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LIBRARY - BIBUOTHSQ UB J

BEEyftND HOW TO
KEEP THEM

By C. B. GOODERHAM, B.S.A.

DOMINION APIARIST

Fig. 1.— The Apicultural Building, Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa.

DOMINION OF CANADA

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

BULLETIN No. 169— NEW SERIES

REVISION OF BULLETIN NO. 33— NEW SERIES

630.4
C212
B 169
n. s.
1934

c>2

BEE DIVISION

DOMINION EXPERIMENTAL FARMS

Reprinted by direction of the Hon. Robert Weir, Minister of Agriculture,
Ottawa, 1934

DOMINION EXPERIMENTAL FARMS BRANCH

PERSONNEL

Director, E. S. Archibald, B.A., B.S.A., LL.D., D.Sc.

Dominion Field Husbandman E. S. Hopkins, B.S.A., M.S., Ph.D.

Dominion Chemist

Dominion Horticulturist M. B. Davis, B.S.A., M.Sc.

Dominion Cerealist L. H. Newman, B.S.A.

Dominion Botanist H. T. Giissow, LL.D.

Dominion Animal Husbandman G. W. Muir, B.S.A.

Dominion Agrostologist L. E. Kirk, B.A., M.S.A., Ph.D.

Dominion Poultry Husbandman F. C. Elford.

Chief, Tobacco Division N. T. Nelson, B.S.A., MJ3., Ph.D.

Dominion Apiarist C. B. Gooderham, BJ3.A.

Dominion Bacteriologist Grant Lochhead, Ph.D.

Chief, Division of Extension and Publicity F. C. Nunnick, B.S.A.

Chief Supervisor of Illustration Stations J. C. Mo3rnan, B.S.A.

Economic Fibre Specialist R.J. Hutchinson.

ALBERTA

Superintendent, Experimental Station, Lacombe, Alta., F. H. Reed, B.S.A.
Superintendent, Experimental Station, Lethbridge, Alta., W. H. Fairfield, MJSc, LL.D.
Superintendent, Experimental Sub-station, Beaverlodge, Alta., W. D. Albright.
Superintendent, Experimental Sub-station, Fort Vermilion, Alta.

BRITISH COLUMBIA

Superintendent, Experimental Farm, Agassiz, B.C., W. H. Hicks, B.S.A.
Superintendent, Experimental Station, Summerland, B.C., R. C. Palmer, MJ3.A.
Superintendent, Experimental Station, Windermere, B.C., R. G. Newton, B.S.A.
Superintendent, Experimental Station, Sidney, B.C., E. M. Straight, B.S.A.

MANITOBA

Superintendent, Experimental Farm, Brandon, Man., M. J. Tinline, BJS.A.
Superintendent, Experimental Station, Morden, Man., W. R. Leslie, B.S.A.

SASKATCHEWAN

Superintendent, Experimental Farm, Indian Head, Sask., W. H. Gibson, BJS.A.
Superintendent, Experimental Station, Rosthern, Sask.

Superintendent, Experimental Station, Scott. Sask., G. D. Matthews, B.S.A.
Superintendent, Experimental Station, Swift Current, Sask., J. G. Taggart, B.S.A.
Superintendent, Forest Nursery Station, Indian Head, Sask., N. M. Ross, B.S.A., B.F.
Superintendent, Forest Nursery Station, Sutherland, Sask., James McLean.

NEW BRUNSWICK
Superintendent, Experimental Station, Fredericton, N.B., C. F. Bailey, B.S.A.

NOVA SCOTIA

Superintendent, Experimental Farm, Nappan, N.S., W. W. Baird, B.SA.
Superintendent, Experimental Station, Kentville, N.S., W. S. Blair, DJ3c.

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND

Superintendent, Experimental Station, Charlotte town, P.E.I., J. A. Clark, B.S.A., DJ3c.
Superintendent, Experimental Fox Ranch, Summerside, P.E.I. , G. E. Smith, B.A.Sc., Di3c.

ONTARIO

Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Ont.

Superintendent, Experimental Station, Kapuskasing, Ont.. S. Ballantyne.

Superintendent, Experimental Station, Harrow, Ont., H. F. Murwin, B.S.A.

QUEBEC

Superintendent, Experimental Station, Cap Rouge, Que.

Superintendent, Experimental Station, Lennoxville, Que., J. A. McClary.

Superintendent, Experimental Station, Ste. Anne de la Pocatiere, Que., J. A.Ste. Marie, BJS.A.

Superintendent, Experimental Station, La Ferme, Que.

Superintendent, Experimental Station, Farnham, Que., R. Bordeleau, B.S.A.

Superintendent, Experimental Station, L'Assomption, Que., J. E. Montreuil, BJ3.A.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Introduction 5

The Advantages of Beekeeping 5

How to begin 6

Honey House 8

Beginner's Outfit 8

Location of the Apiary 8

Races of Bees 9

The Bees and how they develop 10

Hives with Movable Frames 12

Handling Bees 16

Spring Management 21

Production of Honey 23

Extracted Honey 23

Comb-Honey 28

List of principal Honey Plants 30

Swarming 36

Swarm Control 38

Dividing Colonies for Increase 40

Pollen 41

Production of Wax 41

"Wintering Bees 42

Outdoor Wintering 43

Cellar Wintering 45

DOMINION OF CANADA
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

BULLETIN NO. 169 NEW SERIES

76015— 1*

4

CONTENTS— Concluded

Page

Transferring 45

Uniting 46

Requeening 48

Purchasing Italian Queens 48

Queen introduction 48

Rearing Queens 50

Feeding 51

Robbing 53

Bee Diseases 53

American Foul Brood 53

European Foul Brood 54

Methods of Spreading Foul Brood 55

Preventive Measures 56

Treatment of American Foul Brood 56

Treatment of European Foul Brood 56

Sacbrood 57

Treatment of Sacbrood 57

Other Affections of the Brood 57

Diseases of Adults 57

ntery 57

Bee Paralysis 58

Nosema Apis 58

Isle of Wight Disease 58

Enemies of the Bee 58

Wax Moth 58

Other Enemies 59

Bee Diseases Legislation 60

Bees and Fruit 60

Beekeepers' Associations 60

Publications on Beekeeping 61

Beekeeping at the Dominion Experimental Farms 61

Conclusion 62

BEES AND HOW TO KEEP THEM

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this bulletin is threefold; to point out the advantages of
beekeeping; to give, very briefly, reliable advice to the beginner; and to show
those who are keeping bees in an old-fashioned or neglectful way how their
profits may be greatly increased by the adoption of modern methods. Hidden
in their hives, the bees seldom show any outward sign that they need attention ;
therefore, they are too often left to take care of themselves. The opportunities
of beekeeping are not widely enough recognized nor is the fact that proper
management of the apiary is well repaid. There are huge quantities of honey
going to waste annually in Canada for the want of bees to gather it. Bees are
not only of value for the amount of honey or wax they produce but are of
extreme importance to the producer of seed and fruit.

THE ADVANTAGES OF BEEKEEPING

The saying " the resources of Canada are inexhaustible " is true of no food
product more than of honey. An abundance of nectar-secreting flowers, with a
high average of favourable weather for the production and ingathering of nectar,
make Canada a good country for the beekeeper. Moreover, the bulk of Cana-
dian honey is of unsurpassed quality, and has become, as it deserves to be, a
staple article of food in many places, selling readily at satisfactory prices when
properly distributed.

Honey has a claim to be regularly used in every home both on account of
its sweetness, which is delicately flavoured according to the different kinds of
flowers from which it is gathered and also because of its high food value, it being
a concentrated and easily assimilated heat and energy-producing food. It also
readily takes the place of sugar in cooking, preserving fruits, etc.

Throughout Canada there is an increasing number of people who are making
beekeeping their principal business and there are thousands who find it an
auxiliary pursuit that yields no mean profit and that combines a healthy
outdoor occupation in pleasant weather with the fascinating study of an insect
whose marvellous habits are a subject of absorbing interest to the nature lover.

All kinds of people keep bees — young and old, rich and poor, educated and
uneducated, dwellers in the city and dwellers in the country. Among the
principal vocations represented are farmers, fruit-growers, clergymen, school
teachers, merchants and clerks. More than one student has paid his way
though college by keeping bees during the summer vacation. With a little
help for the heaviest work, women frequently make successful beekeepers, Many
a farmer has found that, for the small amount of capital invested and the time
required to take care of them, bees will yield a larger return than anything else
on the farm. In cases where the farmer or fruit-grower is unable to spare time
to give the proper attention to the apiary, some member of his family will fre-
quently take charge of it with the most satisfactory results. The successful
management of any apiary, however, does not require the expenditure of a
large amount of time, but consists chiefly in knowing what to do and in doing
it at the right time. This knowledge can only be acquired through the study
of the life-history and habits of the bees.

5

The amount of honey that may be obtained from a well-managed apiary is
hard to state, because it varies with the locality, but most localities will be
covered if it is put at from 50 to 150 pounds per colony in an average year.
The yields also vary from year to year, principally on account of climatic con-
ditions. In an average year a colony will far more than pay for itself in the
average locality; hut seasons in which the honey crop is a failure occur even in
the best districts. Consequently, the prospective professional beekeeper should
have sufficient capital to tide himself over a bad season or he should have some
additional source of income.

Up to one hundred and sometimes two hundred colonies can be kept profit-
ably in a good location. Better results, however, will be obtained with a series
of smaller apiaries. Commercial apiarists frequently keep one or more out-
apiaries, these being situated not less than three or four miles from the home
apiary and from each other. The peculiar advantages of beekeeping are not
sufficiently recognized. Without investing in land or expensive equipment, a
man or woman who has the aptitude can learn to make money in the production
and sale of an article of food which one is never compelled to sell at temporarily
depressed prices, because it will keep in good marketable condition, even from
year to year if necessary.

A crop of honey and a little wax do not represent all that is to be gained
by keeping bees. To the fruit-growers, bees may be more valuable for ensuring
the crop of fruit than for honey production. It has been experimentally proved
that the production of most kinds of apples, pears, plums, cherries, raspberries,
gooseberries, and some other fruits, depends upon cross-pollination, e.g., the
transmission of the pollen from the blossoms of one variety of fruit to another
by insects. The industrious and methodical honey bee is by far the most
efficient insect for this work, and in regions or seasons where wild bees are
scarce, or when frequently unfavourable weather during the blossoming period
demands that pollination be accomplished quickly, a few hives of bees in or
near the orchard become a necessity. Bees are also useful pollinizers of several
farm and garden crops. In the alsike seed-growing districts the farmers are
glad to have the specialist beekeeper locate his apiary near their fields because
an abundance of bees increase the seed crop. Bees are also sometimes used in
hothouses where cucumbers are grown.

HOW TO BEGIN

Before starting to keep bees the beginner should, if possible, spend one
full season working with a good beekeeper. If one is unable to do this, much
may be learned by visiting neighbouring beekeepers and watching their methods
of manipulating colonies. Several of the agricultural colleges now put on short
courses in beekeeping. Some of these are given during the winter months,
others during the active season.

It is a mistake to start on a large scale, as nothing is more discouraging
to the beginner, after he has gone extensively into the business, than to lose
most of the (bees through bad wintering or some other cause, all from the want
of a little experience. One or two colonies are enough to begin with. This,
number can be increased as experience is gained. It is a good plan to make the
bees pay for themselves after the first outlay, which need not be very high.

The best time of the year to begin beekeeping is in the spring. Colonies
complete in their hives may be obtained in May — April in British Columbia —
or swarms can be had during June or early July. A colony of bees obtained
in the early spring will, with proper management, give a full crop of honey and
one colony increase. A higher increase than this is made at the expense of the
crop. A swarm is not likely to produce much honey the first year unless it is
an early one.

The colony or swarm should be fairly strong and headed with a young
fertile queen. The apiary from which it comes should be free from disease. It
is best, if possible, to purchase the bees in your own vicinity, one reason being
that bees sent long distances may die in large numbers during transportation
unless packed skilfully; another reason is that the risk of introducing disease
into the district is avoided. If the colony is procured in April or May the bees
will travel with less risk than in the height of summer, because there will be
fewer bees and less honey in the hive and the weather will probably be cooler.
Colonies should be moved during the autumn or early spring if the distance is
less than two miles in order to avoid the return of many of the bees to the old
location.

If colonies are purchased it is very desirable that they should be in modern
hives. Sometimes bees can be bought very cheaply in box hives, or a colony may
be found in a hollow tree. Such colonies will have to be transferred to modern
hives. (See Transferring.)

Fig. 2. — Hives — (Left) Jumbo, (Centre) 10-frame Langstroth, (Right) 8-frame Langstroth.

Another method of buying bees that has proved satisfactory is by weight,
without combs, in boxes specially constructed for the purpose. Packed with care
the bees will survive a journey lasting several days and will not be likely to carry
brood diseases. Packages containing two or three pounds of bees including a
queen are the most satisfactory. Before purchasing bees by the package, how-
ever, one should have on hand the necessary hives and other accessories for
hiving them.

Before deciding to obtain bees from places outside the province one should
communicate with the Provincial Apiarist or local bee inspector, as all the
provinces have regulations regarding the movement of bees into the province.

Those who desire advice as to where bees may be procured should com-
municate with the secretary of the provincial or local beekeepers' association,
•or consult the advertising columns of the bee journals. The Bee Division, Central
Experimental Farm, Ottawa, or the Provincial Department will be glad to supply
information as to where bees may be obtained.

HONEY- HOUSE

A suitable building for the storage of supplies and combs, for making up
the hives and fittings, and for the extracting and packing of the honey, is indis-
pensable to the beekeeper. The honey-house may be a simple frame structure
or a more solid structure such as concrete or brick. In any case the building
should be made large enough for the beekeeper's needs and absolutely bee-tight.
A convenient size of house for an apiary of forty or fifty colonies is 20 feet long
by 15 feet wide. The floor should be firm and capable of supporting a heavy
weight of honey. In a single story building it is advisable to have a raised
platform for the honey tanks. The windows should be removable or sliding and
the window openings covered with wire cloth with small holes at the top to allow
any bees that may be brought into the honey-house to escape. The door should
fit closely. It is convenient to have two doors, the inner one made to swing
both ways and shutting automatically. A cellar may be constructed beneath the
honey-house as a repository for the bees during the winter.

beginner's outfit

The equipment for a beginner need not be very expensive. One should avoid
purchasing unnecessary supplies, confining himself to that only which is necessary.

