. * a . ty ~~ ’ - a ™ » ° "* - w-. a " iene ~~ a ied . o- - - -~ . , “ foment a ae - one . - ; to or wane 7 - . . o . ~ id 5 “> : : beni 4 en . ‘an ’ . a 7 a par - @ 90 eed os * ‘ a 2 ° « o . » 4 ° 4 ‘ ‘ —— a ' ~ a - : me. “ _ ‘ : . . _ nd -* a oe --. . : : . ’ o . . ° “ . . ° aoe . mens AP Nn Fee g en tk Met Lo ene wally hnaiien ITY RARE eh | tig Oe eee ere . ~~ . —-- , Oo Le ee 04) i det eed . tee i -— < Ty anne nes Auer $F +) eee wee ne, ole ma et eR eepneee se - o_o - a ; _ SS Tr SL Ee Sn a ea ea Eat eee, ete - FO Be hae oe mm - - oO late ot 8 — 22a go a el ee . . oo” . ° fae ee ~ 4 ah te ae ek © meee, Oe Re whee, J ane ain teh, ile ‘ a > = aga Rh wa miy Reed, 0,1) rot Mer rl pi 7 Awe pay: A meds bel = OF Rae 0 mente te en a mart Mia tan. : ae a ee PPTL enero w= ister Ee ree hi ee. | eed a Sid Be Ue Ayre 72 Sw" betem Delany Se on ee beg *. ee eee . = rw ed Pitee rer Path aap eA aon me sietpdaegn dak De = - ~ Cee ieee Fee on Sets Wigs sead morte " : . - ron ~~ eel + ee ta ARete pee . Ong Net —— ¥ s “Nar Ines. - os . Petuee . 4 . ~~? ~ ~f “ aw 4 eM Neeoe e Maye ge “- - tert - ™“. ? — - tel ; > “ “ » rT re *. “ - Aw . eee . . v = : "929M ade nt hae he ~ a " . “ m “ . ; nee r a “ om, “ ™ o oer 2 a 7 . 7 or m ~ st - - aa - sare - Ye ene” » <= iaoyrennpneatiahc i ory ~~ - © anrean “~~ 2 Sr Ps table eet vate + Peter ne arte - ld. Ye Se neta akares > = eens +. nee Boe ween ~ soneagp - - Pe ataatenaadiieh ae elie ens - ote- bs _ - ~e a agen = = ry ad hi : , - ty ‘ ns et § Mie Ba \ Pati f hit € tj S — ' "a or i { !) Ao } I) ) i i 4 j ry A xX “+ , fT i Py F .. ’ “os A Ny ss nu ’ % 1 : Pie ¢ - ty - io eee ie in-the-Pulpit Jack- Shade Plant, A by PIEC Is NT Fro i) HOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY BY oe JOSEPH Y. BERGEN, A.M. ’ INSTRUCTOR IN BIoLoGy, ENGLISH HIGH SCHOOL, Boston BOSTON, U.S.A. GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS The Atheneum ress 1901 9096 Library of Congress} Two Coes Recewep JAN 11 1901 Copyright a i ee ee ier SECOND COPY Delivered to ORDER DIVISION ' COPYRIGHT, 1901, BY JOSEPH Y. BERGEN ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 3 pe, ¥ PREFACE Tuts book is written upon the same plan as the author’s Elements of Botany. A few chapters stand here but little altered from the former work, but most of them have been rewritten and considerably enlarged, and many new ones have been added. The principal changes in the book as a whole are these : 1. Most of the discussion of ecological topics is put by itself, in Part II. 2. The amount of laboratory work on the anatomy and physiology of seed-plants is considerably increased and addi- tional experiments are introduced. . 3. The treatment of spore-plants is greatly extended, so as to include laboratory work on the most important groups. 4. The meagre Flora which accompanied the earlier book has been replaced by one which contains fairly full descrip- tions of nearly seven hundred species of plants. Most of these are wild, but a considerable number of cultivated species have been included, mainly for the convenience of schools in large cities. Ample material is offered for a year’s course, four or five periods per week. The author is well aware that most schools devote but half a year to botany, but the tendency sets strongly toward allowing more time for this subject. Even in schools where the minimum time allowance is devoted to botany, there is a distinct advantage in being provided with a book which allows the teacher considerable option as regards the kind and amount of work which he shall offer to his classes. ill lv PREFACE Suggestions are made in the teacher’s Handbook, which accompanies this volume, in regard to shaping half-year courses. The latest authorities in the various departments of botany have been consulted on all doubtful points, and the attempt has been to make the book scientifically accurate throughout, yet not unduly difficult. Most of the illustrations have been redrawn from those in standard German works of an advanced character, or drawn from nature or from photographs, expressly for this book. Besides the sources of drawings acknowledged in the author’s Elements, many cuts have been taken from the botanies of Frank, Prantl, Detmer, Murray, and Bennett and Murray, as well as from Schimper’s Pflanzengeographie. Of the drawings from nature or from photographs, some figures, and Plates I, VII, and VIII, are by Mr. Edmund - Garrett of Boston; several figures, the Frontispiece, and Plates II, IV, X, XI, are by Mr. Bruce Horsfall of New York; several figures are by Mr. F. Schuyler Mathews of Boston; a large number of figures and Plate V are by Mr. E. N. Fischer of Boston; several figures are by Mr. E. R. Kingsbury of Boston and Dr. J. W. Folsom of the University of Illinois. Thanks for the use of photographs are due to Mr. H. G. Peabody of Boston (Fig. 234), to Mr. J. H. White of Boston (Figs. 32, 75, 222), to Professor Conway MacMillan of the Uni- versity of Minnesota (Frontispiece), and to Professor F. V. Coville of Washington (Plate VII). Figs. 28 and 275 are taken by permission from the Primer of Forestry, issued by the Division of Forestry, U. 8. Department of Agriculture. Figs. 263, 264, 276 are copied by permission from Professor W. J. Beal’s Seed Dispersal, and Figs. 226, 229, 233 from Professor W. M. Davis’s Physical Geography. Fig. 269 is from a photo- eraph by Professor C. F. Millspaugh of the Field Columbian Museum, Chicago. ee PREFACE i 4 Most of the redrawn illustrations (not microscopical) from various European sources are by Mr. Fischer. Most of the microscopical ones (and a number of figures from nature) are by Dr. J. W. Folsom of the University of Illinois, and many of both classes are by Mr. Mathews. Thanks are due to Professor J. M. Holzinger of the Winona (Minn.) State Normal School, to Professor L. Murbach of the Detroit High School, and to Mr. I. 8. Cutter of Lincoln, Nebraska, for their many discriminating criticisms of the proof of Parts I and IJ. Mr. Samuel F. Tower of the Boston English High School, Professor Charles V. Piper of the Washington State Agricultural College, and Dr. Rodney H. True, Lecturer on Botany at Harvard University, have all read the whole or large portions of Part I and given valuable suggestions. Professor W. F. Ganong, of Smith College, has read and eriticised Part II. The chapters on spore-plants, excepting a small amount of matter retained from the Elements of Botany, are entirely the work of Mr. A. B. Seymour of the Cryptogamic Herbarium of Harvard University. The author has attempted to steer a middle course between the advocates of the out-of-door school and of the histological school of botany teaching. He has endeavored never to use a technical term where he could dispense with it, and on the other hand, not to become inexact by shunning necessary terms. In deciding questions of this sort, a priori reasoning is of little value ; one must ascertain by repeated trials how much of a technical vocabulary the average beginner in botany can profitably master. The teacher who has discovered that not one of the boys in a division of thirty-six pupils knows that his own desk-top is of cherry wood may well hesitate about beginning his botany teaching with a discourse on cen- trospheres and karyokinesis. It has been assumed throughout this book that, other things being equal, the knowledge is of ail ; v1 PREFACE most worth which touches the pupil’s daily life at the most points, and therefore best enables him to understand his own environment. On the other hand, the author has no sympathy with those who decry the use of apparatus in botany teaching in secondary schools and who would confine the work of their pupils mainly within the limits of what can be seen with the unaided eye. If the compound microscope plainly reveals - things shown only imperfectly by a magnifier and not seen at all with the naked eye,— use the microscope! If iodine solution or other easily prepared reagents make evident the existence of structures or substances not to be detected with- out them, — then use the reagents! No one thinks of deny- ing a boy the use of a spyglass or a compass for his tramps afield or his outings in a boat because he has not studied physics. No one would refuse to let an intelligent boy or girl use a camera because the would-be photographer had not mastered the chemical reactions that follow upon the expo- sure of a sensitized plate. Yet it is equally illogical to defer some of the most fascinating portions of botanical study until the college course, to which most never attain. When the university professor tells the teacher that he ought not to employ the ordinary appliances of elementary biological inves- tigation in the school laboratory because the pupils cannot intelligently use them, the teacher is forced to reply that the professor himself cannot intelligently discuss a subject of which he has no personal knowledge. The pupils are deeply interested; they prove by their drawings and their recita- tions that they have seen a good way into plant structures and plant functions; then why not let them study botany in earnest ? J. YB: CampripGr, January, 1901. CONTENTS Part [I STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS, AND CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS CHAPTER I PAGES Tue SEED AND ITs GERMINATION 2 : : : : : bis CHAPTER II STORAGE OF Foop IN THE SEED 3 ; : ; ; ; 14-24 CHAPTER ITI MoveMEnNtTs, DEVELOPMENT, AND MORPHOLOGY OF THE SEEDLING 25-35 CHAPTER IV Roots : : : ; ; : E : . ; ee 64 CHAPTER V STEMS t : : : ; . : js : : . 62-82 CHAPTER VI STRUCTURE OF THE STEM . : g f : j Citathaeetek S27 (1 = CHAPTER VII Livine Parts oF THE SteEM; WORK OF THE STEM. é . 104-118 CHAPTER VIII Bups . : : > : . ‘ , f : : 119-129 vill CONTENTS CHAPTER IX LEAVES CHAPTER X PAGES . 130-139 LEAF-ARRANGEMENT FOR ExposuRE TO SuN AND Arr; Move- MENTS OF LEAVES AND SHOOTS CHAPTER XI Minute StTrRucTURE OF LEAVES; FUNCTIONS OF LEAVES. CHAPTER XII PROTOPLASM AND ITS PROPERTIES CHAPTER XIII . 140-149 . 150-177 . 178-185 INFLORESCENCE, OR ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS ON THE STEM 186-191 CHAPTER XIV Tue Stupy or TypicaL FLOWERS CHAPTER XV PLAN AND STRUCTURE OF THE FLOWER AND ITS ORGANS CHAPTER XVI . 192-196 . 197-207 TruE Nature oF FLoraL Oreans; DETAILS OF THEIR STRUC- TURE ; FERTILIZATION . CHAPTER XVII Tue Stupy or Typicat Fruits CHAPTER XVIII THe Fruit CHAPTER XIX THE CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS . 208-216 . 217-220 . 221-227 . 228-234 —— CONTENTS 1x CHAPTER XX ' PAGES Types oF CrypToGAMS; THALLOPHYTES . . : ; . 235-276 CHAPTER XXI Types oF CrYPTOGAMS; BRYOPHYTES : é ; : . 277-285 CHAPTER XXII Types OF CRYPTOGAMS; PTERIDOPHYTES . ; 4 : . 286-297 CHAPTER XXIII THE EvoLuTionarRy History OF PLANTS . : s 4 . 298-3805 . Part II ECOLOGY, OR RELATIONS OF PLANTS TO THE WORLD ABOUT THEM CHAPTER XXIV PiLant SociETIES : : : : : : : ; . a0i—o23 CHAPTER XXV BoranicAL GEOGRAPHY .. ; : 2 F 5 : S o24—soo CHAPTER XXVI PaRAasSITES, ENSLAVED PLAnts, MessMaATES, CARNIVOROUS PLants 336-344 CHAPTER XXVII How Piants Protect THEMSELVES FROM ANIMALS , . 345-352 x CONTENTS CHAPTER XXVIII PAGES Ecotocy oF FLOWERS . : BF Tei ; J ] . soo-ete CHAPTER XXIX How PLAntTs ARE SCATTERED AND PROPAGATED : : . 373-386 CHAPTER XXX THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE AND THE SURVIVAL OF THE FITrest : . f : . : k ; ; . aolaon List OR PLATES Frontispiece. Jack-in-the-pulpit, a typical shade-plant, with large, thin leaves. Facing page Piate J. Sand-dunes with sea rye grass. Deep-rooted, with exten- sively running rootstocks Puate II. Pollarded willows, showing growth of slender twigs from adventitious buds Puate III. Japanese ivy, a tendril-climber growing on face of a building, showing leaves all exposed to sunlight at the most - advantageous angle PuatEe IV. Cypress swamp, showing ‘‘Spanish moss’’ (Tillandsia), a phanerogamic epiphyte practically leafless, the work ordinarily done by leaves devolving on the slender stems. The cypress trees are furnished with ‘‘ knees’’ or projections from the roots, which are thought by some to absorb air Puate V. Indian pipe, a saprophytic seed-plant, wholly destitute of chlorophyll and with scales instead of foliage leaves Pirate VI. Fan palms, showing general habit of the tree, and large projecting bases of old petioles left after the decay of the leaves Puate VII. A tree yucca in the Mohave Desert, a characteristic xerophytic tree. Other sparse desert vegetation is also shown . Prate VIII. Belt of trees along a Nebraskan river, showing depend- ence of forest on water supply Piate IX. Cottonwood. Tree largely overgrown with American mistletoe, near Mesilla, New Mexico. The photograph was taken in winter, when the tree was leafless, so that all the foliage shown is that of the mistletoe Pirate X. Humming-bird visiting flowers of the trumpet creeper. This is one of the best North American examples of a flower mainly pollinated by birds . _Puate XI. Asters and golden-rods, Composite, illustrating the principle of grouping many small flowers into heads (and in the golden-rod the heads into rather close clusters) to facilitate the visits of insects 76 . 140 . 158 . 168 176 316 . d04 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY INTRODUCTION «Botany is the science which endeavors to answer every reason- able question about plants.” 4 THE plant is a living being, provided generally with many parts, called organs, which it uses for taking in nour- ishment, for breathing, for protection against its enemies, and for reproducing itself and so keeping up the numbers of its own kind. The study of the individual plant there- fore embraces a variety of topics, and the examination of its relation to others introduces many more subjects. ‘Morphology, or the science of form, structure,-and so on, deals with the plant without much regard to its character as a living thing. Under this head are studied the forms of plants and the various shapes or disguises which the same sort of organ may take in different kinds of plants, their gross structure, their microscopical structure, their classification, and the successive stages in the develop- ment of the individual plant. Plant Physiology treats of the plant in action, how it lives, breathes, feeds, grows, and produces others like itself. Geographical Distribution, or botanical geography, dis- cusses the range of the various kinds of plants over the 1 Professor George L. Goodale. 1 2 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY earth’s surface. Another subdivision of botany, usually studied along with geology, describes the history of plant life on the earth from the appearance of the first plants ‘until the present time. Systematic Botany, or the classification of plants, should naturally follow the examination of the groups of seed- plants and spore-plants. Plant Ecology treats of the relations of the plant to the conditions under which it lives. Under this division of the science are studied the effects of soil, climate, and friendly or hostile animals and plants on the external form, the internal structure, and the habits of plants. This is in many respects the most interesting department of botany, but it has to be studied for the most part out of doors. : _ Many of the topics suggested in the above outline cannot well be studied in the high school. There is not usually time to take up more than the merest outline of botanical geography, or to do much more than mention the impor- tant subject of Heonomic Botany —the study of the uses of plants to man. It ought, however, to be possible for the student to learn in his high-school course a good deal about the simpler facts of morphology and of vegetable physiology. One does not become a botanist — not even much of an amateur in the subject — by reading books about botany. It is necessary to study plants themselves, to take them to pieces and make out the connection of their parts, to examine with the microscope small portions of the exterior surface and thin slices of all the variously built materials or tissues of which the plant consists. All this can be done with living specimens or with those taken } li INTRODUCTION 3 from dead parts of plants that have been preserved in any suitable way, as by drying or by placing in alcohol or other _ fluids which prevent decay. Living plants must be studied in order to ascertain what kinds of food they take, what kinds of waste substances they excrete, how and where _ their growth takes place and what circumstances favor it, how they move, and indeed to get as complete an idea as possible of what has been called the behavior of plants. Since the most familiar and most interesting plants © spring from seeds, the beginner in botany can hardly do better than to examine at the outset the structure of a few familiar seeds, then sprout them and watch the growth of the seedlings which spring from them. Afterwards he may study in a few typical examples the organs, structure, and functions of seed-plants, trace their life history, and so, step. by step, follow the process by which a new crop of seeds at last results from the growth and development of such a seed as that with which he began. After he has come to know in a general way about the structure and functions of seed-plants, the student may become acquainted with some typical cryptogams or spore- plants. There are so many groups of these that only a _ few representative ones can be chosen for study. ‘ . t f t f 2 Ss > nad i "a i. EY - 2 roc : é ate F (pare a . +A é $ ; > f : a oa es an \ i Spat 4 , 4 ‘ 3 : & f vets L : r ey, apes ye: é F ; < > ; . 1 : * ‘3 ; » 1 % ‘| i 5 : ‘ é = , J " Part | STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS, AND CLASSIFI- CATION OF PLANTS CHAPTER I THE SEED AND ITS GERMINATION 1. Germination of the Squash Seed. — Soak some squash seeds in tepid water for twelve hours or more. Plant these about an inch deep in damp sand or pine sawdust or peat-moss in a wooden box which has had holes enough bored through the bottom so that it will not hold water. Put the box in a warm place (not at any time over 70° or 80° Fahrenheit),’ and cover it loosely with a board or a pane of glass. Keep the sand or sawdust moist, but not wet, and the seeds will germinate. As soon as any of the seeds, on being dug up, are found to have burst open, sketch one in this condition,” noting the manner in which the outer seed-coat is split, and continue to examine the seedlings at intervals of two days, until -at least eight stages in the growth of the plantlet have been noted.® * 1 Here and elsewhere throughout the book temperatures are expressed in Fahrenheit degrees, since with us, unfortunately, the Centigrade scale is not the familiar one, outside of physical and chemical laboratories. ; 2 The student need not feel that he is expected to make finished drawings to record what he sees, but some kind of careful sketch, if only the merest outline, is indispensable. Practice and study of the illustrations hereafter given will soon impart some facility even to those who have had little or no instruction in drawing. Consult here Figs. 9 and 89. 3 The class is not to wait for the completion of this work (which may, if desirable, be done by each pupil at home), but is to proceed at once with the examination of the squash seed and of other seeds, as directed in the follow- ing sections, and to set some beans, peas, and corn to sprouting, so that they may be studied at the same time with the germinating squashes. 5 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY Observe particularly how the sand is pushed aside by the rise of the young seedlings. I in Ln yy eae Lg ce cr AA RUCTOIN | a uD Fig. 1.— Lengthwise Section of a Squash Seed. IAM | \ ! i) ! ' om, GUAM MON UI MM TD fied about five times.) (Magni- Suggest some reason for the manner in which the sand is penetrated by the rising stem. 2. Examination of the Squash Seed. — Make a sketch of the dry seed, natural size. Note the little scar at the pointed end of the seed where the latter was attached to its — place of growth in the squash. Label this hilum. Note the little hole in the hilum; it is the micropyle, seen most plainly in a soaked seed. (If there are two depressions on the hilum the deeper one is the micropyle.) Describe the color and texture of the outer coating of the seed. With a scalpel ora very sharp knife cut across near the middle a seed that has been soaked in water for twenty- four hours. Squeeze one of the portions, ’ held edgewise between the thumb and finger, in such a way as to separate slightly the halves into which the contents of the seed is naturally divided. Examine with the mag- nifying glass the section thus treated, make a sketch of it; and label the shell or covering of the seed and the kernel within this. Taking another soaked seed, chip away the white outer shell, called the testa, and observe the thin, greenish inner skin (Fig. — 1, e), with which the kernel of the seed is closely covered.} Strip this off and sketch the uheovedele ker- nel or embryo. Note that at one end it tapers to a point. This pointed portion, known as the hypocotyl, will develop after the seed sprouts into the stem of the plantlet, like that shown at ¢ in Fig. 2 Split the halves of the kernel entirely apart from each other, 1 See footnote 2 to Sect. 18. Pia —.. ss -— fae THE SEED AND ITS GERMINATION ut noticing that they are only attached for a very little way next to the hypocotyl, and observe the thickness of the halves and the slight unevenness of the inner surfaces. These halves are called seed-leaves - or cotyledons. - Have ready some seeds which have been soaked for twenty-four hours and then left in a loosely covered jar on damp blotting paper at a temperature of 70° or over until they have begun to sprout. Split one of these seeds apart, separating the cotyledons, and observe, at the junction of these, two very slender pointed objects, the rudimentary leaves of the plumule or first bud (Fig. 1, p). 3. Examination of the Bean. —Study the seed, both dry and after twelve hours’ soaking, in the same general way in which the squash seed has just been examined. Notice the presence of a dis- tinct plumule, consisting of a pair of rudimentary leaves between the cotyledons, just where they are joined to the top of the hypo- Fic. 2.— The Castor Bean and its cotyl. In many seeds (as the pea) Germination. the plumule does not show dis- 4, longitudinal section of ripe seed; ¢, fee leaves. ~ Bate im ‘all cases | 4s) ©, cotyledon; ¢, hypocotyl; : : B, sprouting seed covered with endo- the plumule contains the growing sperm; C, same, with half of endo- point, the tip of the stem from sperm removed; D, seedling; r, pri- which all the upward growth of = ee cera es auely the plant is to proceed. Make a sketch of these leaves as they lie in place on one of the cotyledons, after the bean has been split open. 1 The larger the variety of bean chosen, the easier it will be to see and sketch the several parts. The large red kidney bean, the horticultural bean, or the lima bean will do well for this examination. 8 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY Note the cavity in each cotyledon caused by the pressure of the plumule and of the hypocotyl. 4, Examination of the Pea. — There are no very important points of difference between the bean and pea, so far as the structure of the seed is concerned, but the student should rapidly dissect a few soaked peas to get an idea of the appearance of the parts, since he is to study the germination of peas in some detail. Make only one sketch, that of the hypocotyl as seen in position after the removal of the seed-coats.! 5. Germination of the Bean or the White Lupine, the Pea, and the Grain of Corn.—Soak some beans or lupine seeds as directed in Section 3, plant them,? and make a series of sketches on the same general plan as those in Fig. 9. Follow the same directions with some peas and some corn. In the case of the corn, make six or more sketches at various stages to illus- trate the growth of the plumule and the formation of roots; first a main root from the base of the hypocotyl, then others more slender from the same region, and later on still others from points higher up on the stem (see Fig. 15). The student may be able to dis- cover what becomes of the large outer part of the embryo. This is really the single cotyledon of the corn (Fig. 6). It does not as a whole rise above ground, but most of it remains in the buried grain, and acts as a digesting and absorbing organ through which the endosperm or food stored outside of the embryo is transferred into the growing plant, as fast as it can be made liquid for that purpose. 6. Germination of the Horse-Chestnut. — Plant some seeds of the horse-chestnut or the buckeye, study their mode of germination, and observe the nature and peculiar modifications of the parts. Consult Gray’s Structural Botany, Vol. I, pp. 19, 20. 7. Conditions Requisite for Germination. — When we try to enumerate the external conditions which can affect 1 The teacher will find excellent sketches of most of the germinating seeds described in the present chapter in Miss Newell’s Outlines of Lessons in Botany, Part I. 2The pupil may economize space by planting the new seeds in boxes from which part of the earlier planted seeds have been dug up for use in sketching, etc. seit —— THE SEED AND ITS GERMINATION 9 germination, we find that the principal ones are heat, moisture, and presence of air. A few simple experiments will show what influence these conditions exert. | 8. Temperature. Common observation shows that a moderate amount of warmth is necessary for the sprout- ing of seeds. Every farmer or gardener knows that during a cold spring many seeds, if planted, will rot in the ground. But a somewhat exact experiment is neces- sary to show what is the best temperature for seeds to erow in, and whether variations in the temperature make more difference in the quickness with which they begin to germinate or in the total per cent which finally succeed. EXPERIMENT I Relation of Temperature to Germination. — Prepare at least four teacups or tumblers, each with wet soft paper packed in the bottom to a depth of nearly an inch. Have a tightly fitting cover over each. Put in each vessel the same number of soaked peas. Stand the ves- sels with their contents in places where they will be exposed to dif- ferent, but fairly constant, temperatures, and observe the several temperatures carefully with a thermometer. Take pains to keep the tumblers in the warm places from drying out, so that their contents will not be less moist than that of the others. The following series is merely suggested, — other values may be found more convenient. Note the rate of germination in each place and record in tabular form as follows: No. of seeds sprouted in 24 hrs. 48 hrs. 72 hrs. 96 hrs. ete. At 32°, es aS SS At 50°, — oe a At 70°, ee oe wee ee At 90°, oe sbese a 1 For the exact regulation of the temperatures a thermostat (see Handbook) _ is desirable. If one is available, a maximum temperature of 100° or over should be tried. 10 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 9. Moisture. — What was said in the preceding section in regard to temperature applies also to the question of the best conditions for germination as regards the supply of moisture. The soil in which seeds grow out of doors is always moist; it rests with the experimenter to find out approximately what is the best amount of moisture. EXPERIMENT II? Relation of Water to Germination.— Arrange seeds in several vessels as follows: In the first put blotting paper that is barely moistened; on this — put some dry seeds. In the second put blotting paper that has been barely moistened ; on this put seeds that have been soaked for twenty-four hours. In the third put ===) water enough to soak the paper thor- oughly; use soaked seeds. In the fourth put water enough to half cover the seeds. Place the vessels where they will have same temperature and note the time of ger- mination. Tabulate your re- Fic. 3.— Soaked Peas in Stoppered Bottle, ready sults as amen pr avin for Exhaustion of Air. is INN hit ( Nee a ous SS = ous experiment. 10. Relation of the Air Supply to Germination. — If we wish to see how soaked seeds will behave with hardly any air supply, it is necessary to place them in a bottle arranged 1 This may be made a home experiment. THE SEED AND ITS GERMINATION = 11 as shown in Fig. 3, exhaust the air by connecting the glass tube with an air-pump, which is then pumped vigorously, and seal the tube while the exhaustion is going on. The sealing is best done by holding a Bunsen flame under the middle of the horizontal part of the tube. A much easier experiment, which is nearly as satisfactory, can, however, be performed without the air-pump. EXPERIMENT III Will Seeds Germinate well without a Good Supply of Air? — ' Place some soaked seeds on damp blotting paper in the bottom of a bottle, using seeds enough to fill it three-quarters full, and close tightly with a rubber stopper. Place a few other seeds of the same kind in a second bottle; cover loosely. : Place the bottles side by side, so that they will have the same | conditions of light and heat. Watch for results, and tabulate as in previous experiments. Most seeds will not germinate under water, but those of the sunflower will do so, and therefore Exp. III may be varied in the following manner: Remove the shells carefully from a considerable number of sun- flower seeds.1 Try to germinate one lot of these in water which has been boiled in a flask to remove the air, and then cooled in the same flask. Over the water, with the seeds in-it, a layer of cotton- _ seed oil about a half inch deep is poured, to keep the water from contact with air. In this bottle then there will be only seeds and air-free water. Try to germinate another lot of seeds in a bottle half filled with ordinary water, also covered with cotton-seed oil. Results ? 11. Germination involves Chemical Changes.— If a ther- - mometer is inserted into a jar of sprouting seeds, for 1 These are really fruits, but the distinction is not an important one at _ this time. 1H FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY instance peas, in a room at the ordinary temperature, the peas will be found to be warmer than the surrounding air. This rise of temperature is at least partly due to the absorption from the air of that substance in it which supports the life of animals and maintains the burning of fires, namely, oxygen. The union of oxygen with substances with which it can combine, that is with those which will burn, is called oxidation. This kind of chemical change is universal in plants and animals while they are in an active condition, and the energy which they manifest in their growth and movements is as directly the result of the oxidation going on inside them as the energy of a steam engine is the result of the burning of coal or other fuel under its boiler. _In the sprouting seed much of the energy produced by the action of oxygen upon oxidizable portions of its con- tents is expended in producing growth, but some of this energy is wasted by being transformed into heat which escapes into the surrounding soil. It is this escaping heat which is detected by a.thermometer thrust into a quantity of germinating seeds. EXPERIMENT IV Effect of Germinating Seeds upon the Surrounding Air. — When Exp. III has been finished, remove a little of the air from above the peas in the first bottle. This can easily be done with a rubber bulb attached to a short glass tube. Then bubble this air through some clear, filtered limewater. Also blow the breath through some lime- water by aid of a short glass tube. Explain any similarity in results obtained. (Carbon dioxide turns limewater milky.) After- wards insert into the air above the peas in the same bottle a lighted pine splinter, and note the effect upon its flame. a a THE SEED AND ITS GERMINATION 13 12. Other Proofs of Chemical Action.— Besides the proof of chemical changes in germinating seeds just described, | there are other kinds of evidence to the same effect. Malt, which is merely sprouted barley with its germi- nation permanently stopped at the desired point by the application of heat, tastes differently from the unsprouted grain, and can be shown by chemical tests to have suffered a variety of changes. If you can get unsprouted barley and malt, taste both and see if you can decide what sub-— stance is more abundant in the malt. Germinating kernels of corn undergo great alterations in their structure; the starch grains are gradually eaten away until they are ragged and full of holes and finally disappear. 13. The Embryo and its Development. — The miniature plant, as it exists ready formed and alive but inactive in the seed, is called the embryo. In the seeds so far ex- amined, practically the entire contents of the seed-coats consist of the embryo, but this is not the case with the great majority of seeds, as will be shown in the following chapter. CHAPTER II STORAGE OF FOOD IN THE SEED 14. Food in the Embryo. — Squash seeds are not much used for human food, though both these and melon seeds’ are occasionally eaten in parts of Kurope; but beans and peas are important articles of food. Whether the material ~ accumulated in the cotyledons is an aid to the growth of the young plant may be learned from a simple experiment. 15. Mutilated and Perfect Seedlings. — One of the best ways in which to find out the importance and the special : . use of any part of a plant isto re- move the part in question and see how the plant be- haves afterward. EXPERIMENT YV! Are the Cotyledons of a Pea of any Use _to the Seedling ? — Sprout several peas on Fic. 4. —Germinating Peas, growing in Water,one —j] otting paper. When deprived of its Cotyledons. ; the plumules appear, carefully cut away the cotyledons from some of the seeds. Place on a perforated cork, as shown in Fig. 4, one or two seedlings from 1 May be a home experiment. 14 ¢ STORAGE OF FOOD IN THE CELLS 15 which the cotyledons have been cut, and as many which have not been mutilated, and allow the roots to extend into the water. Let - them grow for some days, or even weeks, and note results. 16. Food stored in Seeds in Relation to Growth after Germination. — If two kinds of seeds of somewhat similar character, one kind large and the other small, are allowed to germinate and grow side by side, some important infer- ences may be drawn from their relative rate of growth. EXPERIMENT VI! Does the Amount of Material in the Seed have anything to do with the Rate of Growth of the Seedling ?—Germinate ten or more clover seeds, and about the same number of peas, on moist blotting paper under a bell-jar. After they are well sprouted, transfer both kinds of seeds to fine cotton netting, stretched across wide-mouthed jars nearly full of water. The roots should dip into the water, but the seeds must not do so. Allow the plants to grow until the peas are from four to six inches high. Some of the growth in each case depends on material gathered from the air and water, but most of it, during the very early life of the plant, is due to the reserve material stored in the seed. Where is it in the seeds so far studied? Proof? 17. Storage of Food outside of the Embryo. — In very many cases the cotyledons contain little food, but there is a supply of. it stored Fie.5.—Seeds with Endosperm, ~ in the seed beside or around them 39 “""""""™" pe : I, asparagus (magnified). (Figs. 2: D, and 6). II, poppy (magnified). 18. Examination of the Four-o’clock Seed. Examine the exter- nal surface of a seed? of the four-o’clock, and try the hardness of 1 May be a home experiment. 2 Strictly speaking, a fruit. 16 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY the outer coat by cutting it with a knife. From seeds which have been soaked in water at least twenty-four hours peel off the coatings and sketch the kernel. Make a cross-section of one of the soaked seeds which has not been stripped of its coatings, and sketch the sec- tion as seen with the magnitying glass, to show the parts, especially the two cotyledons, lying in close contact and encircling the white, starchy-looking endosperm.! . The name endosperm is applied to food stowed in parts of the seed other than the embryo.?, With a mounted needle pick out the little almost spherical mass of endosperm from inside the cotyledons of a seed which has been deprived of its coats, and sketch the embryo, noting how it is curved so as to enclose the endosperm almost completely. 19. Examination of the Kernel of In- dian Corn. — Soak some grains of large yellow field corn * for about three days. Sketch an unsoaked kernel, so as to show the grooved side, where the germ lies. Observe how this groove has be- come partially filled up in the soaked Fie. 6.— Lengthwise Section of kernels. Grain of Corn. (Magnified about three times.) Remove the thin, tough skin from y, yellow, oily part of endosperm; °2© of the latter, and notice its transpar- 9 b) ? w, white, starchy part of en- ency. This skin —the bran of unsifted dosperm; p, plumule; s, the ¢orn meal — does not exactly correspond shield (cotyledon), in contact : ; with the endosperm for absorp- 0 the testa and inner coat of ordinary tion of food from it; 7, the seeds, since the kernel of corn, lke all Pear: other grains (and like the seed of the four-o’clock), represents not merely the seed, but also the seed-vessel in which it was formed and grew, and is therefore a fruit. 1 Buckwheat furnishes another excellent study in seeds with endosperm. Like that of the four-o’clock, it is, strictly speaking, a fruit; so also is a grain of corn. 2 In the squash seed the green layer which covered the embryo represents the remains of the endosperm. . 3 The varieties with long, flat kernels, raised in the Middle and Southern States under the name of ‘‘ dent corn,” are the best. STORAGE OF FOOD IN THE SEED 17 Cut sections of the soaked kernels, some transverse, some length- wise and parallel to the flat surfaces, some lengthwise and at right angles to the flat surfaces. Try the effect of staining some of these sections with iodine solution. _ Make a sketch of one section of each of the three kinds, and label the dirty white portion, of cheesy consistency, embryo; and the yel- low portions, and those which are white and floury, endosperm. Chip off the endosperm from one kernel so as to remove the embryo free from other parts.!_ Notice its form, somewhat triangular in outline, sometimes nearly the shape of a beechnut, in other speci- mens nearly like an almond. Estimate what proportion of the entire bulk of the soaked kernel is embryo. Split the embryo lengthwise so as to show the slender, somewhat conical plumule.? 20. Corn Seedlings deprived of Endosperm.— An experi- ment parallel to No. V serves to show the function and the importance of the endosperm of Indian corn. EXPERIMENT VII Of how much Use to the Corn Seedling is the Endosperm ? — Sprout kernels of corn on blotting paper. When they get fairly started, cut away the endosperm carefully from several of the seeds. Sus- pend on mosquito netting on the surface of water in the same jar two or three seedlings which have had their endosperm removed, and as many which have not been mutilated. Let them grow for some weeks, and note results. 21. Starch.— Most common seeds contain starch. a Every one knows something about the appearance of ordi- 1 The embryo may be removed with great ease from kernels of rather ma- ture green corn. Boil the corn for about twenty minutes on the cob, then pick the kernels off one by one with the point of a knife. They may be preserved indefinitely in alcohol of 50 or 75%. 2 The teacher may well consult Figs. 56-61, inclusive, in Gray’s Structural Botany. 18 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY nary commercial starch as used in the laundry, and as sold for food in packages of cornstarch. When pure it is characterized not only by its lustre, but also by its peculiar velvety feeling when rubbed between the fingers. 22. The Starch Test. — It is not always easy to recog- nize at sight the presence of starch as it occurs in seeds, but it may be detected by a very simple chemical test, namely, the addition of a solution of iodine.} EXPERIMENT VIII? Examination of Familiar Seeds with Iodine. — Cut in two with a sharp knife the seeds to be experimented on, then pour on each, drop by drop, some of the iodine solution. Only a little is necessary; sometimes the first drop is enough. If starch is present, a blue color (sometimes almost black) will appear. If no color is obtained in this way, boil the pulverized seeds for a moment in a few drops of water, and try again. Test in this manner corn, wheat (in the shape of flour), oats (in oatmeal), barley, rice, buckwheat, flax, rye, sunflower, four-o’clock, morning-glory, mustard seed, beans, peanuts, Brazil-nuts, hazelnuts, and any other seeds that you can get. Report your results in tabu- lar form as follows: _ MucuH STARCH LITTLE STARCH No STAarcH Color: blackish or Color: pale blue or Color: brown, orange, dark blue. greenish. or yellowish. 23. Microscopical Examination of Starch.2—- Examine starch in water with a rather high power of the microscope (not less than 200 diameters). 1The tincture of iodine sold at the drug-stores will do, but the solution prepared as directed in the Handbook answers better. This may be made up in quantity, and issued to the pupils in drachm vials, to be taken home and used there, if the experimenting must be done outside of the laboratory or the schoolroom. 2 May be a home experiment. 3 At this point the teacher should give a brief illustrated talk on a con- struction and theory of the compound microscope. STORAGE OF FOOD IN THE SEED 19 Pulp scraped from a potato, that from a canna rootstock, wheat flour, the finely powdered starch sold under the commercial name of “cornstarch” for cooking, oat- meal, and buckwheat finely pow- dered in a mortar, will furnish excellent examples of the shape and markings of starch grains. Sketch all of the kinds exam- ined, taking pains to bring out the markings.1 Compare the sketches with Figs. 7 and 8. With a medicine-dropper or a very small pipette run in a drop ‘Fie. 7.— Canna Starch. (Magnified of iodine solution under one edge be of the cover-glass, at the same time withdrawing a little water from the margin opposite by touching to it a bit of blotting paper. Sage $B : SRaaaes é Fic. 8.— Section through Exterior Part of a Grain of Wheat. ¢, cuticle or outer layer of bran; ep, epidermis ; m, layer beneath epidermis; qu, sch, layers of hull next to seed-coats; br, n, seed-coats; KI, layer containing proteid grains ; st, cells of the endosperm filled with starch. (Greatly magnified.) 1 The markings will be seen more distinctly if care is taken not to admit too much light to the object. Rotate the diaphragm beneath the stage of the microscope, or otherwise regulate the supply of light, until the opening is found which gives the best effect. 20 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY Examine again and note the blue coloration of the starch grains and the unstained or yellow appearance of other substances in the field. Cut very thin slices from beans, peas, or kernels of corn; mount in water, stain as above directed, and draw as seen under the microscope. Compare with Figs. 7 and 8.1! Note the fact that the starch is not packed away in the seeds in bulk, but that it is enclosed in little chambers or cells. 24, Plant-Cells. — Almost all the parts of the higher plants are built up of little separate portions called cells. The cell is the unit of plant-structure, and bears some- thing the same relation to the plant of which it is a part that one cell of a honeycomb does to the whole comb. But this comparison is not a perfect one, for neither the waxen wall of the honeycomb-cell nor the honey within it is alive, while every plant-cell is or has been alive. And even the largest ordinary honeycomb consists of only a few hundred cells, while a large tree is made up of very many millions of cells. The student must not conceive of the cell as merely a little chamber or enclosure. The living, more or less liquid, or mucilage-like, or gelly-like substance known as protoplasm, which forms a large portion of the bulk of living and growing cells, is the all-important part of such a cell. Professor Huxley has well called this substance “the physical basis of life.” Cells are of all shapes and sizes, from little spheres a ten-thousandth of an inch or less in diameter to slender tubes, such as fibers of cotton, several inches long. ‘To get an idea of the appearance. of some rather large cells, scrape a little pulp from a ripe, mealy apple, and examine it first with — 1 The differentiation between aie starch grains, the other cell-contents, and the cell-walls will appear better in the drawings if the starch grains are sketched with blue ink. STORAGE OF FOOD IN THE SEED 21 a strong magnifying glass, then with a moderate power of the compound microscope. To see how dead, dry cell- walls, with nothing inside them, look, examine (as before) - a very thin slice of elder pith, sunflower pith, or pith from a dead cornstalk. Look also at the figures in Chapter VI of this book. Notice that the simplest plants (Chapter XX) consist of a single cell each. The study of the structure of-plants is the study of the forms which cells and groups of cells assume, and the study of plant physiology is the study of what cells and cell combinations do. 25. Absorption of Starch from the Cotyledons.— Examine with the microscope, using a medium power, soaked beans and the cotyle- dons from seedlings that have been growing for three or four weeks. Stain the sections with iodine solution, and notice how completely the clusters of starch grains that filled most of the cells of the un- sprouted cotyledons have disappeared from the shriveled cotyledons of the seedlings. A few grains may be left, but they have lost their sharpness of outline. 26. Oil.— The presence of oil in any considerable quantity in seeds is not as general as is the presence of starch, though in many common seeds there is a good deal of it. Sometimes the oil is sufficiently abundant to make it worth while to extract it by pressure, as is done with flax- seed, cotton-seed, the seeds of some plants of the cress family, the “castor bean,’ and other seeds. 27. Dissolving Oil from Ground Seeds. — It is not possi- -ble easily to show a class how oil is extracted from seeds by pressure; but there are several liquids which readily dissolve oils and yet have no effect on starch and most of the other constituents of seeds. 2? FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY EXPERIMENT IX Extraction of Oil by Ether or Benzine. To a few ounces of ground flaxseed add an equal volume of ether or benzine. Let it stand ten or fifteen minutes and then filter. Let the liquid stand in a saucer or evaporating dish in a good draught till it has lost the odor of the ether or benzine. Describe the oil which you have obtained. Of what use would it have been to the plant? If the student wishes to do this experiment at home for himself, he should bear in mind the following : Caution. — Never handle benzine or ether near a flame or stove. A much simpler experiment to find oil in seeds may readily be performed by the pupil at home. Put the material to be studied, e.g., flaxseed meal, corn meal, wheat flour, cotton-seed meal, buckwheat flour, oatmeal, and so on, upon little labeled pieces of white paper, one kind of flour or meal on each bit of paper. Place all the papers, with their contents, on a perfectly clean plate, free from cracks, or on a clean sheet of iron, and put this in an.oven hot enough nearly (but not quite) to scorch the paper. After half an hour remove the plate from the oven, shake off the flour or meal from each paper, and note the results, a more or less distinct grease spot showing the presence. of oil, or the absence of any stain that there was little or no oil in the seed examined. 28. Albuminous Substances. — Albuminous substances or proteids occur in all seeds, though often only in small quantities. They have nearly the same chemical compo- sition as white of egg and the curd of milk among animal substances, and are essential to the plant, since the living and growing parts of all plants contain large a of proteid material. Sometimes the albuminous constituents of the seed occur in more or less regular grains (Fig. 8, at A). But much of the proteid material of seeds is not in any STORAGE OF FOOD IN THE SEED 23 form in which it can be recognized under the microscope. One test for its presence is the peculiar smell which it produces in burning. Hair, wool, feathers, leather, and lean meat all produce a well-known sickening smell when scorched or burned, and the similarity of the proteid mate- rial in such seeds as the bean and pea to these substances is shown by the fact that scorching beans and similar seeds give off the familiar smell of burnt feathers. 29. Chemical Tests for Proteids.— All proteids (and very few other substances) are turned yellow by nitric _acid, and this yellow color becomes deeper or even orange when the yellowish substance is moistened with ammonia. They are also turned yellow by iodine solution. Most proteids are turned more or less red by the solution of nitrate of mercury known as Millon’s reagent.! EXPERIMENT X Detection of Proteids in Seeds. — Extract the germs from some soaked kernels of corn and bruise them; soak some wheat-germ meal for a few hours in warm water, or wash the starch out of wheat- flour dough; reserving the latter for use, place it in a white saucer or porcelain evaporating dish, and moisten well with Millon’s reagent or with nitric acid; examine after fifteen minutes. 30. The Brazil-Nut as a Typical Oily Seed. — Not many familiar seeds are as oily as the Brazil-nut. Its large size makes it convenient for examination, and the fact that this nut is good for human food makes it the more interesting to investigate the kinds of plant-food which it contains. 1 See Handbook. 73 > 24 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY EXPERIMENT XI! Testing Brazil-Nuts for Plant-Foods. — Crack fifteen or twenty Brazil-nuts, peel off the brown coating from the kernel of each, and then grind the kernels to a pulp in a mortar. Shake up this pulp with ether, pour upon a paper filter, and wash with ether until the washings when evaporated are nearly free from oil. The funnel containing the filter should be kept covered as much as possible until the washing is finished. Evaporate the filtrate to procure the oil, which may afterwards be kept in a glass-stoppered bottle. Dry the powder which remains on the filter and keep it in a wide- mouthed bottle. Test portions of this powder for proteids and for starch. Explain the results obtained. 31. Other Constituents of Seeds. — Besides the substances above suggested, others occur in different seeds. Some of these are of use in feeding the seedling, others are of value in protecting the seed itself from being eaten by animals or in rendering it less liable to decay. In such seeds as that of the nutmeg, the essential oil which gives it its characteristic flavor probably makes it unpalatable to animals and at the same time preserves it from decay. Date seeds are so hard and tough that they cannot be eaten and do not readily decay. Lemon, orange, horse- chestnut and buckeye seeds are too bitter to be eaten, and the seeds of the apple, cherry, peach, and plum are some- what bitter. The seeds of larkspur, thorn-apple,! croton, the castor- oil plant, nux vomica, and many other kinds of plants contain active poisons. 1 Datura, commonly called “‘ Jimpson weed.” CHAPTER III MOVEMENTS, DEVELOPMENT, AND MORPHOLOGY OF - THE SEEDLING 32. How the Seedling breaks Ground. — As the student has already learned by his own observations, the seedling does not always push its way straight out of the ground. Corn, like all the other grains and grasses, it is true, sends _a tightly rolled, pointed leaf vertically upward into the air. But the other seedlings examined usually will not be found to do anything of the sort. The squash seedling is a good one in which to study what may be called the arched hypocotyl type of germination. If the seed when planted is laid hori- co C A B C D E Fie. 9.— Successive Stages in the Life History of the Squash Seedling. GG, the surface of the ground; r, primary root; 7’, secondary root; c, hypocotyl; a, arch of hypocotyl; co, cotyledons. zontally on one of its broad surfaces, it usually goes through some such changes of position as are shown in Fig. 9. 25 26 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY The seed is gradually tilted until, at the time of their emergence from the ground (at C), the cotyledons are almost vertical. The only part above the ground-line G, G, at this period, is the arched hypocotyl. Once out of ground, the cotyledons soon rise, until (at #) they are again ver- tical, but with the other end up from that which stood highest in C. Then the two cotyledons separate until they once more lie horizontal, pointing away from each other. Can you suggest any advantage which the plant derives from having the cotyledons dragged out of the ground rather than having them pushed out, tips first ? 33. Cause of the Arch. — It is evident that a flexible _ object like the hypocotyl, when pushed upward through the earth, might easily be bent into an arch or loop. Whether the shape which the hypocotyl assumes is wholly caused by the resistance of the soil can best be ascertained by an experiment. EXPERIMENT XII Is the Arch of the Hypocotyl due to the Pressure of the Soil on the Rising Cotyledons ? — Sprout some squash seeds on wet paper under a bell-glass, and when the root is an inch or more long, hang several of the seedlings, roots down, in little stirrups made of soft twine, attached by beeswax and rosin mixture to the inside of the upper part of a bell-glass. Put the bell-glass on a large plate or a sheet of glass on which lies wet paper to keep the air moist. Note whether the seedlings form hypocotyl arches at all and, if so, whether the arch is more or less perfect than that formed by seedlings growing in earth, sand, or sawdust. 34. What pushes the Cotyledons up?—A very little study of any set of squash seedlings, or even of Fig. 9, is MORPHOLOGY OF THE SEEDLING 27 sufficient to show that the portion of the plant where roots and hypocotyl are joined neither rises nor sinks, but. that the plant grows both ways from this part (a little above 7’ in Fig. 9, A and B). It is evident that as soon as the hypocotyl begins to lengthen much it must do one of two things: either push the cotyledons out into the air or else force the root down into the ground as one might push a stake down. What changes does the plantlet undergo, in passing from the stage shown at A to that of B and of C, making it harder and harder for the root to be thrust downward? 35. Use of the Peg. — Squash seedlings usually (though not always) form a sort of knob on the hypocotyl. This is known as the peg. Study a good many seedlings and try to find out what the lengthening of the hypocotyl, between the peg and the bases of the cotyledons, does for the little plant. Set a lot of squash seeds, hilum down, in moist sand or sawdust and see whether the peg is more or less developed than in seeds sprouted lying on their sides, and whether the cotyledons in the case of the vertically planted seeds usually come out of the ground in the same condi- tion as do those shown in Fig. 9. 36. Discrimination between Root and Hypocotyl. — It is not always easy to decide by their appearance and _be- havior what part of the seedling is root and what part is hypocotyl. In a seedling visibly beginning to germinate, the sprout, as it is commonly called, which projects from the seed might be either root or hypocotyl or might consist of both together, so far as its appearance is concerned. A microscopic study of the cross-section of a root, compared with one of the hypocotyl, would show decided differences 28 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY of structure between the two. Their mode of growth is also different, as the pupil may infer after he has tried Exp. XIV. 37. Discrimination by Staining. — For some reason, per- haps because the skin or epidermis of the young root is not so water-proof as that of the stem, the former stains more easily than the latter does. EXPERIMENT XIII The Permanganate Test. — Make a solution of potassium perman- | ganate in water, by adding about four parts, by weight, of the erystal- lized permanganate to 100 parts of water. Drop into the solution seedlings, e.g., of all the kinds that have been so far studied, each in its earliest stage of germination (that is, when the root or hypocotyl has pushed out of the seed half an inch or less), and also at one or two subsequent stages. After the seedlings have been in the solu- tion from three to five minutes, or as soon as the roots are consider- ably stained, pour off (and save) the solution and rinse the plants with plenty of clear water. Sketch one specimen of each kind, col- oring the brown-stained part, which is root, in some way so as to distinguish it from the unstained hypocotyl. Note particularly how much difference there is in the amount of lengthening in the several kinds of hypocotyl examined. Decide whether the peg of the squash* seedling is an outgrowth of hypocotyl or of root. 38. Disposition made of the Cotyledons. — As soon as the young plants of squash, bean, and pea. have reached a height of three or four inches above the ground it is easy to recognize important differences in the way in which they set out in life. The cotyledons of the squash increase greatly in sur- face, acquire a green color and a generally leaf-like appear- ance, and, in fact, do the work of ordinary leaves. In > MORPHOLOGY OF THE SEEDLING 29 such a case as this the appropriateness of the name seed- leaf is evident enough, — one recognizes at sight the fact. that the cotyledons are actually the plant’s first leaves. In the bean the leaf-like nature of the cotyledons is not so clear. They rise out of the ground like the squash cotyledons, but then gradually shrivel away, though they may first turn green and somewhat leaf-like for a time. In the pea (as in the acorn, the horse-chestnut, and many other seeds) we have quite another plan, the under- ground type of germination. Here the thick cotyledons no longer rise above ground at all, because they are so gorged with food that they could never become leaves; but the young stem pushes rapidly up from the surface of the soil. The development of the plumule seems to depend some- what on that of the cotyledons. The squash seed has cotyledons which are not too thick to become useful leaves, and so the plant is in no special haste to get ready any other leaves. The plumule, therefore, cannot be found with the magnifying glass in the unsprouted seed, and is almost microscopic in size at the time when the hypocotyl begins to show outside of the seed-coats. In the bean and pea, on the other hand, since the cotyle- dons cannot serve as foliage leaves, the later leaves must be pushed forward rapidly. In the bean the first pair are already well formed in the seed. In the pea they cannot be clearly made out, since the young plant forms several scales on its stem before it produces any full-sized leaves, and the embryo contains only hypocotyl, cotyledons, and a sort of knobbed plumule, well developed in point of size, representing the lower scaly part of the stem. 30 - FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 39. Root, Stem, and Leaf. — By the time the seedling is well out of the ground it, in most cases, possesses the three kinds of vegetative organs, or parts essential to growth, of ordinary flowering plants, 7.e., the root, stem, and leaf, or, as they are sometimes classified, root and shoot. All of these organs may multiply and increase in size as the plant grows older, and their mature structure will be studied in later chapters, but some facts concerning them can best be learned by watching their growth from the outset. | 40. Young Roots grown for Examination. — Roots grow- ing in sand or ordinary soil cling to its particles so tena- ciously that they cannot easily be studied, and those grown in water have not quite the same form as soil-roots. Roots grown in damp air are best adapted for careful study. 41. Elongation of the Root. — We know that the roots of seedlings grow pretty rapidly from the fact that each day finds them reaching visibly farther down into the water or other medium in which they are planted. A sprouted Windsor bean in a vertical thistle-tube will send its root downward fast enough so that ten minutes’ watch- ing through the microscope will suffice to show growth. To find out just where the growth goes on requires a special experiment. EXPERIMENT XIV In what Portions of the Root does its Increase in Length take Place ? — Sprout some peas on moist blotting paper in a loosely covered tum- bler. When the roots are one and a half inches or more long, mark them along the whole length with little dots made with a bristle dipped in water-proof India ink, or a fine inked thread stretched on a little bow of whalebone or brass wire. MORPHOLOGY OF THE SEEDLING 51 Transfer the plants to moist blotting paper under a bell-glass or an inverted battery jar and examine the roots at the end of twenty-_ four hours to see along what portions their length has increased ; continue observations on them for several days. 42. Root-Hairs. — Barley, oats, wheat, red clover, or buckwheat seeds soaked and then sprouted on moist blotting paper afford convenient material for studying root-hairs. ‘The seeds may be kept covered with a watch- glass or a clock-glass while sprouting. After they have begun to germinate well, care must be taken not to have them kept in too moist an atmosphere, or very few root-hairs will be formed. Examine with the magni- fying glass those parts of the root which have these appendages. Try to find out whether all the portions of the root are equally covered with hairs and, if not, where they are most abundant. (See also Sect. 53.) | The root-hairs in plants growing under ordinary condi- tions are surrounded by the moist soil and wrap them- selves around microscopical particles of earth (Fig. 11). Thus they are able rapidly to absorb through their thin walls the soil-water, with whatever mineral substances it has dissolved in it. 43. The Young Stem.— The hypocotyl, or portion of the stem which lies below the cotyledons, is the earliest formed portion of the stem. Sometimes this lengthens but little; often, however, as the student knows from his own observations, the hypocotyl lengthens enough to raise the cotyledons well above ground, as in Fig. 10. The later portions of the stem are considered to be divided into successive nodes, — places at which a leaf (or Sy FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY a scale which represents a leaf) appears; and internodes, — portions between the leaves. The student should watch the growth of a seedling bean or pea and ascertain by actual measurements whether the internodes lengthen after they have once been formed, and if so, for how long a time the increase continues. Ye seca dy) WYO 5 Fic. 10. Fia. 11. Fie. 10.— A Turnip Seedling, with the Cotyledons developed into Temporary Leaves. h, root-hairs from the primary root; 0, bare portion of the root, on which no hairs have as yet been produced. Fic. 11. — Cross-Section of a Root, a good deal magnified, showing root-hairs attached to particles of soil, and sometimes enwrapping these particles. 44, The First Leaves. — The cotyledons are, as already explained, the first leaves which the seedling possesses, — _ even if a plumule is found well developed in the seed, it was formed after the cotyledons. In those plants which have so much food stored in the cotyledons as to render these unfit ever to become useful foliage leaves, there is little or nothing in the color, shape, or general appearance MORPHOLOGY OF THE SEEDLING De of the cotyledon to make one think it really a leaf, and it is only by studying many cases that the botanist is enabled to class all cotyledons as leaves in their nature, even if they are quite unable to do the ordinary work of leaves. The study of the various forms which the parts or organs of a plant may assume is called morphology ; it. traces the rela- tionship of parts which are really akin to each other, though dissimilar in appearance and often in function. In seeds which have endosperm, or food stored outside of the embryo, the cotyledons usually become green and leaf-like, as they do, for example, in the four-o’clock, the morning-glory, and the buckwheat; but in the seeds of the grains (which contain endosperm) a large portion of the single cotyledon remains throughout as a thickish mass buried in the seed. In a few cases, as in the pea, there are scales instead of true leaves formed on the first nodes above the cotyledons, and it is only at about the third node above that leaves of the ordinary co kind appear. In the bean and some other Je _ plants which in general bear one leaf at a node along the stem, there is a pair produced at the first node above the cotyledons, and the leaves of this pair differ in shape from those which arise from the succeeding por- tions of the stem. } 45. Classification of Plants by the Number of their Cotyledons. —In the pine family the yyy qo — Ger germinating seed often displays more than minating Pine. co, cotyledons. two cotyledons, as shown in Fig. 12; in the majority of common flowering plants the seed con- tains two cotyledons, while in the lilies, the rushes, the 34 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY sedges, the grasses, and some other plants, there is but one cotyledon. Upon these facts is based the division of most flowering plants into two great groups: the dicotyledonous plants, which have two seed-leaves, and the monocotyledon- ous plants, which have one seed-leaf. Other important differences nearly always accompany the difference in number of cotyledons, as will be seen later. 46. Tabular Review of Experiments. — Make out a table containing a very brief summary of the experiments thus far performed, as follows: NUMBER MATERIALS OPERA- ; OBJECT OF AND TIONS RESULTS | INFERENCES SOUGHT EXPERIMENT APPARATUS | PERFORMED Al. Review Sketches. — Make out a comparison of the ; early life histories of all the other seedlings studied, by — arranging in parallel columns a series of drawings of each, — MORPHOLOGY OF THE SEEDLING 35 : like those of Fig. 9, but in vertical series, the youngest of each at the top, thus: BEAN PEA Corn | | First STAGE SECOND STAGE - Turrp STAGE FirtH STAGE Fourtu STAGE ETC. CHAPTER IV ROOTS ! 48. Origin of Roots. — The primary root originates from ‘the lower end of the hypocotyl, as the student learned from his own observations on sprouting seeds. The branches of the primary root are called secondary roots, and the branches of these are known as tertiary roots. Those roots which occur on the stem or in other unusual places are known as adventitious roots. The roots which form so readily on cuttings of willow, southernwood, tropeolum, French marigold, geranium (pelargonium), tradescantia, and many other plants, when placed in damp earth or water, are adventitious. 49. Aerial Roots. —While the roots of most familiar plants grow in the earth and are known as sotl-roots, there are others which are formed in the air, called aerial roots. They serve various purposes: in some tropical air-plants (Fig. 13) they serve to fasten the plant to the tree on - which it establishes itself, as well as to take in water which drips from branches and trunks above them, so that these plants require no soil and grow in mid-air suspended from trees, which serve them merely as supports ;? many such 1 To the plant the root is more important than the stem. The author has, however, treated the structure of the latter more fully than that of the root, mainly because the tissues are more varied in the stem and a moderate knowl- edge of the more complex anatomy of the stem will serve every purpose. 2If it can be conveniently managed, the class will find it highly interesting and profitable to visit any greenhouse of considerable size, in which the aerial roots of orchids and aroids may be examined. 36 e ROOTS 37 air-plants are grown in greenhouses. In such plants as the ivy (Fig. 15) the aerial roots (which are also adventitious) hold the plant to the wall or other surface up which it climbs. In the Indian corn (Fig. 14) roots are sent out from nodes at some dis- tance above the ground and finally descend until they enter the ground. They serve both to anchor the cornstalk so as to enable it to resist the wind and to supply additional water to the plant.! They often produce no rootlets until they reach the ground. 50. Water-Roots. — Many ”% \ plants, such as the willow, readily adapt their roots to live either in earth or in water, ~ and some, like the little float- Fie. 13. — Aerial ing duckweed, regularly pro- *°° of 0rMs duce roots which are adapted to live in water : only. These water-roots often show large and \ distinct sheaths on the ends of the roots, as, for instance, in the so-called water-hyacinth. This plant is especially interesting for laboratory cultivation from the fact that 1Specimens of the lower part of the cornstalk, with ordinary roots and aerial roots, should be dried and kept for class study. - ll oaeanial ei . ee ~. er Ree Trea ee t Gey . Sd % o 8 pet ee : RE ; S o 'S Do : os | 3 a < ~~ S 3 : c ® I | ! a E's I ' | \ ! i: 0 3 i | | 5 Be al | s ge ( ( . F a8 Zi } : . es 3W \; --— - \ ap. a 77 : | ») qi i 4 ity, rh - CAT) Op, = * pe. x Lap A AT eS ’ i uM = \, WSs - 9 . ’ He \ DJA iifsmnrtheosaitne,.. 24 eh WAG GZ EGS: 4 ! ah de A ee gets > , Fi Z & —— Ve YF -, Ril SSS Ska) SS fee 4 u =< S ( Aq ete wi / EN : . \ WY , { {| SS ‘ l Cj per I Fic. 15. — Aerial Adventitious Roots of the Ivy. roots, or haustoria, form the most intimate connections with the interior portions of the stem or the root, as the case may be, of the host-plant on which the parasite fastens itself. -In the dodder, as is shown in Fig. 16, it is most inter- esting to notice how admirably the seedling parasite is adapted to the conditions under which it is to live. Rooted 1See Kerner and Oliver’s Natural History of Plants, Vol. I, pp. 171-213. 40 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY at first in the ground, it develops a slender, leafless stem, which, leaning this way and that, no sooner comes into : ie 1 4p ee | : / 7 i =) & BE, a He WZ j : ’ Ay aes bi y)} Ve i l/ Wy [ULL TALY, A i, WLS = ey ate ea ep" ge PE ee Tage Ta eels 989s ieegietiasete. ‘ De eet Seeing? eee gh Dp aennitios faye. 4 Fic. 16. — Dodder, growing upon a Golden-Rod Stem. s,seedling dodder plants, growing in earth; h, stem of host; 7, haustoria or parasitic roots of dodder ; J, scale-like leaves. A, magnified section of a por- tion of willow stem, showing penetration of haustoria. ; permanent contact with a congenial host than it produces haustoria at many points, gives up further growth in its ROOTS AT soil-roots, and grows rapidly on the strength of the sup- plies of ready-made sap which it obtains from the host. 52. Forms of Roots. — The primary root is that which proceeds like a downward prolongation directly from the lower end of the hypocotyl. In many cases the mature root- system of the plant contains one main root much larger than any of its branches. This is called a taproot (Fig. 17). Such a root, if much thickened, would assume the form. Fic. 17.— A Taproot. Fie. 18. — Fibrous Roots. Fic. 19.— Fascicled Roots. shown in the carrot, parsnip, beet, turnip, salsify, or radish, and is called a fleshy root. Some plants produce multiple primary roots, that is, a cluster proceeding from the lower end of the hypocotyl at the outset. If such roots become thickened, like those of the sweet potato and the dahlia (Fig. 19), they are known as fascicled roots. Roots of grasses, etc., are thread-like, and known as fibrous roots (Fig. 18). 53. General Structure of Roots. — The structure of the very young root can be partially made out by examining AD - FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY the entire root with a moderate magnifying power, since the whole is sufficiently translucent to allow the interior as well as the exterior portion to be studied while the root is still alive and growing. Place some vigorous cuttings of tradescantia or Zebrina, which can usually be obtained of a gardener or florist, in a beaker or jar of ns eaee gue aoo era aa ae stag [ ) \\ eee On wl Bo su masts Oy Hh a, UT oe ae Cx ae aoe x \ as Wee iH ane i) parent VQ ' we as OS ae Y = 5 ee Tf af DB Ae ay a ) all endl a q Ss & Fie. 20.