WS WS Si RRS MN AN AN SS SS SSN AN ‘ WS YY \ LN \X \ RA Rw << A RAK . \ \ \\\ LOS . . \ . A AN \ \ \ \ RN AN AN \ A \ \ A \ LAY WS AK ACK AN » SS MAY WY NS SAY SAN WAS ) ZEN oi; \\ UE a Meese ; Ne NN WY WY LA RH SY A \X AS NII LON \ \\ LQ RI NN . ‘ WOON WNNQNYW on RIV \ Wy \\ AY Ry SS \ OOM SA RRAAAY AN WY > = W) ea &) = ZZ = a pA tl Poe 62 < a0 OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. MUSEUM FT OF ALEX. AGASSIZ. GI Wht PLATE CII. XI. Conn. Aead. Vol. Trans. ee ae ee ADMIRAL GEORGE SOMERS. THE ‘‘ FATHER OF BERMUDA.” 1554-1610. ISIE BERMUDA ISdoA:N DS. Scenery, Climate, Productions, Physiography, Natural History and Geology, with Sketches of their Discovery and Early History, and the changes in their Flora and Fauna due to Man. WITH 38) PLATES AND OVER 250 CUTS IN THE TEXT. ety SAUDIDIESOUN age Wide ROR IUEIC? PpoFEssor OF Zo6bLocy, YALE UNIVERSITY. | Reprinted from the Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Science, Volume XI, with some changes. | PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR. ‘NEW HAVEN, CONN., 1902. Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1902, by AppISON EH. VERRILL, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. NEW HAVEN : THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR COMPANY 1903 JE joy id gd Zev (Ode This volume, which certainly includes a considerable variety of subjects, is intended to serve several purposes :— First: To furnish visitors to the Bermudas, and all others inter- ested in the subjects treated, a convenient and comprehensive trea- tise on the history, structure, and productions of the islands. Second: To provide a work that can be used, both by the people and students of Bermuda, as a manual or introductory text-book for studying this interesting archipelago and its Natural History. To this end, the Entomology has been treated somewhat fully, and with numerous illustrations, especially of the injurious insects, because this important subject has hitherto been almost entirely neglected by writers. Third: To record, so far as possible in one volume, the more important changes in the Flora and Fauna already caused by man, as a basis for the study of the future changes, which are sure to go on with increasing rapidity in consequence of the recent great “increase of commerce with the United States and West Indies. Fourth: To furnish a suitable general introduction to a series of more technical and elaborate memoirs on the Natural History and Geology of the islands, by the author and other naturalists, now in course of publication, and of which fifteen have already been issued. (See Bibliography, p. 452.) IT am under many obligations to numerous scientific friends and correspondents for assistance or information, as mentioned in many chapters of the book. To the Division of Entomology of the U. 8. Dept. of Agriculture I am indebted for the identification of many insects, and especially to Messrs. N. Banks and H. G. Dyar. See also pp. 327, 480. | To my son, A. Hyatt Verrill, I aim under special obligations for the care that he has taken to obtain a large number of excellent photographs, of which only a smail part are here reproduced. My thanks are also due to Messrs. G. & C. Merriam Co., for the loan of many cuts used by them in Webster’s International Dictionary. See p. 485. I wish also to acknowledge the many courtesies of Messrs. A. E. Outerbridge & Co., New York, agents of the Quebec Steamship Co., which contributed largely to our success in obtaining collections and photographs for this work, A, E. VERRILL, Yale University. New Haven, Conn., February, 1903. CHO INL AGI Dany gots Figures in first column refer to the author’s special edition; those in the second column are the original pages. Part I. General Description of the Scenery, Climate, Harbors, Waters, Vege- tation, Birds, Roads, Historical Localities, Ruined Forts, etc. Hirouresyl 2 iene eet rae on eres eee ee MER MS 4; 416 Part II. Physiography, including Meteorology, etc. Figures____.- 52; 464 ieee CoosraplicalsROsitione sures = m= joer see taeeee es semen ee Nx 52; 464 2. Form and Extent of the Islands and Reefs___.-_..-.-.____- 53; 465 3. Hills, Valleys, Sinks, Brackish Ponds, Swamps. Figures... 54; 466 40) Hallen Caverns; Natural Wish Ponds2222 22-2 22222225 2. 56 ; 468 A), laleweoyores @ravcl Koma ks}, IMiWewnRES A Bee OS ke boos eee code eee 57; 469 Gara Mancrove; SWaMpseocseeu Sole ee se hee ae ee ee 08 ; 470 (Pec AVernS ano GroOtrOess) ehiouUres: st 22s sree shoes te. Sy 58 ; 470 8. Shore Cliffs; Natural Arches; Pinnacles. Figures_______- 60; 472 ®. Ceyilaecheeil Isoyelis, Inthe ea does ou oh ease deoseselde 61; 478 i(eacand Dunes andaDritting Sands 23253227 2s 22st se 62; 474 11. Anchorages or Submerged Lagoons; Bottom Deposits_-_-._- 70 ; 482 i ammenhe neers and bilatsyone as <2 ees Lee ee ee 71; 488 1B, Sermo bing Aol; @ie So sonikeres Yee ee ee Ae eco coon anes 74; 486 14, Channels or Natural Cuts through the Reefs ---.-...-_____. 74; 486 iyeeebidesqandsCurrentsteases soe 02 So eae eee me a ee 77; 489 lone bho Soll wits Originyand Composition 2s eeesss=4-s5s-25-- 18> 490 17." Chemical Analyses of Bermuda Soils-_--._----.--.---.--.-- 80; 492 Alf}, 5). Ouithamey ies 35 SS Sree eels Ee an eee acy eee ey Dade Ope ee eee tees 82; 494 a. Rainfall; Hail; Thunder-storms; Fogs; Moisture ____ 83; 495 Pe WandSeehurrcanes,, Galesueeeaassee seem e eae ee soe 84 ; 496 © WennpenennnnTs 5 INOS, IEG, TSO so eee tees cous oe 86 ; 498 Gea Mietcorolocicalual lest smes = sae ee eae eee 87; 499 Oe; Wits Enael EWM US oo See 3 cdo sees Goes 91; 503 fe Lemperavare Ore the Seana. 42s eae ee eee see Se 91; 508 19. Remarkable instance of the Death of Fishes, etc., due to cold- nessorcthe- Sea nine O Oil 4. See ee ae Bee ee me Sa ee ae 91; 503 19a. Comparative Tables of Temperature and Wind ._-.---_--.-- 96 ; 508 A) earn CU akesiesm nes Se oS oF Be eee ces ce Neer noes to! 98 ; 510 21. Health and Diseases; Longevity ; Historical Epidemics ; Mos- GOUUINWOC eis See CAO EE EOE See 6 OSE AOS S aE ae eae as 98 ; 510 Contents. vi 22. Principal Productions and Exports, historically treated _--_- 105 ; 517 (7, JNimlereanisy Ibn, INIA, CWO cacasdsoosss scussosess 105 ; 517 b. "Tobacco 5; (Salto cee See cote eee em een pera eine 106 ; 518 ¢. Wihale)Bisbory,-ecliaricat@ilejassyaes sae eine asinine 109 ; 521 Gh, Shilis, Ohno Onl, Olive Oil, GOs osacoeasssessssssaceesa> 111; 528 e. Sugar, Cassava or Tapioca, Wheat, etc. _....--.--..--- 112; 524 f. Bananas, Pineapples, Oranges, Lemons, etc.----.-.---- 118 ; 525 g- (Corn or Maize stem tere a ese eee eae alr are aerate ee 118 ; 527 Peeeotatocss OnionsseomalOcs =a esse =e nae — ea a 116 ; 528 4; -ATLOW-YOOb Olen sen ok oe eae ee ee See aes 119; 531 Gey Mastennleiiess ete jess ahi Sev ae AU Ee ee aa 119; 531 Part III. Changes in the Flora and Fauna due to Man, with a Sketch of the Discovery and Early History____-.-------------- 120; 582 . 23. Discovery and Early History ; Historical Shipwrecks ------- 121; 583 a. Shipwreck of the Bonaventura, 1593. Wigures___-__-- 122; 584 by Shipwreck on the) Sean vient mney se! O09) ess eee 125; 537 c. Settlement of the Bermuda Islands in 1612-_-_-.____-- 138 ; 545 d. Fatal Famine in 1614-15; the “‘ Feagues”_--.-_-.---- 140; 552 e. Tobacco Cultivation, as connected with the Karly His- tony, ofsthe Mslamd sie eee eee sey ye eee eens 148 ; 555 f. Slavery; Negroes; Indians; Whites; Abolition of Slavery in 1884 o Ser oe eee a Sees opee 148 ; 560 qeeopulationvatiditterent perl Oc See see = =e ae ae 156 ; 568 24. Character and Origin of the Original Flora -._.---------_-- 159; 571 a. Endemic Plants. Figures---.-- suis eee ues ae eel Oy, aati 161; 578 Osnocalizedielanitsey se Hh Onin esr eeeree 162 ; 574 6, Semrsncls lays, IeweRS, Sloe es too sod Sek ose see oss 166; 578 G-BOxicinyotetherNa tives hilo === ee ee 175 ; 587 25. Destructive Effects of Wild Hogs (before 1612); Wood Rats ; Snails Slugs; ete. (22 x ieee oN eee eR tS) a Shea 177 ; 589 Oy IDuateeuis) Orr (Haye) WIG) Telos 48 oe oa eats eons esas seooees 177; 589 b. Effects of the Plague of Wood Rats, 1614-1618 .-..-__- 178 ; 590 c. Effects of Injurious Insects, Snails and Slugs _._.----- 179 ; 591 d. Destructive Effects of Drouths.. -------_-.----..---- 180 ; 592 DOv Hitects Op DekOTeS tims ae eter eee ee ee ee area 181 ; 5938 a. Bermuda Palmetto (Sabal Blackburniana Glaz.); its IBhiginorayy enol WISI, eA 3 Coos tact ea come sasene 181 ; 598 b. Bermuda Cedar (Juniperus Bermudiana L.); its His- tory and Uses: Wiguressee 3a see see een ereison soem 187; 599 c, Yellow-wood Tree (Xanthoxylum aromaticum) ; its His- NOMA eh eens BEM RRAY ae ests th Wie se ete hte ed 10 Ee es a ra ene 197 ; 609 d. Yellow-wood Tree and the Legends of Buried Treasures 198 ; 610 e. Other Native Trees and Shrubs partially destroyed_.... 207; 619 f. Native Wild Olive ; Olive-wood Bark ; and Button-wood FISG Opn Byes, 1S FB eg SN Bora ele a the ee aia 208 ; 620 gue Mamerove.: Misure! 52 4022 2 Dai iy ees 2 te leer te 209 ; 621 h, Black Mangrove or Black Jack, Wigure------2-2----= 210 ; 622 29. 30. dl. 32. Contents. Vil Introduction of Useful Plants and of Injurious Weeds- --_-- 210; 622 a. Introduction of Useful Plants from England, 1610-1625, loyy SOG cravel Omuinnways See See ee ee ey 210 ; 622 b. Useful Plants brought from the Bahamas, 1616-25 ____ 212; 624 c. Later Introductions from England, etc.____...__..._.- 213 ; 625 d. Accidental Introduction of Injurious Weeds __-.______ 214; 626 e. List of Principal Introduced Fruit Trees and Fruits__._ 215; 627 Principal Introduced Shade Trees and Ornamental Shrubs._ 231; 643 a. Shade Trees and Ornamental Trees___..__._______.___ 231; 648 b. Principal Introduced Ornamental Shrubs ; Hedge Plants 240; 652 c. Prominent Climbing Plants or Vines___________. es 1246608 Extermination or Partial Extermination of Native Birds..__ 249: 661 a. Character of the Original Native Avifauna___.___..__-. 249 ; 661 _6. Egg-birds or Terns (Sterna, sev. sp.) ; early extermina- 2 PINGS O11 0 AAG eye See laa aS Ue ie 9 254 ; 666 ce. Cahow; its History; Original Abundance and rapid exferminationie css se waves oie es oe ar eh 206; 668 d. Known Characteristics of the Cahow (now extinct)_--. 264; 676 e. Pimlico or Audubon’s Shearwater (Puffinus Auduboni LANTUS) a1) 2g a ek a eee eee Bh | ASM ey 265 ; 677 f. Tropic Bird; Long-tail; Boatswain Bird ; (Phaéton fla- UROS UTS) areata cre sa acre or pe ee a gaye RS wl Hk 267 ; 679 a JEUSiu orate) Fey OULD fed ets Ay seeps ee ete Soke ayy ses ee ee 268 ; 680 . American Crow (Corvus Amer reais) eee etre Rete ter 269 ; 681 Be Bxaberminatronoribhes Wiha esesssae= sae se a= eee Ol 1682 a. Hump-back Whale (Megaptera boéps or M. nodosa. Figure 270; 682 6. Fin-back Whale (Balenoptera, sp.). Figures...._.--- 276 ; 688 e. Cape Whale; Black Whale or Biscay Right Whale (Balenatglaciatissbon)s) (higurese ss aes see ae 276 ; 688 d. Sperm Whale; Spermaceti Whale; Trunk Whale, or Cachallo tasaplit ounces sys ape ae ogee epee pga a es 277 ; 689 Extermination of Breeding Sea Turtles; the Lizard_______- 278 ; 690 a. Former Abundance of Sea Turtles._........__.......- 278 ; 690 b. Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas). Figure__._..._---_--- 280 ; 692 e. Hawksbill; Caret ; Tortoise-shell Turtle (Caretta imbri- COLEC) eam bl OIE e mea pete he hy fe ae ae aed Eta twa BD a GOA d. Loggerhead (Thalassochelys caretta). Figure___.__--- 283 ; 695 e. Leather-back ; Trunk Turtle; Leather Turtle (Sphargis COGIOCEM) aan OURO sees ne yeh Saye eR Mamet Mie Ce 285 ; 697 f. Bermuda Lizard (Humeces longirostris Cope). Figure._ 285 ; 697 Decrease of certain Fishes and Shellfish._......_._._...-.- 266 ; 698 a. Former Abundance of Fishes. Figures.._...___..__- 286; 698 b. Rockfishes, Groupers, Hogfish, ete. Figures.._....... 289; 701 e. Bermuda Lobster (Panulirus argus). Figure..--.---.. 298; 705 d. Land Crabs (Gecarcinus lateralis Frem., ete.). ‘ Figure. 294; 706 e. Devil Fish ; Octopus; Scuttle (Octopus rugosus Bose)... 295 ; T07 72 Gastropods: Whelks; Conchs; ete, 222222 22.22 02 .42- g. Bivalves: Scallops ; Oysters ; Mussels, ete. _...-...--- 296: 7 Q 297 : Vili 34. 30. 36. 37. 38. 39. Contents. Introduction of Domestic Animals....-.-.....--------.--- 298 ; 710 a. Wild Hogs; their extermination.-.......-------.---- 298 ; 710 b. Plague of Wood Rats, 1614-1618; cause of its disap- PeaTANCe Lo eee ewe See Se Dus seme a yeti et aeae 300 ; 712 cy Common Ratsiand Mice sBatss ss sees eee sess eee 305 ; 717 ae WaldvorpElalit=waldi@atsiyee eee eee ae 306 ; 718 O, (Chindls pinch uae iain oe eo sb ods aeoe coos sou eeas 307 ; 719 Sf MEVOTSES| Lyset ees eG eae Re sate Peace peep 307; 719 MVerat:7s© GLC HT OTA a 10h ee 308 ; 720 as BOuUltty Bes 5 ees ees Seth ieee ep mee ee ear 308 ; 720 b. Game Birds: American Quail or Bobwhite, figure ; Ground) Dove mete: 2526 sss fee Mees es eae eee yeas 309: 721 c. Singing Birds: Tree Sparrow; Goldfinch, figure ; Wheat- ear; Starling, figure; Mocking Bird, figure ; American Goldfinch iho ureh ie te: haa eee rere 310 ; 722 Introduction of Reptiles and Amphibians-_--.---.---------- 313 ; 720 a. Reptiles: the American Blue-tailed Lizard; (Anolis forrunedawHOS AL) IM OER) oo sot et oes coe 313 ; 725 b. Amphibians: Great Surinam Toad; Agua Toad (Bufo agua ad») ye shioures seen a sae eae ae 314 ; 726 Introduction of Land Mollusca; Snails and Slugs ._-.----.- 315 5 727 Gi, INEWDVO SOCCER, IDUGUERES 5 oo oe Sone soo cess 815 ; 727 b, Introduced Snails; some Injurious Species. Figures __ 318 ; 730 6, Chur, MMi. - sos5 So55 conosco eSbcbooesees S556 822 ; 734 IntroductlonvoLminsectsi== nesses =a see ae eee ee area 323 ; 730 a. Native Species mentioned by Early Writers.__.--.---- 323 ; 730 b. Modesro introductions see setae sen eee ae a 325 3 737 c. Diptera (Flies; Mosquitoes, etc). Figures....-.------ 328 ; 740 d. Aphaniptera (Fleas; Jigger). Figures........-------- 387 ; 749 e. Hymenoptera (Bees; Wasps; Ichneumon Flies; Ants, étes)i) Hagumes 2/5 Sete Lua eae neal ee ee 338 ; 750 ft. Lepidoptera (Butterflies ; Moths). Figures.__.-----.-- 344 ; 756 On irachopteng (Caddis-ties) aes == tse -==e eee aera eee 370 ; 782 h. Neuroptera (Lace-wings; Ant-lions). Figures -...