c_RiOnnYt:s ru-Oi)\)H[\:Hsii fsAvrp) (acari: eriophy idai-. )

fN^FrOR^OA IiYTH RFF^r:LNCi: TO ITS

FRrDDi^ ALLEf! JCiiNSGN

A DT -iSflRlAl JOM ^'RrSnnL.f TO ihL GkAUJATE COUNCIL Oi

IN "A!":;IAi. rbi.i" I i-LilTNT OF "uii kZ'^U 1 RE'- trlTS FOiC TME
Oi^GKLE Of DOCT;';\ OT' i'ill LO:(if iiV

UnlV^^RSI'Y or ^'LOKU"^

DEDICATION

I dedicate this dissertation
to tiiy wife, Peqgy.

ACKNOwL^DGrMENTS

I' \' d 0 e ■■) f ■ 5. t a n ri m o s I s i n c t: j- e t n <. ri k s q o & r> t f •

fi. I. CrociroY, Ciiairrii?.n of rr.y su pev^' I sory coni!

Ill L I. ^' 0

f or

h ■ '^ uJiHrinQ f-frcrts arici ^inJance during my doctura!
p r' 0 g r a "n .

A p p r e c i a t i 0 n i <^ 9 v 3 t, c f u 1 ' y a x t e ri a o d to D r . !>' i 1 -

1 -^A,

e Murphy for Ms total concern in ni2 and rny ovc^al's

tr'ain'ing in pur^'jii of thi^ dec, re?. I a at si so indebted
to the other nicmbers of my suparviscry corriini ttee , D^L^.
S. H. Kerr aP'i R. F. C a 1 ■-; vr_: i 1 for the acivice r.nd training
that [ rect;iveG froiii them duf I ng the pui'-suit of thir. ^ie-
q r e e .

A special tlianks goo:, to Dr. W. G, cden, Ctiai r .ran
of tiie Dtpcrtii;ei't of Kntoinology in providir;g ma villi fi-
navicial help and enipl oyni&r, t dur'i'ig this sl'jdy and f^'-r his
censtenL interest in r::e and luy devel opu;eht .

Tliflnks are due Drs. G. C. Iiorn and ■.' , A. Rvine'^t
f c V their hr^lprnl ■'df::<s end for the i'-aisy aidr tncy c^^ndered
in urdei' to hoip mnke this resea^ci: possible.

^'ocial thanks fjos-s to Mr. La'

'•joer or ]i;vor,'a)-v

Golf Course for his spooial and porscial interest in this
iiroject; and for his pr o^/ id i iit, so mijcli in cne v:ay of faoil--
itios fCi" a groat deal of t*'is ."es^^ia '"or . Tf.anJ.s cva a"! so

e X t c^ n 0 e 6 to t J ■ p s u p e v in'.tu d e n t ^ t. r b e p i ■ v n 1 1 ■■! ("• -j "! r o n d
Co'j.stry C1ijb, Pa'ir,!ft1r>; Gc;r Complex. Rollinq '-i-iMs Golf
and Country ;'/ini>, !lcl f— i n- the-V/a 1 1 Golf csncl Country CP.ih,
tJiC Bf-ach Cluh Golv tourbe, RolVinq Cre':!ns Gclf and Couintry
Cliib; and lime.flu; Hills Golf snd Coi;!i try Club.

Thfjrikn r-nd rtppp'-'C ia t i on a:' 3 ex teiidecl tc Union Car-
bide Coriicrat i on , A'ji ri cul tura'i Products Division for tfieir
fir.Eincictl assistrince to this research [jrojeci, .

Lasts b J t no t. 1 o ? s t , rr. y 1 o v e and a p p r' e c i s t i o r, goes
1 0 m. y w i f e and so n v; h o s c p ■:. t i e n c e , u n d e r s t a i i ■J i n g , ana c c n -
std-;i encourdvjenient iiiade this accoiiipl i slimont possible.

1 v

pnql

A':i:iiOWLi^DG::[ii;NTS iii

ABSTRAf/i ....,.,.-,. . .,.,....,.., vii-

iNTRODuL.TJON, , . . . 1

LITERATURE RtY I ilW ........ . ^

G e fi r' r a 1 L a c k g >• o i. n d ........... , 4

Biology and E c ■:> 1 c g y 7

Life Cycle ^^pci Hrtbits 9

Fr.vi : onnienta I i;cs orni.e . . . , , 'I'l

Habi \d cs end Overwi ntGrino 13

PhGcota> ■■;^ , , . . . 15

Taxcnoini c Sta^-ij^ ?.iid Descr i pli ons 15

U e s c r i p t i o ri s o f the Be yu\ li d 3 o r -: :" " K i t c 1 B

C. rt 1 1 £■. c! ' 1 .J D a !;^ s g e 19

Dispersion 33

Husts ard Viru- PeUti on; hi p . 36

C 0 n 1 r 0 1 of L v i o p h y i d s 39

Chemical 39

C u 1 i. i; r a 1 . . . , 41

f^ J. [ l^i r ^, I ^ _ A 3

R 0 ? i s t :-; iu; e o f F' 1 c-, ii t s to L >■ i o p iTV i c! s . . 46

RlSLAR::!! 4a

Bevuiudccrc! sr. I r ncu 1 ^ M en Tc> t;5 48

lntr'C;.iuctii.i; , . , . 48

M.ni''i,:U ar.-A Mcthodf 48

K e ' u 1 I: s iruj !'■ i s c u r, s i 0 ■"! 51

Suii!!rary OS

Mit^icidr) CCMO-C-I IcZtZ- ■■lh-:'r-rvl(-00 S-i

i r, i. .-odijct i 'i,i ?>9

Paqe

r'?terif/! and ^lethods 59

P e s li 1 t s a n c! D i s c u s '^ •i o n . . , 6 7

.SiiniP.ict ry . , , „ ......,, 70

Mitic";df; Control T os t: ---^a Ima i r;.- . . 71

Introduction 71

M d t e ri D 'i ? a i . d M e t i^^ d i' 71

S ci ri! [» 1 i n g . . . • 7 4

The Bias Sample 75

Counts 7 7

Results c^nd Discussion 78

Summary , 80

Growth. Reou 1 a tors Tests 80

I n t. r 0 d ;.! c c i 0 ri . SO

Materials arid Metiiods 80

Result^ end Discussion... 8 c-

Suinniary , 87

Sviiiptoniol cgy 87

."^omc Mistakes Believed Being Made in

Controlling the Beri'-udagrass Mite 109

Temperatures . . 116

Introduction 116

M e t e i- i e 1 s and M o t i) o d s 116

Results and Discussion 117

Summary . 1 ?0

Mite Hebicats 120

Mean? 0 -r S p r e u d 133

A s s c r. i s t c li 0 ■. g a n i s m 5 134

Introduction 134

M a i. G '" i a 1 s and f'^ o t h o d s . . . 138

Results and [' i s c u s s i o n . 140

K[:co^■i^•ENBA"l ioijs. . , i^^

Corrlvol of Other Ore, an isms as a

C c t; t <- 0 1 for 3 0 r ;•. !j d a cj 1- a s s 'lite 1 b 1

VI

f 19il

!( c J u r I i 0 n of 0 v o r v; i i ; t c r i n g H r b 1 U: t s . 15 2:

CCMCLUSIOfiS 15^

FURTHni RCCOMf^cNDZn RESEARCH 156

APPLNDJCrS , 158

L.ir^:nATURE cirnfj 169

BIOGRAPHICAL SlXTCi; IB"!

\' 1 1

Ao«.tracl of U.'^scri.at ion Prej^oiitcd to tt.vv ■'.'^c^di.iiuo i.oiinci'i
::' tiie i'liiversi l^ of i'ior-i'Jn in r'artial Fulf i ! In'rint of the [;eci!.'irf;incpt:
foi' liio Dri^rte rf D(>ctGV oV PS"iilosJi";:y

Kriophviji cy::odo!iirM:;is (SAVtD) (ACARI: FRIOPKVIOAF)

' IN ilJjRlDA'wrrH REi-tFJENCF TO ITS

INJURY SYMFTGMOL.JGY, rOOLOGY, ANu INTcGRATED CCNTROI

(.1 V

F r K ri d i e A 1 ! c n J o h n s o ri

lunc, 197^

Cha i ri!i'iri : lis v-v ey
Major DciJ^rti'iti'it :

n 1 0 1! ; 0 1 0 (,' y a n ■ i N e ni a [ o '| o g y

!!;(?. DcrniL/daC ross '^ ''-•-. £Ll2.Pili^*:^ cyaodoni <:r]zis (.

. V ■ j n

' ?.

caVi : Lf": ophy-i Ode ) v;as f. ist r'Spoftec; as tv pe^t of rferrivid^-
f-rass ^yi^Dc'oii .^c, cj:y]_c_!'i (L), "s n F'icricia in 196?. This study
\'j 1-5 s c c n c £ ;•■ Ti e d v^ i t !^ t i : & i d '^ n t i i 1 c a t i o n o " rr, i 1 e i n .1 u r^y a ri d
? y m p i: •:;::. r;'! foy , undo:v 5 1? r.d i nc the ecology of the organ 1 sm, arid
dev? J c;-.;;;^;rit of coiitrol techniqiios:

Grttss inji»ec! by this ..lite oenerally procjvesses
Lhroijgf. tho ro'i 1 o'v.'-; ,19 symptoms: Icsf. of" color, le^af tv.'ist-
\\'.^ jiid shjrteini'ig of i nterrui Jos , forriat-ou of ''far)" sfiaped
cr\i^:> caused by 0ai>'>?!''0 i s;te modal .ilior f.cni nc , follOkVed by
a^;i^or!;ii)l rjrov/th th;it rcsji'.vd in cabb^nehi-'ac!- 1 1 ke structures
k'lCUii a:i a rorieti;c', 1 ntens i f yi rifi of rc'^ottin-^ itrilil inaivioiial
leav'ii bcroiMO shi^i'l, thi.;i. 5 ->pike-nkc gi-owths, and ultiinately
dcal.h of tiU; yross i;1ddcb and stolons. Thtsp syirptonis woro

61 ',:i.;i!':oo [:■.'>■'

I i

V '!

Several vrrrioties of C . ciartyl on ( !. . ) v-fere stu'uirr;
i or i'lhorci-ii' ve-^i s lance l~> cr^ie injiir-y. il was founrl uncier
laLor'Story oiic! fii;!<i coiiC- i t ions (".hriC repeated i (VjcuI a t i ons
V.' i 1 1 ; ii! i t c s f u i 1 e c! +. o p r n d u c ■■"-' i r i j u r i o u s s .'/ ir, p t o 'ii s o r t a
ftsr.shrisli iiii Ic i nf c s tat"'ori^ Oii T-ifgreeii {^Zb) o'~ Tifway
! 4 1 L' ! . Boih of tfi!!^'-! varieties iia-J C. t_i-ans_v_c;a^_eji_? j_n Davy
in t h e 1 r 1 i p. f-. age.

A serifs or compciir-.ds v/ere tested for mi i g cohtrf^l
under fiold conditicr. s, rjv.d aldicarb end p her.a ni i phos gave
s i 'J n i f i c c; n t m i t e c o ri t r o 1 . A s 1 n; i i a r series of tests •>'/ i t n
arthropod growth regu'^ators yielded nn significanl cor\trol.

Tenperdture iiieastirements were recorded ip diff e,- :-n t
turr mi croenvi roriiiieiits on tees, fairways, greens, ar.d roughs
on dirferer. t golf courses in. several areas of the State to
rieteri.iir.e if a preferred tempert- ture existed for ini te in-
f cstat'' orss . R insults indicated that Z. c y n o d o n i e n s i s occurred
in large populations between SO''' and lll-^f'-T.

Field observa ti o;^s indicated mites were found to in-
habit cert^ir. i o c <.■ t -■ o -"i s on golf coL'rses. If present, P.ites
could be detected i ii oi^e or more of the fell
(1) areas where close mo wine; was not [iractical such as hunkers,
sand t'ap lips, or alor..;) ivalls of building:, or otli'-r structures;
(?. ) along forices: (3) slopes leading to bodies of water; (/>)
ar.-Lip'd bases of trees, shrubs, ov other plants or obstacles;
(5) along margins of the fairways that border rojghs; ( r> ) ai'eas

owing niches;

1 A

where Tiii i.1 cic'es may not be applied due co difficulty in
maiia J veri nc) spray ecju i PiiiGnt .

A pest maaanenient pr'0(; ran^ of cicsc rr,c)wingj utilize
lion of :-,snd sorayert,, bare cul ti v^i ti ons, a nd iierbicidal
treat;i;e':t3 ndoed tc destroy llic r.ichp.s preferred by the
mites d. if (^ r e d 1 ' c e s e r i o u s i ri j u x y .

Mites were found i ii large nuiabcirs in rosettes and
v/ere believed to oe spread li> mowing or scatter iny these
structure.-: by ma i ii tenance equipinsnt, golf clieritele, wind,
and runiiing water.

A modified Tiillgren apparatus was used in saniplino
grass harboring mite infestations from different geographi-
cal areas of Florida to determine if predatory rrite types
could be found in assccia. tion wii.h the Bern^udacj rass mite.
The most widely distributed [)redaci ous mite found was
N e 0 c u n a X 0 id e_s_ an drei (Baker and H o f f rr; a n "i v; n i c i^ m ay be a
great help in reducing mite infestations. Based on the
research, a nuinber of sungest"ion£ wore T?do regarding an
integrated contv^ol progran; for the Bf rmudagrass niitc.

n

n (LW^ < r

tia ■! r ill an

iNTkonuriiON

T u !' f grass ci i f t c- r s f r om ni o .' t -t :i r i c u '! t p i c; 1 crops
sinc'^;- 'i t IS not consumed but is in n constd'T/. sinte of
rG{je;i-- ^a t i rr. v/hcii properly ii^a i nta i ned . There dr". pre-
s £■ n 1 1 y 9 4 4 ,534 acres of m a i ii t a i n e d t !j r f in t h e .S c .: L e of
F'loridf. (I'ieyers 1974). Florida has move than ^0 friiViion
a ! i n 1.1 a 1 v i s i 1 o r s , a n d golf pi a y s an i iii jj o r t a r t r- o 1 e in a t -
tractirKj many of these visitors as v/cl 1 as pi ovi d i rig a
source of year-round recreation and income to the citi-
2 ens of t h e s t ate,

r lor id a leads the nation in new golf course cori-
struclion averaging approx "■na tely 30 new courses per yea*"
Presently there arc fc40 aciive courses (Wornb, personal
c Oil: Hi V n i c a 1 1 0 n , 1 9 ■'' -'i ) . T h o o r o t i call y , i f a 1 1 1 1 1 e f a i r w a y s
vveve laid end -to -end, golf could be [■leyed aro'jnd tne
entire coast line ov fio^'ida, up its length ciiu across
the i^anh^ndle, a total of ov..r 2,000 miles. L^y 1985, 831
courses ai o i-redicted for tf; c state. Golf ^uLnses are
aliiiost cntirel.-; plar>ted to some variety of Bennudaq rass .
In addTiiun, finny hwi;ie lawns, cenietaries, sod production
fariiis, ii^otelS) hotels, parks, airports, and various insti-
ti:!. io.is are partially or totally planted in Bennv^dagrass ,

M b I r, t e p a r-, r e c o 3 1 r- f 0 r c. n 1 f c: 0 u r >. c s a lone ti r e c 0 1"- :> e r v -? -
t'iveiy t'stinaled at 60 million dollarr- y^r ye.c.r ,

Accorc'in-j to r„n!iy v^otrei; in lur?- indiistry, tiie
DerfP.udaqrar. s rn to is the third most iMpor ta nt ovr-ciin sm .
tr.fc ()th<:r tV'O nc-iny the wepd Poji anni;a L. c.fxltne nc-imatode
c OP! pi ex, cVd'uatiriy the mitt: on ? more coris cj'va t "i vg
basis, it is still easy to see that it Is d ni a j 0 r p v c !:•■ 1 e i'\
and has i.he potential tc oecoine even more severe. The
need for tiiis study was brouciiit cjhout hy complaints of
extensive daip.age to turf and particularly to coif courses.

The 3 e ■( ni u d a g r a s s stunt rni t e ^.r i opHyes cynodoni e-is i s;_
(Saycd^ (Acari ; Er i ophydae ) was first reported in Moric'd
in 19 62, at Patrick Air Force Base, Cocoa (known as the
Cape C a n ?. V :■ r a 1 Area), 1 1 w a s b e 1 i e v ? f ! until 1964 to be
concentrated en Ihe easteiri Florido soacoast but has since
been found over the entire state dnd is active 1? months
out of the yejr in areas a pprcx irnatel y south of Palin Beach.
1 h e f!^ i t e 0 c c u r once s a p p e a r 1 0 L e s e a s 0 n a 1 i n t h e mid d 1 e a n d
no>'th part of i.he stare with infestations bein'j fieaviest
in I. he sprircci and sunmier months.

The ir, i te v/as first foun:' in the li . S . in Ari.^ona
in 19E)'^. Socr after tlris, California, Nevada, New Mexico
and T e >: a s r e c 0 r 1 0 d ."i i t e s d u r i n c\ "c h e ! 9 :'. 9 - 1 £ 6 2 n e r- i 0 d ,
Gecroia rej'erted the pest i 'i 1962 but it tias nol as yet
becoine es tab li s hec . Cu rreiitl y ^ reports have it that,t!;e piite

h?iS been found in AT atu.ric: , buL tiioy arc- unnf f 1 c i a 1 . Accord-
ing i'"' Keif'^r% the mite- i? alsn found in Austrclwi ond R^.o-
d e s i f' , V.' i t h d c ^ r c; 1 c .; i s {; :- b cl i v i n g it to be native to A f r i c a .
There ha... Iieeii r,iiici> speculation as to v;hy the ?,ti'itpr bctwctn
t'.yi/orih tM'.d I-lor'ic!:; h-'vc rui I. reported any pj-oblcm wit'n v!iir.
p est,

Dr, Hcfvey ''.rrnr.'oy . Acarol ogi s t- Entoi.io'l og i s t at
the Urvp'eriity cf Mo'-'ida., ctnd myself i/ere esked to itiitiate
studies ti>ot wo'j'id I., 1 tii; a tcl y lead to some ncvv approaches
to control iiieasures of tht- mite as well as unders landi i",g its
Li e !i c" V i 0 r ? r. d e c o 1 i^ g y .

7ht.' or '-jOi' i sn is cori'- i dered a true mite b'j t diffcvs
f 1 oiii most other rr, ites in that it possesses only two pairs
of lrcj.<-. in ST Co -J oT the usiial four pairs. it belongs to
t!ie fai.iilj' L- riophyi da, e arid consequonl ty fall? in the catc-
qory of or: e of the siricllei-, t arthropods known. Ihey are
s rn a 1 1 e v \ n j r, :!; r, i"i y i : e in :-. t o d e s , b e i n cj o n 1 y 2 0 C :.; i c r o n ? i n
length i :i tne adiilt. stoce. The egg is approximately 1/3

•) hr

0 7 ti-;

d i.i 1 t s a ft d is c I e

r II!

color v:ith th.e

firsc tiy,'ip!'ai stage beisio ?'3 the size of adults and more
wii'ic in CO'! or. The £d;(lts rre v/orm shaped and ■" cream
to a ! i y '■ t ~ vc n ov/ CO lo r

iViLRIXMi^i RlVILU

G e n c- r- a 1 B s c k n r o u n. d

T".e 'jviop'iyid nitros (coninK-nl y kp.ov/n as gal! ni it?s,
biistfjT miters, i^uct inites nW'j bud rntGD; ara the smalleGl
animal fj bear-lMc; £>■; extoricr ske'leto?! r.ith which the agri-
cu'ltu;'is+ buS to cnrrLvnd . They c-^n ijeforin and russet
leaves oini fviiit, 'IhOj also cause bi.!d blastitio and dis-
torted grov'th of plr.pl"^.. i'^fo ! •<" "1 lowed to go uncontrollpd
f ' r c q L! e p 1 1 y : a l; s e p 1 a r. t d (-^ a t li ,

I:i qerirea'' , the'^'e are tv,'"> typss of ori opiiyi ds

i,^pifp^ 19C2); the- vvcrm-lik

L . V, I u \j

pocies kr. nwr, as call

or' oLid iViitc-Sj which. do all tncir feeding aisd breeding undei
coy-^r; ^r:d the; rust nites, w'iich a) c b^ocder, cliUiikier,
often rat!";r r'lic. vitb tergites to protect them against
the act. ^ en of lic^'^ '^ '>'■■' oess ic(:a ci or, . This latter type
rei^6:^ ci'd breeds niO'^e or l::ss O!^ cpei'-l e.:f surfeees and.
\<ith fev; ':x;: jpti OMS , ••onstiteter t!ie VMst nntes or leaf

Tlie S!;;aV! si^'O of tfiose or i opio'i ds in relation to
the qi/anti'^y of the i ; 'Ood host i^;akcs possible the develop-
:,ie;;t of ve>v larfjo populations. "Ik: ability o<' the

el !:(itr>s ui;d..r favorable condition: to halch,

pi; S3 tr;;ouL;h two nyiiipLo'; s tages, a-^.d bccoir.o. c; 'j g - 1 -"i yi n g
aril: It.", in sevpi! '. o ten uay? is r-- nether re a? en for cienr. c
po OLi > a L i 0 V s of t n i s a ^^ t !; » o p o d .

Li" i oi.'liy 1 c f to Ci 0 1 eat extent lark cc^otro'l over
t V' e i r i:; e d n s of ri i : L r i !) u t i 1 1 1 1 and ni i; s t t r ■:. v e 'I by c I ' 3 n c o
S'inr.o tncy dc-perd or) wirni, ir.'iects, bi rd-s, oik! oKior terms
cf carriers for tiieir dispersal.

L r i 0 p h y i d s e X h ^ b i t h v o ry i n t i !;; s t ci iii i t. c - !-| e s t r e '! a -
ticnship, cho racter i zpd by cons 1d er ? b"! g host spec i V i c i ty .
Gall foriTiation is another aspect of t'nis ititiniacy, bi.'t
the major-'ty of the mites belonging to this family depe'id
on nati^ral botanical f orniati ons of t'uvi r liosts and cau;>e
li 0 r; c t i c e 3 b 1 e in j u ry . The y , v.' i t h f e w e x c e p 1 i (> n s , re m o i a
in locations where feeding and breeding can tele place
v^henever ten^peratures er.d conditions permit.

According to Hassan (1928) tn:: ceci del ooi sts con-
sidered galls, and fuz"y spots, nov.' kiio^.'n to be rornied Dy
the eriof.ihyiu rivites, as I'ungi. Re=ii,ii..:r recorded observa-
tions of ift'crii'i- 1 i ke '"^ o. i n' '':;"! s in galls fouiid on leaves of
1 i n d -: n t r e e s i n 1 3 '< 7 a n d b p '' i e v e d t h v s e g a 1 Is to b e c a u s e d
by these nniir.ais and thoLight then to be the Icrvae of some
small in"^. ect.

In 1A33, 'Miiipin examined siinilc-.r linden nails and
foi.ind piites which \jere seen by laiteille to be relatpd to
the genus Sjirco|:te^s , In iri3'', fee discarded the belief

thc^t g s 'i ■■ .-, were caused by funoi v.r>>:' odvanccd tfie ]icr\ of
H re 1 c: t i 0 r, s h i p !- e I w e e n p^ i L c r. a i; d galls.

Di.'Ljcs.. in 183-:, fcunci jnitos in the galls of icavts
of nndfii <ind v;hiil. c vnllow and cohl. idered ther;i as larvae;.
He fouH'.; egg.-, In the gull<- but supposed that i.he Gdi;lts
Id'id thcin and suLisequen t "i y escaped thv'Oug!i the oijeniny of
t h e galls. In '\'sbO , V o n S i o h o 1 d .? 1 so c c n ;"; i d <^ r ed t h e m 1 1 e ^
as larvae and suggested thai tiiey possibly propagated
asexij^lly and the adult form vsas yet to i;e fourid. r!e gave
the name L>i ophyes to these mites.

Dejardin, IP 1851, examined tv.'o forms of galls en
linden ana willov; that had been studied by Dugesi found
the inites and -jbserved eggs with, in their abdomens. ile
concluded that they v/ere adults, conLrary to Uuges' opinior;,
and named them Phy toptus .

Scheutiri: in 18 57, ex ami ned olisters on leaves of a
pear 1 1 ■ e e a n d . f o u n d mites which he declared to be t ii e 1 a r v a e
of a.'iother mite occasionally found on the outside of the
leaves. tie confi»ii;ed Duges' views and argL.ed that whau
'}u jar dins tliought to be egg? 'jere nutritive organs. Scl. o'.;!:.ip,
furihev descriDed the so-called larvae and regarded tiie adult
?,s an oval., i;en.'I>-r, qu i d; -mov 1 no niite found on tlie larvae
leaf surface and ["^oposed ihe nas^'o [;/>;' '"•lod_>;onvjs_ belong in.i
to the family ( Gait'.as i dae ) . DuriiUj the same ytar (1857),
Pagens tochei' disagreed with 5c!ii-uton's views and ir.sisted

liiot t'Hv so-called ]:,r'/de. v/ere truly adiilts .'mc qavf.'
n 5 Pies to GGveral of them and placed th-!ii in the gonus

1. a n d 0 i s , i ri 1 8 ^i 4 , i.t v. c i e 6. Phy top t iij^ */ V- i s^ P g r. t .
end showed thi? trca natLT? of the mitr. He o,<''\"<: a de-
scription of its iriterria'l aiiatoiiiy and ^. "! fe history, some
of v^hich turned out to be orroneoiis in some instances.

[•iatiy disiuitfis concf; rn i rig rriorpiiol ogy and taxonomy
continued among the workers of the period. In America,
the true lioture of these inites was not known until Shirr.^r,
in 1 869, recorded the species Vasetes gi-ajlri pes^.

Walsh, in 1854, working on gails of vs'illC'.v failed
to observe the mites and t h o 1 1 g h t the c a s 'j a 1 a g e n t s w e i'' e
cecidoMiyids . He believed all galls to be caused by gall
gnats or s a w f 1 i e s .

Garman, in 1883, was the first in the United States
to study the Sriophyic's niore corefully ana described several
species.

Male pa began work in 13S7 a!;d contlr.ued to lead
investigations in the study of the oriophyids.

Keifci begar! !i i 3 work in the 19 30's a 11(1 has con-
tinued to lead tiie field in the ta/r^tioriiy of eriophyiJs up
tn t he present t i i-ie .

B"! 0 '! OQV a j]_d__r. c 0 J_o 9_2/

liassan (1923) d i ■" one of the ml s t thcrough studies
of the or i opii y i ds . His ••/urk cocored inar-y -reas froii; histor-y

1 0 i n 1 0 r n a 1 ni o r- p h o 'I o g y in V' h i c h t h c ! .• i o l o 3 y 0 f 1 h e
.fLLL?IlQXP.5 i:/lJ-^ L'li^t^fL (NaT.) was 1 ncU.ceo . Vuch of rnc
subsequent w 0 r k c f K e "i f e r , S '! y k 1 1 d i s , ;,' i 1 s 0 n c u c* rn 2 :": y
0 1 h e r s has been based en i I -:. s :•- ei n ' 5 0 1 t q i n a 1 s t l; d _y .

Keifer (1933) reported that nearly ?11 erlophyids
f 0 1-' n d in the field wore f e ir, a 1 e s . [^ e also 0 e s c r i h c d A c_e •.••_; a
lul ipafr (i'. .) ar.d i'oi"ij that the fe:iio';e v.-ould 1 -i y fron 3 to
Zb tot?-! eggs end nid so over a ten day period.