— Lengthwise Section (somewhat diagram- matic) through Root-Tip of Indian Corn. X about 130. W, root-cap ; 7, younger part of cap ; z, dead cells sepa- rating from cap ; s, growing point; 0, epidermis; p’, intermediate layer between epidermis and central cylinder; p, central cylinder; d, layer from which the root-cap originates. water.1 The jar should be as thin and trans- parent as possible, and it is well to get a flat- sided rather than a cylindrical one. Leave the jar of cuttings in a sunny, warm place. As soon as roots have developed at the nodes and reached the length of three-quarters of an inch or more, arrange a microscope in a hori- zontal position (see Handbook), and exam- ine the tip and adjacent . portion of one of the young roots with a power of from twelve to twenty diameters. Note: (a) The root-cap, — of loosely attached cells. (b) The central cylinder. 1 If the tradescantia or Zebrina cannot be obtained, roots of seedlings of oats, wheat, or barley, or of red-clover seedlings raised in a large covered cell on a microscope slide, may be used. ~—e vy ine ane aiegoel ee ee Oe 7 ROOTS 43 (c) The cortical portion, a tubular part enclosing the solid central cylinder. | (d) The root-hairs, which cover some parts of the outer layer of the cortical portion very thickly. Observe particularly how far toward the tip of the root the root-hairs extend, and where the youngest ones are found. Make a drawing to illustrate all the points above suggested (a,b, c,d). Compare your drawing with Fig. 20. Make a careful study of longitudinal sections through the centers of the tips of very young roots of the hyacinth or the Chinese sacred lily. Sketch one section and compare the sketch with Fig. 20. Make a study of the roots of any of the common duckweeds, growing in nutrient solution in a jar of water under a bell-glass, and note the curious root-pockets which here take the place of root-caps. 54, Details of Root-Structure.— The plan on which the young root is built has been outlined in Sect. 538. A few further particulars are necessary to an understanding of how the root does its work. -On examining Fig. 21 the cylinders of which the root is made up are easily dis- tinguished, and the main constituent parts of each can be made out without much trouble. The epidermis-cells are seen to be somewhat brick-shaped, many of them provided with extensions into root-hairs. Inside the epidermis lie several layers of rather globular, thin-walled cells, and inside these a boundary layer between the cortical or bark portion of the root and the central cylinder. ‘This latter region is especially marked by the presence of certain groups of cells, shown at w and d and at 6, the two former serving as channels for air and water, the latter (and w also) giving toughness to the root. Roots of shrubs and trees more than a year old will be found to have increased in thickness by the process 44 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY described in Sect. 106, and a section may look quite unlike the young root-section shown in Fig. 21. 55, Examination of the Root of a Shrub or Tree. —Cut thin transverse sections of large and small roots of any hardwood tree! and examine them first with a low power of the microscope, as a two-inch objective, to get the general disposition of the parts, then with a higher power, as the half-inch or quarter-inch, for de- tails. With the low # power, note: (a) The brown Sac ERTSN Cy layer of outer bark. Ee ta .) (b) The paler layer ry sy within this. (c) The woody cyl- inder which forms the central portion of the root. The distinction be- tween (0b) and (c) is more evident when the section has been Fic. 21. Much Magnified Cross-Section of a exposed to the air for » Very Young Dicotyledonous Root. a few minutes and h, root-hairs with adhering bits of sand; e, epidermis; chan ged somewhat in s, thin-walled, nearly globular cells of bark ; 0, hard bast ; c, cambium ; w, wood-cells ; d, ducts. color. It is a good plan to look with the low power first at a thick section, viewed as an opaque object, and then at a very thin one mounted in water or glycerine, and viewed as a transparent object. Observe the cut-off ends of the ducts, or vessels, which serve as passages for air and water to travel through; these appear as holes in the section, and are much more abundant relatively in the young 1 Young suckers of cherry, apple, etc., which may be pulled up by the roots, will afford excellent material. ROOTS 45 than in the older and larger portions of the root. Sketch one section of each kind. Examine with a higher power (100 to 200 diameters), and note the ends of the thick-walled wood-cells. Compare these with Fig. 72. Notice the many thinner-walled cells composing stripes radiating away from the center of the root. These bands are the medullary rays, Whose mode of origin is shown in Fig. 68. Moisten some of the sections with iodine solution,! and note where the blue color shows the presence of starch. Split some portions of the root through the middle, cut thin sections from the split surface, and examine with the high power some unstained and some stained with iodine. Notice the appearance of the wood-cells and the ducts as seen in these sections, and compare with Fig. 58.? 56. Structure and Contents of a Fleshy Root. — In some fleshy roots, such as the beet, the morphology of the parts is rather puzzling, since they form many layers of tissue in a single season, showing on the cross-section of the root a series of layers which look a little like the annual rings of trees. The structure of the turnip, radish, carrot, and parsnip is simpler. Cut a parsnip across a good deal below the middle, and stand the cut end in eosin solution for twenty-four hours. Then examine by slicing off successive portions from the upper end. Sketch some of the sections thus made. Cut one parsnip lengthwise and sketch the section obtained. In what portion of the root did the colored liquid rise most readily? The ring of red marks the boundary between the cortical portion and the central cylinder. To which does the main bulk of the parsnip belong? Cut thin transverse sections from an ink-stained parsnip and notice how the medullary rays run out into the cortical portion, and in those sections 1 If the roots are in their winter condition. 2 The examination of the minute structure of the root is purposely made very hasty, since the detailed study of the structural elements can be made to better advantage in the stem. 46 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY that show it, find out where the secondary roots arise. If possible, peel off the cortical portion from one stained root and leave the cen- tral cylinder with the secondary roots attached. Stain one section with iodine, and sketch it. Where is the starch of this root mainly stored ? i Test some bits of parsnip for proteids, by boiling them for a minute or two with strong nitric acid. What kind of plant-food does the taste of cooked parsnips show them to contain? [On no account taste the bits which have been boiled in the poisonous nitric acid.] 57. Storage in Other Roots. — The parsnip is by no means a remarkable plant in its capacity for root-storage. The roots of the yam and the sweet potato contain a good deal of sugar and much more starch than is found in the parsnip. Beet-roots contain so much sugar that a large part of the sugar supply of Europe and an increasing portion of our own supply is obtained from them. Often- times the bulk of a fleshy root is exceedingly large as. compared with that of the parts of the plant above eround. The South African plant (Harpagophytum, Chapter XXIV) is a good example of this, and another instance is that of a plant,’ related to the morning-glory and the sweet potato, found in the southeastern United States, which has a root of forty or fifty pounds weight. Not infrequently roots have a bitter or nauseous taste, as in the case of the chicory, the dandelion, and the rhubarb, and a good many, like the monkshood, the yellow jasmine, and the pinkroot, are poisonous. Can you give any reason why the plant may be benefited by the disgust- ing taste or poisonous nature of its roots ? 1 Ipomea Jalapa. ROOTS | || 58. Use of the Food stored in Fleshy Roots. — The parsnip, beet, carrot, and turnip are bzennial plants; that is, they do not produce seed until the second summer or fall after they are planted. The first season’s work consists mainly in producing the food which is stored in the roots. To such storage is due their characteristic fleshy appear- ance. If this root is planted in the following spring, it feeds the rapidly growing stem which proceeds from the bud at its summit, and an abundant crop of flowers and seed soon follows; while the root, if examined in late sum- mer, will be found to be withered, with its store of reserve material quite ex- - hausted. The roots of the rhubarb (Fig. 22), the sweet potato, and of a multitude of other perennials, or plants which live for many years, contain much stored "0%. au ene plant-food. Many such plants die to (About one-fifteenth natural size.) the ground at the beginning of winter, and in spring make a rapid growth from the materials laid up in the roots. 59. Extent of the Root-System. — The total length of the roots of ordinary plants is much greater than is usually supposed. They are so closely packed in the earth that only a few of the roots are seen at a time during the process of transplanting, and when a plant is pulled or dug up in the ordinary way, a large part of the whole mass of roots is broken off and left behind. A few plants have 48 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY been carefully studied to ascertain the total weight and length of the roots. ‘Those of winter wheat have been found to extend to a depth of seven feet. By weighing the whole root-system of a plant and then weighing a known length of a root of average diameter, the total length of the roots may be estimated. In this way the roots of an oat plant have been calculated to measure about 154 feet; that is, all the roots, if cut off and strung together end to end, would reach that distance. Single roots of large trees often extend horizontally to great distances, but it is not often possible readily to trace the entire depth to which they extend. One of the most notable examples of an enormously developed root-system is found in the mesquite of the far Southwest and Mexico. When this plant grows as a shrub, reaching the height, even in old age, of only two or three feet, it is because the water supply in the soil is very scanty. In such cases the roots extend down to a depth of sixty feet or more, until they reach water, and the Mexican farmers in dig- ging wells follow these roots as guides. Where water is more plenty, the mesquite forms a good-sized tree, with much less remarkably developed roots. 60. The Absorbing Surface of Roots. — Such aerial roots as are Shown in Fig. 13 are usually covered with a spongy absorbent layer, by means of which they retain large quantities of the water which trickles down them during rain-storms. This water they afterwards gradually give up to the plant. Most water-roots (not however those of tradescantia) have no special arrangement for absorbing water except through the general surface of their epidermis. But some water-roots and most soil-roots take in water ROOTS 49 mainly through the root-hairs. These are delicate, hair- like outgrowths from the epidermis of the root. They. are, as seen in Fig. 11, thin-walled tubes, of nearly uniform diameter, closed at the outer end and opening at the inner end into the epidermis-cell from which they spring. The relation of each hair to the epidermis-cell is still better shown in Fig. 23, which represents a very young root- hair and a considerably older one. 61. Absorption of Water by Roots. — Many experiments on the cultivation of corn, wheat, .___g.=™ oats, beans, peas, and other nel ; ee familiar plants in water have proved that some plants, at any rate, can thrive very well on ordinary lake, river, or well water, together with n- § the food which they absorb SS [= it See on ae OC eae ea eg from the air (Chapter XII). ----P----- Just how much water some kinds of plants give off (and therefore absorb) per day a Eh eaeree: will be discussed when the 4,a very young root-hair; B,a much uses of the leaf are studied. ee Se eee as pei For the present it is suffi %icleuss, watery eeliaay; py cient to state that even an 9 W- | annual plant during its lifetime absorbs through the roots very many times its own weight of water. Grasses have been known to take in their weight of water in every twenty- four hours of warm, dry weather. This absorption takes 50 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY place mainly through the root-hairs, which the student has examined as they occur in the seedling plant, and which are found thickly clothing the younger and more rapidly growing parts of the roots of mature plants. Some idea of their abundance may be gathered from the fact that on a rootlet of corn grown in a damp atmosphere, and about one-seventeenth of an inch in diameter, 480 root-hairs have been counted on each hundredth of an inch of root. The walls of the root-hairs are extremely thin, and they have no holes or pores visible under even the highest power of the microscope, yet the water of the soil penetrates very rapidly to the interior of the root-hairs. The soil-water brings with it all the substances which it can dissolve from the earth about the plant; and the close- ness with which the root-hairs cling to the particles of soil, as shown in Figs. 11 and 21, must cause the water which is absorbed to contain more foreign matter than under- ground water in general does, particularly since the roots give off enough weak acid from their surface to corrode the surface of stones which they enfold or cover. 62. Osmosis. — The process by which two liquids sep- arated by membranes pass through the latter and mingle, as soil-water does with the liquid contents of root-hairs, is called osmosis. It is readily demonstrated by experiments with thin animal or vegetable membranes. EXPERIMENT XV . Osmosis as shown in an Egg. Cement to the smaller end of an egg a bit of glass tubing about six inches long and about three-sixteenths | of au inch inside diameter. Sealing-wax or a mixture of equal parts of beeswax and resin melted together will serve for a cement. ROOTS ae Chip away part of the shell from the larger end of the egg, place it in a wide-mouthed bottle or a small beaker full of water, as shown in Fig. 24, then very cautiously pierce a hole through the upper end of the eggshell by pushing a knitting-needle or wire down through the glass tube. Watch the apparatus for some hours and note any change in the contents of the tube.! Explain. The rise of liquid in the tube is evidently due to water making its way through the thin membrane which lines the eggshell, although this membrane contains no pores visible even under the microscope. EXPERIMENT XVI Result of placing Sugar on a Begonia Leaf. — Place a little pow- dered sugar on the upper surface of a thick begonia leaf under a small bell-glass. Put another por- tion of sugar or a bit of paper alongside the leaf. Watch for several days. Explain results. The upper surface of this leaf contains no pores, even of microscopic size. 63. Inequality of Os- motic Exchange. — The nature of the two liquids separated by any given membrane determines in which direction the greater flow shall take place. If one of the liquids is Fic. 24. — Egg on Beaker of Water, pure water and the other to show Osmosis. 1 Testing the contents of the beaker with nitrate of silver solution will then show the presence of more common salt than is found in ordinary water. Explain, 52 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY is water containing solid substances dissolved in it, the ereater flow of liquid will be away from the pure water into the solution, and the stronger or denser the latter, the more unequal will be the flow. This principle is well illus- trated by the egg-osmosis experiment. Another important principle is that substances which readily crystallize and are easily soluble, like salt or sugar, pass rapidly through membranes, while jelly-like substances, like white of egg, can hardly pass through them at all. 64. Study of Osmotic Action of Living Protoplasm; Plasmolysis. — The obvious parts of most living and grow- ing plant-cells are a cell-wall, which is a skin or enclosure made of cellulose, and the living, active cell-contents or protoplasm. Every one is familiar with cellulose in vari- ous forms, one of the best examples being that afforded by clean cotton. It is a tough, white or colorless substance, chemically rather inactive. Protoplasm is a substance which differs greatly in its appearance and properties under differ- ent circumstances. It is of a very complex nature, so far as its chemical composition is concerned, belonging to the group of proteids and therefore containing not only the elements - carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, common to most organic substances, but nitrogen in addition. The protoplasm in a living cell often consists of several kinds of material ; for instance, a rather opaque portion called the nucleus, and a more or less liquid portion lining the cell-walls and extend- ing inward in strands to the nucleus (Fig. 126). Often, in living and active cells, the spaces left between strands and lining are filled with a watery liquid called the cell-sap. - The action of the protoplasm in controlling osmosis is well shown by the process known as plasmolysis. ROOTS | 58 Put some living threads of pond-scum (Spirogyra) (Chapter XX) into a 4 per cent solution of glycerine in water, a 16 per cent solution of cane sugar, or (for quick results) a2 per cent solution of common | salt.1 Any one of these solutions is much denser than the cell-sap inside the cells of the pond-scum, and therefore the watery part of the cell-contents will be drawn out of the interior of the cell and the protoplasmic lining will collapse, receding from the cell-wall. The cell-contents are then said to be plasmolyzed. Sketch several cells in this condition. Remove the filaments of Spirogyra and place them in fresh water. How do they now behave? Explain. Repeat the plasmolyzing operation with another set of cells which have first been killed by soaking them for five minutes in a mixture of equal quantities of acetic acid, three parts to 1000 of water, and chromic acid, seven parts to 1000 of water. The pond-scum threads before being transferred from the killing solution into the plas- molyzing solution should be rinsed with a little clear water. Note how the cells now behave. How is it shown that they have lost their power of causing a liquid to be transferred mainly or wholly in one direction? Why do frozen or boiled slices of a red beet color water in which they are placed, while fresh slices do not? 65. Osmosis in Root-Hairs. — The soil-water (practically identical with ordinary spring or well water) is separated from the more or less sugary or mucilaginous sap inside of the root-hairs only by their delicate cell-walls, lined with a thin layer of protoplasm. This soil-water will pass rapidly into the plant, while very little of the sap will come out. ‘The selective action, which causes the flow of liquid through the root-hairs to be almost wholly inward, is due to the living layer of protoplasm (Chapter XII), which covers the inner surface of the cell-wall of the root- hair. When the student has learned how active a sub- stance protoplasm often shows itself to be, he will not be astonished to find it behaving almost as though it were 1 This should be done as a demonstration by the teacher. 54. FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY possessed of intelligence and will. Plants of two different species, both growing in the same soil, usually take from it very various amounts or kinds of mineral matter. For instance, barley plants in flower and red-clover plants in flower contain about the same proportion of mineral mat- ter (left as ashes after burning).. But the clover contains 52 times as much lime as the barley, and the latter contains about eighteen times as much silica as the clover. This difference must be due to the selective action of the proto- plasm in the absorbing cells of the roots. Traveling by osmotic action from cell to cell, a current of water derived from the root-hairs is forced up through the roots and into the stem, just as the contents of the egg was forced up into the tube shown in Fig. 24. | 66. Root-Pressure. — The force with which the upward- flowing current of water presses may be estimated by attaching a mercury gauge to the root of a tree or the stem of a small sapling. This is best done in early spring after the thawing of the ground, but before the leaves have appeared. The experiment may also be performed indoors upon almost any plant with a moderately firm stem, through which the water from the soil rises freely. A dahlia plant or a tomato plant answers well, though the root-pressure from one of these will not be nearly as great as that from a larger shrub or a tree growing out of doors. In Fig. 25 the apparatus is shown attached to the stem of a dahlia. The difference of level of the mercury in the bent tube serves to measure the root-pressure. For every foot of difference in level there must be a pressure of nearly six pounds per square inch on the stump at the base of the tube 71} 1 See Handbook. a ee a i ee ee ROOTS aD A black-birch root tested in this way at the end of April has given a root-pressure of thiity-seven pounds to | the square inch. This would sustain a column of water about eighty-six feet high. 67. Root-Absorption and Temperature of Soil.—It would not be remarkable if the temperature of roots and the earth about them had something to do with the rate at which they absorb water, since this absorption depends on the living proto- plasm of the root-hairs (see Sects. 64, 65). An experi- ment will serve to throw some light on this question. EXPERIMENT XVII Effect of Temperature on Absorp- Fic. 25. — Apparatus to Measure tion of Water by Roots. — Trans- STF ee plant a tobacco seedling about four ae Sen te te eho eae : inches high into rich earth con- rr, rubber stoppers; ¢, bent fane tained in a narrow, tall beaker or ag Few pee iv, upper and very large test-tube (not less than AG ae weg aap 12 inch in diameter and six inches high). When the plant has begun to grow again freely, in a warm, sunny room, insert a chemical ther- mometer into the earth, best by making a hole with a sharp round stick, pushed nearly to the bottom of the tube, and then putting the thermometer in the place of the stick. Water the plant well, then set the tube in a jar of pounded ice which reaches nearly to the top of the tube. Note the temperature of the earth just before placing it in the ice. Observe whether the leaves of the seedling wilt, 56 7 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY and, if so, at what temperature the wilting begins. Finally, remove the tube from the ice and place it in warm water (about 80°). Observe the effect and note the temperature at which the plant, if wilted, begins to revive. Find an average between the wilting temperature and the reviving temperature. For what does this average stand? 68. Movements of Young Roots. — The fact that roots usually grow downward is so familiar that we do not generally think of it as a thing that needs discussion or explanation. Since they are pretty flexible, it may seem as though young and slender roots merely hung down by their own weight, like so many bits of wet cotton twine. But a very little experimenting will answer the question whether this is really the case. EXPERIMENT XVIII Do all Parts of the Root of the Windsor Bean Seedling bend down- ward alike ?— Fasten some sprouting Windsor beans with roots about an inch in length to the edges of a disk of pine wood or other soft wood in a soup-plate nearly full of water and cover them with a low bell-jar. Pins run through the cotyledons, as in Fig. 26, will hold the beans in place. When the roots have begun to point downward strongly, turn most of the beans upside down and pin them in the reversed position. If you choose, after a few days reverse them again. Make sketches of the various forms that the roots assume and discuss these. EXPERIMENT XIX Does the Windsor Bean Root-Tip press downward with a Force greater than its Own Weight ?—— Arrange a sprouted bean as shown in Fig. 26, selecting one that has a root about twice as long as the diameter of the bean and that has grown out horizontally, having been sprouted on a sheet of wet blotting paper. The bean is pinned ROOTS 5T to a cork that is fastened with beeswax and resin mixture to the side of a little trough or pan of glass or glazed earthenware. The pan is filled half an inch or more with mercury, and on top of the mercury is a layer of water. The whole is closely covered by 1 SS fe \ (Saar 2 ff a large tumbler or a ; ! iw ———— = bell-glass. Allow the —— apparatus tostandun- | === SSS i the root 2s iorced | ee = its way down into the —————— mercury. Thenruna slender needle into the root where it enters the mercury (to mark the exact level), withdraw the root, and measure the length of the part submerged in mercury. To see whether this part would have stayed under by virtue of its own weight, cut it off and lay it on the mercury. Push it under with a pair of steel forceps and then let go of it. What does it do? Fic. 26.— A Sprouting Windsor Bean pushing its Root-Tip into Mercury. $, seed ; 7, root; w, layer of water ; m, mercury. 69. Discussion of Exp. XIX. — By comparing the weights of equal bulks of mercury and Windsor bean roots, it is found that the mercury is about fourteen times as heavy as the substance of the roots. Evidently, then, the sub- merged part of the root must have been held under by a force about fourteen times its own weight. Making fine equidistant cross-marks with ink along the upper and the lower surface‘of a root that is about to bend downward at the tip, readily shows that those of the upper series soon come to be farther apart, — in other words, that the root is Fforeed to bend downward by the more rapid growth of its upper as compared with its under surface. 70. Geotropism.— The property which plants or their organs manifest, of assuming a definite direction with 58 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY reference to gravity,! is called geotropism. When, as in the case of the primary root, the effect of gravity is to make the part if unobstructed turn or move downward, we say that the geotropism is positive. If the tendency is to produce upward movement, we say that the geotropism is negative; if horizontal movement, that it is lateral. It was stated in the preceding section that the direct cause of the downward extension of roots is unequal growth. We might easily suppose that this unequal growth is not due to gravity, but to some other cause. To test this sup- position, the simplest plan (if it could be carried out) would be to remove the plants studied to some distant region where gravity does not exist. This of course cannot be done, but we can easily turn a young seedling over and over a so that gravity will act on it now in one direction, now in 4 2 another, and so leave no more impression than if it did not act AG at all (Exp. XX). Or we can Pd whirl a plant so fast that not only is gravity done away with, FIG.27.—Sprouting Peas, on theDisk Ut another force is introduced of a rapidly Whirling Clinostat. in its place. If a vertical wheel, The youngest portions of the roots like a carriage wheel, were pro- all point directly away from the axis about which they were re- vided with a few loosely fitting Rabe: iron rings strung on the spokes, when the wheel was revolved rapidly the rings would all fly out to the rim of the wheel. So in Fig. 27 it will be 1 Gravity means the pull which the earth exerts upon all objects on or | near its surface. ROOTS 59 noticed that the growing tips of the roots of the sprouting peas point almost directly outward from the center of the disk on which the seedlings are fastened. Explain the differ- ence between this result and that obtained in Exp. XX. EXPERIMENT XX How do Primary Roots point when uninfluenced by Gravity? Pin some soaked Windsor beans to a large flat cork, cover them with thoroughly moistened chopped peat-moss, and cover this with a thin glass crystallizing dish. Set the cork on edge. Prepare another cork in the same way, attach it to a clinostat, and keep it slowly revolving in a vertical position for from three to five days. Com- pare the directions taken by the roots on the stationary and on the revolving cork.! 71. Direction taken by Secondary Roots. — As the stu- dent has already noticed in the seedlings which he has studied, the branches of the primary root usually make a considerable angle with it (Fig. 2). Often they run out for long distances almost horizontally. This is especially common in the roots of forest trees, above all in cone- bearing trees, such as pines and hemlocks. This horizon- tal or nearly horizontal position of large secondary roots is the most advantageous arrangement to make them use- fulin staying or guying the stem above, to prevent it from being blown over by the wind. 72. Fitness of the Root for its Position and Work. — The distribution of material in the woody roots of trees and shrubs and their behavior in the soil show many adapta- tions to the conditions by which the roots are surrounded. 1 See Ganong’s Teaching Botanist, pp. 182-186, for complete directions. The brief statement above given is abstracted from that of Professor Ganong. 60 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY The growing tip of the root, as it pushes its way through the soil, is exposed to bruises; but these are largely warded off by the root-cap. The tip also shows a remarkable sensitiveness to contact with hard objects, so that when touched by one it swerves aside and thus finds its way downward by the easiest path. Roots with an unequal water supply on either side grow toward the moister soil. Roots are very tough, because they need to resist strong r 77s Sas ee mae Zo") ATS =m Ma oe Gay. Ss eee ue wy wre —_ foe Be Rif ee SWE Pp pie a _ Bee ie a Fic. 28. — Roots of a Western Hemlock exposed by having most of the Leaf-Mould about them burned away by Forest Fires. pulls, but not as stiff as stems and branches of the same size, because they do not need to withstand sflewise pres- sure, acting from one side only. The corky layer which covers the outsides of roots is remarkable for its power of preventing evaporation. It must be of use in retaining in the root the moisture which otherwise might be lost on its way from the deeper rootlets (which are buried in damp soil), through the upper portions of the root-system, about which the soil is often very dry. ROOTS 61 73. Propagation by Means of Roots.—Some familiar plants, such as rose bushes, are usually grown from roots or root-cuttings. Bury a sweet potato or a dahlia root in damp sand, and watch the development of sprouts from adventitious buds. One sweet potato will produce several such crops of sprouts, and every sprout may be made to grow into a new plant. It is in this way that the crop is started wherever the sweet potato is grown for the market. 74. Tabular Review of Experiments. [Continue the table begun at end of Chapter ITI.] 75. Review Summary of Roots. Kinds of roots as regards origin Kinds as regards medium in which they grow . a ame ae Structure of root of a tree. materials. Re nemea eA TOO eye ee ee tae location. uses. , | apparatus. Absorption of water by roots amount. proofs. | causes. nature. MeemeMeniA Of TOOLS. 9 6 6. ey uses. CHAPTER V STEMS 76. What the Stem is. — The work of taking in the raw materials which the plant makes into its own food is done mainly by the roots and the leaves. These raw materials are taken from earth, from water, and from the air (see Chapter XI). The stem is that part or organ of the plant which serves to bring roots and leaves into communication with each other. In most flowering plants the stem also serves the important purpose of lifting the leaves up into the sunlight, where alone they best can do their special work. fie | The student has already, in Chapter III, learned some- thing of the development of the stem and the seedling ; he has now to study the external appearance and internal structure of the mature stem. Much in regard to this structure can conveniently be learned from the examina- tion of twigs and branches of our common forest trees in their winter condition. "7. The Horse-Chestnut Twig.1— Procure a twig of horse-chest- nut eighteen inches or more in length. Make a careful sketch of it, trying to bring out the following points: (1) The general character of the bark. 1 Where the buckeye is more readily obtained it will do very well. Hick- ory twigs answer the same purpose, and the latter is a more typical form, having alternate buds. The magnolia or the tulip tree will do. The student should (sooner or later) examine at least one opposite- and one alternate-leayed twig. 62 STEMS 63 (2) The large horseshoe-shaped scars and the number and posi-. tion of the dots on these scars. Compare a scar with the base of a leaf-stalk furnished by the teacher. (3) The ring of narrow scars around the stem in one or more places,! and the different appearance of the bark above and below such a ring. Compare these scars with those left after removing the scales of a terminal bud and then see Fig. 29, b se. (4) The buds at the upper margin of each leaf- scar and the strong terminal bud at the end of the twig. . (5) The flower-bud scar, a concave impression, to be found in the angle produced by the forking of two twigs, which form, with the branch from which they spring,-a Y-shaped figure (see Fig. 36). (6) (On a branch larger than the twig handed round for individual study) the place of origin of the twigs on the branch ; — make a separate sketch of this. The portion of stem which originally bore any pair of leaves is called a node, and the portions of stem between nodes are called internodes. Describe briefly in writing alongside the sketches any observed facts which the drawings do not show. If your twig was a crooked, rough-barked, and slow-growing one, exchange it for a smooth, vig- pepe : ‘i Fic. 29.— A quickly orous one, and note the differences. Or if you grown Twig of sketched a quickly grown shoot, exchange for one Cherry, with Lat- of the other kind eral and Terminal : Buds in October. Answer the following questions : a ae re er eo (a) How many inches did your twig grow. Al! above Bee during the last summer? eee eee ° of the spring and How many in the summer before ? summer of the How do you know? ee How many years old is the whole twig given you? (6) How were the leaves arranged on the twig? 1 A very vigorous shoot may not show any such ring. 64 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY How many leaves were there ? Were they all of the same size? (c) What has the mode of branching to do with the arrangement of the leaves? with the flower-bud scars? (d) The dots on the leaf-scars mark the position of the bundles of ducts and wood-cells which run from the wood of the branch through the leaf-stalk up into the leaf. 78. Twig of Beech. — Sketch a vigorous young twig of beech (or of hickory, magnolia, tulip tree) in its winter condition, noting par- ticularly the respects in which it differs from the horse-chestnut. Describe in writing any facts not shown in the sketch. Notice that the buds are not opposite, nor is the next one above any given bud found directly above it, but part way round the stem from the posi- tion of the first one. Ascertain, by studying several twigs and counting around, which bud is above the first and how many turns round the stem are made in passing from the first to the one directly above it. Observe with especial care the difference between the beech and the horse-chestnut in mode of branching, as shown in a large branch provided for the study of this feature. 79, Relation of Leaf-Arrangement to Branching.' — This difference, referred to in Sect. 78, depends on the fact that the leaves of the horse-chestnut were arranged in pairs, on opposite sides of the stem, while those of the beech were not in pairs. Since the buds are found at the upper edges of the leaf-scars, and since most of the buds of the horse- chestnut and the beech are leaf-buds and destined to form branches, the mode of branching and ultimately the form 1 The teacher in the Eastern and Middle States will do well to make constant use, in the study of branches and buds, of Miss Newell’s Outlines of Lessons in Botany, Part I. The student can observe for himself, with a little guid- ance from the teacher, most of the points which Miss Newell suggests. If the supply of material is abundant, the twigs employed in the lessons above described need not be used further, but if material is scanty, the study of buds may at once be taken up. (See also Bailey’s Lessons with Plants, Part I.) STEMS 65 of the tree must depend largely on the arrangement of leaves along the stem. 80. Opposite Branching. — In trees the leaves and buds of which are opposite, the tendency will be to form twigs in four rows about at right angles to each other along the sides of the branch, as shown in Fig. 30. This arrangement will not usu-— ally be perfectly carried out, since some of the buds may never grow, or some may faster than - others and _ so make the plan of branching less evident than it would be if all grew alike. grow-much i - Fie. 30.— Opposite Branching 81. Alternate in a very Young Sapling Branching. —In of Ash. trees like the beech the twigs will be found to be arranged in a more or less regular spiral line about the branch. This, which is known as the alternate arrangement (Fig. 31), is more com- monly met with in trees and shrubs Be euiadac vate than the opposite arrangement. It ad- Young Apple Tree. mits of many varieties, since the spiral may wind more or less rapidly round the stem. In the apple, pear, cherry, poplar, oak, and walnut, one passes 66 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY aro SSS i on Dy) ae ‘one yi un ) i Uy HANNA UU Fie. 32. — Excurrent Trunks of Big Trees (Sequoias). over five spaces before coming to a leaf which is over the first, and in doing this it is necessary to make two complete turns round the stem (Fig. 105). 82. Growth of the Ter- minal Bud. — In some trees the terminal bud from the very outset keeps the leading place, and the result of this mode of growth is to produce a slender, up- right tree, with an exeur- rent trunk like that of Fig. 32. In such trees as the apple and many oaks the terminal bud has no pre- eminence over others, and the form of the tree is round-topped and spread- ing, deliquescent like that in Fig. 33. Most of the larger for- est trees are intermediate between these extremes. Branches get their characteristics to a ale STEMS 67 Lee mm iyi ‘ Wii) i H ht! Wh if TAA i ii Hi | ! i) Hi i Fig. 33.— An American Eln, with Deliquescent Trunk. considerable degree from the relative importance of their terminal buds. If these are mainly flower-buds, as is the case in the horse-chestnut and some magnolias (Figs. 35, 36), 68 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY the tree is characterized by frequent forking, and “has -@ no long horizontal branches. If the terminal bud keeps the lead of the lateral ones, but the latter are numerous and most of them grow into slender twigs, the delicate spray of the elm and many birches is produced (Fig. 37). The general effect of the branching depends much upon | the angle which each branch or twig forms with that one from which it sprigs. The angle may be quite acute, as in the birch ; or more nearly a right angle, as in the ash (Fig. 80). The inclination of lateral branches is due to geotropism, just as is that of the branches of primary roots. The vertically upward direction of the shoot which grows from the terminal bud is also due to geotropism. This is really only a brief way of saying that the grow- ing tip of the main stem of the tree or of any branch is made to take and keep its proper direction, whether verti- cally upward or at whatever angle is desirable for the tree, by the steering action of gravity. After growth has ceased this steering action can no longer be exerted, and so a tree that has been bent over (as, for instance, by a heavy load of snow) cannot right itself, unless it is elastic enough to spring back when the load is removed. The tip of the -trunk and of each branch can grow and thus become vertical, but the old wood cannot do so. 83. Thorns as Branches. — In many trees some branches show a tendency to remain dwarfish and incompletely — developed. Such imperfect branches forming thorns are familiar in wild crab-apple trees and in the pear trees which occur in old pastures in the Northeastern States. In the honey locust very formidable branching spines spring STEMS RE _ from adventitious or dormant buds on the trunk or limbs. Such spines sometimes show their true nature as branches by bearing leaves (Fig. 34). 84. Indefinite Annual Growth. —In most of the forest trees, and in the larger shrubs, the wood of young branches is matured and fully developed during the summer. Protected buds are formed on the twigs of these branches to their very tips. In other shrubs - — for example, in the sumac, the raspberry, and blackberry — the shoots continue to grow until their soft and immature tips are Fie. 34.—Leaf-Bearing Spine \\\ ag killed by the frost. cee okt Ss: - Such a mode of growth is called indefinite \ annual growth, to distinguish it from the definite annual growth of most trees. 85. Trees, Shrubs, and Herbs. — Plants of the largest size with a main trunk of a woody structure are called trees. Shrubs differ from trees in their smaller size, and generally in having several stems which proceed from the ground or near it or in having much-forked stems. The witch-hazel, the dogwoods, and the alders, for instance, are most of them classed as shrubs for this reason, though in height some of them equal the smaller trees. Some of 70 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY the smallest shrubby plants, like the dwarf blueberry, the wintergreen, and the trailing arbutus, are only a few inches Fig. 35. — Tip of a Branch of Magnolia, illustrating Forking due to Terminal Flower-Buds. A, oldest flower-bud scar; B, C, D, scars of successive seasons after A; ZL, leaf- buds; /’, flower-buds. in height, but are ranked as shrubs because their woody stems do not die quite to the ground in winter. Herbs are plants whose stems above ground die every winter. STEMS Tl 86. Annual, Biennial, and Perennial Plants. — Annual plants are those which live but one year, biennials those which live two years or nearly so. Some annual plants may be made to live over winter, flower- ing in their:second /, ee, summer. This is true ZH of winter wheat and re. 36.—A Portion of rye among cultivated the Branch of Fig. 35. = (Natural size.) plants. Perennial plants live for a series of years. Many kinds of trees last for centuries. The Californian giant redwoods, or Sequoias (Fig. 32), which reach a height of over 300 feet under favorable circumstances, live nearly 2000 years ; and some \ Fie. 37. — Twigs and Branches of the Birch. monstrous cypress trees found in Mexico were thought by Professor Asa Gray to be from 4000 to 5000 years old. ie FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 87. Stemless Plants. — As will be shown later (Chap- ter XXX), plants live subject to a very’ fierce competition among themselves and exposed to almost constant attacks from animals. | While plants with long stems find it to their advantage to reach up as far as possible into the sunlight, the cinque- foil, the white clover, the dandelion, some spurges, the knot- erass, and hundreds aE WI — \ [; ol a of other kinds of Bs \Alle Zz 5 plants have found EN Z| | oe safety in hugging SN a) the ground. é ah i Any plant which can grow in safety under the very feet of grazing animals will be especially Di iY inn Wy oy é iS likely to make its (3) way in the world, ae ~~ since there are many FIG. 38. —The Dandelion ; a so-called places where it can oe aa flourish while ordi- nary plants would be destroyed. The bitter, stemless dandelion, which is almost uneatable for most animals, unless cooked, which lies too near the earth to be fed upon by grazing animals, and which bears being trodden on with impunity, is a type of a large class of hardy weeds. The so-called stemless plants, like the dandelion (Fig. 38), and some violets, are not really stemless at all, but send STEMS 73 out their leaves and flowers from a very short stem, which hardly rises above the surface of the ground. 88. Climbing and Twining Stems.1— Since it is essen- tial to the health and rapid growth of most plants that they should have free access to the sun and air, it is not strange that many should resort to special devices for lifting themselves above their neighbors. In tropi- eal forests, where the dark- ness of the shade anywhere beneath the tree-tops is so great that few flowering plants can thrive in it, the climbing plants or lianas often run like great cables for hundreds of feet before they can emerge into the sun- shine above. In temperate climates no such remarkable climbers are found, but many plants raise themselves for considerable distances. The Bite oh ho 1 8 oS a a: aa gy D 2 BE an ‘edly ty Mon hte s. atts Vidi wert nv Bc RA h a MS YE A Naw ) ) 6 — Z SE ! Nes Wied 5 Fic. 39. — Lianas strangling a Palm. principal means to which they resort for this purpose are : (1) Producing roots at many points along the stem above ground and climbing on suitable objects by means of these, as in the English ivy (Fig. 15). (2) Laying hold of objects by means of tendrils or twining branches or leaf-stalks, as shown in Figs. 40, 41. 1 See Kerner and Oliver’s Natural History of Plants, Vol. I, p. 669. 74 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY (83) Twining about any slender upright support, as shown in Fig. 42. 89. Tendril-Climbers. — The plants which climb by means of tendrils are important subjects for study, but they cannot usually be managed very well in the school- room. Continued observation soon shows that the tips of gy tendrils sweep slowly about in : the air until they come in contact ~ with some object about which they can coil themselves. After the tendril has taken a few turns about its support, the free part of (an the tendril coils into a spiral and lh a ate (ra ‘ : thus draws the whole ee toward oo dav NS, the point of attachment, as shown Keone ra Ms in Fig. 40.. Some tendrils are : 1 uy modified leaves or stipules, as shown in Fig. 104; others are modified stems. 90. Twiners. — onus a few of the upper internodes of the stem Fie ioe Gone ofaTendril Of a twiner are concerned in pro- Che pea ducing the movements of the tip of the stem. This is kept revolving in an elliptical or CS = aN SS—_—as AFG —r = SS \ ie. ‘ se 7 ———as =a ——4 = = Si i ih =—e a ead circular path until it encounters some roughish and not too stout object, about which it then proceeds to coil itself. The movements of the younger internodes of the stems of twiners are among the most extensive of all the move- — ments made by plants. A hop-vine which has climbed to the top of its stake may sweep its tip continually around the circumference of a circle two feet in diameter, and the ee STEMS 15 common wax-plant of the greenhouses sometimes describes a five-foot circle, the tip moving at the rate of thirty-two inches per hour.t This circular motion results from some cause not yet fully understood by botanists.? The direction in which twiners coil about a supporting object is almost always the same for each species of plant, but not the same for all species. In the hop it is as Fie. 41.— Coiling of Petiole of Dwarf Tropzolum. Fig. 42.— Twining Stem of Hop. shown in Fig. 42. Is it the same as in the bean? in the morning-glory ? 91. Underground Stems. — Stems which lie mainly or wholly underground are of frequent occurrence and of -many kinds. In the simplest form of rootstock (Fig. 43), such as is 1See article on Climbing Plants, by Dr. W. J. Beal, in the American Naturalist, Vol. IV, pp. 405-415. 2 See Strasburger, Noll, Schenk, and Schimper, Tert-Book, pp. 258-262 ; also Vines, Students’ Text-Book of Botany, London and New York, 1894, pp. 759, 760. T6 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY found in some mints and in many grasses and sedges, the real nature of the creeping underground stem is shown by ‘ Np Ng tb ky ‘" Be the presence upon its sur- face of many scales, which are reduced leaves. Root- stocks of this sort often extend horizontally for long distances in the case of grasses like the sea rye grass (Plate I), which roots itself firmly and thrives in shifting sand-dunes. In the stouter rootstocks, like that of the iris (Fig. 44) and the Caladium (ig. 45), this stem-like charac- ter is less evident. The potato is an excellent ex- ample of the short and much-thickened under-. ground stem known as a tuber. . It may be seen from Fig. 46 that the potatoes are none of them borne on true roots, but only on subter- ranean = LSS _AA~ ——=S ———=— — = : =< branches, which are Fic. 43.— Rootstock of Cotton-Grass (Hriophorum): stouter and more cylindrical than most of the roots. The “eyes” ER NE AER EN STEMS iy which they bear are rudi- mentary leaves and buds. Bulbs, whether coated like those of the onion or the hyacinth (Fig. 47), or scaly like those of the lily, are merely very short and stout underground stems, covered with closely crowded scales or layers which represent leaves or the bases of leaves (Fig. 48). The variously modified forms of underground stems just discussed, illus- Fic. 44.— Roots, Rootstocks, and Leaves of Iris. trate in a marked way the storage of nourishment during the winter (or the rainless season, as the case may be) to secure rapid growth dur- __ ing the active season. It is inter- Fig. 45. — Rootstock of Cala- esting to notice that nearly all of dium (Colocasia). t= .. 5 : _ _ b, terminal bud; 6’, buds ar- : the early flowering herbs — temp oe ranged in circles where bases ate climates, like the crocus, the of leaves were attached; s, scars left by sheathing bases snowdrop, the spring-beauty, the of jeaves. 78 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY tulip, and the skunk-cabbage, owe their early-blooming habit to richly stored underground stems of some kind, or to thick, fleshy roots. 92. Condensed Stems. — The plants of desert regions require, above all, protection from the extreme dryness of the surrounding air, and, usually, from the excessive heat of the sun. Ac- cordingly, many desert plants are found quite desti- tute of ordinary foliage, exposing to the air only a small surface. In the melon-cactuses | J)» “NG = (Fig. 49) the stem RS. appears reduced | ia ae shape in NAY (oy), : Ay which the least L3S<- possible surface is 3 presented by a Fia. 46.— Part of a Potato Plant. 3 ‘The dark tuber in the middle is the one from which P lant of given phe biaet las comme bulk, — that is, in a globular form. Other cactuses are more or less cylindri- cal or prismatic, while still others consist of flattened joints ; but all agree in offering much less area to the sun and air than is exposed by an ordinary leafy plant. 93. Leaf-Like Stems.—The flattened stems of some kinds of cactus (especially the common, showy Phyllocactus) are - sufficiently like fleshy leaves, with their dark green color and imitation of a midrib, to pass for leaves, There are, STEMS 79 however, a good many cases in which the stem takes on a more strikingly leaf-like form. ‘The common asparagus sends up in spring shoots that bear large scales which are really reduced leaves. Later in the season, what seem like thread-like leaves cover the much-branched mature plant, but these ereen threads are actually mi- nute branches, Fig. 47.—Bulb of Hyacinth. which perform (Exterior view and split lengthwise.) the work of int leaves (Fig. 50). The familiar greenhouse climber, wrongly known as smilax (properly ealled Myrsiphyllum), bears a profusion of what appear to be delicate green leaves (Fig. 51). Close study, however, shows that these are really short, flattened branches, and that each little branch springs from the axil of a true leaf, 7, in the form of a minute scale. Sometimes a flower ric. 4g.—Longitu- i 3 dinal Section of and a leaf-like branch spring from the SPEER pe. axil of the same scale. sca, thickened base - : ‘ of leaf, forming a Branches which, like those of Myrsi- — juibscale: s,thin phyllum, so closely resemble leaves as to = Sheathof leaf; 0/, 2 _ : blade of the leaf ; be almost indistinguishable from them are __ int, plow ealled cladophyjlis. a 94. Modifiability of the Stem.— The stem may, as in the tallest trees, in the great lianas of South American forests, 80 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY Li hele ESS ee pee : Sy > i, ‘ Mh IY Ay pe, eee ie Ber RENIN ASUS y (as Ses re Z oi Roh A SAA IIS] SSNS SHOR PTE DA Vey al Wane aren ALN ARNIS AOL DS A eae ips ane AR TRO Fie. 50. — A Spray of a Common Asparagus (not the edible species). eae eee sa ig. STEMS Si or the rattan of Indian jungles, reach a length of many hundred feet. On the other hand, in such ‘“stemless”’ plants as the primrose and the dandelion, the stem may be reduced to a fraction of an inch in length. It may take Fie. 51.— Stem of “Smilax” (Myrsiphyllum). l, seale-like leaves ; cl, cladophyll, or leaf-like branch, growing in the axil of the leaf ; ped, flower-stalk, growing in the axil of a leaf. on apparently root-like forms, as in many grasses and sedges, or become thickened by underground deposits of starch and other plant-food, as in the iris, the potato, and the crocus. Condensed forms of stem may exist above ground, or, on the other hand, branches may be flat and 82 - FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY thin enough closely to imitate leaves. In short, the stem manifests great readiness in adapting itself to the most varied conditions of existence. 95. Review Summary of Stems.! Kinds of branching due to leaf arrangement Kinds of redone due to greater or less pred of terminal bud Classes of plants based on amount of woody stem Classes of plants based on duration of life Various modes of climbing Kinds of underground stem Condensed stems above ground Peaqenice stems “SN ees Do Pad cee ieee tc Rig eae “ ! 1 Where it is possible to do so, make sketches; where this is not possible, give examples of plants to illustrate the various kinds or classes of plants in the summary. CHAPTER VI STRUCTURE OF THE STEM STEM OF MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 96. Gross Structure. — Refer back to the sketches of the corn- seedling, to recall something of the early history of the corn-stem. Study the external appearance of a piece of corn-stem or bamboo two feet or more in length. Note the character of the outer surface. Sketch the whole piece and label the enlarged nodes and the nearly cylindrical internodes. Cut across a corn-stem and examine the cut sur- face with the magnifying glass. _ Make some sections as thin as they can be cut and examine with the magnifying glass (holding them up to the light) or with a dissecting microscope. _ Note the firm rind, composed _of the epidermis and underlying tissue, the large mass of pith composing the main bulk of the stem, and the many little harder and more opaque spots, which are the cutoff ends of the woody threads known as jibro- vascular bundles (Fig. 52). Split a portion of the stem lengthwise into thin translucent slices and notice whether the Fie. 52. — Diagrammatic Cross-Section of Stem of Indian Corn. cv, fibro-vascular bundles ; gc, pithy material between bundles. bundles seem to run straight up and down its length; sketch the entire section x 2. Every fibro-vascular bundle of the stem passes out- ward through some node in order to connect with some fibro-vascular 83 84 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY bundle of a leaf. This fact being known to the student would lead him to expect to find the bundles bending out of a vertical position more at the nodes than elsewhere. Can this be seen in the stem examined ? Observe the enlargement and thickening at the nodes, and split one of these lengthwise to show the tissue within it. Compare with the corn-stem a piece of palmetto and a piece of cat-brier (Smilax rotundifolia, S. hispida, etc.), and notice the simi- larity of structure, except for the fact that the tissue in the palmetto and the cat-brier which answers to the pith of the corn-stem is much darker colored and harder than corn-stem pith. Compare also a piece of rattan and of bamboo. 97. Minute Structure. — Cut a thin cross-section of the corn-stem, examine with a low power of the microscope, and note: (a) The rind (mot true bark), composed largely of hard, thick- walled dead cells, known as sclerenchyma fibers. (6) The fibro-vascular bundles. Where are they most abundant ? least abundant ? . (c) The pith, occupying the intervals between the fibro-vascular | bundles. Study the bundles in various portions of the section and notice particularly whether some are more porous than others. Explain. Sketch some of the outer and some of the inner ones. A more complicated kind of monocoty- ledonous stem-structure can be studied to advantage in the surgeons’ splints cut from - yucca-stems and sold by dealers in surgical supplies. 98. Mechanical Function of the Fic. 53. — Diagrammatic or ene of as of Manner of Distribution of Material ulrush (Scirpus), a 4 ; Hollow Cylinder with in Monocotyledonous Stems. — The Strengthening Fibers. well-known strength and lightness of the straw of our smaller grains and of rods of cane or bamboo are due to their form. It can readily be shown ~ STRUCTURE OF THE STEM 85 by experiment that an iron or steel tube of moderate thick- ness, like a piece of gas-pipe, or of bicycle-tubing, is much stiffer than a solid rod of the same weight per foot. The oat straw, the stems of bulrushes (Fig. 53), the cane (of our southern canebrakes), and the bamboo are hollow cylinders; the cornstalk is a solid cylinder, but filled with a very light pith. The flinty outer layer of the stalk, together with the closely packed scleren- chyma fibers of the outer rind and the frequent fibro-vascular bundles just within this, are arranged in the best way to se- cure stiffness. In a general way, then, we may say that the pith, the bundles, and the sclerenchymatous rind are what they are and where they are to serve important mechanical purposes. But they have other uses fully as important (Fig. 78). 99. Growth of Monocotyledonous Stems in Thickness. — In most woody monocotyledonous stems, for a reason Fie. 54.— Group of Date-Palms. 86 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY which will be explained later in this chapter, the increase in thickness is strictly limited. Such stems, therefore, as in many palms (Fig. 54) and in rattans, are less conical and more cylindrical than the trunks of ordinary trees and are also more slender in proportion to their height. STEM OF DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 100. Gross Structure of an Annual Dicotyledonous Stem. — Study the external appearance of a piece of sunflower-stem several inches long. If it shows distinct nodes, sketch it. Examine the cross- section and sketch it as seen with the magnifying glass or the dissect- ing microscope. After your sketch is finished, compare it with Fig. 55, which probably shows more details than your drawing, and label the parts shown as they are labeled in that figure. Split a short piece of the stem lengthwise through the center and study the split surface with the magnifying glass. Take a sharp knife or a scalpel and carefully slice and then scrape away the bark until you come to the outer surface of a bundle. Examine a vegetable sponge (Luffa), sold by druggists, and notice that it is simply a network of fibro-vascular bundles. It is the skele- ton of a tropical seed-vessel or fruit, very much like that of the wild cucumber, common in the Central States, but a great deal larger. The different layers of the bark cannot all be well recognized in the examination of a single kind of stem. Examine (a) the cork which constitutes the outer layers of the bark of cherry or bireh branches two or more years old. Sketch the roundish or oval spongy Jenticels on the outer surface of the bark. How far in do theyextend? Exam- ine (6) the green layer of bark as shown in twigs or branches of Forsythia, cherry, alder, box-elder, wahoo, or willow. Examine (c) the white, fibrous inner layer, known as hard bast, of the bark of elm, leatherwood, pawpaw, or basswood. ~ 101. Minute Structure of the Dicotyledonous Stem. — Study, first with a low and then with a medium power of the compound micro- scope, thin cross-sections of clematis-stem cut just before the end of ¥ k| : % 3 4 ] ‘ STRUCTURE OF THE STEM 87 the first season’s growth.! Sketch the whole section without much detail, and then make a detailed drawing of a sector running from center to circumference and just wide enough to include one of the large bundles. Label these drawings in general like Figs. 55, 56. i iy IB EY ) NaS CJ one * PAIL RR Seseee Fic. 55. — Diagrammatic Cross-Section of an Annual Dicotyledonous Stem. (Somewhat magnified.) p, pith ; fv, woody or fibro-vascular bundles; e, epidermis; 0, bundles of hard bast fibers of the bark. es Cc p Fie. 56. — Diagrammatic Cross-Section of One-Year-Old Aristolochia Stem. (Considerably magnified.) e, tegion of epidermis; 6, hard bast; o, outer or bark part of a bundle (the cellular portion under the letter) ; w, inner or woody part of bundle ; c, cam- bium layer ; p, region of pith; m, a medullary ray. The space between the hard bast and the bundles is occupied by thin-walled, somewhat cubical cells of the bark. 1 Clematis virginiana is simpler in structure than some of the other woody species. Aristolochia sections will do very well. 88 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY Note: (a) The general outline of the section. (6) The number and arrangement of the bundles. (How many kinds of bundles are there’) (c) The comparative areas occupied by the woody part of the — bundle and by the part which belongs to the bark. (d) The way in which the pith and the outer bark are con- nected (and the bundles separated) by the medullary rays. oO WH So wii) € ie Fic. 57.— One Bundle from the Preceding Figure. (x 100.) WwW, wood-cells ; d, ducts. The other letters are as in Fig. 56. Many sieve-cells oceur in the region just outside of the cambium of the bundle. Examine a longitudinal section of the same kind of stem, to find out more accurately of what kinds of cells the pith, the bundles, and the outer bark are built. Which portion has cells that are nearly equal in shape, as seen in both sections ? | STRUCTURE OF THE STEM 89 102. Mechanical Importance of Distribution of Material in the Dicotyledonous Stem. — It is easy to see that those tissues which are tough, like hard bast, and those which are both tough and stiff, like wood fibers, are arranged in a tubular fashion in young dicotyledonous stems as they are in some monocotyledonous ones (Fig. 53). Sometimes the interior of the stem is quite hollow, as, for example, a0 peeve B 00000090 e: "% Zs S009 Be ye As oeoel WN sbacscoscecena BERS 0D 02 Ky : TTT 0OVSSz 01000 [~~ oh ay piste) as. % “= RAT 00 GOO 00 0.0 0 Fic. 58.— Stem of Box-Elder One Year Old. (Much magnified.) A, lengthwise (radial) section ; B, cross-section ; e, epidermis ; ck, cork; 6, hard bast; s, sieve-cells; c, cambium; w, wood-cells; m, medullary rays; d, ducts ; p, pith. in the stems of balsams, melons, cucumbers, and squashes, and in the flower-stalks of the dandelion. In older stems, such as the trunks of trees, the wood forms a pretty nearly solid cylinder. Stiffness in dicotyledonous stems is secured mainly in two ways: (1) by hard bast fibers, (2) by wood fibers. Which of these types does the stem (Fig. 55) represent ? Which does the flax-stem (Fig. 60) represent ? 90 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY Notice that in both types bast fibers and wood fibers are present, but the proportions in (1) and (2) vary greatly. 103. Kinds of Cells which compose Stems. — The stu- dent has already seen something of cells in the seed, in the roots of seedlings and mature plants, and in several kinds of stems. But he will need to become acquainted with a much larger variety of cells in the stem. The fol- lowing materials will serve to illustrate some of the most important forms.! Examine with a half-inch objective and one-inch eyepiece (or higher power) these preparations (1-9 below): Study very carefully each of the sections described, find in it the kind of cell referred to in the corresponding number (1-9) of the following section (104), and make a good sketch of a group of cells of each kind as actually seen under the microscope.? (1) Very thin sections of the epidermis of a potato, some cut parallel to the surface (tangential), others cut at right angles to the epidermis. (2) Thin sections of the green layer of the bark of Forsythia, spindle tree (EHuonymus), or box-elder (Negundo). (3) Thin cross-sections and longitudinal sections of the inner bark of linden twigs, or of full-grown stems of flax. (4) Longitudinal sections of the stem of squash or cucumber plants. (5) Thin cross-sections of young twigs of pine or oak, cut in late summer. (6) Thin cross-sections and longitudinal sections, cut from pith toward bark (radial) of young wood of sycamore, of sassafras, or of box-elder. (7) Thin longitudinal sections of the stem of castor-oil plant (Ricinus) or of the stalk (peduncle) on which the fruit of the banana is supported. : 1 These studies may be made from sections cut by the pupil, by the teacher, or by a professional hand, as circumstances may dictate. The soft bast (No. 4, see p- 91) can best be studied in good prepared sections obtained of the dealers. 2 Nothing can do so much to make these studies valuable as for the teacher to correct in class the errors of most frequent occurrence in the drawings, by — aid of his own camera lucida drawings of the same objects. a le MOA AGREE gh 4 Say chloe ie Oo EIN a - STRUCTURE OF THE STEM 91 (8) Thin longitudinal radial sections of sycamore, of sassafras, maple, or box-elder wood. (9) Thin sections of elder pith, sunflower-stem pith, or of so-called _ Japanese “ rice-paper.” 104. Names of the Cells of Bark, Wood, and Pith. — No two varieties of stems will be found to consist of just the =——$—~ aN aaa CESS SS ae e b---@ a POE A aes Fic. 60. — Part of Cross-Section of Stem of Flax. (Much magnified.) e, epidermis ; 6, hard bast ; s, sieve-cells ; w, wood. same kinds of cells, present in the same proportions, but it is easy to refer to illus- trations which will serve to identify the D, Isolated Wood- kinds of cells found in the studies of the Cells and Bast- Cells of Linden. preceding section. ‘They are: A, B, wood fibers ; C, piece of a vessel ; (1) Cork-cells of the epidermis (¢.g., flax, D, bast fiber; Z,a is. 60. ¢ partitioned, woody 8 ? ) ‘i : fiber from Euro- (2) Cells of the green bark (e.g., flax, Fig. 60), pean SG (Much between b and e. ‘ (3) Hard bast (Fig. 60). (4) Soft bast (e.g., flax, Fig. 60, s, for the cross-section and (very greatly magnified) Figs. 63, 64, for the lengthwise section). 1 The sieve-tubes shown in these figures are only one of several kinds of cell found in soft bast, but they are the most peculiar and characteristic ones. (See Strasburger, Noll, Schenk, and Schimper’s Text-Book, pp. 102-104.) w 92 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY (5) Cambium (e.g., Fig. 57, c). (6) Wood-cells (e.g., Figs. 58, 72-73). (7) Vessels or ducts (e.g., Figs. 58 and 62). (8) Wood parenchyma (e.g., Figs. 58 and 72 in the medullary rays). | (9) Pith (e.g., Figs. 55, 57). 105. Structure of Coniferous Wood.—In the wood of the cone-bearing trees of the pine family regular ducts or | | | t mn i j | y \ i mn as ‘ ’ ‘ \/ Fig. 61. FIG. 62. Fic. 61.— A Group of Hard Bast Fibers. (Greatly magnified.) a, cut-off ends ; 6, lengthwise section of fibers. Fic. 62.— A Lengthwise Section (greatly magnified) of a Group of Spiral Vessels from the Stem of Sunflower. At the top of the figure some of the spiral threads which line the vessels are seen partly uncoiled. vessels are lacking. The main bulk of the wood is com- posed of long cells (often called tracheids), marked with STRUCTURE OF THE STEM 93 peculiar pits. These pits, when young, are shaped much like two perforated watch-glasses, placed against a piece of cardboard, with their concave sides toward each other Sheu San (yea “7 Cay 1-6 3 SL Fic. 63. — Part of a Sieve-Tube from Linden. s, Sieve-plates on the cell-wall. (x about 900.) Fic. 64. — Parts of Sieve-Tubes as found in Plants of the Gourd Family. (Greatly magnified.) 8,8, a sieve-plate seen edgewise ; above it a similar one, surface view. Fic. 65. — Cross-Section of Fir Wood. S, a resin passage ; m, medullary rays. (Much magnified.) 94 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY (see Fig. 66, t!’). The cardboard represents a part of the cell-wall common to two adjacent cells, and the watch- glasses are like the convex border bulging into each cell. Ise HOO OCs Cone | © Ls WIS AYOIOK AI aioe Fie. 66. — Longitudinal Radial Sec- tion through a Rapidly Growing Young Branch of Pine. 5 t, ¢',t’”, bordered pits on wood-cells ; st, large pits where medullary rays lie against wood-cells. (Much magnified.) times longer than wide, When the cells grow old the partition in each pit very com- monly breaks away and leaves a hole in the cell-wall. 106. Tissues. — A mass of similar cooperating cells is called a tessue.! ‘Two of the principal classes which occur in the stem are parenchymatous tissue and prosenchymatous tissue. Paren- chyma is well illustrated by the green layer of the bark, by wood parenchyma, and by pith. Its cells are usually somewhat roundish or cubical, at any rate not many times longer than wide, and at first pretty full of proto- plasm. Their walls are not generally very thick.2 Prosen- chyma, illustrated by hard bast and masses of wood-cells, con- sists of thick-walled cells many containing little protoplasm and often having little or no cell-cavity. As a rule the stems of the most highly developed plants owe their toughness and their stiffness mainly to prosen- 1 See Vines’ Students’ Text-Book of Botany, London, 1894, pp. 131-144. 2 Excepting when they are dead and emptied, like those of old pith. STRUCTURE OF THE STEM 95 chymatous tissue. In some (particu- larly in fleshy) stems the stiffness is, however, largely due to collenchyma, a kind of parenchyma in which the cells are thickened or reinforced at their angles, as shown in Fig. 67. 107. Early History of Stem-Struc- ture. — In the very young parts of stems, such, Fic. 67.—Collenchymatous ._— , and Other Tissue from Stem for instance, of Balsam (Jmpatiens). as the gTow- e,epidermis;c,collenchyma; . A i, intercellular spaces be- ing p oint tween large parenchyma- [between the cells. : two rudi- mentary leaves of a bean-plumule, the cells are all of thin-walled formative tissue and look a good deal alike. This condition of things is quickly succeeded by one in which there is a cylinder (appearing in cross-sections of the | stemasa ring) of actively growing Fic. 68. — Transverse Section tissue 2 (Fig.68, A), lying between tbrough the Hypocotyl of the ; Castor-Oil Plant at Various the cortex rand the pith m. Soon _ stages. the cylinder x develops into a 4, after the root has just ap- s peared outside the testa of the series of separate fibro-vascular seed ; B, after the hypocotyl is bundles arranged as shown in 7¢@7!¥ am inch long; C, at the end of germination; 7, cortex Fig. 68, B, and these again in a (undeveloped bark); m, pith; 5 = st, medullary rays; fv, fibro- short time unite, as shown at C. jascular bundles; cb, layer of A comparison of this last portion tissue which is to develop into cambium. (Considerably mag- of the figure with that of the _ nifiea) 96 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY one-year-old Aristolochia-stem (Fig. 56) shows a decided similarity between the two. In both cases we have the central pith, the regularly grouped bundles, and cambium (or in Fig. 68, C, a tissue which will grow into cambium), — part of it in the bundles and part of it between them. In the young monocotyledonous stem the grouping of the bundles is less regular than that just explained. This is Shown by Fig. 52. A much more important difference consists in the fact that the monocotyledonous stem has — usually no permanent living cambium ring. Annual dicoty- ledons, however, are also destitute of permanent cambium. 