
above that of maximum density. 

(2) ‘Temperate type: temperature of deep layers varies above and 
below that of maximum density. 

(3) Polar type: temperature of deep layers varies from and below 
that of maximum density. 


He subdivides each type into two classes, deep and shallow. defining 
deep lakes as those which have a constant bottom temperature, and 
shallow lakes as those which have a variable bottom temperature. 
George C. Whipple, in a paper in the American Naturalist, 1898, 
on * Classification of Lakes according to Temperature,” suggests that 
lakes be divided into three types according to their surface tempera- 
tures, and into three orders according to their bottom temperatures. 
‘These three types are :— | 
(1) Polar type: surface temperature never above that of maximum 
density. 
(2) Temperate type: surface temperature sometimes above and 
sometimes below that point. 
(3) Tropical type: surface temperature never below that of 
maximum density. 
This division into types corresponds somewhat closely with geo- 
graphical location. 
His three orders may be defined as follows :— 
(a) Lakes of the first order have bottom temperatures practically 
constant at or near the point of maximum density. 
1 See note by E. M. Wedderburn on p. 144. 


eg 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 9521 


(6) Lakes of the second order have bottom temperatures practically 
constant, but undergoing annual fluctuations. 

(c) Lakes of the third order have bottom temperatures seldom 
very far from the surface temperatures. 


This division into orders corresponds in a general way to the 
characters of lakes—i.e. size, bulk of water, depth—and to the climate 
of the surrounding country. 

In Scotland lakes are sometimes divided into those which are 
covered with ice in winter, and those which never freeze over, the 
former being shallow lakes with a high annual range of temperature, 
and the latter deep lakes with a low annual range of temperature. 

The most generally adopted method of classification of lakes in Classification 
the past is one based on their origin, chiefly from the geological point ee 
of view :— 

1. Rock-Basins.—These have been formed in several ways :— 

(a) By slow movements of the earth’s crust, during the formation 
of mountains ; the Lake of Geneva in Switzerland and the Lake of 
Annecy in France are due to the subsidence or warping of part of 
the Alps; on the other hand, Lakes Stefanie, Rudolf, Albert 
Nyanza, ‘Tanganyika, Leopold,! and Nyasa, in Africa, and the Dead 
Sea in Syria, are all believed to lie in a great rift or sunken valley. 

(b) By volcanic agencies.—Crater-lakes formed on the sites of 
dormant volcanoes may be from a few yards to several miles in width, 
have generally a circular form, and are often without visible outlet. 
Excellent examples of such lakes are to be seen in the province 
of Rome (Italy), and in the central plateau of France, where 
M. Delebecque found the Lake of Issarles 329 feet in depth. ‘The most 
splendid crater-lake is found on the summit of the Cascade Range of 
Southern Oregon (U.S.A.). This lake is 2000 feet in depth. 

(c) By solution and subsidence due to subterranean channels and caves 
am limestone rocks.—-When the roofs of great limestone caves or under- 
ground lakes fall in, they produce at the surface what are called lime- 
stone sinks. Lakes similar to these are also found in regions abounding 
in rock-salt deposits; the Jura Range offers many such lakes. 

(d) By glacier erosion.—A. C. Ramsay has shown that innumer- 
able lakes of the northern hemisphere do not le in fissures produced 
by underground disturbances,. nor in areas of subsidence, nor in 
synclinal folds of strata, but are the results of glacial erosion. Many 
flat alluvial plains above gorges in Switzerland, as well as in the 
Highlands of Scotland, were, without doubt, what Sir Archibald 
Geikie calls glen-lakes, or true rock-basins, which have been filled up 
by sand and mud brought into them by their tributary streams. 


' Also called Rukwa, Hikwa, or Likwa. 


922 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


2. Barrier Basins.—These may be due to the following causes :— 

(a) A landshp often occurs 1n mountainous regions, where strata, 
dipping towards the valley, rest on soft layers; the hard rocks slip 
into the valley after heavy rains, damming back the drainage, which 
then forms a barrier-basin. Many small lakes high up in the Alps 
and Pyrenees are formed by a river being dammed back in this way. 

(b) A glacier.—In Alaska, in Scandinavia, and in the Alps, a 
glacier often bars the mouth of a tributary valley, the stream flowing 
therein is dammed back, and a lake is thus formed. The best-known 
lake of this kind is the Marjelen Lake in the Alps, near the great 
Aletsch Glacier. The lake varies in area, being sometimes a mile in 
length, and at other times disappearing entirely through a crevasse in 
the ice; in August 1907 it disappeared in one night. Lake Castain 
in Alaska is barred by the Malaspina Glacier; it is two or three miles 
long and a mile in width when at its highest level, and discharges 
through a tunnel nine miles in length beneath the ice-sheet. ‘The 
famous parallel roads of Glen Roy in Scotland are successive terraces 
formed along the shores of a glacial lake during the waning glacial 
epoch. Lake Agassiz, which during the glacial period occupied the 
valley of the Red River, and of which the present Lake Winnipeg 1s a 
remnant, was formed by an ice-dam along the margin of two great ice- 
sheets. It is estimated to have been 700 miles in length, and to have 
covered an area of 100,000 square milcs, thus exceeding the total area 
of the five great North American lakes: Superior (31,200 square 
miles), Michigan (22,450 square miles), Huron with Georgian Bay 
(23,800 square miles), Erie (9960 square miles), and Ontario (7240 
square miles). 

(c) Lhe lateral moraine of an actual glacier.—These lakes some- 
times occur in the Alps of Central Europe and in the Pyrenees. 

(d) The frontal moraine of an ancient glacier.—The barrier in 
this case consists of the last moraine left by the retreating glacier. 
Such lakes are abundant in the northern hemisphere, especially in 
Scotland and the Alps. 

(e) Irregular deposition of glacial drift.—After the retreat of 
continental glaciers great masses of glacial drift are left on the land- 
surfaces; but, on account of the manner in which these masses were 
deposited, they abound in depressions that become filled with water. 
What are called “kettle-holes” are evidently spaces originally filled 
by large masses of ice, which melted away after the detrital matter 
was laid down. Often these lakes are without visible outlet, the 
water frequently percolating through the glacial drift. These lakes 
are so numerous in the north-eastern part of North America, that one 
can trace the southern boundary of the great ice-sheet by following 
the southern limit of the lake-strewn region, where lakes may be 


> 6 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 523 


counted by tens of thousands, varying from the size of a tarn to that 
of the great Laurentian lakes above mentioned. A good example of 
this is found in Scotland in the Red Lochan at Tulloch.! 

(f) Sand drifted into dunes.—It is a well-known fact that sand may 
travel across a country for several miles in the direction of the 
prevailing winds. When these sand-dunes obstruct a valley a lake 
may be formed; a good example of such a lake is found in Moses 
Lake in the State of Washington. The sand-dunes may also fill up 
or submerge river-valleys and lakes—for instance, in the Sahara, where 
the Shotts are vast lakes filled with sand and water near the point of 
saturation. Indeed, in the afternoon, owing to evaporation, the 
surface is covered with salt crystals. In the morning these have all 
deliquesced, and the surface looks like an ordinary lake. 

(¢) Alluvial matter deposited by lateral streams.—If the current of 
a main river be not powerful enough to sweep away detrital matter 
brought down by a lateral stream, a dam is formed, causing a lake. 
These lakes are frequently met with in the narrow valleys of the 
Highlands of Scotland. 

(h) Flows of lava.—Lakes of this kind are met with in volcanic 
regions. ‘The marshes round the edges of the Snake River lava-sheets 
seem to be lakes of this sort verging on extinction. In Auvergne, a 
small basin, the Lac d’Aidat, is enclosed by lava from the extinct Puy 
de la Vache, and the Lac de Chambon was formed by the eruption of 
volcanic cones in its valley. ‘The Sea of Tiberias seems to be held back 
by a lava-stream that entered the valley of the Jordan from the east. 
Lake Assal, at the head of the Gulf of Aden, is shut in by a bed of lava. 

3. Organic Basins.—In the vast tundras that skirt the Arctic 
Ocean in both the Old and the New World, a great number of frozen 
ponds and lakes are met with, surrounded by banks of vegetation. 
Snow-banks are generally accumulated every season at the same spots. 
During summer the growth of the tundra vegetation is very rapid, 
and the snow-drifts that last longest are surrounded by luxuriant 
vegetation. When such accumulations of snow finally melt, the 
vegetation on the place they occupied is much less than along their 
borders. Year after year such places become more and more 
depressed, comparatively to the general surface, where vegetable 
growth is more abundant, and thus give origin to lakes. The 
obstructions formed by the “sudd” of the Upper Nile region, and by 
the “ beaver dams” of the North American rivers, may be considered 
as giving rise to lakes of organic origin. 

It is well known that in coral-reef regions small bays are cut off 
from the ocean by the growth of corals, rain and river waters 
accumulate behind these barriers, fresh-water basins being thus 


1 See vol. ii. part 1. p. 375. 


524 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


ultimately formed. <A similar process produces lakes along continental 
shores through the formation of sand-dunes or accumulation of 
shingle, as, for instance, in Florida. 

4. Wind-formed Basins. — The wind travelling in a cyclonic 
manner across plains often lifts the sand and earth, carrying them 
away, and thus forming shallow basins. Many of the shallow lake- 
pans of desert regions are believed to have been formed in this way, 
as well as lakes where sand-dunes are numerous.! 


When a quite comprehensive view is taken of the land-surfaces of 
| the globe, two regions may be distinguished : 
Two distinct (A) ‘The region of INLAND DRAINAGE AREAS, Where evaporation 
ee et) exceeds precipitation, situated in the desert regions of the globe. 
(B) The region of DRAINAGE AREAS, THE WATERS FROM WHICH 
FLOW DIRECTLY INTO THE OCEAN, where precipitation exceeds evapora- 
tion, situated in the well-watered regions of the globe with abundant 
vegetation. ‘The water of lakes associated with the former class (A) 
may be either salt or fresh; that of lakes associated with the latter 
class (B) is always fresh. | 
In reviewing the distribution of lakes over the surface of the 
globe the order here suggested will be adopted in this paper. 


LAKES CONNECTED WITH INLAND DRAINAGE AREAS 


Wietbation The inland drainage areas are situated in two belts running right 
punend round the world, the one in the northern hemisphere, approximately 
g ; 

areas, between the latitudes of 30° and 50° North, the other in the southern 


hemisphere, approximately between the latitudes of 20° and 30° 
South. These regions correspond so closely with the great desert 
regions and with the salt-lake areas, where there is an annual 
rainfall of less than 10 inches, that the relation is evidently one of 
cause and effect. In the northern belt are the lakes of the Gobi 
Desert, the Sea of Aral, the Caspian Sea, the Dead Sea, the arid 
desert of Arabia, the lakes of the Sahara Desert, and of the Great 
Salt Lake and Alkali Deserts of the Rocky Mountains in North 
America. In the southern belt are the arid regions of the interior 
1 Sir John Lubbock, in his book The Scenery of Switzerland, p. 203, divides the 

lakes into the following four classes :— 

(1) Lakes of embankment. 

(2) Lakes of excavation. 


(3) Lakes of subsidence. 
(4) Crater lakes. 
In the year 1883 Professor W. M. Davis published a classification of lakes 


according as they were made by constructive, destructive, or obstructive processes 
(see Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xxi. p. 315, 1883), 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 525 


of Australia, the Kalahari Desert of Africa, and the Atakama Desert 
of South America. These inland drainage areas are estimated by 
Murray ! to occupy 11,486,000 English square miles, or about three- 
seventeenths of the total land-surface of the globe. 

It was shown by very numerous observations during the Challenger 
Expedition that in the open ocean far from land the daily fluctuations 
of temperature in the surface waters do not exceed one degree 
Fahrenheit. Hence the atmosphere over the ocean may be said to 
rest on a surface the temperature of which is practically uniform 
at all hours of the day. This is in striking contrast to what obtains 
on land-surfaces towards the centres of the continental masses, where 
the air is often dry, and solar and terrestrial radiation produce a very 
wide daily range of temperature, possibly one hundred degrees Fahren- 
heit from 3 p.m. to 3am. In the temperature conditions here 
indicated we have one of the prime factors of meteorology,—a factor 
which determines the position of the great permanent anticyclonic 
areas over the oceans. Air with a large quantity of water-vapour 
absorbs more of the sun’s rays, becomes in consequence more heated, 
and is specifically lighter than dry air; hence moist air ascends in 
cyclonic areas, is deprived of its moisture in ascending, becomes cool, 
and spreading laterally descends as heavy dry cool air in anticyclonic 
areas. ‘The redistribution of the mass of the atmosphere is brought 
about in this manner. Numerous observations show that winds are 
simply the movements of the atmosphere that set in from where 
there is a surplus to where there is a deficiency of air. Isobaric 
maps and maps showing the prevailing winds are in accordance with 
each other. 

Now, the two belts of inland drainage areas and low rainfall above 
referred to are likewise the regions of high annual atmospheric 
pressure, which pass in two belts completely round the globe. The belt 
of high pressure in January in the northern hemisphere broadens as 
it passes over land and contracts as it crosses over the ocean. Its 
greatest breadth is over Asia, and its least’ over the Pacific, that is, 
where land and ocean attain respectively their maximum dimensions. 
Similar relations exist in the southern hemisphere. In the winter months 
of each hemisphere these areas on land are occupied by anticyclones, 
in which heavy, dry, cold air descends and flows out on the surface 
all round. In the swmmer months of each hemisphere these same areas 
become cyclonic, and the winds are drawn in at the surface from sur- 
rounding regions and are deprived of their moisture before reaching 
the centre of the desert regions, where they ascend as warm currents 
to the higher regions of the atmosphere. 

The primary cause of the rainless, desert, salt-lake, and inland 

1 See Scott. Geogr. Mag., vol. i. p. 552, 1886. 


NORTHERN 


HEMISPHERE. 


Eural-Asia. 


2026 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND | 


drainage areas may, then, be traced to the fact that they are situated in 
those regions of the earth’s surface where the prevailing winds blow 
from colder to warmer latitudes, and from off land and not directly 
from off the ocean. The distribution of salt lakes may consequently 
be said to depend more on meteorological than on topographical or 
geological phenomena. These meteorological conditions have also a 
very marked influence on vegetable, animal, and human life, as well as 
on the geological strata now in process of formation. 

Should the climate in the neighbourhood of these inland drainage 
areas change and the rainfall become more abundant, the salt lakes 
would slowly increase in size, and would ultimately find an outlet 
by means of a river to the ocean at the lowest part of the rim of 
the basin. What was once a small salt lake would gradually become 
a large fresh-water lake, pouring its waters directly into the ocean 
through a river. It is most probable that this has frequently occurred 
in the past history of the earth, but traces of the change have been 
wholly obliterated, or are now difficult to detect. Numerous instances 
of the contrary process, where large fresh-water lakes have been con- 
verted in recent geological times into salt lakes, are to be observed 
in many inland drainage areas. Instances of this nature will be 
pointed out in the following pages. In some desert regions both 
the river channels and the lakes are completely filled up with blown 
sand. The artesian wells along the course of the Oued Rhir in the 
Sahara often throw up fresh-water fishes and crustaceans, thus 
indicating a buried river. The lakes of inland drainage areas may 
be, as previously stated, either fresh or salt. ‘The higher lakes, having 
an outflowing river, remain fresh and drinkable, while the salts which 
are leached out of the surrounding land all accumulate in the lowest 
lake of the series, the salts in solution varying both in quantity and 
composition in each locality. 

In the following pages we shall in the first instance refer to the 
inland drainage areas of the northern hemisphere, and then to those 
of the en hemisphere. 

The largest inland drainage area is that of central ieee Asia, 
which occupies, according to teres 4,785,000 English square miles, 
and stretches from about long. 35° to 125° E., and from lat. 25° to 
60° N. (see fig. 63). It meludes the lakes of the Aralo-Caspian 
depression, the lakes of the Gobi Desert, Lake Hamun in the Seistan 
depression between Afghanistan and Persia, Lake Urmi on the Persian 
plateau, and Lake Van in Eastern Anatolia. 

The greater part of Central Asia is occupied by two high 
plateaus: a western one extending in a south-eastern direction from 
the Black Sea to the valley of the Indus, and an eastern one stretch- 
ing from the Himalayas to the north-eastern extremity of Asia. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 527 


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These plateaus separate the lowlands of Siberia and the Aralo-Caspian 
depression from the lowlands of Mesopotamia, India, and China to 
the south, and together with the Aralo-Caspian depression form most 
of the inland drainage area of the continent. The lower terrace of 
the eastern plateau, which is occupied by Eastern Turkestan in the 
west and by the Desert of Gobi in the east, is known as the Central 
Asian depression ; but as its altitude varies from 3000 to 4000 feet 
in the highest part to 2200 feet in the lowest—the depression of 
Lob Nor—the term must be taken as purely relative to the height 
of the surrounding plateau. 

It has long been surmised by historians that certain parts of Asia 
have been growing more arid, and the phrase, “the desiccation of 
Asia,” has been much used in this connection. But while some 
employ it to denote the process of change! from the coldness or 
moisture of the Glacial period to the comparative aridity of the 
geological epoch of to-day, and maintain that this process is accelerated 
by that gradual elevation of parts of the continent which led to the 
separation of the Tertiary inland seas, and which is still in progress 
at the present time,” others take it as meaning a gradual change in 
climate supposed to have taken place during the period covered by 
history. Brickner,’ from a study of meteorological records and of 
the fluctuations in the level of the Caspian and other isolated lakes, 
comes to the conclusion that the variations of climate form a cycle 
of thirty-five years. Woeikoff,* basing his reasoning on recent 
Russian investigations on Central Asian lakes, such as those of Berg 
on the Sea of Aral, and on the examination of the meteorological 
records for the town of Barnaul in Western Siberia, for which a 
longer series is available than for any other Asiatic station, adopts 
the theory that if variations are recurrent the period must extend 
over at least sixty years; but as records of meteorological observations 
date back little more than one hundred years the precise length can- 
not be determined for some considerable time. Central Asia he 
considers to have just passed through a minimum phase. Ellsworth 
Huntington * holds that, between the recurrent glacial epochs at one 
end of the scale and the climatic variation at the other there is an 
intermediate pulsation, the beats of which are to be reckoned by 
thousands of years and will be coincident with regular fluctuations of 
rainfall and temperature throughout the world. 


1 Kropotkin, “ The Desiccation of Eur-Asia,” Geogr. Journ., vol.xxiii. p. 724, 1904. 

2 Kropotkin, “The Orography of Asia,” Geogr. Journ., vol. xxiii. p. 346, 1904. 

3 Kiimaschwankungen seit 1700, Wien, 1890. 

4 “Der Aral See und sein Gebiet nach den neuesten Forschungen,” Petermann 
Miti., Bd. Ixv. p. 82, 1909. 

5 The Pulse of Asia, London, 1907. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 529 


The Aralo-Caspian basin is bounded by the Caspian on the west, Aralo-Caspian 
the plateaus of Persia and Afghanistan on the south, and the Pamirs vas 
on the east, stretching to the ‘Mian stian and the Tarbagati on the 
north-east, to Siberia on the north, and merging on the north-west 
into the steppes which lie between the Ural and the Caspian. On 
one side the mountains rise to heights of from 20,000 to 23,000 feet, 
while on the other side the surface sinks ae the Caspian, about 
86 feet below the level of the sea. 

The fluctuations of level in the Caspian Sea pie historic times, 
and its relation to the Sea of Aral and the Amu Daria (Oxus of the 
ancients, and Jihun of the Arabs), have caused much discussion 
among modern writers.' Strabo, the Greek geographer, quotes 
Aristobulus, the geographer of Alexander the Great, as saying that 
in the fourth century before Christ the traffic from India came down 
the Oxus River to the Caspian, into which sea the river flowed. A 
little later, about 300 z.c., Patrocles, the admiral of Seleucus, made 
a survey of the southern coast of the Caspian, and reported that the 
Oxus and Jaxartes (Syr Daria) Rivers both entered that sea, the 
mouth of the one being 240 miles from that of the other. Under 
present conditions the Oxus and Jaxartes could not possibly enter 
the Caspian Sea by separate mouths, but were the level of the 
Caspian very much higher than it is now, that sea would almost 
coalesce with the Sea of Aral, and conditions would then agree 
with the description of Patrocles. Physiographic evidence which 
seems to show that this was at one time the case is given by the 
abandoned shore-lines that border the Caspian at various heights 
up to 600 feet above the present water-level. These indicate by 
their weak development that the sea did not stand at any one 
level for a long time.  Istakhri, who visited the region about 
920 a.p., said that the Aral received the Oxus, the Jaxartes, 
and several other rivers. Edrisi (a.p. 1154) speaks of the Aral as 
a “ well-known lake,” and confirms most of what Istakhri says. He 
also shows in his map the Jihun flowing into the Aral Sea.” Prefessor 
Woeikoff? shows that a rise of the River Amu Daria of only 4 metres 
(13 feet) above the level of 1901 would cause an overflow of part of 
its waters by the Usboi to the Caspian, one effect of which would be 
that the Sea of Aral would become a fresh-water lake. Historical 
evidence goes to show that from the thirteenth to the end of the 


1 Humboldt, Asze centrale, Paris, 1843 ; Rawlinson, “‘ Note on the Oxus River,” 
Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc., vol. xi. p. 114, 1866-67 ; Briickner, Klimaschwankungen sett 
1700, Wien, 1890. 

2 Aitofi’s reduction of the maps of Edrisi’s Geography in Schrader’s Historical 
Atlas, Carte 24, Paris, 1896. 

Op. cit., p. 84. 
34 


530 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


sixteenth centuries this overflow actually occurred, and it would 
appear that this was a period of comparatively high rainfall in 
Eastern Europe and Western Asia. As far as may be judged from 
the evidence that has been collected, it seems that from about 400 pz.c. 
to 400 a.p. the climate of the Aralo-Caspian basin was damper and 
cooler than now. From 400 to 800 a.p. there was a transition to a 
warmer or drier epoch than that of to-day; this was succeeded in 
the course of the néxt few centuries by somewhat damper or cooler 
conditions of the fluvial period, and in turn there has been a change 
to our modern drier period. 

The Caspian Sea and the Aral Sea are salt lakes, which owe their 
saltness to their having been originally part of the ocean, from which 
they were separated, in the opinion of Russian geologists, by under- 
ground movements or warping of the earth’s crust at a comparatively 
recent geological period. These movements, according to Helmersen,! 
are still in progress, and this has been given as one reason for the 
desiccation of the Central Asiatic area. 'The Tertiary deposits of the 
north of India show that elevation must have gone on in Central Asia 
continuously during the Tertiary period, and at the present time the 
same process is being steadily continued. It is interesting to note 
in this connection that the western portion of North America has 
similarly been undergoing a steady elevation, and at the same time 
a continued desiccation has been in progress. 

The molluscs living in the waters of the Caspian Sea are very 
much like those living in the Black Sea, and banks of similar shells 
may be traced between the two seas. This and other evidence, 
together with the fact that many salt lakes and marshes are found in 
the district, indicate that the Caspian Sea was formerly connected 
with the Black Sea, and that a great firth running up between Europe 
and Asia stretched completely across what are now the steppes and 
plains of the tundras, till it merged into the Arctic Sea. 

Caspian Sea, the largest rataned body of water in the world, 
is 180,000 square miles in extent, and has a maximum depth of about 
3200 feet, which makes it rank as the second deepest lake in the 
world (a sounding of 5413 feet has been taken in Lake Baikal). 
Its basin is naturally divided into three portions, of which the 
northern is the shallowest (maximum depth 120 feet), and is being 
gradually silted up by the deposits of the Volga, the Ural, and the 
Terek. A depression, half of which has a depth of more than 300 
feet and reaches a maximum depth of 2526 feet, occupies the middle 
portion of the sea, and is separated from the southern and deepest 
portion of the Caspian by a submarine ridge, a continuation of the 
main Caucasus range. ‘The Caspian receives the drainage of the 

1 Cited by Geikie, Text-book of Geology, ed. 2, p. 383, London, 1885. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 531 


whole south-east of Russia in Europe by such important rivers as 
the Volga and the Ural, but it has no outlet. So large is the mass 
of fresh water poured into it, that the greater part of the lake-water 
is less salt than that of the ocean, but the results of evaporation 
are seen in its being relatively more sulphatic. The amount of 
water supplied to the Caspian balances that lost by evaporation ; 
nevertheless, along the shore in summer much evaporation goes 
on in lagoons, and the Gulf of Karaboghaz on the east shore 
may be regarded as a huge evaporating basin, 7500 square miles in 
area. It is no more than 50 feet in depth, and is connected with 
the main basin of the Caspian by a channel about 150 yards wide and 
5 feet deep. It has been proposed to dam the strait in order to raise 
the level of the Caspian and to increase its salinity. The Gulf is 
situated in a warm region, and loses so much water by evaporation 
that its level is always lower than that of the Caspian. Conse- 
quently a current from the latter is continually flowing in, while 
there is no compensating under-current outwards. ‘The. salinity 
of the water is about 16 per cent., and Baer! estimated that 350,000 
tons of salt were carried in daily; fish which enter the Karaboghaz 
from the Caspian are killed and naturally salted, and, it is said, 
supply food to the wandering tribes along its shores, who dig them 
out of the precipitated salt. The bottom of the Gulf is flat, and is 
covered in the central part over an area of about 1300 square miles 
by a bed of sodium sulphate (Glauber’s salt), while in other parts 
calcium sulphate (gypsum) and mud are found. 

It appears from the researches of Filippoff that during the years 
1851-88 the level of the Caspian thrice stood at a maximum, the total 
range of the oscillations being 33 feet. Besides these changes, there 
are also the seasonal ones (lowest level in January, highest in summer). 
Observations were made in 1904 by means of the Ekman apparatus 
on the currents in the Caspian, and showed that in the northern 
part there is a surface current flowing along the west coast towards 
the south; in the central part the current takes the same direc- 
tion; sweeping round the southern shore, the current returns to 
the north along the eastern coast, almost to the peninsula of 
-Manguichlague, where it deviates to the west to join that on the 
Caucasian coast. 

Life, with the exception of bacteria, is absent in the deepest parts 
of the Caspian Sea. An oligochaete worm was got at a depth of about 
1300 feet, but below that is an abyssal area totally destitute of life. 
This is due, not as in the case of the Black Sea to the presence of 
hydrogen sulphide, but to the scarcity of oxygen in the deep layers 
arresting the development of life. About 64 per cent. of the fauna 

1 Cited by Geikie, op. cit., p. 383. 


532 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


of the Caspian Sea, according to Knipovitsch,' are found nowhere 
else in the world. In its general character the fauna recalls that of 
a fresh-water lake rather than that of a true sea. Fresh-water fish, 
crustacea, and many plankton organisms met with in lakes and rivers 
are found; but there are also many typical marine organisms, which 
are not new arrivals but old inhabitants.2 G. O. Sars believes that 
the Caspian may be considered as a centre of creation for plankton 
crustacea, and thinks that this evolution is still going on.’ Seals 
and sturgeons are among the vertebrates represented ; they are relics 
of the time when the Caspian Sea was united with the Black Sea, 
and probably also with the Sea of Aral, to form an immense sea, which 
had obtained its fauna from the ocean at a still more ancient time. 
The character of the fauna of the Caspian Sea changed in accordance 
with the lesser degree of salinity and the almost complete isolation 
of the basin. It became more and more peculiar, although 24°5 per 
cent. of the species are still met with in the Black Sea.* What is 
especially interesting is that the species common to the two seas are Just 
those species which characterise the fauna of the shallow waters of the 
Black Sea; but as the water of the Caspian is comparatively fresh, 
and is not exposed to the invasion of foreign species from the 
Mediterranean, these forms are not limited to the estuaries of 
rivers, as in the Black Sea, but are found everywhere in the upper 
waters. The fauna of the Caspian Sea may be regarded as an ancient 
fauna relatively only slightly modified since remote times, the con- 
ditions of existence in the basin remaining nearly uniform since 
prehistoric epochs. ‘The northern portion of the Caspian, which 
experiences severe frosts and is too shallow to store up large amounts 
of heat in the summer, freezes for three or four months along the 
shores, but in the middle portion ice appears only when it is brought 
down by northerly winds. 

Lake Elton (or Yelton) is situated in the northern part of the 
Caspian depression, between the Volga and the Ural, a steppe region, 
studded with salt lakes, and so largely encrusted with salt that the 
rivers emptying themselves into these lakes are in some cases strongly 
saline. It is fed by the river Charysacha, which has 5 per cent. of 
saline constituents in its waters—that is, neariy a half more than the 
waters of the ocean—and is estimated to contribute nearly 22,000 
tons of salt every year to the lake. From Lake Elton and the 

1 See Schokalsky and Schmidt, Apercu sur les Explorations scientifiques des Mers 
et des Kawx douces de lV Hmpire russe, Section scientifique, Expos. Maritime Internat., 
Bordeaux, 1907, p. 34. 

2 See p. 358. 

3 “On the Polyphemide of the Caspian Sea,” Ann. Mus. Zool. St. Peétersb., 
t. Vil. p. 31, 1902. 

* See Schokalsky and Schmidt, op. cit., p. 35. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 533 


lake or marsh of Baskunchatski, nearer the Volga, thousands of tons 
of salt are annually obtained. 

Sea of Aral, once united to the Caspian Sea, but now lying 
about 246 feet above it, fills another of the hollows in the vast 
depression between the European and Asiatic high grounds. It is a 
lake of brackish water lying about 160 feet above the level of the sea, 
and 265 miles long, 145 miles broad, and with an area of about 
24,400 square miles; the maximum depth is 222 feet, the mean depth 
52 feet, while the volume of water is estimated at 36,744,000 million 
cubic feet. On the south the Amudaria (Oxus) carries into it the 
drainage from the northern slopes of the Hindu Kush Mountains, 
and on the east the Syrdaria (Jaxartes) brings down supples of 
water and mud from the Thian Shan Mountains, the two rivers to- 
gether delivering on the average about 52,980 cubic feet per second. 
Most of the water is derived from the melting of mountain snows, the 
months of maximum flow being June, July, and August. 

Berg’s expedition ! of 1899-1902 suppled details, drawn from a 
consideration of the various measurements that have been made since 
the first survey of the lake by Admiral Butakoff in 1848, as to the 
changes in its level, and he made investigations on the temperature of 
the waters and on the existing life. 

In 1848 the level of the water was relatively high, but during the 
years 1848-1880 it was undoubtedly sinking. Thus Glukhowskoy 
showed that the level fell 71 centimetres (2} feet) between 1874 and 
1880. From 1880 to 1899 no measurements were recorded, but in 
the latter year Berg found a rise of level in full progress, the water 
being higher than had ever previously been recorded ; and the islands 
shown on Butakoff’s map—which had become peninsulas in 1880— 
were submerged. Working from Tillo’s bench-mark of 1874 at 
Karatamak, Berg found that the level in 1901 was 1:21 metres (4 feet) 
above that of 1874; in 1903, 2°75 metres (9 feet) ; and in 1908, 3 metres 
(92 feet). The lake being mostly shallow, this rise corresponds to a 
very considerable increase in area; the increment in volume of water 
between 1880 and 1908 is estimated at 20 per cent. Berg gives the 
mean salinity of the water as 10°75 per mille (1075 per cent.). Com- 
pared with analyses made between 1870 and 1880, which yielded an 
average of over 12 per mille (1°2 per cent.), this shows a marked freshen- 
ing, due to the increase in the volume of water. Professor Woeikoff 
showed in 1901? that the changes in level are very well explained 
by the variations in precipitation, as indicated by pluviometric 
observations made at Barnaul, in West Siberia, since 1838. The 
annual amount of rainfall diminished from 1838 till 1868, then 


! See Schokalsky and Schmidt, op. cit., p. 36 ; Geogr. Journ., vol. xix. p. 5038, 1902. 
2 Petermann’s Mitt., Bd. xlvii. p. 199, 1901. 


034 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


increased rapidly till 1895, and it has remained high with small 
variations since that year, the highest ‘five-year average (to the end 
of 1906) being 1902-1906. 

In general, the thermal stratification of the deep layers is similar 
to that in fresh-water lakes. Owing to its small depth (less than 
3 per cent. of the lake-floor is covered by more than 100 feet of 
water), the surface temperature of Lake Aral varies considerably with 
the seasons, and in summer is much higher than that of the bottom. 
In winter the conditions are reversed, and consequently twice each 
year, in spring and autumn, the whole mass of water must be uniform 
in temperature. 

The fauna of the Aral Sea is but slightly affected by the degree of 
salinity of the water; the same organisms can live in the open water, 
with a specific gravity of 10110, and in the bays, where the water is 
quite fresh. The fauna is related to that of the Caspian, but is 
characterised by a great poverty of species, on account of the difficulty 
of sustaining life in a comparatively salt shallow basin subject to 
great changes in temperature. ‘The fish all belong to fresh-water 
species, and so do almost all the plankton organisms. 

Lake Balkash, in Akmolinsk, Western Siberia, lies 780 feet above 
sea-level, and is merely a relict of a former much more extensive sheet 
of water, of which Sassyk-kul and Ala-kul are also remaining parts. 
It is 340 miles in length, 50 miles in maximum breadth, with an 
area of about 7000 square miles, but it is only about 33 feet deep,' 
and has a flat bottom. It was examined in 1903 by a Russian ex- 
pedition under Berg,' and the temperature at the surface was found 
to be 76°°5 Fahr. (24°-7 C.) in July, while the bottom temperature 
varied very little. From the biological point of view it is as barren 
as the surrounding territories ; there are only four kinds of fish, and no 
benthonic molluscs or other invertebrates were found. ‘The plankton 
of the lake is abundant, and similar to that of ponds. “One can only 
conclude that the lake is very young, and has not had time to people 
itself. The waters of Lake Balkash are quite fresh and fit for drink- 
ing, though the lake has no visible outlet, and lies in the middle of a 
steppe, where the evaporation is very great in summer, and the pre- 
cipitation very insignificant; whereas Issik-kul, far more favourably 
situated, contains water that is much too salt to drink. Berg accounts 
for this by supposing the lake to have been entirely dried up, the bed 
covered with sand, and then filled again. The lake has been rising in 
level since 1890. 

Ala-kul (called also Kurghi-Nor or Alakt-Ugul-Nor), a lake of 
Russian Central Asia, in the province of Semirietchenisk, is 40 miles 


1 See Schokalsky and Schmidt, op. cit., p. 53 ; the maximum depth is given in 
Encycl. Brit., 10th ed. as 135 feet. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 535 


long and 17 miles broad, and lies 837 feet above sea-level. A 
smaller lake to the west, separated from the larger-by a marsh, is also 
known as Ala-kul. 

Issik-kul lies to the south of Lake Balkash, at an altitude of 
5165 feet, and is 100 miles long by 30 or 40 miles wide, covering 
an area of about 2300 square miles. In the deepest portion of the 
lake, 33 miles from the southern shore, its depth is 1400 feet; in the 
middle portion a uniform depth of 840 feet prevails. ‘The River 
Chu, after having approached very near the lake and discharged some 
of its waters into it by the short river Kutamaldi, suddenly turns 
northward and pierces a lofty mountain range. Davis! is of opinion 
that the low salinity of the lake waters is an indication that the Chu 
served once both as an inlet and an outlet to the lake. 

Kyzyl-lak, in Akmolinsk, is 10 miles long by 8 miles broad, and 
is very salt. Ignatof,? who examined the salt lakes of Akmolinsk in 
1898, found that the temperature varied from 70° to 84° Fahr. 
(21°-1 to 28°°9 C.), and at the bottom it was nearly 12° higher than 
at the surface. According to the natives of the region, the Kirghiz, 
it never freezes in winter. The colour of the water appears bright 
red, owing, Ignatof believes, to the large number of crustacea it 
contains. 

In the neighbourhood are several fresh-water lakes, some of them 
several miles in diameter. How they came to be fresh is a mystery, 
unless, as Ignatof suggests, the shore-reeds have extracted all the 
salt from the water; but the explanation given by Berg for Lake 
Balkash seems more applicable. 

Lake Selety-denghis is 40 miles long by 163 broad, and is slightly 
salt. ‘The temperature conditions are similar to those of Kyzyl-lak. 
The bottom is covered with decaying organic remains, and sulphuretted 
hydrogen is given off. The fauna consists of crustacea. 

Lake Teke is 73 miles long by 10 broad, and is saturated with 
salt, and yet it contains several species of crustacea; no signs of 
drying up are perceptible as in the case of the other lakes, especially 
Kyzyl-lak. 

Lob-Nor (or Lop-Nor), a lake of Central Asia, in the Gobi Desert, Gobi Desert. 
between the ranges of Altyn-Tagh on the south and of Kurruk-Tagh 
on the north, lies at an altitude of about 2200 feet above sea-level, 
and is fed by the River Tarim, which has its source in the Thian Shan 
Mountains. A chain of numberless lakes accompanies the right bank 
of the Tarim throughout its course, lying in depressions in the sand, 
called by the natives “ bajir.” The prevailing winds blow from the east, 
and heap up the sand in ridges like gigantic waves, or pile it up in 

1 Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc., vol. xxxvi. p. 225, 1904. 
Globus, Bd. Ixxv. p. 66, 1898. 


996 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


vast accumulations of dunes, 300 to 400 feet high. In addition, 
there is another system of sand-dunes at right angles to the first, 
running from east to west, built by winds blowing from north to 
south during the winter. The sand-dunes, therefore, form a network, 
in which are depressions with a clay bottom swept free from sand. 
By the autumn the lakes are half empty.t Previous to 1876 Lob Nor 
was placed in nearly all the maps at a position which agreed with 
the accounts of ancient Chinese geographers. In that year the 
Russian, Prejevalsky,? discovered two closely connected lake-basins, 
Kara Buran and Kara Koshun, whose waters were fresh, fully one 
degree farther south and considerably to the east of the site of 
the old Lob-Nor. ‘These lake-basins he nevertheless regarded as 
being identical with the Lob-Nor of the Chinese. ‘This identification 
was disputed by Baron von Richthofen? on the ground that the Lob- 
Nor, the salt lake of the Chinese geographers and the terminal lake of 
a water-system, could not be filled with fresh water, and that this 
lake must be a modern formation. In 1895 Sven Hedin ‘ ascertained 
that the River Tarim empties part of its waters into another lake, 
or rather a string of lakes (Avullu-k6ll, Kara-koll, Tayek-koll, and 
Arka-koll), situated in the latitude given to the Chinese Lob-Nor, 
and thus so far justified the views of Richthofen and confirmed the 
Chinese accounts. At the same time he advanced reasons for believing 
that Prejevalsky’s lake-basins, the southern Lob-Nor, are of quite 
recent origin—indeed, he fixed upon the year 1720 as the date of their 
formation. Besides this, he argued that there exists a close inter- 
relation between the northern Lob-Nor lakes and the southern Lob-Nor 
lakes, so that as the water in the one group increases it decreases to 
the same proportion and volume in the other. He also considered 
that the five lakes of northern Lob-Nor are slowly moving westwards 
under the incessant impetus of wind and_ sand-storm (bwran). 
These conclusions were afterwards controverted by the Russian 
geographer Kozloff, who visited the Lob-Nor region in 1893-94, 
before Sven Hedin. In 1900 Hedin, following up the course of the 
Tarim, discovered at the foot of Kurruk-Tagh the basin of a 
desiccated salt lake, which he holds to be the true Lob-Nor of the 
Chinese geographers ; and at the same time he found that the Kara- 
Koshun or Lob-Nor of Prejevalsky had extended towards the north, 
but shrunk towards the south. Thus the old Lob-Nor no longer 
exists, but in place of it are a number of much smaller lakes of 
newer formation. It is interesting to note that Dr Stein, in his paper 


1 Sven Hedin, Central Asia and Trbet, vol. i. p. 419, London, 1903. 

* Verh. Ges. Hrdk. Berlun, Bd. v. p. 121, 1878. 

3 Krom Kulja across the Tian Shan to Lob-Nor, pp. 98-145, London, 1879. 
* Through Asia, vol. i. pp. 15 et seq., vol. 11. pp. 864 et seg., London, 1898. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 537 


“On Explorations in Central Asia, 1906-1908,” in the Geographical 
Journal (vol. xxxiv. p. 26, 1909), says that at the time of his visit 
the new lakes found by Sven Hedin in the Lob Desert had almost 
disappeared. Sven Hedin, in the discussion on the same paper (p. 270), 
observes that whether this denotes that the lakes are in a period of 
shifting, or that in general the volume of water carried down by the 
Tarim has been diminished in recent years, can only be determined by 
comparison of the maps and measurements of the river. 

From all this it may be fairly inferred that, owing to the uniform 
level of the region, the sluggish flow of the Tarim, its tending to 
divide and reunite, conjoined with the violence of the winds (mostly 
from the east and north-east) and the rapid and dense growth of the 
reed-beds in the shallow marshes, the drainage waters of the Tarim 
basin gather in greater volume now in one depression and now in 
another. ‘This view derives support from the extreme shallowness of 
the lakes in both Sven Hedin’s northern Lob-Nor and Prejevalsky’s 
southern Lob-Nor. 

Ellsworth Huntington sums up the history of Lob Nor thus! :— 
“We have first a comparatively large lake, said to measure 75 miles 
each way, in spite of the fact that the populous towns of Lulan and- 
of more remote regions diverted much more water than now. Next, 
during the early centuries of the Christian era, there is a decrease in 
the recorded size of the lake, even though the towns of Lulan were 
being abandoned and their water was being set free to reinforce the 
lake. Then, in the Middle Ages, there was an expansion of the lake, 
which cannot have been due to diminished use of the rivers for irriga- 
tion, for the population of the Lop-Nor basin at that time was 
greater than now, though not equal to that of the flourishing 
Buddhist times, a thousand or more years earlier. Finally, during the 
last few hundred years there has been a decrease both in the size of 
the lake and in the population about it.” This theory, Huntington 
says, seems to fit the facts, and all the facts are explicable on the 
theory of a secular change of climate from moister to drier conditions, 
with a rapid intensification in the early part of the Christian era, 
and a slight reversal in the Middle Ages. Hedin,? on the other 
hand, who utterly scouts the idea of any change of climate during 
historic times, recognises that during certain periods Lob-Nor has 
been distinctly larger than it is, even during times of unusually high 
water, at the present day. He explains this on the assumption that 
during these periods the number of marginal lakes and swamps on the 
Tarim River was less than now. The objection offered to this is that, 
when:a river has reached the mature stage of the Tarim, the average 


1 Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc., vol. xxxix. p. 146, 1907. 
2 Cited by Huntington, op. cit., p. 142. 


538 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


quantity of water diverted to marginal lakes is nearly constant 
throughout any period of long duration, though it may vary from 
year to year. A permanent change in the size of the lake could not 
result from this. Moreover, in one case at least, the river, the 
marginal lakes, and the terminal lake all expanded, and later con- 
tracted, in unison. 

Bojante-kul, to the north of Lob-Nor, about 130 feet below sea- 
level, lies in the 'Turfan or Lukchun depression, a strip of land about 
200 miles long by 50 miles broad. It is probably the remnant of a 
much larger lake which received the waters from the glaciers of the 
Eastern ‘Thian-Shan Mountains during a past epoch. 

Pangong (or Pankgong) Lake is the largest and the lowest of a 
series of five lakes all lying at nearly the same altitude, about 14,000 feet 
above sea-level, and separated only by deltas two or three miles wide, 
like that of Interlaken in Switzerland. The five lakes are really one, 
which has been divided into parts by the deposits of tributary streams, 
and they may be regarded as occupying a single basin with a length 
of 105 miles, a maximum breadth of 4 miles, and an average breadth 
of only 2 miles. Drew! and others ascribe the formation of the lakes 
to the damming back of the original drainage by fan-deltas, and hold 
that its waters formerly drained to the Shyok, a tributary of the 
Indus. On the other hand, Ellsworth Huntington,? who visited the 
region in May 1905, believes that there must be a rock lip which 
blocks the outlet, and that the basin behind the lip has been eroded 
by ice, resembling in this way the fiords of Norway and the valley 
lakes of Switzerland. He is of opinion that the streams that formed 
the fan-deltas were quite incapable of obstructing the main stream 
of the valley, which must have had a considerable volume. There is 
abundant evidence of glacial action in the vicinity of the lake, and 
lacustrine deposits and shore-lines indicate fluctuations in lake-level 
in response to changes in climatic conditions. During Huntington’s 
visit the ice broke up under the influence of a very strong wind, and 
part of it was piled up on shore in a ridge 8 or 10 feet high. The 
sandy beach had been pushed up by the ice, and flat stones moved so 
as to add to the mounds of loose earth and stones and furrows of more 
cohesive shore-deposits which lie parallel to the water’s edge and form 
a rampart® from 6 inches to a foot in height round the lake. By 

1 Drew, The Junvmoo and Kashmir Territories, p. 317, London, 1875. 

2 See Journ. of Geology, vol. xiv. p. 599, 1906. 

3G. K. Gilbert, in a paper in the Bulletin of the Sverra Club (Jan. 1908), dis- 
cusses the phenomenon of lake ramparts, which is one of considerable interest 
in connection with ice problems. On the shores of many lakes in the Sierra 
regions, as also on the shores of Canadian lakes, and of those in some other 


parts of North America and in parts of Northern Europe, rows of boulders of 
various sizes up to a diameter of several feet occur, sometimes forming a low 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 539 


testing the degree of saltness in the water after, as compared 
with before, the disappearance of the ice, he came to the conclusion 
that a large part of the ice had been melted by the salter warmer 
water which had displaced the surface film of fresh cold water, 
on account of currents set up by the wind. Henderson says! the 
lake is too salt for fish to live in it (salinity? 1°3 per cent., 0°6 per 
cent. being sodium chloride, and 0°4 per cent. sodium sulphate), and 
the only animal life he could find was a small Crustacean, probably a 
Gammarus. 

Koko-Nor (or Kuku-Nor, Blue Lake), lies 10,500 feet above sea- 
level, not far from the sources of the Hoang-Ho and Yaretse, and has 
a circumference of about 200 miles. 

Tengri-Nor (called Nam-tso, or “sky lake”), in the vicinity of 
Lhassa, les 15,190 feet above sea-level. It is the most easterly link 
in a vast lacustrine chain which stretches for hundreds of miles north- 
west and south-east across the plateau of Tibet, and which includes 
the large lakes Kyaring, Chargat, Zilling-tso (15,128 feet above sea- 
level), Ngangtse-tso (15,417 feet above sea-level, max. depth 27 feet). 

Dangra-yum-tso, Teri-nam-tso, “the heavenly lake” (15,367 
teet above sea-level); Lapchung-tso (17,039 feet above sea-level) ; 
Lake Lighten (16,709 feet above sea-level; depth over 213 feet; 
temperature of surface water at 11 a.m. in September, 43° Fahr.); 
Yeshil-kul (16,207 feet above sea-level; maximum depth, 53 feet ; 
temperature of surface water at 1 p.m. in September, 49° Fahr.). 

South of Tengri-Nor, and separated from it by the River San-po, is 
the ring-shaped Lake Palti, or Tomdok, divided into two basins by a 
peninsula. 

Manasarowar (“the Holy Lake,” Tso-mavang) and Rakas-tal 
(Langak-tso) he to the south-east of Pangong Lake, between 30° and 
31° N. latitude. Very plainly marked shore lines are to be seen round 


rampart, at other times a mere line, but always close to the water’s edge. The 
boulders in every way, except in their regularity of arrangement, resemble the 
glacial erratics which are scattered over the adjacent land-surface, and they only 
occur In regions where the winter sheet of ice reaches a considerable thickness, and 
where winter temperatures are extreme. The ice expands with a rise and con- 
tracts with a fall of temperature, and while the under surface of a thick layer of ice 
is kept more or less constantly at a temperature of 32° Fahr., owing to its contact 
with the water beneath, the upper layer contracts and expands with temperature 
variations in theair. The result is the formation of extensive cracks during severe 
frost, followed by expansion under a sudden rise of temperature, and the consequent 
buckling of the ice-sheet, which is pushed up over the shore at its margins. As 
it rises along a gently shelving shore it carries with it whatever solid bodies occur 
in the shallow water—hence the rampart formation. 

1 Geogr. Journ., vol. xv. p. 430, 1900. 

2 Frankland’s analysis in Henderson and Hume, Lahore to Yarkand, p. 370, 
London. 


540 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


both lakes, indicating former higher levels, ard an old river bed 
leading off from the north-east corner of Rakas-tal marks where 
formerly the waters issued from that lake to join the Sutlej River. 
Ryder believes that now both Manasarowar and Rakas-tal are entirely 
disconnected froin the river at all times of the year.1 Sven Hedin,” 
on the other hand, regards the two lakes as belonging to the 
drainage area of the Sutlej, and the Tage-tsangpo, the largest stream 
discharging into Manasarowar, as the head water of that river. He 
followed the old bed of the Sutlej River westwards from Rakas-tal, 
and came first to a large pool of fresh water, then to a series of fresh- 
water swamps connected by channels, and at length to a brook flowing 
south-westwards. ‘The brook discharges into a large fresh-water pool 
with no visible outlet, but further on springs well up on the bottom 
of the old bed, and he is convinced that the water filtrates under- 
ground to these from Langak-tso. 

A channel about five miles long connects the two lakes, and when 
the precipitation is abundant water flows from Lake Manasarowar 
to Rakas-tal. At all times, according to Sven Hedin,’ there is a 
connection by underground passages. Rakas-tal freezes in the 
beginning of December, half a month sooner than Lake Manas- 
arowar; but it also breaks up half a month before that lake. 
Both lakes have ice 3 feet thick, but in the case of the former the 
freezing proceeds slowly and in patches, whereas the latter freezes 
over in an hour. 

In winter the surface of Lake Manasarowar falls 20 inches 
beneath the ice, which is consequently cracked and fissured, and dips 
from the shore; whereas Rakas-tal sinks only one or two thirds of an 
inch: this is taken as showing that Rakas-tal is constantly receiving 
water from the eastern lake. 

Manasarowar, 15,098 feet above sea-level, has an outline somewhat 
like that of a skull seen from the front. It measures about 12 miles . 
from east to west by 15 from north to south, and has an area of 
about 110 square miles. Sven Hedin made in all 138 soundings on 
the lake, and found the greatest depth to be 268 feet. He also 
measured the amount of water discharged by each of the rivers flow- 
ing into Manasarowar, and calculated the total volume flowing into 
the lake as 1095 cubic feet per second, but considers that probably a 
volume of water greater than this surface supply is contributed by 
subterranean springs, fed by the melted waters of the glaciers on the 
mountains surrounding the lake. The temperature of one of these 


1 C. H. D. Ryder, “ Exploration and Survey with the Tibet Frontier Commis- 
sion,” Geogr. Journ., vol. xxvi. p. 388, 1905. 

2 Trans-Himalaya : Discovertes and Adventures in Tibet, London, 1909, p. 182. 

2 Op. Cti.,up. 168. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 941 


springs where it welled up to the surface was about 38° Fahr., and 
Sven Hedin is of the opinion that the springs assist in keeping the 
waters of the lake cool. 

Rakas-tal, 15,056 feet above sea-level, is very irregular in outline: 
it is 16 miles in length, and the width varies from 4 miles in the 
north to about 13 miles in the south. The lake is very stormy, and 
Sven Hedin was able to take only a few soundings. He found the 
greatest depth in the northern part to be 54 feet, while in the 
south, in the middle of the sound between the island La-che-to and 
the mainland, the depth was 113 feet. 


Lake Hamun.—The Seistan is described by Sir H. M. M‘Mahon ! 
as a large depression, some 7000 square miles in area and without any 
outlet to the sea, which receives all the drainage of a vast tract of 
country, extending to over 125,000 square miles, girt on all sides by 
high mountain ranges. It hes half in Afghanistan and half in Persia, 
and is about midway between the Russian-Turkestan border and the 
Persian Gulf. The Hamun, or lake area, into which the various 
Seistan rivers discharge their surplus waters, lies in the north and 
north-west parts of the depression. In spring and early summer the 
Khash, 'Tarah Rud, and Harut Rud bring large volumes of water from 
the north, but during a portion of the year their higher waters are 
taken off for irrigation. ‘The Helmund, the principal river of Seistan, 
600 miles in length, rises near Cabul, drains a large portion of 
Afghanistan, and divides into three branches after arriving in Seistan. 
In the flood season the Hamun becomes a vast sea, more than 100 
miles in length, and varying from 5 to 15 miles in breadth. Every 
few years, when the water reaches a certain height, it escapes through 
the Shelag channel into another large and still deeper lake-depression 
called the Gaud-i-Zirreh. When the Hamun water, which is 
singularly free from salt, overflows through the Shelag, the water in 
that channel becomes drinkable; but at other times the water found 
throughout its course in large stagnant pools is nearly pure brine, 
with solid salt crystals round the margins. Evaporation is very 
rapid in the region of the Seistan, owing to the heat and the 
strong winds, and as the water of the Gaud-i-Zirreh dries up, a 
thick deposit of salt is left behind. According to T. R. J. Ward, 
Irrigation Officer of the 1903 Mission for the survey and explora- 
tion of Seistan, 10 feet of water is removed by evaporation alone in 
a year. 

The Lake of Bakhtegan (also known as the Lake of Niriz) is 
situated in Fars, a province in the south-west of Persia, bordering on 


the Persian Gulf, and is fed by the Kur and its affluents. 


1 Geogr. Journ., vol. xxviii. p. 209, 1906. 


Seistan 
depression. 


Persian 
plateau. 


D4? THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Lake Urmi (or Urumia) is situated on the plateau of Urmi, the 
water-parting between the rivers flowing into the Caspian Sea and 
those flowing into the Persian Gulf, about 4100 feet above sea-level, 
and covers an area of 1750 square miles. Lord Curzon ' has estimated 
its length at about 85 miles, its breadth at 20 or 30 miles, and its 
circumference at nearly 300 miles. Its greatest depth probably 
does not exceed 40 feet, and its average depth appears to be not 
more than 15 feet, but it varies in size with the season of the year, and 
is also subject to fluctuations occurring in longer and less regular 
cycles. Much of the rainfall of the region is lost by evaporation 
from the plains surrounding the lake, and the mountain torrents are 
redistributed among irrigation canals. 

In 1898 Giinther made a special study of the lake,’ including 
observations on the temperature, specific gravity, refractive index, 
etc. The temperature of the waters varied from 78° to 82° Fahr. 
(25°°5 to 27°°7 C.) in August, according to the direction of the wind. 
The average temperature at the surface was about 80° Fahr., and at 
the bottom, in 25 feet of water, some 2° lower. Owing to the great 
seasonal variation in the level of the water, the composition and specific 
gravity undergo considerable alteration during the change from the dry 
season level to that of the wet season. ‘The salinity of a sample of 
water obtained on 16th September 1898, was 14°85 per cent. (about 
four times as salt as the open ocean). ‘The specific gravity of the 
water, measured on the spot with an ordinary hydrometer, was 1:11 
at the surface and also at the bottom, so that, remote from the 
mouths of fresh-water streams, the lake-water was of fairly uniform 
density. ‘This may have been due to the thorough mixing of the 
waters by the strong south-easterly winds which prevailed at the time 
the experiments were made. 

The water of the lake is far too salt to permit of the existence of 
any of the fresh-water fish from the inflowing rivers that may happen 
to swim out too far, so that the lake forms an efficient barrier to the 
migration of fish from one river to another. At present the organisms 
inhabiting the lake are a species of Artemia (a crustacean known 
from other brine lakes in Europe and North America), the larva of 
a species of dipterous insect, most probably allied to Ephydra, and 
green vegetable masses, which are described by George Murray ? 
as composed of bacterial zoogloeae of micrococci invested by a 
number of small diatoms. Several fresh-water sponges appear at 
the foot of a conical hill that rises abruptly from the margin of 
the lake. 

1 Lord Curzon of Kedleston, Persia, p. 532, London, 1892. 
4 See Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. Ixv. p. 312, 1899. 
3 Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., Zool., vol. xxvii. p. 356, 1899. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 548 


Lake Van lies in Eastern Anatolia, in Asiatic Turkey, on one of 
the elevated plains separated by mountain ranges, in the volcanic 
district of Van, at a height of about 5200 feet above sea-level, and has 
an area of 2000 square miles. It is 80 miles long and 30 miles broad, 
and over 80 feet deep. The lake is said to be connected with the 
Euphrates through the little lake of Nazik, which lies on the water- 
shed between Lake Van and the river, and sends emissaries to both— 
a rare phenomenon. 

Lake of Gyoljuk, 12 miles long by 2 or 3 miles wide, lies 3 degrees 
west of Lake Van, at an elevation of 4000 feet among the Taurus 
Mountains, between the head-waters of the Euphrates and Tigris 
Rivers. Under present climatic conditions the lake is on the divid- 
ing line between a so-called “ normal” fresh-water lake with a per- 
manent outlet and a salt lake with no outlet. In years of large rain- 
fall it overflows and forms one of the most remote sources of the 
Tigris, but in drier years the lake has no outflow during the long rain- 
less summer. Its waters contain borax, but the amount is not 
so great as to render the water undrinkable. In former times, 
judging by the evidence furnished by historical accounts and local 
traditions, Lake Gyoljuk appears to have fluctuated in size in the 
same manner and at the same periods as the Caspian Sea, and Ellsworth 
Huntington ! considers that this gives good ground for believing that 
Turkey has undergone changes in climatic conditions similar to those 
which have affected Central Asia. 

The inland drainage areas of Arabia and Asia Minor (see fig. 64) 
cover an area of about 782,000 square miles. 

Arabia may be roughly divided as to its surface extent into one 
third of coast ring and mountains—part barren, part either cultivated 
or capable of cultivation,—another third of central plateau also 
tolerably fertile, and a third of desert intervening between the first 
and second except in the region of Mecca. Surface streams are almost 
wanting even in the more fertile districts, because of the excessive 
evaporation and light and porous quality of the soil. Water is 
obtained for the most part from wells, sometimes 20 or 30 feet deep ; 
but though in the Kaseem valley in the interior it abounds at a depth 
of only a few feet below the ground, and occasionally collects on the 
surface in perennial pools, none of these are large enough to deserve 
the name of lakes. 

In the central and southern portions of the plateau of Asia Minor 
the streams either flow into salt lakes, where their waters pass off by 
evaporation, or into fresh-water lakes which have no visible outlet. 
In the latter cases the waters find their way by subterranean channels 
beneath the cretaceous limestones of Mount Taurus, and reappear as 

1 The Pulse of Asia, p. 356, London, 1907. 


Anatolia. 


Arabia. 


Western Asia 
inor. 


544 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


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Fic. 64.—Inland drainage areas of Arabia, Asia Minor, and the so-called Great Rift Valley. 


Bartholomew Edin" 


[The inland drainage areas are stippled. | 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 5409 


the sources of the rivers flowing to the coast. ‘Thus the Egerdir Gol 
and the Kereli Gol supply the rivers flowing to the Pamphylian plain 
by subterranean channels, 

Tuzlah Lake (or T'uz Gol).—The largest lake is called by Strabo 
Tatta, and by the Turks Tuzlah, or the Salt-Pan, an epithet well 
deserved from its extreme saltness, which exceeds even that of the 
Dead Sea. It lies at an elevation of 2525 feet, and is about 45 miles 
in length by 18 miles in breadth, but varies in extent with the season, 
sometimes covering an area of 700 square miles. Being very shallow, 
a considerable portion dries up in summer, and becomes covered with 
an incrustation of salt. 

Egerdir Gol and Kereli Gol.—The two lakes, Egerdir Gol and 
Kereli Gol (so named from towns on their shores), situated between 
the ranges of the Sultan-dagh and the Taurus, are both about 30 
miles in length. The former lies about 2800 feet above sea-level, and 
the latter about 800 feet higher. Both are perfectly fresh, and their 
waters clear and deep, though Egerdir Gol has no visible outlet, and 
Kereli Gol communicates only by a small stream with the Soghla 
Gol, the waters of which occasionally disappear entirely. The waters 
are, as already stated, carried off by subterranean channels. 

Buldur Gol lies at an elevation of 2900 feet, and is about 17 miles 
in length by 4 miles in breadth. 

Tchoruk Su Gol (or Lake of Chardak) is a smaller lake lying to 
the north-west of Buldur Gol. Its waters are extremely salt, and large 
quantities of salt are collected from it. 


The inland drainage area of Palestine, according to some writers, 
forms part of the so-called Great Rift Valley, running from the base of 
the Giaour Dagh, a range of mountains on the borders of Asia Minor 
and Syria (between lat. 87° and 38° N.), to the Red Sea, and extending 
far into the heart of Africa, which will be referred to more particularly 
when dealing with the African lakes. The Jordan rises west of Mount 
Hermon, 1050 feet above sea-level, and, after spreading out into Lake 
Huleh (Waters of Merom) and the Sea of Galilee (Lake of Tiberias), 
discharges its waters into the Dead Sea. From the small Lake Huleh, 
only 6 feet above the level of the Mediterranean, to the Dead Sea, which 
is salt and has no outlet, the course of the Jordan is below sea-level. 

Lake of Tiberias (Sea of Galilee) lies 682 feet below sea-level, 
and is 124 miles long and 7} miles in greatest width. The waters 
are fresh and clear, and abound in fish. Barrois! affirms that 
the lake is nowhere deeper than 130 to 148 feet, according to the 
season, though very much greater depths were previously given by 
other writers (936 feet, Macgregor ; 820 feet, Lortet). The surface 

1 See Quarterly Statement, Palestine Exploration Fund, 1894, p. 211. 


(At 


Palestine area. 


046 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


temperature varies greatly: thus, on 2nd May it was 733° Fahr. 
(23° C.) at 8.45 am., 79° Fahr. (26° C.) at 2.30 p.m., and 69° Fahr. 
(20°°5 C.) at 9 p.m., the fall being caused by a fresh north-westerly 
breeze. ‘The temperature was 68° to 69° Fahr. (20° to 20°°5 C.) at a 
depth of 30 feet, and fell to 62° or 63° Fahr. (16°'7 or 17°:2 C.) at 50 
feet. Between 65 and 130 feet the water had a uniform temperature 
of 59° Fahr. (15° C.). This is a much higher temperature than is 
observed in the Swiss lakes at the same depth, and is partly due to 
the lower latitude and lower altitude (682 feet below sea-level), and 
partly to the hot springs which pour their waters into the lake, 
besides others which probably rise from the bottom. 

Dead Sea lies 1292 feet below sea-level. It is 46 miles long, 
and varies in breadth from 5 to 9 miles, the area being about 360 
square miles. The greater part of what is known regarding the 
depths and shore-line of the Dead Sea was ascertained by the United 
States expedition sent out in 1847 under Lieutenant Lynch,! who 
found a maximum depth of 1278 feet in the northern portion. 

The affluents of the Dead Sea carry to it every twenty-four hours 
from six to ten million tons of water, which must all be lost by 
evaporation, so that the water of the sea contains much dissolved 
matter (24 to 26 per cent., as compared with the 3 to 4 per cent. of 
ordinary sea-water), and its specific gravity is 1:13, while that of the 
Atlantic in lat. 25° N., long. 52° W., is 1:02. Mr W. Ackroyd? 
believes that the two causes usually assigned for the saltness of the 
water—viz. the accumulation of chlorides derived from the rocks of 
the Holy Land by solvent denudation, and the cutting off of an arm of 
the Red Sea by the rising of Palestine in past ages—are inadequate, 
and that a third cause, probably more important than either, is the 
atmospheric transportation of salt from the Mediterranean. The salt 
is brought from the sea by winds, finds its way into the rivers and 
thence into the Dead Sea, where the saline solution continually becomes 
salter by evaporation. 

The surface of the Dead Sea is liable to frequent fluctuations in 
level, due to a succession of exceptionally dry or rainy seasons, to the 
greater or lesser activity of subaqueous springs, to landslips, to changes 
in the drainage, to the gradual silting up of the basin, and possibly 
to slight earth-movements which escape detection. The annual rise 
and fall is estimated at from 6 to 10 feet, but there seem to be also 
prolonged periods of high and low level. Lines of driftwood and 
marks on the rocks show the limits of rise which might occur under 
existing conditions, and a fall of 15 feet is quite possible during ex- 
ceptional periods of dryness. 

' See Amer. Journ. Scz., vol. lvii. p. 324, 1849. 

2 See Quarterly Statement, Palestine Exploration Fund, January 1904, p. 64. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 547 


Hill, writing in 1900, said that the surface of the Dead Sea had 
risen considerably, as the Rujn el Bahr, an island existing a few 
years before near the north end of the lake, had disappeared, and 
the Jordan had been invaded by the lake, and much of the land 
in the neighbourhood submerged ; the beach on the east shown in the 
Exploration Fund map had also disappeared, water of considerable 
depth coming close up to the cliffs and rocks. He suggested that 
volcanic action might be raising the bed of the lake. The water 
does not appear to fall during the summer, so the rise cannot be due 
to the rainfall at any particular season ; but it is possible that a wet 
cycle may have set in, and the rise may be due to the increased 
rainfall of late years. 

On the other hand, according to a note in the Deutsche Rundschau, 
referred to in the February Geographical Journal? of 1900, the water 
of the Dead Sea had recently undergone a marked diminution in 
volume, mainly, it was said, owing to the increased diversion of the 
water of the Jordan for irrigation purposes. ‘The bed of the lake was 
said to appear like a deposit of dry salt. Monthly measurements 
of the rise and fall of the lake taken for the Palestine Exploration 
Fund during an exceptionally dry year, October 1900 to October 
1901, showed a rise of 1 foot 3 inches up to 30th March 1901, and 
then a fall of 1 foot 9 inches to October. ‘Thus the level of the 
lake was lowered 6 inches in the year. Dr Masterman, who 
made observations of the fluctuation of the level of the Dead Sea 
from 1901 to 1906, reported? that 37-95 inches of rain had fallen 
between autumn 1905 and spring 1906, and the level had risen 
34 inches. The figures given for the years 1901-1905 show that the 
extent of the rise is not always proportional to the rainfall. 
Putnam Cady* reports that at certain points along the shore on 
the east coast great quantities of oil flow from the rocks and spread 
over considerable portions of the sea. On the shore large pieces of 
pure sulphur and lumps of bitumen weighing several pounds were 
found. He also writes of a strong current setting towards the north 
along the east coast, and of disturbances of level due to differences of 
barometric pressure at different points on the lake. 

Lynch? states that no animalcules or animal matter were detected 
in the water by a powerful microscope, although the surface of the sea 
one evening was a wide sheet of phosphorescent foam, a phenomenon 


1 Quarterly Statement, Palestine Exploration Fund, July 1900, p. 273. 

4 See vol. xv. p. 175, 1900. 

> Quarterly Statement, Palestine Exploration Fund, July 1906. 

* “The Historical and Physical Geography of the Dead Sea Region,” Bull. 
Amer. Geogr. Soc., vol, xxxvi. p. 585, 1904. 

> Oprcrt., p. 324. 


NORTHERN 
AFRICA. 


Sahara. 


548 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


usually attributed to the light-emitting powers of minute organisms. 
On the other hand, it is stated! that the investigations of Ehrenberg 
and Lortet show the existence of “certain inferior organisms and 
microbes” in the Dead Sea. 


The inland drainage area of Northern Africa (Sahara and Sudan) 
covers an area of about 3,450,000 square miles (see fig. 65). 

The Sahara, the largest continuous desert on the earth’s surface, 
stretches across the continent of Africa eastwards from the Atlantic 
for a considerable distance on both sides of the Tropic of Cancer, and 
forms part of the great arid belt extending across the Old World 
from north-eastern Asia to the borders of the Atlantic Ocean. ‘To the 
north, in Morocco and Algeria, the limits of the region are defined 
by the Atlas range, but in other directions the boundaries are vague, 
and in the south the desert merges gradually and irregularly into 
the well-watered plains of the Sudan. ‘The Sahara is a region of 
varied surface and irregular relief, ranging in altitude from 100 feet 
below sea-level to some 5000 or 6000 feet above it, and containing, 
besides sand-dunes and oases, rocky plateaus and ranges of hills. 

The lakes of the Sahara are termed Shotts or Sebkas; they are 
shallow, have no outlet, and are very salt, and in summer the heat of 
the sun often causes the water to evaporate, leaving behind a white 
sea of salt crystals. ‘The streams flowing southward from the Atlas 
Mountains are diverted for irrigation purposes, so that the Shotts 
only receive their waters after the copious rains of winter and the 
melting of the snow in the mountains. Shott el Melrir, Shott el 
Gharsa, Shott el Jerid, and Shott el Fejej form a series of marshes 
or shallow lagoons extending from the south of Biskra (lat. 35° N., 
long. 5° E.) eastwards to the Gulf of Cabes, and occupy a depression 
below the level of the sea. At one time it was proposed by the French 
engineer, Colonel Roudaire, to flood this region. Shott el Melrir 
occupies the bottom of the depression, and in summer its surface is 
partly covered with a coating of salt crystals, while its floor is covered 
by black, viscous mud emitting an odour of garlic, due possibly to the 
presence of volatile sulphur compounds ; veins of more solid ground 
form natural causeways. Shott el Jerid is the largest, and with its 
eastern extension, the Shott el Fejej, covers an area of several hundred 
square miles. It lies about 60 feet below the sea, with which it seems 
formerly to have communicated through a now nearly dry coast stream. 

When on my way to Tuggurt in May 1900,I arrived on the 
cliff overlooking the Shott el Melrir late in the afternoon. The Shott 
was then a vast white expanse, which reminded me of the view of the 
Arctic Ocean from Flemish Cap at the north of Spitzbergen. Early 

1 Gautier, art.“ Dead Sea” in Lneyel. Brbleca, vol. i. col. 1044, 1899. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 549 


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5950 #$THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Shott el igri is wholly in Morocco. Shott el Gharbi, or Western 
Shott, is on the Morocco frontier, and is followed by Shott el Shergai, 
or Eastern Shott, 140 miles long, at the foot of Mount Saida. Then 
come the Zahrez-Gharbi, the Zahrez Shergai, the Shott el Hodna, 
and, beyond Batna, towards the Tunis frontier, the Tarf and other 
lagoons of the Haracta depression. 

‘The waters of many of the rivers that flow towards the Sahara 
either disappear in the permeable strata, or are buried by the drifting 
sand, and flow along the underlying clayey stratum. Owing to local 
causes, such as the cropping up of a bed of rock across its course, 
the buried water may come to the surface and form an oasis with an 
ordinary well, or it may be caused to rise by boring, thus forming an 
oasis with an artesian well. The many artesian wells sunk by the 
French in this region have brought fertility where there was formerly 
unproductive waste. In one part of the Sahara, the Souf, the water 
circulates close to the surface of the soil, concealed by a bed of sul- 
phate of lime, and in planting date-groves the entire crust is removed, 
the palms being planted in the water-bearing sand below; this is 
termed an excavated oasis. 

The Oued Igharghar is a long depression, having its origin in the 
land of the Tuaregs on the Ahaggar plateau, about the latitude of the 
Tropic of Cancer, and extending northwards over 750 miles to Shott 
el Merwan, the southern extension of Shott el Melrir. About 60 miles 
above Shott el Melrir it is joined by a similar depression, the Oued 
Miya, and after the junction is known as the Oued Rhir, Although 
in many parts almost effaced by drifting sands, its bed is still followed 
by the native caravans. Salt lakes are found at intervals throughout 
the whole extent of the Oued Rhir; and as the so-called Bahr Tahtani 
or * Lower River,” which flows along an impermeable bed beneath the 
channel of the Oued, has been reached by boring, a never-failing 
supply of fresh water can be obtained through artesian wells. The 
towns of El Marier, Tamena, Tugeurt, etc., are situated on a con- 
tinuous line of oases, many of which are artificially formed. ‘The 
sinking of wells in this Oued led to the discovery of fishes, crabs, and 
fresh-water molluscs at considerable depths in the artesian well called 
Mezer, near Shott el Melrir.t The presence of these fishes and crabs 
seems to prove the existence of running water beneath. 

In the zone of the Areg, or country of the sandhills, the moving 
sand arrests the course of the running water, and causes pools or 
marshes (Dhaya) to form, neither very large nor very deep. They are 


1 Chromis Desfontainet, Chromis Zilii, Hemichromis Sahare, Hemichromis 
Rollandi, Cyprinodon calaritanus, Telphusa fluviatilis (see Paul Regnard, La Vie 
dans les Eaux, pp. 103-105, Paris, 1891); see also Tchihatchef, “The Deserts of 
Africa and Asia,” Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1882, p. 356. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 551 


little Shotts which present the same phenomena as the greater 
depressions in the Lower Sahara. ‘The Arabs compare the moving sand 
to a net; it occupies a fairly extensive zone in both the Lower and 
the Upper Sahara, but does not cover one-third of the whole Algerian 
Sahara. 

The Sebka of Gurara (lat. 29° N., long. 2° W.) is a saline depression, 
measuring about 60 miles in a N.N.E. to 8.S.W. direction. It seems 
to be marked by more or less humidity throughout, the moisture 
being derived from the underground supply, fed by the drainage of the 
southern slopes of the Atlas, which here comes to the surface. In the 
course of the whole depression there are three main basins, known as 
the Shotts of Dahram, Shergi, and Gebli, though even in these there 
does not seem to be permanent water above the surface. 


Lake Chad (or T'sad) occupies the centre of a vast area of inland 
drainage in the Sudan. It lies about 850 feet above sea-level, and 
varies in area from 7700 to about 20,000 square miles, according to 
the season. During the rainy season, when the lake is expanding, the 
water is fresh and limpid; it becomes slightly salt only at the period 
of low water, 7.¢. in May and June. Numerous lagoons scattered 
along the shores of the lake are really salt marshes, and, according 
to Captain Dubois,' play a role in the economy of the lake analogous 
to that of Karaboghaz in the Caspian Sea. When the lake expands 
these lagoons receive an enormous quantity of water, which, once 
communication is cut off by the receding of the lake in the dry season, 
concentrates and finally disappears by evaporation, leaving behind 
a deposit of salts. In this way every year Lake Chad partially clears 
itself of dissolved salts automatically, and the concentration of the 
waters by evaporation in the main lake during the dry season is 
arrested. The chief inflow to the lake is the River Shari, entering 
from the south-east, but it has no outflow, except when it overflows 
into the lagoons in the manner mentioned above. 

The lake, according to Destenave,? is constantly retreating towards 
the west, and so a continually increasing number of islands is forming 
in the east, which are becoming more and more populated by tribes 
formerly settled in Kanem, the arid district to the east of the lake. 

A wide valley, called Bahr el-Ghazal, stretches towards the north- 
east from the south-east extremity of the lake. This valley, which 
is now waterless, served formerly as an outflow from the lake at times 
of high floods, the water leaving the lake gradually losing itself by 
evaporation in the more arid regions of the Sahara. ‘The same name, 

1 See Destenave, “Exploration des iles du Tchad,” La Geéographie, t. vii. 


p. 425, 1903. 
2 Loc. cit. 


Sudan. 


9902 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Bahr el-Ghazal, is also given to a broad current which flows from 
the mouth of the Shari River to the eastern extremity of the lake, 
following the shore to the north-west side of the lake, where it 
gradually loses itself. 

Lieutenant Boyd Alexander!’ explored Lake Chad in 1904, and 
found progress across it by boat to be extremely difficult, owing to 
the great belts of high reeds and the shallowness of the water. He 
describes the lake as being practically divided into two basins by 
about 25 miles of marsh and thick bush. The northern basin, 
which receives the waters of the River Yo, is the shallower, ap- 
parently not exceeding 4 feet in depth. The southern basin, into 
which the Shari flows, has a depth of about 12 feet in places, and the 
islands in it, which form a prominent feature, are fertile and thickly 
populated. The lake, which is generally shallow and swampy, opens 
out into a fine sheet of water round the mouth of the Shari. 

The Aujila Depression is a remarkable zone of oases or depres- 
sions extending from the Wady Fareg, near the south-east angle of 
the Gulf of Sidra on the coast of Tripolis, eastwards to the Bahriyeh 
(Lesser) Oasis in Middle Egypt. ‘This depression assumes somewhat 
the aspect of a long, winding, dry water-course, expanding at intervals 
into patches of perennial verdure and shallow saline basins, and was 
thought by some to have been of marine origin. Hence Rohlfs con- 
ceived the idea of again transforming this chain of oases into an 
inland gulf by admitting the Mediterranean waters through a cutting 
to the Wady Fareg and opening a waterway into the Libyan Desert. 
This project, analogous to Roudaire’s scheme in respect of the 
Algerian Sahara, was subsequently abandoned when it was discovered 
that only one of the oases, Swah, with its eastern extension, was below 
sea-level. 

Kufara Oases.—South of the Aujila depression in the heart of 
the Libyan Desert five oases, called the Kufara Oases, stretch for a 
distance of 200 miles north-west and south-east, with a total area of 
7000 square miles. Although there are no surface streams, fresh 
water in abundance is easily obtained by tapping the underground 
water occurring at depths of from 3 to 10 feet on the margins of 
saline ponds and marshes. 

Birket Qarun is a brackish lake in the lowest part of the 
Fayum province of Egypt, a large circular depression in the Libyan 
Desert separated from the Nile valley by a strip of desert two to 
seven miles in width. A narrow watercourse, over 200 miles long, 
the Bahr Yusef, enters the lake through a gap in the Libyan Hills, 
connecting it with the Nile and forming a narrow neck of cultivation 
across the desert. The Birket Qarun is usually regarded as a remnant 

1 See Geogr. ourn:., vol. xxx. p: 119, 1907. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 5538 


of the ancient Lake Moeris,t which covered at least a large part of 
the floor of the Faytim depression. Lake Moeris was first described 
about 450 z.c. by Herodotus, who believed it to be an artificial basin 
constructed by one of the Pharaohs of the XIIth dynasty for the 
regulation of the water-supply of Lower Egypt. Its existence and 
position have been much discussed in modern times, but it is now 
believed that the Faytam depression is a natural one, and King 
Amenemhat III, of the XIIith dynasty, is accredited with the forma- 
tion of the lake about 2500 z.c., through the widening and deepening 
of the small canal already existing between the Nile and the depression, 
and placing it under artificial control. According to Major R. 
Hanbury Brown, Inspector-General of Irrigation for Upper Egypt, 
Lake Moeris covered the whole of the Fayiim up to the contour-line 
of 22°50 metres (74 feet) above mean sea-level,” and the greatest depth 
when the lake was at its full height would be about 70 metres 
(230 feet). At some time or other, either by a gradual or sudden 
process, the lake ceased to perform its offices of regulator and reservoir, 
and having once reached that stage, there would be nothing to 
prevent measures being taken to exclude most of the water from the 
depression except what would be required for the irrigation of re- 
claimed areas, and evaporation gradually reduced the area of the lake 
until it reached the present dimensions of the modern Birket Qarun. 
Much discussion has taken place within recent years with regard to 
the project of restoring this great storage reservoir. ‘To enlarge 
the Bahr Yusef and flood the Fayim involves the loss of many 
thousand acres of rich land; hence Captain Whitehouse proposed 
to utilise another depression. the Wady Ryan, lying to the south and 
south-west.? 

The Birket Qarun Jies approximately 140 feet below sea-level, and 
has an area of about 87 square miles, being 25 miles long and 5 or 
6 miles in maximum breadth; the maximum depth is about 25 feet. 
The water of the present lake is sufficiently brackish to be quite 
unpalatable, though it is quite good enough for most culinary 


' Apostolidis (Bull. Soc. Khediviale de Géogr., ser. vil, 1908, pp. 109 et seq.) 
maintains that this is a mistake made originally by Herodotus, and contrary to 
the testimony of monuments, traditions, etc. He says Regnant’s analysis shows 
that the water is too salt to serve for agricultural purposes, and that there is no 
reason to suppose that in antiquity things were different. The principal canal of 
the Fayim was made of such a depth that the waters of the Nile might freely 
enter the province even in low flood, and subsequently a lake was made at the 
entrance to the Faytim to act asa reservoir for the superfluous waters at periods 
of high flood, for purposes of agriculture. 

2 The Faydm and Lake Moeris, p. 78, London, 1892. 

3 See William Willcocks, The Assudn Reservoir and Lake Moeris, lecture 
delivered before the Khedivial Geographical Society at Cairo, London, 1904, 


NORTH 
AMERICA. 


Great Salt 
Lake area. 


904 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


purposes ; its density is slightly above that of fresh water, and the 
proportion of soluble salts about one-fourth of that in the ocean. At 
the west end of the lake, where the concentration is greatest, owing to 
the distance from the feeder canals, the proportion of soluble salts 
is 1:34 per cent., of which 0°92 per cent. is sodium chloride. 
Schweinfurth + shows that the degree of concentration of salt in a 
lake the volume of which has been continually reduced, and to which 
salt has constantly been added, should be many times greater than 
this amount, and concludes that the lake must have a subterranean 
outlet. ‘Temperature observations gave a maximum of 94°:2 Fahr. 
(34°°5 C.) in shallow water close to the shore about 2 o’clock on an 
afternoon in May 1907, and a minimum of 54°°8 Fahr. (12°°2 C.) at 
the surface in the early morning. One series gave a difference in 
temperature of 12°:4 Fahr. between the surface and a depth of 3 
fathoms; another gave a difference of 8°°8 Fahr. between the surface 
and a depth of only 1 fathom.” There is a great quantity of life in 
the lake, belonging to comparatively few species. 

The lakes occupying the so-called Great Rift Valley in East Africa, 
an inland drainage area extending from the Red Sea to south of the 
equator and covering an area of about 50,000 square miles, should be 
referred to here, but it has been found more convenient. to deal with them 
after describing the lakes of the Zambesi basin (see pp. 606 and 618). 


The inland drainage areas of North America (Great Salt Lake 
area, Central America, and Mexico) are estimated by Murray to cover 
278,000 square miles (see fig. 66). 

West of the Wasatch Range and the Colorado plateaus, south 
of the Columbia plateaus, and east and south of the Sierra Nevada, 
there is an arid region embracing all of Nevada, part of Utah and 
Arizona, and the south-eastern corner of California. Humid air- 
currents travelling eastward from the Pacific suffer a condensation of 
their vapour before reaching the basin, so that they arrive as drying 
winds. This region is diversified by many independent mountain 
ranges of north-and-south trend and of varied structure, uniting to 
form troughs, the floors of which sometimes stand at altitudes of 
from 4000 to 6000 feet, as in Utah and Northern Nevada. In the 
south-west the floors of the depressions are at moderate altitudes ; 
and in two localities, one in southern Nevada — Death Valley— 


1 See note by Dr Schweinfurth on ‘‘ The Salt in the Wadi Ryan” in Willcocks, 
Egyptian Irrigation, Appendix I1., pp. 460-465. 

2 W. A. Cunnington, “ Description of a Biologica] Expedition to the Birket el 
Qurun, Fayfim Province of Egypt,” Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1908, p. 3. Hitherto 
this lake has been known as the Birket el Qurun, but Dr Cunnington informs us 
that according to Captain Lyons the official spelling is now Birket Qarun. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 555 


and the other in south-eastern California, the arid floors of the 
deserts descend 300 feet beneath sea-level. An outflowing branch 
of the Colorado in time of flood occasionally turns northwards 
on reaching the delta, and flows into the latter depression, forming 
a short-lived lake. Sometimes the valleys are filled for a thousand 
feet or more with rock waste; some of the gently inclined slopes 


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Fic. 66.—Inland drainage areas of the Great Salt Lake region, Central America, 
and Mexico ; showing also the Mississippi River basin. 
[The inland drainage areas are stippled. ] 


at the foot of the mountains are rock-floored, bearing only a thin 
veneer of waste here and there. The streams issuing from the 
mountains after a shower find no channels, but spread out in a sheet 
a mile or more broad and 1 or 2 feet deep, washing the gravel veneers 
forward down the inclined rock-floor; this peculiar style of drainage 
has been termed a “sheet flood.” Many small streams from the 
mountains dry up on the waste slopes, owing to the great evaporation s 
the larger ones unite to form shallow salt lakes in the lowest part of 
the troughs lying between the mountains. Others form shallow 


Lake Bonne- 
ville, 


596 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


water-sheets, a few inches deep, in the wet season, where smooth plains 
of barren sun-baked mud, or ‘ playas,” remain in the dry months. 
The old shore-lines, marked by cliffs, bars, and deltas in the Great 
Salt Lake region of Utah and in north-western Nevada, indicate a 
past humid climate, and show that formerly these basins held large 
lakes that rose nearly a thousand feet on the adjoining mountain flanks. 

The Great Salt Lake of Utah isa relic of the much larger lake 
which has been given the name of Lake Bonneville. In superficial 
area Lake Bonneville was probably nearly equal to Lake Huron, and 
had a maximum depth of 1000 feet. Of this pristine lake the 
western limit may still be regarded as undefined, though the principal 
divisions were probably as follows :— 

(1) The main body, covering the area of the existing Salt Lake 
and its shores eastwards to the Wasatch Mountains, and 
westwards to beyond the 114th meridian. 

(2) Cache Bay, covering the present Cache Valley in Utah and 
Idaho. 

(3) Utah Bay, occupying the valley of the present Utah Lake in 
the east-central part. 

(4) Sevier Bay, and (5) Escalante Bay, both to the south. 

The topographical elevations of the Bonneville area, once existing 
as islands and archipelagoes, now appear as hills and mountain spurs, 
with valley passes in place of the old-time straits. On the Great 
Desert the hills are half buried in lacustrine sediments, and rise 
from the lake-floor as sharply as do the present islands from the 
water-level of the Salt Lake. 

As the waters of Lake Bonneville fell, the lake was divided into 
separate bodies, and the after-history of each lakelet was determined 
by its own conditions of local supply and evaporation. In many of 
the lakelets evaporation has resulted in complete desiccation, and in 
the deposition of rock-salt, usually associated with gypsum. ‘The 
gypsum is occasionally found as small free crystals, which on the 
Sevier Desert are drifted by wind action into great glistening dunes. 
Professor Russell estimates that the dunes in one locality contain 
about 450,000 tons.! | 

Most of the Bonneville lakes are alkaline, or salt, though a few 
fresh-water bodies of small dimensions do occur, including :— 

Utah Lake, 27 miles long, 12 miles broad, having an area of 
127 square miles. The overflow from this lake is conveyed 
by the Jordan River to the Great Salt Lake in Utah; 
hence it is fresh. 

Bear Lake, discharging through Bear River into Great Salt Lake. 

Among the salt and alkaline lakes of the Great Basin are :— 
1 Talmage, “Lake Bonneville,” Scott. Geogr. Mag., vol. xviii. p. 471, 1902. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 557 


Great Salt Lake, the density of the waters of which is 1:168; the 
wind alone sometimes makes a change in the level of the water 
of several feet, and a consequent change of density from 1-009 
to 1:014 within five minutes has been observed. The water is 
not alkaline, but contains an excessive quantity of saline 
material, chiefly sodium chloride.! 

Sevier Lake in Utah, the waters of which are intensely saline, is vir- 
tually a “ playa”? of variable dimensions, attaining in humid 
seasons an extent of from 180 to 200 square miles, while during 
periods of drought it practically dries up, leaving a crystalline 
bed of sodium chloride and sodium sulphate to mark its site. 

Soda, Walker, Winnemucca, and Pyramid Lakes in Nevada; 

Albert Lake in Oregon; Mono Lake and Owen’s Lake in California, 
also belong to this category. 

Great Salt Lake of Utah, 4200 feet above sea-level, about 

75 miles long by 50 miles in maximum width, lies at the western 
base of the Wasatch range, from which it receives numerous streams. 
The inflow to the lake is variable in amount owing to irregularity 
in rainfall, and as evaporation, the only means of discharge, is 
uniform, the lake is subject to fluctuations in area and volume. 
The lake-bed is shallow and the shores quite flat, so that a slight 
reduction in water-level causes a notable diminution in the area of 
the lake, which has varied from 1750 to 2000 square miles. 

Evaporation from the surface of the lake must be enormous. It 

has been estimated, from a calculation of the area of the evaporating 
ponds used in preparing salt from the waters of the lake, and of 
the amount discharged into them by the pumps per day, that the 
evaporation from the lake-surface during at least three months of the 
year may represent about 11,424 million gallons of water per day. 
In a paper entitled “ Why the Salt Lake has fallen,”* Murdoch says 
that the fall in the Salt Lake (1903) appears to have been due to a 
combination of shortage in precipitation and loss of water through 
irrigation, but that the shortage in precipitation is undoubtedly the 
predominating factor. The soil in the drainage basin of the Great 
Salt Lake is generally a sandy loam, which would favour rapid _per- 


1 See second footnote on p. 515. 

2 Saline lakes of arid regions, where the mean annual influx and the mean 
annual loss by evaporation are nearly evenly balanced, frequently disappear 
entirely during the hotter portions of the year, leaving behind wide mud plains, 
called ‘‘playas.” The temporary lakes to which the playas owe their origin are 
called “playa lakes.” 

3 Nat. Geogr. Mag., vol. xiv. p. 75, 1904. 

4 Figures showing the average precipitation, and the rise and fall of the lake, 
for a certain number of years will be found in the Monthly Weather Review, 
vol. xxix, p. 23, Washington, 1901. | 


Lake 
Lahontan. 


998 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


colation, but not very rapid evaporation. Irrigation would produce 
a decreasing fall every year until a balance should be reached between 
the area of the lake and the amount of water it received, when no 
further fall would occur as the result of irrigation. Irrigation was 
in progress during the time that the lake rose rapidly. Talmage 
says that in the dry atmosphere of the Great Basin much of the 
water spread upon the land is lost from the surface by immediate 
evaporation, and little water finds its way to the lake through 
subterranean channels or by springs.'. But a small portion of the 
water lost by evaporation within the area is precipitated again 
therein, the prevailing winds operating to carry it eastward. ‘The 
rise in the lake-level which began after the first settlement of the 
region was in part due to the pasturing of animals in large numbers 
within the drainage basin. The effect was that the soil was trampled 
down, and by thus losing in surface porosity it permitted the water 
to run directly off, and the lake was the recipient of greatly increased 
contributions. The removal of the herbage by cattle, and the defor- 
esting of the hill-slopes by man, further lessened the retention of 
rain-water and snow within the region.” 


Honey Lake, California; Pyramid, Winnemucca, Humboldt, 
North Carson, South Carson, and Walker Lakes, Nevada, occur in 
valleys which are deeply filled with the sediment of another ancient 
body of water named Lake Lahontan. 

Honey Lake, the western arm of Lake Lahontan, may be classed 
to-day as a playa lake; it is without outlet, and becomes completely 
desiccated during seasons of unusual aridity. 

Pyramid Lake, 4890 feet above sea-level, is 30 miles in length 
by 12 miles in maximum breadth ; its area in September 1882 was 
828 square miles. The greatest depth is 361 feet. As the Lahontan 
beach is 525 feet above the 1882 level of Pyramid Lake, the former 
lake had a depth of 886 feet; this is the deepest point in Lake 
Lahontan. Pyramid Lake is without outlet, and receives almost its 
entire supply from the Truckee River, which enters it at the southern 
end. Near the mouth of the Truckee the waters are sufficiently fresh 


1 Talmage, ‘The Great Salt Lake,” Scott. Geogr. Maq., vol. xvii. p. 630, 1901. 

2 See Trimmer, “Rise in the Level of the Great Salt Lake,” Geogr. Journ., vol. 
xxxi. p. 568, 1908. The level of the Great Salt Lake at midsummer 1907, after 
the snows had melted on the mountains, was 3 feet 6 inches above zero, the 
highest reading for ten years. A railway was built on piles during the low-water 
period for a distance of 10 miles across the shallows of the northern end of the 
lake, at a height supposed to be beyond the reach of the water, but a further rise 
of 2 feet would submerge the rails. Bearing in mind the steadily increasing 
diversion for irrigation of all streams feeding the Great Salt Lake, the rise now 
under observation seems to be of unusual interest. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 559 


to be used for camp purposes; at the northern end it is too saline and 
alkaline for human use, buft is used as drinking-water for cattle. 

Winnemucca Lake, 3875 feet above sea-level, 26 miles long, with 
an average breadth exceeding 3} miles, is also fed by the Truckee 
River, and has no outlet. As in the case of Pyramid Lake, nearly 
all the water-supply enters at the southern end, so that this portion 
is fresher than the northern. 

Humboldt Lake, about 4200 feet above sea-level, is but an 
expansion of the river that supplies it, and is held in check by 
an immense gravel embankment that was thrown completely across 
the valley by the currents of the former lake, at one time 500 
feet deep at this point. The embankment has been cut across by 
the overflow of the lake, but the breach has been partially filled during 
the past few years by an artificial dam, which has greatly increased 
the area of the lake. During the dry season the lake seldom 
overflows, and is then the limit of the great drainage system of 
the Humboldt River; but in winter and spring the waters escape 
southwards and, spreading out on the desert, form Mirage Lake. 
Farther south, in the northern part of the Carson Desert, they again 
expand and contribute to the formation of North Carson Lake. 

North and South Carson Lakes are shallow playa lakes in winter 
and spring, and in arid summers they evaporate to dryness. 

Walker Lake, 4147 feet above sea-level, is about 25 miles in 
length by 5 miles in breadth, and has an area of 95 square miles. 
A remarkably uniform depth of 224 feet was found over a large 
area in the central and western portions. 

Lake Tahoe,' “the gem of the Sierra,” finds an outlet through 
Truckee Canon into Pyramid and Winnemucca Lakes, 2400 feet below. 
It is a mountain lake situated about 1000 feet above any traces of 
Lake Lahontan, at a height of 6234 feet above sea-level, and the 
boundary-line between California and Nevada passes through it in 
a north-to-south direction near its eastern shore, so that a little 
more than two-thirds of its area les in California. ‘The thirty-ninth 
parallel of latitude crosses the southern end of the lake, and the 
longitude is 120° W. The lake occupies an elevated valley on the 
humid forested summit range of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. The 
length is about 22 miles, the greatest width about 12 miles, and the 
area about 193 square miles. Comparatively few soundings have been 
made in the deeper water, and the greatest known depth is 1645 feet. 
Affluents are numerous, especially in summer, when the snow on the 
neighbouring mountains is melting rapidly, the largest being the Upper 
Truckee River; the outlet is also known as Truckee River. On 17th 


' See C. Juday, “Studies on some Mountain Lakes,” Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sct., 
Arts, and Letters, vol. xv. p. 790, 1907. 


Mexico and 
Central 
America. 


5960 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


June 1904 the temperature of the surface water was 60°°8 Fahr. 
(16° C.), and of the bottom water, where the depth was only about 
427 feet, 40°°2 Fahr. (4°°9 C.). In August 1873 Le Conte! found the 
temperature of the surface water to be 66°°9 Fahr. (19°-4 C.), falling 
to 41° Fahr. (5° C.) at 772 feet, and to 39°°2 Fahr. (4° C.) at the 
bottom in about 1506 feet. The winters in this region are usually 
severe, so that the air probably remains far below the freezing point 
for a considerable period each year. Notwithstanding this fact, 
however, ice never forms on the lake except in the shallow bays. The 
water is very transparent; a Secchi disc just disappeared from view 
at a depth of 66 feet (20 metres). When most of the snow has dis- 
appeared the transparency is said to be much greater, white objects 
being easily seen at a depth of more than 98 feet, and Le Conte 
records that in August 1873 he found that a white plate was still 
visible at a depth of 108 feet. 


Mexico contains two types of inland drainage areas. The most 
interesting is that in the volcanic highlands of Anahuac, in the latitude 
of the city of Mexico, where the lakes are enclosures in the irregular 
topography of the piled-up volcanic material; but this is now no 
longer a true inland drainage area, for by means of immense artificial 
water-ways the lakes lying within the depression have been made to 
drain, as we shall presently have occasion to point out, with some 
detail, into the Gulf of Mexico. The principal lakes of this area are 
Tezcuco, near the shores of which the city of Mexico now stands, 
and Chaleo. Both are noteworthy for their magnificent scenery, 
surrounded as they are by volcanic peaks and extinct craters of great 
height; but they, like the other lakes in the same basin, have shrunk 
greatly in size. The depth of water in Lake Tezcuco at the present 
day under normal conditions hardly exceeds 2 feet over a large part 
of its area. 

The ancient town of Tenochtitlan, formerly standing on the site 
of the modern Mexico (7524 feet above sea-level), was actually 
founded in the lake, like another Venice, cut up by canals and con- 
nected with the shores by narrow viaducts and bridges. It was built 
there by Aztec immigrants in order that they might defend themselves 
against surrounding enemies; but, on gaining power and riches, they 
set to work trying to drive back the waters from their city by means 
of great dams, and thus free themselves from the danger of destruction 
by floods. ‘They were only partly successful in this. After the 
complete destruction of the city at the conquest in 1521, Cortez 
built up the city of Mexico on the ruins of Tenochtitlan ; and, partly 
by means of dams, partly by the turning aside of streams, Mexico 

1 Cited by Juday, op. cat., p. 791. 


By 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 561 


ceased to be a lacustrine city, and many of the surrounding swamps 
disappeared ; but irregularities in the level of the lake, and the 
stagnation of sewage waters, made the town very unhealthy. A plan 
of drainage for remedying this state of affairs was begun in 1607 
under the direction of Enrico Martinez, but for various reasons it 
was not carried out successfully, and in 1629 the city was overwhelmed 
by a disastrous flood. Of the 20,000 families who had their homes 
in the city, only 400 survived. For a time it was thought that 
Mexico should be abandoned, and that Puebla should be made the 
capital in its stead; but the plans of drainage were carried on for 
years without much method, and Mexico still held her position as 
capital of the country. The canals of drainage were not completed 
till towards the end of the nineteenth century, and were then not 
carried through the old cuttings, but were formed farther to the east. 
This desague, as the work is called, is the greatest drainage system 
and one of the most remarkable engineering enterprises in the world. 
It consists of a canal 43 miles in length, and a tunnel somewhat 
exceeding 6 miles, and it carries off the surplus waters of the whole 
Mexican basin into the River 'Tequizquiac, a tributary of the Tula, 
whence they flow by the Rio Panuco into the Gulf of Mexico. Partly 
as a result of this draining off of the waters of the lake, and partly 
as a result of a general desiccation of the surrounding regions, the 
lake has withdrawn, till now over two miles intervene between the 
lake-shores and the city. 

The other inland drainage area lies north of the volcanic high- 
land, and has been termed the Chihuahuan province of the great 
American desert, in contradistinction to the Sonora Nevada province 
to the west of the Western Sierra Madre. ‘The lakes of this province 
are all of the ephemeral desert type. During the rainy season the 
waters which find no seaward outlet are collected in depressions on the 
plateaus, where extensive tracts, known as lagunas, remain flooded for 
several months at a time. But the waters are rapidly reduced in 
level by evaporation, and fluctuate greatly with the quantity of 
rainfall. At a very early period, when the rainfall of the country 
was greater, there was, according to Reclus,' an excess of water, 
which found its way to the course of the Rio Grande del Norte 
by valleys, where it is still possible to follow with the eye the old 
river-beds. Then, as precipitation became less, the outflow ceased, 
and the waters of the basins thus cut off gradually became salt. 
Many lakes have been entirely dried up, owing to the fact that 
the streams which fed them were lost through evaporation in the 
desert before reaching them. One reason given for this process 
of desiccation is the reckless destruction of the upland forests by 


1 Le Merique au début du wx® siecle, p. 55, Paris, N.D. 


36 


SOUTHERN 
HEMISPHERE. 


Australia. 


562 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


European settlers. Another,’ recently advanced, is that the rivers 
which have their origin in the humid, wooded tops of the higher 
areas erode away the margins of the rain-collecting highlands in their 
descent towards lower and more arid levels, and gradually diminish as 
they destroy their rain-collecting areas. 

The chief lakes of the basin in the Durango district are :— 
Laguna de Tlahualila, which receives no streams of any size; Laguna 
del Muerto or Mayran, which receives the waters of the River Nazas ; 
and Laguna Parras, into which flows the Aguanaval. These all lie 
comparatively close together, and none of them has an outlet. The 
fact that there exist in the River Nazas species of fish which occur 
also in the Rio Grande is further proof of the former existence of 
a connection between these inland basins and the Rio Grande. 

The same conditions continue northward into Chihuahua, New 
Mexico, and Western Texas, which receive the drainage of the plateau 
of the Sierra Madre. ‘Che lakes in this area are comparatively small. 
The two principal ones are Laguna de Guzman, into which flows 
the River San Miguel, and Laguna de Santa Maria, into which drains 
the river of the same name. 

In Central America lakes without outlet are common in the 
limestone region of Northern Guatemala, the largest being Lake 
Peten, and in the rainy season many shallow temporary lakes 
(akalches) are formed in the hollows of the same region. Numerous 
lagoons of brackish water lie along both coasts. 


This concludes our survey of the lakes situated in the inland 
drainage areas or desert regions of the Northern Hemisphere. When 
we turn to the similar areas of the Southern Hemisphere we find that, 
because of the less developed land-masses, these areas are—excepting 
Australia—very limited in extent when compared with their northern 
analogues. 

Australia may be described as a plateau fringed by well-watered 
coasts, with a depressed, and for the most part arid, interior. Nearly 
two-thirds of the inland drainage area of Australia, which is estimated 
by Murray at 1,556,000 square miles (see fig. 67), is occupied by the 
Great Austral Plain, flanked on every side by mountains and table- 
lands, and sloping more or less gradually to a central depressed lake 
region. The plain is subdivided by undulating downs, or flat-topped 
hills, with here and there some scattered mountain groups. Where 
the rainfall is not all absorbed by the soil or lost through evaporation, 
the depressions are occupied by saline ? lakes. 


' R. T. Hill, “Characteristics of some Mexican Mining Regions,” Hngineering 
and Mining Journal (New York), vol. lxxxiv. p. 633, 1907. 
2 See second footnote on p. 515. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 563 


What is known as the lake area is a district north of Spencer 
Gulf covered with several expanses of brackish water that contract or 
expand as the season is one of drought or of rain. In seasons of 
drought they are hardly more than swamps or mud-flats, which for a 
time may become grassy plains, or desolate shores encrusted with salt ; 
in the wet season they receive the waters of a vast extent of country, 
including streams from Western Queensland. 


aa Gulf of 


Carpen taria 


English Mites 
A) 400 


Longitude East 130 of Greenwich 


Fia. 67.—Inland drainage areas of Australia. 
[The inland drainage areas are stippled.] 


The rainfall being very irregular, sometimes the rivers rush down 
in flood, carrying torrents of water to the lakes, while at other 
times they are dry for months. Many of the rivers draining inland 
lose themselves in the interior; they carve out valleys, dissolve lime- 
stone, and spread out their deposits over the plain, when the waters 
become too sluggish to bear the burden further. 

Lake Eyre and Lake Torrens.—North of Spencer Gulf lies Lake 
Torrens, sometimes 100 miles in length, and north of that again 
stretches Lake Eyre, 80 miles long by 40 miles broad, covering 
an area of about 3200 square miles. ‘The two lakes are divided by 


Bartholomew Etir 


064 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


a ridge of hills to the north of Lake Torrens, with only one low gap 
in the divide, at a height of 175 feet above sea-level. Lake Eyre 
receives the water drained from 500,000 square miles of country, and 
it absorbs it all, for the lake has no outlet. The region has a soil of 
exceptional richness, an invigorating climate free from malaria and 
other diseases incidental to most subtropical lands, and given water 
the country would be fertile as a garden. To effect this it was pro- 
posed to cut a canal from the sea at Port Augusta to Lake Eyre, and 
so flood its vast basin with sea-water, thereby lowering the tempera- 
ture and increasing the rainfall and the dew. Gregory! says this is 
possible, but the length of the canal would be 260 miles, and as the lake- 
surface is 39 feet below sea-level, the fall would be little more than 
an inch to the mile. The channel would have to be cut to a depth 
of 100 feet for 200 miles, and in one place to 200 feet, and it would 
have to be large enough to keep pace with the loss of water from 
evaporation. That this loss would be heavy is evident from the 
fate of the floods that are carried into Lake Eyre by the Diamantina 
and the Cooper or Barcoo Rivers. The quantity of water these rivers 
discharge is enormous, and yet no man has ever seen the lake full or 
nearly full, so that a sluggish 50-feet canal would not be very successful, 
and would probably lead to the choking up of the whole lake-bed 
within thirty years with salt, like a salt-pan, through evaporation, 
which in the Lake Eyre country is, according to Sir Charles Tod,’ 
100 inches a year, and even sometimes as much as | inch per day. 

The wind which sweeps across the central plains of Australia has 
dropped its moisture as rain on the highlands near the coast, and is 
therefore dry, and capable of absorbing an unusually large amount of 
moisture. The evaporation from the water-surface of Lake Eyre is 
said to be equal to from fifteen to twenty times the rainfall.’ 

The evidence is very conclusive that the Lake Eyre region was 
formerly one of great fertility. At one time it was evidently a vast 
inland sea. Round such a sheet of water there must have been a 
heavy dew, and probably the rainfall was also considerable, for the 
adjacent steppes were well grassed and fertile, and large trees, now 
represented by their petrified trunks, grew on the plains. ‘he 
waters of this lake were fresh, and it was about three times the size 
of the present one. The rainfall dwindled, the water-level sank, and 
the lake decreased in size. The discharge from the lake was no 
longer sufficient to keep open its channel, which the warping of the 
surface and the accumulation of debris continually tended to close. 

There is no outlet from the deep central basin of the Lake Eyre 


1 See The Dead Heart of Australia, pp. 345 et seq., London, 1906. 
2 Cited by Gregory, op. cit., p. 347. 
3 Gregory, op. cit., p. 325. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 565 


country. It is enclosed by a rim of old rocks, which, so far as we 
know, is complete to the west and south, and has only a narrow, 
shallow lip to the north, and perhaps another to the east, so that 
there is no escape for a subterranean river. Wells have been bored, 
and furnished an abundant supply of water. The high temperature 
gradient, and the occurrence of free gases in the wells, indicate that 
the water rises from great depths. Again, the decrease in the yield 
of many of the wells shows that they are the modern artificial outlets 
from a vast reservoir, or underground terminal lake, the waters of 
which must have been collected during the course of centuries. 

The water from the artesian wells is mainly used for watering 
stock. The irrigation of ordinary crops in an arid country consumes 
a large amount of water, and the areas which could be irrigated from 
the wells are small in comparison with that which must lie idle. 
Henderson ! estimated that under the most favourable conditions, and 
even if the water were lost neither by soakage nor by evaporation, 
only the three-hundredth part of the western districts could be 
irrigated. Again, the artesian waters are not always suitable for 
irrigation, being highly saline, and especially apt to be charged with 
carbonate of soda. Luxuriant crops are produced for the first few 
years, but the evaporation of the water leaves a deposit of carbonate 
of soda, which is very injurious to the growth of the plants. 

Lake George, the largest lake in New South Wales, is 25 miles 
long, 8 miles broad, and lies at an elevation of 2100 feet above sea- 
level. It occupies an area of subsidence in the Blue Mountains, about 
135 miles to the south-west of Sydney, bounded by a fault plane of 
about 400 feet drop. It is not always a lake, for at intervals it 
shrinks for years and finally becomes dry, when it is portioned into 
grazing leases, fences running nearly across the bed, and it yields very 
good pasturage for sheep. The basin of Lake George contained 
water in the years 1816-1830, 1852 (when it attained its maximum 
depth of rather more than 10 feet), 1864, and 1874-1900; it was 
practically dry again by 1905. It occupies the southern portion of 
a depression in the Cullarin Range called the Lake George Depression, 
490 square miles in extent, and the only example in New South 
Wales of a purely inland drainage area. It is watered by several 
small streams, but has no visible outlet. ‘Taylor* corroborates the 
theory that the lake never had an outlet ; no evidence of a flood more 
than 30 feet deep can be traced as having occurred for many centuries, 
while nearly 200 feet are necessary to provide an outlet north, west, 
or south. Probably since its inception the lake has been receiving 
silt, which has gradually filled up its bed. <A local flood has no 

1 See Seventeenth Ann. Rep. Hydraulic Engineering, p. 16, Brisbane, 1901. 

2 Proc. Linn, Soc. N.S.W., vol. xxxii. p. 335, 1907. 


SOUTHERN 
AFRICA. 


Kalahari 
Desert. 


066 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


effect on the lake, the dry silt acting asa sponge. The conditions 
are extremely favourable for great evaporation. ‘The wind may drive 
a layer of water several miles from the actual lowest spot, and before 
it can flow back the sun’s heat has reclaimed it for the atmosphere. 
Lake Bathurst, lying about 12 miles east of Lake George, has an 
area of 5 square miles when full, but like the latter it sometimes dries 
up entirely. ‘Taylor! is of the opinion that in earlier geological 
periods the Mulwaree Creek, which drains a fairly large basin and 


flows past Lake Bathurst about half a mile to the west, received two 


tributaries, one from the north-east and the other from the south-east, 
both of which crossed the bed of the present lake. In periods of 
drought these lateral streams probably ceased flowing, with the result 
that their entrance to the main stream became blocked by material 
washed down by the Mulwaree, and a lake was formed. In 1844 the 
lake was dry ; in 1873 it overflowed into the Mulwaree; in 1890 it 
was within a few feet of overflowing; in February 1907 only a 
quarter of its bed was covered, and the maximum dépth was not more 
than 1 foot. ‘Taylor found the ground at the east end of the lake 
littered with the bodies of tortoises which had been driven from the 
lake by the increasing salinity, and as there is no permanent water on 
the eastern shore, they perished. He suggests that in some such way 
many of the huge deposits of fossil vertebrates found in various parts 
of the world took their origin. 


The inland drainage area of Southern Africa has been estimated 
by Murray to exceed 110,000 square miles (see fig. 68). 

The Kalahari extends north from the Orange River as far as Lake 
Ngami, and is situated in the two divisions of South Bechuanaland, 
now incorporated with Cape Colony, and North Bechuanaland, a 
British protectorate. It is regarded by many as a very old accumula- 
tion of wind-blown sand; Livingstone,” on the other hand, spoke of 
the decrease of precipitation over the Kalahari in historic times, and 
considered that the Central and Northern Kalahari was formerly a 
lake. He went still further, stating that the manner in which the 
Zambesi River breaks through the hilly land at the Victoria Falls led 
him to think that the river probably cut down the barrier of the 
former lake, and thus drained it. Passarge? recounts the following 
evidence given by Livingstone as to the drying up of the Kalahari 
region :—The River Kolobeng, once rich in fish, dried up in Living- 
stone’s time, and has had no water since. Lopepa, in Western 
Bamangwatoland, was at the time of his first visit a large pool of 

! Op. cit., p. 344. 

2 See Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa, p. 527, London, 1857. 

3 See Die Kalahari, pp. 98-108, Berlin, 1904. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 567 


water, from which a stream flowed towards the south; on his second 
visit he could only find water by digging. 

The Kalahari region includes several secondary basins-—wide 
depressions partly crossed by river-courses, partly occupied by lakes 


Benguela 


L. Malombed 
(ye Shirwa 


“Blantyre 


Salisbury” Sey 
Y 


es 


1 
| 
i} 
4 
v7] 


Walfish Bay 


Tropic of Capricorn 


Delagoa Bay 


Bloemfontein 


Vigigi AUN GaN capeineyes 
OCEAN Qeange 


orb Elizabeth 
English Miles 


rete) 200 300 


Longitude Eastof Greenwich 


Barthclomen Las 


Fic. 68.—Inland drainage area of Southern Africa (Kalahari). 
[The inland drainage area is stippled.] 


and marshes. ‘These basins are separated by even stretches of rising 
ground, which here and there form connected ridges. While the 
bottom of the basins is covered with recent sand, the ground rock 
crops out in places on the ridges, and these places are of great import- 
ance, for there good water is found either as springs or in chalk-pans— 


568 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


flat chalky surfaces surrounded with sand—and therefore all the traffic 
routes pass through them. 

Lake Ngami! is the central point of an inland water-system of South 
Africa, in lat. 202° S., long. 23° E., at an altitude of about 3000 feet 
above sea-level. ‘The lake was once 20 miles long and 10 miles wide, 
but is now dry, consisting merely of an expanse of reeds growing in a 
soft, treacherous soil, below which brackish water is found at a depth 
of 20 feet. The former feeder of the lake was the Taukhe or Tiohge 
River (known in the upper part of its course as the Okavango or 
Cubango River), which entered at the north-west end, but now a 
portion at least of its waters passes by a channel north of Lake 
Ngami into the Botletle or Zuga River, by which the overflow of 
the lake was formerly carried off eastwards at the time of high 
water. The Botletle River loses itself in a system of salt-pans— 
round or oval basins of varying size sunk to depths of 30 to 45 feet 
in the sandstone, and often bounded by steep banks. The largest 
of these is the salt-pan called Makarrikarri. The outer pans are dry 
for a large part of the year, the whole system being filled only at 
the height of the flood season in August. 

The lowest twenty miles of the Taukhe River are said to have been 
dry since about 1890, the district intersected by the river-beds now 
growing corn in great plenty. The cessation of the river’s flow was 
caused, according to native report, by a blocking of the channel by 
thousands of rafts, on which the Makoba natives brought down their 
yearly tribute of corn. 

Precipitation is greater in Northern Kalahari than in the 
southern and central portions. In the former the river-courses are 
marshy even in the dry season. Flooded plains still hold a little 
water at the end of the dry season, and sand-pans with permanent 
ponds are not uncommon. In Southern and Central Kalahari the 


_ salt-pans contain water only in the rainy season; at other times they 


SouTH 
AMERICA. 


drv up and leave behind a crust of salt. 