---- 370 ; 782 i. Coleoptera (Beetles; Weevils). Figures_..----.------- 372 ; 784 j. Hemiptera (Bugs; Cicada; Plant-lice; Scale-insects; Thripsetes)) Wigures sees ssaee see eee See See 386 ; 798 k. Pseudoneuroptera (Dragon-flies, etc.). Figures ___.--- 400 ; 812 l. Mallophaga (Bird-lice). Figures..-.-..--.---.-------- 407 ; 819 m. Orthoptera (Grasshoppers; Cockroaches, etc.). Figures 409 ; 821 n. Dermaptera (Harwigs)). Figures...-_-..-----.------- 415 ; 827 o. Thysanura (Lepisma; Silver-witch). Figures.-_.-.-_- 416 ; 828 Introduction of Arachnids and Myriapods..---.--.-------- 417 ; 829 a. Araneina (Spiders), Wigures._...-----------22252-2-- 417 ; 829 b. Acarina (Mites; Ticks). Figures......--------------- 428 ; 840 c. Myriapoda (Centipedes ; Galley-worms, etc.). Figures. 480 ; 842 Introduction of Terrestrial Isopods (Pill-bugs, etc.). Figures 482 ; 844 Contents. 1X 40. Introduction of Earthworms; Land Nemerteans, etc. ._-._-- 432 ; 844 a. Oligocheta (Harth-worms). Figures_---._.----..----- 432 ; 844 GeplGandeNenerteanssaiHioure es aee == soo ee eee 435 ; 847 ©, ILeynel lenoereeyns 1iteqnine as ee ko es eee ae 436 ; 848 41. Introduction of Marine Species; Feasibility of the Introduc- HOM Ore Wisestuill Soca. 228 = oes cose se cesec coe cscs ZEIN 6 teks) Bibliography ; Principal Works referred to .__.-.-.-------- 437 ; 849 ENGGIGMEVIVOUE ie pes eee eR A ep Rg ee 453 ; 865 Former Yellow Fever Epidemics.-_---.___.------------- 453 - 865 Conspiracy Ro taliGila os sae mes see ere ee Arn Aa eee ro 454 ; 866 iemenenlolle) IReibauiyll, Wel) o05 Shs. sotasedbes eeeos oslo oe 454 ; 866 IBIS yates aps Sane etek ee ata et Me Ue TN ce eR EPS pa ne alg 4595 ; 867 ONocygotsGodetiseD Oo k= =e === ee = meine en yee 456 ; 868 .. Ceyouumes Or Crotayonyclerr) W708) ecas = Boece eS as eee pace aoe 460 ; 872 etteroh Admiral: Somers. llGilQ)Raee seen ees eee tense = 461 ; 873 Pipa Slanonerny Ore Oreones Bo aa seek Ls eee eee eee 462 ; 874 Waive vera fig lurlall ope never ee ert ahe eibe Serewreres yu ie Uc 466 ; 878 A Ch Gand Cm euiteamees cue oeee Wee () RR ae OR Ree =o. Ses 474 : 886 WaldeBirdsverotectionyActa ens: a seen seme oe aA (Ay 886 Hoodvotesb ermaud ajalei Zar cle se yee eee ee A477 ; 889 AG@biniomell TheSCUS S055 shoo eee ebeos bess Gods 4o54 cece cones 4H Btekew) SCO O11 meee ty oe aea erp pees, flee San Win mt eraa ame eee att et eed 482 ; 894 Gov. Wm. Reid: his unpublished letters to W. C. Redtield 483 ; 895 TBYARHEN 2 etsees tes cee oe teat et nea Maleate Sater 484 ; 896 List of Figures in the text._____- Eh SAR Se ert Spy ae te 485 ; 897 Exqplamatlonnolp el abeceeys\)U= caus. ease ey ere Lie Se AO O07 BTID Gl xcept tet ois pa tee ale LL Lait aca eat eRe a Lal doe ee TO 501 ; 9138 Mableror Contents etey womens soos soe Soe eee ee ee sees Vi VX Note: Part IV, Geology; and Part V, Marine Zodlogy, are to appear in another volume. Figure 243.—Bermuda Flying Fish. x Spanish Rock. Figure 244.—Ancient inscription on ‘‘Spanish Rock,” after Lefroy, 1879. It has been attributed by most writers to Ferdinando Camelo, a native of Por-_ tugal, who received an abortive charter for the settlement of Bermuda from the King of Spain, about 1527. But there is no evidence that he ever visited the islands. If the monogram ever stood for his name the C has now dis- appeared by weathering. Quite possibly this has happened. At present, the monogram more resembles TK or FK. It is more probable that it is the only known record of the survivors of some disastrous shipwreck in 1043, who may have lived for some time on these islands, and perhaps died here. Possibly only a single individual survived, and he may have lived alone for years, like ‘‘ Robinson Crusoe.” The presence of a cross would rather exclude the theory that it was left by pirates or buccaneers. dé Bo Z Zz aan UN i‘ This is probably one of the mementoes of the supposed visits of the Spanish before the English settlement, mentioned by Gov. Butler, in 1619: ‘‘ Witnesse certaine crosses left erected upon rocks and promontories.” He also refers to old Spanish coins that had been found here by the early settlers. ~The inscription, which was originally deeply cut in the limestone ledge, is gradually becoming less distinct, due partly to weathering and partly to vandal- ism of visitors. A cast of it is preserved in the Public Library, at Hamilton. X.—TuHeE Bermuupa Istanps: THEIR ScENERY, CLIMATE, PRopvuc- TIONS, PuysioGRAPHY, Natura History, AnD GEOLOGY ; WITH SKETCHES OF THEIR Harty History anp THE CHaNncEesS Dux To Man.* By Anppison E. VERRILL. In the preparation of the following descriptive account of the Ber- muda Islands, I have aimed to provide a work that may meet most of the needs of large numbers of persons who go to the islands annually for health, pleasure, or study, and who may wish to learn as much as possible about the islands and their principal productions, without being obliged to consult a library, or burden themselves with many books.+ At the same time I have tried to make it so comprehensive and accurate, both as to text and illustrations, that it may serve as a standard reference book for students and libraries generally, in respect to the various subjects treated, though many of them are here necessarily treated rather briefly. In regard to the Marine Zodélogy, which is a very extensive subject, requiring hundreds of additional illustrations, the rather brief and general accounts here included are intended to be in a popular form, and to illustrate the more conspicuous and important species, such as visitors are likely to meet with and wish to know about. But I do not intend to give here complete lists of the species in any of the larger groups, for that would require a large volume.{ Much fuller accounts of the Marine Zodlogy will be provided in a series of monographs now being prepared by the author and others. Some of these have already been published, and others are nearly ready for the press.§ The observations and collections on which this work is based were chiefly made during two expeditions to the Bermudas: one made in the spring of 1898, when I was accompanied by three students from * Copyright 1902, by A. E. Verrill. + It should be understood that most of the fishes and other marine animals and much of the vegetation are identical with those of the Bahamas, Porto Rico, and other West Indian Islands, so that this work will also be useful in any of these islands. { The total number of marine species now known is over 1000. Of fishes there are about 200 species. § See the Bibliography at the end of this work. ) A. EF. Verrilli— The Bermuda Islands. 414 the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University, viz. Messrs. C. M. Cook, Jr., Clarence 8. Verrill, and Wm. E. Porter, who did most excel- lent and valuable work in helping me to gather very large collections; and another expedition, made in the spring of 1901, with my son, A. Hyatt Verrill, who not only made large collections, but also made numerous colored drawings of the soft-bodied marine forms, and about 200 excellent photographs, both geological and zodlogical, including numerous photographs of living animals beneath the water, and of living birds in their natural haunts. For a short time we were joined by Dr. W. G. Van Name, who devoted himself mainly to the Tunicata, and has since published a monograph of them. Besides the two large collections, made by myself and parties, I have had for study, during many years, collections made by Messrs. J. Matthew Jones, G. Brown Goode, and others. : For historical subjects, I have consulted numerous works,* and have quoted verbatim from some of them, when it seemed desirable to preserve the exact wording and quaint spelling of the early writers. The Memorials of Bermuda, by Governor Lefroy, 2 volumes, 1877, is by far the most important work for the early history of the islands, and I have quoted from it freely. In some respects the Bermuda Islands are almost unique. Very few other islands, of similar size and situated in a favorable climate, were destitute of aborigines when discovered by Europeans. Appar- ently man had never set foot on the Bermudas until they were discovered by the Spaniards, about 1510. The number of species of land animals and plants peculiar to the Bermudas is unusually small for islands of this character. No other islands situated so far from the equator are surrounded by living coral-reefs, and the hills of drifted and hardened shell-sand are unusually high for such a formation. The outer reefs, with their enclosed lagoons, resemble the coral islands or atolls of the Pacific, but they are not of the same nature. They are the eroded remains of limestone islands, once of large size and considerable height, like those still left, but much larger. They may, therefore, be called pseudatolls. During recent years these islands have been much visited by Americans, during the winter and spring months, either for health or pleasure, or both. This is partly due to the fact that they have become much better known than formerly, and perhaps still more to * Wor the titles of the more important historical works, see the Bibliography, at the end of this work. (Jp 4 57- 452..) 415 A. #. Verrill—The Bermuda stanle oo the greater facilities for reaching the islands and the excellent hotels now established there.* At present about three thousand Americans visit the islands every winter, and the number is rapidly increasing. The smooth and romantic roads are ideal places for driving and cycling. The transparent waters of the nearly enclosed harbors and bays afford excellent places for boating, yachting, and fishing. The beautiful views available for artists are endless, but the glorious colors of the waters and sky are beyond the dreams of art. Many visitors to the islands are naturally more or less interested in the unfamiliar or novel character of the subtropical vegetation ; in the unusual forms of animal life abounding in the sea, or on the coral reefs ; and in the strange geological phenomena, as displayed in the curiously eroded cliffs and pinnacles of the shores; in the grottoes and caverns hung with huge stalactites, and with clear blue sea-water beneath ; in the curious limestone formations, seen even in the deep cuts made for the highways; and in the ever moving sand- dunes, composed of wind-drifted white shell-sand. Many other unusual effects are due to the peculiar structure of the islands, where the only rock is limestone, made from corals and shells, and the only soil is an insoluble residue left after the decomposition of this lime- stone, but yet sufficiently abundant and fertile to support luxuriant vegetation. The association of some of the localities with the poems of Thomas Moore, who resided here four months in 1804, is a source of interest to many visitors. Those who are historically inclined can also find much of interest in connection with the ruined forts on the distant uninhabited islands and in the antiquated buildings at St. George’s and elsewhere, as well as in the ancient records of the colony. Many professional naturalists and scientific students visit the islands, because they are so favorably situated for the study of trop- ical and subtropical life, and especially because the facilities for ., studying living reef-corals and the various forms of life associated with them on the coral reefs are here exceptionally favorable, and the climate is agreeable and more healthy than on most tropical and sub- tropical islands. The people are also very hospitable and kindly disposed toward scientific visitors. Bright colored tropical fishes can also be easily procured here, and many have been taken hence to New York, to stock the public aquarium in the old Castle Garden. * The distance from New York is 675 nautical miles, and the passenger steamers of the Quebec Line usually make the trip in fifty to sixty hours. 4 WA, E.. Verrilli— The Bermuda Tslands. 416 Many of these fishes take the hook readily, and afford excellent sport for those who are fond of sea-fishing. Among those that are most esteemed for the table are the Green Angel-fishes, Rockfishes, sometimes of great size, Groupers, Grunts of several kinds, Snappers, Bonito, Guelly, Hogfish, Amberfish, Gogglers, and many other. Part IL—General Descriptions of the Scenery, Climate, Harbors, Waters, Vegetation, Birds, Roads, Historical Localities, Kuined Forts, ete. These islands are situated east of the main current of the Gulf Stream, but yet so near it that their shores are always bathed in the pure blue, warm Gulf Stream water, and for this reason the climate is remarkably equable for this latitude. Frost is practically unknown, though light frosts have occurred a very few times, at fong intervals. ‘Temperatures slightly below 50° F. are not infre- quent in winter. The winter months and March are cool, the average temperature being from 59.5° to 60.5° F. and there are many chilly, windy, and rainy days, especially with northerly winds, when one needs thick clothing out of doors, and artificial heat within. Indeed, many vis- itors from the north find it much cooler than they had expected, and are disappointed in not being able to wear thin clothes all the time. It is not well to trust in this case too much to the poetic descriptions of enthusiasts. Persons in feeble health should always secure rooms that can be heated when necessary and should have woolen clothing. April and May, and the first half of June, are the most delightful months. In midsummer the air becomes very moist and sultry, but not very hot, seldom exceeding 87° F. The climate will be more fully discussed in a later chapter.