The following is a list of items that will be needed for making a start with
two colonies of bees: —

Two colonies of bees in movable frame hives.

Two hives complete with frames, floor boards and covers for increase.

For these two hives 2\ pounds of medium brood foundation.

One No. 1 bee-smoker.

One bee-veil.

One pound No. 28 tinned wire.

One spur or electric wire imbedder.

One hive tool.

For Extracted Honey Production.

Six deep or twelve shallow supers fitted with frames.

Seven and one-half pounds of light brood foundation.

Two wire queen-excluders.

Two bee-escape boards fitted with bee-escapes.

One honey-extractor, radial or with 12-inch by 18-inoh baskets.

One honey tank.

One steam-heated uncapping knife.

One uncapping box.

For Comb-Honey Production.
Eight Comb-honey supers.
About 300 sections.
Four pounds thin foundation.
Two wire queen-excluders.
Two bee-escape boards fitted with bee-escapes.

Prices on the above equipment can be obtained from the manufacturers'
catalogues, which can be had free upon application.

LOCATION OF THE APIARY

It has been remarked that the quantity of honey that bees will gather varies
considerably in different places. There are, however, few places in Canada that
will not yield enough to make beekeeping profitable.

9

While the beginner or amateur is usually limited in the choice of a location
to the vicinity of his home, the man who has learned to be successful in man-
aging bees and desires to go more extensively into the honey-producing business
may find it profitable to move to a new location or to establish out-apiaries. A
good location is one that will supply a fairly continuous flow of nectar from
spring to fall and in which one or more of the most important honey plants are
plentiful within a radius of two or three miles.

In the Prairie Provinces more honey from wild flowers may be expected on
the scrub and timber lands than on the open prairie, but the introduction of
sweet clover is rapidly turning these provinces into a veritable paradise for the
beekeeper.

The spot chosen for the apiary should be sheltered from high winds and
especially from cold winds in the spring, which in most places are usually from
the north and northwest. If the bees are to be wintered outside, protection from
the wind needs special attention (see " Wintering ") . It is also desirable to have
the hives partly shaded during the hottest part of the day in summer. This
can be accomplished by placing the apiary in an orchard or on the edge of
some wood lot. Planting evergreen trees or bushes in the apiary will often supply
shade enough. Usually the best place for a smail apiary, especially in the case
of the beginner, is in the home garden from which horses and cattle are excluded
by a fence, and where the hives are within sigh or hearing of the house so that
any swarms that may come out are seen or heard at once. The bees should not
be placed near a public highway, nor where children are likely to run about in
front of the hives. A valley is a better place for an apiary than a hilltop. A
situation that is likely to be covered with floods should be avoided.

The ground around the hives should be kept clean, especially in front of
the entrances, the grass and weeds being cut every few days.

RACES OF BEES

Four races of bees merit consideration — Italians, Caucasians, Carniolans and
the Black bee. The Italian bee may be easily recognized by the broad yellow
stripes on its abdomen, while the other races are either a very dark brown or
black and not striped with yellow. The Italian bee was introduced into the
United States from Northern Italy in 1859 and is now the most common bee
kept on this continent. In regions where the summer is warm and where most
of the honey gathering takes place at a temperature above 75 degrees, the Italian
bee appears to be the most industrious of all the races, but the latter are less
adversely affected by unfavourable weather conditions in the spring when tem-
peratures hover for long between 50 and 60 degrees F. and they consume less
stores in the fall. Italian bees are more inclined to robbing than are the other
races. Golden Italians, in which the first three or four segments of the abdomen
are clear yellow, are not, if pure, quite so hardy as three-banded Italians in which
these segments are edged with black.

The Carniolans are equally as gentle as the Italians and are excellent honey
gatherers. The main objection to them is their excessive tendency for swarming.

The Caucasians are perhaps the most gentle of all the races. They are less
inclined to swarm than Carniolans and are better honey gatherers. The main
objection to this race is their excessive use of propolis, glueing the frames together
and in the fall almost filling the hive entrance with it.

The Black bee was for long the favourite bee of Quebec and the Maritime
Provinces but is now largely replaced by Italians. The Black bee is a very
excitable bee under manipulation and often very vicious. It is a good honey
gatherer, working at lower temperatures than the Italians. This race is very
susceptible to European Foul Brood, and it is due to this fact that it is rapidly
disappearing.

76015—2

10

Hybrids between blacks and Italians have the prolific qualities of Italians
and the hardiness of blacks, and they are often more industrious than either
race, but they are rather more inclined to sting. This is especially the case with
the darker-coloured hybrids.

THE BEES, AND HOW THEY DEVELOP

A colony of bees consists normally of one queen bee, which is the mother
of the colony, from 10,000 to 75,000 or more workers, which are undeveloped
females specialized for a life of labour and, in the summer, a few hundred drones
or males. These three kinds of individuals may be recognized by their size
and shape. (See fig. 3.)

Fig. 3. — Worker bee, queen and drone.

W/X&JtJfMt

Fig. 4. — Corner of brood comb showing capped worker brood, A; capped drone brood, B,

and four capped queen-cells, C.

The combs which fill the interior of the bees' dwelling are composed of wax
secreted by the workers from glands situated in the under side of the abdomen,
and are in the form of vertical slabs built downward from the top of the cavity

11

or hive. Each comb consists of a dividing wall with hexagonal cells on either
side.

The honey is stored in the cells in the upper part of the combs, and in the
outer combs. In the cells in the middle and lower part of the interior combs,
are reared the young bees. This region of the hive is called the brood-nest.
Pollen is stored in the cells surrounding the young brood. The majority of the
cells in the brood-nest are about one-fifth of an inch in diameter, and are used
for rearing the worker bees, one in each cell.

There is also a small quantity of comb consisting of larger cells measuring
one-fourth of an inch across; in these the drones are reared. The drones are
stingless and do not visit the flowers to gather honey. Their function is to
fertilize the queens, for which purpose but a few are needed. The beekeeper
can control the production of drones by using full sheets of worker foundation
in the brood frames.

A worker bee does not commence to gather nectar until about two weeks
old, and during a period of abundant nectar gathering it is worn out and dies
at the age of about six weeks, but one that emerges late in the summer will live
until spring. To replace the constant loss of bees and also to build up the
colony after the heavy loss of life during the winter and early spring, the queen
must necessarily be very prolific. She commences to lay on the first signs of
spring, and it has been estimated that in June a good queen will lay from two
to three thousand eggs per day. The larva or maggot hatches from the egg
at the end of the third day. It is fed during the first three days on a milky
food rich in protein, and then for three days upon a mixture into which a con-
siderable amount of honey enters. On the ninth dav after the egg was laid
the cell is capped over with wax. Within the capped cell the larva throws off
its last skin and becomes a pupa. This develops into the perfect bee, which
emerges twenty-one days after the egg was laid. Sixteen days are needed for
the queen and twenty-four for the drone to pass through the same stages.

The work of preparing the food for the larvae and of feeding them is carried
out chiefly by the young bees.

In the production of a queen to replace one that has died or is failing, the
workers select a number of worker larvae that have not yet been weaned from
the richer food and supply them with an excess of this food, upon which the
larvae floats and feeds during the rest of its growing period. At the same time
the cells containing the larvae are enlarged and extended downwards to form what
are known as the queen-cells which are capped over in due time. Queen-cells are
also made when the bees are preparing to swarm. These are not built over
young larvae, but they take the form of inverted cups constructed on the comb,
chiefly along its bottom edge, and the queen lays an egg destined to develop
into a queen in each. The queen usually emerges from her cell sixteen days
from the time the egg was laid. As the queen will not tolerate another in the
same hive, the first of the young queens to emerge will destroy the others in their
cells; or, if it is in the swarming season and the colony is strong, she may lead
off a swarm. Four or five days after emergence — later, if the weather is unfavour-
able— the queen leaves the hive for her nuptial flight. The drones follow her
and one is successful at the cost of his life. The queen is impregnated for the
remainder of her life, which may extend to five years, although her fertility
becomes impaired, and she is consequently usually not worth keeping after the
second year. If, as a result of long-continued unfavourable weather, or through
injury to or malformation of her wings, or through scarcity of drones, a queen
fails to get mated within about five weeks after emergence she will commence
to lay eggs, but these eggs will produce drones only. Occasionally a fertilized
queen that produces only or mostly drones is found. A drone-breeding queen
is worthless and should be replaced. In a colony that has long been queen-

76015—21

12

less, certain workers may lay eggs which, also, produce drones only. The pres-
ence of a drone-breeding queen or fertile workers may be detected before the
drones actually emerge by the much raised and very convex capping of the
brood. The capping of worker brood is almost flat.

HIVES WITH MOVABLE FRAMES

During the nineteenth century the ignorant and barbaric methods of bee-
keeping that had previously been in vogue gradually gave place to intelligent
and humane methods, with the result that the production of the colony was
greatly increased. Nothing contributed to this great change more than the
adoption of movable frames for the combs. A frame hive was invented by
Huber in Switzerland about 1789, and Langstroth in the United States intro-
duced an improved type of hive with movable frames in 1852. The Langstroth
hive with slight modifications is the standard hive in North America at the
present time.

Fig. 5. — A 10-frame Langstroth hive, with upper parts separated.

Unfortunately, bees in box hives without frames are still to be found in
the older settled parts of Canada, but the poor returns from, and heavy loss of
bees in, such hives, due to the impossibility of making a proper examination of

13

the combs and so discovering and supplying the bees' needs, are causing their
gradual disappearance. At the present time no one who understands bees keeps
them in frameless hives. The method of taking the honey that is usually em-
ployed by those who keep such hives, namely, destroying the bees by the fumes
of burning sulphur or by drowning is unjustifiable destruction of valuable live
stock and a relic of the barbarism of the Middle Ages.

The form of Langstroth hive recommended in this bulletin is shown in Fig. 5.
It consists essentially of (1) a plain wooden box known as the hive-body or
brood-chamber, with (2) a loose bottom-board or floor, and (3) a cover which
constitutes the roof. The frames containing the combs are suspended from
rabbets in the top of the hive-body, so that they hang free in the hive and do
not touch the sides or bottom, one-quarter to five-sixteenths of an inch space
being left for the bees to pass around the sides of the frames and about five-
eighths of an inch being left beneath the frames. In the majority of hives the
last mentioned space is provided entirely in the floor section and there is a
bee-space of one-quarter of an inch above the frames.

The Langstroth frame is of a certain size — 17| inches long and 9tJ inches
deep, outside measurements. This is the size most generally adopted, but
frames of other sizes are used in some apiaries. The interchangeability of
frames is one of the great benefits of movable-frame hives, and the adoption
of the Langstroth size has the great advantage that fresh supplies of these
frames, together with the hives made to take them, can always be obtained
from the principal dealers in beekeepers' supplies.

Four sizes of the Langstroth hive, taking 8, 9, 10 and 12 frames, are in
general use, but the beginner is advised to adopt the 10-frame size. The 8 or
9-frame sizes do not provide nearly enough space in the one chamber for a
prolific queen to lay her eggs, and the 12-frame size is too cumbersome. It is
well to have the hive large enough to take besides the ten frames a thin division
board, also to place over the frames a quilt made of heavy duck or a honey
board.

During the past few years the 10-frame Jumbo hive has attracted a great
deal of attention and is now being used by many beekeepers. This hive is of
the same length and width as the 10-frame Langstroth hive but is two inches
deeper. Standard floorboards and covers can be used with this hive, which is
used principally for the brood chamber. Either the deep or shallow extracting
supers may be used in combination with it.

Fig. 6— (a) Hoffman self-
spacing frames.

(b) Metal-spaced frames.

(c) Staple-spaced frames.

14

Various styles of covers are made and used, but one that consists of an
inner wooden cover with a space above it for about one inch of packing and
with a sheet of non-rusting metal covering the top is the best. The sides and
ends of this cover should telescope at least one inch over the brood chamber.

The hive should be well painted, preferably of a white colour, as a white
hive does not get overheated by the sunshine.

The hive should be kept off the ground, preferably by a stand made up
like a box of four rough boards, one of which forms an inclined plane extending
from the entrance of the hive to the ground to act as an alighting board. The
back end of the hive may be raised an inch higher than the front to prevent rain
running in at the entrance.

The frames should be spaced in the hive at a distance of one and three-
eighths to one and a half inches from centre to centre.

Fig. 7. — Jumbo, Langstroth and shallow frames wired
ready for foundation.

It is a great convenience to have the frames self-spacing. This may be
done by driving a fine staple into each side of the top bar as shown in (c) ,
figure 6, or by metal spacing (b), figure 6, or by using the Hoffman self-spacing
frame, in which the upper one-third of each end bar is widened to one and three-
eighths inches (a), figure 6. This frame will not rock when the hives are
moved. In regions where the widened parts of the end bars of the Hoffman
frames are liable to be firmly glued together by propolis (a resinous substance
gathered by bees from the buds and stems of certain trees and used by them to
fill crevices in the hive), fine wire nails should 'be driven into them to prevent
the projections from splitting off during manipulation when the frames are
separated, or the staple or metal spaced frame may be used.

15

In order to get the bees to build straight combs in the frames, there must
be fitted into each frame, and fastened to the top bar, a sheet of beeswax,
embossed with the pattern of the bases of the cells. This wax sheet is called
comb foundation.

Upon the foundation the bees build out their comb, of which it eventually
becomes the midrib. Full sheets of foundation should be used in each frame
and these should be supported by stretching at least four horizontal wires
lengthwise of the frames, threading it through holes made in the end bars. This
wire should be drawn taut and firmly imbedded into the foundation by means
of a spur wire-imbedder (see fig. 9) , or by an electric imbedder. No. 28 tinned
wire should be used.

Fig. 8. — Langstroth frame with full sheet of foundation wired in.