Underground water does not exist to any extent in the Kalahari 
as in the Sahara. In the dry regions the scanty rainfall is absorbed 
by the sand, and evaporates in the long dry season; in the alluvial 
regions underground water is comparatively small in quantity, for 
the steep crumbling ground-rock does not form a good water-way. 


The inland drainage areas of South America are estimated by 
Murray at over 500,000 square miles (see fig. 69). 

According to Neveu-Lemaire,” the region of South America lying 

1 See Encycl. Brit., ed. 10, vol. xxxi. p. 228; see also note on Dr Poch’s ex- 


pedition, Geogr. Journ., vol. xxxill. p. 601, 1909. 
2 See “Le Titicaca et le Poopo,” La Geographie, vol. ix. p. 409, 1904. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 569 


between the 11th and 24th degrees of latitude, to the west of the Peru and 
Cordillera of Los Frailes, has a mean altitude of 13,123 feet (or about ?°!" 
2} miles), and has no outlet for the waters that accumulate in it. 
Locally it is called the “ puna,” and in some parts there occur immense 
saline plains (pampas salinas), while in others are vast deserts with- 


eSucre 


"Potosi 


Rio de Janeiro 


Valparaiso 


Santiago? PNT de, PY IM TF OTE OG 


te 
fase 
es 
ne 

x 


€ 


ONCE VAI, 


English Miles 


Longitude West 60 of Greenwich 
; a “Bartholomew Edin” 
Fic. 69.—Inland drainage areas of South America. 
[The inland drainage areas are stippled. ] 


out trace of vegetation. Not a single tree is found throughout the 
whole region, though in some parts plants of the cactus tribe are 
sparsely distributed. The drainage accumulates in the two lakes 
Titicaca and Poopo; but while the former is deep, contains fresh 
water, and is surrounded by lofty mountains, Lake Poopo is a great 
shallow lagoon containing salt water. The two are connected by 
the Desaguadero, which flows from Titicaca into Poopo. Lemaire 


DAY THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


says that both lakes are remnants of a vast inland sea, which once 
existed in this region, extending from lat. 15° to 21° S., and draining 
by a large river into the basin of the Amazon. Both lakes have 
been rapidly drying up within historic times. The old temple, which 
was once on the shores of Titicaca, is now a considerable distance 
away from it, and some height above the level of the waters.. Sir 
Martin Conway! says that somewhere on the borders of Bolivia and 
Chili, at an altitude of 17,000 feet, are the remains of cultivated fields 
now abandoned. In South America no fields at a height of 17,000 
feet can be cultivated, so that the abandonment of these fields was 
due to the great increase in elevation that had occurred within historic 
times in the district. This increase in elevation appears to apply, 
according to Sir Martin Conway, to the central belt of plateau that 
runs north and south through a considerable part of South America. 
Along the Peruvian slope shells of existing species are found on the 
hillsides at an altitude of 1000 or 1500 feet, and even, according to 
some authorities, as high as 3000 feet. The increasing desiccation of 
the plateau is due to that rapid elevation. The moisture comes in 
a steady drift from the east over the great Amazon plain, and is 
precipitated upon the mountains. As the mountains increase in 
altitude, and the belt of mountainous country widens, the rainfall on 
the actual plateau diminishes. 

Lake Titicaca is situated between lat. 15° 20’ and 16° 35’ S., 
and between long. 68° 15’ and 69° 40’ W. It is the highest lake of 
America, lying 12,500 feet above sea-level. Its length is 120 miles, its 
maximum breadth 41 miles, and its area about 3200 square miles, 
exclusive of islands. About 120 soundings were taken by Neveu- 
Lemaire,” the Belloc sounding machine being employed whenever the 
depth was greater than 32 feet. In his bathymetrical map the 
contours of 25, 100, and 200 metres (82, 328, and 656 feet) are drawn 
in. ‘The deepest area lies towards the north-east shore, the contour- 
line of 200 metres approaching comparatively close in two places, 
while on the opposite side a wide band of regular width, with depths 
of 100 to 200 metres, runs parallel to the south-west shore. Soto 
Island, the midmost island in the lake, rises abruptly from the deepest 
part, 270 metres (886 feet) being found at a little distance from its 
south end on the landward side, while the maximum depth got by 
Lemaire (272 metres or 892 feet) was found abreast of the island on 
the major axis of the lake. The “ Little Lake,” joined to the “ Great 


! See discussion on the desiccation of Eur-Asia, Geogr. Journ., vol. xxiii. 
p. 736, 1904. 

2 See Neveu-Lemaire, Les lacs des hauts plateaux de ? Amérique Sud, Paris, 1906. 

3 Agassiz gives 154 fathoms (924 feet) as the maximum depth (‘‘ Hydro- 
graphic Sketch of Lake Titicaca,” Proc. Amer. Acad., vol. xi. p. 283, 1876). 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 57i 


Lake” in the south by a strait, is shallow, though the strait itself is 
fairly deep. A considerable portion of the floor of Lake Titicaca lies 
at a lower level than that of Lake Poopo, the very shallow lake into 
which its waters overflow. The water of Lake ‘Titicaca is compara- 
tively fresh, containing only 0-11 per cent. of solid matter in solution. 

Observations of much interest were obtained regarding the 
temperature of the water in early winter, though the stay was not 
long enough to throw light on seasonal variations. ‘The surface 
temperature was found to rise as a rule until 3 p.m., and then to fall 
again; but the greatest variation observed in a single day was 2°°8 
Fahr., and this at a part of the lake where the depth varied greatly. 
The lowest surface temperatures observed naturally occurred in the 
shallow bays.1. The figures relating to the bottom temperature are 
striking from their great regularity, in spite of great differences of 
depth. ‘The extreme range was only 3°°6 Fahr. (from 48°°9 at 10 feet 
to 52°:5 at 60 feet). Below 240 metres (787 feet) the temperature 
was constant at 50°°8 Fahr. (10°°4C.) A series of vertical tempera- 
tures near the centre of the lake showed a difference of only 1°°7 
between the surface and the bottom. A. Agassiz, in his hydrographic 
sketch of Lake Titicaca, says the usual difference between the surface 
and the bottom, even at the greatest depth (154 fathoms), was not 
more than from three to four degrees. The lowest temperature at the 
bottom (in 450 feet) was 51° Fahr. (10°°6 C.), the general tempera- 
ture varying from 54° to 55°; while the surface temperature ranged 
from 53° to 59°—the greater part of the time 56° to 57° (February 
1875), the temperature of the air at noon varying from 49° to 97° Fahr. 

Observations were also made on the transparency of the water, - 
and on the climatic conditions, the flora and fauna, etc., of the 
surrounding country. The level of the lake rises during the summer, 
the amount being given as 5 inches; but apart from seasonal variation, 
the level is sinking progressively. 

Lake Poopo (or Aullagas) lies about 387 feet below Lake Titicaca. 
It is irregularly oval in shape, and contains a central island (which is 
inhabited), as well as two islets near the western shore. The River 
Desaguadero enters at the north end, and has formed a delta. The 
lake is 55 miles in length by 25 miles in breadth, but is very shallow, 
two small areas in the centre alone having a depth exceeding 6 feet 
(maximum depth 13 feet). The water is saline and muddy,” and the 
lake is in process of disappearing, so that at no distant date it may 


1 Ward (Science, vol. vii. p. 28, 1898) gives two series of temperatures taken 
at the surface of Lake Titicaca on 26th and 28th November 1897. 

2 The water contains 2°35 per cent. of sold matter in solution, about two-thirds 
of that in sea-water ; of this 1°68 per cent. consists of sodium chloride, and the 
remainder mainly of sulphates. 


Contrasted 
with inland 
drainage 
areas. 


EUROPE. 


a4 2 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


resemble the South Bolivian lakes, that only exist as such in the 
rainy season. One fish only is found in Lake Poopo, and it is 
believed to be identical with Orestias Agassizi, var. imornata, from 
Lake ‘Titicaca. Two species of Copepoda are found in the lake, viz. 
Boeckella propensis and B. occidentalis. 


LAKES CONNECTED WITH RIVERS FLOWING DIRECTLY 
INTO THE OCEAN 


It has been pointed out that the meteorological conditions which 
generally prevail over inland drainage areas are high barometric pres- 
sure, winds blowing from off land and from colder to warmer regions, 
dry atmosphere, bright sunshine, few clouds, and low rainfall—con- 
sequently the maximum of insolation and terrestrial radiation. 

In contrast to these conditions we have those that usually prevail 
over the catchment basins which pour their drainage waters directly 
into the ocean—namely, low barometric pressure, winds blowing 
directly from off the ocean and from warmer to colder regions, cloudy 
skies, high humidity, and abundant rainfall. In the summer months 
of the northern hemisphere winds commencing near latitude 30° South 
blow home on Southern Asia as the well-known south-west monsoon 
of these regions. The winds of this monsoon distribute a larger 
rainfall over a larger portion of the earth’s surface than occurs any- 
where else at any season, and this rainfall is also largely increased by 
the mountains which he across the path of these rain-bearing winds. 
Many similar, if less striking, instances can be pointed out in other 
regions of the world, so that in the areas now to be considered there 
is usually a more or less abundant rainfall; consequently all hollows 
or basins in the topography of these regions are filled to the rim with 
lakes. The outflowing rivers from these lakes ultimately, and in some 
instances relatively rapidly, cut down barriers, or fill up the lake-basins 
with detrital matter. The water in these lakes is continually being 
renewed, and is always fresh and drinkable. For such reasons these 
lakes are more uniform in character, and are probably on the whole 
less interesting, than those of the inland drainage areas. The salts 
dissolved out of the land-surfaces are borne directly into the ocean, 
and, accumulating there, tend to alter the composition of sea-water 
salts. We will review these lakes in the following order :—Europe, 
Asia, Africa, America, Australia, and New Zealand. 


Europe shows in many ways a similarity to North America in 
climatic, as well as in structural and topographical, features. From 
Scandinavia and Finland, which correspond to the Laurentian High- 
lands in America, extensive ice-sheets spread over the adjacent lands 


ss 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 573 


in geologically recent times, advancing to the south and south- 
eastward, leaving the land in the Scandinavian peninsula and Finland 
dotted with lakes, similar in origin to those north. of the lake-belt in 
North America, and creating a new land-surface in the northern plain 
of Germany by covering it with glacial deposit. The ice-sheet 
reached to the base of the Thuringian Forest, Erzgebirge, Sudetes, 
and Northern Carpathians. On the southern side of the Alps an 
independent sheet of glacier-ice passed down the valleys, and deposited 
terminal moraines far out in the valley of the Po. On the northern 
side the ice spread across the whole of the middle plateau of Switzer- 
land, at least half-way across the range of the Jura, and far eastward 
to the neighbourhood of Linz on the Danube; while to the west a 
glacier passed down the Rhone valley, and deposited a great terminal 
moraine where Lyons now stands. Among the most important 
evidences of this ice-era are extensive morainic deposits, either in the 
form of bottom moraines or terminal moraines. Such deposits 
abound mostly where the ice-sheets were beginning to thin out, as in 
the North German lake-plateau, and numerous lake-basins have been 
formed by inequalities in the deposition of such morainie matter. 
These lakes are generally of small size, and occupy either circular 
depressions, long narrow basins, or broad shallow basins, very 
irregular in outline, lying in gently undulating ground. 


The most important lakes in England are those of the Lake 
District in Cumberland, all of which are valley lakes and occur at 
a comparatively low level. ‘They were bathymetrically surveyed by 
Dr H. R. Mill and others in the years 1893 and 1894." 

The lakes of the English Lake District may be divided into two 
main types: the shallow and the deep. The former type includes 
only Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite Water, of which the average 
depth is only J8 feet. The latter type, the shallowest of which has a 
mean depth of 40 feet (Haweswater), comprises all the other lakes. 

The fact that Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite are separated by an 
alluvial plain so low that their waters mingle in heavy floods shows 
that they may be regarded as one lake, and their configuration suggests 
that they may have been shallowed by. glacial accumulations. Both 
are drained by the Derwent River, which enters the Solway Firth at 
Workington. 

Derwentwater is a little over 2 square miles in area, nearly 
3 miles in length, and has a maximum depth of 72 feet and a mean 


depth of only 18 feet. It lies at an elevation of 244 feet above sea- 


level, but this figure was given for 1893, when the level of the lake 


1 See Mill, “ Bathymetrical Survey of the English Lakes,” Geogr. Journ., vol. vi. 
pp. 46, 135, 1895. 


England. 


574 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


was lower than ever previously recorded ; the greatest recorded range 
in the level of the water amounts to 94 feet. The volume of water 
contained in the lake was calculated at 1010 million cubic feet, and 
there is a great wealth of water-plants. 

Bassenthwaite Water lies 223 feet above sea-level, and covers an 
area exactly equal to that of Derwentwater, viz. 2°06 square miles, but 
it is one mile longer. ‘The maximum depth is 70 feet, the mean depth 
18 feet, and the volume of water is estimated at 1023 million cubic 
feet. It receives the drainage from Derwentwater and Thirlmere. 

The second, or deep, type of lakes in this district are long and 
narrow, sometimes winding like Ullswater, sometimes slightly curved 
like Wastwater and Haweswater, and generally le in long narrow 
valleys with steeply sloping sides, the slopes being continued under 
water with equal steepness, and terminating in a nearly flat bottom. 

Buttermere and Crummock Water, 329 and 321 feet respec- 
tively above sea-level, form a double lake in much the same manner 
as Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite. ‘The plain separating the two, 
three-quarters of a mile in length, is absolutely flat, and lies across 
the mouth of the lateral valley of the Mill Beck, which flows from 
the east and then turns abruptly northward to the lower lake, 
Crummock. Buttermere and Crummock Water are connected by a 
small stream which has been pushed over by the alluvium brought 
down by the Mill Beck close against the steep slope on the western 
side. Buttermere is 14 miles in length, has an area of only 0°36 
square mile, a maximum depth of 94 feet, a mean depth of 54 feet, 
and the volume of water is estimated at 537 million cubic feet. 
Crummock Water is 24 miles in length, has an area of nearly 1 square 
mile, a maximum depth of 144 feet, a mean depth of 87 feet, and the 
volume of water is estimated at 2343 million cubic feet. The out- 
flow from Crummock Water is by the River Cocker, a tributary of 
the Derwent River. i 

Ennerdale Water may be looked upon as a combination of the 
deep and shallow types of lake; the best example in Great Britain 
being Loch Lomond. Ennerdale is a deep narrow lake, widening and 
becoming shallower towards its outlet, the Eden River. It lies 368 
feet above sea-level, has an area of over 1 square mile, a maximum 
depth of 148 feet, a mean depth of 62 feet, and the volume of water 
contained ‘in it is estimated at 1978 million cubic feet. 

Wastwater, lying at the base of Scafell Pike and Scafell, 200 feet 
above sea-level, has an area of over 1 square mile, and is the deepest 
of all the Cumberland lakes, having a maximum depth of 258 feet, a 
mean depth of 134 feet, and the volume of water it contains 1s esti- 
mated at 4128 million cubic feet. The outflow is at the south-west 
end by the River Irton, a tributary of the River Esk. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES GS) 


Coniston Water has an area of nearly 2 square miles; the length 
is almost 53 miles, but it is very narrow, the maximum breadth being 
under half a mile. It lies 143 feet above sea-level, and drains by the 
River Crake into the estuary of the Leven in Morecambe Bay. It 
attains a maximum depth of 184 feet, the mean depth is 79 feet, and 
the volume of water is estimated at 4000 million cubic feet. 

Haweswater has an area of a little over half a square mile, while 
the length along the slightly curved axis is over 24 miles. It lies 694 
feet above sea-level, has a maximum depth of 103 feet, a mean depth 
of 40 feet, and is estimated to contain 589 million cubic feet of water, 
From the northern shore at the mouth of the Measand Beck, a large 
delta, bearing upon it cultivated fields—the only arable land of the 
surrounding district-—projects into the lake, narrowing it abruptly from 
half a mile to about 100 yards. Haweswater and Ullswater are the 
only two lakes of the Lake District having their outflow at the north- 
east end; their surplus waters find their way ultimately north-west- 
wards to the Solway Firth by tributaries of the River Eden. 

Ullswater, the second largest lake of the district, has an area of 
about 34 square miles, and its length measured along the centre line 


‘is nearly 74 miles. Whilst most of the other lakes have a slightly 


curved form, Ullswater presents two abrupt changes of direction, the 
general trend, however, being north-east and south-west. There are 
a number of islands at the upper end, all composed of masses of solid 
rock rising steeply from a great depth of water. The lake lies 
476 feet above sea-level, and has a maximum depth of 205 feet, 
a mean depth of 83 feet, and the volume of water is estimated 
at 7870 million cubic feet. 

Windermere, the largest lake in England, has an area of more 
than 54 square miles, and its length measured along the curved axis, 
which trends north and south, is 103 miles. ‘The lake as a whole is 
surrounded by flatter shores and lower hills than most of the others, 
and its indentations are more numerous and varied. Its surface is 
the nearest to sea-level, being only 130 feet above it. A number of 
islands, all low and flat, occur about midway between the north and 
south ends, the largest of which is Belle Isle. The maximum depth, 
found at the northern end, is 219 feet, and the mean depth 78 feet. 
The lake is estimated to contain 12,250 million cubic feet of water, 
and it drains by the River Leven into Morecambe Bay. 

The lakes of the Snowdon region and of that part of Carnarvon- 
shire to the east of Snowdon were surveyed by Dr Jehu in 1900.1 
They are much smaller in area than the English lakes surveyed by 
Dr Mill, but some of them rival in depth even the largest of the latter, 


1 Jehu, ‘‘ A Bathymetrical and Geological Study of the Lakes of Snowdonia and 
Eastern Carnarvonshire,” Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xl. p. 419, 1902. 


Wales. 


576 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


and their depth is far more striking when considered in proportion to 
their size. Yet in none of the Welsh lakes is the depth sufficiently 
great to bring any part of their bed below the level of the sea, as 
is the case in some of the English lakes; for while the latter, with the 
exception of Haweswater, lie at an elevation of less than 500 feet, 
the majority of the former are situated at a much higher level. 

All the different stages in the existence of lakes are exemplified 
amongst those found in Carnarvonshire, and traces of old lakes, which 
have been gradually filled up by the sediment brought down by the 
inflowing streams and converted into flat meadows, are abundant in 
the district. Dr Jehu discusses the question of the origin of the 
Welsh lakes very fully, and comes to the conclusion that, while a 
few may be retained in whole or in part by morainic barriers, the 
majority probably le in true rock-basins. 

Llyn Glaslyn, 1971 feet above sea-level, the highest of the 
Snowdon lakes, is about a third of a mile long by one-sixth of a 
mile wide, has a maximum depth of 127 feet, and contains about 
59 million cubic feet of water. 

Llyn Llydaw, 1416 feet above sea-level, receives the overflow from 
Glaslyn, and is drained by Afon Glaslyn. It is rather more than a 
mile in length by about a quarter of a mile in breadth, has a 
maximum depth of 190 feet, and contains approximately 409 million 
cubic feet of water. 

Llyn Cawlyd, 1165 feet above sea-level, the deepest of the lakes 
sounded by Dr Jehu, drains to the Conway. It is over a mile and a 
half long by about a quarter of a mile wide, has a maximum depth 
of 222 feet, a mean depth of about 110 feet, and contains about 941 
million cubic feet of water. 

Llyn Dulyn, which drains into the valley of the Conway by the 
Yr Afon Dulyn, is almost as deep as Llyn Llydaw, and is situated 
1747 feet above sea-level. It is about one-third of a mile in length 
by one-quarter of a mile in breadth, has a maximum depth of 
189 feet, and is estimated to contain about 156 million cubic feet 
of water. 

Llyn Cwellyn is situated in a valley to the west of Snowdon, at 
the very moderate altitude of 464 feet above sea-level, and is drained 
by the River Gwyrfai. It is about 14 miles in length by about half a 
mile in breadth; the maximum depth is 122 feet, and the volume of 
water contained in the lake about 713 million cubic feet. 

Llyn Padarn and Llyn Peris, two lakes about 340 feet above sea- 
level at the foot of the pass of Llanberis, appear at one time to have 
formed a continuous sheet of water, but are now separated by an 
alluvial flat made up of material brought down by tributary streams. 
The distance from the lower end of Llyn Padarn to the head of Llyn 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 577 


Peris is over three miles, but the length of the original lake must 
have been much greater, for not only is there an alluvial expanse 
stretching above the head of Llyn Peris, but a marshy flat, partly 
under water and often flooded after heavy rains, extends a good way 
below the foot of Llyn Padarn. The maximum depth recorded in 
Llyn Padarn is 94 feet, and in Llyn Peris 114 feet. The outflow of the 
lakes is by the River Seiont to the Menai Straits. 

Bala Lake, in Merionethshire, at the head of the river Dee, is 
larger than any of those surveyed by Dr Jehu, being about 3) miles 
long by three quarters of a mile broad; and one still larger, Lake 
Vyrnwyn, an old lake artificially enlarged in order to increase the water- 
supply of Liverpool, was constructed about twenty years ago by 
building a dam, 1165 feet long, to hold back the head-waters of the 
Vyrnwyn River, a tributary of the Severn. This lake is capable of 
holding 2103 million cubic feet of water, 


Many lakes of considerable extent exist both in the mountainous Ireland. 


and lowland districts of Ireland, and the number of small lakes is 
very great. The total area covered by lakes amounts to 711 square 
miles. Careful surveys have been made by the Admiralty and maps 
published between the years 1835 and 1854 of the principal lakes, 
viz. Loughs Neagh, Mask, Corrib, Derg, Ree, and Erne (Upper and 
Lower), and also of the smaller Lough Derg in County Donegal. 

Lough Neagh, in the province of Ulster, the largest lake in the 
British Isles, receives the Upper Bann, the Blackwater, and numerous 
other streams, and discharges by the Lower Bann into the North 
Channel at Coleraine. It is 17 miles in length, about 10 miles in 
breadth, and covers an area of 153 square miles ; it lies 48 feet above 
sea-level, and has a mean depth of 40 feet and a maximum depth of 
102 feet. The islands are few and small, and the shores, particularly 
on the south, are flat and marshy. It lies in a volcanic area in a 
basin formed by fracture and subsidence. -It is well stocked with 
fish—like trout, char, pullen.t| Canals extend from Lough Neagh to 
Belfast, Newry, Tyrone, and Lough Erne. 

Lough Mask, on the borders of Mayo and Galway, receives the 
waters of the River Robe, and the surplus waters of Lough Carra to 
the north-east of it and of Lough Nafooey to the west, and is drained 
by an underground stream into Lough Corrib. It is 35 square miles 
in area, 10 miles in length by 4 miles in breadth, with a maximum 
depth of 191 feet. Its elevation above sea-level is about 50 feet. 

Lough Corrib, lying at an altitude of only 14 feet above sea-level, 
nearly divides County Galway into two parts. It is very irregular in 
shape, and contains many islets. It has a maximum depth of 152 


! For analysis of the water of Lough Neagh, see p. 149. 
37 


578 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


feet, is 27 miles in length, from 1 to 6 miles in breadth, and covers 
an area of 68 square miles. In addition to the overflow from Loughs 
Carra and Mask, it receives also the rivers Beatanabrack, which enters 
at the head of the north-west arm, and Clare, which enters at the 
south-east end of the lough, and it discharges by Galway River into 
Galway Bay. 

The country to the west of Lough Corrib contains about 130 
lakes, 25 of which are more than a mile in length. ‘hese loughs may 
be divided into two divisions—bog-loughs and mountain-loughs. 
‘Those of the former class are irregular in outline, shallow, and studded 
with islands; the three largest, forming a chain at the base of the 
‘Twelve Pins, are Loughs Inagh, Derryclare, and Ballynahinch. ‘Those 
of the latter class are deeper and smaller, only four exceeding a mile 
in length. In September 1904, three of the loughs of this district, 
viz. Dhulough, Glencullin, and Nafooey, were sounded by Mr O. J. R. 
Howarth.t Dhulough, one of the mountain type, is about 13 miles 
in length, and has a maximum depth of 164 feet. Its surface is 108 
feet above sea-level, and a short stream carries its surplus waters to 
the estuary of the Erriff River. Glencullin Lough, to the north-west 
of Dhulough, 20 feet higher, and draining into it, is less than three- 
quarters of a mile long, and has a maximum depth of 27 feet; it is 
one of the bog type. Lough Nafooey is a mountain-lough, over 24 
miles in length by about half a mile in maximum breadth, situated 
nearly 94 feet above sea-level, and drained by the River Finny into 
Lough Mask. Howarth’s deepest sounding is 148 feet. 

Lough Derg, situated 108 feet above sea-level, on the borders of 
the counties of Galway, Clare, and Tipperary, and traversed by the 
River Shannon, has an area of 49 square miles. Like Lough Corrib, 
it is very irregular in outline, and contains many small islands. ‘The 
maximum depth, obtained off Parker Point, is 119 feet. 

There is another lake of the same name in the south of County 
Donegal, lying in the midst of a desolate mountain region, 457 feet 
above sea-level, and 6 miles long by 4 miles broad, flowing by the 
River Derg into the River Foyle and Lough Foyle. This lake was 
for centuries famous throughout Europe as a place of pilgrimage, 
and on Saints’ Island, near the western shore, stand the ruins of an 
old monastery, destroyed in 1632. 

Lough Ree, another lake in the course of the Shannon River, 
122 feet above sea-level, between the counties of Roscommon, Long- 
ford, and West Meath, is 17 miles in length by 7 miles in maximum 
breadth, and has a maximum depth of 106 feet; it covers an area 
of approximately 60 square miles. Its shores are very much indented, 
and it contains a number of islands. 

1 Geogr. Journ., vol. xxv. p. 172, 1905. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 579 


Lough Erne.— The River Erne issues from Lough Gowna on the 
borders of the counties of Longford and Cavan, and after passing 
through Lough Oughter merges into Upper and Lower Lough Erne, 
whence reissuing it flows into Donegal Bay at Ballyshannon. The 
united length of the two loughs and the connecting river is about 
60 miles, the distance between the loughs being about 5 miles. The 
area of the Upper Lough is 15 square miles, and it has a maximum 
depth of 89 feet. It lies almost 2 feet above the Lower Lough, and 
is studded with islands to such an extent that there is scarcely any 
open water. ‘The Lower Lough is about 149 feet above sea-level, has 
a maximum depth of 226 feet, and covers an area of 43 square miles. 

Lakes of Killarney, three in number, all connected, and drain- 
ing by the River Laune to Dingle Bay, are much frequented by 
tourists on account of the beauty of their surroundings. The 
largest, called Lower Lake or Lough Leane, has an area of not 
quite 8 square miles; the Middle or Muckross Lake, separated from 
the Lower Lake by a narrow peninsula, has an area of a little over 
1 square mile; and the Upper Lake, 5 feet above the other two, and 
connected with them by a stream known as the Long Range, 24 miles 
in length, has an area of only two-thirds of a square mile. 


The lakes of Scandinavia are very numerous, occupying in Norway Scandinavia. 
4 per cent. of the surface, and in Sweden as much as 8 per cent.! 
Many long rivers, broken by picturesque waterfalls, and with 
numerous lakes in their courses, cross Sweden from west to east. 
Helland ? cites the lakes of the northern portion as examples of true 
rock-basins excavated by ice action, but many are probably retained 
by drift barriers. 

Lake Hornafvan, the largest of these, is a narrow sheet of water, 
very irregular in outline and 70 miles in length. It lies at an elevation 
of 1394 feet above sea-level, and has an area of nearly 93 square miles. 
The maximum depth is 725 feet, the mean depth 253 feet, and the 
volume of water is estimated at 777,040 million cubic feet.2 ‘lhe 
outflow is by the Skelleftea River to the Gulf of Bothnia. 

The depression of the great lakes lies to the south of the plateau of 
Southern Sweden, and contains four large bodies of water: Lakes 
Vener, Vetter, Hjelmar, and Miilar. 


1 The portion of the surface of Europe covered by lakes is 0°5 per cent. (see 
Yngvar Nielsen in Mill’s International Geography, ed. 2, p. 199, London, 1907). 

2 “Die glaciale Bildung der Fjorde und Alpenseen in Norwegen,” Pogg. Annal., 
Bd. exlvi. p. 538, 1872. 

> The measurements given for the European lakes (except length and breadth) 
are taken mostly from Halbfass, “ Die Morphometrie der europiiischen Seen,” 
Zeitschr. Ges. Hrdkunde Berlin, Jahrg. 1908, pp. 592, 706, 784. 


280) THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Lake Vener, the third largest lake in Europe, with a length of 
112 miles, a breadth of 56 miles, and an area of 2149 square miles, 
is situated towards the west of the depression, and drains to the 
Kattegat through the Gota; the Klar, the greatest Scandinavian 
river, flows into the lake. Lake Vener lies at an elevation of 144 feet 
above sea-level ; the maximum depth is 292 feet, the mean depth 108 
feet, and the volume of water contained in the lake is estimated at 
about 6,357,600 million cubic feet. It is connected with Lake Vetter 
by canal. | 

Lake Vetter lies at an elevation of 289 feet above sea-level, has 
a length of 80 miles, an average width of about 18 miles, and has 
an area of 733 square miles. The maximum depth is 413 feet, 
the mean depth 128 feet, and it is estimated to contain about 
2,543,000 million cubic feet of water. It receives short streams from 
the plateau of Southern Sweden, and discharges eastwards by the large 
Motala River to the Baltic. By the eastern branch of the Gota 
Canal it has navigable communication with Lake Vener. 

Lake Malar also drains to the Baltic. It lies at an elevation 
of only 14 feet above sea-level, and covers an area of 450 square 
miles. ‘The maximum depth is 210 feet, the mean depth 26 feet, and 
the volume is estimated at about 353,200 million cubic feet. 

Lake Hjelmar lies about 70 feet above sea-level, and covers an 
area of 185 square miles. ‘The greatest depth is 65 feet, and the 
outflow of the lake is to the Baltic. 

Reference may here be made to the remarkable temperature con- 
ditions recorded in a small lake in the island of Tysnés, off the coast 
of Norway, the depth of which does not exceed 15 feet.1 When 
visited in 1888 the temperature at the surface was 54°°7 F. (12°°6 C.), 
but at one foot below the surface it rose to 60° F. (15°'56 C.), at four 
feet down it was 69°:2 F. (20°°67 C.), at seven feet down it was 73°:0 F. 
(22°-78 C.), the maximum temperature of 74°:0 F. (23°33 C.) being 
reached at ten feet below the surface; further down the temperature 
fell distinctly, being only 72°:0 F. (22°:22 C.) at the bottom. On 
30th June 1888 the maximum temperature was no less than 81°°3 F. 
(27°-4 C.) at about seven feet beneath the surface, and fell to 78°°8 F. 
(26°:0 C.) by July 21, being then between nine and ten feet below the 
surface, and to 73°°'9 F. (23°:28 C.) by 11th August at about eleven feet 
beneath the surface. Careful search had been made for a hot spring, 
but nothing of the kind could be found, and the conclusion was that 
these phenomenal temperatures were due to solar radiation; this is 
supported by the fact that the specific gravity in setw of the inter- 
mediate and hottest layer lies between that of the surface and bottom 

1 See Gibson, Seventh Annual Report of the Fishery Board for Scotland, Part III. 
p. 433, 1889. 


ne 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 58] 


layers, which must tend to prevent convection currents and therefore 
to greatly prolong the cooling of the intermediate layer. Salt water 
is admitted intermittently from the neighbouring fjord, and forms the 
bottom layer, the thin surface layer being formed by fresh water from 
a small stream flowing in at one end and overflowing at the other, and 
being thus constantly renewed ; the intermediate layer is apparently 
formed by very slow mixing of the bottom and surface layers. This 
little lake was used as an oyster nursery with great success, the high 
temperature developing the spat with remarkable rapidity, and with 
a degree of regularity from year to year surpassing anything attained 
in the fjord waters outside (see p. 587). 


That portion of Russia formerly covered by the ice-sheet is known Northern 
as the Lake Region, and includes Finland and the Russian governments Rua 
of Olonets, Novgorod, St Petersburg, and Pskov. So numerous are 
the lakes in this part that they form a labyrinth of sheets of water 
and marshes, communicating with each other by rivers interrupted 
by rapids, the land not covered by water consisting of isthmuses and 
peninsulas. The government of Novgorod alone contains 3200 
separate lakes, and that of Olonets 2000. The Russian portion of 
the Lake Region includes 15,500 square miles of water-surface. 

Lake Enare.—The large lake Enare, in Russian Lapland, has an 
area of about 550 square miles, and drains through the Pasvigelf into 
the Varanger Fjord. Its elevation is 394 feet above sea-level, and 
the maximum depth is 30 feet. 

Of the total area of the rocky table-land of Finland, one-tenth is 
covered by water. 

Lake Saima.—The largest lake in Finland is Lake Saima, with 
an area of 680 square miles. It lies at an altitude of 256 feet, and 
has a maximum depth of 187 feet. It is connected by the Saima 
Canal with the Gulf of Finland, and drains by the Vuokosen, which 
forms the Imatra Rapids—the grandest rapids in Europe,—to Lake 
Ladoga. 


The River Neva (see fig. 70) flows into the Gulf of Finland, and River Neva. 
carries off the drainage of the two largest lakes in Europe, Lakes 
Ladoga and Onega. 
Lake Ladoga is the largest sheet of fresh water in Europe; 
it is three times the size of Lake Vener, and thirty times that of 
the Lake of Geneva. Its length is 128 miles, its maximum breadth 
about 80 miles, and its area, including the islands, is 7015 square 
miles. Its maximum depth is 732 feet, its mean depth 300 feet, 
and it is estimated to contain 43,228,000 million cubic feet of 
water. In former times it formed one basin with the Gulf of 


082 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Finland; to-day it is 16 feet above sea-level. Schokalsky ' made 
temperature observations in the summers of 1897 and 1899, and 
reported that in 1897 the vertical distribution of temperature was 


White Sea 


SSH. 


RS Archangel 


ms 
Th? 


eo 
es 
* 
ve 
€5: 
Ft 
x 


St Petersburg 


Bartholomew Lain’ 


Fie. 70.—River Neva drainage basin. 


direct throughout, though a great difference was observable between 
the figures obtained in the north and south portions of the lake, the 
water of the northern deeper part being colder both at the surface 
and at fixed depths than in the southern part. ‘The warmest surface 


‘See “Le Lac de Ladoga au point de vue thermique,” VII. Internat. Geogr. 
Kongr., p. 263, Berlin, 1899. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 588 


water (in the south) had a temperature of 55°°6 Fahr. (13°1 C.), 
and the coldest bottom water (in the north) was 39° Fahr. (3°°9 C.). 
These temperatures seemed relatively low for the time of year, but 
still lower figures were recorded in 1899, especially in the north. 
In the latter year the vertical distribution of temperature was found 
to be inverse at all the deep-water stations, the difference from the 
distribution in 1897 being attributable to the unusually low tempera- 
ture which had prevailed throughout North-Western Russia during 
the spring and early summer of 1899. Although Ladoga certainly 
belongs to the category of temperate lakes, according to Forel’s classi- 
fication, it would appear to come very near the border-line separating 
temperate from polar lakes, in which the vertical distribution is 
always inverse. The maximum temperature gradient occurred at 
a much lower level in 1899 than in 1897, because of the generally 
higher temperature of the water in 1897. The lake is covered with 
a sheet of ice annually from December till April, and near Valaam 
Island masses of ice are sometimes piled up to a height of 75 feet, 
presenting from a distance the appearance of hills of weathered schist. 
Notwithstanding the freezing of the lake, its animal life is very 
abundant, including not only fishes but a species of seal, which may 
be seen in winter at the edge of the ice-cracks. 

Lake Onega lies 236 feet above sea-level, and has an area of 
3763 square miles. The length of the lake is 145 miles, the greatest 
depth 740 feet,t and the volume of water is estimated at 21,000,000 
million cubic feet. The River Svir connects it with Lake Ladoga, 
and a series of lakes and rivers affords communication with the 
White Sea. Its northern shores form numerous bays running to the 
north-west, and the water-system is prolonged towards Lapland by 
chains of small lakes and rivers following the same direction, separ- 
ated by lines of hills between 800 and 1000 feet high. The River 
Vitegra brings it into connection with the Volga system on one 
side and with the Mezen on the other. 

Three small lakes? lying to the south of Lake Onega, and 
communicating with that lake by the Megra River, belong to the 
class of intermittent lakes, and are connected with the ‘ Karst”? 


! Halbfass gives the maximum depth as 124 metres (407 feet), and the altitude 
as 174 metres (571 feet). 

2 See Geogr. Journ., vol. xxxi. p. 441, 1908. 

3 In Austria-Hungary a region along the east side of the Adriatic Sea, known 
as the Karst, is a tract of land underlain by white limestone nearly free from soil. 
Atmospheric agencies have eroded its surface so that sink-holes abound, and 
numerous short gullies, ravines, and valleys in the limestone terminate abruptly, 
discharging their waters into caves or subterranean tunnels, from which the 
streams may not emerge till they reach the coast. Topography similar to that of 
this region, and developed in the same way, is known as Karst topography. 


River Narova. 


084 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


topography of the limestone region south of Lake Onega. These 
lakes are connected by natural channels, but as the basins are not 
filled and emptied simultaneously, the direction of flow in the 
channels changes from time to time. The largest of the lakes, 
Shimozero, discharges its waters into an underground abyss some 14 
miles to the east, and is sometimes completely empty by November. 
The Dolgozero, at the other end of the system, is drained in a similar 
manner. ‘These lakes and others in the vicinity, differ from the Lake 
of Zirknitz+ (the classical example of an intermittent lake) in not 
being filled again by the same channel by which they are emptied, 
but by ordinary above-ground agencies, the process sometimes taking 
as long as seven years. 

Lake Ilmen, which also belongs to the Neva system, is really 
nothing more than a permanent inundation formed by a large number 
of rivers which meet at a point whence the outlet is not large enough 
to carry off the whole of the water. The lake lies at an altitude of 
107 feet, and has an area of 358 square miles, being 30 miles in length 
from east to west by 24 miles in maximum width, but the depth does 
not exceed 30 feet. . Its waters are generally muddy, as are also those 
of the River Volkov, its outflow, which is the chief affluent of Lake 
Ladoga. The principal streams meeting in Lake Ilmen are the 
Shelon, the Lovat, and the Msta, which brings it into communication 
with the Volga. 


Lake Peipus (or Chudskoye) is a triple lake, the northern part 
of which is Lake Peipus proper, the southern Lake Pskov, and the 
connecting channel, 40 miles long by 3 to 10 miles wide, Lake 
Teploye. The area of the whole lake to the end of Lake Pskov is 
1356 square miles,” and the area of the northern portion (Lake Peipus 
proper) is 1082 square miles. The maximum depth, which was 
found in Lake Teploye, is 90 feet, and the altitude is 97 feet above 
sea-level. It receives the Rivers Velikaya and Embakh, and its 
outlet is by the Narova to the Gulf of Finland. The area of Lake 
Peipus has been considerably increased in consequence of the drainage 
of the surrounding country having been conveyed into it more abund- 
antly, through the construction of 1200 miles of artificial cuttings. 


1 Lake Zirknitz is situated in the Karst region in Austria. For a number of 
seasons together the bed of the lake may remain quite dry and be used for cultiva- 
tion, while at other times it is occupied by waters teeming with fish. The under- 
ground outlets for the superficial water are sometimes comparatively empty, 
sometimes overflowing. In the former case the fissures communicating with these 
periodical lakes serve as channels to lead away the water ; in the latter they serve 
as vents to pour the water on the plain. 

2 Helmersen, cited by K. Peucker, “‘ Europiéische Seen nach Meereshohe, Grosse 
und Tiefe,” Geogr. Zeitschr., Bd. ii. p. 612, Leipzig, 1896. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 585 


Only two lakes of any importance are associated with the River River Danube. 
Danube, viz. Lakes Balaton and Ferté in Hungary, on the right 
bank of the river. , 

Lake Balaton (or Platten See) is about 50 miles in length, by 
5 miles in average breadth, and has an area of about 250 square miles, 
oscillating with the rainfall. According to Halbfass, the maximum 
depth is 36 feet, but its average depth is only 10 feet, and therefore 
the volume of water contained in it is relatively very small, viz. 
69,700 million cubic feet. It hes 344 feet above sea-level, and in 
some places on the south its shores are low and swampy, so that 
it has frequently been proposed to drain it, and an attempt has 
been made to reclaim its banks to some extent for cultivation. 
In consequence of its slight depth, the annual range of temperature 
in the lake is very great, the extreme being from 32° to about 
82° Fahr. (0° to 27°°8 C.). The water temperature follows the air 
temperature fairly closely, and sudden great changes in the latter, 
whether due to wind or the fall of rain, snow, etc., are immediately 
reflected in the former. The very marked narrowing of the lake at 
the peninsula of Tihany divides it into two separate basins, and 
uninodal seiches of each have been observed. ‘The principal seiche 
of the whole loch is the uninodal, and the depth being very slight 
relatively to the length, the period of this is very great—from ten 
to twelve hours—but the amplitude is relatively small compared 
with other great lakes. According to Cholnoky,’ mirages are pro- 
duced when the lowest strata of air are warmer than the upper, a 
condition fulfilled on the Balaton Lake chiefly in late autumn, when 
mirages are of almost daily occurrence and are observed in the 
morning. In these mirages, objects appear to be lifted up and to 
float in the air above the surface of the Jake; the images are 
duplicated by the reflection below. Its waters are slightly brackish, 
in consequence of the efflorescences of salt formed on the Tertiary 
strata in the neighbourhood of the lake, and also on account of 
evaporation being at times greater than precipitation: twice in the 
last fifty years, for a period of many months the lake has had no 
outflow. The outlet of the lake to the Danube is by the Sio and 
Sarviz Rivers. The longer axis of the lake is parallel to a line of 
local volcanic action, and Judd? concludes that it is a depression 
due to the settling down of surface rocks into a cavity emptied 
by the ejection of lava. On account of the shallowness of the 
lake, there is no pure plankton, the organisms which constitute 
the plankton in deeper lakes, though present, being mingled with 

1 Resultate der wissenschaftlichen Hrforschung des Plattensees, herausgegeben von 


der Plattensee Commission der Ung. Geogr. Gesellsch., Wien, 1897-1906. 
2 Geol. Mag., vol. iii. p. 6, 1876. 


586 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


numerous littoral and bottom forms. More than one thousand 
species of plants and animals are noted, the numbers being approxi- 
mately equal. 

Lake Ferto (or Neusiedler See), in the extreme west of Hungary, 
370 feet above sea-level, is so extremely shallow (maximum depth 
13 feet, mean depth not averaging 3 feet) that it sometimes evapor- 
ates completely in very dry years, as it did in 1865. It is refilled 
by the waters of the Danube when the river rises sufficiently high to 
force back the sluggish stream of the Hansdg, which communicates 
with Lake Ferté through the Hansdég swamp on the east, now for 
the most part under cultivation. The lake is 18 miles in length, 
by from 4 to 7 miles in breadth, and sometimes attains an area of 
130 square miles. 

Lake St Moritz, etc.—The River Inn, a tributary of the Danube 
rising in Switzerland, has a chain of lakes near its source, viz. Lake 
St Moritz, Lake Campfer, Lake Silva Plana, and Lake Sils, which 
have been referred to as typical illustrations of the lakes sometimes 
associated with river capture. The upper portion of the Engadine, 
the valley of the Inn, is of such a breadth as would appear to 
indicate a great river, the source of which must be miles away.! 
Instead of this there flows through the valley a small stream with a 
succession of lakes threaded on it. At Maloja the valley itself, 
still broad and deep, suddenly ends with a steep descent into the Val 
Bregaglia, through which the River Maira flows. The slope of the 
Val Bregaglia being much steeper than that of the Inn, the River 
Maira gradually cut its way back, and appropriated more and more 
of the territory which once belonged to the Inn. The Val Marozzo, 
now called the Upper Maira, and the Val Albigna were once 
tributaries of the original Upper Inn, but have been carried off into 
Italy by the victorious Maira. Hence the Upper Engadine is from 
the first a broad valley, because it represents part of the course of a 
stream which has lost its head-waters. Before this change the flow 
of water down the main valley was sufficient to carry off the materials 
brought down by the lateral tributaries, but, since the head-waters 
have been cut off and carried away into Italy, this is no longer the 
case; hence the lateral streams have built up dams across the valley, 
thus creating a chain of lakes. Johnson,' on the other hand, says 
there is reason to believe that the lakes occupy basins of glacial 
origin. ‘The three lakes Campfer, Silva Plana, and Sils formerly 
constituted a single body of water which was ultimately divided by 
the growth of deltas deposited by side streams, and Lake Sils is at 


1 Lubbock, Scenery of Switzerland, p. 453, London, 1896. 
2 PD. W. Johnson, “ Hanging Valleys,” Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc., vol. xli. p. 665, 
1909. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 587 


present in process of being divided into two parts in the same way. 
The tributary streams enter the main valley of the Inn at points well 
up on the valley sides, and their waters fall abruptly in cascades to 
the main stream below. Such “hanging” valleys are of common 
occurrence in Switzerland, and are regarded as a reliable indication of 
glacial erosion in the main valley.' 

In Transylvania many small lakes owe their salinity to the presence 
of rock-salt in the district, and may contain as much as 25 per cent. 
of common salt. In the Medve Lake,’ the largest of the group near 
Szovata, the area of which is 0:01 square mile, with a maximum depth 
of 34 metres (112 feet) and an average depth of 10 metres (33 feet), 
observations on the temperature gave the following results. At the 
surface, where there is a superficial layer of fresh water, the tempera- 
ture varies with that of the atmosphere, and in summer is 68° to 86° 
Fahr. (20° to 30° C.); below the surface the temperature rises gradu- 
ally, and at a depth of 1:32 metres (41 feet) reaches its maximum of 
133° Fahr. (56° C.). Below this it again falls, and is 86° Fahr. (30° C.) 
at a depth of 5°32 metres (174 feet). ‘The conversion of the solar rays 
into heat in the salt layer depends on the fresh-water layer on the 
surface.* ‘This phenomenon also occurs in other Hungarian salt lakes, 
as well as in Wallachia and elsewhere, and in the lagoons found on 
parts of the shore in Norway (see p. 580). 


Scutari Lake (or Skader), situated half in Montenegro and half in 
Albania, at an elevation of 20 feet above sea-level, drains into the 
Adriatic by the River Bojana, which enters the sea at the boundary- 


1 Davis, ‘Glacial Erosion in France, Switzerland, and Norway,” Proc. Boston 
Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xxix. p. 278, 1901; Davis reviews the previous writings on 
hanging valleys on pp. 311 et seq. 

2 See Scot. Geogr. Mag., vol. xviii. p. 317, 1902; vol. xx. p. 216, 1904. 

3 In this connection Professor Kaleczinsky (see ‘Ueber die ungarischen 
warmen und heissen Kochsalzseen als nattiriche Warme-Accumulatoren, sowie 
tiber die Herstellung von warmen Salzseen und Wirme-Accumulatoren,” Héldtani 
Kozliny, Bd. xxxi. p. 1 (sep.), 1902 ; “ Ueber die Akkumulation der Sonnenwiirme 
in verschiedenen Fliissigkeiten,” Math. u. naturw. Berichte aus Ungarn, Bd. xxi. 
p- 1 (sep.), 1904) conducted a series of observations on tubs sunk in the ground 
and filled with various saline solutions, each tub bearing a superficial layer of 
fresh water, while a tub of fresh water served as a control. In the latter it was 
found that the warmest layer of water was the superficial one, which never reached 
a higher temperature than 86° F, (30° C.). In all the other cases the conditions 
were the same as in the salt lakes, z.e. the highest temperature was never observed 
at the surface, but in the lower layers. Kaleczinsky believes that similar con- 
ditions prevailed in geological times, and that the layers of salt obtained in salt- 
mines form as it were a kind of geological thermometer. Thus he believes that 
the rings of anhydrite well known in salt-mines have been deposited in summer 
when the temperature of the water was high, while the deposits of rock-salt took 
place in winter when the temperature of the water was low. 


River Bojana. 


River Po. 


288 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


line between Montenegro and Turkey. The principal affluent is the 
Montenegrin river Moratcha, which enters the lake at the north- 
western end. ‘The lake is 25 miles long by 5 or 6 miles wide, and 
covers an area of 137 square miles. Close to the steep south- 
western margin are over a dozen deep holes, the maximum depth of 
144 feet being found in one of these situated near the village of 
Radus. ‘The mean depth is 16 feet, and the volume of water 
contained in the lake is estimated at about 60,000 million cubic feet.2 
Recently a portion of the stream of the Drin, which is formed by the _. 
junction of the Black Drin and the White Drin and flows out into 
the Adriatic not far south of the Bojana, has found its way into the 
Bojana channel; the result has been a rise in the level of Lake 
Scutari and the inundation of the adjacent lowlands. 

Lake Ochrida (or Okhrida), which occupies one of the plateaus 
of Eastern Albania, lies at an elevation of 2253 feet above sea-level, 
and is the chief source of the Drin. It is about 18 miles in length, 
from 4 to 74 miles in breadth, and covers an area of 105 square miles. 
The maximum depth is 942 feet, the mean depth 479 feet, and the 
volume of water is estimated at 1,391,000 million cubic feet.? 


The River Po and its tributaries drain the plain of Lombardy, a 
valley of subsidence at the base of the great arch of the Alps (see 
fig. 71). For ages the river has been occupied in filling up this 
great depression, and at Milan a boring was sunk 530 feet without 
reaching the bottom of the river deposits.? Such an accumulation 
would have required a longer period of time had not the river been 
assisted in its work by the large masses of loose debris which he at 
the lower end of each great valley opening on the plain of Lombardy, 
and from which stones, sand, and mud are washed down in time 
of flood, and scattered across the plains by the Po and its affluents. 
These masses represent the moraines shed from the ancient glaciers 
that filled the Alpine valleys to the brim in the glacial period and 
fed the waters of the Po. A remarkable phenomenon, that has led 
to much discussion, is that, while there are lakes in some of these 
valleys at the present day, in others there are none, and it is difficult 
to understand how eroded detritus could have been carried along the 
former type of valley and yet have left it, as in the case of that 
occupied by Lake Maggiore, 2000 feet below the level to which the 
plain beyond has been filled. Lyell* suggested that the valley of 


the Ticino, in which Maggiore lies, had been so elevated and depressed 


1 See Halbfass, op. cit., p. 206. 2 bed. 

3 Penck, cited by Lubbock, op. cit., p. 137. 

+ See Ramsay, “Sir Charles Lyell and the Glacial Theory of Lake Basins,” 
Phil. Mag., vol. xxix. p. 285, 1865. 


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CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 589 


290 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


by transverse folding as to interrupt the continuous slope of its water- 
line, with the result that the depression filled up and formed a lake. 
To this explanation, however, Ramsay made objection, and suggested 
a glacial origin as agreeing with the fact that all these lakes on the 
Italian slope of the Alps opening into the plain of the Po have 
strong moraines at their southern margins. Davis! at first admitted 
‘that both of these causes might be concerned, and considered that 
their relative importance could not be estimated. In a later paper,’ 
however, he stated he had come upon certain phenomena in the Alps 
and in Norway that demanded wholesale glacial erosion for their 
explanation. An examination of the district about the Lake of 
Lugano had not led to the discovery of any effects of warping and 
tilting, such as must of necessity be present if Lyell’s theory of the 
origin of the lakes be the correct one. On the other hand, the 
evidence of strong glacial erosion was very marked. 

Beginning at the west and taking these valleys in order, we have the 
Dora Baltea, which led a vast glacier down from Mont Blanc to the great 
moraines of Ivrea (from 1000 to 2000 feet in height), and yet is lakeless 
excepting for several small basins caught in the moraines; the Sesia, 
which is lakeless; the Toce with the Lake of Orta; the Ticino with 
Lake Maggiore and several small lakes, Comabbio, Varese, etc., between 
the morainal deposits ; the small valley of the Agno and Cassorate, of 
less size than many lakeless valleys, and yet occupied by the Lake of 
Lugano ; the Adda with the Lake of Como in its branching course, and 
Annone, Pusiano, and other lakes in its terminal moraine ; the Bremba 
and Serio, both lakeless; the Oglio with the Lake of Iseo and well- 
marked moraines ; the Chiese with the Lake of Idro; the Sarca with — 
the Lake of Garda, the largest of all and projecting farthest into the 
plain, with a great lobed moraine to enclose it. 

Lake of Orta lies 951 feet above sea-level, is 8 miles long by about 
5 miles in maximum breadth, and has an area of about 7 square miles. 
A subaqueous ridge divides it into two basins, of which the northern 
one is the deeper, attaining a maximum depth of 469 feet, the mean 
depth being 233 feet; the volume of water is estimated at 45,669 
million cubic feet. ‘The temperature of the bottom water never falls 
below 39°°2 Fahr. It differs from the other Italian lakes in having 
its outflow not in the natural line of the drainage, viz. to the south. 
but to the north. ‘This is due to the southern end being closed by a 
moraine. 

Lake Maggiore lies 636 feet above sea-level, and covers an area 


1 “ Qlassification of Lake Basins,” Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xxi. p. 358, 
1883. 


2 “Glacial Erosion in France, Switzerland, and Norway,” Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. 
Hast: Vole xxix ps2 faseloele 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 9591. 


of 82 square miles. The maximum depth is about 1220 feet, the 
mean depth 574 feet, and it is estimated to contain about 1,310,000 
million cubic feet of water. 

Lake of Varese lies 778 feet above eee: and covers an area 
of 6 square miles. The ae depth is 85 feet, the mean depth 
36 feet, and it is estimated to contain about 5722 million cubic feet 
of water. 

Lake of Lugano lies at an elevation of about 889 feet above sea- 
level, and covers an area of 19 square miles. It has a maximum 
depth of 945 feet, a mean depth of 427 feet, and is estimated to 
contain about 231,699 million cubic feet of water. 

Lake of Como lies at an elevation of about 653 feet above sea- 
level, the variation in the water-level amounting to as much as 16 feet, 
and covers an area of 56 square miles. It has a maximum depth of 
1345 feet, a mean depth of 513 feet, and is estimated to contain 
about 794,700 million cubic feet of water. A bottom temperature 
of 42°°8 Fahr. has been recorded. 

Lake of Iseo lies 610 feet above sea-level, and covers an area of 
23 square miles. The maximum depth is 823 feet, the mean depth 
403 feet, and it is estimated to contain about 268,000 million cubic 
feet of water. 

Lake of Garda ilies 213 feet above sea-level, and covers an area 
of 143 square miles. The maximum depth is 1124 feet, the mean 
depth 446 feet, and it is estimated to contain about 1,766,000 million 
cubic feet of water. 


‘The great rivers, the Rhine and the Rhone, have their origin 1n 
Switzerland, and the only important lakes drained by these rivers or 
their tributaries occur in that country (see fig. 72). The explanation 
of this fact les in the changes which Switzerland has undergone. 
The Swiss rivers are of very different ages, some being of comparatively 
recent origin, while others date back to very great antiquity, and parts 
of what is now considered a singie river differ in age and history. The 
whole drainage of Switzerland north of the Alps originally found its 
way by the Danube to the Black Sea, and only after the subsidence 
which separated the Vosges and the Black Forest did the waters of 
the Rhine flow northward. After that the waters of the Rhone still 
joined the Rhine, and ran over the plains of Germany to the North 
Sea, till finally the Rhone broke its way by Fort de PEcluse, and 
falling into the Saone flowed to the Mediterranean. Another general 
change in the river-system is due to the fact that the matsraned has 
retreated northward, because, the southern slope being much steeper 
than the northern slope, the Italian rivers have the greater power of 
erosion, and are gradually eating their way back. ‘The way in which 


Rivers Rhine 
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D092 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 5938 


this has led to the formation of lakes in the Upper Engadine has been 
already explained. In addition to these alterations in the river- 
system, recent changes of level are said to have diverted the courses of 
some of the rivers, and to have drowned parts of their valleys. The dams 
due to river-cones and glacial moraines have had the same effect. In 
general, the rivers follow the original folds of the strata, or cut across 
them at right angles, and in the latter case it is most probable that the 
river is older than the folds, and cut through them as they rose. 
Lakes may have existed there for a time, but as the ridges were cut 
down the lakes were then drained. ‘The valley of the Rhine above 
Martigny, and the valley of the Rhone above Chur, mark the sites 
of such temporary lakes. 

According to Heim, the Alps were formerly higher than they are 
at present, and the rivers cut out wide valleys at that time. Later, 
the Alps sunk as a whole from 200 to 500 metres (650 to 1640 feet), 
and by this sinking part of the valleys were drowned and lakes were 
formed. Proof of this smking is found in the old terraces of many of 
the rivers, which run in the opposite direction to the present course of 
the rivers, in the filling up of the principal valleys with gravel, and 
in a bending in the Molasse which can be followed along the whole 
northern border. ‘This view is supported by Aeppli and by Romer, 
and also by recent researches made in the Alpine border lakes by 
Dr E. Gogarten. On the other hand, Penck and Brickner? hold the 
theory that these lakes can be explained by glacial erosion, and that 
there is no evidence of subsidence. 

The Upper Rhine is generally stated to have its source in the 
small lakes, Siarra and Toma. 

Lake of Constance (or Bodensee) is the first large lake in its 
course, and lies at an elevation of about 1300 feet above sea-level. It 
has an area of 208 square miles, and is 40 miles in length ; the maximum 
depth is 827 feet, and the mean depth 295 feet. The volume of water 
is estimated at 1,711,000 million cubic feet. At its west end it is 
dammed up to a certain height by the deposits of the ancient Rhine 
glacier, but this would not account for more than, say, a quarter of 
its depth. Penck ® considers it a rock-basin due to changes in relative 
levels or to excavation by the glacier. 

Below the Lake of Constance the course of the Rhine gives 
indications of being comparatively recent, and is interrupted by 
bars of rock, one of these bars causing the magnificent fall of Schaff- 
hausen and regulating the height of the Lake of Constance, which 


1 Albert Heim, “Geologische Nachlese,” No. 1, ‘“‘Die Entstehung der alpinen 
Rand-Seen,” Vrerteljahrsschr. naturforsch. Ges. Zurich, vol. xxxix. p. 1 (sep.), 1894. 
2 Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter, vol. u. p. 537, Leipzig, 1909. 
3 Cited by Lubbock, op. czt., p. 414. 
38 


594 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


would have been much lower if the Rhine had been running in its 
former bed. 

The course of the Aar, which joins the Rhine on the left bank 
between Schaffhausen and Basle, is interrupted by rapids caused by 
the uplift of ridges across the course of the river. Below Innert- 
kirchen is a ridge of rock, above which it has been supposed the river 
once formed a lake in the depression known as “ Hasli-im-Grund.” 
There is no direct evidence of this, however, and the river may have 
formed the famous Aar gorge by cutting through the ridge as it rose. 
Below Meiringen the river flows through a broad, flat valley, with 
terraces on each side, which was evidently once much deeper, and 
formed part of the Lake of Brienz, but has gradually been filled up 
by the river. 

Lake of Brienz is 9 miles in length, by 2 miles in maximum 
breadth, and covers an area of 11 square miles. It lies 1857 feet 
above sea-level, has a maximum depth of 856 feet, a mean depth of 
577 feet, and is estimated to contain about 182,600 million cubic feet 
of water. The Lakes of Brienz and Thun were originally one, the 
level plain upon which Interlaken stands having been formed by the 
deposits of the River Liitschine, coming from Grindelwald on the 
south, and of the River Lombach, draining the valley of Habkern 
on the north. ‘To judge from the depth of the lake, these deposits 
must be at least 1000 feet in thickness.! 

The Aar follows a winding course on the plain of Interlaken, 
being first directed to the right by the cone of the Liitschine, and 
then to the left by that of the Lombach. The lower end of the Lake of 
Thun is dammed up in part by the deposits of the Simmen and the 
Kander, but the lower end of the valley has risen relatively. 

Lake of Thun lies 1837 feet above sea-level, and covers an 
area of about 18 square miles. The greatest depth is 712 feet, and 
the mean depth 443 feet. The volume of water contained in it is 
estimated at about 229,600 million cubic feet. 

The Thiele (Zihl) rises under the névé of Orbe in the valley of the 
Joux, in the Jura, and after flowing for some miles in an underground 
channel passes through the Lakes of Neuchatel and Bienne to join 
the Aar. The Jura range consists mainly of calcareous strata, often 
much fissured, so that the rain sinks into the ground and reappears 
after a longer or shorter course underground. ‘Thus the River Orbe 
commences in a closed valley. The upper part, or Vallée de Joux, is 
double, one branch being without any river, except a little streamlet 
which flows into the Lake of Ter. The southern valley is traversed 
by the Upper Orbe, which falls into the Lake of Joux, and its 
continuation, the Lake of Brenet. Neither of these lakes has any 

1 Lubbock, op. cit., p. 382. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 595 


open outlet, but the waters escape by an underground passage and 
reappear above Vallorbes, whence they flow to the Lake of Neuchatel. 

Lakes of Joux and Brenet together cover an area of 34 square 
miles, and lie at an elevation of 3307 feet above sea-level. The 
maximum depth is 112 feet, and the mean depth 59 feet. 

Many small lakes in the Jura Mountains occupy troughs formed by 
downfolded strata, and the Lake of Joux is marked at its north-east 
end by a strong cross fault. 

Lake of Neuchatel (or Neuenburger See) lies at an elevation 
of 1417 feet above sea-level, and covers an area of about 85 square 
miles. Its greatest depth is 505 feet, its mean depth 210 feet, and it 
is estimated to contain about 500,500 million cubic feet of water. It 
occupies a synclinal valley, as do also the Lakes of Brenet and Morat. 
It is surrounded by marshes, which used to cover about 50,000 acres, 
but a good deal of that area has now been drained. At one time the 
Lake of Neuchatel formed a single sheet of water with the Lake of 
Bienne, and extended from Orbe on the west to Soleure on the east. 
Guyot considers the Lake of Neuchatel the result of local depression.” 

Lake of Bienne (or Bieler See) lies at an elevation of 1417 feet 
above sea-level, and covers an area of 17 square miles. It has a 
maximum depth of 249 feet, a mean depth of 92 feet, and its volume 
is estimated at about 43,800 million cubic feet. 

Lake of Morat (or Murten See) lies about 1427 feet above sea- 
level, and covers an area of 10} square miles. Its maximum depth is 
157 feet, its mean depth 72 feet, and it is estimated to contain about 
21,200 million cubic feet of water. It drains into the Lake of 
Neuchatel by the River Broye. 

‘he River Suhr drains the Lake of Sempach, and joins the Aar 
below Aarau. The valley it occupies is out of all proportion to the 
size of the present river, which has excavated its channel entirely in 
glacial deposits. Hence this valley and others of a similar descrip- 
tion are attributed by Kaufmann? and Gremaud * entirely to glacial 
action. ‘The glacier which came down the valley of the Suhr is 
supposed by Kaufmann to have been obstructed by the hill of Wohlen, 
and the pressure of the ice caused by this obstacle may account for the 
depression now occupied by the Lake of Sempach, which is dammed 
by the moraine. 

Lake of Sempach lies about 1663 feet above sea-level, and 
covers an area of 53 square miles. It has a maximum depth of 285 feet, 


' See Sheet XI., Swiss Geol. Commission. 

2 Mém. Soc. Sct. Nat. Neuchatel, t. ui., No. 6, 1845, 

3 Bettr. 2. geol. K. d. Schw., xi., 1872. 

1 Gremaud, “ Quelques données sur les vallées primitives et les vallées d’érosion 
dans le canton de Fribourg,” Bull. Soc. Fribowrgeoise Sci. Nat., Ann.v.—vill. p. 25, 1888. 


996 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


a mean depth of 151 feet, and the volume of water contained in it is 
estimated at about 22,380 million cubic feet. 

The River Reuss joins the Aar not far from its junction with 
the Rhine, and drains the Lake of Lucerne. 

Lake of Lucerne (or Vierwaldstiitter See, or Lac de Quatre 
Cantons) lies 1433 feet above sea-level, is 44 square miles in area, has 
a maximum depth of 702 feet, and a mean depth of 341 feet. It is 
estimated to contain 417,447 million cubic feet of water. From an 
ancient delta of the Muotta, and remains of terraces, it would appear, 
says Du Pasquier,’ that the water once stood nearly 100 feet above 
its present level. It would then have been continuous with the Lake 
of Zug. Heim regards the lake as a complication of several river 
valleys which were “drowned” at the same time. It belongs to 
what he terms “ Rand-Seen,” 2e. lakes situated on the north and 
south borders of the Alps, such as the Lake of Geneva, Ziirich, etc., 
caused by a subsidence of the Alps. The old river-terraces of the 
Reuss can still be traced in places along the valley near Zug, but 
they slope in the reverse way to the valley. From this and other 
evidence it is concluded that there has been a relative elevation of 
the land. The natural course of the river (which ran originally by 
Schwyz, through the Lake of Lowerz and the Lake of Zug, rejoining 
its present course by the valley of the Lorze) was thus changed, and 
it was turned west till it joined the Aa. The foldings in the neigh- 
bourhood of Lucerne changed the combined streams into a branching 
lake. The bays of Alpnach and Kiissnach are a continuation of the 
valley of the Sarnen Aa, which forms the Lake of Sarnen. The 
peculiar shape of the Lake of Lucerne is thus accounted for :-—The 
stretch from Buochs to Brunnen is probably the old course of the 
Engelberger Aa, when it joined the ancient Reuss at Brunnen and 
continued with it by Schwyz and Zug; the bottom of the Bay of Uri, 
where the Reuss enters the lake, is nearly flat, its two sides being 
reflections one of the other, and it appears to be a river-valley—a part 
of the course of the Reuss. Between Kindlimord and Schwybbogen 
a moraine crosses the lake, rising to within 164 feet of the surface.” 

Lake of Zug has an area of about 15 square miles, a maximum 
depth of 649 feet, contains about 113,059 million cubic feet of water, 
and lies 1368 feet above sea-level. 

The River Linth, a tributary of the Aar, drains the Lake of 
Walen and the Lake of Ziirich, and under the name of Limmat flows 
into the Aar a little north of the junction with the Reuss. 

Lake of Walen is about 10 miles long, by 14 miles in maximum 
breadth; the area is’ about 9 square miles, and the maximum 


1 Bewtr. 2. geol. K. d. Schw., xxxi., 1891. 
 * Heim, Bevtr. z. geol. K. d. Schw., xxv., 1885. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 597 


depth is 495 feet, the mean depth being 338 feet, and the cubic 
contents about 87,947 million cubic feet. It les about 1378 feet 
above sea-level. ‘The shores on the south side slope steeply, and on 
the north side are almost perpendicular, the cliffs rising to a height 
of nearly 3000 feet. | 

Lake of Ztirich lies 1341 feet above sea-level, and is about 
26 miles long, by 3 miles in greatest width, the area being 34 square 
miles. ‘he maximum depth is 469 feet, the mean depth 135 feet, 
and the volume of water about 137,748 million cubic feet. It is said 
by some geologists to be a river-valley, the lower end of which has 
risen relatively and is dammed by a moraine. It was excavated by 
water in pre-glacial times, and subsequently occupied by the glacier, 
the lateral moraine of which forms the low range of hills to the 
west of the lake. Glacial deposits form the ridge which constitutes 
the lower lip of the lake, and the river has cut through the ridge to a 
depth of 36 feet, so that the lake must have formerly stood at that 
height above its present level, and must have been joined to the Lake 
of Walen, from which it is separated only by a flat plain. 

Lubbock! says that the valley of the Limmat was once occupied 
by the Rhine, and perhaps originally by the Sihl ; the Linth, or Upper 
Limmat, then flowed through what is known as the Glatthal, until 
the great Rhine glacier, pressing westwards, drove it into the valley 
occupied by the Sihl, and, subsequently retreating, left the Glatthal a 
deserted valley, now traversed only by the little stream of the Glatt. 

The valley of the Rhone, from the glacier where it takes its rise 
to the Lake of Geneva, forms the Canton of Valais, and that part of 
the valley lying between the gorge of St Maurice and Villeneuve was 
evidently at one time part of the Lake of Geneva, and would be so 
still if it were not for the deposits brought down by the Rhone. At 
and round Sierre are the remains of one of the most gigantic rock- 
falls in Switzerland, which must have dammed up the valley for a 
long time, but is now completely cut through both by the Rhone and 
by several tributary streams. 'The surface is very irregular, and has 
many small lakes in the depressions, the largest of which, a little 
north of Geronde, is about five-sixths of a mile long, by about a 
quarter of a mile broad. It lies 10 feet below the level of the Rhone, 
and has a depth of about 32 feet. 

Lake of Geneva (or Genfer See, or Lac Léman) is the largest 
lake in Switzerland, and acts as a filter and regulator of the 
river, which enters with remarkably turbid waters and leaves as a 
clear stream. In times of flood the level of the lake gradually rises, 
and the fluctuations of the lower course of the river are thus kept 
within moderate bounds by the regulating action of the lake. It is 

YOp:.cit., Pool: 


Iceland. 


ASIA, 


298 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


45 miles in length, by nearly 10 miles in breadth; and has an area of 
225 square miles. The greatest depth (about midway between 
Lausanne and Evian) is 1015 feet, and as the surface lies 1200 feet 
above sea-level, the bottom is less than 200 feet above sea-level. More- 
over, the lake-floor is covered by deposits to an unknown depth, so 
that originally it was probably much below sea-level. The material 
brought down by the river has not only raised the bottom of the 
lake, but has diminished its area by filling it up in part; formerly it 
extended at least to Bex, north of St Maurice. The mean depth of 
the lake is 506 feet, and the volume of water contained in it is 
estimated at about 3,175,000 million cubie feet. This lake has been 
studied systematically for many years, and forms the subject of a 
classic memoir by Forel.!_ Most of the promontories round the lake 
are river-cones, which are specially marked between Vevey and 
Villeneuve, and at the mouth of the River Drance, near Thonon, 
there is a typical delta. 'The eastern end of the lake is known as the 
Haut Lac, the centre as the Grand Lac, and the narrower western 
end as the Petit Lac. The Haut Lac is a transverse river-valley 
cut out by the Rhone, and subsequently, owing to a change of level, 
partly filled up again; the Petit Lac is the river-valley of the Arve. 
These two rivers met the River Drance opposite Morges, and the 
combined stream ran north to the Lake of Neuchatel. The elevation 
of the land then dammed back the water, giving rise to the Lake of 
Geneva, and lastly the cutting of the gorge at Fort de ?Ecluse gave 
the lake its present exit to the west, and gradually lowered its level. 


Lake Thingvallavatn, in the south-west of Iceland, is the largest 
and best-known lake. It covers an area of 40 square miles, and 
has a depth of 364 feet. It derives its water chiefly from the ice-field 
of Lang-Jékull, though one small stream, the Oxara, runs through 
it. The lake is said to be due to earth-movements, as its south- 
western shore is part of a long fault scarp. 

Lake Thonsvatn, the second largest lake on the island, with an 
area of 38 square miles, occupies a basin formed by subsidence in an 
area of volcanic tuffs. 

Lake Hoitarvatn is filled with fragments of ice from two glaciers 
which extend into the water.? 


All the large northern Asiatic rivers take their origin in the 
marshes and lakes scattered over the surface of the plateaus which 
occupy the centre of Asia.2 It seems probable that the water which 

1 Le Léman: Monographie limnologique, 3 vols., Lausanne, 1892-1904. 
2 Bisiker, Across Iceland, London, 1902. 
3 See p. 526. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 599 


accumulated there in a past epoch, and ultimately found its way;to 
the ocean in a north-westerly direction as the rivers Yenisei, Selenga, 
Vitim, etc., formed first a succession of large lakes along the inner 
base of the range bordering the plateaus, traces of which are still 
seen in Kosso-gol and Lakes Shaksha and Bahunt. ‘The overflowing 
streams from these lakes cut their way through the range and formed 
another series of lakes on the outer side. ‘These in turn overflowed, 
and the waters.subsequently found their way to the sea. 


Lake Telezkoie (or Altyn Kol) was surveyed in the summer of River Obi. 


1901 by an expedition under Ignatov.!| The lake lies in a narrow 
valley at an elevation of 1700 feet above the sea, has a length of 48 
miles, with a breadth of 33 miles, the widest part being in the south, 
and covers an area of about 880 square miles. ‘The main portion of 
the lake runs north and south, the Chulishman River entering at the 
southern end, while the Biya, which makes its exit at the north-west 
end, joins the Katun to form the Obi. ‘Tectonic causes have evidently 
contributed to the origin of the lake. The result of 2500 soundings 
is to show that it is shallow in its northern section, but reaches 
a depth of about 1017 feet in the south. There are two deep basins, 
separated by a submerged ridge, over which the depth is 870 feet. In 
the middle of June 1901, the surface temperature was 39° Fahr. 
(3°°9 C.), and the temperature of the lower layers 373° Fahr. (3°71 C.), 
while the temperature of the inflowing streams was 48° to 57° Fahr. 
(8°°9 to 13°-9 C.). About the middle of July the surface temperature 
was 534° to 61° Fahr. (12° to 16°°1 C.). The shallow portion freezes 
over in November; the deep southern portion is rarely frozen over— 
perhaps once in seven years. 

Zaisan Lake.—The great tributary of the Obi, the Irtish, gathers 
its head streams in the Zaisan Lake, 80 square miles in area, lying 
at an elevation of 1350 feet in a valley of the Altai. 


Lake Baikal.—The largest lake of this system is Lake Baikal, a 
deep, long trough in the crystalline mountains, drained by the Angara, 
a tributary of the Yenisei. Different authorities give varying figures 
for the dimensions of the lake, but those of Schokalsky? are given 
here as representing the most recent survey. The length is over 370 
miles, the breadth over 50 miles, and the area is about 11,580 square 
miles ; the altitude of the surface is 1588 feet above sea-level, and the 
bottom of the lake is 3825 feet below sea-level, the maximum depth 
being 5413 feet—said to be the greatest depth in any lake. The 


1 See Globus, Bd. lxxxi. p. 34, 1902. 
2 Schokalsky and Schmidt, Hxplorations scientifiques des Mers et des Haux douces 
de V Empire russe (Section Scient., Exp. Maritime Intern., Bordeaux, 1907). 


River Yenisel. 


600 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


lake-basin at one-third of its entire length from the south-west end 
is divided into two parts by a submerged ridge, covered by not more 
than 942 feet of water. Near the shore are considerable areas where 
the water has a depth of only 120 feet; the largest of these areas 
occur off the mouth of the Selengé, which brings down so much 
sediment as to form an immense alluvial cone, the Chivirkulskaya 
Bay, the delta of the Upper Angard and the Little Sea; yet only 
8 per cent. of the lake-floor is covered by less than 30 fathoms 
(180 feet) of water. Except off the deltas and the small Ushkanii 
Islands (near Svyatoi Nos Peninsula) the 100-fathoms line runs very 
near to the shore, especially along the north-western coast. Svyatoi 
Nos (Holy Cape) is a large peninsula protruding from the eastern 
shore of the lake opposite to the island of Olkhon, about midway 
between the northern and southern ends. ‘The extreme northern end 
of the peninsula presents a high, wooded, almost vertical ridge with a 
craggy summit, from which flows a liquid called “ Imusha” by the 
Tungus, natives of the district. According to Georgi,' it is a kind of 
mineral oil (vitroleum unctuosum): others believe it to be produced 
by the decomposition of the excreta of cormorants, herons, sea-gulls, 
and other birds, which come to the island in infinite numbers, mainly 
during their migration. “Springs containing an oily liquid very much 
like naphtha have been discovered at the bottom of the Baikal opposite 
to the mouth of the River Tirka. Floating wax, or “ bikerit,” used 
by the inhabitants as a medicine for rheumatism and scurvy, is got on 
the surface at this part. It burns very quickly with a bright flame, 
and leaves much soot. This substance was subjected by Shamérin 
in Irkutsk to analysis by dry distillation, and volatilised at 140° C. ; 
it contained 8°44 per cent. of liquid distillate (burning oil) and 61°17 
per cent. of solids (paraffin of the best quality). 

The numerous rocky fragments torn from the mainland found all 
round the lake, the islands lying in close proximity to the shore and 
retaining traces of their former identity with the surrounding 
mountains, and the great depth of water near the cliffs rising above 
its surface, all testify to the violent origin of the lake. Georgi? 
believes that the area occupied by it is the continuation of the valley 
of the Angaré, and that the basin of the lake was formed by a 
sinking produced by a violent earthquake. 

Kropotkin® considers Lake Baikal a “twin lake,” the north end 
of the southern basin being continued by the valley of the River 
Barguzin, and the south end of the northern basin lying behind the 


1 Guide to Great Siberian Ratlway, p. 330, St Petersburg, 1900. 

2 [hid., p. 331. 

3 Cited by Suess, Das Antlitz der Erde (English translation, vol. ii. p. 53, 
Oxford, 1908). 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 601 


island of Olkhon. He also says that the position of the River Selenga, 
which enters the lake at right angles on the eastern shore, and that 
of the river Angara, which leaves Lake Baikal, also at right angles, on 
the western shore, seem to indicate that they have once been parts of 
a single stream which was cut in two by the formation of the lake. 

Chérsky ? reckons 336 tributaries to the lake, the most important 
of which are the Upper Angara, the Selenga (which descends from 
the basin of Lake Kosso-gol), the Barguzin, and others; the only 
visible outlet is by the Lower Angarda, a tributary of the Yenisel. 

The water of the lake is clear and transparent, so that the bottom 
can be seen at a depth of 8 fathoms. The hydrography of Lake 
Baikal was studied by a commission under Drizhenko. Previously 
the lake had been regarded as one approaching very nearly the polar 
type, because observations at deep places were almost lacking. 
According to Vosnessensky,? director of the meteorological and 
magnetic observatory of Irkutsk, it ought to be relegated to the 
category of lakes of the temperate type. Inverse stratification exists 
only during the cold period of the year (December to June); in 
summer (June to December) it is direct. At the beginning of the 
months of December and of June the thermal layers become uniform, 
and the temperature from the surface to the bottom hardly varies, 
remaining very near the temperature of maximum density. All 
these changes occur only in the layer from 0 to 1000 feet; deeper 
than that the temperature remains constant. In the superficial 
layer from 0 to 50 feet the influence of different factors on the 
vertical distribution of temperature is apparent—depth, nearness to 
the shore and to the mouths of great rivers. In the deeper layer, 
from 50 to about 1000 feet, the temperature is very uniformly 
distributed over all the area of the lake. 

Owing to the sudden changes of wind, to the fogs, and to the 
want of protected bays, navigation on Lake Baikal is difficult. From 
the end of May to the beginning of July a north-east wind with the 
local name of “ Barguzin” blows on the southern part of the lake, and 
from August there is the “ Kultak” coming also from the north-east. 
The strongest winds are called “Sorma,” and blow from the north- 
west, producing short but high waves, which sometimes rise to the 
height of 4 feet. During storms, which occur frequently but are of 
short duration, the waves of the Baikal rise to 6 or 7 feet. In June 
and July the Baikal is almost calm, and during this lull numerous 
aquatic plants float on the surface of the water. The lake begins 
to freeze in November, but it is never frost-bound before the middle 


1 Gucde to Great Siberian Railway, p. 331. 
2 See Schokalsky and Schmidt, Sur les Explorations scientifiques des Mers et des 
Eaux douces de? Hmptre russe, p. 48, 1907. 


602 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


of December or the beginning of January. It remains bound for 
a period of four to four and a half months, the ice-cover being 
sometimes 94 feet thick. Wide cracks in the ice appear at intervals, 
and on the broken sheets coming together again the ice is piled up in 
heaps, called “ toros.” ‘These crevasses, which have a breadth of from 
3 to 6 feet, or more, are sometimes about half a mile long, and form 
a serious impediment to communication. ‘Sledge traffic lasts for three 
months, but at the end of April the ice melts near the shore and 
softens. ‘The breaking of the ice-surface, as in the Alpine glaciers, is 
accompanied by a loud crash, recalling an explosion, followed by a 
rumbling noise. The crack is instantly filled with water to the 
level of the ice-surface, forming a kind of river. In eight to four- 
teen days it freezes again, and a new crack appears at another place. 
The ice melts slowly, the process lasting nearly two months. 

The fauna of Lake Baikal bears a close resemblance to the marine 
fauna,’ but on account of the great distance of the glacial Arctic Ocean 
and of the Pacific Ocean, it is difficult to suppose that the fauna of 
the lake had any connection whatever with the oceanic fauna, and 
besides its waters are quite fresh. The German geographer, Peschel,? 
holds that Lake Baikal was in time past a gulf of the glacial Arctic 
Ocean, which in the Tertiary epoch probably covered the whole of 
Eastern Siberia. The German geologist, Neumayer? sustains this 
opinion, according to which Lake Baikal is a relict lake. Chersky 
refutes this, and says that the Arctic Ocean did not extend so far. 
Hoernes, on the other hand, points out the resemblance of the 
molluscs of the family Hydrobiide to the fossil shells supposed to 
have been derived from the great inland sea, Sarmate, which stretched 
from Graz and Kraina to the mountains of Thian Shan, and 
covered almost all Central Russia in Miocene and Tertiary times.* A 
third view is that of Androussoff, according to which the great depth 
of Lake Baikal, and the similarity of its external conditions to 
those of the sea, might enable the fresh-water crustacea to form 
original species resembling marine forms. These are, of course, only 
hypotheses, but the fauna of the lake is very interesting® from the 
theoretical point of view, and merits further study. 

A most interesting and little-known fish, characteristic of the 


1 See Schokalsky and Schmidt, op. cvt., p. 50. 

4° Tord. 3 Tbid. 

4 Bogdanovich (Works of the Tibet Expedition, 1889-90, vol. iii. p. 60) says that 
the fossils from the mountains near Kashgar, described by Stoliczka. as Triassic 
and taken as confirming the supposition of the existence of the Sarmate Sea in 
Mesozoic times, were in reality Devonian. There appears to be no trace of either 
a Mesozoic or a Tertiary sea in that area, and it may be assumed that Centrai 
Russia has not been under the sea since Paleozoic times. 

5 See p. 359. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 603 


Baikal, is the Dracunculus (Comephorus baicalensis), in which the 
head occupies a third of its entire length; the eyes are uncommonly 
large and protruding ; from the gills to the tail, fins are attached on 
each side. ‘This fish occurs in the deepest parts of the lake; it is 
said no one ever saw a living specimen. ‘The lake abounds in 
crustaceans and gasteropods. There are four kinds of sponges 
of a dark emerald colour, containing much chlorophyli.!| The seal 
(Phoca baicalensis) is called “* nerpa” by the local inhabitants, and is 
killed during the whole summer. 

Lake Kosso-gol.—One of the tributaries of the Selenga River is 
the Eke-gol, which drains Lake Kosso-gol, in the mountains south- 
- west of Irkutsk. This lake is 83 miles long by about 25 miles 
broad, with an area of about 1300 square miles, and lies about 
5470 feet above sea-level. The maximum depth, as shown by 
soundings taken by Peretolchin,? is 676 feet, the mean depth about 
500 feet. The bottom of the lake-basin is fairly level, and its 
sides steep. In August 1897 the surface temperature was 59°:2 
Fahr. (15°:1 C.) in the northern part of the lake, in August 1899 
544° Fahr. (12°°5 C.) in the centre (near Dola-Koi Island), and 
in July 1900 46° Fahr. (7°°8 C.) in the south. The temperature 
at 33 feet was 44°6 Fahr. (7°°0 C.) in 1897 and 43° Fahr. 
(6°"1 C.) in 1900; at 300 feet, about 382° Fahr. (3°°6 C.) in 1899 
and 1900. In the cold summer of 1902 the surface temperature 
was only 41° Fahr. (5° C.) near Dola-Koi. Kosso-gol belongs to 
Forel’s temperate type of lake, é.¢. the temperature in summer is 
above that of maximum density, in winter below it. The lake freezes 
at the beginning of December, and becomes free from ice in June or 
July ; the thickness of the ice is from 3 to 5 feet. The air tempera- 
ture is low on the shores, daily means above 55° Fahr. (12°8 C.) not 
being recorded until the end of July. The transparency of the water 
is very remarkable, the limit of visibility being 80 feet. 


Lakes Tung-ting and Poyang are expansions of the mouths of River Yang-ts 

the two chief southern tributaries of the Yang-tse Kiang. me 
Tung-ting Lake, in the province of Hoo-nan, is the largest lake in 

China. It is about 75 miles in length, from 20 to 87 miles in breadth, 

and about 1930 square miles in area, but varies much with the 

seasons. In ancient times it was called the Lake of the Nine Rivers, 

from the fact that nine rivers flowed into it. During winter and 

spring the water is so low that shallow parts become islands; 

but in summer, owing to the rise in the waters of the Yang-tse 

Kiang, to which it drains, the whole lake-basin is flooded. The 


1 Guide to Great Siberian Railway, p. 333. 
2 Petermann’s Mitt., Bd. 1., p. 152, 1904. 


River 
Hoang-ho. 


India. 


Siam. 


604 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


lake receives the waters of many rivers, the principal being the 
Siang-Kiang. 

Poyang Lake.—Another large lake, 70 miles in length by 40 
miles in greatest breadth, with an area of about 1640 square miles, 
connected with the Yang-tse Kiang river basin is Poyang, which is 
traversed by the River Kan-Kaang. This lake, which drains nearly 
all the province of Kiang-si, is subject to great fluctuations in size 
and depth, and acts as a regulator of the Yang-tse Kiang. 

Lake Tien-Chi (or Kunming), in the province of Yun-nan, is 
about 40 miles long, and is also connected with the Yang-tse Kiang 
by the Poo-to River. 


Oring-nor and Jaring-nor are the names given to the lakes of 
the Upper Hoang-ho by most Mongols, but the Russians have called 
them Lake Russian and Lake Expedition.t Both are fresh-water 
basins, 13,900 feet above sea-level, separated from each other by 
a hilly isthmus nearly 7 miles broad. Oring-nor, the eastern lake, 
is about 80 miles in circumference, and Jaring-nor about 66 miles. 
The latter was not sounded, but appears to be shallow from the fact 
that wild yaks were seen wading across it; the former, according to 
measurements taken by Laduigin along its longer axis, was 105 feet 
deep at a distance of about 7 miles from the place where the Upper 
Hoang-Ho, or Yellow River of Eastern Tibet, flows out from it.. On 
23rd June 1900, the surface temperature of Oring-nor was 47°°7 Fahr. 
(8°°7 C.) to 53°°8 Fahr. (12°:1 C.), and the bottom temperature 46°°0 
Fahr. (7°°8 C.) to 46°°8 Fahr. (8°:2 C.). 


Kolar Lake, a fresh-water lake in the Madras Presidency of India, 
midway between the deltas of the Rivers Kistna and Godavari, drains 
east into the Bay of Bengal. It abounds in water-fowl, and at dry 
seasons traces of ancient villages are perceptible in its bed. ‘The 
area of the lake in the monsoon extends to more than 100 square 
miles, but it is becoming greatly reduced by reclamation and 
embankments. 


Tonle (or Tale) Sap (literally “inland lake”), a large lake in the 
north-west of Cambodia, serves as a reservoir for the surplus waters of 
the Mekong River, and consequently varies greatly in size and depth 
according to the season. During the dry season it is drained south- 
east by a branch of the Mekong, and has a length of 70 miles and 
a depth of from 2 to 4 feet; during the summer monsoon it is 
fed by the same branch, and increases in length to 120 miles, with a 


1 Kozloff, “Through Eastern Tibet and Kam,” Geogr. Journ., vol. xxx1. p. 529, 
1908. 


a 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 605 


depth in places of 50 feet. It is also fed by streams from the Phnom 
Dangrik range to the north and from the west. It consists of two 
basins divided by narrows; the north-western being called Caman 
Dai, and the south-eastern Caman Tien. Fishing is carried on to a 
great extent in its waters during the season of low water. 


Toba Lake.—In the mountainous regions of Sumatra are numer- Sumatra. 


ous lakes, much the largest of which is Lake Toba, lying at an 
altitude of between 2500 and 3000 feet above sea-level. It trends 
in a north-west and south-east direction, and is about 50 miles in 
length by about 16 miles in average breadth, with an area of about 
800 square miles. The mountains surrounding the lake are high, with 
very steep slopes, and the small streams running from them in short, 
rapid courses are the only visible affluents. The outflow is by one of 
the head-streams of the Assahan River, which flows to the Malacca 
Strait. The lake is divided into two basins by a large island, the 
water between it and the western shore being so shallow that it is 
possible to ford it on foot at times of low water.' 


The lakes of Eastern Africa belong to two types, the one circular 
in shape, with shelving shores, like the Victoria Nyanza, the other 
long, narrow, and fiord-like, lying between high, precipitous cliffs, like 
Lake Tanganyika. The latter type occurs on two lines of depression 
passing one on either side of the Victoria Nyanza and meeting at 
Basso Narok (Lake Rudolf), thence continuing northward to the Red 
Sea as a long strip of low land, in places below the level of the sea, 
with many lakes and old lake-basins occurring at intervals. At the 
northern end of the Red Sea the Gulf of Akaba leads to a valley 
with the same structure, and thence to the plains of Northern Syria. 
The eastern and western portions of this long depression are to some 
extent linked together by a subsidiary valley lying farther to the 
east, which contains Lake Rukwa and enlarges towards the south to 
form the bed of Nyasa. Suess considers that once the plateaus which 
now form scarps on either side of the depression were continuous ; 
volcanic action left dominant lines of weakness running almost 
parallel from north to south, and subsequently faulting along these 
lines allowed the block of material between to subside, leaving a 
great open rift valley with almost vertical sides. 

Though Suess has many followers in his conception of the forma- 
tion of what has been termed the “Graben” or Great Rift Valley, 
Moore, who visited the region in 1896 and 1899, does not share his 
views, but regards the depression as a consequence of the folding due 


1 See J. von Brenner, ‘‘Besuch bei den Kannibalen Sumatras,”’ Wiirzburg, 
1894 (reviewed by Baron A. von Hiigel, Geogr. Journ., vol. vii., p. 75, 1896). 


AFRICA. 


River Nile. 


606 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


to lateral pressure, which has also given rise to the great central 
ridge running from the mountains of Abyssinia and those flanking 
the Red Sea in the north to the continuation of these same ridges in 
the shape of the Drakensberg Mountains in the extreme south. 

The lakes on the line west of the Victoria Nyanza—Tanganyika, 
Kivu, Edward, and Albert—drain to the Congo or the Nile, but 
those on the east and those in the depression north of Lake Rudolf 
have no outlet to the sea. Properly speaking, the latter should have 
been referred to along with the lakes of the inland drainage areas of 
Northern Africa; but as they lie in one of the branches of this 
gigantic valley system, they are described after the lakes of the Nile, 
the Congo, and the Zambesi (see p. 618). These lakes were explored 
in 1893 by J. S. Gregory." 

Apart from the seasonal variations in level, most of the lakes 
of East Africa show periodic fluctuations, while some have supposed 
that a progressive desiccation of the whole region is traceable, 
tending to the ultimate disappearance of the lakes. Such a 
drying-up has no doubt been in progress during long geological 
ages, but is probably of no practical importance at the present time. 
The periodic fluctuations in the level of Lake Tanganyika are such 
that its outflow appears to be intermittent. After rising steadily 
for some years after 1871, a fall seems to have set in about 1879, 
which before the end of the century had carried the lake back within 
its natural bed. Within the same time the neighbouring Lake 
Rukwa has in great part dried up. Others of the East African lakes 
have on the contrary risen in level, Nyasa having been unusually high 
in 1896, and Rudolf in 1896-98 ; so that, if the fluctuations are due 
to variations of rainfall, these do not affect the whole lake-region 
simultaneously in the same direction. In the case of Victoria Nyanza, 
a variation to the extent of 5 feet has been thought to recur in periods 
of eighteen to twenty-five years. Since 1896 records of the seasonal 
variations have been kept at stations north of the lake, the maximum 
in the year having been so far about 15 inches. 


The Nile is a good example of an old river system (see fig. 73), 
the basin of which has been subjected to various earth-movements, 
and now, partly as a result of these, partly in consequence of the 
geological structure of the country through which it flows, presents 
the somewhat unusual spectacle of a river with two plain tracts at 
two very distant points and levels in its course. ‘The valleys of the 
Bahr-el-Jebel and White Nile form the upper plain tract, and the valley 
of Egypt the lower. ‘The latter is simply a cleft in the desert plateau, 
and is regarded as having been determined in the first instance by 

1 See The Great Rift Valley, London, 1896. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 607 


MEDITERRANEAN 


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608 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


fractures of the earth’s crust, which caused a strip of country from 
about Edfu, in lat. 25° N., to Cairo, in lat. 30° N., to be depressed, 
leaving the plateau on either side standing high above it, just as the 
Red Sea and the Gulfs of Suez and Akaba are supposed to have 
been formed probably about the same epoch. Into this depressed 
area the drainage of the southern part of the basin finally flowed, 
and there was laid down during a long period the bed of alluvial 
deposit from 33 to 60 feet (10 to 18 metres) in thickness, through 
which the river runs to-day. ‘The valley of Egypt is therefore the 
normal plain tract of the ancient river, and it is the portion inter- 
vening between that and the White Nile which gives indications of 
having renewed its youth. 

The Nile rises in Victoria Nyanza, which occupies a shallow 
depression 26,248 square miles in extent on the plateau of the 
equatorial lakes, a region lying at an average elevation of from 4000 
to 5000 feet above sea-level. ‘That the earth-movements on the 
surface of the plateau are comparatively recent is shown by the 
moderate amount of weathering which has taken place, and by the 
incomplete development of the drainage system. As yet the rivers 
have not had time to deposit and erode sufficiently to give a regular 
grade to their beds, so that marshes and water-logged depressions 
still alternate with reaches in which the fall is considerable and the 
flow therefore rapid. ‘The Victoria Nile, issuing from Victoria Nyanza, 
flows over the Ripon Falls, pours down 60 miles of rapids, to the 
still waters of Lake Choga. At Foweira 50 miles of rapids begin, 
ending at the Murchison Falls, 120 feet high; immediately beyond 
the material eroded from the rocky bed and brought in by tributary 
streams is forming extensive mud-flats where the Victoria Nile enters 
Lake Albert. 

Victoria Nyanza.—The surface of Victoria Nyanza is 3720 feet 
above sea-level ;1 on its north side the land-surface descends gradually 
to Lakes Choga and Kwania, which le at an altitude of about 
3500 feet, and from there to Albert Nyanza, 2138 feet above sea-level. 
Victoria Nyanza, which has roughly the form of a parallelogram, being 
about 200 miles in length by 130 in average breadth, with an area of 
26,000 square miles, is outlined by earth-movements, and there is 
definite evidence? furnished by the comparative readings of the lake- 

1 The heights given for the lakes dealt with are the trigonometrical heights 
taken from a paper by Capt. T. H. Behrens, R.E., on “The most Reliable Values 
of the Heights of the Central African Lakes and Mountains,” Geogr. Journ., 
vol. xxix. p. 307, 1907; those for Victoria and Albert Nyanzas are from a 
subsequent letter from Capt. Behrens published in the Geogr. Journ., vol. xxx. 


p. 219, 1907. 
2 See H. G. Lyons, Phystography of the River Nile and its Basin, pp. 18, 48, 
Cairo, 1906. Lyons’ conclusion is questioned by Craig (Cazro Sct. Journ., April 1909). 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 609 


gauges of a slight intermittent fall of the land during the period from 
1897 to 1906, amounting in all to about 23 feet. The proximity of the 
watershed to the lake (the head-waters of the streams flowing north- 
wards to the Victoria Nile near Lake Choga are distant only from 
16 to 20 miles from the lake shores) suggests the upheaval of a block 
along an approximately east-and-west axis, which cut off the drainage 
lying to the south, and so formed the present lake in the low-lying 
area between the more elevated ground east and west of it. he 
waters of the lake are in most parts shallow, the maximum depth 
being only about 240 feet. 

Owing to the wide expanse of marsh and shallow lake which 
intervenes between the upper and lower portions of the Victoria Nile, 
the fluctuations in the level of Victoria Nyanza have no effect on the 
volume of water passing Foweira. ‘These variations in level are 
divided by Lyons into several classes.1_ The first class includes those 
due to climatic changes, which affect the lake over long periods, and of 
which there is much evidence round Victoria Nyanza. Scott Elliot ” 
attributes the flat alluvial plains which fill the valleys above the 
present lake-level to the detritus brought down by the tributary 
streams and deposited in the still waters of the lake. The second class 
includes the oscillations due to variations in meteorological conditions 
having a comparatively short period, such as that of about thirty- 
five years detected by Briickner,* in which a period of high levels is 
followed by a period of lower levels. Sieger* gives a table of the 
variations in level of the Central African lakes for different periods. 
Generally speaking, 1850 to 1878 would seem to have been a wet 
period, and 1879 to 1886 a dry one, for the whole of Africa; but 
from what the gauge readings on Victoria Nyanza teach, it is clear 
that lakes where evaporation is the main controlling factor, and the 
volume discharged is comparatively small, may vary considerably in 
level without any marked change in the average rainfall, since the 
lake-level responds quickly to any temporary increase or decrease of 
supply. The third class includes the annual oscillations which are 
due, in the case of Victoria Nyanza, to April and November rains. 
The fourth class includes the daily oscillations caused by the alterna- 
tion of land and sea breezes, much more noticeable in landlocked 
gulfs like Kavirondo (Kisumu) than in more open situations, as at 
Entebbe. ‘The fifth class includes seiches, of which no precise study 
has yet been made. 


Lake Choga (or Kyoga), 3396 feet above sea-level, is a shallow 


WOpwcit.. p. a0. 

2 See A Naturalist in Mid-Africa, p. 40, London, 1896. 

3 Klimaschwankungen sett 1700, Vienna, 1890 ; see also p. 528. 

4 Bericht XIII. Vereins-Jahr (1887) Verein Geogr. Univ, Wren. 
3s 


610 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


sheet of water of irregular outline, with low marshy shores, ranging 
in depth from 13 to 30 feet. It extends about 50 miles in an 
east-and-west direction, and towards the eastern end breaks up 
into several long arms which receive the waters of other lakes 
lying on the plain west of Mount Elgon. Two of these, Lake 
Salisbury and Lake Gedge, form one sheet in rainy weather. The 
River Mpologomia, which flows into Lake Choga, and is one mass 
of papyrus at its entrance to the lake, has been described as a 
backwash of the Nile, and has been mapped as a swamp; but 
Purvis! says that after careful observation he has been able to map it 
as one of the chief rivers carrying off the waters from Mount Elgon 
to the lake, and thence to the Nile. 

Edward and Albert Nyanzas.—The Albert Edward? and 
Albert Nyanzas, and the Semliki River which connects them, le in 
the western arm of the great depression of East Africa and drain to 
the Nile; while Lakes Kivu and Tanganyika, farther south, send their 
surplus waters to the Congo. The dividing line between the north 
and south watersheds is now a range of volcanic cones which have 
blocked the valley between Lakes Kivu and Edward. It is 
believed that these are of comparatively recent origin, and that 
formerly Lake Kivu drained to the north—a view supported by the: 
similarity observed between the living shells in Lake Kivu and the 
dead shells in the cuttings of the Ruchuru River flowing into 
Edward Nyanza, and also by the fact that the fauna of Lake 
Tanganyika is entirely distinct from that of Lake Kivu. Moreover, 
Lake Kivu is very deep, and the upper part of the gorge through 
' which its outlet, the Rusisi, flows in leaving the lake is stated to be 
but little worn, so that the river is not of very great antiquity. 
When the volcanic dam north of Lake Kivu was first formed, its 
effects would be felt to the north much sooner than to the south, 
for it would mean that the whole drainage area of Kivu was cut off 
from the Nile. There is evidence in history that on the Upper Nile 
there existed huge lakes which have now disappeared, and it is quite 
probable that the shrinkage of the upper waters of the great river of 
Egypt which appears to have taken place is directly connected 
with the formation of the Kivu dam. After this dam was formed, 
not only must the Nile supply have shrunk by the loss of the very 
large amount of water collected from the Kivu drainage area, but 
the water to the south of the volcanic dam must have slowly 
risen year after year, and probably century after century, until it 


' Through Uganda to Mount Elgon, p. 242, London, 1909. 

2 Albert Edward Nyanza is now to be called Edward Nyanza (or Lake 
Edward), so as to avoid confusion with Albert Nyanza (or Lake Albert). See 
Geogr. Journ., vol. xxxiv. p. 129, 1909. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 611 


reached its present extraordinarily high level and overflowed into 
Tanganyika. 

Cut off from the great drainage basin of Kivu, the waters 
of the Edward and the Albert Nyanzas fell considerably, as is 
evidenced by the old beaches and water-marks all along the shores of 
those lakes, reaching to 50 feet above the present water-level, till their 
altitudes are 3004 and 2028 feet respectively. Lyons! is of opinion 
that the shrinkage in the Edward Nyanza is in part due to its 
having cut down the barrier at its outlet, and he is led to this con- 
clusion by consideration of the fact that the northern half of the 
Semliki valley is filled with clay, sand, and rolled boulders, while in the 
southern half low hills lie east and west, some of which may, as an 
elevated block, have once formed a transverse ridge or barrier across 
the valley through which the lake overflowed. In both Edward and 
Albert Nyanzas a large amount of detritus is being annually de- 
posited by tributary streams.? Lake Albert is about 100 miles 
long by about 20 to 30 miles broad, and its area is approximately 
2000 square miles. Lake Edward is roughly elliptical in form, about 
50 miles in length, 30 miles in maximum breadth, and the area is 
approximately 1000 square miles. The arm of the lake situated on 
the equator is practically an independent lake (Ruisamba or Duero, 
now called Lake George) running to the north-east, and connected 
by a narrow channel with the main lake. 

The Nile emerges from Lake Albert as the Bahr-el-Jebel, and is 
at first really an arm of the lake; in its course from Nimule, about 
lat. 4° N., to where the Bahr-el-Ghazal and the Sobat enter, it changes 
first to a tumultuous stream, with rapid succeeding rapid, and then 
north of Gondokoro to a river in its plain tract, with anastomosing 
channels and ox-bow lakes. The weed barriers, which form from 
time to time on the Bahr-el-Ghazal and give rise to flooded areas, 
sometimes not far short of 30 miles in breadth, are known by the 
Arabic term “sudd,” signifying to dam. Much definite information 
about the sudds is now available, owing to the recent sudd-cutting 
operations, and Sir W. Garstin? describes them very fully. 

Lake No, at the junction of the Bahr-el-Jebel and the Bahr-el- 
Ghazal, is a very moderate-sized shallow sheet of water, roughly 
5 miles long by 24 miles broad, and not as a rule more than 7 or 
10 feet deep. In the rainy season, as the Sobat rises, it ponds back 
the discharge of the Bahr-el-Jebel, which is a small constant volume 
owing to the regulating effect of the swamps already explained, so 
that a reservoir is formed in the White Nile channel upstream from 


DRO DRCUE 2 
2 See W. Garstin, Report on the Upper Nile, p. 9, Cairo, 1904. 
3 Blue Book, Egypt, 2, 1902, p. 34, and Report on the Upper Nile, 1904, p. 109. 


612 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


the junction of the two rivers, which cannot discharge itself until the 
Sobat levels have again fallen. At this time Lake No is enlarged by 
the flooding of the low-lying land on its shores. 

The ponding back of one stream by another is also exemplified in 
the case of the Blue and White Niles. The Blue Nile, rising in Lake 
Tsana and descending from the Abyssinian hills as a red-brown 
torrent in time of flood, sweeps across from the point at Khartum to 
the opposite bank at Omdurman, pressing the White Nile against the 
western shore till it becomes just a long thin wedge, and ultimately 
is entirely cut off. The light yellowish-green waters of the White 
Nile break in gentle waves against the rushing stream as if it were 
a solid bank, and ultimately a placid lake is formed at the junction. 
A similar phenomenon occurs in connection with the Atbara, and 
these temporary lakes maintain the constancy of the Nile supply 
throughout the year, as the impounded water in one system takes 
the place of the flood-waters in another when these begin to fail, and 
the rivers thus automatically compensate one another. 

Lake Tsana, with an area of about 1200 square miles, measures 
about 37 miles from east to west, and 45 miles from the mouth of the 
Magetsch to the outlet of the River Abai which issues from a bay 
on the southern side. The basin is a comparatively shallow de- 
pression about 5800 feet above sea-level, and the country on all 
sides rises gently at first to 6500 feet, and then more rapidly to 8000 
and 9000 feet in the heights surrounding the lake. Stecker took 300 
soundings from native boats, and found a depth of 236 feet between 
the islands of Dega and Zego, and a depth of 220 feet between Korata 
and the peninsula of Zegi. He says:! ‘*'The deepest places—in my 
opinion having a much greater depth than 100 metres (328 feet)— 
are to be found north of Dek, in the direction of Dega and Gorgora. 
One cannot, however, well venture to make an excursion to those 
parts in the fragile Abyssinian craft.” 

North of Berber the Nile becomes once more a mountain torrent 
with its course intercepted by rapids and cataracts, but in this case 
the geological structure of the country has determined the position, 
the extent, and the nature of these barriers. As the river has cut 
its way down through the overlying sandstone, it has met with 
portions of the pectallane rocks beneath, which have been greatly 
crushed by earth-movements and have developed lines of weakness. 
Along these lines the water rushes till it meets with obstructions to 
its flow, and thus the cataract portion is formed, stretching from 
Khartum to Assuan. Beyond Assuan the slope of the Nile is only 
5 or 6 inches per mile. 

The Nile branches at Cairo, discharging its waters into the 

1 See Mitt. Afrek. Ges. im Deutschland, Bd. iii. p. 32, 1881. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 613 


Mediterranean through two main arms and numerous subordinate 
channels. The lakes in the delta include Lake Mariut, 112 square 
miles in area, Lake Edku, 104 square miles, Lake Borollos, 266 
square miles, and Lake Menzala, 745 square miles, which stand in 
hollows left by the failure of the river to fill its delta region up to a 
uniform level. The continual accumulation of fine silt raises the bed 
and banks of the stream until it flows in a channel a little above the 
adjoining country ; thus a breach made during a flood overthrow 
diverts it to one side or the other, and in the new course so given 
the raising process and the breaking away are repeated. ‘The various 
lines of flow are marked by higher deposits than the intervening 
spaces,-and the interlacing of old channels encloses a very shallow, 
faintly marked basin. 


The most remote head-stream of the Congo is the Chambezi, 
which rises on the western slope of the plateau between Lakes Nyasa 
and Tanganyika, and flows south-west into the marshy Lake 
Bangweolo. Near the south point of that lake the river makes its 
exit through a vast marsh with isolated lakelets. It then turns north 
through Lake Mweru and descends to the forest-clad basin of western 
equatorial Africa; traversing this in a majestic northward curve, 
and receiving vast supplies of water from many great tributaries, it 
finally turns south-west and cuts a way to the Atlantic Ocean through 
the western highlands about latitude 6° South (see fig. 74). 

Both Mweru and Bangweolo are merely shallow depressions which 
have been turned into lakes by the Upper Congo. 

Lake Bangweolo, 3700 feet above sea-level, is of such uncertain 
area, owing to its shores being fringed with marsh and overgrown with 
papyrus, that it is useless to give any guess at the mileage of its open 
surface, but it must contain, Sir H. Johnston says, at least 1500 
square miles of navigable water. The rivers running to it often 
flow through narrow swamps, many of which seem to have been at 
one time shallow lakes whose shrunken remains still show at places, 
like Lake Moir, near Serenji. ‘These small swamps become larger and 
more frequent as the rivers approach one another, and at last become 
one vast dead-level morass, which in its north-western part changes 
from a dense mass of papyrus reeds to a sheet of open water, and 
is then known as Lake Bangweolo. ‘The lake has covered a much 
larger area eastwards and up the Lukula, Chambezi, and Mansya 
Rivers, for the rivers that pour in on its north and east sides have 
been piling mud in its shallow bed for centuries and extending their 
deltas into it. 

Lake Mweru, 3189 feet above the sea (Lemaire, 1901), is 68 miles 
long by 24 miles broad. 


River Congo. 


614 


THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


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CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 61059 


Lake Tanganyika (or Tanganika') is about 400 miles long by 
30 to 60 miles broad, with an area of 12,700 square miles, and lies 2624 
feet above sea-level. Little is known regarding the depth of the lake, 
as it has never been systematically sounded ; but a depth of 2100 feet 
is reported by Giraud off Mrumbi, on the west coast, while Livingstone ” 
states that he sounded opposite the high mountains of Kabogo, south 
of Ujiji, where he found 1956 feet, and Moore,’ referring to a spot 
near the south end, speaks of 1200 feet and upwards. 

Hore‘ found the water of the lake fresh, and considered that the 
taste resembled that of distilled water rather than that of spring 
water. Frankland, who made an analysis of samples brought home 
by Hore for the purpose, reported it to be similar to Thames 
water, but with very much less organic impurity. Moore® says 
the water of Tanganyika is somewhat salt, though it seems to be 
fresher now than when Livingstone and Stanley examined it; while, as 
both these explorers aver, there are traditions among the Arabs that 
in the recollection of living men it was a lake which never flowed out 
at all. To-day it drains intermittently by the Lukuga to the 
Congo, and it is a most remarkable fact that the outlet of Lake Kivu, 
the Rusisi, which flows into Lake Tanganyika, is five or six times 
larger than the Lukuga, the outlet of Tanganyika itself. If, therefore, 
the Rusisi River were cut off from Lake Tanganyika, that lake would 
altogether cease to overflow. Moore® argues from these considera- 
tions that probably, after the drainage of Lake Kivu had been turned 
away from Lake Albert by the formation of the volcanoes,’ that 
lake overflowed into Tanganyika for a number of years, until the 
level of the latter was raised to such a degree that it in like manner 
overflowed and cut a channel to the west into the Congo. This 
view of the matter explains also the fact that there are everywhere 
indications that Tanganyika formerly stood at a much higher level. 
Cunnington ® considers the water of Lake Tanganyika perfectly fresh 
and pure, and says that if, as has been suggested, there has been 
for ages some sort of periodicity in the forming and breaking of mud 
and vegetable barriers across the Lukuga River, we must be face to 
face with a lake in which the quantity of salts in solution has been 
and still is varying from time to time. 


1 See Geogr. Journ., vol. xxvii. p. 411, 1906. 

2 Last Journals, vol. i. p. 19, London, 1874. 

3 The Tanganyrka Problem, p. 48, London, 1903. 

4 Tanganyika: Eleven Years in Central Africa, p. 146, London, 1893. 

SO pect Pao). 

6 Loc. cit. 

deseo waGl0: 

8 This and other references are to an unpublished memoir submitted by 
Dr Cunnington. 


616 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Native tradition appears to indicate that the valley of the Lukuga 
was originally formed by an affluent river, and that subsequently a 
river of the Congo basin rising on the other side of the divide worked 
its way gradually backwards, cutting through the ridge, and suc- 
cessively capturing the various tributaries of the other river, and 
finally the whole river-system. A connection having been thus 
established, it was an easy matter for the waters of the lake, on reach- 
ing the high level after the addition of the drainage from Lake Kivu, 
to drain away naturally westward to the Congo. Stanley? takes this 
view, but Moore? considers the bed of the Lukuga a continuation of 
the cross-valley in which Lake Rukwa lies. 

A good many readings of the water-temperature of Lake 
Tanganyika were made by Cunnington,® and he concludes that 
the temperature in general must be very high, as the lowest reading 
obtained on the lake was 73°°3 Fahr. (22°°9 C.), while the highest 
was 81°-0 Fahr. (27°°2 C.). At a depth of 456 feet (the length of 
the sounding-line), readings taken on different occasions and at differ- 
ent spots only varied between 74°°1 and 74°°8 Fahr. 

Attempts were also made to observe the seiches by means of an 
improvised apparatus. ‘The principal series of observations taken 
lasted for eight consecutive hours, during which readings were made 
at minute intervals. From the curve obtained there appear to be 
oscillations with a period of about 60 minutes or a little under, 
which occur with some degree of regularity, and probably a seiche of 
longer period: 44 hours or a little over. The greatest amplitude 
noticed is only 24 inches (6°5 cm.). Unfortunately, sufficient details 
as to the depth and contour of the lake are lacking, so that the 
theoretical periods of the seiches cannot be worked out. 

The aquatic plants of Tanganyika are in no respect unique, and 
in many cases the same species occur in Nyasa or Victoria Nyanza, 
or both. The fauna is remarkable not only as including forms of 
unusual character for a fresh-water lake, and possibly distinct in 
origin from the general fresh-water fauna of Africa, but as containing 
a much larger number of species than the other big African lakes. 
This seems to indicate that Tanganyika was long isolated, and at 
some former time had some connection with the sea. Moore believes 
this to have taken place in Jurassic times. From the configuration 
of the continent he considers the only possible connection of Tanganyika 


1 Through the Dark Continent, vol. ii. p. 47, London, 1878. 

2 “Tanganyika and the Countries North of it,” Geogr. Jowrn., vol. xvii. p. 10, 
1901. 

3 “The Third Tanganyika Expedition,” Nature, vol. 1xxiii. p. 310, 1906. 

4 “On the Hypothesis that Lake Tanganyika represents an Old Jurassic Sea,” 
Quart. Journ. Mier. Scz., N.S., vol. xli. p. 303, 1898. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 617 


with the Jurassic sea to have been in the west and north-west, through 
the basin of the Congo. According to Cunnington, this theory is 
supported neither by geological nor palzontological evidence, and he 
considers that in the present state of our knowledge it is impossible 
to put forward a convincing theory that will fit the facts of the case. 