108. Secondary Growth. — From the inside of the cam- bium layer the wood-cells and ducts of the mature stem are produced, while from its outer circumference proceed | the new layers of the inner bark, composed largely of sieve- cells and hard bast. From this mode of increase the stems of dicotyledonous plants are called exogenous, that is, out- side-growing. The presence of the cambium layer on the outside of the wood in early spring is a fact well known to the schoolboy, who pounds the cylinder cut from an elder, willow, or hickory branch until the bark will slip off and so enable him to make a whistle. The sweet taste of this pulpy layer, as found in the white pine, the slippery — elm, and the basswood, is a familiar evidence of the nourishment which the cambium layer contains. With the increase of the fibro-vascular bundles of the wood the space between them, which appears relatively large in Fig. 68, becomes less and less, and the pith, which at first extended freely out toward the circumference of the stem, is at length only represented by thin plates, the medullary rays. } -_ STRUCTURE OF THE STEM 97 These are of use in storing the food which the plant in cold and temperate climates lays up in the summer and fall for use in the following spring, and in the very young stem they serve as an important channel for the transfer- ence of fluids across the stem from bark to pith, or in the Fie. 69. — Diagram to illustrate Secondary Growth in a Dicotyledonous Stem. R, the first-formed bark ; p, mass of sieve-cells ; ify, mass of sieve-cells between the original wedges of wood; fc, cambium of wedges of wood; ic, cambium between wedges ; b, groups of bast-cells; fh, wood of the original wedges ; ifh, wood formed between wedges ; z, earliest wood formed; WM, pith. reverse direction. On account, perhaps, of their impor- tance to the plants, the cells of the medullary rays are among the longest lived of all plant-cells, retaining their vitality in the beech tree sometimes, it is said, for more than a hundred years. After the interspaces between the first fibro-vascular bundles have become filled up with wood, the subsequent 98 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY growth must take place in the manner shown in Fig. 69. All the cambium, both that of the original wedges of wood, fe, and that, ic, formed later between these wedges, con- tinues to grow from its inner and from its outer face, and ) thus causes a permanent increase in the diameter of the stem and a thickening of the bark, which, however, usually at an early period begins to peel off from the outside and thus soon attains a pretty constant thickness.1 It will be noticed, in the study of dicotyledonous stems more than a year old, that there are no longer any separate fibro-vascular bundles. The process just described has covered the origi- nal ring of bundles with layer after layer of later formed wood-cells, and the wood at ns ae is arranged in a hollow cylinder. It is the lack of any such ring. of cambium as is found in dicotyledonous plants, or even of permanent cambium in the separate bundles, that makes it impossible for the trunks of most palm trees (Fig. 54) to grow indefinitely in thickness, like that of an oak or an elm.? 109. Grafting. — When the cambium layer of any vigor- ously growing stem is brought in contact with this layer in another stem of the same kind or a closely similar kind of plant, the two may grow together to form a single stem or branch. This process is called grafting, and is much resorted to in order to secure apples, pears, etc., of any desired kind. A twig from a tree of the chosen variety is grafted on to any kind of tree of the same species (or some- times a related species), and the resulting stems will bear the wished-for kind of fruit. Sometimes grafting comes 1 See Vines’ Students’ Text-Book of Botan, , London, 1894, pp. 211, 212. 2 See, however, Strasburger, Noll, Schenk and Schimper’s Text-Book, pp. 138, 139. saad STRUCTURE OF THE STEM 99 about naturally by the branches of a tree chafing against one another until the bark is worn away and the cambium layer of each is in contact with that of the other, or two separate trees may be joined by natural grafting, as is shown in Fig. 70. 110. Stem-Structure of Climbing Shrubs. — Some of the most remark- able kinds of dicotyle- donous stems are found in climbing shrubs. The structure of many of these is too complicated to be discussed in a botany for beginners, but one point in regard to them is of much inter- est. The bundles (as seen in the clematis and shown in Fig. 56) are much more distinct than in most other woody stems. Even after sev- eral years of growth the wood is often found to be arranged in a number of flattish twisted strands. It is evident that this Fic. 70. — Two Ash Trees naturally grafted together. is for the sake of leaving the stem flexible for twining purposes, just as a wire cable is adapted to be wound about posts or other supports, while L.of C. 100 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY a solid steel or iron rod of the same size would be too stiff for this use. 111. The Dicotyledonous Stem, thickened by Secondary Growth. Cut off, as smoothly as possible, a small branch of hickory and one of white oak above and below each of the rings of scars already mentioned (Sect. 77), and count the P rings of wood above and below each ring of scars. How do the numbers correspond? What does Phi this indicate? Count the rings of wood on the cut-off ends C of large billets of some Sa\a\ ‘ aan Ey au OG. C Cis BN fe Z nee Sort » . Se ae: Or of the following woods: 2 oH rexel ieuserr s fo is eco ays ees , z locust, chestnut, syca- Bl Ae laa Beis Re Be SOS) J. : ee: ERS ea more, oak, hickory. Do the successive rings of the same tree agree in : 2 thickness ? : Why? or why not? Does the thickness of the rings appear uniform _allthe way round the stick Fig. 71.— Cross-Section of a Three-Year-Old Linden Twig. (Much magnified.) of wood? If not, the rea- P, epidermis and corky layer of the bark ; Phil, bast; gon in the case of an up- C, cambium layer ; JR, annual rings of wood. right stem (trunk) is per- haps that there was a greater spread of leaves on the side where the rings are thickest! or because there was unequal pressure, caused by bending before the wind. Do the rings of any one kind of tree agree in thickness with those of all the other kinds? What does this show ? In all the woods examined look for : (a) Contrasts in color between the heartwood and the sapwood.? 1 See Sect. 118. 2This is admirably shown in red cedar, black walnut, barberry, black locust and osage orange. STRUCTURE OF THE STEM 101 (b) The narrow lines running in very young stems pretty straight from pith to bark, in older wood extending only a little of the way from center to bark, the medullary rays, shown in Fig. 72.1 (c) The wedge-shaped masses of wood between these. (d) The pores which are so grouped as to mark the divisions between successive rings. ‘These pores indicate the cross-sections of vessels or ducts. Note the dis- tribution of the vessels in the rings to which they belong, com- =) 5 Sey are Ary one. o.8 = = 029 Qser ‘<=. += Lo = NGO PP Phang POEs Ts vane eee cee *, ~ ia +— a LA Ok >= — HRS ke fev = eae Cree" TITRA ITP TAA Pt oe) @sGe%'s so ——— a ef cy eo = Peteeaas. ~* a6 =s Se —x ors CTR OSS = or Fic. 72. — Cross-Section of Beech-Wood. Fic. 73. — Longitudinal Section of b, bark ; a, flattened cells formed near Mahogany at Right Angles to end of each year’s growth; w, regu- Medullary Rays, showing Cut- lar wood-cells ; m, medullary ray. off Ends. (Much magnified.) pare this with Figs. 58, 72, and decide at what season of the year the largest ducts are mainly produced. Make a careful drawing ef the end-section of one billet of wood, natural size. Cut off a grapevine several years old and notice the great size of 1 These and many other important things are admirably shown in the thin wood-sections furnished for $4 per set of 24 by R. B. Hough, Lowville, N. Y. 102 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY the vessels. Examine the smoothly planed surface of a billet of red oak that has been split through the middle of the tree (quartered Fic. 74. — Formation of a Knot in a Tree- Trunk. R, cut-off end of stick, showing annual rings ; K, knot, formed by growth of a branch. oak), and note the large shining plates formed by the medullary rays. Look at another stick that has been planed away from the outside until a good-sized flat surface is shown, and see how the medullary rays are here represented only by their edges. = 112. Interruption of“Annual Rings by Branches ; Knots. — When a leaf-bud is ‘formed on the trunk or branch of a dicotyledonous tree, it is connected with the wood by fibro-vascular bundles. As the bud develops into a branch, the few bundles which it originally possessed increase greatly in number, and at length, as the branch grows, form a cylinder of wood which cuts across the annual rings, as shown in Fig. 74. This interruption to the rings is a knot, such as one often sees in boards and planks. If the branch dies long before the tree does, the knot may be buried: under many rings of wood. What is known as clear lumber is obtained from trees that have grown in a dense forest, so that the lower branches of the larger trees were killed by the shade many years before the tree was felled. In pruning fruit trees or shade trees the branches which are removed should be cut close to the trunk. If this is done, the growth of the trunk will bury the scar before decay sets in. STRUCTURE OF THE STEM 103 113. Comparison of the Monocotyledonous and the Dicotyledonous Stem.! General Structure. — Structure of Bundles. Growth in Thick- ness. MoNOCOTYLEDONOUS STEM A hard rind of rather uniform struc- ture. Bundles inter- mixed with the pith. Bundles closed, that is, without per- manent cambium. Cells of mature parts of stem expand somewhat, but (in most palms) new ones are not found. 114. Review Sketches and Diagrams. DICOTYLEDONOUS STEM A complex bark, usually on young shoots consisting of a corky layer, a green layer, and a layer of bast. Wood in an- nual rings. Pith in a cylinder at the cen- ter. Bundles open, with permanent cambium. New wood-cells formed throughout growing season from cambium ring. (1) Monocotyledonous stem (lengthwise section). (2) Dicotyledonous stem (lengthwise section). (3) First appearance of bundles in dicotyledonous stem. (4) Dicotyledonous stem five years or more old (cross-section). (5) Various bark-cells. (6) Various cells from wood. (7) Pith-cells. (8) Collenchyma-cells. 1 This comparison applies only to most of the woody or tree-like stems. CHAPTER VII LIVING PARTS OF THE STEM; WORK OF THE STEM 115. Active Portions of the Stems of Trees and Shrubs. —In annual plants generally and in the very young shoots of shrubs and trees there are stomata or breathing pores which occur abundantly in the epidermis, serving for the admission of air and the escape of moisture, while the green layer of the bark answers the same purpose that is served by the green pulp of the leaf (Chapter XJ). For years, too, the spongy lenticels, which succeed the stomata and occur scattered over the external surface of the bark of trees and shrubs, serve to admit air to the interior of the stem. The lenticels at first appear as roundish spots, of very small size, but as the twig or shoot on which they occur increases in diameter the lenticel becomes spread out at right angles to the length of the stem, so that it sometimes becomes a longer transverse slit or scar on the bark, as in the cherry and the birch. But in the trunk of a large tree no part of the bark except the inner layer is alive. The older portions of the bark, such as the highly developed cork of the cork-oak, from which the ordinary stoppers for bottles are made, sometimes cling for years after they are dead and useless except as a protection for the parts beneath against mechanical injuries oragainst cold. But in many cases, as in the shell-bark hick- ory and the grapevine, the old bark soon falls off in strips; in birches it finally peels off in bands around the stem. 104 LIVING PARTS OF THE STEM 105 The cambium layer is very much alive, and so is the young outer portion of the wood. Testing this “sap- wood,” particularly in winter, shows that it is rich in starch and proteids. The heartwood of a full-grown tree is hardly living, unless the cells of the medullary rays retain their vitality, and so it may be that wood of this kind is useful to the tree mainly by giving stiffness to the trunk and larger . branches, thus preventing them from being easily broken by storms. It is, therefore, possible for a tree to flourish, sometimes for centuries, after the heartwood has much of it rotted away and left the interior of the trunk hollow, as shown in Fig. 75. 116. Uses of the Components of the Stem. — There is a marked division of labor among the various groups of cells that make up the stem of ordinary dicotyledons, particu- larly in the stems of trees, and it will be best to explain the uses of the kinds of cells as found in trees, rather than in herbaceous plants. A few of the ascertained uses of the various tissues are these: , ~~ The pith forms a large part of the bulk of very young shoots, since it is a part of the tissue of comparatively simple structures amid which the fibro-vascular bundles arise. In mature stems it becomes rather unimportant, though it often continues for a long time to act as a store- house of food. The medullary rays in the young shoot serve as a chan- nel for the transference of water and plant-food in a liquid form across the stem, and they often contain much stored food. 106 —. FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY Fie. 75.— Pioneer’s Cabin, a Very Large Hollow Sequoia. The vessels carry water upward and air downward through the stem. The wood-cells of the heartwood are useful only to give LIVING PARTS OF THE STEM 107 stiffness to the stem. Those of the sapwood, in addition to this work, have to carry most of the water from the roots to the leaves and other distant portions of the plant. The cambium layer is the region in which the annual growth of the tree takes place (Figs. 69, 71). The most important portion of the inner bark is that which consists of sieve-tubes, for in these digested and elaborated plant-food is carried from the leaves toward the roots. The green layer of the bark in young shoots does much — toward collecting nutrient substances, or raw materials, and preparing the food of the plant from air and water, but this work may be best explained in connection with the study of the leaf (Chapter XI). 117. Movement of Water in the Stem. — The student has already learned that large quantities of water are taken up by the roots of plants. Having become somewhat acquainted with the structure of the stem, he is now in a position to investigate the question how the various fluids, commonly known as sap, travel about in it.1 It is important to notice that sap is by no means the same substance everywhere and at all times. As it first makes its way by osmotic action inward through the root-hairs of the growing plant it differs but little from ordinary spring water or well water. _ The liquid which flows from the cut stem of a “bleeding” grapevine which has been pruned just before the buds have begun to burst in the spring, is water with a little muci- laginous or slimy material added. The sap which is 1 See the paper on ‘‘ The So-called Sap of Trees and its Movements,” by Professor Charles R. Barnes, Science, Vol. X XI, p. 535. 108 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY obtained from maple trees in late winter or early spring, and is boiled down for syrup or sugar, is still richer in nutritious material than the water of the grapevine, while the elaborated sap which is sent so abundantly into the ear of corn, at its period ‘of filling out, or into the growing » pods of beans and peas, or into the rapidly forming acorn or the chestnut, contains great stores of food, suited to sus- tain plant or animal life. EXPERIMENT XXI Rise of Water in Stems. —Cut some short branches from an apple tree or a cherry tree and stand the lower end of each in red ink; try the same experiment with twigs of oak, ash, or other porous wood, and after some hours! examine with the magnifying glass and with the microscope, using the 2-inch objective, successive cross-sections of one or more twigs of each kind. Note exactly the portions through which the ink has traveled. Pull off the leaves from one of the stems after standing in the eosin solution, and notice the spots on the leaf-scar through which the eosin has tions of the leaf-traces, or fibro-vascular bundles, connecting the stem and the leaf. Repeat with several potatoes, cut crosswise through the middle. Try #1! also some monocotyledonous stems, ie =.=" | such as those of the lily or asparagus. | For the sake of comparison between Fic. 76.— A Cutting girdled and t At feaat Sater sending down Roots from the YOOtS and stems, treat any convenien Upper Edge of the Girdled Ring. root, such as a parsnip, in the same way. ——« 1If the twigs are leafy and the room is warm, only from 5 to 30 minutes may be necessary. traveled. These spots show the posi- LIVING PARTS OF THE STEM 109 Examine longitudinal sections of some of the twigs, the potatoes, and the roots. In drawing conclusions about the channels through which the ink has risen (those through which the newly absorbed soil-water most readily tray- = els), bear in mind the fact that a slow soakage of the red ink will take place in all directions, and therefore pay attention only to the strongly colored spots or lines. , What conclusions can be drawn from this experiment as to the course followed by the sap? From the familiar facts that ordinary for- eee pirat wi erin ny titi ; \ \ 4 — fe Hitt iret — est trees apparently i Wipes flourish as well after the ~ _z TS Val Z LL —— almost complete decay rs rik | — and removal of their heartwood, and that many kinds will live and grow for a consider- : bl ti ft 4 f Fic. 77. — Channels for the Movement of able ume alter a ring 0 Water, upward and downward. bark extending all round The heavy black lines in roots, stems, and th oa . leaves show the course of the fibro-vascular e trun as been re- bundles through which the principal move- moved, it may readily be ments of water take place. inferred that the crude sap in trees must rise through some portion of the newer layers of the wood. A tree girdled by the removal of a ring of sapwood promptly dies. 118. Downward Movement of Liquids. — Most dicoty- ledonous stems, when stripped of a ring of bark and then 110 FOUNDATIONS OF stood in water, as shown in Fig. BOTANY 76, and covered with a bell-jar, develop roots only at or near the upper edge of Fig. 78. — Diagrammatic Cross-Section of a Bundle from Sugar-Cane, showing Channels for Air and Water. (Magnified.) Air travels downward through the two large ducts d (and the two smaller ones between them). Water travels upward through the ducts and through the wood-cells in the region marked w. Water with dissolved plant-food travels downward through the sieve-cells in the region marked s. laterally through the stem, and these are at times of much im- portance to the plant. Since the liquid building mate- rial travels straight down the stem, that side of the stem on which the manufacture of such the stripped portion,! and this would seem to prove that such stems send their building ma- terial —.the elaborated sap — largely at any rate down through the bark. Its course is undoubt- edly for the most part through the sieve-cells (Figs. 638, 64), which are admirably adapted to convey liquids. In ad- dition to these general upward and downward movements of sap, there must be local transfers Fie. 79. — Unequal Growth of Rings of Wood in nearly Horizontal Stem of a Juniper. (Natural size.) material is going on most rapidly should grow fastest. 1 This may be made the subject of a protracted class-room experiment. Strong shoots of willow should be used for the purpose. ail LIVING PARTS OF THE STEM tt] Plant-food is made out of the raw materials by the leaves, and so the more leafy side of a tree forms thicker rings than the less leafy side, as shown in Fig. 79. 119. Rate of Movement of Water in the Stem. — There are many practical difficulties in the way of ascertaining exactly how fast the watery sap travels from the root to the leaves. It is, however, easy to illustrate experimen- tally the fact that it does rise, and to give an approximate idea of the time required for its ascent. The best experi- ment for beginners is one which deals with an entire plant under natural conditions. : EXPERIMENT XXII Wilting and Recovery. — Allow a fuchsia or a hydrangea! which is growing in a flower-pot to wilt considerably for lack of watering. Then water it freely and record the time required for the leaves to begin to recover their natural appearance and position, and the time fully to recover. The former interval of time will give a very rough idea of the time of transfer of water through the roots and the stem of the plant. From this, by measuring the approxi- mate distance traveled, a calculation could be made of the number of inches per minute that water travels in this particular kind of plant, through a route which is partly roots, partly stem, and partly petiole. Still another method is to treat leafy stems as the student in Exp. XXI treated the twigs which he was examining, and note care- fully the rate of ascent of the coloring liquid. This plan ‘is likely to give results that are too low, still it is of some use. It has given results varying from 34 inches per 1 Hydrangea hortensia. 2 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY hour for the willow to 880 inches per hour for the sun- flower. A better method is to introduce the roots of the plant which is being experimented upon into a weak solution of some chemical substance which is harmless to the plant and which can readily be detected anywhere in the tissues of the plant by chemical tests. Proper tests are then applied to portions of the stem which are cut from the plant at short intervals of time. Compounds of the metal lithium are well adapted for use in this mode of experimentation. 120. Causes of Movements of Water in the Stem. — Some of the phenomena of osmosis were explained in Sect. 62, and the work of the root-hairs was described as due to osmotic action. Root-pressure (Sect. 66), being apparently able to sus- tain a column of water only 80 or 90 feet high at the most, and usually less than half this amount, would be quite insufficient to raise the sap to the tops of the tallest trees, since many kinds grow to a height of more than 100 feet. Our Californian “big trees,” or Sequoias, reach the height of over 300 feet, and an Australian species of Eucalyptus, it is said, sometimes towers up to 470 feet. Root-pressure, then, may serve to start the soil-water on its upward journey, but some other force or forces must step in to carry it the rest of the way. What these other forces are is still a matter of discussion among botanists. The slower inward and downward movement of the sap may be explained as due to osmosis. For instance, in the case of growing wood-cells, sugary sap from the leaves gives up part of its sugar to form the cellulose of which the wood-cells are being made. LIVING PARTS OF THE STEM 3 This loss of sugar would cause a flow of rather watery sap to take place more rapidly than usual from the grow- ing wood to the leaves, while at the same trme a slow transfer of the dissolved sugar will be set up from leaves to wood. The water, as fast as it reaches the leaves, will be thrown off in the form of vapor, so that they will not become distended with water, while the sugar will be changed into cellulose and built into new wood-cells as fast as it reaches the region where such cells are being formed. Plants in general! readily change starch to sugar, and sugar to starch. When they are depositing starch in any part of the root or stem for future use, the withdrawal of sugar from those portions of the sap which contain it most abundantly gives rise to a slow movement of dis- solved particles of sugar in the direction of the eee where starch is being laid up. 121. Storage of Food in the Stem.— The reason why the plant may profit by laying up a food supply. somewhere inside its tissues has already been suggested (Sect. 91). The most remarkable instance of storage of food in the stem is probably that of sago-palms, which contain an enormous amount, sometimes as much as 800 pounds, of starchy material in a single trunk. But the commoner plants of temperate regions furnish plenty of examples of deposits of food in the stem. As in the case of seeds and roots, starch constitutes one of the most important kinds of this reserve material of the stem, and since it is easier to detect than any other food material which the plant stores, the student will do well to spend time in looking for starch only. 1 Not including most of the flowerless and very low and simple kinds. 114 ~ FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY Cut thin cross-sections of twigs of some common deciduous tree or shrub, in its early winter condition, moisten with iodine solution, and examine for starch with a moderately high power of the micro- scope. Sketch the section with a pencils coloring the starchy por- tions with blue ink, used with a mapping pen, and describe exactly in what portions the starch is deposited. : 122. Storage in Underground Stems. —‘T‘he branches and trunk of a tree furnish the most convenient place in which to deposit food during winter to begin the erowth of the following spring. But in those plants which die down to the ground at the beginning of winter the storage must be either in the roots, as has been described in Sect. 58, or in underground portions of the stem. Rootstocks, tubers, and bulbs seem to have been de- veloped by plants to answer as storehouses through the winter (or in some countries through the dry season) for the reserve materials which the plant has accumulated during the growing season. The commonest tuber is the potato, and this fact and the points of interest which it represents make it especially desirable to use for a study of the underground stem in a form most highly specialized . for the storage of starch and other valuable products. 123. A Typical Tuber: the Potato. — Sketch the general outline of a potato, showing the attachment to the stem from which it grew.1 Note the distribution of the “eyes,’’ — are they opposite or alter- nate? Examine them closely with the magnifying glass and then with the lowest power of the microscope. What do they appear to be? If the potato is a stem, it may branch, — look over a lot of pota- toes to try to find a branching specimen. If such a one is secured, sketch it. 1 Examination of a lot of potatoes will usually discover specimens with an inch or more of attached stem. LIVING PARTS OF THE STEM 115 Note the little scale overhanging the edge of the eye, and see if you can ascertain what this scale represents. } Cut the potato across, and notice the faint broken line which forms a sort of oval figure some distance inside the skin. Place the cut surface in eosin solution, allow the potato to stand so for many hours, and then examine, by slicing off pieces parallel to the cut surface, to see how far and into what portions the solution has penetrated. Refer to the notes on the study of the parsnip (Sect. 56), and see how far the behavior of the potato treated with eosin solution agrees with that of the parsnip so treated. Cut a thin section at right angles to the skin, and examine witha high power. Moisten the section with iodine solution and examine again. _ If possible, secure a potato which has been sprouting in a warm place for a month or more (the longer the better), and look near the origins of the sprouts for evidences of the loss of material from the tuber. EXPERIMENT XXIII Use of the Corky Layer.— Carefully weigh a potato, then pare another larger one, and cut portions from it until its weight is made . approximately equal to that of the first one. Expose both freely to _ the air for some days and reweigh. What does the result show in regard to the use of the corky layer of the skin? 124. Morphology of the Potato. —It is evident that in the potato we have to do with a very greatly modified form of stem. The corky layer of the bark is well repre- sented, and the loose cellular layer beneath is very greatly developed; wood is almost lacking, being present only in the very narrow ring which was stained by the red ink, but the pith is greatly developed and constitutes the prin- cipal bulk of the tuber. All this is readily understood if we consider that the tuber, buried in and supported by the earth, does not need the kinds of tissue which give 116 : FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY strength, but only those which are well adapted to store the requisite amount of food. 125. Structure of a Bulb; the Onion. — Examine the external appearance of the onion and observe the thin membranaceous skin which covers it. This skin consists of the broad sheathing bases of the outer leaves which grew on the onion plant during the summer. Remove these and notice the thick scales (also formed from bases of leaves as shown in Fig. 48) which make up the substance of the bulb. Make a transverse section of the onion at about the middle and sketch the rings of which it is composed. Cut a thin section from the interior of the bulb, examine with a moderate power of the microscope, and note the thin-walled cells of which it is composed. Spht another onion from top to bottom and try to find: (a) The plate or broad flattened stem inside at the base (Fig. 47). (6) The central bud. (c) The bulb-scales. (d) In some onions (particularly large, irregular ones) the bulblets or side buds arising in the axes of the scales near the base. Test the cut surface for starch. 126. Sugar in the Onion.— Grape sugar is an important substance among those stored for food by the plant. It received its name from the fact that it was formerly obtained for chemical examination from grapes. Old dry raisins usually show little masses of whitish material scattered over the skin which are nearly pure grape sugar. Commercially it is now manufactured on an enormous scale from starch by boiling with diluted sulphuric acid. In the plant it is made from starch by processes as yet imperfectly understood, and another sugar, called maltose, is made from starch in the seed during germination. Both grape sugar and maltose (and hardly any other substances) have the power of producing a yellow or LIVING PARTS OF THE STEM 1G orange color and throwing down an orange or reddish deposit, when they are added to a brilliant blue alkaline solution of copper, known as Fehling’s solution1 The color or deposit will not appear until the solution has been heated to boiling. EXPERIMENT XXIV Testing for Grape Sugar.— Heat to boiling in a test-tube or a small beaker some weak syrup of grape sugar or some honey, much diluted with water. Add Fehling’s solution, a few drops at a time, until a decided orange color appears. Repeat the test with the water in which some slices of onion have been boiled, filtering the water through a paper filter and heating again to boiling before adding the test solution.” 127. Proteids in the Onion. Since the onion grows so rapidly on being planted in the spring, there must be a large supply of food in the bulb; there may be other substances present besides sugar. EXPERIMENT XXV Testing an Onion for Other Stored Food. — Test a rather thick slice of onion by heating it in a porcelain evaporating dish with a little strong nitric acid until the latter begins to boil and the onion becomes somewhat softened.? Rinse off the slice of onion in a stream of water, then pour on it a few drops of ammonium hydrate and observe any change of color. What is proved? See Sect. 29. 128. Tabular Review of Experiments. [Continue the table from Sect. 74.] 1 For the preparation of the solution see Handbook. 2 The deposit will in this case, even if orange at first, finally become black, probably owing to the presence of sulphur in the onion. 3 Do not allow the acid to touch the clothing, the hands, or any metallic object. —_ 118 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 129. Review Summary of Work of Stem. in young dicotyledonous stems Channels for upward movement ; in dicotyledonous stems several of water | years old . | | in monocotyledonous ae Channels for downward move- ( in dicotyledonous stems ment of water in monocotyledonous stems Channels for transverse movements Rate of upward movement where stored Storage of plant-food © kinds stored | uses CHAPTER VIII BUDS 130. Structure of Buds. — While studying twigs in their winter condition, as directed in Sects. 77, 78, the student had occasion to notice the presence, position, and arrange- ment of buds on the branch, but he was not called upon to look into the details of their structure. The most natu- ral time to do this is just before the study of the leaf is begun, since leafy stems spring from buds, and the rudi- ments of leaves in some form must be found in buds. 131. The Horse-Chestnut Bud. — Examine one of the lateral buds on a twig in its winter or early spring condition. Make a sketch of the external appearance of the buds as seen with a magnifying glass. How do the scales with which it is covered lie with reference to those beneath them? Notice the sticky coating on the scales. Are the scales opposite or alternate ? Remove the scales in pairs, placing them in order on a sheet of paper, thus: Make the distance from 1 to 1 as much as 6 or 8 inches. How many pairs are found? ‘Observe as the scales are removed whether the sticky coating is 2—_4—_6 m—— ~— or | —— 1 ——_ 1 The best possible time for this examination is just as the buds are begin- ning to swell slightly in the spring. The bud of buckeye or of cottonwood will do for this examination, though each is on a good deal smaller scale than the horse-chestnut bud. Buds may be forced to open early by placing twigs in water in a very warm, light place for many weeks. 119 120 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY thicker on the outside or the inside of each scale, and whether it is equally abundant on all the successive pairs. What is the probable use of this coating? Note the delicate veining of some of the scales as seen through | the magnifying glass. What does this mean ? found two forked woolly objects; what are these ? Compare with Figs. 87 and 107. Their shape could be more readily observed if the woolly coating were removed. Can you suggest a use for the woolly coating? Examine a terminal bud in the same way in which you have just studied the lateral bud. Does it contain any parts not found in the other? What is the appearance of these parts ? 7 What do they represent ? If there is any doubt about their nature, study them further on a horse-chestnut tree during and im- mediately after the process of leaf- ing out in the spring. FiG. 80. — Dissected Bud of Buckeye é (Zsculus macrostachya), showing For comparison study at least one Transitions from Bud-Scales to of the following kinds of buds in Leaves. : : . . their winter or early spring condi- tion : hickory, butternut, beech, ash, magnolia (or tulip tree), lilac, balm of Gilead, cottonwood, cultivated cherry.’ 1 Consult the account of the mode of studying buds in Professor W. F. Ganong’s Teaching Botanist, pp. 208-210. If some of the buds are studied at home, pupils will have a better chance to examine at leisure the unfolding process. Inside the innermost pair are Pe ea i ci dasaebaaenlaiaiiiaemabaalioal BUDS 132. Nature of Bud-Scales. — The fact that the bud-scales are in certain cases merely imperfectly developed leaves or leaf-stalks is often clearly manifest from the series of steps con- necting the bud-scale on the one hand with the young leaf on the other, which may be found in many opening buds, as illustrated by Fig. 80. In other buds the scales are not imperfect leaves, but the little appendages (stzpules, Figs. 98, 99) which occur at the bases of leaves. This kind of bud-scale is especially well shown in the magnolia and the tulip tree. 133. Naked Buds. — All of the buds above mentioned are winter buds, capa- ble of living through the colder months of the year, and are scaly buds. In the herbs of temperate climates, and even in shrubs and trees of tropical regions, the buds are often naked, that is, nearly or quite destitute of scaly coverings (Fig. 81). Make a study of the naked buds of any convenient herb, such as one of the common “ geraniums ” (Pelargonium), and record what you find in it. 134. Position of Buds. — The dis- tinction between lateral and terminal buds has already been alluded to. 121 FIG. 81. — Tip of Branch of Ailanthus in Winter Condition, showing very Large Leaf-Scars and nearly Naked Buds. 122 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY The plumule is the first terminal bud which the plant produces. Lateral buds are usually azillary, as shown in Fig. 82, that is, they grow in the angle formed by the leaf with the stem (Latin aailla, armpit). But not infre- quently there are several buds grouped in some way about Fig. 82.— Alternate Leaves of Cultivated Cherry, with Buds in their Axils, in October. a single leaf-axil, either one above the other, as in the butternut (Fig. 84), or grouped side by side, as in the red maple, the cherry, and the box-elder (Fig. 83). .~ —- . In these cases all the buds except the axillary one are called accessory or supernumerary buds. 135. Leaf-Buds and Flower-Buds; the Bud an Undevel- oped Branch.— Such buds as the student has so far BUDS 123 examined for himself are not large enough to show in the most obvious way the relation of the parts and their real nature. Fortunately, it is easy to obtain a gigantic terminal bud which illustrates perfectly the structure and arrangement ‘of the parts of buds in general. Examine and sketch a rather small, firm cabbage, preferably a red one, which has been split lengthwise through the center! and note (a) The short, thick, conical stem. (6) The crowded leaves which arise from the stem, the lower and outer ones largest and most mature, the upper and innermost ones the small- est of the series. Fig. 83. — Accessory Buds as Box-Elder (c) The axillary buds, found Ook ee aad im the angles made by some. 3 ate leaves with the stem. Compare the section of the cabbage with Fig. 86. Most of the buds so far considered were Jleaf-buds, that is, the parts inside of the scales would develop into leaves, and their central axes into stems; but some were mized buds, that is, they contained both leaves and flowers in an undeveloped condition. Flower-buds contain the rudiments of flowers only. Sometimes, as in the black walnut and the butternut, the leaf-buds and flower-buds are readily distinguishable 1 Half of a cabbage will be enough for the entire division. 124 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY by their difference in form, while in other cases, as in the cultivated cherry, the difference in form is but slight. The rings of scars about the twig, shown in Figs. 82 Fie. 84. — Accessory Buds of Butternut. (Reduced.) 1, leaf-scar ; az, axil- lary bud; a, a’, ac- ecessory buds; ¢, terminal bud. and 85, mark the place where the bases of bud-scales were attached. A little - examination of the part of the twig which lies outside of this ring, as shown in Fig. 82, will lead one to the conclu- sion that this portion has all grown in the one spring and summer since the bud-scales of that particular ring dropped off. Following out this suggestion, it is easy to reckon the age of any moder- ately old portion of a branch, since it is equal to the number of segments between the rings. In rapidly growing shoots of willow, poplar, and similar trees, 5 or 10 feet of the length may be the growth of a single year, while in the lateral twigs of the hickory, apple, or cherry the yearly increase may be but a fraction of an inch. Such fruiting “spurs” as are shown in Fig. 85 are of little use in the permanent growth of the tree, and poplars, elms, soft maples and other trees shed the oldest of these every year. Whatever the amount of this growth, it is but the lengthening out and development of the bud, which may be regarded as an undeveloped stem or _ branch, with its internodes so shortened that successive leaves seem almost to spring from the same point. : j : . — ees > gd AE mm BUDS 125 136. Vernation. — Procure a considerable number of buds which are just about to burst, and others which have begun to open. Cut each across with a razor or very sharp scalpel; examine first with the magnifying glass, and then with the lowest power of the micro- scope. Pick to pieces other buds of the same kinds under the magnifying glass, and report upon the manner in which the leaves are packed away. The arrangement of leaves in the bud is called vernation ; some of the principal modes are shown in Fig. 86. fr iN Fie. 85. —A slowly grown Twig Fie. 86. of Cherry, 3 inches long and about ten years old. B,atwig of European elm; 4, a longitudi- The pointed bud J is a leaf-bud ; nal aces of the api of B aan mer iagd the more obtuse accessory magnified) ; az, the axis of the bud, which buds /, / are flower-buds. will elongate into a shoot ; sc, leaf-scars. In the cherry the two halves of the leaf are folded together flat, with the under surfaces outward; in the walnut the separate Jeaflets, or parts of the leaf, are folded 126 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY flat and then grouped into a sort of cone; in the snow- ball each half of the leaf is plaited in a somewhat fan-like manner, and the edges of the two halves are then brought round so as to meet; in the lady’s mantle the fan-like plaiting is very distinct; in the wood sorrel each leaflet =7e~ 1 NANA WA TN, NN . J ies Fic. 87, I.— Types of Vernation. 1, 2, Cherry ; 3,4, European walnut; 5, 6, snowball; 7, lady’s mantle; 8, oxalis. is folded smoothly, and then the three leaflets packed closely side by side. All these modes of vernation and many others have received accurate descriptive names by which they are known to botanists. : 137. Importance of Vernation. —The significance of ver- nation is best understood by considering that there are two BUDS i 127 important purposes to be served; the leaves must be stowed as closely as possible in the bud, and upon begin- ning to open they must be protected from too great heat and dryness until they have reached a certain degree of firmness. It may be inferred from Fig. 87, I, that it is common for very young leaves to stand vertically. This protects them considerably from the scorching effect of the sun at the hottest part of the day. Many young leaves, as, for instance, those of the silver-leafed poplar, the pear, the beech, and the mountain ash, are sheltered and pro- Fic. 87, I1.— Development of an Oxalis Leaf. A, full-grown leaf; B, rudimentary leaf, the leaflets not yet evident ; C, more advanced stage, the leaflets appearing; D, a still more advanced stage; ~ B, C, and D, considerably magnified. tected from the attacks of small insects by a coating of wool or down, which they afterwards lose. Those of the tulip tree are enclosed for a little time in thin pouches, which serve as bud-scales, and thus entirely shielded from direct contact with the outside air (see Sect. 117). 138. Dormant Buds. — Generally some of the buds on a branch remain undeveloped in the spring, when the other buds are beginning to grow, and this inactive condition may last for many seasons. Finally the bud may die, or some injury to the tree may destroy so many other buds as to leave the dormant ones an extra supply of food, and 128 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY this, with other causes, may force them to develop and to ~ grow into branches. Sometimes the tree altogether fails to produce buds at - places where they would regularly occur. In the lilac the terminal bud usually fails to appear, and the result is con- stant forking of the branches. 139. Adventitious Buds. — Buds which occur in irregu- lar places, that is, not terminal nor in or near the axils of leaves, are called adventitious buds ; they may spring from the roots, as in the silver-leafed poplar, or from the sides of the trunk, as in our American elm. In many trees, for instance willows and maples, they are sure to appear after the trees have been cut back. Willows are thus cut back or pollarded, as shown in Plate II, in order to cause them to produce a large crop of slender twigs suitable for basket-making. Leaves rarely produce buds, but a few kinds do so when they are injured. Those of the bryophyllum, a plant allied — to the garden live-for-ever, when they are removed from the plant while they are still green and fresh, almost always send out buds from the margin. ‘These do not appear at random but are borne at the notches in the leaf-margin and ~ . are accompanied almost from the first by minute roots. Pin up a bryophyllum leaf on the wall of the room or lay it on the surface of moist earth, and follow, day by day, the formation and development of the buds which it may produce. This plant seems to rely largely upon leaf-budding to reproduce itself, for in a moderately cool climate it rarely ~ flowers or seeds, but drops its living leaves freely, and from each such leaf one or several new plants may be produced. E II. — Pollarded Willows PLAT ic on Pe rity 2 Od a r -BUDS 129 140. Review Summary of Chapter VIII. f Coverings . Buds f leaf-buds Contents . . flower-buds . mixed buds regular Classes of buds as re- gards position : irregular . Make a sketch of Fig. 82 as it looked in June of the same sum- mer; also as it would look the following June. CHAPTER IX _ LEAVES 141. The Elm Leaf. — Sketch the leafy twig of elm that is sup- plied to you. Report on the following points: (a) How many rows of leaves? (0) How much overlapping of leaves when the twig is held with the upper sides of the leaves toward you? Can you suggest a reason for this? Are the spaces between the edges of the leaves large or small compared with the leaves themselves ? Pull off a single leaf and make a very careful sketch of its under surface, about natural size. Label the broad expanded part the blade, and the stalk by which it is attached to the twig, leaf-stalk or petiole. Study the outline of the leaf and answer these questions: (a) What is the shape of the leaf taken as a whole? (See Fig. 88.) Is the leaf bilaterally symmetrical, 1.e., is there a middle line running through it lengthwise, along which it could be so folded that the two sides would precisely coincide ? (0) What is the shape of the tip of the leaf? (See Fig. 89.) (c) Shape of the base of the leaf? (See Fig. 90.) (d) Outline of the margin of the leaf? (See Fig. 93.) Notice that the leaf is traversed lengthwise by a strong midrib and that many so-called veins run from this to the margin. Are 1 Any elm will answer the purpose. Young strong shoots which extend horizontally are best, since in these leaves are most fully developed and their distribution along the twig appears most clearly. Other good kinds of leaves with which to begin the study, if elm leaves are not available, are those of beech, oak, willow, peach, cherry, apple. Most of the statements and direc- tions above given would apply to any of the leaves just enumerated. If this — chapter is reached too early in the season to admit of suitable material being procured for the study of leaf arrangement, that topic may be omitted until the leaves of forest trees have sufficiently matured. 130 LEAVES 131 Fic. 88. — General Outline of Leaves. a, linear; 5, lanceolate ; c, wedge-shaped; d, spatulate ; e, ovate ; 7, obovate ; g, kidney-shaped ; h, orbicular ; 7, elliptical. iN RAS Talk Fic. 89.— Tips of Leaves. a, acuminate or taper-pointed ; b, acute; c, obtuse; d, truncate; e, retuse; /, emarginate or notched ; g (end leaflet), obcordate ; h, cuspidate,—the point sharp and rigid ; i, mucronate, —the point merely a prolongation of the midrib. ite FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY Fic. 90.— Shapes of Bases of Leaves. \\ 1, heart-shaped (unsymmetrically) ; 2, arrow- Fig. 91. — Peltate Leaf of shaped ; 3, halberd-shaped. Tropzolum. Fie. 93. — Shapes of Margins of Leaves. ' a@ (1), finely serrate ; (2), coarsely serrate; (3), doubly serrate. b(1), finely dentate ; (2), sinuate Fic. 92. dentate; (3), doubly dentate. ce, deeply sinuate. «d, wavy. A, runcinate leaf of dandelion; B, e (1), crenate or scalloped ; (2), lyrate leaf. doubly crenate. LEAVES 133 these veins parallel? Hold the leaf up towards the light and see how the main veins are connected by smaller veinlets. ae Ts Ke [? by Lis aS UISZEE ae ae So Sea) Saree LS xy SEEN aeea sen Ieientun Cen aenesty ASIN SUAS Gnas ran Geared eee Manaieante nOpanemeas cana ees tan ain: CRSeet aaa eats eames Wen 11 = ARS Aevvaneuan Geseeeeinee SIENA We pas RN ra SENN Ee eS, i ie *, x Fic. 94.—Netted Vein- ing (pinnate) in the Leaf of the Foxglove. Examine with your glass the leaf as held to the light and make a careful sketch of portions of one or two veins and the intersecting vein- lets. How is the course of the veins shown on the upper surface of the leaf? Examine both surfaces of the leaf with the glass and look for hairs distributed on the surfaces. Describe the: manner in which the hairs are arranged. The various forms of leaves are classed and described by botanists with great minuteness,! not simply for the study of leaves themselves, but also because in classifying and describing plants the characteristic forms of the leaves of many kinds of plants form a very simple and ready means of distinguishing them from each other and identifying “them. The student is not ex- pected to learn the names of the several shapes of leaves as a whole or of their bases, tips, or margins, except in those cases in which he needs to use and apply them. Fic. 95.— Netted Veining (pal- mate) in Leaf of Melon. Many of the words used to describe the shapes of leaves are equally applicable to the leaf-like parts of flowers. 1 See Kerner and Oliver’s Natural History of Plants, Vol. I, pp. 623-637. 134 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 142. The Maple Leaf. — Sketch the leafy twig. Are the leaves arranged in rows like those of the elm? How are they arranged ? How are the petioles distorted from their natural positions to bring the proper surface of the leaf upward toward the light? Do the edges of these leaves show larger spaces between them than the elm leaves did, 7.e., would a spray of maple intercept the “sunlight more or less perfectly than a spray of elm? Pull off a single leaf and sketch its lower surface, about natural size. Of the two main parts whose names have already been learned (blade and petiole), which is more developed in the maple than in the elm leaf? Describe : (a) The shape of the maple leaf as a whole. To settle this, place the leaf on paper, mark the positions of the extreme points and connect Fic. 96.—Pinnately these by a smooth line. Divided Leaf of Gatenaine: (6) Its outline as to main divisions: of what The blade of the leaf is kind and how many. discontinuous, con- (c) The detailed outline of the margin sisting of several por- ae tions between which (Fig. 93). . ate ‘ are spaces in which Compare the mode of veining or venation of one part of the blade the elm and the maple leaf by making a . has been developed. 3 diagram of each. These leaves agree in being netted-veined ; i.e., in having veinlets that join each other at many angles, so as to form a sort of — lace-work, like Figs. 94 and 90. They differ, however, in the arrangement of the principal veins. Such a leaf as that of the elm is said to be feather-veined, or pinnately veined. The maple leaf, or any leaf with closely similar venation, is said to be palmately veined. Describe the difference between the two plans of venation. 143. Relation of Venation to Shape of Leaves. — As soon as the student begins to observe leaves somewhat widely, LEAVES iso he can hardly fail to notice that there is a general relation between the plan of venation and the shape of the leaf. How may this relation be stated? In most cases the principal veins follow at the outset a pretty straight course, a fact for which the student ought to be able to give a reason after he has performed Exp. XXXII. On the whole, the arrangement of the veins seems to be such as to stiff- en the leaf most in the parts that need ; Fie. 99. — Leaf of Fic. 97. Palmately Divided Fic. 98.— Leaf of Ap- Pansy, with Leaf- Leaf of Buttercup. ple, with Stipules. Like Stipules. most support, and to reach the region near the margin by as short a course as possible from the end of the petiole. 144. Stipules. — Although they are absent from many leaves, and disappear early from others, stipules form a part of what the botanist regards as an ideal or model leaf.1 When present they are sometimes found as little 1 Unless the elm twigs used in the previous study were cut soon after the unfolding of the leaves in spring, the stipules may not have been left in any recognizable shape. 136 . FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY bristle-sshaped objects at the base of the leaf, as in the apple leaf (Fig. 98), sometimes as leaf-like bodies, for \ | erasses, are commonly "Zag Fie. 100. — Parallel- 2 : Veined Leaf of Sol. aS Shown in Fig. 100, or ae with parallel veins pro- ceeding from a midrib and thence extend- ing to the margin, as shown in Fig. 101. _ 146. Occurrence of Netted Veining and of Parallel Veining.— The student has already, in his experiments on germina- tion, had an opportunity to observe the difference in mode of veining between the leaves of some dicotyledonous plants — and those of monocotyledonous plants. ' This difference is general throughout these great groups of flowering plants. What is the difference? The polycotyledonous pines, spruces, and other coniferous trees have leaves with but a single vein, or two or three example in the pansy (Fig. 99), and in many other forms, one of which is that of spinous appendages, as shown in the common locust (Fig. 108). ° 145. Parallel-Veined Leaves. — The leaves of many great groups of plants, such as the lilies, the sedges, and the parallel-veined, that is, with the veins running nearly parallel, lengthwise through the blade, Fic. 101. — Parallel Veining in Canna. Veins running from midrib to margin. parallel ones, but in their case the veining could hardly be other than parallel, since the ‘needle-like leaves are so LEAVES 137 narrow that no veins of any considerable length could exist except in a position lengthwise of the leaf. The fact that a certain plan of venation is found mainly in plants with a particular mode of germination, of stem structure, and of arrangement of floral parts, is but one of the frequent cases in botany in which the ‘structures of plants are corre- lated in a way which it is not easy to explain. No one knows why plants with two cotyledons should have netted-veined leaves, but many such facts as this are familiar to every botanist. 147. Simple and Compound Leaves. — The leaves so far studied are simple leaves, that is, leaves of which the blades are more or less entirely united into one piece. But while in the elm the margin is cut in only a little way, in some maples it is deeply cut in toward the bases of the veins. In some leaves the gaps between the adjacent portions extend all the way down to the petiole Fig. 102. — The Fall of the Horse-Chestnut Leaf. 138 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY (in palmately veined leaves) or to the midrib (in pinnately veined ones). Such divided leaves are shown in Figs. 96 and 97. In still other leaves, known as compound leaves, the petiole, as shown in Fig. 102 (palmately compound), or the midrib, as shown in Fig. 103 (pin- be separate leaves. These differ in their nature and mode of origin from the portions of the blade of a divided leaf. One result of this dif- ference appears in the fact that some time before the whole leaf is ready to fall from the tree or other plant in autumn, the separate portions _ iG, 10,—Pinnately OF leaflets of a Compound Leaf of compound leaf are Fie. 103. — Pinnately Com- Pea. A tendril takes Beals pound Leaf of Locust, the place of aterminal S@€€l to be jointed with Spines for Stipules. leaflet. at their attach- ments, just as whole leaves are to the part of the stem from which they grow. In Fig. 102 the horse-chestnut leaf is shown at the time of falling, with some of the leaflets already disjointed. That a compound leaf, in spite of the joints of the nately compound), bears what look to —— LEAVES 139 separate leaflets, is really only one leaf is shown: (1) by the absence of buds in the axils of leaflets (see Fig. 82) ; (2) by the arrangement of the blades of the leaflets hori- zontally, without any twist in their individual leaf-stalks ; (3) by the fact that their arrangement on the midrib does not follow any of the systems of leaf arrangement on the stem (Sect. 149). If each leaflet of a compound leaf should itself become compound, the result would be to produce a twice compound leaf. Fig. 118 shows that of an acacia. What would be the appearance of a thrice compound leaf? 148. Review Summary of Leaves.! id. Seimereenedet leaf 6 ee 2. 3. gE Classes of netted-veined leaves . ......% ~- 1 2 Classes of parallel-veined leaves . . . . . ... . i 2. Relation of venation to number of cotyledons . . . . { Compound leaves ; types, dependent on arrangement of fi. leaflets . 2. Once, twice, or three times compound. . .... . { 1 Tilustrate by sketches if possible. CHAPTER X LEAF ARRANGEMENT FOR EXPOSURE TO SUN AND AIR ; MOVEMENTS OF LEAVES AND SHOOTS 149. Leaf Arrangement.! As has been learned from the study of the leafy twigs examined, leaves are quite Fic. 105. — Leaf Arrangement of the Oak. around the stem. In horizon- generally arranged so as to secure the best possible ex- posure to the sun and air. This, in the vertical shoots of the elm, the oak (Fig. 105), the apple, beech, and other alternate-leaved trees, is not _ inconsistent with their spiral arrangement of the leaves tal twigs and branches of the elm, the beech (Fig. 106), the chestnut, the linden, and many other trees and shrubs, the desired effect is secured by the arrangement of all the leaves in two flat rows, one Fic. 106.— Leaf Arrangement of European Beech. on each side of the twig. 1 See Kerner and Oliver’s Natural History of Plants, Vol. I, pp. 396-424. 140 Japanese Ivy ’ PiaTteE III. — Exposure to Sunlight LEAF EXPOSURE TO SUN AND AIR 141 The rows are produced, as it is easy to see on examining such a leafy twig, by a twisting about of the petioles. | The adjustment in many opposite- leaved trees and shrubs consists in having each pair of leaves cover the spaces be- tween the pair below it, and sometimes in the lengthening of the lower petioles Fie. 107. — Leaf Arrangement of Horse-Chestnut on so as to bring Vertical Shoots (top view). Pee hi dieticat the lower leaves outside those of the upper leaves. Ex- amination of Figs. 107 and 108 will make the matter ~ Se of a Vein in a Leaf. | EXPERIMENT XXVIII (Magnified about 345 % di: : Passage of Water from at oe ) v, spirally thickened cells Stem to Leaf. —Place a of the vein ; 7, paren- freshly cut leafy shoot of some ¢hyma-cells of the . % p spongy interior of the plant with large thin leaves, leaf, with chlorophyll such as Hydrangea hortensia, re a in eosin solution for a few minutes. As soon as the leaves show a decided reddening, pull some of them off and sketch the red stains on the scars thus made. What does this show? 167. Experimental Study of Functions of Leaves. — The most interesting and profitable way in which to find out what work leaves do for the plant is by experimenting upon them. Much that relates to the uses of leaves is 156 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY not readily shown in ordinary class-room experiments, but some things can readily be demonstrated in the expéri- ments which follow. EXPERIMENT XXIX Transpiration. —'Take two twigs or leafy shoots of any thin-leafed - plant ;1 cover the cut end of each stem with a bit of grafting wax? to prevent evaporation from the cut surface. Put one shoot into a fruit jar, screw the-top on, and leave in a warm room; put the other beside it, and allow both to remain some hours. Examine the relative appearance of the two, as regards wilting, at the end of the time. . Which shoot has lost most? Why? Has the one in the fruit jar lost any water? To answer this question, put the jar (without opening it) into a refrigerator; or, if the weather is cold, put it out of doors for a few minutes, and examine the appearance of the inside of the jar. What does this show ?? 168. Uses of the Epidermis.t— The epidermis, by its toughness, tends to prevent mechanical injuries to the “leaf, and after the filling up of a part of its outer por- tion with a corky substance it greatly diminishes the loss of water from the general surface. This process of becom- ing filled with cork (or a substance of similar properties known as cutin) is absolutely essential to the safety of leaves or young portions of stems which have to with- stand heat and dryness. The corky or cutinized cell- wall is waterproof, while ordinary cellulose allows water 1 Hydrangea, squash, melon, or cucumber is best; amany other kinds: sa answer very well. 2 Grafting wax may be bought of nurserymen or seedsmen. 3 If the student is in doubt whether the jar filled with ordinary air might not behave in the same way, the question may be readily answered by putting a sealed jar of air into the refrigerator. 4 See Kerner and Oliver’s Natural History of Plants, Vol. 1, pp. 273-362. MINUTE STRUCTURE OF LEAVES 157 to soak through it with ease. Merely examining sections of the various kinds of epidermis will not give nearly as good an idea of their properties as can be obtained by studying the behavior during severe droughts of plants which have strongly cutinized surfaces and of those which have not. Fig. 121, however, may convey some notion of the difference between the two kinds of structure. In most cases, as in the india- rubber tree, the ex- ternal epidermal cells (and often two or three layers of cells beneath these) are filled with water, and thus serve as reser- voirs from which the Fig. 121. — Unequal Development of Cuticle outer parts of the leaf Aaa one ae A, epidermis of Butcher’s Broom (Ruscus); B, and the stem are at epidermis of sunflower; c, cuticle; e, epi- . times supplied. dermis-cells. In many cases, noticeably in the cabbage, the epidermis is covered with a waxy. coating, which doubtless increases the power of the leaf to retain needed moisture, and which certainly prevents rain or dew from covering the leaf-surfaces, especially the lower surfaces, so as to hinder the operation of the stomata. Many common plants, like the meadow rue and the nasturtium, possess this power to shed water to such a degree that the under surface of the leaf is hardly wet at all when immersed in water. The air-bubbles on such leaves give them a silvery appearance when held under water. 158 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 169. Hairs on Leaves. — Many kinds of leaves are more | or less hairy or downy, as those of the mullein, the ‘“mullein pink,” many cinquefoils, and other common plants. In some instances. this hairiness may be a protec- tion against snails or other small leaf-eating animals, but in other cases it seems to be pretty clear that the woolli- ness (so often confined to the under surface) is to lessen the loss of water through the stomata. The Labrador tea is an excellent example of a plant, with a densely woolly coating on the lower surface of the leaf. The leaves, too, are partly rolled up (see Fig. 224), with the upper surface outward, so as to give the lower surface a sort of deeply grooved form, and on the lower surface all of the stomata are placed. This plant, like some others with the same characteristics, ranges far north into regions ‘where the temperature, even during summer, often falls so low that absorption of water by the roots ceases, since it has been shown that this nearly stops a little above the freezing point of water (see Exp. XVII). Exposed to cold, dry winds, the plant would then often be killed by complete drying if it were not for the pro- tection afforded by the woolly, channeled under surfaces of the leaves. 170. Operation of the Stomata. — The stomata serve to admit air to the interior of the leaf, and to allow moisture, in the form of vapor, to pass out of it. They do this not in a passive way, as so many mere holes in the epidermis might, but to a considerable extent they regulate the rapidity of transpiration, opening more widely in damp weather and closing in dry weather. The opening is 1 This adaptation is sufficiently interesting for class study. Pirate IV. — A Cypress Swamp MINUTE STRUCTURE OF LEAVES 159 caused by each of the guard-cells bending into a more kidney-like form than usual, and the closing by a straight- ening out of the guard-cells. The under side of the leaf, free from palisade-cells, abounding in intercellular spaces, and pretty well protected from becoming covered with rain or dew, is especially adapted for the working of the stomata, and accordingly we usually find them in much greater numbers on the lower surface. On the other hand, the little flowerless plants known as liverworts, which lie prostrate on the ground, have their stomata on the upper surface, and so do the leaves of pond lilies, which lie flat on the water. In those leaves which stand with their edges nearly vertical, the stomata are dis- tributed somewhat equally on both surfaces. Stomata occur in the epidermis of young stems, being replaced later by the lenticels. Those plants which, like the cacti, have no ordinary leaves, transpire through the stomata scattered over their general surfaces. The health of the plant depends largely on the proper working condition of the stomata, and one reason why plants in cities often fail to thrive is that the stomata become choked with dust and soot. In some plants, as the oleander, provision is made for the exclusion of dust by a fringe of hairs about the opening of each stoma. If the stomata were to become filled with water, their activ- ity would cease until they were freed from it; hence many plants have their leaves, especially the under sur- faces, protected by a coating of wax which sheds water. 171. Measurement of Transpiration. — We have already proved that water is lost by the leaves, but it is worth while to perform a careful experiment to reduce our 160 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY knowledge to an exact form, to learn how much water a given plant transpires under certain conditions. It is also desirable to find out whether different kinds of plants transpire alike, and what changes in the temperature, the dampness of the air, the brightness of the light, to which a plant is exposed, have to do with its transpiration. Another experiment will show whether both sides of a leaf transpire alike. EXPERIMENT XXX Amount of Water lost by Transpiration. — Procure a thrifty hydran- geal and a small “india-rubber plant,”2 each growing in a small flower-pot, and with the number of square inches of leaf-surface in the two plants not too widely different. Calculate the area of the leaf-surface for each plant, by dividing the surface of a piece of tracing cloth into a series of squares one-half inch on a side, holding an average leaf of each plant against this and counting — the number of squares and parts of squares covered by the leaf. ~ Or weigh a square inch of tinfoil on a very delicate balance, cut out a piece of the same kind of _ tinfoil of the size of an average Fig. 122.— A Hydrangea pottedina = Jeaf, weigh this and calculate the Ey ee Sa leaf-area from the two weights. This area, multiplied by the number of leaves for each plant, will give approximately the total evaporating surface for each. Transfer each plant to a glass battery jar of suitable size. Cover 1 The common species of the greenhouses, Hydrangea hortensia. 2 This is really a fig, Ficus elastica. MINUTE STRUCTURE OF LEAVES 161 the jar with a piece of sheet lead, slit to admit the stem of the plant, invert the jar and seal the lead to the glass with a hot mixture of beeswax and rosin. Seal up the slit and the opening about the stem with grafting wax. A thistle-tube, such as is used by chem- ists, is also to be inserted, asshown in Fig.122.1. The mouth of this may be kept corked when the tube isnot in use for watering. Water each plant moderately and weigh the plants separately on a balance that is sensitive to one or two grams. Record the weights, allow the plants to stand in a sunny, warm room for twenty-four hours and reweigh. Add to each plant just the amount of water which is lost,? and continue the experiment in the same manner for several days so as to ascertain, if possible, the effect upon transpiration of varying amounts of water in the atmosphere. Calculate the average loss per 100 square inches of leaf-surface for each plant throughout the whole course of the experiment. Divide the greater loss by the lesser to find their ratio. Find the ratio of each plant’s greatest loss per day to its least loss per day, and by comparing these ratios decide which transpires more regularly. Try the effect of supplying very little water to each, so that the hydrangea will begin to droop, and see whether this changes the relative amount of transpiration for the two plants. Vary the con- ditions of the experiment for a day or two as regards temperature, and again for a day or two as regards light, and note the effect upon the amount of transpiration. The structure of the fig (India-rubber plant) leaf has already been studied. That of the hydrangea is looser in texture and more like the leaf of the lily or the beet (Fig. 116). What light does the structure throw on the results of the pre- ceding experiment ? 1 Tt will be much more convenient to tie the hydrangea if one has been chosen that has but a single main stem. Instead of the hydrangea, the com- mon cineraria, Senecio cruentus, does very well. 2 The addition of known amounts of water may be made most conveniently by measuring it in a cylindrical graduate. 162 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY EXPERIMENT XXXI Through which Side of a Leaf of the India-Rubber Plant does Tran- spiration occur ?— The student may already have found (Sect. 164) that there are no stomata on the upper surface of the fig leaf which he studied. That fact makes this leaf an excellent one by means of which to study the relation of stomata to transpiration. Take two large, sound rubber-plant leaves, cut off pretty close to the stem of the plant. Slip over the cut end of the petiole of each leaf a piece of small rubber tubing, wire this on, leaving about half of it free, then double the free end over and wire tightly, so as to make the covering moisture-proof. Warm some vaseline or grafting wax until it is almost liquid, and spread a thin layer of it smoothly over the upper surface of one leaf and the lower surface of the other. Hang both up in a sunny place in the laboratory and watch them for a month or more. What difference in the appearance of the two leaves becomes evident ? . What does the experiment prove ? 172. Endurance of Drought by Plants. — Plants in a wild state have to live under extremely different conditions as regards water supply (see Chapter XXIV). Observation of growing plants during a long drought will quickly show how differently the various species of a region bear the hardships due to a scanty supply of moisture. It is still easier, however, to subject some plants to an artificial drought and watch their condition. EXPERIMENT XXXII Resistance to Drought. — Procure at least one plant from each of these groups : Group I. Melon-cactus (Echinocactus or Mamillaria), prickly pear cactus. Group II. Aloe, Cotyledon (often called Echeveria), houseleek. MINUTE STRUCTURE OF LEAVES 163 Group III. Live-for-ever (Sedum Telephium), Bryophyllum, English ivy, “ivy-leafed geranium,” (Pelargonium peltatum), or any of the fleshy-leafed begonias. Group IV. Hydrangea (H. hortensia), squash or cucumber, sun- flower. The plants should be growing in pots and well rooted. Water them well and then put them all in a warm, sunny place. Note the appearance of all the plants at the end of twenty-four hours. If any are wilting badly, water them. Keep on with the experiment, in no case watering any plant or set of plants until it has wilted a good deal. Record the observations in such a way as to show just how long a time it took each plant to begin to wilt from the time when the experiment began. If any hold out more than a month, they may afterwards be examined at intervals of a week, to save the time required for daily observations. If possible, account by the struc- ture of the plants for some of the differences observed. Try to learn the native country of each plant used and the soil or exposure natural to it. 173. Course traversed by Water through the Leaf.