Fig. 9. — Spur wire-imbedder.

The ordinary foundation sold by dealers is of the worker-cell pattern and
an additional advantage in using full sheets is that the production of a large
force of useless drones is prevented. The frames supplied by dealers either
have grooves or cut-out wedges in the underside of the top bar by which the
upper edge of the foundation may be fastened.

16

Upon the approach of the honey flow a chamber, known as the super, to
receive the surplus honey, is placed over the brood-chamber. As the honey flow
proceeds additional supers are usually needed.

Accuracy of dimensions in beehives and fittings is of prime importance, and
it usually pays better to procure them from a reliable manufacturer or his agent
than to make them oneself. At least a pattern hive should be so obtained. For
easy handling, the different parts of the hive should ibe few, simply constructed,
and as light as possible, consistent with strength and efficiency.

A sufficient supply of hives, supers, frames, foundation, etc., to cover all
possible needs during the season should be ordered during the winter or early
spring. The hives should be made up and painted and the frames put together
and wired before the busy season. It is advisable to have the foundation shipped
during mild weather, and to defer fitting it into the frames until just before
these are to be given to the bees.

HANDLING BEES

It is sometimes said that bees tolerate some people and dislike others. It
would be more correct to say that they resent interference, but can be easily
controlled by anybody who knows how to handle them. Fear induced by the
smell of smoke and the opening up of the hives, makes the bees perfectly tract-
able provided they are in an active state and have not been previously irritated.

Fig. 10. — Bee-smoker

T

■

X'fi

v* 1

* I

M \

Fir,. 11.— Hive-tool

-brush

The best time to open the hive is on a fine warm day when the bees are flying
freely. If possible they should not be disturbed in cold weather nor when rain
threatens, and never at night. Care should be taken to avoid stings, not only
because they are painful, but because the odour of the poison irritates the bees
and makes them difficult to manage.

17

To apply the smoke a bee-smoker is required. This consists of a tin fire-
box attached to a pair of bellows. The best fuel for the smoker is dried cedar
bark, dried rotten wood, planer shavings or pieces of old sacking. To start the
smoker the firebox is opened and a small quantity of the fuel is lit and placed
in the box. When, by the work of the bellows, this is well alight the remainder
of the fuel is thrown in and the lid shut down. A few puffs, given occasionally,
will keep the smoker alight. When not in use for a few minutes the smoker
should be stood on end, as, if laid down upon its side it usually becomes extin-
guished.

To protect the face from possible stings, a bee-veil should be worn. The
veil should be made of light and durable material, such as Brussels net. The
upper end of the veil is gathered with an elastic 'band so as to fit closely around
the crown of a broad brimmed hat. The lower end of the veil may be tucked
inside the coat collar or held down with a string around the waist. Gloves may
be worn by the beginner to create confidence, but they are more of a hindrance
than a help and are seldom used by experts.

Fig. 12— Bee-veil.

For separating frames and hive parts a hive-tool, such as is advertised in
supply catalogues, can be used, but a screw-driver will serve the same purpose.
A brush or large bird wing is useful for brushing the bees from their combs.

Before opening the hive have the smoker well alight and then drive a light
puff or two of smoke into the entrance. Stand to one side of the hive so as not to
interfere with the flight of the bees. Lift off the cover gently, turn back the quilt,
and immediately direct a few light puffs of smoke downward between the frames.
With the aid of the hive-tool "loosen and lift out the division-board if one is
present. The frame nearest to the operator should also be removed and stood
up on end against the side of the hive, taking care that the queen is not on this

76015—3

18

Fig. 13. — Smoking hive before opening

Fig. 14. — Removing quilt.

19

,.. ■' .,

Fig. 15. — Removing division-board.

Fig. 16. — Examining comb.

70615— 3 h

20

comb and not to crush the bees when setting it down. The other frames can
now be easily removed and examined without danger of crushing the queen or
bees. The work should be done quietly and as rapidly as possible, quick jerky
movements being avoided. Another puff or two of smoke may be required when
handling the frames, care, however, being taken not to give too much. The
danger of the queen getting injured or getting lost by dropping off the comb
should always be borne in mind and guarded against. Hold the frame over the
hive when examining it. Do not keep the hive open longer than is necessary; it
taxes the patience of the bees and in cool weather may chill the brood. When-
ever the bees show signs of restlessness a few more puffs of smoke should be
given, but they should never be smoked heavily unless they have been allowed to
become angry. The presence of worker brood in all stages in the central combs
is evidence of the presence of a fertile queen and the well being of the colony.
Other things that may need to be noted are the number of combs well covered
by the bees, the amount of brood present and whether it is healthy, the amount
of stores and, during the honey flow, the progress of the work in the supers. It
may be necessary to give a queen, to feed or to add or remove combs or supers.

Fig. 17. — Turning the comb.

Bees need regular attention like every other kind of live stock, and this
should be given in a systematic way. It is a very good plan to set apart a
certain day of the week for apiary work. During the most active part of the
season an examination of the colonies every eight or nine days to see if they
need more room, etc., will not be too often, and it is of the greatest value in the
control of swarming.

Not a few people are deterred from keeping bees by the fear of bee stings.
This fear is generallv unfounded. When bees are properly handled there is no
risk of getting many stings. With the vast majority of people the effect of a
bee-sting is one or two minutes of pain, followed by a little local swelling lor

21

a few hours or a day. Its severity usually diminishes with succeeding stings,
the system gradually becoming immune by growing accustomed to the poison.
In rare individuals, however, the effects of a bee-sting are more severe and
prolonged, and it may sometimes cause a rash to appear over the body and
difficulty in breathing. Persons who experience these symptoms should not go
near an apiary.

To minimize the unpleasant effects of a bee-sting, the sting, which is always
left in the wound, should be extracted immediately, that is to say, before it
has pumped in much poison. Rubbing the wound only aggravates the irrita-
tion and should be avoided. So-called sting-antidotes for external application,
such as solutions of ammonia and washing soda, are of practically no value,
because the puncture made by the sting is so small that it closes immediately.

SPRING MANAGEMENT

Spring is an important and critical period of the " bee year " because it is
during this season that the bees have to build up their strength, often under
trying weather conditions and in a short time, in readiness for the honey flow,
and also because colonies that are in bad condition may die if not attended to.

The principal object of spring management, therefore, is to get a large
number of bees reared in each colony, and also later on, to prevent the tendency
to swarm. For a maximum production of honey there should be, during the
honey flow, an abundance of bees between the ages of two and six weeks.

If the bees have been well prepared for winter no anxiety need 'be felt
about their condition in early spring and they are best left undisturbed for a
while; but if any colonies are likely to run short of stores, or if so many bees
have died in a colony that it is in danger of getting robbed out, or of perishing,
a short superficial examination should be made on a warm day when the bees
are flying. The weight of stores may often be estimated by lifting the hive.
Combs containing stores may be taken from colonies that have more than they
need and given to those that are deficient, provided that no disease is present.
If it is found there are not enough bees to cover two combs the colony should
be united to a stronger one. It is often possible to save a weak colony by
placing it on top of a strong one with a queen-excluder between the two, care
being taken to see that the weak colony has a little brood (taken, if need be,
earlier in the day from the strong colony) to keep the bees from deserting. This
work is best done towards evening and the colonies disturbed as little as pos-
sible. Two or three weeks later these colonies may be separated, moving the one
containing the most brood to a new stand.

When the weather improves, a warm day, on which the bees are flying
freely, should be selected for making a thorough examination of the brood nest.
Evidence of the presence of a fertile queen may now be found in the appearance
of worker brood. Any colony that is found to be queenless or to contain a
drone-breeding queen should be united to one containing a fertile queen. Colonies
may be equalized by shaking bees from the combs of strong colonies in front of
the entrance of those to be helped, or by giving combs of emerging brood; of
course the queen must not be included and precautions may have to be taken
to avoid fighting. (See Uniting.)

Since a high temperature is needed for brood-rearing, care should be taken
to conserve the heat generated by the bees in the hive by providing good insu-
lation. Colonies wintered out-of-doors should be kept in their wintering cases
until settled warm weather. In most places this is not until the latter end of
May or the first week in June. The amount of protection to be given to colonies
that have been wintered in the cellar will depend on the spring climate and
the extent of shelter from wind. In many places it pays to give special protec-
tion in the form of an outer case deep enough to cover the sides of the brood

22

chamber and projecting several inches above it, giving room for several sacks
or a chaff cushion to be placed over the bees. In exposed places and those
subject to great changes in temperature it will be advisable to have the case
large enough to take packing material between the hive and the case. The
size of the entrance should be kept small in early spring — only an inch or two
wide in the case of weak colonies.

Bees need water in spring. If there is none within easy reach it should be
supplied in a warm sheltered place in or near the apiary.

The building up of colonies may be seriously delayed by spring dwindling,
that is, the dying of the bees that have wintered faster than the young bees
can be reared. The common cause of dwindling is bad wintering, the bees
having died in large numbers or become enfeebled through age or dysentery,
and it is more likely to occur in coastal regions where the spring is long drawn
out than in the interior where the transition from winter to summer is more
rapid.

Fig.

18. — Case for light protection in spring alter removal from cellar,
hive is shown on the left.

An unprotected

The colonies- should be examined weekly, weather permitting, or fortnightly
if the weather has been cool, to see that the brood-nest is expanding properly,
the aim being to get the bees gradually to consume the stores and replace them
with brood. If stores accumulate it may be necessary to remove a portion of
them and give empty comb.

The best stimulus to breeding is the natural gathering of nectar and pollen
in favourable weather; these are usually supplied in abundance, first by the
willows and maples and later by dandelions, and, where it is plentiful, fruit
bloom, as well as from a number of minor sources. In many places there is a
short period of dearth between fruit bloom and the opening of the honey flow
from alsike and white clover. If the weather during this period is warm and
fine a little thin syrup given every evening will maintain breeding, but whether
it will pay to do this depends on the duration of the honey flow and other con-
siderations.

Periods of inclement weather preventing the collecting of nectar may occur
at any time in the spring. Short periods of this kind may be guarded against
by making certain that the bees have a reserve store of a few pounds, but longer

23

periods demand feeding to avert starvation, especially if such periods occur late
in the spring or in the summer when the rate of food consumption is high. As
spring advances the putting on of supers and preventing preparation for swarm-
ing will need attention. Systematic management of the apiary from this time
forward is of great importance.

PRODUCTION OF HONEY

The sources of nectar within a mile or two of the apiary should be studied
so that the period and abundance of the honey flows may be estimated and the
bees may be managed to make the most of them.

The question whether it will pay better to produce extracted honey or
comb-honey needs careful consideration. In the production of extracted honey
the bees are saved the great labour of building combs, these being emptied by
means of a machine known as the honey-extractor. They are then returned
to the bees to be filled again and again. A colony will usually yield more
extracted honey than comb-honey, but this is balanced by the fact that the
price of comb-honey is in many places much higher than that of extracted
honey. Extracted honey is a marketable article at all seasons everywhere, is
easily transported and keeps well. On the other hand, the demand for comb-
honey at a satisfactory price is limited, and it is somewhat fragile and difficult
to keep. Comb-honey is not so easy to produce as extracted honey, a rapid
honey flow being desirable and skilful management being needed to control
swarming and to get the sections finished. These considerations will lead, in
many cases, to a decision in favour of extracted honey for the bulk of the crop,
but it must not be forgotten that comb-honey is a luxury that appeals to many
people in a way that nothing put up in a tin can or a glass jar can do, so that
it will not be wise to neglect it. The beginner will sometimes prefer to produce
comb-honey in order to avoid the expense of a honey-extractor the first year.

EXTRACTED HONEY

The extracting super may be of the same size as the brood chamber, taking
frames of the same size, or a shallow super, taking frames only 5| inches deep
may be used. A shallow super is more readily occupied by the bees in the spring

Fig. 19

Zinc excluder.

Wire excluder.

24

and is not so heavy to remove when filled, but there are important advantages
in having the frames in the brood-chamber and the super interchangeable, and
the employment of full depth supers saves much time in apiaries in regions
where the honey flow is heavy. The extracting frames should be fitted with full
sheets of foundation, which should be wired in, as already explained. It is also
advisable to have one less frame in the extracting super than the brood-chamber.
That is a 10-frame super should have only 9 frames, these to be evenly spaced
so as to allow the bees to draw out the combs slightly beyond the edges of the
frames. This makes the uncapping much easier.

To prevent the queen from entering the supers and laying eggs therein, a
queen-excluder is placed between the brood-chamber and the supers. The queen-
excluder permits the passage of the workers, but does not allow queens or drones
to go through. The queen-excluder may be made of wire or perforated zinc;
the wire excluders, however, allow freer passage for the bees. In the hive there
should be a clear bee-space of a quarter of an inch on both sides of the queen-
excluder. This is obtained by having the metal excluder set in a frame of wood
of the necessary thickness.

The queen-excluder should be used in the production of extracted honey
but it may be advisable, especially where the smaller hives are used, to allow
the queen the use of the first super as part of the brood-nest.

Fig. 20. — Wood-wire escape-board.

The super should be placed on the hive as soon as the bees occupy the spare
between the outer combs and the wall of the hive, provided honey is being
gathered. When the super is filling rapidly with honey and is about one-third

25

full it should be raised and a second one placed beneath it. This will keep the
bees occupied and help to discourage swarming. In removing the supers from
the hive, which should not be done until the honey is all or nearly all capped
over with wax, a super clearer such as is employed for the removal of comb-
honey is used, or the bees may be shaken or brushed off the comb.

The honey may be extracted as soon as the supers are removed from the
hive, because it is easier to extract it when the combs are warm than when the
honey has grown cold. Before the honey can be extracted it is necessary to
uncap the comb on both sides; this is done by means of a sharp uncapping
knife which has been heated in hot water or by a steam-heated knife.

Fig. 21. — Uncapping knife.

Fig. 22. — Steam-heated uncapping knife with tank.