* — The Bermudas are nearly due east of Charleston, 8. C., and 575 nautical miles from Cape Hatteras, which is the nearest land. From *The following lines, from a beautiful poem of Thomas Moore, would indi- cate a warmer climate than actually exists there, especially at the season when he wrote, for he was in Bermuda only from January to the dth of May :— “No, ne’er did the wave in its element steep An island of lovelier charms ; It blooms in the giant embrace of the deep, Like Hebe in Hercules’ arms. The blush of your bowers is light to the eye, And their melody balm to the ear ; But the fiery planet of day is too high, And the Snow Spirit never comes here.” A417 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 5 Cape Sable, Nova Scotia, they are distant 675 nautical miles, south; and 830 miles north from Porto Rico, so that they offer a nearly midway resting place for many flocks of migratory birds that ordi- narily fly directly from Nova Scotia to the West Indies. These migratory birds have doubtless brought the seeds of many plants to the islands. The visible islands form a somewhat hook-shaped group with the concavity on the northern side, facing the great lagoon, and with the main axis running nearly northeast and southwest. The form of the dry land may be more accurately compared to a partially closed Figure 1.—A Bermuda Residence in winter; at Hamilton. hand, seen in profile, and with the thumb and nearly approximated finger-tips guarding the entrance to Great Sound and Hamilton Harbor, the latter lying in the axil of the thumb; and the Navy Yard at Ireland Island,* on the tip of the index finger, while the wrist is represented by the eastern part of the group. (See map, fig. 26.) The dry land of the islands amounts to only about 193 square miles, or about 12,373 acres. But the extensive submerged reefs and the enclosed lagoons and shoals cover an elliptical area of about 230 square miles, all of which was once dry land. Most *Treland Island can best be reached by a small ferry boat that rums across from Hamilton. (as) “I Trans. Conn. AcapD., Vou. XI. Aprix, 1902. 6 A. FE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 418 of the larger islands are connected by bridges and the great cause- way, so that one can drive the entire length of the group, which is about 22 miles, following the road. There is only one ship-channel by which vessels of any considera- ble size can pass through the reefs and enter the anchorages of the north side, or the harbor of Hamilton. The harbor of St. George’s — and Castle Harbor are entered from the south side, but the channels are not deep enough for very large vessels, although the principal one was blasted out, over the bar, to the depth of 16 feet, about 45 years ago, and efforts have recently been made to deepen it to 22 or 24 feet. The main ship-channel through the reefs:to the Navy Yard and to Hamilton Harbor is deep enough for the largest naval vessels, but it is narrow and crooked, and although well buoyed, local pilots are required by the passenger steamers, and the passage is not made at night. There are two good lighthouses. The largest is the Gibb’s Hill Light, near the western end of the main island. It is an iron tower, about 117 feet high, situated on top of a hill 245 feet high, so that the total height is 362 feet. (See figure 2.) The powerful light can Figure 2.— Gibb’s Hill Lighthouse, as seen from the sea, bearing N.E. by North. be seen at a distance of about 25 miles, from an elevation of 10 feet, or 30 miles from an elevation of 40 feet. (Plate Ixv, fig. 2.) This was required on account of the extremely dangerous outer reefs, that often lie from 8 to 10 miles from the land, to the north and west. The other lighthouse is on St. David’s Island, at the eastern end of the group, and near the main ship-channel. It is well known that these islands, which were discovered about 1510, by Juan de Bermudez, were greatly dreaded by the early navigators, and were regarded by some of them as the abode of 419 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. ~T demons, on account of the hidden reefs, which made it very danger- ous to approach them, even at a great distance. The early writers called them ‘“ Devills Ilands;” ‘Ilands of Devills,” and other similar names.* Sir Walter Raleigh, in 1595, referred to the Bermudas in this way: ‘The rest of the Indies for calmes and diseases very trouble- some, and the Bermudas a hellish sea for thunder and lightning and stormes.” This idea prevailed up to about 1600, when two successive ship- wrecks and the escape of the survivors led to more accurate descrip- tions of the islands and reefs, and almost immediately to their settle- ment by the English. But it was many years after they were settled before a survey of the main ship-channel was made with sufficient accuracy to allow large vessels to enter with safety. Governor Murray, in 1798, made the first reliable survey and located the ship- channel, and the anchorage inside, which still bears his name. For about two hundred years, or up to 1815, St. George’s was the capital, and its harbor was the principal one in use. There are several other smaller and shallower passages or “cuts” through the outer reefs, some of which are sometimes used by the smaller local vessels, but they are mostly crooked, and dangerous, except in pleas- ant weather. (See Part II, ch. 14, and map, fig. 26.) Elies Bay, at the western side of Somerset Island, was used as a harbor, to a considerable extent, in former times, the entrance being through Hogcut Channel at the southwestern end of the Main Island. The water is usually so transparent that the reefs can easily be seen ata distance, even when covered by a considerable depth of water, for they appear like dark masses, against the white shell-sand bottom of the surrounding deeper water. ‘Their dark color is due to the luxuriant growth of brown sea-weeds (mostly Sargassum), corals, etc., with which their tops are always covered. Thus the navigation of the inner waters is rendered comparatively easy and safe for small vessels, even where reefs abound. But there are large *Silvanus Jourdan, one of the party shipwrecked here with Sir George Somers, in 1609, alluded to this superstition as follows :— ‘And hereby also, I hope to deliver the world from a foule and generall errour: it being counted of most, that they can be no habitation for Men, but rather given over to Devils and wicked Spirits; whereas indeed wee find them now by experience, to bee as habitable and commodious as most Countries of the same climate and situation: insomuch as if the entrance into them were as easie as the place it selfe is contenting, it had long ere this beene inhabited as well as other Ilands.”’ 8 A. FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 420 areas of the lagoons that are entirely free of reefs. (See map, fig. 26.) These clear, sheltered waters are ideal places for yachting. With a small launch and a native pilot one could spend many delightful days cruising among the innumerable small and picturesque islands, and studying the structure and varied life of the curious reefs and “boilers”; but nearly all of our work was done with row-boats. The outer reefs, five to eight miles off the northern and western shores, present an almost unbroken barrier to the great seas. They are laid bare in many places at low tide, and other larger areas are then only covered by two or three feet of water, so that the seas break heavily upon them. After entering the great lagoon, through the main ship-channel, the steamers have to go nearly the whole length of the islands, along the north shore, not far from the land, and then make abrupt turns beyond Spanish Point and through narrow and crooked passages between the numerous small islands, to enter Hamilton Harbor, which is thus admirably protected by nature. Bermuda is an important British naval and military station, and many of the hills and small islands are surmounted by forts, new or old. Some of the early ones were built before 1622. These are now useless and in ruins, but some of the ruins are very picturesque and curious. On Ireland Island, nearly opposite Hamilton Harbor, is the navy yard, with the famous great floating dry-dock,* the marine hospital, and other public buildings. More or less of the English naval vessels can always be seen anchored near there, as well as war vessels of other countries. The appearance of the landscape, along the eastern and northern parts of the islands, as one sees it from the steamer, is far from promising, and is, indeed, apt to be rather disappointing to stran- gers. For much of the land lying near the north shore was long ago entirely stripped of its originally dense forests of cedar and palmetto, and has become so dry and barren, by the washing away of most of the soil, that nothing will grow there, except scattered * A much larger new floating dry-dock has been recently built in England to take the place of the old one. It was launched on the Tyne, Feb. 8, 1902. The new one is 545 feet long; 5314 feet high; 100 feet wide inside, or 126 feet over all, and it can lift a vessel weighing 15,500 tons, or if necessary, 17,500 tons; walls 13 feet thick. It has about twice the capacity of the old one, which was built in 1869. The latter is 381 feet long and 84 feet wide inside, with a lifting power of 8,000 tons. 421. A. FE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 9 and stunted cedars, with a few hardy shrubs and wiry grasses. Ledges of gray limestone project through the thin soil, and most of this region looks desolate and barren, as seen from the steamer. Indeed, the northern hillsides of St. George’s and the eastern end of the Main Island look as bleak and sterile as the poorest and most barren of the rocky sheep-pastures of New England. The dwarfed Bermuda cedars look much like the red cedars of southern New England in barren situations. But the early writers all agree that St. George’s was at first heavily wooded with cedars and palmettoes, like nearly all the other islands having soil, including even the the small islets of much less elevation, many of which are still thickly covered with cedars. Probably the lack of cedars to stop the salt spray was the most important factor in causing this barrenness. For that purpose the cedar is well adapted, because its dense foliage is not very sensitive to the poison- ous action of the salt spray and therefore it makes good windbreaks there. In this respect it is much like our red cedar and pitch-pine, which are often found on small islands and very near the shores. Indeed, many of the smaller Bermuda islets, of which there are more than a hundred, when covered with cedars closely resemble the small wooded islands along the shores of Long Island Sound, as seen in passing. Some of the early settlers mentioned that ships could lie in Castle Harbor moored to the cedar trees on the islands. Governor Roger Wood, in a letter written in 1633, speaks of send- ing cedar planks as presents to his friends in England, and mentions that some were 30 and 32 inches wide and 12 to 13 feet long. They were sawed out by hand. No cedar trees now existing there could furnish planks approaching such sizes. At that period the cedar wood was highly valued in England for choice furniture, on account of its fragrance, hardness, and rich colors, for mahogany was not yet in use. Legal restrictions were very early imposed (before 1622) against the reckless cutting of the cedars and palmettoes, on the ground that even at that time the land was becoming unproductive, for lack of the shelter given by the trees against the high winds. The poisonous quality of the salt spray and sea-foam that is often driven by the winds far inland over the hillsides, has great effect in keeping more luxuriant vegetation in check, for it kills the foliage of most plants on which it lodges, unless at once washed off by rain. As the steamer proceeds northwestward towards Hamilton, the hillsides and lowlands become more and more covered with small 10 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 429 forests of dark cedar, with scattered palmettoes intermixed, and with tracts of cultivated land. Many white stone residences can be seen, often partially hidden by the dark cedars, but made conspicuous not only by the natural whiteness of the native limestone, of which they are nearly always built, but also by frequent coatings of whitewash. The roofs are also generally covered with large, thin, overlapping slabs of limestone, coated with cement, so as to shed the rain-water, which is the sole reliance for domestic purposes. All the houses have large water-cisterns. - Springs, and streams of fresh water, do not exist there, nor real wells, though in some low places shallow pools or pits are often exca- vated in which rain water collects, suitable for cattle, and sometimes for domestic uses, though it generally rests on an understratum of Figure 8.—Roadside at Fairy Lands near Hamilton, in March, 1901; young Cocoanut Palms and Hibiscus Hedge. sea-water, a foot or two below, and can be used only when the tide is but partly out, and even then it is slightly brackish in most cases. The water in such “wells” rises and falls with the tide, and if the wells be dug at all below the sea-level, salt water is always reached. Hamilton, the capital, is a small but interesting town, situated on a high slope facing the harbor. It contains some fine residences and public buildings, and many beautiful gardens filled with tropical trees, shrubs, and flowers, in great variety. The public garden is 493 A. FE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 11 very attractive and there are many fine shade trees. Two large modern hotels and several smaller ones, with various boarding houses, accommodate the numerous visitors who remain in Hamilton. There is here a street, Cedar Avenue, with a fine row of the native cedars on each side. The grounds at Mt. Langton, the residence of the governor, are very beautiful and contain many rare trees and flowers. In the immediate vicinity of Hamilton there are many interesting places to visit, including numeyous fine private residences and beau- tiful gardens and parks. Prospect Hill, the headquarters of the military organization of the islands, is not far away to the eastward. Spanish Point, Clarence Cove, and Fairy Lands are noted places, a short distance northward. Figure 4.—The native Palmetto. The native Palmetto is still common, both wild and in cultivation, but is not nearly so abundant as it was originally, nor so large. This tree is peculiar to the Bermudas, though it is very similar to our southern Palmetto in appearance, but it bears sweet, edible berries in large clusters. (See Part III, ch. 86, and figures 39, 40.) In favor- able places, in rich, moist soil it grows forty to fifty feet high, but it is more frequently only from ten to fifteen feet. (Figure 4.) It seems to grow rather slowly. 