— The same plan that was adopted to trace the course of water in the stem (Exp. X XI) may be followed to discover its path through the leaf. EXPERIMENT XXXII Rise of Sap in Leaves. — Put the freshly cut ends of the petioles of several thin leaves of different kinds into small glasses, each con- taining eosin solution to the depth of one-quarter inch or more. Allow them to stand for half an hour, and examine them by holding up to the light and looking through them to see into what parts the eosin solution has risen. Allow some of the leaves to remain as much as twelve hours, and examine them again. The red-stained portions of the leaf mark the lines along which, under natural con- ditions, sap rises into it. Cut across (near the petiole or midrib ends) all the principal veins of some kind of large, thin leaf. Then cut off the petiole and at once stand the cut end, to which the blade 164 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY is attached, in eosin solution. Repeat with another leaf and stand in water. What do the results teach? 174, Total Amount of Transpiration. — In order to pre- vent wilting, the rise of sap during the life of the leaf must have kept pace with the evaporation from its sur- face. The total amount of water that travels through the roots, stems, and leaves of most seed-plants during their lifetime is large, relative to the weight of the plant itself. During 173 days of growth a corn-plant has been found to give off nearly 31 pounds of water. During 140 days of growth a sunflower-plant gave off about 145 pounds. A grass-plant has been found to give off its own weight of water every twenty-four hours in hot, dry summer weather. This would make about 64 tons per acre every twenty-four hours for an ordinary grass-field, or rather over 2200 pounds of water from a field 50 x 150 feet, that is, not larger than a good-sized city lot. Calculations based on observations — made by the Austrian forest experiment stations showed that a birch tree with 200,000 leaves, standing in open ground, transpired on hot summer days from 700 to 900 pounds, while at other times the amount of transpiration was probably not more than 18 to 20 pounds.! These large amounts of water are absorbed, carried through the tissues of the plant, and then given off by the leaves simply because the plant-food contained in the soil- water is in a condition so diluted that great quantities of — water must be taken in order to secure enough of the min- eral and other substances which the plant demands from the soil. : 1 See B. E. Fernow’s discussion in Report of Division of Forestry of U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1889. MINUTE STRUCTURE OF LEAVES 165 Meadow hay contains about two per cent of potash, or 2000 parts in 100,000, while the soil-water of a good soil does not contain more than one-half part in 100,000 parts. It would therefore take 4000 tons of such water to furnish the potash for one ton of hay. ‘The water which the root-hairs take up must, however, contain far more potash than is assumed in the calculation above given, so that the amount of water actually used in the growth of a ton of hay cannot be much more than 260 tons.! as a deposit of salt is found in the bottom of a seaside pool of salt water which has been dried up by the sun, so old leaves are found to be loaded with mineral matter, left behind as the sap drawn up from the roots is evaporated through the stomata. A bonfire of leaves makes a sur- prisingly large heap of ashes. An abundant constituent of the ashes of burnt leaves is silica, a substance chemic- ally the same as sand. This the plant is forced to absorb along with the potash, compounds of phosphorus, and other useful substances contained in the soil-water; but since the silica is of hardly any value to most plants, it often accumulates in the leaf as so much refuse. Lime is much more useful to the plant than silica, but a far larger quan- tity of it is absorbed than is needed; hence it, too, accu- mulates in the leaf. one 176. Nutrition,’Metabc ‘Metabolism.2 2). The manufacture of the more complex plant-foods, starch, sugar, and so on, from 1 See the article, ‘‘ Water as a Factor in the Growth of Plants,” by B. T. Galloway and Albert F. Woods, Year-Book of U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1894, 2 See Kerner and Oliver’s Natural History of Plants, Vol. I, pp. 371-483. Also Pfeffer’s Physiology of Plants, translated by Ewart, Chapter VIII. 166 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY the raw materials which are afforded by the earth and air and all the steps of the processes by which these foods are used in the life and growth of the plant are together known as its nutrition. When we think more of the chemical side of nutrition than of its relation to plant-life, we call any of the changes or all of them metabolism, which means simply chemical transformation in living tissues. There are two main classes of metabolism — the constructive kind, which embraces those changes which build up more com- plicated substances out of simpler ones (Sect. 179), and the destructive kind, the reverse of the former (Sect. 184). A good many references to cases of plant metabolism have been made in earlier chapters, but the subject comes up in more detail in connection with the study of the work of leaves than anywhere else, because the feeding which the ordinary seed-plant does is very largely done in and by its leaves. 177. Details of the Work of the Leaf. — A leaf has four functions to perform: (1) Starch-making; (2) assimila- tion ;1 (38) excretion of water ; (4) respiration. 178. Absorption of Carbon Dioxide and Removal of its - Carbon. — Carbon dioxide is a constant ingredient of the atmosphere, usually occurring in the proportion of about four parts in every 10,000 of air or one twenty-fifth of one per cent. It is a colorless gas, a compound of two simple | substances or elements, carbon and oxygen, the former familiar to us in the forms of charcoal and graphite, the latter occurring as the active constituent of air. 1JIn many works on Botany (1) and (2) are both compounded under the term assimilation. Many botanists (most of the American ones) apply the name photosynthesis or photosyntax to the starch-making process, but these names are not wholly satisfactory, and perhaps it is as well (as suggested by Professor Atkinson) to name the process from its result. MINUTE STRUCTURE OF LEAVES 167 Carbon dioxide is produced in immense quantities by the decay of vegetable and animal matter, by the respira- tion of animals, and by all fires in which wood, coal, gas, or petroleum is burned. Green leaves and the green parts of plants, when they contain a suitable amount of potassium salts, have the power of removing carbon dioxide from the air (or in the case of some aquatic plants from water in which it is dissolved), retaining its carbon and setting free part or all of the oxygen. This process is an important part of the work done by the plant in making over raw materials into food from which it forms its own substance. EXPERIMENT XXXIV Oxygen-Making in Sunlight. — Place a green aquatic plant in a glass jar full of ice-cold fresh water, in front of a sunny window.t Place a thermometer in the jar, watch the rise of temperature, and note at what point you first observe the formation of oxygen bub- bles. Remove to a dark closet for a few minutes and examine by _ lamplight, to see whether the rise of bubbles still continues. This gas may be shown to be oxygen by collecting some of it in a small inverted test-tube filled with water and thrusting the glowing coal of a match just blown out into the gas. It is not, however, very easy to do this satisfac- torily before the class. Repeat the experiment, using water which has been well boiled and then quickly cooled. Boiling removes all the dissolved gases from water, and they are not re-dissolved in any considerable quantity for many hours. 1 Elodea, Myriophyllum, Chrysosplenium, Potamogeton, Fontinalis, any of the green aquatic flowering plants, or even the common confervaceous plants, known as pond-scum or “‘ frog-spit,’’ will do for this experiment. 168 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY Ordinary air, containing a known per cent of carbon dioxide, if passed very slowly over the foliage of a plant covered with a bell- glass and placed in full sunlight, will, if tested chemically, on com- ing out of the bell-glass be found to have lost a little of its carbon dioxide. The pot in which the plant grows must be covered with a lid, closely sealed on, to prevent air charged with carbon dioxide (as the air of the soil is apt to be) from rising into the bell-glass. 179. Disposition made of the Absorbed Carbon Dioxide. — It would lead the student too far into the chemistry of botany to ask him to follow out in detail the changes by which carbon dioxide lets go part at least of its oxygen and gives its remaining portions, namely, the carbon, and perhaps part of its oxygen, to build up the substance of the plant. Starch-is composed of. three elements: hydro- gen (a colorless, inflammable gas, the lightest of known substances), carbon, and oxygen. Water is composed largely of hydrogen, and, therefore, carbon dioxide and water contain all the elements necessary for making starch. The chemist cannot put these elements together to form starch, but the plant can do it, and at suitable temperatures starch-making goes on constantly in the green parts of plants when exposed to sunlight and supplied with water and carbon dioxide.1 The seat of the manufacture is in the chlorophyll bodies, and protoplasm is without doubt the manufacturer, but the process is not understood by chemists or botanists. No carbon dioxide can be taken up and used by plants growing in the dark, nor in an atmosphere con- taining only carbon dioxide, even in the light. 1 Very likely the plant makes sugar first of all and then rapidly changes this into starch. However that may be, the first kind of food made in the leaf and retained long enough to be found there by ordinary tests is starch. See Pfeffer’s Physiology of Plants, translated by Ewart, Vol. I, pp. 317, 318. — A Saprophyte, Indian Pipe PLatE V. ~ MINUTE STRUCTURE OF LEAVES 169 A very good comparison of the leaf to a mill has been made as follows?: The mill: Palisade-cells and underlying cells of the leaf. Raw material used: Carbon dioxide, water. _ Milling apparatus : Chlorophyll grains. Energy by which the mill is run: Sunlight. Manufactured product: Starch. Waste product : Oxygen. 180. Plants Destitute of Chlorophyll not Starch-Makers. — Aside from the fact that newly formed starch grains are first found in the chlorophyll bodies of the leaf and the green layer of the bark, one of the best evidences of the intimate relation of chlorophyll to starch-making is derived from the fact that plants which contain no chloro- phyll cannot make starch from water and carbon dioxide. Parasites, like the dodder, which are nearly destitute of green coloring matter, cannot do this; neither can sapro- phytes or plants which live on decaying or fermenting organic matter, animal or vegetable. Most saprophytes, like the moulds, toadstools, and yeast, are flowerless plants of low organization, but there are a few (such as the Indian pipe (Plate V), which flourishes on rotten wood or among decaying leaves) that bear flowers and seeds. 181. Detection of Starch in Leaves. — Starch may be found in abundance by microscopical examination of the green parts of growing leaves, or its presence may be shown by testing the whole leaf with iodine solution. 1 By Professor George L. Goodale. 170 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY EXPERIMENT XXXV Occurrence of Starch in Nasturtium Leaves. — Toward the close of a very sunny day collect some bean leaves or leaves of nasturtium (Tropeolum). Boil these in water for a few minutes, to kill the — protoplasmic contents of the cells and to soften and swell the starch grains.! . Soak the leaves, after boiling, in strong alcohol for a day or two, to dissolve out the chlorophyll, which would otherwise make it diffi- cult to see the blue color of the starch test, if any were obtained. Rinse out the alcohol with plenty of water and then place the leaves for ten or fifteen minutes in a solution of iodine, rinse off with water and note what portions of the leaf, if any, show the presence of starch. ws an) Lon J \i\ ill) WG je EXPERIMENT XXXVI Consumption of Starch in Nasturtium (Tropeolum) Leaves. — Select some healthy leaves of Tropzeolum on a plant growing vigorously indoors or, still better, in the Fic. 123.— Leaf of Tropzo- : : lum partly covered with open air. Shut off the sunlight from Disks of Cork and ex- parts of the selected leaves (which are to nored to. Sumer. be left on the plant and as little injured as may be) by pinning circular disks of cork on opposite sides of the leaf, as shown in Fig. 123. On the afternoon of the next day remove these leaves from the plant and treat as described in the preceding experiment, taking especial pains to get rid of all the chlorophyll by changing the alcohol as many times as may be neces- sary. What does this experiment show in regard to the consump- tion of starch in the leaf? What has caused its disappearance? 182. Rate at which Starch is manufactured. — The amount of starch made in a day by any given area of 1 The leaves, collected as above described, may, after boiling, be kept in © alcohol for winter use. They also make excellent material for the micro- scopical study of starch in the leaf. MINUTE STRUCTURE OF LEAVES herg & foliage must depend on the kind of leaves, the tempera- ture of the air, the intensity of the sunlight, and some other circumstances. Sunflower leaves and pumpkin or squash leaves have been found to manufacture starch at about the same rate. In a summer day fifteen hours long they can make nearly three-quarters of an ounce of starch for each square yard of leaf-surface. sauayorT IVUALVTION ofl] V SUIPRE LouNny pues sly ‘ojo ‘sopgnsy ‘sysvaX ‘sajaohwmossy “OT » SINVTg-au0d ‘s[OOjspvo} pue ‘sysnd ‘smop[I[ ‘saraohworpisog *6 » swob $3 0) eke 3 é : : 079 “splnoy] eee " -oydhsa wojnyaa ssayfnay I NOIstarq ‘espe poy ‘weohydopoyy ") » IO SULAHAOTIVH . ‘esTe uMOoIg ‘waaohydomyg * ” II anowy ; ‘suinos-puod pur spruseq ‘apbnluog ‘SULOYvIC, ‘saypIlop/IOD, * ‘syuv|d-uoissty ‘aaohydozyag 6 8 yA 9 ‘es[e w9eLy ‘waohydowojyyg *G » m4 § G "elroyoeg ‘sazaahwmozyag *T SsV19 sjunj)d porpowspjd io ‘ISUNJ-OULT[S WOUIWOD ‘sauajspborhpy SSVIQ - SULAHAOTIVHLOXAL J anouy "MOpSUIy q"}939A OY} JO WOI}VOMIssYTD oY} Jo aq"L ‘CCY THE CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS Zoe Crass I Bont Recor or seed-plants with naked ova- ries, such as pines, spruces, cedars, and many other evergreen trees. Division II ie Suscuass I PHANEROGAMS OR Crase It MonocoTYLEDONOUS SEED-PLANTS ANGIOSPERMS or PLANTS seed-plants with SuBcLASS IIL closed ovaries DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 256. The Groups of Cryptogams. — The student is not to suppose that the arrangement of cryptogams into the four great groups given in the preceding table is the only way in which they could be classed. It is simply one way of dividing up the enormous number of spore-bearing plants into sections, each designated by marked character- istics of its own. But the amount of difference between one group and another is not always necessarily the same. The pteridophytes and the bryophytes resemble each other much more closely than the latter do the thallo- phytes, while the myxothallophytes are but little like other plants and it is extremely probable that they are really animals. The classes given in the table do not embrace all known eryptogams, but only those of which one or more repre- sentatives are described or designated for study in this book. Lichens in one sense hardly form a class, but it is most convenient to assemble them under a head by them- selves, on account of their extraordinary mode of life, a partnership between alge and fungi. 257. The Classes of Seed-Plants. — The gymnosperms are much less highly developed than other seed-plants. 234 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY The angiosperms constitute the great majority of seed- plants (or, as they have been more commonly called, flowering plants). Only one family of gymnosperms (the — Coniferce) is described in Part III of this book, though there are other families of great interest to the botanist, but with no representatives growing wild in the Northern United States. When people who are not botanists speak of plants they nearly always mean angiosperms. ‘This class is more interesting to people at large than any other, not only on account of the comparatively large size and the con- _ spicuousness of the members of many families, but also on account of the attractiveness of. the flowers and fruit of many. Almost all of the book which precedes the present chapter (except Chapter XII) has been occupied with seed-plants. Seed-plants of both classes frequently offer striking examples of adaptation to the conditions under which they live, and these adaptations have lately received much study, and are now treated as a separate department. of botany (see Part II). CHAPTER XX TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS ; THALLOPHYTES 258. The Group Thallophytes.— Under this head are classed all the multitude of cryptogams which have a plant-body without true roots, stems, or leaves. Such a plant-body is called a thallus. In its simplest form it con- sists of a portion of protoplasm not enclosed in a cell-wall and without much of any physiological division of labor among its parts (Fig. 125). Only a little less simple are such enclosed cells as that of Plewrococeus (Sect. 278) or one of the segments of Oscillatoria (Sect. 268). The most complex thallophytes, such as the higher alge and fungi, have parts definitely set aside for absorption of food and for reproduction. ‘The latter is sometimes accomplished by more than one process and is occasionally aided by some provision for scattering the reproductive bodies or spores about when they are mature. 259. Spores. — Before beginning the study of spore- plants it is well for the student to know what a spore is. A spore is a cell which becomes free and capable of develop- ing into a new plant. Spores are produced in one of two ways: either asexually, from the protoplasm of some part of the plant (often a specialized spore-producing portion), or sexually, by the combination of two masses of proto- plasm, from two separate plants, or from different parts of the same plant. 235 236 FOUNDATIONS. OF BOTANY Asexually produced spores are sometimes formed, each by the condensation of the protoplasm of a single cell, as shown in Fig. 174, #. They are also formed by the con- tents of spore-cases breaking up into many spores (Fig. 173, B; Fig. 210, D). Spores are sometimes produced by the spontaneous division of a mass of protoplasm into a small definite number of segments (Fig. 188, ¢). Spores which have the power of moving (swimming) freely are known as zodspores (Fig. 179, B). Sexually produced spores are formed in many ways. One of the simplest modes is that shown in Fig. 178, resulting in zygospores. Other methods are illustrated in Figs. 185 and 187.1 THE STUDY OF SLIME MOULDS ? 260. Occurrence. — Slime moulds occur in greenhouses, in tan- yards, or on old logs and decaying leaves in woods. They may be cultivated in the laboratory. They have been described in their vegetative condition on page 179. 261. Examination with the Magnifying Glass. — Stemonitis is one of the most available genera to illustrate the fruiting of slime moulds. At maturity the motile protoplasm of the vegetative stage quickly transforms itself into numerous sporangia or spore-cases with dust- like spores. With the naked eye and with a magnifying glass note the color, form, and feathery appearance of the spore-case of Stemo- nitis. The outer wall disappears at an early stage, leaving only an inner structure and spores. Sketch the general outline under a magnifying glass. 262. Examination with the Microscope. — With a low power of the microscope sketch the network of branching hairs which com- pose the structure of the sporangium. Note the presence or absence 1 See Vine’s Student’s Text-Book of Botany, pp. 68-71. 2 This should logically precede Sect. 258. TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES 237 of acentral column. MHave any of the branches free tips? Witha power of 250 or more examine the spores. A much higher power may be used to advantage. Describe the surface of the spore. THE STUDY OF BACTERIA 263. Occurrence. — « Bacteria may occur anywhere but not every- where.” In water, air, soil, and almost any organic substance, living Fic. 173. — Spore-Cases of Slime Moulds. A, a group of spore-cases of Arcyria; B,aspore-case of Trichia, bursting open and exposing its spores to the wind, x 20; C, threads of the same, with spores between them, x 250. or dead, some species of plant belonging to the group Bacteria may occur. A small bunch of hay placed in a tumbler of water will, at a suitable temperature, yield an abundant crop in a few days or hours. Raw peas or beans soaked for a week or two in water in a warm place will afford a plentiful supply. 264. Cultures. — Pure cultures of bacteria are commonly made in some preparation of gelatine in sterilized test-tubes. Boiled potatoes serve a good purpose for simple (but usually not pure) cultures. Select a few small roundish potatoes with skins entire and boil in water for a sufficient time to cook them through. Cut them in halves with a knife well scalded or sterilized, 1.e., freed from all living 238 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY > organisms in a flame, and lay each on a saucer, with cut surface up, covering each with a glass tumbler. The tumblers and saucers should be well scalded or kept in boiling water for half an hour and used without wiping. Sterilization may be improved by baking them in an oven for an hour. 265. Inoculation.— The culture media prepared as above may now be inoculated. Uncover them only when necessary and quickly replace the cover. Scrape a little material from the teeth, tongue, kitchen sink, floor of house or schoolroom, or any other place you may desire to investigate. With the point of a knife blade or a needle sterilized in a flame, inoculate a particle of the material to be cultivated into the surface of one of the potatoes. Several cultures ret Fig. 174. — Bacteria stained to show Cilia. A, Bacillus subtilis ; B, Bacillus typhi (the bacillus of typhoid fever) ; C, Bacillus tetani (the bacillus which causes lockjaw) ; D, Spirillumundula; £, Bacillus tetani forming spores. (All five are magnified 1000 diameters.) may be made in this way and one or more left uninoculated as checks. Another may be left uncovered in the air for half an hour. Others may be made with uncovered potatoes. Number each culture and keep a numbered record. Keep watch of the cultures, looking at them daily or oftener. As soon as any change is noticed on the surface of a culture, make a descriptive note of it and continue to record the changes which are seen. Note the color of the areas of growth, their size, outline, ele- vation above the surface, and any indications of wateriness. Any growth showing peculiar colors or other characters of special inter- est may be inoculated into freshly prepared culture media, using any additional precautions that are practicable to guard against contamination. TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES 239 266. Microscopic Examination. — Examine some of the cultures. Place a particle of the growth on a slide, dilute it with a drop of clear water, and place a cover-glass over.it. Examine with the highest obtainable power of the microscope, at least } in. objective. Note the forms and movements, also the sizes if ee cae! of any bacteria that are found. THE STUDY OF OSCILLATORIA 1! 267. Occurrence. — Oscillatoria may occur floating in stagnant water or on damp soil in ditches, roadsides, dooryards, paths, or pots in greenhouses. Other nearly related plants occur on surfaces of ponds sometimes covering considerable areas or adhering in small spheres to submerged vegetation. Algz of this class are particu- larly noxious in water supplies, as they partake of the nature of bacteria, to which they are related. 268. Examination with the Microscope. — After tte a particle of Oscillatoria material in a drop of water to remove as much of the earth as possible, place it in a clean drop of water, pull to shreds with needles, cover, and examine under a power of 200 or more diameters. Note the color and compare it with chlorophyll green. The filament is not one plant, but each of the cells which com- pose it is one plant. They are packed together in the filament like coins and sometimes may be found separating singly. The usual mode of reproduction is by the separation of a number of adhering cells as a short filament from one end of a longer one, and this increases in length by the dividing of its individual cells. 269. Movement. — At ordinary temperatures, favorable to growth, movement may be observed in the filaments. Describe the move- ment. What has it to do with the name of the plant? 1 A genus of the class Schizophycez. 240 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY THE STUDY OF DIATOMS 270. Occurrence. — Diatoms of different species may be found in sediment in water in various kinds of places or mixed with or A : B FiG. 175. — Schizophycezx. A,a filament of Calothriz, reproducing by hormogonia, h, segmented portions which escape from the sheath of the filament ; B, Rivularia. (Both A and B greatly magnified.) adhering to fresh-water or ma- rine alge, in ponds and ditches or on sand or earth at the ' bottom of clear brooks. In the last place they may be detected with the eye, forming a yellow- ish coloring. They may often _be obtained by straining hy- drant water. Where diatoms have been very abundant their remains sometimes form beds of rock, and fossil diatoms compose some of the polishing powders of commerce. 271. Microscopical Examina- tion of Diatoms. — Place a drop of water containing diatoms on a slide and put a cover-glass over it. Examine with a power of 200 or more diameters. Dia- toms occur singly, resembling triangles, wheels, boats, rods, and a great variety of other forms (Fig. 176), or adhering in long bands, as spokes of a wheel, etc. The boat-shaped kinds are among the common- est. The color of the contents is yellowish. The cell-wall is encrusted with a shell of silica whose surface is covered with beautiful markings, dots or lines, which are conspicuousin some species, in others so minute that the most powerful microscopes are required to detect them. By boiling TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES 241 in nitric acid, the cellulose wall and its contents may be destroyed and the markings of the siliceous shell more easily observed. Each diatom consists of a single cell. 272. Movements of Diatoms. — Living diatoms exhibit a peculiar power of movement. In the boat-shaped species the movement is much like that of a row-boat, forward or backward. THE STUDY OF SPIROGYRA 273. Occurrence. — Spirogyra, one of the plants commonly known as pond-scum, or “frog-spit,” occurs widely distributed throughout the country in ponds, springs, | x and clear streams. It is of a = green or yellowish-green color, and in sunny weather usually floats on or near the surface of the water, buoyed up by the numerous oxygen bubbles which it sets free. It may be found flourishing in unfrozen springs, even in midwinter. 274. Examination with the Magnifying Glass.._— Float a little of the material in a white plate, using just water enough §& to cover the bottom of the latter. Study with the magnifying glass and note the green color of the threads and their great length as compared with their thick- ness. Are all the filaments about A, Achnanihes; B, Cocconema; ° ? C, Meridion; D, Pleurosigma. equal to each other in diameter? Handle a mass of the material and describe how it feels between the fingers. 275. Examination with the Microscope. — Mount in water under a large cover-glass and examine first with a _ power of about 100 Fic. 176.— A Group of Diatoms. 1 Consult Huxley’s Biology and Spalding’s Introduction to Botany. 242 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY diameters, then with a power of 200 diameters or more. Note the structure of the filaments. Of what is each made up? Compare with the structure of Oscillatoria. Move the slide so as to trace the whole length of several filaments, and, if the unbroken end of one can be found, study and sketch it. Study with the higher power a single cell of one of the larger filaments and ascertain the details of structure. Try _ to discover, by focusing, the exact shape of the cell. How do you know that the cells are not flat? Count the bands of chlorophyll. The number of bands is an important characteristic in dis- tinguishing one species from another. Run in five-per-cent salt solution at one edge of the cover-glass (withdraw- ing water from the other edge with a bit of blotting paper). If any change in the appearance of the cell becomes evident, make a sketch to show it. What has happened to the cell-con- _ tents? Explain the cause of the Fic. 177.— Process of Cell-Multi- plication in a Species of Pond- Change by reference to what you know Scum. (Considerably magnified.) of osmose. A, portion of a filament partly On a freshly mounted slide run ee nt ees ae under the cover-glass iodine solution, completed, a new partition of a little at a time, and note its action cellulose formed ata; C, on the nucleus. Is any starch shown another portion more magni- : + eee fied, showing mucous covering to be present ? It SO, just how is it d, general cell-wall c, and a_ distributed through the cell? Se eee Nae bs 276. Reproduction of Spirogyra. = The reproductive process in Spirogyra is of two kinds, the simplest being a process of jission, or cell- division. The nucleus undergoes a very complicated series of transformations, which result in the division of the protoplasmic contents of a cell into two independent portions, each of which is at length surrounded by a complete cell-wall of its own. In Fig. 176 be by ogy © ccs Ope [oe pre key yi is ay a0 moe & 3 ley a! Kye ("a £6500, oe r Oc oS; o Zare|| 4) Ze i (cl 25, TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES 243 the division of the protoplasm and formation of a partition of cellulose in a kind of pond-scum are shown, but the nucleus and its changes are not represented. Another kind of reproduction, namely by conjugation, is found in Spirogyra. This process in its simplest form is found in such unicellular plants as the desmids (Fig. 178). Two cells (apparently precisely alike) come in contact, undergo a thinning-down or absorp- tive process in the cell-walls at the point of contact, and finally blend their protoplasmic cell-contents, as shown in the figure, to form a mass known as a spore, or more accu- rately a zygospore, from which, after Fic. 178. Conjugation of Cells of Green Alge. (Much magnified.) I. Conjugation of Desmids. A,asingle plant in its ordinary condition ; B, empty cell-wall of another individual; C, conjugation of two individuals to forma spore by union of their cell-contents. Il. Conjugation of Spirogyra. A, two filaments of Spirogyra side by side, with the contents of adjacent cells uniting to form spores, z. At the bottom of the figure the process is shown as beginning at the top as completed, and the cells of one filament emptied; B, a single filament of another kind of Spirogyra, containing two spores, one lettered z. (A magnified 240 diameters, B 150 diameters.) a period of rest, a new individual develops. In Spirogyra each cell of the filament appears to be an individual and can conjugate like the one-celled desmids. It is not easy to watch the process, since the spore-formation takes place at night. It is possible, 244 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY however, to retard the occurrence of conjugation by leaving the Spirogyra filaments in very cold water over night, and in this way the successive steps of the conjugating process may be studied by daylight. In such ways the series of phenomena shown in Fig. 178, II, has been accurately followed. If the student cannot follow these operations under the microscope, he may, at least, by looking over the yellower portions of a mass of Spirogyra find threads con- taining fully formed zygospores, like those shown in B, Fig. 178. THE STUDY OF PLEUROCOCCUS 277. Occurrence. — Pleurococcus may be found on old fences, roofs, and many similar places, particularly on the bark of the north side of trees. The individual plants cannot be detected by the naked eye, but when grouped in masses they form a powdery green covering over indefinite areas of bark. Plenty are seen where it is moist. 278. Microscopical Examination of Pleurococcus. — Scrape a minute quantity of Pleurococcus from a specimen on bark, place it in a drop of water on a slide, distributing it slightly in the water, lay on it a cover-glass and ex- amine with a power of 200 or more diameters. Sketch with the cam- era lucida one of the largest cells, some of © intermediate size, and one of the smallest, beside several divisions of the stage microm- eter. Note the clearly de- Fie. 179. — Two Cells of Protococcus. Wes aa (Greatly magnified.) fined cell-wall of A, aspherical cell of the stillform; B, a motile cell lulose, eee the with its protoplasm enclosed in a loose cell-walland protoplasmic contents, provided with two cilia. usually oreen through- out. Do any cells show a nucleus like that in Fig. 179, A? Test the cells with iodine solution for starch, Ste a OR ed | le, TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES 945 Note that in reproduction the cell-contents in many individuals has divided into two parts which become separated from each other by a cellulose partition. Each of these again divides, and the proc- ess continues until thirty-two or more cells may be found in one mass or they may fall apart at an earlier stage. 279. Nutrition of Pleurococcus. — Pleurococcus can flourish only with an abundance of light and moisture. In daylight it can absorb carbon dioxide and fix carbon (giving off the oxygen at the same time as bubbles of oxygen) and can assimilate mineral substances. It is a capital example of an individual cell capable of independent existence. 280. Motile Forms. — No motile form is known in Pleurococcus. Hematoccus, often known as Protococcus (Fig. 179), is a better object for study than Pleurococcus. It may sometimes be found in water of stagnant pools, particularly those which contain the drainage of barnyards or manure-heaps, in mud at the bottom of eaves-troughs, in barrels containing rain-water, or in water standing in cavities in logs or stumps. Its presence is indicated by a greenish or some- times by a reddish color. It is sometimes found in an actively swimming condition, in which case each cell is called a zodspore. THE STUDY OF VAUCHERIA 281. Occurrence. — Species of Vaucheria are found in ponds, : streams, and pools, immersed or floating like Spirogyra and at all seasons may be sought in greenhouses, where they grow on the moist earth of beds and pots, forming a green felt. 282. Examination with the Magnifying Glass. — The magnifying glass will show the growth of Vaucheria to consist of numerous green filaments similar to those of Spirogyra. Select a small portion and spread out the filaments carefully in a drop of water on a slide. Does the glass reveal any indications of cross-partitions, of branch- ing, or of fruiting organs as short lateral branches? Does it show the form or arrangement of the green coloring matter? 283. Examination with the Microscope.— Prepare as directed for the magnifying glass and place a cover-glass over the prepara- tion, with sufficient water. With the lowest power observe the 246 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY continuity of the cell-cavity and (in young plants growing on soil) search for root-like portions, in those growing in water for branch- ing portions, and fruiting organs in the form of. swellings or short lateral branches. With a power of about thirty to sixty diameters sketch a selected plant of moderate extent as nearly complete as possible or else Cry) OS =) 52 RY RQ, Dey Fiac. 180.— Vaucheria synandra. A, a filament with archegonia and antheridia (considerably magnified) ; B, part of same much more highly magnified; 0, oogonium; a, antheridium; C, a later stage of B; D, end of a filament with a zodspore, z, escaping (highly magnified). sketch a portion showing the branching and a root-like portion. Note and indicate the absence or presence and arrangement of chlorophyll. Can Vaucheria probably use carbon dioxide ? 284. Reproduction in Vaucheria. — Make an outline sketch of fruiting organs, if found. See if any filaments can be found with the contents massing or escaping at the tips. In some species TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES 247 zoospores are formed in this way, having their entire surface clothed with cilia. They are the largest motile cells known. In other spe- cies a portion of the filament is separated and cut off by a cell-wall. Such spores soon germinate and may be found in various stages of growth. They often serve for propagation through several genera- ‘tions before spores are produced by fertilization. With a power of about 200 diameters sketch a portion of a fila- ment to show the form and location of chlorophyll. Sketch the fruiting organs in detail, if any can be found.1 Antheridia and oégonia are formed near together on the same filament. The antheridium is a cell forming the terminal portion of a short branch, which is rather slender, straight or curved. Its contents form numerous minute antherozoids, each with two cilia. The cilia can be seen only with great difficulty, if at all, but their presence is indicated by their active movements. The o6gonium is a short, somewhat spheroidal branch separated by a cross-partition at the base. The cell-wall becomes ruptured at the tip, allowing the entrance of the antherozoids by which it is fertilized. After fertilization a cell-wall is formed about the odsphere, and it matures as an odspore and enters upon a period of rest. THE STUDY -OF NITELLA 285. Occurrence. — Nitella is a green plant growing attached to the bottom of ponds and streams, usually in shallow water. It is not common everywhere but is widely distributed. Chara is similar and may be used as a substitute but is more complicated. 286. General Aspect.— With the naked eye and a magnify- ing glass note the general aspect of JNitella, the length of the stem- like portions, from the root-like parts to the tip, the length of some of the joints (internodes), the arrangement of leaf-like and branch- like portions. 287. Protoplasm. — Examine the cells of stems or leaves under a low power. Select a vigorous cell of moderate size and examine 1 Goebel states that the formation of the fruiting organs begins in the even- ing, is completed the next morning, and that fertilization takes place during the day between ten and four o’clock. 248 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY under a power of 200 or more diameters. Select the terminal cell of the leaf if Chara is used. The protoplasm is nearly colorless but usually contains bodies which can be seen moving in the current of protoplasm. |The protoplasm will show normal activity at the temperature of a comfortable living room. By focusing, see if the current of protoplasm can be detected moving in more than one direction. Note the form and arrangement of the chlorophyll and any places lacking chloro- phyll, and see if you can tell whether the arrangement has any relation to the current of protoplasm. With a low power trace the course in several cells. How many ceils con- stitute each internode of Nitella? If Chara is used, internodes will be found to be covered with a layer of many corticating cells. Under a high power compare the general structure of node and internode and see if the attachment of leaves and branches can be clearly determined. Compare the tip of a leaf with the tip of a stem or branch if the material permits. Are the fruiting organs produced on the stems or the leaves? 288. Antheridia.— The antheridia are globular bodies, bearing male fertilizing cells and becoming red at maturity (Fig. 182). Eight cells compose the outer wall. They have radial lines indicating folds and Fig. 181.—End of a Main join one another by irregular sutures. Note Shoot of Chara. (About a round spot in the middle of each cell ae which marks the point of attachment within of the stalk on which antherozoid-producing cells are borne. 289. Odgonia. — The egg-shaped fruits, known as oégonia (Fig. 182), are borne near the antheridia in monecious species. Count the number of pointed cel!s which constitute the “crown” of the fruit, Does each tip consist of one or two short cells? Examine TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES 249 the surface of the enveloping cells which enclose the spore. What is their number and form? What is their relation to the cells form- ing the crown? Focus so as to see the large egg-cell (odsphere or odspore) which constitutes the center of the fruit. Can you determine anything regarding its contents? Search for young odgonia and if practicable describe and draw them in several stages of development. Their structure can be seen much more easily than that of the antheridia. Make drawings to illus- trate various details of structure. = ~ a ut 2 os “1 ty Cat, 290. Characee. Mitella and Chara are the genera composing the group Chara- preteen Pe Cea cee, a group of green alge differing widely from any Shy easy NS others. They show in a won- derful manner simplicity of cell-structure with a high degree of organization. Fie. 182. — Part of a Leaf of Fig. 181. (Considerably magnified.) Scarcely less wonderful are a,antheridium ; 0,odgonium. At the the care and precision with right are a young antheridium and which botanists have worked. out their life history. Asastudy in evolution the Characee may be considered as representing the highest develop- ment attained along the line of filamentous green alge, which, while preserving their algal characteristics, are comparable in a remarkable degree with moss- and fern- plants and with seed-plants. Every cell in the plant has been accounted for and is understood in regard to origin, relationship, and function. With harmony of structure throughout, it has organs comparable to root, stem, and leaf in seed-plants, each with characteristic structure and 250 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY mode of growth. The stem has nodes and internodes. The stem increases by the growth of an apical cell, but growth in length depends chiefly on the elongation of each internodal cell instead of the multiplication of numerous internodal cells. THE STUDY OF ROCKWEED? 291. Occurrence. — The common rockweed is abundant every- where on rocks, between high and low tide, on the New England Fig. 183. — Part of Thallus of a Rockweed (Fucus platy- carpus), naturalsize. The two uppermost branchlets are fertile. coast and southward. : 292. The Frond. — A plant of rockweed consists mostly of a growth which is some- what leaf-like, but, in fact, stem and leaf are not separately developed, and the growth is therefore called a thallus. This combined stem and leaf has many flat leathery branches which are buoyed up in the water by air-bladders. Cut one of the bladders openand note its form and appearance. Note whether they occur singly or how grouped. Note the prominent midrib running through- out the middle of each branch. Examine the swollen tips of some of the branches and (02) note their peculiarities. Sketch a portion of a frond to show the characteristics so far noted. 293. Reproduction. — Cut across through the middle of one of the swollen fruiting tips. Note the fruiting papillae (concep- tacles) as they appear in this section, and make a simple sketch to show their position. Select some plants with brighter colored tips and some less bright, if any difference 1 Fucus vesiculosus is the most available species. Others may be substituted. TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES 254 can be detected. After making the microscopic examination which follows, note what correspondence of structure B with color has been observed. Cut very thin sections through fruiting tips from different plants, keeping those from each plant separate. Be sure that some of the cuts pass through the conceptacle as near the middle as possible. Examine with a power of about sixty diameters sections from different fronds, searching for one kind containing rather large egg-shaped cells and another con- taining bundles of numerous smaller yy, 194 — Rockweed ries. sac-shaped cells. With a power of 200 4 antheridia borne on branch- diameters study the details of the sec- ing hairs, x 160; B, anthero- tions. Note the character of the cells 7°08 7om Same, * 380. forming the surface of the frond, those of the inner structure, and those limit- ing the cavity of the conceptacle. Ina conceptacle cut through the middle note the form of the orifice. Examine the slender hairs or filaments ( paraphyses) which, arising at right angles, line the walls of the conceptacle. 294. Odgonia and Antheridia. — In conceptacles containing egg-shaped cells (odgonia) note the form, mode of attachment (ses- sile or stalked), and dif- ferent stages of develop- ment. At maturity the contents are divided, forming eight odspheres; but not all can be seen Fic. 185.— Rockweed (Fucus). oégonium, its contents dividing into eight odspheres, at once, some being be- “’ : x 160; B, an odsphere, escaped, surrounded by an- neath the others. therozoids, x 160. —— eS opus 252 - FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY , - In conceptacles of the other kind examine the numerous small sac-shaped cells (antheridia).. At maturity the contents of each divide to form numerous very minute motile antherozoidsseach with © two delicate hairs or cilia. Dissect, by picking and by friction under cover-glass, a bunch of ee antheridia and note \ 4 the branching fila- \\ \\ \) din Pe ments upon which Nee \ H\ \f Wh 4 they are borne. WAY TAY LH Make drawings to i? illustrate the various points of structure. 295. Number of Antherozoids required for Fertilization. —The bulk of an odsphere has been estimated equal to that of thirty thousand to sixty thousand antherozoids, but apparently an — J UV ip od = SS SA — ee my. Cs antherozoid. Yet a New si = mes Nf large number swarm ar around each odsphere after both have escaped from the con- ceptacles, and often their movements are Fic. 186.— Transverse Section of Conceptacle of a Rockweed (Fucus platycarpus). (Xx about 35 ) h, hairs ; a, antheridia; 0, odgonia. so active as to cause the rotation of the odsphere. The process of fertilization may be discerned in fresh material, by squeezing odspheres and antherozoids from their respective conceptacles into a drop of water ona slide. In some species, as Fucus platycarpus (Fig. 186), antheridia and odgonia are found in the same conceptacle. i odsphere may be fer-~ LAr tilized by only one ~ ae OS le . ae hi -_- 4 TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES ~- 253 THE STUDY OF N NEMALION 296. Occurrence. — Seven or eight species of emalion are known in the world, but only one?! is widely diffused, being found in Europe and on the New England coast from Rhode Island northward. It grows in salt water attached to exposed rocks at low-water mark. Nemalion represents the largest of the groups of alge, nearly all of which live in salt water and have the characteristic color ; but a few live in fresh water. 297. Color.— Fresh specimens or’ er Cae properly dried for the : herbarium show the color which is characteristic of the great e7onp to which Nenialion belongs. Dried specimens of “Trish moss’ (Chondrus) and uiany other species furnish good illustrations. There are many variations of shade and intensity. Place a piece of a fresh or dried specimen of some species in a beaker of fresh water over night or longer and note the color of the solution and of the treated specimen. Treat another piece similarly _ with aleghol, A few genera related to Nemalion grow in fresh water. What do you infer regarding their color? 298. Form and General Character.— Examine specimens of Nemalion and note the size, shape, mode of branching, nature, or consistency of their substance. Examine a fragment of the plant with a power of about sixty diameters and note how the structure differs from what it appears to be to the naked eye. Do cells appear more densely packed or differently colored at any points? 299. Structure.— From a small portion of the plant cut thin longitudinal and transverse sections or pull it to pieces with needles so as to expose the inner portion. Place on a slide under a cover- glass in a drop of water. With a power of about 250 diameters or more examine the general structure of the frond, as shown by a slide prepared as above. Note the central portion (azis) of the frond as dissected out, consisting of long, slender, thread-like cells. Examine and draw the branching rows of cells which, radiating from the axis, form the surrounding outer structure of the frond. Note the tips of these branches and look for the fruiting organs and fruit (spores). 1 Nemalion multifidum, 254 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY Fic. 187.— Portions of Thallus of a Red Alga (Chantransia). (Much magnified.) A, filaments with antheridia, a; B, young recep- tive hair, or trichogyne,t; C and D, successive stages in the growth of the clustered fruit, /. 300. Organs for Repro- duction. — The fruiting organs are to be sought on the radiating branching filaments and are usually produced in great abun- dance during the summer. Various stages of develop- ment may be expected at a given time. The anther- ozoids are small spheres without cilia, non-motile, with a thin cell-wall. Look for cells in which they are formed (antheridia), occur- ring in. groups at the tips of the branches. Compare these with the vegetative cells. | 301. Spore-Production. — Look for spore-producing organs in various stages. In the young stage at the time of fertilization, an- therozoids, carried by cur- rents of water, may be found adhering. Note the shape of the tip (trichogyne) and the base (carpogonium), and find whether there is any partition separating them at this stage. Draw or describe a few later stages in development, and note the arrangement of the spores at maturity. Are they naked or enclosed in any sort of envelope? Are they arranged in masses, chains, or otherwise? TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES 255 302. Other Floridee. — Nemalion represents one of the simplest modes of fruiting in the red alge. In others there is great variety in structure and great complication in the mode of fruiting. Some species of Polysiphonia (or Dasya) may well be studied in compari- son with Nemalion and in further illustration of this important group.’ Understanding that a siphon, in alge, is a row of cells, end to end, study the structure of a plant of Poly- siphonia as illustrating its name. How many siphons are there? Do the main branches have any other cells covering the surface (cor- ticating cells) ? Note the tufts of repeatedly forking, one- siphoned filaments. 303. Fruiting of Polysiphonia. — The‘anther- idia are to be sought on the branching fila- ments just mentioned. Note how they differ from those of Nemalion. The clustered fruits retary Fp drbe Cinaran eal arenes Loss 2503 | Fira Bi or cystocarps will be recognized as ovoid- © 6 globose or urn-shaped bodies attached externally to the frond. Note whether @ the group of spores is naked or otherwise, © whether the spores are produced singly a a or in chains ; how attached; shape. Many Floridee have another kind of fruiting bodies, spores produced without hectic fertilization, codrdinate with the asexual dt Gpores of Nenlation (ereakly spores of black mould (see Sect. 308). magnified); B, portion of thallus of a red alga, Lejo- In Floridee such spores are usually ice ier cea cd 4 - > vans found in fours and are called tetraspores. Are tetraspores usually found on separate plants? In Polysiphonia the tetraspores appear to be formed in threes (tripartite), the fourth being underneath the three. When found, describe their position and arrangement. 304. Alge.— Diatom, Oscillatoria, Pleurococcus, Spi- rogyra, Vaucheria, Nitellu, Fucus, Nemalion, these eight 1 It is desirable also to exhibit fresh or pressed specimens of various genera to show their general aspect. 256 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY plants which we have just studied, are types of several families of plants which together make the great group called Alge. Something of its importance in nature is indicated by these facts: —The number of known species is about 12,000. In size, the individuals in various species range from a single cell of microscopic dimensions, as in Pleurococcus, to the giant kelp of California which reaches a length of more than 1000 feet. The form ranges from a simple spherical cell as in Plewrococcus to an extensive, branching cell in Vaucheria and its allies, specialized organs in the form of root, stem, leaf, air-bladder, and fruiting organs in Sargassum, which is an ally of Fucus. The algze illustrate a series of modes of propagation from simple division in Oscillatoria to the union of two similar masses of protoplasm to form a spore in Spirogyra, the direct fertilization of a germ-cell by motile anthero- zoids in Vaucheria, Mitella, Fucus; the indirect fertilization of fruiting cells by non-motile antherozoids in Wemalion. In allies of the latter there are more intricate variations of the same mode. The algee fall into five natural groups based wine on the mode of fruiting. In most cases color is codrdinate with class and may be relied upon as a superficial guide in grouping ; but there are a few exceptions, e.g., some fruit- ing like the red group are, nevertheless, green. The nutrition of the brown and the red alge is similar to that of the green alge, since the brown or red color merely conceals the green of the chlorophyll which is present in all and enables them all to take in and decom- pose carbon dioxide.1 1See Murray’s Introduction to the Study of Seaweeds, pp. 4-6. London, 1895. TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES 257 305. Classification of Types studied. DIATOMACE. Yellowish. Diatoms. CYANOPHYCE. Blue-green or some similar color. Oscillatoria. CHLOROPHYCE. Green. Pleurococcus, Spirogyra, Vaucheria, Nitella. PHXOPHYCE. Olive. Fucus. FLORIDE#. Red. Nemalion. Polysiphonia. THE STUDY OF BLACK MOULD (RHIZOPUS NIGRICANS) 306. Occurrence. —This mould may be found in abundance on decaying fruits, such as tomatoes, apples, peaches, grapes, and cher- ries, or on decaying sweet potatoes or squashes. For class study it may most conveniently be obtained by putting pieces of wet bread on plates for a few days under bell-jars and leaving in a warm place until patches of the mould begin to appear. 307. Examination with the Magnifying Glass.— Study some of the larger and more mature patches and some of the smaller ones. Note : (a) The slender, thread-like network with which the surface of the bread is covered. The threads are known as hyphe,.the entire network is called the mycelium. (b) The delicate threads which rise at intervals from the myce- lium and are terminated by small globular objects. These little spheres are spore-cases. Compare some of the spore-cases with each other and notice what change of color.marks their coming to maturity. 308. Examination with the Microscope. — Sketch a portion of the untouched surface of the mould as seen (opaque) with a two-inch objective, then compare with Fig. 189. 258 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY Wet a bit of the mould, first with alcohol, then with water. Examine in water with the half-inch objective, and sketch a little of the mycelium, some of the spore-cases, and the thread-like stalks on which they are borne. Are these stalks and the mycelium filaments solid or tubular? Are they one-celled or several-celled? Mount some of the mature spore-cases in water, examine them with the highest obtainable power, and sketch the escaping spores. Fic. 189. — Unicellular Mycelium of a Mould (AZucor Mucedo), sprung from a Single Spore. a, b, and c, branches for the production of spore-cases, showing various stages of maturity, (Considerably magnified.) Sow some of these spores on the surface of “ hay-tea,” made by boiling a handful of hay in just water enough to cover it and then straining through cloth or filtering through a paper filter. After from three to six hours examine a drop from the surface of the liquid with a medium power of the microscope (half-inch objective) to see how the development of hyphe from the spores begins. Sketch. TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES 259 After about twenty-four hours examine another portion of the mould from the surface of the liquid and auaed the more fully - developed mycelium. Sketch. 309. Zygospores. — Besides the spores just studied, zygo- spores are formed by conju- gation of the hyphe of the black moulds. It is not very easy to find these in process of formation, but the student may be able to gather from Fig. 190 the nature of the process by which they are formed, —a process which can- not fail to remind him of the conjugation of pond-scum. THE STUDY OF WHEAT RUST (PUCCINIA GRAMINIS) 310. Occurrence. — Wheat rust is common on cultivated wheat and other grains, and also on many wild and culti- aed forage —- In fact, i, threads in contact previous to conjuga- this or similar rusts occur on tion; 2, cutting off of the conjugating avery large number of grasses, cells, a, from the threads, 6; 3, a later d _ stage of the process ; 4, ripe zygospore; 5, and many species of such rusts germination of a zygospore and formation are recognized. A rust may of aspore-case. (1-4 magnified 225 diam- have one, two, or three kinds eters, 5 magnified about 60 diameters.) of spores, and when three occur one is known as the cluster-cup stage and the others as red rust and black rust, according to the usual approximate color of the spores. The rust called Puccinia graminis growing on wheat has its cluster-cup stage on the leaves of barberry in June. The spores from the cluster-cups are carried by the wind to the wheat, where they germinate and in a few days produce the Fic. 190.— Formation of Zygospores in a Mould (Wucor Mucedo). 260 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY red rust. A little later the black spores appear, produced from the same mycelium. This growth is chiefly upon the stems and sheaths. As LO A B Fie. 191. — Spore-Formation in Potato-Blight (Phytophthora infestans). A, a well-developed group of stalks, proceeding from a mass of mycelium inside the leaf and escaping through a stoma; B, a young, unbranched stalk. h, hyphe of mycelium; 0, stoma; s,spore. (Both figures greatly magnified, B more than A.) 311. Cluster-Cup Stage. — Note with the naked eye and with a magnifying glass the appearance of the cluster-cups upon the bar- berry leaf. Fresh specimens should be used, if available. Note whether the leaf is changed in form or color in any part occupied by the fungus. Note the number of cups in a cluster, the position on the leaf (which surface ?), the form and size, especially the height. TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES 261 Are they straight or curved? Describe the margin of the cup, the color without, and the color of the contents. With a power of 200 diameters or more examine some of the cells composing the cup and note the form, color, and nature of the surface. Draw. With the point of a needle or knife pick out a bit of the contents of the cup and examine as above. Note the characters as before and compare in detail with the celts of the cup. The cells within the cup are the spores. Can you tell how they are attached ? A thin section through the cup will show the mode of attachment and the relation of the spores to the cup. 312. Examination of Red and Black Rust. — Under the magnify- ing glass examine the eruptions of spores (sori) on the wheat plant, some of red spores and some of black spores. The red spores are faded in dried specimens. Note the approximate size and shape and any other peculiarities. Prepare slides of each kind of spores and see if both can be found in one sorus. The spores may be taken from the host-plant on the point of a knife by picking rather deeply down into the sorus. Place the small quantity of spores so ne: > aX i orer ses te. XS) E Fic. 192.— A Cluster-Cup of Anemone Rust (Puccinia fusca). (x 120.) s, chains of spores ; p, the covering or peridium of the cup; h, hyphe. obtained in a drop of water on a slide, spread with dissecting needles and cover. Examine under a power of 200 or more diameters. The red spores (uredospores) have each a stalk from which they _ easily fall. They may be seen attached to their stalks if properly 262 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY prepared cross-sections through the sorus are available, especially if the material is fresh. Examine the spores and note the shape, color, and surface. If the spores are shrunken, a drop of potash solution will restore the natural plumpness. Draw. Spore-measurements are important in determining species. The wuredospores of Puccinia graminis may be distinguished from those of other species common Fie. 193.—A Group of Spores of Wheat Rust (Puccinia graminis). (xX about 440.) w, U, uredospores ; ¢, a teleu- tospore. on grasses by the greater proportionate length. The structure of the black spores (teleutospores) can be made out with- out difficulty. Some should be found attached at the base. Note the parts and the differences in color in different portions. Make careful drawings to show shape and structure of both kinds of spores. Boil a portion of a rust-injured plant in potash solution, pick it to pieces on a slide under the magnifier or dissect- ing microscope, use a cover-glass and examine the preparation for mycelium, using a high power. 313. Cultivation on a Host-Plant. — If practicable, find some wheat or grass which has remained over winter with the black rust upon it. Tie a bunch of this to a barberry bush while the leaves are young or unexpanded. When the time arrives for the appearance of the cluster-cups, note whether they are any more abundant on this bush than on others. Are you sure that the rust you have is the one to which the barberry cluster-cups belong? —— TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS ; THALLOPHYTES 2638 THE STUDY OF MICROSPHARA 314. Occurrence. — Species of Microsphera and allied forms occur in late summer and fall on leaves of various herbaceous and woody plants. The growth is confined to the surfaces of the leaf (upper, lower, or both). Among the most available species are those which grow upon lilac, oak, grape, cherry, willow, and wild plants of the sunflower family. Some species are known to occur on only one host-plant, others occur on several or a large number, and the host-plants may belong to one or more than one family. Besides Microsphera there are about five other genera, any of which may be substituted or studied comparatively. They are dis- tinguished by the form of the appendages, together with the number of spore-sacs (asci) in each sac-receptacle or perithecium. The species of fungi which MWicrosphera represents are called powdery mildews. | With naked eye and magnifying glass examine the surface of a leaf bearing powdery mildew. Note which surface and what portion of the surface is occupied by the fungus, whether the occupied area is restricted or not, the color, and any other characters. 315. Examination with the Microscope.— Place a small drop of water on the leaf where the fungus occurs, if possible where dark- colored specks occur among the mycelium. Pick from the leaf a portion of the fungus loosened by the water and place with a drop of water ona slide. Place a cover-glass over it. Examine under a power of about fifty diameters. The dark-colored specks will be seen as somewhat spherical bodies ( perithecia). Note their structure and color and their appendages. Have the perithecia any regular way of opening? Note the length of the appendages as compared with the diameter of the perithecia; also note the form of the tips and of the base, the color and any variation of color in different parts of the appendages. Keep the left hand on the focusing screw, and with the needle in the right hand press with gentle but varying stress upon the cover-glass to rupture the perithecia. Even with great care broken cover-glasses may result, but this pressure should force out the contents of the perithecia. Another method is to remove the slide from the microscope and, with a pencil rubber 264 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY applied to the cover-glass, rupture the perithecia by gentle grinding between the cover and slide. Note the number and form of the spore-sacs (asci) expelled from each of several perithecia. Examine under a power of about 200 diam- eters and count the number of spores My? 1 Ah lic dl ily in the asci. Gentle pressure may iad ijeey ANN make them more distinctly visible. Make drawings to illustrate the r structural characters observed. THE STUDY OF AGARICUS 316. Occurrence. — The common mushroom, Agaricus campestris, grows in open fields and pastures in the United States and Europe. It is the mushroom most extensively cultivated for market, and if not found in the field 1t may be raised from “spawn” (mycelium), put up in the shape of bricks, and sold by seedsmen in the large cities. Those who make a specialty of selling it furnish directions for culture free. A moderately warm cellar or base- ment makes an excellent winter garden for mushrooms. 317. Structure of Mycelium. — Examine some of the spawn, or mycelium, with the magnifying glass Fie. 194. A Mushroom (Agaricus melleus). my, mycelium; c, c', ec", young andthe low power of the microscope, “buttons” ; sé, stipe or stalk; r, and with a power of 200 diameters Br onde eine: or more examine the individual hyphe which compose it. Are the hyphe united in cord-like strands or otherwise, or are they entirely separate? Look for cross-partitions in the hyphe. Is there any peculiar structure to be found at these places? Are the cross-partitions near together or widely separated ? = TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS ; THALLOPHYTES 265 318. The Spore-Plant.— Search for indications of fruiting, and note the appearance of the “ button mushrooms” in all available stages. Draw. See if at any stage up to maturity an outer envelope of tissue (volva) can be found enclosing the entire fruiting body. If such be present, what becomes of it at maturity? If material is available, compare the species of Amanita (poisonous) in regard to this. Examine specimens in which the cap is expanding and see if there is another tissue forming a veil covering the under surface of the cap. If such be pres- . ent, how is it attached cane ‘ and what becomes of it? Take a fresh, well- expanded mushroom or toadstool. Remove the stalk, or stipe, close under the cap, or pileus, and lay the latter, gills down, on a piece of paper. Let it remain undisturbed for a few hours, or over night, KEE _—. ih Gti Y % mt (hl NS W NM ot | “i Mint ——" SS IM Se —— sisi rani ose CU S i B Fie. 195. — Portions of Gills of a Fungus (Agaricus). \' 2 A, slightly magnified; B, one SS of the parts of A, more mag- nified. hym, hymenium; h, central layer. hy SAAN M “ Mt so that the spores may fall upon the paper. Note carefully their color, also the form in which they are arranged on the paper. What determines this form? Examine some of the spores under the highest available power of the micro- scope. Measure and draw. Describe the stipe. Is it a hollow tube or solid? Does it taper? Note length, diameter, color. Describe the cap, or pileus, in regard to diameter, thickness, nature and color of the upper surface, also color below. Examine the plates, or gills, which compose the under portion of the pileus. Cut a complete pileus and stipe, through the center, and draw an outline to show the shape, noting particularly how the gills are attached. What is the color of the gills? 319. Origin of Spores. — Make a cross-section of one of the gills, and with a magnifying power of about 200 diameters examine the O72 eS a 266 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY fruiting cells (basidia) which project at right angles to the gill and bear the spores. At how many points (sterigmata) on each basidium are spores attached? Draw a basidium, preferably one from which the spores have not yet fallen. THE STUDY OF YEAST (SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIZ#) 320. Growth of Yeast in Dilute Syrup. — Mix about an eighth of a cake of compressed yeast with about a teaspoonful of water and stir until a smooth, thin mixture is formed. Add this to about half a pint of water in which a table- spoonful of molasses has’ been dissolved. Place this mixture in a wide-mouthed bottle which holds one or one and a half pints, stop- per very loosely! and set aside for from twelve to twenty-four hours in a place in which the temper- C ature will be from 70 to 90 degrees. Watch the liquid meantime and note : (a) The rise of bubbles of gas in the quid. (6) The increasing muddiness of the liquid, a considerable sedi- ment usually collecting at the end Fic. 196.—Part of the PrecedingFigure. Of the time mentioned. — : (x about 300.) (c) The effect of cooling off the C, layer of cells immediately under the contents of the bottle by immers- hymenium; s,s’, s”, three successive stages in growth of spores. ing it in broken ice if convenient, or, if this is not practicable, by standing it for half an hour in a pail of the coldest water obtainable, or leaving it for an hour in a refrigerator, afterwards warming the liquid again. (d) The effect of shutting out light from the contents of the bottle by covering it with a tight box or large tin can. 1 If the cork is crowded into the neck with any considerable force, pressure of gas and an explosion may result. TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES 267 (e) The result of filling a test-tube or a very small bottle with some of the syrup-and-yeast mixture, from which gas-bubbles are freely rising, and immersing the small bottle up to the top of the neck for fifteen minutes in boiling water. Allow this bottle to stand in a warm place for some hours after the exposure to hot water. What has happened to the yeast-plants? (f) The behavior of a lighted match lowered into the air space above the liquid in the large bottle, after the latter has been standing undisturbed in a warm place for an hour or more. (g) The smell of the liquid and its taste. 321. Microscopical Examination of the Sediment. — Using a very slender glass tube as a pipette, take up a drop or two of the liquid and the upper layer of the sediment and place on a glass slide, cover with a very thin cover-glass and examine with the highest power that the microscope affords. Note: (a) The general shape of the cells. (0) Their granular contents. (c) The clear spot, or vacuole, seen in many of the cells. Sketch some of the groups and compare the sketches with Fig. 197. Run in a little iodine solution under one edge of the cover-glass, at the same time touching a bit of blotting paper to the opposite edge, and notice the color of the stained cells. Do they contain starch ? Place some vigorously growing yeast on a slide under a cover- glass and run in a little eosin solution or magenta solution. Note the proportion of cells which stain at first and the time required for others to stain. Repeat with yeast which has been placed in a slen- der test-tube and held for two or three minutes in a cup of boiling water. With a very small cover-glass, not more than three-eighths of an inch in diameter, it may be found possible by laying a few bits of blotting paper or cardboard on the cover-glass and pressing it against the slide to burst some of the stained cells and thus show their thin, colorless cell-walls and their semi-fluid contents, protoplasm, nearly colorless in its natural condition but now stained by the iodine. 