Keifcr (l--;42} reported so.iie oricphyids prodL;ced
two tj'pes of feir'nl3S. i'e ccncluded that c\ feniale tyi;e
iT'.ite called a protogyne resembled the na'ie and would re-
produce shortly after beconiing ers adult v;hich he referred
to a? a spring ov sumnier forr'. The second fe:''.ale type
v/ds ealled a deiitogyne and v/as considered to i>e ihc over-
wintering or vaerai'it form. The latter type v,'as found to
be morphul oc i cal ly unlike the forn^er. Tn species having
the deutogyne ' ferries , the male does nc't overwinter.

According to acarologists tiie ei^i opi.yi di may or
May not have bi"'t!> deutogynes and orotogy.ies, and univol-
tine species iiiay have only deutcgyies.

Roivaii^on (19^2) iiiei.uiuned that eriophyld gall
producers had more than one stage. He reported that the
two difrerent stages had often beevi ..-■isiaken fi)r i\'to dif-
fer e n t- s p e c i 0 :. . She ^' t c h^ n !' a ( 1 9 u 2 ] x en c r i: e. 6 s e /; u a 1 d i -
niorphisni in feiiKile Ijli s_e tjicjj^s ''eji f'Jlis_OLMJi' '''•Sp. as a pest

of juniper s°edr. , T!ie fftin^'ie^ were chr.roctorl zed by
Siiminor and vvisiL':- fut'ni^. Tliis i,pecies was fniind to ne-
IcTiM to the o1 dest genu s o •' e'^iophi icls; v.'f-ich v/as the bc-
(liiifiinr; stc'fjo of p 1 d n t initc Od ra si 1 2'", .

S h e V t c h e ti k o ( 'l 9 7 0 ) f o u n d L i i a I 1 n w i. ■ r- k. i n g w i 1 1 1
ti-o older ga ll niite ij ■!_yiLil./.e.s_ (Sf-r, so strict us) "<_S'i^.iJj2
( !"; al t p a , 1891) that t h e d p ij t o o 3.' n e s v; e r e d s s 0 c i c. t e d v; i t h
tl':e onscl; of seasonal ph.-:nori-en3 i >-, t:ie !iO':-t plant caused
by a decreasi ng photoperi cd . Ha11 (1967) reported th:. foi-
lov/ing thrf^e different systems that occurred in eriophyid
life cycles: (1) siniplG--one type female, (2) complex--
protngyrie and deutogynes: a .id (3) unnanied- -ovovi voarou s
protooyne. Alain and Wadud (|963) found that sexual de-
r: 0 r p h i s ni is evident in adults only.

L -j f p r y r]e and 1 1 a bits

IJOUS 11! "i

s p e c ! e i
! 0 3 i c 3 1

i ;i most

eye 1 es
(l^'CiO)
i i f e c y

fhsro are approximately 1,000 described phytopha-
te.s belonging to the Fir i ophyo i dea , and although each

api^ears to be hicjiriy adapted to its particular eco-

riiche there sceins tn be a great deal of similerity

1 i f e c y c 1 e s .

Ramsey (IDL-O) reijorted that iiiost eriopriyid life
are siiiilar and relatively siinple. Krasihskaya
1 CUP. ri the 0 p p 1 e g a "! 1 111 i t e w c r. t t h r e u v, h its entire
cle i!! 30 days with the egg stage lasting 10 <ldr/z.
s (19;/!) research on eriophyids sho'.ved th:". t most

i(!

q.^il fiidkers underv/erit !'■.'() gcr.ei'a t i o:iS p;fr sedson. Me
?, "ii-'C repo>-tcd ihat, in *: t •.: i y i p. g tlie gal"! m-'tes of Poland
1:1)5 1 the- fema^G mite usijoTiy layi, cue cju per d:i.y and
!nost. of ti.<^ ov-c-rw i n ter i i;;;: ft^fuSles ^.ti'dieci appeared tc be
fecundated, Bcczek comr^-atoil host piants of 65 eri ophy id s
fron, Poland and 12C from Califorr-ia aid ^nly specioc of
1 i'r e f 0 i 1 0 w i ii g genera Oxypl eu rj_t e s^ ., H h y n c a p h y f. o p U)_s , D i p t a c u s
and ]^r'_LL!.l[5.§.ri!^ '^"^'^ s i m i 1 e, r life cycles.

In A c e r' i a , P h y t o p 1 1 » s , P n y 1 i o c c p t e s , and L-.ri ophyes ,
there are species causing various types of dariiage and vhich
vary distinctly in devel opniet^t , and some of wiiich are free
living. For example, Alan: and Wadud (1953) found that the
litchi nrlte, A c e r i a 1 i t c h i K. , laiv eggs singly at tlie base
of hairs constituting t b. e e v i n e u m •>' . . the leaf surface.
Incubr.ticn of tiie eggs took 2.5 days, the protonymph staqe
lasted 1.5 days, and the deutonymph stage rook 6 days in-
cluding 2 ins tars, Pre-ov i pos i ti on time of the female v^as
1.5 days and adults lived only 2-3 days; therefore the total
life cyrle v/dS cortiploted in 13-18 days. This is consider-
ably different ftorri otlier reported life cycles. Bakei^ and
Neunzic: (!970) worked on tiic biolo^-y cf the blur ferry bud-
jnite and reported it took only 15 days to complete the
entire life cycle at Ui'-'C. Rnsario a;:d Sill (l^^'C-l) found
that tl:e fe;ri?"ie w'l'.at tuil nite, A c e r i a t_ulij-.a^o (i-'.), laid
from 3 to 21) eggs over a pericci of IC day~ and eggs hatched Ui ?• to
5 days at 4S-^5'T, but that little nr „o lic^tciiing occiirrtd c't36-fl:''K.

11

Egc,s [witchGd in 2 or^y^^ ai "/f' + ^F. Oldfielc! et al. (1569)
w 0 r k 1 n o o n Ej'' xo_f)_h >/e_s vMii_J ri)_en ciU^ K. found it laid 50-60 pggs
v.'ithir the gall caased by ulie niito.

Stc'i'licht (1970} reported the citrus bud mite,
A c e r i a s-^ieldojij (Cwing), toot, 12-23 days to go from egg to
e q u 5 w \Vr> 2 - 1 ^ days u s u 3 1 I y i^ e q li i r e d for egg hatching at
oritiniuni conditions. The average number of eggs laid per
femals v;as 5 with a range of 4-8. If females Vv^erc fed on
buds during their larval stage, the egg laying increased
to an average of 8 v/itli a range of 5-19.

Environmental Response

Hassan (1928) found that dryness and heat are the
main stinuil ating factors of eriophyids. Dryness will
force mites to leave galls and is thus favorable to the
c! i str i bution of the mite. Summer heat will cause them to
be cctive and .excess i ve humidity will cause them to be
almost motionless. Has sen reported light had little ef-
fect but concluded that since the gall for'mers live inside
the structure that they are probably negatively phototropi'
and becoioc positive as they leave their galls. Hassan re-
ported tha/c the n'ites are hardy, and ^. tri str i a tus can
live 10 ('ays at 2 0 " C in a d (} s s i c a t o r w i t i i o u t food. Costa
and Go;-'clave'j (IDbO) reporteci that tlie tomato fungus
Hi i t e A_c e j jji cj Ji/ 1 o p_ri_t \\ i r u s ( K' a 1 . ) a t tacked t o m a t o s n; o r c
rrci.-]uently i r, the dry season, but that the infestation

J/-:

of mites was nevertheless higr, in ih e rainy syrisun.
Kevo.-ki'Dn (195:) r^-ported the "white mold" disCdSe of
towBtoes (v/hich is so-called because of the wliite erint^um
produced by tlie mite) caused by ^i'lPPJiy^L '<^S^ll'^! cjjtdc;:'!}-
Ihi )-'Ji5 {rln^ .) is par ticLil avly active at 1 ov' toiiipc ra tu re
a !t d h i g h n u m i d i t y .

D i n t !"! c; r ( i 9 5 1 ) f o i , n d o n 1 y f e ni a 1 e E r i o p h y e s graci 1 W.
f^a'!. on raspberries at 17-20"C. Jeppsen ct al. ( 1 9E)8) found
that the citrus bud mite, A. s h e 1 d o n i , populations increased
in wariTi v/eather and declined wi ih low relative humidities
a n d / 0 r u n u s u -i 1 1 y h o t w e a t h e r .

Rosario (1958) found thi-.t high relative hur.vidity
in thtG micro-environment 'nay be the far! or in establishing
large A. t u 1 i p a e populations in the field but information
of this phericnenon is sparse. Rosario (.964) found that
A- ^y.li.[l?-^ survived without food and water for ?0-A0 hours
St 35j^5"r and. would live for 3 nionths in petri dishes at
36 + 5'^F. It was found that these miles survi ved temper-? turos
of IZCF in the laboratory.

Reed et al, (i9f.-'!) found that the optiinuin tempera-
ture for laboratory rearing of the citruS rust mite P.il>'jJ!-C'.~
c o p r u t a 0 1 e i v c r a Ashm. w^s 80°F . It was also found that
A. t u 1 i p a e appeared to need hiijh relaf^vo huniidity v.'itliin
a rolled w!ica; leaf in order to-- the mite species to sur-
vive. Sternlicht (1970) repc^rted A. .^ h_e l_do n_i_ eg^i hatching

13

wa', mcit Guccossful tit 2i3"C ?.nd 98% RJi., and tl.nt hatch-
ing v/?s qreatly reduced nnd Hv^arf larvae emerged 'it low
R.il.'s (3b-40/c). The ni"! !i"!nn.im th r'GSho'l cl for Ciiibryciii c
devel ojiment was 9'C and for n'fo cycle completions "i2'.5°C

B a r k e e t a 1 . (19 7 2) found that t li e peach silver
!.i its, A c u 1 '.' s c 0 rn u b u s (Bar. k s ) K . , v; as active at 2 ^ - 3 1 " C ;
while riympi'.s were active Lip to 32.5°C but becoaie sluggish
at 24"C end inactive at ?1 "C.

Habitats and Qve rv[i n t e r i n g

It is a coniiiion belief amcng i:;ite workers that many
plants would yield an unreported mite species if a worker
had time to survey, at tl'e prope>' time of the yeor, the
numerous plant niches v/ h e r e mites dwell.

Smith and Staff ord (1948) four.d che grape bud niite,
Eri ophyes v i t i s (Pgsc.), to overwinter under the spur bud
and to migrate to the leaf axil of new buds. Putnam (1939)
maintained that the plum nursery mites, P li y 1 1 o c o p t e s f ockeu i
Nal . , and TKT were stimulated to hibernate in various pro-
tected plant parts by hardei'.iny of the foliage. Dinther
(1951) found L. g r a c i 1 is to n?ss thi^ winter ori and within
auxiliary buds of raspberries. Stafford and Kidc (1952)
found ir. e grape bud mite to occur outr-idc the bud cv; nevv
browth du*-iiV9 late April and early Vizy . After tht: month
of May. 98% of the mites v;ere found inside the bud. Kido

!".

and btsfford ('19r>n) i ejiorted that grape hui roites were
found in heaviest ru;r,TL-ers in the fir:, 1 10 basol b'jds v.''"tl:
the Sevan th hoving tlie largest nunibers. As the (n"'le pre-
pared to cverwirter, it crawled -jp the canes to the clonnate
s h 0 c t s .

Painter and 'ichcsszr (1954) found A . tu ] i \)ji_e_ t o
live in 1 1. e p r c t e c: t e d f o ! (i s of wheat. VJ i 1 5 o n (1955) found
an undescrined E r- i o p h y e s adhering to the bud scales, or
and ui'der ruditnsntary leaves, buds and new growth of plums
and peaches. Kantack and Kn'jtson (1958) found A. t_L!j_ipaje
living protecLcd deep in the wheat leaf sheaths. May and
VJebster (195S) reported the grape bud raite? was iropossible
to control at certain t'^rries duo to its habit of living in-
side t h e bud .

Krasinskaya (i960) foiind that 70-80>^ of the fe.Mdle
a D p 1 G gall n, i t e s , E r i o p h y e r. ( Accri a ) in a 1 i ( N a 1 e p a 1917)
L i r' 0 1951, Ii 1 b e r n a t e d in zhe third to fifth bud scale.
J'iorgsn and fleldin (1960) found the juniper berry mite,
Tri sfttac li s c,c a dri se tus ( T h o n i o s ) , 1 i v p d v. i t r i i n the berry.
Boczek (1961) found free living and gall producing mites
!<i bernat" ng Ui bark ^t-evices Qiid species belonging to the
< r. 'V. e y e 1 1 u s w e r e varied in t h e i j- over w i n t e r i n g h a ti i t .
Boc7.ek fiMMid doutcgynos overwi nter i nci in an inartive state
tliat could he i n lerv'jpteci within the laboratory. Protogyne
fejiHilcs vivri' loiind to iiii.ernote more of ten in the buds.

15

$ h '.: V t c h e n k 0 ( 1 C G 2 ) f p !.i ';< 6 t h q 3 1 c! e r g a 1 1 m i t e , £ , 1 a e v i r- ,
deMlogytie to be :.ssoci atc-u with the onsr>t of drcve&slng
f)ho topei" •iofi'; atiJ the piienorjionon it tn'ggeri.'d by the mir.es'
ho'^t I'lant.

T a 1 !! 0 u k (19 6 3) found A «j^ i a p ii'l oen c_oj^_tej. (Mai.) to
0 V e r w inter as a f e r t i "! i z e c! a d ii 1 1 f t rr, ale inside almond (j a 1 i r. .

Baker and Neurciig (1970) found tlie olueberry bud
mite to have its la'^gest popiil ,^ti ons in the terminal uuds.
Farly stages were found only in outer basal scales with
later stages found throughout the bud. Oldfield (1969)
found the primus finger gall mite, L. emaryinate (Nal.),
to overwinter as females in old buds situated at the base
of the branches. Unon breaking hi berri ^ti on , the female
laid 50-60 eggs w i t h i !i the gall. Z a h e r and 0 s ni a n (1971)
found Acer id n. a n g i f e r a g Saved to hide between bud leaf
scales of ni a n g o s ,

Phototaxis

Hassan (1928; ossuuied tiiat eriophyids were nega-
tively p h 0 1 0 1 r 0 p "' c based on t ii e i r Ii a b i t s of concealment.
Rosario (19b8) found indications tfiat A. t.n i pae was nega-
tively photo tro;.ic under labors to ry conditions. Hall (1967)
found that under certain circumstances other factors counter-
balanced eriopiiyid's i-esponse 'o light, and irntes would move
to outer leaf surfaces prio>" to dispersal. Nault and Styer
(1969) proposed that A. tu_ljjiae v.' as negatively or positively

io

phototac ti c depending on i+> phys 1 o1 oy i ce 1 state. It was
fcund tnai. the (Tiite vvas i-.ogaLivc uiiaer plentiful host
tissue and positive if the plant ivas undergoing tissue
ri e s t r 'J c t i 0 n .

T a_x onoTiic SiatiiS and Descriptions

Three species d" eriophyids have been described
from BerPiiLidagrass : { "! ) Ac_er;i?:. n^^ocyr.odoni s Keifer (I960)-,
V ^ ) b£P-JC^ Hi ^j['!} 0 d 0 n i e n s i s Sa^'ed (1945); and (3) ^''.cer i a cyno-
Jonib Wi isnr^ ( 1959) ,

A. c_yr,ji^i_ni s_ appears to be a valid species since
it has a 7 - r a y c d c 1 a v^/ and an obsolete shield design v.' h i 1 e
A . c^y i' 0 d 0 n i e n s i s and A . neocy n o d o n i s have 6 - r a y e d c 1 a v; s and
distinct shield lines (Fig. 1 ) . A . cynodoni ensi s v. a s de-
scribed a? having t'le dorsal setae pointing forward, whereas
A. neocynodoni s hso the dorsal setae pointing backward (Fig.
2), In the 1970 pubVic^tion "Common Names of Insects ap-
proved by f , S . A . , '' the ccp.uiion name "for A. cynodoni ens is was
Beriiiudagrdss inite. In 1971, Newkirk end Keifer following
the Zoclcoircil Code redesignated the type for the genus,
_L r i_oj,> ^'ijrus . T his \.b<^ n rr. o v e ci t h. e species A . c y n o d o n i e_nj^ i_s
into ihe oonus Er i on byes . I 'i a letter dated n£cember 13,
1973, to Dr, Croinroy; Keifer indicated that the species
neor vnodori i s is i ri syi'ony':;y with cynodon i ens i s whirh he
had tei'iiicd the Dermiidaqrass node mite. Therefore, the

i7

correct scientific name- for t!i"'£ mile is Eri ophyes c y n o -
d o i'l i f? n s i -"a (Sriyed) and the correct coaiTion name is Bermuda-
grass rnite and in neither Be rrn udagr&ss Stunt Mice (Crnniroy
find Johnson, '.'^7?.) nor Serniuc'aarn ss node mite (i'eifer, 1973).

A 1 1 i ; 0 'J 3 h Keif r • r and N e v; kirk have r e - d e s i g n a t e d the
species of tiie genus Ac_er_ia into the genus Flri ophyes ^ this
is not thf: final laxDncmic status. [■lany acarol og i sts , and
in particular the Russians, are dissatisfied with this
arrangement since most of trie r;iajor rest species are in
the genus Acer i a and have had this generic name over tfie
past 15 years. Lindquist (1974) and others are currently
appealing Lo the Zoological Board of Nornencl autre for a rul-
ing on this proble'n. In addition, there is still some ques-
tion as to v.'hether the rrite Sayed described is synoiiynious
with the n.ite Keifer described as Keifer has not yet for-
merly publish.ed a synonymy.

T h e r e ■ i s also confusion about t a x c n s above the

generic level (Lindquist, IS)?"), The c u r r- e n t status, there

for, of this species is:

Class Arachnida
Suoclass Acari

Order Acarifornies

Sul''order Pi-estigmata
Super cohort Promata
Cohort Tetrapodilma

'j^uper^'^nii 1 y Eri cphyci dea
f-"a'iiily r.riophyidae

S I ' e c i e s cy n n d onions i? ( S a^' c d )

Jl^-^.tLl ij t. i 0 p s or tho Sermudacjross MitP

To furl'ier eldbor.^tfe on the taxonoiiiic confus.ion
sur round 1 liu this species, tti'j original descriptions of
Sayed (19''!f. ) and Keife>^ (1?60> are presented.

oo_r.j_e
1 r- c 1 u
w h i t i
vn' 1 0
V-' i"! a t
fine
fo rwa
(5.4

vj r I g

d i n (]
s ii ;
tv/o
c 0 r, i

SCu'I

rd.

vO'i

n '3 '■:

c? p

cyl }

p a i' r

p t ij r
Leq

c 1 a w

m e 0 i :j
111 2
setae
5 e t a e

the last
e1 one; a ted

6 -• r a
I ni r a

:i v.;

36.

60
! 0 a r.

eg 1

y.

l?.t

5 u;

;' ; Q

f 0 'J r

t. u b

it

nd

■,\' i
a .

T

I

T

e
Tti
er

e n

f
ev

es

ps
111
r i
of

t 'r.

pt

4
•iU
nd
or
al
ec
it

c 'i e
u;r! •
cc;!
se
^ i
Dor

i ng
aci

59

ond

- T

O I

tor
e s

'■'S

ta
ve

c
d
c

ta
6
se
oa
~ 0

ion 0

Fern
■i.e. u
ros tr
e ; do
1 ong
I set
i n c Ui
1 3w n
i s t a 1
setae
e 30.
.5 y
tae 1
d. y
r , St

f

A c e r i 3

ale:

broa
urn 19
rsal
i t u d i
ae 30
ding
Dt kn
1 y w i

I 6.
5 V ;
thi rd
0 y;
c ri t r a
e r^ n a 1

210.
d ; CO

.1 y
s h i e 1
nal 1

U, P
feath
obbed
th a
5 y ,
first
; 2.4
genet
1 ski

d i V i

9 y,

I our
long

d soine-
i nes and
rojecting
er cl aws

Feather
single

II 15 y,
ventra 1

y ; caudal
alia 24.6
n structure
s i 0 n s with

Di s iri bu ti on : The mite is found in lov/er
EgypL iand around Cairo. Upper Egypt has not
bveu surveyed. Sayed (1946).

Officinal description: A c e r i a neocynodoni s ,
new species N e c c y n o d o n i s , with a 6-rayed feather-
claw (Fig. ll may be distinguished from other
kiH.)wn grass infestors by the clear shield lines
(Fig 1) the rounded mi cro- tuberc 1 es (Figs. 1 and
2) set ah.:>au of the rear ring margins, and by the
narrow ribs on tlie genital coverflap.

lik
dow
seni
cl e '".
s i ii
lin
wftr
I in

he

e , V.
!icur
i c i r
i gn
uate
es,
d we
c- r u
n^edi

n) f^ 1 e

ll I U t, 1

vcd (
c 1 1 1 a r
[■ r e s e
dive
the f
11 ah
nrri r.q
f. i! s h

16
sh
Pi

d

nt

1 r

t
or

5 y - 210 y long, 40 y thick, worm-
-cream color. Rostrum 2 3 y long,
(J . 3 ) . Shield 36 y long, 3 G y. wide,
nieriorly. Median line in shield
on posterior 2 / 3 , a d ir, e d i a n lines
ing to rear; two anterior submedian
st sinuate, abruptly curving out-
d of ci 0 r s a 1 tubercle, a s e p a »■ a t e
oward rear of admedi an line; second
t curving from anter-ior margin to

19

t i 0 n s
m 3 f ! i a
wi til
lube.-
F 0 r e 1
8.5 M
c ^ a w
feath
t, i b i a
long,
t i 0 n
by li
cl es
tube r
p 1 e t e
round
s c. t a
ventr
V e n t V
on ab
seta
10.5
1 c M g i
ity:
lecte
Advi s
Chlor
ni i t e 5.
causG
eral
we1 1
three
this
Calif
E. Ro
19G9,
June
c 0 n e
subini
t u r a 1
Augus

1/3

run I'l
n ; re
g r a n u
cl es
egs 3

long
8 v^ 1
er cl

1 i r. e
n e s 0
a lit
cl es .
1 y ni i

ed
35
a I
al
ou t
2

a n

;i

se

se

r

0 -a

U Ion

t u d i n

B r a w

d: J

or.

idea e

live

stun

d e c 1 i

as mi

•para

Rerru

ornia

t h , J

by F

21 : 1

cted
tted

F )k 1 1 o
t 29.

or,
i n
ar
la
23
0

c
or
aw
ij

S
ne
f
tl

cr

d

lo

ta

ta

i n

1

d »
al
le
un
Ho

),
i
ti
no
te
ty
da
-W
un

96
So
by
ri

I

1 irs

y to

p a r t
t i 0 n s

y ap
\i Ion
cntra
9 , ta

6-ra
long,
.5 p
tween
g r a n u
e ahe
Abdom
otube
ahead
rig , 0

3 2 u

g 4 f

ong .

cove

ribs
y , I m
e 7,
st:

Berm
n the
ng , a

of t
s i n
pes .
grass
estnio
e 7,
S. Mo
9, by
ptenib

D. M
nent
960,

t a dined i
rear ma v

of s h i e

and srio
art; dor
g ; tibia
lly plac
p e r ■"■ n g ,
y e d . Hi

tarsus
1 ong . C

? n t <' V i 0
1 a i i 0 n s ;
ad 0 f 1 i
e n 'w i t h
rcul ate ,

0 f r ■ ear
n r i n g 7

1 ong , 0
1 ong , on
rom rear

Fema 1 e
r flap v; i
; seta 8
per i a 1 C
1950, by
Cynodon
u d a g r a s 5

termi na

vn t c h e s
he grass
liquid t

Addi ti 0

mite ha
r 1 a n d an
1970 Wes
ri shi ta .

M 0 r i s h i
er 3, 19
. Tuttle
Station,
by G. M.

an; line
gin from
Id and s
rt dashe
sal seta
5 y Ion
ed ; tars
curved d
n d - 1 e g s
5 y long
0 X a e g >' a
r coxae

first c

r. e t h r 0 u

about 65

the m i c

ring ma

behind

n about

r i n c! 3 8

27 p lo

9 e n i t a 1 i

t h about

.5 y Ion

0 u n t y , C
Vincent

d a c t y 1 0 n
. Relat

1 leaf s
b r 0 0 rn e

. Type
here is
n a 1 1 0 c a
s been r
d El cen
twood , c
Burbac
t a . A r i
59, by J

of the
Tucson

Butler

of gr

secon

ides s

s . Do

0 4 5 y
g, wit
li S 6 y
own ( F
26 y 1
, cl aw
n u 1 a r ,
p a r a 1 1
oxal t
g h t h i

ri ngs
rotube
rgin.
shield
ri ng 2
, t h i r
ng . A
a 18 u

in na

g-

alif

D.

(L
i on
neaths
ffect,
m a t e r i
a type

1 i t i e s
ecei ve
t r 0 . c
ol 1 ect
k , col
z 0 n a - -
. N. R
A r i z 0 n
, coll
(Keife

Ty
or
Ro

to

anul a
d sub
et
rsal

long
h set
long
i g . 5
ong ,
8.5
June
el ed
uber-
rd

5 com

rcl es

Late

, fir

1 ; se

d V c I'.

c c e s s

w i d e

f' r 0 w

pe lo

ni a .

th, F

(Gram

host

V! her

and

al :

slid

from

d are

oil .

ed Ju

1 ecte

P h 0 e n

oney .

a A g r

e c t e d

r, 19

a
);

ral

St

cond
tral
ory

ca 1 -

Col-
arm
i n a e -
: the
e they
gen-
as

e and
wh i ch

V .
13.

by
ne
d
ix ,

a n d
i c u 1 -

60).

Galls and Damage

Accord i g to Keifor (1952), tliere arc two types of
eriopliyidi; tlio^-e that feed on tlie leaf surface like the

rig. 1 . Scanning Electron M i c r o s c o p g Photograph of
Eri 0 p h y 0 s cynodon i ens i s (Saved) Showing
Rounded lli crotubercl es (l075X)

21

Fig. 1. Scaniii no F. ieci, ron Microscope Piiotograph
Showing Backwa>"d -• Pro jecti ng Dorsi^l Setae;

^^'^(.^

irsal Shield Lines (21(30X)

Fi

Scanninq Electron Microscope Photograph
Shovririg Dov.-ncurved Rostrum (2100X)

23

ia

Scanning Electron Microscope Photograph
of Feather Claw Showing Rays (11,500X)

Fig

Scanninq Electron Microscope Photograph
of Featfier Claw (il ,500X)

'I r
1. U

cilri.'S rujt mite, Phyl I oc'jpt>"-trt pjjnvora (Ar, iun,), arid
those that are biid prites and cjc! Tina iaiirs . Only the dainaQe
caused by the "iotter type v/iil be discussed.

Galls on plants •we'^e first (loticed more than 2,000
yefirs ago. Ne i sv/aiider (19'>4) reported that n-nl'; production
was liependent upon s timul at i o-' of plant cells in pier i s t'o-
ma ti c zones =

Andre ( 1 9 5 ^i 'i fou :i d t h s t many specific n a n ; e s h a v e
been given to members in the fanily F^r i ophyi dae solely on
the basis of the nature of galls formed by the mite. A
gall on a new ho^t often is considered justification for-
a new specific name even v;hep the mite causinij the gall
had not been seen.

The majority of the work on new species and subse-
quent hosts has been done s"ince ttie early 1950's. There
appears to be a constantly grovn'no list of new hosts re-
ported. Many- of these host plaiits are rot presently con-
sideif'ed economic species. i-lowever, the budmites and gall-
makers do cause a or cat deal of danioge to plants that are
of economic or aesthetic value to man.