12 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. _ 494 The early settlers depended very largely upon this tree for food, drink, and shelter. Its leaves were used for thatching most of the houses for at least 60 years; its berries were eaten as fruit; its soft growing top was boiled for a vegetable, like cabbage ; and its juice and pulp were used to make a fermented intoxicating drink called “bibey ” or bibie. Several foreign palms, including the Date Palm, Cocoanut Palm, and the Royal Palm, are cultivated for ornament, but seldom ripen their fruit. Five tall, straight Royal Palms, standing in a row by the roadside, near Hamilton, and close to the harbor, west of the town, are famous for their graceful forms. (Figure 5, and plate xvi, Figure 5.—The Royal Palms near Hamilton. fig. 2.) The Pride-of-India is one of the most common shade trees. It puts out a profusion of clusters of pink flowers, like small pea- blossoms, in early spring, before the leaves appear. (Fig. 17.) Both eastward and westward from Hamilton there are three main highways, running lengthwise of the Main Island, which is about 14 miles long, but less than 2 miles wide, in most places. One road is near the middle line of the island ; another, which runs along near the northern shore, is called the north road; one, which runs near the south side, is called the south road. These highways generally have very excellent road-beds, with easy grades and a hard, dry sur- face, composed of the native crushed, soft limestone, which is well 425 A. B, Verrilli—The Bermuda Islands. 13 adapted to the making of roads. It is so porous that the heaviest rains very quickly soak into it, and it is seldom dusty. But at the time of my last visit, April, 1901, these roads were considerably out of repair, especially the south road, owing to some very severe storms during the preceding winter. A drive along either of the three principal roads, on the Main Island, eastward or westward, will at once relieve the visitor of all his impressions of barrenness, derived from the appearance as seen from the steamer, for cultivated land and luxuriant vegetation are seen on all sides. Great numbers and many varieties of foreign tropical trees, shrubs, and flowering plants are abundant along the roadsides and in the gardens. Wherever there is sufficient soil, and co —~ a — Fo el —— —- ——— = Figure 6.—Banana Patch; a Pawpaw with fruit is near the right side. especially in the valleys or “sinks,” it is highly cultivated. The principal crops are Bermuda onions, early potatoes, and Bermuda lilies, but patches of sweet potatoes, bananas, and various garden vegetables are common. Many unusual fruit trees may also be seen, such as the Orange, Avocado Pear, and most curious of all, the Paw- paw, with its columnar trunk, surmounted by a terminal cluster of large leaves, and sometimes with a cluster of large fruits just below them. It is remarkable for containing a vegetable digestive ferment called papain, capable of digesting meat, etc. (Mig. 6.) 14 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 496 The white Japan or Easter Lily was very extensively cultivated here, a few years ago, for the sake of the bulbs, which were shipped to New York for forcing. It was then not uncommon to see beauti- ful fields of five to ten acres of fine plants, which were in full bloom in April and May. Sometimes over 100 flowers were formerly pro- duced on one stem. But within a few years the bulbs have been attacked by a fungous disease, which turns the leaves yellow, and dwarfs and spoils the plants, so that the cultivation of this lily for commercial purposes has now been largely abandoned, though some pretty good fields were still to be seen west of Hamilton in 1901. It is to be hoped that some effectual remedy for this disease may yet be found. Roses of many varieties, and various other flowers, are abundant, and bloom nearly all winter. In many places throughout the islands, tall hedges of Oleanders, both red and white, border the roads on both sides for long distances, and when in flower, in the spring and early summer, they are very beautiful and fragrant. There is an excellent road for driving, or cycling, running through the central part of the Main Island and Somerset Island, and from this a short cross road leads to the famous Gibb’s Hill Lighthouse, from which a very extensive bird’s-eye view of the whole group of islands can be obtained. (Plate Ixvi, fig. 1.) That portion of the Main Island that les west of Hamilton con- tains, apparently, the most fertile and productive lands on the islands, and owing to the considerable breadth of land in most places and its sheltered position, by which it is partly protected from the cold winds, the climate seems to be warmer here than on the eastern and more exposed parts of the islands. This may also be due largely to the greater number of cedars and other trees left growing as wind- breaks. Owing to these several causes the vegetation in this region is particularly luxuriant and pleasing, especially in Paget and War- wick parishes.* Somerset Island is also fertile and well cultivated. The best lily fields were seen here in 1901. * There are many places in these western parts of the islands to which some of Thomas Moore’s graceful poetical descriptions would now apply, even better than to St. George’s, where they were written :—— ‘*“ Could you but view the scenery fair, That now beneath my window lies, You'd think, that nature lavished there Her purest wave, her softest skies, To make a heaven for love to sigh in, For bards to live and saints to die in.” 497 A. FE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 15 In several places there are thick clusters of tall, graceful bamboos, which sometimes overarch the roads. One of the finest of these groups is situated close by the house occupied by the Empress Eugenie, while she was living here several years ago. This is on a cross road a short distance west of Hamilton. (See plate Ixvii.) Near Elbow Bay, on the south shore, there are extensive modern sand-dunes, only very recently stopped in their destructive advance over the fertile soil, which they had kept up for more than a century. These are of special interest to many persons, but they are still very barren, and are only occupied by sage-bush and other sand-loving plants. In their progress they buried groves of cedars and one dwell- ing house. (See under Geology.) Hungry Bay, also on the south shore, with its dense mangrove swamp, is a weird and solitary place, but very interesting to the naturalist. Figure 7.—Cathedral Rocks on Somerset Island. This appears to be the ruins of an ancient cavern, partly broken down and dissected by the sea; the roof has partly fallen down. The cclumns are hardened by infiltration of calcite and roughly pitted. Elies Harbor, or Bay, on the west side of Somerset Island, is a beautiful body of clear, brightly tinted water, with a white sand bottom. Formerly it was a port of some importance. On the point of land separating Elies Bay from “The Scaur,” which is a smaller and shallower bay to the south, are situated the 16 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 498 remarkable “Cathedral Rocks” or “Old Church Rocks,” which have been carved and worn by the sea into the forms of curious columns and arches, resembling some ancient ruined temple. But the columns are not so high as they seem to be in the photographs. (See fig. 7, and plates Ixxxviii, Ixxxix, and Geology.) Owing to abundant moisture in the atmosphere, and frequent clouds, the sunsets are often exceedingly brilliant, and the sunset colors of the sky, reflected from the bright waves, add greatly to the brilliancy of the color effects. Figure 8.—The Bermuda Cardinal Bird, from life. Another curious phenomenon may often be seen in spring and summer, when the white Tropic-birds can be almost constantly seen in many parts of the islands, flying over the water and uttering their loud cries. Their two long central tail feathers stream grace- fully out behind them as they fly. On bright days the white under surfaces of their wings and bodies appear to have a clear, pale green color, due to the light reflected upward from the white sand of the 429 A. FE. Verriil—The Bermuda Islands. ~ 17 bottom through the green sea-water. These birds nest in holes in the cliffs and are protected by law. They migrate to the south for the winter, and return in March. (See plate Ixxii.) Many small birds, which are numerous and tame, may be seen along the roadsides. Although there are only about twelve species of birds native to the islands, or which breed there, the numbers of individuals of several of them are large. The best singers of the native resident species are the Cardinal Bird (fig. 8), the Bluebird and the White-eyed Vireo (Part VI); but the Mocking Bird, English Goldfinch, American Goldfinch, the Wheatear, and other foreign birds have recently been introducéd and are now naturalized there. (See Part III, ch. 34.) The Catbird is resident and abundant. It is as tame and auda- cious as with us (see Part VI). The English sparrow was introduced some years ago and is very abundant. The Bluebird is a larger and brighter variety than our northern one. (Fig. 9.) The same is true Figure 9.—The Bermuda Bluebird, from life. of the Cardinal Bird, of which the male is redder than the common American variety, and has a brighter red crest. (See Part VL.) The song of the Cardinal Bird is varied and agreeable, and it is said to change according to the season. The little Ground Dove is very tame and is often seen along the roadsides, or feeding in the roads. (Fig. 10.) The American Quail or Bobwhite is also now common, but the present race was introduced in recent times, about 1859, it 18 A. EK. Verril—The Bermuda Islands. 430 is said, by Mr. R. Darrell, the original ones having been extermi- nated about 1840. Possibly the original ones had been introduced at an earlier period, by the settlers. In the spring and fall a large number of other American birds come to the islands to rest for a Figure 10.—The Ground Dove, from life. short time during their migrations, and some may remain through the winter. Some of these come regularly, every season ; others only occasionally or accidentally. Among them are various ducks and shore birds, but they are not usually numerous. Going eastward from Hamilton, in pleasant weather, the north road is most delightful, for it affords numerous fine views of the adjacent waters, which here are clear and sparkling, and have most surprising tints of sapphire-blue and bright turquoise-blue, chang- ing in the distance to deep indigo-blue or ultramarine, while in shallow water, nearer the shore, the color is commonly emerald-green or beryl-green, constantly varying in tints according to the nature of the bottom, the state of the sky, and the agitation of the surface. On occasions when a strong northerly or easterly wind is blowing, the north road, eastward of Hamilton, is to be avoided, because it is much exposed to the wind, and in many places the salt spray is apt to be blown across it at such times. The two other roads are much more sheltered from the wind, and have special attractions of their own. The hard, smooth road-beds, composed of the crushed porous limestone, are all well adapted to the cyclists, and many of these are constantly met on the roads, and especially on the north road. 431 A. EK. Verril—The Bermuda Islands. 19 A short distance north of Hamilton, on the shore, near the north road, there is a place still called the “ Ducking-stool.” It is said to have been the site of that ancient and peculiar imstrument for the punishment of gossiping or scolding women, who led “ scandalous lives.” It was also used in England and America, at that time.* Owing to the softness of the limestone, many deep cuts have been made through this stone, which forms all the hills. The rock is divided vertically into blocks by deep, narrow channels, cut by means of heavy steel chisels, abont two inches wide, mounted on long handles. These great blocks are then dislodged, and if sound enough are cut up into regular rectangular blocks, suitable for the walls of houses or other masonry, by means of ordinary cross-cut wood saws. It is said to saw about as readily as soft wood, when first quarried, but it rapidly hardens at the surface when exposed to the weather fora few months. (Fig. 11.) As a result of this mode of quarrying out a road-cutting, the sides of the cuts are always steep, often nearly perpendicular, and they afford excellent sections for the geologist. Hverywhere they show the irregular, abruptly shifting stratification, often with the layers inclined at high angles, characteristic of wind-drifted or sand-dune formations. ‘This plainly proves that all these hills are only consol- idated sand-dunes, made of shell-sand blown from the ancient sea- beaches. Several of the deepest cuts are near Hamilton, which is a hilly region. (Fig. 12.) Various vines and herbaceous plants have taken root in the crevices of the older cuttings and help to conceal their angular and artificial * Tt seems, from the following record, that a ‘‘ stool” was not found necessary for administering the punishment in the early years of the settlement. ““ At the Assizes, 18th June, 1667.” ‘‘Susana Bayley, wife of John Bayley of Deven: Tribe, presented for that shee the said Susana is a person of scandalous life, and found by her conversation to promote dissention in the neighbourhood. Whereuppon the said Susana was found guilty by a Jury of 12 sworne men, uppon the 27th day of June ’67. And was censured by the unanimous Vote of the Court, to be forthwith ducked with three ducks. Which said Censure was accordingly performed from aboard a vessells yards arme lying at the Bridge, the sayd day.” Five ducks were often given to women. How many ducking stools were subsequently erected does not appear, but there is recorded an order of the Council of Sandys Tribe for the erection of a “duckingstoole” March 25, 1672. It was also ordered that Miles Rivers should either pay for that ducking stool, or else his wife Mary should be ducked ‘‘ when the stoole is erected.” The Sheriff had complained ‘‘that she did abuse him with her tongue in ye execution of his office.” The records do not show which horn of the dilemma was chosen. 