1 See Huxley and Martin’s Biology, under Torula. 268 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY EXPERIMENT XXXIX Can Yeast grow in Pure Water or in Pure Syrup?— Put a bit of compressed yeast of about the size of a grain of wheat in about four fluid ounces of distilled water, and another bit of about the same size in four fluid ounces of 10 per cent solution of rock candy in distilled water; place both preparations in a warm place, allow to remain for twenty-four hours, and examine for evidence of the growth of the yeast added to each. 322. Size, Form, and Structure of the Yeast-Cell. — The student has discovered by his own observations with the microscope that the yeast-cell is a very minute object, — much smaller than most of the vegetable cells which he has hitherto examined. The average diam- eter of a yeast-cell is about 4,5 of an inch, but they vary greatly both ways from the average size. The general form of most of the cells of ordinary yeast is some- what egg-shaped. The structure is extremely simple, consisting of a thin cell-wall, which is wholly destitute of markings, and a more or less granular semi-fluid proto- Fig. 197. — Yeast (Saccharomyces ellip- soideus) budding actively. plasm, sometimes containing a A,a single cell; B, group of two budding portion of clearer liquid, the vacu- cells ; C,a large group; b, buds. ole, well shown in the larger cells of Hig, 1974 323. Substances which compose the Yeast-Cell. — The cell-wall is composed mostly of cellulose; the protoplasm consists largely of water, together with considerable portions of a proteid substance,? 1 This is not the ordinary commercial yeast. 2 It may be found troublesome to apply tests to the yeast-cell on the slide, under the cover-glass. Testing a yeast cake is not of much value, unless it may be assumed that compressed yeast contains little foreign matter and con- sists mostly of yeast-cells. Still the test is worth making. Millon’s reagent does not work well, but the red or maroon color which constitutes a good test for proteids is readily obtained by mixing a teaspoonful of granulated sugar with enough strong sulphuric acid to barely moisten the sugar throughout, and then, as quickly as possible, mixing a bit of yeast cake with the acid and cA”? =. = TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES 269 some fat, and very minute portions of sulphur, phosphorus, potash, magnesia, and lime. It is destitute of chlorophyll, as would be inferred from its lack of green color, and contains no starch. 324. Food of the Yeast-Cell; Fermentation. — The diluted molasses in which the yeast was grown in Exp. XXXIX contained all the mineral substances mentioned in Sect. 323, together with sugar, proteid materials, and water. The addition of a little nitrate of ammonium would probably have aided the growth of the yeast in this experiment, by supplying more abundantly the elements out of which the yeast constructs its proteid cell-contents. A great deal of sugar disappears during the growth of the yeast.1. Most of the sugar destroyed is changed into carbon dioxide (which the student saw rising through the liquid in bubbles) and alcohol, which can be separated from the liquid by simple means. The process of breaking up weak syrup into carbon dioxide and alcohol by aid of yeast is one kind of fermentation; it is of great practical importance in bread-making and in the manufacture of alcohol. Since grape juice, sweet cider, molasses and water, and similar liquids, when merely exposed to the air soon begin to ferment and are then found to contain growing yeast, it is concluded that dried yeast-cells, in the form of dust, must be everywhere present in ordinary air. 325. Yeast a Plant; a Saprophyte.— The yeast-cell is known to be a plant, and not an animal, from the fact of its producing a coating of cellulose around its protoplasmic contents and from the fact that it can produce proteids out of substances from which animals could not produce them.’ On the other hand, yeast cannot live wholly on carbon dioxide, nitrates, water, and other mineral substances, as ordinary green plants can. It gives off no oxygen, but only carbonic acid gas, and is therefore to be classed with the saprophytes, like the Indian pipe, among flowering plants (Sect. 180). sugar. A comparative experiment may be made at the same time with some other familiar proteid substance, e.g., wheat-germ meal. 1 The sugar contained in molasses is partly cane sugar and partly grape sugar. Only the latter is detected by the addition of Fehling’s solution. Both kinds are destroyed during the process of fermentation. 2For example, tartrate of ammonia. 270 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 326. Multiplication of Yeast.—It is worth while to notice the fact that yeast is one of the few cryptogams which have for ages been largely cultivated for economic purposes. Very recently yeast producing has become a definite art, and the cakes of compressed yeast so commonly sold afford only one instance of the success that has been attained in this process. While yeast-cells are under favorable conditions for growth, they multiply with very great rapidity. Little protrusions are formed at some portion of the cell-wall, as the thumb of a mitten might be formed by a gradual outgrowth from the main portion. Soon a partition of cellulose is constructed, which shuts off the newly formed outgrowth, making it into a separate cell, and this in turn may give rise to others, while meantime the original cell may have thrown out other off- shoots. The whole process is called reproduction by budding. It is often possible to trace at a glance the history of a group of cells, the oldest and largest cell being somewhere near the middle of the group and the youngest and smallest members being situated around the outside. Less frequently the mode of reproduction is by means of spores, new cells (usually four in number), formed inside one of the older cells (ascus). At length the old cell-wall bursts, and the spores are set free, to begin an independent existence of their own. In examining the yeast-cell the student has been making the acquaintance of plant life reduced almost to its lowest terms. The very simplest plants consist, like the slime moulds, of a speck of jelly-like protoplasm. Yeast is more complex, from the fact that its protoplasm is surrounded by an envelope of cellulose, the cell-wall. THE STUDY OF PHYSCIA 327. Occurrence. — Physcia is one of the commonest lichens. It grows attached to the bark of various trees. 328. The Thallus. — Physcia consists chiefly of an irregularly expanded growth somewhat leaf-like in texture. It is best to be wet for study. Is it separable from the bark to which itis attached or is it combined with it (incrusted) ? Describe the general outline of the margin, the general color, and any special variations of color above, also below. How is the thallus attached to the bark? TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES 271 329. The Fruit. — Look for small lance-shaped disks seated upon the thallus. Note the approximate sizes and color within and without. These disks are called apothecia. Note the very minute black specks (spermogones) which are scattered in the surface of the thallus. Pick one from the thallus, with as little of the thallus as possible, and examine under high power. It may be macerated in a drop of potash solution and crushed under the cover-glass. If the contents are not easily defined, they may then be made more opaque by a drop of acetic acid or a stain. The minute colorless bodies con- tained in the spermogones are Fig. 198, — A Lichen (Xanthoria). Fie. 199.— A Lichen (Usnea). (Natural size.) (Natural size.) called spermatia. Their office in Physcia is obscure, but in a few lichens they are thought to unite with a trichogyne cell, as in the red alge. Note the minute, powdery masses (soredia) on the surface of the thallus. Macerate if necessary under the cover-glass and examine under a high power. Compare with the structure of the thallus as seen in cross-section. (See next paragraph.) These soredia easily become detached and develop into new plants. Prepare for sectioning by imbedding a small portion of the thallus with an apothecium in a piece of pith or by any suitable device for sectioning, and cut thin sections of thallus and fruit. 1This, however, is doubtful. See Strasburger, Noll, Schenk, and Schimper’s Text-Book of Botany, p. 380. 272 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 330. Examination of the Thallus. — The thallus of Physcia as seen in cross-section will be found to consist of four layers, the upper cortical, gonidial, medullary, and the lower cortical. The cortical layers will be seen to serve for protection, answering the purpose of an epidermis or bark. ‘The cells which compose them make what is called a false parenchyma, —resembling parenchyma in form but nEGaeeO Sy as to origin being trans- ) Z) formed fungal hyphe. ° HEIRS og Note the form of the SS O(RE\L BLOUSES hyphe composing the é ee Gee ESSEX 0) medullary layer. Are y Nine aes 68 there any cross-parti- oun tions? Do any cells SUE appear circular, and if ~aJs ae so, what is the explana- O97 Ces Se tion? The upper por- © tion of the cortical Yor layer, having green S yu) cells intermixed, con- stitutes the gonidial layer. Why should the green cells be at the upper part of the med- ullary layer? Can you why detect any connection In" between the green cells and the hyphe ? Fic. 200. — Transverse Section through Thallus YRS Do of a Lichen (Sticta fuliginosa). (x 500.) these green cells re- c, cortical or epidermal layer ; g, gonidia; h, hyphz. semble any cells pre- viously studied ? Make a diagram to show the structure of the thallus. What arrangement of layers would you expect to find in a lichen thallus, upright or suspended? Compare the arrangement in the fruit-body (apothecium), describe, and sketch. How does the layer of cells beneath the spore-sacs resemble the cortical layer? All but these two layers may be considered as part of the thallus. To make out the details of the fruit, the section must be very thin. [==) So ) a ie — ae 2) , TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES 273 Examine the spore-sacs (asc?) and look for spores in different stages of formation. How many spores are found in each ascus ? What other bodies occur among the asci? Draw these, also asci and spores. 331. Lichens.— Lichens were formerly supposed to be a distinct class of plants, and it is only about thirty years since their real nature began to be understood. A lichen is now known to be a combination of two plants. The green cells, called the gonidia, belong to some species of aiga, and the remainder, the larger portion of the growth, is a fungus parasitic upon that alga. The groups of lichens correspond in structure to certain groups of fungi, but the genera are sufficiently distinct so that lichens are best considered by themselves for purposes of study and classification. The relation of the fungus and its algal host is not that of destructive parasitism, but rather a mutual rela- tion (symbiosis) in which both fungus and alga may have a vigorous growth. The relationship has been investi- gated in various ways, and it has been found that, while the alga may grow independent of the fungus, the germi- nating fungus spores can grow only to a limited extent if deprived of the algal host; but if supplied naturally or artificially with the proper alga they make a normal growth. The same alga may serve as gonidia to a number of lichens, often of very different form, and while the num- ber of lichens reaches into the thousands, the number of algzee known to serve as gonidia is quite small. Lichens are widely distributed in all zones but flourish particularly in northern regions where other vegetation is scanty. Some were formerly important as sources of OT: FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY dyes. “Iceland moss” is a lichen used for food, and a finely branching form, growing in extensive mats on the soil, serves as food for the reindeer and is known as “reindeer moss.” Most lichens grow on the bark of trees, on rocks, or soil where they have little moisture except during rainfall, but some grow where they are constantly wet. Some of the latter are gelatinous. Most of the conspicuous lichens are foliaceous or else have a thallus composed of branch- ing, cylindrical, thread-like portions. But many species, often less conspicuous, are crustaceous, growing as if they formed part of the bark or rock to which they are attached. 332. Fungi.— The yeasts, moulds, rusts, mildews, and mushrooms represent an immense group of plants of which about forty-five thousand species are now known in the world. They range from the very simple to quite com- plex forms, growing as saprophytes or parasites under a great variety of conditions. Their structure and life history are so varied as to constitute a long series of divi- sions and subdivisions.t_ Chlorophyll is absent from fungi, and they are destitute of starch, but produce a kind of cellulose which appears to differ chemically from that of other plants. Unable to build up their tissues from car- bonic acid gas, water, and other mineral matters, they are to be classed, with animals, as consumers rather than as producers, acting on the whole to diminish rather than to increase the total amount of organic material on the earth. 1See Strasburger, Noll, Schenk, and Schimper’s Text-Book of Botany, pp. 340-381 incl., also Potter and Warming’s Systematic Botany, p. 1, and Engler’s Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien, Berlin, 1898, pp. 25-47. TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES 275 333. Occurrence and Mode of Life of Fungi. — Among the most important cryptogamous plants are those which, like the bacteria of consumption, of diphtheria, of typhoid fever, or of cholera, produce disease in man or in the lower animals. The subclass which includes these plants is known by the name Bacterta. Bacteria are now classed by some as a separate group, lower than fungi. Some of the most notable characteristics of these plants are their extreme minuteness and their extraordinary power of multiplication. Many bacteria are on the whole highly useful to man, as is the case with those which produce decay in the tissues of dead plants or animals, since these substances would, if it were not for the destructive action of the bacteria of putrefaction and fermentation, remain indefinitely after death to cumber the earth and lock up proteid and other food needed by new organisms. The mushrooms and their allies include about one-fourth of the fungi. Some, such as the “dry-rot” fungus, mis- takenly so called, cause great destruction to living and dead tree trunks and timber in economic use. The com- mon mushroom, Agaricus campestris, is the most important edible species. Probably five hundred kinds can be eaten, but only afew are good food, and even these contain but little nutriment. Some species are dangerous, and a few are deadly poisons. The puffballs are a small group allied to the mush- rooms. Most of them are edible and of good quality. The mildews (Microsphera, etc.) and the “ black-knot”’ of the plum trees are of a group which likewise includes about one-fourth of the fungi. A considerable number are parasites, injurious to vegetation, while thousands of others grow on dead leaves, twigs, etc. 276 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY The “rust” of wheat and the “smut” of corn repre- sent groups numbering only a few hundreds of species, which are very important because they are all parasites on living plants, many on our most important economic plants. Fig. 191, representing another small group of destruc- tive parasites, shows clearly how a parasitic fungus grows from,a spore which has found lodgment in the tissues of a leaf and pushes out stalks through the stomata to dis- tribute its spores. CHAPTER XXI TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; BRYOPHYTES 334. The Group Bryophytes.— Under this head are classed the liverworts and the mosses. Both of these classes consist of plants a good deal more highly organized than the thallophytes. Bryophytes have no true roots, but they have organs which perform the work of roots. Some of them have leaves (Fig. 206), while others have none (Fig. 201). Fibro-vascular bun- dlesare wanting. The 4 physiological division ¢ GF SS of labor is carried pretty far among all the bryophytes. They have special appara- tus for absorbing yy. 001, —Part of Male ‘Thallus of a Liverwort water and sometimes (Marchantia disjuncta). (Enlarged.) Seo, conducting + mr, male receptacle. through the stem; stomata are often present and some- times highly developed. There are chlorophyll bodies, ; often arranged in cells extremely well situated for acting 277 278 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY on the carbon dioxide gas which the plant absorbs, that is, arranged. about rather large air chambers. | Reproduction is of two kinds, sexual and asexual, and the organs by which it is carried on are complicated and highly organized. An alternation of generations occurs, that is, the life history of any species embraces two forms: a sexual generation, which produces two kinds of cells that by their union give rise to a new plant; the asexual genera- tion, which multiplies freely by means of special cells known as spores. THE STUDY,0OB Fig. 202. —Part of Female Thallus o MARCHANTIA M. disjuncta. (Enlarged.) 335. Occurrenc fs e. = Marchantia grows on soil or rocks in damp shaded places and is widely distributed. 336. The Thallus. —In general form the thallus bears some resem- blance to that of some of the lichens, as Parmelia, but is plainly different in color, mode of branching, and internal structure under the microscope. Under the microscope (see below) the individual cells may be compared with those of the medullary layer in Physcia. Note the color and general shape of the thallus and study care- fully the mode of branching. The origin of the growing cells is at the tip, but cells so originating afterward multiply more rapidly, so - that the tip comes to be in a notch. Viewing the thallus as an opaque object, note the diamond-shaped network on the upper surface and the dot-like circle in the middle of each diamond. Examine the under surface for (1) rhizoids and (2) scales. Jr, female receptacle ; c, cups with gemme. TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS ; BRYOPHYTES 279 337. Internal Structure. —Cut thin cross-sections of the thallus in the same way as for Physcia, making some pass through the cir- cular dots mentioned above. Exam- ine under a high power and note the different kinds and layers of cells composing the thallus. Note the character of the cells forming the upper and lower surfaces. Describe the cells which are next above those of the lower epidermis, their shape, color of contents, approximate num- ber of horizontal rows. Have they any evident intercellular spaces? Find Fic. 203.—Section through Anther- cells connecting these with the upper idial Receptacle of Marchantia. epidermis and constituting the net- (Magnified.) : Bo ccdiarn, work of lines seen on the surface of the thallus. Note the air cavity bounded by these lines and the loose cells which occupy it in part. What is the color of their contents? How are they attached, and how arranged? Can you discover any opening through the epidermis? If so, describe it. Make drawings to illustrate the details: of structure observed. 338. Gemmz. — Look for a thallus bearing little green cups formed of its own substance. Describe the contents _ ofthe cup. The bodies are called gemme. 3 They originate by vegetative growth alone and when detached may grow into new plants. Fic. 204. Sectional View of 339. Fruiting Organs. — Look for thalli an Antheridium of Mar- bearing stalks with umbrella-like expan- chantia. sions. The umbrellas are of two kinds, 4, antheridium ; az, anthero- one disk-like with crenate points (how ot _ many?) and the other has rays (how many?) elongated and curving downward. Is there any difference in the height of the two kinds? az 280 ._ FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY Do both occur on the same thallus? On what part of the thallus do they occur, and do they differ in this respect ? 340. Antheridia.— The antheridia are formed as outgrowths from the upper surface of the crenate receptacle, but by further growth of the receptacle they become imbedded. They should be examined under a high power and sketched in outline. The anther- idium produces numerous motile antherozoids, each with two cilia. — 341. Archegonia and Sporophytes. — The receptacle with recurved rays bears the archegonia. Note whether they occur above or below and in what relation to the rays. How are the archegonia protected ? Note the cells which surround the central canal and form the elongated neck of the archego- nium. Does the archegonium open upward or downward? At the base look for the germ-cell. The antherozoids enter the central canal and penetrating to the egg-cell fertilize it, after which it begins to divide and grows into a sporophyte. In the older specimens, therefore, the sporophytes will be found more or less developed. The archegonium remains upon the tip of the sporophytes. The mature sporophyte contains the spores and also peculiar elongated tapering threads with spiral thickenings. These are called elaters. Fig. 205.— Sectional View of Female Receptacle of Marchantia. (x 5.) 342. Hepatice.— Marchantia represents only a small division of the Hepatice, and is not typical of the larger number of species. In spite of this it is chosen for study, because it is widely distributed and more available for study than most others. In most species the fruit lasts but a little while and good material is hard to obtain. In Marchantia the fruiting organs are abundant, more gradual in their development, and more persistent. Marchantia and Pir. TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; BRYOPHYTES 281 its allies consist chiefly of the thallus in the vegetative con- dition, while the greater number of Hepaticze have a stem and leaves. Thus they approach closely to the mosses. But mosses usually have leaves on all sides of the stem, while the leaves of Hepatic are two-ranked, spreading laterally, with sometimes a third row of leaves or scales underneath. The leaves of mosses usually have more than one layer of cells in some part, but the leaves of the leafy Hepatice have but one layer of cells throughout. The forms of the leaves are often very curious and interesting. The sporophyte of most mosses consists of a capsule with a lid, while in the leafy Hepatice the capsule usually opens by splitting longitudinally into two to four valves. Different species of Hepaticz grow on damp soil, rocks, and the bark of trees. Many are capable of enduring drought and reviving with moisture. THE STUDY OF PIGEON—WHEAT MOSS (POLYTRICHUM COMMUNE) 343. Occurrence.— This moss is widely distributed over the sur- face of the earth, and some of its relatives are among the best known mosses of the northern United States. Here it grows commonly in dry pastures or on hillsides, not usually in densely shaded situations. 344. Form, Size, and General Characters. — Study several speci- mens which have been pulled up with root-hairs. Note the size, general form, color, and texture of all the parts of the plants exam- ined. Some of them probably bear spore-capsules or sporophytes like those shown in Fig. 206, while others are without them. Sketch one plant of each kind, about natural size. What difference is noticeable between the appearance of the leaves in those plants which have spore-capsules and those which have none? Why is this? ? FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 282 In some specimens the stem may be found, at a height of an inch or more above the roots, to bear a conical, basket-shaped enlargement, Fic. 206. —A Moss, Catharinea. The sporophytes of this moss are usually rather more slender than as here represented. , TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; BRYOPHYTES 283 out of the center of which a younger portion of the stem seems to proceed ; and this younger portion may in turn end in a similar enlargement, from which a still younger part proceeds. Note the difference in general appearance between the leaves of those plants which have just been removed from the moist collecting- box and those which have been lying for half an hour on the table. Study the leaves in both cases with the magnifying glass in order to find out what has happened to them. Of what use to the plant is this change? Put seme of the partially dried leaves in water, in a Fic. 207. — Protonema of a Moss. prim, primary shoot ; h, a young root-haiz ; pl, young moss-plant ; br, branches of primary shoot. cell on a microscope slide, cover, place under the lowest power of the microscope, and examine at intervals of ten or fifteen minutes. Finally sketch a single leaf. 345. Minute Structure of the Leaf and Stem.— The cellular structure of the pigeon-wheat moss is not nearly as simple and con- venient for microscopical study as is that of the smaller mosses, many of which have leaves composed, over a large part of their surfaces, of but a single layer of cells, as shown in Fig. 209. If any detailed study of the structure of a moss is to be made, it will, therefore, be better for the student to provide himself with specimens of almost 284 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY any of the smaller genera,’ and work out what he can in regard to their minute anatomy. Fic. 208. — The Antheridium of a Moss (Funaria) and its Contents. a, antheridium; 06, escaping antherozoids, x 350; c, asin- _ gle antherozoid of another moss, x 800. 346. Sporophytes. m —_ SSD a = ps=4 Fic. 209. — Portions of Fertile Plant of a Moss (Funaria). A, longitudinal section of summit of plant, x 100; a, archegonia; Jl, leaves ; B,anarchegonium, x 550 ; e, enlarged ventral portion with central cell; », neck; m, mouth. That part of the reproductive apparatus of a common moss which is most apparent at a glance is the sporophyte or spore-capsule (Fig. 206). This is covered, until it reaches maturity, with a hood which is easily detached. Remove the hood from one 1 As Mnium or Bryum. “= 4 TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS ; BRYOPHYTES 285 of the capsules, examine with a magnifying glass, and sketch it. Note the character of the material of which its outer layer is composed. Sketch the uncovered capsule as seen through the magnifying glass, noting the little knob at its base and the circular lid. Pry off this lid, remove some of the mass of spores from the interior of the capsule, observe their color as seen in bulk through the magnifying glass, then mount in water, examine with the high- est obtainable power of the microscope, and sketch them. These spores, if sown on moist earth, will each develop into a slender, branched organism, consisting, like pond-scum, of single rows of cells (Fig. 207) called the protonema. 347. Other Reproductive Apparatus. — The student cannot, with- out spending a good deal of time and making himself expert in the examination of mosses, trace out for himself the whole story of the reproduction of any moss. It is sufficient here to give an outline of the process. The protonema develops buds, one of which is shown in Fig. 207, and the bud grows into an ordinary moss plant. This: plant, in the case of the pigeon-wheat moss, bears organs of a some- what flower-like nature, which contain either antheridia (Fig. 208), organs which produce fertilizing cells called antherozoids, or arche- gonia (Fig. 209), organs which produce egg-cells, but in this moss antheridia and archegonia are not produced in the same “ moss- flower.” The plants therefore correspond to dicecious ones among flowering plants. After the fertilization of the egg-cell, by the penetration of antherozoids to the bottom of the flask-shaped archegonium, the development of the egg-cell into sporophyte begins; the latter rises as a slender stalk, while the upper part of the archegonium is carried with it and persists for a time as the hood or calyptra. CHAPTER XXII TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; PTERIDOPHYTES 348. The Group Pteridophytes. — Under this head are classed the ferns, the scouring-rushes, and the club-mosses. They are the most highly organized of cryptogams, having true roots, and often well-developed stems and leaves. THE STUDY OF A FERN! 349. Conditions of Growth. —If the specimens studied were col- lected by the class, the collectors should report exactly in regard to the soil and exposure in which the plants were found growing. Do any ferns occur in surroundings decidedly different from these? What kind of treatment do ferns need in house culture? 350. The Underground Portion. — Dig up the entire underground portion of a plant of ladyfern. Note the color, size, shape, and appendages of the rootstock. If any. are at hand which were col- lected in their late winter or early spring condition, examine into the way in which the leafy parts of the coming season originate from the rootstock, and note their peculiar shape (Fig. 210, A). This kind of vernation (Sect. 186) is decidedly characteristic of ferns. Observe the number and distribution of the roots along the rootstock. Bring out all these points in a sketch. 1 The outline here given applies exactly only to Asplenium filix-foemina. Any species of Asplenium or of Aspidium is just as well adapted for study. Cystopteris is excellent, but the indusium is hard to find. Polypodium vul- gare isa simple and generally accessible form, but has no indusium. Pteris aquilina is of world-wide distribution, but differs in habit from most of our ferns. The teacher who wishes to go into detail in regard to the gross anat- omy or the histology of ferns as exemplified in Pteris will find a careful study of it in Huxley and Martin’s Biology, or a fully illustrated account in Sedg- wick and Wilson’s Biology. 286 TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; PTERIDOPHYTES 287 351. The Frond. — Fern leaves are technically known as _ fronds. Observe how these arise directly from the rootstock. Make a somewhat reduced drawing of the entire frond, which consists of a slender axis, the rhachis, along which are distributed. many leaflets or pinne, each composed of many pinnules. Draw the under side of one of the pinne, from near the middle of the frond, enlarged to two or three times its natural size, as seen through the magnifying glass. Note just how each pinnule is attached to its secondary rhachis. Examine the under side of one of the pinnules (viewed as an opaque object without cover-glass) with the lowest power of the microscope, and note: (a) The “fruit-dots” or sori (Fig. 210, B) (already seen with the magnifying glass, but now much more clearly shown). (6) The membranous covering or indusiwm of each sorus (Fig. 210, C). Observe how this is attached to the veins of the pinnule. In such ferns as the common brake (Pieris) and the maidenhair (Adiantum) there is no separate indusium, but the sporangia are covered by the incurved edges of the fronds. (c) The coiled spore-cases or sporangia, lying partly covered by the indusium. How do these sporangia discharge their spores ? Make a drawing, or several drawings, to bring out all these points. Examine some of the sporangia, dry, with a power of about fifty or seventy-five diameters, and sketch. Scrape off a few sporangia, thus disengaging some spores, mount the latter in water, examine with a power of about 200 diameters, and draw. 352. Life History of the Fern.— When a fern-spore is sown on damp earth it gradually develops into a minute, flattish object, called a prothallium (Fig. 211). It is a rather tedious process to grow prothallia from spores, and the easiest way to get them for study is to look for them on the earth or on the damp outer surface of the flower-pots in which ferns are growing in a greenhouse. All stages of germination may readily be found in such localities. Any prothallia thus obtained for study may be freed from par- ticles of earth by being washed, while held in very small forceps, in a gentle stream of water from a wash-bottle. The student should then mount the prothallium, bottom up, in water in a shallow cell, 288 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY SS SCO AOE d QUO ke Se Pa oe es Fic. 210.— Spore-Plant of a Fern (Aspidium Filix-mas). A, part of rootstock and fronds, not quite one-sixth natural size ; fr, young fronds unrolling; B, under side of a pinnule, showing sori, s; C, section through a sorus at right angles to surface of leaf, showing indusium,?, and sporangia, s ; D,asporangium discharging spores. (B is not far from natural size. Cand D are considerably magnified.) TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; PTERIDOPHYTES 289 cover with a large cover-glass, and examine with the lowest power of the microscope. Note: (a) The abundant root-hairs, springing from the lower surface _ of the prothallium. (6) The variable thickness of the prothallium, near the edge, consisting of only one layer of cells. (c) (In some mature specimens) the young fern growing from the prothallium, as shown in Fig. 211, B. 5 The student can hardly make out for himself, without much expenditure of time, the structure of the antheridia and the arche- gonia (Fig. 211, A), by the codperation of which fertilization takes place on much the same plan as that already described in the case of mosses. The fertilized egg- _ cell of the archego- - nium gives rise to the young fern, the sporophyte which grows at first at the expense of the parent _ prothallium but soon develops roots of its own and leads an in- A, under surface of a young prothallium ; ar, arche- dependent existence. gonia; an, antheridia; r, rhizoids; B, an older pro- 353. Nutrition. — thallium with a young fern-plant growing from it ; l, leaf of young fern. (Both x about 8.) Fig. 211.— Two Prothallia of a Fern (Aspidium). _ The mature fern _ makes its living, as flowering plants do, by absorption of nutritive _ matter from the soil and from the air, and its abundant chlorophyll makes it easy for the plant to decompose the supplies of carbon _ dioxide which it takes in through its stomata. 290 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY FERNS 354. Structure, Form, and Habits of Ferns.— The struc- ture of ferns is much more complex than that of any of the groups of cryptogamous plants discussed in the earlier portions of the present chapter. They are possessed of well-defined fibro-vascular bundles, they form a variety of parenchymatous cells, the leaves have a distinct epidermis - and are provided with stomata. Great differences in size, form, and habit of growth are found among the various genera of ferns. The tree ferns of South America and of many of the islands of the Pacific Ocean sometimes rise to a height of forty feet, while the most minute species of temperate and colder climates are not as large as the largest mosses. Some species climb freely, but most kinds are non-climbing plants of moderate size, with well-developed rootstocks, which are often, as in the - case of the bracken-fern, or brake,! and in Osmunda, very large in proportion to the parts of the plant visible above ground. | 355. Economic Value of Ferns. — Ferns of living species have little economic value, but are of great interest, even to non-botanical people, from the beauty of their foliage. During that vast portion of early time known to geolo- gists as the Carboniferous Age, the earth’s surface in many parts must have been clothed with a growth of ferns more dense than is now anywhere found. These ferns, with other flowerless herbs and tree-like plants, produced the vegetable matter out of which all the principal coal beds of the earth have been formed. 1 Pteris aquilina. TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; PTERIDOPHYTES 291 356. Reproduction in Ferns.—The reproduction of ferns is a more interesting illustration of alternation of gen- erations than is afforded by mosses. ‘The sexual plant, gametophyte, is the minute prothallium, and the non- sexual plant, sporophyte, which we commonly call the fern, is merely an outgrowth from the fertilized egg-cell, and physiologically no more important than the sporophyte of a moss, except that it supplies its own food instead of living parasitically. Like this sporophyte, the fern is an organism for the production of vegetative spores, from which new plants endowed with reproductive apparatus may grow. THE STUDY OF A CLUB-MOSS (LYCOPODIUM) 357. Occurrence. — Several species of Lycopodium are common in rich woods in the northern and mountainous portions of the eastern United States. Any species may be studied. 358. Examination. — Note whether the plant is chiefly erect or prostrate and vine-like. Describe the.mode of branching. Are the leaves arranged flat-wise or equally on all sides of the stem? Describe the leaves briefly. Are they all of one kind or do some portions of the plant evidently have smaller leaves? — Select fruiting specimens and determine the position of the spo- rangia. Is the leaf, near whose base each sporangium is situated, like the ordinary foliage leaves of the plant? Are the fruiting portions of the plant similar in general aspect or different from the rest of the plant and raised above it on stalks? Examine the spores. Are they all of one kind ? If Selaginella is used in place of Lycopodium or for comparison, two kinds of sporangia are to be sought, differing chiefly in shape. Describe each briefly. Compare the number of spores in each. The larger spores (macrospores) germinate and at length produce pro- thallia bearing archegonia, while the smaller produce prothallia bearing antheridia, The archegonia, after fertilization, develop each 292 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY an embryo. This grows, remaining for a time attached to the macrospore, and at length forms a new spore-plant. THE STUDY OF A SCOURING-RUSH (EQUISETUM) 399. Occurrence. — The common horse-tail, Equisetum arvense, is widely distributed in the United States, east, west, north, and south. It is very often found on sand hills and along railroad embankments. N NY Y \ Wi y ¥ SS: Ain YW fec Ut , t . a ’ Aer SIS NA Te ava BE KE ASA 2a : ae ws \) Vs . nso Nl : \ Nl oe < is Nes Fic. 212. — Plant of Lycopodium (LZ. annotinum). The fruiting stems appear very early in the spring and are of short duration. The sterile vegetative growth follows, becoming well grown in June. 360. Examination of Rootstocks and Roots. — Examine the under- ground portions of the plant with reference to general size, position, color, shape, and position of notches. After studying the stems TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; PTERIDOPHYTES 293 above ground insert here any evident points of comparison. Do you find any special forms of stem development suited to a special pur- pose? Are there any organs in the nature of leaves? Fic. 213.— A Scouring-Rush (Equisetum sylvaticum). At the right is a e colorless fertile stem, in the middle a green sterile one, and at the , left a green fertile one. 294 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 361. Sterile Stems.— Examine the stems above ground with reference to their color and mode and degree of branching. What is the character of the leaves? Do the stems in any sense serve as leaves? Observe the nodes composing the stem and note the posi- tion of the leaves on the stems. Do they appear to be placed several at the same level (whorled) ? Examine with a magnifying glass the surface of the stem and note the number of ridges and grooves. Compare the number and position of the leaves with reference to these. _ 862. Mineral Matter in Stem. — Treat small pieces of the stem with strong nitric acid to remove all vegetable substance and note the mineral substance remaining. Treat in a similar way thin cross- sections and examine under the microscope. The substance is silica. It gives the plant its gritty feeling and its name and use as ‘scouring-rush.” Of what use is it to the plant? Use of the same substance in outer rind of corn stem, bamboo stem, and straw of grains ? 363. Microscopic Examination. — Make thin cross-sections of the stem and examine under the lowest power of the microscope. Make a diagrammatic sketch to indicate the central cavity, the number and position of the fibro-vascular bundles, the cavity or canal in each, the ring of tissue surrounding the ring of bundles, and the larger cavities or canals outside of this. Where is the chlorophyll located? Can stomata be found, and if so, what is their location and arrangement ? 364, Fertile Stems. — Describe the fruiting stem with reference to general aspect, size, color, number, and length of internodes, position — of spore-bearing portion, color of spores in mass. Note the shield- shaped bodies (transformed leaves or sporophylls) composing the cone-like “flower” and see whether any joints can be detected where they are attached. Examine the inner surface of the shields for sporangia and spores. Examine the sporangia under a low power of the microscope. Examine some spores under a higher power. Note the two bands, elaters, on each spore, crossing each other and attached only at the point of crossing, forming four loose appendages. Watch these while some one moistens them by gently breathing upon them as they lie uncovered on the slide under the microscope TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; PTERIDOPHYTES 295 and note the effect. Also note the effect of drying. How does this affect the spores? Use of the bands? 365. Germination of Spores. — The spores germinate while fresh and form prothallia corresponding to those of ferns, but generally dicecious. The prothallium which bears the antheridia remains comparatively small, and the antheridia are somewhat sunken. The others grow much larger and branch profusely. The terminal portion becomes erect and ruffled. Near this part the archegonia are formed, quite similar to those of ferns. The embryo plant developing from the germ-cell has its first leaves ina whorl. This at length grows into a spore- plant like that shown in Fig. 218. About twenty-five species of Equisetum are known. Several may be looked for in any locality and may well be compared with the one described above, in regard to form, mode of branching, and mode of fruiting. 366. Fern-Plants (Pteridophytes). — The Pteridophytes (literally fern-plants) include in their general category: not only ferns as commonly recognized, but several other small groups which are very inter- esting on account of their diversity. All eryptogams higher than mosses belong in this group. In moss plants the individ- uals growing from spores and _ bearing antheridia and archegonia, the gameto- phytes, are full-grown leafy plants, and the spore-bearing plant, or sporophyte, is 3... o14 — part of a ‘merely a stalk bearing asporangium. In Lobeof the Mature all the fern-plants the reverse is true. ste eee The individuals growing from spores and © @Pout 50.) : ase " a, mouth of a ferti- bearing antheridia and archegonia are of _ jized archegonium. C 296 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY minor vegetative development (prothallia), while the spore- bearing plant is a leafy plant, even a tree in some ferns. The ferns in the strictest sense have sporangia derived from the epidermis (transformed hairs), while a few plants closely resembling them in general aspect (Botrychium, etc.) have sporangia formed in the tissue of the leaf. In the next subdivision, the water-ferns (Fig. 215), there is little resemblance to the common ferns. The sporangia are in special receptacles at the basal portion of the plant. The spores are of two kinds, diecious, one on germination, producing antheridia, the other archegonia. ‘This group includes two rooting forms, Marsilea (with leaves resem- bling a four-leaved clover) and Pilularia, bearing simple linear leaves, and two floating forms, Salvinia (Fig. 215) and Azolla. _ The remaining groups of fern-plants are the horse-tails and the club-mosses. The horse-tails have only one kind of spore and are peculiar chiefly in their vegetative aspect (Fig. 218), while the spore-bearing leaves, or sporophylls, are arranged in the form of a cone, as already shown. The club-mosses include some plants which, as their name implies, have a superficial resemblance to a large moss, with the addition of a club-shaped stalked fruiting spike. These are the so-called “ground pines” and the running ground “evergreens ” used for Christmas festoons in New England. ‘Technically the group is distinguished by the possession of firm-walled sporangia formed singly near the bases of the leaves. ‘The ordinary club-mosses already referred to have but one kind of spore, while plants called Selayinella and Isoetes have two kinds of spores, in this respect resembling Marsilea. In many TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; PTERIDOPHYTES 297 species of Selaginella the leaves are arranged flat-wise on the stem, so that considered physiologically the branch- ing stem and its leaves together serve as a foliage leaf. In one of the commonest American forms, however, the stem is more nearly erect, and the leaves are all alike and four-ranked. Isoetes (quill-wort) grows attached to the soil in shallow water at the bottoms of ponds. It has the aspect of short erass growing in bunches. The large sporangia are at the broad bases of the leaves. 367. High Organization of Pteridophytes. — The student may have noticed that in the scouring-rush and the club- moss studied there are groups of leaves greatly modified for the purpose of bearing the sporangia. These groups are more nearly equivalent to flowers than anything found in the lower spore-plants, and the fern-plants which show such structures deserve to be ranked just below seed-plants in any natural system of classification. The variety of tissues which occur in pteridophytes is frequently nearly as great as is found in ordinary seed- plants, and the fibro-vascular system is even better devel- oped in many ferns than in some seed-plants. __ Starch-making is carried on by aid of abundant chloro- q phyll bodies contained in parenchyma-cells to which car- bonic acid gas is admitted by stomata. In many cases _ large amounts of reserve food are stored in extensive root- stocks, so that the spring growth of leaves and stems is extremely rapid. CHAPTER XXIII THE EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY OF PLANTS 368. The Earliest Plant Life. — What sort of plants first appeared on the earth has never been positively ascertained. ‘The oldest known rocks contain carbon (in the form of black lead or graphite) which may represent the remnants of plants charred at so high a temperature and under so ereat pressure as to destroy all traces of plant structure. Some objects supposed by many to be the remains of large algze have been found in rocks that date back to a very early period in the life history of the earth, before there were any backboned animals, unless possibly some fishes. Judging from the way in which the various groups of plants have made their appearance from the time when we can begin clearly to trace their introduction upon the earth, it is probable that some of the simplest and lowest forms of thallophytes were the first to appear. Decaying animal or vegetable matter must have been less abundant than is now the case, so that a plant that could make part or all of its food from raw materials would have had a better chance than a saprophyte that could not. Water- plants are usually simpler than land-plants, so it is highly probable that some kind of one-celled aquatic alga was the first plant. | 369. Fossil Plants. — Fossils are the remains or traces of animals or plants preserved in the earth by natural processes. Fossil plants, or parts of plants, are very 298 THE EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY OF PLANTS 299 common ; the impressions of fern-leaves in bituminous coal and pieces of wood turned into a flint-like substance are two of the best known examples. The only way in which we can get knowledge about the animals and plants that inhabited the earth’s surface before men did is by studying such rocks as contain the remains of living things. In this way a great deal of information has been gained about early forms of animal life and a less amount about early plant life, — less because as a general thing plants have no parts that would be as likely to be preserved in the rocks as are the bones and teeth of the higher animals and the shells of ge lower ones. 370. The Law of Biogenesis. — An extremely important principle established by the study of the development of animals and plants from the egg or the seed, respectively, to maturity is this: The development of every individual is a brief repetition of the development of its tribe. The prin- ciple just stated is known as the law of biogenesis. As eggs develop during the process of incubation, the young animals within for a considerable time remain much alike, and it is only at a comparatively late stage that the wing of the bird shows any decided difference from the fore-leg of the alligator or the turtle. Zodlogists in general are agreed that this likeness in the early stages of the life history of such different animals proves beyond reasonable doubt that they all have a common origin, that is, are descended from the same kind of ancestral animal. i : Among plants the liverworts and ferns supply an excel- lent illustration of the same principle. In both of the groups the fertilized egg-cells, as the student may have learned 300 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY by his own observations, are much alike. As the egg-cell grows and develops, the sporophyte of a liverwort, which proceeds from the egg-cell, is extraordinarily unlike the “fern” or asexual generation (gametophyte) among Filices. Now this progressive unlikeness between liverworts and ferns, as they develop from the fertilized egg-cell, points to the conclusion that both groups of plants have a common origin or that the more highly organized ferns are direct descendants of the less highly organized liverworts. 371. Plants form an Ascending Series. — All modern systems of classification group plants in such a way as to show a succession of steps, often irregular and broken, seldom leading straight upward, from very simple forms to highly complex ones. The humblest thallophytes are merely single cells, usually of microscopic size. Class after class shows an increase in complexity of structure and of function until the most perfectly organized plants are met with among the dicotyledonous angiosperms. During the latter half of the present century it first became evident to botanists that among plants deep-seated resemblances imply actual relationship, the plants which resemble each other most are most closely akin by descent, and (if it were not for the fact that countless forms of plant life have wholly disappeared) the whole vegetable kingdom might have the relationships of its members worked out by a sufficiently careful study of the life histories of individual. plants and the likeness and differences of the several groups which make up the system of classification." 1 See Campbell’s Evolution of Plants and Warming’s Systematic Botany, Preface and throughout the work. In the little flora of the present book, the families are arranged in the order which, according to the best recent German authorities, most nearly represents their relationships. . —_— -_ ——_— se THE EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY OF PLANTS 301 372. Development of the Plant from the Spore in Green Alge, Liverworts, and Mosses.— ‘The course which the forms of plant life have followed in their successive ap- pearance on the earth may be traced by the application of the law above named. Such alge as the pond-scums produce spores which give rise directly to plants like the parent. In many liverworts the spore by its germination produces a thallus which at length bears antheridia and archegonia. The fertilized archegonium develops into a sporophyte which remains attached to the thallus, although it is really anew organism. Liverworts, then, show an alternation of generations, one a sexual thallus, the gametophyte, the next a much smaller, non-sexual sporophyte, and so on. A moss-spore in germination produces a thread-like pro- tonema which appears very similar to green alge of the pond-scum sort. This at length develops into a plant with stem and leaves, the sexual generation of the moss. The fertilized archegonium matures into a sporophyte which is the alternate, non-sexual generation. This is attached to the moss-plant, or gametophyte, but is an important new organism. In the moss, as in the liverwort, the sexual generation is the larger and the more complex ; the non- sexual generation being smaller and wholly dependent for its food supply on the other generation, to which it is attached. ; 373. Development of the Plant from the Spore in Pterido- phytes. — In the pteridophytes there is an alternation of generations, but here the proportions are reversed, the prothallium, or sexual generation, or gametophyte, being short-lived and small (sometimes microscopic), and the 302 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY non-sexual generation, the sporophyte, often being of large size. The ferns (non-sexual generation), for instance, are ean \ SSS WN Sa pina rity se Mae FX: TSS Sant rote oan, Ss Ze = =, aaa. 3 z CES: = SO rs Wee os DLT RES eA A i SSS senna tier Fie. 215.— A Water-Fern (Salvinia). i \ ~ q =a) WIE ANN rae 4 pyr, ae) ee chang ee ore Fic. 235.— Two Plants of Rock Rose (Helianthemum). greater than that (Both drawn to the same scale.) shown in the ro ek A, low ground form ; B, alpine form. rose (Fig. 235) cultivated by the same experimenter. The peculiarities of alpine plants appear to be due mainly to the intense light which they receive during the daytime, 1 Part of the diminution is only apparent, — the effect of distance, — but the growth at the highest levels is often less than waist high. 2 Helianthus tuberosus, the so-called Jerusalem artichoke. Sow FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY to the strongly drying character of the air in which they grow (due partly to its rarefaction), and to the low temper- ature which they must endure every night. 401. Aquatic Vegetation. — Plants which live wholly in water often need a less complicated system of organs than land-plants. True roots may be dispensed with altogether, as In many seaweeds, in most fresh-water alge, and in some seed-plants. A few such plants have mere hold- fasts that keep them from drifting with the waves or the current. Sometimes roots may, as in the duckweeds (Fig. 220), serve the purpose of a keel and keep the flat, expanded part of the plant from turning bottom up. The tissues that give strength to the stems and leaves of land-plants are not usually much developed in submerged aquatics, since the water supports the weight of such plants. In some alge, as the common rockweed or blad- der-wrack (Fig. 188), the weight of the plant is admi- rably buoyed up by large air-bladders. Transpiration is — done away with, and whatever carbonic acid gas or oxygen is absorbed or given off passes directly through the cell- walls into the interiors of the cells. Generally water- plants do not reach any great size, but some species are the longest of known plants, Macrocystzs, the great kelp of the Pacific Ocean, attaining, it is said, the length of a thousand feet or more. In spite of the moderate size of — most algze the total bulk in the various oceans must be extremely large. The Sargasso Sea alone, in the Atlantic Ocean, reaches most of the way from the Bahamas to the Azores and extends over seventeen degrees of latitude. The whole area is occupied by a nearly compact mass of floating seaweed. BOTANICAL GEOGRAPHY soc Besides the comparatively well-known and readily seen larger alge there is a great amount of vegetation floating in what is known as the plankton. This is a mass of microscopic animals and plants, found floating scum-like or submerged in fresh and in salt water and often accu- mulated in great quantities near shores, to which it is swept by the action of the wind and waves and currents. Much of the plant life of the plankton, both of fresh and of salt water, often consists of the flinty-shelled one-celled microscopic algz known as diatoms (Fig. 176). 402. Botanical Geography of the United States. — All of the continuous territory of the United States! lies in the north temperate zone. There is material for a large vol- ume in the discussion of the distribution of plants over our territory in this continent alone, but it is possible to sum up a mere outline of the matter in a very few words. Excluding the floras of many single mountains and moun- tain ranges, the land surface of the country may for botan- ical purposes be divided into four great areas, as follows: 1. The Forest Region.— This occupies the eastern and central portion of the United States. It is bounded on the west by an irregular line, most of which lies to the eastward of the hundredth meridian. In some places this forest boundary extends eastward across the Mississippi River, while in others it recedes from the river five hundred miles or more to the westward. 2. The Great Plains Region. — This extends westward from the region above named to the Rocky Mountain Plateau. 1 That is, not counting in Alaska, our West Indian possessions, the Sand- wich Islands, or the Philippines, 334 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 3. The Pacific Highland Region. — This includes the Rocky Mountains, the Sierra Nevada, and the various plateaus between them. 4. The Pacific Slope. — This extends ee the Cascade Range and the Sierra Nevada to the sea. 403. Characteristics of the Four Regions. — The forest region is mainly remarkable for its great variety of hard- wood trees, of which it contains a larger number of useful species than any equal area of the earth with a temperate climate. In the northeasterly portion and in — much of the southerly portion there are extensive forests of the cone-bearing evergreens, such as pines, spruces, hemlocks, and cedars. The vegetation is in general such as thrives in medium conditions as Bc heat and rainfall. The plains region is largely covered with grasses, many of them xerophytes. Some of the most characteristic plants associated with the grasses are Composite, such as sun- flowers, rosin-weeds (Stlphium), cone-flowers, gum-weeds (Grindelia), and blazing-stars (Liatris). The Pacific highland region includes a very great vari- ety of plant societies, from the heavily wooded mountain slopes and valleys to high sterile plains which are almost deserts. Cone-bearing evergreen trees are very character- istic of the forests. Great numbers of alpine species of herbs and shrubs are found on the mountains at and above the timber line. In the alkali regions, where the soil is too full of mineral salts to permit ordinary plants to grow, many kinds of xerophytes, such as the salty sage (Atriplex) — and the greasewood (Sarcobatus), occur. In the southern portion cactuses abound. | _— =, 2 BOTANICAL GEOGRAPHY $35 The Pacific Slope is characterized by cone-bearing ever- greens in great abundance in the mountains and along the foothills. Chief among these in point of size are the red- woods and the “big trees” (Sequoias) (Fig. 82). Oaks are represented by a good many species, several of them evergreen. There are many xerophytes, some of them characteristic of alkali regions; and in Southern California, on account of the long dry season, plants with large roots or rootstocks and bulb-bearing plants (many of them belonging to the lily family) are abundant. ‘The tree yucca (Plate VII) is one of the largest and most inter- esting xerophytic plants of North America. CHAPTER XXVI PARASITES, ENSLAVED PLANTS, MESSMATES, CARNIVOROUS PLANTS 404. Parasites. — A little was said in Chapter IV about parasitic plants, and the life history of one of them, the dodder, was briefly outlined ; another, the wheat rust, was discussed in Sects. 310-818. food supply between V them. 3 | Bacteria live in col- onies enclosed in root- tubercles on the roots of certain plants, for in- stance, beans, peas, lu- pines, vetches, and clover (Fig. 236), and render the greatest service to the plant to which the roots belong, from which é Zz AWS they also derive food and shelter. Such plants do — not develop root tubercles and will not grow well in sterilized 4 soil, that is, soil in which ap the bacteria have been Fic. 237. Common Pitcher-Plant.? killed by baking. It is At the right one of the pitcher-like leaves is found that the bacteria shown in cross-section. serve to change nitrogen taken from the air of the soil into nitric acid, which is a most important ingredient in the manufacture of proteids. Many trees, for example, oaks, beeches, and the cone- 1 This term is borrowed from the zodlogists as a much simpler one than symbionts to express the relation variously known as symbiosis, commensalism, or mutualism. 2 Sarracenia purpurea. - ea INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS 341 Fie, 238. — Sundew (Drosera rotundifolia), bearing evergreens, and a considerable number of herbaceous plants, such as the Indian pipe (Monotropa, Plate V), are covered with a growth of fungus hyphe (Sect. 307). 842 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY This growth completely surrounds the young, active tips of all the roots and the threads of the mykorhiza, as it is called, seem to do the work of root- hairs. 410. Carnivorous Plants. — In the ordinary pitcher-plants (Fig. 237) the leaf appears in the shape of a more or less hooded pitcher. These pitchers are usually partly filled with water, FIG, 239.—Blade of Leat and in this water very many drowned See (Somewhat and decaying insects are commonly to be found. The insects have flown or crawled into the pitcher, and, once inside, have been unable to escape on account of the dense growth of bristly hairs about the mouth, all pointing inward and downward. How much the com- mon American pitcher- _ plants depend for « nourishment on the = drowned insects in the pitchers is not defi- nitely known, but it is certain that some of the tropical species re- quire such food.! Liss Fic. 240.— Leaves of Sundew. (Somewhat In other rather com- magnified.) mon plants, the sun- The one at the left has all its tentacles closed < over captured prey ; the one at the right has dew Ss, 1nsec ts are only half of them thus closed. 1 Where the Sarracenia is abundant it will be found interesting and profit- able to make a careful class study of its leaves. See Geddes, Chapters in Modern Botany, Chapters I and II. 2 ER ON ee INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS 343 caught by a sticky secretion which proceeds from hairs on the leaves. In one of the commonest sundews the leaves consist of a roundish blade, borne on a moderately long petiole. On the inner surface and round the margin of the blade (Fig. 239) are borne a considerable number of short bristles, each ter- minating in a knob which is covered with a clear, sticky liquid. When a small insect touches one of the sticky knobs, he is held fast and the hairs at once begin to close over him, as shown in Fig. 240. Here he soon dies and then usually re- mains for many days, while the leaf pours out a juice by which the soluble parts of the insect are digested. The liquid containing the digested portions is then absorbed by the leaf and contrib- utes an important part of the nourishment of the plant, while the undigested fragments, such as legs, wing-cases, and so on, remain on the surface of the leaf or may drop off after the hairs let go their hold on the captive insect. In the Venus flytrap, which grows in the sandy regions of eastern North Carolina, the mechanism for catching insects is still more remarkable. The leaves, as shown in Fic. 241, — Venus Flytrap. 344 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY Fig. 241, terminate in a hinged portion which is surrounded by a fringe of stiff bristles. On the inside of each half of the trap grow three short hairs. The trap is so sensi- tive that when these hairs are touched it closes with a jerk and very generally succeeds in capturing the fly or other insect which has sprung it. The imprisoned insect then dies and is digested, somewhat as in the case of those caught by the sundew, after which the trap reopens and is ready for fresh captures. 411. Object of catching Animal Food. —It is easy to understand why a good many kinds of plants have taken to catching insects and absorbing the digested products. Carnivorous, or flesh-eating, plants belong usually to one of two classes as regards their place of growth ; they are bog-plants or air-plants. In either case their roots find it difficult to secure much nitrogen-containing food, that is, much food out of which proteid material can be built up. Animal food, being itself largely proteid, is admirably adapted to nourish the growing parts of plants, and those which could develop insect-catching powers would stand a far better chance to exist as air-plants or in the thin, watery soil of bogs than plants which had acquired no such resources. . CHAPTER XXVII HOW PLANTS PROTECT THEMSELVES FROM ANIMALS 412. Destruction by Animals. — All animals are sup- ported directly or indirectly by plants. In some cases the animal secures its food without much damaging the plant on which it feeds. Browsing on the lower branches of a tree may do it little injury, and grazing animals, if not numerous, may not seriously harm the pasture on which they feed. Fruit-eating animals may even be of much service by dispersing seeds (Sect. 453). But seed-eating birds and quadrupeds, animals which, like the hog, dig up fleshy roots, rootstocks, tubers or bulbs, and eat them, or animals which, like the sheep, graze so closely as to expose the roots of grasses or even of forest trees to be parched by the sun, destroy immense numbers of plants. So too with wood-boring and leaf-eating insects, and snails, which consume great quantities of leaves. 413. Some Modes of Protection from Animals. — Many of the characteristics of plants may be wholly or partly due to adaptations for protective purposes, while in par- ticular cases we cannot be sure of the fact. Perching on lofty rocks or on branches of trees, burying the perennial part (bulb, rootstock, etc.) underground, growing in dense masses, like a canebrake or a thicket of blackberry bushes ; all such habits of plants may be partly or altogether val- uable to the plant as means of avoiding the attacks of animals, but this cannot be proved. On the other hand, 345 346 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY there are plenty of instances of structures, habits, or accu- mulations of stored material in their tissue which plants seem to have acquired mainly or entirely as means of defense. Some of the most important are: (1) The habit of keeping a bodyguard of ants. (2) Mimicking the appearance of dangerous or uneatable plants, or imitating pebbles or earth, so that they may be overlooked. (3) Forming tough, corky, woody, limy or flinty and therefore nearly. uneatable tissue. (4) Arming exposed parts with cutting edges, sharp or stinging hairs, prickles, or thorns. (5) Accumulating unpleasant or poisonous substances in exposed parts. 414. Ant-Plants.—Some ants live on vegetable food, but most of them eat only animal food, and these latter are extremely voracious. It has been estimated by a careful scientist, an authority on this subject, that the ants of a single nest sometimes destroy as many as one hundred thousand insects ina day. The Chinese orange- growers in the Province of Canton have found how useful ants may be as destroyers of other insects, and so they place ant nests in the orange trees and extend bamboos across from one tree to another, to serve as bridges for the ants to travel on. Certain tropical trees, in order to insure protection by ants, offer them especial inducements to establish colonies on their trunks and branches. ‘The attractions which are offered to ants by various kinds of trees differ greatly. One of the most interesting adaptations is that of an acacia! (Fig. 242), which furnishes little growths at the ends of the leaflets which serve as ant food. These little 1 A. sphaerocephala. ae HOW PLANTS PROTECT THEMSELVES 347 growths are known from their discoverer as Belt’s bodies. The ants bore holes into the large hollow stipular thorns shown in the figure, live in these thorns, feed on the Belt’s bodies, and protect the acacia from insect and other enemies. A nectary on the leaf furnishes additional food to the ant inhabitants of the tree. a iiiasiunnin = a Se VI. THUYA, Tourn. Flowers small, terminal, moneecious, on different branches. : Stamens each consisting of ascale-like portion bearing 4 anther- _ cells. Pistillate flowers consisting of a few overlapping scales } which ripen into a small, loose cone. Leaves evergreen, oppo- — site, and closely overlapping on the stem, of two kinds, those on the more rapidly growing twigs awl-shaped, the others mere © scales. - F 1. T. occidentalis, L. ArBor ViT#, CEDAR. A small tree, 20-50 ' ft. high, with soft fibrous bark. Leaves mostly awl-shaped and blunt, ; “Th eee oe #4 GYMNOSPERMS 19 Cones ellipsoidal, their scales 2-seeded. Grows on rocky ledges, but reaches its greatest size in cool cedar swamps. Wood soft, yellowish, fragrant, durable, prized for shingles and fence posts. Vill. JUNIPERUS, L. Flowers very small, lateral, dicecious, or sometimes monce- cious. Scales of the staminate flower shield-shaped, with 3-6 anther-cells. Fertile flowers with 3-6 fleshy scales which unite into a berry-like, 1—3-seeded fruit. Leaves awl-shaped or scale-shaped. 1. J. communis, L. Juniper. A low, spreading shrub (one variety prostrate in circular masses). Leaves linear-awl-shaped, with needle-like points, each marked with a distinct stripe of bloom along the center of the upper surface, borne in whorls of three. Fruit a dark blue aromatic berry, 3 in. or more in diameter. Grows in dry pastures and on sterile hillsides N. 2. J. virginiana, L. Rep Crepar, Savin. Ranges in size and shape from a low, rather erect, shrub to a conical tree 90 ft. high. Leaves of two kinds, those on the rapidly growing shoots awl-shaped and pointed, those on the shortest twigs scale-shaped, obtuse, or nearly so, and closely appressed to the stem. Fruit small, bluish, with a white bloom. Found all the way from British America to Florida. Wood soft, fragrant, reddish, exceedingly durable in the ground, valued for the manufacture of moth-proof chests and espe cially for lead-pencils. 20 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY CLASS II.— ANGIOSPERMS. Plants with a closed ovary, in which the seeds are matured. - Cotyledons 1 or 2. SUBCLASS I.—MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS. Stems with the fibro-vascular bundles scattered among the parenchyma cells; in perennial plants no annual rings of wood. Leaves usually parallel-veined, alternate, nearly always entire. Parts of the flower generally in threes (never in fives). Cotyledon 1. | "2. TYPHACEZ. Cart-Tait FAMILY. Perennial marsh or aquatic plants. Rootstock stout, creep- ing; stem simple, cylindrical, erect. Leaves simple, strap- shaped, sheathing at the base, nerved and striate. Flowers moncecious, in a single terminal spike, staminate part of the spike uppermost, each part subtended by spathe-like deciduous bracts; perianth of fine bristles ; staminate flowers sessile ; stamens 2-7. Filaments connate, subtended by minute bracts ; pistillate flowers short-pediceled. Ovary 1—2-celled ; styles 1-2. Fruit small, nut-like.* TYPHA, Tourn. Characters of the family. 1. T. latifolia, L. Cat-rarz. Stem erect, jointed below, 5—8 ft. high. Leaves nearly as long as the stem, about 1 in. wide, netted and witha bloom. Spike cylindrical, dark brown or black; staminate portion above the pistillate, usually without any interval between. them, each 4-8 in. long and about 1 in.in diameter. Fruit furrowed. Common in marshes and shallow ponds.* MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS A 8. ALISMACEZ. WaATER-PLANTAIN FAMILY. Annual or perennial marsh herbs, usually with creeping run- ners or rootstocks. Stems scape-like. Leaves long-petioled, sheathing at the base ; petiole rounded ; blade nerved, netted, or sometimes wanting. Flowers in racemes or panicles, per- fect, moncecious or dicecious ; pedicels in bracted whorls. Sepals 3, persistent, petals 3 or wanting. Stamens 6 or more. Ovaries few or many, 1-celled, 1-seeded. Style short or none. Fruit a 1-seeded akene.