Lake Kivu lies at an altitude of about 4829 feet above sea- 
level, about 100 miles north of Lake Tanganyika, into which it 
drains. The lake is 60 miles long by 30 to 40 miles broad, and more 
than 600 feet deep; the area, including islands, is about 1100 square 
miles. It is roughly triangular in outline, the longest side lying to 
the west. Its waters are charged with saline matter to such an 
extent that the shores have become incrusted with a substance con- 
taining a high percentage of magnesium carbonate. Samples of this 
incrustation were examined under the direction of Professor Wynne, 
and only traces of calcium salts were found to be present. A 
calcareous tufa is found on the lake-floor deposited round vegetable 
debris, and also incrusting pebbles and reed-stems on the shore-line. 
The nodular incrustation is very hard, and was found on analysis to 
contain 28°65 per cent. calcium oxide and 12°66 per cent. magnesium 
oxide.! 

Lake Leopold IT. is described by Stanley” as a shallow depression 
in the lowland portion of the Congo basin caused by sudden subsidence. 
It discharges by the Ufini River into the Kasai, a tributary of the 
Congo. 

Stanley Pool is an expansion of the Congo, about 25 miles 
long by 16 miles broad. ‘The pool is a great cup-like basin with an 
incomplete rim formed by sierras of peaked mountains ranging on 
the southern side from 1000 to 3000 feet in height. The pool 
contains seventeen islands of some note. 


Lake Nyasa.—The only great lake of this system, Lake Nyasa, River Zambesi. 
drains into the Zambesi by the Shiré River. It extends from 9° 29’ to 
14° 25’ South, or through nearly 5 degrees of latitude, and measures 350 
miles along its major axis, which is slightly inclined to the west of 
north, while the greatest breadth, occurring near the middle of its 
length, is 45 miles. ‘The total area is 14,200 square miles. It lies 
in a very long and relatively narrow valley, the surface of the lake, 
which is 1645 feet above sea-level, being far below the general level 
of the surrounding country. ‘The depth of the lake seems to vary in 
accordance with the steepness of the shores, increasing from south to 
north. ‘The greater part of the northern half shows depths of over 
200 fathoms, while a maximum depth of 430 fathoms (2580 feet) was 


1 See Moore, The Tanganytka Problem, p. 84, London, 1903. 
2 See The Congo and the Founding of its Free State, pp. 485 et seq., London, 1885. 


Lakes of the 
so-called 
Great Rift 
Valley and 
other Inland 
Drainage 
Areas of 
Hast Africa. 


618 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


obtained by Moore in 1899 off the high western shore, in latitude 
11° 40’ South. A more complete series of soundings, however, since 
made by Lieutenant Rhoades,! gives 386 fathoms (2316 feet) off the 
same coast, in latitude 11° 10° South. The lake is bordered by three 
old beach terraces, of which the most marked lies 14 feet above the 
present water-level. Moore? considers that in all probability the 
wearing away of the floor of the Murchison Falls, over which the 
Shiré River carries the surplus waters of the lake, led to the lowering 
of the water-level. He says that Nyasa may at one time have been 
connected with Lake Shirwa, and both lakes have drained down the 
valley of the Lujenda River to the Indian Ocean. 

In 1895 and 1899 observations were made on the fauna of Lake 
Nyasa by the Tanganyika expeditions, and it was discovered that 
beyond 100 to 150 feet the lake was practically a fresh-water desert, 
there being encountered in its deeper water nothing but organic refuse 
mixed with fine grey mud. 

Lake Malombe, through which the Upper Shiré flows after leaving 
Lake Nyasa, had an area of 100 square miles in 1893, but in 1894 
and the succeeding years a large sand island was thrown up in the 
centre and became covered with reeds, so that in 1896 the lake was 
little more than a broad channel of the Shiré River divided by the 
island from a narrower channel to the west. Sir H. Johnston? 
attributes much of the recent decrease in the volume of the African 
lakes to a slow and gradual upheaval of the land, and he thinks that 
the sudden change of this lake into a sandy marsh and broad river- 
channel supports his view. 


Lake Natron, 1996 feet above sea-level, in lat. 2°°5 S., long. 
36° E., is fed by streams from the west side of the rift and by 
numerous small streams impregnated with carbonate of soda. In 
1903 Captain C. E. Smith 4 found it to be only 10 square miles in 
extent, but after the January and February rains it had spread over 
about 200 square miles of flats. 

Lake Magadi, 2050 feet above sea-level, in lat. 1°°8 S., long. 
36° E., receives one small stream of fresh water and two hot streams 
saturated with sodium carbonate. The lake is some 100 square miles 
in extent, and never more than a few inches deep. It forms a 
natural evaporating pan, and the soda dug from it is remarkably 
pure and abundant. Thousands of flamingoes and wading birds 


1 See Geogr. Journ., vol. xx. p. 68, 1902. 

2 The Tanganyika Problem, p. 122. 

3 See British Central Africa, London, 1897. 

4 See “From the Victoria Nyanza to Kilimanjaro,” Geogr. Journ., vol. xxix. 
p. 258, 1907. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 619 


are to be found in it, hunting for a kind of small fish that lives 
in the mud. 

Lake Elmetaita, in lat. 0° 25’ S., long. 36° 16’ E., receives two 
rivers, the Kariandusi and the Guasso Nagut, but has no outlet; its 
level is being lowered by evaporation. ‘The water is bitter and salt, 
but clear and pure, and the only signs of animal life in it are some 
insect-larvee and small crustaceans. Flocks of pink flamingoes feed 
on the masses of algae, which in places impart a deep green colour to 
the water. 

Lake Naivasha, measuring some 13 miles each way, is situated in 
lat. O° 44° S., long. 36° 24 E., and is 6135 feet above sea-level; it 
receives a tributary, the Murendat, but has no outlet. Its basin 
is closed to the north by the ridge of Mount Buru, beyond which are 
the basins of the smaller lakes Nakuro and Elmetaita, followed in turn 
by those of Losuguta and Baringo. 

Lake Nakuro, a salt lake in lat. 0° 20’S., long. 36° 9’ E., at an 
elevation of 5668 feet, receives the Enderit. 

Lake Losuguta, in lat. 0° 15’ N., long. 36° 8’ E., lies 3050 feet 
above sea-level, and is long and narrow. One shore is a precipice 
1900 feet in height, and the opposite one is formed of a series of 
terraces which rise one above another to the summit of Doenyo 
Lugurumut. The waters of the lake are salt and sulphurous, and 
have emetic properties. No life is present in the lake, with the 
exception of dense masses of algze (as in Lake Elmetaita), which form 
food for vast flocks of pink flamingoes. The putrid sulphurous 
waters seem to kill whatever they touch, the grass round the lake 
being yellow, and trees standing near the shore, though recently 
submerged, as shown by leaves still attached to them, being 
dead. 

Lake Baringo, in lat. 0° 43’ N., long. 36° 6’ E., formerly had an 
outlet to the north, and was possibly one of the sources of the Nile; 
it is surrounded by raised beaches, indicating that it once stood at a 
much higher level. It is 3325 feet above sea-level, and the eastern 
wall is in places a single face of rock, 2000 feet in height. ‘The 
length of the lake is about 18 miles. 

Lake Sugota was described by Cavendish! in 1898 as a sheet 
of water situated between Lake Baringo and Lake Rudolf, 30 miles 
due south of the latter, at an altitude of 1300 feet, running north 
and south for about 25 miles, the southern portion trending in a 
south-westerly direction for about 10 miles. Its shores are very barren, 
he says, entirely enclosed by mountains, and three islands near the east 
shore are also barren. Near the north end of the lake a smouldering 


1 «Through Somaliland and around and south of Lake Rudolf,” Geogr. Journ., 
vol. xi. p. 392, 1898. 


620 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


volcano, 1600 feet in height, called by the natives Sugobo, is situated. 
The lake is fed by two rivers, and before the volcano became active 
the water was good to drink, though now it is very hot ; in places the 
water has evaporated, exposing a bed of deep black mud, hot, but 
with a hard crust of salt over the surface, while on the borders are 
solid mounds of salt. Former high-water marks are strewn with 
masses of bones and skeletons of fish large and small, evidently killed 
when the water became heated. On the other hand, C. W. Hobley,! 
writing in 1906, said :—“ 'The enormous Lake Sugota of the Intelligence 
Division, Map No. 1429 (d), is non-existent, and it is difficult to 
understand how it became delineated. The Sugota River is bounded 
by great walls of lava, so could hardly have flooded the plains. It, 
however, may be that Cavendish or one of the earlier explorers saw 
the whitey natron deposits from the slopes of Mount Nyiro, and took 
them for water.” 

Lake Rudolf (Basso Narok, “ Dark Water”), in lat. 3° N., long. 
36° E., is over 200 miles long, about 3500 square miles in area, and 
lies at an elevation of 1250 feet above sea-level, its greatest depth 
being 25 feet. Dr Donaldson Smith? says it is not like a long sheet 
of water lying in an abrupt cut or fissure in the earth’s surface, but 
is a shallow basin in open country, very much spread out except 
at the southern end. The beach is composed of black sand, and 
hence Lake Rudolf is termed Black Lake by the Swahilis, while Lake 
Stefanie to the north-east, the shores of which are of white sand, is 
called White Lake. The western shores of Lake Rudolf are charac- 
terised by numerous lagoons, separated from the open water by low 
sand-bars (thrown up by the action of the waves), which are frequented 
by many water-birds. Evidences were noted in 1898 of a western 
encroachment of the lake. Several rivers flow towards the lake, but 
do not always discharge into it; thus the Sacchi empties itself into a 
large area of swamp at the head of Sanderson Gulf before the shores 
of Lake Rudolf are actually reached, and the Keno and the 'Turkwell 
seldom reach the lake. It was generally concluded that the Omo was 
the only perennial feeder, but in 1899 Harrison® found that even 
that river was dry, and that the level of the lake had sunk 12 feet 
during the year. In three stages, each probably of about one year’s 
duration, it had sunk 28 feet. Austin * says the waters are impregnated 


1 See “‘ Notes on the Geography and People of the Baringo District of the East 
African Protectorate,” Geogr. Journ., vol. xxvill. p. 473, London, 1906. 

2 See “An Expedition through Somaliland to Lake Rudolf,” Geogr. Journ., 
vol. vill. p. 226, 1896. 

3 See “A Journey from Zeila to Lake Rudolf,” Geogr. Journ., vol. xviil. 
p. 272, 1901. 

+ See Geogr. Journ:, vol. xiv. p. 150, 1399: 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 621 


' with sodium (probably sodium carbonate is meant), but yet abound 
with fish, mostly cat-fish. Crocodiles and hippopotami were also 
found on the lake. 

Lake Stefanie (Basso Ebor, “* White Water”), in lat. 4° 30’ N., 
long. 37° 0’ E., about 1900 feet above sea-level, is 35 miles long, 
15 miles wide, and not over 25 feet deep; in shape it is like a boot. 
Its Sagau affluent receives an overflow from Lake Abaya in times of 
flood. Dr Donaldson Smith?! says the waters of the lake are quite 
fresh, though it has no overflow. In 1899 Harrison? found the lake 
dried up and covered with sand, and this may explain its freshness. 

An almost continuous chain of lakes, some fresh, others brackish, 
some completely closed, others connected by short channels, extends 
from Lake Stefanie as far north as Lake Zuai. 

Lake Zuai, in lat. 8° 0’ N., long. 38° 45’ E., is a fresh-water 
lake, and two distinct terraces of former shore-lines lie some 80 feet 
above the present level of the water. It is fed by the River Makee, 
and its outlet is the River Suksuk, which flows between cliffs of chalk 
100 feet high, into the brackish Lake Hora, the shores of which are 
covered with a white crust of sodium carbonate. In rainy weather 
this lake is joined to Lake Sveta, lying to the east. Lake Hora drains 
into Lake Laminia, a very brackish lake. 

Lake Abai.—Farther to the south is Lake Abai or Abba. 
These variants are used generically for any large mass of water. The 
Italians found its true name to be Pagade, and christened it afresh 
Regina Margherita. Itis of great beauty, and contains twelve islands, 
all inhabited and cultivated. It is about 95 miles long, and receives 
from the north the waters of the Shashago River, and with them the 
drainage of a hot spring south of Lake Laminia; it sends a short 
efHuent into Lake Abaya or Chiamo, lying to the south and draining 
in the rainy season into Lake Stefanie. 

Lake Aussa, in lat. 11° 25’ N., long. 42° 40’ E., lies in the 
centre of a depression some 60 or 70 miles from the head of the 
Gulf of Tajura. It is fed by the Hawash, the principal river of 
Eastern Abyssinia, a copious stream nearly 200 feet wide and 4 feet 
deep at its junction with its chief tributary, the Germana. This 
lake is fresh, though the lagoons in the region are highly saline, 
with thick incrustations of salt round their margins. 

Lake Assal is separated from the Gulf of Tajura by a sill only 
12 miles wide, covered with a bed of lava containing several deep 
craters. It is about 7 miles long, and lies about 222 feet below the 
level of the sea. Several torrents flow into it, but there is no outlet. 
Its waters are very salt, and there are salt deposits round it; the level 
of the lake seems to be falling. 


LV On cits, 0) 224. 27 OneCite ir 27 ls 
‘| »?P | it 


NortTH 
AMERICA. 


622 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Lake Rukwa, 2560 feet above sea-level, is a huge swamp formed 
by the collection of local waters. ‘The waters of the lake are salt, and — 
it seems liable to great variations in area and depth, as accounts of 
its size vary greatly. Its principal affluent is the River Saisi, which 
rises in the north of British Central Africa, but it has no outlet. 

Lake Shirwa (or Chelwa), south of Lake Nyasa, is a large oval 
body of water, 1946 feet above sea-level, about 50 miles in length and 
15 to 16 miles in average breadth, lying in a flat central depression 
of extensive lacustrine plains which were at one time portions of 
the floor of the lake. It is very shallow and has no outlet, though 
the rise of a few feet would cause it to drain through the Ruo into 
the Shiré and Zambesi. The fauna of this lake appears to have been 
at one time identical with that of Lake Nyasa, but owing probably 
to the rising of the ground, which has separated Lake Shirwa from 
Lake Nyasa and has finally resulted in Shirwa having no outflow, and 
hence becoming salt, the old Nyasa fauna has been killed out, 
except in the curious fresh-water oases which are still maintained 
at the mouths of the permanent rivers flowing into the lake. 


The drainage system of the northern part of North America shows 
the former maturity of a region that has been recently glaciated. 
The effect of the invasion of the ice-sheet—which advanced from the 
north in the Pleistocene period in a south and south-westward direction 
—is visible as far as the northern half of the Mississippi valley. Ten 
or more important bodies of water lie in a curve from Lake Ontario 
to Great Bear Lake, and the lakes lying between that series and Hudson 
Bay, as well as those situated south and west of the lake-belt, are 
essentially depressions on new land areas ; but, while the one region 
shows the destructive action of the ice, the other exemplifies its con- 
structive action. The soil that the Eastern Canadian Highlands 
possessed in pre-glacial times has been stripped away, leaving a bare 
unweathered surface on which the ice has eroded numerous rock-basins. 
This area is covered with many lakes which lie in the hollows ; the 
rivers draining them have not yet cut down their drainage slopes, and 
are interrupted by falls and rapids. On the other hand, the surface 
of the region farther south is heavily sheeted with glacial drift, so 
that for tens of miles not a ledge of rock is to be seen. Glacial deposits 
are so varied in character, and so irregularly laid down, that they 
abound in depressions that become filled with water, and it is chiefly 
in this way that the numerous small lakes of New England are to be 
explained. 

Geological evidence seems to point to the fact that previous to 
the glacial epoch North America had been above the sea for a long 
period at a greater elevation than at present, especially to the north, 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 6238 


and therefore had been subject to subaerial erosion. ‘This old land- 
surface had a well-developed drainage system with many rivers flowing 
across it to the sea through broad valleys, in which the advancing ice- 
sheet subsequently deposited detritus that obstructed the flow so as 
to form important lakes. 


The problem of the origin of the Great Lakes of the Laurentian River 
basin is not completely solved, but there are many facts that lead to mee 
the supposition that they lie in old valleys clogged by drift, and that 
glacial erosion played a comparatively minor part in their formation. 
Before the glacial epoch there was a system of river-drainage different 
from the present one, but the lake-troughs were empty except along 
the deepest bottom line. The position of these troughs was determined 
by that of the more easily eroded rocks, which they follow with re- 
markable closeness, and their recent conversion into lakes has been 
accomplished by local concentration of drift in deep narrow valleys, 
where it could act effectually as a barrier. As the ice retreated from 
the region the sheets of water found one line of discharge and then 
another, leaving their record in the immense deposits of gravel dropped 
by the overloaded glacial streams, and in the numerous water-worn 
channels, too large for the streams which now occupy them, and with- 
out catchment areas commensurate with their size. During all the 
remarkable changes that ensued, the land to the north-east was slowly 
rising, and this change of level had much influence in determining 
the various lake-outlets. An examination of a number of authentic 
records by Gilbert ? has shown that this rising still continues, and that 
there is a tilting of 0-42 foot in a hundred miles in a century. If 
continued, the banking or backing up of the waters at the southern 
end of Lake Michigan will go on much faster than the lowering con- 
sequent on the work of the Niagara River in wearing down the falls, 
and in two or three thousand years all the lakes but Ontario will be 
tributary to the Mississippi River, as they were during the period of 
the retreat of the ice-sheet. The history of the Laurentian basin, as 
read from the hard-rock topography of the region, has received 
different renderings, but the facts seem to go to prove that the basins 
of the Great Lakes were formed by a combination of erosion, warping, 
and obstruction. 

A survey of the Laurentian lakes made by the Corps of Engineers, 
U.S. Army, between 1841 and 1881, is the basis of nearly all the 


accurate information now accessible concerning the physical features ; 


1 See W. M. Davis, “Classification of Lake Basins,” Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. 
HMist., vol, xxi. p. 362, 1883. 


2 “Modification of the Great Lakes by Earth Movement,” Nat. Geogr. Maq., 
vol. vil. p. 245, 1897. 


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THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


624 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 625 


but owing to changes in the rivers connecting the various lakes, and also 
on account of the many harbour and canal improvements that have 
been carried out, a new survey of portions of the lakes has been made 
under the direction of General O. M. Poe. From the results of the 
former survey L. Y. Schermerhorn! has compiled some statistics 
regarding the Great Lakes, a few of which are quoted here; the 
measurements of the length and breadth of the various lakes not 
being given by Schermerhorn, those given by S. E. Dawson? are 
for the most part adopted. 

Lake Superior, the largest body of fresh water on the globe, 627 
feet above sea-level, has an area of about 31,200 square miles, a mean 
depth of 475 feet, and a maximum depth of 1008 feet. The length 
is about 400 miles, the circumference about 1500 miles, the maximum 
breadth about 160 miles. At depths exceeding 200 feet the tem- 
perature of the lake varies only slightly from 39° Fahr. (3°°9 C.) 
all the year round. 

Lake Michigan has an area of 22,450 square miles, a mean depth 
of 325 feet, and a maximum depth of 870 feet; its surface is 581 feet 
above sea-level. The length is. 345 miles, the maximum breadth 
about 90 miles. 

Lake Huron, together with Georgian Bay, covers an area of 23,800 
square miles. It has a mean depth of 250 feet, a maximum depth of 
730 feet, and lies at the same altitude as Lake Michigan. It is 270 
miles in length, and exceeds 100 miles in breadth. 'The temperature 
of the lake in the months of June and August at the surfice and at 
depths of about 300 feet was 52° Fahr. (11°°1 C.), while at a depth 
of 624 feet the temperature was 42° Fahr. (5°°6 C.). 

Lake Erie has a water surface of 9960 square miles, « mean depth 
of about 70 feet, a maximum depth of 210 feet, and les at an 
altitude of 573 feet. The length is 250 miles, the maximum breadth 
about 58 miles. 

Lake Ontario covers an area of 7240 square miles, has a mean 
depth of about 300 feet, a maximum depth of 738 feet, and lies 247 
feet above sea-level. ‘The surface is subject to periodical variations 
amounting to about 33 feet. It is 190 miles in length, and 55 
miles in maximum breadth. 

Lake St Clair, a much smaller lake lying between Lakes Huron 
and Erie, covers an area of 410 square miles, has an average depth 
of 15 feet, and lies 570 feet above sea-level; the length is 30 miles, 
and the maximum breadth 20 miles. 


1 See “ Physical Characteristics of the Northern and North-Western Lakes,” 
Amer. Journ, Scv., ser. 3, vol. xxxill. p. 278, 1887. 
2 See Stanford’s Compendium of Geography: North America, vol. i. p. 34, 
London, 1897. 
40) 


626 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


According to Schermerhorn! the volume of water in the Great 
Lakes is about 6000 cubic miles, of which Lake Superior contains 
somewhat less than one-half. The mean annual rainfall of the St 
Lawrence basin is about 31 inches, and the mean depth of water 
evaporated from the surfaces of the lakes between 20 and 30 inches.” 
The amount of precipitation on the water-surface is therefore little 
more than the amount evaporated from the same area. 

The influence of the Laurentian lakes on the climate of their 
shores is well marked, and was shown as long ago as 1870 by Alex. 
Winchell.2 The currents on the lakes have been studied by the 
United States Weather Bureau by means of bottles containing a record 
of the locality where they were set adrift, and a request that the 
finder might note the place where they were recovered and transmit 
the record to the chief of the Weather Bureau; the results of the 
observations are published in their bulletins. The general courses of 
the currents are also indicated on a chart which Russell reproduces 
on Plate 7 in his Lakes of North America. ‘The difference in the 
currents when the longer axis of the lake coincides with the direction 
of the prevailing winds, and when it lies athwart that direction, is 
very clearly indicated. 

Between the Great Lakes and the estuary the St Lawrence 
widens into the following three lakes :— | 

Lake St Francis, 30 miles S.W. of Montreal, 38 miles long by 
about 4 miles broad, with an area of 132 square miles, and an average 
depth of 36 feet. 

Lake St Louis, 9 miles S.W. of Montreal, 15 miles long by about 
5 miles broad, with an area of 75 square miles, and an average 
depth of 30 feet. 

Lake St Peter, 30 miles long by 7 miles broad, with an area of 
200 square miles, and an average depth of 8 feet. The lower end of 
Lake St Peter is 750 miles from the ocean. 

All the great tributaries of the St Lawrence come from the 
north, as well as many small ones which drain the numerous lakes of 
the region. Going from west to east, the St Lawrence receives the 
waters of the following lakes :— | 

Lake Nepigon, 30 miles N.W. of Lake Superior, 665 feet above 
sea-level, 70 miles long by 40 miles broad, and with an area of 1450 
square miles, and an average depth of over 540 feet, drains to Lake 
Superior by the Nepigon River. 


1 Op. cut.; p. 282. 

2 Thos. Russell, “Depth of Evaporation in the United States,” Monthly 
Weather Report, U.S. Signal Office, Sept. 1888. 

> “The Isothermals of the Lake Region,” Proc. Amer. Assoc., vol. xvi. p. 106, 1870. 

+ U.S. Department of Agriculture, Weather Bureau, Bulletin B. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 627 


Lake Nepissing, lying at an elevation of 644 feet, drains by 
French River to Georgian Bay, Lake Huron. 

Lake Simcoe, 30 miles long by 18 miles broad, and 300 square 
miles in area, lies at an altitude of 701 feet, about 130 feet above 
Georgian Bay, into which it discharges through Lake Couchiching 
and the River Severn. 

Lake Temiscaming is practically the head of the River Ottawa, 
the largest tributary of the St Lawrence. ‘The name 'Temiscaming 
means “deep water,” and the lake is said to be very deep, though 
reliable soundings do not appear to have been made yet in its waters. 
It is 612 feet above sea-level, 75 miles in length, and from 1 to 
5 miles in breadth. 

The course of the Ottawa is interrupted by a succession of lakes 
and rapids, and falls from over 700 feet to about 60 feet above sea- 
level in drops of 150, 140, and 120 feet. Lac des Chats, on its 
course, is 50 miles long, and Lake Deschenes 25 miles long. 

Lake St John lies 278 feet above sea-level, about 100 miles 
N.N.W. of the city of Quebec, and occupies an almost circular basin 
28 miles long by 20 miles broad, with an area of 366 square miles. 
It drains to the St Lawrence estuary by the Saguenay River, the 
course of which is much interrupted by rapids. 

Summit Lake in Labrador has a double outflow, one by the 
Koksoak River to the north into Hudson’s Strait, and the other by 
the Manicouagan River to the south, joining the St Lawrence west of 
Point de Monts, after a course interrupted by short reaches of lake and 
much broken water. It hes on the 53rd parallel of latitude, about 
1940 feet above sea-level. 

‘he Fox River flows into Green Bay, an arm of Lake Michigan, 
and receives the drainage of a large section of the north-eastern part 
of Wisconsin, an area covered with glacial drift. Connected with the 
river and its tributaries is a great number of lakes, many of which, 
although covering areas of considerable size, are merely expansions of 
the rivers, and are for the most part very shallow, with low, swampy 
shores. ‘The deeper lakes are Stone Lake, with depths of 75 and 
80 feet in its deepest part; the Waupaca Lakes, small in area but 
with a depth in some cases of 60 to 95 feet ; and Green Lake. 

Green Lake is a long, narrow body of water, covering an area of 
113 square miles, slightly over 7 miles in length, and less than 2 miles 
in maximum width, with a maximum depth of 237 feet, and an 
average depth of over 100 feet. ‘The water of the lake is of a clear 
green colour, and because of its depth there is a large body of water 
at the bottom which is never appreciably affected by even the 
severest storms. The lake has a distinct “ thermocline” during the 
summer months, and the water at the bottom has an annual range 


628 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


of temperature of only about 10 degrees Fahrenheit. Marsh? has 
made a special study of the fauna of this lake, and says that 
in general character it resembles that of the Great Lakes. Green 
Lake is taken as a type of a deep lake, and Lake Winnebago, 
about 25 miles east of it, drained by the Fox River, as a type 
of a shallow lake. 

Lake Winnebago is about 28 miles long, by 8 to 10 miles broad. 
There has never been an accurate hydrographic survey of the lake, 
but it is probable that it is nowhere over about 25 feet deep. The 
water of this lake is very much discoloured during most of the year, 
and owing to its shallowness storms disturb it to the very bottom 
over the greater part of its area, with the result that during summer 
it has a nearly uniform temperature from top to bottom, becomes 
warmed early in spring, and cools off with corresponding rapidity in 
autumn. 

Lake Champlain.—T’o the south of the St Lawrence estuary, 
in the basin between the Adirondacks and the Green Mountains, 
extending a short distance into Canada, lies the valley of Lake 
Champlain, the geographical history of which is exceedingly remark- 
able, for this fresh-water lake was originally a well-developed river 
valley excavated by a stream tributary to the Greater St Lawrence 
when the land stood higher than now. After acquiring its present 
form the Champlain valley was depressed and became an arm of 
the sea, inhabited by marine molluscs and frequented by whales. 
A tideway reaching southward connected with the submerged Hudson 
River valley, thus making New England an island. <A_ partial re- 
elevation of the land caused the gulf to be separated from the ocean, 
so as to form a saline lake, the salt waters of which were ultimately 
flooded out, the rains and feeding streams furnishing a supply of 
fresh water in excess of the amount lost by evaporation. Elevated 
strands with recent fossil remains indicate the former great extent of 
the lake. The lake now drains into the estuary of the St Lawrence by 
the Richelieu River, and is connected with the Hudson River by the 
Champlain Canal. ‘The length of Lake Champlain is about 125 miles, 
its maximum breadth about 15 miles, its area 595 square miles, its 
greatest depth 600 feet (Emmons), and its height above sea-level 
93 feet. 

Lake George (sometimes called Horicon), a long and narrow lake 
of New York, forms part of the boundary between Warren and 
Washington counties. It lies 325 feet above sea-level, covers an area 


1 See “‘ Limnetic Crustacea of the Great Lakes,” Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci., 
Arts, and Letters, vol. xi. p. 179, 1897; also “The Plankton of Lake Winnebago 
and Green Lake,” Wisconsin Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey, Bull. No. xii., Scient. 
Series, No. 3, p. 1, 1903. 


ii 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 629 


of about 50 square miles, being 25 miles in length, with a maximum 
width of about 3 miles, and discharges into Lake Champlain. 

“Lake on the Mountain” is situated on the top of a cliff, 
180 feet in height, which rises on the south side of the Bay of Quinte, 
a bay on the northern shore of Lake Ontario. ‘The outflow gives the 
power which operates the Glenora Mills, but its inflow is invisible 
and yet steadily maintained from year to year. ‘The lake is 300 feet 
from the edge of the cliff, and measures three-quarters of a mile in 
length. The greater part of it is shallow, not exceeding a few feet in 
depth; but close alongside its southern boundary is a great rent, as it 
were, in its bottom, nearly a mile long, one-third of a mile or more 
wide, and varying from 75 to 100 feet deep. Probably the rent has 
some connection with a widened fault in the Trenton limestone area 
25 or 30 miles to the north-east of the Bay of Quinté, and the forces 
which gave rise to the fault may have caused subterranean communi- 
cation with higher ground many miles away. ‘The dip of the rocks 
is favourable, and the whole area into the Laurentian region beyond 
is a steady rise, till about 50 miles away a height of nearly 400 feet 
above Lake Ontario is reached. During a period of drought in the 
neighbourhood the level of the lake was well maintained, so that its 
source is not attributable to the rainfall in the immediate vicinity. 
On the other hand, a fair amount of rain fell in the Trenton region 
during that period, so that evidence seems to point in favour of the 
waters having their origin there and reaching the lake by an under- 
ground channel. In August the temperature of the surface water at 
the outlet of Lake Ontario opposite Kingston was about 72° Fahr. 
(22°:2 C.), and at the bottom in 78 feet 564° Fahr. (13°6 C.). At 
the same time in the “ Lake on the Mountain” the temperature at the 
surface was 744° Fahr. (23°°5 C.), at 30 feet it was 694° Fahr. 
(20°'8 C.), at 45 feet 47° Fahr. (8°°3 C.), at 60 feet 43° Fahr. (6°:1 C.), 
and at 99 feet 42° Fahr. (5°°6 C.). In the upper 30 feet, therefore, 
there was little change in the temperature, but between 30 and 45 feet 
there was a rapid fall amounting to 22} degrees, and from 45 feet to 
the bottom a further fall of only 5 degrees. 


The geography of the region to the north-west of the Laurentian Rivers 
basin, which now drains to Lake Winnipeg and thence through the eae ag 
Nelson River to Hudson Bay, underwent many revolutions during 
the advance and retreat of the ice-sheet. The drainage to the north 
was obstructed, and a lake formed over the country of mild relief 
surrounding Lake Winnipeg and the Lake of the Woods, and 
extending southward through the Red River valley far into Minnesota. 

This lake, now marked by its ancient shore-lines and the deltas of 


inflowing rivers on the east and west, has been called Lake Agassiz in Lake Agassiz, 


630 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


honour of Louis Agassiz, and must have covered an area of about 
110,000 square miles, exceeding the combined areas of the present 
Laurentian lakes. It discharged southward to the Mississippi, and 
excavated the channel now occupied by Lake Traverse, Big Stone 
Lake, and the Minnesota River; but as the glacier retreated, and an 
outlet northward was opened up, the level of the waters was gradually 
reduced till the lakes of to-day were left in the deepest portions of its 
basin. This great lake, as measured from its shore-lines, had a 
diameter from north to south of 675 miles, and from east to west of 
about 300 miles, and had a drainage area of about half a million square 
miles. At the site of Lake Winnipeg the ancient lake was 600 feet 
deep. As with the Laurentian glacial lakes, the shore-lines of Lake 
Agassiz now rise northward at a slight inclination, proving that an 
elevation of the land must have taken place during the rise and dis- 
appearance of the ice-sheet. 

Lake of the Woods is the main hydrographical feature of the 
country between Lake Superior and Lake Winnipeg, a district studded 
with lakes and intersected by swift-flowing streams. It is 70 miles 
long, by 60 miles broad, but its outline is indented to an extraordinary 
degree, and its northern portion is filled with islands. 'The Lake 
of the Woods lies about 1060 feet above sea-level, and the water 
area is given as 1500 square miles. Its main tributary is Rainy River, 
which flows from Rainy Lake, and its outflow is by Winnipeg River 
to Lake Winnipeg; there are many rapids in the course of Winnipeg 
River, which is about 163 miles long. 

Lake Winnipeg is about 700 feet above sea-level, 250 miles long 
by 60 miles broad, and has an area of about 9000 square miles; its 
maximum depth is about 90 feet. On the north-west it receives the 
waters of the Saskatchewan, together with the surplus waters of 
Lakes Winnipegosis and Manitoba. On the east it receives the 
Winnipeg, and on the south the Red River and its tributary, the 
Assiniboine; the Red River carries to Lake Winnipeg the tribute 
of Lake Traverse, situated on the Minnesota-Dakota boundary, at 
the southern limit of the country formerly flooded by Lake Agassiz, 
and drains through narrow channels sunk in the sediments of the former 
lake. Between the streams there are broad, nearly level inter-stream 
spaces, forming typical examples of new land-areas, on which shallow 
ponds form during rainy seasons. Lake Winnipeg discharges north- 
wards by the Nelson River through several small lakes into Hudson Bay. 

Lake Manitoba lies 810 feet above sea-level, and is connected 
with Lake Winnipeg by the Dauphin River and through St Martin’s 
Lake. It is about 120 miles long, from 5 to 30 miles wide, and covers 
an area of 1850 square miles. It is a shallow lake with low shores, 
and very swampy at the southern end, the average depth being 12 feet. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 681 


Lake Winnipegosis, lying to the north of Lake Manitoba, at an 
elevation of 828 feet above sea-level, is about 130 miles long, by 20 
miles in maximum breadth. It covers an area of 2080 square miles, 
and has a maximum depth of 38 feet. It is fed by many small 
streams from the west, and by the overflow of Lake Dauphin (840 
feet above sea-level) through Mossy River. The outlet is by the 
very indirect way of Waterhen River, through Waterhen Lake, to 
Lake Manitoba. ‘The total area of the lakes in the Winnipeg basin 
is 18,500 square miles. 


Lake Wollaston, 1300 feet above sea-level, is the ultimate source River 
of the Reindeer River, one of the chief tributaries of the Churchill ees 
River. It is about 800 square miles in area, and discharges by two 
outlets—to the north by the Stone River into the extreme eastern 
arm of Lake Athabasca, and to the south-east by the Cochrane 
River into Reindeer Lake. 

Reindeer Lake, 1150 feet above sea-level, is 135 miles long, and 
has an area of 2490 square miles; the Reindeer River carries its 
overflow to the Churchill River. 


The rivers in Labrador are often like strings of lakes, and divide River Rupert. 
and unite again in their course, while the lakes frequently discharge 
in two directions. 
Lake Mistassini, 1350 feet above sea-level, the largest lake, is 
practically two parallel lakes divided by a range of islands in the 
centre. ‘The western lake is 90 miles long by 13 to 17 miles wide, 
and the eastern lake is 60 miles long by 5 to 10 miles wide, the 
greatest depths being 300 to 400 feet. The lake drains by Rupert’s 
River into James Bay. 


Lake Kaniapiskau, 70 miles long by 20 miles broad, 1850 feet River 
above sea-level, is the source of the Koksoak or South River, which ey 
flows into Ungava Bay in Hudson’s Strait. 


k. 


The principal stream in the Arctic drainage area is the Mackenzie River | 
River, the catchment basin of which is only separated by a low and ease ae 
uncertain watershed from the Winnipeg basin. ‘The Finlay and the 
Peace Rivers form the longest of the tributaries, though the Athabasca, 
rising farther south, is usually regarded as the main upper branch of 
the river. Lake Athabasca,! Great Slave Lake, and Great Bear Lake, 
three of the largest of the many great bodies of water which lie along the 
edge of the Laurentian plateau, are tributary to the Mackenzie River. 


1 The figures for the areas of these lakes are taken from the official Atlas 
of Canada, 1906. 


River 
Mississippi. 


632 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Lesser Slave Lake is a shallow lake, 60 miles long, with an average 
breadth of 8 miles, draining by the Lesser Slave River into the 
Athabasca River. It covers an area of about 480 square miles, and is 
mostly less than 10 feet deep. 

Lake Athabasca (or Lake of the Hills), 690 feet above sea-level, 
is 195 miles long, by 35 miles in maximum breadth, and has an area 
of about 3000 square miles. No soundings have been made in the lake. 

Great Slave Lake is 391 feet above sea-level, and is 300 miles 
in length, by about 50 miles in breadth. Its area is about 10,000 
square miles. No soundings have been made in the lake. 

Great Bear Lake, 340 feet above sea-level, is 175 miles long, has 
an area of 11,200 square miles, and is very irregular in shape. The 
average depth is 270 feet. 


Abundant proof is furnished of the existence of the Mississippi 
River previous to the glacial epoch by the change that occurs in its 
valley where the southern limit of the ice invasion intersects its course, 
between the junctions with the Missouri and with the Ohio. South 
of the glacial boundary the Mississippi flows through an ancient valley 
which has been filled with alluvium to a depth of one or two hundred 
feet in its northern part, and to an increasing depth southward. 
North of the boundary the course of the river is through a narrow, 
steep-sided valley, and is interrupted by many rapids alternating with 
places, in the driftless area of Wisconsin and Minnesota, where the 
valley broadens and displays signs of old age. The waters of the 
great tributary of the Mississippi, the Missouri, are supplied in part 
by the hot springs and wonderful geysers of the Yellowstone Park, 
where the Yellowstone River drains the lake of the same name. 

Yellowstone Lake, 7788 feet above sea-level, is about 20 miles 
in length, by 10 to 15 miles in breadth, the circumference being about 
100 miles, and has an area of about 150 square miles. In some places 
it is said to be over 300 feet in depth, while the average depth is about 
30 feet. It was “in blossom” when I visited it in September 1907, 
the whole surface being at that time covered with masses of green 
oscillatoriz. Near the point of exit of the Yellowstone from the lake, 
at its north end, is a belt of hot springs 3 miles long by 4 mile wide, 
some of them extending into the lake. 


Two-Ocean Pond is a small lake a few miles south of Yellowstone 


Lake. It is on the summit of the range—on the great continental 
divide—and has two outlets: one into the Atlantic through the 
Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers, the other into the Pacific through 
the Snake River, a branch of the Columbia. 

Lake Mendota, in Wisconsin, lies 846 feet above sea-level, and is 
15 square miles in area and 84 feet in maximum depth. The town of 


Re 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 638 


Madison stands between this and the smaller Lake Monona, both of 
which are traversed by the Catfish River, an affluent of the Rock River, 
which joins the Mississippi a little below Davenport. Lake Mendota 
is interesting chiefly from the fact that a biological station has been 
established on its shores, and that observations have been made on 
the conditions of life and the distribution of carbonic acid in its 
waters.! Excellent bathymetrical maps were published of this and 
other lakes of Wisconsin by the Wisconsin Geological and Natural 
History Survey in the years 1899-1901. 

The Mississippi has its rise in the small Lake Itasca (lat. 47° N., 
long. 95° W.), in a morainic region. Its upper course is guided mainly 
by the irregular deposits of drift over the immature land-surface, and 
it receives the waters of the countless lakes lying in the depressions in 
Minnesota and Wisconsin. An indication of the renewed youth of 
the river is seen in the number of falls and rapids in its course, and in 
the mode of formation of Lake Pepin, a short distance below St Paul. 

Lake Pepin occupies a barrier basin, the result of a lateral stream 
carrying more detritus into the valley than the main stream can get 
rid of. As described by G. K. Warren,? the excess of material 
brought down by the Chippeway River to the Mississippi obstructs 
the main stream so as to cause an expansion of its waters. ‘The lake 
is shallow from overflowing on to an open valley, and is about 28 miles 
long by nearly 3 miles wide. 

An approximation to the same conditions occurs at the junctions 
of the Wisconsin and Illinois Rivers with the Mississippi, but in 
these instances it is only in the low-water stage that the ponding 
becomes conspicuous. 

South-Eastern Missouri affords several examples of lakes formed 
by local subsidence resulting from earthquakes. In 1811 and 1812 
a large area of the Mississippi valley was shaken, and several parts 
were depressed so as to be submerged to a small depth by river 
water. Lake St Mary is the largest of these submerged tracts, and 
measures * 30 miles in length, by 5 to 7 miles in breadth. 

The limestone regions of Kentucky have been hollowed out 
through successive ages into many caverns by the chemical action of 
rain-water on the joints of the rocks and by the erosive power of 
streams. ‘The Mammoth Cave in Kentucky (lat. 37° 14° N., long. 
36° 12’ W.) is from 40 to 300 feet high, and has vast chambers 


1 See EH. A. Birge, “ Plankton Studies on Lake Mendota,’ Trans. Wisconsin 
Acad. Nat. Scr, (Madison), vol. x. p. 421, vol. x1. p. 274, 1897-98 ; “‘ The Respiration 
of an Inland Lake,” Pop. Sci. Monthly (New York), vol. Ixxii. p. 337, 1908. 

2 Amer. Journ. Scv., Ser. 3, vol. xvi. p. 420, 1878. 

° Humphreys and Abbott, “Report on the Physics and Hydraulics of the 
Mississippi,” Professional Papers, Corps of Engineers, U.S.A., 1861, Plate IT. 


Mammoth 
Cave of 
Kentucky. 


634 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


traversed by subterranean waters communicating ultimately with the 
Green River, a tributary of the Ohio, by two deep springs. ‘These 
waters are known by the following names :—The Dead Sea, 100 feet 
long, bordered by cliffs 60 feet in height; the River Styx, a body of 
water 40 feet wide by 400 feet long; Lake Lethe, a broad basin 
enclosed by a wall 90 feet high; and Echo River, which is about 
three-quarters of a mile long, from 20 to 200 feet wide, and from 
10 to 40 feet deep. Whenever there is a flood in Green River, the 
streams in the cave become a continuous body of water. 

The fauna of the Mammoth Cave has been determined by Putnam 
and Packard! and Cope, who have catalogued twenty-eight truly 
subterranean species, besides those that mav be regarded as having 
migrated from the surface. Blind grasshoppers, blind crayfish 
(Cambarus pellucidus), blind fish (Amblyopsis spelceus) are found, and 
the great antiquity of the cave is shown by the fact than the true 
subterranean fauna may be regarded as chiefly of Pleistocene origin. 

Twin Lakes are situated in the southern part of Lake County, 
Colorado, on the west side of the valley of the Arkansas River, — 
a tributary of the Mississippi, and are about 9200 feet above 
sea-level. ‘They lie a short distance below the mouth of Lake Creek 
Camion, and the basins which they occupy were doubtless scooped out by 
the glacier which at one time flowed down this cafion and joined that 
occupied by the Arkansas River. As the glacier receded, two terminal 
moraines were formed, one of which maintains the water in Lower 
Twin Lake, and the other the water in Upper Twin Lake. The lakes are 
entirely surrounded with morainal detritus, with no bed-rock exposed 
except for a short distance along the northern shore of the lower lake. 
The area of the Upper Twin Lake at about midsummer is 474 acres, 
and that of the Lower win Lake 1440 acres. Hayden? in 1873 
gave the greatest depth as 79 feet in Upper Lake, and 76 feet in 
Lower Lake. Juday?® gives 82 feet and 74 feet for the Upper and 
Lower Lakes respectively; but both size and depth are subject to 
variation, as the lakes are now used as a storage reservoir by the 
Twin Lakes Reservoir Company for irrigation purposes. A dam is now 
maintained in the old outlet, while the present outlet is a canal. 
The principal affluent is Lake Creek, which flows into the west end of 
Upper Lake from Lake Creek Cafion. About a dozen other streams of 
various sizes contribute their supply of water to the lakes. 

The lakes, as might be expected from their altitude, have an alpine 


1 Packard and Putnam, Inhabitants of Mammoth Cave, 1872. 

2 See “Twin Lakes,” Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Surv. Territories for 1873, pp. 47 
and 54, 1874. 

3 See “A Study of Twin Lakes, Colorado, ” Bull. Bureau of Fisheries, vol. xxvi. 
p. 152, Washington, 1907. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 635 


character, and owing to the climatic conditions the water of the lakes 
never attains a very high temperature. In fact, the lakes are generally 
covered with ice for a period of about five months each year. For 
the winter 1902-03 the maximum thickness of ice on the Lower Lake 
was 34 inches, and on the Upper Lake 28 inches.1. he days are warm 
and pleasant in summer, but the temperature falls rapidly after sun- 
set. The nights are very cool, and hoar-frost may be expected every 
month of the year. Several sets of temperature observations were 
made on the two lakes during the months of July and August in 1902 
and 1903; in general the temperature conditions during summer 
were found to be similar to those that have been observed in lakes of 
corresponding size and depth at much lower altitudes. There was an 
upper stratum of water, or superthermocline region, the temperature 
of which increased materially during summer; a bottom stratum, or 
subthermocline, the temperature of which changed very little during 
summer; and a more or less distinct transition zone or thermocline 
between these two strata. ‘The thermocline was found to be from 10 
to 13 feet thick in these lakes, and the water in the lower portion of 
it was about 5° C. colder than that in the upper portion. ‘This transi- 
tion zone was not nearly so pronounced, however, in these lakes in late 
summer as was found by Juday in lakes in South-Eastern Wisconsin 
and Northern Indiana, but it agreed very closely with this zone in the 
latter lakes when their upper stratum of water had a corresponding 
temperature early inthesummer. During these observations westerly 
winds blew with considerable regularity, beginning usually about 
10 a.m. and lasting till late in the afternoon. As a result of this the 
water of the superthermocline region was kept stirred up, so that 
its temperature was tolerably uniform. ‘This produced a fairly 
distinct thermocline. The superthermocline was considerable thicker 
in the Lower than in the Upper Lake, owing to the fact that the 
wind was much more effective in disturbing the upper water of the 
former, because of its much larger size. On 7th August 1903, 
for instance, this upper stratum was 26 feet thick in the former and 
only 10 feet thick in the latter. During both summers the tempera- 
ture of the Lower Lake was somewhat higher than that of the Upper 
Lake. Most of the affluents flow into the latter, and it was found 
that the water of all except one was colder than the surface water of 
the Upper Lake, so that these afHuents would help somewhat in keep- 
ing down the temperature of this lake. 

The transparency of the water varied somewhat. In general a 
Secchi disk just disappeared from view at a depth of about 18 feet 
early in July, and the water gradually became more transparent as 
the season advanced, so that by the middle of August this depth had 


1 See Juday, op. cit., p. 155. 


River 
Columbia. 


636 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


increased to a maximum of 294 feet. The lower degree of trans- 
parency earlier in the season was due to the fact that the snow on the 
mountains was melting more or less rapidly, and the streams in 
consequence were swollen and more or less turbid. As summer 
advanced the streams became smaller and their waters were clear. 
The maximum transparency of these lakes exceeds by 10 feet that 
found in the lakes of South-Eastern Wisconsin in 1900, and by 21 
feet that found in Winona Lake, Indiana, in 1901. 

The Red River, one of. the tributaries of the Mississippi in its 
lower course, furnishes examples of two different kinds of lakes. The 


head-water streams bring down more detritus than the trunk stream | 


can carry away, and its flood-plain is built up so fast that the smaller 
tributaries cannot fill up their valleys at the same pace; they are 
consequently ponded, and many lateral lakes are formed, arranged, 
as Davis aptly says, like the leaves on a twig. Lakes are also formed 
on this river by the blocking of streams by timber-rafts, compar- 
able to the “sudds” of the Nile. ‘The rafts form floating islands, 
and dam the streams so as to cause their waters to spread out in 
shallow lakes 20 to 30 miles in length, sometimes many square miles 
in area, and covered with living vegetation.! 

‘The Mississippi in its lower course is an old river with a very 
gentle slope meandering in broad curves through a wide flood-plain. 
The loops are frequently cut off, and crescent-shaped or “ ox-bow ” 
lakes are left. At its mouth the river is rapidly building a low- 
grade delta (with lakes) out into the Gulf of Mexico. 

Lake Pontchartrain, the largest delta basin at the present time, 
40 miles long by 25 miles broad, and with a depth of only 27 feet, 
lies between the Mississippi and the Pearly River. It communicates 
with Lake Maurepas on the west, and with Lake Borgne on the east. 

Lake Borgne, in the same region, 1s of later origin and is not yet 
completed. It communicates with the Gulf of Mexico in the east, 
and is connected with Lake Pontchartrain on the west by the Rigolets 
Pass, about 10 miles long. i 


A great extent of country drained by the Columbia River and its 
tributary, the Snake River, in Idaho, Oregon, and Washington, 1s 
built up of vast lava-sheets which have converted a broad depression 
between the Rocky and the Cascade Mountains into an extensive 
plateau, the great plain of Columbia. ‘These lava-sheets formed great 
dams across the valleys, and the marshes round the edges of the 
Snake River lava-sheets seem to be lakes formerly retained by lava 
barriers but now verging on extinction. ‘The Columbia now skirts the 


1 Chas. Lyell, Principles of Geology, 11th ed., vol. i. p. 441 ; Humphreys and 
Abbott, op. cit., p. 37. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 637 


northern and western borders of the great plain, but in the glacial 
period, when its present course was obstructed by ice-streams that 
descended from the mountains on the north and west, it was forced to 
cut across the plain through a series of deep cafions in the lava. ‘The 
valleys formed by the river and its tributaries at that time, now nearly 
dry, are known as “coulées,” and the main valley as the “ Grand 
Coulée.” The latter is broken at one place by the cliffs of a former 
cataract, that must have greatly exceeded Niagara in height and 
breadth. Rapids and cataracts form depressions at their bases, where 
excavation is accelerated by the friction of the sand and stones moved 
by the swift current on their bottom and sides. If the stream channel 
in which such inequalities have been produced be abandoned as a line 
of drainage, the basins are transformed into lakes retained in part by 
the barrier formed by the load deposited by the stream waters when 
the current slackened, some distance below the falls and rapids. ‘T'wo 
such lakes exist in the Grand Coulée, each about one mile long by 
half a mile broad, and of considerable depth.t When fractures of the 
earth’s crust occur, the edges of the broken strata on one side are 
sometimes elevated and those on the opposite side depressed. In some 
cases lake-basins are produced at these faults, but in others, numerous 
examples of which are seen in the courses of the Columbia and 
Yackima Rivers, the edges of the fault blocks have been upheaved so 
slowly across the streams that the waters have maintained their course 
and cut a channel through the obstructions as they were elevated, 
thus preventing the formation of lakes. 

The drainage of one of the “coulées” has been obstructed by 
immense sand-dunes formed by drifting sand, which frequently travels 
across the country for a score of miles in the direction of the prevail- 
ing winds, and the dam so formed retains the waters of Moses Lake.” 
Below the dam are several springs, which serve to keep the waters 
of the lake fresh, and, fed by lake-waters percolating through the 
obstruction, combine to form Alkali Creek, which in winter sometimes 
has sufficient volume to reach the Columbia, but in summer suffers 
from evaporation and terminates in a series of alkaline pools. 

Lake Chelan, in the Cascade range, draining to the Columbia by 
a river about 2 miles long, is a narrow, river-like sheet of water 
with windings extending westward from the Columbia 70 miles into 
the mountains, bordered on either hand by a continuous series of 
rugged peaks that rise from 5000 to over 7000 feet above its surface. 
The deep, narrow, trench-like valley, now partially filled with water, 
continues beyond the head of the lake for a distance of about 25 

1 See I. C. Russell, “‘ Geological Reconnaissance in Central Washington,” Bull. 


U.S. Geol. Surv., No. 108, p. 90, 1893. 
gosee LC. hussell op: cit:, p90. 


River San 
Joaquin. 


Mexico. 


Central 
America. 


638 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


miles into the highlands, thus reaching in total length about 100 
miles, and the width of the valley at the level of the lake is only 
about 4 miles. The lake is over 1100 feet deep, for in several sound- 
ings at that depth Russell found no bottom; the surface is only 950 
feet above the sea, so that the bottom of the trough is many feet 
below sea-level. ‘The lake has no beach, and there is scarcely a trace 
on the rocks, except at the eastern end, to show that it has altered its 
level, so that it must be of comparatively recent origin, and appears 
to date from the glacial invasion already mentioned. ‘The valley was 
not, however, cut by the glacier which occupied it, but is a stream- 
worn channel, and must at a still earlier period in the earth’s history 
have been excavated in the hard granite by the action of water. 


Tulare Lake, in the southern part of the valley of California, is 
formed by the King River ponding back the upper streams of the San 
Joaquin River. The river system is youthful, and the lateral stream, 
gnawing into a lofty slope, sweeps down with it more waste than the 
main stream can carry away. The surplus accumulates as a fan-shaped 
delta, and dams back the water, forming a shallow lake with indefinite 
marshy shores much overgrown with reeds (Spanish twles). It was 
formerly nearly 50 miles in length, but is now practically dry as 
a result of the withdrawal for irrigation purposes of the waters of 
King and Kern Rivers formerly discharging into it. 


Lake Chapala, the largest lake in Mexico, is traversed by the 
Rio Lerma, or Rio Grande de Santiago, which flows into the Pacific 
north of San Blas. The lake is in a manner an expansion of the 
river, covering an area of about 1300 square miles, and the maximum 
depth is 98 feet. It is about 80 miles in length by 20 miles in 
width, but fluctuates with the dry and wet seasons. 

The other important lakes of Mexico are connected with inland 
drainage areas, and have been described under that heading. 


Lakes Nicaragua and Managua both lie in a depression in the 
west of the State of Nicaragua, separated from the Pacific by the 
continental divide from 12 to about 30 miles in width. The overflow 
from Lake Managua, the smaller and more northerly of the two, is 
carried into Lake Nicaragua, and thence by the San Juan into the 
Caribbean Sea at Greytown. Lake Nicaragua has an area of about 4400 
square miles, is about 110 miles in length by about 40 miles in average 
breadth, with a maximum depth of about 150 feet, and its surface 
varies from 110 feet to 97 feet above sea-level. The lake contains 
several islands, some of which show monuments of an old civilisation, 
and one—the island of Omotepe—is an active volcano. A ship-canal 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 689 


from sea to sea, by way of the San Juan River and Lake Nicaragua, 
was commenced in 1889 by a United States company, but the work 
was suspended when the United States Government took up the 
Panama Canal scheme. Lake Managua is 40 miles in length by 
25 miles in maximum breadth, with an area of approximately 500 
square miles and a maximum depth of about 90 feet. The tempera- 
ture of the water taken in March 1906 at several points at a depth 
of 12 feet was 83° F. (28°:3.C.). The same temperature was observed 
at the northern end of Lake Nicaragua in 18 feet of water. 

The fish fauna of these lakes is rather poor considering their size, 
and comprises about 30 species of true fresh-water fishes, the majority 
of which are endemic.! The presence of marine fishes in the lakes is 
interesting ; with one or two possible exceptions, these are all shore 
fishes of the Atlantic coast, such as run up all suitable rivers. 
Mr ‘Tate Regan informs me in a letter that the marine element is a 
modern one, and does not in any way indicate that the lakes were 
formerly marine, but only that they were recently accessible from 
the sea. One of the peculiar ichthyic features of Lake Nicaragua is 
the red, or partially red, cichlids or mojarras. 


During the glacial epoch a fairly warm temperature must have 
prevailed in inter-tropical South America, so that the running waters 
suffered no serious arrest, and the rivers, except in the sub- Antarctic 
lands of the extreme south, where indications of former glaciation on 
a vast scale are still in evidence, have excavated their beds down to 
their natural levels, drained most of the old lacustrine basins, and 
effaced the greater number of the falls and rapids which formerly 
abounded in many districts. 

The continent of South America was in former geological periods 
probably occupied by an inland sea surrounded by elevated masses of 
land. The eastern portion (the Brazilian highlands) was very much 
higher than the western (the Andean chain), and as the latter gradually 
rose, and the former was lowered by subsidence and denudation, the 
sea was broken into two or three secondary basins, the northern portions 
becoming transformed into the fluvial valleys which now constitute 
the Orinoco and Amazon systems, and the southern into the valley 
now traversed by the Parana-Paraguay River and its tributaries. This 
appears to be the explanation of the intercommunications between the 
river systems ; the Orinoco is linked to the Amazon by the Cassequiare, 
and the Amazon to the Parana by an intricate network of channels. 
The slopes of the divide in the latter case are so gently inclined that 
the slightest cause suffices to divert the currents from one basin to 
the other. “Due to their horizontality, ali the plains, from the 

1 Biologia Oentrali Americana: Pisces, by C. Tate Regan, London, 1906-8, 


SouTH 
AMERICA. 


640 THE FRESH-WATER. LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


mouth of the Mamoré to the Pilcomayo” (that is, right across the 
main Amazon-Parana divide), ‘“‘are inundated from October to March, 
and present the aspect of a great ocean studded with green islands. 

. Across the Monde Grande, a simply overturned tree would change 
the course of the waters.” + 

Lake of Maracaibo is a marine inlet, the largest in South 
America, 137 miles long by 75 miles broad, 9000 square miles in area, 
but it is rather of the nature of a lake or lagoon than of a gulf, being 
so entirely landlocked that the tides are scarcely felt a little way 
inside the bar. Beyond the bar the waters are quite fresh, the 
supplies received from the surrounding streams being greatly in excess 
of the marine currents. The greatest depth is 500 feet, but the 
stream deposits are slowly filling up the inlet. 

Lake of Valencia, in Venezuela, 22 miles broad and 300 feet 
in maximum depth, which fills a great part of the rich Aragua 
valley, is one of the most remarkable sheets of water in the world, 
for, although it seems completely encircled by the coast and inland 
ranges, it has two different outlets, on the western shore close to 
the city of Valencia, by one of which it has occasionally sent its 
overflow through the Trincheras northwards to the Agua Caliente, an 
affluent of the Caribbean Sea, and by the other it has communicated 
several times through the Paito southwards with the Pao, a tributary 
of the Orinoco. According to the oscillations of level the southern 
emissary has thus been alternately an affluent and an effluent. ‘The 
water had been steadily subsiding for some years before 1882, but 
since that time the lake appears to be rising to its former high level 
when it discharged into the Orinoco; the waters of the lake ner 
become slightly beceke | 


The lakes situated along the Great Andes in Chili and Patagonia 
are numerous. In Chili, south of Arauco, there are many lakes, all 
regarded as being very deep, although few trustworthy soundings 
have yet been carried out. 

Lake Nahuelhuapi, in Patagonia, 2000 feet above sea-level, the 
source of one of the head-streams of the Rio Negro, is about 40 miles 
long, with an extreme breadth of 9 or 10 miles. 

Lake Buenos Ayres, in Patagonia, about 50 miles long by about 
12 miles broad, presents a very remarkable hydrographic feature.” 
The lake draws most of its waters from the northern glaciers by 
means of a fairly large river called the Fenix. For about 30 miles 


1 Castlenau, quoted by G. E. Church, “ Argentine Geography and the Ancient 
Pampean Sea,” Geogr. Journ., vol. xii. p. 389, 1898. 

2 See J. W. Evans, “Hydrography of the Andes,” Geogr. Journ., vol. xxv. 
p. 71, 1905. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 641 


this river holds its own as an important stream, until it divides into 
two channels, one flowing into the lake and through it to the Pacific, 
and the other to the Atlantic. 

Lake Argentino, in Patagonia, stretching east and west, is about 
60 miles long, and from 10 to 20 miles broad. The western end has 
several arms penetrating deep into the recesses of the cordillera, and 
there receiving the water of numerous glaciers. Large icebergs are to 
be seen floating on the lake with the prevailing westerly wind. Lake 
Argentino receives the drainage from Lake Viedma, and the outflow 
is by the River Santa Cruz into the Atlantic. A low range of 
mountains separates Lake Viedma from Lake San Martin, which has 
an exit into the Pacific. 

Lake San Martin occupies what was once a strait joining the 
Atlantic and Pacific. The main body of the water runs almost east 
and west, penetrating into the heart of the cordillera. The mountains 
rise abruptly from its shores, and it is subject to the most violent 
storms. Captain H. L. Crosthwait +! made observations of seiches on 
the lake. 

Laguna Tar.—At the east end of the San Martin valley is a 
small shallow lake called Laguna Tar. Crosthwait says that at 
present its waters flow into Lake San Martin (that is, in a westerly 
direction), but that the continental water-divide is here so ill-defined 
that a cutting of a few feet would cause Laguna Tar to flow to the 
Atlantic. The dry bed of a stream is visible, and in time of flood 
this lake may, temporarily, have an exit in both directions. 


No lakes of any importance are connected with the rivers of Ausrratta, 
Australia which drain to the sea. 


Several large lakes in the centre of Tasmania, nearly 4000 feet Tasmania. 
above sea-level, including the Great Lake, Lakes Sorell and Echo, 
drain by various tributaries into the River Derwent. The Great 
Lake, 3800 feet above the sea, is the largest, being about 12 miles 
long by 4 miles wide. The Derwent River takes its rise in Lake 
St Clair. 


The Waikato River is the largest in North Island, New Zealand, New 
and, rising about lat. 39° S., drains Lakes Taupo, Waikare, and cess 
Whangape on its course to the sea. 


1 See “ A Journey to Lake San Martin, Patagonia,” Geogr. Journ., vol. xxv. 
p- 286, 1905. 

2 The lakes of New Zealand were surveyed by Keith Lucas in 1902; the 
particulars are abstracted from his report in the Geogr. Jowrn., vol. xxiii. pp. 645 


and 744, 1904, 
4] 


642 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Lake Taupo extends from lat. 38° 40’ to 38° 57’S., and from long. 
175° 46’ to 176° 6’ E., lying 1211 feet above the sea. It'has an area 
of about 238 square miles; its length is 25 miles from north-east to 
south-west, its greatest breadth 164 miles, and its mean breadth, at 
right angles to the long axis, 94 miles. The lake is roughly divided 
into three portions: (1) the southern end, the greater part of which is 
included between the 300 and 360-feet contours; (2) the western 
bay, which lies chiefly between the 360 and 420-feet contours ; and 
(3) the north-east portion, which includes the maximun depth of 
534 feet. The mean depth is 367 feet. The hot springs of 'Tokaanu 
and of Waipahihi pour their waters into this lake. 

At about 45 miles from its mouth, and shortly after its junction 
with the Waipu, the river breaks through a chain of low hills and 
enters a broad plain, in its course through which it is flanked on 
either side by a series of shallow lakes—Waikare and Kimihia on 
the east, and Whangape. Roto Ngaro, and Wahi on the west. 

Lake Waikare, about 11 square miles in area, is separated from 
the Waikato River by a strip of low land, from which projects a 
peninsula dividing the lake into a larger north and a smaller south 
basin, leaving a channel one mile wide between them. ‘The depth 
over the greater part of the lake is from 8 to 9 feet. A hot spring 
rises from the bed of the lake, in a small depression including the 
maximum depth of 12 feet ; and two streams, the Te Onetea and the 
Rangiriri, serve as outlets for the waters of the lake when the 
Waikato is low, but a rise in the level of the river is sufficient 
to reverse the current in them. In this way the Waikato serves 
as the chief source of water for the lake in certain seasons. As the 
Rangiriri joins the river at a lower level than the Te Onetea, the 
‘former may serve as an inlet while the latter is serving as an 
outlet. Lake Waikare reduces the harmful action of floods on the 
Waikato River. 

Lake Whangape lies to the north-west side of the plain through 
which the Waikato runs, and drains to it by a small stream. Its 
length is 54 miles, its greatest breadth a little more than 2 miles, 
and its area about 4 square miles. A narrow channel a quarter of a 
mile broad divides a larger north from a smaller south basin. The 
greater part of the lake-floor is included within the 8-feet contour, 
the maximum depth being 9 feet. 

Lake Tarawera is about 9 miles long and 63 miles broad, and 
drains by the Tarawera Creek to the Matata River, and thence to 
the Bay of Plenty. The temporary damming of the outlet from Lake 
Tarawera, and the subsequent breaking down of the barrier, will 
be referred to in the description of the Great Tarawera Volcanic Rift. 

H See pea 7. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 643 


North and north-westward from Lake 'Tarawera les a rugged 
voleanic country dotted with numerous lakes, the largest being Lake 
Rotorua. These lakes, called the *“* Hot Lakes” of New Zealand, 
because their shores are marked by geysers and hot springs, appear to 
fill depressions formed by the down-faulting of limited areas in a lava 
plateau which formerly existed, but is now represented by the flat 
voleanic hills bordering the lakes. ‘These lakes drain to the Bay of 
Plenty. 

Lake Rotorua, 915 feet above sea-level, covers an area of about 
32 square miles, and consists of a roughly circular basin 6 miles in 
diameter, broken by an irregular southern extension, which increases 
the length in a north-and-south direction to a maximum of 73 miles ; 
the mean breadth is about 4 miles. The deepest sounding taken in 
the lake was 120 feet, in a hole probably not more than a chain 
across near the southern shore, the average depth being 39 feet. ‘The 
lake is fed by several streams and a great number of springs, many of 
which are hot. The hot springs occur in two main groups, one 
north-east of the lake, and the other on its southern shore. The 
springs of the latter group are close to the waters’ edge or actually in 
the lake, and where the water is shallow the presence of springs at 
the bottom is shown by the milkiness of the water, due to sulphur 
held in suspension. ‘The south end of the lake is marked by great 
thermal activity. The outlet is by the Ohau stream, which, after 
crossing a belt of low-lying flat land little more than half a mile in 
width, enters the west end of Lake Rotoiti. 

Lake Rotoiti, 910 feet above the sea, covers an area of about 
14 square miles; its length is nearly 11 miles, its breadth from 
1 to 2 miles, its greatest depth 230 feet, and its mean depth 
69 feet. The lake is divided by a narrow channel into a large 
eastern and a small western basin. The outlet is by the Okere or 
Kaituna River. 

Lakes Waikaremoana and Wairaumoana lie at the southern 
border of Tuhoe Land, 2015 feet above sea-level, 25 miles from the 
sea-coast of Hawke Bay, to which they drain by the Wairoa River. 
The land between the lakes and the sea-coast is intersected by 
irregular ranges of hills, increasing in height as the lakes are ap- 
proached. 'The valley occupied by the main body of the lakes runs 
parallel to the Panekiri range for a distance of 7+ miles measured in 
a Straight line. Two arms run out from this valley from its opposite 
sides, about midway between its extreme ends, one towards the south, 
leading to the outlet of the lakes at Onepoto, the other formed by 
the Whanganui and Mokau inlets. The greater part of the lakes, 
therefore, has the form of a cross, the axes of which measure 74 and 64 
miles in length, and to that part the name Lake Waikaremoana strictly 


644 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


applies. ‘The remainder is a narrow valley, 54 miles long, directed 
approximately north-east and south-west, called Lake Wairaumoana, 
which is connected to Lake Waikaremoana by a passage half a mile 
in width, known as the Straits of Manaia. The area of Lake 
Waikaremoana is about 15 square miles, and of Lake Wairaumoana 
about 6 square miles. ‘The greatest depth recorded in the whole lake 
is one of 846 feet in Lake Waikaremoana, and occurs within a depres- 
sion having an area of 1°3 square miles exceeding 800 feet in depth. 
The deepest sounding taken in Lake Wairaumoana is 375 feet. ‘The 
mean depth of Lake Waikaremoana is 397 feet, or 47 per cent. 
of the maximum depth; the mean depth of Lake Wairaumoana is 
175 feet, or 49 per cent. Lucas considers these lakes a system of 
radiating valleys, having the deepest part at the point where all 
the valleys meet. 

Lake Wakatipu is drained by the Kawarau River, a tributary of 
the Clutha River, in South Island, and lies at a height of 1016 feet 
above sea-level, extending from lat. 44° 50’ to 45° 20’ S., and from 
long. 168° 20’ to 168° 43’ E. The two ends of the lake trend in a 
direction almost north and south, but the middle part runs nearly 
east and west. The length is 49 miles, the greatest breadth about 
3 miles, and the area exceeds 112 square miles. The maximum depth 
obtained by Lucas was 1242 feet; the volume of water is 15 cubic 
miles, and the mean depth 707 feet. The lake appears to be a 
mountain valley filled with water. 

The Clutha River takes its rise in the two lakes Wanaka (area 
75 square miles) and Hawea (area 48 square miles), in which maxi- 
mum depths of 1085 and 1285 feet respectively have been reported. 

Lake Manapouri, 597 feet above the sea, extends from 
lat. 45° 27’ to 45° 35’ S., and from long. 167° 28’ to 167° 40’ EF. It 
is very complicated in outline, and covers an area of about 56 square 
miles. ‘The greatest depth, 1458 feet, occurred within a large depres- 
sion about 24 square miles in area, which exceeds 1400 feet in depth, 
the mean depth being 328 feet. The surface of the water lies at 
approximately 597 feet above sea-level. The lake receives from the 
north the surplus waters of Lake Te Anau (36 miles in length and 
1 to 6 miles in breath), and drains south by the Waiau into the 
South Pacific Ocean. 


CRATER LAKES 


Crater lakes would appear to constitute a class by themselves, 
since they are not directly connected with river drainage, and are to a 
very small extent influenced by climatic oscillations. They occupv 
the hollows in the summits of the cones of dormant volcanoes, and the 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 645 


basins, called ‘ calderas,” which are formed when a volcanic cone is 
destroyed by a violent explosion, or is undermined by the liquid lava 
in the core of a mountain. 


Lake of Laach, near the Rhine below Coblenz, lies at an altitude Evrors. 

of 750 feet in the Eifel, one of the regions of recently extinct volcanic 
action in Europe. It is an oval cavity, 14 square miles in area, with 
a maximum diameter of 14 miles, a maximum depth of 174 feet, and 
a mean depth of 107 feet. It has been made to drain by an artificial 
cut into the River Nette, a short tributary of the Rhine, below the 
Mosel. ‘The surface of the surrounding country is strewn with 
fragments from the hollow, but they do not form a distinct crater- 
wall enclosing it. The water has a disagreeable taste, and never 
freezes. 


Lake Lonar is situated on the trap-plateau of the Deccan in Asta. 
India. It is a shallow salt pool at the bottom of a cavity about a 
mile in diameter, and three or four hundred feet deep. On the north and 
north-east sides the edge of the hollow is on a level with the surround- 
ing country; elsewhere there is a rim of blocks of trap, 40 to 100 feet 
high. ‘The volume of the rim is, however, only about a thousandth 
part of the cavity, and no lava-flow from it can be detected on the 
surrounding surface, so that it must owe its existence in part to the 
effect of subsidence. 


Three lakes, separated by narrow walls, occupy the great crater of 
the Shiranesan of Kusatsu, Northern Japan. ‘The sides of the cone, 
as well as the lake-basins, are composed of grey tuff and sulphur, 
through which in places andesitic rocks crop out in the bold cliffs and 
pinnacles. ‘The crater is oval and nearly half a mile in length, but 
the lakes are circular. The central lake-basin, the water of which is 
boiling in the north-western part, is a quarter of a mile in diameter, 
but all the lakes appear to be diminishing in size.’ The crater of 
Azuma, in the same region, 1s also occupied by a lake a quarter of a 
mile in diameter. 


North of Lake Nyasa, in a hollow between two ranges of Arrica. 
mountains, lies a series of seven volcanic lakes? surrounded by extinct 
volcanoes, cinder beds, and hot springs :— 


1 C, E. B. Mitford, “ Notes on the Physiography of Certain Volcanoes in 
Northern Japan,” Geogr. Journ., vol. xxxi. p. 198, 1908. 

2 See D. Kerr-Cross, “Crater Lakes north of Lake Nyassa,” Geogr. Journ., 
vol. v. p. 112, 1895. 


AMERICA, 


646 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Lakes Kingire and Ikapa are said to be about 500 yards in 
diameter, and abound in fish. 

Lake Kiunguvuvu, about two-thirds of a mile in diameter, is 
situated in a very large volcanic cone. It has no visible outlet, but 
since several streams rise on the side of the cone, the water probably 
finds some underground exit. 

Lakes Itende and Itamba are salle lakes in the vicinity of 
Kiunguvuvu. 

Lake Kisiwa is about one square mile in area, and as the cone is 
less defined it is probably older than the others. 

Lake Wutiva lies in a hollow in Mount Rungwe, two-thirds of a 
mile in diameter. It contains little water, the surface of which is 
about 1500 feet below the rim of the crater. Several springs were 
observed in the sides of the crater, but the lake has no visible outlet. 


Crater Lake in Oregon is situated in Cascade Range, at 6239 feet 
above sea-level. It is oval in shape, about 21 square miles in area, 
and is surrounded by cliffs ranging from 500 to nearly 2000 feet 
in height. ‘The lake is nearly 2000 feet deep in places, and near 
its western margin contains a rocky island, evidently a former volcanic 
vent. It occupies the bowl of a volcanic cone, which must have risen 
some 6000 feet above the rim of the present lake. The entire 
summit sank owing to its being undermined by the liquid lava in the 
core of the mountain. 

Boiling Lake of Dominica was only discovered in 1875 through 
the accident of a man’s losing his way in the forests of Dominica. It 
lies in a voleanic centre called Grande Soufriere, the area of which 
is about 5 square miles, at an elevation of 2425 feet above the sea. 
The lake is elliptical in form, measures about 200 feet by 100 feet 
when full, and drains intermittently into the Pointe Mulatre stream. 
Vertical cliffs rise from the water, and no bottom was found in 
sounding 10 feet from the edge at 195 feet. It is wholly different 
in character from the ordinary geyser. Its waters do not rise in 
fountain form but merely become ebullient, remaining so for days, 
while at other times it is quiescent—but still a lake, not a funnel. 
It is not yet known whether ebullition occurs at definite periods. 
Sulphuretted hydrogen is intermittently exhaled, and proved fatal to 
a visitor and guide in 1901, while other visitors have suffered from 
its effects. 

The crater of the Soufriere in St Vincent is occupied by a lake. 
Prior to May 1902, when the last eruption of the volcano took place, 
the Soufritre was noted for its beautiful lake of green water. Mr 
P. F. Huggins! took soundings in the years between 1896 and 1900, 

1 See An Account of the Eruptions of the St Vincent Soufriere, St Vincent, 1902. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 647 


and found a depth of 525 feet in the middle of the lake. This deep 
lake was thrown out by the 1902 eruption, and its place taken by 
a shallow pool of brown muddy water, while the walls were completely 
denuded of the vegetation which had previously covered them. For 
about two years the pool was troubled with gentle puffs of steam, or 
was thrown out and destroyed by strong eruptions, but now the crater 
is perfectly quiet, and the lake has regained much of its former size 
and depth. The water is a beautiful yellowish green colour, and the 
walls give various tones of red, purple, and grey, producing a 
marvellous setting to the green lake. The surface of the water is 
about 2000 feet below the rim of the crater, which is about 3013 feet 
above sea-level.! 

Lake of Atitlan, in Guatemala, is 24 miles in length by 10 miles 
in breadth. There are several large volcanoes on its south bank ; on 
the east, north, and west, where there are no volcanoes, the slopes 
are very steep and much cut up by valleys of rivers and small streams 
flowing into the lake. It has been supposed that the basin of the 
lake is only a continuation and union of these valleys, and that, after 
they had been excavated, the volcanoes broke out on their beds and 
formed the lake by blocking the exit for the water. On the other 
hand, the west shore of the lake extends in a well-marked, almost 
precipitous bank right round to the south of the volcanoes of San 
Pedro and Atitlan, and is perfectly separate from the slopes of San 
Pedro, and to a large extent from those of Atitlan; it is composed 
of beds of tuff, all dipping to the south towards the Pacific and away 
from the lake. This seems to show that it is the hp of an enormous 
crater, and that the volcanoes of San Pedro, Atitlan, and Toliman, 
giants as they are, are merely secondary cones thrown up on its floor. 
If that is so, this crater must certainly be one of the largest, if not 
the largest, in the world.’ 


The great Tarawera volcanic rift in North Island, New Zealand, 
was formed at the time of the great eruption of Mount Tarawera on 
10th June 1886, and stretches from Mount Wahanga, the most 
northerly point of the Tarawera range, to about 600 yards north- 
west of Lake Okaro. The length of this huge fissure is about 9 miles, 
and though practically continuous, it is divided by low partitions 
into several somewhat distinct craters. As a result of the eruption 
streams were dammed and temporary lakes formed. The bed of 
Tarawera Creek, which drains Lake Tarawera, was filled up, and 


1 See E. O. Hovey, ‘Camping on the Soufriere of St Vincent,” Bull. Amer. 
Geogr. Soc., vol. xli. p. 72, 1909. 

2 See Tempest Anderson, “The Volcanoes of Guatemala,” Geogr. Journ., vol. 
XXX1. p. 482, 1908. 


NEW 
ZEALAND. 


648 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


the lake immediately started to rise. For years some of the water 
found exit through cracks in the tuff fillmg the creek bed, but when 
the lake had risen 42 feet the water flowed over the dam of tuff 
which prevented its exit along the old channel and broke much of 
it away, so that the level is now 11 feet below its maximum. Low 
cliffs marking the former level of the lake testify to the changes 
which its surface has undergone. Maclaren, of the Geological Survey 
of India, expresses a doubt as to the correctness of the views of Suess! 
regarding the necessarily deep-seated origin of geyser water, and 
contends that such waters may be of quite superficial origin, quoting 
the instance of the Waimangu geyser in support of his theory.” This 
great geyser, discovered in 1900, which remained in active eruption 
for over four years, became dormant on 31st October and Ist November 
1904, the very days on which the pent-up waters of 'Tarawera Lake 
overtopped their barrier. 

Lake Rotomahana lies south-west of the Tarawera range, in 
about lat. 38° 20’S., and occupies the site of an immense crater, which 
was apparently the most active point of the 'Tarawera eruption in 
1886, when the exquisite siliceous pink and white terraces were de- 
stroyed. Immediately after the great outburst there was comparatively 
little water distributed in a number of small ponds in the huge hole, 
but with no outlet. The water gradually rose, and to-day is still 
rising, though much of the water entering the lake must find some 
subterranean outlet. It is a sheet of dirty, muddy, green water some 
3% miles long by less than 2 miles broad, and with a maximum depth 
of 427 feet. The boundaries of the lake correspond with the walls of 
the crater. Thermal action is at present limited to the western end of 
the lake, where, however, there is abundant evidence of the proximity 
of a heated interior in the great columns of steam ascending from 
the cracks in the stratified tuff beds. A warm stream enters the 
south-western end of Lake Rotomahana, formed by the junction of 
two steaming cascades which flow from the craters of Inferno and 
Waimangu. 

The temperature of the lake in the Inferno crater is about 180° 
Fahr. (82° C.), and its surface is rather less than 2 acres in extent. It 
emits almost continually steam charged with hydrogen sulphide. 

In 1899 Echo Lake crater contained a lake almost a quarter of a 
mile in diameter, which has now diminished to a small pond a few 
yards across, lying at the base of a cliff of variegated tuff. The floor 
of the remainder of the crater is formed by a surface of tuff hardened 
mainly by silica, but partly by incrustations of alum; through this 


1 Suess, “Hot Springs and Volcanic Phenomena,” Geogr. Journ., vol. xx. 
p. 518, 1902. 
* Geol. Mag., ser. 5, vol. iii. p. 511, 1906. 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 649 


crust spout innumerable small jets of boiling water. This flat is 
known as the “ Frying Pan.” 

The Southern Crater, the most south-westerly of all the craters 
along the line of the great rift, lies about 200 yards south-west of 
the “Frying Pan.” Like most of the other craters, it is bordered by 
precipitous walls. It is filled by a pond of greenish water 50 or 60 
yards across by 100 yards in length, and 60 or 80 feet deep. Some 
years ago the crater was quite dry. Unlike the other craters, it shows 
no sign of thermal activity. 


ANTARCTIC LAKES! 


At Cape Royds on Ross Island (latitude about 77° 30’ 8S.) the 
British Antarctic Expedition, 1907-9, found many small lakes 
occupying rock-basins. The smaller ones melted in summer, but 
those over 5 feet in depth did not even partially melt in the two 
summers when they were under observation. A few soundings were 
made by digging shafts in the ice. The deepest sounded—Blue Lake 
—had 5 feet of water under 21 feet of ice. In another place Blue 
Lake was frozen to the bottom (at 15 feet). The bed was of gravel 
in angular pieces, covered with a thin film of yellowish vegetation. 
Coast Lake, about 4 feet deep, had a thick layer of a soft peaty 
deposit. Few of these lakes had any overflow to the sea. One lake, 
separated from the sea only by a broad stretch of flat gravelly beach, 
had its surface 18 feet below sea-level. 

Vegetation, in the form of broad, lichen-like sheets of an orange- 
coloured plant, covered the beds of the lakes, and on it were myriads 
of microscopic animals. ‘These animals (Rotifers, etc.) showed them- 
selves capable of living in the adult condition frozen in the ice for a 
number of years. ‘There were few plankton organisms in the open 
water, nothing being seen but some blue-green Alge (Oscillatoria, 
etc.), some Infusoria, and a Rotifer (in one lake only). 


SUMMARY 


The foregoing review of the principal lakes and lake-regions of the 
world is necessarily incomplete and fragmentary: at the present time 
our knowledge of the physical and biological conditions in many of 
these lakes is very meagre, but is rapidly extending in all directions. 
We may look forward to interesting additions to the science of 


1 See notes by James Murray in Shackleton, The Heart of the Antarctic, 
London, 1909. 


650 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


limnography in the near future, which will have an important 
influence on our conceptions as to the past history of the earth and 
its fauna and flora. 

In all, about 250 lakes have been referred to and briefly described. 
About 60 of these are situated in inland drainage areas, and the 
remaining 190 lakes are situated in the areas which drain directly to 
the ocean. ‘The area covered by the 60 lakes of the inland drainage 
areas 1s just about the same as that of the 190 lakes draining 
directly to the ocean, namely 300,000 square English miles for each. 
This arises from the great size of the Caspian Sea, which is situated 
in the inland drainage area of the Eural-Asian continent. It is 
difficult to estimate even approximately the area covered by all the 
lakes and rivers of the world, but it may be taken as not less than 
1,000,000 square English miles, or about 5); of the land-surface. 

The most abundant development of lakes at the present time is 
found in those regions which have in recent geological times been 
covered by an ice-sheet. As examples may be cited the lakes 
situated towards the head-waters of the rivers St Lawrence, Churchill, 
Nelson, and Mississippi in America, and the Rhine, the Rhone, and 
the Po in Europe. On the other hand, some of the greatest river- 
basins in the world contain very few lakes, and none of great dimen- 
sions. ‘The Amazon and the Orinoco in South America, the Indus 
and Ganges in Asia, the Niger and Orange Rivers in Africa, may be 
mentioned in this connection. In Eastern Africa there are numerous 
lakes towards the head-waters of the Congo, the Zambesi, and the 
Nile, and there is no evidence of glaciation in the region. Here the 
basins appear to have been formed by earth-warping and volcanic 
action in recent geological times. 

A detailed study of the phenomena now exhibited at the surface 


of the solid crust of the earth is the surest method of obtaining 


knowledge for the correct interpretation of the conditions under 
which the various geological formations of past ages were laid down. 
In the present state of our knowledge, five distinct regions appear to 
be indicated, each of which has its own individual characteristics, 
although it must be admitted that on the border-lines between these 
different areas the interpretation of the phenomena may be difficult 
and uncertain. 

I. The Region of Inland Drainage Areas.—This is estimated 
to cover 11,000,000 square English miles of the continents, or about 
20 per cent. of the land-surfaces and 54 per cent. of the whole 
surface of the globe. The rainfall is usually less than 10 inches 
per annum. ‘The sand, gravel, and fine dust derived from the dis- 
integration of the rocks are distributed by winds and water in a 
manner not observed in other regions, and these fragments often 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 651 


bear the marks of their origin. Vegetable and animal remains are 
never abundant. Great sandstone beds are always in process of 
formation. The lake-deposits, so far as yet examined, present 
peculiarities which can be detected by the microscope, and are 
largely composed of sandy particles, even when mixed up with salt 
deposited from the salt lakes. There is very little or no organic 
deposit of calcium carbonate. 

II. The Region of Lakes and Rivers draining directly to the 
Ocean.—This covers about 44,000,000 square English miles, or 
about 80 per cent. of the land-surfaces and 224 per cent. of the 
whole surface of the globe. The rainfall is most abundant, and so 
also is vegetable life. Coal and lignite beds have been laid down in 
this region in past ages, and in all the clays, muds, and marls there 
is usually a large admixture of terrestrial organic remains. Lakes 
are not numerous except in places where there has been recent 
glaciation and earth movements. ‘The deposits in the lakes can, on 
examination, usually be distinguished from those formed in inland 
drainage areas. They do not contain any salt deposits, and the 
aspect of the sandy particles is different. 

III. The Littoral and Shallow-Water Region.—This region 
of the ocean, from high-water mark down to a depth of 600 feet, 
covers about 10,000,000 square English miles, or 7 per cent. of the 
water-surface and 5 per cent. of the entire surface of the globe. The 
formations in this region consist of the most varied material derived 
from the land-surfaces and mixed up with the calcareous and siliceous 
materials which have been secreted from the ocean by organisms. 
These consist of boulders, shingles, sands, marls, muds, clays, coral 
reefs, and other calcareous deposits secreted by benthonic animals 
and plants. The action of waves and currents is nearly always to 
be detected. Indeed, the geologist recognises the marks of formations 
laid down in this area more distinctly and more frequently than 
those of any other region, although its area is the smallest of the 
five great divisions. 

IV. The Region of Deep-Sea Terrigenous Deposits.—This area 
lies between a depth of 100 fathoms and the greatest depths within 
200 miles from continental land, embracing all partially enclosed 
seas. It covers an area of 33,000,000 English square miles of the 
sea-floor, or 23} per cent. of the water-surface and 17 per cent. of 
the entire surface of the globe. It is essentially the area of muds 
and marls, with which are mixed the remains of both plankton and 
benthonic organisms. Quartz grains are abundant in the deposits, 
and glauconite and phosphatic nodules are quite characteristic of the 
area. Chalks and Radiolarian cherts were laid down in this region. 


V. The Abysmal or Pelagic Region of the Ocean.—This em- 


652 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


braces the whole floor of the ocean beyond 200 miles from continental 
shores and deeper than 1400 fathoms—the mean sphere level. It 
covers 98,000,000 of square English miles, or 693 per cent. of the 
water-surface and 50 per cent. of the entire surface of the globe. 
Sunlight never penetrates to this area. ‘The temperature is not far 
removed from 0° C. (32° Fahr.), and evidences of erosion or transport 
are absent. The deposits consist of red clays and organic oozes, 
and particles of quartz sand are extremely rare or wholly absent 
(except in those regions affected in recent times by floating ice). 
The rate of deposition is very slow, and is at a minimum towards the 
central parts of the great ocean basins, where the depths are from 
3000 to 5000 fathoms, and sharks’ teeth, ear-bones of whales, man- 
ganese nodules, zeolitic minerals, and cosmic spherules are found in 
relatively great abundance. Deposits similar to those now forming in 
this abysmal area have not yet been traced in the geological series of 
rocks exhibited for examination on the continental areas. We may say 
that on one-half of the earth’s surface there are now being laid down 
formations which are not similar to any found in the geological series. 


TABLE I 


PrincipAL LAKES OF THE WoRrRLD ARRANGED ACCORDING 
to SUPERFICIAL AREA 


* Lakes marked * are salt. 


Area in Area in 
Name of Lake. Square Name of Lake. Square 
Miles, Miles, 
Caspian * 180,000 | Eyre* 3,200 
Superior 31,200 | Athabasca 3,000 
Victoria Nyanza 26,200 | Reindeer 2,490 
Aral™ «, 24,400 | Issik-kul * 2,300 
Huron (with Georgian Bay) . 23,800 | Vener . 2,149 
Michigan. 22,450 | Winnipegosis 2,080 
20,000 : % 2,060 
Chas { top 790 | Great Salt Lake ee 
Nyasa . : 14,200 |) Van* 2,000 
Tanganyika . 12,700 | Albert . 2,000 
Baikal . ; 11,580 | Tung-ting 1,930 
Great Bear 11,200 | Manitoba 1,850 
Great Slave . 10,000 | Urmi* 1,750 
Erie 9,960 | Poyang 1,640 
Winnipeg 9,400 | Bangweolo 1,500 
Ontario 7,240 | Lake of the Woods 1,500 
Ladoga. 7,000 | Nepigon : 1,450 
Balkash 7,000 | Peipus . 1,350 
Nicaragua 4,400 | Kosso-gol 1,300 
Onega . 3,800 | Chapala 1,300 
Rudolf . 3,500 | Tsana . 1,200 
Titicaca 3,200 | Kivu 1,100 


OHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 653 


TABLE I—continued 


Area in Area in 

Name of Lake Square | Name of Lake Square 

Miles. Miles. 
Edward : ; . : 1,000 | Walker ; : : 95 
Telezkoie ; : : 880 | Hornafvan . p ‘ : 93 
Pyramid. : ; ‘ 828 | Birket Qarun* . : , 87 
Moban : F : ; 800 | Neuchatel . : : : 85 
Wollaston. : : ‘ 800 | Maggiore. . ; aa 82 
Menzala : ; : : 745 = Zaisan . : : ; : 80 
Vetter . : : : : 733 | St Louis : : ; : 75 
Saima . F : ; ; 680 | Corrib . : é . ‘ 68 
Enare . : ; : . 550 Manapouri . ; ‘ : 56 
Managua. : é 500 | Como . ; : : 56 
Lesser Slave . : : : 480 | Rakas Tal . ; j a 55 
Malar . . : : 450 | Derg . : ; : | 49 
St John é : : ; 366 | Lucerne ; ; : en 44 
St Clair : ; ; : 360 | Erne (Lower) : : a 43 
Deadisea ‘ : ab 360 | Thingvallavatn . : 1 40 
Ilmen . : : ; oo 358 | Thonsvatn . ; ; ae 38 
Simcoe . : : ; : 300 | Mask . ; ; : ed | 35 
Borollos ; , : : 266 | Ziirich . . ; : ; 34 
Taupo . : : 2 : 238 | Rotorua : : P 32 
Balaton . : : : 230 | Lomond ; : ; ; 27 
Geneva. : , ; : 225 | Iseo  . : : 5 ‘ 24 
Constance , ‘ : : 208 Crater (Oregon) . ‘ : 21 
St Peter : : : ; 200 | Ness. ; ; : : 21 
Tahoe . : : : : 193 | Lugano : : : : 19 
Hjelmar : : : 185°} Thun. : . ; ; 18 
Neagh . ; : 1538 | Bienne. ; ; : . 17 
Yellowstone . : : : 150 | Waikaremoana . ; ‘ 15 
Garda . : : : : 143 | Erne (Upper) ; ‘ ‘ 15 
Mjosen. ‘ : ; : 139 eae) : , : 15 
Scutari. : ; , 137 | Mendota : 15 
St Francis . : : =, | 1382 | Awe. ‘ é ; : 14 
Wiahe: ‘ ; ; i 127° || Rotoiti.. ; : : . 14 
Mariut . : : ‘ : 112°) Brienz *: ; : ‘ ; slat 
Wakatipu. : , 5 112 | Maree . : : : : 11 
Manasarowar : : , 110 | Morat . : : : ilk 
Ochrida : ; , ; 105 | Waikare ; : ; : 11 
Edku . : . : : 104 | Walen . ; : ; : 10 
Magadi ; : 2 100 | Morar . : , : : 10 
Kolar . ; : : : 100.9) Wayans: ; é : ; 10 


* Lakes marked * are salt, 


6904 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


(bees EI 0 


PrincipaAL Lakes OF THE WorLD ARRANGED ACCORDING 
to VoLUME 


(The bracketed figures indicate in feet the mean depths, assumed for the purpose of 


calculating the volumes, in those cases where a mean depth was not otherwise 


available. ] 


Volume in Volume in 
Name of Lake. Million Name of Lake. Million 
Cubic Feet. Cubic Feet. 
Caspian (1000) 5,200,000,000 | Neuchatel 500,000 
Superior 413,900,000 | Lucerne : 417,000 
Nyasa (1000). 396,000,000 | Walker (150). : 397,000 
| Tanganyika oe 283,000,000 | Great Salt Lake (8) 390,000 
| Baikal 274,000,000 | Malar : A 353,000 
| Michigan 203,000,000 | Iseo 268,000 
Huron 166,000,000 | Ness 263,000 
Great Bear 84,000,000 | Lugano . 232,000 
Ontario. 61,000,000 Thun , 230,000 
| Aral 43,600,000 | Hjelimar (40). 206,000 
Ladoga . 43,200,000 | Brienz . 182,000 
Issik-kul (600) 38,500,000 Thingvallavatn (150) 167,000 
| Titicaca 30,900,000 | Waikaremoana 166,000 
Nepigon 21,800,000 | Neagh 161,000 
Onega 21,000,000 | Enare (10) 153,000 
Erie 19,500,000 | St Clair 150,000 
_ Kosso-gol 18,200,000 | Ziirich . 138,000 
| Winnipeg (50) 13,100,000 | St Francis 132,000 
| Telezkoie (500) 12,300,000 | Yellowstone . 125,000 
| Vener . 6,357,000 , Zug 113,000 
| Victoria Nyauza (80) 5,800,000 | Ilmen (10) 99,000 
Dead Sea (500) 5,020,000 | Lomond 93,000 
Balkash (25) . 4,880,000 | Walen 88,000 
Pyramid (200) 4,620,000 | Morar 81,000 
Tahoe (800) 4,300,000 | Balaton . 70,000 
Geneva . 3,175,000 | Erne (Lower) . 62,000 
Mjosen . 2,882,000 | Scutari . 60,000 
Vetter 2,543,000 | Corrib 59,000 
| Taupo. 2,435,000 | ‘Tay 56,000 
* Van (40) 2,230,000 | Mask 55,000 
Wakatipu 2,205,000 | Derg 47,000 
Garda 1,766,000 | Orta 46,000 
Constance 1,711,000 | St Peter 45,000 
| Ochrida. 1,391,000 | Bienne . 44,000 
Maggiore 1,310,000 | Awe 43,000 
Saima (60) 1,140,000 | Maree 39,000 
Rudolf (10) 976,000 | Ericht 38,000 
Peipus (25) . 944,000 | Lochy 38,000 
| Chapala (25) . 906,000 | Rannoch 34,000 
Winnipegosis 869,000 | Shiel 28,000 
Como 794,000 | Katrine . 27,000 
| Hornafvan 777,000 | Arkaig . , 27,000 
| Urmi (15) 782,000 | Birket Qarun (10) . 24,000 
| Manitoba 618,000 | Sempach 22,000 
| Manapouri 512,000 | Morat 21,000 
| | 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES 655 


TABLE III 


Principat Lakes OF THE WorLD ARRANGED ACCORDING TO 
Maximum Depry 


Max. Max. 

Name of Lake. Depth. Name of Lake. Depth. 

Feet. Feet. 

Baikal. : : ; : 5413 | Treig : ; : . 436 
Caspian . : : , . | 3200 | Rotomahana . : ; : 427 
Nyasa ly. : . | 2580 | Shiel : ; aly 1420 
Tanganyika. : : . | 2100 | Vetter . : , ‘ .| 4138 
Crater sy) : ; . | 2000 | Mistassini : . | 400 
Tahoe. : : . | 1645 | Wairaumoana . : : Pe Ono 
Mjosen . ; : ; . {| 1483 | Maree : : , Sule OO 
Manapouri , : é . | 1458 | Glass , 5 ‘ . | 865 
Issik-kul . : ‘ 3 OM 1400 Thingvallavatn ; | 364 
Hornafvan : ‘ ‘ A 1391 Pyramid . : : : ; 361 
Como : ; : : | 1845 | Arkaig : , » | 859 
Dead Sea. ; : : i 1278) lore (Laxford) : 2 oll 
Wakatipu é : : sai) @1242° 7) Awe. : ; : e |, 3807 
Maggiore . : j : . | 1220 | Valencia . : : : : 300 
Garda. ; : : : 1124 | Vener : ; pe 2292 
Chelan. : : , oe (> L100) )| Karn : : : 287 
Morar. : : ; »! 1017 | Sempach . : : .1 285 
Telezkoie . ; 3 : | 1017-4) Fannich . : : ; : 282 
Geneva . ‘ ‘ ‘ : 1015) | Assynt™ .. ’ , ; : 282 
Superior . : : ‘ 22008 \iQuoich’ —. : ; : 281 
Lugano . : ; : : 945 Morie : ; ‘ : 270 
Ochrida . , : : : 942 | Great Bear : . : : 270 
Titicaca . ; : : ‘ 924 | Monar . : : 269 
Michigan . : ‘ : 4 870 | Wastwater : 258 
Brienz.) : . d : 856 | Muick . . : .| 256 
Waikaremoana. : é ; 846 | Bienne. ; : . | 249 
Constance : : A ; 827 Fada (Ewe) ; , ; ; 248 
Iseo . ; . : ‘ : 823 | Victoria Nyanza : .| 240 
Ness. : : ; : 754 | Green. : : : ileezon 
Onega. , ; : : 740 | Rotoiti . : : ; : 230 
Ontario . ; ‘ “ ; 788 | Erne (Lower) . , ; =n 226 
Ladoga . : : : : 732 | Liyn Cawlyd . : : al s22Z 
Huron . : : ; a 730 | Aral. : , ; : Pl Nee Pee 
Hornafvan ‘ : : : 725 | Affric : : : : : 221 
Thun : : : : : 712 | Suainaval : : : 219 
Lucerne . : ‘ : : 702 | Windermere. ; : , 219 
Kosso-gol ; ‘ : , 676 | Laoghal . i : : 217 
Zug . ; : : ; : 649 | naSheallag. ‘ , ‘ 217 
Lomond . : : ‘ , 623 | Skinaskink . : : 216 
Kivu ‘ : ; ; . | >600 | Garry (Ness) . : : : 213 
Champlain : : 600 | Hrie ‘ : : ; | 2k 
Nepigon . : : ; : 540 | Malar -. , ; - | 210 
Taupo. : : A . 534 | Damh (Torridon) : : 22206 
Lochy . : ; : : 531 | Dun na Seilcheig . : 205 
Bricht ‘ : ; : 512 | Frisa : f ‘ : 205 
Tay . : 3 : : ‘ 508 | Ullswater : : : : 205 
Neuchatel ; ‘ ‘ : 505 | Mullardoch i. é : ; 197 
Maracaibo ‘ : . : 500 | Mask : : : : 191 
Katrine . ‘ ; : : 495 Llyn Llydaw . : ‘ ; 190 
Wallen. ; ; : 495 | Llyn Dulyn . : : : 189 
Orta ; : ; ; : 469 | Avich : : : : d 188 
Zurich, \ : , : : 469 | Hope ; : : : ‘ 187 
Rannoch . , : : 440 | Saima : . : ; 187 


696 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


TABLE []]—continued 


Max. Max. 

Name of Lake. Depth. Name of Lake. Depth. 

Feet. Feet. 

| Coniston ; : : é ; 184 | Ba (Mull) : : : : 144 
| Bad a’ Ghaill . : 5 ; 180 | Seutari. j : ‘ : 144 
| Dhughaill Se : : 179 Llyn Glaslyn . 4 : ; 127 
| Beannachan if 2 : 176 | Llyn Cwellyn . : : 122 
| Laggan e : . : ; 174 Rotorua . , : é. : 120 
a’ Chroisg : : . 168 | Derg ; : : : : 119 
Beinn a’ ‘Mheadhoin | ; : 167 | Llyn Peris ; : A : 114 
Luichart . : ; ; : 164 | Joux : ; ; : ; 112 
Dhulough ; : 3 : 164 | Medve . : ; : 112 
Shin ; : : ‘ : 162 | Ree. : 5 ; ; ; 106 
Beoraid . : : ; 159 | Oring-Nor ; : : 105 
an Dithreibh . ; 5 157 | Haweswater . . ; : 103 
Morat. : ‘ ; : Love) Neagsh |. : : 102 
Lurgain . : : : . 156 | ‘‘Lake on the Mountain” : 100 
Oich : ; : : ‘ 154 | Chapala . : : : . 98 
Dubh (Ailort) . : ; : 153 | Buttermere. : : : 94 
St Mary’s : : : : 153 | Llyn Padarn . : : ; 94 
Owskeich . ; ; : ; 153 | Winnipeg : : : ; 90 
Corrib: Ge. ; : : 152 | Managua . : : : : 90 
Coir’ an Fhearna : : 151 |) Peipus > , : : ; 90 
Obisary . : : , 151 | Erne (Upper) . : 5 : 89 
Nicaragua : : , L5OY yi Viatese i). : : . : 85 
Ennerdale : : : : 148 | Mendota . : ; 5 : 84 
Nafooey . : : : : 148 | Rotorua . : , ; , 84 
Tiberias . ‘ : ; , 148 | Van : ‘ : : : 80 
Lubnaig . E 5 : ; 146 | Derwentwater . : : i 

| Scamadale i : ‘ : 145 | Bassenthwaite . : : ; 70 
Crummock : : , : 144 | Hjelmar . : : : ; 65 
Fionn (Gruinard) —. ‘ . 144.0) Urn : : : : 5 50 

TABLE IV 


Principat Lakes oF THE WorLD ARRANGED ACCORDING 
to ALTITUDE 


Feet Feet 

Namierobbale above Name of Lake. above 

Sea- Sea- 

level. level. 
Lapchung-tso . : .| 17,039 | Jaring-Nor_ . ‘ : . | 13,900 
Lighten . : . | 16,709 | Titicaca . : . | 12,500 
Yeshil-kul —. ; . | 16,207 | Poopow, : wel 2 als 
Ngangtse-tso . : : .| 15,417 | Koko-Nor : : : . | 10,500 
Teri-nam-tso . : ; .| 15,867 | Twin Lakes. : ° . |. 9,200 
Tengri-Nor  . : .| 15,190 | Yellowstone . ; Bh eela(icske 
Zilling-tso.. : . .| 15,128 | Naivasha : ‘ .| 6,498 
Manasarowar . : : .| 15,098 | Crater (Oregon) : : é 6,239 

Rakas Tal ‘ : : .| 15,056 | Tahoe . : : , 6,233 | 

Pangong t : .| 14,000 | Tsana_. : ; |) 9,000 
Oring-Nor : ; : .| 13,900 | Nakuro . ‘ : : «|, 9,668 


a 


CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF LAKES .657 


TABLE | V—continued 


Feet Feet 

Name of Lake. ae Name of Lake. cae 

level. level. 

Kosso-gol 5,470 Zaisan 1,350 
Van : 5,200 Zurich 1,341 
Issik-kul 5,165  Sugota 1,300 
Pyramid 4,890 Constance 1,300 
Kivu 4,829 Wollaston 1,800 
Wirmika i). : 4,400 Rudolf 1,250 
Great Salt Lake 4,200 | Taupo 1,211] 
Humboldt 4,200 | Geneva : 1,200 
Walker . 4,147 | Llyn Cawlyd . 1,165 
Gyoljuk . 4,000 | Reindeer ; é 1,150 
Winnemucca . 83,875 | Lake of the Woods . 1,060 
Great (Tasmania) 3,800 | Wakatipu 1,016 
Victoria Nyanza 3,720 | Orta 951] 
Bangweolo 3,700 | Chelan 950 
Kereli 3,600 | Rotorua . 915 
Kania 3,500 | Rotoiti 910 
Choga 3,396 | Lugano . 889 
Baringo . : 3,325 | Chad 850 
Joux and Brenet 3,307 Dauphin 840 
Mweru 3,189  Ala-kul . 837 
Losuguta 3,050 | Winnipegosis . 828 
Edward . 8,004 | Manitoba 810 
Ngami 3,000  Balkash . 780 
Toba 3 3,000 Varese 778 
Buldur . 2,900 | Laach 750 
Egerdir . 2,800 Simcoe 701 
Tanganyika 2,624 Winnipeg 700 
Rukwa 2,560 | Haweswater 694 
Tuzlah . 2,525 | Athabasca 690 
Ochrida . 2,253  Nepigon. 665 
Lob-Nor 3 2,200 | Como 653 
George (Australia) 2,100 | Nepissing 644 
Magadi . 2,050 | Maggiore 636 
Albert 2,028 | Superior 627 
Nahuelhuapi 2,000 | Temiscaming 612 
Natron . ; 1,996 | Iseo 610 
Llyn Glaslyn . 1,971 | Michigan 581 
Shirwa : 1,946 | Huron 581 
Summit . 1,940 | Erie : 573 
Stefanie 1,900 | St Clair . 570 
Kaniapiskau 1,850 | Ullswater 476 
Thun 1,837 | Llyn Cwellyn . 464 
Brienz 1,824 Derg (Donegal) 457 
Llyn Dulyn 1,747  ‘‘ Lake on the Mountain ” 427 
Telezkoie 1,700 | Enare 394 
Sempach 1,663 | Great Slave 391 
Nyasa 1,645 | Ferto 370 
Baikal 1,588 | Ennerdale 368 
Lucerne . 1,483 | Balaton . 344 
Morat 1,427 Great Bear 340 
Bienne 1,417 | Llyn Padarn 340 
Neuchatel 1,417 | Llyn Peris 340 
Llyn Llydaw . 1,416 Buttermere. 529 
Hornafvan 1,394 George (U.S.A.) 325 
Walen 1,378 | Crummock 321 
Zug 1,368 Vetter 289 
Mistassini 1,850 St John. Dae Pees) 

42 


658 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


TABLE 1V—continued 


Name of Lake. 


Feet 
Name of Lake. cect 
ea- 
level. 
Saima 256 | Dhulough 
Ontario . 247 | Ilmen 
Derwentwater . 244 
Onega . ; 236 
Bassenthwaite 223 
Garda 2138 
Wastwater 200 
Aral 160 
Vener 144 
Coniston 143 | Eyre 
Windermere 130 | Caspian . 
Glencullin 128 | Birket Qarun . 
Ree 122 | Assal : 
Nicaragua 110 | Tiberias . 
Derg 108 | Dead Sea 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL 
LITERATURE 


By JAMES CHUMLEY 
(Member of the International Institute of Bibliography) 


The abbreviations used in this Bibliography for the scientific serials are those in everyday use, and 
call for no explanation. The volume number being printed in Roman numerals, and the page 
number in Arabic numerals, the use of the words “volume,” “ Band,” ‘‘ tome,” ‘ page,” 
‘¢ Seite” is dispensed with; thus volume XIII. page 123 is printed XIII. 123. 


ABBADIE, A. T. D’.—Observations relatives au cours du Nil et aux lacs de l’Afrique 
centrale, Bull. Soc. Géogr. Paris, sér. 4, I. 237. 1851. 

Appay, R.—The periodicity of the fresh-water lakes of Australia, Natwre (Lond.), XIV. 
ARS 0; 

ABBE, CLEVELAND.—The rainfall and outflow of the Great Lakes, Monthly Weather 
Rev. (Washington), XXVI. 164, 215. 1898. 

—— Temperature of deep lakes, Monthly Weather Rev, (Washington), XXIX. 71. 1901. 

ABDULLAH-Bry.—Die Umgebung des Sees Kiitschiicktschekmetché in Rumelien, Verh, 
Geol. Reichsanst. (Wien), 1869, 263. 1869. 

Aprce, R.—Die Farbe der Meere und Seen, Naturw. Rundschau (Braunschweig), XIII. 
169. 1898. 

Axsicu, HermMANN.—Ueber Natronseen auf der Araxes-Ebene, nebst einem Anhange 
iiber die dortigen Sodapflanzen, Journ. Prakt, Chemie (Leipzig), XXXVIII. 1. 
1846. 

—— Ueber die Quellen des brennbaren Gases von Baku und die Niveauverinderungen 
des Kaspischen Meeres, Arch. Wiss, Kunde Russland (Berlin), VIII. 72. 1850. 

ApRAMOF, A.—The lake Nor-Zaisan and its neighbourhood, Journ. Ruy. Geogr. Soc. 
Lond., XXXV. 58. 1865. 

AcHARD, ARTHUR.—Notice sur la question de l’abaissement des hautes eaux du lac de 
Constance, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), sér. 2, IV. 592. 1860. 

Acxroyp, W.—On a principal cause of the saltness of the Dead Sea, Quart. Statement 
Palestine Explor. Fund (Lond. ), 1900, 64. 1900. 

ADAMSON, J.—Notice of marine deposits on the margin of Loch Lomond, Mem. 
Wernerian Nat. Hist, Soc. (Edin.), IV. 3384, 1821-23; Hdin. New Phil. Jowrn., 
XLI. 72, 1846. 

Api, R. H., and Marr, J. E.—The lakes of Snowdon, Geol. Mag. (Lond.), dec. 4, V. 
Hilte loos: 

ADLER, B.—Die neuesten russischen Seenforschungen in Westsibirien, Globus (Braun- 
schweig), LXXX. 101. 1901. 

—— Der See Telezkoje in Altai, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XLVIIT. 19. 1902. 

659 


660 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


AGassiz, ALEXANDER. —Hydrographic sketch of Lake Titicaca, Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts 
and Sci.(Boston), XI. 283. 1876. 

Acassiz, L.— Remarks on the different species of the genus Salmo which frequent the 
various rivers and lakes of Europe, Rep. Brit. Ass. (Lond.), 1834, 617, 1834. 

—— Description de quelques especes de Cyprins du lac de Neuchatel, qui sont encore 
inconnues aux naturalistes, Mém. Soc. Sct. Nat. Neuchatel, I. 33, 1835; Archiv 
J. Naturgesch. (Berlin), 1V. 73, 1838. 

—— On the fishes of Lake Superior, Proc. Amer. Ass. (Philadelphia), 1848, 30. 
1848. 


—— New species of fish from Lake Superior, Amer. Jowrn. Sci. (New Haven), ser. 2, 


A. 125. 1850. 


On some young Gar Pikes from Lake Ontario, Amer. Journ. Sci. (New Haven), 
sera 2 WITT 2845, 87. 


AGOSTINI, GIOVANNI DE.—-Scandagli e ricerche fisiche sui laghi dell’ Anfiteatro morenico 
(Ivrea, Atti Rk. Accad. Sci. Torino, XXIX. 620. 1894. 


-—— Sulla temperatura, colorazione e trasparenza di alcuni laghi piemontesi, Aéti R. 
Accad. Sci. Torino, XXX. 285. 1895. 


— Ricerche batometriche e fisiche sul lago d’ Orta, Wem. R. Accad. Sci. Torino, ser. 2 
XLVI. 337 ; Boll. Soc. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), ser. 3, X. 41. 1896. 


——— I] Jagod? Orta'(Torino)27 1897. 

Esplorazioni idrografiche nei laghi vulcanici della provincia di Roma, Boll. Soe. 
Geogr. Ital. (Roma), ser. 3, XI. 69. 1898. 

—- I] lago di Canterno, Boll. Soc. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), ser. 3, XI. 466. 1898. 

—— ]] lago del Matese, Boll. Soc. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), ser. 3, XII. 103. 1899. 

—— Sulla stato attuale degli studi batimetrici dei laghi italiani coll’aggiunta di un saggio 


per una bibliografia limnologica italiana, Atti 3 Congr. Geogr. Ital. (Firenze) 
DL ATOs S993 


—— Bathometrie der italienischen Seen, Verh. 7 Internat. Geogr. Kongr. (Berlin), 
1899, II. 259, 1901. 

—— and MarInELuI, O.—Studi idrografici sul bacino della Pollacia nelle Alpi Apuane, 
Riv. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), I. 1894. ; 

AHLENIUS, K.—Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Seenkettenregion in schwedisch Lappland, 
Bull. Geol. Inst. Upsala, V. 28. 1900-01. | 
AITKEN, JoHN.—On the distribution of temperature under ice in frozen lakes, Proc. Roy. 

Soc. Edin., X. 409. 1880. 
— Origin of lake-basins, Nature (Lond.), XLIX. 315. 1894. 
Aitorr, D.—Correspondence on the cartography of Lake Aral, Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond.), 
DOGS ABLE OS 
AupERSON.—Dépression du niveau de la Mer Morte, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sct. (Paris), 
XV. 884. 1842. 
ALEXANDER, Boyp.—The Alexander-Gosling Expedition in the Sudan, Geogr. Jowrn. 
(Lond.), XX VI. 539. -1905. 
From the Niger by Lake Chad to the Nile, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XXX. 119. 
1907. 
—- From the Niger to the Nile, Scott. Geogr. Mag. (Hidin.), XXIV. 20. 1908. 
—— Cuiosg, C. F., and Jonnston, H. H.—Correspondence on the mapping of Lake 
Chad, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XXXI. 452, 681. 1908. 
ALEXANDER, J. E.—Notice in regard to the saline lake of Loonar, situated in Berar, 
Edin. Phil. Journ., XI. 308. 1824. 
— Notice regarding the salt lake Inder, in Asiatic Russia, Edin. New Phil. Journ., 
VIII. 18. 1830. 
Notice regarding the asphaltum or pitch lake of Trinidad, Adin. New Phil. 
Journ., XIV. 94. 1838. 
ALLEN, J. A.—Exploration of Lake Titicaca by Alex. Agassiz and S. W. Garman: List 
of the mammals and birds, with field notes by Mr Garman, Bull. Mus. Comp. 
Zool, (Cambridge, Mass. ), III. 349, 1876. 
ALLEN, R. E.—Levels of African lakes, Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond.), XXX. 98. 1907. 
—— The relative levels of the Victoria and Albert Nyanzas, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), 
XXXII. 85. 1908. 


r] 


P) 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 661 


ALLEN, WILLIAM.—On a new construction of a map of a portion of Western Africa, 
showing the possibility of the Rivers Yeu and Chadda being the outlet of the Lake 
Chad, Jowrn. Koy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., VIII. 289. 1838. 