20 A. KE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 439 appearance. Among these, the native Maiden-hair Fern, peculiar to the Bermudas, is the most delicate and graceful. (Fig. 33.) Several species of: Cactus or “prickly pear” (Opuntia) grow commonly on the walls and rocks by the roadsides. They bear large yellow flowers, in their season, and dark red edible fruits. The singular Life Plant (Bryophyliun) covers the barren places, rocks, and walls along the roads with its large fleshy leaves, and in the spring it sends up tall spikes of pink bell-shaped flowers. This is the same plant that is cultivated with us as a house-plant, partly Figure 11.—Quarrying Limestone with chisels and saws. on account of its singular power of putting forth several complete young plants from the edges of a cut leaf, when laid on the surface of the earth. It is very much at home in Bermuda and spreads rapidly. It serves well to cover unsightly or barren places, for it appears to be able to grow on almost bare rocks. (Plate Ixxiv, fig. 2.) The underbrush along the roads is composed largely of the naturalized shrubby Lantanas, which bear a profusion of bright orange or red flowers. It is here called “Sage Bush,” and in some places it has become a troublesome weed, as in many tropical coun- tries, but it is very useful in binding the drifting sands. 433 A. EH. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 2] Along the north road, in many places where it approaches closely to the shore and is exposed to violent winds and salt spray, tall hedges of Tamarisk, called “Spruce” by the Bermudians, have been planted. This shrub grows here to large size. Many of the older ones, having been many times broken and bent by the storms, have acquired a weather-beaten and picturesque appearance. _ Its delicate, heath-like foliage stands the poisonous action of salt-water spray very well. In May and June it puts out large clusters of small, pink, bell-shaped flowers, much like those of a heath. It is a native of southern Europe. Figure 12.—Road Cutting near Hamilton. In other places can be seen hedges of Century-plants, or Agave, of several kinds. Some of these flower freely here in early spring, sending up tall branching stalks, sometimes 10 to 15 feet high, covered with a profusion of yellow flowers. In many places there are hedges of the scarlet-flowered Hibiscus, which is very showy when in flower. Hedges of the Pomegranate; Spanish Bayonets ( Yucca) ; Cycads; Pepper-bushes; Snuff-bushes; Galba, with its glossy leaves, and other unusual hedge-plants form hedges in certain places. Trans. Conn. Acap., Vou. XI. 28 APRIL, 1902. 992 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 434 Traveling eastward by the north road, one passes through Flatts Village, where the road crosses the inlet to Harrington Sound. ‘This sound is a considerable body of sea-water, completely land-locked, except for this small channel, but the sound itself can best be seen from the middle and south roads. From the bridge across the shallow but rapid tidal stream, one — can see, beneath the clear water, a great variety of living sea-weeds, sponges, and other organisms, of various bright colors. Among these the most conspicuous are large masses of a bright red, orange, or scarlet sponge, which grows in many different shapes, and varies much in color. Several fine residences and beautiful grounds are situated in the village and near it. Many visitors, including several scientific parties, have made it their headquarters.* There are here, and near- by, several good boarding houses, but no large hotel. In the interesting grounds at “‘ Wistowe,” the residence of the late Hon. C. M. Allen, formerly United States Consul, there is a stone basin for fishes. It is fed by a tidal current of water flowing through a trench cut from the inlet to Harrington Sound. A fine collection of bright-colored fishes can usually be seen here. Among those noticed in 1901 were some large green and yellow Angel- fishes; the brilliant Doncella; a large Blue Parrot-fish ; the Blue Oldwife or “Turbot,” and others of interest. _ By the roadside, at this village, there is a very large Mahogany tree, which is the only large one on the islands. Not far away there is also a very large India-rubber tree, and in several of the grounds are numerous good specimens of Palms and the native Palmetto, with the Pawpaw and many other interesting trees and shrubs. The mouth of the inlet here was at one time, many years ago, a harbor of some importance, with docks and warehouses, but it is now so silted up that it is only deep enough for boats. Indeed, it has always been liable to become obstructed by sand bars, on account of its strong tidal currents and the bottom of shifting sands. * Platts Village is advantageously situated in many respects for this purpose, as well as for the pleasure seekers. Among other naturalists, Prof. Wm. North Rice and the late Mr. G. Brown Goode, who subsequently was at the head of the U. S. National Museum, and also for a short time was U. S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, made extensive collections here in 1876-7. Mr. Goode published several papers on the Fishes of Bermuda. Professor Heilprin, of Philadelphia, with one of his parties, also chose this place in 1888. The best localities for obtaining the very singular fish-like creature called the Lancelet or Amphioxus are on the shallow sand-bars of this inlet. 435 A. FE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 23 As far back as 1629, thereis a record of one Thomas Emmet having been paid 50 lbs. of tobacco for digging out the mouth of the chan- nel. At that time, and long after, tobacco was the regular currency of the colonists. Not far beyond Flatts Village the road passes Shelly Bay, named for Mr. Henry Shelly, one of the party shipwrecked on the islands with Sir George Somers, in 1609, by whom it was discovered. It abounded with fish at that time. It has a broad crescent-shaped beach of white sand, but the bay itselfis very shallow and full of rocky reefs. In bright weather its waters are beautifully tinted with emerald green. It has considerable scientific interest, because long after its discovery it became obstructed with sand-dunes which were eventually covered with vegetation. But about 1807, these sand-dunes were rapidly swept away again by the wind and sea, thus quite changing its form and size (see Physiography and plate Ixviii). Going farther eastward, the north road passes through Bailey’s Bay Village, which has been a favorite place for several scientific parties and many other visitors.* At this place there is a very large and handsome Tamarind tree, about six feet in diameter, by the residence of Doctor T. A. Outer- bridge. In the yard of Mr. J. D. Seon, there is a Cycead of unusu- ally large size, said to be over 60 years old. This village has two small bathing beaches of white shell-sand. Such beaches are but few on the north side of the islands. In the shore cliffs, a little east of Bailey’s Bay, there are two grot- toes of considerable size, side by side, which can only be entered at low tide, and by the aid of a boat. Several roads diverge from Bailey’s Bay, and connect around Harrington Sound with all the roads to Hamilton. Another goes east to the long causeway and St. George’s. Traveling eastward from Hamilton, the middle and south roads unite at the western end of Harrington Sound into a road that skirts its entire southern and eastern shores. Thisroad has many attractive features, but is somewhat hilly. It affords many beautiful views of Harrington Sound, with its islets and headlands. This sound is a fine expanse of pure transparent water, and is as completely land- locked and surrounded by hills as a lake. It has but very little * My party of 1898 had its headquarters here at ‘‘Seaward,” the home of Mr. J.D. Seon. We found the situation, owing to its central position, a very favor- able one for visiting the islands and reefs of Bailey’s Bay, Castle Harbor, and Harrington Sound. ~ 24 A. E, Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 436 tide, usually 6 to 8 inches, and contains several small islets, some of which are inhabited ; others are wooded and unoccupied. Trunk Island has a stone residence and pleasant grounds with palmettoes and other shade trees upon it. Its clear waters abound in marine Figure 138.—Harrington Sound and small Islets. life and its cavernous cliffs and shell-sand beaches afford some excel- lent places for zodlogical collecting, especially since collecting can be done here with a boat when it is too windy to do anything of the kind on the other shores. (Plate 1xx1.) Near the western end of this sound, and close by the roadside, is * Devils Hole,” which is a natural fish-pond connected by subterra- nean crevices with the sea. It was formed by the falling in of the roof of a cavern. It has been enclosed by a wall and stocked with hundreds of fishes, mostly large “ Hamlets” or Hamlet Groupers. With these are some Green Angel-fishes, Oldwives or “ Turbots” ; and a few other kinds. When we visited the place, it also contained several green Sea-turtles. It is a sort of gigantic natural aquarium, and is well worth a visit. The fishes are fed so often by visitors that even the large Groupers, : some of them a yard long, will take bread and other food from one’s hands, but caution is necessary lest they take the fingers also. When food is thrown into the water there is a wonderful scene of wild commotion, and a great display of wide-open red mouths. On the south side of the island, not far from here, there is an exten- sive beach of white shell-sand, on which the breakers, in southerly winds, beat with great force. ‘The loose sand from the beach, which 437 A. FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 25 has been drifted from the shore by high winds, has formed hills or dunes of white sand that extend a considerable distance from the shore, at Tucker’s Town, burying the once fertile soil. This has been going on here for about a hundred and twenty-five years. The loose sand of the dunes has not yet been stayed in its destructive progress by the binding roots of various shrubs and grasses that will grow in such soil, though the area of loose sand has already been much diminished by them. (Plates Ixxv, Ixxvi, and see Physiography, ch. 10.) | _ These are now the only important active, or moving, sand-dunes on the islands, though there were other even more extensive ones a few years ago, especially near Elbow Bay, all of which have now been stayed by the vegetation. At the latter place they formerly buried, in their irresistible progress, a dwelling, all except the chim- ney, and also groves of cedars. Figure 14.—Lion Rock and Harrington Sound. At arocky promontory, interrupting the beach, there is a very interesting rock-sculpture, consisting of two large, well formed arches, side by side, and separated by a massive central pillar of limestone. (Plate lxxxvii.) The south road also passes close by “Lion Rock,” a curious rock- sculpture, carved by the waves, and so named from its form. (Figure 14.) 26 A. KH. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 438 Shark’s Hole, nearby, is a large natural archway or tunnel, leading far under the cliff, with water in it deep enough for a large boat to enter for a considerable distance. Corals, sponges, and seaweeds may be seen growing on the bottom in the clear water, and schools of large Sea Lawyers or Gray Snappers and other fishes are often to be seen swimming among the broken rocks in plain view, but these lawyers are too sly and intelligent to be taken with a hook. (Plate Ixxili.) Near Shark’s Hole the road passes Paynter’s Vale, a very old estate, once highly cultivated, but now much neglected. Many unusual shrubs and trees grow half wild upon it, including wild coffee-trees, citrons, lemons, and many others. In front of the house is the first Fiddle-wood tree planted in Bermuda, and it is said to be the parent of all the trees of that kind on the islands. It was set out about 73 years ago, and is now about 5 feet in diameter. It lost some of its larger branches in the hurricane of September, 1899, but is still a large tree. This species spreads rapidly, both by its seeds and roots, and is now probably the most abundant deciduous tree on the island. Its bright green foliage contrasts finely with the dark green of the cedar. (Plate Ixx.) Not far away, the road passes near the Peniston Cave (plate xcii1), which has not yet been opened to the public, and is rather difficult to explore. It is, perhaps, the most beautiful cave now known on the islands, on account of the great number of stalactites and the variety of forms that they have taken, and also because of their nearly pure white color. This is due to the fact that in this cave torches and bonfires have not been allowed to coat over the sur- faces with soot, which has been done to a deplorable extent in many of the other caves. This should have been prohibited long ago. (See Geology.) It belongs to Mr. W. S. O. Peniston, the proprietor of the Harring- ton House,* close by. It is to be hoped that he will soon improve the entrance and make it readily accessible to visitors. . A short distance farther north the road passes near the famous Walsingham place, which has some interesting historic associations, and it is also an interesting locality for the geologist and naturalist. The picturesque old stone house, not now occupied, is situated * This boarding house was our headquarters in 1901. We found this place an excellent one for our purposes. It is very near Harrington Sound on one side and Castle Harbor on the other. 439 A. H. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. OT close to the shore of Walsingham Bay.