Sm i t h and Stafford (1948) reported t h a t. Erioofiyes
v^His (Pgst.X the comnvn erineiuia mite, v>'as associated with
stunted cane growvl;. Ki do and S triftord (19r>5) further
rep or- ted tiic extcr'.sive damage on grapes caused by _E. v i t i s
and ? a i ■^ \ h e i[' i t e w as c a p a b 1 a of c a u s i n g s e v ere i n j u r y a ii d

27

fcven death of the plant. Snith and Stafford (1350) ro-
ported the following S'~-ven basic injury syriiptoiiis of gr-apes
c 6 u s. e d by rn i t e i n f 8 c t a t i o n s : ( 1 ) s h o r t basal i n t o r n odes :
( 2 ) s c a r ! f i c 'i t i 0 n o T t h e bark; ( 3 ) f 1 a 1 1 e ri e d canes; ( '1 )
rigzagqed srinped shoots: (5) dead overwintering buds;
(6) barren cants; and (7) witches broom growth of new
shoots.

Jeppso'i and dePi etri tonel 1 i (13 53) were the fi.-st
to associate jbnonnal i ties of lemon frijit and foliagE with
presence of the citrus bud aiite, E^. shel doni , i n California
in 1947. However, sin"! 1 1 arly deformed lemons were known in
Italy in 1646. Numeroijs articles have epp oared since con-
cerning the damage inflicted on citr'js by this iiiite.

Another eriophyid of econoinic importance is the
blueberry bud mite. Darrow et al. (1944) found that tne
scales on blueberry buds infested with mites maintained a
persistant rosette appearance, Bailey and Bourne (1945)
found the feeding by the biueber*-y mite, r r i o p h y e s v a c c i n i i
K., caused buds to be gal 1-1 ike and often reddened and swol-
len at Ihe base of the bud scales and cri the stems. This
jdite has created seve'r^e problems to the blueberry industry,

t- tu I i pae was named by Keifer in 193 8 when it was
found on tulip bulbs. It also attacks o ii i o n and g a r 1 i c
bulbs a!id causes them to dehydrate. The mite moves into
the protected leaf folds of thiese three hosts and causes

t.v.'i s t i rig , cu)Mioy, stunliny, i.'.\d sub';c,riuent yr^l lov; nict I; i i no .

CGu^e;; '

/0!';iran:>ni His

In 5 e V 0 r e i n f e 3 1 a t: i o ri s , t i; i r, s p c c. i
fi^urenicjit cf pi an is,

A grcit deal of rosedf^;h fias heen done on A. tul i pae
since i t \i a s 1 n 1 e r p r oven t, o v e c t. o r v^/ h e -i t streak v i r u s . ?. n d
red b. Ire ok kernel vir'us of corn, The mi to wa". nivcn ine com-
mon riaiiie of wheat curl riiite. This mite v/i 1 '! bo discussed
undo r l^csts and Vitus Rolationship .

Acer i a f i c ii s (Cottt?) vns roportod by Ebeling anci
Prince ("i950) as causing an unconimoii type of injury to figs.
'(he ter'nirial brds were bleached, and cibcission of immature
termiri^J leavi^r. cowfled v/ith stunting of gr?wing shoots
resulted from !/;ite i :'!fest atioris .

Col li ngvi'ood and Broci-. (^^59) reported a gall mite,
Phy topt'js ( Er iophyes ) r i b i s iJal . ., attacked black currants
and caused foliage distortion and proliferation of side
shoots at the expense of terminal growth. The mite was
found to invade the buds and suppress flower development.
Phillij! (!953) reported Eri ophyes ' F^hytoptus ) r i b i s (Nal.)
to cause thick round g n 1 1 s on black currant b :' a n c fi e s and leaf
spots, as well as cortical galls (at the point where the
shooi. branches from the stems), on several species of plums.
Thresh 'vl963) reported that the malformation on black cur-
rants was called "false rcvers "' on , " E. r i b i s has caused
a great deal of daip.age on currants (especially in Lutope) and
a greai dea"' of research 'las Deen do tie thc-re on this mite.

29

S a k r. c n a (19 4 ?) r e p o r i' g d fri ophycs prosopidis ( f^ a 1 . )
cau-:r;d gel Is on f ' r o s o p 1 s s.p,lcj'iej_a L.

B'Jv'Jiill (l^^!-. ) reported wi tche s b r' oom on willows
as be-ing cruised by E r i o p h y e s t r i r a d i c t u s (Ndl.); he also
reported ttiat 'jsl'is iiad been reported as far back as 1907
and noted Hint oi'ly male trees were attacked.

Friophyids cau^e the grov.'th of erinea on many
plarits. Lainb (1953) found that A c e r i a (Eriophyes) lyco-
pers ici ( VI 0 1 f G n s t e r n ) caused t hi e p i^ o d u c t i o n of the w h i t e
hairy patches on stems end leaf stalks. Sheffield (1954)
reported excessive "hairiness" on stems and leaves of sweet
potato was widespread i r. parts of Africa. The plants also
exhibited stunted growth, thickening of the stem, and
auxiliary bud death when attacked by a species of Aceria ,

N u 111 e r- 0 u s e r i o p h y i d s attack the bud and early
flowering stages of plants. Muhle and Konigsmann (1954)
found Aceria 'carvi (Nal.) to cause flower deformation in
caraway. When the mite attacked the blossom, no fruit was
set. The leaves also showed deformations under severe at-
tack. T r i p a t h i (19 5 5) reported that e r i o p h y i d mites were
the reason for n)al formati on disease of mangos rather than
deficiency of ruineral nutrients as previously believed.

Snel singer and Hi me lack (1957) observed mites to
cause witchesbroom of blackberry and reported little work
has been dc)iie on this phenomenon since 1888. Gibson and

30

Paititcrf (1957) found A_. .tM]J_Pc::^ to cause v.-heat plants to
bfccc;iir-, weake'''en dnd chlorcilic. The wheat leaver, cur!
and folded s '! mi 1 ar to the description of tiio coiTiinon witclies-
brocin ,

Vcreshchngi na a^id Ma':ailyr!k (1959) reported E.
2h\S[^ ^SlP.l^l. ^0 Ou'.m :: e p 1 u n; s via galls. M c.. t c r e f v. ir. a 1 e iii i t e s
were round to overwinter in palls fofrned ori new growth.
The female would be found in numbers of 100-580 per gall
and would deposit eggs witl-iin the gall. All stages of the
mite were found within the gall. Krasinskaya (1960) re-
ported the apple gall mite E. m a 1 i to cause a normal leaf
of 2.SC-280 u thick to increase to 350-450 \i thick when in-
fested. The mite also caused severe leaf drop.

Agarwa! ar:d Kandarami (195^*) found that a eriophyid
mite caused gail-like blisters on the inner surface of the
leaf sheath in sugarcane. Severe injury was confined to
the area nearche actual infestation and damage could be
identified externally by leaf scars.

Kuitert (1962) reported distortion on young cedars
caused by Tr i setaeus c u p r e s s "^ (K.). He found the mite to
feed on tissue between ihe leaf and the stem. Feeding in
this area caused distortion under light infestations and
the needles became shortened and thickened. Severe infes-
tatior.s caurod brownir;g and death. Under mite attack, the
internodes did not elonoctte, terminal growth failed to

■3!

devc '! o;;'« and you no plants became "bushy" and ro'.ind&d in s haDo
due to Uie failure of a ''leader" to develop.

Alarn crid K'adud (1963) rouiid A. 1 i 1: c h i attdci'.er;
young lilcfii 1 eaves, shoot «;, end yc'.;ng fruit ceiusir.g erinea
on their siirfacei. The 'eaves wei-e also fcL;r.d to curl,
dry i^p. and drup; ar.d flov/e'" buds would fail to develop^ ar.d
tfie plant v/ould be stunted. Talhouk (1963) reported simi-
lar damaoe to alirionds by A. phloeocoptes . Trie mite caused
irregular galls around buds and preverted fruit formation.
Mite infestations reduced vigor of trees so that death
occurred v.'itl;in fi</o to six years.

Arnold (1955) reported that eriophyio" that origi-
nated in flov.'er buds and occasionally en leaves caused
galls on H o h e r i a sexs tyl osa Colenso. Galls over one year
old had K'el 1 -devel oped vascular systems radiating from
original flower stalks. Colonies of mites and eggs were
found in sac- like cavities within the shelter of galls.
ArnoU' (1968) found mites were responsible for transforming
flowers into galls on Mel i cy tus ramif 1 ora J. R. and G. Fcrst.
Mai t orirat i onr ranged froin callus-like cr tumor-like assem-
blies to leafy clusters resemblitui wi tches broom .

S t u b b s and M e a c h e r (1965) found t i'; a t a v i r o s i s like
P r 0 1 i f e r a t i 0 ri ( w i t c h e s b r-o om ) on 1 u c e r n e , M e d i c a g i sjrt i va L . ,
w a s c a i: 1. e d by an e r "• o p h y i d mite. A c e r i a '!ic_d i_c a q i n i s K . The
symptoms w-^re S'!mild>' to those atLi'ibuted to a leaf hopper

32

t r d n s ■:•; i 1 1 o d v 1 r 1 1 s , A . m e c! i c a g i n 1 s^ also caused leaf and
foliage proliferations in lucerne.

L a V e ii d p '- e t a 1 . (196/) found that an e r i o p h \' i d
mi tf cau'-ed Douglas fir trees to have deformed growing
tips, Arnold (1970) reported that galls were formed in
6 cays on two species of Calystegra sp. after mite infesta-
tion. In some galls, there was no leaf tissue present as a
result of tiie powerful morphogenic influence of the gall
mite on the shoot apical meristem. This i nfl uence, accord-
ing to Arnold, may depend on the gall mite removing materials
from the hc:.t cells rather than adding secretory or excretory
products.

D i S t e F a n 0 (197 1) found that Phyllocoptes t r i f 1 o r a e
DiStephano formed galls on "Sh-iro" plums. The cortical
galls vipre formed on twigs. The mite overwintered princi-
pally in the adult stage but was also found to do so in the
larval and nymphal stages. The galls produced were large
er, ougli to contain 350-400 individuals. The mites caused
early petal fallj slow growth, and death of lateral twigs.

Kant and Arya (1971) found that gall development
'^'^' SaJ_ya_dora p e r s i c a L. induced by Er i ophyes mites was
initiated with the layiiig of eggs. The tissue structure
of Ihe gall difered from that of normal leaf tissue par-
ticularly in, the ston;ata and mesophyll cells. Duting the
enclosure proce.>s, a cup-like strurture was formed by the

rrrltc. Se\'pral cells of ituicr cp i dciv-mi s, alone; the nciyhbor-
ififj cells (.level op into rvil i i nuc 1 Gate hsir cells. The ad-
joining walls of tde cells su r rcund "i fig tliC- grow-'pg heir
cells disappeared into the cytop! risnio . Nuclea) I'l'i ora ti oris
into tiie body of f.he heir cell resjitec in a r.iul t i njc 1 eate
state. The hair cells el so contained nufnorous starch
grains.

Tuttle and Butler (1961) reported that A. n e o c y n o -
d 0 n 1 s caused damage on Beripudag ra ? s in the spring. The grass
displayed a typical resetting sir.d tufting, i.e. a gro\/th
caused by a shortersir.g of the inie modes and the apparent
s ti mu 1 a t i ori of excessive plant growth. Heavy infestations
caused tre grass to turn brown and die. Fventually, infested
lawns become thinned out wl"iich allowed weed growth.

Dispersion

Most w 0 r i; e r s have agreed that one, if not the major,
means o^i" dissemination of eriophyids is by wind dispersal.

Pariy (19^.5) capture A. l'J_lJ_[iae^ at a height of 150
feet a n d for a range of 1.5-2 ra i 1 c s from the nearest popula-
tion source, This was the first time this species had been
found a i y b o r n e ,

Freenian (19A6) found mites in -insect bodies at
altitucies up to 300 feet. Most mites were found at temp-
er a tii'.'es above r^-';"r and at relative hu;T>idi'Ly readings

34

beloK' GO/', with wirid speeds below 12 ri.iles par hour.
According to Freeman, vn nd was the most iinpor t-nnt single
f,=!ctor i :i dispersion.

Steples and Ailing ton ( 1 956 ) ropcrted wiiid alone
affect;. A. t u 1 i p a e dispersal and tornperat'jro was not i:i;-
portant. However, i,he research of hault and Styers
(1969) indicated tetiiperature had a profound pffect. Dis-
persal initiation by mites in tests showed when winds were
greater than 15 miles per hour coupled with teiiiperature in
excess of 18°C accounted for more than f:0% nf tl-.e numbe.''
of mites trapped. The researchers further found under
laboratory conditions that teniperature and lic-ht affected
dispersal.

Gibson and Painter (1957) found that dispersal was
actively initiated by adult behavior since ail i 0,000 mites
captured by them were adults. At the same time, all mite
stages were present on the plants and it was concluded that
if passive dispersal occurred it would be expected tnat
some immatures would have been trapped. Fui'tner study
sliowed that mites were not accidentally dislodoed from
planLs even at wind speeds of 20-30 niph. The researchers
found tiiat wind, temperature, and light affected dispersal.
An increase in temperature from 12-24^'C resultec! in an
einht-f .■^. 1 d increase in numbers trapr.ed. More mites ,icvc
also trapof'd in light than in darkness. Hciwcvcr, photoperiod

effect decreased "in luagn-i l;jde with an increase in tempera-
ture.

Siykhuis (19-:5) and Staoles and Allington (1956)
mentioned that t.iie eriophyid dispersal by v/ind was promoted
by Lise of the enal suckers. Gibson and Painter (1957)
foL<nd tliat ericphyids apparently control their dispersal
by 3 kind of beiscivior observed i .-i nearly all species.
F.riopliyids are capable of holding their bodies perpendicu-
lar tc the leaf surface and adhering to the plant surface
by a pair of anatomical appendages found on and within the
anus and called anal suckers. In this perpendicular posi-
tion, they are likely to be blown frorr, tlie leaf surface.
In addition, A. tjjJLL?^!? will migrate upv>(ard and on heavily
infested plants will form ''swarms of fuzzy appearing masses"
of mites on the uppermost tins of leaves. There they will
crowd upon one anotiier forming chains of several individuals
attachied one to another by their anal suckers. These chains
break apart fron; the mite mass and they disperse in a cluster
Gibson a n i.i P a. i n t c r observed that air movement over leaf sur-
faces stimul atos ; perpendi cul ar standing and chain formation,
a factor which could enahnce wind dispersal. It was also
observed that only adults move to exposed surfaces on the
plant and exhibMed "disposal" behavior except in cases
of extreme and ...[n'd plant deterioration when immature forms
would also movo to cuter surfaces.

3G

licly (i95/') foU!Kl thdt the n'irus bud mite, A.
she! d 0 fi i > may be carried fro,;! tree to tree by v.. r ions i r. -

S G C t S ..

Gibson and Paifiter- (1957) foMnd t(iat aphids aioved
the wiiSQt curl mi^^jA. tiJ_'; i_py<_e, Lu t thai: Lhis v/ds of second
nry importance. They fojnd that apirids often placed mir.es
into volunteer wheat and oth^r host plants. It was found
that the aphids would niovs ""nto the masses of ;iiites pre-
viously mentioned and the n:it:e chains would break and be-
come attaclied to the aphid. Upori flying away, the aphid
then transfers the mites to other plants. The greenbiig
v.'as the most successful in transporting the ir.ite but the
corn leaf, English grain. and apple grain aphids all were
found to transport A, tu "I i pae .

Butler (1963) mentioned that it could be possible
that the Bermudagrass mite, A. neocynodonis, could be car-
ried by the wind as well as by insects such as thysonap-
terons, honiopterons, and coleopterans.

Hosts and Virus Relationship

Recent studies have classified approximately 1,000
described species of eriophyids as pliy toohagous (Whitinoyer,
19/'<!). I.iro (1940) found 98 species of eriophyids in 'in-
land, In 1947, Li ro reported 178 species and Koivair.en

('9'"t/) sddcu huot.hC'.r 53 species Lo the ot i op-iyi ds of Fin-
la ri d . R 0 i V fi i n e n (1 9 50) '^ e p o > ■ t e d 183 s p e r i e s of gal: ni a k e r i
in Sweden. Keifei (19^?) rer/crLed ICG species from Cali-
f or !ii 3 .

Species of criophyids thui are econoiiri cdl 1 y damag-
ing, however, are not res-,ri etcd to any one geogrfpiiic
regio!). Hamilton (194?) reoorted die blackberry mite,
F'cen a e s s i q i (Hassan), to cause the redbe»;y dist^ase in
New Zealand. Borgman (l950) reported the same disease
and mite as a pest of fruit in Queensland. Lainb (1953a)
reported the tomato erintiurn mite to he found worldwide with
the exception of Australia and llt^-i Zealand. Zeck (1955)
foijnd the dreaded pest of grapes, £. vi^tj s , in New South
Wales. Conn in (1956) found A. t u 1 i p a e able to reproduce
on all varieties of wheat, barley, corn, sorghum, Sudan
grass, and 12 varieties of wild grasses. This led to exa:r>-
i nation o.nd discovery of the mite in many previously unre--
porteo areas. Wilson (1955) found the pear blister form-
ing mite, Eri ophyes p s e u d a i n s i d i o s i s Wilson, from the Pacific
coast of the U.S. to Wisconsin.

Several species of important criophyids occur in
Florida. The citrus rust mite, P. ol ei \ni)-a, is presently
considered tiic number one economic arthi'opod pest of citrus
in Florida. Bailey and BouiMie (1946) reported tfie blue-
berry bud mile, L. vacc|nii, as a serious pest i i; N. C. and

»/0

Mar. s. end new Florida hes been ridded (C-^ornroy and KuitGrt.
1973) to the c] rowing list of staters wl'.cre tf;is pest is
f 0 'J 'i c! . A 1 1 i fi !i (19 59) reported finding A . ir. ?ng i f erne a
pest of fpai'.no and A, s hi e 1 d o n i , the citrus bud mite, in
tht MiaiMi, Florida area. Within the last fev; years, the
eriophyids have been found to be responsible for niore
plant d <i. ni a g e than just blisters, q a 1 1 s , vv i t c h e s b r o o rn , a n d
other distorted growths.

. Slykhuis (1953) while vjurking with A. tiil i pae as
a pest of wheat reported a close nbsociation between its
feeding and tr ansini ssi en of wheat streak mosiac, a viral
disease, and subsequently proved it to be a vector.
Painter and Schcsser (1954) reocrted wfieat grass as a host
of the virus and of A . t u "" i p a e . Flock and Wallace (1955)
proved fig n^osiac to be t'-ansrni ttea by the eriophyid A.
f icus and further shov/ed the disease was not due to toxi-
genic feeding; Slykhuis (1955) found A. 1 1; 1 i p a e to carry
the w 1 1 e a t streak virus in all 1 i f (} stages with the excep-
tion of the egg. Wilson (1355) found a^^ und escribed
Eri ophyes and showed it to be a vector of peach mosiac
virus. Slykhius (195(-i) found A. t u 1 i p a e to transmit wheat
spot rnosiac, a viral disease associated with tt-.e wheat
streak type. Setli (1963) found an eviophyid nrito to trans-
mit a sterility type virus to piaoon peas. Stubbs atid
Meacher- (196!';) found a viinsis like proliferation ( witchcsbroo;n)

in lucpvno to be caused by A, n; e ci i c a g i n i g . Williams el
r. 1 . (19G?) foiisid Uie 3 A g train of v,'heat streak virus to
be treiisiui i. te.-j to corn by A. tii'l i p^e . Nault et al. (1967)
found j^ornol red streak of corn, a virus, to be caused by
tho \:hei^x cj-l mite, A. t u^lijpsje . Slykhuis et al. (1968)
also con li rill ed A. tLi_X2.|j£e as a vector. Proeseler (1968)
reported damage cd'j:^e(\ by gal' mites and symptoms of virus
to occirr together. Whitmoyer et al. (1972) reported crio-
P h y i c! s V e c t o r 10 k n o ^^' n plant viruses.

C c n t r 0 1 0 f E r i c p f! V i d s

C h_v:J!]j_C dj_

The his-^^ry of rhenical control of eriophyids has
run the garuut of materials or co.T'pounds as has the history
of contiol of other arthropod pests. Keifer (1946), in re-
viev'inc tlie e'cor.-:>r, •' c eriopiiyios of Not^tii Amer i ca, stated
that sulfur v.'as cffi-^ctive fince it blocked the consumption
0 r 0 X y g e r, by t i : -. . n i t e .

Daily c::c Bourtic (i'^!4fi) obtained control over the
blueberry bud n. *;.•:•, £. va_cci_n_i_i_, with th.e dinitro compounds.
JepT'Son (1^-17) -juno that DDT, d i n i trofihenol compounds,
aid d i - /-e I hyl r.'xyl i- thai ate controlled the citrus bud mite,
£\- .iLllrl.'^.il'.'A- ■-'■"..Obb i ny (194/) rft|Jorted Uui t control of the
pear bud i-ii te ^ '"'ri opju'es^ PM'll *'^=9 • ♦ centered around critical

40

t i la i ri g of spray a p p "! i c c c 1 o n s . H p found sulfur a be 1 1. g r
corii:;-ol "".han the lime-sulfur ccrnb"; nati on and the v/etf-ahle
type to !;c tho niost, effect'ive source. Borginf:n (1950)
treated the blackberry pest, £. e_s_s^T_3_i_ , successfully vrith
siM f ur -iTii neral oil conibi ria t i ons . Roy and He (1950) found
DDT sprays to give good coiitfol of iJJ_OtLl''y?Ji. 5>pecies i r,

I n d i d

Kevorkian (1951) founo sulfur dust or spray to be
a good control of ^. c 1 ?. dophthirus , the casual agent of the
"white mold" disease of tomatoes in Cuba. Dinther (1952)
controlled E£ i o p h y e s a v e 1 1 a r: a e ( N a 1 . ) and E . 3X^_P.i.Li- ^ i t h
tar-oil plus mineral oil oprays and reported wettable sul-
fer as well a? dusting sulfur to give good control.

Lange (1955) controlled A. t u 1 i p a e on stored garlic
v.'ith methyl broiiiide and sulfur. Zeck (1955) controlled E.
vi ti s on grapes in New Zealar.d with 1 inie-sul f ur . Mans"i^ield
(19 56) used 1 i ni e - s u 1 f u r to control the citrus bud mite, A .
shol don i , in Australia. Shchegolcva (1S58) found lime-
sulfur to control £, L!"-]^.."! J^. '^" currants. Butler and
'stroehlcin (196;..) Tound it was necessary to use diazincn
pli!S fertilizer to obtain control of the 'iOri'Midng rass mite
^- ncocynodor i s > on turf. Either fertilizer oi^ diazinon
alorio was no^. significant over contiols. Thonias (1960)
found chlorpyrifos to conivol the fiermudag ra ss iiiite in
n i p r; 1 0 r a t i o n s i n f 1 o r 1 d a .

41

Varina arid Y^c'ow (1971) reported the systenn'cs,
a 1 d i c a r b a s i d p h. o r a t e, to be effective for lb and 50 days
respectively in control of the niango bud mite, A. mancji -
t_er_a e , on rnongoe^. Dindra and Bakhetia (1971) found
denieton-niethyl and dicrotophos to control A. niang i ferae
for 110 days when applied to the trunk of mangoes, but
found diozinon and aldic;rb ineffective. D inietiioate ,
phosphatnidon, an-u- denieton-rncthyl v/hich had oiice st.own good
control proved Tess effective in later tests. Sternlicht
(1971) found be liuinyl and r.iancozeb (two basic fungicides)
to control the citrus b'jd mite, E. s h e 1 d o n i . Wafa and
Osnian (1972) found phosalcne plus triona oil to give good
control when used on A , m a n g i f e r a e and that a c a r i c i d e
useage stati .vti->3:l ly decreased the number of stunted buds
■Av6 malformed inflorescences on mangoes. Bharadivaj and
Baneriec(1973) found aluiriinum phosphide controlled Eriophyes
mane if era e (Saycci) on mangoes when shoots and samplings were
exposed within a sealed chamber.

Cultural

There_ r.ppears to be cultural methods that have a
qrcat deal of e^cfect not only in controlling eriophyid mites
but also ill pr-.A-entinq tliem f'^jm reaching population poten-
tials.

Griff it'^s and Fisher (19^; 9) found copper -z i nc-- 1 ime

Si'rays to cause an inc-'oase in rust mite populations on citrus

42

in Florida. It has become common knowledge among citrus
growers that refraining from use of certain sprayable
metals and other compounds which leave long term resi-
dues on the leaves helps to prevent mite buildup. Barns
and McCormack (1951) in preliminary experiments found
that the date of pruning effected the severity of injury
caused by a physiological strain of the grape erineum
mite, E. vi ti s .

Kuenen (1952) found that submersion of black cur-
rant plants in water for 10, 16, or 35 minutes at 45, 43,
and 41. 5°C, respectively, would control E. ri bi s , the mite
causing "big bud" disease. Slykhuis (1955) reduced A.
tul i pae populations by destroying infested plants by culti-
vation, the mites perishing when the plant were destroyed.
Hamstead and Gould (1957) found mite populations in apple
orchards to be greater in plots of highest leaf nitrogen
counts. High nitrogen was found to enable a benign popu-
lation to become destructive.

Das and Cloudhury (1958) found that thorough prun-
ing of leaves and twigs of er i ophyi d-af f ected litchi trees
following spraying kept the mites off during flowering and
fruiting. Shchegoleva (1958) found that clipping infested
buds of the black currant, Ri bi s nigrum L,, helps control
the mite E. r i b i s . He also found pruning of root sprouts
on young seedling plus intensive nourishment of the plants
aided in control.

43

Threr.h (iBo-l) found thnt dipping of black curraritG
in wztey for AO, 30-/<0, 1G-20, ond : i!,inL!te'. 3t 40, ^.2.5,
4 6 , c\ n d /i / , 5 '~ C , r e s p c c t i V " 1 y , ic i 1 1 e ci 5 1 1 £ . r 1b i s c s 1 1 rr, i t; e s
v.'i'tho'.jt. huitiiict pl'int grov/th.

W:>fa aiid Osn^an (1972) found that p^^uninci old stunhed
anc' .ii6 1 f or-":ed mango Puds, snd i nf 1 ores cprice in winter before
nev/ bud^. c-fid i riT 1 oyesrence occurred resulted in decreased
A. M a n g i f c- r 3 e populations and prevented ,Tii g rd ti ons to other
inflorescence. This operatic?! was considered an acceptable
agricultural control method since it decreases infestation
levels and g a •/ e ?. o p r' e c i a b 1 e yield increases.

Bindra and Bakhetia (1973) also found that prunincj
of inalfcrriiOd mango twigs and piarit p:rts reduced A. m a n g 1 -
ferae p c p u 1 a t i o n s .

Natural

The literature is quite sparse where the effects
of natural control agents st'ch as fungi and arth.ropods on
eriophyici populations are concerned. Keifer (19^6) men-
tioned that the ericphyid populations v.-erc reduced by
p r e d a c e o u s m i t e s , t h rips , v a r i o u r. s f > e c "• c s of m a g g c i. s , a ri d
possibly fungi. fainter and Schiesser (1954) found thrijiS;,
1 0 a f h 0 p p e r s , a r, o t r- e mite fa_i: a jt _c_t_ra r, -ic !}_u_s pr ote n_£s R a n k s
c s s 0 c i :• t e <:; v; '; t h A . t u 1 i p a e o ri w e s t e r n w heat q r a ■= s .