* _ I. ALISMA, L. Annual or perennial herbs. Leaves erect or floating, blades prominently ribbed and netted, or even pinnately veined. Scapes erect, becoming longer than the leaves, cylindrical, spongy. Flowers perfect, in paniculate 3-bracted umbels, small, white or pink. Stamens 6-9. Ovaries numerous in _ ong or more whorls on a flat receptacle. Fruit 1-seeded akenes which are ribbed on the back and sides.* 1. A. Plantago, L. WaAtTER PLANTAIN. Perennial; root fibrous. Leaves ovate or somewhat cordate, 5-7-nerved when erect, floating leaves narrower and sometimes linear. Scapes usually single ; pan- icle 1-2 ft. long; flowering branches whorled, subtended by three narrow, striate bracts; pedicels slender, elongated. Ovaries 15-20 in a single whorl ; base of the short style persistent, forming a beak at the inner angle of the akene. Akenes obliquely obovate, 2—3- keeled on the back. Common in ponds and muddy places.* Il. SAGITTARIA. Perennial; rootstocks mostly knobby or tuber-bearing. Seapes erect or decumbent. Leaves long-petioled, sheathing at the base, the blade round and netted, or wanting. Flowers moncecious or dicecious, racemed in 3-bracted whorls of threes, the upper flowers usually staminate. Sepals 3, persistent. Petals 3, withering-persistent or deciduous. Stamens few or many. Ovaries in globose heads, 1-ovuled ; style short, per- sistent. Fruit a subglobose head of flattened akenes,* 22, FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 1. S. variabilis, var. latifolia, Willd. Broap-LeaveD ARROW- HEAD. Leaves very variable in size and shape, from broadly sagittate to linear; those growing on the drier soil being usually the broader; petioles 6-30 in. long. Scape smooth or slightly downy, 6-386 in. high; bracts acute. Flowers moncecious or sometimes dicecious, white, 1 in. or more in width; pedicels of the staminate flowers twice the length of those of the fertile flowers. Filaments long, smooth, and slender. Akenes with beak nearly horizontal. Ditches and muddy places.* 2. S. graminea, Michx. GRASS-LEAVED SAGITTARIA. Leaves long-petioled, lanceolate, or elliptical, and acute at each end, 3-6- nerved, or often linear, the earlier _ often reduced to flattened petioles. Scape slender, usually longer than the leaves, simple, weak, often pros- trate in fruit; bracts small, ovate, connate at the base. Flowers monce- cious or dicecious, on long, thread- like pedicels, about 4 in. wide. Stamens 10-20, filaments downy. Akenes nearly beakless. In ditches and shallow pools.* sy Canes WD af y 4 | d ren - Wr i . i | ve Fic. 2. — Diagram of Inflorescence of a Grass. Fig. 3. — Fescue-grass (Festuca pratensis). g, sterile glumes ; P,, a flowering glume ; A, spikelet (compare Fig. 2); B, a P,, a scaly bract (palea); e, transparent flower, the lodicules in front and _ scales (lodicules) at the base of the the palea behind; C, a lodicule; ~ flower; B, the flower. D, ovary. Na aia MS at «+ ne ee 2 a Mh ee 2 7 eee ee MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 25 4. GRAMINEZ. Grass FAmMILy. Mostly herbs, with usually hollow stems, closed and en- larged at the nodes. Leaves alternate, in two ranks, with sheathing bases, which are split open on the side opposite the blade. Flowers nearly or quite destitute of floral envelopes, solitary, and borne in the axils of scaly bracts called glumes, which are arranged in two ranks overlapping each other on 1—many-flowered spikelets; these are variously grouped in spikes, panicles, and so on. Fruit a grain. (The family is too difficult for the beginner, but the structure and group- ing of the flowers may be gathered from a careful study of Figs. 2, 3.) 5. CYPERACEZ. SEDGE FAmIty. Grass-like or rush-like herbs, with solid, usually triangular, stems, growing in tufts. ‘The sheathing base of the generally 5-ranked leaves, when present, is not sht as in grasses. The flowers are usually somewhat less enclosed by bracts than those of grasses; the perianth is absent or rudimentary ; stamens generally 3; style 2-cleft or 3-cleft. The general appearance of a common sedge may be learned from Part I, Ch. V, and the flower-cluster and the flower understood from an inspection of Fig. 4. The species are even more difficult to determine than those of grasses. 6. ARACEZ. Arum FaAmMILy. Perennial herbs, with pungent or acrid juice, leaves often netted-veined, small flowers (perfect or imperfect) clustered along a peculiar fleshy spike called a spadix, and frequently more or less covered by a large, hood-like bract called a spathe. Perianth, when present, of 4-6 parts; often want- ing. Fruit usually a berry. 24 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY | Fie. 4.— Inflorescence, Flower, and Seed, of a Sedge. (Great Bulrush, Scirpus lacustris.) A, magnified flower, surrounded by a perianth of hypogynous bristles; B, the seed; C, section of the seed, showing the small embryo enclosed in the base of the endosperm. I. ARISAEMA, Martius. — Perennial herbs, springing from a corm or a tuberous — rootstock. Spathe rolled up at base. Summit of spadix naked, the lower part flower-bearing; staminate flowers above, pistil-— late ones below. Stigma flat; ovary 1-celled ; berry 1 | seeded, MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 25 1. A. triphyllum, Torr. INDIAN TURNIP, JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT. Leaves generally 2, each of 3 elliptical-ovate, pointed leaflets. Spadix club-shaped, bearing usually only one kind of fully developed flowers ; that is, full-sized pistillate and rudimentary staminate ones, or the reverse. Spathe much longer than the spadix, and covering it like a hood. Corm turnip-like, but much wrinkled, very starchy, and filled with intensely burning juice. 2. A. Dracontium, Schott. GREEN DraGon, DraGcon Root. Leaf usually single, divided into 7-11 rather narrow-pointed leaflets ; spadix tapering to a long, slender point, often bearing fully devel- oped staminate and pistillate flowers. Il. SYMPLOCARPUS, Salisb. Rootstock very stout, with many long, cylindrical roots. Leaves clustered, very large, and entire. Spathe shell-shaped, very thick. Spadix globular, thickly covered with perfect flowers. Sepals 4. Stamens 4. Style 4-angled. Fruit glob- ular or ellipsoidal, with the seeds slightly buried in the enlarged spadix. Coarse, stemless herbs, with a powerful scent like that of the skunk and of onions. 1. S. fetidus, Salisb. Skunk CappaGe. Leaves many, slightly petioled, 1-2 ft. long, appearing after the flowers. The latter are usually seen before the ground is wholly free from frost, often earlier © than any other flower. Bogs and wet meadows, very common N. Ill. ACORUS, L. Rootstocks horizontal, long, and moderately stout, aromatic. Leaves long, upright, sword-shaped. Spathe much like the leaves. Spadix projecting from the edge of the spathe, con- sisting of numerous perfect flowers. Sepals 6. Stamens 6. Ovary 2—3-celled, with numerous ovules. Fruit 1—few-seeded. 1. A. Calamus, L. Sweet Frac. Scape with a long, leaf-like prolongation (spathe) beyond the green, very closely flowered, spadix. Along borders of brooks and swamps. The rootstocks furnish the well-known calamus or “sweet flag- root” sold everywhere by druggists. 26 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 7. COMMELINACEZ®. Sriperwort FAMILY. sik! Us wee Herbs, with slimy or mucilaginous juice; stems somewhat succulent, jointed, leafy, simple or branched. Leaves simple, succulent, narrow, entire, sheathing at the base, sheaths entire Fie. 5.— Acorus Calamus. A, spadix ; B, a single flower, enlarged ; C, diagram of flower, enlarged. or split. Flowers in terminal cymes or umbels, perfect, often irregular. Sepals 3, persistent, foliaceous or colored. Petals 3, soon falling or liquefying ; stamens 6 or fewer, often some of them abortive. Ovary 2—83-celled ; style single, stigma entire or 3-lobed, fruit a 2—3-celled, 2—-3-valved capsule, seeds soli- © tary or several in each cell.* . MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS aT I. COMMELINA, Dill. : Annual or perennial, stem branching, erect or procumbent, - smooth or downy. Leaves petioled or sessile, entire, the _ floral ones heart-shaped, folded, and forming a spathe enclos- ing the base of the cymes. Flowers irregular, sepals mostly colored, 1 of them smaller. Petals blue, unequal, 2 of them _ kidney-shaped and long-clawed, the other smaller. Stamens 6, only 3 of them fertile, filaments smooth. Capsule 1—3-celled, _ seeds 1—2 in each cell.* 1. C. virginica, L. VirGinrtA DAyFLOWER. Stem erect, downy, _ 1-2 ft. high. Leaves lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate, taper-pointed, 3-5 in. long, somewhat rough above, sheaths inflated, hairy, the opening often fringed. Spathes containing a slimy secretion. _ Flowers 1 in. wide, the odd petal lanceolate. Capsule 3-seeded, the _ dorsal cell not splitting open. On moist, sandy soil.* Il. TRADESCANTIA, L. _ Perennial, stem simple or branched. Leaves very narrow. Flowers in terminal and axillary bracted umbels, regular, iin. broad. Sepals 3, herbaceous. Petals 3, soon falling or liquefying to jelly. Stamens 6, sometimes 3 shorter than the _ others, filaments bearded or smooth. Ovary 3-celled, with | 2 ovules in each cell, pedicels recurved in fruit. Capsule _ 3-celled, 3-valved, 3-6-seeded.* i 1. T. virginica, L. Spiperwort. Stem erect, stout, smooth, Rs or with long, soft hairs, 1-2 ft. high. Leaves linear, keeled, often "purple-veined, long, taper-pointed, 1 ft. or more in téngth. Bracts similar to the ee es, umbels sessile, 2-many-flowered, flowers in 2 _ rows inthe bud. Petals blue or purple, twice as long as the sepals. _ Stamens blue, filaments densely bearded. Capsule ovoid or oblong. _ On dry, sandy soil.* 2. T. pilosa, Lehm. Harry Spiperwort. . Stem stout, erect, or zigzag, branched, with long, soft hairs, or nearly smooth, 1-2 ft. high. Leaves linear-oblong, taper-pointed at the apex, narrowed at _ the base, hairy on both sides. Umbels axillary and terminal, many- flowered. Pedicels and sepals with soft, glandular hairs. Flowers blue or purple, 2-1 in. wide. Seeds pitted. In rich soil.* 28 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY Il. ZEBRINA. Trailing or slightly climbing herbs. Leaves often striped. Flowers irregular, usually in pairs. Calyx with a short tube, regularly or irregularly 3-parted. Corolla nearly regular, with tube longer than the calyx. Filaments naked or bearded. ~ Ovary 3-celled, 3-6-ovuled. 1. Z. pendula, Schnitzl Wanprrinc Jew. Stems perennial, prostrate, or nearly so, branching freely, rooting easily at the nodes. Leaves somewhat succulent, lance-ovate or oblong, crimson beneath, green or dark purplish above, often with two wide silvery stripes. Cultivated from Mexico. 8. PONTEDERIACEZ. PICKEREL-WEED FAMILY. Perennial marsh or aquatic herbs, stems simple or branched, succulent. Leaves simple, alternate. Flowers solitary or spiked, each subtended by a leaf-like spathe, perfect, mostly irregular. Perianth corolla-like, 6-parted. Stamens 3 or 6, unequal, inserted irregularly in the tube or throat of the perianth. Ovary free, style single, stigma entire or toothed, ovary 1 or 3 celled. Fruit a 1-seeded utricle.* PONTEDERIA, L. Stem erect, from a thick, creeping rootstock, bearing a single leaf above the middle and several sheathing, bract-like leaves at its base. Radical leaves numerous, thick, parallel- veined. Petiole long, from a sheathing base. Flowers in terminal spikes. Perianth 2-lipped, lobes of the upper lip ovate, of the lower oblong, spreading. Stamens 6, the 38 upper short and often imperfect, the 3 lower protruding. Ovary 3-celled, but only 1 cell ovule-bearing. The 1-seeded utricle enclosed by the base of the perianth.* 1. P.cordata, L. PrckerEL-wEED. Stem stout, erect, 2-4 ft. high. — Leaves long, from heart-shaped to lanceolate and often halberd- — shaped, apex and basal lobes obtuse, finely nerved. Spike dense, — 3 MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 29 2-4 in. long, peduncles enclosed by the spathe. Perianth hairy, blue, the upper lip with 2 yellow spats, tube 6-ribbed, curved, rather longer than the lobes. Ovary oblong. In ponds and slow streams.* 9. JUNCACEZ. Rusu Famity. Grass-like perennial or annual herbs, mostly growing on wet soil. Stems mostly erect but sometimes creeping, simple or branched, naked or leafy and jointed. Leaves cylindrical, ; sheathing at the base, very slender and pointed or flattened 4 and grass-like. Flowers in cymes or panicles, which may be _ very loose and spreading, or so compact as to form a head, “sometimes with a rigid scape prolonged beyond the flower- ‘eluster. Flowers usually bracted, perianth of 6 nearly equal Seale-like persistent divisions. Stamens 3 or 6, inserted on the base of the perianth., Ovary free, 1 or 3 celled, many- ovuled. Style single, stigmas 3, usually hairy. Fruit a1 or “3 celled, 3-many-seeded capsule. [Most species #- "“* sack the season, and their identificatiox 18 too difficult for one ‘without considerable experience. | * 10. LILIACEZ. Liry FAmIty. ay stly herbs. Flowers regular and symmetrical. Perianth free from the ovary. Stamens nearly always 6, one before ~ each division of the perianth. Ovary usually 3-celled. Fruit be a pod or berry, few—many-seeded. ; Except in the genus Trillium the divisions of the perianth / are colored nearly alike. 3 30 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY SUBFAMILY I.—LILIACEA PROPER. Not tendril-climbers, rarely diecious. A. Styles or sessile stigmas 3, more or less separate. Leaves 3-ranked, strongly nerved and plaited. Flowers some- what moncecious, small. Veratrum, I. Leaves flat, lanceolate, or spatulate. Flowers dicecious, showy. Chameelirium, II. Leaves grass-like. Flowers perfect, showy. Amianthium, II. B. Style undivided (in No. XXIII, 3 sessile stigmas). Plants from root- stocks. Leaves Per=a:.¢ea. Flowers solitary, drooping, yellow. Uvularia, IV. Leaves broad, clasping. Flowers solitary or nearly so, dreoping, yellow. Oakesia, V.- Leaves scale-like. Thread-like branches borne in their axils. — Flowers small, bell-shaped. Asparagus, XVII. Leaves several-many, sessile or clasping, alternate. Flowers small, 6-parted, white, in a terminal simple or compound — raceme. Smilacina, XVIII. Leaves only 2-3, sessile or slightly petioled. Flowers very small, 4-parted, oe or in a small terminal cluster. | Maianthemum, XIX. Leaves clasping. Flowers solitary or in pairs, greenish-white or ~ rose-purple, borne on pedicels abruptly bent near the middle. Streptopus, XX. | Leaves nearly sessile or partly clasping. Flowers axillary, 4 greenish, on pedicels jointed near the flower. : Polygonatum, XXI._ ° MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS. 31 Leaves only 2, directly from the rootstock. Flowers in a raceme, bell-shaped, white, sweet-scented. . Convallaria, XXII. Leaves 3, netted-veined. Flower single, large, terminal. Trilhum, XXIII. Cc. Style undivided. Plants from fibrous roots. Flowers yellow or orange. Hemerocallis, VI. Flowers white. Yucca, XVI. D. Style usually undivided. Plants from coated or solid-looking bulbs. Leafy-stemmed plants. Flowers large, solitary, or apparently umbelled. _ Fritillaria, 1X. Apparently stemless plants. - (a) Plants with the smell of onions or garlic. Flowers umbelled. Allium, VIT. (6) Flower solitary, erect, large. Tulipa, X. (ce) Flower solitary, nodding. Erythronium, XI. (d) Flowers racemed. Perianth with hardly any tube. Stigma a single knob. Scilla, XI. (e) Flowers racemed. Perianth with hardly any tube. Stigma 3-cleft. Camassia, XITI. (f) Flowers corymbed. Perianth with hardly any tube. Leaves linear. Ornithogalum, XIV. (g) Flowers racemed. Perianth with a tube. Leaves lance-linear. Hyacinthus, XV. E. : 2 5 Style undivided. Plants from scaly bulbs. Lilium, VIII. 4 ie SUBFAMILY II. —SMILACEZ. Climbers, often tendril-bearing. Flowers diecious. Smilax, XXIV. 32 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY I. VERATRUM, Tourn. Simple-stemmed perennials. Roots fibrous, from the thick- ened base of the stem, poisonous, emetic. Leaves 3-ranked, plaited, and veiny. Flowers panicled, greenish, or brownish. Sepals 6, spreading, nearly free from the ovary. Stamens shorter than the perianth, and inserted on its base. Ovary of 3 carpels united at base. Fruit a few-seeded capsule, splitting into 3 parts. | 1. V. viride, Ait. Waurre Hertiesore, Inpran Poxe. Stem stout, 2-7 ft. high, very leafy. Flowers very numerous, in a panicle, composed of spike-like racemes. Sepals yellowish-green. Wet meadows and. brooksides. 2. V. Woodii, Robbins. Stem slender, 2—5 ft. high, not very leafy. Flowers in a long, narrow panicle. Sepals greenish-purple or almost black. Woods and dry hillsides. Il. CHAMAZELIRIUM, Willd. Rootstock short and thick, bitter. Stem simple, erect, leafy, tienen smooth. Lower leaves spatulate to obovate, the stem-leaves © narrower. Flowers small, white, in a spike-like raceme, dicecious. Perianth of 6 linear-spatulate segments. Stamens 6, filaments longer than the perianth. Ovary 3-celled, styles 3. Fruit an ovoid, 3-angled, many-seeded capsule.* 1. C. carolinianum, Willd. Unicorn-root, Drevit’s Bir. Stem furrowed, staminate plants 1-2 ft. high, pistillate taller, often 3 ft. or more. Lower leaves obovate, clustered, the upper small and bract-like. Staminate racemes slender and drooping, the pistillate erect. Flowers short-pediceled. Capsule 3-valved, seeds linear- — oblong, winged at the ends. On low ground.* Ill. AMIANTHIUM, Gray. Stem simple, glabrous, erect from a bulbous base. Leaves long and slender. Flowers white, in a simple terminal raceme, perfect. Perianth of 6 segments which are sessile and gland- less. Stamens 6, inserted in the base of the perianth. Ovary 3-lobed, 3-celled, fruit a dehiscent, 3-lobed capsule, the lobes — becoming awl- shaped by the persistent style bases; cells few- seeded.* | ? _ MONOCOTYLEDONOUS. PLANTS 33 1. A. muscetoxicum, Gray. FLy Poison.’ Bulb ovoid or oblong. Stem somewhat angled below, 1-3 ft. high. Lower leaves strap- shaped, channeled, the upper small and bract-like. Raceme dense, cylindrical, pedicels from the axils of minute ovate bracts. Peri- anth segments ovate, white, becoming greenish, nearly as long as the slender stamens. Styles spreading. Capsule with divergent lobes; seeds ovoid, red. In rich woods.* IV. UVULARIA, L. Rather low plants with short rootstocks. Leaves alternate, broad, and parallel-veined. Flowers yellow or yellowish, drooping, borne singly at the end of the forking stem. Perianth of 6 similar and separate narrow spatulate sepals, each grooved and nectar-bearing inside toward the base. iC~ ee he ve Stamens 6, with linear anthers, which are much longer than the filaments. Style 3-cleft. Pod 3-lobed, 3-celled, few- seeded. 1. U. grandiflora. LArGER BeLtitwort. Leaves oblong, with the base clasping the stem so as to make it appear to run through the leaf a little way from the base; flowers greenish-yellow, 14 in. long, anthers obtuse. A leafy plant, 1-2 ft. high. 2. U. perfoliata. Mraty BrLiLwort. Leaves much as in the preceding species; flowers very pale yellow, with shining grains on the inner surfaces of the twisted sepals; anthers sharp-pointed ; plant about 2 the size of the preceding. V. OAKESIA, Watson. Plants with much the aspect of the preceding genus, but _ with merely sessile leaves, triangular winged pods, and slen- | der creeping rootstocks. 1. O. sessilifolia. Writp Oats, Straw Lities. Stem slender, zigzag. Leaves lance-oval, thin, smooth, pale beneath, 1-14 in. long. Flower cream-color, nearly 1 in. long. VI. HEMEROCALLIS, L. Perennial, from-a fascicle of fleshy roots. Stem erect, branched, smooth. Leaves mostly basal and linear. Flowers on branching scapes, large, yellow or orange, solitary or 34 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY corymbed, perianth funnel-form, with a spreading limb much longer than the tube. Stamens 6, inserted in the top of the tube, shorter than the lobes, curved upward. Ovary 3-celled, many-ovuled, style longer than the stamens, curved upward, stigma knobbed. Fruit a 3-celled, 3-angled capsule.* 1. H. fulva, L. Day Lity. Scapes stout, branched above, with a few bract-like leaves, smooth, 38-5 ft. high. Leaves very long, strap- shaped, acute, channeled. Flowers short-pediceled, tawny-yellow, — perianth lobes oblong, netted-veined, lasting only one day. Intro- duced from Asia and common in old gardens.* Vil. ALLIUM, L. Stemless herbs from coated bulbs with the characteristic odor of onions. Bulbs solitary or clustered. Leaves narrowly linear or slender-tubular, with a bloom. Flowers small on slender pedicels, in terminal umbels on naked scapes, the umbels often bracted or enclosed in a spathe. Perianth 6-parted, persistent ; stamens 6, inserted on the base of the perianth, filaments filiform or dilated below. Ovary sessile, 3-celled. Style thread-like, jointed; stigma entire. Fruit a 3-celled, 3-valved, few-seeded capsule. Flowers sometimes changed into bulblets.* 5 1. A. canadense, L. Mrapow Garuic. Bulbs ovoid, the outer coats of white and thin, dry, netted fibers. Leaves narrowly linear, flat, or concave above. Scape cylindrical, 1 ft. high. Bracts of the umbel 2-3, ovate, acuminate; umbel consisting mostly of sessile bulblets. The few flowers long-pediceled, rose-colored. Perianth about as long as the stamens. Filaments dilated below. Capsule shorter than the perianth, 6-toothed, ovules 2 in each cell. On moist soil.* 2. A. striatum, Jacq. Srripep Wix_p Onton. Bulbs clustered, outer coat membranaceous. Leaves linear, concave, striate on the back. Scape 6-12 in. high. Umbel 3-10-flowered, bracts 2, pedicels 1-2 in. long. Perianth nearly white, longer than the stamens, the outer segments green-keeled on the back. Capsule not toothed, seeds several in each cell. Low pine barrens.* 3. A. vineale, L. Fretp GaAruic. Bulb mostly solitary. Leaves cylindrical, hollow, very slender. Scape slender, sheathed below the middle by the bases of the leaves. Umbels often crowded with bulblets. A troublesome weed in moist meadows and fields east- ward, giving milk a strong flavor of onions or garlic. MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 35 VI. LILIUM, L. Perennial, from scaly bulbs, stem erect, leafy, usually tall and slender. Leaves sessile, scattered, or whorled. Flowers large, erect, or drooping. -Perianth corolla-like, deciduous. _ Segments 6, spreading or recurved above, sessile or clawed, _-each with a nectar-bearing groove near the base. Stamens 6, _ elongated, anthers linear, versatile. Ovary 3-celled, many- ovuled, style long and slender, stigma 3-lobed. Fruit a 3-celled, , dehiscent, many-seeded capsule. 1. L. longiflorum, Thunb. Lonc-rLowERED WHITE Lity. Stem - 1-8 ft. high. Leaves thick, lanceolate, scattered. Flower single, _ pure white, funnel-shaped, 5-6 in. long. Var. eximium, the Easter lily, bears several very showy and sweet-scented flowers. 2. L. philadelphicum, L. Wuitp Rep Lity. Stem 2-3 ft. high. _ Leaves linear-lanceolate, the upper ones generally whorled. Flower usually solitary (sometimes 2 or 3), erect, reddish-orange, with tawny or purplish spots inside. Sepals with claws. Dry or sandy ground, borders of thickets, etc. 3. L. canadense, L. Witp YELLow Lity, Meapow Liry. Stem 2-5 ft. high. Leaves lanceolate, 3-nerved, the margins and nerves _ roughish with short hairs, whorled. Flowers usually 3, sometimes _ more numerous, all nodding, on peduncles 3-6 in. long, yellow or _ orange, with dark-purple or brown spots inside. Sepals without & claws, recurved. Moist meadows and borders of woods. i" wy IX. FRITILLARIA, Tourn. Leafy-stemmed perennials, from scaly or coated bulks. _ Flowers single or several, nodding. Perianth bell-shaped, a nectar-bearing spot above the base of each division. Stamens as long as the petals. 1. F. Meleagris, L. GuINeEA-HEN FLower. Stem 1 ft. high. ‘Leaves linear, alternate, channeled. Flower usually single, large, purplish, checkered with blue and purple or yellow. Cultivated from Europe. 2. F.imperialis,L. CrowNImperiAL. Stem 3-4 ft. high. Leaves abundant in whorls about the middle or lower part of the stem, lan- ceolate or lance-oblong. Flowers several, large, yellow or red, in an umbel-like cluster beneath the terminal crown of leaves. Cultivated from Asia. 36 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY X. TULIPA, Tourn. Stemless herbs from coated bulbs. Leaves sessile. Scape simple. Flower solitary, erect. Perianth bell-shaped. Stamens © short, awl-shaped, with broadly linear anthers. Style short, stigma thick, 3-lobed. Ovary and pod triangular. 1. T. gesneriana, LL. Common Tutip. Leaves 3-6, ovate-lanceo- late, close to the ground. Flower large, on a smooth peduncle, color. red, yellow, white, or variegated. Cultivated from Asia Minor. Many garden varieties exist. XI. ERYTHRONIUM, L. Nearly stemless herbs, arising from rather deeply buried bulbs. Leaves 2, long and smooth, with underground petioles. Scape arising from between the bases of the leaves. Flower commonly single, nodding. . 1. E. americanum, Ker. YeLtow AppeEr’s-TonNGuE. Leaves mottled. Flowers handsome. Perianth light yellow, style club- shaped, stigmas united. 2. E. albidum, Nutt. WauitrE Doa’s-TootH ViIoLeT. Leaves: not much mottled. Perianth bluish-white. Stigmas 3, short and spreading. XII. SCILLA, L. Perennial stemless herbs from coated bulbs. Leaves linear. Flowers racemed on a scape, generally blue. Divisions of the perianth 1-nerved, parted almost to the base. Filaments 6, often broad :at the base. Style slender, with a knob-like stigma. Ovary 3-angled, 3-celled. 1. S. sibirica, Andr. SrBeRIAN SquiLt. Scapes 3-8 in. high, several from each bulb, 2—3-flowered. Leaves 2-4, narrowly strap- shaped. Flowers intense blue, short-peduncled, often nodding. Cultivated from Russia and Siberia. XII. CAMASSIA, Lindl. Stemless herbs, from coated bulbs. Leaves linear. Flowers racemed, on a scape. -Perianth of 6 blue or purple spreading sepals. Stamens with thread-like filaments, from the base of the perianth. Style thread-like, ending in a knobbed stigma. Capsule 3-angled, 3-celled, several-seeded. MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 37 1. C. Fraseri, Torr, Witp HyacintH. Leaves keeled, weak, shorter than the scape. Flowers in a long-bracted raceme, pale blue. River bottoms and other damp, rich soil. XIV. ORNITHOGALUM, Tourn. Stemless herbs from coated bulbs. Leaves linear, fleshy. Seape erect. Flowers in corymbs or racemes, bracted. Peri- anth segments 6, white, nerved, persistent. Stamens 6, hypogynous, slender. Filaments flattened. Ovary sessile, 3-celled, few-ovuled. Fruit a roundish, 3-angled capsule, seeds black.* 1. 0. umbellatum, L. Strar or BETHLEHEM. Bulb ovoid, mem- branous-coated. Leaves numerous, linear, fleshy, mid-vein nearly white, as long as the scape. Scape slender, 6-12 in. high. Flowers opening in sunshine, long-pediceled. Bracts linear-lanceolate, about as long as the pedicels. Perianth segments oblong-lanceolate, white with a green stripe on the back, twice the length of the stamens. Introduced from Europe; very common about old gardens.* XV. HYACINTHUS, L. Stemless herbs from coated bulbs. Leaves linear, fleshy. Flowers in an erect spike, pediceled, bracted. Perianth tubular below, lobed and spreading above. Stamens short, included. Style short, stigma knobbed. Ovary 3-celled, many-ovuled.* 1. H. orientalis, L. Hyacrntu. Leaves lance-linear, thick and fleshy, smooth. Scape erect, many-flowered. Segments united about half their length, white, blue, or red. Filaments very short. Ovary rarely maturing seed. Common in cultivation.* XVI. YUCCA, L. Plants with woody and leafy stems. Leaves numerous, rigid, spine-pointed, persistent. Flowers in large terminal racemes or panicles, bracted, nodding. Perianth bell-shaped, segments 6, nearly alike, deciduous. Stamens 6, filaments thickened above, often papillose. Anthers small. Ovary sessile, 3-celied, or becoming 6-celled, 3-angled, many-ovuled. Fruit an oblong, 3-angled, many-seeded, dehiscent capsule, or fleshy and indehiscent.* 38 | FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 1. Y. filamentosa, L. Spanish Daceer. Stem stout, 4-12 in. high. Leaves linear or linear-lanceolate, slender-pointed, narrowed above the spreading and clasping base, spreading or recurved, smooth, with loose, thread-like filaments on the margins. Panicle elongated, with bract-like leaves on the scape, widely branched, downy-hairy above, 3-6 ft. high. Perianth white, bell-shaped, 2 in. wide. Cap- sule oblong, angles rounded, sides furrowed, at length 3-valved and dehiscent. In sandy soil, and often cultivated for ornament.* XVII. ASPARAGUS, Tourn. Stem from fleshy fibrous roots, erect, branched, branches slender, with thread-like branchlets in the axils of scales which take the place of leaves. Flowers small, solitary, or racemed. Perianth 6-parted, segments distinct or slightly united. Sta- mens 6, perigynous, filaments thread-like. Ovary 3-celled, 6-ovuled, style short, slender, stigmas 3, recurved. Fruit a berry.* 1. A. officinalis, L. AspaAraGcus. Stem succulent and simple, with fleshy scales when young, becoming taller, more woody and widely branched when old. Flowers axillary, solitary, or 2 or 3 together on slender, jointed, drooping pedicels, greenish, segments linear. Berry red, few-seeded. Introduced from Europe, common in cultivation, and often escaped.* XVIII. SMILACINA, Desf. Perennial, simple-stemmed herbs, with rootstocks. Leaves usually sessile, nerved, alternate. Flowers white, in a ter- minal raceme. -Perianth spreading, 6-parted. Stamens 6, springing from the base of the perianth. Filaments slender. Anthers short, facing inward. Ovary 3-celled, 6-ovuled. Style short and stout, with a somewhat 3-lobed stigma. Fruit a 1-2-seeded berry. 1. §S. racemosa, Desf. Fause SprkeNARD. A showy plant with curved stem 1-3 ft. high, downy throughout. Leaves abundant, oval or ovate-lanceolate, taper-pointed. Flowers small, in a com- pound raceme. Berries pale red, speckled with dark red or purple. Moist thickets. 2. S. stellata, Desf. Plant 1 ft. or less in height, nearly smooth. Leaves broadly lanceolate, acute, clasping. Flowers few, larger than in No. 1, in a simple raceme. Berries very dark red. Along river banks. ‘| f 4 MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 39 XIX. MAIANTHEMUM, Wigs. Stem low. Leaves 2—3, lanceolate or ovate, with a heart- shaped base. Flowers small, white, solitary, or in a simple raceme. Perianth 4-parted. Stamens 4. Ovary 2-celled. Stigma 2-lobed. 1. M. canadense, Desf. Two-LEAVED SoLtomon’s SEAL, WILD . LILY-OF-THE-VALLEY. Plant 3-6 in. high. Leaves very short- petioled. Fruit a globular or ovoid berry, whitish, with brownish- red blotches. Woods and shaded banks N. XX. STREPTOPUS, Michx. Herbs with forking stems from a creeping rootstock. Leaves clasping. Flowers small, borne singly or in pairs on peduncles which arise above the leaf-axils and which are sharply bent or twisted near the middle. Anthers arrow-shaped. Ovary 3-celled, ripening into a red, many-seeded berry. 1. S. amplexifolius, D.C. Liver-serry. Stem smooth, 2 ft. or more high. Leaves smooth-margined. Flowers greenish-white. Damp woods. 2. S.roseus, Michx. LiveER-BERRY,JAcOoB’s LADDER. Branches with a few bristly hairs. . Lower leaves margined with fine bristles. Flowers reddish or purplish. Cold, damp woods N. XXI. POLYGONATUM, Tourn. Rootstock creeping, jointed, scarred. Stems simple, erect, scaly below, leafy above. Leaves alternate, oval, or oblong. Flowers on axillary, 1-4-flowered, drooping, jointed peduncles. Perianth tubular, 6-cleft. Stamens 6, included, inserted about the middle of the tube. Anthers arrow-shaped. Ovary 3-celled, many-ovuled, style slender, stigmas knobbed or 3-lobed. Fruit a few-seeded berry.* 1. P. biflorum, Ell. Harry SoLtomon’s SEAL. Stem simple, erect, arched, nearly naked below, 1-2 ft. high. Leaves 2-ranked, sessile er clasping, 3-7-nerved, smooth above, pale and downy beneath. Peduncles short, 1-4, often 2-flowered. Perianth greenish, 1-2 in. long. Filaments thread-shaped, roughened. Berry dark blue. Shady banks.* = 4 aia ein 40 . FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 2. P. giganteum, Dietriche SmootH Soxtomon’s SEAL. Stem simple, stout, curving above, 3-8 ft. high. Leaves lanceolate to ovate, — many-nerved, partly clasping, smooth on both sides. Peduncles nearly ~ half as long as the leaves, 2-6-flowered. Perianth greenish-yellow, — in. long. Filaments smooth. Berry blue, 4 in. in diameter. In rocky woods and along streams.* : XXII. CONVALLARIA, L. Low, smooth, stemless, perennial herbs. Leaves 2, oblong; with long petioles, from a slender, creeping rootstock. Scape slender, angled, enclosed at the base by the leaf-stalks. Flowers — racemed, white, drooping. Perianth bell-shaped, withrecurved — lobes. Stamens borne on the base of the perianth. Ovary — 3-celled, ripening into a few-seeded red berry. 1. C. majalis, L. Lity-or-rHE-vatiny. A familiar garden flower, cultivated from Europe, and also found wild in mountain woods from Virginia to Georgia. XXIII. TRILLIUM, L. Low herbs with the stem springing from a short rootstock. Leaves 3, large, netted-veined, in a whorl. Flower large, ter- minal, Perianth of 6 parts, the 3 sepals unlike the 3 petals in color and in texture. Stamens 6, with the linear anthers usually opening inward, longer than the filaments. Stigmas 3, sessile, spreading at the tips. Ovary 3 or 6-angled, 3-celled, many-seeded. Fruit a roundish, many-seeded purple berry. 1. T. sessile, L. Rootstock erect or ascending, corm-like. Stem slender, 1-8 in. high. Leaves broadly oval, obtuse or acute at the apex, rounded and sessile at the base, 3—5-nerved, smooth, bright green, not mottled. Flowers sessile, sepals lanceolate, 2-1 in. long, petals purple, elliptical, about the length of the sepals. Stamens half the length of the petals. Styles elongated, straight. In rich woods.* 2. T. Underwoodii, Small. UNpERWOoopD’s WAKE-ROBIN. JRoot- stock horizontal, stem stout, 4-12 in. high. Leaves ovate-lanceolate to broadly ovate, acute or short taper-pointed at the apex, rounded and sessile at the base, wavy on the margins, 3—5-nerved, smooth, prominently mottled with different shades of green. Flowers sessile. - Sepals lanceolate, 14-2 in. long, often purplish green. Petals purple, lanceolate to oblanceolate, 2-8 in. long. Stamens 3-4 the length of the petals. Style very short, stigmas recurved. Fruit an ovoid berry. In rich woods.* MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 41 3. T. erectum, L. SQuawroot, BENJAMIN. Rootstock rather upright, large and stout. Leaves broadly diamond-shaped, tapering to a short point. Pedicel 1—3 in. long, not quite erect. Petals ovate to lanceolate, much broader than the sepals, of a rich brownish- purple or sometimes white or pale. Stigmas distinct, stout, and spreading. The disagreeable scent of the flower has given rise to several absurd popular names for it. In rich woods. 4. T. grandiflorum, Salisb. LARGE-FLOWERED WAKE-ROBIN. Rootstock horizontal, stem slender, 12-18 in. high. Leaves rhombic- ovate, taper-pointed at the apex, rounded and sessile or slightly peduncled at the base, smooth and with a bloom, 5-7-nerved, bright green. Peduncle longer than the erect or slightly declined flower. Sepals lanceolate-acute, 1-14 in. long. Petals white, fading to pink, longer than the sepals. Stamens less than half the length of the petals. Style short, stigmas recurved. Fruit a black, roundish berry. In rich woods.* 5. T. nivale, Riddell. Dwarr WuitTre Trivium. Plant 2-4 in. high. Leaves petioled, oval to ovate. Flower white, erect. Petals 4-11 in. long, ovate-spatulate. Rich, damp woods, blooming with the very earliest spring flowers. 6. T. erythrocarpum, Michx. PaAInTep Trittium. Plant 8-12 in. high. Rootstock oblique to the rest of the stem, rather small; roots long and fibrous. Leaves ovate, taper-pointed. Petals white, penciled at the base, with purple stripes, lance-ovate, somewhat recurved, wavy. Cold woods, especially N. XXIV. SMILAX, Tourn. Mostly woody vines, usually with prickly stems, climbing by tendrils. Rootstock often large and tuberous. Leaves alter- nate, prominently nerved, netted-veined, petioled, stipules replaced by persistent tendrils. Flowers regular, dicecious, small, greenish, in axillary umbels. Perianth bell-shaped, segments 6. Stamens 6, distinct. Ovary 3-celled, 3-6-ovuled, - stigmas 1-3, sessile or nearly so. Fruit a 1—-6-seeded globose berry. | 1. S. herbacea, L. CARRION-FLOWER. Stem herbaceous, erect, simple or branched, not prickly, 1-3 ft. high. Leaves few, ovate, acute, and mucronate at the apex, somewhat heart-shaped at the base, 5—7-nerved, thin, smooth above, downy below, the upper some- times whorled and the lower bract-like ; petiole short. Peduncles as long as the leaves, growing from below the petiole. Umbel many- flowered, flowers carrion-scented. Berry blue-black, 2—4-seeded. Dry, fertile soil.* 42 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 2. S. glauca, Walt. GREEN-BRIER. Stem cylindrical, slender, with scattered prickles, branches angled, and usually without prickles. Leaves ovate or subcordate, pointed at the apex, mostly 5-neryed, smooth, white beneath, with a bloom, margin entire. Peduncle flattened, 2-3 times as, long as the petiole, few-flowered. Berry black, 8-seeded. Margin of swamps.* 3. S. Bona-Nox, L. BAmsBoo-vine. Stem stout, cylindrical, or slightly angled, scurfy when young, armed with numerous stout prickles. Branches 4-angled, usually unarmed. Leaves triangular, ovate, or often halberd-shaped, 5—7-ribbed, smooth on both sides and often discolored, margins usually fringed with fine prickles. Pedun- cles twice as long as the petioles, flattened. Umbels many-flowered, pedicels short. Berries 8-20 in a cluster, black, 1-seeded. In swamps and thickets.* ; 4. S. Walteri, Pursh. GRrEN-BRIER. Stem low, with few prickles, 2-5 ft. long, branches slightly 4-angled, unarmed. Leaves oblong-lanceolate to oval, obtuse or acute at the apex, rounded or — cordate at the base, 5-ribbed, smooth. Peduncles flattened, about as long as the petioles and pedicels. Berry bright red, ripening the first year. Wet pine barrens.* : 5. S. rotundifolia, L. GREEN-BRIER, CAT-BRIER, DOG-BRIER, HorsE-BRIER, WaAItT-A-BIT. Stem green, strong; branchlets, and sometimes the branches, 4-angled, armed with stout hooked prickles. Leaves ovate or round-ovate, with a slightly heart-shaped base and an abruptly pointed tip. Berries black, with a bloom. Thickets, the commonest species N. E. 11. AMARYLLIDACEZH. AMARYLLIS FAMILY. Mostly smooth perennial herbs, from bulbs. Leaves radi- cal, with no distinction between petiole and blade. Flowers borne on a scape, nearly or quite regular. Stamens 6. “Style 1. Tube of the 6-parted, corolla-like perianth adnate to the 3-celled ovary. Capsule 3-celled, several-many-seeded. I. ZEPHYRANTHES, Herb. Stemless, from a coated bulb. Leaves linear, fleshy. Scape erect, 1-few-flowered. Flowers large, erect, or declined, sub- tended by a 1-2-leaved spathe. Perianth 6-parted, naked in the throat, tube short, segments petal-like, spreading. Stamens free, anthers versatile. Ovary 3-celled, many-ovuled. Style MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 43 elongated, declined. Stigma 3-cleft. Fruit a many-seeded, 3-valved capsule, seeds black, compressed, or angled.* 1. Z. Atamasco, Herb. ATAMASCO Liry. Bulbs about 1 in. in diameter. Leaves narrow, concave above, smooth, usually longer than the scape. Scape 6-12 in. high, 1-flowered. Spathe 1-leaved, 2-cleft. Flowers 2-3 in. long, white, tinged with pink or purple, bell-shaped, short-peduncled. Stamens longer than the tube, shorter than the style. Capsule depressed-globose, seeds angled. In rich, damp soil, often cultivated.* II. NARCISSUS, L. Scapes with 1-several flowers from a thin, dry spathe. Flowers with a cup-shaped or other crown on the throat of the perianth ; tube of the perianth somewhat cylindrical, the 6 divisions of the limb widely spreading. Stamens 6, inserted in the tube. 1. N. Pseudo-narcissus, L. DaArropir, DArFry, EASTER-FLOWER. Scape short, bearing 1 large yellow flower; tube of perianth short and wide, crown with a crimped margin. Cultivated from Europe. 2. N. Tazetta, var. orientalis. CHINESE SAcreD Lity. Bulb large, often with many smaller ones attached to its base. Scape 1 ft. or more high. Flowers several, umbeled, fragrant. Perianth white or nearly so, the crown rather spreading, finely scalloped, yellow or orange. Cultivated from China. 3. N. poeticus, L. Port’s Narcissus. Scape 1-flowered. Peri- anth pure white, the crown very narrow, edged with pink. Culti- vated from S. Europe. Ill. HYPOXIS, L. Small, stemless herbs. Leaves grass-like, hairy, from a solid bulb. Scapes thread-like, few-flowered. Perianth 6-parted, wheel-shaped, the 3 outer divisions greenish on the outside, the whole perianth withering on the pod. Seeds numerous. 1. H. erecta, L. Srar-Grass. Leaves longer than the scape, both sparsely set with long, soft hairs. Scape 3-5 in. high. Flowers 1-4, about 4 in. across, yellow. Common in meadows and dry woods. 44 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY yt Se Fic. 6. —Iris, | I, flower ; II, seed, longitudinal section ; III, flower with outer segments of perianth removed ; stig., stigma, ov., ovary. Fic. 7. — Iris. I, flower, longitudinal section, ov., ovary ; II, diagram, showing stigmas opposite the stamens ; III, capsule, splitting between the partitions. MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS | 45 12. IRIDACEZ. Iris Famity. Perennial herbs from bulbs, corms, or rootstocks. Leaves 2-ranked, equitant. Flowers perfect, regular or irregular, each subtended by two bracts. Perianth 6-parted, the tube adher- ent to the ovary, the segments in 2 series of 3 each, equal, or the inner ones smaller. Stamens 3, distinct or united, oppo- site the outer segments. Ovary forming a 3-celled, 3-angled, 3-valved, many-seeded, dehiscent capsule.* I. CROCUS, L. Crocus. Leaves radical. Flowers sessile on the corm. Tube of the perianth very long and slender, its divisions all alike or nearly so. Stigmas 3-cleft. 1. C. vernus. Sprinc Crocus. Leaves linear. Stigmas short. Flowers white, blue, or purple. Our earliest garden flower. Culti- vated from Europe. Il. IRIS, Tourn. Rootstock thick, creeping, branching, horizontal, sometimes tuberous. Stems erect, simple, or branched. Leaves hnear or sword-shaped. Flowers showy, epigynous, the outer perianth segments spreading or recurved, often bearded within, the inner segments usually smaller and erect. Stamens inserted in the base of the outer segments. Style deeply 3-parted, the divisions broad and petal-like, covering the stamens. Fruit an oblong or oval, 3 or 6 angled, many-seeded capsule.* 1. I. versicolor, L. LarGce Biure Frac. Rootstock thick, hori- zontal. Stem cylindrical, smooth, simple or branched, leafy, 2-3 ft. high. Leaves linear, sword-shaped, finely nerved, with a bloom, the lower 13-2 ft. long, the upper shorter. Bracts longer than the pedicels. Flowers terminal, single, or few together, blue variegated with white, yellow, and purple, perianth segments not bearded, the inner ones smaller. Ovary 3-angled, longer than the inflated perianth tube. Capsule oblong, slightly lobed, seeds 2 rows in each cell. In wet places.* 2. I. germanica, L. FLEuUR-prE-LISs. Rootstock thick, matted. Stem stout, branched, leafy, 2-3 ft. high. Leaves strap-shaped, 46 j FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY acute, erect, shorter than the stem, bracts scarious. Flowers sessile, — large and showy, blue, variegated with white and yellow, sometimes — nearly all white, outer segments large, recurved, bearded, the inner narrower, erect, or arched inward. Introduced from Europe; com- — mon in gardens and naturalized in many places.* 3. I, fulva, Ker. YELLOw Frac. Rootstock fleshy. Stem sim- ple or branched, grooved, 1-angled below, bearing 2-3 leaves, 2-3 ft. high. Leaves linear, sword-shaped, with a bloom, shorter than the stem, bracts small. Pedicels short, flowers axillary and terminal, dull yellow or reddish-brown, variegated with blue and green, peri- anth segments not bearded. Style branches but little exceeding the stamens, ovary about as long as the inflated perianth tube. Capsule ovate, 6-angled. Swamps and wet places.* Ill. SISYRHINCHIUM, L. Small, grass-like perennials. Stems erect, flattened, or winged. Roots fibrous. eaves linear or lanceolate. Flowers small, blue, quickly withering, in terminal 2-bracted umbels. Perianth corolla-lke, of 6 bristle-pointed segments, tube. nearly or wholly lacking. Stamens 3, completely monadel- phous. \ Stigmas 38, thread-like. Fruit a nearly globular 3-angled capsule.. Species too difficult for the beginner. 13. ORCHIDACEZ. Orcuis FAMILY. Perennial herbs with simple stems, often arising from bulbs or tubers. Leaves simple, usually alternate andentire. Flow- ers perfect, generally showy, often extraordinarily irregular. Perianth of 6 divisions, adnate to the 1-celled ovary. Stamens 1 or 2, united with the pistil; pollen of comparatively few grains held together in masses by cobweb-like threads. Ovary 1-celled, containing many (sometimes more than a million) very minute ovules. The family is a difficult one, and most of the genera are so rare that specimens should not be collected in large num- bers for class study. Two of the most familiar genera are Cypripedium, or lady’s slipper, and Spiranthes, or lady’s tresses. Many of the genera are tropical air-plants like Part I, Fig. 13. DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 47 SUBCLASS IL. — DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS. Stems composed of bark, wood, and pith; the fibro-vascular bundles in rings; in woody stems which live over from year to year, the wood generally in annual rings, traversed at right angles by medullary rays. Leaves netted-veined. Parts of the flower usually in fours or fives. Cotyledons 2 (rarely none). 14. SALICACEZ. Wuttow Famity. Dicecious trees or shrubs, with flowers in catkins (Ch. XIII), destitute of floral envelopes. Fruit a 1-celled pod, with numerous seeds, provided with rather long and silky down, by means of which they are transported by the wind. I. POPULUS, Tourn. Trees with prominent scaly buds, twigs more or less angled. Leaves usually long-petioled. Flowers borne in long, drooping catkins, which appear before the leaves ; scales of the catkins irregularly cut toward the tip. Stamens 8-30 or more. Stigmas 2-4. Capsules opening early by 2 to 4 valves. 1. P. tremuloides, Michx. AMERICAN ASPEN, QUAKING Asp. A tree 20 to 60 ft. high, with greenish-white bark; leaves roundish, heart-shaped, abruptly pointed, with small regular teeth. Leaf- stalk long, slender, and flattened at right angles to the broad surfaces of the leaf, causing it to sway edgewise with the least per- ceptible breeze. Common especially N. 2. P. grandidentata, Michx. LArGr-TOOTHED Popiar. A tree 60 to 80 ft. high, with rather smooth gray bark ; leaves 3-5 in. long, roundish ovate and irregularly sinuate-toothed; when young com- pletely covered with white silky wool, which is shed as soon as the leaf matures. The petiole is somewhat flattened, but not nearly as much so as that of the preceding species. Rich woods N. 3. P. heterophylla, L. Swamp Popiar. Branches only slightly angled. Leaves ovate, mostly obtuse at the apex, rounded or sub- cordate at the base, serrate with obtuse teeth, densely woolly when 48 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY young, but becoming smooth with age ; petioles cylindrical. Pistil- late catkins smooth, erect, or spreading, loosely flowered. Capsule ovoid, usually shorter than the pedicel. Common in river swamps. A large tree with soft light wood, which is often used in making cheap furniture.* 4. P. monilifera, Ait. Corronwoop. ‘A large and very rapidly growing tree, 75 to 100 or more feet in height, often with a markedly excurrent trunk. Leaves large and broadly triangular, with crenate- serrate margins and long, tapering acute tips ; petioles long and considerably flattened. The numerous pediceled capsules are quite conspicuous when mature, and the air is filled with the downy seeds at the time when the capsules open. Common W., espe- cially along streams and planted as a shade-tree. Il. SALIX, Tourn. Shrubs or trees, branches usually very slender. Buds with single scales. Leaves usually long and narrow ; stipules some- times leaf-like or often small and soon deciduous. Bracts of the catkins entire ; staminate catkins erect or drooping, staminate flowers with 2-10, mostly 2, distinct or united stamens. Pistillate catkins usually erect, flowers with a small gland on the inner side of the bract, stigmas short, 2-lobed. Capsule 2-valved.* 1. S. nigra, Marsh. Buack Wittow. Leaves elliptical or nar- rowly lanceolate, acute at each end, serrate, short-petioled, downy when young and becoming smooth with age, 2-3 in. long; stipules persistent or deciduous. Staminate catkins 1-2 in. long; the pistil- late 2-4 in. long. Stamens 3-7, distinct, filaments soft, hairy below. Capsule twice the length of the pedicel, ovate, taper-pointed, pointed by the prominent style. A small tree with very brittle branches. Along streams and borders of marshes.* 2. S. babylonica, Tourn. Werrpinc WitLtow. Leaves narrowly lanceolate, taper-pointed, serrate, slightly downy when young and becoming smooth with age, green above, pale beneath, often 5-7 in. long, petioles short, glandular. Catkins on short lateral branches. Stamens 2. Style almost none. Capsule sessile, smooth. Introduced and cultivated for ornament, becoming a large tree.* [Some 20 species of willow are found growing wild in the north- eastern and north central states, but they are very hard, even for botanists, to identify. ] DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 49 15. MYRICACEZ. Baysperry FAmILy. Shrubs with alternate, simple, resinous-dotted leaves ; moneecious or dicecious. Flowers in short, bracted catkins, perianth none. Staminate flowers 2-10, stamens inserted on the receptacle. Pistillate flowers surrounded by 2-6 scales. Ovary 1-celled, style short, stigmas 2. I. MYRICA, L. Shrubs or small trees with the branches clustered at the end of the growth of the previous season. Leaves short- petioled, entire, lobed or toothed, the margin usually revo- lute, without stipules. Perianth none. Staminate flowers in oblong or cylindrical catkins, stamens 2-10, with the fila- ments united below. Pistillate flowers surrounded by a cup of 2-6 scales, ovary solitary, becoming a 1-celled, roundish stone-fruit or nut, often covered with waxy grains. Whole plant usually fragrant.* 1. M. cerifera, L. WaAXBERRY, BAYBERRY. A spreading shrub or small tree; young branches downy. Leaves lanceolate or oblong- lanceolate, entire or sometimes serrate near the mostly obtuse apex, smooth or downy on the veins beneath, tapering into a short petiole. Flowers mostly dicecious. Staminate catkins numerous, stamens 4. Pistillate catkins small, bracts slightly 3-lobed, scales of the ovary 4, fringed with hairs; stigmas 2. Fruit very abundant, incrusted with white wax, 1—1 in. in diameter, sometimes persistent for 2 or 3 years. Common on wet soils, especially near the coast.* 2. M. asplenifolia, Endl. Sweet Fern. A shrub 2 ft. or less in height, with brown twigs. Leaves fern-like, linear-lanceolate, 20-30- lobed, 3-5 in. long and very fragrant. Often moncecious. Staminate catkins cylindrical. Pistillate catkins globular. Ovary surrounded by 8 long, linear, awl-shaped, hairy and glandular scales which en- circle the ripened fruit. Nut nearly ovoid, smooth, small, but eaten by children. 16. JUGLANDACEZ. Watneut Famity. Trees with alternate, odd-pinnate leaves without stipules. Flowers monecious, the staminate in long and drooping catkins, stamens few or many. Calyx 2-6-parted. Fertile 50 | _ FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY flowers solitary or in small clusters. Calyx 3—5-lobed, minute petals sometimes present. Ovary 1-celled or incompletely 2—4-celled. Fruit with a dry husk enclosing a bony nut.* I. JUGLANS, L. Staminate catkins cylindrical, solitary, borne on wood of the previous year, stamens numerous, filaments short, calyx 4-6-parted. Pistillate flowers single or a few together on a short peduncle at the base of the growth of the season. Calyx 4-parted. Petals 4, minute, adnate to the ovary. Styles 2, short, plumose. Fruit large, roundish or oval, husk fibrous- fleshy, becoming dry, indehiscent, nut bony, very rough.* 1. J. nigra, L. Buack Waunut. Leaflets 13-21, ovate-lanceo- late, serrate, taper-pointed, somewhat cordate or oblique at the base, nearly smooth above, downy beneath, petioles minutely downy. Fruit usually single, roundish, about 2 in. in diameter. On rich soil, rare near the coast. One of the most valuable of our native trees, the wood being very durable and highly prized for cabinet work.* 2. J..cinerea, L. Burternut. Leaflets 15-19, ovate-lanceolate, taper-pointed at the apex, rounded or slightly unsymmetrical at the base, serrate, downy beneath; petioles, branchlets, and fruit clothed with short, sticky hairs. Fruit often somewhat in clusters, oblong, large. More common northward. Wood less valuable and nut less oily than the black walnut. The English walnut (J. regia) is occasionally seen in cultivation. It has 7-11 leaflets and a nearly smooth nut.* Il. CARYA, Nutt. Leaflets serrate; staminate catkins usually in threes on a common peduncle, or sometimes sessile at the base of the growth of the season; calyx 2-3-parted, stamens 3-10, fila- ments short. Pistillate flowers 2—5 in terminal clusters, calyx 4-parted, petals none, styles 2 or 4, fringed. Fruit somewhat globular, husk separating more or less completely into 4 valves. Nut smooth or angled.* 1. C. oliveformis, Nutt. Prcan. A large tree with rough gray bark, young twigs and leaves downy, nearly smooth when Ynature. Leaflets 11-15, oblong- lanceolate, acuminate, serrate, scythe-shaped. Staminate catkins nearly sessile, 5-6 in. long. Husk thin nut oval DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 5] or oblong, thin-shelled. River bottoms. Rarely native east of the Mississippi River, but widely planted for its fruit.* 2. C. alba, Nutt. SHeELLBARK Hickory. . A large tree with bark sealing off in long plates, young twigs and leaves downy, becoming smooth with age. Leaflets 5, the lower ones oblong-lanceolate, the upper one longer and obovate, taper-pointed at the apex, narrowed to the sessile base. Inner bud-scales becoming large and conspicu- ous. Staminate catkins in threes. Fruit globose, husk thick, split- ting into four sections, nut white, compressed, 4-angled, pointed, thin-shelled. On rich soil. More common N. Wood strong and elastic, but not durable when’ exposed.* 3. C. sulcata, Nutt. Bria SHELLBARK, Kine Nout, Butt Nur. A tree 70-90 ft. high, with shaggy bark. Leaflets 7 or 9, the terminal one nearly sessile. Fruit large, ovoid or nearly so, 4-grooved toward the outer end, the husk very thick, nut pointed at each end, 14-2 in. long, thick-shelled, with a very sweet kernel. Wood hard and heavy. Gommon in rich, damp soil W. 4. C. amara, Nutt. Pianut, Swame Hickory. A medium- sized tree, with rather smooth bark. Leaflets 7-11, lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate. Fruit not large, husk thin, nut globular, with a short point, very thin-shelled, kernel extremely bitter. Moist soil, common in the Middle States. 17. BETULACEZ. Bircn FAmIty. Trees or shrubs, with alternate, simple, petioled leaves with usually deciduous stipules. Flowers moncecious in cylindri- cal or subglobose catkins, staminate catkins drooping; flowers 1-3 in the axil of each bract, calyx none, or membranous and 24-parted; stamens 2-10, distinct. Pistillate catkins . drooping, spreading, or erect and spike-like; flowers with or without a calyx, ovary solitary, 1—2-celled, ovules 1—2 in each cell. Fruit a 1-celled nut or key.* I. CARPINUS, L. Trees with thin, straight-veined leaves, which are folded in the bud. Flowers appearing before the leaves ; staminate flowers in slender drooping catkins, sessile at the end of the growth of the previous season; stamens 3-12, subtended by a bract, filaments forked, anthers hairy. Pistillate catkins 52 | FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY spike-like, each pair of flowers subtended oy a deciduous bract, and each flower by a persistent bractlet which becomes large and leaf-like in fruit; ovary 2-celled, 2-ovuled; stigmas 2, thread-like. Fruit a small angular nut.* | 1. C. caroliniana, Walt. Hornspram. A small tree with smooth and close gray bark; twigs slender. Leaves ovate-oblong, acute or taper-pointed, sharply and doubly serrate, the straight veins terminat- ing in the larger serrations; downy when young and soon becoming smooth. Staminate catkins 1-14 in. long. Pistillate catkins long- peduncled, 8-12-flowered ; bractlets becoming nearly 1 in. long, cut- toothed, the middle tooth much longer than the others. In rich, moist woods. Often known as “blue beech” and “ iron-wood.” * II. OSTRYA, Micheli. Small trees with gray bark and very hard wood. Leaves open and concave in the bud and somewhat plaited on the veins. Staminate flowers on slender, drooping catkins, sessile at the end of the growth of the previous season; stamens 3-12, subtended by a bract, filaments forked, anthers hairy. Pistillate flowers surrounded by a tubular bractlet which becomes large and bladder-like at maturity. Fruit a small, pointed, smooth nut; mature catkins hop-like.* QO. virginica, Willd. A small tree with brownish, furrowed bark ; leaves ovate, acute, doubly serrate, often inequilateral at the base, short-petioled ; staminate and fertile catkins 2-3 in. long. In rich woods. Often known as “iron-wood” and “ lever-wood.” * Il. CORYLUS, Tourn. Shrubs with prominently veined, cut-toothed leaves which are folded lengthwise in the bud. Flowers expanding before the leaves. Staminate flowers in slender, drooping catkins ; stamens 8, anthers 1-celled. Fertile flowers several in a cluster or in very short catkins at the ends of the twigs of the season; ovary incompletely 2-celled, style short, stigmas 2, bractlets 2, becoming enlarged and enclosing the single bony nut at maturity.* 1. C. americana, Walt. Hazretnut. A shrub 2-5 ft. high, young twigs and petioles covered with brownish, stiff hairs. Leaves not DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 53 very thin, round-cordate, acute or slightly taper-pointed, irregularly toothed, nearly smooth above, downy below. Involucre longer than the nut and partially enclosing it, glandular-hairy. Nut subglobose, pointed, edible. On rich soil, borders of meadows and fields, and in oak-openings. 2. C. rostrata, Ait. BrAKkep Hazexnut. A shrub 4-8 ft. high. Young twigs near ends smooth. Leaves thin, little, if at all, heart- shaped, doubly serrate or incised, taper-pointed, stipules linear- lanceolate. Involucre completely covering the nut and prolonged into a beak beyond it. Common N. [The latter species is not nearly as widely distributed as the former ; they cannot be readily distinguished from each other until the fruit is somewhat mature. The principal points of difference discernible before the fruit is nearly mature are the hairy twigs of No. 1 and the smooth ones of No. 2, and the fact that No. 1 has buds rounded at the apex and more slender and longer staminate catkins, while No. 2 has buds acute at the apex and thicker and shorter staminate catkins. ] IV. BETULA, Tourn. Trees with slender, aromatic twigs and thin, usually straight- veined leaves. Staminate catkins drooping, flowers usually 3 in the axil of each bract, stamens 4, short, anthers 1-celled. Pistillate catkins erect, flowers 2 or 3 in the axil of each bract ; ovary sessile, 2-celled, styles 2 ; bracts 3-lobed; perianth none. Nut broadly winged.* 1. B. nigra, L. Brack Brrcu, River Brrcn. A medium-sized tree with reddish-brown bark. Leaves rhombic-ovate, acute at the apex, acute or obtuse at the base, sharply and doubly serrate, white- downy below, becoming smoother with age, petioles short. Stami- nate catkins 2-3 in. long. Pistillate catkins 1-14 in. long, peduncles short, bracts nearly equally 3-cleft, woolly. River banks, especially S. and W.* 2. B.lenta, L. CuHrerry Bircn. Leaves ovate or oblong-ovate, acute, heart-shaped, finely and doubly serrate, silky when young ; petioles about 4 in. long. Staminate catkins clustered, 3—4 in. long. Pistillate catkins sessile, about 1 in. long, cylindrical bracts spread- ing, acute, smooth. River banks, especially N. A large tree with aromatic twigs. The oil contained in the bark and twigs is distilled and used as a substitute for wintergreen.* 3. B. populifolia, Ait. Gray Brrew. A tall shrub or slender, straggling tree, 15-30 ft. high, seldom growing erect, often several trunks springing from the ground almost in contact and slanting away from each other, Leaves triangular, with a long taper point 54 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY and truncate base, unevenly twice serrate, with rather long, slender petioles, which allow the leaves to quiver like those of the aspen. Bark scaling off in white strips and layers, but not in nearly as large sheets as that of the rarer canoe birch (B. papyrifera). The commonest birch of New England. 4. B. alba, L. European Wuitr Bircn, Cut-LEAVED BIRcH. A tree 50 to 60 ft. high, often with drooping branches. Leaves triangular-ovate, truncate, rounded or somewhat heart-shaped at the base, not strongly taper-pointed except in the cut-leaved form. Commonly cultivated from Europe. Resembles No. 3, but has whiter bark and (the weeping form) much more slender branches. V. ALNUS, Tourn. Shrubs or small trees. Leaves petioled, serrate. Flower- - buds stalked, appearing the previous season; staminate cat- kins racemed, drooping, flowers 3-6 in the axil of each bract, subtended by 1-2 bractlets, perianth 4-parted, stamens 4, fila- Hat eee) Fig. 8.— Alnus glutinosa. A, a flowering twig; s, staminate catkins; p, pistillate catkins; B, a group of staminate flowers, enlarged; C, two pistillate flowers, enlarged. * DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS ae ments short. Pistillate catkins erect; flowers 2-3 in the axil of each bract, perianth replaced by 2-4 minute bractlets which are adherent to the bract; ovary 2-celled, styles 2. Fruita winged or angled nut; bracts of the pistillate flowers some- what fleshy, persistent, becoming woody in fruit.* 1. A. serrulata, Willd. Smoorn AtpEer. A shrub or small tree with smooth bark. Leaves obovate, rounded or obtuse at the apex, acute at the base, sharply and minutely serrate, smooth above, downy beneath, petioled, stipules oval, deciduous. Staminate catkins 2—4 in. long; fruiting catkins ovoid, short-peduncled. Fruit ovate, wing- less. Banks of streams and borders of marshes, ranging far S. Leaves often persistent during the winter.* 2. A.incana, Willd. SpeckLep ALperR. A shrub 8-20 ft. high. Leaves broadly oval or ovate, rounded at the base, sharply (some- times doubly) serrate, white and usually downy beneath. Fruit -round. Forming thickets by streams, very common N. 18. FAGACEZ. Beecu FaAmity. Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, simple, pinnately veined; stipules deciduous. Flowers monecious, the stami- nate in heads, or in drooping, spreading, or erect catkins, ealyx minute, petals none, stamens 4-20. Pistillate flowers solitary or in small clusters, each flower subtended by more or less united bracts which at maturity form a cup or bur, ealyx minutely toothed, petals none; ovary 2-7-celled, but becoming 1-celled. Fruit a 1-seeded nut.* I. FAGUS, Tourn. Trees with smooth, close, ash-gray bark, and slender, often horizontal branches. Staminate flowers in long, slender- peduncled, roundish clusters, calyx bell-shaped, 4—6-cleft, stamens 8-12, anthers 2-celled; pistillate flowers solitary or more often in pairs, peduncled, surrounded by a 4-lobed in- volucre and numerous linear bracts; ovaries 3-celled with 2 ovules in each cell, but usually only 1 ovule matures in each ovary; styles 3, thread-shaped, fruit a thin-shelled, 3-angled nut.* 56 . FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 1. F. ferruginea, Ait. Brrcu. Large trees. Leaves oblong-ovate, taper-pointed at the apex, serrate, straight-veined, very white-silky when young, nearly smooth with age. Involucre densely covered with short recurved spines. Nuts thin-shelled, edible. Common on damp soil everywhere. The wood is very hard, tough, and close- grained, and is especially valuable for the manufacture of small tools.* 2. F. sylvatica, L. The European beech is occasionally found planted as a shade-tree. The variety known as the copper beech is most usual, and is readily recognized by its dark, crimson-purple leaves. Il. CASTANEA, Tourn. Trees or shrubs with rough, gray, rather close bark. Leaves straight-veined, undivided, prominently toothed. Flowers ap- pearing later than the leaves. Staminate catkins erect or spreading, loosely flowered, flowers several in the axil of each bract, calyx 4—6-parted, stamens 8-16. Pistillate flowers at the base of the staminate catkin or in small separate clus- ters, usually 3 in each involucre ; ovary 4-celled, surrounded by 5-12 abortive stamens. Fruit a 1-celled nut enclosed in the greatly enlarged and very prickly involucre.* 1. C. sativa, Mill., var. americana, Wats. AMERICAN CHESTNUT. A large tree, bark somewhat rough, and splitting into longitudinal plates. Leaves oblong-lanceolate, taper-pointed at the apex, usually acute at the base, coarsely and sharply serrate with ascending teeth, smooth, dark green above, lighter below; petioles stout, short. Staminate catkins erect, 6-10 in. long. Nuts usually 3 in each bur. Rich soil, especially N. Rarely found on soils contain- ing much lime.* 2. C. pumila, Mill. CHrnquapPiIn. A small tree or shrub. Leaves oblong, acute or obtuse at both ends, serrate with divergent teeth, dark green and smooth above, white-woolly below. Nuts solitary, nearly globular. Common southward in rich woods.* Ill. QUERCUS, L. Trees or shrubs with entire, serrate, or lobed leaves, which are often persistent. Staminate flowers in slender catkins, each subtended by quickly deciduous bracts, and consisting - a sae EE oe lO retro @ 7) DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS. 57. of 3-12 stamens enclosed by a 4-8-parted perianth, often . containing an abortive ovary. Pistillate flowers solitary or in small clusters, each consisting of a 3-celled ovary with 2 ovules in each cell, though rarely more than 1 ovule matures ; styles short, erect, or recurved. Pistillate flowers surrounded by a scaly involucre which at maturity becomes a cup enclosing the base of the fruit or sometimes a large part of it. Fruit an ovoid or subglobose, 1-seeded, thin- shelled nut (acorn). A. Fruit biennial; leaves entire or with bristle-pointed lobes.* 1. Q. rubra, L. RepdOax. A large tree. Leaves oval or obovate, green above, pale and slightly downy beneath, sinuses shallow and rounded, lobes 8-12, taper-pointed ; petioles long. Cup saucer-shaped, with fine scales ; acorn ovate or oblong, about 1 in. long. Common; wood not valuable ; leaves turning red after frost and often remain- ing on the tree through the winter.* 2. Q. coccinea, var. tinctoria, Gray. Buack Oax. A large tree with rough, dark brown outer bark and thick, bright yellow inner bark; leaves broadly oval, usually cut more than halfway to the midrib, sinuses rounded ; lobes about 7, sharply toothed at the apex, smooth above, usually downy on the veins beneath; cup hemispher- ical or top-shaped, with coarse scales, short-peduncled, enclosing about half the roundish acorn. Common; wood not valuable, but the mner bark used for tanning and dyeing.* 3. Q. falcata, Michx. SpanisH Oak. A small or medium-sized tree with leaves 3—5-lobed at the apex, obtuse or rounded at the base, grayish-downy beneath, lobes lanceolate and often scythe- shaped, sparingly cut-toothed. Cup top-shaped, with coarse scales, enclosing about half the nearly round acorn. Common in dry woods. Foliage quite variable in outline and lobing; bark valu- able for tanning.* 4. Q. nigra, L. Brack-sack Oax. A small tree; leaves obovate, usually with three rounded lobes at the apex, the lobes bristle-pointed, rounded, or slightly cordate at the base, rusty-pubescent beneath, shining above, coriaceous, short-petioled; cup top-shaped, short- peduncled, with coarse and truncate scales, enclosing about one- third of the oblong-ovate acorn. An almost worthless tree, its presence indicating a thin and sterile soil.* 5. Q. Phellos, L. Wuirtow Oak. A tree of medium size, leaves lanceolate or elliptical, scurfy when young and becoming smooth with age; very short-petioled ; cup shallow, sessile ; acorn subglobose. Wet soil ; often planted for shade.* 58 . FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY B. Fruit annual; leaves not bristle-tipped, though often mucronate. | 6. Q. alba, L. Ware Oax. A large tree with light gray bark. Leaves obovate-oblong, 38—9-lobed, lobes rounded and mostly entire, bright green above, paler below, short-petioled. Cup hemispherical, scales rough, woolly when young, but becoming smooth with age; acorn oblong-ovate, about 1 in. long. Common in damp soil; wood strong and durable; one of the most valuable timber trees.* 7. Q. stellata, Wang. Post Oax. A tree of medium size with rough gray bark. Leaves broadiy obovate, deeply lyrate-pinnatified into 5-7 rounded, divergent lobes, upper lobes much the longer, smooth above, yellowish-downy beneath, petioles about 1 in. long. Cup hemispherical, nearly sessile; acorn ovoid, 2-3 times as long as the cup. On dry soil; wood hard and valuable. 8. Q. macrocarpa, Michx. Bur Oax. A medium-sized to very large tree, with roughish gray bark. Leaves obovate or oblong, lyrately and deeply sinuate-lobed, smooth above, pale or downy beneath. Cup very deep and thick, abundantly fringed about the margin, 2 in. to 2 in. in diameter. Acorn, half or more [sometimes entirely] enclosed by the cup. Reaches its full size only on rich bottom lands S. and W., where it becomes one of the finest timber oaks. Wood very hard and heavy. 9. Q. lyrata, Walt. Swamp Oax. A large tree with gray or reddish bark. Leaves obovate-oblong, deeply pinnatifid, lobes narrow, often toothed, thin, smooth above, white, densely woolly beneath. Cup round-ovate, scales cuspidate, enclosing nearly the whole of the depressed-globose acorn. On wet soil; wood strong and very durable.* 10. Q. prinus, L. Swamp CuestnutT Oax. A large tree with brown, ridged bark. Leaves oblong or oblong-lanceolate, rather ob- tuse, crenately toothed, minutely downy beneath, petioles slender, about 1 in. long. Cup hemispherical, peduncles longer than the petioles, scales acute, tubercular, appressed ; acorn oblong, acute, 1 in. or less in length, edible. Common on low ground. Wood strong and valuable.* 11. Q. Muhlenbergii, Engelm. YELLOw CHESTNUT OAK. A tree of medium or large size with gray bark. Leaves oblong or oblanceolate, usually acute at the apex and obtuse or rounded at the base, coarsely and evenly toothed; veins straight, impressed above and prominent beneath ; petioles slender. Cup hemispherical, sessile or short-peduncled, with flat scales, 1 in. broad, enclosing about half the ovoid acorn, which is 2—3 in. long. Common on dry soil, wood close-grained, durable, and valuable. 12. Q. virginiana, Mill. Live Oax. A large tree with rough DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 59 gray or brown bark and a low, spreading top. Leaves leathery, evergreen, oblong or oblanceolate, often somewhat 3-lobed on young trees, margin rolled under, dark green and shining above, pale below ; petioles short, stout. Fruit often in short racemes, cup top- shaped, scales closely appressed, hoary, peduncles 4-1 in. long; acorn from subglobose to oblong, the longer form occurring on the younger trees. On low ground near the coast ; wood very hard and durable ; valued for shipbuilding.* 19. ULMACEZ. Exum Famity. Trees or shrubs with watery juice, alternate, simple, petio- late, serrate, stipulate leaves, which are usually 2-ranked ; and small, perfect, or somewhat moncecious, apetalous flowers. Calyx of 3-9 sepals which are distinct or partly united, stamens as many as the sepals and SS) opposite them. Ovary 1-2-celled, vy styles 2, spreading. Fruit a key, “aw nut, or stone fruit.* Y, Y) tees Jo SY (Ree Mz G, oO SP. Sh Bd Ga (pe: Z span BO Q Fic. 9.— Ulmus campestris. A,a flowering twig; B,a flower; C, longitudinal section of a flower; D, a fruit. I. ULMUS, L. Trees with straight-veined, unsymmetrical, doubly serrate leaves; stipules early deciduous. Flowers perfect, calyx bell-shaped, 4-9-cleft. Stamens slender, protruding. Ovary compressed, styles 2, spreading. Fruit membranaceous, flat, winged on the edge.