* (Fig. 15.) It is consider- ably out of repair and some of the outbuildings are in ruins. It is one of the oldest houses on the islands, for it is said to have been built about 1670-80, but it has been considerably altered and repaired within 50 years. It is pointed out to visitors as the house of the poet, Thomas Moore, who really resided at St. George’s for about four months, from January to May, 1804. He had been appointed Figure 15.—Walsingham ; Mangrove Trees on the left side. to an official position there, which did not prove satisfactory to him, so he delegated his duties to a deputy and returned home, after visiting the United States and Canada. He may have been an occasional or a frequent guest at the Walsingham House, for the * This Bay was so named in 1609, in honor of Mr. Walsingham, coxswain of the ‘‘Sea Venture,’ who discovered it. Itis related by Strachy that when the vessel, which the shipwrecked crew had built, finally set sail for Virginia, she got aground on one of the reefs at the entrance of St. George’s Harbor, causing great dismay, but Mr. Walsingham soon got her clear of the reef. ‘‘ When shee strucke upon the Rocke, the Cock-swayne, one Walsingham, beeing in the Boate, with a quicke spirit (when wee were all amazed, and our hearts failed) did give way stoutly, and so by Gods goodnesse hee led it out at three fadome, and three fadome and a half water. The wind served us easily all that day and the next (God be ever praysed for it) to the no little joy of us all, we got cleere of the Tlands.” A. E, Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 440 ho (os) owner, at that time, was very hospitable, but there is no evidence that he ever remained there even over night. The room that is called “Tom Moore’s room” was really the dining room, as I was assured by persons who had resided in the house before it was altered.* On this estate, farther back from the shore, in a grassy glade near | the caves, is the famous old Calabash tree under which Moore is said to have composed some of his Bermuda poems, and to which he cer- tainly refers in his notes and diary. In his notes to his poems he makes the following allusion to this tree :— “How truly politic it is in a poet to connect his verse with well- known and interesting localities,—to wed his song to scenes already invested with fame, and thus lend it a chance of sharing a charm which encircles them,—I have myself, in more than one instance, very agreeably experienced. Among the memorials of this descrip- tion, which, as I learn with pleasure and pride, still keep me remem- bered in some of those beautiful regions of the West which I visited, I shall mention but one slight instance, as showing how potently the Genius of the Place may lend to song a life and imperishableness to which, in itself, it boasts no claim or pretension. The following lines in one of my Bermuda poems: “Twas thus by the side of the Calabash tree, With a few who could feel and remember like me’ still live in memory, I am told, on those fairy shores, connecting my name with the noble old tree, which, I believe, still adorns it. One of the few treasures (of any kind) I possess is a goblet formed of one of the fruit-shells of this remarkable tree, which was brought from Bermuda a few years since by Mr. Dudley Costello, and which — that gentleman very kindly presented to me.”t * An old lady, only recently living in Bermuda, used to say that she could well remember that when she was a young girl, living nearby, she used to see Tom Moore rowing in his skiff, and coming to Walsingham, and that he was a hand- some young fellow with curly, golden hair, ‘‘just the color of a sovereign.’’ This agrees well with contemporary descriptions of him. +In his published diary the following occurs :—‘‘ 20th (March, 1834). , and fig. 19). From hence I went to the other plattforme,* that shootes selfe more out to sea- ward, wher, findinge scarce two peeces serviceable, I have newed and renewed all of them with substantiall carriages, and remounted the peeces. So that you have at this present three and twentye peeces of ordinance in gard of the harbours mouthe, wher you had not five any way serviceable at mine arrivall.” In another place Governor Butler stated that the rebuilding of the Devonshire Redoubt and the platform under it required the hard labor of thirty men for eight weeks. In the illustrations published by Capt. John Smith (1624) the “Devonshire Redoubt” and “ King’s Castle” are represented just as described by Governor Butler, but there is another building, prob- * This was the platform on the brow of the cliff at Gurnet’s Head (fig, 18, a, and fig. 20, m). 49 A. EK. Verrilli— The Bermuda Islands. 454 ably the house of the captain, in the background of the latter.* (See fig. 20.) A gun-platform cut out of the solid rock still exists on the extreme end of “Gurnett Head,” and just under the walls of the old stone fort, or King’s Castle, now in ruins. This probably is the successor of Governor Moore’s platform, enlarged and improved, and furnished with embrasures. A sentinel box has also been eut out of the “main rock,” and also oven-like niches for the cannon balls. An old iron can- non, dismounted and thrown over the sea-wall, may still be seen there. Governor Butler, in his ‘Historye,”’ writing of this fort, repeatedly speaks of it as built on “Gurnett Head,” and often calls it the “ Kings Castle on Gurnett Head.” This name of the headland on Castle Island occurs at least seven times in his Historye. But on modern maps the name “‘Gurnet Head” is given to a headland on Cooper’s Island, where Pembroke Fort was built by Governor Moore, —a “fashionable redoubt,” as Butler called it. In the “Orders and Constitutions of the Bermuda Company,” 1621-2, the following reference to this headland occurs in the enu- meration of public lands to be allotted:— “To the Captaine of the Fort on [Cooper’s] Island, with a Plat- forme over against the Forts at the Gurnards Head, two shares, and to the Captaine of the Forts on Gurnards Head, two shares.” The editor (Governor Lefroy) supplied the word Cooper’s, which was missing in the above, but it is far more probable that Southamp- ton was the island intended, for the fort there had a captain and was garrisoned at that time, while Pembroke Fort on Cooper’s Island was not, but was cared for by one Carter,t the owner or tenant of the adjacent land. Moreover, there was no ‘“ platforme ” there, but only a small cedar redoubt with two guns on its top. The Rev. Mr. Hughes, who went out to Bermuda in Moore’s time, also mentioned it in his “‘ Letter sent into England from the Summer Islands,” Dec., 1614, published in London, 1615, and this 1s the first place where the name was published. He-says of Governor Moore: — At the Gurnets Head he hath built three forts,{ and planted them * Goy. Butler stated that he built here a house of hewn stone for the captain of the Castle, taking his former mean frame house for a ‘‘ corps du garde.” + This was the same Christopher Carter who remained on the islands two years, with only two companions, after Somer’s death, in 1609. t In the old illustrations published by Capt. Smith, in 1624 (see fig. 20) there are two redoubts and a platform shown on Gurnet Head, doubtless built by Governor Moore ; and the new Devonshire Redoubt, built by Butler (1620) to 455 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 43 with great peeces, and men to defend them.” It is also spoken of by Capt. John Smith (History of Virginia, etc., 1624) as ‘“ Gurnets Head.” He says of Governor Tucker, 1616, that he “appointed Master Stokes, Lieutenant of the Kings Castle at the Gurnets Head.” By some unexplained error, or confusion of terms, the name came to be applied later to the headland at the southern extremity of Cooper’s Island, where Governor Moore built in 1614 a fortification called Pembroke Fort, doubtless of heavy cedar timber. On most modern maps the latter is still erroneously called Gurnets Head.* The “ Gurnard Head,” as used by the Company, is only the more modern form of the same word. In the narratives of various voy- ages of about that period, certain headlands are said to be shaped “like the head of a gurnet,” or “gurnard.” It was a common com- parison at that time. Doubtless one or the other (or both) of these Bermuda headlands, as seen by approaching sailors, had a fancied resemblance to a gurnards head, but the resemblance may have now disappeared by erosion.t Hughes’ “ Letter from the Summer Islands,” 1615, and Capt. John Smith’s History, ed. I, 1624, are the earliest books in which I have foundthe name. Governor Butler’s Historye, which contains numer- ous references to the place, antedates the latter, but though written in 1619-26, it has only recently been published (1882), except those parts of it borrowed and printed by Capt. John Smith in 1624. The name does not occur on Norwood’s map of 1663 (at least not on the editions that I have seen), though it does occur on his map of 1622. But the name is placed on the latter so far away from land replace the one built by Moore on the same site, and burned in 1619. These were the ‘‘three forts”” mentioned. * The old writers do not give any clue as to the reason for the application of the name, but the same name has been given to high headlands in other coun- tries, as for example, ‘‘ Gurnet Head” on the north shore of Massachusetts Bay. “‘Gurnet” is simply an old form for gurnard—the name of several species of English market fishes having large, rough, angular heads. + Viewed from the shore ledges on the south side, there is a very striking human profile to be seen near the base of the cliffs under the old ‘‘ Kings Castle.” (See fig. 21.) { On this map both Latin and English names are given to many places. The Latin name of Gurnets Head is given as ‘‘ Hyrcae promont.” Precisely what this means is uncertain. It may be bad Latin for ‘‘ Hirci Prom.” The name on the map is even outside of ‘‘ Gurnet Head Rock,” for which he may have intended it. But the fault may have been due to the Dutch engraver. In his map of 1663, the rock is correctly named. The use of the name ‘ Gurnett Head” was well established before Norwood’s first map was made. 44 A. FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 456 and covers so much space, that we cannot be sure as to which head- land he intended to designate by this name, but there is not the slightest doubt but that the headland of Castle Island was the true Gurnet Head. The names of “Tuckers Island” and ‘“ Brothers Islands” have also been transferred andl interchanged ie to Norwood’s maps and descriptions, 1663. Situated outside of all the other islands, off the entrance to Castle Harbor under Gurnet Head, lies ‘“‘Gurnet Head Rock.” This is a high, very steep, rough, and rugged rock, rising sheer out of the water, with no beach, and very inaccessible except in smooth weather. The sides are in most places nearly perpendicular and rise to sharp, ragged summits, with little or no soil, as I ascertained by personal examination, in 1901. This evidently took its name because it was off the Gurnet Head of Castle Island, and was most assuredly used for the bearings in entering the ship-channel under Gurnet Head, by the earliest navigators, before there were charts. It is of scientific interest chiefly because it is still a possible breed- ing place for the “ Pimlico” or Audubon’s Shearwater, which has been mistaken by many writers for the extinct “Cahow.” The latter could not have bred on this island, for there is no soil in which it could have burrowed to make its nests. (See plate lxxix, fig. 1, and history of the Cahow in Part II, ch. 29.) The ancient wooden forts and redoubts undoubtedly were demol- ished, if not already decayed, to make room at a later period for the more modern stone structures, some of which were probably built at about the time of the war of 1812, when this island was again gar- risoned. The islands were so much impoverished in the time of the Revolutionary war and the people were so much in sympathy with the American colonies,* that it is not probable that any new fortifi- cations were built at that time, even if the old ones were repaired, which is doubtful. On the highest point of the island, toward the western end, there is now a high stone redoubt, with embrasures for several guns. The * It is a matter of history that the powder magazine at St. George’s was rob- bed of all its powder, early in the war, and that the powder was sent to General Washington, at his request, and contributed largely to the success of the colo- nists. As if to emphasize their ill will and contempt of Governer Bruere, the stolen powder was carried through his grounds. In return, Congress allowed provisions to be shipped to the islands, where food was then scarce. An autograph letter written by General Washington to the inhabitants of the Island of Bermuda, Sept. 6, 1775, in regard to the seizure of this powder, is still preserved. (The Writings of George Washington, by J. Sparks, iii, p. 77.) 457 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 45 steps, probably of wood, that led to its top are gone. It is sur- rounded by a stone fort of considerable size, and both are in fair preservation. This stone redoubt and the battery under it were evidently built on the site of Butler’s ancient Devonshire Redoubt and platform, of 1620. Near the western end there is another fort or battery, and the barracks, with the walls standing, but the slabs of stone have been stolen from the roofs and carried away by the natives of other islands, and all the timbers have disappeared, probably in the same way, but there are some iron pillars still standing here, so that these Figure 19.—Castle Island ; the ancient Citadel or Devonshire Redoubt. Phot. 1901. ruins look rather modern as compared with some others. Two of the old brick ovens remain, but small stalactites have formed in the interior. The vandalism of the natives from the other islands has probably caused much more destruction here than the elements. Could we have been sure of the exact period when any of these works were built in their present form, they would have afforded us excellent geological data by which to estimate the rate of atmospheric erosion and decay of the ordinary limestone rock, of which they were built. The actual amount is quite variable in different places, but nowhere so great as we should naturally have expected in works ‘ 46 A, EF. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 458 of this character, and in so exposed a situation, during so many years. But the absence of frost is a great factor in the durability of such rocks. Probably the official records would show when these later structures were built, but we had not sufficient time to ascer- tain it. I was not able to ascertain positively that any of the works now standing on Castle Island were built in the early period, before 1625, for though in the same places, the older works must have been totally demolished and new ones of larger size built later. In the History of Virginia, etc., by Capt. John Smith (1624), he reproduced a rough map of Bermuda, with the location of all the forts indicated, and with marginal illustrations of the forts and public buildings, including the Devonshire Redoubt and platform, with its seven guns, the King’s Castle, and the Southampton Fort opposite. These curious illustrations were undoubtedly made by = Kings Caftell, Yong Pay 2h Southampton forte Figure 20.—Ancient illustrations (made by Norwood in 1622) of King’s Castle (M) and Southampton Fort (L); first published in 1624. Reduced by photography. Richard Norwood and furnished to Smith,* either by Mr. Nor- wood or by Governor Butler. Mr. Norwood had just before that time completed an official survey and map of the islands, with its divisions into shares, for the Bermuda Company. He was a very able engineer and surveyor, long resident on the islands, and must have been very familiar with every part of them. So his illustra- tions, though rude and all out of proportion as to the land and water, are probably correct enough to give a good idea of the works, as they * Capt. Smith credits his illustrations to Norwood. 459 A, FE. Verrili—The Bermuda Islands. 47 stood at that time. Moreover his figures agree well with the con- temporary descriptions by Governor Butler, as to the number of guns in each fort and other particulars. Butler himself alludes to such figures, probably the very ones published by Smith. Governor Lefroy, in his edition of Butler’s ‘“ Historye,” has reprinted this illustration. Norwood’s original maps of that period are remarkably accurate. I have here reproduced some of the illustrations of the old forts, taken from Capt. John Smith’s History. In the view of King’s Castle a vessel is represented as passing through the narrow channel, under Gurnet Head, and Southampton Fort is shown on the other side, as described by Governor Butler, who built it. But no attempt has been made by the artist to show the actual form or height of either island, or the width of the channel, as compared with the size of the ship and forts, for the channel here is perhaps a quarter of a mile wide. It is, in fact, in these respects intended to be a mere diagram, but it was probably also intended to give a fair idea of the form and character of the forts or platforms themselves, and of the redoubts or magazines, and more especially the number of mounted guns. Governor Butler states that Southampton Fort was the only one properly planned and laid out for defence, and the illustration cer- tainly shows a style of construction very different from any other, and more like the larger forts of the Old World (fig. 20). Its ruins can now be seen, having nearly the form here represented. It is enumerated as among the forts in use’ in 1677, in the statement made by the Company, and it was still garrisoned in 1693. I have found no mention of its having been repaired or rebuilt in later times. Governor Lefroy (about 1876) speaks of it as showing its original form, and in fair preservation, at that time. Scientifically it is, therefore, of much more interest than the works on Castle Island. : The northern side of Castle Island was so high that boats could not land there except at the foot of stairs cut.out of the solid rocks. These must have been used when the seas were beating on the south side. There was also a well and windlass for hoisting freight from boats on that side, where the cliff overhangs. Two large brick water-cisterns, with their stone catchment platforms, on the slopes of the hills, are still in pretty good condition, and are full of good water, but they are probably not very ancient. (See plate Ixxix, Tae tht, C-)) 48 A. EF. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 460 Early in 1620, Governor Butler built the opposite fort on South- ampton Island, and mounted there five guns, most of which he raised from wrecks. His description of it is as follows :— “‘The Governour is noe sooner returned out of the maine to St. Georges, butt he setts twenty men of his owne people on worcke at Southampton Forte, the which after six weekes of hard labour is absolutely perfected, and the whole worck shutt in, and ordinance secured, by three smale bullwarcks, two curtaines, and two ravelins; the which not only (being thus putt together) maketh a very fayre shewe out to sea, but is, with all (the naturall site of rock exceed- inglie well concuringe) very strong and defensible ; being (to saye the truth) the only true peece of fortification in the whole Ilands.” Figure 21.—Castle Island; Gurnet Head in profile, with ruins of King’s Castle on the top; Profile, (a) at base of cliff; (6) Ruins of Southampton Fort. 1901. He also built there a cedar redoubt for a magazine. The main ship-channel lies between this fort and the ‘King’s Castle.” Three of the guns for this fort he raised from the wreck of the Warwick, “with infinite toyle and much danger.” If we consider the small size of the guns of that period and their short range, whether on land or ships, these works seem to have been very well planned, but their strength was never actually tested by hostile ves- 461 A. H. Verrili—The Bermuda Islands. 49 sels, though somewhat suspicious vessels were sometimes scared away, just as well as by many modern forts of greater size. (Fig. 21, and plate lxxix, fig. 2.) Additions and repairs were made to King’s Castle at various times, and it seems to have been garrisoned almost continuously for over seventy years, though the regular garrison usually consisted of only 12 men. In consequence of the war with Spain, the Company in a letter of March, 1626, ordered Governor Woodhouse to see that the forts, especially King’s Castle, were kept in order and well guarded. As a result of this, extensive repairs were made and new works were built at the King’s Castle from May to November, 1626. A levy of men from all the tribes was made, each man to give two days labor or furnish a substitute, the men to work in gangs of 15 each. Items charged for the special or skilled labor indicate that consider- able changes were made. There isa charge of 120 pounds of tobacco for 1,000 feet of cedar planks for the platform, etc.; 400 pounds for the foundations; 394 pounds for mounting the ordinance and for the “palisado ;” 425 pounds for iron work of the gun carriages, ete. Altogether, 3,925 pounds of tobacco were demanded for this work. There is no special description of the work done, or needed to be done, nor any statement of the number of guns mounted. It seems strange that so many repairs were needed within four years from the time that Governor Butler had left the works in good order and the 16 guns mounted on new cedar carriages. There is no mention of new guns. A little later there were charges of dishonesty and fraud preferred against Capt. Stokes, who was then in command of the fort, and Capt. Felgate, who superintended the work, and they were both discharged from the service, in disgrace, showing that the pub- lic interests were sometimes poorly looked after there,—much as in modern, times, and other countries, on a larger scale. In November, 1626, a new fort was ordered to be erected on Pen- iston’s Island (now Paget Island), about where Fort Cunningham now stands. For this work every owner or “halver renter of land,” and every servant receiving wages, was required to give 10 days of labor or its equivalent in substitutes. Wages were reckoned at 24 Ibs. of tobacco per day, without board, or 2 lbs. “and his victuals.” ‘The men were to work in gangs of 40 at atime, in rotation. At that time the land had to be cleared. ‘There is record of a special charge of 120 pounds of tobacco for fellimg the trees on the site. 50 A. HE. Verril—The Bermuda Islands. 462 But I have found no description of the nature or amount of work actually completed there. Among the old records are numerous entries of amounts paid to the garrison and for supplies of various kinds, up to 1690 or later. Southampton Fort was also in use as late as 1693.* The usual amount of pay was 170 pounds of tobacco annually, for each man of the- garrison ; for in those times tobacco was the regular currency of the islands, not only for the payment of wages and salaries, even of the governor, but also in ordinary trade and barter. In 1622 tobacco was valued there at 2 shillings 6 pence per pound, but the people claimed that this was too little. In 1629 there is a record of amounts in tobacco paid for cedar lumber, nails, rosin, tar, etc., for anew water cistern and platform at the King’s Castle, as well as for the labor of building it. Repairs were recorded as made at King’s Castle and Southampton Fort in 1660, and a new cedar platform was made at King’s Castle. It was used as a prison in 1649, and it is recorded that it was made the place from which the pilots should go out to ships in 1656. In June, 1672, much alarm was felt on account of news of the war between England and Holland. Consequently the forts were repaired, guns were remounted, and a new fort was ordered to be built, at an unfortified place, but the locality is not recorded. Per- haps this was the very old stone redoubt at the entrance of Hungry Bay, now in ruins, but with part of the side walls standing. All the guns were ordered tested with double charges in 1674. The King’s Castle was again repaired and the guns were put in order by Governor Coney, in 1684. As the extinct “cahow” was still abundant on the adjacent islands when the earliest fortifications were built on Castle Island, and as it must, undoubtedly, have furnished part of the rations of the workmen and garrison up to 1616, it was thought possible that by a careful search in the adjacent soil, or in the kitchen-refuse of those ancient works, if any could be found, some of the bones of the cahow might be discovered. Probably most of their rubbish was thrown over the high cliff, directly into the sea. | A considerable mass of debris, mixed with “kitchen middens,” was, however, overhauled close to the old fort on Gurnet Head, but no cahow bones were found, though there were bones of common birds, fishes, and domestic animals in good preservation, showing that the calcareous soil is suitable for the preservation of the bones. * One of the depositions made in 1693, in regard to buried treasures, was by Capt. Brangman, commander of Southampton Fort. (See ch. 26, c.) 463 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 51 We also found gunflints and flint cores from which they had been made, silver and brass military buttons, broken clay pipes, etc. All these, however, probably belonged to the period of the war of 1812. Charles Island, or “Goat Island,” a little farther south, is rather smaller and still more barren, as it is covered in some places with drifting sand. It also has the ruins of a small fort on its highest point. This stone redoubt was built by Governor Moore about 1614, and mounted only two guns. (Fig. 22.) Figure 22.—Charles Island and Ruins of Charles Fort, built about 1614. _ Norwood, the engineer, stated in 1663 that this fort was even then “fallen into decay.” In digging into a bed of loose sand, undermined by the sea, on the north side of this island, we found an abundance of large fossil snail shells, of a species not now living on these smaller islands, and nearby, two skeletons of soldiers, associated with military brass buttons, made in Dublin, and stamped with three mounted cannon, in a row, indicating an artilleryman. The most interesting finds on Castle Island were the broken pearly shells of the West Indian Whelk (Zivona pica), which had, apparently, been used as food. This mollusk, which is eaten in the West Indies and called the “ whelk,” has been so long extinct in the Bermudas ‘that nothing is now known of its former presence in the living state. Its large, thick, mottled, and partly pearly shell is 52 A. &. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 464 common as a fossil in the eolian limestone all over the islands, even on the highest hills, and is often seen loose, where the soft rock has decayed. More often it may be seen carried about on the backs of the large land hermit-crabs, whose ancestors, many thousands of years ago, carried these same shells inland from the shores to the ancient sand hills. (See chapter on Geology and figure.) But this occurrence of the broken shells in the kitchen refuse, would indicate that this West Indian “ Whelk” was living in these waters in 1812, (See Part III, ch. 32, and ch. 46, Geology.) Figure 22a.—The Land Hermit-crab (Cenobita diogenes) carrying fossil marine shell (Livona) on its back. Part I1.—Physiography, including Meteorology, etc. 1.— Geographical Position. The dry land of the Bermudas is mostly included between N. Lat. 32° 15’ and 32° 23’ and W. Long. 64° 39’ and 64° 53’. But the reef areas extend between 32° 12’ and 32° 30’, N. Lat. ; and between 64° 34’ and 65° 02’ W. Long. These islands are remarkable for their isolation from any other lands, and the depth of the ocean around them. I am indebted to Professor 8. L. Penfield for the following mea- surements of distances on the maps made according to his new method of stereographic projection. They are believed to be much more accurate than those hitherto given : Bermuda to New York, 675 nautical miles. . Cape Hatteras, 575 iy a a Martha’s Vineyard, 615 He at it Cape Cod, 620 sf se Cape Sable, N. S., 675 ae ne ate Great Abaca Is., Bahamas, 715 ie ue at Porto Rico, 830 * os 465 A. KE. Verrili— The Bermuda Islands. 