The uncapping should be done over some kind of a receptacle into which
the cappings will fall, so that any honey may drain from them freely. As the
combs are uncapped they are placed in the extractor until it is full, the extractor
is then turned until all the honey has been thrown from the combs. When a
radial extractor is used both sides of the combs are emptied at the same time,
but where a basket extractor is used, it is advisable to extract only part of the
honey from the first side and then to reverse the combs and empty the other side
and again reverse them to finish the first side, otherwise the combs may be
broken by the weight of the honey on the inner side. Where only a few colonies
are kept, a small hand extractor is guite sufficient to handle the crop, but for
large apiaries a power extractor is necessary. Where the gravity system for
conveying the honey from the extractor to the storage tanks is impossible, a
honey pump is very coonvenient when employing a power outfit.

To-expediate the work of uncapping a steam-heated uncapping knife should
be used. In place of this, however, two ordinary uncapping knives may be used,
but they must be kept heated by standing them in hot water when not in use.

It is advisable to keep the honey from different successive sources separate
as far as possible, especially to prevent the main crop of light coloured and mild
flavoured honey from becoming degraded by the admixture of darker coloured
or stronger flavoured honey. In some parts of the country just before the main
honey flow from clover comes on, small quantities of a disagreeably flavoured
dark honey may be stored. This should be removed promptly. After the clover
honey flow there will often be a crop, varying in colour and flavour, from buck-
wheat, golden rod, aster and other fall flowers.

The honey should be freed from particles of wax, etc., by straining through
cheese cloth, or by allowing it to stand for a few days in a deep gravitation tank,
in which the wax rises to the surface. The honey is drawn through a honey-gate
or tap fixed in the bottom of the tank.

76015—4

26

Fig. 23. — Uncapping comb of honey with steam-heated knife.

Fig. 24. — Hand power honey-extractor.

27

Should any large amount of honey be extracted from uncapped cells, it will
need to be ripened, that is, to have the excess of water evaporated out in a warm
room before it is run into the containers.

At the end of the season the extracting combs may be returned to the bees
to be cleaned prior to their being put away for the winter. A large supply of
empty combs is a valuable asset.

Most kinds of honey granulate quickly after extracting. The honey should,
therefore, be run into the containers as soon as it has been strained and is ripe.
Stored in a cool dry place, honey will keep good for months and even years, but
it will absorb moisture from moist air, and is then liable to ferment and decom-
pose.

In view of the fact that nearly all Canadian honey is good enough for table
use, for which purpose it realizes the highest price, the kind of container that
is most likely to be in demand by consumers must be studied and selected. A

Fig. 25. — Honey-containers, 1-pound glasses; 4| and 9|-pound pails.

convenient and economical package for distribution either through stores or
direct to the consumer is the tin pail with lever lid and provided with a stout
wire handle; the usual sizes hold 9} pounds, 4^ pounds and 2\ pounds of honey.
Fancy paper containers of various sizes are now appearing on the market, offer-
ing a wide selection of attractive containers for the packing of honey. For
family use, or for supplying honey to grocers to be bottled, tin cans holding
30 pounds and 60 pounds may be employed. Those who buy small quantities
of honey in a retail way almost always prefer it in glass, despite the higher
relative cost of the package. The most popular glass jar for retail stores is
the metal screw-top jar, holding about one pound. Quart sealers holding about
three pounds of honey are preferred in some places, and glass jars holding only
about half a pound appeal to a small class of city dwellers. Honey in glass jars
sells largely on account of its appearance. It will, therefore, pay to make it
as attractive looking as possible. Care should be taken to see that the jars do
not leak. For this purpose, the screw-top jars are provided with a wad or cork
or other material and a circular piece of paraffined paper under it. A label,
specially printed for the producer, attached to each tin or jar, helps wonderfully
to sell the honey and to build up a demand for it. In many places it is easy to
develop a local market for honey.

76015— 4 \

28

Honey in glass jars sells better in the liquid condition than when granu-
lated. To liqueify honey so that it will remain liquid for some time, it should
be placed in a water bath over a stove and heated to a temperature of about
150 degrees F. The temperature of the honey must not be allowed to go higher
than 160 degrees F., because above that point the flavour is liable to be injured
and the colour darkened. For this reason honey should never be heated directly
over a stove or flame. Hermetically sealing the jars while the honey is still warm
helps to prevent regranulation.

COMB-HONEY

Comb-honey is now almost entirely produced in " sections " — small boxes
made of basswood, each containing from twelve to sixteen ounces of honey when
filled. The common size of the section is 4^ inches square. The 4 by 5 section,
however, is becoming very popular because of its more pleasing appearance
and larger surface of comb. A comb-honey super usually contains from 28 to
32 sections. To ensure the building of the combs to a uniform thickness, a thin

Fig. 26.

ib-hoi

ley super

sheet of wood or metal, known as a separator, should be placed between the
faces of the sections. If the sections are self-spacing the separators used are
plain, but if the sections are plain the separators are in the form of a fence to
supply the necessary spacing.

Before the comb-honey super is placed upon the hive a sheet of comb
foundation must be fitted into each section. Special thin foundation, known as
thin or extra thin super foundation, is made for use in sections. Sections are
usually made with a saw-cut in the top bar to receive this foundation. There
are various devices for fitting the foundation into sections not having the
saw-cut.

Fig. 27. — A row of sections in holder.

1. Section fitted with starter of thin super foundation.

2. Section fitted with full sheet of thin super foundation.

3. Partly filled section.

4. Completed section.

29

The queen is less inclined to enter the comb-honey super than the extracting
super, especially if the form of super in which each row of sections is placed in
a section holder is used, consequently it is usually unnecessary to use a queen-
excluder for comb-honey production.

Early in the honey flow, if nectar is coming in quickly, a new super may
be given to a strong colony as soon as work in the first super is well begun. As
soon as all the sections in the super are capped over, it should be removed from
the hive. Before removal, the super should be emptied of bees by means of a
super-clearer placed beneath it. The super-clearer consists of a board with a
hole in the centre or at two corners into which is fitted a device known as a
bee-escape through which the bees can pass only one way. The super-clearer
having a hole in each corner is usually fitted with a double thickness of wire
cloth in the centre which acts as a ventilator. (See fig. 20.) In warm weather
the super-clearer will empty a super of bees within twenty-four hours.

To ensure the best returns from comb-honey production, not only is it
necessary to have a rapid flow of honey but the field force should be large and
the bees crowded in the super in order that the filling of the sections may pro-
ceed as rapidly as possible. Unfortunately these conditions favour the develop-
ment of the swarming impulse. If the bees swarm the swarm should be hived
on the old stand as explained under Swarm Control, or the swarm may be made
artificially, and it should be supplied with full sheets of foundation in the brood
chamber in order that it may concentrate on the work in the super. One empty
comb, however, should be given to receive the pollen. By treating swarms in
this way almost as large a crop of honey may be obtained as when swarming
does not take place.

The volume and duration of the honey flow must be well estimated in order
that sufficient, but not too many, sections may be given, so that the bees may
finish as large a proportion of them as possible, an unfinished section being of
value only for extracting and for use in the following year as a bait comb to
entice the bees into the super which with its many little compartments, is less
readily taken possession of by the bees than an extracting super.

Since comb-honey is a fancy article it usually pays to produce it in perfec-
tion. A good section of honey should have all the cells filled and capped over,
excepting perhaps a few in the row next the wood, and the wood should be
scraped clean and free from propolis.

^B

' Ejtjs«ri«eataJ Fsnwsf 1

COMB B0HET j ^?VW Bjj

J COMB HOHFT f 1

,._,„,—...-' i Kr^-N

-*-*——»- j> 1

t~,:»_>»»..Jsi^««s>>oSW2araK<; J!

^^Pps&*<<3S»«.

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^B

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H

FlG. 28.— Shipping case and cartons for section-honey.

30

Comb-honey should be kept in a dry warm place from the time it is
removed from the hive until it is sold, and it calls for a package protecting it
from dust and insects. For selling it in quantity a glass-fronted shipping case
containing 12 or 24 sections is perhaps the most satisfactory package. Single
sections may be enclosed in cardboard cartons.

Fig. 29.— Dandelion.

LIST OF PRINCIPAL HONEY-PRODUCING PLANTS WITH THEIR
APPROXIMATE SEASONS OF YIELD

FOR BROOD-REARING

Willows. — Mid-April to mid-May; on the Pacific coast, March.

Maples, various species. — The Pacific coast species are especially valuable, but
the Manitoba maple and some of the eastern species are unimportant.
April and May.

Dandelion. — Will often produce surplus honey in a favourable season. May
and early June. On the Pacific coast, April.

Apple, Plum, Cherry and Peach Orchards. — In places where apples are grown
extensively surplus honey is obtained from apple bloom in favourable
seasons. May and early June. On the Pacific coast, April.

Bearberry ( Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), known locally by the Indian name " Kini-
kinic," Kootenays, B.C., and other places. The abundant nectar in this
plant is not entirely within reach of the bees, May.

Blueberries. — Eastern Canada, May.

31

32

Raspberry, principally in forest clearings. June.

Alsike Clover (Trifolium hijbridum) and White Dutch Clover (Trifolium
repens). — Wild and cultivated throughout the farming regions of Canada
except on the drier parts of the prairies. These are two of the most impor-

FlG. 32. — White Dutch Clover (Trifolium rrpcnsc). Flowers white.
Notice the creeping stem.

tant honey plants of Canada, but under excessively dry or cool conditions
they fail to yield sooner than many other plants. In some years the amount
of clover is much reduced by the plants being killed by repeated severe
freezing and thawing when unprotected by snow in winter and spring. In
the districts of Ontario where alsike clover is grown for seed, beekeeping
is an important industry. Colour of honey light, flavour excellent. These
clovers do not usually commence to yield nectar in Ontario and Quebec
until they have been in bloom for one or two weeks, and on the Pacific
coast for three or four weeks. Duration of honey flow, two to five weeks.
Mid-June to end of July.

Alfalfa. — Southern Alberta and British Columbia dry belt. Of no value for
surplus honey production in the east. End of June to August.

Fig. 33.— Sweet Clover.

Fig. 34. — Basswood.

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/f

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jy

i

1 §1

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Fig. 35. — Fireweed.

Fig. 36— Golden Rod.

34

Sainfoin. — May become a valuable source of honey in the Upper Columbia
River Valley, B.C., and in other places where it can be cultivated success-
fully. End of June to August.

Wild flowers of different kinds found on the prairies. Collectively these are
important. Among them may be mentioned Wild Bergamot {Monarda
fistulosa) and various mints. June to Septeember.

Basswood (Tilia americana) . — Ontario and Quebec. Less plentiful than formerly.
Yield very uncertain, in some years heavy. Colour of honey light, flavour
pronounced. July.

Snowberry (Symphoricarpos) . — British Columbia. July.

Wild Radish (Raphanus raphanistrum) . — Maritime Provinces. Abundant in
the Annapolis Valley, N.S., where it yields a considerable amount of honey.
Julv.

Fig. 37.— Aster.

Sweet Clover (Melilotus), White and Yellow. — One of the best honey plants of
Canada, especially in the Prairie Provinces, where it is practically the only
source of surplus honey. By sowing the seeds of sweet clover along the
roadsides and on waste land, a poor location can be quickly changed to a
good one. July to September.

Great Willow — herb or fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium) . — A tall plant, three
to five feet high with long racemes of showy red-purple flowers; a valuable
source of honey in forest clearings and places recently devastated by fire.
Colour of honey water white, flavour very mild. Duration of flow seven to
eight weeks. July to August.

35

36

Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculent um ) . — Important in the Upper St. Lawrence
Valley, southern Quebec and old Ontario. Colour of honey is dark and
flavour strong. August.

Golden Rod (Solidago); Aster. — Of the many species of golden rod and aster
some are good honey-producers under suitable conditions, especially in the
east; others, including some of the common early flowering species, are of
little value. The honey varies in colour and quality. That gathered in
the Gatineau valley, north of Ottawa, in September, is white. Solidago
puberlua and Solidago squarrosa have yielded about 40 pounds of light-
coloured honey per colony on a sandy plain forty miles north of Ottawa.
August and September.

It should be noted that a large crop of honey depends not only upon the
abundance of flowers but upon favourable weather — in the case of most plants,
rain, followed by warm sunny weather during the honey flow — and also upon
the climate, soil and other conditions best suited for each variety of plant. In
some places and seasons the less important honey-plants, of which there are
many, yield surplus honey which frequently influences the colour and flavour of
the honey gathered from the main sources. Among these may be mentioned: —

Milkweed (Asclepias) Button-bush (Southern Ontario)

Dogbane (Apocynum), especially in Blackberry

the British Columbia dry belt Smartweed

Boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum) Catnip

(Ontario) Motherwort

Viper's Bugloss (Echium vulgar e) Hound's Tongue (Cynoglossum)

(Ontario) (Ontario)

Wild Mustard (Brassica arvensis) Sheep laurel (Kalmia)

Canada thistle Blue Vervain

Buckthorn Giant Hyssop (Central Alberta)
Sumach (Ontario)

Some of these produce considerable quantities of honey locally. It does
not pay to grow crops especially for bees, but alsike, white clover, alfalfa,
sainfoin, sweet clover, and buckwheat are valuable farm crops and excellent for
bees in the areas that have been indicated for each. In the regions favourable
for alsike, white clover and sweet clover, where these are absent or scarce, the
seed may profitably be scattered about.

In localities where alsike or white clover grows abundantly it is not wise
to introduce sweet clover as the bees will work on it busily when it is not
secreting much nectar, often neglecting the more valuable clovers, which produce
a honey of superior quality. Red clover occasionally produces surplus honey
when the flowering tubes have been sufficiently shortened by drought for the
bees to reach the nectar.

Bees are much attracted by the flowers of certain ornamental shrubs such
as the Siberian Pea Tree (Caraganal and garden flowers such as mignonette,
but these are seldom abundant enough to be of any practical value. Caragana
hedges, however, should be planted around homesteads where bees arc kept in
the prairie provinces, as they provide not only food in spring, but also shelter
from the wind.

SWARMING

Swarming is the bees' natural method of increase and is likely to occur in
the majority of the colonies in spring and early summer when the hives are
populous and honey is being collected, and also sporadically at any time in the
summer during a honey flow.