* 210 aie FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 1. U. americana, L. Wuitr Exim. A large tree with gray bark, drooping branches, and smooth or slightly downy twigs. Leaves oval or obovate, abruptly taper-pointed at the apex, obtuse and oblique at the base, slightly rough above, soft downy or soon smooth beneath. Flowers in close fascicles, peduncles slender, smooth. Fruit oval or obovate, with 2 sharp teeth bending toward each other at the apex, wing reticulate-veined, downy on the margin. In moist, rich soil. A widely planted ornamental tree; wood strong but warping badly, and not durable when exposed.* 2. U. alata, Michx. Wincep Exim. A small tree with branches corky-winged. Leaves small, ovate-lanceolate, acute, sharply serrate, base nearly equal-sided, rough above, downy beneath, nearly sessile. Flowers in small clusters. Fruit oblong, downy on the sides, ciliate on the edges. On rich soil. Occasionally producing a second set of flowers and fruit from September to November.* 3. U. fulva, Michx. Sirepery Erm. A tree of medium size with rough downy twigs, and rusty, densely woolly bud-scales. Leaves large, thick, very rough above, downy beneath, ovate or obovate, taper-pointed at the apex, unsymmetrical, obtuse or some- what cordate at the base, coarsely and doubly serrate, calyx-lobes and pedicels downy. Fruit broadly oval, downy over the seed, the wing smooth. Inner bark very fragrant when dried, and a popular domestic remedy.* II. CELTIS, Tourn. Trees or shrubs with entire or serrate, petioled leaves. Flowers greenish, axillary, on wood of the same season, the staminate in small clusters, the fertile single or 2-3 together.* 1. C. occidentalis, L. Hacxsprerry. A large or medium-sized tree having much the appearance of an elm, bark dark and rough. Leaves ovate, taper-pointed at the apex, abruptly obtuse and inequi- lateral at the base, sharply serrate, often 3-nerved from the base, smooth above, usually somewhat downy below. Fruit a small, dark purple stone fruit. On rich soil. 2. C. mississippiensis, Bosc. SouTHERN HackBEeRRY. A tree ~ usually smaller than the preceding, bark gray, often very warty. Leaves broadly lanceolate or ovate, long taper-pointed at the apex, obtuse or sometimes heart-shaped at the base, entire or with very few serratures, smooth on both sides, 38-nerved. Fruit a purplish- black, globose stone fruit.* DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 61 290. MORACEZ. MuvLsperry FAmILy. Trees, shrubs, or herbs, usually with milky juice, alternate 3 leaves, large deciduous stipules and small monecious or dic- ~ cious flowers crowded in spikes, heads or racemes, or enclosed in a fleshy receptacle. Staminate flowers with a 3—4-lobed calyx, stamens 3-4, inserted on the base of the calyx, fila- ments usually inflexed in the bud, straightening at maturity. Pistillate flowers 35—5-sepalous ; ovary 1-2-celled, 1—2-ovuled ; styles 2, receptacle and perianth often fleshy at maturity.* a Fs > eo eae I. MORUS, Tourn. Trees or shrubs with milky juice, rounded leaves, and monececious flowers in axillary spikes. Staminate flowers “with a 4-parted perianth, and 4 stamens inflexed in the bud. Pistillate flowers with a 4-parted perianth which becomes fleshy in the multiple fruit, the pulpy part of which consists of the thickened calyx, bracts and so on of many flowers; ovary sessile, stigmas 2, linear, spreading ; the fleshy perianth enclosing the ovary at maturity.* _ 1. M. rubra, L. Rep Murperry. A small tree. Leaves cor- _date-ovate, often 3—5-lobed on vigorous shoots, taper-pointed at the apex, serrate, rough above, white, densely woolly beneath. Mature fruiting spikes oblong, drooping, dark red or purple, edible. On rich soil. Wood very durable, bearing exposure to the weather. 2. M. alba, L. Wuite Mutuiperry. A small tree. Leaves _ ovate, heart-shaped, acute at the apex, rounded and often oblique at _ the base, serrate or sometimes lobed. Smooth and shining on both sides. Mature fruit light red or — Introduced and common about old dwellings.* Il. MACLURA, Nutt. A small tree with milky juice. Leaves alternate, petioled, spines axillary. Flowers dicecious. Staminate flowers in short axillary racemes ; calyx 4-parted ; stamens 4, inflexed in the bud. Pistillate flowers i in axillary, peduncled, capitate clusters ; calyx 4-parted, ovary sessile, style long; calyces becoming thickened and fleshy in fruit and aggregated into a large, dense, globular head.* Goa.” FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 1. M. aurantiaca, Nutt. OsAGEORANGE. A small tree with ridged, yellowish-brown bark. Leaves minutely downy when young, becom- ing smooth and shining with age, ovate or ovate-oblong, taper- pointed at the apex, obtuse or subcordate at the base, entire, petioled. Staminate racemes about 1 in. long. Pistillate flower clusters about 1 in. in diameter. Fruit yellowish, tubercled, 3-4 in. in diameter. In rich soil. Native in Texas and extensively planted for hedges. Wood very durable when exposed to the weather, and therefore used for fence posts. As the wood does not swell or shrink with changes in its moisture, it is highly valued for wheel hubs, etc.* III. BROUSSONETIA, L’Her. Small trees with milky juice. Leaves alternate, petioled ; flowers dicecious. Staminate in cylindrical spikes, with a 4-cleft calyx, 4 stamens, and a rudimentary ovary. Pistil- late flowers in capitate clusters. Calyx 3-4-toothed. Ovary stalked, style 2-cleft, fruit in a globular head.* | 1. B. papyrifera, Vent. Paper Murtperry. A round-topped tree with yellowish-brown bark. Leaves cordate, often irregularly 2—3- lobed, serrate, rough above, downy beneath, long-petioled. Stami- nate spikelets peduncled, 2-3 in. long. Pistillate heads stout, pedun- cled, about 1 in. in diameter. Introduced from Asia and very common §S. about old dooryards.* IV. CANNABIS, Tourn. Coarse herbs with very tough, fibrous bark. Leaves usu- ally opposite, palmately compound. Flowers small, dicecious, greenish, the staminate ones in compound racemes or panicles, the pistillate ones in spikes. Calyx of the staminate flowers of 5 sepals, that of the pistillate flowers of 1 large sepal which covers the ovary and the akene. 1. C. sativa, L. Common Hemp. An erect plant, 4-8 ft. high. Leaves large, petioled, of 5—7 lanceolate, irregularly serrate or toothed leaflets. Cultivated from Europe, S. and W., for its fiber, and sometimes runs wild along roadsides in rich soil. 21. URTICACEZH. NeETTLE FAMILY. Herbs with watery juice, stem and leaves often clothed with stinging hairs. Leaves undivided, stipulate. Flowers DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS «668 small, greenish, imperfect, apetalous in axillary clusters. Calyx of the staminate flowers 4—5-parted or 4—5-sepalous ; stamens as many as the sepals and opposite them, filaments inflexed in the bud and straightening at maturity, anthers 2-celled. Calyx of pistillate flowers 2—4-sepalous; ovary sessile, 1-celled, stigma simple or tufted. Fruit an akene commonly enclosed in the dry, persistent calyx.* URTICA, Tourn. Annual or perennial herbs. Leaves with stinging hairs, opposite, petioled, several-nerved, dentate, or incised, stipulate. Flowers moneecious or diccious. Calyx of the staminate flowers 4-parted ; stamens 4, inserted around a rudimentary ovary. Pistillate flowers with 4 unequal sepals, the inner ones dilated in fruit; akenes smooth, compressed.* 1. U. urens, L. Smart Netrxie. Annual; stem stout, 4-angled, hairy, 12-18 in. tall, with few stinging hairs; branches slender. Leaves elliptical or ovate, serrate or incised, 3—5-nerved, acute or obtuse at the ends, thin, hairy ; petioles often as long as the blades ; stipules short. Flower clusters axillary, in pairs, loose, mostly _ shorter than the petioles. On damp soil in waste places.* 22. LORANTHACEH. Mistietor Famity. Parasitic shrubs or herbs, leaves opposite, leathery, with- out stipules. Flowers moneecious or dicecious, clustered or solitary; perianth of both calyx and corolla, or of a calyx only, or sometimes wanting ; calyx-tube adnate to the ovary, sepals 2-8. Stamens as many as the sepals, and opposite them; ovary 1i-celled, ovule 1. Fruit a berry.* PHORADENDRON, Nutt. - Evergreen, shrubby plants, parasitic on trees; branches greenish, jointed, and very brittle. Leaves leathery. Flowers dicecious, in short jointed spikes. Staminate flowers globular, calyx 2-4-lobed, stamens sessile at the base of the lobes, Of fee FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY anthers transversely 2-celled. Pistillate flowers with the calyx-tube adnate to the ovary, stigma sessile, berry 1-seeded.* 1. P. flavescens, Nutt. AMERICAN MISTLETOE. Veryround, bushy; branches very brittle at the joints, opposite or whorled, 6 in. to 2 ft. long. Leaves flat, leathery, or somewhat fleshy, nearly veinless, obovate, entire, with short petioles. Flowering spikes solitary or 2-3 together in the axils of the leaves. Berry roundish, white, glutinous. Parasitic on many deciduous trees.* 238. SANTALACEZ. SanpALwoop FAMILY. Herbs, shrubs, or trees with entire leaves. Flowers usually small. Calyx 4-5-cleft, its tube adnate tothe ovary. Corolla wanting. Stamens as many as the calyx-lobes and opposite them, inserted on the margin of a fleshy disk. Style1. Ovary 1-celled, with 2-4 ovules borne at the top of a free central placenta. Fruit 1-seeded. COMANDRA, Nutt. Low, smooth perennials with herbaceous stems, rather woody below, often parasitic. Leaves alternate and nearly sessile. Flowers nearly white, in small umbel-lke clusters, perfect. Calyx bell-shaped at first. Stamens borne on a 5-lobed disk which surrounds the pistil, anthers connected by a tuft of hairs to the calyx-lobes. 1. C. umbellata, Nutt. Basrarp Toap-riax. Plant 8-10 in. high, with very leafy stems. Roots attached to the roots of trees, from which they draw nourishment. Leaves oblong or oblanceolate, pale, nearly 1 in. long. Umbel-like clusters about d-flowered, longer than the leaves. Rocky, dry woods. 24. ARISTOLOCHIACEZH. DutTcuHMAN’s PirE FAMILY. Herbaceous plants, stemless or with twining and leafy stems. Leaves alternate, without stipules, petioled, mostly roundish or kidney-shaped. Flowers axillary, solitary. or clustered, perfect, regular or irregular. Calyx tubular, 3 or a DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 65 _ 6 lobed, usually colored. Petals none. Stamens 6-12, inserted ontheovary. Pistils 1, ovary mostly 6-celled, many-seeded.* - I. ASARUM, Tourn. Perennial, stemless, aromatic herbs, with slender, branch- ing rootstocks. Leaves long-petioled, from kidney-shaped to _halberd-shaped. Flowers axillary, peduncled. Calyx regular, _ 3-lobed, withering-persistent. Stamens 12, the filaments par- tially united with the style and usually prolonged beyond the anthers. Ovary 6-celled with parietal placentz, many-seeded. Mature capsule roundish, often somewhat fleshy.* 1. A. canadense, L. Witp Gincer. Plant soft, hairy. Leaves . 2. large, kidney-shaped, on long petioles, with the flower borne on a short peduncle between them. Flower greenish outside, brownish- purple inside. Calyx-tube wholly adnate to the ovary, calyx-lobes taper-pointed, widely spreading, reflexed at the tip. Rich, shady - woods, common N. 2. A. virginicum, L. VirGinrta. ASARuM. Leaves evergreen, 1-3 _ to each plant, smooth, mottled, round-cordate, entire, 2—3 in. long and broad; petioles smooth or downy along one side, 3-7 in. long. Flowers nearly sessile, greenish without, dull purple within, 2—3 in. long, tube inflated below, narrow at the throat, lobes spreading. _ Rich, shady woods.* Il. ARISTOLOCHIA, Tourn. Erect or twining perennial herbs or woody vines. Leaves alternate, heart-shaped at the base, palmately nerved, petioled, entire. Flowers irregular, solitary, or in small clusters. Calyx more or less adnate to the ovary, tubular, irregular. Stamens mostly 6, sessile, adnate to the angled and fleshy 3-6-lobed or angled stigma. Capsule naked, 6-valved, seeds very numerous.* 1. A. Sipho, L’Her. DutTcHMAn’s Pipe, Pire Vine. A tall climber. Leaves dark green, smooth, round-kidney-shaped, some- times 1 ft. wide. Peduncles 1-flowered, with a single clasping bract. Calyx 14 in. long, bent into the shape of a pipe, its border abruptly spreading, brownish-purple. Rich woods, often cultivated. 2. A. tomentosa, Sims. Dutcuman’s Pipe. Stem woody, climb- ing high, branches and leaves densely woolly. Leaves heart-shaped, prominently veined, 3-5 in. long and broad. Flowers axillary, 66 — FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY mostly solitary, on slender peduncles. Calyx bent in the shape of a pipe, yellowish-green with a dark purple throat, limb unequally 3-lobed, rugose, reflexed. Anthers in pairs below the 3 spreading lobes of the stigma. Capsule oblong. Stems sometimes 30 ft. long. ‘Rich woods S.* 25. POLYGONACEH. BuckwuHeEat FAmity. Herbs with alternate, entire leaves and usually with sheath- ing stipules above the swollen joints of the stem. Flowers apetalous, generally perfect, with a 3-6-cleft calyx, generally colored and persistent. Fruit a compressed or 3-angled akene, enclosed in the calyx. Seeds with endosperm, which does not generally enclose the embryo. Stamens 4-12, on the base of the calyx. I. RUMEX, L. Coarse herbs, many of them troublesome weeds. Flowers small, usually green or greenish, generally in whorls borne in panicled racemes. Calyx of 6 nearly distinct sepals, the 3 inner larger and more petal-hke than the 3 outer, and one or more of them usually with a little knob or tubercle on its back. Stamens 6. Styles 3. Stigmas short, fringed. Fruit a 3-angled akene, closely covered by the 3 inner al lobes, enlarged and known as valves. 1. R. Acetosella, L. Surer Sorrex. Erect annual or perennial herbs with creeping rootstocks. Stem simple or branched, smooth. Leaves petioled, narrowly halberd-shaped, usually widest above the middle, the apex acute or obtuse, upper stem-leaves often nearly linear and not lobed. Flowers dicecious, small, in terminal, naked, panicled, interrupted racemes. Calyx greenish; the pistillate pani- cles becoming reddish. Fruit less than 51, in. long, granular, longer than the calyx. A common introduced weed, in dry fields and on sour soils. Foliage very acid.* 2. R. verticillatus, L. Swamp Dock. Perennial, stem stout, smooth, erect or ascending, 3-5 ft. tall. Lower leaves oblong, obtuse at the apex and usually heart-shaped at the base, long- petioled, often 12-18 in. long, upper leaves narrower and often acute at both ends. Flowers perfect or somewhat moncecious, in dense whorls, pedicels slender, 3-2 in. long, tapering downward, a. DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 67 reflexed at maturity. Calyx green, the valves broadly triangular, abruptly pointed, reticulated, a distinct long and narrow tubercle on the back of each. Swamps and wet ground.* . 3. R. crispus, L. YELLOW Dock. Stout, smooth, 3-4 ft. high. Leaves lanceolate, margins very wavy, acute, the lower more or less heart-shaped. Root long, tapering gradually downward, yellow, very tough. Flowers in whorls crowded in long, straight, slender racemes. Valves roundish heart-shaped, mostly tubercled. A very hardy weed, introduced from Europe. Il. POLYGONUM, L. Annual or perennial, terrestrial or aquatic herbs, with enlarged joints and simple, alternate, entire leaves; the sheathing stipules often cut or fringed. Flowers perfect, usually white or rose-colored, each flower or cluster subtended by a membranaceous bract, similar to the stipules of the leaves. Calyx mostly 5-parted, the divisions petal-like, erect and persistent. Stamens 3-9. Styles 2—3-parted. Fruit lens-shaped or 3-angled.* 1. P. aviculare, L. KwNnot-Grass. Annual or perennial. Stem prostrate or ascending, diffuse, smooth, 6—24 in. long. Leaves small, lanceolate or linear-oblong, obtuse, nearly or quite sessile. Stipules thin and dry, 2-3- eleft or cut. Flower-clusters axillary, 1—5- flowered, flowers inconspicuous, nearly. ses- sile. Calyx greenish-white, 5-parted, the lobes with white or colored borders. Stamens 5-8. Style 3-parted; akene 3-angled, not shining. A common weed in dooryards and where the ground is trampled.* Fie. 10.— Buckwheat. 2. P. Dumetorum, L. Fatse Buck- A, flower, longitudinal sec- WHEAT. Perennial ; stems slender, twining, ce 2 SHE nn Gye branched, 2-10 ft. long. Leaves ovate, oa cas taper-pointed, heart-shaped to halberd-shaped at the base, long- petioled. Stipules cylindrical, truncate. Flowers in axillary, more or less compound and leafy racemes. Calyx greenish-white, the outer lobes winged and forming a margin on the pedicel. Stamens 8. Stigmas 3; akene 3-angled, black, smooth, and shining. Margins of fields and thickets.* 68 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 26. CHENOPODIACEZ. Goosrroot FamIty. Herbs or shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate, without sti- pules. Flowers small, regular, either perfect or more or less moncecious or dicecious. Calyx free from the ovary. Corolla wanting. Stamens usually 5, opposite the sepals. Styles or stigmas generally 2. Fruit with 1 seed, usually enclosed in a small, bladdery sac, sometimes an akene. I. SPINACIA, Tourn. Herbs. Flowers dicecious, in close axillary clusters. Stami- nate flowers 3—5-sepaled, with 4 or 5 projecting stamens. Pistillate flowers with a tubular 2-toothed or 4-toothed calyx. 1. S. oleracea, Mill. Sprnacu. A soft annual or biennial herb. Leaves triangular, ovate, or halberd-shaped, petioled. Cultivated from Asia as a pot-herb. II. CHENOPODIUM, Tourn. Annual or perennial herbs. Stems erect or spreading. Leaves alternate, usually white-mealy. Flowers small, green- Fic. 11.— Chenopodium. A, flower; B, fruit. ish, in panicled spikes. Calyx 3—5-parted, the lobes often slightly fleshy and keeled. Stamens 5; filaments thread- shaped. Styles 2-3, distinct or united at the base. Seed lens-shaped.* a a ee ee ee DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 69 1. C. hybridum, L. MApLe-LEAVED GoosEroot. A tall annual herb 2-4 ft. high. Leaves 2-6 in. long, thin, bright green, long, taper-pointed, with several angled lobes on each side, terminating in pointed teeth. Flower-clusters rather large, consisting of loosely panicled racemes. A rather common weed. 2. C. Botrys,L. JERUSALEM Oak. A low spreading plant cov- ered with sticky down. Leaves with slender petioles, oblong, sin- uately lobed or the lobes pinnate. Flowers in loose, diverging, leafless racemes. The whole plant is sweet-scented. Introduced from Europe and naturalized in gardens and along roadsides. 27. PHYTOLACCACEZ. PoKEWEED FAMILY. Plants with alternate entire leaves. Flowers perfect, 5- parted, with the characters of the Goosefoot Family, but the ovary generally consisting of several carpels, which unite to form a berry. PHYTOLACCA, Tourn. Perennial herbs. Stems tall, branching. Leaves large, entire. Flowers small, in terminal racemes, pedicels bracted. Calyx of 4-5 nearly equal, persistent sepals. Stamens 5-15, inserted at the base of the calyx. Styles 5-12, recurved at the apex. Fruit a depressed-globose, juicy berry.* 1. P. decandra, L. PokrEWEED. Stems erect, smooth, branched above, usually dark purple, 4-7 ft. tall; root large, fleshy, poisonous. Leaves ovate-lanceolate, smooth, acute, long-petioled. Racemes pedun- cled, many-flowered, opposite the leaves, flowers white, becoming purplish. Stamens 10, shorter than the sepals. Styles 10, car- pels 10; fruit a dark purple berry. A weed on waste ground. The young branches are often eaten like asparagus, and the root, known as “ garget root,” is used in medicine.* 28. AIZOACEZ. Icre-PLaAntT FAMILY. Mostly fleshy plants, mainly natives of Africa. Flowers _ often large and showy. Stamens often doubled and some of them petal-like. Ovary 2—many-celled. [Our only very common genus belongs to a subfamily which has little resemblance to the fleshy “ ice-plants,” found in some gardens, which best represent the family as a whole. ] (Oe. FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY MOLLUGO, L. Low branching annuals. Sepals 5, greenish outside, white inside. Corolla wanting. Stamens 5, alternate with the sepals, or 3, alternate with the cells of the ovary. Capsule 3-celled, many-seeded. : 1. M. verticillata, L. CaARrpET-wEED. Stems branching and forming radiating patches. Leaves clustered in apparent whorls at the joints of the stem, spatulate. Flowers in little sessile umbels at ’ the joints. Stamens commonly 38. A troublesome weed in sandy soil and common on sandy beaches and river banks. 29. PORTULACACEZ. PursLANE FAMILY. Generally herbs. Leaves opposite or alternate, entire; stipules dry and membranaceous. Sepals 2. Petals 4 or more, distinct or united below. Stamens 4 or more, free or adnate to the petals. Ovary usually free, i-celled; style simple ‘or 3-cleft; ovules 2-many. Capsule opening trans- versely with a lid, or 2—3-valved. I. CLAYTONIA, Gronov. Perennial; stem simple, smooth, erect, 4-10 in. high. Leaves 2, opposite, smooth, succulent. Flowers in a terminal raceme. Sepals 2, ovate, persistent. Petals 5, sometimes coherent at the base. Stamens 5, inserted on the base of the petals. Style 3-cleft, ovary 1-celled, 3-6-seeded. 1. C. virginica, L. Sprina Beauty. Stem simple, erect from a deep, tuberous root. ‘The 2 stem-leaves narrowly elliptical, 3-6 in. long, smooth, fleshy; basal leaves occasionally produced. Flowers on short pedicels. Petals white. or pink, with darker veins, 1—3 in, long, notched. Capsule shorter than the persistent sepals. Common in rich woods.* 2. C. caroliniana, Michx. NorrHerN Sprine Beauty. Flowers fewer, smaller, and whiter than No. 1, fragrant. Leaves 1-2 in. long, ovate-lanceolate or spatulate, pretty distinctly petioled. Moist_ woods, especially N. DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 71 Il. PORTULACA, Tourn. Annual; stems low, diffuse, and spreading, fleshy. Leaves entire, mostly alternate. Flowers terminal. Sepals 2, united _ at the base and coherent with the ovary. Petals usually 5, in- _ serted on the calyx, quickly withering. Stamens 8—20, inserted on the calyx. Style 3-8-parted. Capsule globose, opening by the upper portion coming off like a lid, 1-celled, many- seeded.* 1. P. oleracea, L. Purstane. Stems prostrate, diffuse, fleshy. Leaves alternate, flat, obovate, or wedge-shaped. Flowers solitary, sessile, opening in bright sunshine in the morning, and usually withering before noon. Sepals broad, acute. Petals yellow. Sta- mens 10-12. Capsule very-many-seeded, seeds small, wrinkled. A common garden weed.* 2. P. grandiflora, Hook. GARDEN PortTuLaca. Stems fleshy, erect, or ascending, densely hairy or nearly smooth, 3-6 in. long. Leaves alternate, cylindrical, fleshy, }-1 in. long. Flowers 1-2 in. wide, white, yellow, or red, showy, opening only in sunlight. Com- mon in cultivation and often growing spontaneously.* . 30. CARYOPHYLLACEZ. Pink FamiI ty. Herbs sometimes woody below, with thickened nodes. Leaves opposite, entire; stipules small and dry or none. Sepals 4-5. Petals 4-5 (rarely 0), usually hypogynous. Sta-— - mens usually 8-10, hypogynous or perigynous. Styles 2-5 (rarely 1). Ovules 2-many. Fruit a capsule. A. Sepals distinct or nearly so. Petals (if any) without claws. Capsule several_many-seeded. Styles usually 3. Capsule ovoid. Stellaria, I. Styles 5 or 4: Capsule cylindrical. Cerastium, 6% . B. Sepals united into an urn-shaped tube. Petals none. Fruit 1-seeded. Scleranthus, ITI. \ ie. FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY Cc. Sepals more or less united. Petals with claws. Capsule several— many-seeded. (a) Calyx without bracts, its lobes long and leaf-like. Agrostemma, IV.- (6) Calyx without bracts, lobes not leaf-like. Styles 3 or 4. Silene, V. (c) Calyx without bracts, lobes not leaf-like. Styles 5 (rarely 4). Lychnis, VI. (d) Calyx with little bracts at the base. Styles 2. Dianthus, VII. I. STELLARIA, L. Chickweed. Slender, usually smooth herbs. Flowers small, white, soli- tary, or in forking cymes. Sepals 5 (rarely 4). Petals 5 (rarely 4), 2-cleft or divided. Stamens 10 (rarely 8, 5, or 3), maturing in 2 sets. Styles 3 (rarely 4 or 5), opposite the same number of petals; ovary 1-celled, many-ovuled. Capsule short? splitting into as many valves as there are styles. 1. S. media, Cyrill. Common CutickwrEp. Stem prostrate, 6-18 in. long, with a line or two of hairs along it. Leaves ovate, taper-pointed, the lower petioled, the upper sessile. Petals shorter than the sepals, sometimes wanting. An annual weed, introduced from Europe, common in damp, shady places N. 2. S. longifolia, Muhl. LonG-LEAVED StTiTcHwortT. Stem slender, usually erect, 8-18 in. high, often sharply 4-angled. Leaves linear or nearly so, spreading. Flower-clusters peduncled, many- flowered, the pedicels spreading. Petals 2-parted, at length longer than the calyx. Perennial in meadows and grassy thickets, espe- cially N. II. CERASTIUM, L. Annual or perennial. Stems diffuse, usually downy ; leaves opposite. Flowers white, peduncled, in terminal, regularly forking cymes. Sepals 4-5. Petals 4-5, notched or 2-cleft. Stamens 10. Styles 5 or less. Capsule cylindrical, 1-celled, many-seeded.,* 1. C. vulgatum, L. Movsr-kArR CHICcKWEED. Annual or some- times perennial. Stems diffuse, tufted, clammy-downy, 6-12 in. = > Pr OS ee ee ee ee eee ee ed Pee ep a ee DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 73 high. Lower leaves spatulate, the upper oblong, acute, or obtuse ; bracts thin and dry. Flowers in loose cymes, pedicels becoming much longer than the calyx. Sepals lanceolate, acute, about as long as the 2-cleft petals. Slender capsule becoming twice as long as the ealyx and curved upward. A common garden weed.* Il. SCLERANTHUS, L. Low tufted herbs. Leaves opposite, clasping, awl-shaped, sharp-pointed. Flowers very small and greenish. Calyx- tube funnel-shaped or urn-shaped, hardening into an envelope for the fruit; calyx-lobes 4-5, short, erect. Petals none. Stamens 1, 2, 5, or 10, inserted on the throat of the calyx. Styles 2, thread-like. Fruit 1-seeded, never opening. 1. S. annuus, L. Kwawezt. A much-branched annual weed, 2-8 in. high. Stem and leaves pale green; the leaves 1 to i in. long, rather prickly pointed. Flowers solitary in the lower axils and somewhat clustered above. Calyx-teeth with narrow whitish margins. Introduced from Europe, common in sandy roads and waste ground E. IV. AGROSTEMMA. Annual ; stem pubescent, branching above. Leaves linear- lanceolate or linear, pubescent, sessile. Flowers showy, on long and naked peduncles in terminal corymbs. Calyx tubu- lar, the tube oblong, 10-ribbed, lobes elongated, leaf-like, deciduous. Petals 5, shorter than the calyx lobes, entire. Stamens 10. Styles 5, capsules 1-celled.* 1. A. Githago, L. Corn Cockxir. Stem erect, rather slender, 1-3 ft. tall, gray, with long, appressed hairs. Leaves linear-lanceolate, acuminate, erect, 2-4 in. long. Petals obovate, notched, purple. Capsule 5-toothed, many-seeded ; seeds black. An introduced weed, common in grain fields.* V. SILENE, L. Annual or perennial herbs. Stems erect or decumbent and diffuse. Leaves often connate or whorled. Flowers clustered or solitary, usually pink or white. Calyx tubular, more or less inflated, 5-toothed, 10-nerved, bractless. Petals 5, long- clawed, and with the ten stamens inserted at the base of the ovary. Styles 3, ovary 1-celled or 3-celled at the base, open- ing by 6 teeth, many-seeded. Seeds usually roughened.* T4 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 1. S. Cucubalus, Wibel. SNAprpERS, RAtTTLEBox. A perennial branched herb about 1 ft. high. Leaves opposite, smooth, ovate, or ovate-lanceolate. Calyx thin and bladdery, beautifully veined. Petals white, 2-cleft. Capsule nearly globular. In fields and along roadsides, especially eastward. Introduced from Europe. 2. S. pennsylvanica, Michx. Wutp Pink. A perennial with low clustered stems (4-8 in.). Root-leaves wedge-shaped or spatulate, those of the stem lanceolate. Flowers medium-sized, clustered. Petals wedge-shaped, notched, pink, with a crown at the throat of the corolla. Gravelly soil E. 3. S. virginica, L. Fire Prnx. A slender perennial with erect stem, 1-2 ft. high. Root-leaves spatulate, the upper leaves oblong- lanceolate. Flowers few, peduncled, large and showy, bright crim- son. Corolla crowned, petals deeply 2-cleft. Woods. 4, S. Armeria, L. Oster, NONE-SO-PRETTY. A smooth, erect annual or biennial, 6-15 in. high. Several nodes of the stem are usually covered for part of their length with a sticky substance. Leaves very smooth, with a bloom beneath, lanceolate or oblong- lanceolate, clasping. Flowers showy, dark pink, nearly § in. in diameter, in flat-topped clusters. Calyx club-shaped. Petals some- what notched. Cultivated from Europe and introduced. 5. S. antirrhina, L. Siterepy Catcuriy. Stem smooth, slender, 8-30 in. high, sticky in spots. Leaves lanceolate or linear. Flowers rather few and small, panicled. Calyx ovoid. Petals inversely heart-shaped, pink, opening only for a short time in sunshine. Dry waste ground. 6. S. noctiflora, L. NiGHT-FLOWERING CATCHFLY. A tall, coarse annual or biennial weed, covered with sticky hairs. Lower leaves spatulate, the upper ones lanceolate and pointed. Flowers large, white, opening at night or in cloudy weather. Calyx-teeth very long and awl-shaped. Petals 2-parted. In fields and gardens, introduced from Europe. VI. LYCHNIS, L. Plants with nearly the same characteristics as Silene, but usually with 5 styles. 1. L. chalcedonica, L. Scarier Lycunis, LONDON PRIDE. A tall, hairy perennial (about 2 ft.). Leaves lance-ovate, somewhat clasping. Flower-cluster flat-topped and very dense. Flowers bright scarlet, not very large. Petals 2-lobed. Common in old gardens ; from Russia. 2. L. coronaria, Lam. Mutiern Pinx. A forking perennial plant, 2 ft. high, covered with white, cottony down. Root-ieaves very wavy, spatulate ; stem-leaves ovate-lanceolate, wavy, clasping. DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 1D Peduncles long, 1-flowered. Flowers about 11 in. broad, deep crim- son. Calyx-tube very strongly 5-ribbed, with 5 smaller ones between ; _ ealyx-teeth short and slender. Petals somewhat notched. Culti- vated in old gardens; from Italy. Vl. DIANTHUS, L. Tufted, mostly perennial herbs, often shrubby at the base. Leaves narrow and grass-like. Flowers solitary or variously clustered. Calyx tubular, 5-toothed, with overlapping bracts at the base. Petals 5, with long claws. Stamens 10, matur- ing dat atime. Styles 2; ovary 1-celled. Capsule cylindrical, 4-valved at the top. 1. D. Armeria, L. Deprrorp Pink. Rather erect, annual, with stiff stems 1-2 ft. high. Leaves very dark green, linear, 1-2 in. long, the lower obtuse, the upper acute. Flowers loosely clustered, small, dark pink. Calyx-tube }—3 in. long, nearly cylindrical. Petals narrow, speckled with very small whitish dots. In sandy fields eastward, introduced from Europe; sometimes cultivated. 2. D. barbatus, L. Swerer Wiiiiam. Perennial, often in large clumps. Stems erect, branching above, smooth, 1-2 ft. tall. Leaves lanceolate, 2-3 in. long, acute. Flowers crimson-pink, white or variegated, in terminal clusters, bracts linear, as long as the calyx. Common about old gardens; from Europe.* 3. D. plumarius, L. Common Pink, Grass Pink. Leaves grass- like, with a whitish bloom. Petals white, pink, or variegated, with the limb fringed. Flowers solitary, fragrant. Hardy perennials, cultivated from Europe. 4. D. Caryophyllus, L. CARNATION, CLOVE Pink. Much like the preceding species, but with larger fragrant flowers; the broad petals merely crenate. Hothouse perennials (some hardy varieties), cultivated from Europe. 31. NYMPHZACEZH. WatTER-LILY FAMILY. Perennial aquatic herbs. Leaves usually floating, often shield-shaped. Flowers borne on naked scapes. Floral en- velopes and stamens all hypogynous or else adnate to a fleshy disk that encloses the carpels. Sepals 3-6. Petals 3-5 or often very numerous. Stamens many. Carpels 3 or more, free, in a single circle or united with the disk. Fruit a berry or a group of separate carpels. 76 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY I. NELUMBO, Tourn. Rootstock large and stout. Leaves round, shield-shaped, often raised above the water. Flowers large, raised above water at first, but often submerged after blooming. Sepals and petals hypogynous, numerous, the inner sepals and outer petals not distinguishable from each other. Stamens many, hypogynous. Pistils several, 1-ovuled, borne in pits in the flattish upper surface of a top-shaped receptacle, which en- larges greatly in fruit. . 1. N. lutea, Pers. AmeErRIcAN Lotus. WATER CHINQUAPIN. Rootstock often 3-4 in. in diameter, horizontal. Leaves 13-23 ft. broad, prominently ribbed, with much bloom above, often downy beneath. Petioles and peduncles stout. Flowers pale yellow, 5-9 in. broad. Sepals and petals falling quickly. Fruit top-shaped, 3-4 in. in diameter; the seeds 4 in. in diameter. In ponds and slow-running streams W., introduced from the Southwest.* Il. NYMPHA‘A, Tourn. Rootstock horizontal, creeping extensively. Leaves float- ing, entire, shield-shaped or heart-shaped. Flowers showy. Sepals 4, green without, white within. Petals many, white, becoming smaller towards .the center. Stamens many, the outer with broad and the inner with linear filaments. Ovary many-celled, stigmas shield-shaped and radiating. Fruit berry- like, many-seeded.* 1. N. odorata, Ait. Wuitre WatTeEr-Lity. Rootstock large, branched but little. Leaves floating, entire, the notch narrow, and basal lobes acute, green and smooth above, purple and downy beneath. Petioles and peduncles slender. Flowers white, very fragrant, opening in the morning, 3-5 in. broad. Fruit globose, seeds enclosed in a membranaceous sac. In ponds and still water.* Ill. NUPHAR, Smith. Rootstock horizontal, thick, cylindrical. Leaves heart- shaped, floating or erect. Flowers yellow. Sepals 4-6, green on the outside, obovate, concave. Petals many, hypogy- nous, the inner ones becoming small and stamen-like. Sta- mens many, hypogynous. Ovary cylindrical, many-celled, stigma disk-shaped. Fruit ovoid.* ; ae Wi ee ee See a DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS We 1. N. advena. YELLOW Ponp Lity, Cow Lity, SpATTERDOCK. Leaves oval or orbicular, rather thick, often downy beneath. Flowers bright yellow, 2-3 in. in diameter, depressed-globular. Sepals 6. Petals thick and fleshy, truncate. Stamens in several rows, anthers nearly as long as the filaments. In slow streams and still water.* 32. RANUNCULACEZ. Burrercur FAmMILy. Herbs, rarely shrubs, usually with biting or bitter juice. Leaves radical or alternate (in Clematis opposite ; stem-leaves or involucre whorled in anemone); stipules none or adnate to the petiole. Floral organs all distinct and unconnected. Sepals 5 or more (rarely 2-4), falling early, often petal-like. Petals none, or 5 or more (rarely 3). Stamens many. Carpels many, 1-celled; stigmas simple; ovules 1 or more. Fruit composed of 1-seeded akenes or many-seeded follicles. Seeds small. A. Flowers irregular. With a spur. Delphinium, VII. With a hood. | ; Aconitum, VIII. B. Flowers regular. 1. Petals present (in ¢ not very unlike the stamens). (a) Petals very large and showy. Peonia, I. (b) Petals small, tubular at the tip. Coptis, IV. (c) Petals narrow, spatulate, on slender claws. Acteea, V. (d) Petals prolonged backward into spurs. Aquilegia, VI. (e) Petals flat, with a little scale at the base, inside. Ranunculus, XIII. 2. Petals none, or very small and stamen-like. (a) Sepals yellow. Caltha, IT. (b) Sepals greenish or white, falling as the flower opens. Thalictrum, XIV. (c) Sepals white or colored, involucre sepal-like. Hepatica, X. (d) Sepals 4. Plants climbing. Clematis, XII. 78 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY (e) Sepals 5, white. Flowers axillary and terminal. Pods 2—several-seeded. Isopyrum, III. (f) Sepals white or colored. Plants not climbing. Akenes ~ more or less tailed with the styles in fruit. Anemone, [X. (g) Sepals 5-10, white. Flowers in an umbel. Roots tuberous. Anemonella, XI. I. PONIA, L. Perennial; from thick, fleshy roots ; stems shrubby or her- baceous. Leaves much divided. Flowers terminal, large and showy. Sepals 5, leaf-like and persistent. Petals 5 or more. Pistils 3-5 ; ovaries surrounded by a disk.* 1. P. officinalis, L. GARDEN P#ony. Herbaceous; flowering stems 1-2:ft. high. Leaves ample; leaflets lance-ovate, cut or incised, smooth. Flowers double, white or red. Follicles 2, erect, many-seeded. Common in gardens.* iO CALTHA HM Smooth perennials with large, roundish leaves. Sepals petal-like, 5-9. Petals none. Pistils 5-10, each consisting of a 1-celled ovary with a nearly sessile stigma. Fruit a many-seeded follicle. 1. C. palustris. Marsu Maricoup, Cows.iips, MEADOW BuTTER- cup (both the latter unsuitable names, but in common use). Stem hollow, smooth, ascending; leaves smooth, roundish and _heart- shaped, or kidney-shaped, with crenate, dentate, or nearly entire margins; the broad oval sepals bright yellow. Swamps or wet ground. Ill. ISOPYRUM, L. Small, smooth herbs. Leaves 2-3 times compound, in threes ; the leaflets 2—-3-lobed. Flowers peduncled, white. Sepals 5, petal-lke, soon falling. Petals wanting (in our species). Stamens 10-40. Pistils 3-6 or more. 1. I. biternatum, Torr. and Gr. A delicate, erect plant, with alter- nate branches, looking much like Anemonella, with clustered stems from perennial tuberous roots. Damp woods. DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 79 IV. COPTIS, Salisb. Low, smooth perennials with 3-divided root-leaves. Flowers small, white, on scapes. Sepals 5-7, petal-like, soon fall- ing. Petals 5-7, small, club-shaped, tubular at the apex. Stamens 15-25. Pistils 3-7, stalked. Pods thin and dry, 4-8-seeded. 1. C. trifolia, Salisb. Gortp Tureap. A pretty, delicate plant, with slender, 1-flowered scapes, from long, bright-yellow, thread-like rootstocks, which are bitter and somewhat medicinal. Leaves later than the flowers, each of 3 wedge-shaped leaflets, which finally become shining and evergreen. Damp, cold woods and bogs. V. ACTA, L. Perennial ; stem simple. Leaves 2-3, compound in threes. Leaflets ovate, sharply cut or toothed. Flowers white, in a short and thick terminal raceme. Sepals 4-5, soon decidu- ous. Petals 4-10, small. Pistil single; stigma 2-lobed. Fruit a many-seeded berry.* 1. A. alba, Bigel. BANEBERRY. Stem erect, smooth or nearly so, 18-24 in. high. Leaves large and spreading; leaflets thin. Racemes very broad. Petals slender, truncate: Pedicels red, thickened in fruiting; berries white. In rich woods, more common S.* 2. A. spicata, var. rubra, Ait. Rep BANEBERRY. Stem about 2 ft. high. Raceme ovoid or hemispherical. Petals acute. Pedicels slender. Berries usually red, sometimes white, ovoid. Common N. - VI. AQUILEGIA, Tourn. Perennials with leaves twice or thrice palmately compound, the divisions in threes. Sepals 5, petal-like, all similar. Petals 5, all similar, each consisting of an expanded portion, prolonged backward into a hollow spur, the whole much longer than the calyx. Pistils 5, forming many-seeded pods. 1. A. canadensis, L. Witp Cotumsine. Flowers scarlet with- out, yellow within, nodding; spurs rather long. 2. A. vulgaris, L. GARDEN COLUMBINE. Flowers often double and white, blue, or purple. Spurs shorter and more hooked. Cul- tivated from Europe, and sometimes become wild. 80 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY VII. DELPHINIUM, Tourn. Annual or perennial herbs ; stem erect, simple, or branched. Leaves alternate, petioled, palmately divided. Flowers in ter- minal racemes or panicles, showy. Sepals 5, colored, irregu- lar, the upper one prolonged into aspur. Petals 4, unequal, the two upper ones with long spurs which are enclosed in the spur of the upper sepal, the other two short-stalked. Pistils 1-5; ovaries many-seeded.* 1. D. tricorne, Michx. Dwarr Larkspur. Perennial. Stem _ simple, from a tuberous root, usually low (3 to 1 ft. high), but some- times 2 ft. high. Leaves deeply 5-parted, the divisions irregularly 3-5-cleft. Racemes few-flowered, loose. Flowers blue, sometimes white. Pods diverging. Southward. 2. D. azureum, Michx. Buiur Larkspur. Perennial. Stem usually simple, slender, downy, 1-2 ft. high. Leaves 2-8 in. wide, 3—5-parted, the divisions cleft into 3-5 narrow, toothed, or entire lobes. Flowers in a strict, many-flowered, terminal raceme, showy, blue or whitish. Spur ascending, curved ; lower petals bearded, 2- cleft. Pods erect. On rich or rocky soil in open places. Northward.* Vill. ACONITUM, L. _ Erect, perennial herbs. Leaves alternate, palmately lobed or cut. Flowers irregular, in panicles or racemes. Sepals 5, the back one large, arched, and hooded, the front one the narrowest. Petals 2—5, small, the 2 back ones clawed and covered by the hood of the sepals; 3 lateral ones small or wanting. Follicles 3-5. Seeds many, wrinkled. 1. A. Napellus, L. Monxsnoop. An erect, poisonous plant, 1-2 ft. high. Raceme simple and densely flowered. Flowers dark blue. Cultivated from Europe. IX. ANEMONE, Tourn. Perennial herbs, usually with radical leaves, and 2 or 3 opposite or whorled stem-leaves, constituting an involucre some distance below the flower or flower-cluster. Sepals few or numerous, colored and petal-like. Petals usually wanting. Akenes pointed, or with long, feathery tails. 1. A. patens, var. nuttalliana, Gray. PasqurE FLowrr. Low plants, 1 in. to 1 ft. high, clothed with long, silky hairs. Leaves DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 81 divided in threes. Flower single, large, showy, pale-purplish, borne on a peduncle developed before the leaves. Carpels many, with long, hairy styles, which in fruit form tails 2 in. long. Prairies and bluffs, N. W. . 2. A. caroliniana, Walt. CaAroLiInaA ANEMONE. Stem simple, from a roundish tuber, slightly downy, 6-12 in. high, bearing a single flower about 1 in. broad. Root-leaves 2-3, long-petioled, eom- pound in threes, the divisions cut or lobed; stem-leaves sessile, compound in threes, the divisions wedge-shaped. Sepals 12-20, white; head of fruit becoming oblong; akenes woolly. In open woods W.* 3. A. cylindrica. LONG-FRUITED ANEMONE. Plants about 2 ft. high, branching, with an involucre of long-petioled, divided and cleft leaves, from within which spring several long, naked peduncles. Flowers greenish-white. Sepals obtuse. Head of fruit cylindrical. composed of very many densely woolly akenes. Dry woods and prairies. 4. A. virginiana, L. Plant hairy, 2-3 ft. high. Peduncles 6-12 in. long, sometimes forking, the first ones naked, the later ones with a little 2-leaved involucre at the middle. Leaves of the involucre 3, each 3-parted, the divisions ovate-lanceolate, pointed. Sepals acute. Head of fruit ovoid. Woods and meadows. 5. A. quinquefolia, L. Winp-rFLowER, Woop ANEMONE. Stem simple, from a thread-like rootstock; involucre of 3 leaves, each petioled, and of 3 leaflets, which are cut, toothed, or parted. Pedun- cle 1-flowered. Sepals 4—7, white, often tinged with purple outside. Carpels 15 or 20. This species is very nearly related to, but now regarded as distinct from, the European A. nemorosa. ; X. HEPATICA, Dill. Involucre of 3 small, simple leaves, so close to the flower as to look like a calyx. Leaves all radical, 3-lobed, heart-shaped, thick, and evergreen, purplish-red beneath. Flowers single, on rather slender hairy scapes. 1. H. triloba, Chaix. Rounp-Lopep Hepatica. Lobes of the leaves obtuse or rounded; those of the involucre obtuse ; sepals 6-12, varying from blue to white. 2. H. acutiloba, DC. Suarp-LopeD HepatTica. Closely similar to the former, except for the acute lobes of the leaves and tips of the involucre. [ Both species have many local names, such as Liverleaf, Liverwort, Noble Liverwort, Spring Beauty.] 82 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY XI. ‘ANEMONELLA, Spach. Small, perennial herbs. Leaves compound, smooth, those - from the root long-petioled, those of the stem sessile. Flowers in a terminal umbel, slender-pediceled. Sepals petal-like. Petals none. Pistils 4-15; stigmas sessile, truncate.* 1. A.thalictroides, Spach. Ruz Anemone. Stem slender, 6-10 in. high, from a cluster of tuberous roots. Radical leaves long-petioled, twice compound in threes, leaflets oval, heart-shaped, 3—5-lobed. Stem-leaves 2-3 compound in threes whorled, the long-stalked leaf- lets veiny, forming an involucre of 6-9 apparently simple leaves. Flowers 38-6 in an umbel, }—3 in. wide; sepals 6-10, white. In rich woods.* XII. CLEMATIS. Perennial herbs or slightly woody vines, usually climbing by the leaf-stalks. Leaves opposite, simple, or compound. Sepals 4, petal-like. Petals very small or wanting. Pistils numerous, tipped by the persistent styles which often become long and plumose in fruit.* 1. C. crispa, L. Marsn Crematis. Stem climbing, a little woody below,'slightly downy above, 3-5 ft. high. Leaves pinnately compound; leaflets 5-7, varying from lanceolate to ovate, thin, entire, or 3—5-lobed. Flowers showy, perfect, solitary, on long, axil- lary peduncles. Sepals lanceolate, taper-pointed, thick, wavy on the margins, twice the length of the stamens, light bluish-purple, 1-13 in. in length. Tails of the ripened akenes 1 in. long, silky. Rich woods and river banks S.* 2. C. viorna, L. LeatHer FLower. Stem climbing, nearly smooth, 6-10 ft. long. Leaves usually pinnately compound, the lowest pair often compound in threes and the upper pair simple. Leaflets usually 5-7, oblong-ovate or oval, acute, firm, entire, or lobed. Calyx bell-shaped, nodding ; sepals ovate, taper-pointed with a short, recurved point, thick and leathery, reddish-purple, 1 in. long. Tails of the akenes plumose, 1} in. long, brownish. On river banks and rich soil.* XIII. RANUNCULUS, Tourn. Annual or perennial herbs. Leaves alternate, usually deeply lobed or parted. Flowers axillary or in corymbs, white or yellow. Sepals 3-5. Petals 3-5, flat, with a small . DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 83 pit or scale inside at the narrowed base. Stamens usually numerous. Pistils few or several ina head. Akenes flattened, pointed.* . 1. R. pusillus, Poir, Low SreEArworr. Perennial. Stems sey- eral, erect or ascending, branched, smooth, 6-15 in. high. Leaves entire or slightly toothed, the lower round or cordate, long-petioled, the upper lanceolate or elliptical, nearly or quite sessile. Flowers very small, about } in. wide, yellow. Petals 1-5, as long as the sepals. Stamens 3-10. Akenes smooth, with a very short point. On muddy banks.* 2. R. abortivus, L. SMALL-FLOWERED CRowroot. Perennial. Stems smooth, branching, 12-18 in. high. Root-leaves round-cor- date, crenate, petioled. Stem-leaves 3—5-parted, with wedge-shaped or linear divisions, sessile. Flowers very small, pale yellow. Sepals reflexed, longer than the petals. Akenes in a globose head, smooth, without a beak. Common on wet ground and waste places.* 3. R. recurvatus, Poir. HookEp Crowroor. Perennial. Stem erect, hairy, 1-2 ft. high. Leaves all nearly alike, petioled, 3-5-lobed ’ with the lobes wedge-shaped, cut or toothed at the apex. Flowers small, pale yellow. Petals minute, shorter than the reflexed sepals. Akenes in a globular head, smooth, with a slender, recurved beak. On low ground.* 4. R. pennsylvanicus, L. Bristty Crowroor. Perennial. Stems rough-hairy, erect, 2-3 ft. high. Leaves compound in threes, on long and very hairy petioles; leaflets long-stalked, 3-parted, the divisions sharply lobed or toothed. Flowers small. Petals yellow, shorter than the sepals. Akenes flat, smooth, in oblong heads, beak broad and straight. On low ground.* 5. R. bulbosus, L. Buxisous Buttercup, EARLY BUTTERCUP. Stem upright, from a solid bulb about as large as a filbert, about 1 ft. high, hairy. Root-leaves 3-divided, the divisions lobed and cleft. Peduncles furrowed. Flowers large and showy (4 to 1 in. in diameter). Sepals strongly reflexed. Petals roundish, wedge-shaped at the base. Akenes with a very short beak. Introduced from Europe. Common in grass fields in New England. 6. R. acris, L. Tart Buttercup. Erect, hairy, 2-3 ft. high. Leaves 3-7-parted, the divisions of the lower ones wedge-shaped, deeply cut and lobed. Peduncles not furrowed. Sepals spreading, downy. Petals obovate, a little smaller and paler yellow than in No. 5. A common weed, introduced from Europe, in grass fields and elsewhere, especially eastward. 84 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY XIV. THALICTRUM, L. Erect perennial herbs. Leaves compound, with stipules. Flowers in panicles or racemes, often somewhat monecious or dicecious, wind-fertilized. Sepals 4-5, petal-like. Petals none. Stamens many. Carpels few or many; ovulel. Fruit a small head of akenes. [The following species are both usually dicecious. | 1. T. dioicum, L. Earty Meapow Rue. Plant 1-2 ft. high, smooth and pale or with a bloom. Leaves all petioled, most of them thrice compound in threes ; leaflets thin and delicate, roundish, 3—7- lobed. Flowers in slender panicles, purplish or greenish ; staminate ones with slender, thread-like filaments, from which hang the con- spicuous yellowish anthers. Rocky woods and hillsides. 2. T. polygamum, Muhl. Tart Mrapow Rus. Stems from fibrous roots, tall and coarse, nearly or quite smooth, 4—8 ft. tall. Leaves twice compound, those of the stem sessile, the others long- petioled ; leaflets oval or oblong, often cordate, smooth or downy beneath, quite variable in size on the same plant. Flowers small, in large panicles. Sepals 4 or 5, white. Filaments club-shaped. Akenes short-stalked. Thickets and meadows E. 383. BERBERIDACEZ. BarBEeRRY FAMILY. Herbs or shrubs. Leaves alternate, simple or compound, usually without stipules. Sepals petal-like. Petals hypogy- nous, distinct, their number some multiple of 2, 3, or 4, never of 5. Stamens one opposite each petal, anthers opening by 2 uplifted lids. Pistil 1, 1-celled, ovules 2 or more. Fruit a berry or capsule. I. BERBERIS, L. Spiny shrubs with yellow wood. Leaves spinous-toothed, jointed on the very short petiole, often reduced to 3—7-cleft spines. Flowers in racemes, solitary, or in pairs. Sepals 8-9, the outer minute. Petals 6, each with 2 nectar glands at the base. Stamens 6. Ovules few. Berry 1—2-seeded ; seeds bony-coated. 1. B. vulgaris, L. Common Barperry. A shrub 4-6 ft. high. Leaves obovate, spinous-serrate ; those on the old shoots mere DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 85 spines. Flowers pale yellow, in drooping racemes. Stamens irrita- ble, closing quickly toward the center of the flower when touched. Berry $ in. long, nearly ellipsoidal in shape, scarlet or orange-searlet, very acid, eatable when cooked. Cultivated from Europe and intro- duced in eastern New England and locally in the upper Mississippi valley. 2. B. Thunbergii, DC. A low shrub. Leaves entire, turning red and remaining so for a considerable time in autumn. Flowers solitary or in pairs. Berries bright red, remaining on the branches all winter. Cultivated from Japan. II. CAULOPHYLLUM, Michx. A perennial smooth herb, 1-24 ft. high. Leaf large, single, sessile, thrice compound in threes, borne high up on the stem ; there is also a large, very compound radical leaf. Flowers racemed or panicled, yellowish-green. Sepals 6, with 3 bract- lets. Petals 6, gland-lke, somewhat curved inward at the tip, much smaller than the sepals. Pistil 2-ovuled, the ovary soon bursting open and leaving the 2 blue seeds to ripen naked. 1. C. thalictroides, Michx. Biur Conosnu, Pappoosre Roor. Whole plant purplish and covered with a bloom when young. Flowers appearing before the leaf is fully developed. Rich woods. | Il. PODOPHYLLUM, L. Perennial. Stem simple, smooth, erect, 12-15 in. tall, bear- ing 2 leaves with a large white flower between them. Sepals 6, falling off as the flower opens. Petals 6-9, obovate. Sta- mens twice as many as the petals. Pistil 1, stigma large, flat, sessile. Fruit berry-lke, 1-celled, many-seeded.* 1. P. peltatum, L. May-appite. Rootstock rather large. Leaves orbicular, shield-shaped, 5—9-lobed and toothed, smooth, 9-12 in. wide. Flowers 1-2 in. wide, on a peduncle 1-2 in. long. Stamens prominent, anthers opening longitudinally. Fruit 13-2 in. long, oval, fragrant, edible ; each seed surrounded by a pulpy covering. In rich woods. The roots and leaves are used in medicine.* 34. MAGNOLIACEZ. MaGnoria FAMILY. Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, not toothed or serrate. Flowers solitary, large, and showy. Floral envelopes and 86 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY stamens hypogynous. Calyx and corolla colored alike, the parts of the perianth forming 3 or more circles of 3 parts each. Stamens many. Carpels many, usually cohering over the long receptacle and forming a sort of cone-shaped fruit, which may be either fleshy or dry. I. MAGNOLIA. Aromatic trees or shrubs; leaves alternate, often in elus- ters at the ends of the branches, entire, usually thick and leathery; stipules large, quickly deciduous ; flowers termi- nal, showy, perfect ; sepals 3, caducous ; petals 6-12, in 2-4 rows, concave; stamens numerous; ovaries numerous, 1-celled, 2-seeded, the mature follicles opening at the beak, and the fleshy seeds remaining for some time suspended by slender threads.* 1. M. grandiflora, L. LARGE-FLOWERED MaGwnoria. A large tree with spreading branches and a rounded top; bark nearly smooth. Leaves very thick, evergreen, smooth and shining above, rusty-downy beneath, entire, oval or oblong, 6-9 in. long. Flowers — white, very fragrant, 6-9 in. in diameter. Petals 9 or more, obovate, coneave. Fruit a rusty-downy cone 3-4 in. long, seeds bright scarlet. Common on light soils in Arkansas and the Gulf States.* 2. M. Fraseri, Walt. LonG-LEAVED UMBRELLA TREE. A small - tree with a slender trunk and widely spreading branches. Leaves clustered at the ends of the branches, deciduous, oblong or obovate, contracted, cordate and eared at the base, smooth on both sides, 8-12 in. long; petioles slender. Flowers white and fragrant, 6 in. broad. Petals longer than the sepals, spatulate or oblong, obtuse at the apex, narrowed at the base. Cone 3—4 in. long, pink at maturity. In rich woods S.* 3. M. macrophylla, Michx. LARGE-LEAVED UMBRELLA TREE. A small tree with gray bark. Leaves clustered at the ends of the branches, oblong or obovate, obtuse at the apex, cordate at the base, green and glabrous above, white and downy beneath, 14-3 ft. long; petioles stout. Flowers white with a purple center, fragrant, 8-12 in. wide; petals oblong, obtuse, two or three times as long as the sepals. Cone ovate, 4-6 in. long, bright red at maturity. Shady woods on light soil S.* 4. M. virginiana, L. Sweet Bay. A small tree with light gray bark. Leaves scattered on the branches, evergreen, thick and leathery, oval or oblong, smooth and green above, white and with DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 87 a bloom, downy beneath, 4-6 in. long. Flowers white, fragrant, 2-3 in. in diameter; petals 9, concave. Cone 13-2 in. long, pink. Com- mon in swamps and along streams, New York and southward (a few in eastern Massachusetts). The leaves often used in flavoring soups, etc. II. LIRIODENDRON, L. A large tree with rough, dark-colored bark. Leaves scat- tered on the branches, deciduous, 3-lobed, truncate, stipuled, petioled. Flowers perfect. Sepals 3, reflexed. Petals 6, erect. Stamens numerous. Ovaries numerous, 2-ovuled, ecohering over each other on the elongated receptacle, never opening, deciduous.* 1. L. tulipifera, L. Tuxie Tree. The largest tree in the family. Leaves roundish in outline, mostly 3-lobed, the terminal lobe trun- cate or broadly notched, usually heart-shaped at the base, smooth, green above, lighter beneath. Petioles slender. Flowers terminal, bell-shaped, greenish-yellow marked with orange. Petals obovate, obtuse, about as long as the sepals. Mature cones ovate, acute, 2-3 in. long. Common on low ground, Pennsylvania and S. Often ealled «white wood” or, incorrectly, “white poplar.” Wood valua- ble for making boxes and light furniture.* 35. CALYCANTHACEZ. CaALycANTHUS FAMILY. Shrubs. Leaves opposite, entire, without stipules. Flowers solitary, often sweet-scented. Sepals and petals numerous, the outer sepals bract-like. Stamens many, short, the inner ones usually sterile. Ovaries several, inserted on the inside of an irregular, hollow, pear-shaped receptacle something like a large rose-hip, forming 1-seeded akenes in fruit. CALYCANTHUS, L. Shrubs, 4-8 ft. tall; branches opposite. Leaves oval, downy beneath, short-petioled; both leaves and bark aro- matic. Sepals and petals many, in several rows, somewhat fleshy, indistinguishable. Pistils several, inserted on the inner side of the persistent calyx-tube. Mature fruit pear- shaped, dry, enclosing the akenes.* 88 -- FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 1. C. floridus, L. SwEET-SCENTED SHRUB, STRAWBERRY Bus, Spice Busy, SHrus. A widespreading bush, 4-8 ft. high; twigs downy. Leaves oval or oblong, acute or taper-pointed, rough above, downy beneath, 2-3 in. long. Flowers 1 in. wide, brownish- purple, very fragrant; sepals united below to form a cup, on the inside of which the other parts of the flower are inserted, cup leafy- bracted on the outside. Banks of streams and rich hillsides S., often cultivated.* 86. ANONACEZ. Pawpaw Famity. Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, entire ; pinnately veined. Flowers perfect, hypogynous, axillary, solitary. Calyx of 3 sepals, corolla of 6 thickish petals in 2 rows. Stamens many, filaments very short. fPistils several or many, becoming fleshy or pulpy in fruit. ASIMINA, Adans. Shrubs or small trees. Leaves deciduous. Flowers nod- ding. Sepals 3, ovate. Petals 6, the 3 outer ones larger and spreading. Stamens very numerous, crowded on the globular receptacle. Ovaries 3-15, sessile, 1-celled, several- ovuled. Fruit a large, fleshy, oblong berry, seeds large, horizontal.* 1..A. triloba, Dunal. Pawpaw. A small tree, 10-20 ft. high ; bark nearly smooth, lead-colored. Leaves oblong-obovate, acute at the apex, obtuse at the base, rusty-downy when young and becoming smoother with age, 6-10 in. long. Flowers on branches of the previous season, appearing before or with the leaves; the short peduncles and the sepals brown-downy. Petals purple, obovate, 3—4 times longer than the sepals. Fruit 3-5 in. long, edible when ripe. Common on banks of streams, especially S. and S. W. The bark is very tough and is often used in the place of rope.* 37. LAURACEZR. Laurer FAmIty. Aromatic plants, nearly always trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, simple, usually entire, and marked with translucent dots. Calyx regular, hypogynous, of 4 or 6 colored sepals, DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 89 Stamens in 3 or 4 circles of 3 each, the anthers opening by valves. Style single. Fruit a 1-seeded berry or stone-fruit. I. SASSAFRAS, Nees. A tree with rough, yellowish bark and a spreading top. Leaves deciduous, entire or 2—3-lobed. Flowers dicecious, in- volucrate, at the end of the twigs of the previous season. Calyx 6-parted, persistent in the pistillate flowers. Stamens 9,in 3 rows. Pistillate flowers with 4-6 abortive stamens and a single ovary. Fruit a stone-fruit.* 1. S. officinale, Nees. Sassarras. A tree, usually small and slender, but sometimes with a trunk 3 ft. in diameter and 125 ft. high. Leaves oval, entire, mitten-shaped or 3-lobed, downy when young but becoming smooth with age, dark green above, paler below, petiolate. Racemes several-in a cluster, peduncled ; flowers yellow. Stamens about as long as the sepals. Fruit dark blue, ovoid, on thickened, red pedicels. All parts of the tree aromatic ; trees producing pistillate flowers rare. Common. The wood is valuable for cabinet-making, and an aromatic oil is extracted from the bark.* Il. LINDERA, Thunb. Shrubs; leaves deciduous, entire. Flowers in lateral, sessile clusters, appearing before the leaves, diccious or somewhat monecious. Involucre of 4 scales. Stamens 9 in the staminate flowers, filaments slender. Pistillate flowers with 12-15 abortive stamens and a single globose ovary with a short style.* 1. L. Benzoin, Blume. Spice Busn. A shrub, 5-15 ft. high, with smooth bark and slender twigs. Leaves oblong-obovate, acute at the base, pale and downy beneath, becoming smooth when old ; petioles short. Flowers about as long as the pedicels, yellow, very fragrant. Ovary about as long as the style. Fruit an obovoid, red stone-fruit about 4 in. long, on a slender pedicel. Banks of streams and damp woods. Twigs and leaves quite aromatic.* 38. PAPAVERACEZ. Poppy FAmILy. Annual or perennial herbs, often with milky juice. Leaves sometimes all radical, stem-leaves usually alternate without 90 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY stipules. Flowers perfect, regular or irregular. Sepals usually 2, shed as the flower opens. Petals 4-12, falling early. Stamens numerous or 6 (in 2 sets), 4, or 2. Carpels 2-16. Fruit a capsule. I. ESCHSHOLTZIA, Cham. Annual or perennial herbs. Leaves pale or bluish-green, usually cut into very narrow divisions. Sepals united into a pointed cap, which falls off in one piece as the flower opens. — Petals 4, orange or yellow. Stamens many, with long anthers. Stigmas 2-6, spreading. Pods long and slender, grooved. Re- ceptacle often surrounded by a rim on which the calyx rests. 1. E. californica, Cham. Annual or perennial, with rather suc- culent leafy stems. Flowers large and showy, yellow or orange- yellow. Receptacle top-shaped, with a broad rim. Cultivated from California. II. SANGUINARIA, Dill. Perennial. Rootstock thick, horizontal, joints and sears of previous growths persistent several years ; juice orange- colored. Leaves on long petioles, kidney-shaped. Scape 1-flowered. Sepals 2, falling off as the flower opens. Petals 8-12. Ovary 1, stigmas 2; capsule oblong, seeds crested.* 1. S. canadensis, L. Biooproot. Leaves and scape with a bloom; leaves palmately 5—9-lobed, lobes rounded or toothed; scapes naked, nearly as long as the petioles. Flowers white, 1 in. or more wide. Petals oblong or obovate, quickly deciduous. Capsule 1-celled, 2-valved, the valves separating from the persistent placentz at maturity. In rich, open woods.* Ill. CHELIDONIUM, L. Erect, branched, perennial herbs with yellow juice. Leaves much divided. Flowers yellow. Sepals 2, falling as the flower opens. Petals 4. Ovary 1-celled ; style dilated at the top, with 2 adnate stigmas. Capsule linear. 1. C. majus, LL. CrLANDINE. Stem 1-2 ft. high, brittle, slightly hairy, leafy. Leaves once or twice pinnate. Flowers small. A rather common weed in yards and along fences. Introduced from Europe. DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 91 IV. PAPAVER. Annual or perennial herbs with milky juice. Stem erect, smooth, or rough-hairy, branching above. Leaves more or less lobed or dissected. Flower-buds nodding, flowers showy. Sepals commonly 2, falling off as the flower opens. Petals 4-6. Stamens many. Stigma disk-hke, ovules many, borne on many inwardly projecting placentz.* 1. P. somniferum, L. Oprum Porpy. Annual; stem erect, branched above, smooth and with a bloom, 2-3 ft. high. Leaves oblong, irregularly lobed or cut, sessile, clasping. Flowers nearly white, with a purple center, large and showy, on long peduncles. Capsule globose, seeds minutely pitted. About old gardens and waste places. Cultivated in southern Asia, where the juice of the capsules is dried to make opium.* 2. P. dubium, L. Corn Poppy. Annual; stem slender, branch- ing, 1-2 ft. tall. Leaves pinnatifid, the lower petioled, the upper sessile. Flowers large and showy, usually red; capsule long- oboyoid, smooth. In cultivated ground. Both the species named are often cultivated in gardens and produce double flowers.* 3. P. orientale, L. OrrteENTAL Poppy. A large, rough-hairy perennial. Leaves large, deep green, almost pinnate. Flower very large, deep red. Cultivated from the eastern Mediterranean region. 4. P. nudicaule, L. IceLAnp Porpy. A delicate but rough- hairy perennial plant. Leaves all radical, pale, pinnately cut. Flowers yellow-orange or white, borne singly on rather slender, hairy scapes. Cultivated from Europe. V. DICENTRA, Borkh. Smooth, delicate herbs with watery juice. Leaves com- pound in threes and finely cut. Flowers racemed, nodding. Sepals 2, small and scale-like. Petals 4, slightly united to form a heart-shaped or 2-spurred corolla (Fig. 12), the inner pair spoon-shaped, enclosing the stamens and pistil. Stamens 6; the filaments somewhat united into 2 sets, and the anthers in 2 sets close to the stigma. Stigma 2-crested. Pod 10-20- seeded. 1. D. Cucullaria, DC. DutTcHmMAN’s BREECHES, BREECHES FLower. A low, stemless perennial, with a delicate scape and a cluster of root-leaves with linear divisions from a sort of bulb made 92 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY of small, scaly grains. Flowers ina 4-10-flowered simple raceme, not fragrant. Spurs of the corolla longer than the pedicels; corolla mostly white with a yellowish tip. Rich woods, common. 2. D. canadensis, DC. SQUIRREL CorN, WILD HYACINTH. - ve" low, stemless perennial, with scape and leaves much as in No. 1, and with small yellow tubers looking like grains of corn scattered along the underground shoots. Corolla only heart-shaped at the base, whitish or flesh-colored, very fragrant. Rich woods. 3. D. spectabilis, DC. Brierpinc Hrart, Ear Drors. Stems branching, recurved. Leaves large, twice compound in threes, the divisions rather broad, like those of the common peony. Racemes long, drooping, many-flowered. Flowers large, heart-shaped, bright pink. Cultivated from China. VI. ADLUMIA, Raf. A delicate climbing biennial. Leaves thrice-pinnate, cut- lobed. Sepals 2, very small. Petals 4, all united into a corolla which is slightly heart-shaped or 2-knobbed at the base, remain- ing aS a Spongy covering over the small, few-seeded pod. Fic. 12. — Flower of Dicentra. A, view of flower partly dissected ; p, the larger outer petals ; p', the spoon- shaped inner petals; #, floral diagram. 1. A. cirrhosa, Raf. Movunrain FRINGE, ALLEGHANY VINE. Climbing several feet high by the leaf-stalks. Flowers pinkish- white. Rocky hillsides, often cultivated. . DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS - 63 VII. CORYDALIS, Vent. Leafy-stemmed biennial herbs (the American species). Leaves much divided, alternate or nearly opposite. Racemes terminal or opposite the leaves. Sepals 2, small. Petals 4; corolla with a single spur at the base, on the upper side. Capsule many-seeded. 1. C. glauca, Pursh. PAte Corypatis. Plant erect, covered with a bloom. Flowers pink-purple with yellow tips. Spur of the eorolla very short and rounded. Rocky woods. 2. C. aurea, Willd. Go~pEN CorypaLis. A low, spreading plant, finally ascending. Corolla bright yellow, 1-2 in. long; the spur - shorter than the pedicel, somewhat bent. Shaded, rocky banks. 39. CRUCIFERZ. MustTarp FamIty. Herbs with pungent, watery juice and alternate leaves with- out stipules.. Sepals 4, often falling off early. Petals usually 4, arranged in the form of a cross. Stamens 6, the 2 outer ones shorter than the 4 inner ones. Fruit generally a pod, divided into two cells by a thin partition which stretches across from one to the other of the two placente. The flowers throughout the family are so much alike that the gen- era and species cannot usually be determined without examin- ing the tolerably mature fruit. A. Pods short and flattened, contrary to the partition, splitting open when ripe. Pod roundish. Lepidium, I. Pod triangular, inversely heart-shaped. Capsella, IX. B. Pods globular or cylindrical, splitting open when ripe. (a) Pods globular. Flowers white. Petals much longer than the calyx. Cochlearia, II. (5) Pods cylindrical; seeds ellipsoid. Flowers very small, yellow. Sisymbrium, III. 94 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY (c) Pods cylindrical; seeds globular. Flowers of moderate size, yellow. _ Brassica, IV. (d) Pods cylindrical. Flowers white. Or pods ovoid or ellipsoid. Flower yellowish. Aquatic plants, or growing in wet soil. Nasturtium, VI. : c Pods elongated, often jointed, tapering toward the tip, never splitting open. Raphanus, V. D. Pods flattened parallel to the partition, splitting open when ripe. (a) Wild species leafy-stemmed ; growing in or near water. Pods linear. Cardamine, VII. (0) Wild species; stems naked below, bearing only 2 or 3 leaves. Pods lanceolate. Dentaria, VIII. (c) Wild species ; leafy-stemmed; growing on dry ground or rocks. Pods linear; seeds usually winged or margined, Arabis, X. (d) Cultivated species. Pods round or roundish. Lobularia, XI. (€) Cultivated species, covered with a grayish down of star-shaped hairs. Pods cylindrical. Matthiola, XII. I. LEPIDIUM, Tourn. Annual; stem erect, or sometimes diffuse. Leaves entire, toothed, or pinnately divided. Flowers in a terminal raceme, small, white. Petals short, sometimes wanting. Stamens 2, 4, or 6. Pod rounded or obcordate, flattened coulnaey to the partition. ‘a 1. L. virginicum, L. PrPPERGRASS, Brrps’ PEPPER, TONGUE- Grass. Stem erect, smooth, much branched, 1-2 ft. high. Lower leaves obovate in outline, pinnately cut with dentate lobes; upper leaves lanceolate, dentate, slightly downy. Flowers on slender pedicels, petals present, sometimes reduced in the later flowers. Stamens 2. Pod round. A weed growing in waste places.* DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 95 Il. COCHLEARIA, Tourn. Perennial herbs. Leaves entire or pinnate. Flowers small, white. Sepals short. Petals with short claws. Pods globular or ellipsoid. 1. C. Armoracia, L. Horse-rapisa. A coarse herb with large leaves from stout, long, cylindrical rootstocks filled with a very sharp, biting juice. Root-leaves long-petioled, linear-oblong, obtuse, regularly scalloped; stem-leaves sessile. Racemes in panicles. Pods obovoid, on long, slender pedicels. Seeds seldom or never ripening. Probably from Europe ; cultivated and often introduced in damp ground. Il. SISYMBRIUM, Tourn. Annual or biennial herbs. Radical leaves spreading ; stem- leaves alternate, often eared at the base. Flowers in loose racemes, usually yellow, often bracted. Pods generally nar- rowly linear, cylindrical or 4—6-angled. Seeds many, ellip- -soid, not margined. 1. S. canescens, Nutt. Tansy Mustarp. Stem 1-2 ft. high. Leaves twice pinnately cut, usually covered with grayish down. Flowers very small, yellowish. Pods oblong, club-shaped, 4-angled, ‘borne on pedicels projecting almost horizontally from the stem, in long racemes. Common westward. 2. S. officinale, Scop. HepGe Musrarp. Stems branching, stiff. Leaves runcinate-toothed or lobed. Flowers very small, pale yel- low. Pods somewhat 6-sided, awl-shaped, closely pressed against the stem. An unsightly weed in waste ground, introduced from Europe. IV. BRASSICA, Tourn. Branching herbs. Leaves often pinnately cut. Flowers in racemes, rather large, yellow. Sepals spreading. Pods nearly cylindrical, sometimes tipped with a beak which does not open. Seeds globular. 1. B. arvensis, Boiss). CHARLOcK. Stem 1-2 ft. high; it and the leaves rough-hairy. Upper leaves rhombic-toothed or no. Flowers 43 in. across, somewhat corymbed, bright yellow. Pods knotty, spreading, at least 4 of each consisting of a 2-edged, 1-seeded beak. A showy, troublesome weed in grain fields, introduced from Europe. 96 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 2. B. juncea, Coss. Similar to the preceding, but nearly or quite smooth. -Pedicels slender. Beak of the cylindric pod slender, conical, not containing a seed. Recently introduced from Asia and becoming very abundant eastward. 3. B. alba, Boiss. WuitE Mustarp. Stem 2-5 ft. high, with reflexed hairs. Upper leaves pinnately cut. Pods borne on spread- ing pedicels, bristly, with a sword-shaped, l-seeded beak occupying more than half their length. Seeds pale. Cultivated from Europe and introduced to some extent. 4. B. nigra, Koch. Bruack Mustarp. Stem 3-6 ft. high, some- what hairy. Lower leaves lyrate with the terminal lobe much the longest, stem-leaves linear-lanceolate, entire or toothed, smooth. _ Pods awl-shaped, 4-angled, smooth, lying against the stem. Seeds brownish, more biting than in No. 2. Cultivated from Europe and introduced. V. RAPHANUS, Tourn. Annual or biennial herbs. Root-leaves lyrate. Flowers in long racemes, white or yellow, purple-veined. Sepals erect. Pods rather long, slender-beaked, not splitting open but some- times breaking across into 1-seeded joints. 1. R. ‘Raphanistrum, L. Witp RapisH, JOINTED CHARLOCK. A stout, hairy annual 1-2 ft. high. Leaves cut into remote seg- ‘ments, which are coarsely toothed or serrate; terminal segment largest. Flowers yellow, turning whitish or purplish. Pods necklace-shaped, with a long beak. A common weed eastward, introduced from Europe. VI. NASTURTIUM, R. Br. Annual or biennial, mostly aquatic plants. Stems erect or diffuse, often widely branching. Leaves simple, pinnately lobed. Flowers small, white or yellow. Sepals spreading. Stamens 1-6. Pod short and broad or nearly linear. Seeds numerous in 2 rows in each cell.