Vercshchanni na and f-'nkailyat. (1959) reported that

! y s a n o p t e v a a ! i d [) r e d a c r a b s m i t e s

!inl

b 0 i 0 n q 1 n q t

f ai'ii 1 i OS

Hh,v r.oi.0 I'."^;":c and Anysiidae pl-iy ;; si 'j;; i f i cant role 1 ri con--
t r 0 "i '"* f i- . p h 1 0 e c 0 p t e s on p 1 u n; i . B o c 7. e k (196 1) i !i ? 1 w ci i 9 s
of tiie eriophyid mit'.^s or Poland Koi'tid the niites cf the
trMiilly Tydcici^i: to uGstroy ell stdger- of tho cr'i .)i-)hy "i d^' .

Gonial ez -Eo (hi 1, i (1'.U'4) found lliat orrjanic insec-
ticides caused death to predators, apprecio'oly in the
Erythraei dae , a nn'ie fann'ly. It was found that fiuge dif-
ferences occu'^red in the popi;l ati on^, o!" the cotton blister
mite, E r i ophyos q c s s >' p i i , banks depending on presence or ab-
sence of erythraeidr. , AlaM &vA Uadud (1963) found preda-
ceoLis :nites to have strong effects on decreasing the popu-
lations of the 1 i t c h i mite, A . 1 i t c h i . M u m a (1955) r e p 0 r t 0 d
that in 11 or i da citrus groves the mites belonging to the
genus C u n a x a were predaceous and the family Tarsonemidae
contained c 0 n s i d e r- a b 1 e scavenger species.

Baker and Neunzig (1970) while working on the biology
of the blueberry budmites found the predaceous mites Asca
c i t r i H u r 1 h u r t , 1 yphl odromypi s d i 1 b r i s ( D e L e 0 n ) , C h e 1 e 1 0 g c n a s
b e r 1 e s c i (Oudemans), and three genera of tydeids: Tj/-deuj_,
Mi crotydcus , and Tri ophy tydeus . They also found tlrree species
of ti 0 n - p r e d a c e c u s mites, Da i dal otarsonemu s_ j a m e b a k e r i S m i 1 e y ,
1 a rsonemus summers i Smiley and Tarsoneinus a d a m s i Smiley.
The tarsr)neirii ds were found to be the most abundant of all
tlie associated organisms. They appeared to be iiiycopfiaoous
in the fi(^ld 5.r\i plar;t tissues injured by the blueberry mite

45

prcvidc'tj necrolic nidterial on which the tarsonemids fed.
Baker end Neunziq also found three species of thrips and
a cecidcnyid larvac: that could be predators.

Zaher an -J Osrr.an (1972) reported predaceous rrn'tes
did not olay a gren t role in controlling A. m a n g i f e r a on
.Ti a ngr.es pi'obably because the eriophyid pest hides between
che bud scales. Ali'ord (19?/2) found a new species of
tarsonetiid iVii te. Tarsonenais a c u 1 e u s _ in association with
E r i 0 p h y e s q a 1 1 a r u ni t i 1 i a e ( T j r p i n ) on limes. The tarsonenrid
utilized the irregular- growths structures as a food source
9nd the eriophyids abandoned the galls as their number in-
creased, Bharadivaj and Baderjec (1973) reported that
predatory iT:itc-s of mangoG? were killed along with E_. m a n g i -
ferae wlien th-e sapl ings were treated with aluminum phosphide
Spears and Yotfiers (1924) found an unidentified fungus as
a parasite of the citrus rust mile in Florida. Fisher et
al. (1949) rcpvji'ted an epizootic of P. o 1 e i v o r a on citrus
and suspected a fungus as the casual agent of mite death.
Fisher (1950) ieported the fungus H i r s u t e 1 1 a thompsoni i
f-'isher may be parasitic on the rust mite. Burditt et al .
(196/) furth eV described a !T d verified the relationship of
ii' thompsoni i of the citrus rust mite. Leatherdale (1965)
report!--d that ^several fungal agents attacked the family
Eri opliV id ae .-• laker (1963) reported H^. thompsoni i as a
fur;gal pfn-asite of the blueberry bud mite. He found

40

■«r/fecl.ecl mites to turn greeni 3h- gray , becoming inactive
with cc-.rLh fell owing. Hy!;h? v/ete found to extend from the
legs, genital; and anal openings as we]] ^s from the body
vtfall. Bciker found the popu'lution of the blueberry budmites
and seas o u d 1 n^, o r t a 1 i t y c f bud fr, i t e s infected w i t h [[. th pjri£--
s^>pj i to s h. G w a n i r( verse correlation. T h e b ;> d n; i t e and the
citrus rust mi i:e showed the saiiie symptoms in becoming dark
and exhibiting non- natural color when infected with the
-fungus. High populations of the blueberry bud mite, coupled
vrr; Lh increasing rainfall and high temperatures provided
suitable conditions for fungus g r c w t !i . As mite populations
and/or rainfall decreased, fungus coi'nrs woi'ld decrease.
McCoy (personal communication, 1974) h<as developed an exper-
imental control program, for citv-us rust mite that combined
the proper timing of acaricide with fungal outbreaks.

Resistance of Plants to Eriophyids

There has been a limited amount of research dealing
with host plant resistance to attack by tiie eriophyid mites.
Phillip (1963) found E. rij^i^ to attack both black and rod
currants. The mites caused galls in the former but not
the lattev- type. Talhouk (1963) reported a strain of almond
i)i l.e'oanon that was totally iniicune from attack by A. p h 1 o e -
c 0 p t e s ,

4/

A q 6 r v/ a "! ?. n d C i' a \; i a ( l 9 6 5 ) f o u )-; cl t h ?i t L 'i t g c ir.i s .
A cej^ia s i •• • : s ! i o v e d a p r e ^' e v f r c o for' 5^ o ni r. v a r i e t i e,- s o f
su (J arcane over others vv.der iucioticol conditions, They
also foiind that in the same variety whore tiio intensity of
attack v; a s h i n h g s t i n the e i g h t h 1 e ;i f s |-, c a 1 1 1 f r o ii; t !i e top,
the lov.'er sheaths, one through four, were free froiri attack
Nault and Briones {i96S) found on a specific variety of
hybrid corn tndt A^. tv i i o.ic caused no syiiiptctr.s without any
i n c r e e s e in population; w fi i 1 e on a [ ) a r t i c u "i a r i p. b r e d line,
the mites increased ^^5 ftjld in two weeks and the corn re-
acted severely with 1 e o f shotting, rolling, and trapping.

Scko'ioy (1957 ) reported that pear varieties with
long shoots J smooth bark without down at the ends, leaves
smooth on both sides, and sparse crown appeared to be rnile
resistant. f^ 1 a n t s with t e n d e )' skin, leaves with thin
epidermal layers and with hairy coverings were susceptible

Bindra ana Bakhetia (1969) found numerous mango
varieties were infested with the masigo bud tnite A. in a n g i -
ferae, but degree of damage varied between and within vari-
eties.

RPoEARCH

!?^JJ}l!il.LSi!JAS_J_n_o_ci^ji_tji_Oj\_l_e_s_ts^

!jn t_r 0 d u c 1: ion

Sevcrdl varieties of Berfiiuclagrass were ";nocijl£ted
with E. ry noclov'i ens i s under laboratory conditions. The
1 nf orm?) ti on sought in this test was first to obtoln Infor-
mation on syinptoinol og y and second to determine visahly tiie
mite res^'onse to the varieties tested.

Meteri a"! s and Methods

Nev; six incfi diameter black plastic pots were filled
to within approximately tivo inches of tne lip witii soil which
had previously been sterilized v.'ith methyl bron'ide. Tlie pots
vvere placed inside the laboratory witli conl.rolled teniper^ature
which v\'as kept at SS+^S^F. The photoperiod 'was control I'^d at
12 hours light.

NoMow, Coui'iion, Orniond , St. i.ucie, T-if green (323),

Tiflahn (T-57) and Tifway (419} v^rioties wen

e tested

I ne

orass saniples were obtained fron; the University of Florida
.Hor t i cul tii ra 1 Farin Unit. Healt/iy pU, ts of each grass var'^'-
ety wo'^e selected ^:^'^ circular plucir 'vere reicovod with a
standai'd qo^f greens cup cutter'. Tiu cutter ir.easirred ^ 1/1

48

49

inches in di f.tnotpr . EacSi plug contained the grass roots
and i<cr,it i~oi'l. This urrit. ineasured approxi rn? to ],y six
ir.rries f^oin the top of the gr^ss to the bottoin oi" the
i. 0 i '! a ri d root /one. The p » e p :r, ■ c u excess s a i "i was i. 1 i c •^ d
cff the sninple ju'-. t below thc^ area of heavy root develop-
tnent. The gr^si. sample was redi'cod tc approxiTiatel y four
inches by reriiOYing the excess scil below the root zone.
The samples vie'^e labeled as to variety and placed inside
polyethylene b a g s and individually sealed. The bags kept
the samples moist until they were planted.

The grass discs were placed in the plastic pots
and the soil wos ^.dded :inv. firinly packed around the disc
so that it was 1 1: v e 1 with the top of the grass. This w :. s
done in order to promote vertical as well as lateral gras-^
growth. The grass was maintained within the laboratory
for six weeks in order for it to overcome the shock of
transplantation and become v/ell established. It was watered
on a regular basis and fe'^tilized once every four weeks by
watering with a plant nutrient solution made by adding 1
level teaspoon of Millers 20-20-^0 nutrileaf complete Ter-
tiliier per 1000 ml of water. The fertilize*" contained
the ingredients shown in Appendix A.

At the eoii of six weeks the pots containing grass
fnat sliowed poor growth were discarded. The remaitiing pots
were randoiiii ;^ed according to variety and m.'^rked to become a

50

ccr.tro"! or tost not. Eacn vsiiety to be tc-'..t'id \'as repli-
cate.'! 10 tin;es. The ccisurol:; were re ;> 1 i ca ted five tifpos
and were kept on a bench at the opposite side of the la bora'
tory and a vrselifie barrier u'as plscod betv.'cen t-'^st ar^d cori-
trol areas.

The itiuoulum was taken fr^m a Icncv/r. h^^avy infesta-
tion of ;Tiites on NoMow var'iety. Nociules of pU-jMov; were' I'e-
nicvcd and placed withiri plastic bags. The mites ',73re
placed on the pot tea samples b> tearinc: the infested ro-
settes apart and placinr; the f--^rts intr) the thatcli of the
grass that v:d:- to be i nnc-i I a Leo . Tvo varieties, lifyreen
(328) and Tifv/ay (41^1), were r ei noeu! a ted a second time
by tiie Sdiiie proctdure 33 days later.

The varieties wei'e observed daily "uo dei.erniine
when t[ie first syr.iptoiTiS of nr-te injury would be expressed.
Whc!i the syniptcms become evident, a portion of tlie grass
was removed ano the presence of rr.ites was ascertained by
examining the tissue '.:i'.der a microscope.

Field-established TiFqrecn (328) and Tifway (419)
v/ere irocjlateci by the sariie procedure e\'ery wee'-: for seven
weeks at the University u\ Florida Horticultural Fanii.
These suriposedly nonsu scept i bl e varieties were the only
two tested since the farm has a history o ,' not ha vine
knov/n ';:ite infestations. The known s-jsceptible varieties
were purposely not tested to civcid the risk of infestinn
the far'!':.

51

The first inoculation wss done when tiie gross
reached the standard naintained cjrnss height of approxi-
mately 3/8 to 1/;? inch. The subsequent v/eekly incula-
tions wore m^de as ihe fjr."'. ss grcv^' taller since the plots
were not mowed dMring the test, This was done to see if
the two varieties would show symptoniol ogy i f allowed to
grow. linder nor^nial golf course nun" n tai nence , fairways,
tees and greens the areas where these two varieties are
utilized are kept at a height of less than one inch. In
this study susceptible varieties Orinond and common in
particular sfiowed little mite damage if kept mowed close.
Tifgreer' (3k'3) ^.nd Tifway (419) win'ch are nornially not
allowed to grew to a 2-3 inch height (a common height
for grass found in golf roughs), were allowed to gi^ow
to this height during this test to see if mites would
attack (Fig, 7). The test was run on three different
occasions accord' ,g to procedures explained and weekly
observations made. Samples were taken of random sprigs
of test grass an '"^ examined i/nder tl'e microscope. The
tost? ran for 20 '..eeKs after tfio first inoculation and
nubmerous sn'aplo:. ,icrc observed under the microscope.

Results a p. r! Discussion

The firi'' syi.iptoms to occur in the laboratory were
on the Mo^'low variety. This syiiiptoni was a shortening of

b2

iiiteriiodfjs end observed 13 ctays affer ttif original iroru-
1 a t i 0 t'l w a s !M a d e ( F i o . b K The N o M o v; v a r i e ty f i r s t ex h ! b i t c d
triG iTat f^n typo symploiii (discussed under Syinptoinol ocjy }
and upcr; microscopic ex.iiiii nation revealed that mites wer^
established.

The varieties wece. obseived daily and as the symp-
toms become evident they were recorded. The data are shown
i n Tabl e 1 .

Table 1. Number oF Pots with Grass Showing 'Jermudagrass
Mite K ceding Symptoms after inoculation with
the M" l:.

Days
Inoci

after
ulation

# of Pols of
Grass Surviving
after' 6 months

Grass Variety

13

20

27

30

NoMow

1

4

7

10

9

Onnond

-

1

4

9

4

Common

-

-

2

8

2

St.. Lucie

-

1

3

7

6

Tiflawn (T-57)

_

..

3

5

sod web worm

damage
Tif green (328) .. _ _ _ lo

Tifw-y (419) - - - - 10

NoMow was the first variety to begin mite sympton's
and all pots in this vai'iety had symptoins to some degree

53

vn t h i n 2-\ d d y s of inoculation. T h i :> v u r i o t y c o n t i n u ?^ d
to hold i t s col Q V L e 1 1 e r t h a ii d i d a 1 '! o 1 1 1 e r \< a c i e L i e s
i n cl a d i r; fj T i f g t' e e n and T i f w a y . The classic s f (] u c n c c o f"
syniptor.s were shown hy the NcMcw variety ir.crG strongly
lluin any of the otfiev varieties,

Tifiswn (T-57) nnd St, liide shov/ed symptoms later
than did N c M o w . 1 1 w ix s ti o t k n o w n i f t h e pi i t e s e ■- 1 a b 1 1 s h e d
theriiselves as soon as they did on NoKov/ since microscopic
examination was not done until vi sable symptonis appeared.
It is possible the n, i t e s were established equally at the
same time or. all the af orenienti cned susceptible varieties
but that sysTiptCfiiS vere not expressed as quickly on soine
varieties as other:, due i:o difveri.iy physiological responses.

Another reason for the apparent delay could have
been that NoMow developed a closer mure compact fJiatch and
did not qrov; as tall prior to inoculation. The mites froiii
the inoculum could have had a better chance to survive since
they were probably in closer contact witii the grass in NoMow
variety than in the other thinner grov.'ing varieties such as
Tiflav;n (Y-S'/), common, and Ornioiid.

Tfie symjitoms apiteared later on other varieties and
this could be explained by the fact that nil pots v/ere
placed side by side and that the original ir, oculum didn't
take on sonic of the thin grasses variety. As ttie grasses
gvcw and their foliage touched, the mites could h.ave migrated

54

from one pot to another amj thus symptoms could have bc^>n
delayed due to late arrival of the mite.

It is not known fiow the mitt- finds its way to its
niche b'^tween th'j leaf sheath and stem. It can be seen
from this test that the grass taken from fne Horticultural
Unit was free of mites since no symptoms were ever seen at
field unit and also the fact that none of the pots showed
any symptoins during the first six weeks they were in t!ie
laboratory prior to inoculation. However, one fact that
cannot be overlooked is that later field observations showed
that close ipowing of susceptible varieties (with exception
of MoMow) kept the mites from fornring rosettes and thus
building up large numbers. Close cut grass expressing no
symptoms would occass innal ly yield low numbers of mites.
Therefore, it would have been possible to bring the mites
into the laboratory on a disc of short cut grass taken from
the field with symptoms that would be expressed some 7-10
weeks later. Hoi/ever, the controls did not show symptoms
during this test as tfiey did under a similar replication
of this test which will be discussed later in this chapter.

Tifgreeii (."28) and Tifway (419) did not show any
signs of mite infestation in these tests. These varieties
we're rei nocul ated a second time in order assure their ex-
posure to the mites. After six months^ these two varieties
still sho\,'cd no symptoms of niite i n-^es ta ti on .

Even ti'ou'ji; HoMov.' hud tho first syruptoi.i s and ciur-
ing '.he sequence of dttdci; the '■.ymp Lo;;is w.to iriore prorr.i nrnt ,
ths gi'asr, i r, only 1 pot died v;ithin 6 months. NoMov; variety
seemed to be iib}c to live and outgrow syniplonis better than
did the Ormond, coninioii , and St. Lucie varieties.

Although Table 1 shows t!;e HLMpber of pots with sur-
viving grass, it eannot be Si^id that death? v/tre due strietly
to niites since sod v;ebworniS got into the laboratory and
damaged the Tiflawn (T-57) beyond recovery. The sod v.'eb-
v/ornis also damaqed some of the other varieties. At the
close of the test period, v/ater was v/ithheld frcm the pots
to see if the mite damaged grass could w i t h s t a ri d the stress.
The results showed NoMow. Tif^reen (S'S), and Titway (419)
could stand this condition the best, the latter two of course
had not been under any stress caused by mite infestations.

The test \/as repeated six months later with the
following exceptions: (1) only 3 varieties were tested,
NoMow, Titgreen (328), and Tifway (419); {?.) the pots were
kept in a non-air conditioned greenhouse uno'er normal light
conditions; (3) they were replicated 6 tiriies. Tifqreeti and
Tifway were inoculated weekly for 6 weeks. The results
are shown i n T a ti 1 e 2 .

The NoMow resporded the same as it liad in t!ie previ-
ous laboratory test. All pots of grass wei e alive at the
end of 6 months (Figs. 8 and 9). Tiie control p':'ts wore kept

ss

Tabic 2.

Nutubepi of Pots witt; Grflss Siiovring Ceriuud^grass
Mite Feeding Symptoms after Inoculation with
t h 0 f^ i i: e s .

Grfls s __V ar.ie t;/

NoMovv'

328

419

Control No Mow

1^+

-2.3Ly_i_4 1 -1? r I n 0 ci,i 1 a t: i o n
JJ 28 ^5 A_?^

6 6 6 5

on a separate bench. It is not knov/n how the conlrolG
became infested. It is possible that due to wind move-nent
thro'jgh tho open greenhouse thdt the mites u-ere b!c-ii to
the control pots. A. n e o c y n o d o n i s has been observed during
this study to exhibit the p e r p e n d i c u 1 a i^ erection on its
body via anal sue leers that precedes wind distribution char--
cci. eristic in the eriophyids.

No symptoms were expressed by T i f g r e e n (328) or
Tifway (419} and no mites were mi crosccpi ca "; ly observed as
a result of field testing.

Golf courses were inspected froiv. Jacksonville to
Miami, Florida for over two years. Over 200 different
greens were cxaiinned, samples removed, and microscopically
exami nod; many of them more tfian once. Th.o greens examined

57

v/eve plr-nr.cd in Tifgt'sen (3/"B) variety. No A. neocynoo'oni s
or any damage Iwiovn to be cau^>ed by thc;n v/erc found on any
of these g r e e n g .

An equal nurriber of fairways v/ere exami iicd and
Scjmples handled the same way as the ones collected from
the greens. Fairways planted in common, Orn)ond , and St.
l.ucio were almost always found to have one or more areas
infested with m i t e ^ during t n e early spring to late fall.
Golf courses in the Ft. Lauderdale area had mites the year
round on t !i e s e varieties.

Only one sample of Tifway (419) ever yielded any
Bermudagrass mites. This sample was found on a slope be-
tween a tee and a small lake. The grass was approximately
1 1/2 inches in height. The superintendent, Mr. Larry
Weber (personal communication, 1973), said the grass was
positively Tifway (419), variety. The sample had only a
few mites and would have been considered to be an extremely
low infestation. Intensive sampling was taken within this
d.r&di on Tifway (419) and no other samples yielded any mites
or siiO'A'cd any internodal shortening. On this golf coriiplex
which h.ad 3 separate courses, Tifway (419) variety was
used for fair w ays e x c 1 u s i \' e 1 y and the roughs were planted
in coir.mon variety. Berniuday rass mites were found constantly
in the roughs and damage often was extremely heavy with
pate lies ';f grass being killed as th. e result of infestation.

58

The fcM'-ways v/ere kept cut at 1/2 to "il^ inch&s \x. iieighL
and the roughs ct 1 1/2 to 7. "Inches. Hov/evej froiri tvsie
to time Che contour mo /ring patterns would change .^nd
roughs of coiiiipon would be cut short or Tifw-^iy (■11-) (fair-
Woys) left uniiiowed thus servir.g ss a rough.

Even v,'herc severe i nf estati '^ns of r.ites v/ere found
on the CoriiiTion variety, damage stopped with the onset of
the Tilway (<119) vai^iety. In the ef oreiv.ent i oned trarsi-
tion zones where Tifv^sy (419) v/os found to be 1 1/2 to 2
inches 1n height, there were no mites or damage observed.
Lines of damage v^ere so obvious in these zones of trans i-
rion that Tifway (419; growth margins could be picked out
between tiie varieties from a distance or 50 feet or more.

Suniri£_rj/

This study showed under laboraiory and field condi-
tions that NoMow. comiiion, Crmond, and St. Lucie varieties
were higf.ly susceptible to Bermudagrass mite attack and
syiriptoins became evident as early as 13 days after inocula-
tion.

Tif green (328) and Ti-f'v.'r.y (41?) were found to be
resistant to attack from tiie Mite. Tnese varieties yielded
no mites under microscopic exariiination and exhibited no symp-
toms from attack !iy them. Tbis work verified Biitlor's (1965)
that Bermudagrass Vv"^rietics with parentage of CyiOdon

59

trans v a i f,' e n s i s Dav^ appears to he les i s tan t to E', c^ nodoni ens i s .
Accordiiig 1o Hansor. (!965), Tifcjreer. (3?8) and Tifway {419)
have C. transvaleensis as parei.tagp v.'hilc St. Lucie, common,
and 0>-niond do not,

Miticide Control Tests--Deerv.'ood

Introduction

The [)eerv/ood golf course, located at Jacksonville,
Florida, had a histor}' of Bermudagrass mite infestations
particularly on its tees end fairways wliich v/ere planted
in Ormond variety. Greens were planted in Tifgreen (328)
vari ety .

Materials and Met hods

The course was insnected in June and Bermudagrass
mites were found to infest many areas on the fairways.
The infestation was sporadic and dead spots followed a
circular or irregular patterns. Certain tees were also
infested with mites and one was almost bare of grass.
Weeds and ncti-Bermi'dagrass varieties were beginning to
establish tiicmselves where the original Bermudagrass had
been.

The sixteenth fairway was chosen for pesticide
tests since it had a history of being the most heavily
infested area on the course for mites. Inspection showed

Fig. 5. Beginning of Internodal Shortening of Grass
13 Days after Inoculation under Laboratory
Conditions

Fig, 7. Fie;d Plot of Unniowed Grass that Underwent
Weekly Inoculations of Bermudag rass Mites

61

Fig

Pots of Grass Grov/n in the Laboratory
Shov-Jing Vertical Growth Seven Weeks
dfter Inoculf.ticn

Fig. 9. Pots of Grass Grown in the Laboratory
Showing Lateral Growth Seven Weeks
after 1 n o c u 1 a t i C' n

:0f'jf'*.'

m^ mm

64

mites infesting the rairway which vas discolored end had
fi u in e r 0 u s bare spots.

The fixteenth ferirway was surveyed and a random-
ized coinplet': block experimental design was used. Each
block was 10 feet wide and 70 feet long and was set to
cut across ti,>? fairway and through the area of damage as
much as possible. The blocks were marked by driving
cori. er posts of wooden stakes into the thatch so that only
1/4 inch of the stake was above the soil layer. This was
done because'play on the course was to continue throughout
the tests and it was imperative that plots not interfere
with golf play or the normal mowing and maintenance opera-
tions. T ti e test was r e p 1 i c £ t e d four times since adding
more blocks v">uld not encompass the damaged grass areas
evenly. Each block was divided into seven 10 x 10 ft plots
in order to acconimodate the six pesticide tests and a con-
trol. - ■

The following pesticide formulations and their rates

of appl i cati-.n were used:

Amount of Formulation
Pesticides* •- Formulations Broadcast/Acre

Id/- qi'anular

Ajdjcartj .'_

Tr ic'hTorfon-i,r'xy-" 0.375 + 0.125

deineton- I' Vchyl emulsifiable liquid

PJj'i'.Lt/'i*-'"''

t^^!^' u ^ f ot h i_o""i^i

Fjj()po_xu r

66.67 lbs,

60.00 lbs

21.78 gals

15% granular
1 5;- granular

22.00 lbs.

70% w ettflblc powder

_65^7 lbs.
If. 00' "lbs"

■^further in-^. nation available in Appendix D

65

The rates of a oplicatinn for each pesticide were
selected as the most likely iiiriount the F n vi rcninei'. tal Pro-
tection Agency (EPA) would register- for future use on turT.

The pesticides to be used on individurl plots
were measured and weighed in the laboratory prior to ap-
plicaticii. They were placed in glass containers, labeled,
end sealed. The granulated materials were placed inside
a glass jar with a lid perforated by nail holes. This
allowed the granules to be shaken out evenly over the plot.
The holes in the lids on t'le shakers were designed prior to
actual application so that the flow of the granules would
not be too rapid. Several size lid holes were used since
the various grariules were of different size and texture
and the flow rate varied In order to insure uniforii' spread
of granules, each plot was covered using a broadcast pattern
from 4 to 6 tines witli the shaker or until the specific
amount of granular material had been applied as evenly as
possible. The standard procedure was to start on one corner
of the plot and go from that point to the opposite side and
then return. This continued until the plot had been crossed
from either a north to south or soiith to north pattern. The
procedure then consisted of an east to west or west to east
movement. The procedure then rotated back to the north-
so u t I i ; t li e n to e a s t - w e s t pattern u ri t i 1 the supply of q i' a n u 1 e s
were d i s Lr i bu ted .

66

The prcniG as tired and weighed liquid and vyettable
powder pesticides we*^^ carefully emptied into a ?. 1/2 gal-
lon garden sprii-kler can from their respective glass con-
tainers. The container was then rinsed several times into
the sprinkling can to insure that all of tlie ciieiiiicals was
used. Viator was then added until the can contained approx-
imately 2 gallons of t ti e finished mix. This amount was
equivalent to approximately 880 gallons per acre w h i c I', is
more than is applied to most golf courses in normal spray
application. Ho\/ever with the sprinkler can delivery system,
this amount was thought to be necessary in order to reduce
the error in application.

In order to insure a good mix of water and materials,
the contents of the can were stirred vigorously v.'ith a clean
wooden paint stirring paddle.

Liquids were applied with the same criss-cross pro-
cedure as on tlie granular application plovs. The cans were
rinsed several tinies before adding the material for a new
plot. To reduce chances of contamination, a different
sprinkling can v/as used to apply oacii pesticide.

Approximately 4 hours after the application of all
chemicals, the irrigation system was turned on and 1/4 inch
of water applied to the test area. Another 1/4 incli of
water was applied at dawn on the following rooming. This
was one to wash off any remaining residue of toxic materials

67

and to wash in the graniiloled materials. The oodition of
water v/as also lised as a safety factor for the golfers
who would be playing the following day. The reason for
the four hour lapse period b e t v/ o e n a p p "^ i c 5 1 i o n and irri-
gation was that Deorwcod closes play every T'onday for
mointenanco and this was when the treatrients were applied.