—— An attempt to account for numerous appearances of sudden and violent drainage 
on the sides of the basin of the Dead Sea, Jowrn. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., 
XXIII. 1638. 1853. 

ALLMAN, G. J.—On the microscopic Algz as a cause of the phenomenon of the coloura- 
tion of large masses of water, Zhe Phytologist (Lond.), 1V. 777. 1852. 


ALMAGIA, RoBERTO.—Notizie sopra alcuni laghetti nelle valli del Sangro, del Sinello e 
del Trigno, Riv. Geogr. Ital. (Firenze), XV. 557. 1908. 

AmBerc, B.--Limnologische Untersuchungen des Vierwaldstattersees: Physikalischer 
Teil, I. Abteilung, Optische und thermische Untersuchungen, Mitt. Naturf. 
Ges. Luzern, 1903-4, Heft 4. 1904. 

AMBERG, Orro.—-Beitrage zur Biologie des Katzensees, Vierteljahrsschr. Naturf. Ges, 
Ziirich, XLV. 59. 1900. 

Ancey, C. F.—Les coquilles du lac Tanganyika, Ze Natwraliste (Paris), II. 54, 62, 78. 
1882-84. 

—— Sur quelques especes de mollusques et sur un genre nouveau du lac Tanganyika, 
Bull. Soc. Zool. France (Paris), XIX. 28. 1894. 

ANDERSON, TEMPEST.—The volcanoes of Guatemala, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XX XI. 473. 
1908. 

ANDREws, E.—Observations upon the glacial drift beneath the bed of Lake Michigan, 
as seen in the Chicago tunnel, Amer. Journ. Sci. (New Haven), ser. 2, XLIII. 75. 
1866. 

—— The North American lakes considered as chronometers of post-glacial times, 
Trans. Chicago Acad. Sci., II. 1870. 

ANGELIN, GABRIEL. —Nachtrage zu den Aufsiatzen tiber den im Banienthale entstandenen 
See und dessen zerstorenden Abfluss, Annal. d. Physik (Halle), LXII. 108. 
1819. 

ANGELOT, V. F.—Sur lorigine du haut degré de salure de divers lacs placés dans le fond 
de grandes dépressions du sol des continents, Bull. Soc. Géol. France (Paris), 
XIV. 356. 1842. 

Aneus, G. F.—Descriptions of a new species of Bulimus [B. ponsonbii] from Western 
Australia, and of a Paludinella (P. giles] from Lake Eyre, Proc. Zool. Soc. South 
Australia (Adelaide), 1877, 170. 1877. 

AntHony, R., and NeEvuviLLE, H.—Apergu sur la faune malacologique des lacs 
Rodolphe, Stéphanie et Marguerite, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), 
CXLIII. 66. 1906. 

—— —— Liste préliminaire de Mollusques des lacs Rodolphe, Stéphanie et Marguerite, 
Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat. (Paris), 1906, 407. 1906. 

APJOHN, J.—On the analysis of the water of the Dead Sea, Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. 
(Dublin), I. 287. 1841. 

Apostouipis, B.—Etude sur la topographie du Fayoum, Bull. Soc. Khédiviale de Géogr. 
(Cairo)V LE 09% e 1908: 

ApsrgEINn, C.—Ueber die quantitative Bestimmung des Plankton im Siisswasser [in 
Zacharias: Die Tier- und Pflanzenwelt des Stisswassers (Leipzig), II. 255]. 1891. 

—— Das Plankton des Siisswassers und seine quantitative Bestimmung, Schrift. 
Naturw. Ver. Schles.-Holstein (Kiel), IX. 267; Biol. Centralbl. (Leipzig), XII. 
484. 608. 1892. 

— Das Siisswasserplankton (Kiel and Leipzig). 1896. 

Araco, D. F, J.—Sur la différence de niveau quil y a entre la Mer Noire et la Mer 
Caspienne, Annal. de Chimze (Paris), XVII. 309. 1821. 

—— Sur les brouillards qui se forment apres le coucher du soleil, quand le temps est 
calme et serein, au bord des lacs et des rivieres, dnrn. Bureau d. Longitudes 
(Paris), 1828, 168. 1828, 

ARCHENHOLD, F. S.—Die ebertschen Beobachtungen der periodischen Seespiegel- 
schwankungen am Starnberger See, Das Weltall (Berlin), I. 135, 145. 1901. 

Arpur,T.—Der Baikalsee: ein tiergeographisches Riitsel, Naturwiss. Wochenschr, (Jena), 
OX ize 1906. 

ARGYLL, DUKE oF.— Origin of lake-basins, Nature (Lond.), XLVII. 485. 1898. 


662 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


ARNET, X.—Die Durchsichtigkeit des Wassers, die Temperatur der Wasseroberflache 
und einzelne Bestimmungen der Farbe des Seewassers im Luzerner Becken des 
Vierwaldstattersees in den Jahren 1894-97, Mitt. Naturf. Ges. Luzern, II. 111. 
1896-97. 


— Das Gefrieren der Seen in der Zentralschweiz, Mitt. Naturf. Ges. Luzern, 1897, 59. 
1897. 


ARNOLD, J. B.—Letters on the naturalisation of sea-fishes in a lake chiefly supplied 
with fresh water, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., I. 126. 1881. 


Atwoop, E. H.—The movement of ice on Minnesota lakes, Amer, Geol. (Minneapolis), 
VII. 252. 1891. 


Atwoop, W. W.—Lakes of the Uinta Mountains, Utah, Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc. (New 
York), oX1r.12:5 91908: 


AUDOIN.—Notice hydrographique sur le lac Tchad, Za Géogr. (Paris), XII. 305. 1905. 
AUFSESS, OTTO VON U. 2U.—Die Farbe der Seen (Miinchen). 1908. 
-—— Die physikalischen Eigenschaften der Seen (Braunschweig). 1905. 


—— Untersuchungen iiber die Erhohung der Temperatur am Grunde der Seen, 
Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), LI. 258. 1905. 


—— Hine photographische Methode zur Bestimmung des Eindringens der Warmestrah- 
lung in einer See, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), LIT. 184. 1906. 

Avucot, ALFRED.—Le régime des vents et l’évaporation dans la région des chotts 
algériens, Comptes Kendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), LXXXV. 396, 512. 1877. 

Austin, H. H.—Lake Rudolf, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XIV. 148. 1899. 


—— A journey from Omdurman to Mombasa via Lake Rudolf, Geogr. Journ. (Lond. ), 
XIX. 669 ; Scott. Geogr. Mag. (Edin.), XVIII. 281. 1902. 


AVENNES, E. PrissE p’—Les anciennes cités du lac Menzaleh : Projet d’exploitation des 
lacs de la Basse-Egypte, Ze Cosmos (Paris), N.S., XLII. 484. 1900. 

AWERINTZEW, S.—Rhizopodenstudien, Ann. de Biol. Lacustre (Bruxelles), I. 321. 1906. 

—— Beitriige zur Kenntnis der Siisswasserprotozoen, Ann. de Biol. Lacustre (Bruxelles), 
Il, 163. 31907; 


BABINGTON, C, C.—On the papyrus of the Lake of Gennesaret, Phil. Mag. (Lond.), N.S., 
XXXII. 3153--Proe Camb. Phil. Soc. 1.78; 721866. 


Baccari, E.—I grandi laghi Africani, Boll. Soc. Geogr. [ial. (Roma), VI. 678, 1905. 

BACHMANN, Hans.—Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Schwebeflora der Schweizerseen, Biol. 
Centralbl. (Leipzig), XXI. 198, 225. 1901. 

Botanische Untersuchungen des Vierwaldstittersees, Jahrb. Wiss. Botantk 
(Leipzig), 0 XX XIX. 106. 71903. 

—— Le plankton des lacs écossais, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), XX. 359. 1906. 

—— Vergleichende Studien iiber das Phytoplankton von Seen Schottlands und der 
Schweiz, Arch. Hydrobiol. u. Planktonk. (Stuttgart), III. 1. 1907. 

Bacon, R. F.—The waters of the crater lakes of Taal volcano, with a note on some 
phenomena of radio-activity, Philippine Journ. Sci., I. 483. 1906. 

—— The crater lakes of Taal voleano, Philippine Journ. Sci., IJ. 115. 1907. 

Barr, K. E. von.—Kaspische Studien, Bull. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersb., XIII. 193, 305, 
1855 ;. XIV. 1, 1856; XV. 33, 65, 81, 118, 177, 1857. 

—— Ueber die Arbeiten und Leistungen der kaspischen Expedition im Laufe des Jahres 
1858, Arch. Wiss. Kunde Russland (Berlin), XIV. 312. 1855. 

Bacor, R1icHarp.—The lakes of Northern Italy (New York). 1907. 

BAIDEL.—Der im Banien-Thale durch einen Gletscher entstandene See, und verwiis- 
tende1 Abfluss desselben beim Bruch des Eisdammes am 16 Juni 1818, Anna. d. 
Physik (Halle), LX. 331. 1819. 

BaikaL Lakre.—The Hydrographic Exploration of Lake Baikal, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), 
XI. 143. 1898. 

BaiLEy, L. W.—The deepest fresh-water lake in America, Scvence (New York), VIII. 
412. 1886. 

Batrp, Wm.—Notes on the food of some fresh-water fishes, more particularly of the 
vendace and trout, Edin. New Phil. Journ., N.S., VI. 17. 1857. 


--— Description of a new species of Branchipus (B. extmius) from the Pool of Gihon in 
Jerusalem, Ann. Nat. Hist. (Lond.), ser. 3, VIII. 209. 1861. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 663 


BAKER, S. W.—On the relations of the Abyssinian tributaries of the Nile and the 
equatorial lakes to the inundation of Egypt, Rep. Brit. Ass. (Lond.), XXXVI. 
102 (Sect.). 1866. 
—— Account of the discovery of the second great lake of the Nile: Albert Nyanza, 
Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., XXXVI. 1; Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., X. 
6. 1866. 
BALL, JoHN.—On the formation of Alpine valleys and Alpine lakes, Phil. Mag. 
(Lond ), N.S., XXV. 81; XXVI. 489. 1863. 
Notice of soundings executed in the Lake of Como with a view to determine the 
form of its bed, Geol. Mag. (Lond.), VIII. 359. 1871. 
Bau, T. H.—The Lake Michigan and Mississippi valley watershed, Proc. Indiana 
Acad. Sci. (Indianapolis), 1896, 72. 1897. 
BALL, VALENTINE.— On the origin of the Kumaun lakes, Records Geol. Survey India 
(Calcutta), XI. 174. 1878. 
BALLAND.—Les eaux du Chéliff: quelques observations au sujet de la mer intérieure 
d’Algérie, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sct. (Paris), LXXXVIII. 408; Jowrn. de 
Pharm. (Paris), sér. 3, XXIX. 405. 1879. 


Batty, W., and THoMANN, J.—Biologisch-chemische Untersuchungen iiber den 
Arnensee, Internat. Rev. Gesamt. Hydrobiol. u. Hydrographie (Leipzig), I. 610. 
1908. 


BaLTzER, R. A.—Die Hochseen der Schweizeralpen, Humboldt, II. 93. 1883. 

BANDEIRA, SA DA.—Notes sur les fleuves Zambeze et Chire, et sur quelques lacs de 
VAfrique orientale, Bull. Soc. Géogr. Paris, sér. 5, III. 351. 1862. 

BANDELIER, A. F,—The basin of Lake Titicaca, Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc. (New York), 
XXXVII. 449. 1905. 


BANVARD, JOHN.—On the Sea of Galilee, Proc. Amer. Geogr. Stat. Soc. (New York), I. 
38. 1863. 


Bar, A. J. W.—L’écoulement des lacs Kivu et Bangweolo, Mouvem. Géogr. (Bruxelles), 
XXI. 157. 1904. 

BARDELEBEN.—Ueber den Salzgehalt einiger Grubengewisser des Steinkohlengebirges, 
Correspblatt. Nat. Hist. Ver. (Bonn), 1865, 79. 1865. 


Barrors, T.—Sur la profondeur et la température du lac de Tibéeriade, Comptes Rendus 
Soc. Géogr. Paris, 1898, 449 (translation in Palestine Exploration Fund, 
Quarterly Statement, 1894, 211). 


—— Contribution a1’étude de quelques lacs de Syrie, Rev. Biol. dw Nord, VI. 1894. 
—— Recherches sur la faune des eaux douces des Acores, Mém. Soc. Sci, Lille, 1896. 
Barrows, H. K., and Horron, A. H.—Surface water-supply of Great Lakes and St 


Lawrence river drainages, 1906, U.S. Geol. Surv. (Washington) Water Supply 
Paper 206, 98. 1907. 


BARTHE, E,—Mer intérieure dans la Basse-Californie, Presse scientifique (Paris), II. 329. 
1860. 


Bart ett, J. L.—The influence of small lakes on local temperature conditions, Monthly 
Weather Rev. (Washington), XXXIII. 147. 1905. 


BARWICK, JOSEPH.—Large aquatic animals in Tasmanian lakes, Proc. Roy. Soc. 
Tasmania (Hobart), 1872, 40. 1872. 


BasApDRE, M.—Los Laguos del Titicaca, Bull. Soc. Geogr. Lima, III. 37. 1893. 


BasineER, T. F. J.—Gedringte Darstellung der Herbstvegetation am Aral-See und im 
Chanate Chiwa, Bull. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersb., I1. 199. 1844. 


Bassett, H.—Analysis of Great Salt Lake water, Chem. News (Lond.), XX. 175. 
1869. 


Battisti, C.—I] Trentino (Trento), 1898. 
—-— Scandagli e ricerche fisiche sui lagi del bacino della Fersina nel Trentino, 
Tridentum (Trento), I. 185. 1898. 
—— Gli studi limnologici italiani, nota bibliografica, Riv. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), VI. 32. 
1899. 
-—— and Ricci, L.—Escursione e studi preliminari sul laghetto di Lavarone, Ann. degli 
studentt trentini (Firenze), IV. 1898. 
and TRENER, G. B.—I] lago di Terlago e i fenomeni carsici delle valli della Fricca, 
del Dess e dei Laghi, 7ridentwm (Trento), I. 37, 97. 1898. 


664 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND. 


Bauer, H., and Vocet, H.—Mitteilungen iiber die Untersuchung von Wassern und 
Grundproben aus dem Bodensee, Jahresh. Ver. Vaterl. Naturk. Wiirttemberg, 
XLVIII. 18, 1892; Schriften Ver. Gesch. Bodensee (Lindau), XXIII. 1, 1894. 

BAUMANN, Oscar.—Découverte d’un nouveau lac dans |’Est africain, Mouvem. Géogr. 
(Bruxelles), IX. 65. 1892. 


BAYBERGER, F.—Uber die Entstehung der bayerischen Seen des voralpinen Landes, 
Himmel u. Erde (Berlin), XII. 385. 1900. 


BEADLE, E.. R.—Barometrical observations made to ascertain the level of the Dead Sea, 
Amer. Journ. Sci. (New Haven), XLII. 214. 1842. 


BEADNELL, H. J. L.—The topography and geology of the Fayum Province of Egypt 
(Cairo). 1905. | 


—— An Egyptian Oasis: an account of the Oasis of Kharga in the Libyan Desert, with 
special reference to its history, physical geography, and water supply (London). 
1909. 


BEAN, T. H.—Description of an apparently new species of Gasterosteus (G. Atkinsiz) from 
the Schoodie Lakes, Maine, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. (Washington), II. 67. 1879. 


BEARDSLEY, A.—On a diatomaceous deposit in Leven Water near Coniston, 7rans. 
Roy. Micro. Soc. (Lond.), N.S., V. 146. 1857. 


BEAUMONT, G. pu B. pE.—Aux Lacs Frangais des Adirondacks (Etats-Unis d’Amérique), 
Tour du Monde (Paris), VII. 301. 1901. 


BecueE, H. T. pe ra.—Sur la profondeur et la température du lac de Genéve, Bibl. Univ. 
Sci. (Geneve), XII. 118, 1819 ; Hdin. Phil. Journ., II. 107, 1820. 


—-~— Température de quelques lacs de ]a Suisse, dnnal. d. Physik (Halle), LXVI. 146, 
1820; Annal. de Chimie (Paris), XIX. 77, 1821. 


Sur la température des lacs de Thun et de Zug, en Suisse, Bibl. Univ. Sci. (Geneve), 
XIV. 144; Annal. d. Physik (Halle), LXVI. 151. 1820. 


Beck, ConrapD.—-On some new Cladovera of the English lakes, Journ. Roy. Micro. Soe. 
(Lond.), III. 777. 1888. 


BEcKER, LUpwia.—Remarks as to the earlier existence of the Binnen or Inland Lake, 
Rep. Brit. Ass, (Lond.), 1850, 73. 1850. 


BEcQUEREL, A. C., and BRESCHET, GILBERT.—Proceédeé électro-chimique pour déterminer 
la température de la terre et des lacs a diverses profondeurs, Bibl. Univ. Sci. 
(Geneve), sér. 2, VII. 173. 1837. 

BreppDARD, F, E.—-Zoological results of the third Tanganyika expedition conducted by 
Dr W. A. Cunnington, 1904-1905: Report on the Oligocheta, Proc. Zool. Soc. 
Lond., 1906, 206. 1906. 


—— The Oligochetous Fauna of Lake Birket el-Qurun and Lake Nyassa, Natwre (Lond.), 
LYEXVT. 6082 71908. 


BEEK, W. G.—On the Dead Sea and some positions in Syria, Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc. 
Lond., VII. 456. 1837. 


Bena, C. A., and Haure, E.—Die oberitalienischen Seen: Comer See, Luganer See, 
Lago Maggiore, Lago di Garda (Ziirich and Leipzig). 1900. 
BEHAGLE, F, pE.—Le bassin du Tchad, Bull. Soc. Géogr. Comm. Bordeaux, sér. 2, XVI. 

572, 1893; XVII. 33, 1894; Bull. Soc. Géogr. Lille, XX. 344, 1893. 


Brum, E.—Henry M. Stanley’s Erforschung des Victoria Nyanza, Petermann Mitt. 
(Gotha), XXI. 455, 1875; XXII. 36, 1876. 


BEHRENS, T. T.—The most reliable values of the heights of the Central African lakes 
and mountains, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XXIX. 307; XXX. 219. 1907. 


BEL, ALFRED.—Les lacs d’Algérie (chotts et sebkhas), Comptes Rendus Congr. Nat. des 
Soc. Fran¢.-de Géogr. (Oran), XXIII. 172. 1908. 


BELcK, W.—Die Niveau-Schwankungen des Geoktschai-Sees, Globus (Braunschweig), 
LXV. 301. 1894. 


BEL, J. M.—Report on the topography and geology of Great Bear Lake and of a chain 
of lakes and streams thence to Great Slave Lake, Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. Canada 
(Ottawa), XII. Part C. 1901. 

BELL, RopertT.— List of plants collected on the south and east shores of Lake Superior, 
and on the north shore of Lake Huron, in 1860, dann. Bot. Soc. Canada (Kingston), 
WAG (eee hooks 


—- Geological History of Lake Superior, Zrans. Canad. Inst. (Toronto), VI. 45. 
1899. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 665 


BELuLAmy, C. V.—Salt lake of Larnaca, Cyprus, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond., LVI. 
745 ; Geol. Mag. (Lond.), dec. 4, VII. 285; Phil. Mag. (Lond.), ser. 5, L. 356 ; 
Nature (Lond.), LXII. 94. 1900. 


BELLET, D.—Courants des Grands Lacs américains, La Nutwre (Paris), XXII., i., 395. 
1894, 


BELLMER, A., Untersuchungen an Seen und Sollen Neuvorpommerns und Riigens, 
Jahresber. Geogr. Ges. Greifswald, X. 468. 1907. 


Brtuoc, Emire.—Le lac d’06, Haute-Garonne (Pyrénées centrales), Sondages et dragages, 
Bull. Géogr. Hist. Descr. Min. Instr. Publ. (Paris). 1890. 


—— Les Diatomées des lacs du Haut-Larboust, région d’06, Le Diatomiste (Paris). 
1890. 


—— Sur un nouvel appareil de sondage portatif, a fil d’acier, Comptes Rendus Acad. 
ev. (Paris), CXII1204,. 1891. 


—— Nouvel appareil de sondage portatif a fil d’acier ; drague légere et filet fin pour 
servir aux recherches des naturalistes et des explorateurs, Bull. Soc. Géogr. Paris, 
1891, 377. 1891. 


—— Sur le comblement des lacs pyrénées, Bull. Soc. Géol. France (Paris), ser. 3, XX. 
437. 1892. 


Origine, formation, comblement des lacs des Pyrénées, Comptes Rendus Ass. France. 
Av. Sci. (Paris). 1892. 
Sur certaines formes de comblement, observées dans quelques lacs des Pyrénées, 
Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), CXV. 196. 1892. 
—— Observations relatives a la formation et au comblement des lacs pyrénéens, Comptes 
Rendus Ass. Franc. Av. Sci. (Paris), 1892, 206. 1892. 
—— Apergu général de la végétation lacustre dans les Pyrénées, Comptes Rendus Ass. 
Franc. Av. Sct. (Paris), 1892, 216, 412. 1892. 
—— Etude géographique et topographique des lacs dans les Pyrénées, Comptes Rendus 
Ass. Frang. Av. Sci. (Paris), 1892, 336. 1892. 
—— Le lac de Caillaouas et ceux de la région des Gourgs-Blancs et de Clarabide (Hautes- 
Pyrénées), Comptes Rendus Ass. Franc. Av. Sci. (Paris). 1894. 
—— Des variations de la température dans les lacs de montagne, Comptes Rendus Ass. 
Frang. Av. Sct. (Paris), 1894, 145. 1894. 
—— Etude sur les lacs intra-glaciaires, Comptes Rendus Ass. Frang. Av. Sct. (Paris), 
1894, 153, 474. 1894. 
—— La flore algologique d’eau douce de l’Islande, Comptes Rendus Ass. Frang. Av. Sct. 
(Paris), 1894, 162, 559. 1894, 


—— Nouvelles explorations lacustres dans les Pyrénées-orientales, dans la Haute- 
Garonne, dans les Hautes-Pyrénées et sur le versant espagnol, Comples Rendus 
Ass. Franc. Av, Sct. (Paris), 1894, 294, 975. 1894. 


-—— Nouvelles recherches lacustres faites au port de Vénasque dans le Haut-Aragon et 
dans la Haute-Catalonie (Pyrénées centrales), Comptes Rendus Ass. Franc. Av. Set. 
(Paris), 1894, 415. 1894. 


— Recherches et explorations orographiques et lacustres dans les Pyrénées centrales, 
Ann. Club Alpin. Frane. (Paris), XXI. 1. 1894. 


—— Seuils et barrages lacustres, Comptes Rendus Ass. Frang. Av. Sci. (Paris), 1895, 
268, 552. 1895. 


—— Zones thermiques des lacs, Comptes Rendus Ass. Franc. Av. Sct. (Paris), 1895, 264. 
1895. 


——- Explorations lacustres, Bull. Soc. Géogr. Toulouse, XVII. 143. 1898. 


—— Noms scientifiques et vulgaires des principaux Poissons et Crustaces d’eau douce 
(Paris). 1899. 

—— Observations sur les barrages lacustres, Comptes Rendus Ass. Franc. Av. Sci. 
(Paris), 1902, 215. 1902. 


Bett, THomaAs.—On the formation and preservation of lakes by ice action, Quart. Jowrn. 
Geol. Soc. Lond., XX. 463; Phil. Mag. (Lond.), XXVIII. 323. 1864. 

BENNIE, JAMES, and Scott, THomas.—The ancient lakes of Edinburgh, Proc. Roy. 
Phys. Soc. Edin., X. 126. 1889. 


and Scorr, ANDREW.—The ancient lake of Elie, Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Hdin., 
XII. 148. 1893. 


666 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


BENTELI, ALBERT.—Ueber den Einfluss der Corrections Arbeiten auf die Wasserstande 
des Bielensee’s und der Zihl im Jahr 1870, Itt. Naturf. Ges. Bern, 1871, 227. 
1871. 


—- Die Niveauschwankungen der 13 grodsseren Schweizerseen, 1867-1897, Mitt. 
Naturf. Ges. Bern, 1899, 33. 1900. 


BERCHEM, P. VAN. —Température | des eaux du petit lac a différentes profondeurs, Arch. 
Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), ser. 3, XXX. 678. 1893. 


Bere, L. S.—Lake Aral, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XXIII. 252. 1904, 


—— Ubersicht der Salmoniden von Amur-Becken, Zool, Anzeig. (Leipzig), XXX. 395. 
1906. 


-—— Ubersicht der Cataphracti (Fam. Cottide), Cottocomephoride und Comephoride 
des Baikalsees, Zool, Anzeig. (Leipzig), XXX. 908. 1906. 


and Icnarow, P.—Les lacs salés Séléty-Denghiz, Téke et Kizil-kak du district 
d’Omsk (Moscow). 1901. 


BERGEMANN, C.—Chemische Untersuchung des Glaukolits vom Baikalsee, dnnal. Phys. 
u. Chemie (Leipzig), IX. 267. 1827. 

BERGSTRASSER. —Die Salzseen des Gouvernements Astrachan und der Wolga-Miindungen, 
Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), 1858, 98. 1858. 


—— Iwanow’s und Nasaroff’s Aufnahmen in der Ponto-Caspischen Niederung, 1858, 
behufs einer Kanal-Verbindung des Caspischen mit dem Schwarzen-Meere, Peter- 
mann Mitt. (Gotha), 1859, 389. 1859. 


—— Die Verbindung des Caspischen mit dem Schwarzen-Meere, Petermann Mitt. 
(Gotha), 1859, 411. 1859. 


—— Einiges iiber die Wasserfahrt durch die Pontokaspische Niederung, Arch. Wiss. 
Kunde Russland (Berlin), XIX. 237. 1860. 


—and Kostenxorr.—Untersuchungen des Manytsch in der Ponto-Kaspischen 
Niederung, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), 1861, 338, 372. 1861. 


BERINGER, O. L.—Notes on the country between Lake Nyasa and Victoria Nyanza, 
Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XXI. 25. 1908. 

BERTHIER, H.—Les grands lacs de Madagascar: La région du lac Itasy, Rev. Mada- 
gascar (Paris), X. 241. 1908. 

BERTHOULE, A —Les lacs de l’ Auvergne (Versailles). 1891. 


BERTOLINI, G. L.—Lagune dolci e lagune salate, Riv. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), III. 435. 
1896. 


BERTONI, G.—Memoria sul lago di Quarto nella legazione di Forli, Giorn. Accad. Sei. 
(Roma), XCV.111. 1843. 


BERTou, J. DE.—Voyage de |’extrémité sud de la Mer Morte a la pointe nord du golfe 
Elanitique, Bull. Soc. Géogr. Paris, X. 18. 1838. 


—— Dépression de la vallée du Jourdain et du lac Asphaltite, Bull. Soc. Géogr. Paris, 
RT VS. 2 1839; 


BEeTuuNE, C. J. S.—Entomological notes during a trip to Lakes Huron and Superior, 
Canad. Entomologist (London, Ont.), III. 81. 1871. 


BETTONI, E.—Sopra la temperatura delle acque del lago di Como, Rendiconti Ist. Lomb. 
Sci. (Milano), ser. 2, XXVIII. 942. 1895. 


BETTONI, P.—I1] Benaco: Notizie e ricerche limnologiche, Commentari Ateneo Brescia, 
1900. 


— Cenni geosismici sul lago di Garda (Torino). 1900. 

— Studi limnografici sulle sesie del lago di Garda, Commentari Ateneo Brescia, 1900, 
32. 9 LOOOS 

Brancut, F.—Ricerche su un laghetta alpino (Il lago Deglio), Riv. Geogr. Stal. 
(Firenze), XIII. 15, 198. 1906. 

Biessy, J. J.—Notes on the geography and geology of Lake Huron, Trans. Geol. Soc. 
Lond, NS. Telivones24. 

— Notes on the geography and geology of Lake Superior, Quart. Jowrn. Sci. (Lond.), 
XVIII. 1, 228. 1825. 

—-- A general description of Lake Erie, Quart. Journ. Sci. (Lond.), N.S., II. 358. 
1828, 

—— A sketch of the topography and geology of Lake Ontario, Phil. Mag. (Lond.), 
V. 1, 81, 263, 339, 424, 1829. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 667 


Brregt, E. A.—Plankton Studies on Lake Mendota, Zrans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci. 
(Madison), X. 421, 1897 ; XI. 274, 1898. 


— Some of the Problems of Limnology, Science (New York), XI. 253. 1900. 

—— The respiration of an inland lake, Pop. Sct. Monthly (New York), LXXII. 337. 
1908. 

Buack, C. E..D.—Dauvergne’s explorations in the Pamirs, Scott. Geogr. Mag. (Edin.), 
VILL SOO ze 

Buale, W. N.—The cold lakes of New Zealand, Scott. Geogr. Mag. (Edin.), III. 577. 
1887. 

BLAKE, W. P.—On the rate of evaporation on the Tulare Lakes of California, Amer. 
Journ. Sct. (New Haven), ser. 2, XXI. 865. 1856. 

Buanc, Epouarp.—Sur la configuration du périmetre de la mer de l’Aral et sur la 
formation et le levé recents du lac d’eau douce Aibou-Ghir, Comptes Rendus Soc. 
Geogr. Paris, 1891, 135. 1891. 

Buanc, H.—Sur la faune pélagique du lac Léman, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), 
sér. 3, XXXIV. 40. 1895. 

— Le plancton nocturne du lac Léman, Bull. Soc. Vand. Sci. Nat. (Lausanne), sér. 4, 
KAKIV 225; 1898. 

BLANCHET, R.—Quelques idées sur les modifications du relief de la terre dans la vallée 
du Rhone et du Léman, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sct. Nat. (Lausanne), 1V.157. 1854. 

—— Notices sur les effets du gel au lac de Joux, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sct. Nat. (Lausanne), 
TV...224) 91854. 

BLANCKENHORN, M.—Entstehung und Geschichte des todten Meeres, Zettschr. Deutsch. 
Paldstina-Ver. (Leipzig), XIX. 1. 1896. 

—— Das tote Meer und der Untergang von Sodom und Gomorrha (Berlin). 1898. 

BuANFoRD, D, T.—On a particular form of surface, apparently the result of glacial 
erosion, seen on Loch Lochy and elsewhere, Quart. Jowrn, Geol. Soc. Lond., 
LVI. 198. 1900. 

Biavu, O.—Vom Urumia-See nach dem Van-See, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), 1863, 201. 
1863. 

Buayac, J.—Les Chotts des Hauts-Plateaux de l’est Constantinois (Algérie): origin de 
leur salure, Bull. Soc. Géol. France (Paris), sér. 3, XXV. 906. 1898. 

BLOCHMANN, F., and KircHNreR, O.—Die mikroskopische Pflanzen- und Tierwelt des 
Siisswassers (Hamburg). 18Y1- 95, 

Buiupau, A.—Die Oro- und Hydrographie der preussischen und pommerschen Seenplatte, 
papa Mitt. (Gotha), Erganzh. 110, 1894. 

BiuMER, SAMUEL.—Zur Entstehung der glarnerischen Alpenseen (Lausanne). 1902. 

BocKELMANN, A. V.—Versuch einer Monographie des Kiwu-Sees und seiner Umgebung 
als Begleittext zu Dr Kandt’s Karte, Beitrdge Kolonialpolitik u. Kolonialwirtschaft 
(Berlin), III. 357. 1901-2. 

Boum, A.—Die Hochseen der Ostalpen, J/itt. Geogr. Ges. Wien, XXIX. 625. 1886, 

Borueav, F, F. R.—The Nyasa-Tanganyika Plateau, Geogr. Jowrn, (Lond.), XIII. 577 
1899. : 

Bou, E.—Ueber die Entstehung der Inseln in den Landseen des Ostseegebietes, Arch. 
Ver. Freunde Naturg. Meklenburg, VII. 92. 1853. 

— Ein Seehund im Schweriner See, Arch. Ver. Freunde Nuturg. Meklenburg, VIII. 
1385, 1854, 

BonaPARTE, R. (Prince).—Le glacier d’ Aletsch et le lac de Marjelen, La Natwre (Paris), 
AV Tass el X 234.) 11890, 

Bonin, C. E.—Voyage de Pékin au Turkestan russe par la Mongolie, le Koukou-nor, le 
Lob-nor et la Dzoungarie, La C'éogr. (Paris), III. 115, 169. 1901. 

Bonney, T. G.—Lakes of the North-Eastern Alps and their bearing on the glacial 
erosion theory, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond., XXIX. 382. 1878. 

—— Notes on the Upper Engadine and the Italian Valleys of Monte Rosa, and their 
relations to the glacier erosion theory of lake-basins, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, 
Lond., XXX. 479. 1874. 

— On the origin of the basins of the Great Lakes of America, Natwre (Lond.), XLIII. 

203. 1891. 
Some lake-basins in France, Natwre (Lond.), XVII. 340, 414. 1898. 


668 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Bonney, T. G.—The erosion of rock-basins, Natwre (Lond.), XLIX. 52. 1893. 


Notes on some small lake-basins in the Lepontine Alps, Geol. Mag. (Lond.), dec. 4, 
VOT 898s 


Boorp, H.—On the Hot. Lakes District, New Zealand, Journ. Trans. Victoria Inst. 
(Melbourne), XXXVI. 129. 1904. 


Bore, FRANGoIs.—Sur un mouvement particulier des eaux du lac de Neuchatel pen- 
dant la période de gel, Bull. Soc. Sci. Nat. Neuchatel, XII. 120. 1880. 


Borer, O.—Schwedisches Siisswasserplankton, Botaniska Notiser (Stockholm), 1900, 1. 
1900. 


BORGESEN, F., and OsTENFELD, C. H.—Phytoplankton of lakes in the Feroes, Botany 
of Feroes (Kobenhavn), II. 613. 1902. . 

BoRNHARDT, W.—Geographische und geologische Mitteilungen iiber das deutsche 
Nyassa-Gebiet auf Grund eigener Reisen, Verh. Ges. Erdk. Berlin, XXVI. 487. 
1899, 

——- Die Entstehungsweise des Nyassa-Sees, Graea (Leipzig), XXXVI. 206. 1900. 

Borszczow, E.—Mittheilungen tiber die Natur des Aralo-Caspischen Flachlandes, 
Wiirzburg Naturw Zeitschr., I. 106, 254. 1860. 

—— Die Aralo-Caspischen Calligoneen, Mém. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersb., III. 1861. 

—— Die pharmaceutisch-wichtigen Ferulaceen der Aralo-Caspischen Wiiste, nebst 
allgemeinen Untersuchungen iiber die Abstammung der im Handel vorkom- 
menden Gummiharze: Asa feetida, Ammoniacum, und Galbanum, JJ/ém. Acad. 
Sct, St. Pétersb., II. 1861. 

Borszczow, J., and SsewERrzow, N.—Ueber eine zoologisch-botanische Expedition nach 
dem Aral, Arch. Wiss. Kunde Russland (Berlin), XIX. 52. 1860, 

BouskEe, N.—Physical and geological observations on the Lake of Oo near Bagnéres de 
la Chou, in the year 1831, Proc. Roy. Soc. (Lond.), HI. 131. 1832. 

Bousier, A.—WL’universalite et la cause de la forme sphérique des organismes 
inférieurs, Ann. de Biol. Lacustre (Bruxelles), II. 212. 1907. 

Bouk, Amri.—Die Seen und Teichbildung, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss. (Wien), XLIV. 621. 
1861. 

—— Ueber die unterirdischen grossen Wasserliufe und Behalter und die Reinheit 
sowie Durchsichtigkeit gewisser Seen, dann uber die wahrscheinliche Bildung 
der Seen tiberhaupt, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss. (Wien), LXXVII. 393. 1878. 

Bou.anciErR, E,—Le grand lac de l’Indo-Chine, Rev. Scient. (Paris), 1. 278. 1881. 

Bou.LE, M.—Sur V’origine géologique des lacs de Auvergne et du Velay, Bull. Soc. Géol. 
France (Paris), sér. 3, XXIV. 759. 1896. 

BouLENGER, G. A.—Report on the collection of fishes made by Mr J. E. S. Moore 
in Lake Tanganyika during his expedition 1895-96, Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond., 
DOV le els oO: 

—- Second: contribution to the ichthyology of Lake Tanganyika: On the fishes ob- 
tained by the Congo Free State expedition under Lieut. Lemaire in 1898, 7’rans. 
Zool, Soc. Lond., XV. 87. 1899. : 

—— Diagnoses of new fishes discovered by Mr J. E. 8. Moore in Lake Tanganyika, Ann. 
Mag. Nat. Hist. (Lond.), VI. 478; VII. 1. 1900. 

—— Contributions to the ichthyology of Lake Tanganyika, Zrans. Zool. Soc. Lond., 
XVI. 137, 1901 ; XVII. 537, 1906. 

-—— Les poissons du bassin du Congo (Bruxelles). 1901. 

—— Descriptions of new fishes discovered by Mr E. Degen in Lake Victoria, Ann. 
Mag. Nat. Hist. (Lond.), XVII. 433. 1906. 

BouLEencErR, G. L.—On Moerisia Lyonst, new Hydromedusa from Lake Qurun, Quart. 
Journ. Micro. Sci. (Lond.), LII. 357. 1908. 

Bouton, J. G.—Are the Great Lakes retaining their ancient level? Canadian Record 
of Sct. (Montreal), V. 381. 1898. 

Bourcart, F, E.—L’eau des lacs alpins suisses, A7'ch. Sct. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), XV. 465 ; 
XVI. 167 ; Comptes Rendus 86 Session Soc. Helv. Sci, Nat. (Genéve), 13. 1908. 

—— Les lacs alpins suisses: Etude chimique et physique (Genéve). 1906. 

and Dvuparc, L.—Composition chimique des eaux et des vases des lacs de 

montagne, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), XV. 467. 1908. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 669 


Bourpon, G.—Le cafion du Rhone et le lac de Geneve, eu Soc. Géogr. Paris, ser, 7, 
XV. LO; 1894: Vilnn/ Sree 1895; 

BourGEoIs.—Souf, Oued-Rhir, Sahara, Mzab, La Géogr. (Paris), XIX. 410. 1909. 

BourGuienar, J. R.—Histoire malacologique du lac Tanganika, Annal. Sct. Nut. 
(Paris), Zool., sér. 7, X. 193. 1892. 

Boutron-CHaRLARD, A. F., and Henry, O.—Analyse chimique de l’eau de la Mer 
Morte et de Peau du Jourdain, Journ. de Pharm. ete. (Paris), XXI. 161. 1852. 


BovELt, J., and GoaApBY.—Passing visits to the Rice Lake, Humber River, Grenadier’s 
Pond, and the Island, Canad. Journ. Ind. Sci. Art. (Toronto), III. 201, 1854. 


Bowman, IsataH.—Man and climatic changes in South America, Geogr. Journ. (Lond. ) 
XXXIII. 267. 1909. 


Boys, P. pu.—Essai théorique sur les seiches (with appendix by F. A. Forel), Arch, Sci. 
Phys. Nat. (Geneve), ser. 83, XXV. 628. 1892. 


Brapy, G. S.—On the Entomostracan Fauna of the New Zealand Lakes, Proc. Zool. Soc. 
Lond., 1906, 692. 1906. 


BranpD, F.-—Ueber die Vegetationsverhiltnisse des Wirmsees und seine Grundalgen, 
Bot. Centralbl. (Cassel), LXV. 1. 1896. 


BRANDENBURG, RuDoLF, —Analyse chimique de l’eau du lac Léman, Bull. Soc. Vaud. 
Sct. Nat. (Lausanne), XVI. 158. 1875. 


BRANSFORD, T. F,, and GitL, THEODORE.—Synopsis of the fishes of Lake Nicaragua, 
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sct. Philadelphia, 1877, 175. 1877. 


Brarp.—Der Victoria Nyarsa, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XLII. 77. 1897. 


Braun, Gustrav.—Der Schilling-See im preussischen Oberlande: Eine landeskundliche 
Studie. Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XLIX. 64. 1903. 


Der Okull-See in siidlichen Ostpreussen, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XLIX. 265, 
1903. 

--— Die Aufgaben geographischer Forschung an Seen, Zettschr. 7. Gewdsserk, (Leipzig), 

WeEZ 5. P1903: 


-—— Ostpreussens Seen: Geographische Studien, Schriften physikalokonom, Ges, Kinigs- 
berg; XLIV. 33. 1908. 


——- Verzeichniss der ostpreussischen Seen (bis zur Grosse von 0°50 q.km.), Ber. 
Fischerei-Ver, Ostpreussen (Konigsberg), 1902-3, 3; 1903-4, 29. 


—— The lakes of East Prussia, Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond.), XXIII. 121. 1904. 
—— Die Gruppe der Legiener Seen, Ber. Fischerei-Ver. Ostpreussen (Konigsberg), 


XXX. 6. 1906. 
— Hiswirkung an Seeufern, Schriften physikalékonom. Ges. Kénigsberg, XLVII. 
1906. 


BrAYLEY, E. W.—On the alleged artificial origin of rock-basins, Phi/. Mag. (Lond.), 
VIII. 331. 1880. 

BreuM, V.—Zusammensetzung, Verteilung und Periodizitit des Zooplankton im 
Achensee, Zeitschr. des Ferdinandeums fiir Tirol (Innsbruck), III. 46. 1902. 

-— Zur Kenntnis der Mikrofauna des Franzensbader Torfmoordistriktes, Arch. 
Hydrobiol. u. Planktonk. (Stuttgart), i. 211. 1905. 

— Zur Besiedlungsgeschichte alpiner See becken, 77 Vers. Deutsch. Naturf. u. Arzte 
in Meran, 1905, 198... 1905. 

—— Untersuchungen iiber das Zooplankton einiger Seen der nordlichen und ostlichen 
Alpen, Verh. Zool.-Bot. Ges. Wien, LVI. 333. 1906. 

—— Uber das Vorkommen von Diaptomus tatricus, Wierz., in den Ostalpen und iiber 
Diaptomus kupelwiesen, nov. sp., Zool. Anzeig. (Leipzig), XXXI. 319. 1907. 

—— Die biologische Siisswasserstation zu. Lunz-Sechof, Niederosterreich, Arch. Hydro- 
biol. u. Planktonk. (Stuttgart), II. 465. 1907. 

-—— Uber das Plankton tropischer Binnenseen, Internat. Kev. Gesamt. Hydrobiol. u 
Hydrographie (Leipzig), 1. 236. ‘1908. 

——- Ergebnisse der Untersuchung des von L. Berg im Aralsee gesammelten Plankton- 
materials, Internat. Rev. Gesamt. Hydrobiol. u. Hydrographie (Leipzig), I, 691. 
1908, 

— Entomostraken aus Tripolis und Barku, Zool. Jahrb. (Jena), 1908, 489. 1908. 

—- Die zoologische Reise des naturwissenschaftlichen Vereines nach J)almatien im 
April 1906, Mitt. Naturw. Ver. Wien, VI. 28. 1908. 


670 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


BreHM, V., and ZEDERBAVER, E.—Untersuchungen iiber das Plankton des Erlaufsees 
(Wien). 1902. 


—— —— Das September-Plankton des Skutarisees, Verh. Zool.-Bot. Ges. Wien, LY. 
47. 1904, 


Beitrage zur Planktonuntersuchung alpiner Seen, Verh. Zool.-Bot. Ges. Wien, 
LIV. 48, 635; LV. 222; LVI. 19. 1903-5. 


—— —- Beobachtungen iiber das Plankton in den Seen der Ostalpen, Arch. Hydrobiol. 
u. Planktonk. (Stuttgart), I. 469. 1906. 


BREND, W. A.—Notes on some of the lakes of Carnarvonshire, Geol. Mag. (Lond.), 
dec. 4, 1V. 404. 1897. 


BRENNER.—Bemerkungen iiber den Selenginskischen und Borosinskischen Salzsee im 
Irkutzkischen Gouvernement, Russ. Samml. Naturw. wu. Heilk. (Riga), II. 272. 
Ike lie 


BRESCHET, GILBERT.—See BECQUEREL, A. C. 

BretscHer, K.— Mitteilungen tiber die Oligochitenfauna der Schweiz, Rev. Suisse de 
Zool, (Geneve), V.-XIII. 1901-5. 

BreEu, GrorG.—Der Kochel-See: Limnologische Studie, Ber. Naturw. Ver. Regensburg, 
AE Z1.) 1906: 


—— Haben die Oberbayrischen Seen einen Einfluss auf die Gewitterbildung und auf den 
Gewitterverlauf? Deutsche Rundschau (Wien), XXIX. 241. 1906. 


— Der Tegernsee: eine limnologische Studie, Mitt. Geogr. Ges. Miinchen, II. 98. 
1907. 


— Neue Seestudien in Bayern, Verh. XV/. Deutsch. Geographentag. (Nurnberg), 
1907, 334. 1907. 


Brewer, W. H.—Observations on the presence of living species in hot and saline waters 
in California, Amer. Journ. Sci. (New Haven), ser. 2, XLI. 891. 1866. 


BrIAN, ALESSANDRO.—La profondita del Lago Santo 1507 m. (Appennino Parmense), 
Riv. Mensile Club Alp. Ital. (Torino), XVIII. 229. 1899. 


Briart, P., and DELComMUNE, A.—Exploration du Lualaba et du Katanga: Découverte 
du lac Kassali et des gorges de Nzilo, Mowvem. Géogr. (Bruxelles), IX. 139, 149. 
1892. 


BriEt, Lucien.—Le lac glacé du Mont Perdu, La Natwre (Paris), sér. 2, VIII. 183: 
1902, 


Les lacs de la Munia, Za Natwre (Paris), sér. 2, IX. 59. 1908. 


BrigHaAM, A. P.—The Finger Lakes of New York, Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc. (New York), 
XXV.203. 1898. 


Bricut, R. G. T.—Survey and exploration in the Ruwenzori and lake region, Central 
Africa, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XXXIV. 128. 1909. 
Broci, T.—Sul Lago Fucino: progetti per bonificarlo, Atti Ist. Incorragg. Sct. Nat. 
Napoli, III. 1. 1822. ' 
Brown, ALFRED, and Lumsprn, JAMEs.—A guide to the natural history of Loch 
Lomond (Glasgow). 1895. 

Brown, R. H.—The Fayfiim and Lake Meris(London). 1892. 

Browne, E. T.—On the fresh-water medusa Limnocnida tanganice and its occurrence 
in the river Niger, dnn. Mag. Nat. Hist. (Lond.), ser. 7, XVII. 304. 1901. 

Brickner, E.— Ueber Schwankungen der Seen und Meere, Verh. IX. Deutsch. 
Geographentag. (Wien), 1892, 269. 1892. 

Bruescu, H.—Der Morissee, Westermann Illust. Deutsch. Monats-Hefte (Braunschweig), 
LXXIII. 118. 1894. 

BRUNARD.—Dans les lacs et marais du Jura méridional, Bull. Soc. des Nat, de 
Ain, VIII. 26. 1903. 

Brunn_ER, C., and FiscHEr-OosTER, C. von.—Recherches sur la température du lac de 
Thoune, Mém. Soe. Phys. Hist. Nat. Genéve, XII. 255, 1849; Arch. Sct. Phys. 
Nat. (Genéve), XII. 20, 1849; Ann. Meétéor. France (Paris), 1850, 268. 

Bruno, L.—I] lago d’Orta e la morena di Omegna, Novara. 1894. 

Bruyant, C.—Bibliographie raisonnée de la faune et de la flore limnologique de 
Auvergne (Paris). 1894. 

—— Sur la végétation du lac Pavin, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), CKXXV. 1371. 
1902. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 671 


Bruyant, C.—Le Mont-Doré et les lacs d’Auvergne: Notes de géographie et de lim- 
nologie, La Géogr. (Paris), VI. 370. 1902. 

—— Les lacs d’Auvergne et Vaquiculture, Rev. Sedent. (Paris), sér. 4, XVIII. 65. 
1902. 

— Les seiches du lac Pavin, Rev. d’ Auvergne (Clermont-Ferrand), XX. 81. 1903. 

—— and Evusnhsio, J. B. A.—Matériaux pour |’étude des rivieres et lacs d’Auvergne, 
Bull. Hist. et Sci. de 0 Auvergne (Clermont-Ferrand), 1903, 271, 331, 398, 467. 
1903. 

— and Poirier, J.—Les Monts-Doré et la station limnologique de Besse, Ann. de 
Biol. Lacustre (Bruxelles), I. 1. 1906. 

BucHANn, ALEXANDER.—Remarks on the deep-water temperature of Lochs Lomond, 
Katrine, and Tay, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., VII. 791. 1871. 

BucHANAN, J. Y.—On the freezing of Jakes, Nature (Lond.), XIX. 412. 1879. 

—— Note on the distribution of temperature under the ice in Linlithgow Loch, Proc. 
Roy. Soc. Edin., X. 56, 68. 1879. 

-—— Distribution of te Aeratupe in Loch Lomond during the autumn of 1885, Proce. 
Roy. Soc. Hdin., XIII. 408. 1886. 

BucuTa, RIcHARD.—Seine Reise nach den Nil Quellseen im Jahre 1878, Petermann 
Mitt. (Gotha), XXVII. 81. . 1881. 

BUCKLAND, WILLIAM.—On the occurrence of nodules (called petrified potatoes) found 
on the shores of Lough Neagh, Ireland, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond., II. 108. 
1846, 

Buckuiby, E. R.—Ice ramparts in Lakes, Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci. (Madison), 
XIII, 141. 1900. 

Buck.LEy, R. B.—Colonization and irrigation in the East Africa Protectorate, Geogr. 
Journ. (Lond.), XXI. 349. 1908. 

Burra, P.—Sulle condizioni fisiche e biologiche di taluni laghi alpini del Trentino, 
Atti Soc. Veneto- Trentina Sct. Nat. (Padova), ser. 5, 1V. 2. 1902. 

BuuatTovicH, A, K.—Dall Abissinia ai lago Rodolfo per il Caffa, Boll. Soc. Geogr. Ital. 
(Roma), ser. 4, 1. 121. 1900. 

BurBank, L. S.—On certain land-locked ponds as natural meteorological registers, Proc. 
Boston Soc. Nat, Hist., XVIII. 212. 1877. 

BircHNnerR, L.—Der Prasias-See in Makedonien, Globus (Braunschweig), LXIV. 311. 
1893. 

BuRCKHARDT, G.—Faunistische und systematische Studien tiber das Zooplankton der 
grosseren Seen der Schweiz und ihrer Grenzgebiete, Rev. Swisse de Zool. (Genéve), 
Wile 1899: 

—— Quantitative Studien tiber das Zooplankton des Vierwaldstattersees, Mitt. Natur. 
Ges. Luzern, III. 131. 1900. 

— Vertikaler, nicht horizontaler Planktonfang auf limnologischen Streifziigen, 
Internat. Rev. Gesamt. Hydrobiol. u. Hydrographie (Leipzig), I. 516. 1908. 

BurnHAM, 8S. W.—Lakes with two outfalls, Nature (Lond.), X. 124. 1874. 

BuRNIER.—Sur les limnimétres du lac Léman, Bull, Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat. (Lausanne), 
IV. 149. 1854. 

uRTON, R. F.—The lake regions of Central Equatorial Africa, with notices of the 

Lunar Mountains and the sources of the White Nile, being the results of an ex- 
pedition undertaken in the years 1857-59, Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., 
XXX. T1859: 

— The lake regions of Central Africa (Lond.). 1860. 

— On Lake Tanganyika, Ptolemy’s western lake-reservoir of the Nile, Jowrn. Roy. 
Geogr. Soc. Lond., XXXV.1. 1865. 

Burton, W. K.—Notes on seiches observed at Hakune Lake, 7'rans. Seism. Soc. Japan 
(Tokyo), XVI. 49. 1892. 

BUTAKOFF, ALEXEFF.—Survey of the Sea of Aral, Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., XXIII. 
93. 1858. 

Buxton, Nor,.—Balkan Geography and Balkan Railways, Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond.), 
DEX Dil eae 1 908: 


CABANNES, H. —Lacs supérieurs du massif pyrénéen : origine, formation et comblement, 
Rev. de Comminges, XIII. 104, 194, 266, 1898 ; XIV. 6, 1899. 


672 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


CapreLtL, H. M.—A map of the ancient lakes of Edinburgh, 7’rans. Edin. Geol. Soc., VI. 
287. 1893. 


Cau, R. E.—On the quaternary and recent Mollusca of the Great Basin, Bull. U.S. 
Geol. Surv. (Washington), II. 355. 1884. 


CALLIER, CAMILLE.— Niveau de la Mer Morte comparé a celui de la Mediterranée, 
Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), VII. 798. 1838. 


CALMAN, W. T.—Rotifers in Lake Bassenthwaite, Natwre (Lond.), LVIII. 271. 1898. 


— On two species of Macrurous Crustaceans from Lake Tanganyika, Proc. Zool. Soc. 
Lond., 1899, 704. 1899. 


— Report on the Macrurous Crustacea of the third Tanganyika expedition, conducted 
by Dr W. A. Cunnington, 1904-5, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1906, 187. 1906. 


— Crustacea from Lakes Tanganyika, Nyasa, and Victoria Nyanza, Natwre (Lond.), 
LXXIII. 526. 1906. 


CAMPBELL, W.—The island of Formosa [Lake Candidius], Scott. Geogr. Mag. (Edin.), 
XII. 385. 1896. 


CAMPILANZI, EmiIL1Io.—Sui fenomeni del lago di Czirknitz, Hsercit. Sci. Lett. Ateneo 
Venezia, IV. 189. 1841. 


CanTontl, M., and SomIGLIANA, C.—La temperatura del lago di Como nel 1902, Rendiconti 
Ist. Lomb. Sct. (Milano), XXXVI. 238. 1903. 


Capper, 8. J.—Tidal phenomenon in Lake Constance, Nature (Lond.), XXI. 397. 


1880. 
Car, L.—Das Mikroplankton der Seen der Karstes, Ann. de Biol. Lacustre (Bruxelles), 
T0035, L906; 


CarEy, E, P.—Ice phenomena in Green Bay, Lake Michigan, Sczence (New York), 
NieSs 7 DEL (P55 13896¢ 


CARNEGIE, D, W.—Exploration in the interior of Western Australia, Scott. Geogr. Mag. 
(Edin. ), XIV. 113; Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XI. 258. 1898. 


Carson, A.—The rise and fall of Lake Tanganyika, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond., 
REVI 401. W892 


CarTER, H. J.—Description of a lacustrine Bryozoon allied to Flustra, Ann. Nat. Hist. 
(Lond.), ser. 3, I. 169. 1858. 


Casg, E, C.—Lake Michigan: A peculiar form of shore-ice, Journ. of Geol. (Chicago), 
XIV. 184. 1906. 


CASELLA, GrusEPPE.—I] buco dell’ Orso sul lago di Como, Cronaca: Giorn. Sei. ete. 
(Milano), IV. 49. 1858. 


CasH, JAMES.—On some new and little-known British fresh-water Rhizopoda, Journ. 
Linn. Soc. Lond., Zool., XXIX. 218. 1904. 


CasteLNav, Paut.—Le Niolo: Etude de géographie physique, La Géogr. (Paris), XVII. 
Of. QE a1 908: 


Castries, H. pE.—Notice sur la région de l’?Oued Draa, Bull. Soc. Géogr. Paris, XX. 
481. 1880. 


CATULLO.— Dei laghi lapisini, Giorn. Fis. Chim. Stor. Nat. (Pavia), IX. 1385. 1826. 
CAVALLARI, F.—II lago dei Palicii, Geogr. per Tutti (Milano), No. 18. 1893. 


CavenpisH, H. 8. H.—Through Somaliland and around and south of Lake Rudolf, Geogr. 
Journ. (Lond.), XI. 372. _ 1898. 


CHAILLE-Lone-Bry, C.—Voyage au lac Victoria N’Yanza et au pays Niam-Niam, Bull. 
Soc. Géogr. Paris, X. 350. 1875. 


La découverte des sources du Nil, Bull. Soc. Khédiviale de Géogr. (Cairo), sér. 3, 
18945395, -189r. 


Cuarx, E.—Le lac de Flaine, Arch. Sei. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), sér. 3, XXX.174. 1898. 


—— Le désert de Platé et le lac de Flaine, Le Globe (Genéve), sér. 5, XXXIII. 14. 
1894. 


Cuarx, PaAuL.—On recent measurements of the depth of Swiss lakes, Proc. Roy. Geogr. 
Soc. Lond., XXII. 456. 1878. 


—— Physical surveys of Swiss lakes, Scott. Geogr. Mag. (Edin.), IV. 214. 1888. 

——— Formation d’un lac dans l’Himalaya, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), sér. 3, 
XXXII. 224, 1894. 

__— Lake Trasimene, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XIII. 60 ; Scott. Geogr. Mag. (Edin.), XV. 
36, 1899. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 673 


CHALMERS, R.—On the glacial Lake St Lawrence of Prof. W. Upham, Amer. Journ, Sci. 
(New Haven), ser. 3, XLIX. 273. 1895. 


CHAMBERS, RoBert.—On the eyeless animals of the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, Edin. 
New Phil. Journ., LV. 107. 1858. 


CHANcoURTOIS, EMILE DE.—Sur la nature des eaux du lac de Van et du natron que lon 
en retire, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sct. (Paris), XXI. 1111. 1845. 


CHANNING, Epwarp, and Lansinc, Marton F,—The story of the Great Lakes (New 
York and London). 1909. 

CHATARD, T. M.—Analyses of the water of some American alkaline lakes, Amer. Journ. 
Sci. (New Haven), ser. 3, XXXVI. 146. 1888. 

Cuavux, T. DE LA.—Le lac de St. Blaise: Histoire, hydrographie, faune des Invertébrés, 
Bull, Soc. Neuchdtel. Géogr., XVIII. 1. 1907. 

CHEVALIER, A.—Mission scientifique au Chari et au Tchad, La Géogr. (Paris), VII. 354. 
1903. 

—— Mission Chari—Lac Tchad 1902-1904 (Paris), 1907. 


CHEVALLIER, Loutis.—Le lac de Garde, A travers le Monde (Paris), N.S., VI. 41. 
1900. 


CHIPMAN, NATHANIEL.—On moving stones in lakes and ponds, Amer. Journ. Sci. 
(New Haven), XIV. 303. 1828. 


CHMIELEWSKI, Z., and GUTWINSKI, R.—Contribution a l’étude des algues du Kameroun, 
Ann. de Biol. Lacustre (Bruxelles), I. 168. 1906. 


Cuopat, R.—Etudes de biologie lacustre, Bull. Herbier Boissier (Geneve), V. 289; VI. 


49, 1897-8. 
La biologie végétale des lacs entre les Alpes et le Jura, Le (lobe (Geneve), XX XVII. 
35. 1898. 


CHOLNOKY, E. von.—Sur la limnologie du lac Balaton, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), 
ser. 4, III. 516. 1897. 

Limnologie des Plattensees (Wien). 1897. 

—— Die Farbenerscheinungen des Balatonsees, esuwltate der Wéissenschaftlichen 
Erforschung des Balatonsees (Wien), I., Part V., Sect. 2. 1905, 

CuristiE, A. C.—Lakes with two outfalls, Nature (Lond.), IX. 485. 1874. 

CHRISTISON, RoBERT.-—Opening address to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Proc. Roy. 
Soc Lamm. VIE bor. 18/1: 

CHRYSTAL, GEORGE.—Some results in the mathematical theory of seiches, Proc. Roy. 

Soc. Hdin., XXV. 328. 1904. 
Some further results in the mathematical theory of seiches, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., 
XXV. 637. 1905. 

—— On the hydrodynamical theory of seiches, with a bibliographical sketch, Trans. 
Roy. Soc, Hdin., XLI. 599. 1905. 

—— An investigation of the seiches of Loch Earn by the Scottish Lake Survey: 
Part I. Limnographic instruments and methods of observation, Trans. Roy. Soc. 
FEdin., XLV. 361. 1906. 

—— Seiches in the lakes of Scotland, Roy. Inst. Great Britain (Lond.), Meeting of 
May 17, 1907. 

— On the theory of the leaking microbarograph ; and on some observations made with 
a triad of Dines-Shaw instruments, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., XXVIII. 487. 1908. 
and WEDDERBURN, E. M.—Calculation of the periods and nodes of Lochs Earn 
and Treig, from the bathymetric data of the Scottish Lake Survey, Trans. Roy. 

Soc. Edin., XLI. 823. 1905. 
CHUMLEY, JAMES. —The survey of British lakes, Scott. Geogr. Mag. (Edin.), XVIII. 413. 


O02. 

Cuurcu, E.—Bolivia by the Rio dela Plata route, Geogr. Journ, (Lond.), XIX. 64. 
1902. 

CuarK, L. J.—Lake currents, Trans. Canad. Inst. (Toronto), II. 154, 1892; III. 275, 
1898, 


CLAYPOLE, E. W.—On the pre-glacial geography of the region of the Great Lakes, 
Canad. Nat. and Geol. (Montreal), VIII. 187. 1878. 
Pre-glacial formation of the beds of the great American lakes, Canad. Nat. and 
Geol. (Montreal), IX. 213. 1881. 
: 43 


674 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


CLEAVER, A. S.—Through the Hot Lake District of New Zealand, Rep. and Pap. 
Belfast Nat. Hist. and Phil. Soc., 1894-5, 84. 1895. 


CLEGHORN, JoHN.—On the rock- hesthsl of Dartmoor, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond., 
RS eS aie 


CLEMENT-MULLET, J. J.—Documents historiques et géologiques sur le lac d’Albano, 
Bull. Soc. Géol. France (Paris), N.S., XI. 526. 18538. 


CLENNELL, C.—Region of the Poyang Lake, Central China, Geogr. Journ. (Lond. ), 
SX VL OI 1906 


CLERIcI, E.—La nave di Caligola affondato nel lago di Nemi e la geologia del suolo 
romano, Boll. Soc. Geol. Ital. (Roma), XV. 302. 1896. 


CLINTON, DE Wirr.—On certain phenomena of the Great Lakes of America, Edin. 
JOUTN, Sz, NV Din 290H WS ie 


CLosE, C. F. eNor on the heights of Lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika above sea-level, 
Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XIII. 623. 1899. 


Longitude of Nkata Bay, Lake Nyasa, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XV. 75. 1900. 

— See ALEXANDER, B. 

Coaz, J.—Neue Seebildung bei Riein im Biindner Oberland, Jahresb, Naturf. Ges. 
Graubiinden (Chur), IX. 46. 1862. 

CoxBBoLp.—A trip to Lake Balkash, Contemporary Rev. (Lond.), LXXV. 248. 1899. 

CoprinGtTon, R.—Lake Chiuta, Geogr, Journ. (Lond.), VII. 183. 1896. 

— A Voyage on Lake Tanganyika, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XIX. 598. 1902. 


CoDRINGTON, T.—On the probable glacial origin of some Norwegian lakes, Quart. 
Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond., XVI. 345. 1860. 


Copy, W. F., and Inman, HEeNryY.—The Great Salt Lake trail (New York and 
London). 1898. 


CoLEMAN, A. P.—Lake Iroquois and its predecessors at Toronto, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 
(Rochester), X. 165. 1899. 

— The Iroquois Beach, Iroquois Lake, Ont., Trans. Canadian Inst. (Toronto), VI. 
29. ALS 99: 

CoLLeT, L. W.—Les lacs d’Ecosse, Arch. Sct. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), XXV. 496, 1908. 

——- Le service des lacs d’Ecosse (Scottish Lake Survey, Pullar Trust): Résultats 


hydrographiques et géologiques, Internat, Rev. Gesamt. Hydrobiol. u. Hydro- 
graphie (Leipzig), 1.1938. 1908. 


and JoHnston, T. N.—On the formation of certain lakes in the Highlands: 
with a note on two rock-basins in the Alps, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., XXVI. 
107s EROOG: 
CouLui£, G. L.—Wisconsin shore of Lake Superior, Bull. Geol. Soe. Amer. (Rochester), 
MITT 19 ew LOE, 
CoLLINson, JoHN.—Explorations in Central America accompanied by survey and levels 
from Lake Nicaragua to the Atlantic Ocean, Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., XII. 
25. 1868. 
CoLLomB, E.—Sur la moraine du lac du Ballon de Guebwiller, Bull. Soc. Géol. France 
(Paris)  Nos:, LxaSon elsot: 
ComBES, PauLt.—L’origine de la Mer Morte, Ze Cosmos (Paris), N.S., XXXIX. 808. 
1898. 
Le probleme de la Mer Caspienne, Le Cosmos (Paris), N.S., XL. 68. 1899. 
—— Le niveau du lac de Nicaragua est-il constant? Le Cosmos (Paris), N.S., XLIII. 
12351900; 
ComrrRE, J.—Diatomées du lac de Comté, Pyrénées ariégeoises, Bull. Soc. Hist. Nat. 
Toulouse, XXIX. 155. 1907. 
Comstock, F, N.—An example of wave-formed cusp at Lake George, N.Y., Amer. Geol, 
(Minneapolis), XXV. 192. 1900. 
ConcER, N. B.—Water temperatures of the Great Lakes, Monthly Weather Rev. 
(Washington), XX VII. 352. 1899, 
CoNTE, J. LE.—Physical studies of Lake Tahoe, Overland Monthly (San Francisco), 
1883-4, fan 
— The deepest fresh-water lake in America, Science (New York), VIII. 516. 1886. 
Conway, Martin. —Explorations in the Bolivian Andes, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XIV. 
14, 1899. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 675 


Cootry, G. W.—Hydrology of the Lake Minnetonka watershed, Monthly Weather Rev. 
(Washington), XXVII. 405. 1899. 

CooLtrty, W. D.—The geography of Nyassi, or the Great Lake of Southern Africa, 
investigated, Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., XV. 185, 1845; XVI. 138, 1846. 

CooLtipGE, W. A. B.—Lakes with two outfalls, Natwre (Lond.), X. 6. 1874. 

CorE, E. D.—Note on the ichthyology of Lake Titicaca, Jowrn. Acad. Nat. Sci. 
Philadelphia, VIII. 185. 1874. 

CoRcELLE, J.—La limnologie: Etudes nouvelles sur les lacs francais, Rev. de Géogr. 
(Paris), XLVIII. 125. 1901. 

Cornet, J.—Le Tanganika est-il un Relicten-See? Mowvem. Géogr. (Bruxelles), XIII. 
301. 1896. 

Ee Victoria Nyanza est-il un Reliktensee? Mouvem. Géogr. (Bruxelles), XXI. 61, 

3. 1904: 

and Francqui, L.—L’exploration du Lualaba depuis ses sources jusqu’au lac Kabelé, 
Mouvem. Géogr. (Bruxelles), X. 87, 101. 1893. 

Corti, B.—Sulle diatomee del lago di Poschiavo, Boll, Sci. Pavia, 1891, Nos. 3 and 4. 
1891, 

Sulle diatomee del lago del Pali in Valle Malenco, Boll. Sct. Pavia, 1891. 

Cosson, ERNEST.—Note sur le projet d’établissement d’une mer intérieure en Algérie, 

Comptes Rendus Acad. Sect. (Paris), LX XIX. 485. 1874. 
— Note sur le projet de création d’une mer saharienne, Comptes Rendus Acad, Sct. 
(Paris), LXXXV. 20. 1877, 
— Note sur le projet de création en Algérie d’une mer dite interieure, Bull, Soc. 
réogr. Paris, XIX. 34, 1880. 
Réponse aux observations présentées par M. de Lesseps a la derniere séance, a 
Voccasion de la présentation d’un nouveau rapport de M. le Commandant Roudaire 
sur sa derniere expédition dans les Chotts tunisiens, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. 
(Paris), XCII. 1887. 1881. 
—— Nouvelles notes sur le projet de création, en Algérie et en Tunisie, d’une mer dite - 
intérieure, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), XCIV. 138380, 1387, 1882; XCVI. 
1191, 1883. 

» CostE, P.—Mémoire sur les banes artificiels d’huitres du lac Fusaro, Comptes Rendus 
Acad. Sci. (Paris), XXXVI. 809, 1853. 

CovurrtsEt, H., and Perit, P.—Les sédiments a Diatomées de la région du Tchad, Comptes 
Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), CXLII. 668. 1906. 

CouTiERE, H.—Sur une nouvelle espéce d’Alpheopsis, A. hangi, provenant d’un lac 
d’eau douce du bassin de VOgoue, Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris, 1906, 376. 
1906. 

Covi, A.—Regolazione del lago di Como: dimostrazione della sufficienza del’ ampliamento 
dell’ emissario (Milano), 1902. 

Cozzacuio, A.—-I laghetti di Esine, Boll. Club Alp. Ital. (Turin), XXVI. 215. 1892. 

CraiG, J. I.—Earth-movements at Lake Victoria, Cairo Scient. Jowrn., No. 31. 1909. 

CRAUFORD, C, H.—Journeys in Gosha and beyond the Deshek Wama (Lake Hardinge), 

Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), 1X. 54. 1897. 

CRAWFORD, J. C.—On the old lake system of New Zealand, with some observations 
as to the formation of the Canterbury Plains, Zrans. New Zealand Inst. 
(Wellington), V. 369. 1875. 

On wind-formed lakes, Trans. New Zealand Inst. (Wellington), XII. 415. 1880. 

CRAWFORDES, J.—High water in the lakes of Nicaragua, Sezence (New York), N.S., XV. 

392. 1902, 
CREDNER, G. R.—Ueber Relictenseen, Verh. Ges. Hrdk. Berlin, VIII. 302. 1881. 
—— Die Reliktenseen, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), Erginzh. 86 and 89. 1887-88. 
CroLa, Orro, An den Gestaden des George- und des Champlainsees, Deutsche Rundschau 
(Wien), XXVI. 97. 1903. 

ORoNISE, A.—The pitch lake of Trinidad, Proc. Rochester Acad. Sct., 11. 278. 1894. 

Crossz, H., and Frscoer, PAunt.—Faune malacologique du lac Baikal, Journ. de 
Conch. (Paris), XXVII. 145. 1879. 

CrostHwaltt, H. L.—A journey to Lake San Martin, Patagonia, Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond.), 
XXV. 286. 1905. 


676 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Crotta, S.—Profili batometrici dei laghi Biantei e del lago del Segrino, Vall’ Assina 
meridionale, Riv. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), I. 487. 1894. 


— Di alcuni recenti Scritti relativi allo studio dei laghi, LZ’ Zsplor. Cwmmerc, (Milano), 
XVI. 297. 1901. 


CRUIKSHANK, E.—The journal of Captain Walter Butler, on a voyage along the north 
coast of Lake Ontario . . . March 1779, Trans. Canadian Inst. (Toronto), IV. 279. 
1895. 


CUNNINGHAM, ALEXANDER.—Journal of a trip through Kulu and Lahul, to the Chu 
Mureri Lake in Ladak, Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal (Calcutta), XVII. 201. 1848. 


Cunnineron, W. A.—On a new Brachyurous Crustacean from Lake Tanganyika, 
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Report of the third Tanganyika expedition (Cambridge). 1905. 
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— The third Tanganyika expedition, Natwre (Lond.), LX XIII. 310. 1906. 


—— Zoological results of the third Tanganyika expedition, 1904-5, Proc. Zool. Soe. 
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Report on the Brachyurous Crustacea of the third Tanganyika expedition, 1904- 
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— Description of a Biological Reed to the Birket-el- -Qurun, Faytm province 
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Cy1s16, J.—Die macedonischen Seen, Mitt, Ung. Geogr. Ges. (Budapest), XXVIII. 113. 
1900. 


— La limnologie générale de Monsieur Forel, Annal. de Géogr. (Paris), X. 70. 1901. 


CzIRBuSZ, GizZA.—Am Ozernya-See, Jahrb. Ungar. Karpathen-Verein (1gl]6), XXVII. 
185., 1900. 


Dapay, E. von.—Zwei bathybische Nematoden aus dem Vierwaldstiittersee, Zool. 
Anzeig. (Leipzig), XXX. 413. 1906. 


Daxkyns, J. R.—Some Snowdon tarns, Geol. Mag. (Lond.), dec. 4, VII. 58, 148. 1900. 
DAMIAN, J.—Der Molvenosee in Tirol, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XXXVI. 262. 1890. 
tt. (Gotha), XXXVIII. 108. 1892. 
— Seenstudien, Mitt. Geogr. Ges. Wien, XKXV. 471. 1892. 


—  Einzelne, wenig gewiirdigte Hochgebirgsseen und erloschene Seebecken um 
Sterzing, Mitt. Geogr. Ges. Wien, XXXVII. 1. 1894. 


Seestudien, Abhandl. Geogr. Ges. Wien, I. 77. 1899. 


Dana, J. D.—Note on the former southward discharge of Lake Winnipeg, Amer. Jowrn. 
Sct. (New Haven), ser. 3, XXIV. 428, 1882; Canad. Nat. (Montreal), X. 486, 1883. 


DANES, JInI V.—La région de la Narenta inférieure, Za Géogr. (Paris), XIII. 91. 
1906. 


DANIEL. —Sur la fontaine d’Enversat et le lac de Thau, dans lequel cette source débouche, 
Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), III. 517. 1836. 


Daruinea.—An account of the pitch lake of Trinidad, Pharmac. Journ. (Lond.), IX. 18. 
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Darton, N. H.—The Zuni salt lake, Journ. of Geol. (Chicago), XIII. 185. 1905. 


DAUBENY, CHARLES, —Narrative of an excursion to Lake Amsanctus and Mt. Vultur in 
Apulia, in 1834, Trans. Ashinolean Soc. (Oxford), I. 4. 1838. 


DauBRiEE, A.—Sur le minerai de fer qui se forme journellement dans les marais et dans 
les lacs, Bull. Soc. Géol. France (Paris), N.S., III. 145. 1845. 


Dauuu, R. P.—Le Tanganika, Mowvem. Géogr. (Bruxelles), XVI. 520. 1899. 

DavTzenBEeRG, P., and MartTEeLt, H.—Observations sur quelques mollusques du lac 
Tanganyika "vecueillis par le R. P. Guillemé et descriptions de formes nouvelles, 
Journ. de Conch. (Paris), sér. 4, 1. 168. 1899. 

Davuzat, ALBERT.—Le lac Léopold II. et ses affluents, Mowvem. Géogr. (Bruxelles), 
XXIV. 391. 1907. 

Davis, A. P.—Hydrography of Nicaragua, Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Surv, (Washington), 
XX. 563. 1900. 

Davis, C. A.A—A remarkable marl lake, Journ. of Geol. (Chicago), VIII. 498. 1900. 

Davis, W. M.—On the classification of lake-basins, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat, Hist., XXI. 
315, 1882; Science (New York), X. 142, 1887, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 677 


Davis, W. M.—Was Lake Iroquois an arm of the sea? Amer, Geol. (Minneapolis), VII. 


139. 1891. 

— A summer in Turkestan, Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc. (New York), XXXVI. 217. 
1904, 

Davison, C.—Note on the growth of Lake Geneva, Geol. Mag. (Lond.), dec. 3, X. 
454, 1898. 


Davy, JoHN.—On a carbonaceous deposit or film on the lakes of Westmoreland, Edin. 
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Some observations on the fishes of the Lake District, Edin. New Phil. Journ., 
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—— Observations on the Lake District, Adin. New Phil. Journ., N.S., 1X. 179. 1859. 
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Dawson, G. M.—Lakes with two outfalls, Matwre (Lond. ), IX. 368. 1874. 
Dawson, J. W.—The Canadian Ice Age (Montreal). 1893. 
Dearporn, H. A. S.—On the variations of level in the great North American lakes, 
Amer. Journ, Sci. (New Haven), XVI. 78. 1829. 
Deasy, H. H. P.—Journeys in Central Asia, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XVI. 141, 501. 
1900, 
DECANDOLLE, A. P.—Notice sur la matiere qui a coloré le lac de Morat en rouge au 
printemps de 1825, Verh. Schweiz, Ges. Naturw., 1825, 26; Edin. Journ, Sci., 
VI. 307, 1827. 
DEDALO.—I] lago d’Albano, Rivista Nautica (Torino), 1894, No. 7. 
Drerant, A.—Uber die stehenden Seespiegelschwankungen (Seiches) im Riva am 
Gardasee, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, CXVII. (2a), 697. 1908. 
D’Hvuartr.—Le Tchad et ses habitants: Notes de géographie physique et humaine, 
La Géogr. (Paris), [X.161. 1904. 
DELAFIELD, JOSEPH.—Geological remarks on the Lake Region, Amer. Journ. Sci. (New 
Haven), IV. 282. 1822. 
DELCOMMUNE, A.—Exploration du Ruki et du lac Matumba, Ze Congo Illustré 
(Bruxelles), I. 197. 1893. 
— See Briart, P. 
Detcros.—Deétermination de la hauteur du lac de Geneve au-dessus de la mer 
moyenne, Lib. Univ. Sei. (Geneve), V. 184; dnnal. de Chimie (Paris), VI. 98. 
1817. 
DELEBECQUE, ANDRE.—Sondages du lac d’Annecy, Comptes Rendus Soc. Helv. Sci. 
Nat. (Davos), LXXIII. 46. 1890. 
—— Sondages du lac Léman, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), CXII. 67. 1891. 
— Note sur les sondages du lac Léman, 4nn. Ponts et Chaussées (Paris), sér. 7, I. 404. 
1891, 
Sondages thermométriques dans le lac d’ Annecy, Arch. Sev. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), 
sér. 3, XXV. 467; Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat. (Lausanne), XX VII. p. xix. 1891. 
—— Température des lacs de la Suisse et de la Savoie qui n’ont pas été geles pendant 
Vhiver 1890-91, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), ser. 3, XXV. 478; Bull. Soe. 
Vaud. Sci. Nat. (Lausanne), XXVII. p. xx. 1891. 
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1891. 
—— Nota sugli scandagli del Lago Lemano o di Ginevra, Cosmos (Torino), X. 272. 1892. 
—— Sur les sondages du lac du Bourget et de quelques autres lacs des Alpes et du Jura, 
Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), CX1V. 32 ; Arch. Sct. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), 
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—— Sur la topographie de quelques lacs du Jura, du Bugey et de l’Isere, Comptes 
Rendus Acad. Sct. (Paris), CXIV. 1504. 1892. 
—— Cartes hydrographiques des lacs de Savoie, Comptes Rendus 5 Congr. Int. Géogr. 
(Berne), I. 521. 1892. 
-—— L’étude des lacs dans les Alpes et le Jura frangais, Rev. G'én. des Sct. (Paris), ITI. 
233. 1892. 
—— Sur les lacs des Sept-Laux (Isere) et de la Girotte (Savoie), Comptes Rendus Acad. 
Sez. (Paris), CXVI. 700. 1893. : 


678 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


DELEBECQUE, ANDRE.—Sur la variation avec la profondeur de la composition de l’eau des 
lacs, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sei. (Paris), CXVII. 712, 1893 ; CXVIII. 612, 1894. 


—— Exploration du lac du Mont-Cenis, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Genéve), sér, 3, XXX. 
662. 1893. 
— lac du Mont-Cenis, lacs du massif de Belledonne, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Genéve), 
ser, 3, XXX. 664. 1893. 
Les lacs du Dauphiné, Ann. Soc. Touristes Dawphiné (Grenoble), XIX. 151. 
1893. 
—— Les eaux du Rhone et de la Dranse du Chablais, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Genéve), 
sér..3, XXX. 666. 1893. 


—— L’étude des lacs en France, Bull. Soc. Géogr. Lille, XXI. 81; Nowvelles Géugr. 
(Paris), IV. 33. 1894. 

—— Etudes sur les lacs francais, Comptes Rendus Soc. Géogr. Paris, 1894, 77. 1894. 

— On the bathymetrical survey of the French lakes, Rep. Brit. Ass, (Lond.), LXIV. 
712. 1894. 


—— Sur la composition des eaux de la Dranse du Chablais et du Rhone a leur entrée 
dans le lac de Genéve, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), CX VIII. 36. 1894. 


—— Sur l’age du lac du Bourget et les alluvions anciennes de Chambéry et de la vallée 
de I’Isere, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), CXIX. 981. 1894. 


—- Sur quelques lacs des Alpes, de l’Aubrac et des Pyrénées, Comptes Rendus Acad. 
Sct. (Paris), CXX. 54, 1895. 

— Les lacs des Vosges, Comptes Rendus Soc. Géogr. Paris, 1895, 270. 1895. 

—— Sur lage des alluvions anciennes du bois de la Batie, de Bougy et de la Dranse, et 
leurs relations avec le lac de Genéve, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Genéve), sér. 3, 
XXXIII. 98. 1895. 

Analyses de l’eau du Léman, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Genéve), sér. 3, XX XIII. 208. 
1895. 

Sur le carbonate de chaux de V’eau des lacs, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci, (Paris), 
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— Le lac des Rousses—L’origine probable des lacs du Jura, Arch. Sct. Phys. Nat. 

(Geneve), sér. 3, XXXIV. 584. 1895. 

—— Sur les lacs du littoral landais et des environs de Bayonne, Comptes Rendus Acad. 
Sci. (Paris), CXXII. 49. 1896. 

—— Influence de la composition de l’eau des lacs sur la formation des ravins sous- 
lacustres, Comptes Rendus Acad, Sci. (Paris), CXXIII. 71. 1896. 

—— Les ravins sous-lacustres des fleuves glaciaires, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Genéve), 
ser. 4, I. 1896, 

—— Les terrains quaternaires et les lacs du Jura frangais, Bull. Carte Géol, France 
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—— Les lacs frangais (Paris). 1898. [Text, 4to, and Atlas, folio.] 

— Sur les lacs de la Roche-de-Rame (Hautes-Alpes), du Lauzet (Basses-Alpes), de la 
Roquebrussanne et de Tourves (Var), Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), CXXVI. 
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— Sur les lacs de la haute Engadine, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sct. (Paris), CXXXVII. 
PSs L908. 

Situation géologique et origine des lacs des Sept-Laux : Comparaison avec les lacs de 
VEngadine et de la Bernin, Bull. Carte Geol. France (Paris), XV. No. 102. 
1903-4. 

— Sur les lacs du Grimsel et du massif du Saint-Gothard, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci, 

(Paris), CXX XIX. 936. 1904. 

—— Sur l’origine de quelques lacs des Pyrénées: Comparaison avec les lacs de la région 
du Saint-Gothard et du Titlis, Bull. Carte Géol. France (Paris), XVI. 115. 
1904-5. 

—— Sur les lacs du cirque de Rabuons (Alpes-Maritimes), Comptes Rendus Acad. Sei. 

(Paris), CXLIII. 655. 1906. 

and Duparc, L.—Composition des eaux et des vases de différents lacs de Savoie 
et du Jura, Arch. Sct. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), sér. 3, XXVII. 569. 1892. 

—— —— Composition des eaux du lac du Bourget et de quelques autres lacs du Jura 

et du Dauphiné, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Genéve), sér. 3, XXVIII. 502, 1892, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 679 


DELEBECQUE, ANDRE, and Duparc, L.—Sur les eaux et les vases des lacs d’ Aiguebelette, 
de Paladro, de Nantua et de Sylaus, Comptes Rendus Acad, Sci. (Paris), CXIV. 
984, 1892. 

and GARCIN, Eucknr.—Note sur les sondages du lac du Bourget et de quelques autres 
lacs des Alpes et du Jura francais, Ann. Ponts et Chaussées, sér. 7, 1V. 838. 1892. 

—— and Lrcay, L.—Sur les sondages du lac d’Annecy, Comptes Rendus Acad, Sci. 
(Paris), CXI. 1000, 1890. 

Sur la découverte d’une source au fond du lac d’Annecy, Comptes Rendus 
Acad. Sct. (Paris), CXII. 896. 1891. 

—— and Ritrer, E.—Sur les lacs du plateau central de la France, Comptes Rendus 
Acad. Sci. (Paris), CXV. 74. 1892. 

-——— —— Exploration des lacs du Bugey, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), sér. 3, XX VII. 
57 /..- 1892: 

Note sur les sondages des Sept-Laux (Isere), Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), 
sér. 8, XXVIII. 482. 1892. 

—— —— Sur quelques lacs des Pyrénées, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), CXXVII. 
740. 1898. 

—— and Rover, A. LE.—Dissolution des gaz dans les eaux des lacs, Arch. Sci. Phys. 
Nat. (Geneve), ser. 3, XXXIV. 74. 1895. 

Sur les gaz dissous au fond du lac de Geneve, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sei. 
(Paris), CXX. 1486. 1895. 

DELHAISE, Cu.—-Le probleme de la Lukuga, Bull. Soc. Belge Géogr. (Bruxelles), 
XXXII. 228. 1908. 

DELPONTE, G, B.—Specimen Desmidiacearum subalpinarum, ossia le Desmidiacee del 
lago di Candia nel Canavese, Mem. Accad. Sci. Torino, XXVIII. 19, 1876; 
DX Keele S78, 

DrENpy, ARTHUR, Howitt, A. W., and Lucas, A. H. T.—A visit to Lake Nigothoruk, 
and the Mount Wellington District, Gippsland, Vict. Nat., VIII. 17. 1894. 

Denison, F. N.—The Great Lakes as a sensitive barometer, Rep. Brit. Ass. (Lond.), 
SOG oof Sect.) 1897. 

Periodic fluctuations on the Great Lakes, Monthly Weather Rev. (Washington), 
XXVI. 261. 1898. ; 

Deppinc.—Description du lac de Cirkniz dans la Carniole, Jowrn. de Phys. (Paris), 

LXVIII. 305. 1809. 

DrEscHamps.—Au lac Moéro, Mowvem. Antiesclavagiste Belge (Bruxelles), VII. 257 ; 
Mouvem. Géogr. (Bruxelles), XII. 187, 251. 1895. 

—— Notes sur le Tanganika, la Rusisi, la Lukuga et Je lac Moéro, Mouvem. Geéogr. 
(Bruxelles), XVI. 188. 1899. 

—— Notice sur le lac Tchad, Bull. Soc. Géogr. Algér. (Algier), XI. 299. 1906. 

DEsLoNGcHAMpPs, E.—Note sur de petits poissons monstrueux produits par des ceufs de 
la truite du lac de Geneve, Salmo lemanus, fécondés artificiellement, ull. Soc. 
Linn. Normandie (Caen), VII. 191. 1861. 

Drsor, E.-—Indication de quelques faits relatifs & ’écume du lac de Neuchatel, Verh. 
Schweiz. Ges. Naturw., 1889, 107. 1839. 

— Sur l’existence de coquilles marines des mers actuelles dans le bassin du lac Ontario 
(Canada), jusqu’a l’altitude de 310 pieds, Bull. Soc. Géol. France (Paris), N.S., 
VIII. 420. 1850. 

— On the drift of Lake Superior, Amer. Journ. Sci. (New Haven), ser. 2, XIII. 93. 
1852, 

— Des modifications que les faunes terrestres et lacustres ont subies pendant l’époque 
quaternaire, Bull. Soc. Sct. Nat. Neuchatel, V. 436. 1859. 

-—— Recherches dans la station lacustre de la Téne, Bull. Soc. Sci. Nat. Neuchatel, 
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— Deutung der Alpen Seen in Gebirgsbau der Alpen (Wiesbaden). 1865. 

Présomptions en faveur d’un ancien niveau plus bas des lacs de Neuchatel, Bienne, 
et de Morat, Bull. Soc. Sci. Nat. Neuchdtel, VIII. 187. 1870. 

Dersor, P. J. E.—Sur la mer saharienne, Pull. Soc. Sci. Nat. Neuchdtel, XII. 16. 1880. 

and Martius, CHARLES.—Observations sur le projet de la création d’une mer 
intérieure dans le Sahara oriental, Comptes Rendus Acad, Sct. (Paris), LXXXVIII. 
265, 1879. 


—_— 


680 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


DESTENAVE.—Le lac Tchad, 1'¢ partie: Le lac, les affluents, les archipels, Rev. Générale 
des Sci. (Paris), XIV. 649. 1903. 


L’exploration des iles du Tchad, Mouvem. Géogr. (Bruxelles), XX. 408; La 
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—— Sur les reconnaissances géographiques exécutées dans la région du Tchad, Comptes 
Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), CXXXVI. 575. 1908. 
DEvELAY, A.—Autour les lacs de Van et d’Ourmiah, Comptes Rendus Ass. Franc, Avan. 
Sez. (Paris), 1892" 722 1892, 
Dewey, C.—On the temperature of Lake Ontario, Amer. Journ. Sci. (New Haven), 
XXXVII. 242. 1839. 
Facts relating to the Great Lakes, Amer. Jowrn. Sci. (New Haven), ser. 2, II. 85, 
1846 ; Edin. New Phil. Journ., XLII. 295, 1847. 


—— Varying level of Lake Ontario, Amer. Journ, Sci. (New Haven), ser. 2, XXVII. 
399. ~1859. 

Dewitz, J.—The Red Colour of the Salt Lakes in the Wadi Natroun, Science (New 
York), N.S., X. 146, 1899; Geol. Mag. (Lond.), dec. 4, VII. 64, 1899. 


— Les lacs aux eaux rouges dans le désert libyque, Rev. Scient. (Paris), XIV. 153. 1900. 

DIcKIE, GEoRGE.—Note on the colour of a fresh-water loch, Ann. Nat. Hist. (Lond.), 
ser, 2, III. 20, 1849; Trans. Bot. Soc. Hdin., III. 79, 1850. 

DIEFFENBACH, E.—The present state of Te Wanga Lake in Chatham Island, Journ, 
Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., XII, 142, 1842, 

DIEKMANN, E.—Zur Entstehung des sogenannten Fichtelsee’s, Zectschr. Prakt. Geol. 
(Berlin), I. 75. 1893. 

Drier.—Recherches sur la matiere organique du limon du lac Manzaletti, isthme de Suez, 
Ann. Sci. Phys. Nat. Lyon, IV. p. lxxix. 1860. 


DIEULAFAIT, Lovurs.—L’acide borique: Existence de l’acide borique en quantité not- 
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qwelles soient ou non en relation avec des produits éruptifs, Comptes Rendus 
Acad, Sci. (Paris), XCIII. 224, 1881 ; Annales de Chimie (Paris), XX V. 145, 1882. 

—— Evaporation comparée des eaux douces et des eaux de mer a divers degrés de con- 
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Diapy, L.—On the structure and affinities of the Tanganyika Gasteropods Chytra and 
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DILLER, J. S.—Crater Lake, Oregon, Nat. Geogr. Mag. (Washington), VIII. 33, 1897 ; 
Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. (Washington), 1897, 369; Amer. Journ. Sci. (New 
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DINGELSTEDT, V.—Hydrography of the Caucasus, Scott. Geogr. Mag. (Edin.), XV. 281. 
S99: 


Doan, J. P.—The temperature of Turkey Lake, Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci, (Indianapolis), 
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DotomiEN, D.—Description of the Paliorum Lacus, or Lake Palius, in the valley of 
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Dor, H.—Quelques observations sur le niveau du lac Léman, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sct. Nat. 
(Lausanne), VIII. 330. 1865. 


Doss, Bruno.—Ueber Inselbildung und Verwachsung von Seen in Livland unter 
wesentlicher Beteiligung Koprogener Substanz, Korrespondenzblatt Naturforsch. 
Ver. Riga, XL. 186. 1898. 


—— Entstehung der Bitterseen, Korrespondenzblatt Naturforsch. Ver, Riga, XLIII. 39. 
1900. 

—— Uber den Limanschlamm des siidlichen Russlands sowie analoge Bildungen in den 
Ostseeprovinzen, und die eventuelle technisch-balneologische Ausnutzung des 
Kangerseeschlammes, Korrespondenzblatt Naturforsch, Ver. Riga, XLIII. 2138. 
1900. 


DotmeEt-ADANSON.—Note sur lorigine des ‘‘ chotts ” [lacs salés] du sud de la Tunisie, 
fev. Sci. Nat. (Montpellier), IV. 230. 1875. 

Dow.ine, D. B.—The popes geography of the Red River Valley, Ottawa Naturalist, 
XV... No.15.121902 

DRAPER, J. W., and enreenN, W. M.— Remarks on the formation of the Dead Sea and 
the surrounding district, J/ag. Nat. Hist. (Lond.), V. 582. 1882. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 681 


DReEssEL, L.—Ueber die Gegend des Laacher Sees, Sttzber. Niederrhein. Ges. Nat. 
u. Heilk. (Bonn), 1869, 182. 1869. 


DrREUTZER, O. E.—Statistics relative to Norwegian mountains, lakes, and the snow- 
line, Rep. Smithsonian Inst. (Washington), 1866, 435. 1866. 


Drv, L.—De l’influence de l’introduction de la mer intérieure sur le régime des nappes 
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1414, 1882. 


Drummonp, A, T.—Temperatures in Lake Huron, Nature (Lond.), XX XIX. 582. 1889. 
Some Lake Ontario temperatures, Mature (Lond.), XL. 416. 1889. 

—— Lake Memphramagog, Nature (Lond.), XLVIII. 12. 1898. 

—— The Rideau Lakes, Canad. Record of Sci. (Montreal), VI. 230. 1895. 

— A Canadian lake of subterranean inflow, Nature (Lond.), LXI. 128. 1899. 


DrummMonpD, J. L.—On a new Oscillatoria, the colouring of Glaslough Lake, Ireland, 
Ann. Nat. Hist. (Lond.), I. 1. 1838. 
DRUMMOND, JAMES.—On some points of analogy between the molecular structure of ice 


and glass; with special reference to Prof. Erman’s observations on the structural 
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Dryer, C. R.—Certain peculiar eskers and esker lakes of north-eastern Indiana, Journ. 
of Geol. (Chicago), IX. 2. 1901. 
Dusois, R.—Bas Chari, rive sud du Tchad et Bahr el Ghazal, Annales de Céogr. 
(Paris), XII. 339. 1908. 
DuFFART, CHARLES.—Topographie ancienne et moderne des lacs de Cazaux et de 
Parentis-en-Born, Bull. Soc. Géogr. Comm. Bordeaux, ser. 2, XXII. 1. 1899. 
Topographie ancienne et moderne des lacs d’Hourtin et de Lacanau, bull. Soc. 
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Durour, CHARLES.—Mirages et refractions anormales sur le lac Léman, Bull. Soc. 
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—— Sur les mirages a la surface des lacs, Comptes Rendus Ass. Franc. Av. Sci. (Paris), 
1SSORSI2 1650: 


DuFrour, G. H.—Notes sur les limnimetres établis 4 Geneve, Bibl. Univ. Sci. ete. 
(Geneve), XIII. 152, 1838; Mém. Soc. Phys. Geneve, VIII. 119, 1839. 

——- Sur les hautes eaux du lac Léman, J/ém. Soc. Phys. Genéve, X. 327. 18438. 

Dvurour, Hrnri.—Untersuchungen iiber die Reflexion der Sonnenwarme an der 
Oberfliiche des Genfer Sees, Jet. Zeitschr. (Wien), 1909, 234; Arch. Sct. Phys. 
Nat. (Geneve), sér. 4, XX VII. 206. 1909. 

Durour, L.—Des températures de l’air et des mirages 4 la surface du lac Léman, Lud. 
Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat. (Lausanne), IV. 388, 1854; V. 26, 1856. 

— Note sur les images par réfraction a la surface du lac Léman, Bull. Soc. Vaud. 
Sez. Nat. (Lausanne), V. 217. 1857. 

DumBLE, J. H.—Ice phenomena, from observations on Rice Lake, Canad. Journ. Ind. 
Sci. Art (Toronto), N.S., III. 414, 1858 ; Jowrn. Franklin Jnst, (Philadelphia), 
XXXVII. 50, 1859. 

Dumont, ARTHUR.—Sur la possibilité d’augmenter les eaux d’irrigation du Rhone a 
laide du réserves a établir dans les lacs de Geneve, du Bourget et d’ Annecy, 
Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), XCVI. 759 ; XCVII. 660. 1883. 

Dumont, F., and Morrintet, G. pDE.—Catalogue critique et malacostatique des 
Mollusques de Savoie et du bassin du Léman, Bull. Inst. Nat. Geneve, IV. 310, 
1856; V. 47, 1857. 

DunMorzE, Ear or.—Journeyings in the Pamirs and Central Asia, Geogr. Jowrn. 
(Lond.), II. 385. 1893. 

Durarc, L.—Recherches sur la nature des eaux et des vases du lac d’Annecy, Comptes 
Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), CXIV. 248. 1892. 

—— Le lac d’Annecy, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), ser. 3, XXXI. 68,191. 1894. 

See BourncaRrt, F. E., and DELEBECQUE, A. 

Dupuis, C., and Garstin, W.—Report upon the basin of the Upper Nile, with proposals 
for the improvement of that river, and a report upon Lake Tsana and the rivers 
of the Eastern Soudan (Cairo). 1904. 

DuraNnpD, Exias.—A sketch of the botany of the basin of the Great Salt Lake of Utah, 
Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. (Philadelphia), N.S., XI. 155. 1860. 


682 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


DurocuEer, J.—Etudes hydrographiques et géologiques sur le lac de Nicaragua 
(Amérique centrale), Comptes Rendus Acad. Set. (Paris), LI. 118. 1860. 

Durval, H.—Exploitation du lac boracifere de Monte Rotondo et des terrains environ- 
nants, Annal. de Chimie (Paris), ser. 3, XLVI. 368. 1856. 

Dutton, C. E.—Crater Lake, Oregon: a proposed National Reservation, Science (New 
York), VII. 179. 1886. 

Duvau-JouveE, J.—De existence, a une époque reculée, d’un petit lac, ou mieux d’un 
vaste étang, entre Bicétre et la barriere d’Italie, Bull. Soc. Géol. France (Paris), 
XI. 302. 1839, 

DUVEYRIER, HENRI.—Exploration du ‘‘chott” Melghigh, département de Constantine, 

Bull, Soc. Géogr. Paris, 1X. 94, 208, 3038. 1875. 
Premier rapport sur la mission des ‘‘chotts” du Sahara de Constantine, Bull. Soc. 
Géogr. Paris, IX. 482. 1875. 

Dwieut, 8. E.—Description of the eruption of Long Lake and Mud Lake, in Vermont, 
and of the desolation effected by the rush of the waters through Barton River and 
the lower country, towards Lake Memphremagog, in the summer of 1810, Amer. 
Journ. Sci. (New Haven), XI. 39, 1826 ; Hdin. New Phil. Jowrn., II. 146, 1827. 

DyzsowskI, BENEDICT VON. —Ueber Comephorus baicalensis, Pall., Verh. Zool.-Bot. Ver. 
Wien, XXIII. (Abh.), 475. 1878. 

—— Ueber die Baikal Robbe: Phoca baicalensis, Pall., Arch. Anat. Physiol. ete. 
(Leipzig), 1873, 109. 1873. 

—— Ueber bathometrische Untersuchungen am Baikal, Sitzber. Naturf. Ges. Dorpat 
[V. 499, 1878. 

—— Die Fische des Baikal-Wassersystemes, Verh. Zool.-Bot. Ver. Wien, XXIV. (Abh.), 
383. 1874, 

Dysowsk1, J.—La route du Tchad, du Loango au Chari (Paris). 1898. 

Dy5owskiI, WLADISLAUS.—Die Gasteropoden-Fauna des Baikal-Sees, anatomisch und 
systematisch bearbeitet, MWém. Acad. Sct. St. Péersb., sér. 7, XXII. No.8. 1876. 

—— Studien iiber die Spongien des russischen Reiches mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung 
der Spongien-Fauna des Baikal-Sees, Wém. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersb., sér. 7, XXVIL. 
No. 6. 1880. 

—— Hinige Bemerkungen iiber die Veranderlichkeit der Form und Gestalt von Lubo- 
mirskia baikalensis und tiber die Verbreitung der Baikalschwamme im allgemeinen, 
Bull. Acad. Sct. St. Pétersb., XXVIL. 45. 1881; 

—— Studien iiber die Siisswasser-Schwimme des russischen Reiches, JM/ém. Acad. Sct. 
St. Pétersb., sér. 7, XXX. No. 10. 1882. 

Easton, N. W.—Der Toba-See, Zeitschr. Deutsch. Geol. Ges. (Berlin), XLVIII. 435. 
1896. 

EBERT, HERMANN.—Seespiegelschwankungen im Starnberger See, Jahresb. Geogr. Ges. 

Miinchen (1900-01) ; Sitzber. Akad. Wiss. Miinchen, 1900, 435. 
Sarasin’s neues selbstregistrirendes Limnimeter, Zeztschr. f. Instrwmentenkunde 
(Berlin), XXI.3193. 1901. 

EDELMANN, AuGustT.—Die Oberbayerischen Seen (Miinich). 1906. 

Epmonps, RicHARD.—Observations on the cause of the recent oscillation of the waters 
in the Lake Ontario and other places, Edin. New Phil. Jowrn., XLV. 107. 
1848. 

Epwarps, J. T.—The silva of Chautauqua Lake (Buffalo). 1892. 


Eeut, J. J.—Areal und Tiefe der schweizer Seen, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XXXIX, 124; 
Zertschr. Schulgeogr. (Wien), XIV. 294. 1893. 

—— The Lake of Joux and the River Orbe, Scott. Geogr. Mag. (Edin.), X. 596. 1894. 

EHRENBERG, C, G.—Ueber mikroskopische Untersuchungen des Jordan-Wassers und 
des Wassers und Bodens des Todten Meeres, Bericht Preuss. Akad. Wiss, Berlin, 
1849, 187, 1849. 

EICHWALD, E. von.—Geognostische Bemerkungen iiber die Umgebungen des Kaspischen 
Meeres, Archiv f. Min. etc. (Berlin), I]. 55; Edin. New Phil. Journ., XIV. 
122, 324. 1830. 

—— Einige Bemerkungen iiber das Kaspische Meer, Arch. f. Naturgesch. (Berlin), IV. 
97. 1838. 

—— Alte Geographie des Kaspischen Meeres, des Kaukasus und des siidlichen Russlands, 
Journ, Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., VIII. 371. 1838. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 683 


EICHWALD, E. von.—Faune Caspii maris primitie, Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, V. 
125. 1838. 


— Schilderung des Kaspischen Meeres und des Kaukasus, Arch. Wiss. Kunde Russland 
(Berlin), II. 405. 1842. 


Faune Caspio-Caucasie illustrationes universe, Vouv. Mém. Soc. Invp. Nat. Moscou, 
Welles le 842. 


—— Ergiinzung seiner friiheren Aeusserungen iiber das Verhaltniss des Kaspischen zum 
Schwarzen Meere, Arch. Wiss. Kunde Russland (Berlin), III. 1. 1848. 


—— Zur Naturgeschichte des Kaspischen Meeres, Nouv. Mém. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscow, 
X. 2838. 1855. 


EIGENMANN, C. H.—Turkey Lake as a unit of environment, and the variation of its 
inhabitants, Proc. Indiana Acad, Sci. (Indianapolis), 1895, 204. 1895. 

EkMAN, SvEeN.—Die Phyllopoden, Cladoceren und freilebenden Copepoden der 
nordschwedischen Hochgebirge, Zool. Jahrb. (Jena), XXI. 1. 1904. 

ELBERT, JOHANN.—Die Entstehung und Geschichte des Toten Meeres, Natur und 
Offenbarung (Minster), XLVI. 129. 1900. 

Exiot, C.—From Mombasa to Khartum: Through Uganda and down the Nile, Scott. 
Geogr. Mag. (Edin.), XXII. 341. 1906. 


Europ, M. J.—Limnological investigations at Flathead Lake, Montana, and vicinity, 
July 1899, Trans. Amer. Micro. Soc. (New York), XXII. 1901. 


EmMIN PasHa.—Die Strombarren des Bahr-el-Djebel, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XXV. 
273. 1879. 


—— Reisen zwischen dem Victoria- und Albert-Nyanza, 1878, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), 
ROX 21 e880) 


—— An exploring trip to Lake Albert, Scott. Geogr. Mag. (Edin.), III. 273. 1887. 

—— Expedition to Lake Albert Edward and Lake Albert, Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., 
XIV. 540. 1892. 

Emmons, S. F.—The Lake Region, U.S. Geol. Expl. 40th Parallel (Washington), 
D443 1877. 

Enpros, ANTON,—Seeschwankungen (Seiches) beobachtet am Chiemsee (Traunstein). 
1903 

—- Seiches kleiner Wasserbecken, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), L. 294. 1904. 

—— Die Seiches der Waginger-Tachingersees, Sttzber. Akad. Wiss. Miinchen, 1905, 447. 

— Die Seeschwankungen (Seiches) des Chiemsees, Sitzber, Akad. Wiss. Miinchen, 
1906, 297. — 

—— Seichesbeobachtungen an den grésseren Seen des Salzkammergutes, Petermann 
Mitt. (Gotha), LIT. 252. 1906. 

— Vergleichende Zusammenstellung der Hauptseichesperioden der bis jetzt unter- 
suchten Seen mit Anwendung auf verwandte Probleme, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), 
LIV. 39, 60, 86. 1908. 

ENGELHARDT, M., and Parrot, F.—Sur la hauteur relative des niveaux de la Mer 
Noire et de la Mer Caspienne, Annal. de Chimie (Paris), I. 55; Phil. Mag. 
(Lond.), XLVII. 364. 1816. 

Entz, GizA.—Die Fauna der kontinentalen Kochsalzwasser, Math. u. Naturw. Berichte 
Ungarn (Budapest), XIX. 89. 1901. 

— Die biologischen Resultate der Balatonforschung, Internat. Rev. Gesaimt. Hydrobiol. 
u. Hydrographie (Leipzig), I. 425. 1908. 


ERMAN, A.—Die Grotten und unterirdischen Seen im Gouvernement Orenburg, Arch. 


Wiss. Kunde Russland (Berlin), VII. 386. 1849. 

Ernst, A., and Stack, H. J.—Diatomaceous earth from the Lake of Valencia, Caracas, 
Monthly Micro. Journ. (Lond.), VI. 69. 1871. 

ERRERA, C.—Sulla separazione del lago di Mezzola dal Lario (eta antica e medievale), 
Boll, Soc. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), VI. 75. 1905, 

Estcourt, CHARLES.—Analyses of the waters of Lake Thirlmere and the River 
Vyrnwy, the new sources of water supply for Manchester and for Liverpool, 
Chem. News (Lond.), XL. 89. 1879. 

Eusésto, J. B. A.—See Bruyant, C. 

Evans, RicHarp.—A description of two new species of Spongilla from Lake 
Tanganyika, Quart. Jowrn. Micro. Sct. (Lond.), N.S., XLI. 471. 1898-99. 


684 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


EXNER, F.—Messungen der tiaglichen Temperaturschwankungen in verschiedenen 
Tiefen des Wolfgangsees, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, CLIX. (2%), 905. 1900. 


-— Uber die eigentiimliche Temperaturschwankungen von eintiigige Periode im 
Wolfgangsee, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss, Wien, CXVII. (27), 9. 1908. 

EyFertuH, B.—Einfachste Lebensformen des Tier- und Pflanzenreiches: Naturgeschichte 
der mikroskopischen Siisswasserbewohner (Braunschweig). 1900. 


Eyton, CHARLOTTE.—On an old lake-basin in Shropshire, Geol. Mag. (Lond.), IV. 1. 
1867. 


FAIRCHILD, H, L.—Glacial Genesee lakes, Amer. Nat. (Philadelphia), XXIX. 160, 
1895 ; Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. (Rochester), VII. 423, 1896. 


—— Glacial lakes of Western New York, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. (Rochester), VI. 353, 
462, 1895; Amer. Journ. Sci. (New Haven), ser. 3, XLIX. 156; L. 345, 1895; 
Proc. Rochester (N. Y.) Acad. Sci., III. 176, 1900. 


—— Lake Warren shore-lines in Western New York and the Geneva Beach, Pull. Geol. 
Soc. Amer. (Rochester), VIII. 269. 1897. 


—— Basins in glacial lake deltas, Amer. Geologist (Minneapolis), XXII. 254. 1898. 
Kettles in glacial lake deltas, Journ. of Geol. (Chicago), VI. 589. 1898. 
Fanti, G.—Sulle rive del lago Santo, Natwra ed Arte (Milano). 1893. 


FANTOLI, G.—Osservazioni sull’ altitudine del lago Maggiore, Riv. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), 
II. 415. 1895. 


—— Sul regime idrografico dei laghi (Milano). 1897. 


FAREY, JoHN.—Geological observations on the excavation of valleys, the supposed 
existence of numerous lakes at former periods where valleys now exist, which the 
streams flowing through them are said to have broken down, Phil. Mag. 
(Lond.), XXXIV. 49. 1809. 


FARKAS-VUKOTINOVIC, L. von.—Die Plitvica-Seen in der oberen Militiirgrenze in 
Croatien, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, XXXIII. 268. 1858. 


FaRNswortH, P. J.—The Great Lake basins, Science (New York), XX. 74. 1892. 


FAVRE, ALPHONSE.—On the origin of the Alpine lakes and valleys, Phil. Mag. (Lond. ), 
XTX 206; els65: 


—— Sur l’ancien lac de Soleure, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), X. 601. 1888. 


Favre, J., and TH1rEBAUD, M.—Contribution a ]’étude de la faune des eaux du Jura, 
Ann. de Biol. Lacustre (Bruxelles), I. 57. 1906. 


—— — Sur la faune invertébrée des mares de Pouillerel, Zool. Anzeig. (Leipzig), 
XOX 1553) 1906. 


Faxar, P.—Relation d’un lac de soude dans l’Amérique du Sud, Amn. de Chimie (Paris), 


IT. 482. 1816. 
FEILDEN, H. W.—The formation of gravel-ridges by lake-ice, Glac. Mag. (Lond.), 
Dae Sob: 


FELKIN, R. W.—Journey to Victoria Nyanza and back vid the Nile, Proc. Roy. Geogr. 
Soc..Lond., Ll. sors, vlLsso: 


FELKNER, Lieutenant.—Coup d’eil sur la composition géologique de la rive orientale 
de la mer Caspienne, comprise entre le golfe d’Aster-Abad et le cap Tukkaragane, 
d’aprés des observations faites en 1836, Ann. Journ. Mines Russie (St. Pétersb.), 
1838, 129. 1838. 


FENNEMAN, N. M.—On the lakes of South-Eastern Wisconsin, Wis. Geol. and Nat. Hist. 
Survey (Madison), Bull. No. VIII. 1902. 

FERGUSSON, MALcoLM.—Lake Busumchwi, Ashanti, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XIX. 370. 
1902, 

FERRARA, F,—Memoire sur le lac Nafta, Journ. de Pharm. (Paris), VI. 197. 1820, 

FERRYMAN, A. F,. M.—The Demme Vand, or Rombesdal glacial lake, Norway, Geogr. 
Journ. (Lond.), 1V. 524. 1894. 

FILHoN.—Sur les différences de niveau de quelques points de la chaine du Jura et du 
bassin du Léman, B7b/. Univ. Sci. ete. (Geneve), LI. 217 ; LIL. 211. 1882. 
Fiscuer, F, J.—Meer- und Binnengewasser in Wechselwirkung: Ein Beitrag zur Sub- 
eure ‘ raat ae der Karstlander, Abhandl. Geogr. Ges. Wien, IV. 

Ong0r 2. 


FiscHEer, G. A.—Am Ostufer des Victoria-Njansa, Petermann Mitt, (Gotha), XLI. 1, 
42, 66. 1895. 


a 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 685 - 


FIscHER, PAUL.—See Cross, H. 


FiscHer, T.—L’anfiteatro morenico del lago di Garda, Riv. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), V. 365 ; 
Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XLIV. 17. 1898. 


FIscHER-OOSTER, C. von.—See BRUNNER, C. 


FISHBOURNE, C. E.—Lake Kioga (Ibrahim) Exploratory Survey, 1907-1908, Geogr. 
Journ, (Lond. ), XXXIII. 192. 1909. 


FIsHER, OSMOND.—On the theory of the erosion of lake-basins by glaciers, Geol. Mag. 
(Lond.), N.S., III. 253. 1876. 


FITzGERALD, DEsMoND.—The temperature of lakes, Trans. Amer. Soc, Civ. Eng. 
(New York), XXXIV. 67. 1895. 


FITZGERALD, G. F,—On the temperature at various depths in Lough Derg after sunny 
weather, Sci. Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc., V. 169, 1887; Meteorol. Zeitschr. (Wien), 
XVIII. 22, 1888. 


FLAMAND, G. B. M.—Sur le régime hydrographique du Tidikelt (archipel touatien), 
Sahara central, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), CKXXV. 212. 1902. 
FLEcK.—Bericht des Dr. Fleck iiber eine Reise durch die Kalahari zum Ngami-See, 

Mitt. aus den Deutsch. Schutzgeb. (Berlin), VI. 25. 1893. 


FLEMING, THomAs.—Account of a remarkable agitation of the waters of Loch Tay, 
Trans, Roy. Soc, Edin., I. 200. 1788. 


FLorEeNnTIN, R.—Etude sur la faune des lacs salés de Lorraine, Ann. Sci. Nat. (Paris), 
Zool., sér. 8, X. 209. 1900. 


Fou, H., and Sarasin, E.—Pénétration de la lumiere du jour dans les eaux du lac 
Léman, Mém. Soc. Phys. Hist. Nat. (Geneve), XXIX. 1887. 


Nouvelle appareil pour l’étude de la pénétration de la lumiere du jour dans la 
profondeur des mers et des lacs, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), sér. 3, XVIII. 
582. 1887. 