* 1. N. officinale, R. Br. WaAtTrERcRESS. Aquatic herbs. Stems smooth, diffuse, rooting at the joints. Leaves with 3-9 rounded, pinnate lobes, the terminal lobe much the largest. Racemes elongating in fruit. Petals white, twice the length of the sepals. Pods linear, 4-3 in. long, on slender, spreading pedicels. In ditches and slow streams. Often used for salad.* 2. N. palustre, DC. Yrttow Warercress. Annual or bien- nial. Stem erect, branched, slightly downy. Leaves irregularly DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 97 lyrate, the lower petioled, the upper sessile. Flowers small. Petals yellow. Pods linear, spreading, longer than the pedicels. In wet places.* Vil. CARDAMINE, Tourn. Annual or perennial. Rootstock often scaly or bulb-bear- ing. Stem erect or ascending, usually smooth. Leaves more or less divided. Flowers in terminal racemes, white or purple. Petals rather large. Stamens 6. Fruit a linear flattened pod. Seeds several, in a single row in each cell.* 1. C. rhomboidea, DC. ButsBovus Cress. Perennial. Root tuber- ous. Stem simple, erect, smooth, without runners, 9-18 in. tall. Lower leaves long-petioled, ovate, orbicular or heart-shaped, often angled or toothed, the upper short-petioled or sessile, lanceolate or oblong, toothed or entire. Pedicels }-1 in. long. Petals white, 21in. long. Pod erect, linear-lanceolate, tipped by the persistent style. Seeds round-oval. Cool, wet places.* 2. C. pennsylyanica, Muhl. BirrerR Cress. Annual. Stem slender, erect, simple, or with a few slender branches, 6-15 in. tall. Leaves, mostly in a cluster at the base of the stem, pinnately divided, the terminal lobe roundish, the lateral lobes narrower, somewhat hairy above, stem-leaves nearly linear. Flowers small. Petals white, longer than the sepals. Stamens 4. Pods linear, erect on erect pedicels, about 1 in. long. Seeds oval. In wet places.* Vill. DENTARIA, Tourn. Stems naked below, 2—3-leaved above, from a thickish, more or less knotted or interrupted rootstock. Flowers rather large, in early spring. Pod lance-linear, flattish. Seeds in 1 row, wingless, seedstalks broad and flat. 1. D. diphylla, L. Two-LEAvEpD TootHwort, PEPPER Root, CRINKLE Root. Rootstock long, often branched, toothed, eatable, with a flavor like that of cress or radish. Stem-leaves 2, close together, each composed of 3 ovate-diamond-shaped and toothed or crenate leaflets; the root-leaf like the stem-leaves. Flowers white. Damp woods. 2. D. laciniata, Muhl. Crow’s Foor. Rootstock short, necklace- like. Stem-leaves 3-parted ; root-leaf often absent. Flowers white or rose-color, Woods, 98 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY IX. CAPSELLA, Medic. Annual. Stem erect, downy, with branched hairs. Racemes terminal, becoming elongated in fruit. Flowers small, white. Pod obcordate or triangular, flattened contrary to the parti- tion, shorter than the spreading pedicel.* 1. C. Bursa-pastoris, Moench. SHEPHERD’S Purse. Root long and straight. Stem branching above, downy below, smooth above. Lower leaves forming a rosette at the base of the stem, irregularly lobed or pinnately cut, stem-leaves lanceolate, clasping, toothed or entire. Sepals downy, about 4 as long as the petals. Pod trian-~ gular, notched, or cordate at the apex. Seeds several in each cell. A common weed.* X. ARABIS, L. Annual or perennial herbs, smooth or with forked or star- shaped hairs. Radical leaves spatulate ; stem-leaves sessile. Flowers usually white. Petals entire, usually with claws. Pods linear, flattened. Seeds often margined or winged. 1. A. hirsuta, Scop. A rough-hairy, erect, leafy-stemmed bien- nial, 1-2 ft. high. Leaves simple ; stem-leaves oblong or lanceolate, entire or toothed, somewhat clasping, often with an arrow-shaped base. Flowers small, greenish-white, the petals somewhat longer than the sepals. Pods and pedicels upright. Style almost wanting. Seeds roundish, somewhat wing-margined. Rocks, N. 2. A. levigata, Poir. A smooth, leafy-stemmed biennial 1-2 ft. high, covered with a bloom. Stem-leaves lance-linear, clasping. Flowers small and whitish, the petals hardly longer than the sepals. Pods 2-3 in. long, flattened, spreading, and recurved. Seeds broadly | winged. Rocks. 3. A. canadensis, L. Sickie Pop. An upright, leafy-stemmed biennial, 2-3 ft. high, simple or slightly branching above, some- times slightly hairy at the base. Stem-leaves sessile, oblong- lanceolate, pointed at both ends, downy, the lower ones toothed. Flowers small, whitish, the petals twice as long as the sepals. Pods scythe-shaped, much flattened, hanging from hairy pedicels. Seeds broadly winged. Rocky hillsides, XI. LOBULARIA, Desv. (Atyssum, L.) Perennial, though usually growing as an annual. Stems branching, diffuse; branches slender. Leaves small, entire, DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 99 _ downy, with forked hairs. Flowers small, white, in numerous terminal racemes. Petals obovate, entire, twice as long as the sepals. Filaments enlarged below. Pod round, com- pressed. Seeds 1 in each cell.* | 1. L. maritima, Desy. Sweet Atyssum. Stem weak, diffuse, ascending, minutely downy. Lower leaves narrowed into a petiole, the upper sessile. Racemes erect, many-flowered. Flowers fra- grant, pedicels ascending. Pod often pointed. Common in culti- yation and often run wild.* XII. MATTHIOLA, R. Br. Herbaceous or shrubby oriental plants, covered with a down composed of star-shaped hairs. Flowers in showy racemes of many colors, ranging from white to crimson. Stigmas large and spreading. Pods nearly cylindrical, except for a prominent midrib on each valve. 1. M. incana, Br. Common Stock, GILLYFLOWER. Biennial or _ perennial, with somewhat woody stems. Cultivated in greenhouses and gardens. 40. CAPPARIDACEZ. Caper FAmMILy. Herbs (when growing in cool temperate regions), with bit- ter or nauseous juice. Leaves alternate, usually palmately compound. Flowers often irregular, usually perfect. Sepals 4-8. Petals 4 or wanting. Stamens 6 or more. Ovary and pod 1-celled, with 2 rows of ovules. Seeds kidney-shaped. I. POLANISIA, Raf. Iil-smelling annual plants covered with glandular or clammy hairs. Sepals distinct, spreading. Petals with claws, notched at the tip. Stamens 8—52, of various lengths. Receptacle not lengthened. Pod linear or oblong, rather large, many-seeded. 1. P. graveolens, Raf. A very strong-scented, leafy, branching herb, 6-15 in. high. Leaves with 3 oblong leaflets. Flowers small, pinkish and yellowish-white, in the axils of leafy bracts, in terminal racemes. Stamens 8-12, not much longer than the petals. Pod about 2 in. long, slightly stalked. Gravelly banks. 100 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY II. CLEOME, L. Mostly annual herbs; stems branched. Leaves petioled, simple, or with 3-7 entire or serrate leaflets. Flowers in bracted racemes. Sepals 4, often persistent. Petals 4, often long-clawed, nearly equal, entire. Stamens 6, filaments thread-like, usually projecting much, but sometimes 1-3 much shorter than the others, inserted on the short receptacle. Ovary on a short stalk with a small gland at its base. Fruit a slender capsule on an elongated stalk.* 1. C. integrifolia, Torr. and Gr. Rocky Mountain BrEE PLANT. A smooth plant 2 ft. or more high. Leaves with 3 leaflets. Flowers pink, showy, in leafy-bracted racemes. Pod oblong to linear, 1-2 in. long. Cultivated as an ornamental plant and also for bees. Common in a wild condition W. 41. RESEDACEZ. MIGNONETTE FAMILY. Annual or perennial herbs, rarely shrubs. Leaves alter- nate, simple or pinnately cut. Flowers racemed or spiked, ‘bracted. Calyx 4-7, parted, often irregular. Petals 4-7, hypogynous, often unequal and cleft or notched. Stamens usually many, borne on a large one-sided hypogynous disk. Ovary of 2-6 carpels, which are more or less united into a single 1-celled, many-seeded, several-lobed, or horned pistil, which opens at the top before the seeds ripen. RESEDA, Tourn. Annual; stems diffuse, widely branched. Leaves sessile, entire or lobed, smooth. Flowers in close racemes or spikes. Petals 4—7, toothed or cleft. Stamens 8-30, inserted at one side of the flower. Capsule 5—6-lobed.* 1. R. odorata, L. MicGNoneTTE. Stem widely diffuse, 6-12 in. high, smooth. Leaves wedge-shaped, entire or 3-lobed. Flowers small, greenish-yellow, very fragrant. Petals deeply 7—13-cleft. Often cultivated. From Egypt.* : DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 101 42. SARRACENIACEZ. PircHEeR—PLANT FAMILY. Perennial, stemless, marsh herbs. Leaves tubular or trumpet-shaped. Flowers single, nodding, on a naked or bracted scape. Sepals 4-5, colored, persistent. Petals 5, deciduous, or sometimes wanting. Stamens numerous. Pistil compound, 5-celled, many-ovuled ; style terminal, nearly as | broad as the flower, shield-shaped.* SARRACENIA, Tourn. Rootstock short, horizontal; scape naked. Leaves trumpet- shaped, with a wing extending nearly to the base and a broad blade at the apex (see Part IJ, Ch. XXVI); tube hairy within, with downward-pointing, stiff hairs. Calyx 3-bracted. Petals obovate, drooping or incurved. Style umbrella-shaped, 5-angled ; stigmas at the hooked angles of the style on the under surface. Capsule globose, rough. [The tubular leaves usually contain more or less water and dead insects, the latter having been attracted by a honey-like secretion near the opening. For a full account of the structure and peculiar -action of the leaves, see Goodale’s Physiological Botany, pp. 347-353. ]* 1. S. purpurea, L. SrpE-sADDLE FLower. Leaves ascending, curved, broadly winged, purple-veined, 4-8 in. long; blade erect, round-cordate, hairy on the inner side. Scapes 12-18 in. tall; flower deep purple, about 2 in. broad. Style yellowish. Mossy swamps.* 43. SAXIFRAGACEZ. SAxIFRAGE FAMILY. Herbs or shrubs. Leaves alternate or opposite, generally without stipules. Sepals 4 or 5, more or less coherent with each other and adnate to the ovary. Petals as many as the sepals and alternate with them. Stamens as many as the petals and alternate with them, or 2-10 times as many. Ovary usually of 2 carpels, united only at the base or more or less throughout. Fruit generally a 1—2-celled capsule, sometimes a berry. Seeds many, with endosperm. 102 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY I. SAXIFRAGA, L. Herbs with simple or palmately cut leaves and generally cymose or panicled flowers. Sepals 5, more or less united. Petals 5, entire, inserted on the calyx-tube. Stamens 10. Capsule consisting of 2 (sometimes more) ovaries, united at the base, separate and diverging above. 1. §S. virginiensis, Michx. EARLY SAXIFRAGE, MAYFLOWER. Perennial. Stemless, with a cluster of spatulate, obovate, or wedge- shaped root-leaves and a scape 3-9 in. high, which bears a dense cluster of small white flowers, becoming at length a panicled cyme. Petals white, oblong, much longer than the calyx. Rocks and dry hillsides N. 2. §. pennsylvanica, L. Swamp SAXIFRAGE. Perennial. Leaves 4—8 in. long, oblong-lanceolate and tapering to the base, slightly toothed. Scape 1-2 ft. high, bearing an oblong cluster of small greenish flowers, at length diffusely panicled. Petals green- ish-yellow (rarely crimson), linear-lanceolate, hardly longer than the calyx-lobes. Boggy ground. Il. TIARELLA, L. Perennial. Flowers. white, in racemes. Calyx white, 5-parted, nearly free from the ovary. Corolla of 5 very nar- row petals, with slender claws, alternating with the calyx- lobes. Stamens 10, springing from the calyx-tube and extending outside the flower. Styles 2, long and slender. Ovary 1-celled, 2-beaked. In fruit one of the carpels grows to be much larger than the other, thus making up the main bulk of the thin, dry pod, which has a few seeds attached near the bottom. 1. T. cordifolia, L. Fause MiTreE-wort. Stem 5-12 in. high, usually leafless, sometimes with 1 or 2 leaves. Rootstock bearing runners in summer. Leaves heart-shaped, sharply lobed, the lobes with acute or mucronate teeth, somewhat hairy above, downy beneath. Raceme short and simple. Rocky woods, especially N. Il. MITELLA, Tourn. Delicate perennial herbs. Flowers small, pretty, in a sim- ple raceme or spike. Calyx 5-cleft, adnate to the base of the ~~ Pee DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 103 ovary. Petals 5, cut-fringed, inserted on the throat of the ealyx-tube. Stamens 5 or 10, not projecting from the calyx- tube. Styles 2, very short. Ovary and pod 2-beaked, globular, 1-celled. 1. M. diphylla, L. Two-LEAvep BisHop’s Cap, FRINGE Cup, Farry Cur. Stemless, with long-petioled, roundish-cordate root- leaves, and a scape about 1 ft. high, bearing 2 opposite, nearly ses- sile leaves. Flowers many, racemed, white. Woods. IV. HEUCHERA, L. Perennials with a tall scape and roundish, heart-shaped radical leaves. Flowers rather small, greenish or purplish, in along panicle. Calyx 5-cleft, the tube below adnate to the ovary. Petals 5, small, spatulate, inserted with the 5 sta- mens on the margin of the calyx-tube. Capsule 1-celled, 2-beaked, splitting open between the beaks. 1. H. americana, L. Common Atum Root. Scapes 2-4 ft. high, rather slender, often several from the same root, hairy and glandu- lar. Radical leaves large and long-petioled, abundant, somewhat 7-lobed. Flowers whitish with a tinge of purple, in a loose panicle. Stamens projecting considerably outside the flower, their stamens of a bright terra cotta color. The root is very astringent and is somewhat used as a home remedy. Shaded banks, fence rows, and thickets ; common W. . Vv. PHILADELPHUS, L. Shrubs. Leaves simple, opposite, 3—5-ribbed, petioled, without stipules. Flowers solitary or in cymes, large, white. Calyx-tube top-shaped, adnate to the ovary, the limb 4~5- parted, persistent. Petals 4-5, rounded or obovate. Stamens 20-40, shorter than the petals. Ovary 3—5-celled, many- seeded ; styles 3-5, more or less united.* 1. P. grandiflorus, Willd. LARGE-FLOWERED SyrinGA. Shrub, 6-10 ft. high; branches downy. Leaves ovate or ovate-oblong, taper-pointed, sharply serrate, downy, 3-ribbed. Flowers solitary or 2-3 together, white, 14-2 in. broad, not fragrant. Calyx-lobes ovate, taper-pointed, about twice as long as the tube. On low ground, S., and cultivated.* . 2. P. coronarius, L. GARDEN SyriINGA. Shrub, 8-10 ft. high. Leaves oval or ovate, obtuse at the base, acute at the apex, remotely 104 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY toothed, smooth above, downy beneath. Flowers in terminal racemes, creamy white, 1-14 in. wide, very fragrant. Calyx-lobes ovate, acute, longer than the tube. Common in cultivation.* \ VI. DEUTZIA, Thunb. Shrubs with simple, opposite leaves, without stipules. Flowers all perfect and alike, racemed or panicled, showy. Calyx-lobes 5. Petals 5. Stamens 10, 5 long and 5 short ; filaments flat and 3-pronged, the middle prong bearing an anther. Styles 3-5, slender. Pod 3—5-celled. 1. D. gracilis, Sieb. and Zucc. About 2 ft. high, loosely spreading. Leaves ovate-lanceolate, sharply serrate, smooth. Flowers white, very numerous. Cultivated from Japan, often in greenhouses. VII. RIBES, L. Shrubs. Leaves palmately veined and lobed, sometimes with stipules. Calyx-tube egg-shaped, adnate to the 1-celled ovary, its 5 lobes wsually colored like the petals. Petals 5, small, generally inserted on the throat of the calyx-tube. Stamens 5, inserted with the petals. Styles 2. Ovary 1-celled, with 2 placentz on its walls, becoming in fruit a pulpy (usually eatable) berry. 1. R. rotundifolium, Michx. Smoorn WILD GoosEBERRY. Spines few and short, prickles few or absent. Leaves roundish, lobed, with the lobes crenate-dentate, often downy. Peduncles slender ; flowers inconspicuous. Calyx-lobes reflexed. Styles and stamens projecting decidedly from the calyx-tube. Berries smooth. 2. R. Cynosbati, L. Prickty Witp GoosEBERRY. Spines in pairs. Leaves long-petioled, downy, heart-shaped, cut-dentate. ‘The single style and the stamens not projecting from the calyx-tube. Berries generally prickly, brownish-purple, pleasant-flavored. 3. R. rubrum, L. Rep Currant. Stems more or less reclining. Leaves somewhat heart-shaped, obtusely 8—5-lobed. Racemes droop- ing. Limb of the calyx wheel-shaped. Berries acid, eatable, red or light amber-colored. Cultivated from Europe, also a variety wild in the northern United States. 4. R. aureum, Pursh. GOLDEN CURRANT, FLOWERING C., Mis- sourr C., Clove C. A much taller shrub than the common red currant. Leaves 3-lobed, toothed. Racemes short and loose. Tube ee | er Pe 7 ee The ee jj el Oe 1k ee DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 105 of the yellow calyx much longer than its limb. Flowers very fragrant. Fruit brownish-black, barely eatable. 44. PLATANACER. SYCAMORE FAMILY. Trees ; with simple, alternate, petioled leaves with stipules, the bases of the petioles covering the buds. Flowers mone- cious, in axillary, long-peduncled, globose heads. Calyx and corolla very inconspicuous, each consisting of 3-8 minute scales, or wanting. Stamens as many as the sepals and opposite them. Pistils several, inversely conical, hairy at the base, styles long. Capsules 1-seeded.* PLATANUS, L. Characters of the family. 1. P. occidentalis, L. Sycamore, ButTonwoop. A large tree, bark light-colored, smooth, peeling off in large, thin plates. Leaves large, round heart-shaped, angularly lobed and toothed, densely white-woolly when young, becoming smooth with age; stipules large, toothed. Fruit in a globular, drooping head, which remains on the tree through the winter, dropping the seeds very slowly. Common on river banks and in swampy woods.* 45. ROSACEZ. Rose FAmIty. Herbs, shrubs, or trees. Leaves alternate or rarely oppo- site, simple or compound, with stipules. Calyx 5-lobed. Petals 5, rarely wanting, inserted with the stamens on the edge of a disk that lines the calyx-tube. Stamens many, rarely 1 or few. Carpels 1 or more, distinct or coherent, free or adnate to the calyx-tube. Fruit a pome, a stone-fruit or group of stone-fruits, or 1—-several akenes or follicles, rarely a berry or capsule. The relation of the parts of the flower to each other and to the receptacle is shown in Fig. 13. 106 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY A. Ripe carpels not enclosed within the calyx-tube. 1. Fruit dry. (a) Carpels 1-5, inflated. Physocarpus, I. (b) Pods 5-8, not inflated. Spirea, II. (c) Akenes 2-6, styles not lengthening after flowering. Waldsteinia, VIII. (d) Akenes many, on a dry receptacle. Styles not length- ening. Potentilla, X. (e) Akenes many, on a dry receptacle. Styles lengthening after flowering, forming tails to the akenes. Geum., XI. 2. Fruit fleshy. (a) Akenes several-many, becoming little stone-fruits. Rubus, VII. (6) Akenes many, dry on ripening, on a fleshy, eatable receptacle. Fragaria, LX. (c) Pistil solitary, becoming a stone-fruit. Prunus, XIII. Fig. 13. — Pistils in the Rose Family. A, Prunus-type; B, Potentilla-type ; C, Rosa-type, c, calyx, 0, ovary. B. Ripe carpels enclosed within the calyx-tube. 1. Fruit a pome. (a) Carpels more than 2-seeded; seeds covered with a muci- laginous pulp. Fruit 5-celled. Cydonia, III. —p a a DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS _ 107 (>) Carpels 2-seeded (except in some cultivated varieties) ; seeds without pulp. Fruit 5-celled. Pyris, IV. (c) Carpels 2-seeded ; fruit 10-celled. Amelanchier, V. 2. Fruit not evidently a pome or not at all so. (a) Trees or shrubs. Fruit appearing like a stone-fruit, with a stone usually of 2-5 bony 1l-seeded carpels united. Crategus, V1. (b) Herbs. Fruit consisting of numerous very small akenes collected on a fleshy, eatable receptacle. Fragaria, IX. (c) Trees or shrubs. Fruit a simple stone-fruit (plum or cherry). Prunus, XIII. I. PHYSOCARPUS, Maxim. Shrubs. Leaves simple, palmately veined and lobed, pet- ioled. Flowers white, in terminal corymbs. Calyx spreading, 5-lobed. Petals 5. Stamens numerous. Pistils 1-5, short- stalked, stigma terminal; ovaries becoming inflated at matu- rity, 2-4-seeded, splitting open.* 1. P. opulifolius, Maxim. NineBARK. A spreading shrub 3-6 ft. high, the old bark separating into thin strips. Leaves petioled, broadly ovate or rounded, often heart-shaped, 3-lobed, the lobes doubly crenate-serrate ; stipules deciduous. Corymbs terminal, peduncled, nearly globose, downy, many-flowered. Pedicels and calyx nearly smooth. Follicles 3-5, much longer than the calyx, smooth and shining, obliquely tipped by the persistent style. Banks of streams, and often cultivated.* Il. SPIREA, L. Shrubs with simple leaves. Flowers perfect, in terminal or axillary racemes or panicles. Calyx 5-cleft, persistent. Petals 5. Stamens numerous. Pistils usually 5, free from the calyx and alternate with its lobes. Follicles not inflated, 2-several-seeded.* 1. S. salicifolia, L. WuiLLow-LEAFED Sprrea. Shrubs 2-5 ft. high, branches smooth; leaves lanceolate to oblong-ovate, smooth or nearly so, sharply serrate, base usually wedge-shaped, pale beneath ; stipules deciduous; flowers white or pink, panicle dense-flowered ; follicles smooth. On low ground.* 108 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 2. S. reevesiana, Gard. Bripan WreEatH. Shrubs 2-4 ft. tall; branches long, slender, and spreading; leaves lanceolate, serrate, sometimes 8-lobed or pinnatifid, with a bloom beneath; flowers white or pinkish, in axillary racemes or corymbs, often forming long wreaths; follicles smooth. Cultivated from Europe. 3. S. tomentosa, L. Harpnack. Erect shrubs; stems densely downy, usually simple; leaves simple, ovate or oblong, serrate, densely rusty downy below, smooth and dark green above; flowers small, pink or purple, in a close panicle; follicles 5, densely downy, several-seeded. On low ground S., and along fence-rows and in pas- tures N., where it is a troublesome weed.* Ill. CYDONIA. Trees or shrubs. Leaves simple, toothed or lobed, stipules deciduous. Flowers usually solitary, white or pink. Calyx- tube urn-shaped, adnate to the ovary, 5-lobed, lobes acute, spreading, persistent. Petals 5. Stamens numerous, inserted with the petals on the calyx-tube. Styles 2-5, mostly 5, _ united at the base. Ovary 5-celled, seeds many in each cell. Fruit a’ pome, globose, usually depressed or hollowed at the . extremities, flesh without hard grains.* 1. C. vulgaris, Pers. QuincEe. Shrub 6-12 ft. high. Leaves oblong-ovate, acute at the apex, obtuse at the base, entire, downy below. Flowers large, white or pink. Fruit ovoid, downy. Cul- tivated.* 2. C. japonica, Pers. JAPAN QuiINCcCE. : we Hepat df ae re Ait if y | i Fic. 22.— Flower-cluster of Bachelor’s Button (Centaurea Cyanus), DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 2255: with usually 5 stamens inserted on the corolla, the anthers united into a tube which surrounds the style (Fig. 23, V). Calyx with its tube adnate to the ovary, the limb sometimes wanting, when present taking the form of scales, bristles, etc., known as pappus (Fig. 24, II, Ill). Corolla either strap- shaped (Fig. 25, r) or tubular (Fig. 23, V), in the former case I ul th Soe Fie. 23. — Bachelor’s Button. I, vertical section of the receptacle; II, style and forked stigma (magnified) ; Ii, corolla, united anthers and stigma (magnified) ; 1V, pistil (magnified) ; pap, pappus; ak,akene; V, tubular flower cut vertically (magnified), showing anther-tube, traversed by the style; /, lobe of corolla. often 5-toothed, in the latter usually 5-lobed. Style 2-cleft above. Fruit an akene, often provided with means of trans- portation (Part II, Ch. XXIX). The largest family of owerlng plants and among the most specialized for insect pollination. The genera of the northern United States are divided into two suborders: I. TusuxiFtoR#, corolla of the perfect flowers tubular and 5-lobed ; II. LiguLirLoRrs, corollas all strap-shaped and flowers all perfect, 226 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY pap Fig. 24. — Bachelor’s Button. I, a tubular flower (magnified) ; anth, the united anthers ; II, fruit (magnified) ; III, fruit, vertical section (magnified); IV, a neutral ray-flower ;1 V, ring of anthers. Fic. 25.— Flower-cluster of Yarrow (Achillea Millefolium), enlarged. A, head seen from above; B, longitudinal section ; re, receptacle ; ch, chaff ; i, involucre; 7, ray-flowers ; d, disk-flowers ; ¢, corolla; s, stigma. 1 This is not precisely homologous with the ray-flowers of Helianthus and most rayed Compositz, but is an enlarged and conspicuous tubular flower, DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 227 I. TUBULIFLORZA. A.} Corollas some or all of them tubular. Rays white, pink, or purplish. Rays many; akenes flat; pappus wanting; low herbs. Bellis, I. Rays many; akenes cylindrical or winged, grooved; pappus wanting ; tall herbs or shrubby. Chrysanthemum, VIII. Rays many; akenes flat; pappus of an outer row of minute scales and an inner row of delicate bristles. Erigeron, II. Rays many; akenes cylindrical or ribbed; pappus wanting ; strong-scented branching herbs. Anthemis, VI. Rays few. Achillea, VIT. Rays yellow. Disk purplish-brown. Rudbeckia, IV. Disk yellow. Involucre of 2 rows of bracts, the outer rather leaf-like. Coreopsis, III. Involucre of reflexed scales; pappus of 5-8 scales. Helenium, V. Involucre of erect scales ; pappus of abundant soft hairs. Senecio, IX. Rays none, but the marginal flowers sterile and their tubular corollas partly flattened like rays (Fig. 24). Centaurea, X. Rays none and marginal flowers like the others; scales of the involucre overlapping in many rows, prickly-pointed. Cirsium, XI. _ Corolilas all strap-shaped. fi Corollas blue (rarely pinkish); akenes not beaked. : Cichorium, XIII. Corollas blue; akenes beaked. Lactuca, XVIII. 1 The characters in this key are not necessarily true of all species in the genera referred to, but only of those described below. 228 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY Corollas yellow. Akenes truncate ; pappus double, of chaff and bristles. , Krigia, XII. Akenes columnar; pappus of tawny, rough bristles; stem scape-like, —~ Hieracium, XIV. Akenes spindle-shaped, not beaked; pappus of plumed bristles. Leontodon, XV. Akenes ovoid to spindle-shaped, long-beaked ; pappus white, soft, and abundant. Taraxacum, XVI. Akenes nearly as in XVI; pappus tawny. Pyrrhopappus, XVII. Akenes flattened, beaked ; pappus soft, white, the hairs soon falling off separately ; leafy-stemmed herbs. Lactuca, XVIII. Akenes flattened, not beaked ; pappus abundant, soft, white ; leafy-stemmed, spiny-leaved herbs. Sonchus, XIX. I. BELLIS, L. Small herbs. Leaves usually all radical, petioled. Heads — solitary, disk yellow, ray-flowers white or pink; involucre bell-shaped, bracts in 1 or 2 rows, green; receptacle conical. Ray-flowers many, in a single row, pistillate. Disk-flowers tubular, perfect, 4-5-toothed; forks of the style short, thick, tipped by roughened cones. Fruit flattened, obovate; pappus wanting. 1. B. integrifolia, Michx. AMERICAN Daisy. A branching annual or biennial] herb, 4-12 in. high. Upper leaves lanceolate or oblong, the lower ones obovate-spatulate. Heads borne on slender peduncles; rays violet-purple. Prairies, especially S.W. 2. B. perennis, L. EnoGiisH Daisy, Scotcn Daisy. A stem- less perennial. Leaves obovate-spatulate, smooth or hairy. Heads 3] in. in diameter, very pretty, the rays delicate. Cultivated from Europe. Il. ERIGERON, L. Herbs. Leaves usually sessile. Heads many-flowered, flat or nearly hemispherical, the rays numerous, narrow, pistillate. Scales of the involucre narrow and overlapping but little. Ot eds Bess DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS © 229 Akenes flattish, crowned with a single row of hair-like bristles, or sometimes with shorter bristles or scales outside these. Disk yellow, rays white, pinkish, or purple. - 1. E. annuus, Pers. ComMoN FLEABANE. Annual or biennial. Stem grooved and stout, branching, 2—5 ft. high, with scattered hairs; lowest leaves petioled, ovate, coarsely toothed, those higher up the stem successively narrower, sessile; heads in a large loose corymb ; rays short, white or purplish. Fields and waste ground. 2. E. strigosus, Muhl. Daisy FLEABANE. Annual or biennial. Considerably resembling the preceding species, but with entire leaves, smaller and less branched stem, smaller heads, and longer rays. Fields and pastures. 3. E. bellidifolius, Muhl. Ropin’s PLANTAIN. Perennial. Soft- hairy; stems sometimes throwing out offsets from the base; simple, erect, 1-2 ft. high; root-leaves, obovate-obtuse, somewhat serrate ; stem-leaves few, lance-oblong, acute, clasping; heads rather large, 1-9, on long peduncles, with 50-60 long, rather broad, bluish-purple or reddish-purple rays. Thickets and moist banks. 4. E. philadelphicus, L. Perennial. Rather hairy; stems slender, about 2 ft. high; root-leaves spatulate and toothed; stem-leaves usually entire and strongly clasping, sometimes with a heart-shaped or eared base ; heads several, small, long-petioled ; rays exceedingly numerous, thread-like, reddish-purple or flesh-color. In damp soil. III. COREOPSIS, L. Annual or perennial herbs. Leaves opposite or the upper alternate, entire or pinnately divided. Heads radiate, solitary or corymbed, many-flowered ; bracts in 2 rows of about 8 each, the inner membranaceous and appressed, the outer narrower and spreading; receptacle chaffy. Ray-flowers neutral; disk- flowers tubular, perfect. Akenes compressed, oval to oblong, often winged. Pappus of 2 scales or bristles, or wanting.* 1. C. tinctoria, Nutt. GARDEN Coreopsis. Annual. Stem erect, smooth, branched, 2-3 ft. high. Leaves 2-3 times pinnately divided, the divisions linear, lower leaves petioled, the upper often sessile and entire. Heads er in. wide, on slender peduncles ; inner bracts brown with scarious margins, outer bracts very short. Ray-flowers about 8, yellow with a brown base, 3-lobed at the apex. Akenes linear. Pappus minute or none. Common in gardens.* 2. C. lanceolata, L. TicksrEp. Perennial; stem slender, erect or ascending, smooth or slightly downy below, simple, 9-15 in. high. Leaves opposite, the lower spatulate to elliptical, sometimes lobed, 230 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY on long, hairy-fringed petioles, the upper lanceolate, sessile. Heads few, on long peduncles; bracts ovate-lanceolate, the outer narrower. Ray-flowers 6-10, rays 3—5-lobed, bright yellow. Akenes oval, broadly winged, warty. Pappus of 2 teeth. On rich, dry soil S. and E.* 3. C. auriculata, L. Runnine TicksEEpD. Perennial; stem ascend- ing or decumbent, weak, smooth, nearly simple, 6-15 in. long. Leaves ovate to oval, entire or with 2—4 small and rounded lobes at the base, downy, long-petioled. Heads 1-14 in. wide, few or single; outer bracts narrower than the inner. Rays 6-10, mostly 4-toothed at the apex ; chaff as long as the flowers. Akenes oblong, the wings narrow and thickened. Pappus of 2 minute teeth. In rich woods.* IV. RUDBECKYIA, L. Perennial or biennial. Leaves alternate, entire or lobed. Heads radiate, long-peduncled, many-flowered; bracts imbri- cated in 2—3 series, spreading ; receptacle convex or long-coni- cal, with concave, chaffy scales. Ray-flowers yellow, neutral; disk-flowers purple to brown, perfect. Akenes smooth, 4-angled, truncate. Pappus a few short teeth or wanting.* 1. R. hirta, L. CoNnr-FLowrER. Annual or biennial; stem erect, rough-hairy, simple or branched, 2—3 ft. high. Leaves lanceolate to — oblong, thick, obscurely serrate, rough-hairy, 3-ribbed, the lower petioled, the upper sessile. Heads few, long-peduncled; bracts rough-hairy, spreading. Ray-flowers 10-20, orange-yellow; disk- flowers purplish brown. Chaff acute, hairy at the apex. Pappus none. On dry, open ground. ee V. HELENIUM, L. Annual or perennial. Leaves alternate, forming wings on the stem. Heads radiate, peduncled, many-flowered; bracts in 2 series, the outer linear and spreading, the inner few and scale-like; receptacle naked, convex or oblong. Ray-flowers pistillate and fertile, or neutral, the rays wedge-shaped, 3—5- lobed; disk-flowers perfect, tubular, 4-5-lobed. Akenes top- shaped, hairy, ribbed. Pappus of 4—5 entire, toothed or awned scales.* ig al he i ed Le 1. H. nudiflorum, Nutt. SNEEZEWEED. Perennial; stem slender, erect, downy, branched above, 1-2 ft. high. Leaves lanceolate, — entire or slightly toothed, the lower petioled, the upper sessile, DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 231 Heads numerous. Ray-flowers 10-15, neutral, yellow or yellow and brown ; disk-flowers purple. Akenes hairy on the ribs; pappus of ovate, minutely toothed, awned scales. Common on river banks S.* VI. ANTHEMIS, L. Aromatic or ill-scented herbs. Leaves finely pinnately divided. Heads many-flowered, with ray-flowers. Rays pis- tillate or neutral. Involucre of many small, dry, close-pressed scales. Akenes nearly cylindrical, generally ribbed; barely crowned or naked at the summit. 1. A. Cotula, DC. MaAyweep, DoG-FENNEL. Leaves irregularly eut into very many narrow segments. Heads small, produced all summer. Disk yellow. Rays rather short, white, neutral. A low, offensive-smelling annual weed, by roadsides and in barnyards. Vil. ACHILLEA, L. Perennial; leaves alternate, pinnately divided. Heads with ray-flowers in a terminal corymb; involucral bracts imbricated in several series, the outer shorter; receptacle chaffy. Ray- flowers white or pink, pistillate and fertile; disk-flowers per- fect, tubular, 5-lobed. Akenes oblong, compressed, slightly margined. Pappus none.* 1. A. Millefolium, L. Yarrow. Stemis often clustered, erect from a creeping rootstock, simple, downy or woolly, 1-2 ft. high. _ Leaves lanceolate or oblong, the segments finely cut and divided, - smooth or downy, the lower petioled, the upper sessile. Heads small, numerous, in flat-topped corymbs; bracts downy. Ray-flowers 4-5, white or pink, rays 3-lobed at the apex. Common in old fields.* Vill. CHRYSANTHEMUM, Tourn. Perennials, with toothed, pinnately cut or divided leaves. Heads nearly as in the Anthemis, except that the ray-flowers are pistillate. 1. C. Leucanthemum, L. Oxryre Daisy, WHITEWEED, BULL’s- EYE, SHERIFF Pink. Stem erect, unbranched or nearly so, 1-2 ft. high; root-leaves oblong-spatulate, petioled, deeply and irregularly _ toothed ; stem-leaves sessile and clasping, toothed and cut, the upper- - most ones shading off into bracts. Heads terminal and solitary, O59 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY > large and showy, with a yellow disk and many white rays. A trouble- some but handsome perennial weed. Introduced from Europe, chiefly E. 2. C. frutescens, L. MaArGueEriTE. Erect, branching, perennial, woody below, smooth, and. with a pale bloom. Divisions of the leaves linear, with the uppermost leaves often merely 3-cleft bracts. Heads long-peduncled, showy, with a yellow disk and large, spread- ing white rays. Cultivated in greenhouses; from the Canary Islands. IX. SENECIO, Tourn. Annual or perennial; stems often hollow. Leaves alternate, entire or pinnately divided. Heads with or without rays, in terminal corymbs; bracts mostly in a single row, often with a few shorter ones at the base; receptacle naked or pitted. Ray- flowers yellow or orange, pistillate and fertile when present; disk-flowers tubular, perfect. Akenes cylindrical or com- pressed, not beaked or winged, 5-10-ribbed, downy. Pappus of numerous, slender, white hairs.* 1. S. tomentosus, Michx. WooLLy RAGWEED. Perennial; woolly throughout ; stem stout, erect, mostly simple, 2-3 ft. high. Lower leaves ovate to oblong, crenate or entire, obtuse, long-petioled; stem- leaves few, elliptical to oblanceolate, serrate or toothed, acute, sessile. Heads radiate, 3 in. wide, on slender peduncles; bracts narrow, - becoming smooth. Ray-flowers 12-15, yellow. Akenes hairy. On damp soil.* 2. S. aureus, L. GoLtpEN RAGWEED. Perennial; stems often tufted, erect, slender, woolly when young, branched above, 18-80 in. high. Lower leaves broadly ovate, obtuse at the apex, heart-shaped — at the base, crenate, long-petioled; stem-leaves lanceolate and often ~ pinnatifid, the upper small and sessile. Heads radiate, corymbed, on slender peduncles; ray-flowers 8-12, bright yellow. Akenes — smooth. On wet soil; very variable.* 3. S. lobatus, Pers. ButreRWEED. Annual; stem erect, ridged, hollow, often woolly when young, and becoming smooth with age, branched above, 1-3 ft. high. Leaves lyrate-pinnatifid, thin, the lower petioled, the upper sessile. Heads radiate in a terminal corymb; bracts linear, acute. Ray-flowers about 12, yellow. Akenes slightly rough-hairy on the angles. Pappus rough, longer than the involucre. Common on low ground.* ; i : ¢ DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 233° X. CENTAUREA, L. Herbs. Leaves entire or cut, often spiny-toothed. Heads single; involucre ovoid or globose (Fig. 22); bracts closely overlapping, entire, dry and membranaceous. Corollas all tubular, oblique or 2-lipped, inflated above; the outer ones usually larger and neutral, the inner flowers perfect ; lobes 5, slender. Akenes flattened. Pappus hairs short, slender, rough. 1. C. Cyanus, L. BAcHELoR’s Button. Stem erect, slender, grooved, 1-2 ft. high, somewhat branched. Leaves acute, sessile, narrow, entire or few-lobed. Peduncles covered with cottony wool. Heads 4-1 in. in diameter, cobwebby. Ray-like flowers few, large, bright blue or pink; those of the disk smaller. Cultivated from Europe and escaped from gardens. XI. CIRSIUM, Tourn. Biennial or perennial; stem erect, simple or branched. Leaves alternate, prickly, often forming wings on the stem. Heads discoid, terminal and solitary or corymbed, many-flow- ered; bracts overlapping in many series, the outer shorter, usually spine-pointed; receptacle bristly. Corollas purplish or nearly white, the tube slender, deeply 5-cleft. Akenes oblong, 4-angled, smooth or ribbed. Pappus of numerous simple or plumose bristles.* 1. C. altissimum, Spreng. Tari Tuistie. Perennial or bien- nial; stem stout, very leafy, downy or woolly, branched 4-10 ft. high ; leaves rough-downy above, hoary beneath, fringed with fine prickles, not forming wings on the stem, the lower petioled and often pinnately cut, the upper sessile and entire. Heads ovoid, 1 in. in diameter ; bracts viscid, webby when young, all except the inner ones tipped with weak and spreading bristles. Flowers light purple. ‘Common in fields, woods, and waste places.* 2. C. horridulum, Michx. YrLttow Tuistie. Biennial or peren- nial ; stem erect, stout, woolly when young, becoming smooth, often purple, branched 1-3 ft. high. Leaves pinnately cut, with very ‘spiny teeth, mostly sessile and clasping, smooth and green on both sides. Heads large, surrounded by a whorl of linear-oblong, comb- like leaves ; involucral bracts linear, ciliate, not spine-tipped. Flowers purple or yellowish. On sandy soil E. and S.* 234 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY II. LIGULIFLORZ. XII. KRIGIA, Schreber. Small, annual or perennial herb. Leaves mostly radical, toothed or lyrate. Heads several-many-flowered; scales of the involucre about 2-rowed, thin. Akenes short, truncate. Pappus in 2 rows, the outer one of thin, blunt, chaffy scales, the mner one of slender bristles. Corollas yellow. 1. K. virginica, Willd. Annual; scapes usually 2-5 from one root, slender. Leaves mostly lyrate, smooth and with a bloom, the earlier ones rounded or spatulate. Scales of the involucre linear- lanceolate, nearly equal, spreading. Akenes top-shaped, reddish- brown, crowned with 5 wedge-obovate scales and 5 rough white bristles. 2. K. Dandelion, Nutt. Perennial, from slender tuber-bearing roots. . Scapes leafless, 6-18 in. high. Leaves entire or nearly so, varying from spatulate-oblong to linear-lanceolate. Akenes more slender than in No. 1. Pappus consisting of 10-15 small, oblong, chaffy scales and 15-20 bristles. In moist ground, especially S. 3. K. amplexicaulis, Nutt. Stem 12-18 in. high, often 2-3 from the same root, mostly 2-forked or 3-forked at the summit. Root- leaves 3-6 in. long, lanceolate, entire, toothed or rarely pinnately cut, clasping at the base ; stem-leaves 1-3. Akenes and pappus about as in No. 2. Moist banks. XIII. CICHORIUM, L. Perennial herbs with spreading branches; juice milky. Leaves radical and alternate, toothed or pinnately cut. Heads axillary ; involucre cylindrical, bracts in 2 rows, the inner ~ row erect, coherent at the base, the outer shorter; receptacle -flattish. Corollas blue, pale pink, or yellow. Upper part of — the style and its slender arms hairy. Akenes crowded on the — hardened receptacle, firmly covered by the stiff involucre, — obovoid or top-shaped, not beaked. Pappus 1 or 2 rows of short scales. 1. C. Intybus, L. Cuicory, BLuE DANDELION, BLUE SAILORS. Root very long, stout, and fleshy. Stem 1-3 ft. high, angled andi grooved ; branches straight and stiff. Root-leaves and lower stem- leaves runcinate ; upper stem-leaves oblong or lanceolate, clasping, © DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 235 those of the branches reduced to bracts. Flowers very showy, usually bright blue, rarely pinkish-white. Introduced from Europe; a troublesome weed in grass-lands and common in waste places, particularly in New England. XIV. HIERACIUM, L. Perennial herbs, often covered with glandular or star-shaped hairs; juice milky. Leaves alternate. Heads solitary, or in corymbs or panicles; bracts of the involucre many, overlap- ping, unequal; receptacle flattish, naked, pitted. Corollas yellow, rarely orange; arms of the style slender and upper part of the style hairy. Akenes angled or grooved, not beaked. Pappus hairs in a single row, simple, stiff, tawny, or brownish, brittle. 1. H. venosum, L. RATTLESNAKE WEED. Stem scape-like, usually leafless or nearly so, smooth, 1-2 ft. high. Root-leaves 2-5 in. long, obovate or ovate-oblong, generally purple-veined. Heads _ rather large, yellow, in a loose panicled corymb. Dry hills and _ roadsides, and in pine woods E. XV. LEONTODON, L. Perennial, scape-bearing herbs; juice milky. Leaves all radical, toothed or pinnatifid, often runcinate. Heads on simple or branched scapes, yellow; bracts of the involucre many, in several rows, the anther smaller; receptacle flat, naked. Arms of the style linear, obtuse, hairy. Akenes cylin- drical, grooved, transversely wrinkled; beak short; pappus hairs stiff, in 1 or 2 rows. 1. L. autumnalis, L. Scape usually branching, 5-15 in. high, bracted; peduncles eniarged above. Rootstock truncate. Heads 14-1 in. or more in diameter; involucre top-shaped or bell-shaped. Pappus of a single row of tawny hairs. Fields and roadsides, especially N. E. Introduced from Europe. XVI. TARAXACUM, Haller. Stemless, perennial or biennial herbs. Leaves in a flattish tuft, pinnately cut or runcinate (Fig. 38). Head many- _ flowered, large, solitary, yellow, borne on a hollow scape, which 236 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY is short at first but lengthens after flowering. Involucre com- posed of a single row of long, erect, inner scales and a set of much shorter ones outside and at the base of the former ones. ‘Akenes cylindrical or spindle-shaped, with 4-5 rough ribs, the apex tapering into a bristle-like beak which bears a short, broadly conical tuft of soft white hairs. 1. T. officinale, Weber. DANDELION. Outer involucre reflexed ; inner involucre closing over the head, after the flowers are withered, and remaining shut for some days, then opening and allowing the akenes to form a globular head. Root stout, bitter, medicinal. Young leaves eaten as a pot-herb (“greens’’) in spring— the plant often cultivated for the leaves by market-gardeners. XVII. PYRRHOPAPPUS, DC. Annual or biennial; stem erect, leafy below, nearly naked above, smooth. Leaves oblong, toothed or pinnatifid. Heads large, long-peduncled; involucre cylindrical or spreading, the inner row of bracts erect, united at the base, the outer rows shorter and spreading; receptacle naked. Flowers yellow; rays truncate, 5-toothed at the apex. Akenes oblong, 5-ribbed, narrowed above into a long and slender beak; pappus soft, tawny, with a short, soft-hairy ring at the base.* 1. P. carolinianus, DC. Farse Danpexion. Annual or bien- nial; stem glabrous, furrowed, branched above, 2-3 ft. high. Lower leaves lanceolate to oblong, entire, toothed or pinnatifid, narrowed into a margined petiole, the upper sessile, bract-like, entire. Heads few, long-peduncled, peduncles and involucre sometimes finely downy; inner bracts calloused at the apex, the outer awl-shaped and spreading. Akenes much shorter than the thread-like beak. Common in fields.* XVII. LACTUCA, Tourn. Annual, biennial, or perennial; stems leafy. Leaves entire — to pinnately cut. Heads panicled; involucre cylindrical, bracts unequal, overlapping in 2 or more rows, the outer shorter; receptacle naked. Flowers blue, yellow, or white; rays truncate, 5-toothed at the apex. Akenes compressed, ribbed, the apex contracted into a slender beak, which is enlarged into a disk bearing the soft, hairy, white or tawny pappus.* Gye en oe D>; Sapo DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS Zor 1. L. canadensis, L. Wuitp Lettuce. Biennial; stem erect, smooth, hollow, branched above, 3-10 ft. high. Leaves lanceolate to spatulate, pale beneath, the lower petioled and pinnately cut, the upper sessile, clasping, and nearly entire. Heads numerous, about 20-flowered. Flowers yellow; akenes oval, flat, l-ribbed on each side, minutely roughened, about as long as the beak. Pappus white. In waste places.* 2. L. acuminata, Gray. Buiur Letrucre. Stem very leafy, smooth, paniculately branched above, 3-6 ft. high. Leaves ovate to lanceolate, taper-pointed, often hairy beneath, the lower on winged petioles and often sinuate-lobed, the upper sessile. Heads racemed, on divergent and bracted peduncles. Flowers blue. Akenes slightly compressed, beak very short. Pappus white. In waste places.* XIX. SONCHUS, L. Annual or perennial. Leaves mostly toothed or pinnately cut, prickly margined. Heads in corymbs or panicles; bracts in several series, the outer shorter; receptacle naked. Flowers yellow, rays truncate, 5-toothed at the apex. Akenes oval to oblong, compressed, ribbed, truncate at the apex. Pappus of numerous soft white hairs.* 1. S.oleraceus,L. Sow TuistLe. Annual; stem erect, branched, smooth, 2-6 ft. high. Leaves spiny-toothed, the lower long-petioled, very irregularly cut or pinnatifid, the upper clasping by an eared base. Involucre downy when young. Akenes channeled and trans- versely wrinkled. In waste places on very rich soil.* 2. S. asper, Vill. Spiny Sow TuistTLe. Annual; stem erect, smooth, branched but little, 2-6 ft. high. Leaves undivided, spatu- late to oblanceolate, fringed with spiny teeth, the lower narrowed into a petiole, the upper clasping by an eared base, the ears rounded. Heads numerous ; involucre glabrous. Akenes flattened, margined, 3-nerved on each side, smooth. In waste places.* GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS USED ONLY IN THE FLORA Abortive, imperfectly developed. Appressed, lying flat throughout its length, used of such parts as bracts. Awl-shaped, narrow and tapering to a point. _Awned, having a bristle-like ap- pendage. _Awnless, not awned. Capitate, (1) having a round head like the stigma of a primrose ; (2) growing in heads. Carpellary, relating to a carpel. Chaff, small membranous scales, such as are found on disks of Composite. Clasping, partly surrounding the | stem, said of the bases of leaves. Claw, the narrowed base of a petal. Cleft, cut halfway down. Coated (bulbs), those with scales which completely cover them, as in the onion. Cone, the fruit of pines, etc., with ovule-bearing scales. Connate, united, said of opposite leaves which appear as if grown together at their bases. Cordate, heart-shaped. rm, a bulb-like, fleshy stem or base of a stem. Crown, an inner appendage to a petal or to the throat of the co- rolla. Deciduous, falling as petals do after blossoming, or as leaves of most trees except evergreens do. Declined, directed obliquely. Decumbent, reclining, but with the summit somewhat erect. Dehiscent, splitting into ere parts. Diffuse, spreading widely or loosely. Disk, (1) an outgrowth of the re- ceptacle within the calyx or within the corolla and stamens ; (2) the central part of the head (all but the rays) in Composite. Dissected, deeply divided or cut into many segments. Drupe, a stone-fruit such as a peach or a plum. Equitant, leaves astride of those within them, thus appearing in a cross-section like the diagram, << Even-pinnate, abruptly pinnate,i.e., with no leafiet at the end. Fascicle, a close cluster or bundle — of flowers, leaves, stems, or roots. 239 240 Fertile, capable of producing fruit ; fertile flowers, those which have pistils. Filiform, thread-shaped. Fleshy, succulent, thick and full of Sap. | Funiculus, the little stalk which connects a seed or ovule with the placenta. Gland, (1) astructure which secretes something, as the knobs on the hairs of sundew ; (2) any knob or swelling. Herbaceous, with no stem above- ground which lives through the winter, not woody or shrubby. Indefinite, too many to be easily counted. Indehiscent, not splitting open reg- ularly. Involucrate, provided with an in- volucre. Keel, the two anterior and united petals of a papilionaceous corolla. Key, a winged fruit like that of the ash or maple. ‘Limb, the border or spreading part of a gamopetalous calyx or co- rolla. . Lobed, having divisions, especially rounded ones. Nerved, having simple or un- branched veins or slender ribs. Ob, in composition, signifies in- versely, as obcordate, inversely heart-shaped. FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY Odd-pinnate, pinnate with a single leaflet at the end of the midrib. Palate, a projection in the throat of a corolla. Papilionaceous, butterfly - shaped, like the corolla of the sweet pea. Papillose, covered with papillz or minute projections, like the human tongue. Pappus, tufts of hair or other ob- jects, representing the limb of the calyx in Composite. Perfoliate, with the stem appar- ently growing up through a leaf, as in some honeysuckles. Persistent, not deciduous. Pinnatifid, pinnately cleft. ” Pistillate, having pistils but not stamens. Pubescent, clothed with soft hair, downy. ; Punctate, marked with dots, de- pressions, or translucent glands. Radical, arising from the root or a very short stem at its summit, as the leaves of the dandelion. Reflexed, bent or turned abruptly downward or backward. Root-parasite, a plant parasitic on the roots of another. Sagittate, arrow-shaped. Scape, a leafless flower-stalk aris- ing from the ground, as in the dandelion and cyclamen. Scarious, thin, dry, and membra-_ nous, not green. h Sessile, without a stalk. ] Simple (stem), unbranched. i GLOSSARY Spadix, a spike with a fleshy axis, like that of the Indian turnip or the ‘‘ calla.”’ Spathe, a large bract which encloses a flower-cluster, often a spadix. Staminate, having stamens only. _ Standard, the posterior petal of a papilionaceous corolla. Sterile, (1) barren, asa flower with- out a pistil or an antherless sta- men ; (2) staminate or male, said of flowers. Striate, marked with fine longitudi- nal parallel lines. _ Sub- (in composition), somewhat, as subglobose. _ Subtend, to extend beneath, as a _ hyact in the axil of which a flower is borne. Succulent, fleshy or juicy. Three-ranked, with three vertical rows on a stem or axis. 241 - Throat, the top of the tubular part of a gamopetalous corolla. } if “ cut Truncate, appearing as squarely off, as the leaves of the tulip-tree. Tubercled, covered with warty growths. Tubercular, having tubercles, or like a tubercle. Two-ranked, with. three vertical rows on a stem or axis. Utricle, a small bladdery ovary- wall. Versatile, turning freely on its sup- port, as an anther on its filament. Whorled, arranged in a circle around an axis, as the leaves of some lilies. Wings, the side-petals of a papilio- naceous flower. ae tg tie ( cS ’ ' i i f ‘ i a 4 = ' ‘ Ne ; 7) "] A ¢ q . 9 F * t - ‘ a 4 i % : i ’ , 4 ul . ° * t 4 Abies, 17. Abutilon, 148. Acanthacez, 210. Acanthus Family, 210. Acer, 141. Aceracez, 140, 141. Achillea, 251. Aconitum, 80. Acorus, 25. Actea, 79. Adder’s-tongue, 36. Adlumia, 92. ZEsculus, 142. Agrostemma, 73. Aizoacee, 69. Alder, 55, 139. Alfalfa, 124. Alisma, 21. Alismacez, 21. Alleghany Vine, 92. Allium, 34. Alnus, 54, 55. Alum Root, 103. Alyssum, 98, 99. Amaryllidacez, 42. Amaryllis Family, 42. Amelanchier, 110. American Aspen, 47. Amianthium, 32, 33. Amorpha, 126. Ampelopsis, 146. Amsonia, 178, 179. Anagallis, 174. Anarcardiacez, 137. INDEX Andromeda, 168. Anemone, 80, 81. Anemone, Rue, 82. Anemonella, 82. Angiosperms, 20. Anonacee, 88. Anthemis, 231. Antirrhinum, 203. Apetalous Division, 6. Aphyllon, 208. Apocynacee, 178. Apocynum, 179, 180. Apple, 109. Aquifoliacez, 138. Aquilegia, 79. Arabis, 98. Aracee, 23. Aralia, 157, 158. Araliacez, 157. Arbor Vite, 18. Arbutus, Trailing, 169. Arctostaphylos, 169. Arisema, 24, 25. Aristolochia, 65. Aristolochiacee, 64, 65. Arrowhead, 22. Arrowwood, 216, 217. Arum Family, 23. Asarum, 65. Asclepiadacez, 180, 181. Asclepias, 181, 182. Ash, 134, 175. Ash, Mountain, 109. Asimina, 88. 243 244 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY Asparagus, 38. Asp, Quaking, 47. Aspen, American, 47. Astragalus, 127, 128. Atamasco Lily, 43. Avens, 114, 115. Babies’ Toes, 134. Bachelor’s Button, 233. Bald Cypress, 18. Balsam, 143. Balsam Family, 148. Balsam Fir, 17. Balsaminacee, 143. Bamboo-vine, 42. Baneberry, 79. Baptisia, 122. Barberry, 84. Barberry Family, 84. Barren Strawberry, 113. Basswood, 147. Bastard Toad-flax, 64. Bayberry, 49. Bayberry Family, 49. Beaked Hazelnut, 58. Bearberry, 169. Bedstraw, 215. Beech, 56. Beech Family, 55. Beggar’s Lice, 190. Begonia, 152, 153, 154. -Begoniacee, 152. Begonia Family, 152. Bell Flower, 223. Bell Flower Family, 223. Bellis, 228. Bellwort, 33. Benjamin, 41. Berberidacee, 84. Berberis, 84, 85. Berchemia, 144. Betula, 53, 54. Betulacex, 51. Bignonia, 206. Bignoniacez, 206. Bignonia Family, 206. Bindweed, 184. Birch, 53, 54. Birch Family, 51. Bird’s Pepper, 94. Bishop’s Cap, 103. Bitter Cress, 97. Bittersweet, 139, 199. Black Alder, 139. Blackberry, 112. Black Gum, 164, Black Haw, 217. Black Walnut, 50. Bladder-nut, 140. Bladder-nut Family, 140. Bladderwort, 209, 210. Bladderwort Family, 209. Bleeding Heart, 92. Bloodroot, 90. Blue Beech, 52. Bluebell, 187. Bluebells, 190. Blueberry, 170. Blue Cohosh, 85. Blue Dandelion, 234. Blue Devils, 191. Blue Flag, 45. Blue Sailors, 234. Blue Thistle, 191. Bluets, 218. Blue Valerian, 187. Blueweed, 191. Borage Family, 188. Borraginacee, 188. _ Boston Ivy, 146. Bouvardia, 214. Box Elder, 141. Brassica, 95, 96. Breeches Flower, 91. Bridal Wreath, 108. Brooklime, 204. Broom-rape Family, 208. Broussonetia, 62. _ Brunella, 196. Buck-bean, 178. Buckeye, 142. Buckeye Family, 142. Buckthorn, 144. Buckthorn Family, 143. Buckwheat, .67. Buckwheat Family, 66. Buffalo Apple, 128. Buffalo Pea, 128. Bull Nut, 51. Bull’s-eye, 2381. Bulrush, 24. Bunch-berry, 163. Bur, Buffalo, 200. Bur, Sand, 200. Butter and Eggs, 203. Buttercup, 83. Buttercup Family, 77, 78. Butternut, 50. Butterweed, 232. Button Snakeroot, 159. Buttonwood, 105. Cactacee, 154. Cactus Family, 154. Calamus, 25. Calico Bush, 168. Callicarpa, 193. Caltha, 78. Calycanthacez, 87. Calycanthus, 87, 88. Calycanthus Family, 87. _ Calystegia, 183, 184. Camassia, 36, 37. INDEX Campanula, 223. Campanulacee, 223. Campanula Family, 223. Cancer Root, 208. Cannabis, 62. Cantaloupe, 222. Caper Family, 99. Capparidacee, 99. Caprifoliacez, 215. Capsella, 98. Caraway, 160. Cardamine, 97. Carnation, 75. Carpenter-weed, 196. Carpet-weed, 70. Carpinus, 51, 52. Carrion Flower, 41. Carrot, 162. Carum, 160. Carya, 50, 51. Caryophyllacez, 71, 72. Castanea, 56. Castilleia, 205. Catalpa, 207. Cat-brier, 42. Catchfly, 74. Catnip, 195. Cat-tail, 20. Cat-tail Family, 20. Caulophyllum, 85. Ceanothus, 144, 145. Cedar, 18, 19. Celandine, 90. Celastracez, 139. Celastrus, 139. Celtis, 60. Centaurea, 233. _ Cerastium, 72. Cercis, 120. Cereus, 155. Chamelirium, 32. 245 246 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY Charlock, 95, 96. Cheeses, 148. Chelidonium, 90. Chenopodiacee, 68. ° Chenopodium, 68, 69. Cherry, 117. Chestnut, 56. Chickweed, 72. Chickweed Wintergreen, 1738. Chicory, 234. Chimaphila, 164, 165. Chinese Sacred Lily, 43. Chinquapin, 56. Chinquapin, Water, 76. Chionanthus, 176, 177. Chocolate Root, 115. Chokeberry, 109. Chokecherry, 117. Chokepear, 109. Chrysanthemum, 231, 232. Cichorium, 234. Cinquefoil, 114. Circa, 157. Cirsium, 233. Citrullus, 222. Citrus, 133. Cladrastis, 121. Claytonia, 70. Clematis, 82. Cleome, 100. Clove Pink, 75. Clover, 124, 125. Cochlearia, 95. Coffee Tree, 121. Cohosh, 85. Columbine, 79. Comandra, 64. Comfrey, 189. Commelina, 27. Commelinacee, 26. Composite, 224-228. Composite Family, 224-228. Cone-flower, 230. Conifere, 13. Conopholis, 208. Convallaria, 40. Convolvulacee, 183. Convolvulus, 184. Convolvulus Family, 183. Coptis, 79. Coreopsis, 229, 2380. Cornacee, 162. Corn Cockle, 73. Cornel, 163. Corn Gromwell, 191. Corn Salad, 221. Cornus, 162, 163. Corydalis, 98. Corylus, 52, 53. Cottonwood, 48. Cow Lily, 77. Cow Parsnip, 162. Cowslip, 78. Crab Apple, 109. Cranberry, 171. Cranberry Tree, 216. Cranesbill, 130. Cratzgus, 110, 111. Creepers, 183. Creeping Charley, 195. Cress, 97. Crinkle Root, 97. Crocus, 45. Cross-vine, 206. Crowfoot, 88. Crowfoot Family, 77, 78. Crown Imperial, 35. Crown of Thorns, 136. Crow’s Foot, 97. Crow-victuals, 195. Crucifere, 95, 94. Cucumber, 222. ti Cucumis, 222. Cucurbita, 222. Cucurbitacee, 221. Currant, 104. Cuscuta, 183. Cydonia, 108. Cynoglossum, 189. Cyperacee, 23. Cypress, 18, 137. Cypress Vine, 184. Cypripedium, 46. Cytisus, 123. Daffodil, 48. Daffy, 48. Daisy, 228, 231. Dakota Turnip, 126. Dandelion, 236. Datura, 200, 201. Daucus, 162. Dayflower, Virginia, 27. Day-lily, 34. Dead Nettle, 196. Deerberry, 171. Delphinium, 80. Dentaria, 97. Deptford Pink, 75. Desmanthus, 119, 120. Deutzia, 104. Devil’s Bit, 32. Dewberry, 112. Dianthera, 211. Dianthus, 75. Dicentra, 91, 92. Dicotyledonous Plants, 47. Diervilla, 219, 220. Diospyros, 174. Dock, 66, 67. Dodecatheon, 171, 172. Dogbane, 180. Dogbane Family, 178. INDEX Dogberry, 109. Dog-brier, 42. Dog-bur, 189. Dog-fennel, 251. Dog’s-tooth Violet, 36. Dogwood, 163. Dogwood Family, 162. Dogwood, Poison, 138. Dragon Root, 25. Dutchman’s Breeches, 91. Dutchman’s Pipe, 65. 247 Dutchman’s Pipe Family, 64, 65. Ear Drops, 92. Easter-flower, 43. Ebenacee, 174. Ebony Family, 174. Echinocystis, 222. Echinospermum, 189, 190. Echium, 191. Elder, 215, 246. Elder, Wild, 157. Elm, 60. Elm Family, 59. Enchanter’s Nightshade, 157. English Ivy, 157. English Walnut, 50. Epigea, 169. Ericacez, 166, 167. Erigenia, 159, 160. Erigeron, 228, 229. Eryngium, 158, 159. Erythronium, 36. Eschscholtzia, 90. Euonymus, 139, 140. Euphorbia, 136, 137. Euphorbiacee, 135. Eutoca, 188. Evening Primrose Family, 156. Eyebright, 213. 248 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY -Fagaces, 55. Fagus, 55, 56. Fairycup, 103. False.Buckwheat, 67. False Dandelion, 236. False Indigo, 126. False Mitre-wort, 102. False Spikenard, 38. Farkleberry, 171. Feverwort, 218. Field Garlic, 34. Figwort Family, 201, 202. ire hi, Fire Pink, 74. Flag, 45, 46. Flax, 133. Flax Family, 1382: Fleabane, 229. Fleur-de-lis, 45, 46. Flowering Maple, 148. Flowering Moss, 186. Fly Poison, 33. Forget-me-not, 190, 191. Forsythia, 176. Fragaria, 113. Fraxinus, 175. French Mulberry, 193. Fringe Cap, 108. Fringe Tree, 177. Fritillaria, 35. Fuchsia, 156. Galium, 214, 215. Garden Columbine, 79. Garden Sage, 198. Garget Root, 69. Garlic, 34. Gaylussacia, 169, 170. Gentianacez, 177. Gentian Family, 177. Geraniacez, 129, 130. Geranium, 130, 131. Geranium Family, 129, 130. Geum, 114, 115. Gill-over-the-ground, 195. Gillyflower, 99. Ginseng Family, 157. Gleditschia, 121. Golden Alexanders, 161. — Golden Chain, 128. Gold Thread, 79. Gooseberry, 104. Goosefoot, 69. Goosefoot Family, 68. Goose Grass, 214. Gourd Family, 221. Graminee, 23. Grape, 145, 146. Grape Family, 145. Grass Family, 25. Grass Pink, 75. Gratiola, 204. Graveyard Moss, 187. Green-brier, 42. Green Dragon, 25. Gromwell, Corn, 191. Ground Ivy, 195. Ground Pink, 186. Ground Plum, 128. Guinea-hen Flower, 35. Gum, Black, 164. Gymnocladus, 120, 121. Gymnosperms, 13. Gypsy Weed, 205. Hackberry, 60. Hackmatack, 18. Harbinger of Spring, 160. Hardhack, 108. Harebell, 223. Haw, 110, 111, 217. Hazelnut, 52, 53. Heal-all, 196. Heart’s-ease, 151. Heath Family, 166, 167. Hedge Mustard, 95. Helenium, 230. Heliotrope, 189. Heliotropium, 189. Hellebore, White, 32. Hemerocallis, 33, 34. Hemlock, 17. Hemp, 62, Hen-bit, 196. Hepatica, 81. Heracleum, 161, 162. Herb Robert, 130. Heuchera, 103. Hickory, 51. Hieracium, 235. High-bush Cranberry, 216. Hippocastanacee, 142. Hobble-bush, 216. Holly, 138, 139. - Holly Family, 138. Honey Locust, 121. Honeysuckle, 167, 218-220. Honeysuckle Family, 215. Hop Clover, 125. ° Hop-tree, 134. Horehound, 195. Hornbeam, 52. Horse-brier, 42. Horse-chestnut, 142. Horse-gentian, 218. Horse Nettle, 199. Horse-radish, 95. Hound’s-tongue, 189. Houstonia, 213. Hoya, 185. Huckleberry, 170, 171. Hyacinth, 37. Hyacinthus, 37. INDEX Hydrophyllacez, 187. Hydrophyllum, 187, 188. Hypericacee, 148. Hypericum, 149. Hypoxis, 43. Ice Plant, 69. Ice-plant Family, 69. Tlex, 188, 139. Impatiens, 143. Indian ‘Chief, 172. Indian Cress Family, 132. Indian:-Hemp, 180. Indian Paint, 191. Indian Pink, 205. Indian Pipe, 166. Indian Poke, 32. Indian Turnip, 25. Indigo, 122. Indigo, False, 126. Innocence, 213.° Ipomeea, 184, 185. Tridacee, 45. Tris, 45, 46. Tris Family, 45. Trish Potato, 200. Tron Wood, 52. Isopyrum, 78. Ivy, 138. Jack-in-the-pulpit, 25. Jacob’s Ladder, 39, 187, 203. Japanese Ivy, 146. Jatropha, 137. Jerusalem Oak, 69. Jewel Weed, 143. Jimson Weed, 201. Johnny-jump-up, 151. Jointed Charlock, 96. Juglandacee, 49, 50. Juglans, 50. 249 250 | FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY Juncacee, 29. Juneberry, 110. Juniper, 19. Juniperus, 19. Kalmia, 168. Kicking Colt, 143. King Nut, 51. Kinnikinnik, 163. Knawel, 75. Knot-grass, 67. Krigia, 234. Labiate, 193, 194. Laburnum, 123. ‘Lactuca, 236, 2387. Ladies’ Eardrop, 156. Lady’s-delight, 151. Lady’s-slipper, 46, 145. Lady’s Tresses, 46. Lagenaria, 222. Lamb Lettuce, 221. Lamium, 196. Larch, 18. Karin. 1, 18. Larkspur, 80. Lathyrus, 129. Lauracee, 88, 89. Laurel, 168, 169. Laurel Family, 88, 89. Leather Flower, 82. Leguminose, 117-119. Lemon, 1383. Lentibulariacez, 209. Leontodon, 235. Leonurus, 196, 197. Lepidium, 94. Lettuce, 237. Lever-wood, 52. Liguliflore, 234. Ligustrum, 177. Lilac, 176. Liliacee, 29. Lilium, 35. Lily, 34, 35. Lily Family, 29. Lily-of-the-valley, 40. Lime, 183. Linacee, 132. Linaria, 202, 203. Linden, 147. Linden Family, 146, 147. Lindera, 89. Linnea, 217, 218. Linum, 182, 133. Liriodendron, 87. - Lithospermum, 191. Live Oak, 58. Liver-berry, 39. Liverleaf, 81. Liverwort, 81. Lobularia, 98, 99. Locust, 121, 127. London Pride, 74. Lonicera, 218, 219. Loosestrife, 173. Loranthacee, 63. Lotus, 76. Lousewort, 206. Lungwort, 190. Lupinus, 123. Lychnis, 74. Lycium, 199. Lycopersicum, 200. Lysimachia, 175. Maclura, 61, 62. Madder Family, 212, 218. Magnolia, 86. Magnoliacez, 85, 86. A Magnolia Family, 85, 86. ; Maianthemum, 39. Mallow, 148. Mallow Family, 147, 148. Malva, 148. Malvacez, 147, 148. Maple, 141. Maple Family, 140, 141. Marguerite, 232. Marigold, Marsh, 78. Marrubium, 195. Marsh Bell-flower, 223. Marsh Marigold, 78. Marsh ‘frefoil, 178. Matriniony Vine, 199. Matthiola, 99. May-apple, 85. - Mayflower, 102, 169. Mayweed, 231. May Wings, 154. Meadow Buttercup, 78. Meadow Garlic, 34. Meadow Lily, 35. Meadow Parsnip, 161. Meadow Rue, 84. Medicago, 124. Medick, 124. Melilotus, 124. Melon, 221. Menyanthes, 178. Mercury, 138. Mertensia, 190. Mignonette, 100. Mignonette Family, 100. Miikweed, 181, 182. Milkweed Family, 180, is- Mint Family, 193, 194. Mistletoe, 64. Mistletoe Family, 63. Mitchella, 214. Mitella, 102. Mitre-wort, 102. Mollugo, 70. INDEX Monkshood, 80. Monocotyledonous Plants, 20. Monotropa, 166. Moracee, 61. Morning-glory, 184, 185. Morning-glory Family, 185. Morus, 61. Moss Pink, 186. Motherwort, 197. Mountain Ash, 109. Mountain Fringe, 92. Mouse-ear Chickweed, 72. Mulberry, 61, 62, 111. Mulberry Family, 61. Mulberry, French, 193. Mulberry, Mexican, 193. Mullein, Moth, 202. Mullein Pink, 74. Muskmelon, 222. Mustard, 95, 96. Mustard Family, 95, 94. Myosotis, 190, 191. Myrica, 49. Myricacee, 49. Narcissus, 43. Nasturtium, 96, 132. Nelumbo, 76. Nepeta, 195. Nerium, 180. Nettle, 63. Nettle ramily, 62, 63. New Jersey Tea, 145. Nightshade, 199. Nightshade Family, 198. Ninebark, 107. Noble Liverwort, 81. None-so-pretty, 74. Nonesuch, 124. Nuphar, 76, 77. Nutmeg Melon, 222. B52 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY Nymphea, 76. Nympheacee, 75. Nyssa, 164. Oak, 57, 58, 59. Oakesia, 33. Obolaria, 177, 178. (Enothera, 156. (Enotheracee, 156. Oleacez, 175. Oleander, 180. Olive Family, 175. Onion, 34. Opuntia, 154, 155. Orange, 183. Orange Grass, 149. Orange, Osage, 62. Orchidacee, 46. Orchis Family, 46. Ornithogalum, 37. Orobanchacee, 208. Osage Orange, 62. Osmorrhiza, 160. Ostrya, 52. Oxalidacee, 181. Oxalis, 131. Peonia, 78. Peony, 78. Paint-brush, 205. Painted Cup, 205. Pansy, 151. Papaver, 91. Papaveracee, 89, 90. Paper Mulberry, 62. Pappoose Root, 85. Parsley Family, 158. Parsnip, 161. Partridge Berry, 214. Pasque Flower, 80. © _Passiflora, 151, 152. Passifloraceze, 151. Passion-flower, 151, 152. Passion-flower Family, 151. Pastinaca, 161. Pawpaw, 88. Pawpaw Family, 88. Pea, 129. Pea Family, 117-119. Peach, 116. Pear, 108. Pecan, 50. Pedicularis, 206. Pelargonium, 130, 131. Pennywort, 178. Pentstemon, 203, 204. Peony, 78. Pepper-and-salt, 160. Peppergrass, 94. Pepper Root, 97. Periwinkle, 179. Persimmon, 174. Petunia, 201. Phacelia, 188. Philadelphus, 103. Phlox, 185, 186. Phlox Family, 185. Phoradendron, 63, 64. Phyllocactus, 155. Physocarpus, 107. Phytolacca, 69. Phytolaccacee, 69. Picea, 16. Pickerel Weed, 28, 29. Pickerel-weed Family, 28. Pignut, 51. Pimpernel, 174. Pine, 14, 15, 16. Pine Family, 13. Pine-sap, 166. Pine-weed, 149. Pink, 74, 75;.16%. a a ~ Pink Family, 71, 72. Pinus, 14. Pipe Vine, 65. Pipsissewa, 165. Pisum, 129. Pitcher-plant Family, 101. Plantaginacee, 211. Plantago, 211, 212. Plantain, 211, 212. Plantain Family, 211. - Plantain, Water, 21. Platanacee, 105. Platanus, 105. Plum, 116. Podophyllum, 85. Poet’s Narcissus, 43. Poison Ivy, 138. Poison Vine, 138. Pokeberry, 69. Pokeberry Family, 69. Poke, Indian, 32. Pokeweed, 69. Pokeweed Family, 69. Polanisia, 99. Polemoniacez, 185. Polemonium, 186, 187. Polygala, 134, 135. Polygalacee, 134. Polygala Family, 134. Polygonacee, 66. Polygonatum, 39, 40. Polygonum, 67. Pomme Blanche, 126. Pontederia, 28. Pontederiacez, 28. Poor Man’s Weather-glass, 174. Poplar, 47. Poplar, White, 87. Poppy, 91. Poppy Family, 89, 90. Populus, 47, 48. INDEX Portulaca, 71. Portulacacee, 70. Portulaca Family, 70. Potato, 200. Potentilla, 114. Prairie Apple, 128. Prairie Fire, 205. Prickly Ash, 133. Prickly Pear, 154. Primrose, 172. Primrose Family, 171. Primula, 172. Primulacee, 171. Prince’s Pine, 165. Privet, 177. Prunus, 116, 117. Psoralea, 126. Ptelea, 134. Puccoon, 191. Pudding-berry, 163. Pulse Family, 117-119. Purslane, 71. Purslane Family, 70. Pyrola, 165. Pyrolaceez, 164. Pyrola Family, 164. Pyrrhopappus, 236. Pyrus, 108, 109. Quaker Ladies, 213. Quaking Asp, 47. Quamoclit, 184. Quercus, 56-59. Quince, 108. Radish, Wild, 96. Ragweed, 232. Ranunculacee, 77, 78. Ranunculus, 82, 83. Raphanus, 96. Raspberry, 111, 112. 253 ome 954 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY Rattan-vine, 144. Rattlebox, 74. Rattlesnake Master, 159. Rattlesnake Weed, 235. Redbud, 120. Red Cedar, 19. Red Root, 145. Reseda, 100. Resedaceze, 100. Rhamnacee, 143. Rhamnus, 144. Rhododendron, 167. Rhus, 1387, 188. Ribes, 104. Ribgrass, 212. Robinia, 127. Robin-runaway, 195. Robin’s Plantain, 229. Rocky Mountain Bee Plant, 100. Rosa, 115, 116. Rosaceze, 105-107. Rose, 115. Rose Family, 105-107. Rosemary, 168. Rowan Tree, 109. Rubiacez, 212, 213. Rubus, 111-118. Rudbeckia, 230. Rue Anemone, 82. Rue Family, 133. Ruellia, 210. Rumex, 66, 67. Rush Family, 29. Rutacez, 135. Rutland Beauty, 183. Sage, 198. Sagittaria, 21, 22. Salicacee, 47. Salix, 48. Salsify, Salvia, 197, 198. Sambucus, 215, 216. Sandalwood Family, 64. Sand Bur, 200. Sanguinaria, 90. Sanicle, 159. Sanicula, 159. Santalacee, 64. Sarracenia, 101. Sarraceniacee, 101. Sarsaparilla, 157, 158. Sassafras, 89. Savin, 19. Saxifraga, 102. Saxifragacez, 101. Saxifrage, 102. Saxifrage Family, 101. Schrankia, 120. Scilla, 36. Scleranthus, 73. Scrophulariacee, 201, 202. Scutellaria, 194, 195. Sedge Family, 238. Self-heal, 196. Senecio, 232. Sensitive Brier, 120. Sensitive Rose, 120. Service Berry, 110. Shad Bush, 110. Shame Vine, 120. Sheep-lice, 189. Sheep Sorrel, 66. Shellbark, 51. Shepherd’s Purse, 98. Sheriff Pink, 231. Shin-leaf, 165. Shooting Star, 172. Shrub, 88. Sickle Pod, 98. Sicyos, 222. Side-saddle Flower, 101. Silene, 73, 74. Sisymbrium, 95. Sisyrinchium, 46. Skulleap, 194, 195. Skunk Cabbage, 25. Smilacee, 31. Smilacina, 38. Smilax, 41, 42. Snakeroot, 135. Snakeroot, Black, 159. Snakeroot, Samson’s, 126. Snapdragon, 203. Snappers, 74. Snapweed, 143. Sneezeweed, 230. Snowball, 216. Snowberry, 217. Solanacee, 198. Solanum, 199, 200. Solomon’s Seal, 39, 40. Sonchus, 237. Sorrel, Sheep, 66. Spanish Dagger, 38. Spatter-dock, 77. Spearwort, 83. Specularia, 223, 224. Speedwell, 205. Spice Bush, 88, 89. Spiderwort, 27. Spiderwort Family, 26. Spikenard, False, 38. Spinach, 68. Spinacia, 68. Spiranthes, 46. Spirea, 107, 108. Spring Beauty, 70, 81. Spruce, 16, 17. Spurge, 136, 137. Spurge Family, 135. Spurge Nettle, 137. Squash, 222. INDEX bo Oi A] Squawroot, 41, 208. Squaw Vine, 214. Squill, 36. Squirrel Corn, 92. Stachys, 197. Staff-tree Family, 139. Stagger-bush, 168. Staphylea, 140. Staphyleacez, 140. Star-flower, 173. Star-grass, 43. Star of Bethlehem, 37. Steironema, 173. Stellaria, 72. Stick-tights, 189. Stitchwort, 72. St. Johnswort, 149. St. Johnswort Family, 148. Stock, 99. Strawberry, 115. Strawberry Bush, 88, 140. Straw Lilies, 33. Streptopus, 39. Sugar Pear, 110. Sugar Plum, 110. Sumach, 137, 138. Sumach Family, 157. Sundrops, 156. Supple Jack, 144. Sweet Alyssum, 99. Sweet Bay, 86. Sweetbrier, 116. Sweet Cicely, 160. Sweet Clover, 124. Sweet Fern, 49. Sweet Flag, 25. Sweet Potato, 184. Sweet-scented Shrub, 88. Sweet William, 75. Sycamore, 105. Sycamore Family, 105. 256 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY Symphoricarpus, 217. Symplocarpus, 25. Syringa, 103, 176. Tamarack, 18. Tangleberry, 170. Tansy Mustard, 95. Taraxacum, 235, 236. Tassel Tree, 148. Taxodium, 18. Tecoma, 207. Thalictrum, 84. Thaspium, 161. Thistle, 233, 237. Thorn, 110. Thaya, 18, 19. Thyme, 198. Thymus, 198. Tiarella, 102. Tickseed, 229, 230. Tilia, 147. Tiliacex, 146, 147. Tinker-weed, 218. Tipsin, 126. Toad-flax, 64. Toad-flax, Wild, 203. Tomato, 200. Tongue-grass, 94. Toothache-tree, 133. Toothwort, 97. Tradescantia, 27. Trailing Arbutus, 169. Trefoil, Marsh, 178. Trientalis, 172, 173. Trifolium, 125. ~ Trillium, 40, 41. Triosteum, 218. Tropaeolaceex, 132. Tropzolum, 132. Trumpet Flower, 207. _ Tsuga, 17. Tubuliflore, 227, 228. Tulip, 36. Tulipa, 36. Tulip Tree, 87. Tupelo, 164. Turkey Pea, 160. Twin-flower, 218. Two-eye Berry, 214. Typha, 20. Typhacee, 20. Ulmacer, 59. Ulmus, 59, 60. Umbellifere, 158. Umbrella Tree, 86. Unicorn-root, 32. Urtica, 63. Urticacee, 62, 63. _ Utricularia, 209, 210. Uvularia, 33. V-accinium, 170, 171. Valerian, 220. Valeriana, 220. Valerianacee, 220. Valerianella, 221. Valerian Family, 220. Veratrum, 32. Verbascum, 202. Verbena, 192, 193. Verbenaceze, 192. Verbena Family, 192. Veronica, 204, 205. Vervain, 192. Vetch, 128, 129. Viburnum, 216, 217. Vicia, 128. Tropzolum Family, 132. Vinca, 179. Trumpet Creeper, 207. Vine Family, 145. Viola, 149, 150, 151. Violacez, 149. Violet, 150, 151. Violet Family, 149. Virginia Creeper, 146. Virginia Dayflower, 27. Vitacez, 145. Vitis, 145, 146. Wafer Ash, 134. Wahoo, 140. Wait-a-bit, 42. Wake-robin, 40, 41. Waldsteinia, 113. Walnut, 50. Walnut Family, 49, 50. Wandering Jew, 28. Water Chinguapin, 76. Watercress, 96. Waterleaf Family, 187. Water-lily, 76. Water-lily Family, 75. Water Plantain, 21. Water-plantain Family, 21. Water Willow, 211. | Waxberry, 49. Wax Plant, 185. Wax-work, 139. Weigela, 220. White Hellebore, 32. White Poplar, 87. White Water-lily, 76. Whiteweed, 231. Whitewood, 87, 147. Whitlavia, 188. Wickakee, 205. INDEX Wild Coffee, 218. Wild Flax, 203. Wild Ginger, 65. Wild Hyacinth, 37, 92. Wild Licorice, 215. Wild Lily-of-the-valley, 59. Wild Oats, 33. Wild Pear, 110. Wild Pink, 74. Wild Potato Vine, 185. Wild Raddish, 96. Wild Sweet William, 186. Willow, 48. Willow Family, 47. Wind-flower, 81. Winterberry, 159. Wintergreen, 165, 175. Wistaria, 127. Witch-hobble, 216. Withe-rod, 217. Woodbine, 146. Wood-sorrel, 131. Wood-sorrel Family, 131. Yarrow, 231. Yellow Flag, 46. Yellow Pond Lily, 77. Yellow Sweet Clover, 124. Yellowwood, 121. Yucca, 37, 38. Xanthoxylum, 133. Zebrina, 28. Zephyrauthes, 42, 43. Zizia, 161. x SRS S a oe i A