After tne applications, the sixteenth fairway was
1 1" e a t e d t (1 e s a in e as v/ a s the r e :. t of the c 0 u 1^ s e grass and
was kept cut at standard fairway length of approximately
3/4 inch. The plot r a t i 1 1 g s were based on Butler's (1963)
procedures where overall grass growth, color, and general
vigor of a plot was scaled from 9 to 10, with zero being
bare soil and 10 being a perfect plot showing vo damage.
In order to reduce error, the ratings were made by two indi-
viduals and the results averaged. Coope raters were Drs.
H. L. Cromroy and David Bowers. Rating observations of
each plot were confined, as much as possible, to the six
by six foot middle section. This allowed a two foot border
of grass in each plot and helped reduce human bias. The
grass plots v/cre rated on the day of pesticide application
to establish a beginning reference baseline and ratings
were made every 1-^ days thereafter for 6 weeks.

Results and Discussion

The results of the test are presented in Table 3.
Statistical aria lysis using uunnetf's Test (Cornell, personal

68

Table 3. Visual Rating with Six Pesticides at Deerv;oocj
u c 1 f C 0 u r £ e ,

^'y' f ^^J" Net Cf;ange in
J.r&i'Ji'll'-JJ.t^'J! Pre-applicati oW- 1 4 28 A2. Treatnient

Phenamiphos

6.125

Aldicarb

5.125

Triclilorfor, -+
oxyde,;ie ton-
met riyl

3.125

Disul foton

7.375

Fensulfothion

6.125

Propoxur

7.625

Control

6.750

7.000 7.125 7,250 (+)1.125

5.G25 6.825 5.P.25 ( + )1.700

3.500 4.500 3.875 (+)0.750

8.125 6.625 6.500 (-)0.875

6.875 6.750 6.625 {00.500

7.875 7.125 6.625 (-)l.OQO

7.000 7.250 7.000 (+}0.250

* Each plot is the average result of combining tv/o ratings
on four plots

**For further information on pesticides, see Appendix D

communication, 1975) shou'ed that plots treated v/ith aldicarb
were significantly better in appearance at the 0.05 level
than tlie controls during the range of time the test was run.
Aldicarb plots were not however significantly better in ap-
pearance than plots treated with phenaini phos , fensulfothion,
or tr i cril orf on+oxydemeton-inettiyl . Plots treated with these
four materials were significantly better at the 0.05 level
than those treated with disul foton or ni opo xur. The turf
treated with the latter two materials >" e g r e s s e d in a [i p e a r -
ance but regression was not significant when compared to

69

Iht contro'! . It is not known v;hy regression occurred
since variables too numerous to list could have been the
r.'^ason. However, there is a possibility that the chetni-
..rals could have had an effect on beneficial turf arthropod
c v^ Dip! exes .

Although a great deal of information was obtained
from this test, a follow-up or continuation would not be
•'..r;Ccommended because of the following problems and criti-
cisms.

Although this was the most realistic field research,
it is difficult to work in the main area of traffic on a
golf course. Setting up plots in the flow of play constantly
creates problems between golfers and researchers. Another
problem encountered was tfie marking of plot layout so that
it can always be found days or weeks later. The marking
was difficult and remeasurement must be precise in order
t.n ,re-establisri block corners or other orientation points,
'ibis proceciure n.ust be repeated each time the plots are
r'dtrd or observed. In a case where fairways, tees, greens,
ov-;-other playable areas are utilized, it is imperative to
usi- markers that do not project more than 1/4 inch above
the soil I- ir f r.-r.e . If stakes or other devices are used and
tlils -leig' I" is exceeded, mowing and other maintenance
c(;"\pment will often destroy tiie markers and will become
daiuaqed themselves in the processes.

70

Another criticism for not I'-.^ng these areas -for
testing v,as the mowing process. It v^as later ■|c:arnerj
that 'no wing hinders tfie nor;iial popul^, rion development of
the Beriiiudagra ss mite. Thus, as a test ./as developing
vn'th iiiov,': rig beinci mandatorj^, the rosettes, fans, or otlier
nodular growth portions which harbor the majority of the
mite population \ ; a s cut, m u 1 c h e d , a n c ! scattered over a
wide area. Counts taken after' these operations could be
misleading as to the actual ccntrol that was being obtained
by a pesticide at a given time.

The most severe criticism is in the area of plot
layout and sampling technique. A plot layout that contains
a relatively uniform mite population is mandatory. It
should be pointed out that at the time this test was initi-
ated little was known of the mite population or their habits.
Ther^efore the large 10 x 70 ft blocks were adopted. Popu-
lations were never found to exist uniformly in areas this
large over the 2 1/2 year period covered by this study.
Extreme populations of mites were found in later observa-
tions but many times their datiiage was confined to small
isolated spots.

Summary

Oni'.ond Bei'muday rass infested with A. c y n o d o n i e n s i s
(Sayed) was treated with, six different pesticides. Ratings

71

of control ccms i s ted of a virtual classification technique
where plots were scored fro:ri C [i\(> grass) to "10 (perfect)
9 r a 5. 5 .

The plots were rated at 14. 28, and '\2 days after
treatnierit. Plci.s treated with 60 lbs. of lO'^ c*ldicc.rb
gran'jlcs i. ere significant over the controls in appearance
at the 0 . C J 1 e \' e 1 .

M i t i c i d e Control T e s t s - - P a 1 n^, a i r e

Introducti on

Pal ma ire is a golf and condominium complex located
at Poinpano Beach, Florid a, and consists of four par 72
professional type 18 hole goif courses that lie among. ..
a vast layout of living facilities. The fairways are
planted in Ormond variety Bermudag rass, and complaints of
mite attack on them had been numerous.

Materials and Methods

The four courses were thoroughly inspected in order
to establish an area that was uniform as possible in mite
infestntion and large enough to acconnnoda te sufficient jjlots
to test several pesticides. The courses had spots of mite
outbrea!; on r:umercus fairways and roughs. A great majority
of the infested areas were too smell for the plot area
requiri-d to run pesticide tests.

A general i nf tj, tati on follov/ec! the slopes along
a streaiTi ■tlia t jneanclered through the Palniaire courses; but
due to slope i- nd sparseness of grass, it was decided not
to select a test area along the sti^eam,

A randouri/ed complete block design was set up in
the areas thai' contained the largest and most even popu-
lation of mites found in the preliminary survey. This
area also had a history of having constant mite problems.
The blocks were replicated three times and the treatments
were five by five feet in size.

The original plans were to replicate the test a
minimum of four times and for the treatment plots to con-
tain 100 square feet rather than 25. However j the overall
infestation t .' > 5 rot sufficient for a test of this size
so less replication and smaller areas of treatment were
inade. Two blocks five feet wide and 50 feet long were laid
out end cornf-« stakes used for markers the same as was dis-
cussed under Deerwood Control Tes ts . Due to the irregular-
ity of the m"'-'te i ;if es ta ti on , the third block had to be made
L shaped. Thi^^lots that were to be tested had a reasonable
equal growth i--- grass and about the same topography with
little or no :- V-pe, In order to be able to find the plots
more easily a S'nTall amount of herbicide was used to kill
the grass, in a circle approximately two inches in diameter
surrounding the ^corner stakes.

7 3

Ihe h 0 r b i c i d f ; was a 1 ? o used on the corners of
eocli 'j x 5 ft plot. This n I 1 ov/cd for futiire sampling
witiuii. t ha vine; to re-establish blcck and plot boundaries.
This herb; ci dal procedure was used in this test since the
infested area was located betv;een the rough and the tee
and the dead spots were not detrimental to the appearance
of the course. This procedure also elinrinated the exces-
sive use of stat'es used in relocating plots. Pal.T.aire
management had requested that no test was to be visible
to the cl i entel e, and mowing maintenance had to continue
d u r i n g t h e t e s t i n g p e r i 0 d .

The following nine materials, rates per acre, and
f ormulatior.s were used;

Comn.on Name
A 1 d i r a r b
Phenami iihos
per, sul y othi on '

D i s u 1 f 0 1 c n
D i a ? i n 0 n ■
D i a 1 i f 0 r

Trichlorfon oxy-
demetonmethyl

Oxamyl

Per) tine hiydr oxide

Fo
10^<

15%

15%

15%
4
4

rmu 1 ati on

granu 1 es

g ra nu 1 es

granules

granules
eniul si f i abl e liquid
emu 1 si f i aijl e
liquid

3 7 5 + 0 . I ? 5
emul s i f i ah i e
liquid

e;iiu 1 s i f i abl c
1 i q u i d

) wet table powder

Amount of Formulation
__ Droadcast/Acre

60 lbs.

56.67 lbs.

66.67 lbs .

22.00 lbs.
1 .00 gal .
1 qt.

2': .78 gals

1 gal .
1/2 lb.

74

The materials used were previously weighed under
laboratory conditions, placed in glass containers and
properly 1 abel ed .

The application of granules, wettable powders
and emulsifiable materials were done as described in the
Deerwood Tests . The weather was usually windy in the
Pompano Beach areas. In order to avoid granules or liquids
from being blown away, the applications were made to the
plots from a height of approximately 1 to 1 1/2 feet. Ap-
plication was made only when there was either no wind or
a very slight breeze. If wind speed increased beyond a
very soft breeze or if there was any indication that the
wind was causing granules or liquids to be blown away
from the plots, treatments were stopped until permissable
conditions occurred. Fentine hydroxide and oxamyl were
not available from the manufacturers at the time of treat-
ment. They were applied 14 days after the other materials.
The statistical analysis was designed in order to consider
this alteration and will be discussed further under Resu 1 ts

Sampling. Grass samples were taken from the test
plots 2 and 4 weeks after the application of pesticides.
According to Reinert (personal communication, 1973), counts
taken sooner than 14 days could be misleading since deteri-
oration of dead mite bodies appeared to be slow and could
be deceptive if readings were taken prematurely.

75

Before Sc-;mpling, cara was taken to re-establish
cill plot boundaries. The saii'ple wos taken frorn the ceriter
of each pint. llris al loved approKima tel y a 1 1/? to 2 foot
buffer ?oao in each plot. Since plots were no I. separated
by nontr^ated boundaries, samples taken from any two adjoin-
ing plots v;ere a mMiimum of 3-4 feet apart. The scmple con-
sisted of approxiiiia tely 500 cc of individual rosettes, fans,
or other damaged appearing grass. The samples v/ere placed
in a plastic bag, scaled, and put in a shaded area. As
soon as all samples were ccl 1 ec ted, they were held for micro-
scopic examination in air-conditioned rooms where the temper
ature was niaintained at 68''-75°F.

The Bias Sample. The bias sample technique was
developed by necessity and can be explained by data in
Table 4. An attempt was made to sample known mite infested
areas on P a 1 m a i r e courses. The t e c h n i c] u e used was to ran-
domly remove an approximate 10-20 gram portion of grass
within an i ri f e s t e d plot. T r i e s e samples usually did not
contain any rosettes, fans, or other symptomol ogy indicative
of mite dajiiaqe. When actual microscopic counts of tliese
samples were made, mites were found in insufficient numbers
to v^ork with. When a random saiople contained a rosette the
numbers of mites found and coniparod it with a random sample
where rosettes did not occur were so extreme th.at the over
balance discouraged even the remotest conclusion.

7G

Tp.'ole 1. Comparisons of Mite Counts frof!' Raridoa, Grass
Sdiiip'les and Biased Samples.

S a m ij 1 e No.

Al

B2

C3

D4

E5

F6

G7

HS

19

Total Numbers of Mites

Random Sample* Biased Sample*
5 9 35

8
2
3
9
3
2

323

290

725

704

78

565

226

347

*Each sample is composed of the average of 5 subsamples

From this experi ence, i t was decided that samples
v."juld be used from both treated ana control plots made
up of (jvass portions (rosettes, etc.) wiiich contained
abDormal growth caused by the mites. It was felt that
a better comparison could made using this sampling tecn-
nique. The bias sample is in need of modification because
this method also yielded large differences in populations
even when it was highly suspected that none exists. This
error could probably be redL'ccd by extracting mites from
larger numbers of samples rroni a larger area. Time was
not available for the porsnn doing tlie counts to increase
t hi c> n u m b o r o f :■ a m pies.

7 7

Co u rrts , Actual counts wyre usually mark- within
lR-24 hour;, after sarnplinc;. It would take about 48 hours
to cxfimine thp san-iplos. As much as 72 nours often elapsed
from the actual time the s.ii'iplc was token and subsocjuer.t
counts iiiade. In order to veduco any bias, the plot samples
were exaiTiined on a taridom basis.

A subcount v/as begun oy taking the sheaths at ran-
dom from a mite infested rosette with a pair cf jewelers
f 0 r c e [J s . The s h e a t fi s were then carefully placed inside
up and all stages counted except egg. A suh count co n -
s i s t e d of 1 1 1 c total mites found under a 16 ,X 1 e n s f i e 1 d
of an A , 0 . S [) e ! i c e r (i i s s e c t i n g microscope.

In order to reduce error, five rosettes were ran-
domly selected fi'om the composite sample and a separate
subcount Miade on the sheaths as previously explained. The
final total count of a recorded saiiiple was composed of the
average n u r,i b e r • c f mites found in the five s u b c o u n t s .

In order to obtain usefi.'l and working data, it was
decided to use the bias method of sampling. A comparison
of the two methods of saniplitig is given in Table 4. It
was found that a total of o r. ) y 94 mites were found in 125
random tyiie grass samples comfiircd with a total of 7,528
mites found in 110 bias type samples.

Data is presented in Table 5 concerning the miti-
c i d e tests ,

78

iable 5. Mite Coi.'rits Ressjlting froiii Appi ice ti or; of Pesti
cides at Palm aire Golf Course

Trear.niept.

Ren 1

Control (A)

Aldicarb

D i a 1 i f 0 r

D i a 2 i n c n

T r i c h 1 0 r f 0 n h-
oxydenujton-
methyl

P h e n a m i p 1"! 0 s

D i 5 u 1 f 0 1 0 n

Fensi;lfothion

Ox 6 my 1

Fen t. i n e

Hydrox i de

Control ( B )

226

79

2

2

249

3 23
36

935
85

925

Days after Treatment

_J^^

Rep 2 Rep 3

555

3

20^1

347

34

4
303
856
255
425

760 795

41

41

5

140

290

277
72G
486
490
174

420

28

Re p_ 1 R e_D__2 Rep 3

220 30 5

0 0 0 ^
160 43 1025

0 0 0
460 795 473

0

0

300

385

30

0

0

5

1280

12

160

120

848

512

3 25

536

915

286

Results and Discussio n

It was decided after discussion with an I FAS stati-
stician to combine the data obtained from not only the two
periods of sampling but to a ""so combine the data from the
oxamyl and fentine hydroxide ti-eatments, since separate
controls were added to the test to compensate for delay of
application of tiiose two materials. The data vpre examined

79

and analyzed by acceptable statistical techniques so
that all treatments could be compared to the control and
all treatments could be compared with one another. Tables
showing statistical methods and calculation are shown in
Appendix C.

Standard A. 0. V. Tables indicated that signifi-
cance existed when the sampling data was transposed using
the log (1 + y) or ^^ + y. These tables are presented in
Appendix C, This transportation was necessary since the
range between samples were so large,

Dunnett's test showed aldicarb, diazinon, and phena-
miphos to be significant over the controls at the 0.05 level

Duncan's multiple range test was used in order to
compare significance to treatments with each other and the
results are presented in the following table:

Table 6. Overall Results of Bermudagrass Mite Control; a
Statistical Comparison Using Duncan's Multiple
Range Test .

Pesticide Level of Comparison*

Aldicarb a

Di azi non ab

Phenamiphos abc

D i a 1 i f 0 r bed

Di su 1 f oton bed

Oxamyl cd

Fensu 1 f oth i on cd

Trichlorfon + oxydemeton-methyl d

Fentine Hydroxide d

*Pesticides followed by the same letter were not significantly dif-
ferent at the 0.05 level.

80

Sunmi^ ry

It. was found that airlicarti, diazinon and pheria-
miphos iiad sijni fi canl ty fe\;er Bermudagra ss mites than
controls 2S c-'ays after application. There was no signifi
cant differer-..e between the niiticides when com[jared with
each other.

Growth Regulators Tests

Introductiop '"'

The Fnverrary golf and condominium complex, located
at l.auderhill. Florida, is composed of two professional par
72 and one par 60 executive courses. The tees and fairways
are planted in Tif\.'ay (419) and the greens in Tifgreen (328)
The roughs are j.l anted in comr.ion Bermudagrass and landscaped
witt! subtroi-'i cal type plants and trees. The roughs are
delineated from the fairway strictly by mowing. Fairways
are kept cut u^ .'V8 to 3/4 inch in height and the roughs
at approximately 1 1/2 to 2 inches. Changes in mowing pat-
terns will oc'^arn' onal ly produce the margins of the rough
with Tifway (419) and the fairways with common variety.
The course mj'na'gtment reported sporadic outbreaks of mites
on the compl{-A and complained that mites could be found
the entire y c a r .

M a t e )' i a 1 s an d Methods

The entire turf complex was thoroughly surveyed.
Mites were found in isolated spots along the roughs or

8i

where coiiiiiiori variety v;as foutid. The infef:led erear. v/ero
too r.ma'll dwd isolated to atleuipt to try anri sot up a
statistically a nee p tabic p"NticiQe tcLt.

Th'2 cout'?e was kept tin dor sin-vei 1 1 ance for ainiost
a year. Puriiig the spring of 19'/^, an area along the rough
of "nuii'.bcr 2" fairway en the West Coursi' was found to be
infested with mites. Ihe infestation extended for ap-
|j r G X i 111 a t e 1 y 100 feet in length a ; : d fro in 15-20 feet wide.
The dred was intensely surveyed and although infestations
were sufficient to support a test there wore breaks within
t'ne area that had few mites and little damage.

The Bermudagrass in this area was approximately
1 ]/?. inches in height. The entire area was flat and
moisture conditions were ccnsidered to be somewhat minimal.
The fevtility program in this area was considered to be
excellent.

Previous correspondence with Z o e c o n Corporation
of Palo Alto, California had led to the investigation of
i.'sing several growth regulators in attempting to control
tfu: Ber.nu da grass mite. Zoecon had reported that six
numbered compounds had shown miticidal and ovicidal activity
against the two spotted, the European red and the brown al-
monc! mite. The materials we»'e recommended as foliar treat-
ments and supposedly showed no systemic action. All ma-
terials were 25% wettable |)owder formulations and were to
be applied as a 0 . 1 •, finished spray.

The area to be tested was examined and seven sub
areas that appeared to show equal symptoms, grass color
and gruv'th cha ra r tor i s ti cs were selected. The seven
plots v/ere rando-.i zed as to i^hat treatment they would
receive, A 10 / 10 ft aluminum pipe template was made
and each sidewJo marked at the halfway point so when it
was laid flat on the turf a 100 square feet section was
marked off. Thv: area within the template could then be
divided into 4 subsections by lining up the midpoints
marked on tiie-srSes of the template. Each of the four
five by five sections within the template was to serve
as a replication of the same treat m e n t ,

The area within the template was delineated by
using an inve^^tcc! spray paint golf course marking apparatus
containing magenta colored paint, This apparatus is com-
monly used to make boundaries on golf courses during tourn-
ament p 1 a y . • '

The grovrhh regulators to be used were weighed out
prior to tes t -i n j ■ ind placed in glass containers. The
weight of the t.. ::t m.aterial was precal cu 1 ated so that
w h e I'; mixed w i ■ -'i a c. u a r t of water it would 3' i o 1 d a 0.1 %
spray,

A conta'"^. er was p remarked so that when it was so
f i 1 1 e d it c 0 n t a ■; ; . e d a q u a 'r t of water. This amount w a s
selected to bo i ed since most spray machines on golf

83

courses afjply approxiniaiely 100 Gallons of water \)e-r acre
ill sprciyinn for disease or mites. One oiiart of finished
spray pc-r 100 square feet "is o q u i v 9 ': e n t to 1 0 S . 9 gallons
per acre.

The materials used v/rre as follov.'s:

Materi al

ZR 793

ZR 856

ZR 918

ZR 1829

ZR 1859

ZR 1888

i 0 r m

25% WP

2 5% WP

2 5% WP

2 5% WP

2 5% WP

2 5% WP

908705 lbs.

908705 lbs.

908705 lbs.

908705 lbs.

908705 lbs.

908705 lbs.

Lbs . i'orniul ati on/A

3.6351 lbs.

3.63 51 Ids.

3.635] lbs.

3.6351 lbs.

3.6351 lbs.

3.6351 lbs.

Mite precounts were made prior to applying the
grov.'th regulators. The bias system of sampling was used.
Since the material applied was considered to be an ovicide,
a ratio cf all stages of mites to eggs were established.
A sheet of paper with a si'.all rectangle was constructed
and a section of tiie infested leaf was placed on the rec-
tangle. Observations were made at 45 X power using ati
A.O Spencer dissecting microscope and tlie mite eggs were
counted and coinpa)'ed with the nymphs and adults found
within the confines of the rectangle. Results of the
count ratios sho\;n in Table 8.

8 'I

Two applications of the growth regulators v/ero
..made.,... til e second 10 days after the first. The material
W5s".Dpplied to eacii 100 square feet areas by using a 1 1/2
e-5r1lon compr'.ssed air sprayers. The v/ettable povjder hor-
moiie • was addtd to the tank from the glass container. The
co-ntainsrs wjre then rinsed using water from tlio premea--
sured quart that was to be applied to each 100 square feet
p-fot and the rinse water added to the sprayer. When the
gidss contai.ver no longer showed any visible residue from
. .t'lrG' wettabl e -powder , the rinsing operation was stopped and
the rema'inder of the quart of water was added to the tank.
The tank was closed and the spray mixture was shaken vigor-
ously to ai d' mi xi ng ,

A different, clean compressed air sprayer was used
to spray each individual material. The procedure for
spraying each block followed the pattern as described under
- -the Deerwood tests. The compressed air sprayer was chosen
,r f-cr this tes-*".- because it would deliver small amounts of

spray more e.v;enly than the sprinkling can method. In order
to reduce Sj.^^ay drift the sprayers were operated at low
pressure so Mvat droplet size was too large to be blown
away by s'l-f g:ht ai r movement. Using this [irocedure it took
from B -"tt) '-TO '' Limes over" the plot before the spray was
exhausted.

Counts were made on April 18 using the system pre-
viously dos.ribod on May 6 just i)rior to the second a|)[)l ication

fi[>

arid tiien on V.ay 30 ns a follow v.p to the second treatment
with the rer,L;lts shov;n in Table 7.

Table 7. Mite Counts in Total Nuinbers at the Fnd of IP. and
4 2 Days after Treatment, Jneverrary Golf Course

Bl

ock

J.

I

I

1.11

IV

level
of

Da

ys

Trea tment

18

42

18

42

18

42

18

42

comparison*

ZR 793

496

577

716

432

1 080

756

1350

703

ab

ZR 856

592

399

980

137

640

417

1200

950

a

ZR 918

556

1082

380

1344

708

1062

580

1080

c

ZR 1829

336

565

140

784

1500

530

1280

552

ab

ZR 1859

800

744

384

404

460

624

1070

1338

a

ZR 1838

480

420

884

376

732

274

743

768

a

Control

476

628

290

710

700

555

555

600

ab

*DLinnett's test at 0.05 level

There appeared to be no significant changes in id i t e p o p u 1 a •
tion during the test.

Results ai^d Discussion

No significant differences v/ere observed between
aiiy treatnients at tlie end of 18 days. Significance was
obtained between treatments at the .01% level at the end
of 42 dcvys using the standard A.O.V. table. Dunnett's

86

test v^cts applied to the data and it v/as found that the
reason for significance "lay in the fact that the growth
regulator ZR- SI 8 had tremendously hicjh mite populations
when compared to the ether compounds and the control.
There v/as no significant difference betv/een tlie otiier
compounds when compared to th.e control at the .05 level.
Compound ZR 856 and ZR 188c? however did prove signifi-
cantly better than compounds 7 i! 1859 and ZR 9 '! ft at the
.05 level. A . 0 . V . tables and D u n n e 1 1 ' s test are included
in A p p e I i d i X D .

The results of the adult plus nyiiiph.s to egg ratio
are presented in the followitig table.

Table 8. Ratio of Nymphs Plus Adults to Eggs at 18 and
42 Days after Treatments

Treatment

Totals
Days Control ZR 793 ZR 856 ZR 918 ZR 1829 7R1859 ZR 1888 (T)

18

l:/i,.591 1:2.649 1:5.296 1:3.195 1:1.365 1:5.857 1:2.857 25.81

42

1:0.385 1:0.673 1:0.783 1:0.419 1:0.418 1:0.983 1:0.415 4.076

Total 29.886

P 18 days I = 3.687
P 42 days I - 0.582

X '^ - 4.21
X^ - 0.541

It was found and can be supported by the above date
tiiat the variation in the adult ^ nymph : ev.' ratios I'anged
froiii 3 to over 11 fold.

87

Mov'Gver the clii-r.quarp values in compdring the
treatrnt^it rnd contml ratios with each other at the 18-
day i ;i t e r V a 1 and with each other at the 42 day interval
sfiowed that t!-e variations that existed were not signifi-
c a n t .

The reason for the sharp drop in ratios is unex-
plained and could be due to many known and unknown environ-
m e n t a 1 r a c t o r s .

It is possible that predatory mite forms could have
been the reason for part or all of the ratio changes, since
it is known that some cf the niites found during this re-
search are predaceous on mite eggs.

Summary

No positive significance was found between six
growth regulators and the control when tested against the
Beri.iudag ra ss 'mi ' •■ infesting coniinon variety Bermudag ra ss .

The materials were also being tested for ovicidal
properties and i-o significance was found between the com-
pounds and the l u n t )^ o 1 .

Symptomol ogy

Tlie fiist symptom of the Berniudagra ss mite feedings
is t:ot always easy to detect. The patterns are not always
the same and trie sec|uenco of injury that can lead to grass

88

death appears Lo vary froiii one plot to another. This, oh-
servation is r.ot linexpected and can partially bd explainod
by the fact t!uit management programs of grass differ widely
from golf course to golf course.

There is a general pattern of attack by the mites
and subsequent symptoms do follow a seqiicnce. The first
stage is a slight yellowing (particularly in Orinotid and
Common varieties) of the very tips of the blades o^ grass
on which the mites are feeding. The yellowing can be more
or less pronounced and probably depends upon variables
such as fertility, moisture and other associated factors
in a turf complex. No Mow variety does not exhibit z\ic
pronounced y e 1 1 o \'/ i n g characteristic as do the previously
mentioned varieties.

The second stage is characterized by twisting of
the leaves and siiortening of the inter nodes especially
under moisture stress. The leaf twisting alone is com-
monly refei-red to incorrectly by many lay observers as
"wi tchbroomi no . " Leaf twistin'_ is expressed by tlie fact
that the margins of the leaf cole upward and inward and
thus each individual leaflet appears in a t i g li t rolled
position (Fig, 10). A [)lot or g»-ass iT observed as an
entity takes on a darker appearance which begiiis at the
tip of ttio blade and proceeds back to the point of its
insertion at the node. As this conditio!! progresses from

89

leaf to leaf then that particular sprig of grass takes
on a thin spindly appearance. This phenomenon is a condi-
tion of wilt and has probably been termed "witchbroom" be-
cause the blades actually look "stringy" as would the tips
of a worn-out broom. This condition is only a response
by the grass to reduce the loss of water when it is under
moisture stress or comes about when conditions exist where
water is in a short supply. Many times it was observed
that the leaf twisting never appeared in mite-infested
Bermudagrass which was heavily watered.