Pénétration de la lumiere du jour dans les eaux du lac de Geneve et dans celles 
de la Méditerranée, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), sér. 3, XIX. 1. 1888, 


Forsss, 8. A.—The lake as a microcosm, Bull. Peoria Sci. Ass., 1887. 


—— On some Lake Superior Entomostraca, Rep. U.S. Fish Comm. (Washington), 1887, 
LO Wee LS Sift 


ForcHHAMMER, P. W.—Der Kopaische See und seine unterirdischen Abzugskaniile, 
Annal, Phys. uw. Chemie (Leipzig), XXX VIII. 241. 1836. 


Fore., F. A.—Notes sur une maladie é¢pizootique qui a sévi chez les Perches du lac 
Léman, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat. (Lausanne), [X. 599. 1868. 


—— Introduction a l’étude de la faune profonde du lac Léman, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. 
Nat. (Lausanne), X. 217. 1869. 


—— Notice sur les brises du lac Léman, Bull. Soc. Vaud, Sci. Nat. (Lausanne), X. 698. 
nS (ale 


— Rapport sur l’étude scientifique du lac Léman, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat. 
(Lausanne), XI. 401. 1872. 


— Les taches d’huile du lac Léman, Bull. Soc, Vaud, Sci. Nat. (Lausanne), XII. 148. 
1873. 


—— Etude sur les seiches du lac Léman, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Set. Nat. (Lausanne), XII. 
DLO 7d jo NUE. 5102 1875: 


—— la faune profonde du lac Léman, Actes Soc. Helv. Sct. Nat., 1873, 186; 1874, 129. 


—— Matériaux pour servir a ]’étude de la faune profonde du lac Léman, Bull. Soc. 
Vaud. Sci. Nat. (Lausanne), XIII. 1, 1874; XIV. 97, 201, 1876; XV. 497, 
1878; XVI. 149, 313, 1879: 


— Une variété nouvelle ou peu connue de Gloire étudiée sur le lac Léman, Bull. Soc. 
Vaud. Sci. Nat. (Lausanne), XIII. 357. 1874. 


—— Enquéte sur l’épizootie de typhus qui a sévi sur les Perches du lac Léman, en 1873, 
Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat. (Lausanne), XIII. 400. 1874. 


—— Carte hydrographique du lac Léman, Arch. Set. Phys. Nat. (Genéve), LII. 5. 
1875. 


—— Sur les seichesdulac Léman, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sct. (Paris), LXXX.107. 1875. 
—— Les seiches des lacs, Actes Soc. Helv. Sci. Nat., 1875, 157 ; 1878, 203, 


—— Le limnimeétre enregistreur de Morges, Arch. Sci, Phys. Nat. (Geneve), LVI. 305. 
1876. 


- 686 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Fore., F, A.—Les seiches, vagues oscillation fixe des lacs, Annal. de Chimie (Paris), 
Sere elle Wisi, 1876 ; Verh. Schweiz. Naturf. Ges, (Basel), LXI.. 208, 1878. 


La formule des seiches, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), LXXXIIL. 712, 1876 ; 
Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), LVII. 278, 1876; sér. 3, XIV. 208, 1885; XXV. 
599, 1891; Annal. de Chimie (Paris), sér. 5, X. 141, 1877. 

Essai monographique sur les seiches du lac Léman, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), 
LEX 50s Site 

Etude sur les variations de transparence des eaux du lac Léman, drch. Sed. Phys. 
Nat. (Genéve), LIX. 137; Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), DX XX DV asoiele 
1877. 

——- Contributions a l’étude de la limnimétrie du lac Léman, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat. 

(Lausanne), XIV. 589, 1877 ; XV. 129, 305, 1878; XVI. 641, 1880; XVII. 285, 
ie! 


Vaud. Sct. Nat. 


Dune Gs Kuve 27, 48, 75, 1877-8 8; XVI. 473, 1879. 
Faunistische Studien in den Siisswasserseen der Schweiz, Zeitschr. Wiss. Zool. 
(Leipzig), XXX. 383. 1878. 
Les seiches des lacs: leurs causes, Comptes Rendus Acad, Sci. (Paris), LXXXVI. 
1500. 1878. 
Les causes des seiches, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), LVIII. 118. 1878. 
Seiches and earthquakes, Matwre (Lond.), XVII. 281. 1878. 
—— Remarques sur la sculpture des galets des gréves des lacs suisses, Verh. Schweiz. 
Naturf. Ges. (Basel), LXI. 128. 1878. 

— Recherches sur les rides de fond du lac Léman, Awill. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat. 
(Lausanne), XV. 66, 77. 1878. 

—— Les Ténevieéres des lacs suisses, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Genéve), sér. 3, I. 480. 
1879. 

—— Seiches et vibrations des lacs et de la mer, Comptes Rendus Ass. Frang. Av. Sct. 
(Paris), 1879, 493. 

Les faunes lacustres de la région amie Comptes Rendus Ass. Franc. Av. Sci. 
(Paris), 1879, 744. 

La température des lacs gelés, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), XC. 322; La 
Nature (Paris), VIII. (1), 289. 1880. 

-—— Les seiches dicrotes, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Genéve), sér. 8, III. 5. 1880. 

Températures lacustres: Recherches sur la température du lac Leman et d’autres 
lacs d’eau douce, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Genéve), sér. 3, III. 501; IV. 89. 1880. 

Congélation des lacs suisses et savoyards pendant Vhiver 1879-80, Hcho des Alpes 
(Genéve), XVI. 94, 149. 1880. 

— Les ee de limon dragués dans les lacs d’Arménie, Bull. Acad. Sci. St. 

Pétersb., X. 743. 1880. 

—— Tidal ale nerienonn in Lake Constance, Nature (Lond.), XXI. 448. 1880. 

Remarques sur un échantillon de tuf lacustre trouvé dans le lac de Neuchatel, Bull. 
Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat. (Lausanne), XVI. 173. 1880. 

Congélation curieuse d’un lac, Les Mondes (Paris), LI. 745. 1880. 

—— Théorie des brouillards dans la vallée du Léman, Bull. Soc, Vaud. Sci. Nat. 

(Lausanne), XVII. p. i. 1881. 

—— Die pelagische Fauna der Siisswasserseen, Biol. Centralbl. (Erlangen), II. 299. 
1882, 

La faune pélagique des lacs d’eau douce, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), sér. 3, 
VIII. 230, 1882; Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (Lond.), X. 320, 1882 ; Natwre (Lond.), 
XXVILI. 92, 1883. 

Les rides de fond, étudiées dans le lac Leman, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), 
sér. 3, X. 39. 1883. 

—— Dragages zoologiques et sondages thermométriques dans les lacs de Savoie, Revwe 

Savoisienne (Annecy), XXIV. 87; Comptes Rendus Acad. Sct. (Paris), XCVII. 
859. 1883. 

—— Etudes zoologiques dans les lacs de Savoie, Revue Savoisienne (Annecy), XXV. 1. 
1884, 

Faune profonde des lacs suisses, Nowv. Mém. Soc. Helv. Sci. Nat. (Zurich), XXIX. 
7a ele¥sS 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 687 


Foret, F. A.—Ravins sous-lacustres des fleuves glaciaires, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. 
(Paris), CI. 725. ‘1885. 


Les seiches des lacs, Guide Scientifique (Morlaix), Oct. 1885. 

— Moraine sous-lacustre de la barre d’Yvoire, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sct. (Paris), 
CII. 328. 1885. 

Le lac Léman (Genéve et Bale), 1886. 

— L’inclinaison des couches isothermes dans les eaux profondes du lac Léman, 
Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), CII. 712. 1886. 

Carte hydrographique du lac des IV. Cantons, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Genéve), 
sér. 3, XVI. 5. 1886. 

—- Température des eaux profondes du lac Leman, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), 
CIII. 47. 1886. 

La barre d’Yvoire, au lac Leman, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sct. Nat. (Lausanne), XXII. 
125. 1886. 

Programme d’une étude scientifique du lac de Constance (Friedrichshafen). 1886. 

—— Programme d’études limnologiques pour les lacs subalpins, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. 

(Genéve), sér. 3, XVI. 471. 1886. 


—— Les micro-organismes pélagiques des lacs de la région subalpine, Rev. Scient. 
(Paris), XX XIX. 113, 1887 ; Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat. (Lausanne), XXIII. 167. 
1888. 
Le ravin sous-lacustre du Rhone dans le lac Léman, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sct. Nat. 
(Lausanne), XXIII. 85. 1887. 
La pénétration de la lumiére dans les lacs d’eau douce (Festschrift fiir A. von 
Kolliker, Leipzig). 1887. 
—— Instructions pour étude des lacs (St. Pétersbourg), 1887. 
— Commission d’études limnologiques, Actes Soc. Helv. Sci. Nat. (Frauenfeld), 1887, 
86 ; (Soleure), 1888, 1383; (Lugano), 1889, 97 ; (Davos), 1891, 114 ; (Fribourg), 
1892, 100; (Bale), 1893, 112. 

— Le lac bleu de Lucel, Gazette de Lausanne, Oct. 7, 1887. 

— L’éclairage des eaux profondes du Léman, Comptes Rendus Ass. Franc. Av. Sci. 
(Parisi less. 162, Vil 192, “1888s. 

—— Expériences photographiques sur la pénétration de la lumiére dans les eaux du lac 
Léman, Comptes Rendus Acad, Sct. (Paris), CVI. 1004. 1888, 

— Images réfléchies sur la nappe sphéroidale des eaux du lac Léman, Comptes Rendus 
Acad. Sci. (Paris), CVII. 650. 1888. 

—-- Le débit du Rhone et la capacité du lac de Genéve, Za Nature (Paris), XVI. (1), 
94, 1888. 
— La capacité du lac Léman, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat. (Lausanne), XXIV. 1, 1888 ; 
Arch, Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), ser. 3, XXI. 128, 1889. 
La couleur des lacs, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), sér, 3, XIX. 191; Rev. 
Scient. (Paris), VIII. 285. 1888. 
— Glacons de neige tenant sur l’eau du lac Leman, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat. 
(Lausanne), XXIV. 77, 1888; Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Genéve), sér. 3, XXI. 235, 
1889. 

— Classification thermique des lacs d’eau douce, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), 
CVILI. 587; Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Genéve), ser. 3, XXI. 368. 1889. 

—- Ricerche fisiche sui laghi d’ Insubria, Rendiconti R. Ist. Lombardo (Milano), 
ser. 2, XXII. 739. 1889. 

Valeur normale de la pluie dans le bassin du Léman, Réswmé Meétéorologique pour la 
Haute-Savoie (Annecy), 1889. 

—— Allgemeine Biologie eines Siisswassersees [in Zacharias: Die Thier- und Pflanzenwelt 

des Siisswassers] (Leipzig). 1891. 


Gamme soit échelle de tous pour l’étude de la couleur des lacs (Morges), 1891. 

— Les lacs de la vallée de Joux, (azette de Lausanne, 28th Sept. 1891; Arch. Sei. 
Phys. Nat. (Geneve), sér. 3, XX VII. 250, 1892. 

——— Les cartes hydrographiques des lacs suisses, Comptes Rendus V. Congr. Int. Géogr. 

(Bern), I. 517 ; Cosmos (Torino), ser. 2, XI. 16. 1892. 


La congélation des lacs suisses et savoyards dans l’hiver 1891, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. 
(Geneve), sér. 3, XXVII. 48. 1892. 


688 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Forex, F. A.—La congeélation du lac du Grand Saint-Bernard, Arch. Sci. Phys, Nat. 
(Geneve), sér. 3, XXVIII. 44. 1892. 


La thermique des lacs d’eau douce, Comptes Rendus Trav. Soc. Helv. Sci. Nat. 
(Geneve), LXXV. 5, 1892; Verh. Schweiz. Naturf. Ges. (Basel), LXXV. 45, 1892 ; 
Arch, Sct. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), sér. 3, XXVIII. 334, 1892. 

— Le Leman: Monographie limnologique, I., 1892; II., 1895 ; III., 1904 (Lausanne). 

La transparence des eaux du Léman (Rec. Inaug. Univ. Lausanne), 1892. 

——- Appendix to Boys: Essai théorique sur les seiches, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Genéve), 
ser, 8, XXV. 628. 1892. 

La geneése du lac Léman, Comptes Rendus Trav. Soc. Helv. Sci. Nat. (Geneve), 
XLV 6.4" 1892; 


—— Die Temperaturverhaltnisse des Bodensees, Schriften Ver. Gesch. Bodensees (Lindau), 
Heft 22. 1893. 


—— Die Schwankungen des Bodensees, Schriften Ver. Gesch. Bodensees (Lindau), Heft 
22.1 W893. 


Transparenz und Farbe des Bodensees, Schriften Ver. Gesch. Bodensees (Lindau), 
Heft 22. 1898. ; 


Oscillazioni del lago di Lugano, Gazetta Ticinese (Lugano), 25th Nov. 1893. 
—— Sur les seiches du lac Leman, Comptes Rendus Ass, Franc. Av. Sci. (Paris), XXII. 
(1), 204. 1893. 

— Stehende Wellen im Genfersee, Met. Zeitschr. (Wien), X. 239. 1893. 

Les relations probables entre le lac Brenet et la source de Orbe, Arch. Sci. Phys. 
Nat. (Genéve), sér.3, XXIX, 307. 1893. 

La vitesse du courant dans le lac Léman, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Genéve), sér. 3 
XXX, 282. 1898. 

Zoologie lacustre, Arch. Sci. Phys, Nat. (Geneve), sér. 3, XXXII. 588. 1894. 

—— Station lacustre du stand du Boiron, Jowrnal de Morges, 28th March 1894. 

La limnologie, branche de la géographie, Rep. VI. Int. Geogr. Congr. (Lond. ), 1895, 
593. 1895. 


—— Reéfractions et mirages observés sur le Léman, Comptes Rendus Acad, Sct. (Paris), 
CXL 16 a 1896. 

Les seiches des lacs et les variations locales de la pression atmosphérique, A7'ch. 
Sct. Phys. Nat. (Genéve), sér. 4, IV. 39, 186. 1897. 

—— Seiches des lacs et ouragan cyclone, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sct. (Paris), CXXIV. 
1074. 1897. 

Réfractions et mirages: passage d’un type a l’autre sur le Leman, Bull. Soc. Vaud. 
Sci. Nat. (Lausanne), XXXII. 271. 1897. 

— Quelques études sur les lacs de Joux, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat. (Lausanne), 

XXXIIT 7927 1898. 


—— Les flaques d’eau libre dans la glace des lacs gelés, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat. 
(Lausanne), XXXIV. 272, 1898; Ciel et Terre (Bruxelles), XIX. 498, 1898; 
Rev. Scient. (Paris), XI. 140, 1899. 

—— L’écoulement des eaux des lacs de Joux dans l’Orbe a Vallorbes, Arch. Sci. Phys. 
Nat. (Genéve), sér. 4, VII. 188. 1899. 

— les seiches des lacs, Verh. VII. Int. Geogr. Kongr. (Berlin), 1899, 255. 1900. 

—— Handbuch der Seenkunde: allgemeine Limnologie (Bibliothek geographische 
Handbiicher, Stuttgart). 1901. 


Péche de la Féra dans le Léman, Bull, Soc. Vaud. Sct. Nat. (Lausanne), XXXVII. 
PY USNS 


—— L/origine de la faune des poissons du Léman, Bull. Soc. Vaud, Sci. Nat. (Lausanne), 
XXXVII. 221. 1901. 


—— Les matieres organiques dans l’eau du lac, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat. (Lausanne), 
XXXVII. 479. 1901. 

—— Etude thermique des lacs du nord del’Europe, Arch. Sct. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), 
Ser. 4, eX 11. 30.0 90: 

—— Les seiches de Genéve, Le Globe (Geneve), XL. 118. 1901. 

—— La variation thermique des eaux, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), CX XXII. 
1089° <1901" : 


? 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 689 


ForEL, F. A:—Recherches sur la transparence des eaux du Léman, Verh. Naturf. Ges, 
Basel, XVI..229. 1908. 


—— Le lac de l’Orbe souterraine, Bull. Soc. Belge Géol. (Bruxelles), XVII. 340. 1908. 
— Sur les seiches, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat. (Lausanne), XL. p. xxvii. 1904, 


—— Programme d’études de biologie lacustre, Ann. de Biol. Lacustre (Bruxelles), I, 
p. xii. 1906. | 


-—— L’eau des lacs, eau d’alimentation, Jnternat. Rev. Gesamt. Hydrobiol. u. Hydro- 
graphie (Leipzig), I. 525. 1908. 


—- Vibrations de la mer et des lacs, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), sér. 4, XXVII. 
161. 1909. 


——and PLANTAMOUR, E,—Limnimétrie du Léman, Proces du Léman, Matériaux 
(Lausanne), 45. 1881. 


-—— and Puxssis, G. pu.—-Esquisse générale de la faune profonde du lac Léman, Bull. 
Soc. Vaud. Sct. Nat. (Lausanne), XIII. 46. 1874. 


and SARASIN, E.—Les oscillations des lacs, Congr. Int. de Physique (Paris), III. 
394. 1900. 


Foret, AucusTE.-—Le lac Fernan-Vaz (Congo frangais), Bull. Soc. Géogr. Paris, XIX. 
308. 1898. . 


FOrsTER, B.—Die Entstehung des Tanganika-Sees, Globus (Braunschweig), LXX. 98. 
1896. 


Forti, A.—Microfite lacustri rinvenute in alcuni Campioni di fondo raccolti nel 1899, 
Boll. Soc. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), ser. 4, I. 1008. 1900. 


and Toni, — DE.—Contributo alla conoscenza del plancton del lago Vetter, Atti R. 
Ist. Ven. Sci. Lett. Arti (Venezia), LIX. 1900. 


and TrorTer, A.—Materiali per una monografia limnologica dei laghi craterici del 
Monte Vulture, Ann. di Botanica, VII. (supp.). 1908. 


Foster, J. W.—On certain phenomena connected with the rise and fall of the waters of 
the northern lakes, Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts Sci. (Boston), II. 1381. 1848. 


FourEAU, F.—Mission saharienne Foureau-Lamy: D’Alger au Congo par le Tchad 
(Paris). 1902. 


Franck, R. H.—Zur Biologie des Planktons, Biol. Centralbl. (Leipzig), XIV. 34. 1894. 

FRANCIS, GEORGE. —Poisonous Australian lake, Mature (Lond.), XVIII. 11. 1878. 

Francqui, L.—See Cornet, J. 

FRAUENFELD, G. von.—Ueber die sogenannte Sigspin-See, beobachtet wahrend der 
Weltreise der Novara, Verh. Zool.-Bot. Ver. Wien, XII. 511. 1862. 

Fret, A.—Das Tote Meer, seine Entstenung und Geschichte, Mitt, Ostschweizer Ceogr.- 
Comm. Ges. St. Gallen, 1896, 67. 1896. 

FRESNEL, F.—Essai de discussion des documents relatifs au cours supérieur du Nil 
Blanc et aux deux principaux lacs de Afrique centrale, l’Ounymeéci et le Tchad, 
Bull. Soc. Géogr. Paris, sér. 3, XIV. 361. 1850. 

FREYDENBERG, H.—Explorations dans le bassin du Tchad, La Géogr. (Paris), XV. 161. 
1907. 

—— Etude sur le Tchad et le bassin du Chari (Paris). 1908. 

FRIEDERICHSEN, M.—Der Aral-See nach L. Berg’s Forschungen, Petermann Mutt. 
(Gotha), XLIX. 126. 1903. 

FRIEDRICHSTHAL, E,—Notes on the Lake of Nicaragua and the province of Chontales, 
in Guatemala, Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., X1. 97. 1841. 

FRIsIANI, P.—Notizie sul lago di Palagonia, Gorn. Fis. Chim. Stor. Nat. (Pavia), VII. 
334. 1824, 

Frisoni, P.—Ricerche batteriologiche e chimiche sulle acque dei laghi di Bracciano e 
di Castel-Gandolfo, Ann. Igiene Sperimentale (Roma), N.S., X. 1900. 

FritscnH, A., and VAvra, V.—Vorlaufiger Bericht tiber die Fauna des Unter-Pocernitzer 
und Gatterschlager Teiches, Zool. Anzeig. (Leipzig), XV. 26. 1892. 

FritscH, Karu.—Seehohen vom Schneeberge und der Raxalpe, Jahrb. Alpen-Ver. 
(Wien), III. 357. 1867, | 

Frost, S. T.—The lakes of the Adirondack Region, Z’rans. Meriden Sci. Ass., VIII. 
26. 1898. 

Fru, J.—Wasserhosen auf Schweizer-Seen, Jahresber. Geogr. Ethnogr. Ges, Ziirich, 
1906-7, 105. 1907. 

44 


690 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Fucus, T.—Die Verbreitung der Thierwelt im Bodensee, Mitt. Geogr. Ges. Wien, XLIV. 


262, “1901, 
FUENTE, — LA.—Estudio monografico del lago Titicaca, Bol. Soc. Geogr. Lima, 1. fase. 
10-12. 1892. 


FuccER, EBERHARD.—Salzburgs Seen, Mitt. Ges. Salzburg. Landeskunde, XXX. 185, 
1890; XXXII. 241, 189; XXX, 27, 1893s XXXVo 203895 Se xcihiaee 
1903. 


—— Die Hochseen, Mitt. Geogr. Ges. Wien, XXXIX. 638. 1896. 


FUHRMANN, OTro.—Recherches sur la faune des lacs alpins du Tessin, Rev. Suisse de 
Zool. (Geneve), IV. 1897. 


Le plankton du lac de Neuchatel, Avrch. Sei. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), sér. 4, VIII. 
485. 1899 


FULLERORN, F. Seine Untersuchungen im Nyassa-See und im nordlichen Nyassa- 
Land, Verh. Ges. Hrdk, Berlin, XXVII. 332, 1900. 


FULLJAMES, GEORGE—A description of the salt-water lake called the Null, situated 
on the isthmus of Kattyawar, Journ. Roy. Astat. Soc. Bombay, V. 109. 
1857. 


FuTYERER, K.—Die Entstehung der Lapisinischen Seen, Zeitschr. Deutsch. Geol. Ces. 
(Berlin), XLIV. 123. 1892. 

GADOLIN, A.—Geognostische Skizze der Umgebungen von Kronoborg und Tervus am 
Ladoga-See, Verh. Min. Gres. St. Petersb., 1857-58, 85. 1858. 

GAILLARD. —Le lac Nokone, La Géogr. (Paris), XVII. 281. 1908. 

GAILLARDOT, C.—Note sur la Mer Morte et la vallée du Jourdain, Ann. Soc. ad’ Emul. 
Dép. Vosges (Epinal), VI. 859. 1848. 


GALBRAITH, WILLIAM.—Barometric measurement of the height of Ben Lomond; and 
on the quantity of water annually discharged by the River Leven, from the basin 
of Loch Lomond, Edin. New Phil. Jowrn., VI. 121. 1829. 


GALITZIN, (Prince) Emm.—Sur les iles découvertes par les Russes dans le centre de la 
Mer d’Aral, Bull. Soc. Géogr. Paris, sér. 4, 1.78. 1851. 


Journal tenu pendant Vexpédition vers les bords de la Mer Caspienne, Budd. 
Soe :Giéogrs Paris, Sev. 4, 01s 85.40 Leb: 


GAMBLE, J. G.—Lake Ngami, Scott. Geogr. Mag. (Edin.), II. 295. 1886. 

GANNETT, H.—-Lake Chelan, Nat. Geogr. Mag. (Washington), IX. 417. 1898. 

GANonc, W. F.—Notes on the natural history of New Brunswick: The outlet delta 
of Lake Utopia, Oce. Papers Nat. Hist. Soc. New Brunswick, I. 1896. 

GARBINI, ADRIANO.—Alcune notizie fisiche sulle acque del Benaco, Riv. Geogr. Ital. 
(Roma), IV. 23, 80. 1897. 

—— Intorno al plancton del lago di Garda, Atti e Mem. Accad. Agricoltura ete. 
Verona, ser. 4, I. No, 2. 1901. 

——— Due apparechi limnologici nuovi, pratici, a buon prezzo, Atti e Mem. Accad. 
Agricoltura etc. Verona, LXX VIII. 203. 1902-3. 

GARCIN, EUGENE.—See DELEBECQUE, ANDRE. 

GARDINER, J. H.—Tagebuch iiber seine Reise nach den Quellseen des Rio Santa Cruz 
(Patagonien), Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XX VI. 62. 1880. 

GARDNER, JAMES.—The elevations of certain datum points on the great lakes and 
rivers in the Rocky Mountains, 4nn. Rep. U.S. Surv. Terr. (Washington), VII. 
629, 1874; Amer. Journ. Sci. (New Haven), ser. 3, IX. 309, 1875. 

GARNIER, C.—Ancora delle lagune dolci e lagune salate, Riv. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), III. 
569. 1896. 

GARSTIN, W.—Report upon the basin of the Upper Nile, with proposals for the 
improvement of that river (Cairo), 1904. . 

— See Dupuis, C. 

GARwoop, E. J.—The tarns of the canton Ticino (Switzerland), Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 
Lond., LXII. 165. 1906. 

GASPARIN, CoMTE DE.—Notice sur la formation d’un lac dans le département de la 
Dréme, Annal. Sci. Nat. (Paris), XIX. 424. 1880. 

GASTALDI, BARTOLOMEO.—Scandagli dei laghi del Moncenisio, di Avigliana, di Trana e 
di Mergozzo (nei circondare di Susa, di Torino e di Pallanza), Atti Accad, Sct 
(Torino), III. 373. 1868. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 691 


GAUTHIER, CHARLES.—Description de deux lacs de la région du Caucase riches en 
sulfate de soude, Mém. Soc. Ingén. Civ. (Paris), I]. 160. 1880. 

GAUTHIER, L.—Premiére contribution a Vhistoire naturelle des lacs de la vallée de 

Joux, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat. (Lausanne), sér. 3, XXIX. 294. 1893. 

Contribution a l’histoire naturelle du lac de Joux, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), 

sér. 3, XXX. 270. 1898. 

GAUTIER, ALFRED.—Sur une nouvelle détermination de la latitude de Genéve, précédé 
d’un coup d’ceil sur celles qui ont été obtenues antérieurement, Mém. Soc. Phys. 
Hist. Nat. (Geneve), IV. 365. 1828. 

GautiER, L.—Le lac de Tibériade, Bull. Soc. Géogr. Geneve, XLI. 128. 1902. 

GAvaAzzl, ARTUR.—La deformita limnica, Riv. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), I. 552. 1894. 

—— Area e profondita di alcuni laghi carsici, Riv. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), V. 216. 
1898. 

— Die Seen des Karstes, Abhandl. Geogr. Ges. Wien, V. (2), 1, 1386. 1904. 

GAVELIN, A.—On the glacial lakes in the upper part of the Ume-River Valley, Bui. 
Geol. Inst. Univ. Upsala, IV. 231. 1900. 

GAYLORD, WILLIS.—Influence of the Great Lakes on our autumnal sunsets, Amer. 
Journ. Sci. (New Haven), XX XIII. 335. 1838. 

GEBBING, J.—Hydrochemische Untersuchungen des Wiirm-, Kochel-, und Walchensees, 
Jahresber. Geogr. Ges. Miinchen, XX. 55. 1901-2. 

GEIKIE, ARCHIBALD.—On the geological structure of some Alpine lake-basins, Proc. 
Roy. Soc. Edin., VII. 38. 1869. 

— The scenery of Scotland (London), ed. 1, 1865 ; ed. 2, 1887 ; ed. 3, 1901. 

GEINITZ, E.—Die wechselseitigen Beziehungen der Mecklenburgischen Seenplatte der 

Geschiebestreifen Endmoranen und des Floézgebirgsuntergrundes, Arch. Ver. 
‘reunde Naturgesch. Meckl. (Giistrow), LILI. 1. 1899. 
Begleitworte zu der Tiefenkarte des Teisneck-Sees bei Waren, Arch. Ver. Freunde 
Naturgesch. Meckl. (Giistrow), LVI. 196. 1902. 

GEISTBECK, ALoIs.—Die Seen der deutschen Alpen, Mitt. Ver. Erdk. Leipzig, 1884, 
203. 1884. 

GENTIL, E.—Récit de son voyage de l’Oubangi au lac Tchad, Comptes Rendus Soe. 
Géogr. Paris, 1898, 423. 1898. 

—— Mission Gentil au lac Tchad, Rev. de Géogr. (Paris), XLII]. 65; Bull. Comité 
Afric. Frang. (Paris), VIII. 281. 1898. 

GENTIL, L.—Un cas singulier de recherche d’eau en Algérie (le lac Kardar), Comptes 
Rendus Congres des Soc. Savantes 1899 (Paris). 1900. 

GERMAIN, J. M.—Notes sur l’origine et la formation du lac d’Annecy, Rev. Savoisienne 
(Annecy), XXXV. 326. 1894. 

GERMAIN, L.—Liste des mollusques recueillis par M. E. Foa dans le lac Tanganyika et 

- ses environs, Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat. (Paris), XI. 254. 1905. 

GERSTER, J. 8.—Die Rhein- und Bodenseeufer-Regulierung, Das Ausland (Stuttgart), 
LXVI. 645. 18938. 

Gipson, G. A.—Glaciation of the Italian lakes, Natwre (Lond.), XIX. 173. 1878. 

Gipson, J. B.—Remarks on the geology of the lakes and the valley of the Mississippi, 
suggested by an excursion to the Niagara and Detroit rivers in July 1833, Amer. 
Journ. Sct. (New Haven), XXIX. 201. 1836. 

Gipson, JOHN, and Macoun, JoHn.—Synopsis of the flora of the valley of the 
St Lawrence and Great Lakes, with descriptions of the rarer plants, Canad. 
Journ. Ind, Sci. Art (Toronto), XV. 5, 161, 349, 429, 546. 1878, 

GIEBEL, C. G.—Am Vierwaldstiidter See, Zeitschr. Gesammt. Naturwiss, Halle (Berlin), 
XXXIV. 263. 1869. 

GIFFOoRD, E. M., and PkEckHAm, G. W.—Temperature of Pine, Beaver, and. Okanchee 
Lakes, Waukesha County, Wisconsin, at different depths, extending from May to 
December 1879; also particulars of depths of Pine Lake, Trans. Wisconsin 
Acad, Sct. (Madison), V. 278. 1882. 

GILBERT, C. H., and Jorpan, D. 8.—Description of a new species of Uranidea from 
Lake Michigan, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. (Washington), V. 222. 1882. 

Notes on a collection of fishes from Utah Lake, Smithsonian Miscell. Coll. 

(Washington), XXII. 459. 1882. 


692 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


GILBERT, G. K.—The ancient outlet of Great Salt Lake, Amer. Journ. Set. (New 
Haven), ser. 3, XV. 256. 1878. 


Lands of the Arid Region (Washington). 1879. 


—— The outlet of Lake Bonneville, Amer. Journ. Sci. (New Haven), ser. 3, XIX. 341. 
1880. 


— Lake Bonneville, 2nd Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey (Washington), 169, 1882; 
Monogr. U.S. Geol. Survey (Washington), I. 1890. 


—— Sketch of the Quaternary lakes of the Great Basin, Bull. U.S. Geol. Survey 
(Washington), II. 363, 1884. 


— The topographical features of lake shores, 5th Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey 
(Washington), 75. 1885. 


Lake-basins created by wind erosion, Journ. of Geol. (Chicago), III. 47. 1895. 


—— Modification of the Great Lakes by earth-movement, Nat. Geogr. Mag. (Washing- 
ton), VIII. 283, 1897; Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. (Washington), 1898, 349, 
1899, 


—— Recent earth-movement in the Great Lakes region, 18th Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. 
Survey (Washington), 595. 1898. 


—— The water-level of Great Salt Lake, Monthly Weather Rev. (Washington), XXIX. 
23. 1901. 


Lake ramparts, Bull. Sierra Club (San Francisco), VI. 225. 1908. 
GILL, THEODORE.—See BRANSFORD, J. F. 


GILLMAN, H.—Lake Superior plants compared with Eastern specimens, Amer. Naturalist 
(Salem), III. 155. 1870. 

Giorel, C. pk.—I] lago di Limini in Terra d’Otranto, Riv. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), II. 409, 
496. 1895. 

Girarp, H.—Ueber Oberflachen und Structur-Verhaltnisse der nord-deutschen Ebene 
und besonders tiber die Hohenztige Seen und die eigenthiimliche Richtung der 
drei Fliisse, Elbe, Oder, und Weichsel, Monatsber. Ges. Hrdk. Berlin, N.S., III. 
87. 1846. 

GIRARDIN, Pauu.—Sur allure rectiligne des rives dans les cours d’eau & méandres en- 
caissés, les torrents glaciaires et les lacs de montagne, Annales de Géogr. (Paris), 
KVL Spe hOOS: 

Giraub, V.—Les lacs de ]’Afrique équatoriale (Paris). 1890. 


GLANGEAUD, P.—Le lac glaciaire Agassiz, Mowvem. Géogr. (Bruxelles), XV. 578. 
1898. 

—— Un laboratoire biologique dans les voleans d’ Auvergne, Rev. Gén. Sci. Pur. et Appliq. 
(Paris), XI. 626. 1900. 


GuASENAPP, M.—Uber die Zusammensetzung des koprogenen Schlammes des Kangersees 
in Livland, Baltische Wochenschr. (Riga), XL. 503. 1899. 


GMELIN, C. G.—Chemische Untersuchung des Wassers vom Todten Meere, Natwrw. 
Abhandl. Ges. Wiirttemberg (‘Vibingen), I. 334, 1826 ; Annal. de Chimie (Paris), 
XXXV. 102, 1827; Annal. Phys. u. Chemie (Leipzig), IX. 177, 1827. 

Gnrsorro, T., Macrini, G. P., and MArcut, L. pE.—Ricerche lagunari, Atte R. Jst. 
Veneto Sci, Lett. Arti (Venezia), Nos. 1-3, 1906; 4-7, 1907 ; 8-10, 1908. 

GOoADBY.—See BovELL, J. 

GOBEL, F.—Resultate der chemischen Zerlegung des Wassers der wichtigsten Salzseen 
und Salzbache in der Kirgisensteppe und der Krim, Annal. Phys. wu. Chenvie 
(Leipzig), LI. (Hrganz.), 181. 1842. 

Resultate der Zerlegung des Wassers vom Schwarzen, Asowschen, und Kaspischen 
Meere, Annal. Phys, u. Chemie (Leipzig), LI. (Erganz.), 187. 1842. 

Goprr, P.—Note sur les Anodontes du lac de Neuchatel, Bull. Soc. Sci. Nat. Neuchatel, 

Vi. A. <286r- ; 

GOLDSMID, FREDERIC.—Journey from Bandar Abbas to Meshad by Seistan, with some 
account of the last-named province, Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., XLIII. 65. 
1878. 

Gonin, L.—Note sur le dessechement des marais de l’Orbe, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat. 
(Lausanne), VI, 247. 1859. 


—— Mémoire sur les observations limnimétriques et pluviométriques qui ont lieu dans 
le canton de Vaud, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat. (Lausanne), VII. 367. 1864. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 6938 


GooLp-ADAMS.—The Lake on the Great White Mountain, Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond.), I. 64. 
1893. 


Gorpon, C. H.— Wave cutting on west shore of Lake Huron, Sanilac County, Michigan, 
Rep. Michigan Board Geol. Surv., 1901. 1902. 


Goucu, JoHN.—Reasons for supposing that lakes have been more numerous than they 
are at present; with an attempt to assign the causes whereby they have been 
defaced, Mem. Lit. Phil. Soc. Manchester, IV. 1. 1798. 


Govi, Strvio.—II lago Scaffaiolo, Riv. Geogr. Ital. (Firenze), XIII. 50. 1906. 


GoypER, G. W.—Report on the country between Mount Serle and Lake Torrens, South 
Australia, Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., II. 16. 1858. 

GRAD.—Lacs et reservoirs des Vosges, Ann. Club Alpin Franc. (Paris), IV. 496. 1878. 

GRAHAM, J. D.-—Geographica] determinations and the discovery of a lunar tidal wave in 
Lake Michigan, Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. (Philadelphia), VII 3878, 1859-61 ; 
Journ. Franklin Inst. (Philadelphia), XXXVII. 127, 1859; Bull. Soc. Géogr. 
Rams, ser.74, 111. 117, 1862. 

—— Investigation of the problem regarding the existence of a lunar tidal wave on the 
great fresh-water lakes of North America, Proc. Amer, Ass. (Cambridge, Mass. ), 
1860-61, 52. 1861. 

GRANAT.—Le lac et le port de Bizerte, Bull. Soc. Géogr. Comin. Bordeaux, sér. 2, XIX. 

| 363. 1896. 

GRANT, J. A.—Summary of observations on the geography, climate, and natural 
history of the Lake Region of Equatorial Africa, Journ. Roy. Geoyr. Soc. Lond., 
XLII. 243. 1872. 

——- On Mr H. M. Stanley’s exploration of the Victoria Nyanza, Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc. 
Lond., XX. 384; Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., XLVI. 10. 1876. 

GRAVELIUS, H.—Ueber den Zusammenhang zwischen Niederschlagsmenge und Wasser- 

stand, Zeitschr. f. Gewdsserkunde (Leipzig), 1. 54. 1898. 
Limnologische Uebersichten, Zeitschr. f. Gewdisserkunde (Leipzig), IV. 108. 
1901. : 

—— Zur Kenntniss der Seiches des Eriesees, Zettschr. f. Gewdsserkunde (Leipzig), 
V. 48. 1908. 

Graves, R. J.—An inquiry into the cause which renders the waters of the Dead Sea 
unfitted for the support of animal life, Hdin. New Phil. Journ., LI. 315. 1851. 

GRAVIER, CH.—Sur la Meéduse du Victoria Nyanza et la faune des grands lacs africains, 
Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat. (Paris), IX. 847; Comples Rendus Acad. Sct. (Paris), 
CXXXVII. 867. 1908. 

GRAVIER, G.—Carte des grands lacs de l’Amérique du Nord, Bull. Soc. Normande Céogr. 
(Rouen), XVI. 388. 1894. 

GREENLEAF, R. C., and SroppER, CHARLES.—Organisms found in the mud from the 
bottom of Mystic Pond, Medford, near Boston, Proc. boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 
Vo TTS. S61. 

GREENWOOD, G.—Lakes with two outfalls, Nature (Loid.), VIII. 382, 1873; IX. 441, 
500, 1874; X. 5, 1874. 

Grecory, J. W.—Contributions to the physical geography of British East Africa: The 
lakes of the Rift Valley, Geogr. Journ. (Lond. ), IV. 289. 1894. 

—— The Great Rift Valley, being the narrative of a journey to Mount Kenya and 
Lake Baringo (London). 1896. 

— Expedition to Lake Eyre, Adelaide Register, 24th January 1902. 

—— The dead heart of Australia: A journey around Lake Eyre in the summer of 
1901-1902 (London). 1906. 

——- A journey around Lake Eyre, Scott. Geogr. Mag. (Edin.), XXIV.355. 1908. 

GREGORY, WILLIAM.—Ueber einen schwarzen humusartigen Korper, der auf der Ober- 
fliche des schottischen Sees, ‘‘ Loch Dochart,” am 22 November 1846, nach 
einem schwachen Erdbeben erschien, Annal. Chemie u. Pharm. (Lemgo), LXI. 


365. 1847. 
Greim, G.—Die Fortschritte der Limnologie, Globus (Braunschweig), LXVIII. 357. 
1895. 


—— Die Entstehung der nordamerikanischen grossen Seen, Globus (Braunschweig), 
LXXI. 8. . 1897. 


694 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


GRrEIM, G.—Seenforschung in Schottland, Globus (Braunschweig), LXX VII. 342. 1900. 


GRENANDER, S.—Les variations annuelles de la température dans les lacs suédois, Bull. 
Geol. Inst. Univ. Upsala, VI. 160. 1902-8. 


GREWINGK, C. C, A.—Ueber ungewohnliche durch geologische Vorgiinge erkliirte Bewe- 
gungen ostbaltischen Landsee- und Meereswassers, Sitzber. Dorpat Naturf. Ges., 
ITI. 259. 1874. 


Griacs, R. F.—Divided lakes in Western Minnesota, Amer. Journ. Sct. (New Haven), 
ser. 4, XX VII. 388. 1909. 


GRINNELL, G. B.—The chief mountain lakes, Sctence (New York), XX. 85. 1892. 


GRISSINGER, K.—Untersuchungen iiber die Tiefen- und Temperaturverhaltnisse des 
Weissensees in Karnten, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XXXVIII. 153. 1892. 


Grotu, Max.—Der Oeschinensee, Jahresber. Geogr. Ges. Bern, XIX. 1. 1905. 

GRoTIAN. — Die Zniner Seenkettle, Mischerei-Ztg. (Neudamm), IV. 561. 1901. 

Grunow, A.—Die Desmidiaceen und Pediastreen einiger Oesterreichischen Moore, 
nebst einiger Bemerkungen iiber beide Familien im Allgemeinen, Verh. Zool.-Bot. 
Ver. Wien, VIIL. 489. 1858. 

——- New species and varieties of Diatomacee from the Caspian Sea, Jowrn. Roy. Micro. 
Soc. (Lond.), II. 894. 1880. 

GUERNE, JULES DE.—La Médusa du lac Tanganyika, Za Nature (Paris), XXI. 51. 
1893 

—— and RIcHARD, J.—Reévision des Calanides d’eau douce, Mém. Soc. Zool. France 
(Paris); TT. 53.3 91889: 

Sur la faune des eaux douces de l’Islande, Bull. Soc. Zool. France (Paris), 

XVII. 75; Comptes Rendus Acad. Sct. (Paris), CXIV. 310. 1892. 

Sur la faune pélagique de quelques lacs du Jura francais, Comptes Rendus 

Acad, Sci, (Paris), CX VII. 187. 1893. 

Sur la faune pélagique de quelques lacs des Hautes-Pyrénées, Comptes Rendus 
Ass. Frang. Av. Sct. (Paris), 1892, 236, 526. 1892. 

GUMPRECHT, O.—Die oberitalienischen Seen wihrend der Eiszeit, Sitzber. Naturf. Ges. 
Leipzig, XVII. 88. 1892. 

GumpRECcHT, T. E.— Ueber Herrn Dr. Barth und Dr. Overweg’s Untersuchungsreise nach 
dem Tschadsee und in das innere Africa, Monatsb. Verh. Ges. Erdk. Berlin, N.S., 
IX. 189. 1852. 

GUNTHER, A.— Descriptions of the reptiles and fishes collected by Mr E. Coode-Hore on 
Lake ‘l'anganyika, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1893, 628. 1893. 

GUNTHER, R. T,—Preliminary account of the fresh-water Medusa of Lake Tanganyika, 
Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist, (Lond.), ser. 6, Il. 269. 1893. 

—— A further contribution to the anatomy of Limnocnida tanganyice, Quart. Journ. 
Micro. Sci, (Lond.), N.S., XXXVI. 271. 1894. 


— The jelly-fish of Lake Urumiah, Mature (Lond.), LVIII. 435. 1898. 

Contributions to the geography of Lake Urmi and its neighbourhood, Geogr. Journ. 
(Lond.), XIV. 534. 1899. 

Contributions to the natural history of Lake Urmi, N.W. Persia, and its neighbour- 
hood, Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., Zool., XX VII. 345, 1899. 

— The limnological stations on the Lake of Bolsena, Matwre (Lond.), LXX. 455. 

1904. 

— Zoological results of the third Tanganyika expedition, conducted by Dr W. A. 
Cunnington, 1904-5: Report on Limnocnida tanganyice, the Tanganyika jelly- 
fish, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1907, 648. 1907. 

and MANLEY, J. J.—On the waters of the Salt Lake of Urmi, Proc. Roy. Soc. (Lond.), 
LY. 312. 1899. 

GiNTHER, S.—Seeschwankungen (Seiches) am Chiemsee, Geogr. Zeitschr. (Leipzig), X. 

279. 1904. 

GUTWINSKI, R.—See CHMIELEWSKI, Z. 

Guyot, ARNOLD.—Sur le relief du fond du lac de Neuchatel, Bull. Soc. Sci. Nat. 
Neuchitel, 1. 389. 1844. 

Notice sur la carte du fond des lacs de Neuchatel et Morat, Mém. Soc. Sci. Nat. 
Neuchdtel, III. 18465. 

Haac.—Unsere Binnengewiisser, Allg. Fischereiztg. (Miinchen), XXVII. 280. 1902. 


—_——_—_ 


~ 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 695 


Haas, H.—Studien iiber die Entstehung der Fohrden (Buchten) an der Ostkuste 
Schleswig-Holsteins, sowie der Seen und des Flussnetzes dieses Landes, Mitt, Min. 
Inst. Univ. Kiel, 1. 18. 1892. 

Haass, A.—Bifurcation in lakes and rivers, Goldthwatte’s Geogr. Mag. (New York), I. 
102, 1892. 


Haast, J.—Notes as to the causes which have led to the excavation of deep lake-basins 
in hard rocks in the Southern Alps of New Zealand, Quart. Jowrn. Geol. Soc. 
ond. «XXL, 130. 1865. 

Hacegn, B.—Eine Reise nach dem Tobah See in Zentralsumatra, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), 
XXIX. 41, 102, 142, 167, 1888. 

Haun, C.—Kiinstliche Inseln in den Seen des armenischen Hochlands, Das Ausland 
(Stuttgart), LXTV. 98. 1892, 

HALBERT, J. N.—Zoological results of the third Tanganyika expedition, conducted by 
Dr W. A. Cunnington, 1904-5: Report on the Hydrachnida, Proc. Zool. Soc. 
Lond., 1906, 534. 1906. 

HALBrass, WILHELM. — Teifen- und Temperaturenverhiltnisse einiger Seen des 
Lechgebiets, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XLI. 225. 1895, 

—— Die Seenforschung in Italien, Globus (Braunschweig), LX VIII. 224. 1895. 

—— Uebereinige Seen im Stromgebiet der Elbe, Arch. Ver. Freunde Naturg. Mecklenburg 
(Rostock), L. 154. 1896. 

—— Die noch mit Wasser gefiillten Maarein der Eifel, Verh. Naturh. Ver. Preuss. 

Rheinl, (Bonn), LILI. 310. 1896. 

Der Arendsee in der Altmark, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XLII. 178, 1896; Mit. 
Ver. Erdk. Haile, 1896, 1; 1897, 98; 1899, 59; Arch. f. Landes- wu. Volksk. 
(Halle), VII. 93, 1897 ; IX,.59, 1899. 

Ueber die tiefen norddeutscher Seen, Globus (Braunschweig), LXIX. 16. 1896. 

—— Ueber einige norddeutsche Seen, Globus (Braunschweig), LXX. 126. 1896. 

+— Tiefen- und Temperaturverhiltnisse der Eifelmaare, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), 
XLITI. 149. 1897. 

—— Morphometrie des Genfersees, Zeitschr. Ges. Erdk. Berlin, XXXII. 219. 1897. 

Die Seen Frankreichs, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XLIV. 86. 1898. 

._— Yur Kenntniss der Seen des Schwarzwaldes, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XLIV. 241, 
1898 ; Monatsbl. Badisch. Schwarzwaldver. (Freiburg i. B.), II. 122, 1899. 

—— Die Seenforschung in Frankreich, Globus (Braunschweig), LX XIII. 43. 1898. 

—— Der See von Terlago in Siidtirol, Globus (Braunschweig), LX XIII. 216. 1898. 

—— Die vulkanischen Seen Italiens, Globus (Braunschweig), LXXIII. 312. 1898. 

Limnologische Studien in Siidtirol, Globus (Braunschweig), LXXIV. 18 1898. 

Das Seengebiet zwischen Havel und Elbe im Kreise Jerichow II., Globus 
(Braunschweig), LAXIV. 196, 1898; Mitt. Ver. Hrdk. Halle, 1899, 55; Arch. f. 
Landes- u. Volksk. (Halle), [X. 55, 1899. 

Der Seeburger See bei Gottingen, Globus (Braunschweig), LXXV. 193. 1899. 

—— Das Steinhuder Meer, Globus (Braunschweig), LXXV. 265, 1899. 

Dati morfometrici di alcuni laghi prealpini, Riv. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), VI. 420; 
Atti III. Congr. Geogr. Ital. (Firenze), II. 121. 1899. 

--— Der Dratzigsee in Pommern, Globus (Braunschweig), LX XVIII. 1, 1900. 

Ein Kapitel aus der modernen Seenforschung, XXV. Jahresber. Gymnas, Neu- 
haldensleben ; Bericht Ges, Volker- u. Hrdk. Stettin (1899-1900), 15. 1900. 

-——- Ueber den gegenwiirtigem Stand der Seenforschung, Schriften Naturf. Ges. 
WantcigmNe si, <p: xxx.  L90L 

—— Beitriive zur Kenntniss der Pommerschen Seen, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), Erganzh. 
136, 1901; L. 253, 1904. 

Ergebnisse seiner Seenforschungen in Pommern, Verh. Ges, Erdk. Berlin, XXVIII. 
232. 1901. 

—— Die wissenschaftliche und wirtschaftliche Bedeutung limnologischer Landesanstalten, 

Verh. XIII. Deutsch. Geographentag. (Breslau), 248. 1901. 

—— Systematische internationale Seenforschung, Verh. VII. Int. Geogr. Kongr. 

(Berlin), 1899 (2), 246. 1901. 


— Uber Einstiirzbecken am Siidrand des Harzes, Mitt. Ver. Erdk. Halle, 1902, 94 ; 
1903, 74; Arch. f. Landes- u. Volksk. (Halle), XIII. 74, 1903. 


696 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


HALBFASS, WILHELM.—Die Binnenseen und der Mensch: eine kulturgeographische 
Skizze, Geogr. Zeitschr. (Leipzig), VIII. 266. 1902. 


—— Ueber einige Einsturzbecken im nordwestlichen Thiiringen und in der Vorderrhon, 
Globus (Braunschweig), LXXXI. 7. 1902. 

—— Stehende Seespiegelschwankungen (Seiches) im Madiisee in Pommern, Zeiéschr. f. 
Gewdsserkunde (Leipzig), V. 15, 1902; VI. 65, 1903. 

—— Die Bedeutung der Binnenseen fiir den Verkehr, Verh. XIV. Deutschen 
Geographentag. (Koln), 1903, 142. 1908. 

—— Beitrige zur Kenntnis der Seen der Lechthaler Alpen, Globus (Braunschweig), 
LXXXIIL. 21. 1903. 

—— Zwei Seen in der Morianenlandschaft des Bodensees (Schleinsee u. Degersee), 

Globus (Braunschweig), LAX XIII. 286. 1903. 

Ostpreussens Seen, Globus (Braunschweig), LXXXIYV. 307. 1908. 

—— Die Morphometrie der europaischen Seen, Zettschr. Ges. Hrdk. Berlin, 1908, 592, 
706, 784; 1904, 204. 1903-4. 

— Neuere Untersuchungen am Vierwaldstitter-See, Globus (Braunschweig), LXXXYV. 
156. 1904. 

—— Die Tieferlegung des Chiemsees, Globus (Braunschweig), LXXXVI. 241. 1904, 

—— Die technische Verwertung der Binnenseen, Das Wasser, 15 Mai 1904. 

—— Der Frickenhiuser See in Unterfranken, Globus (Braunschweig), LXXXVI. 257. 
1904. 

—— Eine bemerkenswerte Verbesserung des sarasinschen Limnimétre enregistreur 
portatif, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), L. 129. 1904. 

—— Die Thermik der Binnen-Seen und das Klima, Petermann Mitt.(Gotha), L1,.219, 1905. 

—— Seenkunde und Volkerrecht, Globus (Braunschweig), LXXXIX. 284. 1906. 

Ist der Bodensee ein internationaler See? Globus (Braunschweig), XC. 229. 1906. 

—— Zu der Mitteilung von Dr. Otto Frhr. v. u. z. Aufsess, ‘‘ Untersuchungen iiber die 
Erhohung der Temperatur am Grunde der Seen,” Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), LII. 


40. 1906. 
—— Uber den jihrlichen Warmeumsatz in Binnenmeeren, Met. Zeitschr. (Wien), 1906, 
509. 1906. 


—— Apparat von Schnitzlein zur selbsttitigen Aufzeichnung von Wasserstanden, 
Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), LIII. 241. 1907. 

-~—— Die Verkehrsgeschichte eines Binnensees, Dewtsche Rundschaw (Wien), XXIX. 337, 
1907. 

—— Der heutige Stand der Seiches Forschung, Zettschr. Ges. Erdk. Berlin, 1907, 5. 1907. 

— Inwieweit kann die Seenkunde die Lésung klimatologischer Probleme fordern ? 
Verh. XVI. Deutschen Geographentag. (Niirnberg), 1907, 319. 1907. 

—— Klimatologische Probleme im Lichte moderner Seenforschung, Jahresber. Gymnas, 
Neuhaldensleben, XXXII. 1907-8. 

—— Die Ergebnisse der Seenforschung in Schottland, Globus (Braunschweig), XCV. 
349. 1909. 

—— Temperaturmessungen in tiefen Seen in ihrer Beziehung zur Klimatologie, 
Naturwiss. Wochenschr. (Jena), N.S., VIII. 385. 1909. 

Hauu, C. W.—The formation and deformation of Minnesota lakes, Science (New York), 
XXI. 314. 1898. 

HAuL., JAMES.—Account of investigations on Drummond’s Island and the north shore 
of Lake Huron and Lake Michigan, Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts Set. (Boston), II. 
253. 1848. 

Haut, V.—Cetaceans in African lakes, Natwre (Lond.), XLIV. 198. 1892. 

HAMILTON, MATHIE.—Remarks on the great lakes Titicaca and Aullaga in Upper Peru 
and Bolivia, with observations on their drainage, Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc., V. 
014, 1864. 

Hamitton, W. J.—On the Lago di Amsancto, ‘‘ Amsancti Valles 
Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., II. 62. 1882. 

Hancock, ALBANY. —Notes on a species of Hydra found in the Northumberland lakes, 
Trans. Tyneside Nat. Field Club (Newcastle), I. 405; Ann. Nat. Hist. (Lond.), 
ser:2; Vi. 2812 1850: 

Hane, E.—Le Bas Ogooué: notice géographique et ethnographique, Ann. de Géogr. 
(Paris), XII. 159. 1903. 


39 


of Virgil, Journ. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 697 


Hann, J.—Meteorologische Beobachtungen am Viktoria-See, Afrika, Met. Zeitschr. 
(Wien), XV. 186. 1898. 

HANSEN, A. M.—Origin of lake-basins, Matwze (Lond.), XLIX. 364. 1894. 

HaAnusz, STEFAN.—Die stehenden Wasser unseres Landes, Bull. Soc. Hongroise Geogr. 
(Budapest), XXIV. 1. 1896. 

HApkKE.—Die Warmwasserteiche an der Westkiiste Norwegens, Himmel und Erde 
(Berlin), XII. 316. 1900. 

—— Warmwasserseen und heisse Salzteiche, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XLVIII. 189. 
1902. 

Harpy, G. LE—A propos de la Mer Morte, Ze Cosmos (Paris), N.S., XL. 35. 1899. 

HarMer, F. W.—On the origin of certain cafion-like valleys associated with lake-like 
areas of depression, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond., LXIII. 470. 1907. 

HARPE, JEAN DE LA.—De la météorologie des vents et en particulier de celle du bassin 
du Léman, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat. (Lausanne), VI. 108. 1858. 

—— Nouveaux renseignements sur les galets sculptés des lacs de Geneve et de Neuchatel, 

Bull. Soc, Vaud. Sci. Nat. (Lausanne), 1X. 237. 1866. 
Cailloux sculptés du lac de Wallenstadt, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat. (Lausanne), 
X. 64. 1868. 

Harrineton, M. W.—The currents of the Great Lakes, Bull. U.S. Weather Bureau 
(Washington), 1894, B, 5. 1894. 

—— Area and drainage basin of Lake Superior, Nat. Geogr. Mag. (Washington), 
VITOR 897. 

Harris, R, A.—Note on the oscillation period of Lake Erie, Monthly Weather Rev. 
(Washington), XXX. 312. 1902. 

Harrison, B. F.—On the solution of ice formed on inland waters, Amer. Jowrn. Sci. 
(New Haven), ser. 2, XXXV. 49. 1868. 

Harrison, J. J.—A journey from Zeila to Lake Rudolf, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XVIII. 
258. 1901. 

Hart, J. H.—New water plant in the pitch lake La Brea, Natwre (Lond.), LX XIII. 
230, 246. 1906. 

HASSENSTEIN, B.—Dr A. Donaldson Smith’s Expedition durch das SomAl- und Galla- 
Land zum Rudolf-See in den Jahren 1894 und 12895, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), 
METI 7s, 1897: 

Hassert, Kurvr.-—Der Scutarisee, Globus (Braunschweig), LXII. 9, 17, 57, 87. 1892. 

—- Der Fuciner See einst und jetzt, Globus (Braunschweig), LX XII. 88, 105. 1897. 

Hatcuer, J. B.—The lake systems of Southern Patagonia, Bull. Geogr. Soc. Phila- 
delphia, II. 139. 1900. 

HAvUFE, EwaLtp.—Am Gardasee: Skizzen und Charakterbilder (Riva). 1900. 

—— See Bena, C. A. 

HAwkKsHAw, J. C.—Origin of lake-basins, Nature (Lond.), XLVII. 558. 1893. 

Haypen, F, V.—The twin lakes, Arkansas Valley, Colorado, Ann, Rep. U.S. Geol. 
Surv. Terr. (Washington), 47. 1874. 

—— Twin lakes and Teocalli Mountain, Central Colorado, with remarks on the glacial 
phenomena of that region, Amer. Nat. (Salem), XIV. 858. 1880. 

Haves, A, A.—On a remarkable change which has taken place in the composition and 
characters of the water supplied to the city of Boston from Lake Cochituate, Proc. 
Amer. Acad. Arts Sci. (Boston), III. 173, 1852; Amer. Journ. Sct. (New Haven), 
Ser, 2) AUX. 257, 1855. 

—— On Cochituate water, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., V. 169. 1854. 

-— On the cause of the colour of the water of Lake Leman, Geneva, Amer. Journ. 
Sct. (New Haven), ser. 2, XLIX. 186 ; Ze Cosmos (Paris), VII. 125, 1870. 
Hayes, C. W.—The geology and physiography of the Lake Region in Central America, 

Amer. Ceol. (Minneapolis), XXIII. 94. 1899. 

Haywarp, R. B.—Lakes with two outfalls, Matwre (Lond.), VIII. 383. 1878. 

HEARD, JoHN.—L’inondation du désert du Colorado, Rev. Scient. (Paris), XLVIII. 439. 
1891. 

Hipert, E.—Sur les dépéts tertiaires marins et lacustres des environs de Provins (Seine- 
et-Marne), Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), LIV 513; Rev. et Mag. Zool. 
(Paris), XIV. 119. 1862. 


698 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Heca, C.—Les grands lacs africains et le Manyema, Buil. Soc. d’ Etudes Colon. (Bruxelles), 
Xie ASO2: 


HeEpIN, Sven.—Ueber die Tiefe des grossen Karakui, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XL. 
211. 1894. 


—-—— Ein Versuch zur Darstellung der Wanderung des Lop-nor-Beckens in neuerer Zeit, 
Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XLII. 201. 1896. 


—— Dr Sven Hedin’s Forschungsreise nach dem Lop-nor, Januar bis Mai 1896, Zeztschr. 
Ges. Erdk. Berlin, XXXI. 295. 1896. 


—-—- Die geographisch-wissenschaftlichen Ergebnisse meiner Reisen in Zentralasien, 
1894-1897, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), Ergiinzh. 131. 1900. 


—— Three years’ exploration in Central Asia, 1899-1902, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XXI. 
2210 903; 


—— Seen in Tibet, Zettschr. Ges. Erdk. Berlin, 1908, 344. 1908. 


HEILPRIN, ANGELO.—The shrinkage of Lake Nicaragua, Bull. Geogr. Soc. Philadelphia, 
Ths 900); 

Heim, ALBRECHT.—Sur lorigine des grands lacs alpins, Comptes Rendus Trav. Soc. Helv. 
Sci. Nat. (Geneve), LXXV. 62; Ecloge Geol. Helv. (Lausanne), III. 243. 1898. 

-—— Die Entstehung der alpinen Talseen, Verh. Schweiz. Naturf. Ges. (Basel), LXXV. 
46. 1898. 


—— Die Entstehung der alpinen Rand-Seen, Vierleljahresschr. Naturf. Ges. Ziirich, 
XXXIX..66. 1894. 

——- Der Schlammabsatz am Grunde des Vierwaldstiattersees, Vierteljahresschr, Naturf. 
Ges. Ziirich, XLV. 164; Zeitschr. Prakt. Geol. (Berlin), 1900, 164. 1900. 
HELLAND, A.—Die glaciale Bildung der Fjorde und Alpen Seen in Norvegen, Annal. 

Phys. u. Chem. (Leipzig), CALVI. 538. 1872. 
HELMERSEN, G. von.-——Le lac Téletz et les Téléoutes de ]’Altai oriental, 4dnn. Journ. 
Mines Russie (St. Péetersb.), 1840, 8. 1840. 
Détermination barométrique de quelques hauteurs dans |’Oural, la steppe Kirghise 
et le bassin Caspien, dann. Journ. Mines Russie (St. Péetersb.), 1842, 892. 1842. 
HENDERSON, GEORGE.—Fish in frozen rivers and lakes, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XV. 480. 
1900. 
—— The Pangong Lake, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XXII. 576, 1908. 
HENNEssY, HENRY.—On the causes of certain phenomena observed in Lough Erne, Proc. 
Roy. Irish Acad. (Dublin), VI. 279. 1853. 
Henry, A. J.—Variations in lake levels and atmospheric precipitation, Nat. Geogr. 
Mag. (Washington), X. 4038. 1899. 
—— Normal precipitation in the region of the Great Lakes, Monthly Weather ev. 
(Washington), XXVIII. 151. 1899. | 
—— Sudden oscillations in lake level pressure waves, Monthly Weather Rev. (Washing- 
ton), XX VII. 305. 1899. 
Lake levels and wind phenomena, Monthly Weather Rev. (Washington), XXVIII. 
208. 1900. 
—— Wind velocity and fluctuations of water level on Lake Erie, U.S. Weather Bureau 
(Washington), Bulletin J, No. 262, 1902; Met. Zeitschr. (Wien), XX, 229, 1903. 
—— High water in the Great Lakes, Monthih y Weather Rev. (Washington), XX XIII. 47. 
1905. 
Henry, O.—See BourRoN-CHARLARD, A. F. 
Herapatu, T. J. and W.—On the waters of the Dead Sea, The Chemist (Lond.), I. 
242; Quart. Journ. Chem. Soc. Lond., II. 336 ; Adin. New Phil. Journ., XLVIII. 
318, 1850. 
Herpertson, A. J.—The history of the Great Lakes and Niagara, Knowledge (Lond.), 
XIXe 223. 1896. 

HERGESELL, H.—Beobachtungen iiber die Lage der Sprungschicht der Temperatur im 
Weissen See bei Urbeis, Elsass, Geogr. Abh. Reichslanden (Stuttgart), II. 383. 
1895. 

‘and LANGENBECK, R.—Die Temperaturverhiltnisse der Alpenseen, Geogr. Abh. 
Reichslanden (Elsass-Lothringen), I. 1892. 

and Rupour, E.-—-Die Seen der Siidvogesen, Geogr. Abh. JERSE HiaekeaD (Elsass- 

Lothringen), I. 121. 1892. 


——n 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 699 


HERMANN.—-Der geologische Aufbau des deutschen Westufers des Victoria-Nyansa, J/7tt. 
Deutsch. Schutzgeb. (Berlin), XII. 168. 1899. 


— Das Vulkangebiet des zentralafrikanischen Grabens, Mitt. Deutsch. Schutzgeb. 
(Berlin), XVII. 42. 1904. 


Herms, W. B.—Notes on a Lake Brie shrimp, Ohio Nat., VII. 73. 1906. 


HEUDEBERT, LucIEN.—Vers les grands lacs de |’ Afrique orientale, d’aprés les notes de 
Vexplorateur Georges Révoil (Paris). 1900. 


HevGuLIn, T. von.—Bericht iiber seine und Dr. Steudner’s Reise von Chartum den Bahr- 
el-abiad und Bahr-ghasal hinauf bis zum See Req, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), 
Ergainzh. 13, 142. 1863. 

Bericht iiber seine Reise vom See Req bis Bongo im Lande der Dor, Petermann 
Mitt. (Gotha), Erganzh. 13, 153. 1868. 

HEUSCHER, J.—Beitriige zu einer Monographie des Aegerisees mit besonderer Beriick- 

sichtigung seiner Fischereiverhaltnisse, Schweizerische Fisch-Zeitung, XLV. 1906. 

Hicks, H.—On some lacustrine deposits of the glacial period in Middlesex, Rep. Brit. 

Ass, (Lond.), 1894, 659 (Sect.). 1894. 

Hicks, L. E.—An old lake bottom, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. (Rochester), Il. 25, 1892. 

Hickson, S. J.— Rotifers in Lake Bassenthwaite, Natwre (Lond.), LVIII. 200. 1898. 

Hieeins, W. M.—See Drarmr, J. W. 


HILDEBRANDsSON. H. H., and RunpLANpD, C. A.—Prise et débacle des lacs en Suede, 
automne 1871—printemps 1877, Nova Acta Soc. Sct. (Upsala), X. 1879. 


Hitt, A. W.—Notes on a Journey in Bolivia and Peru around Lake Titicaca, Scott. 
Geogr, Mag. (Edin.), XXI. 249. 1905. 

Hiuu, E. J.—Sand-dune flora of Lake Michigan, Garden and Forest (New York), VI. 15. 
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Hinu, Gray.—The Dead Sea, Quart. Statement Palestine Explor. Fund, 1900, 278. 
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Hise, C. R. van.—Historical sketch of the Lake Superior region to Cambrian times, 

| Journ. of Geol. (Chicago), I. 113. 1893. 

Discussion on ice ramparts in lakes, Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sct. (Madison), XIII, 
158. 1900. 


Hircucock, C. H.—Lake ramparts in Vermont, Proc. Aimer. Ass. (Cambridge, Mass. ), 
1859-1860, 335. 1860. 

HocustEerrer, F. von.—Roto-mahana oder der Warme See in der Provinz Auckland 
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Tiefenmessungen in den Seen von Karnten und Krain, Jahrb. Oest. Alpen-Ver. 

(Wien). 1. 313 1865. 

Hopeins, G.—Remarks on a Canadian specimen of the Proteus of the lakes, Canad. 
Journ. Ind. Sci. Art (Toronto), N.S., 1. 19. 1856. 

Horr, K. E. A. von.—Der See bei Salzungen und Einiges von Erderschiitterungen in 
Thiringen, dnnal. Phys. wu. Chem. (Leipzig), XIX. 449. 1830. 

Hoge, JoHN.—On some old maps of Africa placing the Central Equatorial Lakes 
(especially Nyanza and Tanganyika) nearly in their true positions, Rep. Brit. Ass. 
(Lond. ), 1863, 138. 1863. 

Hiéunet, L. von.—Uber die hydrographische Zugehirigkeit des Rudolfsee-Gebietes, 
Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XXXV. 233. 1889. 

— Zum Rudolph-See und Stephanie-See (Wien). 1892. 

Hoven, E. 8.—Lakes with two outfalls, Mature (Lond.), X. 124. 1874. 

HoLLANDE.—A propos d’une Note de M. Delebecque sur l’dge du lac du Bourget, Bull. 
Soc.. Géol. France (Paris), sér. 3, XXIII. p. xii. 1895. 

HOuzincer, J. M.—Lake M‘Donald and vicinity, Bull. Amer. Bureau of Geogr., 
Tei3s5;, 1900; 

Homin, T.—Die Temperaturverhaltnisse in den Seen Finlands, Comptes Rendus Congres 
des Naturalistes et Médecins du Nord (Helsingfors), 1902, Sect. v., 1. 1908, 

HoMMAIRE DE HELL, X.---Sur V’origine des lacs salés de la mer Caspienne, Bull. Soc, 
Géol. France (Paris), XIV. 261. 1842. 

—— Sur la différence de niveau entre la mer Caspienne et la mer d’Azov, Bull. Soc. 


Géol. France (Paris), XIV. 320, 1842; Comptes Rendus Acad. Sct. (Paris), XVI. 
736, 1848. 


700 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


HOMMAIRE DE HELL, X.— Résumé d’un voyage a la mer Caspienne, Bull. Soc. Géogr. 
Paris, ser. 2, 1,80, 13844 


HoocGENRAAD, H. R.—Bemerkungen iiber einige Siisswasserrhizopoden und Heliozoen, 
Ann, de Biol. Lacustre (Bruxelles), III. 248. 1908. 


HoOPFFGARTEN, MAx von.—Verdnderung der Fauna und Flora der Mannsfelder Seen, 
Berlin Entom. Zeitschr., XVIII. 187. 1874. 


Hopkins, WILLIAM.—On the elevation and denudation of the district of the lakes of 
Cumberland and Westmoreland, Proc. Geol. Soc. Lond., Ill. 757, 1842; Phil. 
Mag. (Lond.), XXI. 468, 1842; Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond., IV. 70, 1848. 


Hoppe-SEYLER, I'.—Ueber die Verteilung absorbierter Gase im Wasser des Bodensees 
und ihre Beziehungen zu den in ihm eae Tieren und Pflanzen, Sere 
Ver, Gesch. Bodensees (Lindau), XXIV. < 1895. 


Hore, E. C.—Journal of a visit to the Lukuga ma of Lake Tanganyika, Proc. fais. 
Geogr. Soc. Lond., II. 257. 1880. 


—— Lake Tanganyika, Pron Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., 1V.1. 1887. 
Tanganyika: Eleven years in Central Africa (Lond.). 1892. 


—— How I went to Lake Tanganyika, Trans. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Australasia (Melbourne), 
VU 2) 227.7) ESO: 


Horn, A. von.—Ueber den Einfluss von Windrichtung und Luftdruck auf den 
Seespiegel, Annal. Hydrogr. etc. (Hamburg), XIX. 498. 1892. 


HORNLIMANN, J.—Die Tiefenmessungen und das Kartenmaterial fiir die Herstellung der 
neuen Bodensee-Karte, Schriften Ver. Gesch. Bodensees (Lindau), XXII. 50. 
1893. 


Horton, A. H.—See BARRows, H. K. 


Hovey, E. O.—Camping on the Soufriére of St Vincent, Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc. (New 
York), XLI, 72. 1909 

Howarp, F. T.—Observations on the lakes and tarns of South Wales, Zrans. Soc. Nat. 
Set. Cardiff, XXXII. 29. 1901. 

Howartnu, O. J. R.—Lake Bruvand, Jederen district, Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond.), XXX. 
645. 1907. 

Howitt, A. W.—See DENpy, A. 


HowortH, H. H.—lIce as an excavator of lakes and transporter of boulders, Nature 
(Lond.), XLVIII. 247. 1893. 


— Origin of lake-basins, Nature (Lond.), XLIX. 221. 1894. 


Hoy, P. P.—Deep-water fauna of Lake Michigan, Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci. (Madison), 
I. 98, 1872; Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (Lond.), ser. 4, XI. 319, 1873. . 


Hoyer, W. E.—Pond life, Journ. Microscopy and Nat. Sci. (Lond.), TV. 1. 1884. 


HRANILOVIC, H. von.—Der Swicasee in Kroatien, Dewtsche Rundschau (Wien), XXIII. 
108. 1900. 


Huser, G.—Monographische Studien im Gebiete der Montigglerseen (Siidtirol) mit 
besonderer Beriicksichtigung ihrer Biologie (Stuttgart). 1905. 


Hup.ueston, W. H.—On the origin of the marine (halolimnic) fauna of Lake Tangan- 
yika, Journ. Trans. Victoria Inst. (Melbourne), XXXVI. 300. 1904. 


Hucues, T. M‘Kenny.—Lake Gokcha, Natwre (Lond.), LVII. 392. 1898. 

HvitFetpt-Kaas, H.—Plankton in norwegischen Binnenseen (Leipzig). 1898. 

—— Die limnetischen Peridineen in norwegischen Binnenseen, Vidensk. Selskab. Skr. 
(Christiania), No. 2. 1900. 

—— Temperaturmessungen in dem See Mjosen und in drei andern tiefen norwegischen 
Seen, Arch. for Math. og Naturwiss. (Kristiania), XX VII. No. 2. 1905. 

Hutt, Epwarp.—On the vestiges of extinct glaciers in the lake districts of Cumberland 
and Westmoreland, Edin. New Phil. Journ., N.S., XI. 31. 1860. 

—— The Great Pleistocene Lake of Portugal, Geol. Mag. (Lond.), I1I]. 104. 1906. 

Histsen, Karu.—Uber die Methoden der Erforschung des Grundes der Binnenseen. 
Comptes Rendus Congrés des Naturalistes et Médecins du Nord (Helsingfors), 
1902) Sect..v. 7. 1903; 

Humsoupt, F. H. A. von.—On the difference of level between the Black Sea and the 
Caspian, Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., VIII. 135. 1888. 

—— On the comparative level of lakes and seas, Edin. New Phil. Journ., XXXV. 328. 
1843. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 701 


HunTINGTON, ELtswortH.—Through the great cation of the Euphrates River, Geogr. 
Journ. {Lond.), XX..175. 1902. 


Pangong : a glacial lake in the Tibetan plateau, Journ. of Geol. (Chicago), XIV. 


599; 1906. 
—— Lop Nor: a Chinese lake, Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc. (New York), XXXIX, 65, 137. 
1907. 


—— An archipelago of sand-dunes in a lake of Central Asia, Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soe. 
(New York), XL. 1. 1908. 


Hurupsut, G. C.—Lake Mistassini, Jowrn. Amer. Geogr. Soc., XX. 469. 1888. 
Ienatow, P.—See BErg@, L. S. 


IHERING, HERMANN von.—Die Thierwelt der Alpenseen und ihre Bedeutung fiir die 
Frage nach der Entstehung der Arten, Nord und Siid (Lindau), X. 241. 1879. 


Ueber die Beziehungen der chilenischen und siidbrasilienischen Siisswasserfauna, 
Verh. Deutsch. Wiss. Ver, Santiago, II. 148. 1890. 


Imuor, O. E.—Studien zur Kenntnis der pelagischen Fauna der Schweizerseen, Zool. 
Anzeig. (Leipzig), VI. 466. 1883. 


—— Die pelagische Fauna und die Tiefseefauna der zwei Savoyerseen: lac du Bourget 
und lac d’Annecy, Zool. Anzeig. (Leipzig), VI. 655. 1883. 


-— Resultate meiner Studien iiber die pelagische Fauna kleinerer und grosserer 
Siisswasserbecken der Schweiz, Habilitationsschrift Univ. Ziirich (Leipzig). 
1884. 


—— Die Fortschritte in der Erforschung der Thierwelt der Seen, Verh. Schweiz. Naturf 
Ges., LX XIII. 157. 1890. 


—— Vorlaufige Notiz tiber die Lebensverhiltnisse in den Seen unter der Eisdecke, 
Jahresber. Naturf. Ges. Graubiindens (Chur), N.F., XXXIV. 131, 1890; XXXVI. 
117, 1892. 


Les conditions de milieu dans les lacs d’eau douce, Rev. Sct. (Paris), L. 497. 
1892, 


—— Die Zusammensetzung der pelagischen Fauna der Siisswasserbecken, Biol, Centralbl. 
(Leipzig); XT. 171.) 1892. 


Die Fauna des Bodensees, Zool. Anzeig. (Leipzig), XIV. 42. 1892. 


—— Ueber das Leben und die Lebensverhaltnisse zugefrorener Seen, J/itt. Aargau. 
Naturf. Ges., VI. 42. 1892. 


——Beitrige zur Fauna der Schweiz: Thierwelt der stehenden Gewasser, Mitt. Aargau. 
Naturf. Ges., VI. 59. 1892. 


Les organismes inférieures des lacs de la région du Rhone, Arch. Sct. Phys. Nat. 
(Genéve), sér. 3, XXX. 646. 1893. 


IMKELLER, HAns.—Einige Beobachtungen iiber die Kreideablagerungen im Leitzachthal, 
am Schlier- und Tegernsee, Zettschr. Deutsch. Geol. Ges. (Berlin), LII. 380. 
1900. 


IMMANUEL. —Der Baikalsee, Vierteljahrs. Geogr. Unterricht (Wien), II. 152. 1903. 


INGEN, G. VAN, and WuiTE, T. G.—An account of the summer’s work in geology on 
Lake Champlain, 7rans, New York Acad. Sct., XV.19. 1896. 


INGLIs, GAvin.—On the geological history of Loch Lomond, Phil. Mag. (Lond.), LI. 
327. 1818. 


— On the geology of Loch Leven in Scotland, Phil. Mag. (Lond.), LIV. 220; LY. 
113. 1819. 


INMAN, Henry. —See Copy, W. F. 


IRVING, ALEXANDER.—On the origin of valley-lakes, with especial reference to the lakes 
of the northern Alps, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond., XXXIX. 73. 1883. 


IscHIRKOFF, A.—Le lac de Ghébedgé: Renseignements préliminaires morphométriques, 
Ann. Univ. Sophia, 1904-5, 68. 1905. 


Der Deona-See, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), LII. 37. 1906. 


Ivanorr. —Analyse de l’eau de la Mer Morte, Ann. Journ. Mines Russie (St. Pétersb.), 
1840, 256. 1840. 

JACCARD, AUGUSTE.—Sondages sur les marais du Locle, Bull. Soc. Sct. Nat. Neuchdtel, 
IV. 434. 1858. 


Découverte de feuilles fossiles dans le lac de Neuchatel au port de Bevaix, Bull. Soc. 
Vaud. Sci. Nat. (Lausanne), XVIII. 134. 1882. 


702 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


JaccarD, P.—Etude géobotanique sur la flore des hauts bassins de la Sallanche et du 
Trient, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), CXXVII. 887; Rev.. Gén. de Bot. 
(Paris), X. 33. 1898. 


JACKEL, F. W.—Ueber die Seen der Umgegend von Liegnitz, Uebersicht Arbeiten Schles. 
Ges. Vaterl. Kultur (Breslau), 1848, 75. 1848. 


JACKSON, C. T.—Observations on the mirage seen on Lake Superior in July and Aug. 
1847, Proc. Amer. Ass. (Boston), 1849-50, 148. 1850. 


Analysis of water from a hot spring in the region of the Great Salt Lake, Amer. 
Journ. Sci. (New Haven), ser. 2, X. 184. 1850. 


Tee eae alee variations du Grand Lac Salé, Bull. Soc. Géogr. Paris, XIX. 
Iie S80: F 
JACKSON, J. R.—Des lacs salés, Bibl. Univ. Sci. etc. (Geneve), XLIX. 177. 1832. 

— Observations on lakes (London). 1833. 

— On the “‘seiches’’ of lakes, Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., III. 271, 1833; 
Canad. Journ. (Toronto), II. 27, 1853. 

JAEGER, J.—Die Chiemseelandschaft, Globus (Braunschweig), LXXXVII. 181. 1905. 

Der Schliersee (Bayern), Globus (Braunschweig), LXX XIX. 363. 1906. 

JAIME, G.—Sur le Niger: Lac Deboe, courants et crues du Niger, Bull. Soc. Géogr. 
Paris, 1891, 89. 1891. 

JAMESON, Ropert.—Account of rocks formed by hot springs, torrents of hot water, 
bursting of subterranean lakes, air voleanoes, and cold springs, Edin. Phil. Journ., 
II, 307. 1820. 

JAMIESON, THoMAS.—Phosphorescent displays on Loch Builg, Aberdeen Free Press, 
19th Nov. 1908 ; Natwre (Lond.), LX XIX. 309, 1909. 

JANSEN, Huserr.—Die Miiggelberge, der Miiggelsee und der Teufelsee bei Friedrichs- 
hagen in der Mark. Beschreibung, Entstehung, Sagen und Sprachgeschicht- 
liches, Globus (Braunschweig), LX XII. 69. 1897. 

JARDINE, WiLLIAM.— The Vendace or Vendis of the Lochmaben lochs, Edin. Journ. 
NGL AG CogT.Scl.. ila ja Sol. 

JEBB, G. R.—Lakes with two outfalls, Matwre (Lond)., X. 185. 1874. 

JEFFERSON, M. 8S. W.—The geography of Lake Huron at Kincardine, Ontario, Journ. 
of Geogr. (New York), II. 144. 1908. 

Jenu, T. J.—A bathymetrical and geological study of the lakes of Snowdonia and 
Eastern Carnarvonshire, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., XL. 419. 1902. 

JENSEN, P. B.—Uber Steinkorrosion an den Ufern von Furesd, Internat. Rev. 
Gesamt, Hydrobiol. u. Hydrographie (Leipzig), II. 1638. 1909. 

JEVoNS, W. 8.—Lakes with two outfalls, Matwre (Lond.), VIII. 304, 1873; X. 26, 
1874. 

JOALLAND. —Autour du Tchad, Bull. Soc. Géogr. Comm. Paris, XXII. 308. 1901. 

JOHANNES.—Uber die seen zwischen dem Kilimandjaro und Meru, Mitt. Deutsch. 
Schutzgeb. (Berlin), XI. 288. 1898. 

JOHN, C. von.—Bericht iiber die Untersuchung der Bodensee-Grundproben, Schriften 
Ver, Gesch. Bodensees (Lindau), XXIII. 11. 1894. 

JOHNSTON, H. H.—See ALEXANDER, B. 

JoHnstTon, KrrrH.—On the lake-basins of Eastern Africa, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., VII. 

122.. 1872. 
Native routes in East Africa, from Dar-es Salaam towards Lake Nyassa, Proc. Roy. 
Geogr. Soc. Lond., I. 417. 1879. 

JOHNSTON, R. M.—Notes showing that the estuary of the Derwent was occupied by a 
fresh-water lake during the Tertiary period, Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasmania (Hobart), 
188i fA User, 

JoHnsTon, T. N.—Bathymetrical survey of the fresh-water lochs of Scotland, under 
the direction of Sir John Murray and Laurence Pullar: Part V., Lochs of the 
Morar basin, Geogr. Journ., XXIV. 65. 1904. 

—— The bathymetrical survey of Loch Ness, Geogr. Jowrn, (Lond.), XXIV. 429. 

1904. | 

See CoLLeET, L. W. 


Jouy, N.—Sur la cause de la coloration en rouge des marais salants Méditerranéens, 
Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), IX. 570, 18389; XI. 290, 1840. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 7038 


Joy, N.—Histoire d’un petit Crustacé (Artemia salina), auquel on a faussement attribué 
la coloration en rouge des marais salants Méditerranéens, suivies de recherches sur 
la cause réelle de cette coloration, Annal. Sct. Nat. (Paris), Zool., XIII. 225. 
1840. 


JoRDAN, D. 8.—List of fishes collected in Lake Jessup, etc., Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 
(Washington), VII. 322. 1884, 

—— See GILBERT, C. H. 

JUDAY, CHANCEY.—Notes on Lake Tahoe, its trout and trout-fishing, Bull. Bur. Fish. 
(Washington), XXVI. 133. 1907. 

— Studies on some lakes in the Rocky and Sierra Nevada Mountains, Trans. Wisconsin 
Acad. Sci. (Madison), XV. 781. 1907. 

—— Astudy of Twin Lakes, Colorado, with special consideration of the food of the trouts, 
Bull. Bur. Fish, (Washington), XX VI. 147. 1907. 

—— Ostracoda of the San Diego region, Univ. of California Publications (Berkeley), 
Zool., T1i. 135. 1907. 

—— Cladocera of the San Diego Region, Univ. of California Publications (Berkeley), 
ZOOM PELL Uf 550 190%. 

—— Résumé of recent work on lakes by the Wisconsin Geological and Natural History 
Survey, Lnternat. Rev. Gesamt. Hydrobiol. u. Hydrographie (Leipzig), I. 240. 
1908. 

Jupp, J. W.—Great crater lakes of Central Italy, Geol. Mag. (Lond.), N.S., II. 349. 
1875. 

JUNGBECKER.—Das tote Meer, heutige Gestaltung und neuere Forschungen iiber seine 
Entstehung, Jahresber. Ges. Hrdk. Koln, 1900-1908, 16. 1903. ° 

JUNKER, WILHELM. —Reisen im stidwestlichen Theile des Nil-Gebietes, Petermann Mitt. 
(Gotha), XXIV. 839. 1878. 

~—— Ueber seine dreijahrigen Reisen in den Aequatorial-Provinzen Central-Afrikas, 
Verh. Ges. Erdk. Berlin, VI, 204. 1879. 

—— Die agyptischen Aequatorial-Provinzen: Reisen im Westen des Weissen Nil, 
Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XXV. 445, 1879; XXVI. 81, 1880. 

— Reise durch die Libysche Wiiste nach den Natron Seen, Petermann Mitt, (Gotha), 
KEV 1179, 1880; 

—— Neue Reise am oberen Nil, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XX VI. 261. 1880. 

— Vom Albert Nyansa nach dem Victoria Nyansa, 1886, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), 
AX VI, To 1898: 

Karka, F.—Untersuchungen iiber die Gewisser Boehmens (Prag). 1892. 

KALECSINSKY, ALEXANDER voN.—Ueber die ungarischen warmen und heissen Koch- 
salzseen als natiirliche Warmeaccumulatoren, sowie iiber die Herstellung von 
warmen Salzseen und Wirmeaccumulatoren, Math. Naturwiss. Ber. Ungarn 
(Berlin), XIX. 51, 1901; Zeitschr. f. Gewdsserk, (Leipzig), IV. 226, 1901; Ann. 
der Physik (Leipzig), VII. 408, 1902. 

-—— L’accumulation de la chaleur solaire dans divers fiuides, notamment dans les lacs 
amers, 3° Section Acad. Sci. Hongrie, 14th Dec. 1908. 

Kanpt, R.—Bericht von Dr R. Kandt iiber seine Reisen am Kivusee, Mitt. Dewtsch. 
Schutzgeb. (Berlin), XII. 235. 1899. 

KANNENGIESSER, G. A.—Seenexpeditionen in Afrika und vermutliche Quellen des 
Kongo, Deutsche Kolonialzeitung (Berlin), XVII. 440, 451. 1900. 

—— Der Tsiade oder Tsadsee, Zettschr. Kolonialpolitik (Berlin), VI, 522. 1904. 

KARLINSKY, J.—Die Messungen der Tiefe des Borkesees bei Konjica, Wiss. Mitt. 
Bosnien u. Herceg. (Wien), I. 542. 1893. 


KAWALL, H.—Der Bernsteinsee in Kurland, Corresp.-Blatt Naturf. Ver. Riga, VI. 69. 
1853. 


KEILHACK, K.—Der baltischen Hohenriicken in Hinterpommern und West-Preussen, 
Jahrb. Preuss. Geol. Landesanstalt Berlin, 1889. 


—— Die Mansfelder Seen-Katastrophe, Prometheus (Berlin), V. 118, 182. 1894. 


—— Werden und Vergehen der Seen, Prometheus (Berlin), VI. 679, 694, 708. 
1895. 


—— Thal- und Seebildung im Gebiet des baltischen Hohenriickens, Verh. Ges. Erdk. 
Berlin, XXVI. 129. 1899. 


704 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


KEILHACK, Lupwic.—Cladoceren aus den Dauphinéalpen, Zool. Anzeig (Leipzig), 
XXIX. 694. 1905. 


KEISSLER, K. v. — Das Plankton des untern Lunzer Sees in Niederdsterreich nebst 
einigen Bemerkungen tiber die Uferregion dieses Sees, Verh. Zool.-Bot. Ges. 
Wien, L. 541. 1900. 


—— Uber das Plankton des Atter und Aber- oder Wolfgang-Sees (Wien), 1901. 


—— Beitrag zur Kenntnis des Planktons einiger kleinerer Seen in Karnten, Ost. Bot. 
Zeitschr. (Wien), LVI. 53. 1906. 


— Notiz iiber das August Plankton des Gardasees, Ost. Bot. Zeitschr. (Wien), LVI. 
414. 1906. 


Planktonstudien iiber einige kleinere Seen des Salvienarmereates Ost. Bot. 
Zeitschr. (Wien), LVII. 51. 1907. 


KeE.uicott, D. S.—On certain Crustacea parasitic on fishes from the Great Lakes, Proc. 
Amer, Soc. Micro. (Indianapolis), 1878-79, 53 ; 1882, 75. 


KENDALL, P. F.—The Merjelen Lake, Nature (Lond.), LIII. 175. 1895. 

—— A system of glacier lakes in the Cleveland Hills, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 
Lond., LVIIT. 471; Geol. Mag. (Lond.), dec. 4, IX. 83; Phil. Mag. (Lond.), 
ser. 6, [V. 421. 1902. 

KENDALL-CHANNER, G.—The Mansarowar and Rakastal lakes, Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond)., 
XV. 75. 1900. 

KERR, M. B.—Crater Lake, Oregon, and the origin of Wizard Island, Bull. Sierra Club 
(San Francisco), I. 31. 1893. 

KERR-Cross, D.—Notes on the country lying between Lakes Nyassa and: Tanganyika, 
Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., N.S., XIII. 86. 1891. 

-—— Crater-lakes north of Nyassa, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), V. 112. 1895. 

Keyes, C. R.—Ephemeral lakes in arid regions, Amer. Jowrn. Sci. (New Haven), 
ser 4, XVI877.) 1903; 

KINAHAN, G. H.—On the formation of the rock-basin of Lough Corrib (Co. Galway), 
Geol. Mag. (Lond.), III. 489. 1866. 

— On the valley of Loch Lomond, Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, IV. 181. 1874. 

KInpDER, J.—Der Ploner See, Die Heimat (Kiel), 11. 148. 1892. 

Kine, C.—Lakes of the glacial period, U.S. Geol. Huplor. 40th Parallel, 1. 488. 1878. 

KIRCHNER, O.—Das Programm einer botanischen Durchforschung des Bodensees, 

Jahresh. Ver. Vaterl. Naturk. Wiirttemberg (Stuttgart), XLVII. p. lxvili. 1892. 

See BLOCHMANN, F. 

and ScHROTER, C.—Die Vegetation des Bodensees, Schriften Ver. Gesch. Bodensees 

(Lindau), 1896 and 1902. 

Kirk, JoHN.—Notes on the gradient of the Zambesi, on the level of Lake Nyassa, on 
the Murchison Rapids, and on Lake Shirwa, Jowrn. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., 
XXKV. UG7. 1865). = 

Kirk, THoMAs.—Notes on the flora of the lake district of the North Island, New 
Zealand, Trans. New Zealand Inst. (Wellington), V. 322. 1872. 

KIRKPATRICK, R.— Zoological results of the third Tanganyika expedition, conducted by 
Dr Cunnington: Report on the Porifera, with notes on species from the Nile 
and Zambesi, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1906, 218. 1906. 

KirKPATRICK, R. T.—Lake Choga and cae country, Geogr. Journ. (Lond. ), 
XIII. 410. 1899. 

KIRTLAND, J. P.—Peculiarities of the climate, flora, and fauna of the south shore of 
Lake Erie, in the vicinity of Cleveland, Ohio, Amer. Journ. Sct. (New Haven), 
ser. 2, XIII. 215, 293. | 1852. 

Kirrzt, E. — Die baltische Seenplatte und ihre Entstehung, Mitt. Ost. Tour. Klub 
(Wien), III. 20. 1892. 

Ki1TTLER, C.—Die Entstehungsgeschichte des Bodensees, Mitt. Geogr. Ges. Miinchen, I. 

488, 1905. 

KLAPALEK, F.—Untersuchungen iiber die Fauna der Gewisser Bohmens, Arch. Naturw. 
Landesdurchf. Bohmen (Prag), VIII. 1898. 

Kuaprotu, M. H.—Untersuchung des rothgefirbten Wassers aus dem See bei Lubotin 
in Stidpreussen, Allg. Jowrn. Chemie (Leipzig), IV. 458, 1800; Phil. Mag. 
(Lond. ), XVII. 243, 1808. 


a 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 705 


KiaprotH, M. H.—Chemische Untersuchung des Wassers vom Todten Meere, Mag, Ges. 
Naturf. Freunde Berlin, III. 139, 1809 ; Annals of Phil. (Lond.), I. 36, 1813. 

KLAUSENER, C.—Jahreszyklus der Fauna eines hochgelegenen Alpensees, Internat. 
Rev, Gesamt. Hydrobiol. u. Hydrographie (Leipzig), I. 240. 1908. 

— Die Blutseen der Hochalpen: Eine biologische Studie auf hydrograpischer 
Grundlage, Internat. Rev. Gesamt. Hydrobiol. u. Hydrographie (Leipzig), I. 359. 
1908. 

KLEIBER, W.—Studien zur Wasserstandsprognose, Zeitschr. f. Gewiisserk. (Leipzig), 
I, 10, 129. 1898. 

KLIncks1ecK, TH.—Analyse des Teichwassers bei Unterbiirg, Wiss, Mitt. Phys.-Med. 
Soc. Erlangen, I. 18. 1859. 

KLINGER, Aucusr.—Untersuchung des Wassers vom Todten Meer, Jahresh. Ver. 
Vaterl, Naturk. Wiirttemberg (Stuttgart), XXV. 200. 1869. 

Knapp, J. G.—Ancient lakes of Wisconsin, Z’rans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci. (Madison), 
eae FS 72: 

KNEELAND, SAMUEL.—On a supposed new species of Siredon from Lake Superior, 
Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., VI. 152. 1856. 

KNIERER.—Vom Eichener See, Monatsb/. Badisch. Schwarzwaldver, (Freiburg), IL., 
llth Noy. 1899. 

KNippiInc, E.—Der Kawaguchi See (Japan), Jitt. Deutsch. Ges. Natur. (Tokio), 
Heft 47. 1892, 

KNOpFER, L.—Der Zirknitzer-See, Zeitschr. Phys. Math. etc. (Wien), V. 273, 279. 
1837. 

KopettT, W.—Der Mono-See in Kalifornien, Globus (Braunschweig), LIX. 91. 1891. 

Kocu, G. A.—Die Temperaturbewegung des Gmunder- oder Traunsees im Winter 1894-5, 
Mitt. Geogr. Ges. Wien, XXXVIII. 119, 1895. 

—— Kritische Bemerkungen zur Erforschung der Alpenseen, Mitt. Geogr. Ges. Wien, 
XLI. 631. 1898, 

Korrzer, F.—Die periodischen Niveauschwankungen der Binnenseen, Naturw. 
Wochenschr. (Jena), N.S., 1. 127. 1902. 

Kororp, C. A.—Plankton Studies, Bull. Illinois State Lab, Nat. Hist. (Urbana), V. 1. 
1897. 

—— The fresh-water biological stations of America, Amer. Nat. (Philadephia), XXXII. 
391. 1898. 

—— The plankton of Echo River Mammoth Cave, Trans. Amer. Micro. Soc. (Columbus), 
AX 113, 1899, 

—— On Pleodorina illinoisensis, a new species from the plankton of the [linois River. 
Bull. Illinois State Lab. Nat. Hist. (Urbana), V. 273. 1900. 

—— On Platydorina, a new genus of the family Volvocide from the plankton of the 
Illinois River, Bull. Illinois State Lab. Nat. Hist. (Urbana), V. 419. 1900. 

—— A preliminary account of some of the results of the plankton work of the Illinois 
Biological Station, Science (New York), N.S., XI. 255. 1900. 

—— The limitations of isolation in the origin of species, Science (New York), N.S., XXV. 
500. 1907. ; 

Kopp, CHARLES. —Bande jaune qui traverse le lac de Marin vers Serriéres, les jours de 
bise, Bull. Soc. Sci. Nat. Neuchdtel, III. 208, 212. 1853. 

—— Des variations du niveau du lac de Neuchatel pendant les années 1835 a 1856, Mém. 
Soc. Sct. Nat. Newchdtel, TV. 1859. 

Variations du niveau des eaux des lacs jurassiques de Neuchatel, de Bienne, de 
Morat et de Joux pendant les années 1871-72, Bull. Soc. Sct. Nat. Neuchidtel, 1X. 
9219, 494. 1873. 

Variation du niveau des eaux des lacs de Neuchatel, de Bienne et de Morat pendant 
Vannée 1873, Bull. Soc. Sci. Nat. Neuchatel, X. 110. 1876. 

KorotNnEFF, A.—Einiges iiber die Tricladenfauna des Baikalsees, Zool, Anzeig. (Leipzig), 

XXXITI. 625, 861. 1908. 
Koztorr, P. K.—The Russian Tibet expedition, 1899-1900, Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond.), XIX. 
577. 1902. 
—— Through Eastern Tibet and Kam, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XXXI, 402, 522, 649, 
1908, 
45 


706 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


KRAFFT, A.—Le lac d’Aegeri et Mortgarten, Le Globe (Geneve), XLITI. 23. 1904. 


KRAHMER, — VON.—Die Expedition der kaiserl. russischen Geogr. Gesellschaft nach 
Mittelasien, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XL. 106, 1894; XLI. 6, 1895. 


—— Kulikowski’s Untersuchungen iiber das Zuwachsen und das zeitweilige Verschwinden 
der Seen in dem Gebiete von Onega, Globus (Braunschweig), LX VI. 383. 1894. 


—— Die Seen der Gouvernements Twer, Pskov und Smolensk, Globus (Braunschweig), 
LXVIII 334. 1895: 


Kraus, F.—Sumpf- und Seebildungen in Griechenland mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung 
der Karsterscheinungen und insbesondere der Katabothren-Seen, Mitt. Geogr. Ges. 
Wien, N.S., XXV. 373. 1892, 

—— Die Katastrophe in den Mansfelder Seeen, Der Stein der Weisen (Wien), V. 156. 
1894. 


KRraAusE, A.—Ueber das Eis unserer Binnengewiisser, Verh. Ges. Erdk. Berlin, XVIII. 
269. | 1892, 


KrAvsE, OC. F,—Reisebericht durch Bayern, iiber Salzburg nach Tyrol und den Bodensee, 
Sitzber. Naturw. Ges. Isis (Dresden), 1862, 17. 1862. 


Krause, E. H.-L.—Der ehemalige Thorner See, Globus (Braunschweig), LXXIV. 18. 
1898. 


Krausk&, F.—Planktonproben aus Ost- und West-preussischen Seen, Arch. Hydrobiol. 
u. Planktonk. (Stuttgart), II. 218. 1906. 


Kress, WILHELM.—Die Quellenverhiltnisse an den Mansfelder Seen, Das Wetter 
(Braunschweig), X. 193. 1893. 


Beobachtungen an den Mansfelder Seen, Das Wetter (Braunschweig), X. 250. 
1893. 


—— Die Erhaltung der Mansfelder Seen (Leipzig). 1894. 


—— Geologische und meteorologische Motive einiger an Thiiringer Seen gekniipften 
Sagen, Globus (Braunschweig), LXXXI. 63, 1902. 


KUDERNATSCH, J.—Vortrag tiber das ehemalige urweltliche Vorkommen von Seen in 
Ober-Steiermark, Berichte Mitt. Freund. Naturw. Wien, I. 85. 1846. 

KtmMeEL, H. B., and SAuispury, R. D.—Lake Passaic: an extinct glacial lake, Journ. 
of Geol. (Chicago), III. 533. 1895. 


Kusnezow, W.—Der Balchasch-See und der Fluss Ili, Arch. Wiss. Kunde Russland 
(Berlin), XVI. 491. 1857. 


Kitrzine, F. T.—Algologische Excursion am salzigen See im Mannsfeldischem im 
Jahre 1832, Flora: Allg. Bot. Zeitung (Regensburg), XVI. 97. 18838. 


LACHLAN, R.—On the periodical rise and fall of the Lakes, Canad. Journ. Ind. Sci. 
Art (Toronto), II. 298, 1853; Amer. Journ. Sci. (New Haven), ser. 2, XIX. 60, 
164, 1854; XX. 45, 1855. 

LADAME, H.—Tableau des températures moyennes mensuelles en degrés centigrades de 
Vair et de V’eau du lac (surface) observées a Neuchatel pendant les années 
1841-50, Actes Soc. Helv. Sci. Nat. (Chaux de Fonds), 1855, 213. 1855. 


—— Sur la température du lac a diverses profondeurs, Bull. Soc. Sct. Nat. Neuchatel, 
NizO28..eelsoo: 


LAFFAY.—Le bassin lacustre d’Alaotra a Madagascar, Rev. Madagascar (Paris), IV. 
(1) 321, 408 ; (2) 22, 435. 1902, 


LAHACHE, J. E. A.—L’eau dans le Sahara, Rev. Scient. (Paris), sér. 4, XI. 651. 
1899. 


LAHONDES, J. DE.—Les lacs des environs d’Ax (Ariége), Rev. des Pyrénées (Toulouse), 
VIII, 500, 1896. 


LAIDLAW, F. F.—Report on the Turbellaria of the third Tanganyika expedition, con- 
ducted by Dr W. A. Cunnington, 1904-1905, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1906, 777, 
1906. 


LAIpLAw, J. E.—Balsam Lake, Ann. Rep. Canad. Inst. (Toronto), IV. 73. 
1891. 

Lakes, P.—Bala Lake and the river-system of North Wales, Geol. Mag. (Lond.), dee. 4, 
VII. 204, 241; Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, Lond., LVI. 280; Phil. Mag. (Lond.), 
XLIX. 501. 1900. | 

LAKES, ARTHUR.—Great Salt Lake basin, Mines and Minerals (Scranton), XXIII. 
112, 1902. 


a 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 707 


LAKOwITz.—Temperaturmessungen im Klostersee bei Karthaus, Schriften Naturf. Ges. 
Danzig, N.S., 1X. 21. 1898: 

Latoy, L.-—La couleur du lac Balaton, Za Géogr. (Paris), XIII. 376. 1906, 

LAMANSKY, E.—Esquisse géographique du bassin de la mer d’Aral et quelques traits des 
meeurs des habitants de Boukhara, Khiva, et Kokan, Bull. Soc. Géogr. Paris, 
sér. 4, XV. 5. 1858. 

Lamic.—Excursion dans la région des lacs d’Auvergne, Bull, Soc, Hist. Nat. Toulouse, 
1903, 12. ° 1903. 

LAMPERT, K.—Bemerkungen zur Stisswasserfauna Wiirttemburgs, Jahresh. Ver. Vaterl. 
Naturk. Wiirttemberg (Stuttgart), XLIX. p. cil. 1893. 

— Das Thierleben unserer Seen im Winter, Jahresh. Ver. Vaterl. Naturk. Wiirttem- 
berg (Stuttgart), LIL. p. ceili. 1896. 

—— Das Leben der Binnengewasser (Leipzig). 1897-99. . 

-—— Die wissenschaftliche Erforschung des Plattensees, Vaturwiss. Rundschauw (Berlin), 
XV. 562. 1900. 

—-— Bemerkungen zu dem Vortrag von Dr. Halbfass ueber Systematische Internationale 
Seenforschung, Verh. des VII, Internat. Geogr, Kongress (Berlin), 1899, II. 252, 
1901. 

LANDAIS, A.—Le massif d’Ambre (Madagascar), Za Géogr. (Paris), XIX. 257. 
1909: 

Lanpor, A. H. S.—In the Forbidden Land: An account of a journey in Tibet etc. 
(London). 1898. 

Lane, O.—Der Asphaltsee auf der Insel Trinidad, Prometheus (Berlin), VII. 97. 
1896, 

— Der Aaschidarja, Naturwiss. Wochenschr. (Jena), XIII. 433. 1898, 

LANGENBECK, R.—Ueber die Bildung der Sprungschicht in den Seen, Petermann Mitt, 
(Gotha), XXXIX. 122, 1893. 

—— See HERGESELL, H. 

LANKESTER, EDWIN.—On deposits in springs, rivers, and lakes from the presence of 
Infusoria, Rep. Brit. Ass. (Lond.), 1841, 72. 1841. 

LANKESTER, E, R.—Exhibition of specimens of Meduse from the Victoria Nyanza, 
Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1908, 340. 1908. 


LANSING, MARION F.—See CHANNING, EDWARD. 


Lanzi, Marrreo.—Le diatomee raccolte nel lago di Bracciano, Atti Roma Nuovi 
Lincet, XXXV. 292. 1882. 

Lapuam, I. A.—On the existence of certain lacustrine deposits in the vicinity of the 
Great Lakes, usually confounded with the ‘‘ Drift,” Amer. Journ. Sci. (New 
Haven), ser. 2, III. 90. 1847. 

Oconomowoc Lake, and other small lakes of Wisconsin, with reference to their 
capacity for fish-production, Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci. (Madison), III. 31. 
1876. 

LAPPARENT, A, DE.—Un lac a Tombouctou, Correspondant (Paris), 1896. 


LartTeT, Louis.—Recherches sur les variations de salure de l’eau de la Mer Morte 
en divers points de sa surface et a différentes profondeurs ainsi que sur 
Vorigine probable des sals qui entrent dans sa composition, Bull. Soc. Géol. 
Krance (Paris), XXII. “719, 1865°; Comptes Rendus Acad. Sct. (Paris), LXII. 
1333, 1866. 

— Sur la formation du bassin de la Mer Morte ou Lac Asphaltite, et sur les change- 
ments survenus dans le niveau de ce lac, Bull. Soc. Géol. France (Paris), XXII. 
420. 1865. 

— Sur les gites bitumineux de la Judée et de la Celé-Syrie, et sur le mode d’arrivée 
de l’asphalte au milieu des eaux de la Mer Morte, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sct. 
(Paris); LXID.. 1395, 1866; Bull. Soe. Geol. France (Paris), N.S., XXIV. 12, 
1867. 

Essai sur la géologie de la Palestine et des contrées avoisinantes, telles que l’Egypte 
et Arabie ; comprenant les observations recueillies dans le cours de |’Expédition 
du Duc de Luynes a la Mer Morte, Annales Sci. Géol. (Paris), I. 5, 149, 1869 ; 
Di ANon one S72: 

—— Exploration géologique de la Mer Morte (Paris). 1877. 


708 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


LASAULX, A. voN.—Ueber die Seen und Kesselformigen Wasserbecken im volkanischen 
Gebiete Central-Frankreichs, Sitzb. Niederrhein. Ges. (Bonn), XXV. 56. 1868. 


Cratere und vulcanische Seen in der Auvergne, Newes Jahrb. Min. ete. (Stuttgart), 
1870, 460. 1870. 5 


LAUTERBORN, R. — Uber die zyklische Fortpflanzung limnetischer Rotatorien, Biol. 
Centralbl. (Leipzig), XVIII. 173. 1898. 


Lawson, A. C,—Sketch of the coastal topography of the north side of Lake Superior 
with special reference to the abandoned strands of Lake Warren (the greatest of the 
late Quaternary lakes of North America), dnn. Rep. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey 
Minnesota, XX. 181. 1893, 


LEA, IsAAc.— Descriptions of six new species of Unionide from Lake Nyassa, Central 
Africa, Proc. Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci., 1864, 108. 1864, 

—— Description of nine species of Unionide agi Lake Nicaragua, Central America, 
Proc. Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci., 1868, 94. 1868. 

LEBERT, HERMANN.—Hydrachnides [trouvées dans le lac Léman], Bull. Soc. Vaud. 
Sev. Nat. (Lausanne), XIII. 61. 1874. 

—— Ueber Wasserspinnen des Genfer Sees, Jahresber, Schles. Ges. (Breslau), 1874, 43 ; 
Zeitschr. Gesammt. Naturwiss, (Berlin), XII. 318, 1875. 

—— Hydrachnides de la faune profonde du Léman—Campognatha schnitzleri, n. sp., 
Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat. (Lausanne), XV. 502. 1878. 

—— Hydrachnides du Léman, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat. Ree XVI. 327. 
1880. 

LECOINTE, G.—Voyage d’hiver en Patagonie, Bull. Soc. Roy. Belge Géogr. (Bruxelles), 
XXIII. 366. 1899. 

LrEcog, HENRI.—Note sur les petits lacs des terrains basaltiques de Auvergne, Annal. 
Sct. Litt. Ind. Auvergne (Clermont-Ferrand), X. 518. 1887. 

—— Observations sur une grande espéce de Spongille (Zpidatia lacustris?) du lac Pavin, 
Mém. Acad. Sci. Clermont-Ferrand, J. 476, 1859 ; Comptes Rendus Acad. Sct. 
(Paris), L. 1116, 1860. 

—— Observations sur les corps réproducteurs et sur l’état d’agrégation d’une grande 
espéce de Spongille du lac Pavin (Puy-de-Déme), Comptes Rendus Acad. Sct. 
(Paris), L. 1165. 1860. 

— Observations sur le degré d’animalité et sur les especes de Spongilles, et particuliére- 
ment sur la grande espece du lac Pavin, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), LI. 5. 
1860. 

—— Le lac du Bouchet, Bull. Soc. Géol. France (Paris), XXVI. 1086. 1869. 

Lrcay, L.—See DELEBECQUE, A. 

Lreacr, W. V.—A physiographical account of ‘‘ The Great Lake,” Tasmania, Rep. 
Australasian Assoc. (Sydney), X. 348. 1904. 

LeiIpy, JosepH.—On Artenia salina from Salt Lake, Utah, Proc. Philadelphia Acad. 
Nat. Scei., 1872, 164. 1872. 

LEIGHTON, J. M., Swan, JosEPH, and WiLson, —.—Swan’s Views of the lakes of 
Scotland: <A series of views from paintings taken expressly for the work, with 
historical and descriptive illustrations by John M. Leighton, Esq., and remarks 
on the scenery of the Highlands by Professor Wilson (Glasgow and London). 
1836. 

LELARGE, G.—Le lac de Scutari et la Boiana, Nowvelles Géogr. (Paris), 1892, 177. 1892. 

LEMAIRE, C.—Note sur le lac Di-Lolo, Mouvem. Géogr. (Bruxelles), XXII. 625. 1905. 

LEMMERMANN, E.—Der grosse Waterneverstorfer Binnensee, Vorschungsber. Biol. 
Station Plon (Stuttgart), VI. 166. 1898. 

—— Brandenburgische Algen: II. Das Phytoplankton des Miiggelsees, Zettschr. f. 
Fischerei, 1X. 73. 1908. 

— Das Plankton einiger Teiche in der Umgegend von Bremerhaven, 47ch. Hydrobiol. 

u. Planktonk. (Stuttgart), I. 345. 1906. 
and ZACHARIAS, O.—Ergebnisse einer biologischen Excursion an die Hochseen und 
Moorgewasser des Riesengebirges (Berlin). 1896. 

LENDENFELD, R. von. — Alpenseen, Westermanns Illustr. Deutsch. Monatsh. (Braun- 
schweig), LX XXIII. 643, 759. 1898. 

LESLIE, JOHN.—Article ‘‘ Climate,” Hneycl. Brit. (Edin.), ed. 8, VI.177. 18388. 


— ae 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 709 


Lesseps, F. M. pp.—Etudes de sondages entreprises par M. Roudaire en vue l’établisse- 
ment de la mer intérieure africaine, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), LXX XVII. 
900, 1059. 1878. 

—— Sur le projet de mer intérieure de M. Roudaire; réponse aux observations de 
M. Cosson, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sct. (Paris), XCII. 1442, 1881; XCIV. 1336, 

1882; XCVI. 1274, 1883. 

LETRONNE, J. A.—Sur la prétendue communication de la Mer Morte avec la Mer Rouge, 
Journ. des Savants (Paris), 1838, 495. 1838. 

LEvANpDER, K. M.—Zur Kenntnis der Fauna und Flora Finnischer Binnenseen 
(Helsingfors). 1900. 

— Uber das Herbst- und Winterplankton im Finnischen Meerbusen und in dem Alands- 

See, 1898 (Helsingfors), 1900. 
Beitrige zur Fauna und Algenflora der siissen Gewiisser an der Murmankiiste, Acta 
Soc. pro Fauna et Flora Fennica, XX. (8), 1. 1901. 

-—— Winterplankton in zwei Binnenseen Siid-Finnlands (Helsingfors). 1905. 

—— Beitrag zur Kenntnis des Sees Valkea Mustajarvi der Fischereiversuchstation Evois, 
Acta Soc. pro Fauna et Flora Fennica, XXVIII. 1. 1906. 

— Zur Kenntniss des Planktons einiger Binnenseen in Russisch-Lappland, Festschrift 
FJ. Paimén, 1907, 1.-- 1907. 

LEVERETT, F.—On the correlation of moraines with raised beaches of Lake Erie, Amer. 
Journ. Sci. (New Haven), ser. 3, XLIII. 281, 1892; Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci. 
(Madison), VIII, 283, 1893. 

LINANT, ADOLPHE.—Ueber den See des Moris, Monatsber, Ges. Erdk. Berlin, N.S., II. 
175. 1845, 

LiInpDER, C.—Etude de la faune pélagique du lac de Bret (Geneve). 1904. 

LivINGsToNE, Davip.—Discovery of the great Lake Ngaini of South Africa, Edin. New 
EU AOUTN., Sal X. L5OY 1850. 

— Expedition to Lake Ngami, Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., XX. 138. 1851. 

Second visit to the South African Lake Ngami, Jowrn, Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., 

MXIT 18s 185i; 

—— Exploration of the Nyassa Lake, Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., VII. 18. 1863. 

—— Expedition to Lake Nyassa in 1861-63, Jowrn. Roy Geogr. Soc. Lond., XX XIII. 
251. 1863. 

—— Explorations to the west of Lake Nyassa in 1863, Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., 
XXXIV. 245. 1864. 