37

A few days before swarming the bees commence to rear queens, and the
swarm containing the old queen usually issues about the time when the earliest
queen cells are capped.

The swarm generally settles upon the branch of a tree near the apiary. In
securing the swarm, advantage should be taken of the bees' fondness for running
into a cavity.

Fig. 39. — Swarm entering hive.

A new hive containing drawn comb or frames fitted with foundation should
be prepared to receive the swarm and placed on its stand. As soon as all the
bees of the swarm have settled, the limb on which it has clustered may be cut
oft and the swarm carried to the hive and the bees shaken down in front of it
and as near to the entrance as possible. The bees will soon enter the hive. If
the swarm has clustered where it is impossible to remove and carry it to the
hive, then the hive may be placed near to the swarm and the bees shaken or
brushed down in front of the hive, and as soon as they have entered, the hive
is carried back to its stand. A comb of brood given to a swarm will often prevent
it from absconding.

A swarm will need feeding on the third day after hiving if bad weather has
prevented the bees from collecting honey.

About eight days after the issue of the first swarm the first of the young
queens will emerge and then a second swarm may go off with some of these
queens. A third swarm may come out and go off a few days later. Second
and third swarms are usually too weak to be of much value and should be
prevented by destroying all the queen-cells but one in the parent colony within
seven days after the first swarm comes off; or, destroying all the queen-cells
and introducing a new queen.

38

It should be noted that the earliest sign of definite preparation for swarming
is the presence of eggs in queen-cells, the first of which are usually laid about
eight days before the swarm is due to leave. Queens are also reared when the
colony is preparing to supersede its failing queen, but in this case there is much
less than the normal amount of brood. A colony that is superseding its queen
is not unlikely to swarm if it is strong, though it usually delays to do so until
the first of the young queens emerge.

Since queens are sometimes lost on their mating flight it is advisable to
make an examination of colonies that have thrown swarms about twelve days
after the young queen has emerged. If eggs are present the queen is probably
fertilized. If there are no eggs, a frame of brood in all stages should be given;
from this the bees will raise a queen if their queen is lost, but it is better to give
a laying queen.

SWARM CONTROL

The time when success in beekeeping was measured by the number of
swarms hived has passed, and nowadays the progressive beekeeper endeavours
to prevent swarming. One of the troubles encountered in permitting bees to
swarm is the frequent difficulty of capturing the swarm which may collect in
an inaccessible situation, or even fly across the country. Then there is the time
spent in watching for the bees to swarm and in hiving swarms. But by far the
most serious disadvantage of swarming is the fact that the swarm and the
parent colony produce less honey than the same bees would have had they
remained in one colony. Indeed, instances are not rare in which unrestricted
swarming has entirely prevented the production of surplus honey in an apiary.
It is not too much to say that the control of swarming is probably the most
important and difficult problem that most beekeepers in Canada have to face.
Careful study of the bees' behaviour is needed to successfully cope with it.
Fortunately for the beekeeper, several days' warning of the probability of the
issuing of a swarm is given by the appearance of eggs in queen-cells.

Colonies vary much in their propensity to swarm, even under the same con-
ditions and in the same apiary. By replacing the queens of colonies that swarm
with queens that are the progeny of queens whose colonies have not swarmed,
the beekeeper may hope to reduce the percentage of colonies that swarm. Another
point that should be noted is that colonies containing queens under a year old
are less inclined to swarm than those in which the queen is older.

The most successful measures of swarm control are, however, by manipu-
lation. Preparations for swarming may often be prevented by giving an
abundance of ventilation during the honey flow, by raising the front of the hive
from the floor boards by means of small blocks; by giving the bees plenty of
room for brood production and storage of honey; by raising a few frames of
brood from the brood chamber at each examination or by destroying all queen-
cells that contain eggs or larvae. Where hive? smaller than the 10-frame Jumbo
are used it is a good plan to allow the queen a second chamber for brood produc-
tion. For hives smaller than the 10-frame Langstroth a deep chamber should be
used. For the 10-frame size a shallow super is sufficient, In using the double
brood chamber the first preparations for swarming can usually be detected by
merely tipping the upper chamber and finding queen-cells along the lower edges
of the upper combs. (See fig. 40.) For colonies that have made advanced
preparations for swarming either of the following methods can be used: (1) As
soon as larvae are found in queen-cells remove the old queen and destroy all
queen-cells; ten days later again destroy all queen-cells and introduce a young
laying queen. (2) At the time larvae are found in the queen-cells remove all
frames of brood from the brood-chamber and replace them with drawn comb-,
leaving the queens on these combs.

39

The brood can either be used for making nuclei or placing it over a queen-
excluder on top of the colony. When this is done all queen-cells should be
destroyed seven days later.

Some colonies, however, especially those in which the bees are crowded for
the production of comb-honey, may persist in building queen-cells. Colonies
that behave in this way not only entail a great deal of labour on the part of
the beekeeper in searching for and destroying the cells (which is useless should

284

Fig. 40. — Detecting preparations for swarming by tipping super.

one cell be missed), but they become lazy. The best way to deal with such
colonies is to permit them to swarm or to make artificial swarms from them,
but, at the same time, to compel all the field bees to join the swarm so that it
may continue the work of honey-storing and the parent colony may be so
depleted of bees that it will not swarm again.

In order to prevent the possibility of the swarm flying away it is a very
good plan to clip the queen's wings; this should be done at the second examina-
tion of the colonies in the early spring before the bees become numerous enough
to make it difficult to find the queen. Clipping the wings also affords a ready

40

means of marking the queen. When clipping is practised and swarming allowed,
the grass around and to some distance in front of the hives should be kept short
during the swarming season, and someone should be present in the apiary to
attend to the swarm when it emerges, and find and pick up the queen. While
the swarm is still in the air the queen is placed in a cage, and the hive is turned
around and placed at right angles to its former stand. Without delay a new
hive containing frames fitted with drawn combs or foundation is placed on the
old stand and the queen in her cage is placed at the entrance of this hive so
that the swarm upon returning finds her and enters the new hive. The queen
may then be set free among the bees. The supers are removed from the old hive
and given to the swarm over a queen-excluder. The old hive is then gradually
turned so that at the end of three days its entrance is again facing the same
direction as that containing the swarm. On the seventh day when the bees are
working freely the parent colony is then removed to another part of the apiary;
the field bees will then enter the new hive and thus strengthen the swarm and
the parent colony is too weak to throw after swarms.

The swarm may be made artificially from a colony that has larvae in queen-
cells by shaking the bees off their combs into a new hive on the old stand. Suffi-
cient bees should be left with the brood to feeri it and prevent its getting chilled.

Occasionally colonies are found that will swarm with only eggs or young
larvae in queen-cells or even before any queen-cells have been built, but these
cases are rare.

Swarming is more frequent when the honey flow is light or irregular than
when it is abundant and steady.

DIVIDING COLONIES FOR INCREASE

To increase the number of colonies without natural swarming, dividing may
be practised. If a full crop of honey is desired the colonies should not be divided
before the honey flow except in regions where the main honey flow comes late
in the season and continues for several weeks as in the Prairie Provinces. Heavy
increase can only be made at the expense of the honey crop. As a rule no colony
should be divided until the bees nearly or quite fill the brood chamber. The
part of the colony that is removed to a new stand should consist largely of
young bees, because these are not so likely to return to the parent hive as the
field bees. All or nearly all of its brood should be capped, as eggs or young
larvae are likely to perish in large numbers. The part that does not contain
the queen should be supplied with a fertile queen or a ripe queen-cell; that is,
one from which the queen is about to emerge. With a normal colony it is hardly
possible to fulfil all these conditions in one operation.

One of the best methods of dividing a colony into two and not affecting the
honey crop to any great extent is as follows: During the first week of the honey
flow remove the queen and one or two frames of emerging brood with adhering
bees from the strongest colonies and place them in a new hive on a new stand,
fill up the hive with one comb of honey and empty drawn combs. This nucleus
will build up into a strong colony by the fall, when the queen can be replaced
if necessary. If at the time of dividing, the colony from which the nucleus is
made had made any preparations for swarming, destroy all the queen-cells and
ten days later again destroy all queen-cells and introduce a young, laying queen.
If, however, no preparations for swarming had been made, the colony can be
requeened immediately.

If a larger increase is desired either of the following methods can be used: —

(1) The queen is found and placed with one comb of brood containing no
queen-cells in a new hive which is then filled up with frames of empty comb or
foundation. This hive is then put on the old stand, a queen-excluder is placed

41

over it and on top of this is put the old hive containing the remainder of the
brood. Nine or ten days later the old hive, which now contains young bees
and capped brood but no eggs or young larvae, is removed and divided into three
parts, each division is placed on a new stand and a fertile queen or ripe queen-
cell is introduced to it, any queen-cells that may have been built in the combs
above the queen-excluder, having been cut out on the fifth day after the first
operation and again at the second operation on the ninth or tenth day. If no
queen or queen-cell can be introduced the new colony may be allowed to requeen
itself from the queen-cells that have been built.

(2) As soon as the colony is strong enough to spare brood, two or three
frames of emerging brood with adhering bees are taken and placed in a new
hive on a new stand, taking care that the queen is not on these combs. Fill up
both hives with drawn combs. A young laying queen is then given to this new
hive. About two or three weeks later more brood can be taken and another
colony started, giving it also a laying queen. The first nucleus made can be
drawn upon for brood later in the season.

It is not advisible to make divisions after the middle of July because the
new colonies will hardly have time to build up to full strenegth before winter,,
nor after the honey flow has ceased because of the risk of robbing.

POLLEN

The yellow, white or red pellets that the bees carry home from the fields
on their hind legs are not wax, but pollen. This material is packed into the
cells around the brood-nest and is used largely in preparing brood food. A
shortage of pollen that occurs in some places in early spring is rare in this
country, the willows especially supplying an abundance of this material.

THE PRODUCTION OF WAX

Beeswax being worth more than twice as much per pound as honey, all the
wax that is produced in the apiary should be saved. In an apiary worked for
extracted honey the wax will come principally from cappings. In every apiary
old combs that have been rejected for some fault, pieces of adventitious comb,
pieces of drawn comb that have been cut out of worker combs, trimmings of
foundations, etc., accumulate. A special box should be kept in the honey house
to receive these scraps of wax. The best way to deal with cappings and pieces
of clean new comb is to place them in a solar wax extractor, consisting of a glass-
covered box containing a sheet-metal tray, which will melt the wax by the heat
of the sun during the warmer months of the year; but combs that contain much
pollen or have been used for rearing brood so often that they have become dark-
coloured cannot be rendered profitably in the solar extractor and must be melted
over a fire in boiling water or by steam. A certain amount of wax may be
extracted from such combs by rendering them in a wax extractor made on the
principle of a potato-steamer, but to get nearly all the wax out of them it is
necessary to subject the molten mass to pressure. Two excellent wax-presses,
known as the " Sibbald " and the " Hershiser," can be obtained from any manu-
facturer of bee supplies and either of these will soon pay for itself in an apiary
of thirty or more colonies. If the combs are rendered and pressed out-of-doors,
the work should be done during the honey flow so that robbing will not take
place. Dealers of beekeeping supplies will readily take beeswax in exchange
for comb foundation, charging only a few cents per pound for making the
foundation.

When one has only a few colonies and the accumulation of wax is too small
to warrant the purchase of special equipment, a great deal of the pure wax may
be recovered as follows: Into a wash boiler or similar vessel pour one or two

42

gallons of water and place it over a fire. As soon as the water begins to boil,
add the wax slowly and keep stirring until all of it is thoroughly melted, then
remove from the fire and allow to cool slowly. The pure wax being lighter than
water will rise to the surface while the dirt will settle down into the water.
When cold, the wax can be lifted out as a solid block; some of the dirt may be
sticking to the bottom of the cake of wax but this can be scraped off. When
rendering wax be careful that it does not boil over or a bad fire may result.

Rendering wax may be done during the winter months but should be done
in a warm room.

Fig. 41. — Rendering olid combs in wax-press.

WINTERING BEES

Bees do not become torpid in winter like other insects, but they generate
heat and consume their stores. In cold weather the bees form a compact
spherical cluster, the outside ring of which, according to Dr. Phillips, does not
go below a temperature of 57 degrees F. Successful wintering depends prin-
cipally upon the number of bees in the cluster, the youth of the bees, sufficient
and wholesome stores, and protection from cold. When good protection is pro-
vided the bees do not need to produce so much heat, consequently loss stores
are consumed and there is less drain upon the vitality of the bees.

43

Preparation of bees for winter, therefore, begins by seeing that each colony
has a good fertile queen and enough bees to crowd the spaces between seven to
ten combs (the more the better) and that these colonies consist principally of
young bees that have done but little field work. Weak colonies must be united
or brought together two in one hive with a tight-fitting division-board between
them. To get plenty of bees reared in August and September in regions where
but little honey is gathered during these months, the queen should be one that
has been reared during the summer, preferably during July. Since such a queen
will also usually build up her colony more rapidly and to greater strength in the
spring, and will be less inclined to swarm than an old queen, the advantages of
xequeening colonies that have old queens are great and it will often pay to buy
queens for this purpose if they have not been reared.

Each colony should have forty to forty-five pounds of wholesome sealed
stores if it is to be wintered out-of-doors, the amount depending on the intensity
of the cold, and thirty-five to forty pounds if it is to be wintered in the cellar.
The weight of an ordinary 10-frame Langstroth hive made of white pine with
walls seven-eighths of an inch thick, with five-eighths inch thick bottom-board,
combs, bees and pollen, but without cover, is, if dry, usually between 30 pounds
and 35 pounds, so that in weighing hives for the winter the weight of stores
present may be estimated by deducting 35 pounds from the total weight of the
colony. Any deficiency in weight is made good by giving the bees full combs of
honey or by feeding as rapidly as possible during the fourth week in September
(or the first two weeks in October in southern Ontario) with sugar syrup made
and supplied as described under " Feeding," allowances being made for loss due
to evaporation and consumption. One pound of sugar made into syrup will
provide approximately one pound of stored food.