As this study began it seemed to be the opinion of
many turf workers that when they observed "wi tchbroomi ng "
(leaf twisting) during the season for mites, especially
when they had been reported in the area, then the diagnosis
was commonly made as mites. Often mites were the reason
but this overall observation proved to be very misleading.

Literally hundreds of these witchbroomed areas were
observed and taken apart. Samples were brought into the
laboratory and each sheath stripped and observed under the
microscope. An occasional mite was found and a small
colony would also be observed from time to time. However
a great majority of the time mites were not found. When
the leaf twisting did occur the pattern would be found as
irregular spots from a few inches in diameter to one that
would cover several hundred feet. This pattern did resemble

90

one that would occur when a pest organism establishes a
population in turf, however thinking that the numerous
leaf twisted spots meant mite infestations proved to be
wrong. Many environmental stresses were found to cause
the described condition in one instance or another and
many times an answer didn't appear to be available. Often
observation led to the fact that nematodes were the cul-
prits and the grass responded quickly to nematicide treat-
ments. Root disease and damage often were the reasons for
the symptoms. The aforementioned reasons were many times
associated with the leaf twisting even though the overall
moisture conditions of a golf course were considered ade-
quate or even good, and this often would further lead the
casual observer to think that a heavy infestation of mites
was present.

During this study it was found that several vari-
eties of grasses other than Bermudagrass would show the
leaf twisting symptoms. All Bermudagrass varieties did
appear to show the symptoms far earlier than did other
grasses .

Further investigations often resulted in finding
irregularities of the top soil on which the grass was
established. Many golf courses have top soil hauled in
to provide a media for the vigorous crop of grass de-
sired. In spite of all efforts, often a spot of rock or

91

sand pockeL v/ould exist zv.d be devn-jd o1 any of the top
soi'i or organic matter which is ? good nioisturi'" retoirinj
agent. The result of th.is action would cause the grass
to vrilt within this given spot and subsequent b/ mites
would be bla.iied, These sand or rock pockets help explain
the fact t.hat in spite of the addition of several inches
of water the leaf twisted areas can appear within a few
hours after cessation of watem'ng. This condition was
brought about by the high temperature and subsequent
transpiration rates of Bermudagrass coupled with the poor
water holding capacity of the sandy soil or other [)oor
growing media in these troubled spots.

Ttie Beriiiudaqrass mite was only occasionally found
associated within the spots containing the leaf twisting.
When mites were found, leaf twisting was coupled with
shortening of inter nodes observed (Fig. 11). If the nodules
and r- 0 s e 1 1 e s ( v\' h i c. h will be discussed f u r t li e r in t 'n i s sec-
tion) caused by the mites were present, then tliey would be
more 1 i I', e 1 y t o be seen and would draw the attention of the
observer to the infestation. A thick rosette anywhere from
1/2 to 1 inch -in diameter is likely to stand out within the
v/ i 1 I e d grass area. At times those rosettes would be n i; m -
erous and it was considered that these "cabbage head" ap-
pearing clumps had been in existence for- quite some time
in order to be as far advanced in their development as they

92

VI ere

t is felt the.! the willed conditif/n allowed the

rosette to be o t) s e r v e d so t h e ni i t e i; a s often blamed a, s
the culpi'it rof the overoll wilting.

The third step in the sequence (if "1 eaf tvv i s ti r.g "
can be consideied the second) is wlsat is termed true witch-
breoiuing. Tiris condition results from a shortening of the
in to modes on d ncriDal grass steiii until there are many
individual blades growing close together and appearing to
radiate from a common point. In its early stage, the leaf
particularly in No Mow variety begins to ta!<e on the ap-
pearance of a flat fan (Figs. 13, 1^, and 21). This flat
fan is not usually as pronounced in Common, Ormond, Tiflawn
(T-57), or St. Lucie varieties but does exist. Wi tchbrooni-
ing will exist in various degrees of intensity within a
ni i t c -infested area.

The fourth symptom is what is termed the primary
stage o f the .rosette. When t fi i s occurs, numerous leaves
or leaflets appear to have t'neir basal insertion at one
point. This stage loses the flat appearance and takes on
a round "cUimp like" appearance. The grass no longer ap-
pears to possess any internodes, the leaves are so numer-
ous that several dozen will be arranged in a whorl and will
touch one anotlier (Fig. lb). The fifi'.li symptom can be con-
sidered the se.:ondary rosette. The individual grass blades
lose their sharp edges and become semi-oval and spike-like

93

in a p p e a r' a n c e . They are a (j r e a t deal s f i o r t e r and s t. u b b i e r
than poriiial leavos. 'Ihis total leaf distortior, coupled
with the condition where leaves are so numerous and com-
pact converts the grass spil; elet into a cabbage-htad ap-
pearing body. The rosette then continues to ciilargc and
may reach the size of 1 1/2 to 2 inches in diameter and
2 inches or more in lic:ight (Fig. 16). Tiie resetting may
becoir-e tighter until it reacfies a ball. At this stage
the outer leaves are generally dead or in the process of
drying out. The individual leaf tip is also dead and
chlorophyll production is found only as the heart of the
rosette is approached. The leaves in the lieart will gen-
erally be a pale green mottled with dead or dying brown
colored tissue. The leaves will tiave a general appearance
of being scalded.

The sixth symptom or climax is reached when all
leaves die back to theii^ i user tier, point on the stem (Fig.
IS). The stem itself will begin to die back and will con-
tinue until th crowns are reached. If conditions are
severe enough, the entire s t o 1 o r^ will die (Fig. 18). Dead
areas of the grass can be limited to a few stolons or it
may cover a wide area (Fig 20). If growing conditions
i III prove there will often be a regrowth from infested ro-
settes located on a damaged stolon (Fig. 19).

In man.y cases the weather or other env i ro'inien ta 1
conditions will iinprove to the point where the infested

94

grass will go into a stage of regrowth, sending out new
leaves which may originate within the rosette. However,
the new leaves can still be abnormal in appearance but
will exhibit a reasonable green color. If the grass con-
tinues to grow and radiates out of the rosette or nodular
like conditions or if the mites are controlled or disap-
pear, then the original rosettes will exist for several
months if not removed by mowing.

During the course of this research, many mite
infestations and extensive and intense rosetting condi-
tions appeared in grass plots and often there was no leaf
twisting analagous to drought conditions observed.

In order to find a "knot-like" rosette in normal
appearing healthy grass it would often be necessary to
use the sense of touch or feel . One of the best methods
for locating mite populations would be to gently feel the
grass surface with just enough pressure on the hand so
that the knots could be felt.

It has been falsely concluded by many of the turf
workers that the mites occur only in dry weather. The rea-
son for this belief was the general wilting of large areas
coupled with mite symptoms that would stand out to the
casual observer during drought periods, and in the wet
season very evident symptoms were masked by lush green
healthy turf. The feel technique previously discussed

Fig, 10, Healthy Grass Showing Slight Leaf Twisting
drought on by Moisture Deficiency

Fig, 11, Beginning Symptoms of Mite Injury Showing
Shortening of Inter nodes and Leaf Twisting

96

m

Fig. 12, Further Progression of Mite Injury Shovn'ng
Shortening of I n t e r r: o d e s but with Leaf
Thickness Still A p p r c x 1 iri a t e 1 y Normal

Fig

I n t e !^ R e d e s S lio r 1 e n e d Even Further wit h Time
and Individual Leaves Becoming Thicker and
S h 0 r t e r

93

Fig. 14. 'I his is r. n Advanced Sir; ye of Mitr-' Injury
with the Gi'c.ss Showing the SyiTiptoins
Termed "Fan" which Precedes Rosettina

Fig. If'. Beginning of the Stage Known as the "Priiiiary
P^osette" which Approaches the Most Advanced
III jury Stage

100

\:^'^ v'..,. ijjRA V

A

Fig. IG, An Extremely Advanced Stage of Mite Injury
Termed "Secondary Rosette" which Precedes
D e a 1 1 1 of the Grass

Fig. 17. Seqijei'ce of Symptoms Exhibited by No Mow
Variety Bermudagrass . Grass Spil.e at Far
Left is Wilted bu-*; Healthy and the Lntry
at t'it Ear Fright is in the Climax Symptom

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4->
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o

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o

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cn

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1/1

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to

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fO

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rs

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i-

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106

Fig. 20. Typical Spotted D a rn a g e Found in Mite Infested
Grass

Fig. ?.! . An Ii,f>late'J "Fan" Found Among a Healthy Appeal
i n q A 1^ e d of Grass

103

■m^m.

m

i09

provf;:! "I n V',; lii'j b 1 p in ciuic !-. 1y scrdeni r. ;i lorge area?. "^ or
inite poiiL! t a ti onr- esp&c i j 1 1 y whci c gr'ass gro'wth war. oood,
thatr.l: iioavy and 'j,y\v.\ito\'):, difficult to see.

S_q!ne fii stakes Believed bei n cj H a d s i_j2.

Controlling tho Bermudagrass M1te

Observations were nade on yolf courses a round the
state for 2 1/2 ye3rs. The maintenance and i mprc vor.rn t
operations needed in a successful golf T.anagetnant course
are (riite large. There are constant problems "rinciing
frOii'i « sinu-le top dressing of a green to the coinplete re-
fa u i 1 d i fi ci of that s t r- u c t u r e , S p r a y operations a re i i" D o r !: a n I
and t n e y t a k e t !'i e i r p 1 a c: e i n a ir; a z e o f o p e r a t ions d e p e ■ , d i n cj
upon ir.any variables such as v'eaiJier, size of the operations'
budget, training and backgr o'jnd of the sujier i ntendant , se-
quence of attack by a iios t of insectj v.'eed, or disease
agenLs, course traffic, and many other coininon day- to-diay
probl e,i:s .

There appears tc be no sot proccdui-e for ire con-
trol of the Beriiiudag r ass mite. There is no sanipliiic; tech-
nique available to the course luanagors or others yjhero
they can monitor the mite populations and reach a decision
as 1 0 t i m i n g of spray. The m a j o r i i y of courses o b s o r \' e d
apply one or VAore applications of Uiazinoii on greens, tees
and the aprons of these structui-es sometiiiios in the spring
to early snnniior depending on geographical location within

i ]0

the stale, SiJraying is genc'ttlly Hone v.hori coriipl « i nts
ar? vo'lce'i by neighboring covrz^es, of when v/i tchbroon.i ng
0 ; ■ r !) 5 citing can be o b s o r v e <' i u o t h e r a r e a s o n t h e u o 1 f
course. Thi:, control techi'ii que can be ve>-y co.-:tly fur
t h cj foil 0 \'i i I'i g r e a s 0 n s . i- i r s t , m i t o o u t b r e a k 5 r a n o c c u r'
ou a neigl)bori ng golf couvse v/he;> it is plctnteo tc vari-
eties that are laor-e susceptible to mite dai^iage. For
example, if the fairways and rcugiis are Comaioii or Oi-i;iond
varieties which, are well-known to be susceptible you would
expect to find rnites in greater numbers than where tt. e tees
and fairways t-rc Tifway ('119) the greens are Tifgresn (323)
d.u6 t!ie roughs native grasses or other vegetate on .

A s e c C' ;': d m i s t a !- e can be the a p p 1 I c a t i o n o f a pes t i -
cide wi)en psei'do wi tchbrooiiii ng (leaf twisting) appears. As
has already been discussed iMider LymutOiriol ogy , this condi-
tion c.?i) te brought on by an array of reasons wit hi insuf-
fic'CPit wateriiig at tfie proper time being one of tlie iiiost
frequent causes. Tlie lack of sufficient rainfall is con-
roor: in ni;;ch ol the state during the spr-ing to early surnnier.
hear cvistiiig can be observed on ?ry day during this ijoriod
and first C'Ccurs as spotted areas. As the droughit continues
and tlie net loss of water fvo;, the grass is greater than the
gain, leaf twisting v/iiich is coi;i:i'Only mistaken fo!~ witch-
brooming ajipc'rs as grass te,r,po> - >■ i ly wilts. beriiuidau'^ass
demands !i; o »■• e iv a t e r t h a :\ 'v any o. ;- a s 5 e s a r: c ! w i 1 t s ii 1 1 i c i; 1 y u n '\ e r-

1 i T

strot^s. This can be observed whert f.|>iit5. of Bermudii •-
grass txists r-niong grosses 'like iiauiacnass diid St. Augus-
t i i'l t y r a "> s . 0 p. a h o 1 a f t. e r r; o o n , y c^ u c c i': o [> s c r v e f r o ni -] ;; i t, e
r) distcnce the spots flno' perimeters of tht Ber'Tiudaarass
by its leaf twistincj wilt whereas the adjacent g-'-asses of
other varieties do not exiiibit tfiis cho rac tor i sti c until
a tier a longe-- duration of stress. Golf courses beiiio al-
most wholly planted in Bermudag ra ss certainly exhibit this
response to heat and drought. As these conditions become
persTsteiitj many ;;ianagers apply pesticide in belief that
mites are causing the v/ilted conditio;^. liiere can be
other reasons for the leaf tvistiny such as neroatodes,
Bermudao! ass scale and other pest infestations as well as
nu'iri ti cnal problems. The soil type should !iot be over-
looked as its water hoi di rig capacity varies greatly,

A third mistake is the spraying of the greens.
Greens are of ccjrse the one area of the golf course that
irmst be kept in the best possible shape if it is to be
successful. Maintenance here is often oriented around
c 0 ci p 1 e i e p r e v o r: t i o n o f a ti y pest t h a t c o u 1 d c a u s e d a m age.
K:o cna^ces ai'e taken because dead ^^pots, grass dis-.ol ora-
tion 01 d-uy i rr.TOir! ari ty that could affect play could be
reasoii for loss of client^^le. The greens observed during
this research, have aliiiost totally been planted to Tifgrcen
(3L'S). Duiinn Ihis study no r.iitcs were ever observed in--
festino the turf on the tireens.

112

D v. )• ■; r. -j i h i s stud 3' i t w q :. a 1 s i > 0 b s e 1- v e ci i. h a t
g r d s s c u t r. !> c r t , 3 / 1 G to 3 / G 0 f a ti i n c h , r. e y r- r d e v ,-> 1 c p e d
Vvisettc^ whici' harbor tii'^ ^n'gh popu "i a i; i or, s of mires. It
v/dr. a'! so found that inoculation in th:. 1 0 borato-^y oiid in
the field of Tifqreon (328) was not succossfiil . Based
on t i 1 1-: s fj f a c. t s a ri d 0 b s g r v a t i 0 n s , t Is e s p r a y i n g of g r e e n s
for niife'j v/ss a '.'/aste of timo a^'i inoney. Froni ihis dis-
cussion, it stiojld not. to be construed that there v-.ould
nor bo occasions where iiiiticide applications wci-ld noc be
iiGoded .

In areas other than greens, obsei vati 0:, s have
shown th.aL rintes freo'jent the grass that is con^rrion to
tiie lips cf s^dd traps and bunkers. Depending Oii the
variety of grass, these irregular areas are designed to
promote iiazarHs to the play of the game as well as add
beauty to the co;;rso. They are a necessity hue present
certain difficulties in turf nianagemcnt. It is difficult
to snow grass va'^ioties surrounding these hazards which
are usual ';y planted in Coiiiivon and Onnonci in a large per-
ientago of the tine For these reasons jiiite populations
will usuolly be fcjund in the periplieral areas of traps and
bun!' ors .

Due to the difficulty in maneuvering irecharn zed
spray equipu'ent in and orouiv! these liazards, t'lc grass is
Tiot spr.iycd and sub. sequent ly the inites are not controlled.

11"

I r: m a n y c a s e s j s p r a y i r. t j v,' o u 1 d h tu' g to be done by ii d •:> d .
Ha ny of tLese bunkers <jnd trapi; are on the pt^'i one ry of
greenr. wlipro he. ivy aitc! c uriibersonu^ suray cqiripment are
net al 1 oued .

Another are« where nriios ere usually foLind are
c;'!oni' liic liidrgiti? of the rough d.s it is approached by the
f a i r vj a y s . R o u c] h s a r- e iii a 1 n i a i n e d in as many d i f f e r e n t w a y s
es the>-e ?re golf courses. Many ar'e planted to the same
varieties of grass as are the fairways and the only dif-
ference i)etween them are tne heights of grass, with ub.e
fairv/ays being cut shorter. Some courses allow nat'jral
grasses or vegetation to grow in the roughs and they cat;
Y ?. r y f r o m t h i c k s h r u b I i k e u n d e r g v o v: t h to s v,' a m p . Due to
maintenance end equipment there is always a margin from a
few inches to se\'eral feet or more 'vhei'e irregularities
of the topography of the fc-irways allows grasses to grow
to greater h e i g li t s and these a r- e a s are v/ h e r- e mites are
foiJi-id serving as a source of re- i n f es tat i on golf courses
with unliinited budgets do not spray roughs. Most c.uirses
in fact do not spray fairways and hence mites as well as
other 0 r g a n i s rii s are alio w e d to run their cycle.

When fairways are sprayed usually the margins are
not covered since the spray machine operator follows the
patte'Mis or rr)Utcs established by ihe fairways in as
straiglit a line as possible, and to swing in and out to

114

pick up i.iic in-ecjulctr dip?; or other spar.roodic edqo^ v.'ould
be a wor.tf iu f^me and iipray acd woLilf' prevent the- opcretor
fr-OH' T'lni nta "i 111 ny ony sori. of siiicoth p-;-ttc-;rns o^' di'-rM:tion
•w li e n s p r- a yi ) ; (; . It hi a s bee is c b s e r v e c! t h e 11; i t e p 0 p ' ; 1 ;i t ions
r, p p 0 d r to b u i '1 d t: p in t h e s r a r e a r and s p r e a d i n 1 0 t h e f a i r -
ways fi'cm these points ard thus cr ("rates spotty piaying sur-
f a c e s .

The same p »•' 0 b' 1 e m applies to streams, ponds, lakes
or other areas of K'ater, botfi ihT.n-niade or natural. Since
water hazards are a par!; of any we'll designed co'irse it
is 0 1 i ! y p. a t u r a '1 t h a t i \\ cy exist at a r e 1 a t i v e i y 1 ov; e r
elevatiori than those sui'rounding areas of play releoated
to more soplii sti cated managed grass. Slopes whicJi are
often qrrite steep are the result of connecting between
these t'.'O areas. The rise and fall of water tables also
iiiore cr less delineates areas where soft or muddy soil
e.xists. Margins around -chese bodies of water due to
slope, nud or- both prevent the operation of inachinery
\/ithii' these areas. These margins are often the cei:ters
of h-'-'avy mite populatioiis and damage frequently appear
a 1 0 ;■> g these s 1 c^^ e s and b a ri !< s .

The use of plants, shrubs and trees are also a
vH>-y iii.portant part of the total golf course. The land-
scaiiing pl.mts are often placed along stt- earns, banks,
drour.d lal'L^s, or ponds and along margins where the fairway

115

piictne:. into the rOL;(jiiS. in iuar.y cases the .sdr,u; variety
of grass found in the fsirv/ay grows> close to those pisnts.
This is an -ares v/here mites are almost alv/ays fo.inf! if
the golf course is infested. Very fev; insnagers einploy
weed killers or rnaintdin clean cijltivation aro'inci the
bases of I he trees or plants. Grass of course (jv-ov/s to
he'ights of several inches and creates an ideal i'abitat
for niites since the reset r.es can fully develop due to the
absence of inowir.g. it is difficult to operate sprayers
in and arouiid these shrubs. It is a mistake not to con-
trol tne grass iieights and to spray iv. these infested
areas ,

Cart patlrs, bridges, restroorn facilities, fences
and buildings make up a part of any gclf course. The
g r a s s i n these areas i s n a i li t a i n e d to a great e x t e ri t 1 i I'. e
that found around trees and it is difficult to manage the
grass from either a rn owing or- spraying standpoint. It
also appears that the tr-end is not to spray those areas
that are not involved with tiie actual tur-f' that comes into
play. However, thiese are the areas where the n,ites are
harbored and \vliere the mites are able to maiiitain their
no)M;ir;l life cycles, create rosettes and very large popula-
t ions c c; f! d e V e 1 o p .

IG

"^ '^"VP'-'.''^ - '^^' ss

Introc'ijc li nr>

It. v.'o:. o!'/ served that initos were ioLPd most fro-
queiitly i p. t?l!er grass. A study was irrJtiated to de'cer-
mine the temperature of varioi^s nictie:- of the golf fO'jr;;e
surrounding the ini te habitats during iioriod of infesLatio!
Since qrecns v'hich were cut 3/16 to 1/4 inch in height
were never observed to have mites, ?nd >^oughcs and fdic^-
wavs <"ut 3/4 to 1 ^/Z inches did, it v;as desireable to
determine if teii'perature varied enougii to ha'-.-e an influ-
ence CM! the a !."■ s e n c e- c r p v e s e n c e of mites.

Thie teiiiperar ures of num&y^ous golf and turf areas
w e r e recorded b y using ' 1 ) Bniley Instrument Co. ' s Mod e 1
BAT ■■4 Thermocouple Indicator and (Z) Vellov/ Sj^rings Inst.
Co. ' s Mode! 45-TU Tele, t iierincii'eter , Thermistor Indicator
The instruments vvere calibrated before use. "the probes
were properly placed in the spots wiiere temperature was
desired and allowed to rc-main for several minutes before
read'ings wei'e r(;cordcd. Readings were taken in a series
and variables siich as wind, sun, cloud cover and other
e n V i r o ri n: e n t a 1 f a c t o r- s v; e re noted,

Readirg:. were made of air temperature G indies
above th(-: turf, turf surface, in the turf thatch,., at th.o

I ;

soil 5. urface [)e'U)V; tiie l'.;rr ti'-^tchi and '1 inches belov.'
ti'O soi'i ziiv'dci'. Ro5.fii:vp ?nd "iesf teiripera t,<iy^es v.'cre nV^o
token at various ::iniys.

Tempera cures of xhe leaf sheaths and rosettes v-,'ere
taken vnlh the US'"' of a fine needle-shaped thermistor
e special! y d e s i c, n e d f o r t a k i r: .i p i ■ o b e t y p e c e m p e v r; t u v e s .

The tnen.nistor indicator unit usee! fny these ir.ea-
suren^ents h'^d tv;o prohes so "ipmosratiires could be tekcn
ali!!cst siniu 1 tafieous ly by the flipping of a switch. The
therpioco'jpl c indicatot had 5 outlets so that ternperat-jre
readings could he taken in 5 seprirate locations by simply
swi t-ch ing a dial, thus ell 5 i^eeoings could be made vnthin
a m a 1 1 e r o f a f c v; s e c o n d s .

Re sul ts and Discussion

Fro!;i data gathered in the period April 18 through
September ?.6, 1973. The following observations were made.

Cl ) Ttie air temperature 6 inciies above the surface
fluctuated widely ..nd depended a great deal
on cloud cover and wind. A slight breeze
would cause temperatures to drop several de-
grees. Cloud cover plus a b)-ceze could cause
up to 10 degrees temperature drop within GO
seconds. The maximum 6 inch height temperature
recorded was 9 9.5T on Otily 2S and a minimum of
80^T on April 18.

1 18

[2) The hottf^st niicr

DC r;v ! ronment i^t^ieu was

the surface of Iho turf vrith t\\c niax i nuiiii
r e c 0 rd e d b c~ i n g 1 1 8 . b ' F . T e m p. e r a t d ) ■ e tests
on the r, a fits v-iri.'l.y of yras:. where on side
■o f d p "! 0 L- wa s k r.' p t ni o w e d at 1 / '?- 1 n c h h o i g i 1 1
and the other at 2 1 n c: h height v. e r f; ni o n i -
c 0 ■■ ' e d 0 p. V a r i 0 u s d ate s . The re •:■, ;..• Its are as
f 0 1 i c w G ,

Ten; p. of G>-ass
1/2 iiich in iieiaiit
in_^r_ ''_

89.5°F

90,0

S 9 . 0
10i>.5
103.5

89.5

89, S

T G in p . 0 f G r a s s

2 i ri c h e s i n b e i q ti t

j_n_ JIF ^

86. 5° F

8-^ . 5
9 I . 5
94.0
83.0
86.5

U^i jf f e r e n c e J n__° £
+ 5 0^'F

+e.'.o

+ 4.5
+ 11.0
+ 9 .3
+ 6.Q
+ 3.5

(3) Teiiipf-ratures oF the tliatch were a great deal
cooler th.-aii surface temperature. Maxininm
recorded was 99 °F oii duly 2 5 and a mi niniuiii
of 80"r on Apt il 18. The variation found
was not (j oner ally as great as on the surface.

lU)

c, \

(6)

(••■<) Soi 1 •■ ^ rf act tempera lures ranged from a

nicixi.W'ulii . O'f 102. CF on June 2G to a minimum
of a:i*.0°F on May 7A .

7 ernpe'v^'atures taken at a depth of 4 ii.ches
into the soil were found to range from a
!'i a X iVi mit u f 7 o . 0 *■' F on A p r i 1 18 to a mi n i m u m
of 6/ .0"F on Mav ? 'i .

Tem;;;t;:>-'-a'[,ures taken between the leaf and
sheattV witli termistnr probes shov^-ed teinper-
fltiis;-:: ! eachcd a maximum of 106°F during
this test period.

[■'icxiHium temperatures taken deep inside
rosettes were found to reach 111.5°F.
R 0 s ;.--t- 1 e s e c n t a i n i n g mites were found t o
cool slower thari surface temperature.
Surface and rosette temperature reaching
111. 5T were artificially shaded.. V.'ithin
2 pvini'tes the surface temperature had
drcppeii to SKS^F whereas it took the
rosctta 10 minutes to reach the same read-
ing; Uhen exposed to the sun the surface
"ireirpcrature g3iti;,^d 9'^F within 60 seconds
a'?: compared to a 4"F increase in the rosette

Other re.. dVngs are listed in Appendix F.

(7)

(8)

]?J

It v.'rtr expected that thatcli tf.Mripcr a t.u fee tnlol:t
ba^'^:. boon rrioii onoug'i in grr:ir,5; cut short to prohibit the
buildup o'" iiiile popul Ci t i on:; . Temperature^ vserc occasion-
ally r^ligiJ: ly l.igii^r in the short grass piiv i r opinent as
cornpaicd to taller grdss but mere often the reverse was
foiTid to he true. Trie miies \,'ere found to live in an
env i ron'!ieii t (rosettes) v.'ith teniperatu'^es considerably
hi gi! cr xhd.r\ those measured in this test on Rermudagrass
plots kept cut at 1/2 to 2 inches in height. Tliatch,
soil surface ard sub'^O'^1 • em^er => tures \/ere found to vary
cons i de*'^ hi y v/f'Cii coiiipared to air tenperature . it was
fell rhat th-:s variation depjndec! on inoisture content
of tne niche being examined as well as the total thick-
ness Or- mass of grass cov-^r, soil t^'pe i r. wiiich the grass
was growina, as well as the a'uo'jnt of dead grass and other

o c PI

oryai". ic debris foun.' in, ■'■lie zone between the leavr
roots of the grass. The pliysical makeup of the niches
were known to vary widely a!id therefore their ability to
act as i n s u 1 d t e r s v a r i e d . II a c h n i c ! i o a b s o r b e d heat a n d
released it at a different rate in co imparl son with others:
thus wide temperature ranges were encountered withiin strata

Miie Habitats

Many samples of St. Ai^gustine. Bahias, centipede
vye^ bent, a'^d ot'ter nondi sc rimi na te varieties of grass

v.'ere co'iloctcd froin areas whore iiifesled Berniud jorass v.'5.s
either (irowiriq i nlei mi ngl pd o;- in c'lozc jjroxln^ i ty . Many
of these ssmples wevo nfr-cciorj 3ppGarr"d -tunted, and
showed signs o-T lec3f cv'-; s t i ng . Exaiiii n? i'! on »"c;vcdied liiany
causes or the orss.s acnornic'l i ti es rangin;;! from scOe in-
sects to fungus o» other reasons. No E. c y n o ri o n e n s i s v.'ere
evof- found ou acy of these samples.