Luoyp, D. A.—Marine animals in fresh water, The Zovologist (Lond.), ser. 2, IV. 1764. 
1869. 

Locu, JAMES, —Observations upon the salmon in Loch Shin, in Sutherland, Mag. Nat. 
Host, (ond ).ser, 2; 1208), 1837. 

LOCHMANN. —— Notes sur les sondages des lacs suisses, Comptes Rendus 5 Congr. Int. 
Géogr. (Bern), 1891 (2), 511. 

Lockwoop, F. W.—Glacial notes amongst the English lakes: Are they rock basins ? 
Rep. Belfast Field Club, I1. 62. 1888. 

Loozy, Lupwie von.—Bericht iiber die Thitigkeit der Plattensee-Commission im Jahre 
1892-93, Abrégé Soc. Hongroise Géogr, (Budapest). 1894. 

—— Bericht iiber die wissenschaftliche Erforschung des Balatonsees, Bull. Soc. Hon- 
grotise Géogr. (Budapest), XXIV. 76. 1896. 

—— (editor).—Resultate der wissenschaftliche Erforschung des Balatonsees (Wien). 
1901. 

—— Ueber die Seen des Retyezat-Gebirges, Bull. Soc. Hongroise Géogr. (Budapest), 
XXXII. 63, 224. 1904. 

LorpiscH, W. F., and Srpécz, L.—Analyse des Wassers vom ‘‘ Mare morto 
Insel Lacroma, Mineralog. Mitt. (Wien), 1876,171. 1876. 

Lorew, E.—Moorbildung und vorherrschende Windrichtung an ostbaltischen Seen, 
Humboldt, 1X. 294. 1892. 

LoMBARDINI, Ex1A.—Della natura dei laghi, e delle opere intese a regolarne l’effluso, 
Mem. Ist. Lomb. Sci. (Milano), II. 398. 1845. 

— Della sistemazione dei laghi di Mantova per liberare la citta dalle inondazioni e per 
migliorarne l’aria e la navigazione, Giorn. Ist. Lomb. Sci. (Milano), V. 414, 
1853 ; Mem. Ist. Lomb. Sct. (Milano), V. 69, 1856. 


” auf der 


710 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


LoMBARDINI, Ex1a.—Sulle ultime piene de’ fiumi e laghi della Lombardia, ed in par- 
ticolare su quella del lago di Como (18 Giugno 1855), Giorn. Ist. Lomb. Sci. 
(Milano), VII. 397. 1855. 

Intorno al progetto di abhassare le piene del lago Maggiore, Giorn. dell’ Ingegn.- 
Arch. ed Agron. (Milano), XI. 1863. 

Della natura dei laghi e delle opere intese a regolarne I’ effluso (Milano). 1866. 

Loppens, K.—Sur quelques variétés de Membranipora membranacea, L., vivant dans 
Veau saumatre, Ann. de Biol. Lacustre (Bruxelles), I. 40. 1906. 

Contribution a étude du microplankton des eaux saumatres de la Belgique, Ann. de 
Biol. Lacustre (Bruxelles), III. 16. 1908. 

Les Bryozoaires d’eau douce, dnn. de Biol, Lacustre (Bruxelles), III. 141. 1908, 

LorENZ-LIBURNAU, J. R.—Der Hallstitter See: eine limnologische Studie, Mitt. 
Geogr. Ges. Wien, XLI.1. 1898. 

—— Altere und neuere Lothungen im Hallstiittersee, Abhandl. Geogr. Ges. Wien, I. 
Sino L809: 

—— Entgegung auf Prof. Penck’s Bemerkungen itiber alte und neue Lothungen im 
Hallstiatter See, Abhandl. Geogr. Ges. Wien, II. 129. 1900. 

— Retrospektives ueber Karten des Hallstiitter Sees, Mitt. Geogr. Ges. Wien, XLVI. 
lOve L903: 

Lorenzi, A.—II lago di Ospedaletto nel Friuli, Zn Alto (Udine), VII. 86. 1897. 

Osservazioni sulla vegetazione del lago di Cavazzo in Friuli, /n Alto (Udine), 
VATEebs 1898. 

—— Breviindicazioni preliminari sul materiale zoologico raccolto sui laghi esaminati nel 

1899, Boll. Soc. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), ser. 4, I. 1004. 1900. 

—— Note preliminari sulla flora dei laghi elevati delle Alpi orientali, Zi Alto (Udine), 
TT L901, 

LorENzO, G. DE.—I grandi laghi pleistocenici delle falde del Vulture, 4tti R. Accad. 
Lincei (Roma), ser. 5, Rendiconti VII. (2), 326. 1898. 

Lortet, Lovis.—Sur un poisson du lac du Tibériade, le Chromis ‘paterfamilias, qui 
incube ses ceufs dans la cavité buccale, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sct. (Paris), 
16D.@.@.@ Faas DE) yam oy aay 

—— Dragages exécutés dans le lac de Tibériade (Syrie) en mai 1880, Comptes Rendus 
Acad. Sct. (Paris), XCI. 500. 1880. 

—— Etudes zoologiques sur la faune du lac de Tibériade, suivies d’un apercu sur la faune 
des lacs d’Antioche et de Horus: 1. Poissons et reptiles du lac de Tibériade et de 
quelques autres parties de la Syrie, Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat. Lyon, III. 99. 
1883. 

Loscuz, Ep.—Geognostische Darstellung der Gegend um Aussee in Steiermark, Alig. 
Deutsche Naturh. Zettung (Dresden), I. 240, 845, 1846. 

Loser, ANTON.—Ueber Seephanerogamen, Oester. Bot. Zeitschr. (Wien), XIII. 382. 1863. 

Lott1, B.—Rilevamento geologico nei dintorni del lago Trasimeno, di Perugia e 
d’Umbertide, Boll. Real. Comitat. Geol. Ital. (Roma), XXX. 207. 1899. 

Loup, F. H.—A comparison of temperatures (1906) between the Colorado Springs and 
Lake Moraine, Colorado Coll. Publs., Sci. Ser. XII. 92, 1907. 

Loupon, W. J.—Seiches, Rep, Met. Service Canada (Toronto), 1905, 402. 1905. 

Lowne, B. T.—On the vegetation of the western and southern shores of the Dead Sea, 
Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., Bot., 1X. 201. 1867. 

Lozeron, H.—Sur la répartition verticale du plancton dans le lac de Ziirich, de 
décembre 1900 & décembre 1901, Vierteljahrsschr, Naturf. Ges. Ziivich, XLVII. 


115. 1902. 
Luppock, J.—The scenery of Switzerland and the causes to which it is due (London). 
1896. 


Lucas, A. H. T.—See Denpy, A. 

Lucas, KrrrH.—A_ bathymetrical survey of the lakes of New Zealand, Geogr. Journ. 
(Lond.), XXIII. 645, 744. 1904. 

Lupwie, FrrDINAND.—Chemische Untersuchung einiger Mineralseen ostsibirischer 
Steppen, Zeitschr. f. Prakt. Geol. (Berlin), XI. 401. 1903. 

Lucarb, F, D.—Travels from the East Coast to Uganda, Lake Albert Edward, and 
Lake Albert, Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., XIV. 817. 1892. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 711 


LuGarp, F. D.—Characteristics of African travel, with notes on a journey from the East 
Coast to the Albert Lake, Scott. Geogr. Mag. (Edin.), VIII. 625. 1892. 

Luuuies, H.—Studien tiber Seen, Jubiliumsschr. Albertus- Univ. Kinigsberg. 1894. 

LUMSDEN, JAMES.—See Brown, A. 

LUNEL, GODEFROY.—Parasites et vers intestinaux des poissons du Léman, Buzl/. Soe. 
Vaud. Sci, Nat. (Lausanne), XVI. 267. 1880. 

LuTzENKo, E.—LHinige Beobachtungen tiber die Seen im Quellgebiet des Don, Zeitschr. 
J. Gewdsserk. (Leipzig), III. 360. 1900. 

LYELL, CHARLES.—On the ridges, elevated beaches, inland cliffs, and boulder formations 
of the Canadian lakes and valley of St Lawrence, Proc. Geol. Soc. Lond., IV. 18. 
1842. 

Lyncu, W. F.—Notice of the narrative of the U.S. Expedition to the River Jordan 
and the Dead Sea, Amer. Journ. Sci. (New Haven), ser. 2, VIII. 317. 1849. 

—— Official report of the United States Expedition to explore the Dead Sea and the 
River Jordan, Amer. Journ. Sci. (New Haven), ser. 2, XIX. 147. 1855. 

Lyons, H. G.—On the variations of level of Lake Victoria, Appendix III. of Garstin’s 
Report upon the basin of the Upper Nile (Cairo). 1904. 

—v— Dimensions of the Nile and its basin, Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond.), XX VI. 198. 1905. 

Earth-movements at Lake Victoria, Cazro Sct. Journ., II. 385. 1908. 

— The longitudinal section of the Nile, Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond.), XXXIV. 36. 1909. 

Maas, O.—Der Salzsee von Larnaca auf Cypern, Geogr. Zeitschr. (Leipzig), VII. 159. 
1901. 


MACAIRE-PRINSEP, J.—Notice sur les travaux entrepris sur le niveau des eaux du lac 
de Geneve, MWém. Soc. Phys. Hist. Nat. Geneve, V. 63. 1832. 

M‘ANSLAN, WILLIAM.—On the temperature of Lake Ontario, Amer. Journ. Sci. (New 
Haven), XXXIIJ. 403. 1838. 

M‘CLoUNIE, J.—A journey across the Nyika Plateau, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XXII. 
423. 1903. 

MAcFARLANE, J. H. R.—The occurrence of seiches in Lake Derravaragh, Co. West- 
meath, 1893-94, Sci. Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc., N.S., VIII. 288. 1895, 

MACGILLIVRAY, W.—Notice relative to two varieties of Nuphar lutea, found in a lake 
in Aberdeenshire, Mem. Wernerian Nat. Hist. Soc, (Edin.), [V. 186. 1821. 

M‘KERrRow, JAMES.—Reconnaissance survey of the lake districts of Otago and Southland, 
New Zealand, Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., XXXIV. 56. 1864. 

—— On the physical geography of the lake districts of Otago, Trans. New Zealand Inst. 
(Wellington), III. 254. 1870. 

Macxiz, S. F.—The relation between the level of Great Salt Lake and the rainfall, 
Monthly Weather Rev. (Washington), XXIX. 57. 1901. 

M‘Manon, Henry.-—Recent survey and exploration in Seistan, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), 
XXVIII. 200. 1906. 

MacMitian, C.—The Gull Lake Biological Station of the University of Minnesota, 
Science (New York), XXI. 530. 1898. 

Macoun, JOHN.—See GIBSON, JOHN. 

Maaet, Leopoupo.—Intorno di depositi lacustro-glaciali ed in particolare di quelli della 
Vaicuvia, Rendiconti Ist. Lomb. Sci. (Milano), II. 41, 1869 ; Mem. Lst, Lomb. Sci. 
(Milano), XI., 1870. 

Maenin, A.—Recherches sur la végétation des lacs du Jura, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. 
(Paris), .©XV. 535, 1892; OX VI.-905,.1893.- Reve Sez. (Paris), ser. 4, 11. 603, 


1894. 
-—— Sur la limnologie jurassienne, Comptes Rendus Ass, Franc. Av. Sci. (Paris), 1891, 
347. 1892. 


—— Végétation comparée de 57 lacs des monts Jura, Comptes Rendus Ass. Frang. Av. 
Sct. (Paris), 1892, 215. 1892. 

— Les lacs du Jura, Ann. de Géogr. (Paris), III. 20, 218, 1894; also sep. (Geneve, 
Bale, and Paris), 1895. 

— Contribution & la connaissance de la flore des lacs du Jura suisse, Bull. Soc. Bot. 
France (Paris), XLI. 108. 1894, 

—— Généralités sur la limnologie jurassienne (Lyons and Paris). 1895. 

— Végétation des lacs du Jura suisse (Lyons and Paris). 1896. 


Vee THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Maecnin, A.—Revision des Potamots de France, notamment des lacs du Jura (Lyons 
and Paris), 1897. 
-—— Recherches complémentaires sur les lacs du Jura (1894-1901), Comptes Rendus 
Congr. des Soc. Savantes (Paris), 1902. 
La végétation des lacs du Jura (Paris). 1904. 


MacrinI, G. P.—I recenti studi sulle sesse ; e le sesse nei laghi italiani, Riv. Geogr. 
Ital, (Firenze), XII. 127, 216, 291. 1905. 


Contributo allo studio dei laghi Lapesini (Roma). 1906. 
——- Limnologia: Studio scientifico dei laghi (Milano), 1907. 
See GNESOTTO, T. 


Macuire.—Great Salt Lake and its waters, Mines and Minerals (Scranton), XXI. 4. 
1900. | 

MAHLMANN, WILHELM. —Ueber die Hohe des Caspischen Meeres und die Gipfelhohe des 
Caucasus, Monatsber. Verh. Ges. Erdk. Berlin, I. 165, 169. 1840. 

MAItTRE, HENRI.—Geographical results of the explorations of the French ‘‘ White 
Fathers ” in North-Eastern Rhodesia, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XX. 824. 1902. 

—— Le bassin du lac Kivu, Bull. Soc. Géogr. Lille, XXXVII. 484; XXXVIII. 44, 
P12, GZS 1902: 

Maitre, L.—Notice sur le lac de Grandlieu, Bull. Géogr. Hist. (Paris), 1895, 379, 
1896. 

Makowsky, A.—Eisseen in den Alpen, Verh. Naturf. Ver. Briinn, XXXII. 1894. 

MAKSCHEJEW.—Beschreibung des Aral-See’s, Arch. Wiss. Kunde Russland (Berlin), 
XII. 586. 1858. 

MaarossE, L. pE—Le pays d’Aubrac et le plateau des lacs, Bull. Soc. Geéogr. 
Toulouse, XX. 237. 1901. 

MALDEN-HAveER.—Analyse de Veau du lac de Ziirich, Moniteur Sci. du Chimiste ete. 
(Paris).1. 892.9 $1658; 

MALrFeER, F.—Sull’ oro-idrografia del lago di Garda, Atti Accad. Ayr. Sci. Lett. Comm. 
Verona, ser. 4, [. 1900. 

MALTE-BruN, Conrap.—Considérations sur les lacs sans écoulement, spécialement sur 
ceux d’ Afrique, Bull. Sct. Nat. et Géol. (Paris), VII. 15. 1826. 
MautrEe-Brun, V. A.—Notice sur les découvertes récentes des missionaires dans 
V Afrique équatoriale, et sur l’existence de plusieurs grands lacs dans Vintérieur 
de ce continent, Bull. Soc. Géogr. Paris, sér. 4, XI. 234. 1856. 
Les lacs de Tanganyika et Nyanza d’Ukerewe, découverts par les Capitaines 
Burton et Speke, Bull. Soc. Géogr. Paris, ser. 4, XVIII. 345. 1859. 
— Dv’un projet de jonction de la Mer Caspienne a la Mer Noire a l’aide de la riviere 
Manycht, Presse Sci. Dewx Mondes (Paris), I. 467. 1861. 

Man, J. G. pE.—Two Decapod Crustacea from fresh-water pool in Christmas Island, 
Nature (Lond.), LXXITI. 262. 1906. 

MANLEY, J. J.—See GUNTHER, R. T. 

Manross, N. S.—Notice of the Pitch Lake of Trinidad, Amer. Journ. Sci. (New 
Haven), ser. 2, XX. 158.° 1855. 

MANSFELD.—Der Totensee bei Nssakpé (Eken-Land), Jitt, Deutsch. Schutzgeb. (Berlin), 
XT 12) 1908; 


MaArcET, ALEXANDER.—An analysis of the waters of the Dead Sea and the River 
Jordan, Phil. Trans. (Lond.), 1807, 296; Journ. Nat. Phil. Chem. Arts (Lond.), 
KKw25 71808: 

—— Observations on Mr Klaproth’s analysis of the water of the Dead Sea, Annals of 
Phil sLond). i. 132) ors is. 

—— On the water in Lake Ourmia, or Urumea, in Persia, Annals of Phil. (Lond.), XIV. 
150. 1819. 

Marcui, L, DE.—See GNEsorrTo, T, 

MARINELLI, OLINTO.—Alcune recenti esplorazioni di laghi delle nostre Alpi, Geogr. per 
Tutti (Milano), 1893. 

— Elementi geografici dei principali laghi delle Alpi Carniche, Geogr. per Tutti 
(Milano), 1898 ; Zn Alto (Udine), 1893, 

—— Volume e media profondita del lago Maggiore, Geogr. per Tutti (Milano), No. 24. 
1894, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 7138 


MARINELLI, OLINTO.—Studi sul lago di Cavazzo in Friuli, Boll. Soc. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), 
Serao,. Villy lifts lS Oas 


—— Ageruppamenti principali dei laghi italiani, Boll. Soc. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), ser. 3, 
Vile LOre 1894. 


—— Nuove osservazioni sulle condizione di temperatura del lago di Cavazzo in Friuli, 
Riv. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), I. 507. 1894. 


— . Area, profundita ed altri elementi dei principali laghi italiani, Riv. Geogr. Ttal. 
(Roma), I. 558, 623, 1894 ; II. 32, 93, 1895. 


— Sul?’ opportunita di stabilire una classificazione generale e una relativa nomen- 
clatura dei laghi basata prevalentemente su criteri geografici, Atti 2 Congr. 
Geogr. Ital. (Roma), 1895, 213. 1895. 


— Osservazioni batometriche e fisiche eseguite in alcuni laghi del Veneto, Atti RF, Ist. 
Veneto Sct. (Venezia), ser. 7, VI. 63. 1895. 


—— A proposti dei ‘‘laghi carsici italiani” e del concetto di ‘‘lago,” Riv. Geogr. Ital. — 
(Roma), II, 180. 1895. 


— Lago Maggiore, Geogr. per Tutii (Milano), 31st Dec. 1894. 
Escursione ai laghi Laziali, Riv. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), III. 13. 1896. 


—— Sopra alcune ricerche relative alle condizioni di temperatura del lago di Como, 
Riv. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), I1I. 105. 1896. 


Alcune notizie sopra il lago di Pergusa in Sicilia, Riv. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), IIL. 
509. 1896. 


— Dati morfometrici sul lago di Onega, oll. Soc. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), X. 450. 1897. 

—— Prima e Seconda serie di aggiunte e correzioni al Catalogo dei laghi italiani, 
(Prima) Riv. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), IV., 1897 ; (Seconda) Zbdd., VII. 450, 1900. 

Studi orografici nelle Alpi orientali, J/em. Soc. Geogr. Ital, (Roma), VIII. 338, 
1898. 


—— Studi sopra alcuni laghi del Veneto, Cosinos (Roma), XII. 356. 1899. 

—— Fenomeni analoghi a quelli carsici nei gessi della Sicilia, Atti 3 Congr. Geogr. 
Ital. (Firenze), I]. 134. 1899, 

—— Sulla massima profondita del lago di Cavazzo, In Alto (Udine), 1899, No. 6. 1899. 


Conche lacustri dovute a suberosioni nei gessi in Sicilia, Riv. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), 
WAT 2iiose O00: 


— Brevi notizie sul Temerle-Sea presso Sappada, Zn Alto (Udine), XI. 1900. 
—— Per ulteriori osservazioni termiche nel lago di Cavazzo, Jn Alto (Udine), XI. 1900, 


—-- Un plastico dei Colli Euganei ed alcune ricerche limnologiche del Dott. Stegagno, 
Riv. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), VIII. 572. 1901. 


Lo studio delle sesse nei laghi italiani, Riv. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), VIII. 641. 1901. 
—— See AGOSTINI, G. DE. 
Markuam, C, R.—Examination of the southern half of Lake Tanganyika by Lieut. 


V. L. Cameron, R.N., compiled chiefly from Lieut. Cameron’s diary, Proc. Roy. 
Geogr. Soc. Lond., XIX. 246. 1875, 


— The basin of the Helmund, Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., 1. 191. 1879. 

MarkorF, E. 8.—Geophysik des Goktschasees, Dissertation (Freiburg). 1896. 

MARQUARDSEN. — Die geographische Erforschung des Tchadsee-Gebietes bis zum 
Jahre 1905, Witt. Deutsch. Schutzgeb. (Berlin), XVIII. 318 1905. 


Marr, J. E.—Physiographical studies in Lakeland, Geol. Mag. (Lond.), dec. 4, I. 489, 
539, 1894; II. 299, 1895. 


— On the lake-basins of Lakeland, Proc. Geol. Ass. (Lond.), XIV. 273; Glac. Mag. 
(Lond.), IV. 22. 1896. 


— The origin of lakes, Science Progress (Lond.), N.S., I. 218. 1897. 
—— Notes on the geology of the English Lake District, Proc. Geol. Ass. (Lond.), 
XVI, 449. 1900. 

—— The influence of the geological structure of English Lakeland upon its present 
features: A study in physiography, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond., LXII. 66, 
1906. 

See ADIE, R. H. 

Marsu, C. D,—On the Cyclopide and Calanide of Central Wisconsin, 7rans, Wis, Acad. 

Sct. (Madison), IX. 189. 1892. 


714 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


MarsH, C. D.—Depth and temperature of Green Lake, Zrans. Wis. Acad. Sci. 
(Madison), VIII. 214. 1893. 

—— On two new species of Diaptomus, 7’rans. Wis. Acad. Sct,(Madison), X. 15. 1894, 

—— On the vertical distribution of pelagic Crustacea in Green Lake, Wis., Amer. Nat. 
(Salem), XVIII. 807. 1894. 

— Cyclopide and Calanide of Lake St Clair, Lake Michigan, and certain of the inland 
lakes of Michigan, Bull. Michigan Fish Comm. (Lansing), 1895, 1. 1895. 

—— On the limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake, TZrans. Wis. Acad. Sci. (Madison), 
Ose Sore 

—- Hydrographic map of Green Lake, Wis., Wis. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey 
(Madison), VII. 1899. 

— The plankton of fresh-water lakes, Trans. Wis, Acad. Sci. (Madison), XIII. 
163, 1899 ; Sctence (New York), XI. 374, 1900. 

—- On some points in the structure of the larva of Epischura lacustris, Trans. Wis. 
Acad. Sci. (Madison), XII. 543. 1900. 

— Plankton of fresh-water lakes (Madison). 1901. 

—— The plankton of Lake Winnebago and Green Lake, Wis, Geol. and Nat. Hist. 
Survey (Madison), XII. 1903. 

—— On a new species of Canthocamptus from Idaho, Trans. Wis. Acad. Sct. (Madison), 
XIV e125 1903! 

MARSHALL, R.—Vicinity of Lake Te Anau and Milford Sound, New Zealand, Geogr. 
Journ. (Lond.), XXXII. 3538. 1908. 

Marsitton, C.—Le lac d’asphalte de ‘‘ La Brea,” La Nature (Paris), XXIV. (1), 66. 
1896. 

Marsson, M.— Zur Kenntniss der Planktonverhiltnisse einiger Gewisser der Umgebung 
von Berlin, Forschungsber. Biol. Station Pién (Stuttgart), VIII. 86. 1901. 


MARTEL, E. A.—Sur la caverne du Holl Loch (Trou d’Enfer) et la Schleichende 
Brunnen (source rampante), Suisse, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), CXAXXYV. 
S05; 1902: 
MARTEL, H.—See DAUTZENBERG, P. 
Martens, E. von.—Beschalte Weichtiere Ost-Afrikas, Dewtsch-Ost-Afrika (Berlin), IV. 
1898. 
MARTENS, GEORG von.—Der Garda-See, Hertha: Zeitschr. Erd-, Volk-, Staatenk. 
(Stuttgart), XIII. 209, 320, 417. 1829. 
Martin, C, H.—Notes on some Oligochets found on the Scottish Loch Survey ; Notes 
on some Turbellaria from Scottish lochs, Proc. Roy. Soc. Hdin., XXVIII. 21. 
1907. 
Martins, CHARLES.—Expériences sur ]a température du lac de Brienz, Proc. Verb. 
Soc. Philom. Paris, 1842, 9. 1842. 
—— Sur la dépression de la Mer Morte, Bull. Soc. Géol. France (Paris), XIV. 336. 
1842. 

Sur le delta de l’Aar, & son embouchure dans le lac de Brienz, Bull. Soc. Géol. 
France (Paris), N.S., II. 118. 1844. 

——- See Dzsor, P. J. E. 

Martonne, E. pE.—Fjords, cirques, vallées alpines et lacs subalpins, Ann. de Géogr. 
(Paris), X. 289. 1901. 

and MuNTEANU-MuRGocI.—Sondage et analyse des boues du lac Galcescu (Karpates 
méridionales), Comptes Rendus Acad, Sct. (Paris), CXXX. 932, 1900. 

MArz, C.—Der Seenkessel der Soiern, ein Karwendelkar, /Viss. Veroffentl. Ver. Erdk. 
Leipzig, VI. 211. 1904. 

MaseEtTTI, Fr.—Monti e laghi: Note di un alpinista (Fano). 1903. 

Mason Bry, A. M.—Report of a reconnaissance of Lake Albert made by order of his 
Excellency General Gordon Pacha, Governor-General of the Soudan, Proc. Roy. 
Geogr. Soc. Lond,, XXII. 225. 1878. 

Massart, JEAN.—Au Sahara: I. Les déserts salés et les oasis de ?oued Rirh ; II. Les 


sables @’El Erg oriental ; III. Le désert pierreux ; IV. Les steppes de l’Atlas et de 


la plaine du Hodna, Rev. de?’ Univ. Bruxelles, V. 409, 521, 597, 1899. 


MAsTERMAN, E. W. G.—Dead Sea observations, Palestine Explor. Fund, Quarterly 
Statement (Lond.), 1903, 177. 1908. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 715 


MASTERMAN, E. W. G.—The Dead Sea levels, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XX VIII. 179. 1906. 

MATHER, W. W.—Notes and remarks connected with meteorology on Lake Superior, 
and on the variations in.its level by barometric causes and variations in the 
season, Amer. Journ. Sct. (New Haven), ser. 2, 1V. 1. 1848. 

MaAtTTHeEw, G. F.—On a method of distinguishing lacustrine from marine deposits, Proc. 

and Trans. Canada Roy, Soc. (Montreal), I. (Sect. 4), 147. 1883. 
pene formation of Torryburn Valley, Bull. New Brunswick Nat. Hist. Soc., 
wo. 1833, 

Maun, Puitip.—Exploration in the southern borderland of Abyssinia, Geogr. Journ. 
(Lond.), XXIII. 552. 1904. 

Max, H.—Der Starnberger See (Miinchen), 1892. 

MAveEr, Ernst.—Der Vrana-See auf der Insel Cherso im Adriatischen Meere, J/itt. Geogr. 
Ges. Wien, XVI. 241. 1874. 

MECQUENEM, ROLAND DE.—Le lac d’Ourmiah, Ann. de Céogr. (Paris), XVII. 128. 
1908. 


Meek, 8S. E.—Zoology of Lakes Amatitlan and Atitlan, Guatemala, with special 
reference to ichthyology, Publ, Field Columb. Mus. (Chicago), VII. 159. 1908. 

Meecuitzky, N.—Geognostische Skizzen von Ost-Sibirien: Der Baikal und seine 

Umgebungen, Verh, Min. Ges, St, Pétersb., 1855-56, 86,171. 1856. 

Geologische und geographische Untersuchungen am Baikal-See, Petermann Mitt, 

(Gotha), 1857, 142. 1857. 

M&uHEpIN.—Sur la formation du limon du Nil et sur la constitution des lacs Natron 
de ’Egypte, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sct. (Paris), LIV. 1221; <Annal. de Chimie 
(Paris eV I 1625). 1862: 

MEINERTZHAZEN, R.—The Masai Uplands, Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond.), XX VI. 466. 1905. 

MeERcALLI, G.—I nuovo lago di Leprignano, Natwra ed Arte (Milano), 1895, Nos, 21, 
22, 1895. 

MeERcANTON.—Description d’une trombe observée sur le lac Léman, le 11 aotit 1827, 
Bibl, Univ, Sci. etc. (Geneve), XXXVI. 142. 1827, 

MeErENsKy, A.—Neue Verkehrswege im Seengebiet Inner-Afrikas, 4/rika (Berlin), V. 
213. | 1898: 

MeERKER.—Ueber die Entdeckung zweier neuen Seen zwischen dem Kilimandjaro und 
Meru, JMitt. Deutsch. Schutzgeb. (Berlin), IX. 249. 1896. 

MERZBACHER, GOTTFRIED.—Further exploration in the Tian-Shan Mountains, Geogr. 
Journ, (Lond.), XXXI. 395. 1908. 

— Exploration in the Tian-Shan Mountains, Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond.), XXXIII. 278. 
1909. 

Mevsz, F. pE.—Exploration du lac Léopold II., Mowvem. Géogr. (Bruxelles), [X. 113, 
1892; X. 2, 1893. 

Miauu, L. C.—The natural history of aquatic insects (London and New York). 1895. 

MIcHEL, J.—Mémoire pour servir a Vhypsométrie du bassin du Leman, Bull. Soc. Vaud, 

Sct. Nat. (Lausanne), VI. 872. 1859. 
Lettre sur la détermination de la hauteur du lac de Geneve au-dessus du niveau de 
la mer, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), XIX. 328. 1864. 

MietTue, A.—Ueber das Eis der Binnengewiisser, Prometheus (Berlin), IIL. 321. 1892, 

Mitut, H. R.—Bathymetrical survey of the English lakes, Geogr, Jowrn. (Lond.), VI. 
46,135. 1895. 

— Limnology in the British Islands, Rep. 6th Int. Geogr. Congr. (Lond.), 1895, 601. 

1895. 

Prof. Forel on limnology, Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond.), XVII. 296. 1901. 

Mituais, J. G.—On some new lakes and a little-known part of Central Newfoundland, 
Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond.), XXII. 306. 1903. 

MiuuErR, H.—Lakes with two outfalls, Matwre (Lond.), [X. 500. 1874. 

M1uueErR, J. F.—On the meteorology of the Lake District of Cumberland and Westmore- 
land, including the results of experiments on the fall of rain at various heights 
above the earth’s surface, up to 3166 feet above the mean sea-level, Phil. Trans. 
(Lond. ), 1849, 78, 319; 1851, 149, 623. 

—— Singular iridescent phenomena seen on Windermere Lake, 24th October 1851, Edin. 
New Phil, Jowrn., LV. 88. 1858. 


“XG THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


MiLuican, A. D.—Notes on Lake Yauchep (Western Australia), mw (Melbourne), III. 
20. 1908, 

Mitne-Epwarps, A.—Observations sur les crabes des eaux douces de l’Afrique, Ann. 
Sci. Nat. (Paris), Zooly, ser, 7,.lVit cle els S7e 

MITCHELL, SAMUEL.—Der Proteus in den Nord-Americanischen Seen, Notizen Geb. 
Natur-Heilk. (Erfurt), IJ. 243. 1822. 

Mirrorp, C, E. B.—Notes on the physiography of certain volcanoes in Northern Japan, 
Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond. ), XXXI. 187. 1908. 


MocKkEL, E.—Die Entstehung des Plauer Sees, des Drewitzer oder Alt-Schweriner Sees 
und des Krakower Sees, Arch. Ver. Freunde Naturg. Mecklenburg (Rostock), 
ALVI, 1. +1893. 


MopErnti, P.—I] nuovo lago e gli avvallamenti di suolo nei dintorno di Leprignano, 
Boll. Rk. Com, Geol. Ltal. (Roma), XX VII. 46. 1896. 


Mouner, F.—Ueber einen Natron carbonicum enthaltenden Salzsee in Sibirien, Pharm. 
Zeitschr. Russland (St. Pétersb.), VI. 804. 1867. 


MorsEL, MaAx,—Begleitworte zu der Karte ‘‘ Dr. F. Stuhlmann’s Aufnahmen im Gebiet 
des Albert- und Albert-Edward-Sees, Mitt. Geogr. Ges. Hamburg, XVII. 55. 
1901. 


Moissonnier.—Etudes faites dans le but d’utiliser pour les besoins de la ville et de 
Voasis de Biskra, Peau de la source thermale Hammam-Salahm’n, MWém. Meéd. 
Chir. Pharm. Militaires (Paris), XXXI, 269. 1875. 

MoLpENHAUER, F.—Analyse des Wassers vom Todten Meere, geschopft im Juni 1854, 
Annal, Chemie. u. Pharm. (Lemgo), XCVII. 357. 1856. 

MoLyNEUX.—Expedition to the Jordan and the Dead Sea, Jowrn. Roy. Geogr. Soe. 
Lond., XVIII. 104. 1848. 

Monckton, H. W.—Notes on some Hardanger lakes, Geol. Mag. (Lond.), dec. 4, VI. 
533. 1899. 

MonrTEIL.—De Saint-Louis du Senegal a Tripoli, par le lac Tchad, Comptes Rendus Soe. 
Géogr. Paris, 1898, 54; Bull. Soc. Géogr. Lille, XIX. 329; Bull. Soc. Géogr. 
Comm. (Paris), XV. 173. 1898. 

De VAtlantique a la Méditerranée par le lac Tchad, Buill. Soc. Géogr. Lyon, XI. 
585. 1893. 


Conférence sur son voyage de Bammako au lac Tchad et a Tripoli, Bull. Soe. 
Normande Géogr. (Rouen), XV. 82. 1893. 

MoNTEITH, WILLIAM.—Journal of a tour through Azerdbijan and the shores of the 
Caspian, Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., WI. 1. 1888. 

Montett, A.—Au lac Tchad: Mission Gentil, Rev. Francaise (Paris), XXIII. 689. 
1898. 

MonrTcoMERIE, T. G.—Narrative of an exploration of the Namcho, or Tengri Nur Lake, 
in Great Tibet, made by a native explorer, during 1871-72, Journ. Roy. Geogr. 
Soc. Lond., XLV. 315. 1875. 

Monti, Rina.—Limnologische Untersuchungen iiber einige italienische Alpenseen, 
Forschungsber. Biol, Station Plén (Stuttgart), XI. 1904. 

——- Physiobiologische Beobachtungen an den Alpenseen zwischen dem Vigezzo- und 

dem Ousernouetal (1904), Forschungsber. Biol. Station Plén (Stuttgart), XII. 68. 


1905. 
— Recherches sur quelques lacs du massif du Ruitor, Ann. de Biol. Lacustre (Bruxelles), 
Tr; 205, 1906, 


La circolazione della vita nei laghi, Riv. Mens. Pesca, IX. 1906-7. 


MonTMOLLIN, A. DE.—Note relative aux variations du niveau du lac de Neuchatel, 
pendant les années 1817 a 1834, Mém. Soc. Sci. Nat. Neuchdtel, I. 71, 1885; 
Bibl. Univ. Sci, etc. (Geneve), VII. 397, 1837. 


Moorcrort, WILLIAM.—A journey to Lake Manafarovara in Un-dés, a province of 
Little Tibet, Asiatick Researches (Calcutta), XII. 375. 1816. 


Moors, J. C.—On lake-basins, Phil. Mag. (Lond.), N.S., XXIX. 526. 1865. 


Moorg, J. E.S.—The fauna of the great African lakes, Science Progress (Lond.), VI. 
627.7 1897. 


— On the general zoological results of the Tanganyika Expedition, Proc. Zool. Soc. 
Lond., 1897, 486. 1897. 


—— The fresh-water fauna of Lake Tanganyika, Nature (Lond.), LVI. 198. 1897. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 717 


Moorg, J. E. S.—The physiographical features of the Nyasa and Tanganyika districts 
of Central Africa, Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond.), X. 289. 1897. 


—— The marine fauna in Lake Tanganyika, and the advisability of further exploration 
in the great African lakes, Natwre (Lond.), LVIII. 404. 1898. 


— On the zoological evidence for the connection of Lake Tanganyika with the sea, 
Proc. Roy. Soc. (Lond.), LXII, 451; Proc. Zool, Soc. Lond., 1898, 451; Nature 
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—— The Molluscs of the great African lakes, Quart. Journ. Micro. Sci. (Lond.), N.S., 
eM 159, Tel 898 eI 155, Ws7 189. 


— On the hypothesis that Lake Tanganyika represents an old Jurassic sea, Quart. 
Journ. Micro. Sct. (Lond.), N.S., XLI. 303. 1898. 


—— Descriptions of the genera Bathanalia and Bythoceras, from Lake Tanganyika, 
Proc. Matlac. Soc. (Lond.), III. 92. 1899. 


To the Mountains of the Moon (Lond.), 1901. 


—— Further researches concerning the Molluscs of the great African lakes, Proc. 
Zool. Soc. Lond., 1901, 461. 1901. 


—- The Tanganyika problem: An account of the researches undertaken concerning 
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—— The Victoria Nyanza jelly-fish, Natwre (Lond.), LXIX. 365. 1904. 


Moorg, THomas.—Remarks on the origin of rock-basins, Phil. Mag. (Lond.), [X. 101. 
1831, 


Mort, A.—Materiale per la compilazione di un elenco completo dei laghi italiani, Geogr. 
per Tutti (Milano), 1892, No, 22. 1892. 


— Sulla formazione di alcuni laghetti presso Citta Ducale, Geogr. per Tutti (Milano), 
1893, No. 17. 1898. 


—— Aleune notizie sui laghi Velini, Riv. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), II. 217. 1895. 

—— Formazione di un nuovo laghetto presso la Falterona, Riv. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), V. 
481. 1898. 

Mortax.—Sur les bords du Victoria Nyanza: La tribu des Kavirondo, 4 travers le 
Monde (Paris), N.S., IX. 108, 116. 1903. 

Morison, G. 8.—Lake Bohio, the summit level of the Panama Canal, Engineering 
Mag. (New York), XXIV. 497. 1903. 

Moritz, A.—Ueber den Salzegehalt des Wassers an der Siidwestkiiste des Caspischen 
Meeres, Bull. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersb., XIV. 161. 1856, 

Moruot, A. von.—Sur les terrasses diluviennes du lac Léman, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. 
Nat. (Lausanne), IV. 92. 1854. 

Morris, B. R.—Description of an intestinal worm from the duodenum of the white-fish 
of the Canadian lakes, Canad. Journ. Ind. Sci. Art (Toronto), N.S., IV. 442. 
1859. 

Morrison, J. T.---On the distribution of temperature in Loch Lomond and Loch 
Katrine during the past winter and spring, Rep. Brit. Ass. (Lond. ), 1886, 528. 
1886. 

MortTiuuET, G. p—E.—See Dumont, F. 


Mosevry, E. L.—Rainfall and the level of Lake Erie, Nat. Geogr. Mag. (Washington), 
eRe r327.) 1903, 

Mosgr, Ianaz.—Der abgetrocknete Boden des Neusiedler See’s, Jahrb. Geol. 
Reichsanst. (Wien), XVI., 1866; N.S., X. 338, 1872. 

Mounsgy, C.—Singular iridescent phenomenon seen at Windermere Lake, 24th Oct. 
1851, Rep. Brit. Ass. (Lond.), 1855, 41. 1855. 

MrazExK, A.—Ein europiischer Vertreter der Gruppe Temnocephaloidea, Sitzber. Bohn. 
Ges. Wiss, (Prag), 1907. 

MiLuER, F. von.—The vegetation of the districts surrounding Lake Torrens, Lond. 
Journ. Bot. etc., V. 105. 1853. 

MULLNER, JOHANN.—Die Temperaturverhaltnisse der Seen des Salzkammerguts, 23 
Jahresber. Staats Oberrealsch. Graz, 1895. 


—— Ueber den Osterreichischen Seenatlas, Verh. Ges. Naturf. wu. Aerate, Vers. LXVI. 
269. 1895. 


— Die Seen des Salzkammergutes, Penck’s Geogr. Abhandl. (Leipzig), VI. 1. 1896. 


718 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


MULLNER, JOHANN.—Kritische Bemerkungen zur Erforschung der Alpenseen, J/itt. 
Geogr. Ges. Wien, XLII. 62. 1899. 


-— Die Seen des Reschenscheideck, Mitt. Deutsch. u. Ost. Alpenvereins (Wien), N.S., 
XV. 149, 1899; Penck’s Geogr. Abhandl. (Leipzig), VII. No. 1, 1900. 


—— Die Vereisung der osterreichischen Alpenseen in der Wintern 1894-5 bis 1900-1, 
Penck’s Geogr. Abhandl, (Leipzig), VII. 52, 1908. 


—— Hinige Erfahrungen und Winsche auf dem Gebiete der Seenforschung, Jahresber. 
Maximitians-Gymnas. Wien, 1902-3, 1. 1908. 

——— Die Seen des untern Inntales in der Umgebung von Rattenberg und Kufstein, 
Ferdinandewms-Zettschrift (Innsbruck), 1905, ser. 3, No. 49. 1905. 

Munro, R.—On a remarkable glacier-lake, formed by a branch of the Hardanger- 
Jokul, near Eidfiord, Norway, Proc. Roy. Soc. Hdin., XX. 58. 1893. 

Mvurvocn, L, H.—Relation of the water level of Great Salt Lake to the precipitation, 
Monthly Weather Rev, (Washington), XXIX. 22. 1901. 

— Cycles of precipitation, Monthly Weather Rev. (Washington), XXX. 482. 
1902. 


— — Why Great Salt Lake has fallen, Nat. Geogr. Mag. (Washington,) XIV. 75. 
1903, 


Murray, JAMES.—Biology of Loch Ness, Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond.), XXIV. 442. 1904. 


-— On the distribution of the pelagic organisms in Scottish lakes, Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. 
OM eNO lee el OOD, 


— The Rhizopods and Heliozoa of Loch Ness, Proc. Roy. Soc. Hdin., XXV. 609. 
1905. ° 


— Ona new family and twelve new species of Rotifera of the order Bdelloida, collected 
by the Lake Survey, Zrans. Roy. Soc. Edin., XLI. 367. 1905. 


— The Tardigrada of the Scottish lochs, Trans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., XUI. 677. 
1905. 


— The Bdelloid Rotifera of the Forth Area, Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin., XVI. 215. 
1906, 


Rotifera of the Scottish lochs, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., XLV. 151. 1906. 


—— An investigation of the seiches of Loch Earn by the Scottish Lake Survey: Pre- 
liminary limnographic observations on Loch Earn, Zrans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., 
XLV. 387. _ 1906. 


—— Scottish alpine Tardigrada, Ann. Scott. Nat. Hist. (Perth), 1906, 25. 1906. 


-— Some Rotifera of the Forth Area, with description of a new species, Ann. Scott. 
Nat. Hist. (Perth), 1906, 88. 1906. 


—— The Tardigrada of the Forth Valley, Ann. Scott. Nat. Hist. (Perth), 1906, 214, 


1906. 
—— Scottish Tardigrada, collected by the Lake Survey, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., XLV. 
641, 1907. 


—— Encystment of Tardigrada, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., XLV. 837. 1907. 


Scottish Rotifers, collected by the Lake Survey (Supplement), Zrans. Roy. Soc. 
Edin, , XLV 1..189,".1908; 


Murray, (Dr) Jonn.—On the water of the Dead Sea, Rep. Brit, Ass. (Lond.), 1838, 
73. 18388. 


Murray, (Sir) JouN.—Depth of Loch Morar, Scott. Geogr. Mag. (Edin.), III. 316. 
1887. 


—— On the effects of winds on the distribution of temperature in the sea and fresh-water 
lochs of the west of Scotland, Scott. Geogr. Mag. (Edin.), [V. 345. 1888. 


—-- On the temperature of the salt- and fresh-water lochs of the West of Scotland, 
Proc, Roy. Soc. Hdin., XVIII. 139. 1891. 


-— Some observations on the temperature of the water of the Scottish fresh-water 
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—— The distribution of organisms in the hydrosphere as affected by varying chemical 
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— and Punuar, F. P.—Bathymetrical survey of the fresh-water lochs of Scotland, 
Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XV. 309, 1900; XVII. 273, 1901; Scott. Geogr. Mag. 
(Edin.); XVI.189; 1900; XVIT SITS 691 90T: 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 719 


Murray, (Sir) JoHn, and Puttar, LAURENCE.—Bathymetrical survey of the fresh- 
water lochs of Scotland, Geogr. Journ., XXII. 237, 521, 1903; XXIII. 32, 444, 
1904 > XXIV. 65,546, 1904; XXV. 26831905; XXVI.42. 519, 1905; XXVII. 
144, 566, 1906; XXVIII. 592, 1906; XXX. 62, 398, 1907; XXXI. 42, 1908; 
also special publication issued by the Roy. Geogr. Soc. in 1908. 


‘Murray, R. M.—Examination of the waters of the Dead Sea, Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc., 
III, 242. 1852. 


Murray, W. H. H.—Lake Champlain and its shores (Boston). 1890. 

Musont, F.—Studi sul lago di Cavazzo, In Alto (Udine), No. 4. 1894. 

I] lago di S, Daniele del Friuli, Mondo Sotterraneo (Udine), 1907, 11. 1907. 
NacutTiegAL, G. H.—Journey to Lake Chad and neighbouring regions, Jowrn. Roy. 
N 


Geogr. Soc. Lond., XLVI. 396. 1876. 


Apson and Sutima.—Die Mikroorganismen aus den Tiefen des Ladoga-Sees, Bull. 
Jard. Imp. Bot. St. Péersb., VIII. 1908. 


NAKAMURA, S., and YOSHIDA, Y.—Etude des seiches au Japon: Les seiches des lacs 
Biwa et Hakone, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), XV. 558. 1903. 


Napier, J. R.—On the effect of Loch Katrine water on galvanised iron, Proc. Glasgow 
Pl, S0Cs, ds Of. 1875: 

— On the action between the Loch Katrine water supplied to Glasgow and various 

metals, Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc., IX. 202. 1875. 


NEILL, PAtrrick.—List of fishes found in the Frith of Forth, and rivers and lakes 
near Edinburgh, with remarks, Mem. Wernerian Nat. Hist. Soc. (Edin.), 
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NestLer, C. F.—Das Tierleben der Alpenseen nach den neueren Forschungen darge- 
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NETZHAMMER, R.—Die Tiefenmessungen der Schweizerseen, Natur und Offenbarung, 
XOXO el 2957 1892. 


NEUMANN, Oscar.—From the Somali Coast through Southern Ethiopia to the Sudan, 
Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XX. 378. 1902. 


NEUVILLE, H.—See ANTHONY, R. 
Nevevu-LemMarre, M.—Le Titicaca et le Poopo, Za Géogr. (Paris), IX. 409. 1904. 
Les lacs des hauts plateaux de l’Amérique Sud (Paris). 1906. 


Newserry, J. S.—The ancient lakes of Western America, their deposits and drainage, 
Proc. Lyceum Nat. Hist. New York, I. 25, 1870; Amer. Naturalist (Salem), IV. 
640, 1871 ; Canad. Nat. and Geol. (Montreal), N.S., VI. 112, 1872. 

Newso.p, T. J —On rock-basins in the bed of the Toombuddra, Southern India (lat. 
15,to 16" Ns), Proce Geol: Soc. Lond... l.702. 1842. 

— Visit to the Bitter Lakes, Isthmus of Suez, by the bed of the ancient Canal of Nechos, 
the ‘‘ Khalij al Kadium” of the Arabs, in June 1842, Journ, Roy. Asiatic Soc. 
(Lond.), VIII. 355. 1846. 


Newton, R. B.—Contributions to the natural history of Lake Urmi, Northwest Persia, 
Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., Zool., XXVII. 480; Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond.), XIV. 
504. 1899. ; 

NicHoias, H.—Origine marine de certaines espéces de mollusques, en cours de. trans- 
formation, du lac Tanganyika, Comptes Rendus Ass. Franc. Av. Sci. (Paris), 
1898, 508, 1898. 

NicHots, R. W.—On the temperature of fresh-water ponds and lakes, Proc. Boston Soc. 
Nat. Hist., XX. 53. 1880. 

NicHoitson, H. A.—Preliminary report on dredgings in Lake Ontario, Rep. Brit. Ass. 
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— Contributions to a Fauna Canadensis ; being an account of the animals dredged in 
Lake Ontario in 1872, Canad. Journ. Ind. etc. (Toronto), XIII. 490. 1873. 
Nicouis, Enrico.—Triplice estensione glaciale ad oriente del lago di Garda, A‘ti Ist. 
Veneto Sci. Lett. ed Arti (Venezia), LVIII. (2), 315. 1899. 

Nines, W. H.—Some remarks upon the agency of glaciers in the excavation of valleys 
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Nok, Heryricu.—Oesterreichisches Seebuch: Darstellung aus dem Leben an dem 
See-Ufern des Salzkammergutes (Miinchen), 1899. 

—— Bilder aus Siid-Tirol und von den Ufern des Gardasees (Miinchen). 1899, 


720 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


NO6OeGGERATH, J. J.—Die Explosionskrater, Tufkrater oder Maare im Gebiete der Eifel 
und des Laacher Sees (Vergleichung mit den ahnlichen Erscheinungen auf 
Neuseeland), Das Ausland (Augsburg), XLIV. 937, 974, 1129. 1871. 

NorDENSKJOLD, OrTo.—A journey in South-Western Patagonia, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), 
xX. OTe Soe 

—— Topographisch-geologische Studien in Fjordgebieten, Bull. Geol. Inst. Upsala, 
IV. (2), 162. 1899. 

NoscueL, A.—Bemerkungen iiber die Goktscha-See am Caucasus, Verh. Min. Ges. 
St. Petersb., 1854, 67. 1854. 

Nowak, A. F. P.—Uber das Todte Meer, Sitzber. Bohm. Ges. Wiss. (Prag), 1861, 60. 
1861. 

— Das Tote Meer und die Verdiinstung, Lotos: Zeitschr. f. Naturw. (Prag), XII. 79, 

93: 1862: 
Noch einige Bemerkungen iiber das Tote und Mittellindische Meer gegeniiber der 
Verdiinstung, Lotos: Zeitschr. f. Naturw. (Prag), XTV. 182. 1864. 

—— Die unterirdischen Abfliisse des Oceans und aller grésseren Binnenseen, Lofos : 
Zeitschr. f. Naturw. (Prag), XV. 98, 115, 133, 150, 166. 1865. 

—— Offenes Schreiben an den Herrn Captain C. W. Wilson, derzeit in Palistina : Ueber 
das Tote Meer, Lotos: Zeitschr. f. Naturw. (Prag), XVI. 181. 1866. 

— Der Aral-See gegeniiber der Verdiinstung, Lotos: Zeitschr. f. Natwrw. (Prag), 
RVI OO AL SGre 

Noyver, G. V. pu.—On the geology of the lake district of Killarney, Journ. Geol. Soc. 
Dublin, VII. 97. 1855. 

Nussrr-Asport, C.—Die Abnahme der Wassermenge des Titicacasees, Globus (Braun- 
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—— Der Gaibasee am oberen Paraguay, Deutsche Rundschaw (Wien), XXIV. 251. 
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Nissin, Orro.--Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Coregonus-Arten des Bodensees und 
einiger anderer nahegelegener nordalpener Seen, Zool. Anzeig. (Leipzig), V. 86, 
106, 180, 164, 182, 207, 253, 279, 302. 1882. 

—— Ein neues Urtier im Herrenwieser See, Zonomyxa violacea, n.g. et n.sp., Verh. 
Karlsruhe Nat. Ver., X. 3. 1888. 

OcHSENIUS, K.—Seebildung in Kalifornien, Das Ausland (Stuttgart), LXIV. 758, 1891 ; 
LXVI. 625, 1893. 

ODENBACH, F. L.—Some temperatures taken on Lakes Huron and Superior in July and 
August of 1904, Monthly Weather Rev. (Washington), XXXIITI. 154. 1905, 

OETTINGER, W. L. von.—Ueber die ungarischen Sodeseen, Jahrb. Berg.-Hiittenk. 
(Niirnberg), V. 92. 1801. 

OGILVIE, Wi1LL1AM.—The geography and sources of the Yukon Basin, Geogr. Journ. 
(ond.), XII) 21. ~ 1898. 

— — The Yukon District, Scott. Geogr. Mag. (Edin.), XIV. 337. 1898. 

O’Hanty, J. L. P.—Report on the effect of the Chicago drainage canal on the levels of 
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OLpHAM, R. D.—Origin of lake-basins, Vatwre (Lond.), XLIX. 197. 1893. 


OxIvE, E. W.—Notes on the occurrence of Oscillatoria prolifica, Gomont, in the ice of 
Pine Lake, Waukesia County, Wisconsin, Z’rans. Wisconsin Acad. Sct. (Madison), 
XV. 124. 1906. 

OuMsTED, Drenison.—Ice of Lake Champlain, why it all disappears at once, Proc, 
Amer. Ass. (Boston), 1850-51, 141. 1851. 

ONELLI, CLEMENTE.—Un paso a Chile en el Lago Argentino, ol. Inst. Geogr. 
Argentino (Buenos Aires), XVI. 560. 1896. 

OostER, A.—Die Faunen der Gegend am Thuner See und der Ralligstécke, Neves 
Jahrb. Min. etc, (Stuttgart), 1878, 167. 1878. 

OpprEL, A.—Der obere See in Nordamerika, Globus (Braunschweig), LXXXVIII. 229. 
1905. 

OPPENHEIM, Max von.—Rabeh und das Tchadseegebiet (Berlin). 1902. 

O’Riney, Epwarp.—Remarks on the ‘‘ Lake of the Clear Water” in the district of 
Bassein, British Burmah, Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal (Calcutta), XXXIII. 39. 
1865, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 721 


Osporn, H. F.-- The Huerfano lake-basin, South California, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. 
Hist. (New York), IX. 247. 1897. 

Oscoop, W. H.—Lake Clark, a little-known Alaskan lake, Nat. Geogr. Mag. 
(Washington), XV. 326. 1904. 

OSTENFELD, C. H.—Phytoplankton fra det Kaspiske Hav, Vidensk. Medd. Naturh. 
Foren. Kovenhavn, 1901, 129. 1901. 

—— Studies on phytoplankton: I. Notes on phytoplankton of two lakes in Eastern 
Norway ; II. A sample from a lake in Iceland; III. Phytoplankton from some 
tarns near Thorshavn (Strém6) in the Faroes, Bot, Tidskr. (Kobenhavn), XXV. 
235, 1903; XXVI. 231, 1904. 

—— Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Algenflora des Kossogol-Beckens in der nordwestlichen 
Mongolei, mit spezieller Beriicksichtigung des Phytoplanktons, Hedwigia 
(Dresden), XLVI. 365. 1907. 

- Notes on the phytoplankton of Victoria Nyanza, East Africa, Bull. Mus. Comp. 
Zool. (Cambridge, Mass,), LII. 171. 1909. 

— See BOrGESEN, F. 

and WESENBERG-LuNp, C.—A regular fortnightly exploration of the plankton of 
the two Icelandic lakes, Thingvallavatn and Myvatn, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., 
XXV. 1092. 1906. 


OSTERWALD, — bD’.—Notice sur l’élévation du lac de Neuchatel au-dessus de la mer, 
Mém. Soc. Sci. Nat. Neuchdtel, 1. 146. 1835. 
OstTwaLp, W.—Zur Theorie des Planktons, Biol. Centralbl. (Leipzig), XXII. 596. 
1902. 
-—— Uber eine neue theoretische Betrachtungsweise in der Planktologie, Forschungsber. 
Liol, Station Plén (Stuttgart), X. 1. 1908. 
OTLEY, JONATHAN.—<Account of the Floating Island in Derwent Lake, Keswick, Mem. 
Lit. Phil. Soc. Manchester, III. 64. 1814. 
Further observations on the Floating Island of Derwent Lake; with remarks on 
certain other phenomena, Mem, Lit. Phil. Soc. Manchester, V. 19. 1881. 
OupNEY.—Account of the Trona Lake in Africa, Phi/. Mag. (Lond.), LXIV. 387. 
1824. 
OusLEy, RaAupH.—An account of the moving of a bog and the formation of a lake in 
the county of Galway, Ireland, 7'’rans. Roy. Irish Acad. (Dublin), II. 3. 1788. 
PacKkaRD, A. S.—Insects inhabiting Great Salt Lake and other saline or alkaline lakes 
in the west, dnn. Rep. U.S. Surv. Terr. (Washington), VI. 743. 1873. 
PALADINI, F.—Esplorazione italiana del lago d’Urmia, Boll. Soc. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), 
ser. 3, X. 1897. 
PatAzzo, Luici.—La stazione limnologica di Bolsena, Boll. Soc. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), 
ser. 4, V. 407. 1904. 
PARKINSON, J.—Some lake-basins in Alberta and British Columbia, Geol. Mag. (Lond.), 
Wa Sov 190, 
PARNELL, RICHARD.—Observations on the Coregoni of Loch Lomond, Ann. Nat. Hist. 
(Lond.), I. 161. 1888. 
Parrot, FrrepRIcH.—Mémoire sur l’expédition pour déterminer le niveau de la Mer 
Caspienne, Bull. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersb., 1. 81, 89. 1836. 
Second voyage au lac de Burtneck en 1835, Bull. Acad, Sct. St. Pétersb., II. 
p. xxv. 1838. 
See ENGELHARDT, M. 
PAsQuiER, L. Du, and SARASIN, EDOUARD.—Les seiches du lac de Neuchatel, Arch. 
Sct. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), ser. 3, XXXI. 218, 1894; XXXIII. 198, 1895; Bull. 
Soc. Sci. Nat. Neuchatel, XXI. 41, 1894; XXIII., 1895. 
PASSARGE, SIEGFRIED.—Herr Dr. S. Passarge tiber seine Reisen in Siid-Afrika, 
Verh. Ges. Erdk. Berlin, XXIV. 475, 1897; XXV. 513, 1898. 
— Die Hydrographie des nordlichen Kalahari-Beckens, Verh. VII. Internat. Geogr. 
Kongr. (Berlin),,1899, II. 774. . 1901. 
——- Die Kalahari(Berlin). 1904. 
PaTTiIson, 8S. R.—Note on post-glacial lake-basins in Westmoreland, Geol. Mag. 
(Lond. yeVelee 225ml S69; 
Patton, H. B.—See DILuER, J. S. 


46 


722 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


PATTULLO, J.—Account of a journey to the Lake of Rauon in the interior of Kroll in 
1820, Malayan Miscell, (Bencoolen), II. No. 5, 1822. 


PAUER, JOHANN.—Ueber den Neusiedler See, Verh. Geol. Reichsanst. (Wien), 1871, 
Opes (le 


PavEL.—Oberst Pavel tiber seine Expedition nach dem Tsadsee, Deutsch. Kolonialblatt 
(Berlin), XIII. 548, 588. 1902. 


Pavesi, P.—Altra serie di ricerche et studii sulla fauna pelagica dei laghi italiani, 4¢tz 
Soc. Venet.-Trent. Sct. Nat. (Padua), VIII.; Nature (Lond.), XXI. 525. 1882. 

PEALE, A. C.—The ancient outlet of the Great Salt Lake, Amer. Jowrn. Sci. (New 
Haven), ser. 3, XV. 439. 1878. 


PEARSE, HuGH.—-Moorcroft and Hearsey’s visit to Lake Mansarowar in 1812, Geogr. 
Journ. (Lond.), XX VI. 180. 1905. 


Prcu, Trancotr.—Drishenkos Erforschung des Baikalsees, Globus (Braunschweig), 
LXXII. 144. 1897. 


PreckHAm, G. W.—See GIFFoRD, E. M. 


PELISSIE, R.—Analyse du sel des lacs salés qui avoisinent l’oasis d’Ouargla, Recueil 
Mém. Méd. etc. Militaires (Paris), sér. 3, III. 175. 1860. 


PELSENEER, PAuL.—L’origine des animaux d’eau douce, Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg. 
(Bruxelles), 1905, 699. 1905. 


PELTz, W.—Tiefen-Aufnahmen des Plauer, Krakower, Wariner, Gr. Tessiner und Ziest- 
Sees, Arch. Ver, Freunde Naturgesch. Mecklenburg (Rostock), XLVI. 36. 18938. 
Pena, J. M.S.—E] lago de Llopango (Salvador), Bol. Soc. Geogr. Madrid, XLIII. 391. 
1901. 
PENARD, E,—Sarcodinés : Catalogue des Invertébrés de la Suisse (Genéve). 1905. 
Sur les Sarcodinés de Loch Ness, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., XXV. 593. 1905. 


Recherches biologiques sur deux Lieberkiihnia, Arch. f. Protistenk, (Jena), VIII. 
225, 1907. 


—— Recherches sur les Sarcodinés de quelques lacs de la Suisse et de la Savoie, Rev. 
Suisse de Zool, (Geneve), XVI. 441. 1908. 


PEeNCK, ALBRECHT. —Les lacs de barrage glaciaire de l’ancien glacier du Rhin, 47ch. Sci. 
Phys. Nat. (Genéve), ser, 3, XXX. 493. 1898. 


—— Bericht tiber die Exkursion des X. Deutschen Geographentages nach Ober-Schwaben 
und dem Bodensee, Verh. X. Deutsch. Geographentag. (Berlin). 1898. 


—— Der Starnberger See, Wiinchen Neueste Nachrichten, 10th Aug. 1894. 
—— Morphometrie des Bodensees, Jahresber. Geogr. Ges. Miinchen, XV. 119, 1894. 


-—— Ueber eine Arbeit des Herrn L. v. Loczy (Budapest), betitelt : Mittheilung iiber den 
Stand der Plattenseeforschung, Verh. Ges. Deutsch. Naturf. wu. Aerzte, Vers. 66, 
264. 1895. 


—— Ein mysteridses Phinomen der Geographie, Met. Zeitschr. (Wien), 1897, 143. 
1897. 


—- Die Tiefen des Hallstiitter- und Gmundener-Sees, Mitt. Deutsch. und Ost. Alpen- 
vereins (Miinchen), N.S., XIV. 112, 123. 1898. 


Bemerkungen iiber alte und neue per im Hallstitter See, Abhandl. Geogr. 
Ges. Wien, II. 123. 1900. 


Der Bodensee, Schriften Ver. Verbr. NGL Kenntn. (Wien), XLII. 123. 1902. 


-—— The valleys and lakes of the Alps, Rep. VIII. Internat. Geogr. Congr. (Washington), 
1904, 173. 1904. 


—— Die grossen Alpenseen, Geogr. Zeitschr. (Leipzig), XI. 881. 1905. 

and RicHTER, EpuARD.—Atlas der dsterreichischen Alpenseen (Wien). 1895-96. 

Perkins, E, A.—The seiche in America, Amer. Met. Jowrn. (Ann Arbor), X, 251. 
1893. 


PEeRKO, G. A.—Wilden-See (Wippacher See, Divjo Jezero) bei Idria in Krain, Spélunca 
(Paris) (TT 2189 7- 


Prro, P.—I laghi alpini valtellinesi: ricerche e studi, Nuova Notarisia (Padua), IV. 
248, 300, 1893 ; V. 413, 1894. 


-—— Cenni oroidrografici e studio sulle Diatomee del lago di Mezzola, Malpighia 
(Genoa), IX. 1895. 


PERREGAUX, E.—Le lac Obosomtwé, Bull. Soc. Newchatel. Géogr., XI. 116. 1899. - 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 723 


Perrot, F. L.—Ancien lac de Chedde, Arch, Sct. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), sér. 3, XX XIII. 


394, 1895. 
PrescHEeL, D. F.—Ueber den Ursprung der Jura-Seen, Das Ausland (Augsburg), XLI. 
1005. 1868. 


PESTALOZZA, A., and VALENTINI, 6 2S sistemazione del deflusso delle acque del 
lago di Como, J/ Politecnico (Milano), 1899, Nos. 2, 8. 1899. 


PrsTaLozzA, D. F,.—I] destino del lago Maggiore, Jn Giro pel Mondo (Bologna), 1899, 
Nos. 13" Ne Sate Se 


PesTALozz1, H.—Die Hoheninderungen des Tamieneces Neue Denkschr. Schweiz. Ges, 
Naturw: (Bern), XIV. 1855. 


PESTALOZz1, S.—Ueber Tiefenmessungen in schweizerischen Seen, Schweiz. Bauzeitung, 
XXIII. 59, 64. 1894. 


PETERMANN, AucustT.—Die neuesten Forschungen in Siid-Africa, der Ngami-See und 
der Liambey-Fluss, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), 1855, 41. 1855, 


Prerers, K. F.—Das Siisswasserbecken von Rein in Steiermark, Jahrb. Geol. Reichsanstalt 
(Wien), IV. 433. 18538. 


Petit, P.—See Courter, H. 

Petirot, E. F. S.—Géographie de l’Athabaskaw-Mackenzie et des grands lacs du bassin 
arctique, Bull. Soc. Géogr. Paris, sér. 6, X. 5, 126, 242. 1875. 

Petitot, Em1t.—Exploration d’une série de grands lacs sis au nord du Fort Good Hope 
en 1878, Bull. Soc. Neuchatel. Géogr., VII. 366. 1893. 


—— Du lac de Il’Isle-a-la-Crosse au Fort Carlton (Basse-Saskatchewan), Budl. Soc. 
Neuchitel. Géogr., 1X. 89. 1897. 


PETTERSSON, Orro.—Uber systematische hydrographisch-biologische Erforschung der 
Meere, Binnenmeere und tieferen Seen Europas, VJ/. Internat. Geogr. Kongr. 
(Berlin), 1899, 334. 1899. 


PETZHOLDT, ALEXANDER.—Zur Naturgeschichte der Torfmoore, Journ. f. Prakt. Chenvric 
(Leipzig), LXXXVI. 471. 1862. 


PrTzoLp, W.—Zur Kenntniss der Vogesenseen, Globus (Braunschweig), LX VIII. 65, 
1895. 


Prucker, K.—Der mittlere Neigungswinkel des Bodens, Mitt. Deutsch. u. Ost. Alpenver. 
(Miinchen), 1890. 


— Morphometry of the Lake of Constance, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), IV. 264. 1894. 
-—— Europiische Seen nach Meereshohe, Grosse, und Tiefe, Geogr. Zeitschr. (Leipzig), 


II. 606. 1896. 
—— Neue Forschungen in norddeutschen Seen, Mitt. Geogr. Ges. Wien, XX XIX, 681. 
1896. 


—— Dr Jovan Cvijic’s researches in Macedonia and Southern Albania, Geogr. Jowrn. 
(Lond.), XVI. 215. 1900. 


—— The lakes of the Balkan Peninsula, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XXI. 5380. 1908. 


PrerFER, G.—Ueber den Ursprung und die gegenseitigen Beziehungen der jetzigen 
Faunen des Meeres und siissen Wassers, Verh. Gries, Deutsch. Naturf. u. Aerzte 
(Bremen), LXIII. 124, 1892. 


PHILIPPOPOLIS, ARCHBISHOP OF.—Lac Urmia, Missions Catholiques, XXIX, 278. 1897. 


Puinippson, A.—Der Kopais-See in Griechenland und seine Umgebung, Zeitschr. Ges. 
Erdk. Berlin, XX1X. 1. 1894. 

—— Der eiszeitliche Agassiz-See in Nordamerika, Geogr, Zeitschr. (Leipzig), IV. 465. 
1898. 


PHILLIPS, C.—On the communication between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, by way 
of the Lake of Nicaragua, Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., III. 275. 1838. 


PiccarpD, J.—Phénoménes de réflexion a la surface des nappes d’eau, Arch. Sci. Phys. 
Nat. (Genéve), sér. 3, XXI. 481. 1889. 


Communication souterraine entre le lac des Brenets et les sources de l’Orbe, Arch. 
Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), ser. 3, XXX. 466. 1893. 


Pico, G.—Sul lago di Cavazzo, Jn Alto (Udine), No. 3. 1894. 
Piercy, W. C.-—The fall of Central African lakes: Lake Nyassa, Geogr. Journ. (Lond. ), 
XXVIII. 641.- 1906. 


Pingrim.—Ueber die Hiszeit, ihre Unterbrechungen und die daraus entspringenden 
Seenbildungen, Jahresh. Ver. Naturk, Wirtt. (Stuttgart), LII. p. xcvi. 1896, 


724 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Pim, G.—The Merjelen Lake, Natwre (Lond.), LIII. 198. 1896. 

PIMELLI, GUISEPPE.—Un nuovo lago, Corrisp. Scient. Roma, IV. 427. 1836. 

PITARD, EuGENE.—Quelques mots sur la florule pélagique de divers lacs des Alpes et du 

Jura, Bull. Herbier Boissier (Geneve), V. 504. 1897. 
Sur la repartition des organismes inférieurs a la surface de quelques lacs suisses, 
Bull. Soe. Neuchitel. Géogr., 1X. 165. 1897. 

PLANTAMOUR, EMILE.—Hauteur du lac de Genéve au-dessus de la Méditerranée et au- 
dessus de l’océan, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), XIX. 5, 384. 1864.. 

—— See ForEL, F.A. 

PLANTAMOUR, PHILIPPE.—Hauteurs moyennes diurnes du lac Léman a Sécheron de 1784 
& 1881, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), sér. 3, VII. 463. 1882. 

—— Hauteurs moyennes du lac Léman, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Genéve), sér. 3, XXV. 
302, 1891; sér. 3, XXVI..215, 11891) ; ser, 3, XXTXS 162,/1893'-"sérs 3 eee 
234, 1894 ; ser. 3, XX XIII. 175, 1895; sér. 4, I. 118, 1896. 

PuEssis, G. pu.—See Foren, F. A. . 

PoGGENDORFF, J. C.—Ueber den Hohenunterschied zwischen dem Schwarzen und 
Caspischen Meere, dnnal. Phys. u. Chem. (Leipzig), XXXII. 554, 1834 ; Hdin. 
New Phil, Journ., XX1X, 144, 1840. 

—— On the difference of level between the Dead Sea and the Mediterranean, Hdin. New 
Phil. Jowrn., XX1X. 96. 1840. 

PoIRIER, J.—See BRUYANT, C. 

PoirEvin.—Le mont du Char et le lac de Bourget, Bull, Soc. Hist. Nat. Savoie, 1894. 

PomEL, AUGuUsTE.—Sur la pretendue mer saharienne, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), 
LXXIX. 792. 1874. , 

—— I] n’y a point en de mer intérieure au Sahara, Bull. Soc. Géol. France (Paris), sér. 3, 
III. 495 ; Comptes Rendus Acad. Sct. (Paris), LXXX. 1342. 1875. 

—— La mer intérieure d’Algérie et le seuil de Gabes, Rev. Scient. (Paris), sér. 2, XIII. 
433, 1877. 

—— Géologie de la Petite Syrte et de la région des chotts tunisiens, Bull. Soc. Géol. 
France (Paris), sér. 3, VI. 217. 1878. 

Ponp, J. A.—On the percentage of chlorine in Lake Takapuna, Trans. and Proc. New 
Zealand Inst. (Wellington), XXXII. 241. 1900. 

PonTEIL, — pu.—Analyse des Wassers aus einem vulkanischem See auf Neu-Seeland, 
Annal. Chemie u. Pharm. (Lemgo), XCVI. 193, 1855 ; Annal. de Chimie (Paris), 
Serng, Ku Vil, 238, 1856. 

PooLte, HENry.—Observations with the aneroid métallique and thermometer, during a 
tour through Palestine and along the shores of the Dead Sea, October and 
November 1855, Rep. Brit. Ass. (Lond.), 1856, 41. 1856. 

Porg, T. E.—Devil’s Lake, North Dakota: A study of physical and biological conditions, 
with a view to the acclimatization of fish, U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, Document 634. 
1908. 

PortLock, J. E.—On the occurrence of Gloconema paradoxwm in Lough Erne, with 
remarks, Micro. Jowrn. (Lond.), Il. 6. 1842. 

Posrans, T.—Reports on the Manchur Lake, and Aral and Narra Rivers, Jowrn. Roy. 
Asiatic Soc. (Lond.), VIII. 381. 1846. 

PoucHAIN, V.—La valle di Berchtesgaden e il Konigsee, Natwra ed Arte (Milano), Nos. 3 
and 4, 1897. 

PREJEVALSKI, N.—From Kulja across the Tian-Shan to Lob-Nor (London). 1879. 

PRELLER, C. S. pu R.—Note on the Lakes of Zurich and Wallen, Geol. Mag. (Lond.), 
dec. 3, X. 222. 1893. 

—— On the origin of the Engadine lakes, Geol. Mag. (Lond.), dec, 3, X. 448. 1893. 

——- The Merjelen Lake (Aletsch Glacier), Natwre (Lond. ), LIII. 129, 1895 ; Geol. Mag. 
(Lond.), dec. 4, ITI. 97, 1896. 

——- Glacial deposits, pre-glacial valleys, and interglacial lake-formations in sub-Alpine 
Switzerland, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond., LIT. 556. 1896. 

—— The age of the principal lake-basins between the Jura and the Alps, Phil. Mag. 
(Lond.), VI. 629; Geol. Mag. (Lond.), N.S., X. 279. 1903. 


—— Phenomena bearing upon the age of the Lake of Geneva, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 
Lond., LX. 316. 1904. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 725 


PRESTOE, H.—On the discovery of a boiling lake in Dominica, Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc. 
Lond., XX. 230. 1876. 

Prinz, G.—Die Brandung am Ufer des Garda-Sees, Pull. Soc. Hongroise Géogr. 
(Budapest), XXXV. 30. 1907. 

Prior, G. T.—Report on specimens of mud, etc., from the bottom of Lake Nyasa, 
obtained by Lieut. E. L. Rhoades during sounding operations in 1900 and 1901, 
Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XX. 69. 1902. 


Prosser, W. A.—The ‘‘Guns” of Lake Seneca, Monthly Weather Rev. (Washington), 
XXXI. 336. 1908. 
Proust, J. L.—Sur une analogie remarquable entre les eaux de quelques parties du 
golfe de la Californie et celles des lacs de Sodome et d’Urmia en Perse, Mém. Mus. 
Hist. Nat. (Paris), VII. 475. 1821. 
PRUNIbRES.—Sur les pilotis du lac Saint-Andéol, Comptes Rendus Ass. Frang. Av. Sci. 
(Paris). 18725720. 1/872! 
Puenat, C. A.—Premiére contribution & étude de la faune des lacs de la Savoie, 
Rev. Savoisienne (Annecy), XXXVII. 316. 1896. 
Puuuar, F, P.—See Murray, (Sir) JoHN. 
PULLAR, LAURENCE.—See MurRAY, (Sir) JOHN. 
Purpus, C. A.—Der Pretannie-Lake bei Lytton in Britisch-Columbia, Das Ausland 
(Stuttgart), LXV. 392, 408. 1892. 
— Die Alkali-Lakes bei Spence’s Bridge, Das Ausland (Stuttgart), LXV. 780, 1892. 
Pisr.—Eine Fahrt auf dem Tobasee in Sumatra, Mitt. Geogr. Ges. Jena, XVI. 58. 
1897. 
Putick, W.—Der Zirknitzer See und seine geologischen Verhiltnisse, Festschr. Feter 
50-jéhr. Bestandes deutschen Staatsoberrealschule Briinn. 1902. 
‘Putnam, F. W.—The blind fishes of the Mammoth Cave and their allies, Amer. 
Naturalist (Salem), VI. 6. 1872. 
— Account of the Mammoth Cave and its inhabitants, with special reference to the 
fishes of the cave and of other subterranean waters, Bull. Hssex Inst. (Salem), 
PE Voor “872; 
Purz, W.—Tiefwerder und der Faule See, Brandenburgia (Berlin), 1897, 171. 
1897. 
QUEREAU, EK. C.—Topography and history of Jamesville Lake, New York, Bull. Geol. 
Soc. Amer. (Rochester), IX. 173. 1898. 
RABot, CHARLES.—Mouvement géographique en Finlande: Etudes limnologiques, 
Nouvelles Géogr. (Paris), IV. 1638. 1894. 
— Revue de limnologie, 1900-1, La Géogr. (Paris), IV. 108, 172. 1901. 
Les variations du niveau des lacs et des précipitations atmosphériques dans 1’Asie 
centrale, La Géogr. (Paris), IV. 473. 1901, 
—-- Reconnaissance géographique de la région du Tchad par le lieutenant-colonel 
Destenave et par les officiers placés sous ses ordres, La Géogr. (Paris), VII. 157. 
1908. 
—— Influence exercée par les lacs sur la distribution de la population dans la haute 
Italie, Za Géogr. (Paris), XV. 190. 1907. 
—— De N’Guigmi a Bilma, La Gééqr. (Paris), XVII. 109. 1908. 
RADDE, GusTavE —Vorlesungen iiber Sibirien und das Amur Land, Petermann Mitt. 
(Gotha), 1860, 257, 386. 1860. 
Raz, JoHN.—Journey from Great Bear Lake to Wollaston Land, Jowrn. Roy. Geogr. 
Soc. Lond., XXII, 73. 1852. 
Ramsay, A. C.—On the glacial origin of certain lakes in Switzerland, the Black 
Forest, Great Britain, Sweden, North America, and elsewhere, Quart. Journ. 
Geol. Soc. Lond., XVIII. 185, 1862; Amer. Journ. Sci. (New Haven), ser. 2, 
XXXV,. 324, 1863. 
—— On the erosion of valleys and lakes, Phil. Mag. (Lond.), N.S., XXVIII. 293. 
1864. 
—— Sir Charles Lyell and the glacial theory of lake-basins, Phil. Mag. (Lond.), N.S., 
DONE 28 0n 1865. 
Lakes, fresh and salt, their origin and distribution in geographical space and 
geological time, Natwre (Lond.), VII. 312, 338. 1873. 


726 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Ramsay, H.— Ueber seine Expeditionen nach Ruanda und dem Rikwa-See, Verh. 
Ges. Erdk, Berlin, XXV. 308. 1898. 


Rance, C. E. DE,—Geology of the Cumberland lakes, Geol. Mag. (Lond.), VIII. 238. 
1371. 


Depth of the English lakes, Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond.), II. 376. 1893. 


Rapp, W. von.—Ueber einige Fische des Bodensees, Jahresh. Ver. Naturk. Wiirttem- 
berg (Stuttgart), IX. 33, 1853; X. 187, 1854. 


Rastatt, R. H., and: SmirH, BERNArpD.—Tarns on the Haystacks Mountain, 
Buttermere, Cumberland, Geol. Mag. (Lond.), dec. 5, III. 406. 1906. 


RaTzeL, FRirz.—Ueber Fjordbildung an Binnenseen: Nebst allgemeinen Bemerkungen 
iiber die Begriffe Fjord und Fjordstrasse und die nord-amerikanischen Kiisten- 
fjorde, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XX VI. 387. .1880. 


RAVENSTEIN, E. G.—Dr Livingstone and Lake Bangweolo, Scott. Geogr. Mag. (Edin.), 
V. 125. 1889. 


—— The lake region of Central Africa, Scott. Geogr. Mag. (Edin.), VII. 299. 1891. 
— The lake level of Victoria Nyanza, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XVIII. 403. 1901. 


Rawiine, C. G.—Exploration of Western Tibet and Rudok,. Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), 
XXV. 414. 1905. 


RAwLinson, T. E.—Report on the entrance to the Gipp’s Land lakes, Trans, Roy. 
Soc. Victoria (Melbourne), VI. 84. 1865. 


— Further notes on the coast and lakes of Gipp’s Land, with sketch plan, being 
supplementary to report on the lakes entrance, Trans. Roy. Soc. Victoria 
(Melbourne), VI. 92. 1865. 


REALE, CARLO.—Un cordone litoraneo presso Ispra sul lago Maggiore, Mem. Soc. Geogr. 
itale( Roma) Wis sales 8 ove 

REBER.—Triangulation fiir die Bodensee-Karte, Schriften Ver. Gesch. Bodensees 
(Lindau), XXII. 46. 1893. 


ReEcuus, ELIsEE.—Notice sur les lacs des Alpes, Butl. Soc. Géogr. Paris, sér. 6, V. 185. 
1873. 


La Terre (Paris), ed. 4, I. 522. 1877.1 

REDFIELD, W. C.—On the value of the barometer in navigating the American Lakes, 
Proc. Amer, Ass, (Cambridge, Mass.), 18538, 54, 1853. 

Repway, J. W.—Lake Geneva, Goldthwaite’s Geogr. Mag. (New York), III. 1892. 

New lake in Colorado Desert, Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., XIV. 309. 1892. 

Salton Lake (California), Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond.), II. 170. 1893. 


RrEED, H. S.—An abnormal wave in Lake Erie, Amer. Naturalist (Boston), XX XIII. 
653. 1899. 


Recan, C. T.—The Vendaces of Lochmaben and of Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite 
Lakes, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist, (Lond.), N.S., XVII. 180. 1906. 


— The Char (Salvelinus) of Great Britain, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (Lond.), ser. 3, 
III. 1909. 


REID, C.—The Great Lakes, Wat. Sct. (Lond.), I. 117. 1898. 
REIGHARD, JAcos.—The biclogy of the Great Lakes, Science (New York), N.S., IX. 


906. 1899. 

REIGHARD, J. E.—A laboratory on the Great Lakes, Zool. Anzeig. (Leipzig), XVI. 399. 
1898. 

— A biological examination of Lake St Clair, Bull. Mich. Fish Comm. (Lansing), 
No. 4. 1894. 


REINER, JuLIus.—Limnologie, Nord wnd Sud (Breslau), CII. 123. 1902. 

Reinscu, P. F.—Der Bischof’s-See bei Desendorf in dem Florengebiet von Erlangen, 
Flora: Allg. Bot. Zeitung (Regensburg), XLI. 739. 1858. 

RENDLE, A. B.—General report upon the botanical results of the third Tanganyika 
expedition, conducted by Dr W. A. Cunnington, 1904-5, Journ. Linn. Soe. 
Lond., Bot., XXXVIITI. 18. 1907. 

RENESSE, F. pE.—Voyage au lac Victoria, Bull. Soc. Belge Géogr. (Bruxelles), XX VII. 
5. 1903. 

Renon, E.—Sur les hauteurs du lac de Neuchatel de 1857 41872, Bull. Soc, Sci. Nat. 
Neuchatel, IX. 845. 1878. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 727 


Reuscu, H.—Der Kratersee in Oregon, Geogr. Zettschr. (Leipzig), IV. 266. 1898. 
REVELLI, PAoLto.—I1 lago di Co’ di Lago (Devero ; Ossola), Riv. Geogr. Ital. (Firenze), 
OV» 208; pL908: 


Revercuon, L.—Le plus grand lac souterrain du monde, Le Cosmos (Paris), N.S., 
XLVI. 334. 1902. 


Révin, J.—Les lacs de la Savoie, d’apres des travaux recents, Bull. Soc. Hist. Nat. 
Savoie, VII. 12. 1894. 


RuHoADES, HE. L.—Survey of Lake Nyasa (with map), Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond.), XX. 68. 
1902. 
Ricci, LEonarpo.—I laghi della Valtellina: distribuzione altimetrica e aggruppamenti, 
Annuario degli studenti trentini (Trento), V. 1899. 
—— I nuovi laghetti dell’ Appennino toscano, La Cultura Geografica (Firenze), I. 96. 
1899. 
—— See Battist1, C. 
RicHArD, J.—Sur quelques Entomostracés d’eau douce des environs de Buenos Aires, 
Ann. Museo Nac. Buenos Aires, V. 321. 1897. . 
——— Sur la faune des eaux douces des iles Canaries, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sct. (Paris), 
CXXVI. 439. 1898. 
—— See GUERNE, J. DE. 
RicHTER, Epuarp.—Die Temperaturverhiltnisse der Alpenseen, Verh. 9. Deutsch. 
Geographentag. (Wien), 189. 1892. 
Recenti esplorazioni nel lago di Garda, Riv. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), I. 1894, 
Kahre und Hochseen, Zeitschr. Deutsch. u. Ost. Alpenver. (Miinchen), XXV. 138 ; 
Deutsch. Naturf. u. Aerzte 66. Versamm, (Wien), 252, 1894. 
—— Seestudien, Penck’s Geogr. Abhandi, (Wien), VI. 121. 1897. 
—— Stehende Seespiegelschwankungen (Seichen) auf dem Traunsee, Petermann Mitt. 
(Gotha), XLV. 41. 1899. 
—— See PENCK, ALBRECHT. 
RipGELEY, D. C.—Preliminary report on the physical features of Turkey Lake, Proc. 
Indiana Acad. Sci. (Indianapolis), 1895, 216. 1895. 
Rikuit1.—Der Sickinger See und seine Flora (Bern). 1899. 
Rimrop, F. A.—Die Thiler als Abdachungs-Caniale der Erdflache zu den Meeren und 
Seen, Annal. Soc. Min. Jena, I. 85. --1802. 
Rio DE LA Loza, LEopotpo.—Un vistazo al lago de Tetzcoco ; su influencia en la salu- 
bridad de México ; sus aguas ; procedencia de las sales que contiene el Ahuantli, 
Bol. Inst. Nac. Geogr. etc. (Mexico), IX. 498. 1862. 
Riscu, C.—Die thermische Sprungschicht der Seen, Naturw. Wochenschr. (Jena), X XI. 
705. 1906. 
RIsLER, EUGENE, and WALTHER.—Analyse de l’eau du lac Léman, Bull. Soc. Vaud. 
Sct. Nat. (Lausanne), XII. 175. 1874. 
Limon du fond du lac Léman, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sct. Nat. (Lausanne), XIII. 
dee Lovo: 
Analyse chimique dulimon du fond du quelques lacs suisses, Bull. Soc. Vaud, 
Sct. Nat. (Lausanne), XIV. 122. 1877. 
RitTer, E.—Etudes sur Porographie et Vhydrographie des Alpes de Savoie, Le Globe 
(Genéve), XXXIV. 1. 1895. 
-~—— Morphométrie du lac Majeur (Maggiore), Le Globe (Geneve), XXXV. 47. 1896. 
— See DELEBECQUE, A. 
RirtTER, G.—De l’action des vagues sur les sables des bords du lac, Bull. Soe. Sci. Nat. 
Neuchatel, XII. 114. 1880. 
—— Sur la nature des taches du lac de Neuchatel, Bull. Soc. Sci. Nat. Newchdtel, XII. 
158. 1880. 
—— Sur la disparition progressive des falaises molassiques de la rive sud du lac de 
Neuchatel, Arch. Sct. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), XV. 340. 1908. 
RIvizRE, CHARLES,—Les bambous aux grands lacs de l'Afrique centrale, Bull. Soc. 
Géogr. d@ Alger (Algier), I. 24. 1896. 
Rivot, L. E.—Voyage au lac Supérieur, Annal. des Mines (Paris), sér. 5, VII. 1738. 1855. 
—— Visit to the Lake Superior region in 1854, Mining Mag. (New York), VII. 249, 
359, 1856. 


728 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Rivort, L. E.—Notice sur le lacSuperieur, Annal. des Mines (Paris), sér. 5, X. 865. 1856. 


RoBiINson, Epwarp.— Depression of the Dead Sea and of the Jordan Valley, Journ. 
Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., XVIII. 77. 1848. 


RocksTRoH, Epwin.—Die Quellseen des Kara Iskra und der Kriva Rjeka, im Rils- 
Dagh (europ. Tiirkei), ditt. Geogr. Ges. Wien, XVII. 481. 1874. 

RocEr, A.—Elévation du Mont-Blanc sur le lac de Geneve et de ce lac sur la mer, 
Bibl. Univ. Sct. etc. (Geneve), XXXVIII. 24. 1828. 


RoceErs, H. D.—-Account of the Mammoth Cave in Kentucky, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. 
Hist., 1. 163. 1841. 


—— On the origin of salt and salt lakes, Edin. New Phil. Journ., I. 180. 1851. 


Roce, J.—Die trigonometrischen und barometrischen Hohenmessungen: Beurtheilung 
des Grades ihrer Zuverlissigkeit auf Grund der Hohenmessungen im Becken des 
Bodensee’s, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), 1861, 409. 1861. 


RoHL¥Fs, GERHARD.—Die Sahara oder die grosse Wiiste, Das Ausland (Augsburg), 
XLV: 1057, LOST 13872: 


Ein Binnensee in Algerien, Das Ausland (Stuttgart), XLVII. 889. 1874. 


RowrsacnH, Paut.—Die abflusslosen Seen auf dem armenischen Hochland, Zettschr. 
Ges. Erdk. Berlin, 1902, 290. 1902. 

ROLLAND, GEORGES. — Mission trans-saharienne de Laghouat-E] Goleah-Ouargla- 
Biskra : Géologie et hydrologie, Annales des Mines (Paris), sér. 7, XVIII. 152. 
1880. 

—— Exploration géologique et hydrologique au Sahara, Comptes Rendus Ass. Frang. 
Av, Sci. (Paris), 1880, 541. 1880. 

—— Sur les poissons, crabes et mollusques vivants, rejetés par les puits artésiens 
jaillissants de Oued Rir’ (Sahara de la province de Constantine), Comptes Rendus 
Acad. Sci. (Paris), XCIII. 1090, 1881. 

—— Regime du bassin artésien de l’Oued Rir’ (Sud Algérien) et moyens de mieux 
utiliser ses eaux d’irrigation, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sct. (Paris), CXX VI. 1589 ; 
Le Cosmos (Paris), N.S., XX XVIII. 792. 1898. 

RoMANET, F.—Le lac Nipigon et les roches kaoliniferes de cette région, Comptes Rendus 
Acad: Sci. (Paris), OXLWV ils 36a 1908: 

RookE, W.—A boat voyage along the coast-lakes of East Madagascar, Journ. Roy. 
Geogr. Soc. Lond., XXXVI. 52. 1866. 

RoscHER, A.—Reise nach Inner-Africa ; Erforschung des Lufidji; Abreise von Kiloa 
nach dem Nyassa See, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), 1859, 478 ; 1862, 1. 

RosE, HeErtNricu.—Ueber die Zusammensetzuug des Wassers vom Elton-See im 
asiatischen Russland verglichen mit der des Meerwassers und der des Wassers 
von Caspischen Meere, Annal. Phys. u. Chemie (Leipzig), XXXV. 169, 1835; 
Annal. Chem. u. Pharm. (Lemgo), XVI. 150, 1835; Edin. New Phil. Journ., 
XXI. 67, 1836; L’Institut (Paris), IV. 102, 1836. 

Roru, W.—Uber die Herkunft und das Alter der Zurichsee-Paludina, Bl. fiir Ag. und 
Terrarienkunde (Magdeburg), 1906, No. 18. 1906. 

RovussEAU, ERNEst.—La station biologique d’Overmeire, Ann. de Biol. Lacustre 

(Bruxelles), I. 811. 1906. 
Les Hyménoptéres aquatiques, avec description de deux espéces nouvelles par W. 
A. Schulz, Ann. de Biol. Lacustre (Bruxelles), II. 388. 1907. 

—— Bibliographie limnologique, Ann. de Biol. Lacustre (Bruxelles), Il. 403. 1907. 

——and ScHoUTEDEN, H.— Les Acinétiens d’eau douce, Ann. de iol. Lacustre 
(Bruxelles), II. 181. 1907. 

RovussELET, C. F.—Report on the Polyzoa of the third Tanganyika expedition, 
conducted by Dr W. A. Cunnington, 1904-5, Proc. Zool, Soc. Lond., 1907, 
250. 1907. 

Roux, BENJAMIN.—Sur la composition de l’eau de la Mer Morte, Comptes Rendus Acad. 
ct. (Paris), LVII. 602, 1863 ; Arch. Méd. Navale (Paris), I. 93. 1864. 

Roux, HuGcuEs LE. —Reconnaissance du lac Zouai, de sesiles et de ses archives, La G'éogr. 
(Paris), XI. 66. 1905. 

Roux, Marc LeE.—Recherches biologiques sur le lac d’Annecy, Ann. de Biol. Lacustre 
(Bruxelles), II. 220. 1907. 

—— Le lac d’Annecy (faune et flore) : Etude de géographie biologique, Lev. Savoisienne 
(Annecy), 1998. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 729 


Royer, A. LE.—See DELEBECQUE, A. 

Royiez, J. F.—General observations on the geographical distribution of the flora of 
Se remarks on the vegetation of its lakes, Rep. Brit. Ass (Lond.), 1846, 

RUcKEkT. — Description des lacs de soude du comitat de Behar en Hongrie et des sources 
nitreuses de ce méme pays, Journ. des Mines (Paris), No, I]. 117. 1794. 

Rupoupu, E.—Fortschritte der Geophysik: Die Erdrinde Seen, Geogr. Jahrb. (Gotha), 

ee L9IOK. 

—— See HERGESELL, H. 

Rurro, M. D. G.—Sulla Fata Morgana del lago di Averno, Alti Accad, Sci, (Napolli), 

Veo) 1839; 
Rucees, D.-—-Tides in the North American lakes, Amer. Jowrn. Sct. (New Haven), 
XLV. 18. 1848. 

RUNDLAND, C, A.—See HILDEBRANDSSON, H. H. 

RUSSEGGER, JOSEPH. —Ueber die Depression des Todten Meeres und des ganzen 
Jordanthales, Annal. Phys. u. Chemie (Leipzig), LITT. 179. 1811. 

Ueber die Bildung des Natronsalzes in den Natron-Seen Unter-Egyptens und tiber 
das Wiistensalz, Archiv f. Min. etc. (Berlin), XVI. 380. 1842. 

RussEuu, I. C.—Geological history of Lake Lahontan, a Quaternary lake of North- 
Western Nevada, 3rd Ann. Rep, U.S. Geol. Survey (Washington), 189, 1883 ; 
Monographs U.S. Geol. Swrvey (Washington), XI. 1885. 

Lakes of North America: A reading lesson for students of geography and geology 
(Boston and London). 1895. 

-—— Present and extinct lakes of Nevada, Nat. Geogr. Monographs, 1. 101. 1895. 

——— The great terrace of the Columbia and other topographic features in the neighbour- 
hood of Lake Chelan, Washington, Amer. Geologist (Minneapolis), XXII. 362. 
1898. 

Geography of the Laurentian basin, Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc. (New York), XXX. 
226. . 1898. 

RussELL, P.—A journey to Lake Paupo (London). 1890. 


RUTIMEYER, Lupwic.—Ueber Thal- und Seebildung, Zeitschr. Ges. Naturw. Halle 
(Berlin), XXXIV. 116. 1869. 

RutTLey, FRANK.—Glaciation of the Lake District, Geol. Mag. (Lond.), VIII. 98. 
Sil, 

Ruttner, F.—Uber das Verhalten des Oberflichenplanktons zu verschiedenen 
Tageszeiten im Gr. Ploner See und in zwei nordbohmischen Teichen, Forschungsber. 
iol. Station Plon (Stuttgart), XII. 1904. 

Ryper, C. H. D.—Exploration and survey with the Tibet Frontier Commission, 
and from Gyangtse to Simla vid Gartok, Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond.), XXVI, 
369. 1905. 

SaInT - SanD.—Excursions nouvelles dans les Pyrénées frangaises et espagnoles : 
Quinze jours aux lacs de Caillaouas et de Ponchergues (Hautes-Pyrénées) (Pau). 
1906. 

SauisBury, J. H.—Analysis of Dead-Sea water, Amer. Polytechn. Journ. (Washington), 
II. 874. 1853. 

SALISBURY, R. D.—The geography of the region about Devil’s Lake and the Dalles of 
Wisconsin, Bull. Wisconsin Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey (Madison), V. 1. 
1900. 

—— See KimmeEt, H. B. 

SALMoJRAGHI, F.—Contributo alla limnologia del Sebino, Atti Soc. Lal. Sct. Nat. 
(Milano), XXVIJI, 1898. 

SaLtomon, W.—Konnen Gletscher in anstehenden Fels Kare, Seebecken und Thaler 
erodiren ? Newes Jahrb. Min. etc. (Stuttgart), II. 117. 1900. 

SAPPpER, KARL.—Am See von Yzabal, Guatemala, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XXX VIII. 
241. 1892. 

-——— Bemerkungen iiber einige Vulkane von Guatemala und Salvador, Petermann Mitt. 
(Gotha), XLVI. 149. 1900. 

Sarasin, Epovarp.—Limnimétre enregistreur transportable: Observations 4 la Tour 
de Peilz pres Vevey, Arch. Sci. Phys.. Nat. (Genéve), ser. 3, II. 724. 1879. 


730 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Sarasin, EpovuarD.—Les seiches du lac de Neuchatel, C.R. Trav. Soc. Helv. Sct. Nat. 
(Geneve), LXXV. 38. 1892. 


—— lLes seiches du lac de Thoune, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat (Genéve), sér. 3, XXXIV. 
368, 1895. 

Les seiches du lac des Quatre-Cantons, C.R. 81 Session Soc. Helv. (Berne), 27 ; Arch. 
Sct. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), sér. 4, VI. 882. 1898. 

Oscillations du lac des Quatre-Cantons, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), sér. 4, 
X. 600, 1900; XI. 161, 1901. | 

—— I’*histoire de la théorie des seiches, C.R.- Trav. Soc. Helv. Sci. Nat. (Genéve), 
LXXXV: 4. 1902. 

See Foi, H.; Forzu, F. A.; and Pasquisr, L. pu. 

Sarasin, Pauu and Fritz.—Reiseberichte aus Celebes, Zeitschr. Ges. Erdk. Berlin, 
Oe 351, 1894 ; XXX. 226, 1895 ; XXXI. 21, 1896. 

Sars, G. O Wes Entomostraca of the clas Sea, Ann. Mus. Zool. St. Pétersbi, 
P1807 

—— On some additional Crustacea from the Caspian Sea, Ann. Mus. Zool. St. 
Péersb., I1.:273, 1897. 

——- On Megalocypris princeps, a gigantic fresh-water Ostracod from South Africa, Arch. 

. Math. Naturvid. (Kristiania), XX. No. 8. 1898. 

— On Epischwra baikalensis, a new Calanoid from Baikal Lake, Ann. Mus. Zool. 
St. Pétersb., V. 226. 1900. 

—— On the Crustacean fauna of Central Asia, dann. Mus. Zool, St. Pétersb., VI. 130, 
1901; VIII. 157, 195, 233, 1903. 

— On the Polyphemide of the Caspian Sea, Ann. Mus. Zool, St. Pétersb., VII. 

31. 1902. 

On a new South American Phyllopod, Lulimnadia brasiliensis, raised from dried 

mud, Arch. Math, Naturvid, (Kristiania), XXIV. No. 6. 1902. 

-—- Fresh-water Entomostraca, Arch. Math. Naturvid. (Kristiania), XXV. No. 8. 1903. 

—— On two apparently new ee from South Africa, Arch. Math. Naturvid. 
(Kristiania), XX VII. No. 4. 1905. 

—— On two new species of the. genus eer from South Africa, Arch. Math, 
Naturvid. (Kristiania), XX VIIT. No. 8. 1907. 

—— On the occurrence of a genuine Harpacticid in the Lake Baikal, Arch. Math. 

Naturvid. (Kristiania), XXIX. No. 4. 1908. 
Fresh-water Copepoda from Victoria, Southern Australia, Arch. Math. Naturvid. 
(Kristiania), XXIX. No. 7, 1908. 

——- Zoological results of the third Tanganyika expedition, conducted by Dr W. A, 
Cunnington, F.Z.S., 1904-1905: Report on the Copepoda, Proc. Zool. Soc. 
Lond., 1909, 31.5 1909: 

SAUER, A. ipsinssent im mittleren Schwarzwalde als Zeugen ehemaliger Vergletscherung 
desselben, Globus (Braunschweig), LXV. 201. 1894. 


SAUNDERS, Howarp.—A visit to Walney, the Lakes, and the Farne Islands, The 
Zoologist (Lond.), ser. 2, I. 178. 1866. 


SauvAGE, F. C.—-Projet de dessechement du lac Copais, Athenes. 1868. 


ScHAFFER, Mrs CHARLES.—A recently explored lake in the ODS Range of Canada, 
Bull. Geogr. Soc. Philadelphia, VII. 123. 1909. 

ScHAFFER, F, X.—Das inneralpine Becken der Umgebung von Wien (Berlin). 1907. 

ScHarpt, Hans.—Sur des dépéts lacustres observés sur le bord du lac de Neuchatel, 
Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat. (Lausanne), XVIII. p. xliv. 1882. 

—— Note préliminaire sur l’origine des lacs du Jura suisse, Ecloge Geol, Helv. (Lausanne), 
V. 257; Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Genéve), sér. 4, V. 68. 1898. 

—— L’origine du lac des Brenets, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Genéve), XVI. 787. 1908. 

ScHARFF, FriEDRICcH. — Ueber das Sargauser Seebecken, Neues Jahrb. Min. ete. 
(Stuttgart), 1872, 986. 1872. 

ScHERMERHORN, L. Y.—Physical features of the northern and north-western lakes 
(America), Amer. Journ. Sct. (New Haven), ser. 3, XX XIII. 278. 1887. 
ScHEWIAKOFF, WLADIMIR.—Ueber die geographische Verbreitung der Siisswasser- 
Protozoén, Mém. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersb. sér. 7, XLI. No. 8, 1893; Naturw. 

Wochenschr, (Berlin), XI. 626, 1896. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 731 


ScHILLER, K., ScHORLER, B., and THALLWITZ, J.—Pflanzen- und Tierwelt des Moritz- 
burger Grossteiches bei Dresden, Ann. de Biol. Lacustre (Bruxelles), 1.193. 1906. 


ScuinEr, J. R.—Beitrag zur Characteristik der Fauna des Neusiedlersee’s, Verh. Zool.- 
Bot. Ver; Wien, V. 65. 1855. 


— Lebende Larven vom Grunde des Hallstiidtersee’s, Verh. Zool,.-Bot. Ver. Wien, 
XOBNGE OS. S09: 


SCHJERNING, W.—Der Zeller See im Pinzgau, Zeitschr. Ges. Erdk, Berlin, XXVIII. 
367. 1898, 


SCHLAGINTWEIT, H. von.—Ueber die Temperatur von Alpenseen in grossen Tiefen 
nach Beobachtungen im Starnbergersee und im Chiemsee, Siteber. Akad. Wiss. 
_ (Miinchen), 1867 (1), 305. 1867. 


—— Zur Fauna im Salzsee Gebiete des westlichen Tibet, Das Ausland (Augsburg), 
XLIV. 1006, 1031, 1055. 1871. 

—— Untersuchungen iiber die Salzseen im westlichen Tibet und in Turkistan, Abhandl. 
Akad. Wiss. (Miinchen), XI. 101. 1873. 


SCHLAGINTWEIT, MAx.-—Die Tegernseen in Uhehe, Beitr. Kolontalpolitik (Berlin), V. 
309. 1903-4. 


SCHLATTER, T.—Temperaturverhiltnisse des Bodensees, Ber. ti. Thdatigkeit d, St 
Gallischen Naturw. Gres., 1892-93, 58. 1898. 


ScHLOIFER, O.—Am Viktoria-Nyansa, Jahresber. Frankfurter Ver. Geogr. u. Stat., 
LXI.-LXIII. 27. 1899. 


—— Die deutsche Tanganyika-Expedition, Jahresber. Frankfurter Ver. Geogr. u. 
Stat., LX VI. and LXVII. 99. 1908. 


SCHMANKEVICH, V. I.—Ueber den Zusammenhang der Salzseeform Diselmus dunalit, 
Dujard. (Monas dunalii, Joly), mit den Stisswasser-Monaden, Zeitschr. Wiss. Zool. 
(Leipzig), XXVIII. 400. 1877. 

—— Ueber Artemia miihihausenii, M. Edw., aus dem Sakkischen Salzsee, Zeztschr. 
Wiss, Zool. (Leipzig), XXVIII. 402. 1877. 

Scumipt, E. R.—Das Thal des Grossens Salzsee’s von Utah und die Heerstrasse nahe 
dem 41 und 42 Parallel nach demselben, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), 1858, 280. 
1858. 

Scumipt, K. E.—Von Masurens Seen, Deutsch. Rundschau (Wien), XIII. 433. 1892. 

—— An den Ufern des Mauersees, Giaea (Leipzig), XXIX. 109, 129. 1898. 

Scumipt, P. J.—Le lac Issyk-Koul, Rev. Gén. Sci. (Paris), No. 20, 354. 1898. 

ScHNEEBELI, HEINRICH.—Variation du niveau des eaux des lacs de Neuchatel, de 
Bienne et de Morat pendant les années 1874-77, Bull. Soc. Sci. Nat. Neuchatel, 
X. 218, 376, 1874-76; XI. 165, 341, 1877-79. 

Scunerer, G.—Uber den augenblicklichen Stand der Siisswasserforschung in Finland, 
Ann. de Biol. Lacustre (Bruxelles), I. 48. 1906. 

—— Der Obersee bei Reval, Arch. fiir Biontologie (Berlin), II. 1908. 

SCHNETZLER, J. B.—Observations microscopiques sur une matiere colorante verte trouvée 
dans les eaux du lac de Tanney (Bas-Valais), Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Genéve), 
XXIV. 298. 1853. 

—— Observations microscopiques sur un phénomeéne du lac Léman connu sous le nom de 
‘* fleur de lac,” Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat. (Lausanne), IV. 162, 1854, 

ScHoEp, A.—Quelques considérations sur le bassin du Tchad, Bail. Soc. Belge Géogr. 
(Bruxelles), XXIX. 350, 447. 1905. 

ScHOKALSKY, J. DE.—Le lac Ladoga au point de vue thermique, Comptes Rendus Acad. 
Sct. (Paris), CXXX. 1789; Verh. VII, Internat. Geogr. Kongr. (Berlin), 1899 
(2), 263. 1900. 

— Instruction pour le levé, le sondage et l’étude physico-géographique des lacs (St, 
Pétersb.). 1905. 

—— Apercu sur les explorations physico-géographiques des mers et des lacs de l’Empire 
russe (St. Pétersb.). 1908. 

—— Apergu des travaux exposés par la Marine Impériale Russe et des recherches océano- 
graphiques et limnologiques russe en général, Haxposition Internat. d’Océano- 
graphie, 1906, section russe (St. Pétersb.). 1906. 

— A short account of the Russian Hydrographical Survey, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), 
XXIX, 626. 1907. 


732 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


SCHOKALSKY, J. DE, et SCHMIDT, P. J.—Apercu sur les explorations scientifiques des 
mers et des eaux douces de Empire russe, Lxposition Maritime Internationale 
de Bordeaux, 1907. 


ScHootcraFT, H. R.—On the tide of Lake Superior, Amer. Journ. Sci. (New Haven), 
XX, 213. . 1831. 


-—— Narrative of an expedition through the Upper Mississippi to Itasca Lake, the 
actual source of this river; embracing an exploratory trip through the St Croix 
and Burntwood (or Broule) Rivers, in 1832, Jowrn. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., IV. 
239. 1834. 


—— On the production of sand storms and lacustrine beds, by causes associated with 
the North American lakes, Rep. Brit. Ass. (Lond.), 1842, 42; Amer. Journ. Sci. 
(New Haven), XLIV. 368, 1843. 


ScHORLER, B.—See SCHILLER, K. 

SCHOUTEDEN, H.—Les Rhizopodes testacés d’eau douce, Ann. de Biol. Lacustre 
(Bruxelles), I. 327. 1906. 

—— Les infusoires aspirotriches d’eau douce, Ann. de Biol. Lacustre (Bruxelles), I. 114, 
383, 1906; II. 163, 171, 1907. 


ScHRENK, A. G.—Die Insel Aral-Tjube im See Alakul und die Gebirgsziige Tarbagatai 
und Alatau, Arch. Wiss, Kunde Russland (Berlin), II. 400; Ann. Journ. Mines 
Russie (St. Pétersb.), 1842, 852. 1842. 
SCHRENK, LEopoLD von.—Ideen zu einer Hydrographie der Landseen, mit besonderer 
. Riicksicht auf die Seen der Alpen (Dorpat), 1852. 
SCHROEDER, Bruno.—Planktologische Mitteilungen, Biol. Centralbi. (Leipzig), X VIII. 
525. 1898. 

and SELIGo, ARTHUR.—Untersuchungen in den Stuhmer Seen, von Arthur Seligo : 
nebst einem Anhang—Das Pflanzenplankton preussischer Seen, von Bruno 
Schroeder, Westpreuss. Bot. Zool. u. Fisch. Ver. Danzig (Leipzig). 1900. 

ScHROTER, C.—Die Schwebetlora unserer Seen, Vewjahrsbl. Naturf. Ges. Ziirich, XCIX. 
1897, 

See KIRCHNER, O. 


ScHUBERT, J.—Wirmeaustausch der Seen und Meere, Met. Zeitschr. (Wien), XXIII. 


509. 1906. 
—— Ueber den tiaglichen Wirmegang im Paarsteiner See, JMJet. Zeitschr. (Wien), XXIV. 
289. 1907. 


Scuuu, K.—Das Gefrieren der Seen, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XLVII. 57. 1901. 


ScuuLz, AuGcust.—Die Verbreitung der halophilen Phanerogamen im Saalebezirke 
und ihre Bedeutung fiir die Beurteilung der Dauer des ununterbrochenen 
Bestehens der Manstelder Seen, Zeitschr. fiir Naturw. (Stuttgart), LXXIV. 
1902. 


ScuusTER, MArtTin.—Temperatur einiger Quellen und Gebirgseen im Zibin-Miihlbach-, 
dann im Fogarascher Gebirge, Verh. Siebenb. Ver. Naturw. (Hermannstadt), 
XXX IS 7 1880; 

ScHWAGER, A.— epee mae Untersuchungen Oberbayerischer Seen, Geogn. Jahresh. 

_ (Miinchen), X. 50. 1898. 

ScCHWARZENBACH.— Ueber Analysen des Wassers vom Todten Meere, Mitt. Natwrf. 
Ges. (Bern), 1870; p. xlvii. 1870, 

SCHWEIGGER-SEIDEL, F. W.—Ueber Entstehung farbiger organischer Stoffe in Seen, 
stehenden Wassern und Mineralquellen, Journ. Chemie u. Physik (Niirnberg), 
Lf. 240." ° 1827. 

ScHWEINITZ. —Der Grosse und Kleine Teich im Riesengebirge, Monatsb. Ges. Erdk. 
Berlin, N.S., 1. 15. 1844. 

ScuynsE.—Pater Schynses Aufnahme des S.W. Ufers des Victoria Nyansa, Petermann 
Mitt. (Gotha), XXX VII. 219. 1891. 

ScLaArER, B. L.—Routes and districts in Southern Nyasaland, Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond.), 
II, 403. 1898. 

ScLaTER, P, L.—Porpoises in the Victoria Nyanza, Natwre (Lond.), XLIV. 124. 1892. 

Scott, ANDREW.—See BENNIE, J. 

Scorr, THomAs.—The invertebrate fauna of the inland waters of Scotland, Annual 
’ Reports tishery Board for Scotland (Edin. ), 1889-99. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 733 


Scott, THomas.— Notes on a small collection of fresh-water Ostracoda from the Edin- 
burgh district, Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Hdin., X. 318. 1890. 


—— The land and fresh-water Crustacea of the district around Edinburgh, Proc. 
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—— On some fresh-water Entomostraca from the island of Mull, Argyllshire, collected 
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——- Some observations on the distribution of the smaller Crustacea, Trans. Edin. Field 
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—— Some observations on British fresh-water Harpactids, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist, 
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—— Crustacea of the Forth Area, Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin., XVI. 267. 1906. 
See BENNIE, J. 


ScOURFIELD, D. J.—Entomostraca of Wanstead Park, Jowrn. Quekett Micro. Club 
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-—— On Ilyocryptus agilis, a rare mud-inhabiting water-flea, Journ. Quekett Micro. Club 
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-—— A preliminary account of the Entomostraca of North Wales, Journ. Quekett Micro. 
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— Wanted, a British fresh-water biological station, Vat, Sci. (Lond.), X. 17. 1897. 


——— A very common water-flea (Chydorus sphaericus), Annual of Microscopy (Lond. ), 
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—— The Entomostraca of Epping Forest, Hssex Natwralist, X. 193, 259, 318. 1898. 


Fresh-water biological stations: America’s example, Nat, Sci. (Lond.), XIV. 450. 
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—— The winter egg of a rare water-flea (Leydigia cercoides), Journ. Quekett Micro, Club 
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—— Fresh-water Entomostraca, Proc. South London Entom. and Nat. Hist. Soc., 1899, 


—— A Hyaline Daphnia, Annual of Microscopy (Lond.), 1900, 9. 1900. 

—— Note on Scapholeberis mucronata and the surface-film of water, Journ. Quekett 
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—— The swimming peculiarities of Daphnia and its allies, with an account of a new 
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——- The ephippium of Bosmina, Journ. Quekett Micro. Club (Lond.), ser. 2, VIII. 51. 
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—— The ephippia of the Lynceid Entomostraca, Journ. Quekett Micro. Club (Lond.), 

ser. 2; VIIE.. 217. - 1901. 
Lakes and their scientific investigation, Proc. South London Entom. and Nat. 
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—— Synopsis of the known species of British fresh-water Entomostraca, Jowrn. Quekett 
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—— Die sogenannten ‘‘ Riechstiibschen”’ der Cladoceren, Forschungsber. Biol. Station 
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—— Fresh-water biological stations, Journ. Quekett Micro. Club (Lond.), ser. 2, 1X. 129. 
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—— An Alona and a Pleuroxus new to Britain (A. Weltneri, Keilhack, and P. denticu- 
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— The biological work of the Scottish Lake Survey, Internat. Rev. Gesamt. Hydro- 
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Srecut, K.—Das Todte Meer und die Hypothesen seiner Entstehung, Jahresber. hihere 
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SEELAND, F.—Die Gletscherspuren am Worthersee, nachst Klagenfurt, Zeitschr. Deutsch. 
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Temperaturen und Eisverhiltnisse des Worthersees, Jeteor, Zeitschi. (Wien), IX. 
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SEIDLITZ, C. von.—Der Narowa-Strom und das Peipus-Becken, Arch. Naturk. ete. 
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734 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


SErpiitz, N. von. —Rundreise um den Urmia-See in Persien, im Jahre 1856, Petermann 
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—— Der Karabugas-Meerbusen des Kaspischen Meeres, nach den Ergebnissen der vom 
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schweig), LXXVI. 13. 1899. 