To avoid dysentery it is good practice to give each colony at least ten pounds
of syrup. This is stored next to the cluster which occupies the empty parts of
the comb from which the last brood emerged, and it is therefore consumed first,
so that the accumulation of the fseces is delayed. At the Central Experimental
Earm, Ottawa, where a considerable amount of honey is gathered from wild
flowers in August, it has been found that colonies whose stores have been thus
supplemented with about ten pounds of syrup winter better than those whose
stores consist of honey only, and this has been found to be the case in many
places in Canada. If honey-dew or other stores that quickly produce dysentery
are suspected to be present in quantity, the combs containing these stores should
be removed and replaced with combs of clover or buckwheat honey; if these are
not available, move the central combs to the outside and fill up the hive with
empty combs and give sugar syrup.

In most places in Canada the bees may be wintered successfully out-of-
doors, provided adequate protection is given, but in regions where the winter is
very long and cold it is advisable to winter them in a cellar. In places where
there is a choice between the two methods, outdoor wintering is often preferred,
especially by absentee beekeepers, or for out-apiaries because the bees need no
attention from the time they are prepared and packed for winter at the end of
September until spring has opened. If, however, a good cellar where the best
conditions of temperature, ventilation and humidity can be secured the bees can
be wintered over safely with less expense than by building cases.

OUTDOOR WINTERING

Bees wintered outside should be snugly packed in cases that will allow for
three or four inches of packing material between the hive and the inner wall of
the case, on the bottom and all sides and eight to ten inches on top. Cases that
will hold one or more hives can be used. These cases must be provided with
an entrance opposite each hive and with a waterproof cover. It should also be

44

raised about four to six inches from the ground on a frame. A good economical
case is one that will take four hives as shown in fig. 42. A suitable size for the
outside entrance is six inches long by one inch high.

During the coldest months this can be reduced to three-eighths of an inch
long by one inch high by a revolving block. To prevent the entrance becoming
clogged with ice during the winter there should be no projecting ledge beneath
it. To be buried by snow does no harm to the bees during the winter but it
is sometimes advisable to clear the entrances during the latter part of March
when the snow is very deep, and to see that the entrances are not clogged with,
dead bees.

Fig. 42.- — Wintering case for four hives, with side

einoveu.

The colonies should be placed in the cases during the latter part of Sep-
tember or early in October and packed on the bottom and all four sides. The
bees should then be given the required amount of stores as rapidly as possible.
After the feeding is done the top packing should be given; tin- can be handled
better if it is in the form of a cushion. The quilts can be left over the frames
or replaced by empty bags; the hive covers, however, should be removed.

Bees wintered out-of-doors should be sheltered from wind. Protection from
wind is especially important during the winter and is also advantageous during
summer. If the apiary is not surrounded by evergreens or other satisfactory
shelter a board fence about eight feet high should be erected around the apiary.
The boards should not be tight-fitting but a space of about one inch should be
left between each board. It is necessary to emphasize the importance of wind
protection in the winter, because it is too often given insufficient attention.

Bees wintered out-of-doors start breeding earlier than those wintered in the
cellar, and they benefit by the better protection provided by the wintering cases
not only in the spring but in the fall.

45

CELLAR Wl NTEKIN G

The bee cellar should be well ventilated but not draughty, and the tem-
perature should be kept steady at about two to five degrees below that at which
the bees would begin to show signs of restlessness. The best temperature in
the early part of the winter will usually be around 48 degrees F., but, towards
the spring, as the bees become more restless, a somewhat lower one (42 degrees
F. to 45 degrees F.) with more fresh air will be needed. The air in the bee
cellar must not be too dry, but it must not be damp enough for moisture to
condense on the floors of the hives, and the cellar should be well drained. The
bees must be kept in darkness and should be left undisturbed.

The cellar of the residence is usually satisfactory for wintering bees, or it
can be made so, the furnace helping to supply the required temperature and
ventilation.

A portion of the cellar should be boarded off for the bees. The principal
faults in cellars are insufficient insulation to keep the temperature within the
stated limits, insufficient ventilation, and insufficient or excessive humidity. The
combination of a too low temperature with excessive humidity is particularly
injurious.

A bee cellar to contain many colonies should be furnished with an air shaft
to draw off the foul air, the draught being regulated by dampers. Good insula-
tion may be secured by having the cellar wholly underground or in the side of a
hill, and the fresh air may be brought in through a six-inch or eight-inch earthen-
ware drain-pipe laid under the ground.

The bees should be brought into the cellar as soon as possible after the last
good flight that they are likely to get. This is usually some time in November.
It is advantageous to contract the entrances and give light protection for two
or three weeks previously. During transportation to the cellar the entrances
to the hives should be temporarily closed with, for instance, soft paper or
burlap. Inside the cellar the entrances should be opened to full size to aliow
sufficient ventilation and to facilitate the ejection of dead bees. The back of
the hives may be raised slightly to allow the dead bees to roll out. It is a good
practice to replace the cover of the hive with three or four empty sacks. The
dead bees should be swept out of the cellar two or three times during the winter
if they accumulate and become offensive.

The date that the bees should be taken out of the cellar depends upon their
condition and the weather. It is usually about the time when the first willows
are in bloom, but it may be advisable to bring them out earlier if they are rest-
less and dying fast. They should be brought out when the weather is mild, but
too cool for them to fly at once, preferably late in the afternoon of the day
before a good flying day is expected. To select the day the forecasts of the
Dominion weather service published in the daily newspapers may be helpful.

It is not advisable to winter bees in trenches dug in the ground nor in the
upper rooms of houses. Should a colony, through accident, have been put away
for the winter light in stores, thin cakes of candy, made as explained under
"Feeding," should be placed over the frames to avoid starvation; but to have to
feed bees in winter is a sign of bad management. For more detailed information
on wintering send for Bulletin No. 74 " Wintering Bees in Canada."

TRANSFERRING

The most simple method of transferring bees from a box hive or one with
immovable frames to a movable frame hive is to remove the cover or one side
of the hive in which the bees are and to fit over the opening a new hive with
movable frames fitted with drawn comb or full sheets of foundation; do not use
a queen excluder between the two hives. If this is done during the active season
the queen will soon enter the new hive, and as soon as she is found laying eggs

46

in this hive, move the old hive from its stand and put the new one in its place
and then place the old box or hive on top with a queen excluder between the
two hives. Be sure that the queen is in the new hive. The brood in the old
hive will all emerge within twenty-one days and the old combs will be filled with
honey, this should be removed and extracted. The transfer can be speeded up
by driving smoke into the old hive and drumming on its sides when the new one
is placed over it. If this is done the position of the two hives may be changed
as soon as the queen and most of the bees are in the new box.

Another method which is more direct is to tear the old hive or box to pieces,,
remove the combs and trim them so that they may be fitted into empty frames.
The trimmed combs will need to be tied into the frames until the bees fasten
them into place. Such combs, however, will not be strong as they are unwired
in the frames. The new hive, now containing the combs is left standing in the
place of the old one to catch the flying bees. Colonies in hollow trees or other
places where the bees cannot be drummed or smoked out must be transferred by
this method if the combs are to be saved.

Where the combs cannot be removed as for instance in the case of colonies
located between the walls of a house or in a tree one does not wish to cut, the
following works very satisfactorily. A platform is erected to the level of the
entrance used by the bees. A hive containing one frame of brood with adhering
bees, a queen and empty combs are placed on the platform so that the entrance
of the hive can be as close as possible to the one in the wall or tree. A bee
escape is now placed over the entrance into the house or tree in such a manner
that the bees may leave their old home freely but cannot return to it. The bees
unable to enter their old home will join those in the hive, after awhile practically
all the bees from the old colony will be in the new hive. A good bee escape can
be made by rolling a piece of wire cloth into a cone about six inches long with
a hole at its apex just large enough for one bee to pass. Supers can be given
to the new colony, and in the fall if the bee escape is removed from the cavity,
the bees will rob out the honey and carry it. to their new home.

The best time to transfer colonies is when nector is coming in freely as
the bees are then less inclined to rob.

UNITING

In uniting colonies there are several principles to be borne in mind. The
bees know the exact location of their hive, consequently, colonies to be united
during the active season should stand within five or six feet of one another,
otherwise bees will get lost. If it is desired to unite two colonies standing
further apart, they may be gradually moved towards each other at the rate of
two or three feet each day on which the bees fly freely until they stand side
by side. In cool weather in autumn when the bees remain for days together in
the hives, colonies in different parts of the apiary may be united with only
trifling loss. Each colony has its own odour which the bees recognize, so that
it is necessary to guard against fighting, especially at times when honey is
scarce. At such times robbing, too, has to be avoided, and it is therefore, advis-
able to defer the uniting until late in the day. To avoid fighting, both colonies
are well smoked, and the combs are arranged in the new hive with a view to
mixing the bees as much as possible. The brood combs should be placed in the
centre of the hive and the heavier combs of honey at the sides, the combs that
are light in weight or otherwise undesirable being left out. From these the bees
may be shaken on to a large board leaned against the entrance. The bees
usually take good care of the queen, but as a precaution she may be caged in
the hive for 48 hours. If both colonies have queens it is advisable to keep the
poorer one caged in the hive until it has been ascertained whether the other has
^pen accepted or not.

47

A simple way to unite colonies situated in different parts of the apiary in
moderately cool weather in the autumn is to place the hive containing the
weaker or queenless colony on top of the other with a sheet of newspaper or wire
screening between them. When, after some time, the imprisoned bees succeed
in gnawing their way through the paper there is no fighting and few return to
the old location. If screening is used it should be removed after two days. Five
days after uniting the double colony should be examined and all brood placed
in the lower story, the upper story being removed.

Swarms that have recently emerged may be united by simply shaking
them together.

Should any of the weak colonies be headed with young queens and it is
desirable to save them through the winter, two weak colonies may be brought
together into one hive. As soon as the weather is cool enough for the bees to

Fig. 43. — Two weak colonies in one hive.

cluster in the hive remove five of the lightest combs from each of the colonies
to be brought together, pushing the remaining five combs over to one side of
the hive. Two days later place a tight-fitting division board in the centre of
one of the hives with the combs and bees of that hive to one side of it and then
place the five combs and bees from another prepared hive on the other side of
the division board. Close the entrance in the centre so as to give an entrance-
to each side. These double colonies can be safely wintered in the cellar or in
cases outside after they are fed. (Fig. 43.)

48

REQUEENING

The queen, being the mother of the colony is by far the most important
bee in the hive. Should she die, leaving no young worker larvae from which
another queen can be raised, the colony will dwindle away unless another queen
be given to it. A queen may prove unsatisfactory and require replacing for
several reasons. She may be a worthless drone breeder, the mother of vicious
bees or she may be unprolific. The prolificness of a queen is very likely to be
reduced after her second year so that she fails to maintain the large population
of the colony that is needed for getting a maximum honey yield. Another com-
mon reason for requeening is to change the race of the colony from dark bees
to Italians. If the Italian queen has been mated by a pure Italian drone all the
bees in the colony will be pure Italians as long as the queen remains alive.

PURCHASING ITALIAN QUEENS

In purchasing queens care should be taken to get them from a reliable
breeder whose apiary is free from disease. Fertile Italian queens reared during
the current year are obtainable from the end of June (earlier if ordered from
the southern States) to beginning of October.

In purchasing from a professional breeder of Italians it is usually advisable
to order " untested " queens — that is, queens that have been kept only until
they have commenced laying — in preference to " tested " queens — that is,
queens whose worker offspring have been found to be uniformly banded with
yellow to the extent demanded by trade — because the untested queens are less
liable to sustain injury in transit, and those sent out by a good breeder are
usually purely mated; besides, uniformity in the colour of workers does not
prove they are pure.

The queens are sent by mail accompanied by about a dozen workers and a
supply of candy in small wooden boxes covered with wire cloth. (See fig. 44 E.)
Full directions for introducing are also sent with each queen.

QUEEN INTRODUCTION

Before a queen is introduced into a colony the old queen must be removed.
If possible, this should be done from twelve to twenty-four hours, no longer,
before the introduction of the new queen. Beginners sometimes experience much
difficulty in finding the old queen, especially if she is a black one. When the
hive is opened she will be in the brood-nest and should be diligently searched
for on each comb containing brood before the bees have begun to rush about
the hive or gather in knots, which usually occurs after the hive has been open
a few minutes. If by this time the queen has not been secured the hive should
be closed and another search made a few hours later. As a last resort the queen
may be isolated by sifting the bees through a queen-excluder placed over the
entrance of an empty hive into which the combs are placed after the bees have
been shaken off them on to a runway placed in front of the hive.

Precautions have to be taken in introducing the new queen to prevent the
workers attacking and killing her. One of the most reliable and widely prac-
tised methods of queen introduction is to confine the queen in the hive in a wire
cloth cage (.Fig. 44 A) until she has acquired the odour of the colony. A queen-
introducing cage may easily be made from a piece of wire screening 2\ inches
square by cutting a half-inch square out of each corner and folding over the
sides so formed. This cage with the queen inside is pressed into a tough portion
of comb near the centre of the hive. Only one or two of the cells enclosed by the
cage should contain honey. The queen should be liberated about forty-eight
hours later, provided the 'bees are not clustered closely around her. in which
case she is left caged another day or two. The colony should not be disturbed
or examined to see if the queen is safe until five days after the queen's release.

49

Another very good queen-introducing cage is the " Miller " introducing
cage, Fig. 44 (B), which contains a hole at one end plugged with candy. The
bees will usually eat through the candy in about twenty-four hours, and will
thus release the queen automatically without any disturbance of the bees by
the beekeeper. To delay the release of the queen the candy may be kept
covered during the first twenty-four hours with a piece of wood or tin. The
candy is made by mixing powdered sugar and honey into a stiff dough. The
travelling cage in which the queen is mailed is usually adapted for use as a
candy introducing cage, and it is often used in commercial apiaries to save
trouble, but it is safer to take the queen out of the travelling cage and intro-
duce her alone, or with a few recently emerged workers from the hive in a
new cage. As a precaution against introducing disease the mailing cage and
workers may be destroyed.

Fig. 44. — A. Push-in cage made of wire screening.