When iiiite: first beco^.ie evidenL in turf, they ore
most o-f'ton roi-'iid 'iocalized in one or more of the following
a r e a s ( .1 i s c i .■ s s c d u n d e ) - 3 y i i i p t o m o 'I o g y ) .

(1,! In close proxinnty lo and along fences and

c-dg?s of buildings (Fig. 22)

{?.) In close p r 0 X i n, i ty t o w a t e r . The v; a t e r s o l; r c p
car. be of the still or flowing type. One of
X h e r a V 0 r i t e places is s e v e r a 1 f e e t f i' o i; i t h e
edge of a small stream or brook that may run
t h r 0 1! g h t h e g o 1 f c o L' r s e (Fig. 23).

( 3 ) Close to trees, shrubs and other obstacles
(Fig. 24).

( ''^ } 0 n the tip e d g e s o f b u n k e r s or sand traps
1 1- . g , ^ o ; .

( i> ) A 1 0 n g s i d o '.■.' a 1 Ic s , r o a d '.■; a y s a n d o t h e r o b s t a c 1 e s
that are encountered within the course (Fig. 25)

(G) On the gentle slopes or at the i;5se of slopes
of 1 ees or greens .

I 22

( / ) A 1 0 !1 Q 1. h e r^ar c i n s o f t h e f a i r w a y s a : the y

f a d e i h 1 0 t h e r o u g h s ( F i f) . 23).
(S) Sprts v.'ilhin tfic: coui-se wi.ere obstacle'.; or

d e V 1 c e s s c. c [- & s i r r i g fi i ! on caps in a y b e 1 o -

cpi L'^d (rig. '-■?).

nur-irig the coursf' of this study, mites wtre nover
found frcm sampler, taken iron! greens or putt i no areas.
Fro;;; evidence discussed under Inocuiation, it dppears that
Tifgreen (328) -i s resistant to mite attack. This is the
variet;/ chat -. "Imost all putt inc. a 'id regulai^ greens are
planted. Also nunierous observations shown that greens
are kept cut at 3/15 to 3 / 8 i n c ! i h e i g fi t at all t i m e s .
(Jbserva ti ons have strongly ind'icdted that mites are found
less frequently on closely mowed areas. As observed under
the i t e I:' s 1 i s L e d , a r e a s w h e r e in i t e s a r e found ni o s t f r e -
quently are those t^^at are not moved or allowed to grow
1 0 ii! 0 1 ■ e t h a n a V e r a g 0 h e i g h t s .

Those golf courses that kept fairways closely mowed
V/ere seldom bothered with i.iites. Even fairways planted in
Commcin or Orii;ond, hoth highly mite susceptible varieties
many tii;;es didn't show areas of infestation even when ad-
jacent rough, s may show a high degree of dafnage. However
v.dien areas of the fairways were not mowed or kept at close
heigh.!'. u/S to 3/8 inch then damaged areas due to mites
would !U} more preva'-ent.

123

Fairv.'sys pi an tod ii' Ti fv/r-y (419) v.'ere reportfid
i r. ni;niC'r'o;)S caries to have 1 li t'v^sta'^i ons of rnites. Field
i nv'Goti ge ti ons and mi croscopi c exann ns ti on of the sar;ip''es
revealed probloniS other tiian iritas as being the caiise of
y r 1 ! 0 V.' ■ n o 0 r- d t cu s p o t s . P u r i i > g t h e e ri t i r e s t ii ri y , o ri 1 y
o:u- rorettc wa;-- fouiid on Tit way (4191 variety.

Obscr Vci t i ons on the growth patterns and col lee tec
Sumples froiii the plots d tiring this research yielded all
stages of dbnormal grass growth caused by uiite attack.
Mite cc'jnts -were made from leaves found within the ''fap"
stages (see description of "fans" and rosettes under
Symptoniol ogy ) of growth v-esulting -"'roni mite attack arid
ccinpn red with mite co(i),ts found in the rosettes or later
stage of grass injury resulting from mite attack. Results
are s I : o w r, as folio w s :

F X p r e s s e d No. of

Svmptom Individual Counts Avg. mi to /count

"i an"
Rose tte

88
180

27 9

7 7 6

k"inge

64 -696
27 2- 17 28

Froin this date mites can be expected to be more nuiiierous
withi'' tho rosettes or cabbage liead growth patterns of in-
fested grass. This was to be expected since the ''fan" type
(ss disrupsed iinder Symptomol ogy } growth occurs earlier in
the sequence v. I attack and presumably be Tore maximu'i: popula-
tiwi'S i.ave beer, readied. it was further noted that as a
rosette ■■ics ex.-^mir. ed the numbers of mites found under the

124

iv 1 1 P a t T: ''. '!

ncrca:;ed o ?. the ci'Mer o^ L!ie :.Lruc Iitp was ap-

lie -rirsl". tew ojtsf leaf

p i ■ 0 a c h 0 f i , C 0 u ; ■ t s m a d g f r o in t li t
Ghealhs of the rosettes wore often 'lower thop those in
tht: fcin tyf^o stiLirtures. GGno-ally the mites were found
cti 1 ho inner surface of the isheaths surround i no the stem,
bur ('uri'ig heavy infestation or when 'large coinpact ro-
settes here e x a ni i n e d t hi e \'\\ i t e s o c c a s s i o ri a a i y w e re a I s o
found on the outside of the 5hea\,h. This can be explained

b V t i : c f a c t

:i d u

t the orowth ona racte^i s ti cs of the rosette

had reached such abnoriual proportions that sheaths are not
distinri- at this stage and the outor surface of one sheath
actual 'ly touches the mnor surface of another as the point
of basal insertions were approached. The niaxiiriui,' nurnbers
were found in the area of junctuic between tiie SLS-n and
the sheath. It was believed that this difference in popu-
lations ran be explained by moisture y radiations fro-ii along
rhf sheatn. 'As mi Le populations increased the upper por-
tions of the leaf sheaths were found to be dryer. As the
center of the sheaths were approacliod moisture of the in-
fested tissue appeared to increase. The ini crohab i tat at
the base of the siioath insertion v.as also very moist. The
normal leaf sheath is thin, but becomes thickened as the
mite infestation proqresses and when the final stages of
tlio rosntte is reached the individual sheaths are no longer
flat arid leaf like but more or less round tirick spikes.

rig. 72.

Siiovring Uocont rcl 1 od Grov/th of Be rniudac) vs ss
AT cng Fence

rig. ?.?> . Kdge of Pond \n l\\ Higli Growing B':0 ''iinu'agre ss

12G

..-♦ ..*«^-

r**

',r

Fio.

?A

Irees ar.d Other S tr!)cti.!rfS Where Normal
Mowing Operetions Do Moi: Rof.ch

F i q

Sidewalks, Roadv/ays and Othe"" Outcrops
Where Grass is Allov/ed to Grov in Height
D LI e to D i f f i c u '! ty i n M o w i n g

12a

Fig. 26, Edges of Bunkers and

ur-c''. SG urov-

is All owed

id Trap s W h e r e
to Reach Several

inches i n M e i ci h L

Fig. 27. Obstacles ou the Golf Course Where Grass

Cannot be Maintained at Satisfactory Height:

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a grc^.:;-: cic". 1 more voluiiic of fiuid? than is fhuud in d
nonnai r'icJt siiCrith of grc^;-; (Fiy, ?.P,) .

Vi e £1 ri s 0 f S d r t: a d

Little is !;riov/n rbout Uic^ inear::-, of .-.pvead of t'lC
Boraiud jgrass mites. However fi-om observations oT the
patterns of outbreak, it 1s believed tliat various meciicni-
c a "i (.! e V i c: e s aid 1 r^ t h. e s p r e 3 f! o f t h e m ' t e s a i o p. g w i t ' i \i i n d

As climati'- cctiditions become favorable the nvi le^
iiove been observed to build up into large pcpu 1 at i ens .
These populations arc then thougbt to be sprersd as follows

Movifcrs cut the rosettes snd nooiiles ?. nd scatter
the HiulcJ.ed re in a ins over a v/ide aren and therefore serve
as niecbi-nical inoculators. A fc r;n o? this nietb.od has been
successfully used in the laboratory as a nie:ii;s of inrioc-j-
lation of grass, Ve rt i - th i neers as well as tire-s free;: tb,e
various vehicles, (jolf carts, etc. a>'e also bclie'-ed to
serve as a vehicle of spread since the innoculum v.'o;;ld
d.-op off fro:;; tiire to time. Golfer's shoes and playin'.;
equipnent inay also serve as a carrier of the iviites Fron!
place to place o' it does for the weed P_0o_ an!ij,£_a_ L.

Other eriophyid ;:iites have been known to be spread
by wiiid, '! t is know*! thcit fresh cut grass is blown from

1 3-1

5rc=:.r. of v'herc i i. hfic been cut. Tr^js a rosette hdrboflng
tiioii sands of mites cari be blov-'ii fr'.>!ii ^. evera! incites to
many fr-e!: and thus proviiie a source of irinoculi'm into
'.; n i r, f c s t g d areas. I-l i t r s, infesting r o s o t c ;.■ s have 1 i v t; d ,
confined in plastic and paper bags for as long as seven
da^'s after being brought into the laboratory and ker-t at
rcor,^ temperature.

Water appears to be a means of spread not on"!y
for perhaps individual mites but also for cut grass
p a ) • tides c o n tain i n g in i t e s as v/ e 1 1 . S u d d e n d o w n p o u v s
where several inches of v/ater may be deposited in an area
within several hours are r^.ot un'ro'iniion in Florida. This
aiiioui'.t of v/ater has a tremendous v;ashing effect as evi--
dence by rings of deposited grass and turf debris at ran-
doiii spots on golf courses.

Associated Orqanisnis
Introduction

During this study it was frequently noticed that
mite population> on collected samples would drop f i om
high to ycry '\ cu levels within a few days. Often duinng
a test the miles would di'; appear ("roiii the controls.
Exaini na li on of the rosettes or otiier infested grass
structures would yield numerous laites and other insects,

0 0

soiiie Oi" which were believed to infliience CemiuJaarass mite
p 0 p u 1 a t i 0 n s ,

A Sfiecia'l Grass Survey (Li-: k ct a'!. 1955) w-"s sun
in Monroe, Dad'': and Broward counties, F lei da froi-; J'.ilv 1,
19 54 tli rough Ku re it 1955. The purpose of th<r survey v.'cs
to collect, ide!\tify, and record all arthroiJC-s found on
t u r f .

The following orgarrisnis were found to be ?. ssoci-
^ ted w i t h B e r;ri u d a g ra s s .

^ou I nern a rinyv/onn
KovinudQgrass scale
Suga>-Cane scale
C 0 loop 1; ero'd s u r u b
L e p i d c p t e r a
R h 0 d e s Grass Scale
Mole Cricket
Ceroid buy
Ant ! 1 0 c 0 r i d h u g
Reduv i i 0 bug
Lygaeid bug
Lpi'wi g
m "1 1 e
iiiite
in i t e
ini Le

P_rode i3_i_s_ ( Spodoptera ) eridani a ( C r ;";;n . )

Odonc sp i s r u t h a o Kct.

Ta rg •' orii a s_o Cj^T^a^^j ( C :■; 1 1 . )

r r a in b u ,^ I e 1 1: e r r e 1 J u^ ( 2 i n c k . 1
Aji t q njj;:_.n (j r a ni i n i s M ask.
S c e p t e r i s c u s a c 1 e t u s R. & H,
Ihari 05 terus anter. nator (Fab. )
'r } H yjlQ-C fl r 1 s ni i.i "! t i s p i n u s_ S t a 1 .
S i n e a sangu i Si'ga Stal .
Uukn 0 wn S p_e_cj[e_s_
Labidura b i d e n s ( 0 1 i v . )
Cunaxoides a n d r e i Baker & Hoff .

GaJ umna si'.

^£iL?Ji'ilL!'-2A.t 2.1 1 a c v i g a t u s ( r' o c ii ;

1 3 b

Butler ( 1 9 G 3 ) f o u n cl the f c 1 1 o \" ing groups to be
iiSGOcioted wi i:ii Beniindtigrass in Ai i/on'j.

Suborder hicsos ti gnia ta
L d c 1 a p t i (i n C!

Cosmol ael aps s p .
A c e f ) s e j "i d a e

P r 0 c 1 0 1 a e 1 a p s s p .

P h y 1 0 s e i i d a e

Typhi odromus (A.) obtusu? gv^oup.

Thiese large predatory nrites are coiiimon.

Anibl y-j ! o p sj_s^ n . s p .

Lircpcd")ri;ie

kill oj lijiyjG„L' 'L% s n .

Uy;r;pliS are ve.vy abundTnt in ground litter.

Suborder Trnii!b~ d i formes

T a V £ 0 n e m i d a e

Tydfid:

Stenotarsotiemus spi rl f ex ( M a r c h a 1 ) .
Th.is mite occn^'S on niany species of grasses, corn.,
and related plants thrcughout the United States.
It is also common in Europe where it is a past of
oats. A critical evaluation of its damage to
bermudagrass and other plants has not been made
in tiie Unitid States.

S (■: V oral s p p .

Tr'.ose are small, soft-bodTcd mites wlrich aiipear to

be predatory

Cunaxida

i -, ,.^

^JJiifiLPliLP-l andcei Baker ?tid Hoffman

C u n a X 0 i d 0 s n . ;-Si|? .

Thi? and tiie above specie:, are predatory.

C a i i (i 0 n e 1 '! i cJ (■• e 1 1 i d a e

r;]_o_l 0^ t h >- 0 9 1^ a Lhu,s ^ cruel s S 1 1 1 .i n i c r s and S c h 1 i n g o r

MG_l_othrocjriathus n . s p .
Tetr diiych i ciac

p r 1: V 0 bi_a 1 a tens ( I ; u 1 1 e r ) , b r o w n w heat mite
f i 0 s t c cm ill 0 n i n t he s p r i w g m o n t h s ,

S c fn z 0 t: e t r a n y clju s eremophi 1 us McGregor

A small spider mite that seems to be generally

d i s t r i b u I e d but never a h u i : d a u t .

01 i y 0 rry^c! 1 ][_§_ p r a t e n s i s ( B a n k s )

This and 0. stickneyi cdo^a considerable injury to
bermudagrass , particularly seed crops. They are
most abundant on tiie leaves of mature plants and
usually during the summe-'- months.

01 i gotiychus sti ckneyi (McGienor)

Often found togetlier with 0_. p r a t e n s i s in mixed

i n f e s t a t i o n s .

Cheyl eti dae

Paracheyl eti a w e 1 1 s i ( B a k e i- )
A predatory mi te .

Eriopbyidae

^ 9.^JJA ]'i eocyn-gxioni s K e i f c r

These small i.'hite mites live ensconced at the bases

of

1 (i) a f shea t h s

loy cause a stunting effect

on tiie gi-ass due to shorter interncKlcs and a general

l^b

dec "line o I" the grass. Siiice their discovery in
Arizonct in 19 59, they havi opei feu id i ii several
0 "c h 0 r s t e. 1. e s .

L r s' t h !"• ? 0 i d d e

b e e t "1 p
£i ri c e .

B a 1 a LI s t i LI m s p .

Leij_tij_r. z p .

1 h i ?. aiid the nbove species are predatory.

Siiborder Sarcopi i f orn'.es

These are longer nn'tes, sometimes referred to as
mites because of their hard body and general appa^

Ephilo

oiiianni i dae

E p hi 1 0 h m a n gn" j^ cyl i n d *" i c a ( F3 e r 1 e s e )
C a r a I.; -j d i d a e

T tj c t n c e n h e u s s p .
0 r i b a t u 1 i d a e

L'^ 9 PJJ b BJ:ILIA s P .

Tfns species is abundant in the ground litter and
becomes noticeablt during irrigatiori when the mites
ci awl to the upper parts of the grass. Since they
inhabit the grou!"!<^ litter primarily, it is doubtfiil
that they cause any injury to the b-nnudagrass .

Ma tfri al s a_n d_ I'. e t h o d s

As the rosettes and othei- grass structures were
exaiisirieJ for Bermudagrass mites manv' other arthropods were
found inhabiting the structure. Th'^^se arthropods were
r e jM 0 V 0 d and s t o r e d r o r f u t u ;' " i '-' e ri +" i t -i c f. i i o n ,

i39

it was decided that a collection of arthrcpods
witi' r, pGciQl emi.'<asis on otiicr mi ten would be done on
tha rosettes and grass striictures that were known to
f I a r b 0 r 1 1 i e ni i t o , The s s m pies ;■,- ere taken w i t i'l c a r e not
iu include the strsta that makes up the root zone ov
zone of dcc';;iiu 1 a ted orgdnic debris that lies betvveep the
soil and the hecltisy grass leaves. Sdiiiplcs inclijded the
crown, stem, and grass leaves. Samples were also taken
from Tifway ('■11'J) arid Tifyreeti (32fi) two varieties never
fodpd to be infested with the Berniudagras s mite. Cromroy
and keineit (1574) sampled the root and otganic layer
strata around Eormudagrass thus it was emitted froni this
rosea rch .

The s a i^i |) 1 e s vv ere placed in p 1 a s t i c bags, sealed,
and kei/t under air conditioning. The arthropods were
extracted by lising a modified Tullgren apparatus (ICrantz
19 70). The apparatus was run a mimmui!i of 48 hours or
until the g-^ass sample was dry. The extracted mites and
other arthropods were removed and kept in S0% ethivl alco-
hol. Ti'ic mites were extracted and mounteo by acaroiog>
technicians using Hoyers ntedia,

T ii e m i t e s w e )" e cod e d a n d i d e n t i f i e d by Dr. H . L .
do Ii' r 0 y . D e p t . K i 1 1 o m o 1 o g y and N e iii a t o 1 o g y , I! n i v i; r s i t y t; T
Floiida, Other ai'throj'od specimens were identified by
the specialists with tlie Florida [!opartment of Agriculture

MO

cu-d Cr;isumer Services Divis'ion o I" riant Industry or
tfexanonnc ;-nfC i ^ 1 i sis v/illi rhe i'lijsouin of Nr'ituya'! !'1;^tory,
V.izV, i :i9 ton , D . C .

Results and Pi scussi on

The concerii of this phese of tne rescdrcii was to
d e 1 0 r ill i n e 1 1 1 e p red a c e o u s species f o u n d "i ii the g r ass s t. r a t u ni
with the Bermudagrass rniLes. All saiiiples were taken from
grass vn'th iione froir; the soil stiuta. Since the sampling
teciinicjuo is prWriaiily qualitative, the number of speci-
mens per species wi'M be indicated Py either 1^ for 3 or
less specimens or M for 4 or more speci ine'is per sample.
There is stil'- very little knov.'n on the nutritional ro-
(j'j i rem.ents of the predaceous mites. The most extensive
study by Br i chili 11 (195PO on tydeids indicated that one
3 p e c i e ■■ !-. 0 vy yj_a f e r r u 1 u s Baker could s u 1) s i s t on the e r i o -
b hy '] d , A . s hi e 1 don i , b u t r, o t reproduce. M u r.i a (1961) listed
one pred?. ceous tydeid, P r o 1 1 e m a t u s sp., on citrus, 8 species
of CLinp.xids, one macrockielid and 11 species of Phytoseidae.
H 0 w e V e r as : i r e v i o u s 1 y stated, t h e r e i s v e ry 1 i t i; 1 e k n o w n
0 n f e c d ': n g b e 't a v i o r or t h e s e g >' o u p s .

'iatMC? 9 and 10 list the most frequent predatory
groups and thrir location. It should he noted that species
overlap in certain locations and where there are many
predators tf one species there tends to be an equally largo

14!

ri',j!,ib':.T from another specier-. The only excoptior, i :; the
i^aniily Lii podi dac . This family was fomd ti; only Ivo loca-
tion",. The most Widely distributed r.pocies vv'as i J e o c u n -
axoides andrci (Baknr and Hoffman,) -round in 15 sites wliich
differs cons i dera hly from Muitia's ;19G1) work wliich indi-
cated it to be vory rere in citri's col 1 pc ti ons . "i he ti;o
tydeid species were the next joninon collected species be-
ing iouv-.d in 13 sites. The n.nst cc minor, faniily, found in
aln-ost all sites, was a nor-predeceous group, Uropodidae
Si.'pposedly fungi vores (Krontz, 1970). This study was
only a beginning into ttie very complex ecology of turf-
gras.^ popu 1 a L'i ons pointing out the most nunierous preda-
tors, future research sliould bo aimed at the deterriiina-
V. i 0 n of effect and rate of p r e d a t i o n on p h y t (; p n a g o u s grass
feeders.

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RECOMi-lLNDATICNS

The following rrcominendo t i ons are rr.dde based on
tiia control 0"f tlie B^vriiiut-Iacjras <; mi to onl.y a^d tho WMter
is fully aware that sou'.o parts of the program may not be
practical u n ci e '~ present c o n d i t i o n s .

The integrated con Ire 1 program is composed of
several areas each of which will be discussed,

I. Bermudagrass varieties +C be litilized:

A. Greens "-should be planted in Tif green (328) variety.

Thii. variety appears to be resistant to mites and

is rj e £ i r e a b 1 e tor putting surfaces.
P. Tees--should be planted to Tifwuy (^19). This also

ftupoars to be a mite resistant variety.

C. rairways--should be planted in Tifway (419) "criety.

D. i{Di;ghs--if these areas are to be maintained with
Beriiiudagrass it would be recommended that Tifway
(419) Oe used. Common, Ormond > and St. Lucie vari-
eties should be oniitted. If grass had to be utilized
and Tifway ( -". 1 9 ) could not be used then a grass such
as St, Augustine or another type would be recommended
Roughs planted in trees, native plants or ottier vege-
t a t ; 0 ii w 0 u 1 d also he r e c o inni e n d e d .

144

"14 0

M a, i n t e n a nee of establish c d v a r i e t i e s

1. Mo'rt'i ti'j-- practi ces should be aimed towards keeping
(ji asses cut as short as practical which would
s l i * i h a »' c a good appearance and be suitable for
.lood go'f play. Berniudagrass mite infestation
ge'iSraViv decreases with a decrease in grass height.

a. Greens--no recoii^menda t i on . The current prograi;i
appears to be excel le.it.

b. Fai rv.'ay£--pl an ted in Oriiiond, common, or St.
Lucie or other known rnite susceptible varie-
ties must be kept inowed short, preferably

3 / 'i of an inch in height or less.

c. Roiinhs--cut as short as possible if susceptible
V a )• ■■ '^ t i e s are used.

d. Slirubbery and trees- -g ra s s should be removed
fro'i' around these structures to a distance wliere
iV r'r be mowed. Removal can be accomplished

by cultivating techniques or by the use of proper
herbicides. If resnoval is not practiced then
ha-nd .ir.owi ng must be done in order to keep the
g'^ass at fairway heights.

e. FCii.co a^'^as, l)oi'ders to buildings, sidewalks,
roar'-^ an;' other s true tu res- -shoul d be mainiained
so-grass does not grovv' taller than fairway heights
Clean cultivation or herbicide use is recommended.

146

Aveas bnrdei' i og ponds, lakes, '".trearns an'-'/o^
oi.lier structures wfici^e the tnpogra^'liy 'i > 'likely
to be sloped or undulating to tne extent .so r-.s
1 0 p r £ \' e n t mo i ■■ i n g s h o b 1 d b e p 1 a n t e d i n n o 1 1 -
siiscept i bl e grass varieties. The pla;it-s should
range outwaid to an extent v/here Piovvers caii be
run w i t !t 0 u T objection.

Bunkers and sand traps --the primary reccmu.en na-
tions is to use Tifway (415) so that the mar-
gins and lips of there s t r u c t u *' e s car. be al-
lowed to grovv several inciies in height u'ithou't
fear of mites. In or e'er to add beauty to a
golf course it is mandatory that the grass
a !' 0 u n d the lips of traps and o u n I; £■ r s be severe 1
inches in length. Attempts to mov these areas
short results in unsightly grass. These struc-
tures are constructed to be irregiilar and thus
low mov-ring causes "scalping" to occur at numer-
0 us specific spots.

Good fertility and water programs are recommended.
Infested grass is placed under added strain if
the turf is to be subjected to nutritional de-
ficiencies a 111' dry conditions. Bermudagrass
mites have been found to readily attach 1 1 ■ x i; r i -
ous growing grass but seldom [icccme a problem

147

during the wet seasons. Complaints of damage
generally occur in the dryer spring months in
which the grass had not reached its peak
growth rates following the winter period.
Healthy grass is by no means immune from
attack but is often able to outgrow or "live
with" the pest.

III. Use of the mite survey--a proper mite survey is necessary
if control approaches are to be best utilized. If micro-
scopic examination is to be employed then it is recom-
mended that it be done utilizing a dissecting type
microscope capable of at least SOX magnification. Hand
lenses are not recommended. The survey should include
the entire golf course and added emphasis should be
placed in the stress areas discussed under (Some Mistakes
Believed Being Made in Controlling the Bermudagrass Mite)

The surveyor should be familiar with the sequence
of symptoms caused by the mite. The use of the "touch"
method can also be utilized in order to locate distorted
rosettes. The use of the aforementioned method is often
sufficient to find infested spots and is a helpful sub-
stitute for actual microscopic evaluation,

IV. Use of pesticides

A. It may become necessary to use chemicals for control
of the mite from time to time. If the survey method

l/!8

is efficiently ciiiplnyed spot, spraying can be
utilized. Mile i n f e s i: a t i o n s can generally be
found w i L h i r, the i, n o t s a r, d r. i c ! "i e s previously
explained and thercto)-e can be controlled by
sf/ot. tredtmer't Troin the results obtained dur~
■i iUj this study chemical control programs for the
Berinudagras s mite would be recommended as follov.'s:

1. Greens- -norma 1 1 y would not receive iiiiticide
treatments since nearly all golf courses
within the state are presently planted in
Tif green (328) an apparent resistant variety.
Present mowing heights of 3/15 to 3/8 of an

i r c h is t h. 0 u g h t to f u r t h e r d i m i n i s h the chances
0 f i n f e s t a t i 0 n s .

2. Fai rways--shou 1 d be surveyed and spot t treated
before infestations become heavy if planted in
Ormot.J , St. Liicie, or common variety. If
planted in Tifway (419) no treatment should

be necessary.

3. Koug'hs should be surveyed thoroughly for in-
festations if planted in susceptible varieties
and spot tre-ited be ft* re mites can infest large
areas,

^1 ., Sand t r 0 p a n d b u r, }; e r m ^ r r, i n s should be t r e a t v. d
when mites are observed. Since the grass on

149

the edges of these structures must be allowed
to grow longer they are consistently a source
of infestation when planted in varieties
other than Tifway (419).

5. Areas surrounding shrubs, trees, bordering
structures, etc. should be surveyed and
treated immediately following observation of
mites.
B. The spot spray or the treatment of specific areas

is thought to accomplish the following desirable

results:

1. It would tend to utilize less labor.

2. Less pesticide would be used in the environ-
ment with less monetary cost involved.

3. From collections made and discussed under
Associated Organisms, there is a strong pos-
sibility that blanket applications of a pesti'
cide could effect populations of predacious
mites so that more harm than good would occur
The spraying of selected areas would not seri-
ously upset but may promote beneficial forms.