SELico, A.—Ueber Temperaturbeobachtungen in westpreussischen Seen, Verh. XV. 
Deutsch, Geographentag. (Danzig), 1905, 201. 1905. 


——- Tiere und Pflanzen des Seenplanktons (Stuttgart). 1908. 

—— See SCHROEDER, BRUNO. 

SELIGO, H.—Untersuchungen der physikalischen Verhialtnisse in norddeutschen Seen, 
Schriften Phys.-Okon. Ges. Kénigsberg, XXXIV. 8. 1898. 

SELLARDS, E. H.—Some sink-hole lakes of North Central Florida, Science (New York), 
N.S., XXIII. 289. 1906. 

SeLskKy.—Der See Kosogol und das dazu gehorige Gebirgsthal, Arch. Wiss. Kunde 
Russland (Berlin), X VIII. 260. 1859. 

SELwyn, A. R. C.—Origin of lake-basins, Natwre (Lond.), XLIX. 412. 1894. 

SEMENOW, P.—Reise nach dem Issyk-Kul, Arch. Wiss. Kunde Russland (Berlin), XVI. 
SOM Pasar: 


—— Narrative of an exploring expedition from Fort Vernoye to the western shore of 
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311. 1869. 
SerRAO, M.—Il Mare Morto, Zn Giro pel Mondo (Bologna), 1899, Nos, 21-22, 
1899. 


SERNANDER, R.—Ueber das Vorkommen von subfossilen Striinken auf dem Boden 
schwedischer Seen, ot. Centralbi. (Cassel), XLV. 336, 365. 1892. 

SESMAISONS.—Quelques observations sur les effets du mirage dans la région des Chott, 
Bull, Soc. Climat. Algér., II. 229. 1868. 

SEuRAT, L. G.—Sobre la fauna de los lagos y lagunas del valle de Mexico, Rev. Cient. 
Bibl, ‘* Antonio Alzate’’ (Mexico), 1898, 65; Lull. Mus. Hist. Nat. (Paris), 1898, 
23; La Naturaleza (Mexico), III. 403. 1903. 

SHALER, N. S.—On the formation of the excavated lake-basins of New England, Proc. 
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Suarp, A. H.—Lake Kivu and the Albert Nyanza, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XIV. 662. 
iusheheh 

SHARPE, ALFRED.—A journey from the Shire River to Lake Mweru and the Upper 
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— Lake Mweru, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), V. 891. 1895. 

— Map of Lake Nyassa and the Upper Shire River, Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond.), XII. 580. 
1898. 

— Fall in level of Central African lakes: Lake Nyasa, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), 
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SHARPE, SAMUEL. —On the tide-like wave of Lake Ontario, Phil. Mag. (Lond.), 1X. 117. 
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SHERWOOD, J. D.—Some observations upon the valley of the Jordan and the Dead Sea, 
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SHUFELDT, G. A.—On the subterranean sources of the waters of the Great Lakes, Amer. 
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SIBREE, JAMES.—The volcanic lake of Tritriva, Central Madagascar, Proce. Roy. Geogr. 
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SICARD, A.—Etudes sur les saumons, truites saumonées, et grandes truites des lacs, 
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SIEBOLD, C. T. E. von.—Ueber den Kilch des Bodensees (Coregonus acronius), Zeitschr. 
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—— Ueber die in Miinchen geziichtete Artemia fertilis aus dem grossen Salzsee von 
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SrzceR, Ropert.—Die Schwankungen der hocharmenischen Seen seit 1880 (Wien). 
1888, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 735 


SizcER, Ropert.—Das gegenwartige Sinken der grossen afrikanischen Seen, Globus 
(Braunschweig), DXIT. 321. .1892. 


—— Niveauverinderungen an skandinavischen Seen und Kiisten, Verh. 9. Deutsch, 
Geographentag. (Wien), 1898, 224. 1893, 


—— Zur Entstehungsgeschichte des Bodensees, Richthofen Festschr., 1893, 55. 1893. 
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—— Seenschwankungen und Strandverschiebungen in Skandinavien, Zeitschr. Ges. Erdk. 
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Postglaciale Uferlinien des Bodensees,: Schriften Ver. Gesch. Bodensees (Lindau), 
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—— Plattenseeforschungen, Globws (Braunschweig), LX VII. 287. 1895. 
—— Seeschiessen, Wasserschiisse, Nebelriilpse, Luftpuffe, Globus (Braunschweig), 
LXXI. 333. 1897. 
— Der Atlas der sterreichischen Alpenseen, Mitt. Deutsch. wu. Ost. Alpenver. (Wien), 
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S1ntiman, B.—On the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, Amer. Journ. Sci. (New Haven), 
ser. 2, XJ..882 ; Edin.. New Phil. Journ., Lil, 227. 1851. 


2. Grotto del Cane and Lake Agnano; 3. 
Sulphur lake of the Campagna, near Tivoli, Amer. Journ. Sci. (New Haven), 
ser. 2, XII. 256. 1851. 


SILVERTOP, CHARLES.— On the lacustrine basins of Baza and Alhama in the province of 
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216, 235; . Hdin.. New Phil. Journ., IX. 336; X. 65. 1830, 


Stmony, FrizepricH.—Die Seen des Salzkammergutes, Sttzber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, 
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— Ueber alpine Seen, Schriften Ver. Verbreit. Naturw. Kennt. (Wien), XIX. 550. 
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—— Ueber Temperatur- und Tiefenverhaltnisse des Konigssees, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss. 
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——- Ueber die Grenzen des Temperaturwechsels in den tiefsten Schichten des Gmunder 
Sees und Attersees, Sttzber. Akad, Wiss, Wien, LXXI. 429; Anzeiger Akad. 
Wiss. Wien, XII. 104. 1875. 


SincER, H.— Der Banguelo-See, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XLIV. 259. 1898. 
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—— Die Dreilanderecke am Tschadsee: Eine kolonialpolitische Betrachtung, Globus 
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S1pécz, L.—See Lorsiscu, W. F. 


Sxorikow, S.—Beitrag zur Planktonfauna arktischer Seen, Zool. Anzeig. (Leipzig), 
XXVIL. 209. 1904. 


Suack, H. J.—See Ernst, A. 


Smitru, A. D.—Expedition through Somaliland e Lake Rudolf, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), 
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—— An expedition between Lake Rudolf and the Nile, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XVI. 
600; Bull. Geogr. Soc. Philadelphia, II. 115. 1900. 


SmitH, BERNARD.—See RASTALL, R. H. 
SMITH, CoLIN.—Luminous snow-storm on Lochawe, Quart. Jowrn. Sci. (Lond.), XIX. 
366. 1825, 
SmitH, E. A.—On the shells of Lake Nyassa, and on a few marine species from 
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—— On the shells of Lake Tanganyika and of the neighbourhood of Ujiji, Central 
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—— On a collection of shells from Lakes Tanganyika and Nyassa and other localities in 
East Africa, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., LXIX, 276. 1881. 


—— Descriptions of two new species of shells from Lake Tanganyika, Proc, Zool, Soc. 
Lond,, LXIX. 558. 1881. 


736 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Smitu, E. A.—Tanganyika shells, Natwre (Lond.), XXV. 218. 1882. 


— Diagnosis of new shells from Lake Tanganyika, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (Lond.), 
ser. 6, IV.173. 1889. 


—— On a new genus and some new species of shells from Lake Tanganyika, Ann. Mag. 
Nat. Hist. (Lond.), ser. 6, VI. 98. 1890. 


— Additions to the shell fauna of the Victoria Nyanza or Lake Oukéréwé, Ann. Mag. 
Nat. Hist. (Lond. ), ser, 6, X. 121, 880. 1892. 


~--— Some remarks on the Mollusca of Lake Tanganyika, Proc. Malac. Soc. (Lond.), VI. 
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-—— Report on the Mollusca of the third Tanganyika expedition, conducted by Dr 
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— Description of new species of fresh-water shells from Central: Africa (Lakes Mweru 
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SmitH, GrorecE.— Description and plan of the Natron Lake of Loonar, with an analysis 
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SmitH, G. A.—The Lake of Galilee, Hxpositor (Lond.), 1898, 321. 1898. 

Smiru, G. E.—From the Victoria Nyanza to Kilimanjaro, Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond.), 
XXIX. 249. 1907. 

SmitH, R. H.—Analysis of the water of Bala Lake, The Laboratory (Lond.), I. 282, 
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SmitH, S. I.—The Crustacea of the fresh waters of the United States, Rep. U.S. Fish 
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—— Sketch of the invertebrate fauna of Lake Superior, Rep. U.S. Fish Comm. 
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—— The Crustaceans of the caves of Kentucky and Indiana, Amer. Journ. Sci. (New 
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SmitH, S, P.—Rotomahana and Tarawera Lakes, New Zealand, Report of the Depart- 
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SmitH, WILLIAM.—On deposits of diatomaceous earth found on the shores of Lough 
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Smytu, H. L —Structural geology of Steep Rock Lake, Ontario, Amer. Journ. Sei. 
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Snow.—The plankton Algz of Lake Erie (Washington). 1903. 
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SoKoLorr.—Die Westkiiste des Caspischen Meeres von der Festung Petrowsk bis zum 
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SoMIGLIANA, C,—-See CANTONI, M. 
Soret, J. L.—On the colour of the Lake of Geneva, Phil. Mag. (Lond.), N.S., XX XVII. 
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— Sur les seiches dicrotes, Arch. Sct. Phys. Nat. (Genéve), ser. 3, III. 11. 1880. 
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SpaLtpine, H. C.—The Black Sea and the Caspian, Van Nostrand’s Eclectic Eng. Mag. 
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Span, SAMUEL.—Some account of the Pitch-lake in the island of Trinidad, Trans. Linn. 
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SrekeE, J. H.—Der grosse Inner-Africanische See und die Quelle des Nils, Petermann 
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— The upper basin of the Nile, Jowrn. Roy. Geogr. Soc, Lond., XXXIII. 322. 
1863. 
SPENCER, J. W.—A short study of the features of the region of the lower Great Lakes 
during the river age, Proc. Amer. Assoc, (Salem), 1881, 131. 1881. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 737 


SPENCER, J. W.—Discovery of the pre-glacial outlet of the basin of Lake Erie into that 
of Lake Ontario: with notes on the origin of our lower Great Lakes, Proc. 
Amer, Phil. Soc. (Baltimore), XIX. 300. 1882. 

—— Terraces and beaches about Lake Ontario, Proc. Amer. Assoc. (Salem), 1882, 359 ; 
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—— The deformation of Iroquois beach and birth of Lake Ontario, Amer. Jowrn. Sci. 
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—— The north-eastern extension of the Iroquois beach in New York, Amer. Geol. 
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— On the origin of the basins of the Great Lakes of America, Quarl. Journ. Geol. Soc. 
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—— Deformation of the Algonquin beach and birth of Lake Huron, Amer. Journ. Sei. 
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—— High-level shores in the region of the Great Lakes and their deformation, Amer. 
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—— A review of the history of the Great Lakes, Amer. Geol. (Minneapolis), XIV. 289, 
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— Deformation of the Lundy beach and the birth of Lake Erie, Amer. Journ. Sez. 
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—— The duration of Niagara Falls and the history of the Great Lakes (New York). 
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——. An account of the researches relating to the Great Lakes, Amer. Geol. (Minneapolis), 
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SpPILsBuRY. —Expedition from Port Amelia to Lake Nyassa, Jowrn. African Soc. (Lond.), 
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SPINDLER, J. B,—Recherches hydrographiques dans le lac Peypous, Comptes Rendus 
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Spratt, T. A. B.—Remarks on the lakes of Benzerta, in the regency of Tunis, Jowrn. 

Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., XVI. 251. 1846. 

Route between Kustenjé and the Danube by the Karasu and Yenj-Keni valleys, 
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SPREAFICO, E.—See NEGRI, GAETANO. 

Sprinc, W.—La couleur de l’eau des lacs et des mers, Ciel et Terre (Bruxelles), X VII. 

337. 1896. 

— Sur le réle des composées ferriques et des matieres humiques dans le phénoméne de 
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Nouvelles recherches sur les phénomenes de coloration des eaux, Ciel et Terre 
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—— Uber den einheitlichen Ursprung der blauen Wasserfarbe, Newes Jahrb. Min. etc. 

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Squier, E. G.—Der See Yojoa oder Taulebé in Honduras, Central-America, Petermann 
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—- On the basin of Lake Titicaca, Rep. Brit. Ass. (Lond.), 1870, 175 (Sect.). 1870. 

SQUINABOL, S.—I] laghetto termale di Lispida (Euganei), Riv. Geogr. /tal. (Firenze), X. 
529. 1903. 

SsEwERzow, N.—Ueber eine zoologisch-botanische Expedition nach dem Aral, Arch. 

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See Borszozow, J. 

STABROWSKI.—Note sur la cause principale des ‘‘seiches,” Bul. Soc. Géogr. Paris, 
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Stairs. —L’expédition du capitaine Stairs du lac Tanganika au Katanga et du Katanga 
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STANDIGL, EpMuUND.—Die Wahrzeichen der Eiszeit am Siidrande des Garda-See’s, Jahrb. 
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STANLEY, H. M.—Discoveries at the northern end of Lake Tanganyika, Rep. Brit. Ass. 
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—— Letters on his journey to Victoria Nyanza, and circumnavigation of the lake, Proc. 
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47 


738 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


SranLEY, H. M.—Through the Dark Continent (Lond.). 1878. 


— A geographical sketch of the Nile and Livingstone (Congo) basins, Proc. Roy. Geogr. 
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—— Letter to Roy. Geogr. Soc. (Lond.) and to Roy. Scott. Geogr. Soc., Scott. Geogr. 
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——- A great African lake, Nat. Geogr. Mag. (Washington), XIII. 169. 1902. 


Srark, F.—Die bayerischen Seen und die alten Moranen, Zedtschr. Deutsch. Alpenver. 
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Steck, T.—Die Wassermassen des Thuner- und des Brienzer-Sees, Jahresber. Geogr. Ges. 
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Beitrage zur Biologie des grossen Moosseedorfsees, Afitt. Naturf. Ges. Bern, 1898, 
20. 1893. 


STECKER, ANTON.—Die Stecker’sche Expedition: Aufnahme des Tana-Sees, Mitt. 
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STEEL, J. H.—Notice of Snake Hill and Saratoga Lake and its environs, Amer. Journ. 
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STEFFEN, HAns.—The Patagonian Cordillera and its main rivers, between 41° and 48° 
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STEFFENS, C.—Seebildung in der Coloradowiiste, Globus (Braunschweig), LX. 137. 
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SreGAGNO, G.—Alcuni cenni sui laghi Euganei ed in particolare sul lago d’Arqua- 
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STEIN, — von.-—Ueber den Ossa- (Lungasi-) See, Kamerungebiet, itt. Deutsch. 
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STEIN, M. A.—-Explorations in Central Asia, 1906-8, Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond.), XXXIV. 5. 
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STEINDACHNER, FRANzZ.--Zur Fischfauna des Albufera-Sees bei Valencia in Spanien, 
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STENROOS, K.—Das Thierleben im Nurmijarvisee (Helsingfors), 1898. 

STERNS-EADELLE, F.—The boiling lake of Dominica: A historical and descriptive 
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STEWART, JAMES.—The second circumnavigation of Lake Nyassa, Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc. 
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—— Lake Nyassa, and the water route to the lake region of Africa, Proc. Roy. Geogr. 
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Stimpson, WILLIAM.—On the deep-water fauna of Lake Michigan, Amer. Naturalist 
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STINGELIN, THEODOR. —Bemerkungen tiber die Fauna des Neuenburgersees, Rev. Swisse 
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Die Familie der Holopedidae, Rev, Suisse de Zool. (Geneve), XII. 1904. 

StirLinG, E, C.—The physical features of Lake Callabouna, Mem. Roy. Soc. South 
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STopDARD, S. R.—Into the lake region of the Adirondacks, the Fulton chain, Raquette 
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Stokes, CHARLES.—Notes: (1) On a Trilobite from Lake Huron; (2) List of some 
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STOLPE, PER.—Les cryptodépressions de ]’Europe septentrionale, La Géogr. (Paris), 

PEDGEATS i UNOS 


StonE, G. H.—Was Lake Iroquois an arm of the sea? Science (New York), XVII. 107. 
1891. 


Storer, H. R.—On smelt from Squam Lake, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., V1. 248. 
1859. 


Srork.—Ueber den Laacher See und die Maare der Eifel, Ber. Offenbach Ver. Naturk., 
NOS XIX. KX, Kd) 2S) OS, 


Srorms.—Le probleme du mouvement des eaux du lac Tanganyika, Bull. Soc. Belge 
Géogr. (Bruxelles), 1886, 50. 1886. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 7539 


STRACHEY, RicHARD. —Narrative of a journey to the lakes Rakas-tal and Manasarowar, 
in Western Tibet, undertaken in September 1848, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XV. 
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STRANGWAYS, W. T. H. F.—Description of the rapids of Imatra, on the Voxa river, in 
Carelia ; with an outline of the probable history of their formation, and a notice 
of the bursting of the Lake Souvando in the Ladoga, in the year 1818, 7’rans, Geol. 
Soc. Lond., V. 340. 1821. 

STRANTZ, F. von.—Ueber die progressiven Grossen and Massen- Verhiiltnisse der Binnen- 
Seen, Uebers. Schles. Ges. Vaterl. Kultur (Breslau), 1836, 52. 1836. 

STRENG, A. E.—Der Lojosee, Comptes Rendus Congr. Nat. et Méd. du Nord (Helsingfors), 
1902, Sect. V. 19. 1903. 


Strenc, Avucust.—-Der Bauerngraben oder Hungersee: Beitrag zur physikalischen 
Geographie des Harzes, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), 1864, 43. 1864. 


STROMER, Ernst.—Ist der Tanganyika ein Relikten-See, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), 
MGV, 275.0 1901. 


Srroop, L. J.—-Did a glacier flow from Lake Huron into Lake Erie? Amer. Naturalist 
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Struck, ApoLtPH.—Die macedonischen Seen, Globus (Brannschweig), LXXXIII. 218, 
238. 1908. 


Struve, Hernricu,—Kurzer Bericht iiber eine Reise auf dem Ladogasee, Bull. Acad. 
Sev. St. Pétersb., VII. 510. 1864. 


STUART, WILLIAM.—On the formation of Lake Wakatipu, Zrans. New Zealand Inst. 
(Wellington), XIV. 407. 1882. 


STUDER, BERNHARD.—De l’origine des lacs suisses, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), XIX. 
89 ; Phil. Mag. (Lond.), N.S., XX VII. 481. 1864. 

STUHLMANN, F.—Botanische Characteristik der siidwestlichen Uferlandschaft des 
Victoria-Niansa, Sitzber. Ges. Naturf. Freunde (Berlin), 1891, 68. 1891. 

STUPART, R. F.—Rainfall and lake levels, Trans. Canadian Inst. (Toronto), V. 121. 
1896. 

STURANY, R. — Sammelreise nach den Plitvicer Seen in Croatien, dnn. Naturh 
Hofmuseum Wien, X. 79, 1895. 


SupAN, ALEXANDER.—Uberschwemmung in der Sahara, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XLV. 
174; Met. Zeitschr. (Wien), XVI. 478. 1899. 


Suworow, E. K.—Zur Beurteilung der Lebenserscheinungen in gesittigten Salzseen, 
Zool. Anzeig, (Leipzig), XXXII. 674. 1908. 


SVAMBERA, V.—lIezera [Lakes], Bihm. Encyclopaediec (Prag), XIII. 311. 1898. 

Swan, J.—See LeEIcHTON, J. M. 

SwarTE, VicTOR DE.—Le lac des Quatre-Cantons, Bull. Club Alpin Franc. (Paris). 1898. 
SWERINZEW, L.—Zur Entstehung der Alpenseen (St. Petersb.). 1896. 


Szindpy, ZOLTAN von.—Die Crustaceen des Retyezater Seen, Math. und Naturw. 
Berichte aus Ungarn (Leipzig), XVIII. 484. 1900. 
TALMAGE, J. E.—The waters of Great Salt Lake, Science (New York), XIV. 444. 1889. 
—-— The Great Salt Lake, present and past, Utah Univ. Quarterly, Il. 73, 1896. 
— The Great Salt Lake, Scott. Geogr. Mag. (Edin.), XVII. 617. 1901. 
~—— Lake Bonneville—the predecessor of the Great Salt Lake, Scott. Geogr. Mag. 
(Edin.), XVIII, 449. 1902. 
Salt Lake water, Scott. Geogr. Mag. (Edin.), XX. 424. 1904. 
TANCREDI, A. M.—La missione italiana al lago Tzana, L’ Esplorazione Commerc. 
(Milano), XXIII. 358. 1908. ; 
TANFILJEF, G.—Ueber subfossile Striinke auf dem Boden von Seen, Bot. Centraibl. 
(Cassel), XLVIII. 71. 1891. 

TANNER, E.—Sur un nouvel organisme du plankton du Schoenenbodensee, Bull. Herb. 
Boissier (Geneve), VI. 156. 1906. 

TANNER-FULLEMAN, M.—Contribution a l’etude des lacs alpins, Bull. Herb. Bossier 
(Genéve), VII. 15, 118, 225. 1907. 

TARAMELLI, T.— Della storia geologica del lago di Garda, Atti Accad. Agiati Rovereto, 
IX. ‘1894. 

—— Considerazioni geologiche sul lago di Garda, Rendiconti Ist. Lomb. Sci. (Milano), 
ser, 2, XXVIII. 148. 1894. 


740 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 
Tarr, R. 8.—The glacial Lake Agassiz, Goldthwatte’s Geogr. Mag. (N.Y.), I. 327. | 
1890. 


—— Lake Bonneville, Goldthwaite’s Geogr. Mag. (N.Y.), I. 468. 1890. 

Lake Cayuga a rock basin, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. (Rochester), V. 339. 1894. 

—— Origin of lake-basins, Natwre (Lond.), XLIX. 315. 1894. 

—— The Great Lakes and Niagara, Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc. (New York), XXXI. 
217. 1899. 

—— Moraines of the Seneca and Cayuga lake valleys, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 
(Rochester), XVI. 215. 1905. 

Tauscu, L.—Uber einige Conchylien aus dem Tanganyika See und deren fossile 
Verwandte, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, XC. (1), 56. 1884. 

Taytor, F. B.—A reconnaissance of the abandoned shore-lines of Green Bay (Lake 
Michigan), Amer. Geol. (Minneapolis), XIII. 316, 365. 1894. 

—— Niagara and the Great Lakes, Amer. Jowrn. Sct. (New Haven), ser. 3, XLIX. 249. 
1895. 

—— The second Lake Algonquin, Amer. Geol. (Minneapolis), XV. 100, 162,171. 1895. 

—— The Nipissing beach on the north Superior shore, Amer. Geol. (Minneapolis), XV. 
304, 1895. 

—— The Champlain submergence and uplift, and their relations to the Great Lakes 
and Niagara Falls, Rep. Brit. Ass. (Lond.), 1897, 652 (Sect.). 1897. 

—— Lake Adirondack, Amer. Geol. (Minneapolis), XIX. 392. 1897. 

—— Notes on the abandoned beaches on the north coast of Lake Superior, Amer. Geol. 
(Minneapolis), XX. 111. 1897. 

— The great ice-dams of Lakes Maurnee, Wittlesey, and Warren, Amer. Geol. 
(Minneapolis), XXXIV. 6. 1899. 

TayYLor, RicHARD.—On New Zealand Lake Pas, Trans. New Zeaiand Inst. (Welling- 
ton); Vi 101.) 1872: 

TAYLOR, R. C.-—Notice as to the evidences of the existence of an ancient lake which 
appears to have formerly filled the limestone valley of Kishacoquillas, in Mifflin 
County, Pennsylvania, Trans. Geol. Soc. Pennsyl. (Philadelphia), I. 194. 1835. 

Taytor, T. G.—The Lake George Senkungsfeld: A study of the evolution of Lakes 
George and Bathurst, N.S.W., Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales (Sydney), 
XOX 32h OOF 

Tayior, W. A.—lLake Vyrnwy [in Wales], Scott. Geogr. Mag., VII. 551. 1891. 

TEGLIO, EM1Lio. —Le sesse nel lago di Garda, Rendiconti Accad. Lincet (Roma), ser. 5, 
XIV. (1), 90. 1905. 

TEMPLE, R.—The lake region of Sikkim, Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., III. 321. 1881. 

TEMPLE, R. F.-—Ueber die sogenannten Soda-Seen in Ungarn, Jahresb. Wetterau. Ges. 
Naturk, (Hanau), 1861-63, 95. 1863. 

TERESCHTSCHENKO.—Ueber den Elton-See, Arch. Wiss. Kunde Russland (Berlin), IV. 
731. 1848. 

THALLWITZ, J.—See SCHILLER, K. 

THELWALL, W. B.—Lakes with two outfalls, Matwre (Lond.), IX. 485; X. 44. 1874. 

THEOBALD, G.—Die Kiistenseen in Siidfrankreich, Jahresb. Wetterau. Ges. Naturk. 
(Hanau), 1850-51, 53. 1851. 

THEOBALD, W1ILLIAM.—The Kumaun lakes, Records Geol. Surv. India (Calcutta), 
XIE GL sss: 

THIEBAUD, MauRIcE.—Sur la faune des Invertébrés du lac de Saint-Blaise, Zool. Anzeig. 
(Leipzig), XXIX. 795. 1906. 

—— Entomostracés du canton de Neuchatel, Zool. Anzetg. (Leipzig), XX XI. 624, 1907 ; 

Ann, de Biol. Lacustre (Bruxelles), III. 184, 1908. 
Contribution a la biologie du lac de Saint-Blaise, Ann. de Biol. Lacustre 
(Bruxelles), III. 54. 1908. 

—— See Favre, J. 

THOMANN, J.—See BALiy, W. 

THompson, WILLIAM.—On the pollan (Coregonus pollan, Thompson) of Lough Neagh, 
Mag. Zool, Bot. (Edin.), I. 247. 1887. 

-—— On a minute Alga which colours Ballydrain Lake, in the county of Antrim, 47m. 
Nat. Hist. (hond.), Vewos0 S40) 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 741 


THOMPSON, WILLIAM. —Notice of the blind fish, cray-fish, and insects from the Mammoth 
Cave, Kentucky, dun. Nat. Hist. (Lond.), XIII. 111. 1844. 

THompson, ZAD.—On the sudden disappearance of the ice on Lake Champlain, at the 
breaking up of winter, Amer. Journ. Sct. (New Haven), ser. 2, XII. 22. 1851. 

Tuomson, H. C.—Notes on a journey through the Northern Peninsula of Newfound- 
land, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XX VI. 187. 1905. 

THOMSON, JOSEPH.—Progress of the Society’s East African expedition, Proc. Roy. 
Geogr. Soc. Lond., 11. 209, 306. 1880. 

——- To the Central African lakes and back (London). 1881. 

—— On the geographical evolution of the Tanganyika basin, Rep: Brit. Ass. (Lond.), 
1882, 622; Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., 1V. 627. 1882. 

—— Report on the progress of the Society’s expedition to Victoria Nyanza, Proc. Roy. 
Geogr. Soc. Lond., V. 544. 1883. 

—— To Lake Bangweolo and the unexplored region of British Central Africa, Geogr. 
Journ, (Lond.), 1.97. 1892. 

THOULET, J.—Le lac de Longemer (Vosges), Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), CX. 56. 
1890. 

—— L’étude des lacs en Suisse, Arch. Missions Sci. et Litt. (Paris), I. 1890. 

Contribution a Pétude des lacs des Vosges, Bull, Soc. Géogr. Paris, ser, 7, XV. 

557; L’ Astrononvie (Paris), XIII. 469. 1894. 

— Etude des lacs de Gérardmer, Longemer, et Retournemer dans les Vosges, Comptes 
Rendus Acad. Sct. (Paris), CX VIII. 1168. 1894. 

Trarks, J. L.—Astronomical observations for ascertaining the most north-western point 
of the Lake of the Woods, Amer, Journ. Sci. (New Haven), XV. 41. 1829. 

TIESSEN, E.—Aus der Lebensgeschichte des Plattensees, Prometheus (Berlin), III. 689. 


1892. 
T1ILHO, JEAN.—Explorations du lac Tchad (février-mai, 1904), Za Géogr. (Paris), XIII. 
195. 1906. 


TILLo, A. DE.—Superficie de la Russie d’Asie avec les bassins des océans, des mers, des 
rivieres et des lacs (St. Pétersb.). 1905. 

ToBIn, JAMES.— Account of the Pitch-lake in the island of Trinidad, Trans. Linn. Soc. 
Lond:; VIII. 253. 1807, 

Topp, J. E.—Has Lake Winnipeg discharged through the Minnesota within the last 
two hundred years? Amer. Jowrn. Sci, (New Haven), ser. 3, XVII. 120. 1879. 

——- The shore lines of ancient glacial lakes, Ame’. Geol. (Minneapolis), X. 298. 1893. 

TONI, — DE.—NSee Forrtt, A. 

TornquisT, A.—Die im Jahre 1900 aufgedeckten Glacialerscheinungen am Scharzen 
See, Mitt. Geol. Landesanst. Hlsass-Lothringen (Strassburg), V. 123, 1900. 

—~— Geologischer Fiihrer durch Ober-Italien: II. Das Gebirge der ober-italienischen 
Seen, Sammlung geologischer Fiihrer (Berlin), IX. 1902. 

Torres MuNoz y Luna, R.—Des dépdts salins des lacs de la province de Toléede 
(Espagne), Journ. de Pharm. (Paris), XX VI. 125. 1854. 

Torren, J. G.—On the sudden disappearance of the ice of our northern lakes in the 
spring, Amer. Journ. Sct. (New Haven), ser. 2, XXVIII. 359, 1859 ; Proc. Amer. 
Ass, (Cambridge, Mass.), 1860-61, 46. 

ToucuE, T. D. ~ta.—The erosion of rock-basins, Natwre (Lond.), XLIX. 39, 3665, 
1893-94. 

Tovar, AGUsTIN.—Lago Titicaca, observaciones sobre la disminucion progressiva de sus 
aguas, Bol. Soc. Geogr. Lima, V. 163. 1891. 

—— Observaciones del lago Titicaca (Puno), 1896. 

Traquair, J. H.—On specimens of ‘‘tailless” trout from Loch Enoch, in Kirkeud- 
brightshire, Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Hdin., VII. 221. 18838. 

Travers, W. L.—On the formation of lake-basins in New Zealand, Quart. Journ. Geol. 
Soc. Lond., XXII. 254; Phil. Mag. (Lond.), N.S., XXXI. 318. 1866. 

— Notes on the lake district of the province of Auckland, Trans, New Zealand Inst. 
(Wellington), IX. 3. 1877. 

Trener, G. B.—Di alcuni laghi scomparsi nel Trentino, 7’ridentwm (Trento), V. 217. 

1902. 
See BATTISTI, C. 


742 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


TRIBOLET, M. F. pE.—-Sur ]’age des dépdts de gypse de la rive sud du lac de Thoune, 
Vierteljahrsschr. Naturf. Ges. Ziirich, XIX. 217. 1874. 


TricocHE, G. N.—Notes de voyage dans un coin perdu du Canada, lac Megantic (pro- 
vince de Quebec), ev. de Géogr. (Paris), XLII. 104. 1898. 


TrimM_ER, F.—The Great Salt Lake, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XXXI. 568. 1908. 

Tristram, H. B.—On the sulphur and bitumen deposit at the south-west corner of the 
Dead Sea, Rep. Brit. Ass. (Lond.), 1864, 73 (Sect.). 1864. 

TROTTER, A.—See Fort1, A. 

TRUFFERT, J.—Région du Tchad: Le Bahr-el-Ghazal et l’archipel Kouri, Rev. de Géogr. 
(Paris), LIII. 14. 1908. 

TscHULOK, S.—Das Seengebiet des nordwestlichen Russland, Geogr. Zeitschr. (Leipzig), 
IX, 266. 1908. 

Tuuty, Kuivas.—The fluctuations of Lake Ontario, Trans. Canadian Inst. (Toronto), 
Ve-3, 1 896%: eV el a9 05: 

TuRNER, H. W.—The Esmeralda formation, a fresh-water deposit in Nevada, 2/st Ann. 
Rep. U.S. Geol. Surv. (Washington), 1899-1900, II. 1900. 

TURRETTINI, T.—Note sur les hauteurs diurnes du lac Léman en 1897, Arch. Sct. Phys. 

Jat. (Genéve), sér. 4, V. 217. 1898. 

Ty, — von.—Das Alter des Tanganikasees, Berg- und Hiittenm. Zeitung (Leipzig), 
LVIII. 342. 1899. 

TyLor, ALFRED.—On the action and formation of rivers, lakes, and streams, with 
remarks on denudation and the causes of the great changes of climate which 
occurred just prior to the historical period, Geol. Mag. (Lond.), N.S., IIL. 438. 
1875. 

TYNDALL, J.—On the colour of the Lake of Geneva and the Mediterranean Sea, Nature 
(Lond.), II. 489. 1870. 

TYRRELL, J. B.—The genesis of Lake Agassiz, Journ. of Geol. (Chicago), IV. 811. 
1896. 

Uz, WiL1L1.—Die Tiefenverhiltnisse der masurischen Seen, Jahrb. Preuss. Geol. Landes- 
anst. (Berlin), III. 3. 1889. 

— Die Tiefenverhaltnisse der dstholsteinischen Seen, Jahrb. Preuss. Geol. Landesanst. 
(Berlin), XI. 102. 1890. 

— Das Sinken des Wasserspiegels im Salzigen See bei Hisleben, Das Ausland 
(Stuttgart), LXV. 493, 1892. 

— Die Seen des Baltischen Hohenriickens, Das Ausland (Stuttgart), LXV. 678, 694, 
(ALOR cee 

—— Die Mansfelder Seen, Arch. Landes-Volksk. Prov. Sachsen (Halle), II. 199. 1892. 

—— Ueber einige Ergebnisse der Auslothung der Ostholsteinischen Seen, Verh. Ges. 
Deutsch. Naturf. u. Aerzte (Halle), LXIV. 558 1892. 

—— Die Bestimmung der Wasserfarbe in den Seen, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XXX VIII. 
70. 1892: 

— Die Temperaturverhialtnisse in den Baltischen Seen, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), 
XXX VIII. 287, 1892; Verh. 10. Deutsch. Geographentag. (Berlin), 1893, 105. 

—— Die Mansfelder Seen und die Vorgiinge an denselben im Jahre 1892 (Hisleben). 
1893. 

——- Ueber die Beziehungen zwischen den Mansfelder Seeen und dem Mansfelder 
Bergbau, Zeitschr. Prakt. Geol. (Berlin), 1898, 539, 484. 1893. 

—- Bemerkungen zu dem Aufsatze des Herrn W. Krebs: ‘‘ Die Quellenverhaltnisse der 
Mansfelder Seen,” Das Wetter (Braunschweig), X. 228. 1893. 

—— Beitrag zur Instrumentenkunde auf dem Gebiete der Seenforschung, Petermann 

Mitt. (Gotha), XL. 213. 1894. 
Die Katastrophe an den Mansfelder Seen, Naturw. Wochenschr. (Jena), IX. 
325. 1894. 

—— Die Erforschung der physikalischen Verhiltnisse des Bodensees, Naturw. 

Wochenschr. (Jena), X. 109. 1895. 

—- Der Einfluss der Binnenseen auf das Klima, Naturw. Wochenschr. (Jena), X. 
297. 1895. 

—— Ergebnisse neuerer Messungen im Starnberger See, Mitt. Ver. Erdk. Leipzig, 1895, 
Da XIX. llS9o. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 74838 


Une, Wixti1.—Zur Hydrographie der Saale, Forsch. Deutsch. Landes- u. Volksk. 
(Stuttgart), X. 1. 1896. 

—— Der Starnberger See, Geogr. Zettschr. (Leipzig), III. 545. 1897. 

—- Beitrag zur physikalischen Erforschung der baitischen Seen, Forsch. Deutsch. 
Landes- u. Volksk, (Stuttgart), XI. 21. 1898. 

—— Zur Physik der Binnenseen, Die Natur (Halle), XLVII. 163, 184, 595, 604. 
1898. 

—— Der praktische Wert ace Seenforschung, Die Natur (Halle), XLVIII. 487. 1899. 

—— Gewiasserkunde in dem letzten Jahrzehnt : I. Seenkunde, Geogr. Zettschr. (Leipzig), 
V. 434. 1899. 

—— Die Seenkunde und ihre Bedeutung, Zeitschr. f. Gewdsserk. (Leipzig), II. 55. 
1899. 

—— Die Entstehung und die physikalischen Verhaltnisse des Wiirmsees, Jahresb. Geogr. 
Ges. Miinchen, 1900-1, 58. 1901. 

—— Der Wirmsee (Starnbergersee) in Oberbayern (text and atlas), Wiss. Verojf. Ver. 
Hirdk, Leipzig, V.1. 1901. 

—— Die Aufgabe geographischer Forschung an Seen, Abhandl. Geogr. Ges. Wien, IV. 


Now6,* 1902, 

—— Alter und Entstehung des Wiirm-Sees, Zeitschr. Ges. Erdk. Berlin, 1904, 651. 
1904, 

— Studien am Ammersee in Oberbayern, Mitt. Geogr. Ges. Miinchen, 1906, 561. 
1906. 

Umuavrt, F.—Die Plitvicer Seen in Kroatien, Deutsche Rundschau (Wien), XXI, 22. 
1898. 


UpHaM, WARREN.—Lake Agassiz: A chapter in glacial geology, Bull. Minnesota Acad. 
Nat, Sci. (Minneapolis), II. 290. 1882. 
—— The upper beaches and deltas of the glacial Lake Agassiz, Bull. U.S. Geol. Survey 
(Washington), VI. 387. 1887. 
Report of exploration of the glacial Lake Agassiz in Manitoba, Ann. Rep. Geol. 
and Nat. Hist. Survey Canada (Montreal), 1V. 22B, 5E. 1888-89. 
— History of Lake Agassiz, Amer. Geol. (Minneapolis), VII. 188, 222. 1891. 
—— The fiords and great lake-basins of North America considered as evidence of pre- 
glacial continental elevation and of depression during the glacial period, Budi. 
Geol. Soc. Amer (Rochester), I. 563. 1891. 
— A recent visit to Lake Itasca, Bull. Minnesota Acad. Nat. Sci. (Minneapolis), IIT. 
284, 1891. 
Area and duration of Lake Agassiz, Amer. G'col. (Minneapolis), VIII. 127. 1892. 
—— Glacial lakes in Canada, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. (Rochester), II. 248. 1892. 
— Relationship of the glacial lakes Warren, Algonquin, Iroquois, and Hudson- 
Champlain, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. (Rochester), III. 484. 1898. 
Origin and age of the Laurentian lakes and of Niagara, Amer. Geol, (Minneapolis), 
KVL 169s 1896. 
Valley moraines and drumlins in English Lake District, Amer. Geol. (Minneapolis), 
ROX 165: 1898: 
Glacial rivers and lakes in Sweden, Amer. Geol. (Minneapolis), XXII. 230. 1898. 
—— The glacial lakes Hudson-Champlain and St Lawrence, Amer. Geol. (Minneapolis), 
XXXII. 223. 1903. 
Ursas, WILHELM.—Die oro- und queuee ep aeen Verhaltnisse Krain’s, Zettschr. 
Deutsch. Alpenver. (Miinchen), V. 296. 1874. 
Das Phanomen des Zirknitzer Sees und die Karstthaler von Krain, Zedtschr. 
Deutsch, Alpenver. (Miinchen), X. 17. 1879. 


VALENTINI, C.—See PESTALOZzZA, A. 

VALLEE, L. L.—Note sur l’existence probable d’un lac souterrain communiquant avec 
le lac de Genéve, sur les seiches, sur les ladiéres, et sur les températures de ce 
dernier, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), XV. 173. 1842. 

VALLENTIN, RuPERT.—Observations on the plankton of Love Pool, Journ. Roy. Inst. 
Cornwall, XV. 328. 1903. 

VALLOT, J.—Comblement des lacs pyréneens (Paris). 1887. 


744 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


VassEL, M. E.—Le lac de Bou-Grara et la pénétration, Comptes Rendus Trav. Congr. 
Nat. des Sociétés Franc. Géogr. (Marseille), XIX. 485. 1899, 


VaAUCcHER, J. P. E.—Sur les seiches du lac de Genéve, Bull. Soc. Philom. Paris, III. 
271, 1805; Jowrn. Nat. Phil. Chem. Arts (Lond.), XII. 198, 1805; Annal. 
d. Physik (Halle), XX XIII. 339, 1809. 


Mémoire sur les seiches du lac de Geneve, Mém. Soc. Phys. Hist. Nat. Geneve, VI. 
35, 1833 ; Edin. New Phil. Journ., XVII. 285, 1843. 


VAvrRA, V.—See Fritscu, A. 


VENINKOF. —Notes on the Lake of Issyk-kul and the River Koshkar, Journ. Roy. Geogr. 
Soc. Lond., XXXII. 560. 1862. 

VERMEULE, C. C.—Lake Passaic considered as a storage reservoir, dunn. Rep. New 
Jersey Geol, Surv. (Trenton), 1905, 1938. 1906. 

VERNER, S. P.+ Deux nouveaux lacs: les lacs Sheppard et Morgan (Congo), La Belgique 
Coloniale (Bruxelles), IV. 271, 1898; V. 54, 1899. 

VIDAL, A. DE P.—Autour du lac de Tibériade, Echos d’Orient, II. 268, 357. 1899. 

ViEzzouiI, F.—Il lagho di Cepich nell’ Istria ed il suo emissario, Riv. Geogr. Ital. 
(Roma), I. 101. 1894. 

VicLiIno, F.—Sur l’excavation des lacs alpins par les glaciers, Spé/wnea (Paris), IV. 168. 


1898 
Viicoa, A.—Les lacs du plateau central de la France, Za Nature (Paris), XXIII. (2), 
TOTS 895: 


VILLATTE.—Le régime des eaux dans la région lacustre de Goundam (dépression 
Faginbine-Daounas-Teéli-Fati), Za Géogr. (Paris), XV. 253. 1907. 

VILLE, LupDovic.—Notes d’un voyage d’exploration dans les bassins du Hodna et du 
Sahara, Annal. des Mines (Paris), sér. 6, VII. 117. 1864. 

—— Etude des puits artésiens dans le bassin du Hodna et dans le Sahara des provinces 
d’Alger et de Constantine, Bull. Soc. Géol. France (Paris), N.S., XXII. 106. 
1865. 

Vimont, E.—Les lacs Pavin de la Montsineyre et de la Godivelle, Ann. Club Alpin 
Franc. (Paris), 1.337. 1874. 

VINCIGUERRA, DeEc10.—Acque dolci e salse di Sicilia, Boll. Soc. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), 

ser. 3, IX. 327. 
Dell’ opportunita di estendere gli studi limnologici a tutti i laghi italiani e dei 
metodi con cui condurli, Atti I. Congr. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), 1895, 205. 1896. 
VIOLLET-LE-Duc.—Les lacs supérieurs, Ann. Club Alpin Frane. (Paris), I. 277. 1874. 
VIRLET D’AOUST, THEODORE.—Sur les salures différentes et les différents degrés de 
salure de certains lacs du Mexique, Bull. Soc. Géol, France (Paris), N.S., XXII. 
464. 1865, 

VocEL, H.—See BAvEr, H. 

VoictT, M.—Die Rotatorien und Gastrotrichen der Umgebung von Plon, Forschungsber. 
iol, Station Plén (Stuttgart), XI. 1. 1904. 

VoLTERRA, V.--Sul fenomeno delle seiches, 22 Nuovo Cimento (Pisa), ser. 4, VIII. 
270. 1898. 

Vouz, WILHELM.—Zum Toba-See in Central-Sumatra, TZijds. Nederlandsch Aard. 
Genoots. Amsterdam, ser. 2, XVI. 415. 1899. 

Vorcr, C. M.—Forms observed in water of Lake Erie, Proc. Amer. Soc. Micro. 
(Indianapolis), 1881, 51 ; 1882, 187. 

Vouca, Paut.—Notes sur les poissons du lac de Neuchatel (Suisse), Bull. Soc. Zool. 
Acclim., (Paris), III. 214. 1866. 

VuILLot, P.—Reconnaissances dans la région des lacs de Tombouctou, Comptes Rendus 
Soc. Géogr. Paris, 1898, 232. 1898. 

WAGNER, PAuL.——Die Seen des Bohmerwaldes, Wiss. Veréff. Ver. Erdk. Leipzig, 1V. 1. 
1899. 

WAHNSCHAFFE, F.--Zur Frage der Oberflachengestaltung 1m Gebiete der baltischen 
Seen-platte, Jahrb. Preuss. Geol. Landesanst. Berlin, 1887. 

—— Die Seenrinne des Grunewalds und ihre Moore, Natwrw. Wochenschr. (Jena), 
XXII. 321, 1907. 

WAILLY, G. DE.--Aux bords du Victoria-Nyanza, La Nouvelle Revue (Paris), LX XIII. 
387. 1892. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 745 


WAITE, P. C.---The annual rise and fall of the Nile, Scott. Geogr. Mag. (Edin.), XX. 
474. 1904. 


WALDVOGEL, T.—-Das Lautikerried und der Liitzelsee, Vierteljahrsschr. Naturf. Ges. 
Litrich, XUV. 277. 1900. 


WaLkKER, J. T.--The divarications of the Lower Oxus, Scott. Geogr. Mag. (Edin.), LX, 
408. 1898. 


Wauace, A. R.--The glacier theory of Alpine lakes, Nature (Lond.), XLVII. 437; 
XLVIILI. 198. 1893. 


— Origin of lake-basins, Nature (Lond. ), XLIX. 220, 1894. 


WaLuace, L, A.—The Nyasa-Tanganyika Plateau, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XIII. 595. 
1899. 


—— Lake Rukwa, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XV. 291. 1900. 
North-Eastern Rhodesia, Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond.), XXIX. 869. 1907. 


Wauuace, 8S. J.—On the old lake-beds of the prairie region, Proc. Amer, Ass. 
(Washington), XVII. 342. 1868. 


Lakes and lake regions, Proc. Amer. Ass (Washington), XTX. 182. 1870. 


WALLER, E.—Analysis of the water of Great Salt Lake, School of Mines (Columbia 
College) Quarterly, XIV. 56. 1892. 


WALLMANN, HEINRICH.—-Die Seen in den Alpen, Jahrb. Oest. Alpenver, (Wien), IV. 
1. 1868. 


WALTER, C.—Hydrachniden aus der tiefen Fauna der Vierwaldstiittersees, Zool. Anzcig. 
(Leipzig), XXX. 322. 1906. 


—- Die Hydracarinen des Schweiz, Rev. Swisse de Zool. (Geneve), XV. 1907. 


WALTER, F.--Eine Studie iiber Temperatur- und Niederschlagsverhiltnisse in 
Bodenseebecken, Inaug.-Diss. (Freiburg i. B.). 1892. 


WALTHER. —See RIsLER, EUGENE. 
WALTHERS, M. J.—-Das Gesetz der Wustenbildung, Za Géogr. (Paris), III. 248. 1901. 


Warp, H. B.—-The food-supply of the Great Lakes, and some experiments on its amount 
and distribution, Proc. Amer. Micro. Soc., X VII. 242. 1895. 


—— A biological examination of Lake Michigan in the Traverse Bay region, Bud, 
Mich. Fish Comm. (Lansing), No. 6. 1896. 


— The fresh-water biological stations of the world, Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 
(Washington), 1897-98, 499. 1898. 


—— Fresh-water investigations during the last five years, Trans. Amer. Micro. Soc., 
XX. 261. 1899. 


Warp, H. J.—On the connection between the supposed inland sea of the Sahara and 
the glacial epoch, Quart. Journ. Sci. (Lond.), II. 357. 1865. 


Warp, J. C.—The origin of some of the lake-basins of Cumberland, Quart. Journ. Ceol. 
Soc. Lond., XXX. 96. 1874. 


Ice phenomena in the Lake District, Nature (Lond.), XI. 309. 1875. 


— The glaciation of the southern part of the Lake District, and the glacial origin of the 
lake-basins of Cumberland and Westmoreland, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond., 
NENT 152." 1875; 


Warp, R. pe C.—The climatic history of Lake Bonneville, Amer. Met. Journ. (Ann 
Arbor), VILL. 164., 1891. 


—— Water surface temperatures of Lake Titicaca, Science (New York), N.S., VII. 28. 
1898. 


Warp, THomas.—The salt lakes, deserts, and salt districts of Asia, Proc, Lit. Phil. Soc. 
Liverpool, XXXII. 233. 1878. 


Watson, A. B,—Lake Mweru and the Luapula Delta, Geogr. Jowrn. (Lond.), IX. 58. 


1897. 
Watson, E. R.—Internal oscillation in the waters of Loch Ness, Natwre (Lond.), LXIX. 
174. (1903. 


—— Movements of the waters of Loch Ness, as indicated by temperature observations, 
Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XXIV. 480. 1904. 


—— On the ionization of air in vessels immersed in deep water, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), 
XXIV. 437. 1904. 

Watson, T. L.—Lakes with more than one outlet, Amer. Geol. (Minneapolis), XIX. 
267. 1897. 


746 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Watson, W., and WHITE, P.—Some experimental results in connection with the hydro- 
dynamical theory of seiches, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., XX VI. 142. 1906. 


Watts, W. W.—Notes on some tarns near Snowdon, Geol. Mag. (Lond.), dec. 4, II. 
565. 1895. 
Wauters, A. J.—Autour du lac Bangouélo, Mowvem. Géogr. (Bruxelles), IX. 5. 1892. 


—— L’exploration de la Lukuga, l’émissaire du lac Tanganika, par l’expédition Delcom- 
mune, Mouvem. Géogr. (Bruxelles), XI. 27. 1894. 


—— L’expédition von Gotzen, Mouvem. Géogr. (Bruxelles), XII. 48. 1895. 

Le lac Kivu et le Russisi, Mowvem. Géogr. (Bruxelles), XIV. 88. 1897. 

La région des grands lacs, Mouvem. Géogr. (Bruxelles), XIV. 313. 1897. 

—— L’ancienne mer intérieure du Kasai, Mowvem. Géogr. (Bruxelles), XV. 165. 1898. 

— Autour du Tschad, Mouvem. Géogr. (Bruxelles), XVI. 541, 555. 1899. 

— L’expédition Moore aux grands lacs de l’Afrique orientale, Mowvem. Géogr. 
(Bruxelles), XVII. 325. 1900. 

—— Le grand ‘‘ Graben” du Tanganyika et du Nil supérieur, Mowvem. Géogr. (Bruxelles), 
ROX AD 21904, 

—— la genése du Kasai supérieur et l’assechement de l’ancien lac du Lobale, Mouvem. 

Géogr. (Bruxelles), XXII. 601. 1905. 
Le lac Léopold II. et ses affluents, Mowvem. Géogr. (Bruxelles), XXIV. 391. 1907. 
WEATHERLEY, PouLEerr.—Circumnavigation of Lake Bangweolo, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), 
XII. 241; Mouwvem. Géogr. (Bruxelles), XV. 383. 1898. 

Au lac Bangweolo, Mowvem. Géogr. (Bruxelles), XVII. 349. 1900. 

Wepser, E.—Faune rotatorienne du bassin du Léman, Rev. Suisse de Zool. (Geneve), V. 
264. 1898. 

Weser, R. H.—Rapport sur les observations limnimétriques des lacs de Neuchatel, 
Morat, et Bienne pendant les années 1878-79, Bull. Soc. Sci. Nat. Neuchatel, 
XI. 608, 1879 ; XII. 164, 1880. 

—— Température du lac de Neuchatel, hiver de 1879 a 1880, Bull. Soc. Sci. Nat. 
Neuchatel, XII. 66. 1880. 

—— Rapport sur les observations limnimétriques des lacs de Neuchatel et Bienne, Lui. 
Soc. Sct. Nat. Neuchdtel, XII. 419, 696. 1880. 


WEDDERBURN, E, M.—Seiches observed in Loch Ness, Proc. Roy. Soc, Edin., XXV. 
25, 1904; Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XXIV. 441. 1904. 

—— The temperature of the fresh-water lochs of Scotland, with special reference to 
Loch Ness. With appendix containing observations made in Loch Ness by 
members of the Scottish Lake Survey, Trans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., XLV. 407. 1907. 

-—— An experimental investigation of the temperature changes occurring in fresh-water 
lochs, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., XXVIII. 1. 1907. 

—— The freezing of fresh-water lakes, Jowrn. Scott. Met. Soc. (Edin.), ser. 3, XIV. 219. 
1908. 

—— Temperature observations in Loch Garry (Inverness-shire) ; with notes on currents 
and seiches, Proc. Roy. Soc. Hdin., XXIX. 98. 1909. 

—— See CHRYSTAL, G. 

Wee, J.—Der Einfluss der projektierten Rheindurchstiche bei Diepoldsau und Brugg- 
Fussach auf der Wasserspiegelhohe im Bodensee (St. Gallen). 1891. 

WEISSE, J. F.—Diatomaceen des Ladoga-Sees, Bull. Acad. Sci. St, Pétersb., VIII. 21. 
1865. 

Fernere Untersuchung von Grundproben aus dem Ladoga-See auf Diatomaceen, 

Bull. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersb., VIII. 369. 1865. 

WEISSMANN, A.—Das Tierleben im Bodensee (Lindau). 1877. 

WELTNER, W.—Die Tier- und Pflanzenwelt des Siisswassers, Naturw. Wochenschr. 
(Jena), VII. 441, 461. 1892. 

WERNER, L. G.—Die oberelsissischen Seen und Stauweiher, Globus (Braunschweig), 
LXXVIIT. 121. 1900. 

—— Die Seen der Westvogesen, Globus (Braunschweig), LXXX. 117. 1901. 

WERNER, Oskar.—Kritischer Uberblick iiber den gegenwiirtigen Stand der Frage nach 


der schweizerischen und oberbayrischen Seen, Osterprogramm der stdédtischen 
Realschule zu Erfurt, 1900. 


: 
: 
| 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 747 


WERVEKE, L. V.—Neue Beobachtungen an den Seen der Hochvogesen, J/ttt. Geol. 
Landesanst. (Strassburg), III. 183. 1892. 

WESENBERG-LUND, C.—Von dem Abhingigkeitsverhiltnis zwischen dem Bau der 
Planktonorganismus und dem spezifischen Gewicht des Siisswassers, Diol. 
Centralbl. (Leipzig), XX. 606, 644. 1900. 

—— Studier over Sgkalk, Bénnemalm og Sggytje i danske Indsger, Medd. Dansk 
Geol. For. (Kjgbenhavn), No. 7. 1901. 

-—— Sur lexistence d’une faune relicte dans le lac de Furesé, Danske Vid, Selsk. 
Forhandl. (Kopenhagen), 1902, 257. 1902. 

—- Sur les @gagropila Lauteri du lac de Soro, Danske Vid. Selsk. Forhandl. 
(Kopenhagen), 1903, 167. 1903. 

—— Studier over de Danske Sgers Plankton, Dansk Ferskvands Biol. Lab. (Kj¢gben- 
havn), Op. 5, 1904. [Published in English in 1908. ] 

—— A comparative study of the lakes of Scotland and Denmark, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., 
EXSY 740 1905: 

— Ueber Siisswasserplankton, Prometheus (Berlin), XVII. 785, 801, 817. 1906. 


— Om Naturforholdene i skotske og danske Sger: en Sammenlignende Studie, 
Geogr. Tidskrift (Kopenhagen), XVIII. 15. 1906. 

—— Die littoralen Tiergesellschaften unserer grosseren Seen, Internat. Rev. Gesamt. 
Hydrobiol. u. Hydrographic (Leipzig), I. 574. 1908. 

—— Uber tropfende Laichmassen, Internat. Rev. Gesamt. Hydrobiol. u. Hydrographie 

(Leipzig), I. 869. 1908, 
Notizen aus dem dinischen siisswasserbiologischen Laboratorium am _ Fursee, 
Internat. Rev. Gesamt, Hydrobiol. u. Hydrographie (Leipzig), II. 1. 1909. 

—— Beitriige zur Kenntnis des Lebenszyklus der Zoochlorellen, /nternat. Rev. Gesamt. 
Hydrobiol. u. Hydrographie (Leipzig), II. 153. 1909. 

—— Uber die praktische Bedeutung der jahrlichen Variationen in der Viskositit des 
Wassers, Lnternat. Rev. Gesamt. Hydrobiol. u. Hydrographie (Leipzig), Il. 231. 
1909. 

—— WoLTERECK, R., and Zscuoxkh, F.—Jahresiibersicht der Literatur fiir das Jahr 
1908. Abteil. VI. Siisswasser-Zoologie (exkl. Vertebraten), Inter. Rev. Gesamt. 
Hydrobiol. u. Hydrographie (Leipzig), I. 56. 1909. 

—— See OSTENFELD, C. H. 

West, GEoRGE.—A comparative study of the dominant Phanerogamic and _ higher 
Cryptogamic flora of aquatic habit in three lake areas of Scotland, Proc. Roy. 
Soc. Edin., XXV. 967. 1905. 

—— A further contribution to a comparative study of the dominant Phanerogamic 
and higher Cryptogamic flora of aquatic habit in Scottish lakes, Proc. Roy. 
Soc. Edin., XXX. 65, 1909. 

West, G. S8.—On variation in the Desmidic and its bearing on their classification, Jowrn. 
Linn. Soc. Lond., Bot., XXXIV. 366. 1899. 

— On some British fresh-water Rhizopods and Heliozoa, Jowrn. Linn. Soc. Lond., 
Zool., XXVIII. 308. 1901. 

-—— Observations on fresh-water Rhizopods, with some remarks on their classification, 
Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., Zool., XXIX. 108. 1903. 

—— A treatise on British fresh-water Algee (Cambridge). 1904. 

——-- Report on the fresh-water Algze, including phytoplankton, of the third Tanganyika 
Expedition, conducted by Dr W. A. Cunnington, 1904-5, Journ. Linn. Soe. 
Lond., Bot., XXXVIII. 81. 1907. 

— and West, WiiL1AmM.—A contribution to the fresh-water Algze of the North of 
Ireland, Trans. Roy. Irish Acad. (Dublin), XXXII. B.,1. 1902. 

— —— Scottish fresh-water plankton, Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., Bot., XXXV. 519. 
1903. 

Further contribution to the fresh-water plankton of the Scottish lochs, 7rans. 

Roy. Soc. Edin., XLI. 477. 1905. 

A comparative study of the plankton of some Irish lakes, 7rans. Roy. Irish 

Acad. (Dublin), XXXIII. B., 77. 1906. 

The British fresh-water phytoplankton, with special reference to the Desmid- 

plankton and the distribution of British Desmids, Proc. Roy. Soc. (Lond.), 

ser. B, LXXXI. 165. 1909. 


748 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


West, G. 8., and West, WiLtt14AM.—The phytoplankton of the English Lake District, 
The Naturalist (Lond.), 1909, 115, 184, 186, 260, 287, 3238. 1909. 

West, X.—-Un lac desséché, La Nature (Paris), XXI. (2), 195. 1898. 

WESTGATE, L. C.—The Twin Lakes glaciated area, Colorado, Jowrn. of Geol. (Chicago), 
XIII. 285. 1905. 

WHEELER, W. H. —Undulations in lakes and inland seas due to wind and atmospheric 
pressure, Vature (Lond.), LVII. 321. 1898. 


WHIPPLE, G. C.—-Some observations of the temperature of surface waters, and the 
effect of temperature on the growth of micro-organisms, Journ. V.E£. Water Works 
ASS, ke 202. aSO5; 


—— The thermophone, Science (New York), N.S., II. 639. 1895. 


—— Classification of lakes according to temperature, Amer. Naturalist (Philadelphia), 
XXXITS 25.7 1898. 


Wuire, C. A.—The lakes of Iowa, past and present, Amer. Natwralisé (Philadelphia), 
II. 143. 1869. 

Tanganyika shells, Nature (Lond.), XXV. 101. 1882. 

WuiTE, F. B.—Notes of a botanical excursion to Loch Clunie, Perthshire, Scott. 
Naturalist (Perth), III. 349. 1875. 

Wuite, P.—See Watson, W. 

Wuirtt, T. G.—See INGEN, G. VAN. 

WuireHouse, B.--To the Victoria Nyanza by the Uganda Railway, Scolt. Geogr. Mag. 
(Edin.), XVIII. 179. 1902. 

WHITING, Henry.-—Remarks on the supposed tides and periodical rise and fall of the 
North American lakes, Amer. Jowrn. Sci. (New Haven), XX. 105. 1831. 


WHITTLESEY, CHARLES. —On fluctuations of level in the North American lakes, Proc. 
Amer. Ass, (Cambridge, Mass.), 1857-58, 154; Smithsonian Cont. Knowl. 
(Washington), XII. Art. 3, 1860. 


— On the fluctuations of the water level at Green Bay, Wisconsin, dimer. Journ. Sct. 
(New Haven), ser. 2, XX VII. 305; 447. 1859. 

—— On the cause of the transient fluctuations of level in Lake Superior, Proc. Amer. 
Ass. (Washington), 1878, 42. 1873. 

—— Physical geography of Lake Superior, Proc. Amer. Ass. (Washington), 1875, 60. 
1875. 

— On fluctuations of level in Lake Erie, Canad. Nat. und Geol. (Montreal), N.S. 
VIT407. 2187.5: 

— Ancient glacial action, Kelly’s Island, Lake Erie, Proc. Amer. Ass. (Washington), 
1878, 239. 1878. 

WIcHMANN, A.—Die Binnenseen von Celebes, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XXXIX. 225, 
253, 277. 1898. 

—— Der Posso-See in Celebes, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XLII. 160. 1896. 

WICHMANN, H.—Wem gehort der Kiwu-See? Geogr. Anzeig. (Gotha), August 1899, 1. 

1899. 

Nochmals der Kiwu-See, Geogr. Anzeig. (Gotha), December 1899, 3. 1899. 

Wiss, N.—Notice sur l’ancien lac de Douven, Mém. Soc. Sci. Nat. Luxembourg, VIII. 
149, 1865. 

Wieser, Hernricu.—Analyse der Ausbliihungen vom Lago d’Ananto in der Provinz 
Principato Ulteriore des ehemaligen Konigreiches Neapel, Verh. Geol. Reichsanst. 
CWien) 1S 7 iets sil. 

Witcox, W. D.—Lake Louise in the Canadian Rocky Mountains, Geogr. Journ. 
(Lond.), VII. 49. 1896. 

—— A certain type of lake-formation in the Canadian Rocky Mountains, Journ. of Geol. 
(Chicago), VII. 247. 1899. 

WiLp.—Beschreibung einer Wasserhose auf dem Genfer See, Annal. d. Physik (Halle), 
VIE. 707 1801 

WILKINSON, J. G.—Some account of the Natron Lakes of Egypt, Journ. Roy. Geogr. 
Soc. Lond., XIII. 113. 1848. 

WILLCocKs, WILLIAM.—The Assuan Reservoir and Lake Moeris (Lond.). 1904. 


— The Nile in 1904 (Cairo), 1905. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 749 


WILLIAMSON. WILLIAM. —Scottish Hydrachnids: Species collected during 1906, 7’rans. 
Edin. Field Nat. and Micro. Soc., 1906-7. 1907. 

—— Hydrachnide collected by the Lake Survey, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., XX VII. 302. 

1907. 

Revision of the Hydrachnide in Johnston’s ‘‘ Acarides of Berwickshire,” Ann. 

Scott. Nat. Hist. (Edin.), 1909, 27. 1909. 

WILLM, EpMonp.—Composition de Veau, de la vase, et de la terre stérile avoisinant les 
lacs a Natron, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris), LIV. 1224; Annal. de 
Chimie (Paris), N.S., LXVI. 165. 1862. 

Wixson, A. T.—Notes on a journey from Bandar Abbas to Shiraz via Lar, in February 
and March 1907, Geogr. Journ. (Lond.), XXXI. 153. 1908. 

Wizson, C.—The Dead Sea, Quart. Statement Palestine Explor. Fund (Lond.), 1900, 
365. 1900. 

WILson, JAMES.—Notice of the blind animals which inhabit the Mammoth Cave of 
Kentucky, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., 11. 200. 1853. 

Witson, J.—Visit to Lake Titicaca, Peru, Proc. Phil. Soc. Glasgow, XXVII. 147. 
1896, 

Witson, J. 8S. G.—A bathymetrical survey of the chief Perthshire lochs, Scott. Geogr. 
Mag. (Edin.), IV. 251. 1888. 

Witson, J. W.—Bursting of lakes through mountains, Amer. Journ. Sei. (New 
Haven) Eiie252,. 1s2it 

WiLson.—See LeicuTon, J. M. 

WINCHELL, ALEXANDER.—Der Einfluss der grossen americanischen Seen auf die 
Temperatur des Staates Michigan, Zeitschr. Oest, Ges. Met. (Wien), VIII. 40, 
Die alSis. 

WInNcHELL, A. N.—The age of the Great Lakes of nia America, Amer. Grol. 
(Minneapolis), XIX. 336. 1897. 

WINCHELL, N. H.—The glacial features of Green Bay, Lake Michigan, with some 
observations on a probable former outlet of Lake Superior, Aimer. Journ. Sei. 
(New Haven), ser. 3, II, 15. 1871. 

WINTHROP, JAMES.—Barometrical observations and remarks made during a tour to Lake 
Champlain, Mem. Amer. Acad. Arts Sct. (Boston), II. 127. 1798. 

WISSMANN, H. von. —Through Equatorial Africa (Lond.). 1891. 

WoEIKOFF, ALEXANDER VON. —Observations from the shores of the Caspian, Jowrn. Scott. 

Met. Soc. (Edin.), III. 160. 1873. 

Congélation d’un lac salé, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), VI. 413. 1881. 

— Schwankungen des Wasserspiegels der grossen amerikanischen Seen und des 
Ladoga-Sees, Met. Zettschr. (Wien), XVI. 287. 1881. 

— Seen und Fliisse als Produkte des Klimas, Zeitschr. Ges. Erdk. Berlin, 1885. 

— Mehrjihrige Schwankungen der Tiefentemperaturen des Genfersees und anderer 
Seen und Binnenmeere wirmerer Gegenden, Met. Zeitschr. (Wien), IX. 228. 
1892, 

— Bemerkungen iiber die Temperatur russischer Flisse und Seen, Jet. Zeitschr. 
(Wien), XIV. 170. 1897. 

——- Temperatur und Bewolkung am Ufer des Baikal und auf den benachbarten Hohen, 
Met. Zeitschr. (Wien), XVII. 28. 1900. 


—— Die Seespiegelschwankung zwischen Aralsee und Barbara und die Briicknersche 
Hypothese, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XLVII. 199. 1901. 

—— Hinige Probleme der Seenkunde, Zeitschr. f. Gewisserk. (Leipzig), V. 1. 1902. 

— Ueber den Aral-See, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), XLVIIT. 260. 1902. 

Der jahrliche Warmeaustausch in den nordeuropiiischen Seen, Zeitschr. f. Gewdsserk. 

(Leipzig), V. 193, 1902. 

— Die Resultate der Karaboghaz-Expedition, Met. Zeitschr. (Wien), XX. 54. 
1903. 

—- Les lacs du type polaire et les conditions de leur existence, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. 
(Geneve), XVI. 300. 1903. 

—— Erforschung des Teletzky-Sees und Umgegend im Altai, Petermann Mitt, (Gotha), 
XLIX. 286. 1903. 


790 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


WOEIKOFF, ALEXANDER VON.—Erforschung des Balkasch, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), 
XLIX. 285, 1908. 
—— Peretoltschines Erforschung des Kossogol-Sees, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), L. 152. 
1904. 
—— Questions de limnologie physique, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Genéve), XXI. 392. 
1906. 
Les accumulations positives et negatives d’eau par les sources, les lacs, les neiges et 
les glaces, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. (Geneve), XXI. 495. 1906. 
—— Der Aralsee und sein Gebiet nach den neuesten Forschungen, Petermann Mitt. 
(Gotha), LV. 82. 1909. 


Wo.r, THEOpoR.—Die Auswiirflinge des Laacher-Sees, Zettschr. Deutsch. Geol. Ges. 
(Berlin), XIX. 451, 1867; XX. 1, 1868. 

Work, J.—Account of Lough Erne, Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Lond., V. 392. 
1835. 

WoLTERECK, R.—Plankton und ‘Seenausfluss, Internat. Rev. Gesamt. Hydrobiol. u. 

Hydrographie (Leipzig), I. 303. 1908, 

See WESENBERG-LUND, C. 

Woop, HERBERT.—On a probable cause of the change of the course of the Amt-darya 
from the Caspian to the Aral, Mature (Lond.), XI. 229. 1875. 

—— Note on the Hyrcanian Sea, Natwre (Lond.), XII. 51. 1875. 

——- The separation of the Aral and the Caspian, Mature (Lond.), XII. 318. 
1875. 

—— Notes on the Lower Amu-darya, Syr-darya, and Lake Aral, in 1874, Journ. Roy. 
Geogr. Soc. Lond., XLV. 367. 1875. 

Woopman, J. E.—Shore development in the Bras d’Or Lakes, Amer. Geol. (Minneapolis), 
OSIM BVA. UNSISR 

Woopwakrp, H. P.—The dry lakes of Western Australia, Geol. Mag. (Lond.), dec. 4, 
DV.7305. Loon. 

WoopwortH, J. B.—An attempt to estimate the thickness of the ice-blocks which 
gave rise to lakelets and kettle-holes, Amer. Geol. (Minneapolis), XII. 279. 
1894. 

Wricut (Mrs).—Notes on the meres of Shropshire, Trans, Bot. Soc. Edin., XI. 280. 
1873. 

Wricut, G. F.—The supposed post-glacial outlet of the Great Lakes through Lake 
Nipissing and the Mattawa River, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. (Rochester), IV. 428. 
1893. 

Wricut, H. G.—Lakes with two outfalls, Nature (Lond.), X. 408. 1874. 

Wistr, Ewatp.—Nachwies diluvialer Brackwasseransammlungen im Gebiete der heutigen 
Mansfelder Seen, Globus (Braunschweig), LXX XI. 277, 1902. 

Yate, C. E.—Khurasan and Sistan (Lond.), 1900. 

YELLOLY, JoHN.—Note sur les seiches du lac Léman, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat. 
(Lausanne), IV, 411. 1854. 

Yosuipa, Y.—See NAKAMURA, S. 

Yune, Em1Le.—Des variations quantitatives du plankton dans le lac Léman, Comptes 
Rendus Acad. Sci. (Paris) CXXXIV. 1319 ; Arch. Sct. Phys. Nat. (Geneve); 
VIII. 344. 1902. 

ZACHARIAS, Orro,—Die Tier- und Pflanzenwelt des Siisswassers [unter Mitwirkung von 
Apstein, Clessin, Forel, etc.]. (Leipzig). 1891. 

— Ueber das Projekt einer nocchmaligen Durchforschung der Koppenteiche, Wanderer 
in Riesengebirge (Hirschberg), 1894. 

— Beobachtungen am Plankton des gr. Ploner Sees, Forschungsber. Biol. Station Plon 
(Stuttgart), II. 91. 1894. 

—— Ueber die wechselnde Quantitit des Planktons im grossen Ploner See, Forschwngsber. 
Biol. Station Plén (Stuttgart), III. 97. 1895. 

-—— Ueber die Tiefenverhiltnisse des grossen und kleinen Koppenteiches, Wanderer 
in Riesengebirge (Hirschberg), XV. 140, 149, 1895; Helios (Berlin), XIII. 132, 
145, 1896. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 751 


ZACHARIAS, OTro.—Ueber das Gewicht und die Anzahl mikroskopischer Lebewesen 
in Binnenseen, Gaea: Natur und Leben (Leipzig), XXXII. 31. 1896. 


—— Quantitative Untersuchungen iiber das Limnoplankton, Forschwngsber. Biol. Station 
Plén (Stuttgart), IV. 164. 1896. 


et Wiber einige interessante Funde im Plankton siachsischer Fischteiche, Biol. Centralbi. 
(Leipzig), XVIII. 714. 1898. 


-——— Untersuchungen iiber das Plankton der Teichgewiisser, Forschwngsber. Biol. Station 
Plén (Stuttgart), VI. 89. 1898. 


—— Zur Kenntniss des Planktons siichsischer Fischteiche, VYorschwngsber. Biol. Station 
Pién (Stuttgart), VII. 78. 1899. 


— Ueber die Ergriinung der Gewisser durch die massenhafte Anwesenheit 
mikroskopischer Organismen, iol. Centralbi. (Leipzig), XXII. 700. 1902. 


—— Uber die systematische Durchforschung der Binnengewiisser und ihre Beziehung 
zu den Aufgaben der allgemeinen Wissenschaft vom Leben, Biol. Centralbi. 
(Leipzig), XXIV. 660, 1904 ; Forschungsber, Biol. Station Ploin (Stuttgart), XII. 
1905. 


—— Das Plankton als Gegenstand eines Zeitgemissen biologischen Schulunterrichts, 
Arch. f. Hydrobiol. u. Planktonk. (Stuttgart), I. 1905. 


—— Biologische Laboratorien an Binnenseen und Teichen, Zool. Anzeig. (Leipzig), 
XXX. 488. 1906. 


—— Uber die mikroskopische Fauna und Flora eines im Freien stehenden Taufbeckens, 
Arch. f. Hydrobiol. und Planktonk. (Stuttgart), II. 235. 1906. 


—— (Editor) Forschungsberichte aus der biologischen Station zu Plon (Stuttgart). 
1893-1909. 


—— See LEMMERMANY, E. 


ZACHE, E,—Der grosse Schwieloch-See in der Nieder-Lausitz und seiner Umgebung, 
Monatsber. Ges. Heimatsk. Prov. Brandenburg (Berlin), I. 119. 1893. 


ZALESKI, St. Sz.—Lac Ingol: medecinisch-topographisch-chemische Untersuchung 
(Tomsk), 1891. 


ZANNA, P. pEL.—I laghi di S. Antonio in provincia di Siena, Boll. Soc. Geol. Ital. 
(Roma), XVIII. 281. 1899. 


ZEDERBAUER, E.—See BREuHM, V. 


ZEHDEN, CARL.—Der See Tahve in der Sierra Nevada, Mitt. Geogr. Ges, Wien, XIX. 
564. 1876. 


ZELLER, R.—Ein Ausflug zu den Natronseen in der lybischen Wiiste, Jahrb. Schweiz. 
Alpenciub (Bern), II. 216. 1898, 


Zets, L.—Le probleme du Tanganyika, Bull. Soc. Belge Géogr. (Bruxelles), XXIX. 
13." 1905: 


ZEPPELIN, E. von.—Ueber die Erforschung des Bodensees, Verh. IX. Deutsch. 
Geographentag. (Wien), 198. 1892. 


—— Ueber die neue Bodensee-Karte und die Gestaltung des Bodensee-Grundes, Verh. 
X. Deutsch. Geographentag. (Berlin), 79. 1893. 


—— Das ‘‘ Laufen,” bezw. ‘‘An- und Auslaufen” der Seen, Geogr. Zeitschr. (Leipzig) 
ViTw104.. 1901: 


Begleitworte zur neuen Bodenseekarte, Schriften Ver. Gesch. Bodensees (Lindau), 
exer Se 2 59s 1893: 


—— Programme et méthode d’études limnologiques pour les lacs d’eau douce, Mém. Soc. 
Bourguignonne Géogr. et Hist. (Dijon), X., 1894; XII. 429, 1896. 


— Les observations du Dr. Hofer sur le plankton dans le lac de Constance, Arch. Sci. 
Phys. Nat. (Geneve), sér. 3, XXXIV. 458. 1895. 


ZIMMERMANN, M.-—-Les lacs francais, Ann. de Géogr. (Paris), VII. 263. 1898. 
ZitTEL, K. A. von.—Das Saharameer, Das Ausland (Stuttgart), LVI. 524. 1888. 


Zogra¥, N.—Essai d’explication de l’origine de la faune des lacs de la Russie d’Europe, 
Conptes Rendus 3 Congr. Internat. Zool. (Leyde), 1895. 1896. 


ZSCHOKKE, F.—Die Fortpflanzungstitigkeit der Cladoceren der Hochgebirgseen, 
Festschrift zwin siebenzigsten Geburtstage Rudolf Leuckarts (Leipzig). 1892. 


vy] 


752 THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


ZscHOKKE, F.— Weiterer Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Fauna von Gebirgsseen, Zool. Anzeig. 
(Leipzig), XIV. 119, 126. 1892. 


—— Myxobolus psorospermicus, Thélohan, im Vierwaldstiittersee, Mitt. Naturf. Ges. 
Luzern, III. 441. 1898-1900. 


—— Die Tierwelt der Hochgebirgseen, Newe Denkschr. Schweiz. Naturf. Ges. (Ziirich), 
OOO BIs th, WOO. 


—— Die Tiefenfauna des Vierwaldstiitter-Sees, Verh. Schweiz. Naturf. Ges. (Luzern), 
1905: 

—— Ubersicht iiber die Tiefenfauna des Vierwaldstiittersees, Arch. f. Hydrobiol. und 
Planktonk. (Stuttgart), II. 1. 1906. 


—— Die Resultate der zoologischen Erforschung hochalpiner Wasserbecken seit dem 
Jahre 1900, Internat. Rev. Gesamt. Hydrobiol. u. Hydrographie (Leipzig), I. 
221. 1908. 


—— Beziehung zwischen der Tiefenfauna subalpiner Seen und der Tierwelt von 
Kleingewissern des Hochgebirges, Internat. Rev. Gesamt. Hydrobiol. u. 
Hydrographie (Leipzig), |. 783. 1908. 

—— Die Beziehungen der mitteleuropiiischen Tierwelt zur Eiszeit, Verh. Deutsch. 
Zool, Ges. (Stuttgart), 1908, 21. 1908. 


—— See WESENBERG-LUND, C. 


ZscHOKKE, HeERMANN.—Das Jordanthal in Palastina, Mitt. Geogr. Ges. Wien, X. 
(Abh.), 86. 1868. 


ANONYMOUS. 


Der See Kossogo] in Central-Asien, Petermann Mitt. (Gotha), 1860, 86. 1860. 

Le lac Joux, Mowvem. Géogr. (Bruxelles), XI. 65. 1894, 

Le lac Léopold II., Mowvem. Géogr (Bruxelles), XIV. 337. 1896. 

Die Fauna des Tanganyika-Sees, Prometheus (Berlin), IX. 92. 1898. 

Crater Lake, Oregon, Nature (Lond.), LVII. 375, 1898; A travers le Monde (Paris), 
1898, 9. 

Le lac Bangwelo, Mouwvem. Géogr. (Bruxelles), XV. 463. 1898. 

Le lac Trasiméne, Le Cosmos (Paris), N.S., XL. 802. 1899. 

Le lac Majeur, Le Cosmos (Paris), N.S., XLI. 750. 1899. 

Le plateau du Tanganyika et le ‘‘ Graben” du lac Rikwa, Mowvem. Géogr. (Bruxelles), 
X Vil. obser 1899: 

Le lac Rikwa, Mowvem. Géogr. (Bruxelles), XVI. 603, 1899; Rev. Franc. de? Etranger 
et des Colonies (Paris), XXV. 217. 1900. 

Vertikale Temperaturvertheilung im Schwarzen und Kaspischen Meere, Ann. Hydrogr. 
u. Marit. Met. (Berlin), XX VII. 468. 1899. 

The influence of the lakes on temperature of the land, Monthly Weather Rev. 
(Washington), XXVIII. 348. 1900. 

L’expédition Grogan dans la région des grands lacs de |’Afrique orientale, Mowvem. 
Géogr. (Bruxelles), XVII. 385, 397, 409, 421. 1900. 

Der Kivusee nach den neuesten Forschungen, Deutsche Kolonialztg. (Berlin), XVII. 390. 
1900 

I] lago di Garda, Boll, Mens. Osservat. Centrale Moncalieri (Torino), ser. 2, XX. 
65. 1900: 

Der Kiwasee und seine Vulcane, Deutsche Rundschau (Wien), XXIII. 88. 1901. 

Minor English lakes, Spectator, 2nd Nov. 1901, 655. 1901. 

Die Schirehochlandbahn und die afrikanischen Seengebiete, Koloniale Zeitung (Berlin), 
IT. 409.) P90. 

Untersuchungen in den Stuhmerseen von westpreuss. bot.-zool. Verein und von West- 
preuss. Fischerei Verein (Dantzig). 1901. 

Les iles du lac Tchad, Rev. Franc. de ? Etranger et des Colonies (Paris), XXVIII. 731. 
LOO 2 in 

I laghi della Pomerania, iv. Geogr. Ital. (Roma), 1X. 335, 1902. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LIMNOLOGICAL LITERATURE 753 


Le lac Kivu, Mowvem. Géogr. (Bruxelles), XIX. 296, 307. 1902. 

Die warmen Salzseen von Szovata und die Quellen ihrer Wiirme, Gaca: Natur wu. Leben 
(Leipzig), XXX VIII. 167. 1902. 

Periodische Seespiegelschwankungen (Seiches), Himmel u. Erde (Berlin), XIV. 378. 
1902. 

L’origine de la Mer Morte, 4 travers le Monde (Paris), N.S., IX. 138; Mowvem. 
Géogr. (Bruxelles), XX. 41. 1908. 

Die Erforschung des Tschadseegebiet, Dewtsche Kolonialatg. (Berlin), XX. 332. 1908. 

Les seiches du lac Pavin, Rev. @’ Auvergne, April 1903. 

Lake George, Australia, Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc. (New York), XL. 217. 1908. 


[‘‘ Bibliography is never finished, and always more or less defective, even on ground 
long gone over. The writer would be accurate ; yet he feels the weight of Stevens’ 
satire: ‘If you are troubled with a pride of accuracy, and would have it completely 
taken out of you, print a catalogue.’ ””—ELLIOTT Cougs. ] 


48 


INDEX OF GENERA AND SPECIES 


Acanthocystis chetophora, 326. 
myrrospind, 326. 
turfacea, 326. 
Acantholeberis curvirostris, 316. 
Achnanthes exilis, 333. 
Achtheres, 368. 
percarum, 316. 
Acineta elegans, 327. 
Acoperus harpe, 316. 
Actinophrys sol, 326. 
Actinospherium, 356. 
eichhorni, 326. 
Adineta barbata, 321. 
gracilis, 321. 
tuberculosa, 321. 
vaga, 321. 
Holosoma, 318. 
ehrenbergi, 318. 
Agrostis vulgaris, 188. 
Albertia bernardi, 300, 321. 
intrusor, 300. 
Alectoria gubata, 190, 210, 224. 
Alectorolophus, 424. 


Alisma plantago, 166, 176, 198, 214, 253, 


328. 


ranunculoides, 176, 217, 233, 236, 259. 


Alnus glutinosa, 176, 248. 
Alonella excisa, 317. 

nana, 317. 
Alonopsis elongata, 278, 316. 
Alopecurus geniculatus, 183. 
Amblystegium scorpioides, 385. 
Ammophila. arundinacea, 246. 
Ameba, 356, 364. 

granulosa, 325, 

radiosa, 325, 
Amphileptus gigas, 324. 
Amphioxus, 355. 
Amphipleura pellucida, 281. 
Anabenda, 282, 284, 358. 

circinalis, 191, 333, 404. 

flos-aque, 333. 

flos-aque, var. circinalis, 251. 
Anacharis, 258. 

alsinastrum, 176, 195, 242, 255, 259. 
Anagallis tenella, 175, 234. 
Anapus testudo, 324. 
Ancylus, 369. 

fluviatilis, 318. 
Angelica sylvestris, 173. 
Anodon, 368, 371. 


‘ Anodonta cygnea, 227, 296, 3138. 


Antennaria dioica, 192. 
Anthelia julacea, 189, 228. 
Anthrenus scrophularie, 421. 
Anurea, 408, 411. 
aculeata, 287, 323, 400. 
cochlearis, 278, 282, 285, 328. 
hypelasma, 324, 


Apium tnundatum, 159, 172, 194, 205, 


237, 328. 
nodiflorum, 172. 

Apus, 365. 

Arcella, 278. 
artocred, 326. 
discoides, 326, 
henrvispherica, 326. 
vulgaris, 326. 

Archigetes sieboldii, 318. 

Arctostaphylos alpina, 192, 204. 
uva-ursi, 192, 206. 

Argulus, 368. 

Armeria maritima, 211. 

Arrhenurus, 313. 

Artemia, 542. 

Arthrodesmus crassus, 279. 
ancus, 279, 281. 
quiriferus, 279. 
triangularts, 279. 

Arthroglena lutkent, 300, 322. 

Ascomorpha ecaudis, 321. 

Asellus, 298, 306, 355, 367. 
aquaticus, 315. 
forelr, 306. 

Aspidisca turrita, 825. 

Asplanchna, 282, 288, 405, 411. 
brightwelli, 400. 
priodonta, 277, 285, 321, 407. 

Assuleria minor, 326. 
seminulum, 326. 

Astacus, 355, 358. 

Asterionella, 282, 285, 290. 
formosa, 255, 280, 282, 303, 333. 
gracillima, 280, 282, 308, 333. 

Atax crassipes, 313, 

Aulacomnium palustre, 187. 

Automolos morgiensis, 292, 307, 319. 

Azolla, 357. 


Baétis, 334. 
Balanus, 360, 361. 
Batrachium, 357, 396. 


INDEX OF GENERA AND 


Batrachospermum, 194, 208, 224, 357. 
moniliforme, 190, 208, 204, 211, 329. 
vaguin, 190, 228. 
Betula nana, 192, 203. 
Bidens cernua, 173. 
Binuclearia tatrana, 191. 
Blindia acuta, 186, 195, 204, 211. 
Boeckella occidentalis, 572. 
propensis, 572. 
Bosmina, 282, 288, 408, 428. 
coregont, 277, 278, 287, 299, 316, 400, 
405, 406, 411, 415, 424. 

longtrostris, 277, 287, 299, 316, 344, 400, 
aluie 

longispina, 289, 316, 344, 

longispina, var. macrocerastes, 346. 

obtustrostris, 277, 281, 282, 287, 299, 
316, 336, 344, 345, 346, 347. 

Bothriocephatus plicatus, 318. 

Botryococcus braunit, 333,389. 

Brachionus, 400. 
angularis, 3238. 
pala, 323. 

Brachythecium rivulare, 188, 204, 329, 

Branchipus, 364. 

Lreutelia arcuata, 187. 

Bryum alpinwm, 187. 
bimwm, 187. 
neodamense, 187. 
pallens, 187, 254. 

Buccinum, 355. 

Bulbochete, 329. 

Bythinia, 367. 

Bythotrephes, 283, 285, 411. 
longimanus, 277, 287, 317, 336. 


Callidina aculeata, 321. 
angusticollis, 299, 320. 
annulata, 320. 
armata, 300, 320, 321. 
aspera, 320. 
crenata, 321. : 
crucicornis, 300, 320, 321. 
ehrenbergit, 321. 
habita, 321. 
hexodonta, 320. 
lata, 321. 
leitgebti, 320. 
longiceps, 300, 320. 
magna, 321. 
multispinosa, 321. 
muricata, 321, 
papillosa, 321. 
plicata, 321. 
pulchra, 321. 
pusilla, 320. 
quadricornifera, 321. 
repert, 320. 
russeola, 321. 
symbiotica, 321. 
tetraodon, 321. 

Callitriche autumnalis, 

250. 

hamutata, 167, 172, 195, 198, 199, 201, 
208, 204, 207, 209, 211, 215, 258, 
327. 

stagnalis, 172, 217, 250, 327. 


172, 195, 245, 


SPECIES 799 


Callitriche vernalis, 172. 
Caliuna, 210, 211, 225, 240, 256. 
vulgaris, 207, 226, 246, 256. 
Caltha palustris, 169, 198, 208, 204, 208, 
CAN ee OA ERDAS TC 
palustris, var. minor, 169, 
Campascus minutus, 326. 
Camptocercus recttrostris, 316. 
Campylodiscus, 333. 
Candona candida, 292, 317. 
elongata, 299, 310, 317. 
Canthocamptus crassus, 316, 
hirticornis, 316. 
horridus, 316. 
minutus, 316. 
pygmeus, 316. 
eschokket, 316. 
Capnoides claviculata, 210. 
Cardamine pratensis, 170, 208, 214, 217, 
253. 
Cardium, 355, 
edule, 359. 
Corer, 225.227, 202,.258. 
acutiformis, 183. 
aquatilis, 182, 193, 194, 208, 
208, 211, 214, 280, 255, 259, 328. 
arenaria, 182, 246, 259. 
binervis, 182, 208, 204. 
dtoica, 181, 203. 
disticha, 181, 198. 
elata, 181, 194, 199, 328. 
elatior, 230, 


204, 


filiformis, 182, 194, 208, 204, 221, 
224, 228, 231, 285, 239, 240,. 242, 
248. 

jlacca, 182, 194, 214. 

flacca, var. stictocarpa, 182, 217. 

flava, 182, 208. 

flava, var. argillacea, 217. 

goodenovit, 182, 198, 2038, 204, 208, 


211, 214, 218, 230, 240, 248. 

hirta, 182, 193, 259. 

paniculata, 182, 1938, 254. 

pendula, 246, 

rostrata, 166, 182, 183, 194, 199, 202, 
208, 204, 206, 207, 208, 209, 211, 
214. 217, 220) 222, 223,-225, 227, 
228, 230, 231, 234, 2385, 237, 2388, 
239, 240, 242, 248, 248, 249, 251, 
256, 328. 

vesicaria, 182, 193, 230, 328. 

Caridina, 355. 

Carum verticillatum, 173, 192. 

Caryocatactes nucifraga, 421. 

Castalia speciosa, 166, 170, 194, 203, 204, 
205, 206, 209, 214, 222, 228, 234, 
237, 288, 239, 248, 248, 327. 

speciosa, var. minor, 170. 
Catharinea undulata, 186, 232. 
Cathypna latifrons, 328. 

ligona, 301, 328. 

luna, 323. 

rusticula, 328. 

Caulerpa, 358, 

Centropyxis aculeata, 325. 

Cephalozia sphagni, 240. 

Ceratium, 408. 


796 


Ceratium cornutus, 280, 334. 
hirundinella, 280, 282, 285, 288, 334, 
336, 337, 347, 349, 358, 389, 404, 
406, 411, 
Ceratophyllum demersum, 176, 195, 254. 
Certodaphnia cornuta, 400. 
quadrangula, 316. 
Cetraria aculeata, 190. 
muricata, 190, 224, 
Chetogaster, 318. 
Cheetonotus larus, 324. 
Cheetospira muscicola, 324. 
Chara, 254, 258, 357, 385. 
aspera, 184, 195,216. 217, 250, 258; 
oo: 
aspera, var. desmacantha, 185, 214. 
aspera, var, subinernris, 185, 236, 259. 
contraria, 185. 
Setida, 329. 
fragilis, 185, 195, 211, 250, 255, 329. 
fragilis, var. delicatula, 185, 195, 199, 
200, 208, 204, 207, 214, 236, 255. 
hispida, 329. 
hispida, var. rudis, 185, 195, 214. 
polyacantha, 242. 
vulgaris, 185. 
Chiloscyphus polyanthos, 190. 
Chirononus, 289, 292, 315. 
Chlamydononas adherens, 382. 
Chondrus, 357. 
Chromis desfontainet, 550. 
2ilit, 550. 
Chydorus barbatus, 317. 
ovalis, 317. 
sphericus, 400. 
Cicuta virosa, 178, 254, 328. 
Cinclidotus fontinaloides, 329. 
Cladium mariscus, 181, 194, 240, 242. 
Cladonia wneialis, 240. 
Cladophora, 194, 358. 
canalicularis, 191, 245, 255. 
crispata, 191, 
flavescens, 191, 235, 248, 250, 252, 255. 
Fracta, 191, 215, 252, 329. 
glomerata, 191. 
Clathrocystis, 282, 358. 
ceruginosa, 333. 
Clathrulina elegans, 278, 326. 
Clepsine bioculata, 318. 
sexoculata, 318. 
Climacium dendroides, 188, 329. 
Closterium calosporum, 330. 
cornu, 880. 
costatum, 380. 
didymotocum, 330. 
ehrenbergii, 380. 
kiitzingti, 279, 281, 330. 
lineatum, 330. 
lunula, 3380. 
ralfsii, 330. 
rostratum, 330. 
setacewm, 330. 
striolatum, 330. 
Cnicus heterophyllus, 192, 210. 
palustris, 173. 
Cocconeis, 255. 
Cochliopodium bilimbosum, 325. 


THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS 


OF SCOTLAND 


Celospherium kutzingianum, 333. 
Colurus bicuspidatus, 323. 
leptus, 323. 
obtusus, 328. 
tesselatus. 301, 323. 
Comarum palustre, 171, 193, 208, 206, 208, 
214, 217, 327. 
Comephorus baicalensis, 603. 
Conferva, 208. 
fontinalis, 191, 329. 
Conocephalus conicus, 190. 
Conochilus unicornis, 277, 285, 299, 320. 
wolvox, 277, 299, 320. 
Copeus caudatus, 322. 
cerberus, 322. 
spicatus, 322. 
Cordylophora, 356, 
lacustris, 360. 
Corethra, 315. 
Corixa distincta, 334. 
Jabricti, 334. 
preusta, 334. 
striata, 315. 
Cornus suecica, 192. 
Corythion dubiwm, 326. 
Cosmarium, 358. 
abbreviatum, 279. 
botrytes, 331. 
brebissoni, 331. 
capitulwm, 331. 
connatum, 331. 
contractum, 279. 
crenatum, 381. 
cucumis, 331. 
depressum, 279. 
galeritum, 331. 
humile, 331. 
ovale, 331. 
pachydermum, 331, 
phaseolus, 331. 
plicatum, 331. 
punctulatum, 331. 
ralfsvi, 331. 
reniforme, 331. 
subspeciosum, 331. 
tetraophthaimum, 331. 
Cosmocladium constrictum, 331. 
Crambessa tagt, 360. 
Cristatella mucedo, 317. 
Cryptomonas ovata, 327. 
Culex, 334. 
Cyclas, 368. 
Cyclocypris levis, 317. 
serena, 317. 
Cyclops, 289, 292, 364, 372 
affinis, 315. 
albidus, 315. 
bicuspidatus, 315. 
jimbriatus, 315. 
Juscus, 815, ~ 
languidoides, 316. 
langwidus, 316, 
leuckarti, 400. 
macruroides, 316. 
macrurus, 315. 
nanus, 315, 
oithonoides, 400. 


s 


INDEX OF GENERA AND SPECIES 


Cyclops prasinus, 315. 
serrulatus, 315, 400. 
strenuus, 277, 281, 282, 288, 287, 316. 
varius, 316. 
vernalrs, 316. 
viridis, 292, 294, 316, 326. 

Cyclotella, 281. 
compta, 269, 338. 
compta, var. radiosa, 269. 
radiosa, 333. 

Cynips calecis, 421. 
caput-meduse, 421. 

Cyphoderia, 278. 
ampulla, 326. 

Cypria ophthalmica, 292, 317. 

Cyprinodon calaritanus, 550. 

Cyprinus, 358, 

Cypris fuscata, 317. 
obliqua, 317. 

Cystopteris fragilis, 192. 


Dactylococcus, 332. 
Daphnella, 404. 
Daphnia, 282, 288, 289, 408, 411. 
galeata, 340, 341, 342. 
hyalina, 277, 281, 282, 285, 287, 316, 
400, 403, 406, 415, 416, 418, 428, 
429. 
longispina, 336, 339-346, 424, 
microcephala, 340, 
obtusifrons, 340, 341. 
Dendrocelum lacteum, 318. 
Deschampsia cespitosa, 188, 193, 230, 
jlexuosa, 207, 210. 
Desmidium coarctatum, 280. 
graciliceps, 280. 
occidentale, 280, 
swartzii, 382. 
Diaphanosoma, 411. 
brachyurum, 277, 288, 285, 316, 336. 
Diaptomus, 297, 298, 335. 
castor, 297. 
gracilis, 277, 281, 282, 285, 288, 297, 
298, 315, 337. 
graciloides, 287. 
laciniatus, 277, 283, 287, 297, 298, 315, 
336, 337. 
laticeps, 277, 287, 297, 298, 315. 
WUVETZCISHUY, Dib, 2005, 2045. 291, 298, 
315, 336, 337. 
Diaschiza eva, 328. 
gibba, 328. 
hoodti, 323. 
lacinulata, 328. 
sterea, 323, 
tenutor, 323. 
tenuiseta, 323. 
ventripes, 323. 
Diatoma, 255. 
Dichodontiwm pellucidum, 186. 
Dickieia, 191. 
Dicranella heteromatla, 186. 
squarrosa, 186. 
Dicranum fuscescens, 186. 
scottianum, 186. 
Dictyospherium ehrenbergianum, 333. 
Diffiugia, 356. 


1Esy 


Difflugia acuminata, 325. 
arcula, 325. 
bacillifera, 325. 
constricta, 325, 
corona, 325. 
curvicaulis, 325. 
globulosa, 325. 
gramen, 325, 
lanceolata, 325. 
lobostoma, 325. 
pristis, 325. 
pyriformis, 325. 
urceolata, 325. 
Diglena circinator, 322. 
dromius, 322, 
ferox, 322. 
Sorcipata, 322, 
grandis, 322. 
uncinata, 322. 
Dinobryon, 280, 282, 327. 
cylindricum, 327. 
divergens, 327. 
elongatum, 327. 
stipitatum, 327. 
Dinocharis pocillum, 322, 
similis, 300, 322. 
tetractis, 300, 322. 
Diphascon angustatum, 314. 
bullatum, 314. 
chilenense, 314, 
oculatum, 314, 
scoticum, 314, 
spitzbergensis, 314. 
Diplophyllum albicans, 190. 
Distyla depressa, 328. 
flexilis, 328. 
Diurella brachyura, 322. P 
porcellus, 322. 
tenuior, 322, 
tigrts, 322. 
Docidium undulatwm, 330. 
Draparnaldia glomerata, 329. 
Dreissensia, 372. 
polymorpha, 371. 
Drepanothrix dentata, 316. 
Drosera intermedia, 192. 
Dytiscus, 371. 
marginalis, 315, 


Echiniscus arctomys, 314. 
gladiator, 296, 314. 
granulatus, 314. 
mutabilis, 314, 
othonne, 314, 
quadrispinosus, 314. 
reticulatus, 314. 
spitsbergensis, 296, 314. 
wendti, 296, 314. 

Echinorhynchus proteus, 318. 

Elatine hexandra, 170, 195, 244. 

Elodea canadensis, 301, 328. 

Empetrum nigrum, 192. 

Enteromorpha, 194. 
intestinalis, 191, 217, 250, 252, 329. 

Eosphora digitata, 322. 
najas, 322. 

Ephydra, 542. 


798 


Epilobium angustifoliwm, 171, 210. 
hirsutum, 171, 1938, 249. 
palustre, 171, 215, 327. 
tetragonum, 171. 
Epithemia hyndmanni, 269. 
Equisetum arvense, 184, 210, 258. 
limosum, 188, 194, 199, 203, 204, 206, 
2076 2095) 210,20 Ot ae ano 
999, 998, 228, 230, 282, 284, 237, 
238, 239, 240, 248, 248, 249, 251, 
29950256, ©2957, 2095329: 
palustre, 184. : 
Eremosphera viridis, 333. 
Eretmia, 301. 
cubeutes, 801, 324. 
Eriophorum polystachion, 181, 198, 203, 
204, 208, 211, 214. 
vaginatum, 181, 1938, 203, 204, 211. 
Huastrum affine, 330. 
ansatum, 330. 
bidentatum, 380. 
binale, 330. 
crassum, 330. 
denticulatum, 330. 
didelta, 330. 
divaricatum, 330. 
inerine, 330. 
oblongum, 330. 
pectinatum, 330. 
. sinwosum, 330. 
verrucosum, 279, 281. 
Kubostrichus, 318, 319. 
guernet, 319. 
Euchlanis deflexa, 323. 
dilatata, 328. 
lyra, 323. 
oropha, 323. 
triquetra, 323. 
Eudorina elegans, 332. 
Huglena, 356, 390. 
Huglypha alveolata, 326. 
brachiata, 326. 
ciliata, 326. 
compressa, 826. 
Eunotia bidens, 333. 
gracilis, 333. 
lunaris, 333. 
pectinalis, 280. 
Eupatorium cannabinum, 178, 215, 241. 
KHuphrasia, 424. 
Eurhynchium rusciforme, 188, 195, 220, 
329, 
Kurycercus lamellatus, 316. 


THE FRESH-WATER 


Festuca ovina, 210. 
Fissidens adiantoides, 186, 
Floscularia campanulata, 320. 
mutabilis, 320. 
ornata, 320. 
pelagica, 277, 300, 320. 
Fontinalis, 301, 305, 381. 
antipyretica, 162, 168, 184, 187, 188, 
19554198, 199; 2037; 204 420750211. 
D145) DUS 238.241. 28503290 3bi,, 
382, 385. 
sguamosa, 188, 195, 241. 
Fragilaria crotonensis, 280, 338. 


LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Fragilaria crotonensis, var. contorta, 303. 
Fredericella sultana, 317. 

Frullania tamarisci, 189. 

Fuchsia, 212. 

Fucus, 357. 

Furcularia forficuli, 322. 


longiseta, 322. 
quadrangularis, 322. 
reinhardti, 278, 300, 322. 


Galium boreale, 192. 
palustre, 173, 328. 
Gammarus, 298, 299, 318, 355, 367, 539. 
pulex, 315. 7 
Gastropus stylifer, 278, 301, 324. 
Genicularia elegans, 279. 
Gentiana, 424. 
Gerris costee, 334, 
Girwanella problematica, 402. 
Glenodiniwm, 280. 
cinctum, 334. 
Gleocapsa, 3338. 
Gleotrichia, 333. 
pisuim, 191, 245. 
Glyceria aquatica, 188, 193, 236, 248, 329. 
Jluitans, 188, 194, 199, 208, 204, 208 
210, 214, 329. 
Gnaphalium uliginosum, 178, 1938, 250, 
251. 
Gomphonema, 255. 
acuminatum, 3338. 
dichotomum, 333. 
Gomphospheria, 358. 
lacustris, 338. 
Gonatozygon monotenium, 279, 330. 
Gordius, 318. 
Graptoleberis testudinaria, 317. 
Griminia apocarpa, 186, 329. 
apocarpa, var, rivularis, 186. 
Gromia nigricans, 326. 
Gymnozyga moniliformis, 332. 
Gyrator notops, 319. 


Haliplus fulvus, 315, 3384. 
rufjicollis, 315. 
Halmomises, 361. 
Haltica rufipes, 421. 
Haplochromis desfontainest, 363. 
Hedwigia ciliata, 186. 
ciliata, var. leucophca, 186. 
Heleocharis, 253. 
acicularis, 181, 195, 249, 251, 257. 
multicaulis, 181, 194, 228, 248. 
palustris, 181, 194, 202, 203, 204, 208, 
214, 217, 225, 228, 280, 244, 245, 
249, 251, 253, 259, 328. 
Heleopera petricola, 325. 
rosea, 325. 
Hemichronris rollandi, 550. 
saharee, 550. 
FHeterocladium heteropterum, 188. 
Hippuris vulgaris, 171, 194, 208, 214, 217, 
249, 251, 327. 
Hirundo medicinalis, 318, 319. 
Holopedium, 282, 283, 285, 411. 
gibberum, 277, 287, 316, 336. 
Huitfeldtia rectipes, 296, 313. 


INDEX OF GENERA AND SPECIES 


Hyalodaphnia, 411, 
cucullata, 287, 406, 412, 413. 
Hyalosphenia cuneata, 325, 
elegans, 325. 
paptlio, 325, 
Hyalotheca mucosa, 280, 282, 382. 
neglecta, 280. 
Hydra, 292, 319, 356, 372. 
Jusca, 324. 
rubra, 324, 
viridis, 324. 
vulgaris, 324. 
Hydrachna globosa, 318. 
Hydrocharis, 386. 
Hydrochorentes krameri, 313. 
ungulatus, 3138. 
Hydrocotyle vulgaris, 172, 208, 208, 214 
217, 248, 257, 327. 
Hydroporus septentrionalis, 334, 
Hygrobates longipalpis, 313. 
reticulatus, 318. 
Hylocomium squarrosum, 189. 
triquetrum, 246, 
Hyocomium flagellare, 188. 
Hypericum elodes, 171, 193, 240, 242. 
humifusum, 171, 234. 
Hypnum, 357, 386. 
commutatum, 188. 
cupressiforme, 189, 231, 241. 
cuspidatum, 189, 204, 329. 
faleatum, 188, 329. 
fluitans, 188, 329. 
ochraceum, 189, 329. 
revolvens, 188. 
riparium, 188. 
scorpioides, 189, 214, 301, 329. 
scorptotdes, var. miquelonense, 189, 207, 
301. 
stellatum, 188. 
stramineum, 189, 203, 255, 329. 
trifarium, 189, 203. 
uncinatum, 188, 204. 
vernicosum, 189. 


Ichthydium podura, 324. 

Ilyocryptus acutifrons, 299, 315, 316. 
agilis, 316. 
sordidus, 316. 

Irene, 360. 

Iris pseud-acorus, 

253, 255, 328. 

Isoetes, 209. 

lacustris, 166, 167, 184, 195, 198, 199, 
201, 202, 203, 204, 207, 211, 215, 
223, 226, 229, 281, 288, 245, 329, 
357. 


176, 198, 214, 217, 


Jasione montana, 192. 
Juncus acutiflorus, 177, 
231, 248, 258. 
alpinus, 225, 
articulatus, 177, 193, 208, 204, 214, 217, 
218, 228, 234, 328. 
bufonius, 177, 178, 193, 242, 251, 258, 
328. 
bufonius, var. fasciculatus, 177. 
conglomeratus, 177, 193, 217. 


178, 205, 228, 


(fie, 


| Juncus effusus, 177, 1938, 2038, 204, 207, 


210, 214, 217, 228, 244, 245, 248, 
257, 328. 

Jluitans, 167, 195, 198, 199, 201, 203, 
204, 207, 209, 211, 215, 222, 223, 257, 
258. 

glaucus, 177, 254, 255. 

lamprocarpus, 177, 228. 

squarrosus, 207. 

supinus, 177, 178, 193, 204, 218, 242, 
257, 258. 

supinus, var. fluitans, 178. 

supinus, var. subverticillatus, 178. 

suptnus, var. uliginosus, 178. 

Jungermaniia, 190. 


Laccobius minutus, 334. 
Laminaria, 357. 
Lathonura rectirostris, 316. 
Latona, 288. 
setifera, 299, 316. 
Lebertia porosa, 318. 
tau-insignita, 296, 305. 
Lecanora tartarea, 190, 224. 
Lecidea geographica, 190, 218. 
Lecquereusia modesta, 325. 
spiralis, 325. 
Lemna minor, 179. 
trisulca, 179, 254. 
Lepidiwm heterophyllum, 192. 
Leptodora, 283, 285, 288, 311, 411. 
hyalina, 336. 
kindtii, 277, 285, 317. 
Leptorhyncus faleatus, 317. 
Lerneeocera, 368. 
Limneea, 289, 355, 369. 
ovata, 313. 
peregra, 292, 3138. 
Limnosida frontosa, 400. 
Littorella, 209. 
lacustris, 175, 183, 195,.198, 199, 201, 
203, 204, 207, 211, 214, 217, 219, 222, 
223, 226, 228, 238, 239, 245, 249, 
252, 258, 254, 256, 257, 328. 
Lobelia, 209. 
dortmanna, 166, 167, 173, 195, 198, 
199, 201. 203,,204, 207,211, 215; 217, 
222, 223, 226, 228, 238, 239, 245, 328. 
Lumbriculus, 318. 
Lycopus europeeus, 175. 
Lynceus affinis, 292, 317. 
guttatus, 317. 
intermedius, 317. 
rusticus, 317. 
Lyngbya, 389. 
Lysimachia nemorum, 175, 205. 
nummularia, 175, 259. 
vulgaris, 175, 205. 
Lythrum salicaria, 171, 215, 242, 243, 
327. 


Macrobiotus ambiguus, 296, 305, 314. 
annulatus, 314. 
dispar, 314. 
echinogenitus, 314. 
hastatus, 314, 
hufelandw, 314. 


760 


Macrobiotus intermedius, 314. 
islandicus, 314. 
macronyx, 314. 
oberhduseri, 314. 
ornatus, 314. 
papillifer, 314. 
pullari, 314. 
sattleri, 314, 
tetradactylus, 314, 
tuberculatus, 314. 
Maerorhynchus lemani, 306. 
Mallomonas, 280, 282. 
plessli, 327. 
Marchantia polymorpha, 190, 251. 
Melosira, 333, 428. 
distans, 269. 
granulata, 191, 244, 281. 
Membranipora, 360. 
Mentha aquatica, 174, 198. 
arvensis, 174, 217. 
sativa, 174, 198, 217, 328. 
sativa, var. rubra, 174. 
Menyanthes trifoliata, 166, 194, 199, 208, 
204, 208, 214, 217, 224, 237, 249, 254, 
328. 
Mesostomum prorhynchus, 319. 
viridiatum, 319. 
Metopidia acuminata, 323. 
lepadella, 323. 
oxysternum, 323. 
rhomboides, 323. 
solidus, 323. 
triptera, 323. 
Metridiwn, 360. 
Micrasterias, 358. 
americana, 380. 
apiculata, 330. 
apiculata, var. fimbriata, 302. 
brachyptera, 302, 330. 
conferta, 330. 
conferta, var. hamata, 302. 
denticulata, 330. 
jennert, 330. 
mahabuleshwarensis, 279, 331. 
mahabuleshwarensis, var. wallichii, 302. 
murrayt, 302, 331. 
papilifera, 302, 331. 
pinnatafida, 331. 
radiata, 302, 331. 
rotata, 331. 
sol, 331. 
thomasiana, 331. 
truncata, 331. 
verrucosa, 302, 331. 
Microdides chlena, 321. 
robustus, 321. 
Microdina paradoxa, 299, 320. 
Microdon clavus, 321. 
Microspira desulphuricans, 3. 
estuarti, 3. 
Microstoma lineare, 318, 319. 
Milnesium tardigradum, 314. 
Mimulus langsdorffi, 174. 
Mnium punctatum, 187. 
Molinia, 225, 227. 
cerulea, 210, 219, 222, 232, 257. 
Monospilus dispar, 317. 


THE FRESH-WATER 


LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Monostyla bulla, 323. 
cornuta, 323. 
lunaris, 323. 
Montia fontana, 172, 205, 214, 327. 
rivularis, 172. 
Moraria brevipes, 316. 
Mougeotia, 191, 194, 224, 329. 
Mylia taylori, 190. 
Myosotis palustris, 174, 214, 217, 328. 
Myrica, 240. 
gale, 176, 206, 207. 
Myrtophyllum, 357, 386. 
alterniflorum, 171, 195, 198, 199, 208, 
204, 207, 211, 217, 223, 244, 248, 
254, 327. 
spicatum, 172, 195, 218, 214, 236, 244, 
250, 251, 254, 327. 
Mysis, 298, 308, 361. 
relicta, 307, 308. 
vulgaris, 308, 315. 
Mytilus, 361. 


Nais, 355. 
Nardia, 200. 
compressa, 190, 195, 208, 204, 211, 223. 
emarginata, 190, 195, 198, 204, 208 
226, 329. 
scalaris, 190, 223, 
Nardus stricta, 207, 210, 219. 
Narthecium osstfragum, 177. 
Navicula alpina, 338. 
gibba, 333. 
major, 269, 281, 333. 
nobilis, 338. 
Nebela americana, 325, 
barbata, 325. 
bicornis, 278, 325. 
bursella, 325. 
carinata, 325. 
caudata, 326. 
collaris, 326. 
crenulata; 326. 
flabellulum, 326. 
lageniformis, 326. 
militaris, 326, 
tubulosa, 326. 
witraed, 326. 
Nepa, 371. 
Nephrocytium agardhianum, 333. 
Nereis, 361. 
Netrium digittus, 330. 
interruptum, 330. 
nagelit, 330. 
Niphargus, 306. 
Soreli, 306. 
Nitella, 357, 385, 396. 
Jlexilis, 184, 2380. 
opaca, 162, 184, 195, 198, 199, 200, 208, 
204, 207, 209, 230, 288, 245, 259, 
329, 
opaca, var. attenwata, 184. 
translucens, 184, 195, 204, 329. 
Nostoc, 333. 
Noteus quadricornis, 301, 323. 
Notholca foliacea, 324. 
longispina, 278, 282, 285, 324. 
striata, 287, 324. 