B. Miller introducing cage, (a) Hole for candy, (b) Plug of wood to be removed

when placing queen in cage.

C. & D. Combination cage for pushing into comb and which will allow for bees to

release queen, (a) Long hole for candy, (b) Short hole for candy and covered
on inside by piece of zinc excluder.
E. Mailing cage, (a) Hole for putting queen into cage.

The Canadian cage, Fig. 44 (C) and (D) is a combination " push in "
and " candy release " cage and is considered the best in use. The queen is
confined on the comb as with the push-in cage but the bees are able to release
her automatically through the candy hole.

Queens are less liable to be attacked and killed by the workers after intro-
duction during a honey flow than during a honey dearth. The period immedi-
ately after the honey flow when robbers are prowling about should, if possible,
be avoided for introducing queens. In autumn the colony should be well sup-
plied with food before the queen is liberated.

If the colony has been queenless for more than three days, all queen-cells
should be cut out at the time of placing the caged queen in the hive. If eleven
or more days have elapsed since the colony lost its fertile queen and young
brood was in the hive, one or more virgin queens will be present and must be
found and killed before the new queen is introduced.

50

REARING QUEENS

Too little attention has been paid in Canada to queen rearing. A large
apiary kept for honey production possesses all the best conditions for the suc-
cessful rearing of queens and frequently also for obtaining a high percentage of
matings with drones of selected parentage for the improvement of stock.

Space forbids giving more than an outline of the process.

Beginners may save queen-cells from their best colonies that swarm, break-
ing up the colony into several little colonies or nuclei shortly before the young
queens are due to hatch, each nucleus consisting of two combs containing brood
with adhering bees, honey and a queen-cell. Spare queen-cells may be given
to other nuclei specially formed to receive them.

However, it is better to rear queens from the best colonies that do not
swarm. For those who do not want a large number of queens, the following
is an excellent method. First select the colony from which it is desirable to
rear new queens, and into the centre of the brood nest place a new comb or

Fig. 45. — 'Carrier of queen-cells.

a frame fitted with a full sheet of foundation. Examine this comb each day,
and as soon as a sufficient number of eggs, say from 2 to 3 hundred, are found
in it, prepare another colony, preferably one that is preparing to swarm, or is
superseding its queen, by removing from it the queen and all open brood. About
one hour later remove the comb containing the eggs from the first colony and
place it in the centre of the colony from which the queen and open brood have
been removed. Twelve days later ripe queen cells will be found on this comb,
these can now be removed and distributed to mating boxes or colonies that
are to be requeened.

Where many queens are required the grafting method is recommended.
This is done by transferring with the turned-up point of a sharpened quill or
special grafting tools about twenty young worker larvae of the desired parentage
into artificial (or natural) queen-cells and giving them to a colony that has
been queenless for several hours and from which all open brood has been
removed. The colony should contain plenty of young bees for feeding the
larvae. The larvae used for the cells should not be more than about two days

51

old. The artificial queen-cells may be made by dipping the rounded and mois-
tened tip of a wooden stick three-eighths of an inch thick into melted wax to
a depth of one-half inch three or four times, the cups so formed being after-
wards fixed on to the edge of a narrow board which is suspended in the hive.
Handy queen-cell cups that can be used repeatedly may be made by hollowing
out one end of a short cylinder of wood to the size of a queen-cell base and
lining it with wax. The base of the cups are fastened to the edge of the board
by means of projecting nail points. The operation of transferring the larvae is
carried on during the honey flow, and care is taken to see that the larvae are
continuously supplied from the time of transference with an abundance of brood
food. For this purpose the cups may be primed with food from an uncapped
queen-cell, just before the larvae are transferred to them. The young bees are
then more likely to accept them and to supply the young larvae with plenty of
food. On the tenth morning after the transference of the larvae the queens will
be due to emerge in a few hours and. the queen-cells should be distributed to
nuclei. Cell-protectors made of wire wound in a spiral with a hole at the tip of
the cell through which the queen will emerge may be used. These protectors
prevent the bees from tearing open the sides of the cell. In due time the queen
in each nucleus will get mated, provided no accidents occur, and she may be
introduced to any colony requiring a queen at any convenient time thereafter.
It is best to rear queens during a honey flow, for then the young larvae
will be better fed and cared for. Should there be little or no nectar available,
the colonies rearing the queens must be fed a small amount of honey or sugar
syrup each day.

FEEDING

The various occasions on which feeding is necessary or advisable have been
mentioned under " Spring Management," " Swarming," and " Wintering," and
only a few remarks on how to make and give the food are here necessary.

Fig. 46. — Miller feeder.

52

Syrup made from the best grade of white granulated sugar is a cheap and
safe substitute for honey in spring and summer, and a desirable supplementary
food for winter.

For spring and summer feeding, two parts by measure of sugar stirred into
three or four parts of water until dissolved make a satisfactory syrup to carry
the bees over a period of dearth.

For autumn feeding, use two parts of sugar to one of water. To get the
sugar to dissolve completely in the case of autumn syrup the water must be
hot. If the syrup is made over the fire the sugar must be added to the water
in small quantities at a time and kept constantly stirred until dissolved to pre-
vent it from settling on the bottom of the vessel and burning, because burnt
sugar is very unwholesome for bees and would cause their death during the
winter. The best method is to first bring the water to a boil and then remove
it from the fire and immediately stir in the required amount of sugar until it
has all dissolved.

Fig. 47. — Honey-pail feeder, (a) Ordinary cover punched with shingle-nail, (b) 10-pound
pail fitted with special cover, (c) Special cover supplied by manufacturers.

Syrup made as described above should be given inside the hive and covered
up so that bees from the other hives cannot get access to it. To prevent undue
excitement and robbing, it is best to feed in the evening.

There are many kinds of bee-feeders. For stimulative feeding in the spring
and summer, a good one is a five-pound pail with a few small holes punched in
the cover. For rapid feeding in autumn there is nothing better than a ten-
pound honey-pail with thirty or forty holes punched in the cover, or the Miller
feeder, which consists of a wooden box so constructed that the bees cannot get
drowned. (Figs. 46 and 47.) These are placed on top of the frames and an
empty super or extension will be needed to cover it.

Having to feed bees during the winter is a sign of bad management, but
should such an emergency arise candy made as follows and placed over the
frames beneath the quilt will often save a colony from starvation: —

Dissolve three pounds of granulated sugar in one pint of boiling water.
After sugar has dissolved bring to a boil over a slow fire and boil till it reaches
280 degrees Fahrenheit or when the candy will form hard brittle strings when
dropped into cold water. Pour into moulds and allow to harden. Do not disturb
the candy after pouring or scrape it from the dish in which it was boiled into
the mould or it will crystallize. When hard the candy should be light amber
in colour and transparent.

Care should be taken not to burn or scorch the sugar when cooking.

53

ROBBING

In warm weather when there is little or no honey to be got from the flowers
the bees will easily yield to any temptation to obtain it by any other means
that come in their way.^ After more or less fighting they will overpower any
very weak colonies, especially those that are queenless and will carry the honey
to their own hives. Robbing may also be started by the carelessness of the bee-
keeper during manipulation, especially when removing the honey or feeding.

During a honey dearth the beekeeper should in all his work carefully avoid
doing anything that will excite robbing, for robber-bees are a constant annoy-
ance and danger in the apiary.

No colony should be allowed to grow weak and no honey or syrup should
be exposed in the apiary. If robbing has begun, the attacked colonies should
have a bunch of wet grass or weeds thrown over the entrance. Hives should
be opened as little as possible, and then only during the hour before sunset or
early in the morning or under a bee tent. Robbing is most likely to be trouble-
some in the late summer during the decline of, and immediately after, the
honey flow. It is advisable at this time to contract the entrances of all hives.
One can tell if a colony is being robbed by seeing the robbers enter hurriedly
with the abdomen contracted and leave with the abdomen distended, flying
straight home. Old robbers have a shiny appearance, the hair having become
rubbed off. The extracting should only be done in a bee-tight house and combs
and honey should also be stored where the bees cannot reach them.

BEE DISEASES

Five bee diseases are known to occur in Canada — three affecting the brood,
namely, American foul brood, European foul brood and Sacbrood; and two
affecting the adult bee — paralysis and dysentery.

American foul brood and European foul brood are serious diseases which
have caused enormous loss to the beekeepers of Canada. They are highly infec-
tious, but by proper treatment they can both be controlled and their spread
checked. It is, therefore, important that every beekeeper should acquaint him-
self with the symptoms of foul brood and the proper methods of treatment and
should keep a careful watch for its appearance in his apiary.

Fig. 48. — American foul brod comb show-
ing irregular cappings and scalees.
The position of the comb indicates best
way to view the scales. (Phillips,
Farmers' Bull. No. 442, U.S. Dept.
Agric.)

AMERICAN FOUL BROOD

This disease affects principally the larvae just after they have been capped
over. In a colony suffering from American foul brood the cappings of some of
the cells are seen to be discoloured and they may be sunken, irregularly per-

54

Fig. 49. — American foul brod; a, b, f,
normal sealed cells; c, j, sunken cap-
pings, showing perforation; g, sunken
capping not perforated; h, 1, m, n, q, rr
larvae affected by disease; e, i, p, s,
scales formed from drieddown larvae;
d, o, pupae affected by disease. Twice
natural size. (Phillips, Farmers' Bull.
442. U.S. Dept. Agric.)

forated or removed altogether. If these affected cells be examined it will be
found that the larvae in many of them have sunk down in the cell and have
become a coffee-coloured and viscid mass. If a match or toothpick be inserted
into the cell the rotting mass adheres to it and can be drawn out into a string
an inch or two long. Affected pupae usually have the tongue adhering to the
upper wall of the cell. There will often be other cells in which the decayed
larvae have dried down to a scale which adheres tightly to the lower wall of the
cell. In a badly affected colony a disagreeable odour is usually noticeable. The
colony grows weak through the diminishing number of emerging bees and usually
dies sooner or later. Queen or drone larvae are rarely affected.

American foul brood is rather widely distributed in Canada having been
found in most of the provinces.

EUROPEAN FOUL BROOD

In European foul brood most of the larvae are attacked and die before the
cell is capped over, usually while very small, but a few capped larvae are often
affected also. In most cases the larvae loses its pump shape and lies in the

Fig. 50. — European foul brood; a, j. k,
normal sealed cells; b, c, d, e, g, i, 1, m,
p, q, larvae affected by disease; r,
normal larvae at age attacked by dis-
ease; f, h, n, o, dried-down larvae or
scales. Twice natural size. (Phillips,
Farmers' Bull. No. 442. U.S. Dept.
Agric.)

55

bottom of the cell, a shapeless collapsed mass, giving an appearance of being
melted, and its colour changes from pearly white to yellow or grey. Others do
not have this melted appearance but dry up into a greyish coloured scale at
the bottom of the cell. These larvae retain their curled up position and have a
segmented appearance due to the trachae showing through the skin. The decay-
ing larvae are usually not ropy as in American foul brood, but a slight ropiness
may be observed due to the presence of other organisms.

Queen and drone larvae are quickly attacked by this disease, as well as the
worker brood. The scale to which the larvae eventually dries down does not
adhere to the cell, and most of these scales are carried out by the bees. A slight,
sour odour is usually present in cases of this disease, and a disagreeable odour
of putrefaction may be present in badly infected colonies. The symptoms of the
disease are more variable than those of American foul brood. European foul
brood is most destructive in late spring and early summer before the honey
flow. During the honey flow it usually disappears, to return in the fall or the
following spring. It spreads through the apiary and district more rapidly than
American foul brood.

■Mi

. 2

Fig. 51. — European foul brood.

Black bees are more susceptible to European foul brood than Italians, but
both races are equally susceptible to American foul brood. Neglected apiaries
of black bees quickly die out when attacked by European foul brood, and many
a careless beekeeper has been put out of business by it.

METHODS OF SPREADING FOUL BROOD

Both American foul brood and European foul brood spread from colony to
colony and from apiary to apiary in much the same way. An affected colony
becomes very weak or dies. The hive is robbed and the honey containing the
germs of the disease is carried by the robbers to their own hives. The beekeeper
may unwittingly aid the spread of the disease by feeding the bees with infected
honey or by putting swarms into hives or upon combs that have come from
diseases colonies. Discarded receptacles that have contained honey from a
diseased colony, if not thoroughly cleaned, may also be a source of infection.

o6

PREVENTIVE MEASURES

The following precautionary measures are recommended for adoption by all
beekeepers: Never purchase colonies of bees unless it is certain that they are free
from disease. Never feed bees with honey of unknown origin. If the bees need
feeding give sugar syrup, not honey. Do not purchase old combs, used hives, or
second hand bee supplies unless it is certain that they came from healthy
apiaries. Keep all colonies strong. The disease should be explained to neigh-
bouring beekeepers, and they should be invited to co-operate in its prevention
and treatment. Such practices as leaving colonies to die on their stands and
exposing combs of honey taken from colonies that have died for the bees to feed
upon are very bad beekeeping, and may result in all the apiaries in the neigh-
bourhood becoming diseased. Those who keep bees in box hives should be
urged to transfer them to hives with movable combs.

TREATMENT OF AMERICAN FOUL BROOD

The control of bee diseases is under the jurisdiction of the Provincial
Departments of Agriculture and each province has formulated its own laws
regarding the treatment of such diseases. Any beekeeper who finds disease in
his own apiary, or is suspicious of it in any other apiary, should immediately
notify the Provincial Apiarist of the province in which he resides.

American Foul Brood is such a deadly disease that in most cases it is
strongly advisable to suffocate the bees and to burn them together with the
hive they are in and all its contents.

In isolated cases where there is no danger of spreading the disease to other
apiaries, the bees may be saved by driving them from the hive into a screened
box without combs, and leaving them in a cool dark place for at least four days.
A little sugar syrup may be sprinkled on the screening of the cage each day.
After four days the bees may be released on full sheets of foundation in a new
hive. If the bees are thus saved it is imperative that the contents of the hive
from which they were driven be destroyed by fire, and the hive body, supers,
floorboards and covers be thoroughly disinfected.