The preceeding recommendations however are not intended
to imply that blanket pesticide applications should not be
made if infestations are spread over large areas. Under
these conditions, blanket treatment would be more economical

Often infestations have- been observed where itiore than one
appl i c? ti on had to be t;ser! in oi-der to step d linage. if
popul ft i (jiis occi.-r in such j piaiip.f.r and nultiple spplica-
tionr. ere to i)e iviade. i i. is suggested thot eoch cippri ca-
tion sh.fnld be spliced about 7-10 days apart in order to
ccntvul the inites vliich were i .1 the egg stage during of
the previous trectneni. . tlov/ever, before repeat sprays are
used, care should be tai;cn en microscopically examine kn'jwn
'infested ?rii'Ai> since deec'i inites can take several days to
lose c u I e y a n 6 d e c a y a n d their body p r e s e n c e alone i s n 0 1
alwav? a sufficient criterion to assume then alive. Obser-
votion of the mites at 30X power is sufficient to pick i.'p
body umvenient . Upon being exposed to light, lining mites
v<i 1 1 ;;og In to nu'A'e ,

The rosettes will often reinain for several weeks
after t'u: infestation has disappeared. Rosettes that have
reeciied a Doint i;here death of the grass is iir.iiiinent will
often take on a second growth if the mites disappear or
are controlled, Cdre should be taken in treating the mites
r L t. h e r t hbw f 0 v s ywi j) 1 0 rn s .

A s a re > u 1 1 of 1 h is r e s e a r c h , t h ero is no reason
rot to fX['PCt good chemical coiii. re. 1 froin the use of diazinon
r r oiii e h s e r v a t i 0 ; 1 s of its use i n 1 1: 2 fie 1 0 a r' (\ f r 0 m Ic n 0 '.•/ ledge
of the mi croon\'i ronmental habits of the Berinudagrass mite
it is recoirii?ended that an acceptable vvetting agent be used

": ri l: t .■ n j o n : t i o n w i t n d i :. 2 i n 0 n or a 1 t c r r. a t i v e ni 1 1 i c: i ci c s .
It i j> io!r that llic: reduction of su-"ffice tension of the
f'iriished spray v/oiild aid in carryliic; the iiii f i c i d e into
tiif" i.ic;l"iL ipcce between the leaf ?nd stem which i i occu-
pi ed by Lhs mi te .

Control of Other Organisms 5S a^
C 0 n t r 0 "! f 0 r Bermudagrass Mite

Durinq this study, neraatodes and i-n sects particu-
larly tiie Berir.udagi"dS s scale were often fouiid attacking
o'-o:.c. i :'. association with the Ber-inudagrass mites. It was
orsev'VGd that ttie r.ui 1 ci a ttack of these pests often rodiiced
grass vigor so thai, dieback appealed. Control of other
pest organisms with pesticides oft en pv-onioted regrowth of
grass that also liad Bermudagrass mite infestations. Crass
can frequently tolerate mite attack and OLitgi'ow it if it
is net s i i:vj 1 taneo'jsly weakened by oLher urgaiiisms.

Preliminary studies indicate that aldicarb owu
pn&i!or.i i phos . '^/hich are pt'imary nema ti ci des , alfn have i fi -
secticMlal aiiO miticidal properties. Phena:':i plios has eer-
rently received [IP A clearance on tu'-f grass , and aldicarb
can h^ ijsed in Florida i; rider exiiev i men Ca 1 condi lions. The
1 3 1 1 e >•■ c h c; Hi i c a 1 i s a 1 s 0 a w a i t i n g f e (J e r a ! a p () r' oval. T h c s e
t»;o cc'i'ponnds siiould possibly sei yc as a nieans 0I i):ite a^d
nsii'.atcde control and would also offer some control of

i':,2

!u1 ti urqo.m .^!,;f. whi ch v,'0u1d Le hi-jM^ desiro'ole in

t h.j

0 V e r ■

;=; 11 irii.egrc.ted pest control p/ograiri. Both compounds ere
systevic in tfirir nioc'c of action and aldiccsrb currcrntly

ns -ioefea

as a ni i t i c i d e . S y s i t I'l i c ? c c :.< "! d be desirable

sii-ice thr-y might not be expected to hani tne predacioi
rnito conplsx cs severely as would some other .niticiJe;

Redu ction of Overwi n Leri ng Habitats

Mites are known to damage tort throug hout thn year
in soutiieri! Florida. In the ncrthem part of the state
they go unnoticed until late spiing since the turf is in
a dormant stage in the winter or has been overseeded.
The Dermudagrsss mite w-js found in mid -Febni ary , 197A.
on Common variety of Bermudagrass in Gainesville, Florida.
The infestation? were observed where the grass had grown
to seve-al inches in height. The grass had responded to
the fittact' by forming fans and early stages of rosettes.
The qrass observed was found along the south side of build-
ing edjcs ar.d other structures where it had been protected
fro:,-! the cold and was in a stage of good growth and color.
It would be rec'-Hnmended to keep grass cut short in areas
w li e >^ e w i r , t e r -i "> e b a c k d i d n o t o c c u r .

In making -chese recommendations the writer- is aware
t h a t t u r f m a n a g e m e n t is concerned \v i t h m a n y ]:■ r o b 1 e !ii s beside:
Bormudaqrass Piitc control. It ii also understood that many

ir)3

of the i ncl i vid'jal facets of integrated control niight not
bs econoihical or or^cticol. For instance to cut grass
shorter v/iTi require manaciernent to use more fertilizer
and water tluin if grass is allowed to grow taller. How-
ever this stuffy was primarily aimed at learning of the
Berrmid.:{;j;-oSs mite hab'>ts so that a better approach to its
control could be employed.

The research on the Berii.udagrass mite has led to
the following generalized conclusions. One of the goals
was to determine if a better control program could be de-
veloped. It has been more or less an accepted belief by
mai-.y laymen in the past tiiat a better control program
woulc; consist of Diie or more of the following: (1) an
increase it! the amount of material being used; or \2) an
inct-^ease in tfie number of applications; or (3) to find
aiiothei pesticide that would do a better job on the pest
in qi; est ion.

lestinc; of candidate materials was a part of this
stud;' and t lie use of cheiiiical control is still the main-
stay in mite control prog*-3i^is. However, it is felt that
froif. tiie resu-t of tliis study tliat an integrated control
a I) proa eh s!iOi;ic be considered the turf industry in Florida

CONCLUSIONS

'iiio tollov.'ing conclusions iirz drawn from this re-
steer c ! . :

(1) On'iop.d, Tifl.'iivri (r-57). cnmiiiOn, No Mow and
St. Lucie varieties were succe5, sf u 1 ly inoculated in tlie
ldboi-uLor,v wi r.i! r'Srmudagra.ss Miites and developed definite
in i t-i syivfi CO ill'; .

(2) Tifgreen (328; and Tifway ( '- "! 2 ) varieties of
BP'TPudr.cj rass K'hich Lad nn^^ierojs a ttcnipts of inocilation
with L'eriiiufieigra ss .nites d:d iiot siii./v sysipto^ns known to be
associated vritli qrass that h.as been iivfested b} the mites.

{ri) ,iil.e^ weve founo to cause growth aL'Morna 1 i t i o s
in grass. The syinptorns diff erod fro;ri one another and fol-
1 0 1 / e < i a d c r i n i 1 (. . . ri j u r y s e q u e n c ( .

(4) ;iiU-;' were iound to occupy certain niches on
yoif rcuvses an-.' nenera 1 "i .y cnu'ld be found in these areas

if i tr^tstat 1 f-j!^ existed, Ti.ese niches can best be described
as these a rea,.., wh,-i-e mowing and sp/raying maintenance missed.

(5) "'■<;jinocrc'i ture studies did not indicate tempera-
ture to be a f. c!'or in th;e absence of mites on the suspected
r.i i t e r o s i s t a r. t v a r i e t i e s Tifgreen ( 3 ? 8 ) and T i f iv a y {419).

(6) .Certtiii cultural techniques as well as use
of resistant ^'.rieties of grass and good tui'f management

Ibb

pr-c'Ct'ccs -'ndicate tliat tliey play a large i-ole in del'-'
mifc'riQ rnitc. i n fesi.: ti oii find djinage to cjolf cour^:-es..

I / j !.hc;in •.

Ill tests iiidicatp Lhdt c.l'^icarb, a i a z i ■-

non, ^^nd phctioirn pho:^ uv-o •;at i s f> c Lory chei'vio^il conLrol
accnt- vor B.-rniudac'^cis s niit'^s.

(B- Ccii.ain ju^'eiii'ie horinunes shov;ed cu signifi-
cant i ii : 1 Li';;!.ce in reducsnq nile populations either a:; an
adui ti ci -.le , liyiiiphi c i de or cvoc'id2

V ;'

Assoc Tdtod arthropods sve suspectod of pir^ying

a lesrge role i ■: i nfl uenci iig Oermudagrass niite population:

FURrilER RECOMMENDHD RESEARCii

In coiicUisicn i i iiar. become mndent thi\t inorc
i nf onii&ii nn i £-, neectJ cc iicor ni ng the Berr.iitdanras 3 n, ite,
£• riiilL'-i '---0.11 U-P •lli' ' The- f ol 1 o".\' i ng areas need ;norr. ifivesti-
ga t i (in ;

1 . A b e 1 1 e r •; a rn p 1 1 ri g met r i o d i c the n v iii h e r o r, e
pyoblem. The curreiit methods are t'tme con-
5, V. F: i n g and d i f f i c u 1 1 . S a m p i e s must be p i' o -
cessed liiy^cugh lengthy procedures and the
r.-; i t e s must i^ e m a i n o u t of their n a t u r a 1
iidbitat for long periods of time. The
efficiency iiercentage of extraction methods
are not known and thus it is hard to assess
total populations,

2. More study is needed on the ecology of the
mi croenvi roninent of the mite. This informa-
tion could be useful in t iie application and
placement of conirol agents.

5. TlU'i'e is a need for more in-depth study of t'ie
preda tor- pa ras i te copiplex of tlie post.

4. An assessment of annual damage to t!ie turf in-
dustry by the nri te as well as time and mcri?y
expended or; the proljlem is needed.

1B6

157

5. There is a need for an in-depth study of
the biology and life cycle of the Bermuda-
grass mite under Florida conditions. This
should include overwintering studies in the
geographical areas where grass is dormant
during the winter.

6. A specific physiological study is needed to
determine the reason the grass develops with
the symptoms caused by mite infestation. This
study should include the reasons for apparent
resistance by some varieties of Bermudagrass .

7. A total study of Bermudagrass mite dispersion
and the reasons or conditions that activates
it about would be very useful.

8. More efficacy data is needed on aldicarb and
phenamiphos. These compounds are nematicides
and were found to give Bermudagrass mite con-
trol, thus they could serve as a dual control
agent and may work well in an integrated con-
trol program.

APPENDICES

APPIINIJIX A

Ihfi label from Miller Chemicals and F-rti 1 i /.er
Corporation, P. 0. Box i'^S, Hanover, Pa. ■|73?1
20-20~'^0 NirLri-Lcaf Soluble reriilizor

Total Niti-og^n ( iO , ... 20

H i t r a t e n i t >- o g e n . . . . 5.95

A nini 0 n i u ai nitrate . . . . 4 . b 7

Water soluble orgarric

nitrogen. , 9.38

Phosphorus, as P^O^^ pliosphoric acid . . .20

P 0 1 a s s i u rn a s K. ^ 0 -^^

Boron froni borax as B • t}288

Holybdeiiui,! fro'.r, iiiolvbdic acid as Mo 0256

naqnesiuin as Mg . (Watei roluble) 02 5 1

Manganese as Mn . ('Water soluble) 0781

Copper at Cu • -"064

Irun as Fe 0^-^'

Zinc a. Zn . ^^^^^

Potential acidity equivalent to COO lbs. calciiii^ carbonate
p e r 1 0 n .

159

Source

0 f V a r i a t i o n

APPENDIX B
DEERWOOn PESTICIDE TESTS

Analysis of Variance Table

Degrees of S u m s o f Mean 0 b s e r v e d
Freedom Squares Squares f v a 1 li e

R C ! ) s

3

49.

.485

16

.4 95

12.64 sign

T reatnients

6

32,

.226

9

.371

4.12* sign

T i n • e

2

0,

,613

0,

.306

n . s .

T r 0 ? t, X T i m e

12

16,

,09 6

1

.3 40

1

Residual

60

78,

,327

1

.305

T 0 1 a 1

83

176,

,7 47

* S i g n ■ i i c a n t at t h e .05 level
H e a n s (12 observations)

C 0 n t r 0 I

trichloi^iton

+ oxydenieton- fensul-

phenaiin piios aldicarb methyl disulfoton fothioii propoxur

I .00'

1 .42'

0.792'

•0.292

I)

0.629'

-0.420

s i g n i r i c a n t

D i r ^ . 0 0.05 level
VJ i I, I ■ D u r\ ;■', . > 1 t ' s test

160

APPENDIX C

PALMAIRE PLGTH'IDl TF3TS

Table of Trans 1

joseri Data Us-

ing iGc

1 (1 -^ y)

or /I + y

Mite \.

;oii!its

Days after

Treatment

i4

?8

Treatment.

ReD 1

Rep 2

Rep 3

Tot. (14)

Rep 1

Rep 2

Rep 3

Tot. (28;

) Tot.n

Cont'cl (/\)

2.356

2.753

1.623

6.732

2.344

2.480

0.738

5.602

12.334

Aldicarb

1.903

G.602

1.623

4.128

0

0

0

0

4 . 1 28

Di?'iifcr

0.477

2,312

0.77S

3.557

2.207

1.643

3.011

6.861

1 0 . 428

Diaz iriori

(1.477

2 . 542

2.149

5.108

0

0

0

0

5.168

1 n ciiTo,'! '^ii
+ doiilPtOii-
rnethyl

2.393

1.544

2.464

6.4C6

2.664

2.901

2.676

8.241

14.647

Pdciianriphos

2.r.ii

0.699

2.474

5.684

0

0

2.479

2.479

8.163

Disu ifoton

1.568

2.483

2.861

b.912

2.587

1.49!

0

4.078

10.990

Fensu'ifothion

2.971

2.933

2.688

8.592

n

0.778

3.108

3.886

12.478

Oxaii.y 1

1.9.^/1

2.408

2.691

7.033

1.114

2 . 207

2.0S3

5.404

12.437

Fen tine
Hyf!roxiue

2.967

2.629

2.243

7.839

2.:' 29

2.710

2.514

B^lJ^l

15.992

Total-.

62.061

44.704

105.765

Contro'. (B) 2.881 2.900 2.623 8.404 2.729 2.961 2.455 S.146.

Tota!- (Concrol (B) 8.404 8.146 16.550

Coiitrol A iii'^ans 2.0557
Contro! D in.^aris 2.7580
Adjuster! :!ic-in 2.4070

161

!c;

Palmaire Tests (com i iiued )

Source of
V a r "i fl t i o n

Totol

[■■ a y s

Trea tments

Days X
Treatments

Resi dual

Analysis of Variaiico Tablp.

Degrees of
Fre^ed_cm

54

1

9

9

46

S u n I 0 f
S a u a r e s

6 5.57 9

5.022

22.136

12.053

M e a 11
Square

2.4 60

1 .3 39
0.503

Obsei'ved
F Value

3.73^
2.03

■ S i q r, i f i c a n t at .05 level

Dunnett's test = d = 2.51 /0.603TT76 + 1/12^'

Combi ned- control mean
Dunnett's factor

- 0.97 4

- 2.407
-0.974

= 1.433

Any treatment mean less than 1.433 is significont
over rontrol .

Treatment iiieans--

Aldicaib Dialifcr Diazinon Trlchlorfon -' d^ineton -methyl Phenamiohos

2.441 1.361*

0.6S3

1.738

0.86V

Dis'jlfn'oii Fensulfothion Oxamyl Fentine Hydroxide
1.832 2.080 2.073 2.655

APPENDIX D

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS FROM DATA ON
INVLRRARY GROWTH REGULATOR TESTS

Analysis of Variance Table

S 0 u r c e 0 r D e g r c c s c T S u iii c f Mean Observed

V a r i s t i 0 p Freedom Squares Square F Value

Total 27 1 ,923,149 71 ,223

Blocks 3 329,642 109,881

Treatments 6 1,301,936 216,989 13. 4C**

Lrror 18 291,B7 1 16,198

-'■"'• S i gn i ti cant at the 0.01 level

Dunnett's test -- d = 2.48 /2Tl"6 J ^'8/T5" - 223.19

Control FT.eans ^ 62 3.25
Dunnett's factor -22^3^1_9

40 0.06

Any treatment mean less than 400.06 is s i qriif i catit

over control.

T r e a t m e !'i t n; e a n s - -

2k 793 - 617.00 2R 1829 - 598.75

2R 856 = 478.25 2R 1859 = 777.50

2R 913 - rK2.00 2R 1888 - 459.50

Duncan's Multiple Range Comparison of Gr(j\vth Regulators

vri ("n One Ano tliei^

Means:

2R-9!8 .'R-1859 2R-793 2R-i829 2R-856 2R--1888
1142.00 777.50 617.00 598.75 478.25 45f>.50

a b a b
163

APPENDIX E

Taken from Farm CheiirJcals Handbook 19/5. Meistet^ Publish'
ing Conipc. ny> Wi 1 1 oun tiby , Ohio.

omiiion Name Chemical Name Common Name Manufacturer

rnr,

Aldicr.rb 2-methyl~2(mcthylthio) Temik Union Carbide

propionaldehyde 0-
(methyl-carbdmoyl )

Action - Systemic insecticide,

acaracide and nematocide

Dia'Mfor 0,0-di ethyl S-(2-chlcro- Torak Hercules

! -phthal imido-ethyl )
phosphorathioate

Action - Insect icide^ Miticide

Diazinon 0,0~diethyl 0-(2-iso- Diazinon Ciba-Geigy

propyl -4-methyl -6-
pyrimidinyl) phos-
phorothioate

Action' - Insecticide, Miticide

Disulfoton 0,0--diethyl S-(2- Di-Syston Chemagro

ethyl thio-ethyl ) Div. Bay

phosphorodithioate Cheiii. Corp.

Action - Systemic Inser l.icide,
Acaracide

Fensulf otlvion 0,0-dietiiyl 0-[.n-(methyl- Dasanit Chemagro

SLilfinyl) phenyl] plios-
phorcdithiatc

Action - Systemic Nematicide-
Insecticide

Fentine 'iydroxido Triphenyl tin hydroxide Outer Thompson-

Hay ward

164

16^

Coniinon N_ai!ie Chemical Name ConiiTiori Na-ne HanufacLuTer

Action - F'jngicine and exhibits
a'^tif eeding properties
for surface-feeding
insects

Uxaiiiy

Methyl N'N '-dimethyl - Vydate 1. DuPont

N-[ (inetiiylcartaiiioyl )

o>.y]-l-thioaxaiiiiriiidate

Action - Insecticide. Neiiioticide

Pheneiniphcis Cthyl ^i-'incthylthio)- Neiiiccur Chemagro

i;i-tulyl isopropylplios-
phorainidate

Action - Systemic Nematicide

1f

ld

c; i.-i o

rj C

.t^

■■^ l".

■.f>

<T*

CO

c^

1^

ci:)

.-■^

m

fj

.—

*jj

CT-

rD

u\

o

o

■

Q>

o>

u.

o

G'-

,-■)

CM

CJ

o

4U

(T.

e.

■«J

-C

■t-'

j:

x:

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APPENDIX G

LEGLflD FOR ASSOCIAIIID ORGANISMS

6
7
8
9
1 0

n

12
1 3
1 '\
1 5
16

r/

i i'-

1^

?u

? !
22
23

Date

4 - "i 8 •- 7 3
9-7-73
3-5-73

5 - i / - 7 3
2 •■ 1 7 ~ 7 3
iO- 2-73
10-2-73
9-4-73
9-4-7 3

!:) - 5 - 7 3
9-7-73
9 - 7 - 7 ?
7-4-73
10-2-73
1 1) - 3 - V 3
7- 7-73
4-18-73
''-11-73
G - 11 - 7 3
b- 11-73
•S - 1 ! - 7 3
I- ' i-73

LocaticiiS

Ponipano Beach ,
Fonipeno Beech ^
Naples, PL
Naples, F L
roir:[)ano Eeach,
Pom pa no Beach ,
Lauderhill, FL
Lauderliil 1 , FL
Sarasota, FL
S a r a. s 0 1 a 5 F L
N spies, F L
Naples, F L
Naples, FL
Wild wood, FL
L a i; d e r t ; i 1 1 , F L
L a u d e 1^ h i 1 1 , F i
Gainesville, ! L
Po ill pa no Beach ,
J a c k s 0 ii \' i i 1 0 , I-"
J a c k s 0 ii V i 1 1 ? , F
JacksoMV i 1 1 e ,
J a cl; s c n v i lie.
J a c k s 0 n '.■ i lie.

FL
FL

FL
FL

G >" s s s V a r i e l' y
Coll hc ted F \-o:

1 i f g r e e n (3 '' c
0 r i;i 0 n •:'

Common

Coiiimon

Ormofid

Ormorid

Ti f way

(^

19)

CoMiiiion

Ti f grce

ri

( 3 2 ?,

T i f g 1' e e

n

( 3 2 S

T 1 f g ree

n

(328

Common

Common

Com ill en

Ti f '..'cy

(4

19)

Corr,n!on

Ti f v/ay

(^

1")

0,-r.;or:d

Oi iiioiid

0> ipotid

Oriiiond

Ormcnd

Ormond

167

Uo

Dote

L 0 c rj 1 i

0 n G

2^.

2-8-74

r!ol 1 ywooci ,

FL

?b.

2-8-74

llol '1 ywood ,

FL

26.

2-3-74

tlo! lywood ,

ri.

27.

2-9-7'5

L a u d e r i i i ' 1 ,

FL

28.

4-15-7 4

Laud e '•" Ti i 1 "1 ,

FL

29.

-^-lL-7 4

1. a u d e 1^ h ! 1 1 ,

FL

30.

-"-IS- 7 4

L a u d e r h ills

FL

:> 1 .

2 - 10-7 4

T i f 1 0 p. , G A

32.

4- 18-74

Laud e ;- ! i ill,

FL

33.

5-30-7 4

Ldude'-hi 1 1 ,

FL

3^ .

5 -30-74

L a u d e r h i 1 1 ,

FL

Gi-asr, Variety
Coll ec ted Frorp

0 1' in 0 1'i d
0 ' in 0 n d
Ornin'-'d

Common

CciTinion

rr)r.;;iicn

Common

Tifgroen (328)

Co'iiir.on

CoiPoion

litf:raturl cited

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daiTiage CGUsed by an eriopliyid mite in r.ugarcartf:.
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Ags^^wsl, R. A. and N, I. Bli?tia. 1965. Behavior of

Acer i a sp. ( Er i ophy i dae ) to./ards di ff oront varieties
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Alain, M. Z. and H. A. Wariud. 1963. On t!ie biology of
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AT ford, D V. 197?.. A new species of tarsonemid mice

f 0 u ( : d i n a s s 0 c i a t i o r. s vi i t h Erj^ op^i.yes g c^ j_l _a_r_u^'ii_t2. 1 j_ae_

(Tiirpiri) ( Acar i Ha : Prost i gma ta^ on lime. 1972

Entomol. tnon. Mag. 108: 1295-1297. (Abstr.)

Andre, M. 19 5-1. Cons i der at i uns i ri the us ^' oi^ physiological
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Arnold, i; . C, 19G8. ,Struciure and growth uf mi te-i ndi'ced
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169

170

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1
/ •

D i n d r a . 0 . 5 . and U . R . C . B h a k. h e t i a . 1971. Studies on
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f^ ',< i a\ • "7 P Q 7 9"

Butler, G. H

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sn

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-\I?.

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39

10-5

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43(:'}: 305-309

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0 i ■ • ci ;

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, Koi ve

li

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<:;■: \'l

y h n l; 1 s , J

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I / I.'

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7';

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Treddie Allen Johnson was born on August 5, 1938
in Tcfiipa, riorida. He graduated ?alutatorian from Jen-
n i n <j r High S c iifi o 1 , Jennings, Florida in 1957.

He attended the University of Florida and received
the B S A degree in F n t o in o 1 o g y with high honors in 1962. He
entered graduate school under an KDEA Fellowship and re-
ceived the r'SA in Entomology with a minor in agronomy in
D;'CCh:l)Or. 1964. After completion of cou)'se work for the
f'h.D. in Jujie of 1965, he was employed as Entomologist and
Agricultural Consultant for Florida East Coast Fertilizer
and Chemical Coinpar.y until December 31, 1970.

He re-entered graduate scriool in January, 1971
and continued his studies for the Ph.D. in entomology with
a minor in Sf)il Science. During this period, ho was awarded
a gradL'£~,to teaching ass i stant sh i p and, later, tlie Shands
Tea',-hirin Mo spit;! Pes<: Control ass i s tantshi p .

After av:,.issio!i to candidacy, he was employed by
tht. Depa r liiior, .', of Entomology and Neiiiatology in the Cooper-
ative Ext ens i- ;; Service beginning in January 19 73.

Marric. to the former Peggy Anne Paffcrd, he is
the father of son> Allen. He is a member of Newell

181

l8>

L'nto.'iC'l og ical Society. Florida EntonioT ocji ca^ Society,
r.ntori'01 og i Col Society of Ar:C-ricd, Phi Sigma , Alpha Zeta,
Gainma .Sigma Delta, Alpha Gamma Rhc. Arnerican h edsrat i cr>
of Beekeepers, r'iorida Beekeepers Association, and former
Jaycec and Civitan member .

I rcrtif^ _ _ _
ii!y opinion i t r. o n f o r m s
p r e s e ;"! 1 ^ t i 0 11 a r, cl i s f u
?. s ? (!i ssor ta t i or. for tnc

,1

"s n

that I have r^ad this study ?n(i ...... , .,

to acceptable s I a n d .i r ci s of s c h o 1 a r 1 y
1 V adequate, in scope and quality,
degree of Doctor of p!'i i 1 osop!iy .

.M

t

f/ n

Dr. H
Professor

i!,r'iy, Ci-iairiTian
of FntoTo'i ol:y and

[. . Cro

.^leiiia tbloqy

] certify tl-iat I f"iave read this study at. a tiiat i p,
my opinion it conforms tu acceptable standards of sciiolarly
p r e s e n 1 3 1 ion a ti d is fully adequate, i a scope a n d q u a 1 i t y ,
as a dissertation for tiie degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

^

1 cvA rv^>

Dr . S.

P r 0 f e

H.

s G 0 r

Kerr

of Fnroniol ogy and
i^lema tol ogy

I certify that I have read this study and that in
my opinion it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly
presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality,
as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Piiilosopiiy.

/ // \ k

\)T . Mil ledge Murphey' /

Pr'ofessor of

Entohiulogy ajnd
Nematol ogy

I Cfrtify that 1 have read tiri s study find thnt in
Kiv Opinion, it coiiforms to acceptable standar'ds O'" scholarly
presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality,
a? a d i sserta ti Oil for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

•c-'V

//I

DrXRobert L
P r- 0 f e s s 0 r of

O

Caldwell
Soil S c "i p ri c e

This d i

the Ccl
w as ace
the deg

June, 1

sser
1 ege
epte
rec

qv I-

tation was submitted to the Graduate Faculty of
of Agriculture and to the Graduate Council, and

d as p a r t ■
of D 0 c 1 0 r

of

the requirements for

' /-

m.

lege

7/

c u i t u r p'

Dean, Graduate School

UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA

3 1262 08554 0838