INDEX OF GENERA AND 


Notommata aurita, 322. 
brachyota, 322. 
Sorcipata, 322. 
pumila, 300, 320, 322. 
torulosa, 322. 
tripus, 322. 
Notops hyptopus, 321. 
Nuphar, 396. 
Nymphea alba, 327. 
lutea, 170, 194, 214, 228, 230, 284, 243, 
244, 248, 327. 
‘lutea, var. intermedia, 170, 256. 
pumila, 170, 194, 204, 327. 


eistes brachiatus, 320. 
crystallinus, 320. 
serpentinus, 320. 
Gdogoniwm, 194, 235, 358. 
capillare, 190, 217, 329. 
@nanthe crocata, 173, 192, 328. 
Ophridiwm versatile, 325. 
Ophryoxus gracilis, 299, 315, 316. 
Orestias agassizi, var. inornata, 572. 
Orthotrichum rupestre, 187. 
Oscillatoria, 284, 333, 358, 395. 
Oxus ovalis, 318. 
Oxyethira, 315, 334. 


Palemon, 355. 
Palemoncetes, 367. 
Pallasiella quadrispinosa, 307. 
Paludicella ehrenbergii, 317. 
Paludina, 355, 368. 
Pandorina morum, 332. 
Paramecium, 356. 
Parmelia lanata, 190, 224. 
omphalodes, 190, 218, 224, 226. 
Parnassia palustris, 172, 214. 
Patella, 355. 
Paulinella chromatophora, 326. 
Pedation, 400. 
Pediastrum, 358. 
boryanum, 332. 
duplex, 332. 
Pedicularis palustris, 174, 208, 214, 217. 
Pellia calycina, 190. 
epiphylla, 190. 
Penium sptrostriolatum, 330. 
Peplis portula, 170, 220, 242, 258, 327. 
Peratacantha truncata, 317. 
Peridiniwm, 280, 282. 
divergens, 402. 
pyrophorum, 402. 
tabulatum, 282, 334. 
Phalaris arundinacea, 183, 193, 218, 230, 
242, 248, 249, 328. 
Philodina aculeata, 320. 
acuticornis, 320. 
alpium, 320. 
brevipes, 320. 
brycet, 320. 
citrina, 320. 
decurvicorinis, 320. 
erythrophihalma, 320. 
flaviceps, 320. 
hamata, 299, 320. 
humerosa, 320. 


SPECIES 761 
Philodina laticeps, 299, 320. 
laticornis, 299, 320. 
macrostyla, 320. 
megalotrocha, 320. 
nemoralis, 320. 
plena, 320. 
roseola, 320. 
rugosa, 320. 
Philonotis calcarea, 187. 
Sontana, 187, 204, 329. 

Phoca baicalensis, 608. 

Phodophyra cyclopum, 326, 327. 

Pholas, 361. 

Phragmites, 385, 391, 396. 

communis, 166, 183, 194, 202, 204, 206, 
207, 210, 214, 217, 221, 222, 228, 
230, 2381, 232, 234, 285, 236, 237, 
238, 239, 242, 243, 244, 248, 249, 
255, 256, 258, 328. 

Pilularia globulifera, 184, 195, 248. 

Piona aduncopalpis, 313. 

carnea, 3138. 

fuscatus, 3138. 

obturbans, 313. 

paucipora, 313. 

rufa, 3138. 

Pionacercus, 313. 

Pisidium, 289, 292, 368. 

pusilluim, 292, 3138. 

Placocysta lens, 326. 

spinosa, 326. 

Plagiostoma lemani, 306. 

Planaria, 356. 

Planorbis, 355, 369. 

contortus, 313. 

Plantago lanceolata, 175. 

Platambus maculatus, 334. 

Platysma glaucum, 190, 224. 

Pleurotenium coronatum, 330, 

nodosum, 330. 

Pleurotrocha parasitica, 322. 

Pleuroxus levis, 317. 

trigonellus, 317. 

uncinatus, 317. 

Pleurozia cochleariformis, 189. 

Plesoma hudsoni, 278, 324, 409. 

triacanthum, 324. 

truncatum, 278, 324. 

Plumatella emarginata, 317. 

Jruticosa, 317. 

punctata, 317. 

repens, 317. 

Polyarthra euryptera, 277, 300, 321. 

platyptera, 277, 282, 285, 3821, 
429, 

Polycelis nigra, 318. 

Folychetus collinsi, 300, 322. 

subquadratus, 300, 322. 

Polycystis goettei, 319. 

Polygonum amphibium, 175, 194, 199, 
208, 214, 248, 249, 250, 251, 254, 
255, 257, 328. 

aviculare, 176. 
hydropiper, 175, 328. 
persicaria, 176. 

Polyphemus, 283, 285. 

pediculus, 277, 317, 336, 


400, 


762 


Polytrichum commune, 186, 256. 
gracile, 256. 
Pomphalyxophrys exigua, 326. 
Ponteporeia affinis, 307. 
Pontigulasia bigtbbosa, 325. 
Porotrichum alopecurum, 329. 
Porphyridium cruentum, 191. 
Potamogeton, 231, 244, 255, 271, 381, 396. 
crispus, 180, 195, 244, 328. 
jiliformis, 180, 195, 214, 250, 328, 
Jlabellatus, 180, 195, 255. 
Friesti, 180, 195, 286. 
heterophylius, 159, 180, 194, 216, 217, 
25. 
natans, 179, 194, 199, 203, 204, 207, 
209, 211, 214, 217,.222, 228,249, 
250, 328, 357, 396. 
lucens, 180, 195, 199, 203, 204, 207, 
214, 228, 244, 249, 328, 385, 396. 
obtusifolius, 180, 195, 248. 
obtusifolius, var. fluitans, 254. 
obtusifolius, var. fluvialis, 180. 
pectinatus, 180, 195, 258. 
perfoliatus, 180, 195, 214, 245, 259, 
328, 385, 396. 
polygonifolius, 179, 194, 208, 204, 207, 
211, 221, 222, 228, 231, 257, 328. 
polygonifolius, var. pseudo-fluitans, 179, 
220. 
preelongus, 180, 195, 204, 207, 328. 
pusilius, 180, 195, 207, 214, 250, 328. 
pusillus, var. tenuissimus, 180, 204, 
214, 
rufescens, 180, 194. 
rufescens, var. spathulifolius, 180, 256. 
zizit, 180, 195, 249. 
Proales caudata, 322. 
daphnicola, 292, 300, 322. 
parasita, 322. 
petromyzon, 322. 
sordida, 322, 
Protopterus, 364. 
Pseudodifiingia horrida, 326. 
Pseudecistes rotifer, 320. 
Pteris aquilina, 246. 
Pterodina ceca, 323. 
elliptica, 323, 
patina, 323. 
reflexa, 323. 
truncata, 3238. 
Pterogonium gracile, 188, 221, 329. 
Pierygophyllum ltucens, 188. 


Quadrula symmetrica, 326. 


Radicula officinalis, 170, 214, 217. 
palustris, 170. 
pinnata, 170. 
Ranunculus aquatilis, 159, 168, 257. 
baudotit, 168, 250. 
circinatus, 168, 195, 245, 248, 250, 327. 
drouetii, 168. 
flammula, 169, 198, 203, 204, 208, 211, 
214, 217, 230, 234, 258, 327. 
flammula, var. natans, 169, 220, 221, 
228. 


THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Ranunculus lammula, var. pseudo-reptans, 
169, 251, 258. 
flammula, var. 
259. 
hederaceus, 169, 210, 251, 327. 
heterophullus, 169, 230. 
lenormandi, 169. 
lingua, 169, 198, 254. 
peltatus, 169, 194, 248, 250, 251. 
radicans, 230. 
sceleratus, 169. 
Raphidiophrys, 278. 
conglobata, 278, 326. 
pallida, 278, 326. 
Raphidium, 332. 
Rattulus longiseta, 322. 
lophoessa, 322. 
scipio, 322. 
Rhacomitrium aciculare, 186, 203, 231,. 
329, 
canescens, 246. 
canescens, var. ericoides, 246. 
heterostichum, 186. 
lanuginosum, 186, 
protensum, 186. 
Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum, 191. 
Rhizosolenia, 333. 
eriensis, 281. 
longiseta, 281. 
Rhynchospora alba, 181. 
Riccia erystallina, 254. 
fluitans, 357. 
Rivularia, 338. 
Rotifer citrinus, 321. 
longirostris, 321. 
macroceros, 321. 
neptunius, 321, 
soctalis, 321. 
tardus, 321. 
trisecatus, 300, 321. 
vulgaris, 821. 
Rubus chamemorus, 192. 
Rumex hydrolapathum, 175. 
Ruppia maritima, 328. 


reptans, 169, 251, 


Sacheria, 301, 329. 
Sagina nodosa, 170. 
Salix aurita, 176, 243. 
repens, 246. 
Salno fario, 318. 
Salpina mucronata, 323. 
mutica, 323. 
Salvinia, 357. 
Samolus valerandi, 175, 214. 
Sargassum, 357. 
Scapania, 200. 
widulata, 189, 191, 195, 198, 203, 204, 
208) 211522655529. 
Scapholeberis mucronata, 316. 
Scaridium longicaudatum, 322. 
Scenedesmus, 358. 
antennatus, 332. 
obliquus, 332. 
Schenus nigricans, 180, 242. 
Scirpus, 227, 381, 385, 391, 396. 
ceespitosus, 210, 219, 256. 
fluitans, 181, 195. 


INDEX OF GENERA AND 


Scirpus lacustris, 181, 189, 194, 200, 202, 


204, 205, 214, 217, 228, 230, 231, 


235, 236, 237, 288, 239, 248, 244, 
248, 249, 255, 328. 
setaceus, 181, 23838. 
sylvatica, 254. 
Scrophularia aquatica, 174, 328. 
nodosa, 174. 
Scutellaria galericulata, 175. 
Selenastrum bibraianum, 332. 
Senecio aquaticus, 173, 214. 
Serratula tinctoria, 173. 
Sida crystallina, 278, 316. 
limnetica, 400. 
Silene inaritima, 171. 
Silurus, 358. 
Simocephalus exspinosus, 316. 
vetulus, 316. 
Sium angustifolium, 173. 
Sparganium, 396. 
minimum, 167, 179, 203, 204, 211. 
natans, 179, 194, 199, 204, 208, 210, 
223, 328. 
ramosum, 166, 178, 179, 198, 214, 217, 
249, 328. 
simplex, 178, 193. 
simplex, var. longissimum, 179, 255. 
Spherophoron coralloides, 190, 218, 224. 
Spheerosoma, 332. 
Sphagnum, 166, 204, 211, 240, 241, 357, 
386. 
acutifoliwm, 185, 208. 
cuspidatum, 185, 329. 
cuspidatum, var. plwnosum, 185, 2038. 
cymbifolium, 185, 218, 256. 
intermedium, 185, 256. 
subsecundum, 185. 
subsecundum, var, viride, 185. 
Sphenoderia dentata, 326. 
lenta, 326. 
Spirea ulmaria, 171, 198, 208, 214, 217, 
253. 
Spirogyra, 194, 235, 358. 
erassa, 191, 217, 330. 
Sptrotenta condensata, 330. 
Spondylosium pulchruin, 280. 
Spongilla, 356. 
fluviatilis, 227, 
lacustris, 324. 
Stachys palustris, 175. 
Staurastrum, 358. . 
anatinum, 280, 331. 
angulatum, 331. 
arctiscon, 280, 331. 
aristiferum, 331. 
aversum, 280, 331. 
avicula, 331. 
bifidum, 331. 
brachiatum, 381. 
brasiliense, 279, 331. 
brevispinum, 279, 332. 
curvatum, 279, 332. 
cuspidatum, 279, 332. 
dejectum, 279, 332. 
erasum, 280, 382. 
Surcigerum, 280, 3382. 
gracile, 280, 282, 332. 


SPECIES 763 


Staurastrum grande, 279, 332. 
hibernicum, 332. 
inelegans, 279, 332. 
jaculiferum, 279, 282, 332. 
longispinum, 279, 332. 
lunatum, 280, 281, 332. 
megacanthum, 279, 332. 
ophiura, 280, 332. 
paradoxum, 280, 281, 382. 
piloswin, 332. 
polymorphum, 332, 
pseudopelagicum, 280, 332. 
sexangulare, 280, 382. 
subnudibrachiatum, 280. 
subpygmeum, 332. 
teliferwm, 280, 332. 
tumidum, 332. 
turgescens, 332. 
vestitum, 3382, 

Stauroneis anceps, 333. 

Stellaria palustris, 171. 
uliginosa, 171, 214, 217. 

Stenostoma leucops, 318. 

Stentor cwruleus, 324. 
niger, 324, 
pediculatus, 325. 
polymorpha, 324. 
wiridis, 324. 

Stephanoceros etchhorni, 320. 

Stephanops stylatus, 322. 
tenellus, 322. 

Stratiotes aloides, 301, 328. 

Streblocerus serricaudatus, 316. 

Stylaria, 300, 318. 
lacustris, 318. 
lomondt, 318. 

Stylodrilus gabretew, 292, 293, 318. 

Subularia aquatica, 170, 195, 248. 

Surtrella biseriata, 281. 
robusta, 281, 282, 333. 
robusta, var. splendida, 269. 

Symphytum officinale, 174. 

Syncheta, 278, 411. 
fennica, 498. 
grandis, 278, 321, 409. 
oblonga, 321. 
pectinata, 278, 321, 409. 
tremula, 278, 321, 409. 

Synedra pulchella, 333. 
ulna, 281, 338. 

Synura wrella, 327. 


Tabellaria, 290, 411. 
Jenestrata, 280, 282, 303, 333. 
fenestrata, var. asterionelloides, 308. 
flocculosa, 280, 282, 303, 338. 
Taphrocampa annulosa, 321. 
selenura, 322. 
Telphusa fluviatilis, 550. 
Tetmemorus granulatus, 330. 
Tetracyclus lacustris, 333. 
Tetraédron limneticum, 303, 333. 
Thamnium lemani, 305. 
Tintinnidium, 325. 
Tintinnus, 325. 
Tofieldia palustris, 177. 
Toxophyllum meleagris, 324. 


764 THE FRESH-WATER 


Trachelius ovum, 324. 

Trachelocerca olor, 324. 

Triarthra longiseta, 277, 300, 321, 400. 

Trichoptera, 334. 

Trichostomum tortuosum, 187. 

Trientalis ewropea, 192. 

Triglochin palustre, 177, 203, 204, 208, 
214, 

Trinema euchelys, 326. 

lineare, 326. 

Trochus, 355. 

Tubifex, 355. 

Typha angustifolia, 178, 194, 238, 248, 
328. 


latifolia, 178, 193, 216, 217, 238, 240, 
244, 249, 258, 328. 


Ulota hutchinsie, 329. 
Ulothrix, 194, 224. 
equalis, 191. 
cequalis, var. cateeniformis, 191. 
Ulva, 358. 
Unio, 355, 368, 371. 
margaritifer, 296, 313. 
Urococeus insignis, 3338. 
Uroglena volvox, 327. 
Utricularia intermedia, 175, 195, 203, 204, 
211, 231, 328. 
vulgaris, 175, 195, 199, 204, 207, 209, 
214, 217, 248, 328. 


LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Vaccinium myrtillus, 226. 
Valeriana officinalis, 173. 
Vanheurckia rhomboides, 281, 333. 
Vaucheria, 358. 
Veronica anagallis, 174, 214, 328. 
beccabunga, 174. 
scutellata, 174, 254, 255, 258. 
Viola palustris, 170. 
Volvox, 282. 
globator, 382. 
Vortex truncatus, 319. 
Vorticella, 356. 
campanula, 325, 


Xanthidium, 358. 
aculeatum, 381. 
antilopewm, 279, 281, 331. 
armatum, 331. 
conéroversum, 279, 331. 
cristatum, 331. 
subhastiferum, 279, 331. 
subhastiferum, var. murrayt, 302. 


Zannichellia palustris, 195, 254, 328. 
palustris, var. brachystemon, 179, 250. 

Zostera marina, 357. 

Zygnema, 194, 198, 200, 208, 224, 358. 
vaucherti, 191, 203, 204, 211, 215, 330. 

Zygogoniwm, 194, 224, 


ertcetorum, 191, 223. 


GENERAL INDEX 


[Bibliographies excluded. ] 


Aa, River, 596. 
Aar, River, 594. 
Abai, Lake, 621. 
River, 612. 
Abaya, Lake, 621. 
Abba, Lake, 621. 
Abbott, H. L., 633, 636. 
Aberfoyle, cherts of, 448. 
Abysmal or pelagic region of the ocean, 
652. 


temperature in lakes, 132. 
Abyssal, definition of, as applied to life in 
lakes, 290, 291. 
fauna, 290, 292, 294, 306, 307, 312. 
region of lakes, physical conditions of, 
293, 311. 
region of lakes, restriction of species 
in, 294, 311. 
Acanthocephala, 318, 
Achensee, 418. 
Achilty, Loch, temperature of, 98, 187, 
139, 
Ackroyd, W., 546, 
Adda, valley, 590. 
Aden, Gulf of, 523. 
Aeppli, —, 593. 
Affric, Loch, freezing of, 140. 
Africa, East, 554, 618-622. 
North, 548-554, 
South, 566-568, 
Agassiz, A., 570, 571, 6380. 
Agassiz, Lake, 522, 629. 
Age of Scottish lochs, biological evidence 
as to, 304. 
Agno, valley, 590. 
Agriculture, Board of, 7, 26. 
Agua Caliente, River, 640. 
Aguanaval, River, 562. 
Ahlenius, K., 378, 380. 
Aidat, Lake of, 523, 
Airie Burn, 227. 
Airthrey Loch, ice accident at, 5, 20. 
Aitken, John, 93, 143. 
Aitoff, D., 529. 
Akaba, Gulf of, 605, 608. 
‘* Akalches ” (temporary lakes), 562. 
Alakt-Ugul-Nor, 534. 
Ala-kul, 534-535, 
Albert Lake (Oregon), 557. 
Nyanza, 521, 608, 610, 611. 


OK 


Aldourie, loch at, flora of, 205. 
Aletsch Glacier, 522. 
Alexander, Boyd, 552. 
Alge, 155, 165, 190, 191, 194, 197, 200, 
218, 224, 226, 230, 236, 248, 252, 
275, 276, 284, 287, 290, 310, 329. 
Alismacee, 176, 357. 
Alkali Creek, 637. 
deserts, 524. 
Alkaline, definition of term, 516. 
Alleghany Mountains, absence of lakes in, 
mG: 
Allt an Fhearna, Loch, deposit from, 268, 
269. 
Allt an Fionn, 71. 
Alpine lakes, physical conditions in, 392. 
Altitude of principal lakes of the world, 
656. 
Amalitzky, —, 452. 
Amazon, River, 425, 639, 650. 
Amberg, B., 392, 393, 394, 395. 
Amentifere, 176. 
Amenemhat III., 553. 
America, Central, 560, 638. 
North, 554, 622. 
South, 639. 
Ameebeea, 325, 
Amphibia, 356. 
Amphipoda, 315. 
Ample, Glen, 70. 
Amu Daria, River, 529, 
Anabaglish Moss, flora of lochs on, 181, 
240, 242. 
Anatolia, 543. 
Andersen, K., 401. 
Anderson, —, 152. 
Andersson, G., 421. 
Andes Mountains, 639, 640. 
Androussotf, N., 602. 
An Dubh Lochan (near Loch Ruthven), 
flora of, 208. 
Angara River, 600, 601. 
Angiosperms, 357, 369. 
Annandale, N., 360. 
Annecy, Lake of, 390, 395, 396, 521. 
Annone, Lake of, 590. 
Antarctic lakes, 649. 
Aphotic zone, 164. 
Aphrothoraca, 326. 
Apostolidis, B., 553. 


766 


Apstein, C., 427. 
Aquatic plants in Scottish lakes, 156-260. 
Arabia, 543. 
Desert of, 524, 
Aral Sea, 524, 529, 530, 533. 
Aralo-Caspian basin, 529; 
580. 
depression, 526. 
Arauco province, 640. 
Arctic element in Scottish plankton, 286, 
287, 309, 311, 312. 
lakes, 375-377. 
Ardtornish, Carboniferous rocks of, 452. 
Ardtrostan, 38, 68. 70, 73, 76. 
Ardtun (Mull), leaf-beds at, 457. 
Ardvoirlich, 76. 
Area covered by lakes connected with 
inland drainage areas, 650. 
covered by lakes connected with 
rivers flowing directly into the 
ocean, 650. 
of principal lakes of the world, 652. 
Argentino, Lake, 641. 
co Ark. thet 
Arka-koll, 536. 
Arkaig, Loch, freezing of, 139. 
seiches in, 31, 53, 139. 
Arkansas River, 634. 
Arrius, Lake of, 393. 
Arthropoda, 355. 
Ashie, Loch, flora of. 205, 239. 
Asia, desiccation of, 528. 
lakes flowing to the sea, 598, 
lakes of inland drainage areas, 526. 
Asia, Central, plateaus of, 526. 
Minor, Western, 543. 
Assahan River, 605. 
Assal, Lake, 523, 621. 
Assynt, Loch, diatom deposit from, 268, 
269. 


climate of, 


ochreous mud from, 269. 
temperature of, 137, 139. 
Atakama Desert, 525. 
Atbara River, 612. 
Athabasca, Lake, 632. 
River, 631. 
Atitlan, Lake of, 647. 
Auchenhill Loch, flora of, 237. 
Auchenreoch Loch, flora of, 236. 
Aufsess, O. von, 384. 
Aujila depression, 552. 
Aullagas Lake, 571. 
Aussa Lake, 621. 
Austin, H. H., 620. 
Australia, 525, 562, 641. 
Avich, Loch, freezing of, 140. 
Avullu-koll, 536. 
Awe, Loch, Admiralty survey of, 4, 18, 
195° 20: 
freezing of, 139. 
Ayr, water supply of, 222. 
Azuma Crater, lake in, 645. 


Baago, J., 386. 

Ba, Loch (Mull), freezing of, 140. 
soundings in, 11. 
plankton of, 342, 343, 346. 


THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Babington, Charles, 166. 
Bachmann, H., 9, 27, 281, 379, 392. 
Bachmann, Mrs, 27. 
Bacillariacez, 310. 
Bacteria, 3, 155, 260, 272, 358. 
Bad a’ Ghaill, Loch, freezing of, 140. 
Baddanloch, Loch, crustacea in, 297. 
diatoms in, 308. 
Bahr-el-Ghazal, 551, 552, 611. 
Bahr-el-Jebel, 606, 611. 
Bahr Tahtani, 550. 
Bahr Yusef, 552. 
Bahriyeh Oasis, 552, 
Bahunt, Lake, 599. 
Baikal, Lake, 149, 359, 398, 599-608. 
Baile a’ Ghobhainn, Loch, calcareous 
deposit from, 271. 
composition of water of, 149, 212. 
flora of, 214. 
plankton of, 342, 344, 347. 
‘* Bajir” (depressions in sand), 535. 
Bakhtegan, Lake of, 541. 
Bala, Lake, 577. 
Balaton, Lake, 585. 
ice-formation in, 117. 
seiches in, 67. 
temperature of, 285. 
Balfour of Burleigh, Lord, 19. 
Balkash, Lake, 534. 
Ballo Reservoir, flora of, 257. 
Ballochling, Loch, flora of, 169, 221. 
Ballynahinch Lough, 578. 
Baltic fresh-water lakes, 8382-391. 
Bangweolo, Lake, 613. 
Bann, Lower, River, 577. 
Upper, River, 577. 
Barcoo River, 564. 
Barean, Loch, flora of, 237. 
Bargatton, Loch, flora of, 235. 
‘* Barguzin ” (wind on Lake Baikal), 601. 
Barguzin River, 601. 
Barhapple, Loch, flora of, 171, 191, 242. 
Baringo, Lake, 619. 
Barlockhart Loch, flora of, 172, 180, 243. 
Barrois, T., 545. 
Barrow, —, 24. 
Barscobe Loch, flora of, 230. 
Bartholomew, J. G., 15. 
Bartramiacee, 187. 
Baskunchatski Lake, 538. 
Bassenthwaite Water, 573, 574. 
Basso Ebor, ‘‘ White Water,” 621. 
Basso Narok, ‘‘ Dark Water,” 620. 
Bathurst, Lake, 566. 
Bauer, H., 392. 
Bdelloida 290, 310, 820. 
Beannachan, Loch, freezing of, 140. 
Bear Lake, Great, 556, 632. 
River, 556. 
Beatanabrack River, 578. 
‘¢ Beaver dams,” 528. 
Becquerel, A. C., 96. 
Bee, William, 28. 
Behrens, T. H., 608. 
Beich, Glen, 70. 
Beinn a’ Mheadhoin, Loch, freezing of, 
140. 


GENERAL INDEX 


Beinn Dubh-choire, 208. 

Bemmelen, J. M. van, 270. 

* Benedictine Monastery, Fort Augustus, 27. 

Bennett, A., 180. 

Bentham, George, 166. 

Berg, L. S., 538, 534, 535. 

Beudant, —, 361, 369. 

Bhaid Daraich, Loch a’, freezing of, 139. 

Bharpa, Loch a’, plankton of, 348. 

Bieler See, 595. 

Bienne, Lake of, 595. 

Big Stone Lake, 630. 

‘* Bikerit ” (floating wax in Lake Baikal), 

600. 

Biology of the Scottish lochs, 275-334. 

Birge, E. A., 125, 638. 

Birket Qarun, 552. 

Bisiker, William, 598. 

Bissett, —, 302. 

Biya River, 599. 

Blacks J. S.,.8, 27; 

Black Loch (near Lindores Loch), 

of, 248. 

(near Loch Glow), flora of, 180, 256. 
(near Loch Ronald), flora of, 239. 
(near Loch Ryan), flora of, 243, 244. 
(near Mochrum Loch), flora of, 240, 

Black Sea, 532. 

Blacklock, William, 25. 

Blackwater River, 577. 

Blades, E., 28. 

Blair, John, 25. 

Blair, William, 26. 

Blair Athole limestone, 212. 

Blate’s Mill Loch, flora of, 228, 

Blood-worm, 315. 

Bludau, A,, 382. 

Blue Lake, 649. 

Blundell, Odo, 9, 27. 

Board of Agriculture, 7, 26. 
of Education, 8. 

Boat of Rhone (Kirkcudbright), 229. 

Bobeck, O., 382. 

Bodavat, Loch, plankton of, 345, 348. 

Bodensee, see Lake of Constance. 

Bogdanovich, —, 602. 

Bogton, Loch, desmids in, 302. 

Bohm, A., 392, 397. 

Boiling Lake of Dominica, 646. 

Bojana River, 587 

Bojante-kul, 538. 

Bolivia, 569. 

Bonneville, Lake, 556. 

Bonney, T. G., 24, 441. 

Bopyrid, 368. 

Boraginacee, 174. 

Borgen, —, 88. 

Borgne, Lake, 636. 

Borollos, Lake, 613. 

Botletle River, 568. 

Bourcart, F. E., 390, 392, 395. 

Boussingault, J. B., 396. 

Boys, P. du, 31, 45, 63. 

Brachiopoda, 355, 356. 

Brack, Loch, flora of, 231. 

Bradan, Loch, flora of, 221, 222. 

Branchiopoda, 355, 356. 


flora 


767 


Brand,:F., 386, 396. 
Brauer, —, 364. 
Braun, G., 3282. 
Brazil, highlands of, 639. 
Brecbowie, Loch, flora of, 221. 
Brehm, V., 402, 418. 
Bremba, valley, 59 . 
Brenet, Lake of, 594, 595. 
Brenner, J., 605. 
Breschet, Gilbert, 96. 
Brienz, Lake of, 594. 
seiches in, 53. 
Brinkmann, A., 387. 
British Antarctic Expedition, 
649. 
Association, 6, 24. 
Brora, Loch, temperature of, 135. 
Brow, Loch, plankton of, 349. 
Brown Muds deposited in Scottish lochs, 
262, 264, 273, 274. 
Brown, R. H., 553. 
Broye River, 595. 
Bruce, W. S., 24. : 
Briickner, E., 528, 529, 593, 609. 
Bryacee, 187. 
Bryophyta, 185, 193, 195, 197, 200, 218, 
923, 224, 225, 227, 232, 238, 288, 
239, 240, 241, 244, 245, 249, 251, 
253, 256, 259, 357, 358. : 
Bryozoa in Scottish Lochs, 310, 317. 
Buchan, Alexander, 91, 93, 143. 
Buchanan, J. Y., 4, 16, 93, 118, 143, 268. 
Buenos Ayres, Lake, 640. 
Builg, Loch, luminosity in, 3, 312. 
Bujor, P., 151. 
Buldur Gol, 545. 
Bunachton, Loch, flora of, 205. 
‘* Buran ” (sand-storm), 536. 
Burntisland, scenery in neighbourhood of, 
247. 
ine 24 jas 
Reservoir, flora of, 
24/5; 259; 
Burraland, Loch, desmids in, 302. 
plankton of, 350. 
Buru Mountain, 619. 
Butakoff, Alexetf, 533. 
Buttermere, 574. 


1907-09, 


180, 187, 188, 


Cache Bay, 556. 
Cady, Putnam, 547. 
Cairn Vangie, 211. 
Cairnsmore of Fleet, 225, 
Calanide, 428. 
Calcareous deposits in Scottish lakes, 270, 
241, 213. 
deposits in European lakes, 272, 273. 
incrustations, 218, 236, 248, 249. 
Calcium carbonate in Jake waters, 146, 147, 
148, 150, 162, 165, 212, 213, 273. 
Calder Burn, 201. 
Loch, temperature of, 135, 
‘* Calderas ” (crater-basins), 645. 
Caledonian Canal, 132, 196, 198, 200. 
Callaway, C., 441. 
Callitrichacee, 172. 
Cambrian rocks, classification of, 441. 


768 


Cambrian rocks, Olenellus zone in, 441. 
igneous rocks in, 441. 
unconformability at base of, 441. 

Cameron, J. A., 26. 

Camilla, Loch, flora of, 251. 

Campanulacee, 173. 

Campbell, Philip, 28. 

Campfer, Lake, 586. 

Carbonic acid in lake waters, 390. 

Carboniferous Rocks, classification of, 450. 
Calciferous Sandstone series, 450, 451. 
Carboniferous Limestone series, 451. 
Millstone Grit, 450, 451, 452. 

Coal Measures. 452. 

Carboniferous Sandstone in Fife, 247. 

Cardot, —, 301. 

Caribbean Sea, 638, 640. 

Carlingwark Loch, flora of, 178, 180, 182, 

188, 235. 
marl at, 239. 

Carlsson, G., 385, 386. 

Carn a’ Chuilinn, 197, 211. 

Carnot, —, 151. 

Carra Lough, 577. 

Carrick Lane (river), 219. 

Carriston Reservoir, flora of, 169, 247, 250. 

Carson Lakes, 559. 

Caryophyllacee, 170. 

Cascade Mountains, 636, 638. 

Caspari, W. A., 9, 28, 125, 145, 261. 

Caspian Sea, 151, 152, 154, 358, 524, 529, 

530-532, 650. 

Cassequiare River, 639. 

Cassorate, valley, 590. 

Castain, Lake, 522. 

Castle Kennedy, flora of lochs near, 245. 

Castle Loch (Bladenoch basin), crustacea 

in, 299, 
flora of, 241. 

Castlenau, -—, 640. 

Catfish River, 633. : 

Cavendish, H. S. H., 619. 

Cawlyd, Llyn, 576. 

Census of species in Scottish lochs, 276, 

279, 289, 313. 
Central Block (Grampian Highlands), 
sculpture of, 462-464. 
consequent streams of, 462, 463. 
obsequent streams of, 462, 464. 
subsequent streams of, 463. 

Ceo-Glas, Loch, flora of, 206. 

Cephalochordata, 356. 

Cephalopoda, 355, 356. 

Ceratophyllacee, 176, 357. 

Ceres Burn, 250. 

Certes, —, 319. 

Cestoda, 318. 

Chad, Lake, 551. 

Chalarothoraca, 326. 

‘* Challenger” Expedition, 1, 93, 525. 

Chambezi River, 618. 

Chambon, Lake of, 528. 

Champlain Canal, 628. 

Champlain, Lake, 628. 
composition of water of, 149. 

Chancourtois, E. de, 151. 

Chapala, Lake, 638. 


THE FRESH-WATER 


LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Characeez, 184, 200, 213, 214, 310, 329, 
357, 358, 377, 381, 382, 396. 
Chardak, Lake of, 545. 
Chargat, Lake, 539. 
Charysacha River, 533. 
Chats, Lac des, 627. 
Chelan, Lake, 638. 
Chelwa, Lake, 622. 
Chersky, —, 602. 
Chiamo, Lake, 621. 
Chiemsee, 63, 72,90. 
Chiene, John, 21. 
Chiese, valley, 590. 
Chihuahua, inland drainage area of, 561. 
Chili, 640. 
Chippeway River, 633. 
Chironomide, 334. 
Chitin gytjes, 386, 395. 
Chlachain, Loch a’ (Lewis), plankton of, 
340, 345, 
(Nairn basin), flora of, 206. 
Chlorophycee, 279, 280, 282, 284, 289, 
310, 329, 358, 400, 403. 
Chodat, R., 396. 
Choga, Lake, 608, 609. 
Choin, Lochan a’, flora of, 206. 
Choire, Loch a’, flora of, 208. 
Cholnoky, E. von, 63, 67, 117, 585. 
Christison, Robert, 92, 93, 148. 
Chroisg, Loch a’, freezing of, 140. 
seiches in, 53. 
Chrystal, George, 9, 17, 27, 29, 31, 32, 38, 
60, 64, 68, 130, 381. 
Chu River, 535. 
Chudskoye, Lake, 584. 
Chulishman River, 599. 
Chumley, James, 8, 10, 22, 28, 260, 659. 
Churchill River, 631, 650. 
Ciliata, 324-325, 356. 
Cirripedia, 355, 356. 
Cladocera, 289, 294, 316, 364, 365, 400, 
403, 408, 416, 423. 
Clare River, 578. 
Clark, R. M., 8, 24, 27, 297. 
Clarke, F. W., 148. 
Clatto Reservoir, flora of, 247, 250. 
Clay from Loch Gainmheich, analysis of, 
265. 
oceanic Red, 274. 
Clays, deep-sea, compared with lacustrine 
clays, 274: 
deposited in Scottish lochs, 262-264, 
274. 
Cleish Hills, flora of lochs on the, 247, 
255. 
Cliff, Loch, plankton of, 344, 350, 
Climate, effect of lakes on, 134. 
Clings Water, plankton of, 350. 
Clonyard Loch, flora of, 238. 
Clousta, Loch, plankton of, 344. 
Clugston Loch, flora of, 240. 
Clunie, Loch (Ness basin), freezing of, 140. 
Coast Lake, 649. 
Coccoliths, 273. 
Coccospheres, 402. 
Cochrane River, 631. 
Cocker River, 574. 


GENERAL INDEX 


Coelenterata, 324, 356. 
in Scottish lochs, 310. 
Coiltie River, 199. 
Coiltry Loch, flora of, 200. 
Coinnich, Loch na, plankton of, 342, 
 Coire Glas, Lochan, flora of, 201. 
Collaster, Loch, plankton of, 349. 
Collet. L. W., 8, 27. 
Colombo, Lake, 427. 
Colorado River, 555. 
Colour of fresh water, theories regarding, 
384, 
Columbia River, 632, 636, 637, 638. 
Comabbio, Lake of, 590. 
Como, Lake of, 590, 591. 
Composite, 173. 
Conduction, 102, 103, 110, 111, 120. 
Confervacee, 396. 
Congo River, 613, 650. 
Coniston Water, 575. 
Conjugate, 358. 
Constance, Lake of, 53, 393, 395, 396, 598. 
Continental Shelf, 458. 
Convection, 103, 110, 111, 117, 120. 
Conway, Martin, 570. 
Conway River, 576. 
Cooper River, 564, 
Cope, —, 634. 
Copepoda, 289, 315. 
Harpacticoid, 359. 
resting eggs in, 403. 
Corrib, Lough, 577. 
Corsock, Loch, flora of, 177, 238. 
Cosmopolitan element in the plankton, 
285. 
Cosmopolitanism of fresh-water plankton, 
explanation of, 401, 402. 
means by which it has been brought 
about, 403, 417. 
Couchiching Lake, 627. 
** Coulées”’ (river-valleys), 637. 
Courtney, Leonard, 3, 19. 
Craig, Cunningham, 24. 
Craig, —, 608. 
Crake River, 575. 
Cran, Loch, flora of, 180, 216. 
Crater Lake (Oregon), 646, 

Crater lakes, 644. 
Cretaceous Rocks, 
456. 

Cro Criosdaig, Loch, plankton of, 340. 
Crogavat, Loch, plankton of, 348, 350, 
Cromer Forest Bed, 469. 
Crosthwait, H. L., 641. 
Cruciferee. 170. 
Crummock Water, 574. 
Crustacea, 355. 
blind species of, 306. 
of Lake of Geneva, 304. 
of Scottish lochs, 276, 277, 281, 282, 
285, 286. 287, 292, 296, 300, 307, 
310, 311, 315. 
Cryptogamia of Scottish lochs, 156, 276. 
Cryptogams, 357. 
Cuinne, Loch nan, crustacea in, 297. 
Culbin Sandhills, flora of, 217. 
Culcairn, Loch, flora of, 205. 


distribution of, 455, 


769 


Cults, Loch, flora of, 244, 
Cumacea, 355, 556, 359. 
Cunningham, J. T,, 1, 2. 
Cunnington, W. A., 354, 615, 616, 617. 
Currents, 17. 

Curzon, Lord, 542. 

ST Gui, of, 

Cwellyn, Llyn, 576. 
Cyanophycea gytjes, 386, 395. 
Cyanophycez, 389, 400, 402, 403. 
Cyperacee, 180. 


Dahram, Shott, 551. 
Dalradian Rocks, 442. 
classification of, 443. 
contemporaneous volcanic rocks in, 
443, 
igneous rocks intrusive in, 443, 444. 
tectonics of, 444, 
Dalzell, —, 319. 
Damh, Loch (Torridon basin), temperature 
of, 136. 
Dangra-yum-tso, 539, 
Danish lakes, see Lakes, Danish. 
Danube, River, 585. 
lakes of Lower, 516. 
Darwin, Charles, 157, 371. 
Dauphin, Lake, 631. 
River, 630. 
Davis, W. M., 391, 516, 524, 535, 586, 
590, 623, 636. 
Davison, C., 64. 
Dawson, 8. E., 625, 
Dead Sea, 515, 521, 524, 546. 
analysis of water of, 152, 
in Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, 634. 
‘¢ Dead water,” 125. 
Deaspoirt, Loch nan, plankton of, 349, 
351 


Death Valley, 554. 
Decapoda, 355, 356. 
Dee, Loch (Kirkcudbright), flora of, 218, 
224, 227, 
River (Kirkcudbright), 224, 229, 235. 
River (North Wales), 577. 
Deep-sea terrigenous deposits, region of, 651. 
Defant, A., 52. 
Delebecque, André, 31, 390, 392, 393, 394, 
395, 521. 
Denivellations, see Seiches. 
Density of water in relation to temperature, 
104. 
point, maximum, 2, 104, 113. 
Deposits of the Scottish fresh-water lochs, 
18, 261-274. 
in Loch Ness compared with those in 
Loch Fyne, 273. 
in Scottish lochs compared with oceanic 
deposits, 271. 
Depth, maximum, of principal lakes of the 
world, 655, 
Derclach Loch, flora of, 222. 
Derg, Lough, 578. 
River, 578. 
Dernaglar, Loch, flora of, 184, 242. 
Derryclare, Lough, 578. 
Derwent, River, 573, 641. 
49 


G0 


Derwentwater, 573. 
Desaguadero River, 571. 
‘* Desague ” (drainage system), 561, 
Deschenes, Lake, 627. 
Desiccation of Asia, 528. 
of plateaus in Peru and Bolivia, 570. 
Desmids, 279, 281, 282, 285, 286, 288, 
301, 310, 311, 319, 330, 358, 396, 
399, 400, 408. 
new British records of, 310. 
new species of, 310. 
- Desmothoraca, 326. 
Destenave, —, 551. 
‘* Dhaya” (marshes), 550. 
Dhomhnuill Bhig, Loch, plankton of, 340, 
349. 
Dhu, Loch (Girvan basin), 222. 
Dhulough, 578. 
Diamantina River, 564. 
Diaptomidee, 335, 400. 
Diathermancy of water, 110. 
Diatom gytjes, 386, 395. 
Diatoms, 191, 249, 255, 269, 280, 281, 


287, 290, 303, 319, 333, 358, 400, 


408, 416. 

Diatomaceous deposits, 265, 268, 278, 386, 
395. 

Dickson, HaNe. 1.24. 

Dicotyle, 357, 358. 

Dicranace, 186. 

Dieckhoff, Cyril von, 9, 27. 

Dinoflagellata, 333. 

Diota, Lochan, flora of, 202. 

Dipnoi, 355, 356. 

Diptera in Scottish lochs, 315. 

Discontinuity layer, 938, 103, 107, 117, 
123, 124, 126, 129, 131, 133, 154. 

Dissolved gases in lake waters, 153. 

Distribution of life in Scottish lochs, 295. 

of plankton in Scottish lochs, 287. 

Dittmar, Weeloi. 

Diurnal variation of temperature, 109. 

Dixon, H.NS 30), 

Dochfour, Loch, 199. 

Doine, Loch, 11. 

Doire Chada, Lochan, flora of, 202. 

Dolgozero, Lake, 584. 

Doon, Loch; florasof, 171, 188)°217,/218" 
222, 225, 227, 229. 

Dora Baltea, valley, 590. 

Dores Bay, 200. 

Dornell, Loch, flora of, 234. 

Dow, Loch, flora of, 256. 

Dowalton Loch, flora of, 182, 242. 

Drainage areas, inland, 524. 

areas the waters from which flow 

directly into the ocean, 524, 572. 

Drance, River, 598. 

Drew, Frederic, 538. 

Drin, River, 588. 

Drizhenko, T. K., 601. 

Droma, Glen, 70. 

Drummond, Hugh, 27. 

Drummond, Miss, 28. 

Dry Loch of the Dungeon, flora of, 224. 

Dubh, Loch (nan Uamh basin), tempera- 
ture of, 137. 


THE FRESH-WATER 


LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Dubh, Lochan an (near Loch Ruthven), 

flora of, 208. 

Lochan (at Dunlichty), flora of, 205. 

Dubois, R., 551. 
Duddingston Loch, 180, 215, 344. 
Dufour, Louis, 101. 
Duillier, Fatio de, 30. 
Dulyn, Llyn, 576. 


Yr Afon, 576. 
Duna, Loch an, diatom deposit from, 268, 
269. 
Dungeon, Loch, flora of, 186, 187, 190, 
218, 232. 


temperature of, 136. 

Dungeon, Dry Loch of the, flora of, 224. 
Long Loch of the, flora of, 224. 
Round Loch of the, flora of, 224. 

Dunmaglass, Loch, flora of, 208. 

Dun na Seilcheig, Loch, flora of, 206. 
freezing of, 140, 141. 

Duparc, L., 390. 

Dutton; C. Ex 517. 

Dykes, Robert, 8, 28. 

Dysphotic zone, 164. 


Earn, Loch, 4. 
abyssal life in, 291. 
‘* flowering” of, 284, 
freezing of, 139. 
seiches in, 9, 17, 32, 33, 88, 41,745, 
46, 49, 50, 58, 60, 62, 64, 65, 66, 
67,70, 71, 76, 78, 79. SOugomee: 
87, 89. 
Earthquakes, 30, 64. 
Ebert, Hermann, 58. 
Echinodermata, 356. 
Echo Lake (New Zealand), 648. 
(Tasmania), 641. 
Echo River, 634. 
Ectoparasites on Cyclops and Pisidiwm, 
292. 
Eden, River, 574. 
Edgelaw Reservoir, plankton of, 346. 
Edku, Lake, 613. 
Edrisi, 529. 
Education, Board of, 8. 
Edward Nyanza, 610, 611. 
Effect of lakes on climate, 134. 
Egerdir Gol, 545. 
Egerer Basin, 402. 
Ehrenberg, C. G., 402, 548. 
Eilean Subhainn, Loch on, 137. 
Ekman, Sven, 335, 340, 342, 376, 377, 
418. 
Elasmobranchs, 354. 
Elatinacee, 170. 
Elmetaita, Lake, 619. 
Elton, Lake, 152, 532. 
Embakh, River, 584. 
Emmons, S. F., 628. 
Enare, Lake, 427, 428, 581. 
Endemic species, British, 309. 
Enderit, River, 619. 
Endris, Anton, 31, 33, 52, 63, 64, 72, 82, 
83, 86, 90. 
Engadine, Upper, formation of lakes in, 
581, 586. 


GENERAL 


‘England, lakes of, 573. 
English lakes compared with Welsh lakes, 
576. 
Ennerdale Water, 574. 
Enoch, Loch, flora of, 190, 222, 223. 
Enrick, River, 199, 204. 
Entomostraca, 260, 327, 364. 
Ephemeride of Scottish lochs, 315. 
Epigonianthee of Scottish lochs, 190. 
Equisetaceze of Scottish lochs, 183, 310, 
329. 
Erdmann, —, 152. 
Ericacez, 196, 219. 
Ericht, Loch, temperature of, 138. 
Erie, Lake, 31, 53, 64, 522, 625. 
Erncrogo, Loch, flora of, 234. 
Erne, Lough, 579. 
River, 579. 
Escalante Bay, 556. 
Esk, River (Cumberland), 574. 
Esromso, 406, 417, 418. 
Eun, Loch nan (North Uist), plankton 
of, 348, 351. 
Euphrates, River, 543. 
Eural-Asia, 526. 
Europe, 572. 
ice-sheets of northern portion of, 573. 
North, lakes of, 378-382. 
Evans, J. W., 640. 
Bxner, BH; M>5,.96, 126, 128. 
Expedition, Lake, 604. 
Eyre, Lake, 563, 564. 


Fada, Lochan (Ewe basin), seiches in, 31, 
53. 
Fadagoa, Loch, plankton of, 302, 341, 
344 


Falkenauer Basin, 402. 
Fannich, Loch, temperature of, 159. 
Fareg, Wady, 552. 
Farraline, Loch, 208. 
Fauna, abyssal, 290, 292, 294. 
relicta, 306, 308, 311. 
Fauna and flora of Scottish lakes, origin 
of, 311. 
Fauna and flora of Scottish lakes, sum- 
mary of, 310. 
Fayum province, 552, 
Fejej, Shott el, 548. 
Fell Loch, flora of, 240. 
Fender, Loch, temperature of, 137. 
Fenix, River, 640. 
Ferto, Lake, 585, 586. 
‘* Feutre organique,” 396. 
Fiart, Loch, calcareous deposit from, 271. 
flora of, 163, 176, 214. 
plankton of, 342, 347, 348. 
Fife and Kinross, flora of lochs of, 156, 
161, 168, 246-260. 
Filippoff, —, 581. 
Filosa, 326. 
Finglen, 71. 
Finlas, Loch, flora of, 222. 
Finlay, River, 631. 
Finny, River, 578. 
Fishes in Scottish lochs, 275. 
Fissidentacee, 186. 


INDEX heii 


Fitty, Loch, flora of, 179, 180, 189, 191, 
247, 2538, 254. 
Fitzgerald, G. F., 102. 
Flagellata, 280, 310, 327, 356, 400, 403. 
Fleet, Loch, flora of, 226. 
Flora of aquatic habit, 156. 
of Scottish lakes, 156-260, 
of Scottish lakes, comparative table, 
193. 
Florida, 516, 524. 
Floridez of Scottish lochs, 301, 310, 329. 
‘* Flowering ” of lakes, 282, 283, 311, 358, 
389. 
Fontinalacee, 187. 
Foraminifera, 326, 356. 
Forel, F. A., 30, 42, 52, 58, 63, 82, 83, 85, 
86, 99, 101, 104, 106, 109, 110, 115, 
134, 212, 272, 290, 291, 304, 305, 
306, 812, 327, 876, 879, 384, 395, 
396, 427, 430, 520, 583, 598, 603. 
Foster, M., 20. 
Fox River, 627. 
Foyers Bay, flora of, 200. 
River, 197, 200. 
Foyle, Lough, 578. 
River, 578. 
Frampton, G. A., 7. 
Frankland, -—, 539. 
Fraser, Archibald, 28. 
Fraser, William, 28. 
Freundler, P., 149. 
So Hreya. Ss \a, aie 
Frisa, Loch, deposit from, 265, 268, 269. 
plankton of, 339, 342, 343, 346, 347. 
temperature of, 136, 140. 
Frith, J., 391, 397. 
‘Frying Pan” (Echo Lake crater), 649. 
Fullarton, J. HL, 24: 
Kulton; Jc De, 9527. 
Furesi, 387, 388, 406, 412, 413. 


Gainmheich, Loch, deposit from, 265. 
freezing of, 140. 
Gala Lane (river), 219, 222, 
Galilee, Sea of, 546. 
Ganges, River, 650. 
Garda, Lake of, 52, 590, 591. 
Gardner, I. Starkie, 457. 
Garrett; We Reha Ss. 27. oie 
Garry, Glen (Inverness-shire), 201, 202. 
Loch (Inverness-shire), temperature 
Of ibe 94s MON 14 See (eles 
119, 128, 128, 132, 138, 134, 140. 
Garstin, W., 611. 
Garth, Loch, 208. 
Gasteropoda, 355, 366, 369. 
Gastrotricha in Scottish lochs, 289, 292, 
310, 324. 
Gaud-i-Zirreh, 541. 
Gavelin, A., 382. 
Gead’as, Loch nan, flora of, 206. 
Gebli Shott, 551. 
Gedge, Lake, 610. 
‘* Gefilz,” 396. 
Geikie, Archibald, 448, 449, 457, 521, 531. 
James, 469. 
Geological structure of Scotland, 439. 


772 


Geinitz, F. E., 382. 

Geireann, Loch nan (Mill), plankton of, 
346, 348. 

Geistbeck, A., 392, 393, 395. 

Gelly, Loch, flora of, 170, 176, 247, 251. 

Gemmill, J. F., 318. 

Geneva, Lake of, 30, 393, 394, 395, 396, 
428, 429, 521, 596, 597, 598, 603. 

abyssal fauna of, 298, 296, 307, 308, 
312. 

abyssal region of, 290, 291. 

biology of, compared with that of 
Scottish lochs, 304-306. 

composition of water of, 149, 154, 212. 

deposit from, 272. 

development of life in, 307. 

modification of species in, 308. 

oxygen at bottom of, 125. 

seiches in, 30, 42, 53, 58, 63. 

temperature of, 98, 101, 109, 110, 111, 
134. 

Genfer See, see Lake of Geneva. 

Gentianacee, 174. 

Geographical situation of Scottish lochs 
in regard to biology, 310. 

Geological Survey, 4, 8, 20, 212. 

structure of Scotland, 439 ; Lewisian 
Gneiss, 4389; Torridonian, 440; 
Cambrian, 441; metamorphic 
rocks east of Moine thrust-plane, 
442; Silurian, 444; Old Red Sand- 
stone, 447; Carboniferous, 449 ; 
Permian and Triassic, 453 ; Jurassic, 
454 ; Cretaceous, 455 ; Tertiary, 456. 

George, Lake (Australia), 565. 

(Edward Nyanza), 611. 

(St Lawrence basin), 53, 628. 

Georgi, —, 600. 

Georgian Bay, 522, 625. 

Germana, River, 621. 

Gharbi, Shott el, 549. 

Gharsa, Shott el, 548. 

Ghlinne-Dorcha, Loch a’, plankton of, 
348, 350. 

Gibson, John, 580. 

Gilbert, G. K., 538, 623. 

Giraud, —, 615. 

Girvan Water, 222. 

Glaciation of Scotland, 469; maximum 
glaciation, 470; deposits of maxi- 
mum, 472; later glaciation, 478 ; 
deposits of later, 474. 

Glaslyn, Afon, 576. 

Lilyn, 576: 

Glass, Loch, temperature of, 138, 139. 

Glencullin, Lough, 578. 

Glenhead, flora of lochs of, 224. 

Glen lakes, 521. 

Glen Roy, parallel roads of, 522. 

Glentarken Burn, 89. 

Glentoo, Loch, flora of, 234. 

Globigerina Ooze, 273. 

Glow, Loch, flora of, 255. 

Gobi Desert, 524, 526. 

Gogarten, E., 593. 

Goosie, Loch, flora of, 221. 

Gotu, River, 580. 


THE FRESH-WATER 


LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Gowna, Lough, 578. 
Graminee, 183. 
Grand-Doménon, Lake of, 393. 
Grande Soufriere, 646. 
Grant, Allan, 28. 
Granton Biological Laboratory, 1, 15. 
Grass Water, plankton of, 350. 
Great Glen, 197, 200, 201. 
Great Lake (Tasmania), 641. 
Great Lakes, origin of, 628. 
volume of water in, 626. 
Great Rift Valley, 545, 554, 605. 
Great Salt Lake, 524, 557, 
composition of water of, 151. 
inland drainage area, 554. 
Green Bay, 627. 
Lake, 627. 
Mountains, 628. 
River, 634. 
Greenly, —, 24. 
Gregory, J. S., 564, 606. 
Gremaud, A., 595. 
Grennoch, Loch, flora of, 177, 181, 188, 
LO, 218, 2255226, 
Grimmiacez, 186. 
Grimshaw, P. H., 315, 334. 
Groves, H. and J., 166, 184. 
‘*Grundalgenzone,” 386, 396. 
Guasso Nagut, River, 619. 
Gunther! 7A. 925 (542: 
Gunther, RK. 7, 151: 
Gurara, Sebka of, 551. 
Guzman, Laguna de, 562. 
Gwyrfai, River, 576. 
Gymnosperme, 357. 
Gyoljuk, Lake of, 543. 
‘* Gytjes” (deposits in lakes), 383. 


Haeckel, Ernst, 860. 
Halbfass, W., 9, 51, 38, 58, 83, 115, 126, 
378, 382, 384, 385, 389, 390, 579, 
583, 585. 
Haldsi, 418. 
Hallstiattersee, 392, 396. 
Halm, Jacob, 44. 
Haloragacee, 171, 
Halorhagidacee, 357. 
Halton Burn, 250. 
Reservoir, flora of, 250. 
Hamun Lake, 526, 541. 
Hann, —, 71. 
Hansag, River, 586. 
Swamp, 586. 
Harker, A., 457. 
Harpacticide, 289. 
Harperleas Reservoir, flora of, 256, 
Harray, Loch, deposit from, 268. 
plankton of, 343, 344, 349, 351 
Harrison, J. J., 620, 621. 
Harrow, Loch, flora of, 232. 
Hartz Novi 
Harut Rud River, 541. 
‘* Hasli-im-Grund” (River Aar), 594. 
Hauer, K. von, 151. 
Hawash River, 621. 
Haweswater, 573, 575. 
Hawse Burn, 232. 


GENERAL INDEX 


Hayden, F. V., 634. 
Hebrides, deposits in 
267. 
Hedin, Sven, 536, 537, 540. 
eims) Ay. 516,05 17759332596. 
Heliozoa, 293, 356. 
Helland, A., 378, 579. 
Helmersen, —, 530, 584. 
Helmholtz, —, 88. 
Helmund River, 541. 
Henderson, A. P., 1. 
Henderson, George, 539. 
Henderson, John, 1. 
Henderson, J. R., 2. 
Henderson, —, 565. 
ENT, Avids5.o1- 
Hepatice of Scottish lochs, 165, 242, 310, 
329, 
Herodotus, 5538. 
Heron, Loch, flora of, 239. 
Hewitt, John, 8, 27, 289, 292, 318, 324, 
305. 
High plateau of Scotland, 458. 
drainage features of, 458. 
main divisions of, 458. 
Hikwa, Lake, 521. 
Hill, Gray, 547. 
en ied 362: 
Hirudinea, 318. 
Hjelmar, Lake, 580. 
Hlava, —, 300. 
Hoang-ho, River, 604. 
Hobley, C. W., 620. 
Hodges, R. S., 149. 
Hodna, Shott el, 549, 550. 
Hoernes, —, 602. 
Hofsten, N. V., 404. 
Hoitarvatn, Lake, 598. 
Holmsen, A., 378, 380, 381. 


small lochs of, 


Honda, —, &2. 
Honey Lake, 558, 
Hood, —, 317. 


Hookersc)(.D., 157. 
Hooker, W. J., 157. 
Hookeriaceze, 188. 
Hoppe-Seyler, —, 267. 
Hora, Lake, 621. 
Horicon, Lake, 628. 
Hornafvan, Lake, 579. 
Horne, John, 8, 24, 439. 
Hornindalvatn, Lake, 378. 
Hosta, Loch, plankton of, 348. 
** Hot lakes” of New Zealand, 643. 
Howarth, O. J. R., 578. 
Howie, Loch, flora of, 231. 
Hoyle, W. E., 2. 
Huber, G., 392, 395, 397. 
Hudson Bay, 622, 629. 

River, 628. 
Huggins, P. F., 646, 
Huitfeldt-Kaas, H., 379, 418. 
Huleh, Lake, 545. 
Humboldt, —, 529. 
Humboldt, Lake, 559. 

River, 559. 
Hume, —, 589. 
Humphreys, A. A., 633, 636. 


773 


Humus, 147, 161, 167, 215, 264, 268, 270, 
272. 

Hunder, Loch, plankton of, 348, 

Hundland, Loch, plankton of, 349. 

Huntington, Ellsworth, 528, 537, 588, 
543. 

Huron, Lake, 522, 625. 

Hydrachnide, 296, 310, 3138, 355, 356. 

Hydrocharidex, 176. 

Hydrocharitacee, 357. 

Hydrographic Department of the 
Admiralty, 4, 8, 18. 

Hydrosphere, 519. 

Hydrozoa, 356. 

Hypericacee, 171. 

Hypnacee, 188. 


Iasgaich, Loch an, plankton of, 342, 348, 
351, 


Ice-caldrons, 473, 474. 
Ice, effect on flora, 165. 
formation of, 112. 
Iceland, 598. 
Ignatof, P., 535, 599. 
Ikapa, Lake, 646, 
Illinois River, 633. 
Ilwen, Lake, 584. 
Imatra Rapids, 581. 
‘* Tmusha” (mineral oil in Lake Baikal), 
600. 
Inagh, Lough, 578. 
Inchnacardoch Bay, 163, 197, 198, 199, 
313. 
Incrustation on plants and stones, 213, 
214, 
India, 604. 
Indiana, 635, 636. 
Inferno Crater, lake in, 648. 
Infusoria, 260, 292, 311, 319, 364, 403, 
649. 
Inland drainage areas, distribution of, 
524, 
lakes in higher reaches of, 515, 
lakes in lower portions of, 515. 
meteorological conditions of, 525-526. 
region of, 650. 
Inn, River, 517, 586. 
Insecta in Scottish lochs, 310, 311, 314, 
334. 
Insect larve in Scottish lochs, 289, 292. 
Intermediate plateau of Scotland, 458. 
Introduction, 1. 
Invertebrata of Scottish lochs, 275. 
Ireland, lakes of, 577. 
Iridacee, 176. 
Irton, River, 574. 
Irvine, Robert, 2, 268. 
Iseo, Lake of, 590, 591. 
Isitani, —, 82. 
Islay, Lewisian Gneiss in, 443. 
Torridon Sandstone in, 443, 
quartzites in, 443. 
thrust-plane in, 443, 
Isle of May, flora of, 259, 260. 
Isoetacer, 357. 
Isopoda, 315, 355. 
Issarles, Lake of, 521. 


774 


Issik-kul, 534, 585. 
Istakhri, 529. 
Itamba, Lake, 646. 
Itasca, Lake, 633. 
Itende, Lake, 646. 


Jackson, John, 8, 27. 

James Bay, 631. 

Jamieson, Thomas, 38, 312. 

Japan, seiches in, 82, 86. 

Jardine, James, 91, 92, 93. 

Jaring-nor, 604. 

Jaxartes, River, 529. 

Jeli. wi, OLD: 

Jenkins, Robert, 24. 

Jensen, A., 377, 404. 

Jerid, Shott el, 548. 

Johannsen, —, 408. 

Johnson, D. W., 586. 

Johnson, Samuel, 141. 

Johnston, WD, Aq 3/24.)26. 

Johnston, H., 613, 618. 

Johnston, I. IN.. 8, 9,27; dl ¢ots; 

Jonkoping, lakes in, 382. 

Jordan, River (Palestine), 152, 545. 
GUaS2A)) 506. 

Joux, Lake of, 594, 595. 

Jubulee, 189. 

Juday, Chancey, 634. 

Judd, J. W..452: 585. 

Juncacer, 77. 

Juncaginacee, Wires 

Jurassic rocks, distribution of, 454, 455. 
types of sedimentation of, 454, 455. 
probable thickness of, 455. 


Kaituna, River, 643. 

Kalahari Desert, 525, 566. 
Kalecsinsky, Alexander von, 109, 587. 
Kan-Kiang, River, 604. 
Kander, River, 594. 
Karaboghaz Gulf, 152, 531, 551. 
Kara Buran, 536. 

Kara-koll, 536. 

Kara Koshun, 536. 

Kariandusi, River, 619. 

Kasai, River, 617, 


Katrine, Loch, composition of water of, 
149. 
temperature of, 91, 92, 93,132, 138, 
379. 
Katun, River, 599. 
Kaufmann, —, 595. 


Kavirondo Gulf, 609. 
Keilhack, K., 382. 
Kemp, Loch, flora of, 164, 209. 


Ken; Loch, flora of, 169, 170, 173, 174, 


182, 184, 218, 220, 229, 
Ken, Water of, 229. 
Kennel, — von, 3860, 361. 
Keno, River, 620. 
Kentucky, Mammoth Cave of, 633, 634. 
Kereli Gol, 545. 
Kern, River, 638. 
Kerner, —, 387. 
Kerr-Cross, D., 645. 
‘* Kettle holes,” 476, 522. 


THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Khash, River, 541. 
Kidston, Robert, 452. 
Kilcheran, Loch, deposit from, 271. 
flora of, 214. 
‘‘murder hole” at, 209, 214. 
plankton of, 342, 347. 
Kilconquhar Loch, flora of, 168, 179, 191, 
247, 249. 
Killarney, Lakes of, 579. 
Killin, Loch, flora of, 210. 
River, 210. 
King, River, 638. 
Kinghorn Loch, flora of, 191, 251. 
Kingire, Lake, 646. 
Kinross, see Fife. 
Kirbister, Loch, 
351. 
Kirk Loch, deposit from, 268. 
Kirkcudbrightshire, flora of lochs of, 156, 
162, 168, 217-2388. 
Kisiwa, Lake, 646. 
Kisumu Gulf, 609. 
Kiunguvuvu, Lake, 646. 
Kivu, Lake, 610, 615, 616, 617. 
Klar, River, 580. 
Klinge, diets 383, 386. 
Klunzinger, C. 'B., 384, 889, 392. 
Knight, Frank, 24, 
Knipovitsch, —, 532. 
Knockie, Loch, flora of, 209. 
Knocknairlng Burn, 229. 
Knorei@s iG 2 eel Our, 
Koko-Nor, 539. 
Koksoak, River, 627. 
Kola, Lake, 418. 
Kolar, Lake, 604. 
Kolkwitz, R., 391. 
Kolobeng, River, 566. 
Kolpin Ravn, F., 386. 
Kosso-gol, Lake, "599, 603. 
Kozlott, Pike. 536, 604, 
Krogh, A, 390, 
Kropotkin, Prince, 528, 600. 
Kruse, C., 377. 
Kubango, River, 568, 
Kufara Oases, 552. 
Kuku-Nor, 539. 
‘** Kultak ” (wind on Lake Baikal), 601. 
Kunming, Lake, 604. 
Kur, River, 541. 
Kurghi-Nor, 534, 
Kutamaldi, River, 535. 
Kwania, Lake, 608. 
Kyaring, Lake, 539. 
Kyzyl-lak, 535. 


plankton of, 348, 349, 


Laach, Lake of, 645. 

Labiate, 174. 

Labrador, 627, 631. 

Lacustrine fauna and _ flora, 
Scottish, 308. 

Ladoga, Lake, 381, 428, 581, 584. 

Laduigin, —, 604. 

Lagain, Loch an, plankton of, 344. 

Laggan, Loch, freezing of, 140. 

seiches in, 31, 53. 
Lagunas, definition of, 561. 


origin of 


GENERAL INDEX 


Lahontan, Lake, 558. 
Laidon, Loch, freezing of, 140. 
Lake basins, barrier, 522. 
organic, 523, 
rock, 521. 
wind-formed, 524. 
Lake Creek, 634. 
Lake: definition of term, 515. 
Lake of the Hills, 6382. 
of the Nine Rivers, 603. 
of the Woods, 629, 630. 
‘*¢ Lake on the Mountain,” 629. 
Lake Survey, records on biology by the, 
274, 295, 297, 298, 302, 310, 312, 
313, 317. 
work, origin and history of, 1. 
Lake waters, chemical composition of, 
145-155. 
Lakes, classification of, by origin, 521. 
by physical characters, 520. 
by temperature, 104, 520. 
compared with oceanic islands, 519. 
connected with inland drainage areas, 
524. 
connected with rivers flowing directly 
into the ocean, 572. 
deposits of, 518. 
distribution of, 515. 
fresh-water, 515. 
genetic relationship of, 516. 
organisms of, 519. 
salt, 515. 
source of water, 515. 
temperature of, 517. 
Lakes, Baltic fresh-water, 382-391. 
Lakes (Danish), biology of, compared with 
that of Scottish lochs, 307. 
calcium carbonate in deposits of, 273. 
relict fauna of, 308. 
temperature of, 285, 
Lakes (Scottish), biological evidence as to 
origin and age of, 304. 
classification of, 475. 
comparison of temperature in, 135. 
deposits in, 18, 261-274. 
distribution of, 475. 
probable origin of, 475. 
total number surveyed, 9. 
Lamb, —, 88, 125. 
Lamellibranchiata, 355. 
Laminia, Lake, 621. 
Langak-tso, 539, 540. 
Langavat, Loch, plankton of, 340, 342, 
345, 348, 350. 
Lann, Loch nan, flora of, 210. 
Laoghal, Loch, deposit from, 269. 
zooplankton of, 283. 
Lapchung-tso, 539. 
Lapworth, C., 441, 444. 
Larg, Loch, flora of, 256. 
Laune, River, 579. 
Lauriol, —, 31. 
Leane, Lough, 579. 
Lebedintzeff, A., 151. 
Leighton, M. O., 149. 
Lemaire, —, 613. 
Léman, Lac, see Lake of Geneva. 


779 


Lemnacee, 179, 357. 
Lentibulariacee, 175. 
Leopold, Lake, 521. 
Leopold II., Lake, 617. 
Leskeacee, 188. 
Leslie, John, 91, 142. 
Lethe, Lake, 634. 
Leucodontace, 188. 
Leum a’ Chlamhain, Loch, desmids in, 
302. 
Levander, —, 418. 
Leven, Loch, flora of, 169, 176, 182, 185, 
187, 247, 251, 258, 
River (Fife), 250. 
River (Lancashire), 575. 
Lewisian Gneiss, distribution of, 439. 
fundamental complex, rock-groups of, 
439, 440. 
igneous rocks intrusive in, 440. 
pre-Torridonian movements in, 440. 
pre-Torridonian denudation of, 440. 
Liassic rocks, 454, 455. 
Lighten, Lake, 539. 
Likwa, Lake, 521. 
Lilljeborg, W., 418. 
Lime incrustation on stones and plants, 
Ors 
Limmat, River, 596, 597. 
Limnee, 165. 
Limnography, definition of, 515, 
Limnological investigations, main problems 
of future, 426. 
Limnology, 91, 93, 155. 
definition of, 515. 
Limonite in deposits of Scottish lochs, 
269. 
Linder, Charles, 9, 27. 
Lindores Loch, flora of, 183, 247. 
uinhthgow Loch, temperature of, 113, 125. 
linnhe, Loch, 197, 201, 212, 
Linth, River, 596, 597. 
Lintrathen, Loch of, 246. 
Lismore Island, deposits in lochs of, 271. 
flora of lochs of, 156, 163, 164, 168, 
173, 180, 211-215. 
Littlester, Loch, desmids in, 302. 
plankton of, 344. 
Littoral and shallow water region, 651. 
region of lakes, biology of, 289, 311. 
Livingstone, David, 566, 615. 
Llydaw, Llyn, 576. 
Lob Nor, 528, 535-538. 
Lobosa, 356. 
Lochaber Loch, flora of, 237. 
Lochenbreck Loch, flora of, 228. 
Lochindorb, deposit from, 268, 269. 
Loch-in-loch, 223. 
Lochinvar, flora of, 218, 231. 
Lochmill Loch, flora of, 248. 
Lochnaw, flora of, 246. 
Lochrutton Loch, flora of, 236. 
Lochy, Loch, biological observations in, 17. 
flora of, 196, 201. 
freezing of, 138. 
worms in, 318. 
zooplankton of, 278. 
Lombach River, 594, 


776 


Lomond Hills, flora of lochs on, 247, 256, 


THE FRESH-WATER 


25(e 
Lomond, Loch, Admiralty survey of, 4, 18, 
19, 20. 
crustacea in, 297. 
seiches in, 30. 
temperature of, 91, 92, 93, 118, 116, 
138. 
worms in, 318, 319. 
Lonar, Lake, 645. 
Long Loch of Glenhead, flora of, 224. 
of the Dungeon, flora of, 224. 
Lorenz von Libernau, J., 392. 
Lortet, Louis, 545, 548. 
Lorze, River, 596. 
Losuguta, Lake, 619. 
Lovat, River, 584. 
Lovén, —, 398. 
Lowerz, Lake of, 596. 
Loy, Loch, flora of, 216. 
Lubbock, John, 524, 597, 586. 
Lubnaig, Loch, freezing of, 140. 
seiches in, 32, 33, 53, 62. 
Lucas, Keith, 641. 
Luce, Sands of, flora of, 246. 
Lucerne, Lake of, 516, 596. 
biology of, 306. 
seiches in, 53. 
Lucion, —, 269. 
Lugano, Lake of, 590, 591. 
Luichart, Loch, freezing of, 140. 
Lujenda River, 618. 
Lukchun depression, 538. 
Lukuga River, 615, 616. 
Lukula River, 613. 
Lundie, Loch, flora of, 202. 
Lungard, Loch, freezing of, 140. 
Lure, Loch, flora of, 222. 
Lurgain, Loch, deposit from, 265. 
temperature of, 137, 140. 
Liitschine River, 594. 
Lycopodiacez, 184. 
Lyell, Charles, 588, 636. 
Lynch, —, 546, 547. 
Lyons, H. G., 554, 608, 609, 611. 
Lythracee, 171. 


M‘Andrew, James, 168. 

Macaterick, Loch, flora of, 221. 

M‘Currach, James, 26. 

Macdonald, William, 95. 

M‘Dowell, David, 242. 

Macfarlane’s ‘‘ Geographical Collections,” 
140. 

Macgregor, —, 545 

M Intosh, DCs 827. 

Mackenzie River, 631. 

Mackenzy, George, 141. 

Mackinder, H. J., 457. 

Maclaren, —. 648. 

M‘Mahon, H. M., 541. 

Madsen, V., 382. 

Madiisee, seiches in, 33, 58. 

Magadi, Lake, 618. 

Magetsch, River, 612. 

Maggiore, Lake, 588, 590. 

Magillie, Loch, flora of, 244. 


LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Magnin, A., 396. 
Maira, River, 517, 586. 
Makarrikarri salt-pan, 568. 
Makee, River, 621. 
Malar, Lake, 580. 
Malaspina Glacier, 522. 
Malmohuslian, lakes in, 382. 
Malombe, Lake, 618. 
Mammalia, 369. 
Mamoré River, 6389. 
Managua, Lake, 638, 639. 
Manapouri, Lake, 644. 
Manasarowar, Lake, 539, 540. 
Manicouagan, River, 627. 
Manitoba, Lake, 630. 
Manley, J. J., 151. 
Mansya, River, 613. 
Maol a’ Choire, Loch, plankton of, 342, 344. 
Maracaibo, Lake of, 640. 
Maree, Loch, deep loch on island in, 187. 
freezing of, 139, 141. 
seiches in, 53. 
Marine Biological Association of the West 
of Scotland, 1, 17. 
Mariut, Lake, 613. 
Marjelen, Lake, 522. 
Mar! at Carlingwark Loch, 235. 
Marsh, C. D., 628. 
Marshall, R. C., 8, 27. 
Marsileacee, 184, 357. 
Marsson, M., 391. 
Martens, — von, 427. 
Martin, C. H., 8,27, 292,293, 318730: 
Mask, Lough, 577. 
Matata, River, 642. 
‘* Mauvaises places,” 115. 
Maximum density point, 2, 104, 118. 
Maxwell, J. S8., 32. 
May Island, flora of, 247, 259. 
Mayran, Laguna de, 562. 
Measand Beck, 575. 
‘*Medusa,” S.Y., 1, 2. 
Medve, Lake, 109, 587. 
Meesiaceee, 187. 
Megra, River, 583. 
Meikle Dornell Loch, flora of, 234. 
Meiklie, Loch, flora of, 170, 184, 202, 204. 
porifera in, 324. 
Mekong, River, 604. 
Melanthacex, 177. 
Melloni, —, 110. 
Melrir, Shott el, 348. 
Mendota, Lake, 632. 
Menzala, Lake, 613. 
cMermaldiic, Yenmivae Ol. 
Merwan, Shott el, 550. 
Metamorphic rocks east of Moine thrust- 
plane, 442. 
Meteorological conditions of areas draining 
to the sea, 572. 
of inland drainage areas, 525. 
effect of, upon the denivellation of 
lakes, 60. 
Method of sounding, 12. 
Methods and instruments, 10. 
of determining positions of soundings, 
14. 


GENERAL INDEX 


Mexico, 560, 638. 
Gulf of, 636. 
Mezen, River, 583. 
Mezer (artesian well in Sahara), 550. 
Mheig, Loch a’, flora of, 203. 
Mhor, Loch, flora of, 165, 208. 
variation in level of, 165, 198. 
Mhuilinn, Loch a’, plankton of, 344. 
porifera in, 324. 
Michigan, Lake, 522, 628, 625. 
Midland Valley, sculpture of, 465. 
Migration of plankton in Scottish lochs, 
diurnal, 311. 
vertical, 288. 
MMSE hey Whe 2.24-°93, 149. 573. 
Mill Beck, 574. 
Millport Biological Laboratory, 1, 21. 
Milton Loch, flora of, 236. 
Minnesota River, 630. 
Minnoch, Loch, flora of, 186, 189, 232. 
Mirage Lake, 559. 
Mississippi River, 622, 623, 630, 632, 633, 
634, 636, 650. 
Missouri River, 516, 632. 
Mistassini, Lake, 631. 
Mitchell, Arthur, 140. 
Mites, water-, 289, 292, 310, 3138. 
Mitford, C. E. B., 645. 
Mjosen, Lake, 381, 418, 427. 
Mochrum district, flora of lochs in, 173, 
181, 184, 
Loch, flora of, 241. 
Modes of reproduction among plankton, 
408. 
Moeris, Lake, 558. 
Moine (Eastern) Schists, classification of, 
442. 
distribution of, 442 
Moine thrust-plane, 442. 
Moir, Lake, 6138. 
Mollusca in Lake of Geneva, 304. 
in Scottish lochs, 289, 292, 294, 296, 
307, 310, 311, 313. 
Monar, Loch, freezing of, 139, 142. 
Mono, Lake, 557. 
Monocotyle, 357, 358. 
Monona, Lake, 633. 
Monreith Loch, flora of, 176, 242. 
Monti, R., 393, 394. 
Montiggler Lakes, 395. 
Monzievaird, Loch, temperature of, 138. 
Moore, J. E: 8., 898, 427, 605, 615, 616, 
617, 618. 
Morar, Loch, biology of, 285, 289, 291. 
depth of, 4, 378. 
seiches in, 31, 53. 
temperature of, 132, 138. 
Morat, Lake of, 595. 
Moratcha, River, 588. 
Moray Firth, 197. 
More, Loch (Laixford basin), freezing of, 
139. 
(Thurso basin), plankton of, 344. 
Morie, Loch, freezing of, 140. 
Moriston, Glen, 197. 
River, 197. 
Morrison, J. T., 143. 


177 


Mosel, River, 645. 

Moses, Lake, 523, 637. 

Mossdale Loch, flora of, 228. 

Mosses, 165, 242, 290, 309. 

Mossy River, 6381. 

Motala, River, 580. 

Mpologomia, River, 610. 

Msta, River, 584. 

Muckross, Lake, 579. 

Muds, brown, deposited in Scottish lochs, 
262, 264-268, 273, 274. 

ochreous, deposited in Scottish lochs, 
269. 
sulphuretted, deposited in Scottish 

lochs, 267. 

Muerto, Laguna del, 562. 

Muick, Loch, temperature of, 136. 

Mullardoch, Loch, freezing of, 140. 

Miiller, Hermann, 157. 

Miller, O. F., 339. 

Miullner, J., 392. 

Mulwaree Creek, 566, 

Munthe, H., 382. 

Muotta, River, 596. 

Murchison Falls, 618. 

Murchison, Rk. T., 441, 448. 

Murdoch, U.Hs 557. 

Murendat, River, 619. 

Murray, George, 542. 

Murray, James, 8,9, 17, 22, 27,:31, 32, 
49, 87, 275, 335. 

Murray, John, 1, 2,6, 20; 21, 22, 23,, 24, 
27.82.67. 98, 94,139) 149) tas. 
156, 260, 261, 268, 374, 378, 399, 
427, 514, 649. 

Murten See, 595. 

Musci of Scottish lochs, 310. 

Muscine of Scottish lochs, 301, 329. 

Mweru, Lake, 6138. 

Myvatn, Lake, 380, 418. 

Myxophycee, 260, 280, 282, 284, 310, 333, 
258. 


Nafooey, Lough, 577, 578. 

Nahuelhuapi, Lake, 640. 

Naiadacee, 357. 

Nairn district, flora of lochs of, 156, 168, 
PALA A Ti 

Naivasha, Lake, 619. 

Nakuro, Lake, 619. 

Nami-tso, 589, 

Narova, River, 584. 

Narroch, Loch, flora of, 224. 

Natron, Lake, 618. 

Nazas, River, 562. 

Nazik, Lake of, 543. 

Neagh, Lough, 149, 299, 577. 

Neldricken, Loch, flora of, 209, 223. 

Nelson, River, 629, 650. 

Nematoda, 318. 

Nemertinea, 355, 356. 

Nepigon, Lake, 626. 

River, 626. 

Nepissing., Luke, 627. 

‘* Nerpa ” (Phoca baicalensis), 608. 

Ness district, flora of lochs of, 196- 
PA 


778 


Ness, Loch, abyssal life in, 291, 292, 293, 
307, 311. 
composition of water of, 149. 
deposits from, 269. 
flora of, 197, 200. 
seiches in, 31, 58. 
temperature of, 94, 96, 98, 99, 100, 
LOM, 102. 05s Uh ai eas alii 
118, 121, 122, 123, 124, 126, 127, 
128, 181, 132, 184, 1385, 138, 141, 
379, 380, 428. 
variation in level of, 198. 
Nette, River, 645. 
Neuchatel, Lake of, 396, 595. 
seiches in, 53. 
Neuenburger See, 595. 
Neumayer, —, 419, 602. 
Neusiedler See, 586. 
Neva, River, 581. 
Neveu-Lemaire, M., 568, 570. 
New British records by Lake Survey, 310. 
N 
N 
N 


THE FRESH-WATER 


ew England, lakes of, 622. 
Yew species collected by Lake Survey, 310. 
New Zealand, 641, 647. 
Newton, E. T., 454. 
Ngami, Lake, 566, 568. 
Ngangtse-tso, 539. 
Niagara Falls, 623. 
River, 623. 
Nicaragua, Lake, 638, 639. 
Nicol, J., 441. 
Niger, River, 650. 
Nile, River, 606, 610, 612, 650. 
Nitrogen in lakes, etc., 154. 
No, Lake, 611. 
Noddeboholt, Lake, 387. 
Northern Block (North-West Highlands), 
sculpture of, 459, 462. 
consequent streams of, 459. 
obsequent streams of, 459. 
subsequent streams of, 460. 
shatter-belts in, 459, 460. 
Nyasa, Lake, 521, 605, 606, 616, 617, 
618. 
Nyiro, Mount, 620. 
Nympheacez, 170, 357. 


Obersee, temperatures in, 115. 
Obi, River, 599. 
Ocean, composition of water of, 151. 


Ochreous muds in Scottish lochs, 265, 269. 


Ochrida, River, 588. 

Ogle, Glen, 70, 76. 

Oglio, valley, 590. 

Ohau, River, 643. 

Ohio, River, 632, 634. 

Oich, Loch, flora of, 164, 167, 196, 200, 

201, 225. 

freezing of, 140. 
plankton of, 341, 344. 

Oich, River, 198. 

Okaro, Lake, 647. 

Okavango, River, 568. 

Okere, River, 648. 

Olavat, Loch, plankton of, 348. 

Old Red Sandstone, classification of, 447. 
Lower division, 448. 


LOCHS 


OF SCOTLAND 


Old Red Sandstone, Middle division, 448, 
449 


Upper division, 449. 
Oligocheta, 292, 293, 318, 355, 356. 
Omo, River, 620. 
Omotepe, island, 639. 
Onagraceze, 171. 
Onega, Lake, 583. 
Ontario, Lake, 522, 625, 623, 629. 
Oolitic rocks, 454, 455. 
Orange River, 566, 650. 
Orbe, River, 594. 
Ordain, Loch an, flora of, 209. 
Ordnance Survey, 3, 7, 8, 14, 15, 18, 19, 
26: 
Origin of Lake Survey work, 1. 
of Scottish lacustrine fauna and flora, 
308. 
of Scottish lochs, biological evidence as 
to, 304. 
Oring-nor, 604. 
Orinoco River, 639, 640, 650. 
Orkney, deposits in small lochs of, 267. 
Orta, Lake of, 590. 
Orthotrichacexe, 187. 
Ortoire, River, 361. 
Oscillations of lake-surfaces, 29-90. 
Oscillatoriaceee, 358, 389, 649. 
Ossian, Loch, freezing of, 140. 
Ostenfeld, C. H., 386, 401. 
Ostracoda, 317, 855, 404. 
Ostwald, W., 407. 
Ottawa, River, 627. 
Otterston Loch, fiora of, 173, 176, 182, 
254, 
Oued Igharghar, 550. 
Miya, 550. 
Rhir, 526, 550. 
Oughter, Lough, 579. 
Outer Hebrides, geology of, 439, 461. 
Owen’s Lake, 557. 
Owskeich, Loch, freezing of, 140. 
Oxara, River, 598. 
‘‘Ox-bow” lakes of Mississippi, 636. 
Oxus, River, 529. 
Oxygen in lakes, 125, 154, 155, 294. 
in sea-water, 154. 


Packard, —, 634. 

Padarn, Llyn, 576. 

Pagade, Lake, 621. 

Paito, River, 640. 

Palestine, 545. 

Palic, Lake, composition of water of, 151. 
Palmellacee, 303, 332. 

Palti, Lake, 539. 

‘* Pampas salinas,” 569. 

Panama Canal, 639. 

Pancake ice, 116. 

Pangong Lake, 538. 

Panuco, River, 561. 

Pao, River, 640. 

Parana-Paraguay River, 639. 
Parras, River, 562. 

Parsons, James, 8, 27, 31, 95. 
Pasquier, L. du, 596. 

Passarge, Seigfried, 390, 391, 566. 


GENERAL INDEX 


Pasvigelf, 581. 

Patagonia, 640. 

Paton, —-, 245. 

Patrocles, 529. 

Peace River, 631. 

Peach, B. N., 24, 439. 

Pearcey, F. G., 27. 

Peary, Robert, 14. 

Peaty waters, 147, 161, 162, 163, 165, 166, 

215, 286. 

Peerie Water, 301. 

Peipus, Lake, 584, 

Pelagic or abysmal region of the ocean, 

652. 
Penard, E., 278, 291, 293, 301, 305, 306, 
307, 311, 325. 

Penck, Albrecht, 382, 593. 

Pepin, Lake, 633. 

Peretolchin, —-, 603. 

Peridiniacez, 280, 282, 310, 347, 358. 

Peris, Llyn, 576. 

Perlide in Scottish lochs, 315, 334. 

Permian rocks, distribution of, 453. 

Peru, 569. 

Peschel, D. F., 602. 

Peten, Lake, 562. 

Pettersson, O., 377, 379, 380, 427. 

Peucker, K., 584. 

Pfenniger, A., 392, 394. 

Pheophycee, 357, 358. 

Phanerogamia of Scottish lochs, 156, 271, 

276, 301, 310, 327. 

‘* Phenotypes,” 408, 

Phosphorescence in lakes, 3, 312. 

Photic zone, 155, 162, 164. 

Phycocyan, 389. 

Phylactolemata, 355, 356. 

Physical and biological conditions of fresh- 

water lochs, 2. 
of salt-water lochs, 2. 
Phytoplankton of Scottish lochs, 279-281, 
301-303. 

Picnic Point, 55, 56, 60, 61, 68, 69, 76, 87. 

FAC OOtU nee. DSS aio 

Pilcomayo River, 639. 

Pitard, E., 394. 

Planes of denudation, classification of, 458. 

Planimeter measurements, 10, 15. 

Plankton communities, their geography 

and life-history, 399. 
Plankton, fresh-water, influence of Ice Age 
on, 418-426. 
variation of, 404. 
seasonal, 405. 
local, 414. 

Plankton of Scottish lochs, 275, 276. 
Arctic element in, 287, 311. 
cosmopolitan element in, 285, 
distribution of, 287. 

European species rare or absent in, 
287. 

migration of, 288, 309, 311. 

origin of, 308. 

peculiarities of, 285-289, 

seasonal change of, 288, 311. 

summary of, 311. 

temperature in relation to, 284. 


779 


Plantaginace, 175. 

Plantamour, —, 31. 

Plants in Scottish lakes, 156-260. 
comparative table, 193-195. 
list of, 168-194. 

Plate, —, 419. 

Platten See, 585. 

‘* Playas ” (mud plains), 556. 

Blomnaecs? |, 

Po, River, 588, 650. 

Podostemaceex, 165, 

Poe; OM. 625. 

Point de Monts, 627. 

Pointe Mulatre, River, 646, 

Polar class of lakes, 104, 106. 

Polycheta, 355. 

Polygonacee, 175. 

Polytrichacee, 186. 

Polyzoa, 355, 356, 364. 

Pontchartrain, Lake, 636. 

Poopo, Lake, 569, 571. 

Poo-to, River, 604. 

Porellez, 189. 

Porifera in Scottish lochs, 310, 324. 

Porsild, M., 376, 377. 

Portclair Forest, 189. 

Portulacee, 172. 

Potamogetonacez, 179, 357. 

Potamonide, 355. 

Poyang Lake, 604. 

Precipitation and evaporation, 515. 

Prejevalsky, N., 536. 

Preparation of maps of Scottish lochs, 15. 

Primulacee, 175. 

Progressive waves, 40, 86. 

Protozoa of Scottish lochs, 278, 281, 293, 

310. 

Pskov, Lake, 584. 

Pteridophyta, 357, 358. 

Ptilidex, 189. 

Pullar whe eo. 4 oGe 529, bh 20. 212. 

93 


Pullar, laurence: 1; 6,.7, 9, 10; 21,7 25; 
24, 27, 94, 156, 260. 

Pullar, Robert, 21. 

Pulmonata, 369. 

‘* Puna” (inland drainage area), 569. 

Puorek, Lake, 342. 

Purvis, —, 610. 

Pusiano, Lake of, 590. 

Putnam, F. W., 634. 

Puy de la Vache, 523. 

Pyramid Lake, 557, 558. 


Quatre Cantons, Lac des, 596. 
Quinté, Bay of, 629. 

Quinton, René, 354, 358, 362, 519. 
Quoich, Loch, freezing of, 139. 


Radiation, 101, 110. 
Radiolaria, 356. 
Radiolarian Ooze, 273. 
Rainy River, 630. 
Rakas-tal, Lake, 539, 540. 
Ramsay, A. C., 521, 588. 
Rangiriri, River, 642. 
‘*Rand-Seen,” 596. 


780 


Rannoch, Loch, deposit from, 265. 
freezing of, 138. 
zooplankton of, 278. 
Ranunculacez, 168, 357. 
Raonasgail, Loch, plankton of, 348, 351. 
Rattray, John, 1, 2. 
Ravenstone Loch, flora of, 180. 
Rawlinson, H. @., 529. 
Recar, Loch, flora of, 169, 179, 220, 221. 
Reclus, Elisée, 561, 
Red Clay, 274. 
Red Lochan at Tulloch, 528. 
River, 516, 522, 629, 630, 636. 
Sea, 608. 
Ree, Lough, 578. 
Regina Margherita, Lake, 621, 
Region, abysmal or pelagic, 652. 
boreo sub-glacial, 297. 
littoral and shallow water, 651. 
of deep-sea terrigenous deposits, 651. 
of inland drainage areas, 524, 650. 
of lakes and rivers draining directly 
to the ocean, 524, 572, 651. 
Regnant, —, 553. 
Regnard, P., 550. 
Reid, Clement, 469, 470. 
Reindeer Lake, 631. 
River, 631. 
Relict fauna, 306, 308, 311. 
‘* Reliktenseen,” 359. 
Reproduction of plankton, different modes 
of, 403. 
Rescobie Loch, lime-incrusted stones at, 
213. 
Reuss, River, 596. 
Reynolds, Osborne, 51. 
Rhabdoliths, 278. 
Rhabdospheres, 402, 
Rhine, River, 591,.593, 650. 
Glacier, 593. 
Rhinns of Kells, 218. 
Rhizopods, 278, 289, 291, 292, 293, 301, 
305, 306, 307, 311. 
Rhizota, 320. 
Rhoades, E. L., 618. 
so Rheda,? the, 16: 
Rhodophyceex, 163, 357, 358. 
Rhone, River, 591, 593, 650. 
Richelieu, River, 628. 
Richter, E., 102, 110, 380, 392. 
Richthofen, —, 536. 
Rigolets Pass, 636. 
Rio Grande del Norte, 561. 
Rio Grande de Santiago, 638. 
Rio Lerma, 638. 
Rio Negro, 640. 
Roan, Loch, flora of, 233. 
Robe, River, 577. 
Robertson, Duncan, 32. 
Robertson Museum, 1. 
Rock-basins, 521. 
along shatter-belts, 484. 
classification of, 476. 
corrie type of, 483. 
plateau type of, 476. 
valley type of, 477. 
Rock River, 633. 


THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Rocky Mountains, 636. 

Rohlts, Gerhard, 552. 

Romer, —, 598. 

Ronald, Loch, flora of, 239. 

Rosacee, 171. 

Rosenvinge, Kolderup, 377. 

Rotifera, 277, 281, 282, 283, 286, 287, 289, 
290, 292, 299, 301, 310, 311, 318, 
319, 336, 356, 364, 372, 403, 408, 
416, 649. 

Rotoiti, Lake, 643. 

Rotomohana, Lake, 648. 

Rotorua, Lake, 648. 

Roudaire, —, 548. 

Round Loch of Glenhead, flora of, 224. 

of the Dungeon, flora of, 224. 

Rousselet, —, 301, 408, 409. 

Roux, Marc le, 391, 392, 396. 

Roy, —, 302. 


_Royal Society of Edinburgh, 3, 6, 18, 238, 
32 


of London, 3, 6, 19, 23. 
Ruadha, Lochan nan eun, flora of, 206. 
Rubiacee, 173. 

Ruchurn, River, 619. 

Rudolf, Lake, 521, 620, 605, 606. 
Rukwa, Lake, 521, 605, 606, 618. 
Ruo, River, 622. 

Rupert’s River, 631. 

Rusisi, River, 610, 615. 

Russell, I. C., 556, 626, 637, 638. 
Russell, Thomas, 626. 

Russian Lake, 604. 

Ruthven, Loch, flora of, 189, 206. 

zooplankton of, 283. 

Ryder, O. H. D., 540. 


Sacchi, River, 620. 

Sachs, Julius, 157. 

Sagau, River, 621. 

Saggatu, Lake, 380. 

Saguenay, River, 627. 

Sahara Desert, 523, 524, 548. 

Saima, Lake, 581. 

St Clair, Lake, 625, 641. 

St Francis, Lake, 626. 

St John, Lake, 627. 

St John’s Loch, crustacea in, 298. 

St Lawrence, River, 623, 626, 650. 

St Louis, Lake, 626. 

St Martin’s Lake, 630. 

St Mary, Lake, 633. 

St Mary’s Loch, abyssal life in, 291. 
‘* flowering ” of, 284. 

St Moritz, Lake, 586. 

St Peter, Lake, 626. 

Saisi, River, 618. 

Sajo, K., 421. 

‘¢ Saline” : application of the word, 516. 

Salisbury, Lake, 610. 

Salmonide, 309. 

“Salt”: connotation of the word, 515. 

Salts in solution in lake water, 515. 

Salviniaceze, 357. 

San Joaquin, River, 638. 

San Juan, River, 638, 639. 

San Martin, Lake, 641. 


GENERAL INDEX 


San Miguel, River, 562. 
San-po, River, 539. 
Sanderson Gulf, 620. 
Sands deposited in Scottish lochs, 262. 
of Luce, flora of, 246. 
Santa Cruz, River, 641. 
Santa Maria, Laguna de, 562. 
Sarasin, —, 31, 419. 
Sarassin, —, 424. 
Sarat, Lake, composition of water of, 151. 
Sarca valley, 590. 
Sarcodina, 305, 310, 325. 
Sarek, Lake, 418. 
Sarmate Sea, 602. 
Sarnen, Lake, 596. 
Sars, G. O., 344, 532. 
Sarviz, River, 585. 
Saskatchewan, River, 629. 
Sassyk-kul, 534. 
' Saussure, H. B. de, 91, 95. 
Saxifragaces, 172. . 
Scadavay, Loch, plankton of, 348, 
Scapanioidee, 189. 
Scaslavat, Loch, plankton of, 345. 
Schaffhausen, Falls of, 593. 
Schermerhorn, L. Y., 625, 626. 
Schizopoda, 315, 359. 
Schmidt, C., 149, 152. 
Schmidt, P. J., 534, 599, 601. 
Schokalsky, Jules de, 582, 534, 599, 601. 
Schneider, —, 115. 
Schonenbodensee, 286. 
Schroter, C., 391, 397. 
Schweinfurth, —, 554. 
Scott, Thomas, 276, 297, 298, 299, 312, 
313, 315, 341, 348, 344. 
Scott-Elliot, G. F., 609. 
Scottish lacustrine fauna and flora, origin 
of, 308. 
Scourfield, D. J., 8, 27, 299, 315, 324, 327. 
Scriston, Loch, freezing of, 142. 
Scrophulariacese, 174. 
Scutari, Lake, 587. 
Seasonal variation of plankton, 282, 405. 
Sebkas of the Sahara, 548. 
Seiches, 17, 29-90. 
amplitude of, 17, 29. 
composition of, 48. 
hydrodynamical theory of, 48, 46. 
laboratory experiments illustrating 
the origin of, 81. 
origin of, 63. 
range of, 29. 
Seine, River, 360. 
Seiont, River, 577. 
Seistan, 541. 
Selaginellacez of Scottish lochs, 310, 329. 
Selenga, River, 599, 600, 601, 603. 
Selety-denghis, Lake, 535. 
Seleucus, 529. 
Seligo, A., 382, 384, 418. 
Semliki, River, 610, 611. 
Sempach, Lake of, 595. 
Semper, Carl, 360, 361, 365, 368. 
Séraes, Lac de, 393. 
Serio valley, 590. 
Sesia valley, 590. 


781 


Severn, River, 577. 
(Canada), 627. 
Sevier Bay, 556. 
Desert, 556. 
Lake, 557. 
Seward, A. C., 402. 
Shackleton, E. H., 9, 649. 
Shaksha, Lake, 599. 
Shamarin, —, 600. 
Shannon, River, 578. 
Shari, River, 551, 552. 
Shashago, River, 621. 
Shatter-belts, 459, 460, 463, 465, 484. 
Shaw, W. N., 32. 
Sheallag, Loch na, temperature of, 135, 
139. 
Shechernich, Loch, desmids in, 302. 
** Sheet flood,” 555. 
Shelag Channel, 541. 
Shelon, River, 584. 
Shennan, A., 28. 
Shergai, Shott el, 549, 551. 
Shetland, deposits in small lochs of, 267. 
Shiel, Loch, crustacea in, 297. 
temperature of, 137, 139. 
zooplankton of, 278. 
Shimozero, Lake, 584. 
Shin, Loch, freezing of, 140. 
Shiranesan of Kusatsu, 645. 
Shiré River, 617, 618. 
Shirwa, Lake, 618. 
Shotts of the Sahara, 523, 548. 
Shurrery, Loch, Palmellacee in, 303. 
Shyok, River, 538. 
Siam, 604. 
Siang Kiang, River, 604. 
Siarra, Lake, 593. 
*¢ Siberia’ (near Fort Augustus), 211. 
Sieger, R., 609. 
Sihl, River, 597. 
Sils, Lake, 586. 
Silurian Rocks of the Southern Uplands, 
444, 
radiolarian cherts in, 445. 
types of sedimentation in Central Belt, 
445, 
types of sedimentation in Northern 
Belt, 446. 
types of sedimentation in Girvan area, 
446. 
voleanic’rocks in, 445. 
plutonic rocks in, 445, 447. 
Silva Plana, Lake, 586. 
Simcoe, Lake, 627, 
Simmen River, 594. 
Sio, River, 585. 
Skader, Lake, 587. 
Skae, Loch, flora of, 231. 
Skealtar, Loch, plankton of, 341, 347. 
Skebacleit, Loch, plankton of, 345, 349. 
Skelleftea, River, 579. 
Skerrow, Loch, flora of, 191, 226. 
Skinaskink, Loch, freezing of, 140. 
Slave Lake, Great, 632. 
Lake, Lesser, 632. 
River, Lesser, 632. 
Slochy, Loch, flora of, 221. 


782 


Smith, A. Donaldson, 620, 621. 
Smiths. oils; 
Snake River, 518, 632, 636. 
Snarravoe, Loch, plankton of, 350. 
Soar C.D. ola: 
Sobat, River, 611. 
Soda Lake, 557. 
Soghla Gol, 545. 
Solitary wave, 40. 
Sollas, W. J., 366. 
Sofiora Nevada, 561. 
Sorell, Lake, 641. 
Soret,.di Li. 120: 
‘*Sorma”’ (wind on Lake Baikal), 601. 
Soulseat Loch, flora of, 191, 245. 
Soufriére, crater, 646. 
Southern Block (Southern Uplands), sculp- 
ture of, 466. 
consequent streams of, 467. 
obsequent streams of, 467. 
subsequent streams of, 468. 
Species, census of, in Scottish lochs, 276, 
279, 289, 313. 
Spencer, Herbert, 157. 
Sphagnacee, 185, 196. 
Spiggie, Loch, plankton of, 344, 349. 
Spring, W., 267, 269, 270, 384. 
‘«Sprungschicht,” 107, 154. 
Stacsavat, Loch, plankton of, 346, 
Stair, Earl of, 248. 
Stanley, H. M., 615, 616. 
Stanley Pool, 617. 
Starnberger See, 58, 396. 
Stecker, Anton, 612. 
Stefanie, Lake, 521, 621. 
Stein, M. A., 536. 
Steinmann, P., 404. 
Sterneck, J., 424. 
Steusloff, V., 382, 391. 
Stewart, Miss, 28. 
Stingelin, T., 425. 
Stoliczka, —-, 602. 
Stomatopoda, 355, 356. 
Stone Lake, 627. 
River, 631. 
Stones, lime-incrusted, 213. 
Stroan, Loch, flora of, 170, 172, 220, 227. 
Styx, River (Mammoth Cave of Kentucky), 
634. 
Suainaval, Loch, freezing of, 139. 
plankton of, 340, 346. 
Suctoria, 326. 
Sudan, 548, 551. 
‘‘Sudds” of Nile, 523, 611, 636. 
Suess, Eduard, 600, 605. 
Sugobo volcano, 620. 
Sugota, Lake, 619. 
River, 620. 
Suhr, River, 595. 
Suksuk, River, 621. 
Sulphuretted muds in Scottish lochs, 267. 
Sumatra, 605. 
Summit Lake, 627. 
Superior, Lake, 522, 625. 
Sutlej, River, 540. 
Sveta, Lake, 621. 
Svir, River, 583. 


THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Swah Oasis, 552. 

Swannay, Loch, deposit from, 271. 
Swiss lakes, 304-307, 591-598. 
Symson, Andrew, 141. 

Syr Daria, 529. 


Table showing altitude of principal lakes 
of the world, 656. 
area of principal lakes of the world, 
652 
maximum depth of principal lakes of 
the world, 655. 
volume of principal lakes of the world, 
654. 
‘* Taches d’huile,” 115. 
Tachinger See, seiches in, 86. 
Tage-tsangpo, River, 540. 
Tagus, River, 360. 
Tahoe, Lake, 559. 
Mattie G ele. 
Tajura Gulf, 621. 
Tale Sap, 604. 
Talmage, J. H., 151, 558. 
Tanganyika, Lake, 521, 605, 606, 610, 
615-617. 
Tanner-Fiillemann, M., 286, 392. 
Tar, Laguna, 641. 
Tarah Rudo. 
Tarawera Creek, 642, 648. 
Lake, 642. 
Volcanic Rift, 642, 647. 
Tardigrada in Scottish lochs, 289, 290, 
292, 296, 305, 310, 311, 313. 
Tarff, Loch, flora of, 210. 
River, 198. 
Tarim, River, 535, 536. 
Tarken, Glen, 70. 
Tasmania, 641, 
Tate Regan, C., 639. 
Tatta, Lake, 545. 
Taukhé, River, 568. 
Taupo, Lake, 642. 
Tay, Loch, seiches in, 30, 32, 38, 38, 53, 
62, 79, 80, 85, 87. 
temperature of, 91, 93, 138. 
Taylor, T. G., 565, 566. 
T’chihatchef, —, 550. 
Tchoruk Su Gol, 545. 
Teall, J. J.. H., 8, 23. 
Te Anau, Lake, 644. 
Teke, Lake, 535. 
Telezkoie, Lake, 599. 
Temiscaming, Lake, 627. 
Temperate class of lakes, 104, 105. 
Temperature in relation to plankton, 284. 
of Scottish lakes, 15, 91-144, 311. 
seiche, 103, 125. 
Tengri-Nor, 539. 
Tension of gas in solution, 154. 
Te Oneta, River, 642. 
Teploye, Lake, 584. 
Tequizquiac, River, 561. 
Ter, Lake of, 594. 
Terada, —, 82. 
Terek, River, 530. 
Teri-nam-tso, 539. 
Terreil, A., 152. 


GENERAL INDEX 


Tertiary volcanic rocks, distribution of, 
456, 457. 
igneous rocks intrusive in, 457. 
Testacea, 325-326. 
Metlow, W. H.,, 149, 212: 
Tezcuco, Lake, 560. 
Thallophyta, 357. 
Thermocline, 107, 635. 
Thiele, River, 594. 
Thinemann, A., 404. 
Thingvallavatn, Lake, 380, 418, 598. 
Thirlmere, Lake, 149, 
Thompson, Isaac, 24. 
Thonsvatn, Lake, 598. 
Thoulet, J., 14, 181. 


Thrust-planes of post-Cambrian age, 441, 


442, 
Thun, Lake of, 594. 
Tiberias, Lake of, 523, 545. 
Tibet, lakes in, 515, 539, 
Ticino, River, 588, 590. 
Tien-Chi, Lake, 604. 
Tigri, Shott el, 549. 
Tigris, River, 543, 
Tillo, —, 538. 
Tingwall, Loch, plankton of, 349, 
Tiohge, River, 568. 
Titicaca, Lake, 569, 570, 571. 
Tjustrupso, 418. 
Tlahualila, Lake, 562. 
Toba, Lake, 605. 
Toce valley, 590. 
Tokaanu (hot springs), 642. 
Toma, Lake, 593. 
Tomdok, Lake, 539. 
Tonlé Sap, 604. 
Topography of Scotland, 
457-469, 
sculpture of the North-West High- 
lands, 459. 
sculpture of the Grampian Highlands, 
462. 


evolution of, 


sculpture of the Midland Valley, 465. 


sculpture of the Southern Uplands, 
466. 

Tormasad, Loch, plankton of, 348. 

Torne Trask, Lake, 376. 

Torrens, Lake, 563, 564. 

Torridonian rocks, classification of, 440. 
distribution of, 441. 
unconformability at base of, 440. 

Tortulacee, 187. 

Town Loch, Dunfermline, flora of, 180, 

183, 255. 

Transparency of water of Loch Ness, 17. 

Traquair, Rk. H., 449, 452. 

Traunsee, seiches in, 53. 

Traverse, Lake, 630. 

Trealaval, Loch, plankton of, 340, 345. 

Trieg, Loch, freezing of, 138. 
seiches in, 17, 31, 82, 34, 45, 53. 

Triassic rocks, distribution of, 453. 
unconformability at base of, 453. 

Trichoptera in Scottish lochs, 315. 

Trimmer, F., 558. 

Trincheras, River, 640. 

Trool, Loch, flora of, 218, 220, 224. 


783 


Tropical lakes, 104, 105, 397-399. 
Truckee River, 558. 
Cafion, 559. 
Trybom, F., 382. 
Tsad, Lake, 551. 
Tsana, Lake, 612. 
Tso-mavang, 539, 540. 
Tuire, Loch an, plankton of, 344. 
Tula, River, 561. 
Tulare, Lake, 517, 638. 
Tung-ting, Lake, 603, 
Tunicata, 355, 356. 
Turbellaria, 318, 356, 364. 
Turfan depression, 538. 
Turka, River, 600. 
Turkwell, River, 626. 
Tuz Gol, 545. 
Tuzlah, Lake, 545. 
Twin Lakes, 634. 
Two Ocean Pond, 632. 
Typhacee, 178. 
Tysnos Island, remarkable temperature 
conditions in lake in, 580. 


Uanagan, Loch, fauna of, 313,327. 
flora of, 189, 200. 
Ufini, River, 617. 
Ule, Willi, 11, 382, 384, 385, 389, 392. 
Ullswater, 575. 
Umbellifere, 172. 
Unconformability at Torridon base, 440. 
at Cambrian base, 441. 
at Lower Old Red Sandstone base, 448. 
at Middle Old Red Sandstone base, 
494, 
at Upper Old Red Sandstone base, 
449, 
at Triassic base, 453. 
at Cretaceous base, 455. 
Ural, River, 530, 531. 
Urmi, Lake, 526, 542. 
composition of water of, 151. 
Urquhart Bay, flora of, 197, 199. 
Glen, 196, 199, 202, 203, 204. 
Usboi, River, 529. 
Utah Bay, 556. 
Lake, 556, 
Utriculariacez, 357. 


Vaara, Loch, plankton of, 344. 
Valencia, Lake, 640. 
Valerianee, 173. 
Vallentin, R., 2. 
Valley, Loch, flora of, 223, 224. 
Valtos, Loch, plankton of, 339, 349. 
Van, Lake, 526, 5438. 
composition of water of, 151. 
Vanhoften, —, 376, 377. 
Varese, Lake of, 590, 591. 
Variation of plankton, local, 414. 
seasonal, 282, 405. 
Vaucher, J. P. E., 30. 
Vegetation in Scottish lakes, 156-260. 
Velikaya, River, 584. 
Vener, Lake, 580. 
Venezuela, 640. 
Vennachar, Loch, Floridee in, 301. 


784 


Vertebrata of Scottish lochs, 275. 
Vetter, Lake, 580. 
Veyatie, Loch, deposit from, 265. 
freezing of, 140. 
Viborgso, 418. 
Vibrations, lake, 82. 
Victoria Nyanza, 425, 605, 606, 608, 609, 
616. 
Viedma, Lake, 641. 
Vieragvat, Loch, plankton of, 341, 342. 
Vierwaldstatter See, 393, 394, 395, 596. 
Violacex, 170. 
Vitegra, River, 583. 
Vitim, River, 599. 
Vogel, H., 392. 
Voigt, —-, 404, 409. 
Voirlich, Glen, 70. 
Volga, River, 5380, 531, 584. 
Volkov, River, 584. 
Volume of water in principal lakes of the 
world, 654. 
Volvocineex, 832. 
Vosnessensky, —, 601. 
Vullan, Loch a’, porifera in, 324. 
Vuokosen, River, 581. 
Vyrnwyn, Lake, 577. 
River, 577. 


Wady Ryan, 553. 
Wahi, Lake, 642. 
Wahnschatfe, F., 382. 
Waikare, Lake, 642. 
Waikaremoana, Lake, 643. 
Waikato, River, 642. 
Waipahihi (hot springs), 642. 
Waipu, River, 642. 
Wairaumoana, Lake, 6438. 
Wairoa, River, 648. 
Wakatipu, Lake, 644. 
Walen, Lake of, 596. 
seiches in, 53. 
Wales, lakes of, 575. 
Walker, James, 8, 27. 
Walker Lake, 557, 559. 
Wallace, A. R., 309. 
Waller, E., 151. 
Ward, T. R..J., 541. 
Warming, E., 377, 386. 
Warren, G. K., 633. 
Warren, H. E., 96. 
‘“‘ Wasserbliithe,” see ‘‘ Flowering ” of lakes. 
Wastwater, 574, 
‘‘Water-bloom,” see 
lakes. 
Waterhen Lake, 631. 
River, 631. 
Water-mites, 289, 292, 310, 313, 
‘* Water-soldier,” 301. § 
Watson, E. R., 8, 27, 31, 181, 148. 
Watson, William, 9, 27, 32, 38, 41, 46, 123. 
Watts, —, 24. 
Waupaca, Lake, 627, 
Wayoch, Loch, flora of, 240. 
Weber, R. H., 111. 
Wedderburn, E. M., 8, 9, 16, 27, 31, 32, 
34, 90, 91, 143, 144, 520. 
Wedderburn, J. H. M., 8, 27, 91, 380, 381. 


‘** Flowering” of 


THE FRESH-WATER LOCHS OF SCOTLAND 


Weismann, A., 421. 
Weltner, W., 391. 
Wesenberg-Lund, C., 9, 27, 278, 285, 
286, 287, 288, 297, 307, 308, 317, 
374, 877, 380, 386, 389, 391, 404, 
407, 418. 

West, George, 8, 18, 27, 156, 271, 317; 
324, 327, 379, 381, 382. 

West, G. S., 269, 279, 281, 282, 286, 302, 
303, 312, 399, 400, 427. 

West, William, 279, 281,| 282, 286, 302, 
3038, 812, 399, 400, 427, 

Westergaard, A., 382. 

Wetter, Lake, 381, 428. 

Wettstein, R. von, 424. 

Weybourn Crag, 469. 

Whangape Lake, 642. 

Wharton, W. J. L., 8. 

Whinyeon, Loch, flora of, 185, 218, 227. 

Whipple, G. C., 108, 520. 

White, Peter, 9, 27, 32, 38, 41, 46. 

White Loch (Kirkcudbright), flora of, 238. 
(Wigtownshire), flora of, 180, 191, 

245, 
of Myrton, freezing of, 141. 

White Nile, River, 606. 

Whitefield Loch, flora of, 248. 

Whitehouse, —, 553, 

Whitney, —, 517. 

Wigtownshire, flora of lochs of, 288-246. 

Willcocks, W., 558. 

Williamson, William, 313. 

Wilson, J. 8. G., 4. 

Winchell, Alexander, 626. 

Wind, effect on temperature, 103, 120. 
effect on vegetation, 161, 164, 165. 
progressive waves generated by, 40. 

Windermere, 575. 

Windgaps, 464, 465, 466. 

‘* Windstau,”’ 90. 

Winnebago, Lake, 628. 

Winnemucca, Lake, 557, 559. 

Winnipeg, Lake, 522, 629, 630. 

River, 630. 
River basin, area of lakes in, 621, 

Winnipegosis, Lake, 631. 

Winona, Lake, 636. 

Wisconsin River, 633. 

Woeikoff, Alexander von, 528, 529, 538. 

Wolfgangsee, temperature of, 96, 98, 118, 

128, 130. 

Wollaston, Lake, 631. 

Woodhall Loch, flora of, 184, 228, 230. 

Worms in Scottish lochs, 292, 294, 307, 

310, 311, 318. 

Wragge, C. E., 28. 

Wutiva, Lake, 646. 

Wynne, —, 617. 


Yackima, River, 637. 

Yang-tse Kiang, River, 603, 604. 

Yellowstone Lake, 632. 
National Park, 516, 632. 
River, 516, 632. 

Yelton, Lake, 532. 

Yenisei, River, 599. 

Yeshil-kul, 539. 


GENERAL INDEX 785 


Yo, River, 552. Zihl, River, 594, 
Yoshida, —, 82. Zilling-tso, 539. 
Voung, inib., 8, 27. Zirknitz, Lake, 584. 


Zooplankton of the Scottish lochs, 277~ 
278, 281, 296-301. 


Zacharias, O., 389. Zschokke, F., 306, 392, 398, 394, 395, 396, 
Zahrez-Gharbi, 550. 397, 404. 

Zahrez-Shergai, 550. Zuai, Lake, 621. 

Zaisan, Lake, 599. Zug, Lake of, 596. 

Zambesi, River, 566, 617, 618, 650. Zuga, River, 568. 

Zederbauer, E., 402, 404. Zurich, Lake of, 53, 394, 395, 596, 597. 


PRINTED BY NEILL AND CO., LTD., EDINBURGH. 


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