All short-cut methods for treatment of colonies affected with American
foul brood should be avoided. They may prove successful in the hands of an
expert, but he is the least likely to employ them. In fact many beekeepers who
find an occasional colony affected with American foul brood prefer to take no
chances, but suffocate the bees and then burn the contents of the hive. This is
a sure cure and is the safest plan to prevent the spread of the disease.

TREATMENT FOR EUROPEAN FOUL BROOD

Manipulation as for American foul brood has little or no effect on European
foul brood. Good beekeeping methods are preventive measures and if these are
carried out European foul brood should not cause much alarm. Losses from
this disease will be reduced to a minimum if weak and queenless colonies are
united in the spring and only# strong colonies, headed with Italian queens from
good resistant stock, are kept, together with plenty of wholesome stores for
the winter. If the disease does occur in strong colonies it seldom becomes
serious. If the disease is already present it may be controlled by making the
colonies strong by uniting and introducing young Italian queens from resistant
stock to all infected colonies. This should be done in the early spring, as most
of the damage is done during the spring and early summer. There is no need to
destroy or disinfect any combs or supplies when dealing with European foul
brood.

57

SACBROOD

This disease seldom causes any serious losses among the bees. Colonies may
become weakened and the honey crop may be affected, but a colony is seldom
killed outright by it. To the inexperienced the symptoms of sacbrood may be
confused with those of American or European foul brood. The disease usually
appears during the spring and early summer, disappearing again shortly. There
are few cases in the summer when the main honey flow is on.

Both sealed and unsealed larvae may be affected with this disease. Larvae
dead from sacbrood will usually be found stretched out along the lower wall of
the cell and often with the anterior end turned up towards the upper wall.
The colour changes from a pearly white and may vary from yellow to dark
brown or grey. The skin of the larvae becames toughened so that the dead
mass may be lifted out like a small sac, the contents of which are watery.
Queen and drone larvae may also be affected.

TREATMENT FOR SACBROOD

The disease is of such a character that where only strong colonies headed
with vigorous queens, and good beekeeping methods are practised, no other
treatment is necessary. If a colony becomes weakened and the disease is per-
sistent, a young vigorous queen should be introduced.

OTHER AFFECTIONS OF THE BROOD

Brood may die from various causes other than disease. It may get chilled
or starved. When the honey flow is suddenly stopped by the onset of unusually
cold weather the bees will destroy a large quantity of drone brood and some-
times also worker brood. Such dead brood is soon removed by the bees.

Another condition that may be mistaken for disease is what is known as
bald-headed brood, in which the pupae are uncapped or only partly capped. If
the uncapped cells are in lines it may be suspected that wax moth larvae are
working in the combs, but if the uncapped cells are mixed or scattered and the
pupae are seen to be normal there is nothing seriously wrong.

Anyone having a suspicion that the brood of his bees is abnormal is
invited to send a small portion of the comb containing such brood to the Bee
Division, Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, for examination. This piece of
comb should be about two inches square and containing several of the affected
larvae. Pack the comb in a cardboard box (not tin). Mark the parcel O.H.M.S.
and no stamps are required.

DISEASES OF ADULTS

Among the few adult bee diseases in Canada, dysentery is the most import-
ant. Dysentery is caused by the consumption of unwholesome stores such as
honey dew, dandelion honey and often by late gathered honey, and by the bees
retaining the faeces within the intestines for an unnatural length of time. Dysen-
tery is more prevalent during the early spring just after the long confinement
during the winter. Dysentery may also be caused by any undue excitement
within the hive during the winter, or by late fall breeding when the young bees
are unable to take a flight before going into winter quarters. After one or two
good flights, however, the disease soon disappears. Healthy bees eject their
faeces during flight, but during the months of winter when flight is impossible

58

the faeces will accumulate in the intestines, in some cases to such an extent that
it will be voided inside the hive and the combs and hive will become badly
stained. A disagreeable odour is always present with dysentery.

The beekeeper should see that his bees go into winter quarters with plenty
of wholesome well-ripened honey, and also that the bees receive no excessive
disturbance from the time they are placed away for the winter until they are
brought out in the spring. Where the honey in the hive is of uncertain quality,
it is well to feed the bees with 15 to 20 pounds of sugar syrup in the fall.

Disappearing Disease and Paralysis are names given to obscure diseases,
which usually appear in the apiary during the spring and early summer, or after
a, long spell of wet weather. Only in rare cases do they persist during the
entire season.

The infected bees appear to be paralysed. They can only fly a few feet,
falling to the ground and after crawling about for a short time they soon die.
The abdomen is usually distended, as in cases of dysentery. Infected colonies
may become seriously weakened, but seldom die out entirely. A colony showing
symptoms of disease one year may be entirely free from it the following season.
These diseases do not appear to spread rapidly; one colony in an apiary may
be affected without others becoming infected. The treatment recommended is
strong colonies headed by young, vigorous queens. Very little is known of
these diseases and further investigations may reveal other diseases now classi-
fied under these names.

Nosema Apis. — This disease is caused by a small parasite invading the
alimentary canal of the bee, and although it has been found in Canada, this
disease does not appear to be of very great importance.

Isle of Wight Disease. — So far this disease has not appeared in Canada or
the United States, but beekeepers are warned to keep a careful watch for its
appearance. Adult bees only are affected. All beekeepers who discover any
signs of disease in adult bees should send samples at once to the Bee Division,
Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa.

ENEMIES OF THE BEE

Wax Moth. — The larvae of the Wax Moth (Galleria mellonela) are found
in neglected apiaries where they destroy the combs and brood of weak colonies,
a,nd also the combs of colonies that have died out, lining the tunnels they make
in the combs with a silky web. They will also get into the stored combs and
destroy them. Colonies that are strong and well looked after resist the depreda-
tions of wax moth. The full-grown caterpillar is about one inch in length and
it spins an oval white cocoon in some crevice in the hive where it changes to the
chrysalis. As the different stages of wax moth are killed by severe cold (11° F.)
it is a good plan to store combs for the winter in the honey-house and not
in the cellar. All spare combs should be looked over and, if wax moth larva*
are present, given to the bees, or fumigated. To fumigate combs they should be
placed in hives tiered one above the other with an empty hive or super on top.
In this super is placed a saucer containing bisulphide of carbon, the fumes of
which, being heavier than air, settle down through the combs. Care should be
taken not to bring a flame near, as the fumes are highly inflammable. Sulphur
fumes may be used instead. Colonies affected with brood disease are very
likely to become the prey of wax moth in the last stages of their existence.

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Fig. 52. — Comb destroyed by wax moth.

The larvae of at least three other moths are known to infect dry combs in
storage, and the common larder beetle may also be found. All of them, however,
may be controlled by fumigation as described for the larger wax moth.

Other Enemies. — Amongst other enemies of the bee may be mentioned
wasps, toads, and certain birds. These do no serious harm to strong colonies.
Mice and rats, however, will sometimes destroy colonies in the winter if care
is not taken to exclude them from the bee cellar or wintering case. Colonies

Fig. 53. — Cocoons of wax moth.

wintered outside may be protected by reducing the width of the entrance to
three-eighths of an inch so that mice are unable to get in. In the cellar they
can be poisoned. In storing combs for the winter a metal cover should be placed
beneath and above the supers containing them. This will prevent damage from
these pests.

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BEE DISEASE LEGISLATION

Owing to the severe losses of bees in Europe due to the Isle of Wight disease
the importation of adult bees, second-hand supplies, etc., from Europe are pro-
hibited under the following Ministerial Order issued May, 1923: —

Department of Agriculture, Canada

Deputy Minister's Office, Ottawa.

Under and by virtue of the authority conferred upon me by the provisions of the Order
in Council of November SO, 1909, containing regulations relating to Animals' Quarantine,
issued under authority of Edward VII, I do hereby order that:

On and after the 1st day of May, 1922, the importation into Canada of bees, used or
second-hand haves, or raw hive goods or products, excepting honey or wax, from the con-
tinent of Europe, is hereby prohibited owing to the danger of introducing a contagious
disease of bees known as " Isle of Wight " disease.

Dated at Ottawa, this twenty-second day of April, 1922.

(Sgd.) J. H. Grisdale,
Deputy Minister of Agriculture.

All provinces now have foul brood Acts.

Under these Acts inspectors are employed to inspect any apiary within the
province and to report to the Minister of Agriculture or the Provincial Apiarist.
Beekeepers are advised to write to their Provincial Apiarist asking for a copy
of the Provincial Act.

In the provinces of Nova Scotia, Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta
and British Columbia all beekeepers are required to be registered.

BEES AND FRUIT

The value of bees as pollinators in orchards has already been referred to
in the discussion upon the advantages of beekeeping.

Complaints are sometimes made of the poisoning of bees as the result of
their visiting fruit bloom that has been sprayed with insecticides. Fruit trees
should never be sprayed with poison while in full bloom, as insects visiting the
flowers will be killed and in this way the proportion of fruit that will set will
be reduced. Some of the provinces now have laws forbidding the use of sprays
containing poison while the trees are in bloom.

The recent use of dust for dusting fruit trees is causing heavy losses to bee-
keepers, especially in Nova Scotia. The dust evidently falls on other plants
that are blooming at the time of dusting and the bees gather the poison and
die off in large numbers. The young brood is also killed through the poisoned
food given them. At the present time the only remedies that can be suggested
is the cutting of all other bloom in the orchards or by the use of some repellent
in the dust used. As the dust is carried long distances by air currents the
former method would only partially overcome the difficulty.

Bees may, at times, be seen feeding on ripe plums and other sweet fruit,
and this has led some fruit growers to fear that they may damage fruit. Experi-
ments conducted in the apiary of the Central Experimental Farm in 1901, and
elsewhere, have shown conclusively that bees do not injure sound fruit. It is
only when the skin has been broken by birds or wasps or in some other way
that the bees suck the fruit juices.

BEEKEEPERS' ASSOCIATIONS

Beekeepers, like the members of any calling, are greatly helped by getting
into touch with one another for the exchange of ideas and the discussion of
problems relating to their welfare.

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Most of the provinces now have a provincial or parent association. Within
some of the provinces are many local or county associations that are affiliated
with the larger associations. The societies are doing excellent work for the
advancement of the industry. Some of them have started co-operative buying
of bees and supplies and selling of honey to the benefit of their members. The
members are also able to receive various bee journals at club rates. Every bee-
keeper should endeavour to join his nearest association and receive the benefits
that can be derived from it. The Provincial Apiarist will be able to give the
names and addresses of the secretaries of the various local associations in the
different provinces.

PUBLICATIONS ON BEEKEEPING

No beekeeper should be without a book that treats in fuller detail than can
be done here the different features of beekeping. The following are a few of
the standard works: — -

" The ABC and XYZ of Bee Culture/' by A. I. and E. R. Root. Published
by the A. I. Root Co., Medina, Ohio, U.S.A. An attractively written and pro-
fusely illustrated encylopedia of all the phases of practical beekeeping.

"Beekeeping," by E. F. Phillips, Ph.D. Published by the Macmillan Co.,
Toronto.

" Langstroth and the Honey Bee," by Dadant, Hamilton, 111., U.S.A.

" Productive Beekeeping," by Frank C. Pellet. One of Lippincotts farm
manuals.

" A Thousand Answers to Beekeeping Questions," by Dr. C. C. Miller.

" Out-apiaries," by C. P. Dadant, Hamilton, 111., U.S.A.

" Practical Queen Rearing/' by Frank C. Pellet.

" First Lessons in Beekeeping," by Dadant.

" Starting Right With Bees," by H. G. Rowe.

" Scientific Queen Rearing," by Doolittle.

" How to Keep Bees," by Anna B. Comstock. Published by Doubleday,
Page & Co., New York, U.S.A.

Any of the above text books can be had from most of the bee supply houses
or from the authors.

Several bee journals are published which keep the beekeeper in touch with
current events and progress, and give helpful hints, and also information about
the doings and personality of beekeepers, and about the meetings of the various
beekeepers' associations. Canadian beekeepers will find much interesting and
helpful information in any of the following journals: "The Canadian Bee
Journal," published monthly at Peterborough, Ont. ; " Les Abeilles," published
monthly by the Department of Agriculture, Quebec ; " The American Bee
Journal," published monthly at Hamilton, 111., U.S.A.; and "Gleanings in Bee
Culture," published monthly at Medina, Ohio, U.S.A.

BEEKEEPING AT THE DOMINION EXPERIMENTAL FARMS

Bees are now kept at twenty of the Dominion Experimental Farms, namely,
the Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, and the following branch Farms:
Charlottetown, P.E.I. ; Nappan, N.S.; Kentville, N.S.; Fredericton, N.B.; Ste.
Anne de la Pocatiere, Que.; Lennoxville, Que.; Kapuskasing, Ont.; Morden,

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Man.; Scott, Sask.; Lethbridge, Alta.; Lacombe, Alta.; Beaverlodge, Alta.;
Invermere, B.C.; Summerland, B.C.; Agassiz, B.C.; and Saanichton, Vancouver
island, B.C.

At all these stations beekeeping has been found to be profitable. At Leth-
bridge, alfalfa has proved the principal source of surplus honey. At Morden,
Lacombe, and Invermere the sources are mixed. At the remaining stations
alsike and white clover are the principal but by no means the only sources. The
principal honey plant of the Prairie Provinces, however, is sweet clover.

CONCLUSION

In the foregoing pages an endeavour has been made to present briefly the
main features of successful bee management in as concrete a form as possible.
It may be well in conclusion to summarize the most important points in a few
words.

The bee year may be said to commence in the autumn, and success the
following season depends very largely on the proper preparation of the bees for
winter, followed by careful and systematic spring and summer management.
Colonies should be kept strong and every queen that is not prolific and does not
produce industrious and hardy workers should be replaced. A sufficient supply
of standard hive parts, frames and foundations to meet all possible needs should
be procured and made up before the busy season. To the message " better keep
bees " we would add with greater emphasis the one " keep bees better." The
successful beekeeper is the one who has learnt how the bees will act under
various conditions and how these conditions and the actions of the bees can be
controlled.

CAUBCA OTTAWA K1A , 0C5

3 9073 00215628 1