53 2.—Forms and Extent of the Islands and Reefs. The existing islands of Bermuda must be regarded as the remnants of the higher parts of a submerged and very much eroded, older limestone island, of much larger size, which has been well called the “ Greater Bermuda.” It might, perhaps, be as well called the Plio- cene Bermuda, from a geological point of view. The outline of the Greater Bermuda is preserved by the outlying limestone reefs that surround the present islands on all sides. These reefs have an elliptical outline, about 223 miles long and 11 wide, in the widest parts, and cover about 250 square miles. They consist of zeolian or sand-dune limestone, like that of the dry land itself. They are, in most parts, covered with coatings of living corals, corallines, and alg, that retard the erosion by the sea. In most places they rise nearly to the surface of the sea, and at extreme low tides large, flat areas of reefs rocks, called “flats,” are laid bare. Therefore they are extremely dangerous to navigators, even now, though the two excellent lighthouses and the excellent modern charts have greatly reduced the danger. The outer reefs, on the north side, enclose large areas of irregular scattered reefs of the same kind, and also several large sunken lagoons and anchorages of deeper open waters, with bottoms covered with tenacious, white, calcareous mud and shell-sand, thus affording good anchorages, large enough to accommodate the largest fleets of vessels. These are often 50 to 70 feet deep, and sometimes deeper than that in places. The entrances are narrow and few. Murray Anchorage and Great Sound are good examples of these. (See map.) The dry land of the islands consists of over 150 islands and islets, many of them very small; together they form a narrow, hook-shaped group, about 14 miles long, in a straight line, and mostly from one- half to two miles wide. The total area is about 12,400 acres, or 194 square miles, of which about 3,000 acres is said to be arable.* *Some of the other islands, of less importance, with their approximate areas, according to Norwood’s 1663 survey (fractions usually omitted), are as follows: Cooper’s Island, 77 acres. Boas Island, 4 acres. Paget or Peniston I., 31 acres. Yates Island, 31 ‘“ Long Bird Island, 46 acres. Elizabeth ‘“* 21 ‘ Smith’s Island, 61 acres. Tucker’s ‘“‘ 21 and 7 acres. (Now Nonesuch “* 15 “ Daniel Island and Benets Island.) Coney eel Loa STOOdS: Brother’s Islands, 20 and 17 acres. (Now Castle i 3 “* 2xroods. Tucker’s Island and Morgan Island.) Southampton Island, 1 acre 2 roods. Trunk Island, 3 acres. Charles Island, 3 acres 3 roods. Norwood stated that most of these sizes are only estimates. But they agree closely with the official estimate made in 1875. Trans. Conn. Acav., Vou. XI. 30 ApRIL, 1902. 54 A. EF, Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 466 The bulk of the land is contained in the Main Island, which is about 11 miles long, and contains about 9,725 acres. Four other islands are of considerable size. Two are at the western end: Somerset Island, with 702 acres; and Ireland Island, with 133 acres. At the eastern end are St. George’s Island, with 706 acres ; and St. David’s Island, with 527 acres. ; The Main Island is connected by bridges with St. George’s Island and Long Bird Island at the eastern end; and with Somerset Island, Boas Island, and Ireland Island, at the western end, so that one can drive by good roads from one end of the group to the other. But St. David’s Island and many of the smaller islands can only be reached by boats. 3.—Hills, Valleys, Sinks, Brackish Ponds, Swamps. The land of the larger islands is everywhere hilly. The hills are mostly gently rounded and are nothing but consolidated sand-dunes, consisting of shell-sand, blown from the beaches in ancient times, and hardened or cemented by the infiltration of rain-water tempo- rarily holding some of the limestone in solution, as will be more fully described in the chapter on Geology. This mode of origin, as sand-drifts, accounts for their rounded forms and irregular arrangement. Several of the higher are over 200 feet high; the highest is 268 feet. This is an unusual height for sand-dunes, but is exceeded in the Bahamas and some other countries. But before the great submergence of these islands these hills must have stood at least 100 feet higher than now. (See Geology.) The great violence of the storms that often visit these islands ; the lightness of the materials; and the fact that the hills when once formed very soon harden at the surface, so that the sub- sequent storms cannot cut them down again, are sufficient reasons for their great elevation. Between the hills are irregular valleys of various sizes. Many of these are surrounded by hills or higher land on all sides, so that they have no outlet. (See plate Ixv, fig. 2.) They never contain water unless they are so low that they extend below the level of the sea ; in such cases they contain salt or brackish ponds, fresher at the sur- face, of which there are several of considerable size, as well as many smaller ones. A line of sinks, part of them containing brackish ponds, extends from Tucker’s Town westward for several miles to Paget Parish, nearly parallel with the south shore of the Main Island, and not far 467 A. FE. Verrili—The Bermuda Islands. 55 from it. Some of these are connected with the sea, like Tuckers Town Bay, Trott’s Pond, and Peniston’s Pond; others are separated from it by narrow and low divides or ridges. In severe storms the sea pours in large quantities over the low divide into Peniston’s Pond, which is the largest of the ponds, so that ultimately, and at no distant time, it will doubtless form a breach and thus convert the pond into a bay or harbor, like Hungry Bay and many others. Hungry Bay was evidently at one time a pond of the same kind, which has been breached by the sea. The tide now flows in and out, through a narrow channel, in a rapid current. This bay is shallow and the inner end terminates in a dense mangrove swamp of con- siderable extent. It is a favorable place for zodlogical collecting. When the interior valleys or sinks are not quite so low, but yet extend below the level of the sea, they usually form swamps, peat bogs, or marshes, with thick beds of peat or muck. Pembroke marsh and Devonshire swamp are large peat bogs of this description. Borings have shown that the peat in Pembroke marsh is about 40 feet deep, and its bottom extends many feet below the level of the sea, showing that the land has subsided considerably since the beginning of its formation, for peat does not form in the salt ponds or bogs. Peat bogs have also been dredged up during the harbor improvements, at considerable depths. (See Geology.) The vegetation in some of the swamps is very dense and luxuriant. This is the case especially in Pembroke swamp. The Palmetto grows tall and slender in such places (fig. 32). Among other plants, the ferns are very conspicuous. Some of these grow to large size, especially the two species of Osmunda, which are also found in the northern United States; the common brake or bracken (Pteris aqui- lina); and the Marsh Fern (Acrostichum aurewm), a large West Indian species. (See Part III, ch. 24, Botany.) Absence of Streams and Springs. Owing to the great porosity of all the limestone rocks, surface water does not collect sufficiently at any place to form streams, springs, nor ponds. Rain-water, collected in cisterns, is the uni- versal water supply,* and owing to the abundant rains, it seldom fails, with ordinary care. The roofs of the houses are mostly covered with slabs of limestone, cemented, and arranged to catch all * There are a few exceptions to this rule, for three or four recent wells, of moderate depth on high land, have proved successful. A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 468 or (op) the rain-water. But in many places on sloping hillsides, platforms are built of similar slabs of stone to conduct the rain-water into large cisterns at the base of the slope, as at Castle Island. (See plate Ixxix, fig. 1.) 4,.— Fallen Caverns and Natural Fish Ponds. In many places small and deep valleys or abrupt depressions occur, which are called “sinks” or “plantation holes.” Most of these, if not all, have been caused by the falling in of roofs of caverns, which are of frequent occurrence here. Vegetation is often luxuriant in such places, owing to the rich soil, increased moisture and heat, and the shelter from the high winds. . When these sinks are formed by the falling in of caverns that extend below sea-level, they result in the formation of excellent natural fish-ponds, for they have subterranean connections with the sea that serve to renew the water constantly and keep it pure. Many of these exist. The one best known is the “ Devils Hole,’” situated close to the west end of Harrington Sound. ‘This is about 100 feet across, and the water is said to be about 40 feet deep. It is now enclosed and kept stocked with a large number of fishes, mostly Hamlet Groupers, for exhibition purposes. It is a place of much interest to visitors. (See p. 436.) Three ponds of the same kind are situated near the old Walsingham house, close to the shore of Castle Harbor. The largest of these contains several fine sea-turtles. The others contain many bright-colored fishes of various kinds. Another very interesting pool of this kind may be seen close by the road- side on Coney Island, just after crossing the causeway that leads to this island. It is on the right hand side of the road, and only separated from it by a rough board fence. It has perpendicular and overhanging rocky sides, but at the bottom there is a considerable depth of clean, transparent water. Ina calm day large numbers of interesting fishes, some of them of large size, can be seen leisurely hunting for food among the masses of fallen rock at the bottom. But they suddenly disappear into the cavernous places at the least alarm. The principal fishes noticed here were the “Sea Lawyers” or Gray Snappers, which took the initiative in all the evolutions, and whose movements all the others followed in case of supposed danger. There were also large blue Parrot-fishes, Pilot-fishes, and several other kinds. They are said to have entered this place through small —T 469 A. E, Verrili—The Bermuda Islands. 5 hidden crevices when young, but cannot now escape. It is certainly a very beautiful natural aquarium. 5.—Harbors and Sounds. In many cases the gradual erosion of the sea-cliffs by the waves and the encroachments of the sea, have connected similar sinks and natural fish ponds with the outside waters by means of narrow or wide channels, thus forming partly enclosed harbors, lagoons, or bays, as they are variously called. Every stage in this process can be seen in progress. There is a little landlocked cave on Coney Island, with a shell-sand beach, but connected with the open water only by a narrow channel, between high limestone ledges, barely wide enough for a row-boat to pass through (figure 23). A similar miniature harbor may be seen near the roadside between Bailey Bay and Shelly Bay. It is said to have become connected with the sea in quite recent times. It is easy to see that this same process, when it opens up a larger valley or sink, will give rise to larger lagoons and Figure 23.—Cove at Coney Island, with a narrow entrance. harbors. No doubt Hungry Bay, Harrington Sound, St. George’s Harbor, and other harbors have been formed partly in this way, though doubtless in combination with the effects of the great sub- sidence of all the land that took place in a late geological period. (See Geology.) A. BE. Verrill—The Bermuda Tslands. 470 or io) 6.—Mungrove Swamps. When small bays or lagoons are thus formed by the invasion of the sea, if they should be sheltered from violent waves, mangroves and black-jack trees take root in the sea water itself, as well as_ along its borders. By means of the peculiar descending shoots or aérial roots of the former and the ascending shoots from the roots of the latter, a dense thicket or mangrove swamp is soon formed, admir- ably adapted to collecting and retaining dead leaves, mud, and sedi- ment of all kinds, thus gradually increasing the area and fertility of the land. (See plates Ixvin, fig. 2, and ixxiv, fig. 1, and Native Trees, Part III, ch. 26, e.) Such mangrove swamps, usually of small extent, exist in many places, as at Coney Island, Walsingham, Spanish Point, Tucker’s Town, etc. Larger and denser ones may be seen at Hungry Bay, Mangrove Bay, and several other places. 7.— Caverns and Grottoes. Among the more interesting of the geological phenomena are the numerous caverns, usually hung with numerous huge stalactites, but sometimes with innumerable small and delicate ones; and in some places decorated with the most delicate fret-work, or with thin, translucent draperies, of snow-white stalactitic material. Some of these caverns are of considerable extent, but the larger ones are generally partly submerged below the level of the sea, so that the floor may be covered with clear sea-water, 10 to 20 feet deep. Sometimes stalagmites can be seen rising up from the bot- tom, beneath the sea water. A large cavern on Tucker’s Island,* of this description, had been fitted with pipes for acetylene gas and the proprietor had a boat inside, with which he, like Charon, took his visitors across the dark and mysterious waters. In this cavern the stalactites are of colossal sizes, but they are dark and dull in color, as if finished ages ago, as indeed they doubtless were. On the Walsingham place there are several well known caverns. We succeeded in obtaining photographs of two of these. (See plates x¢-xcil.) One of them has two entrances and does not contain water, though it is in a depression, not much above sea-level. It is near Thomas Moore’s famous Calabash Tree. The stalactites are of large size, but badly smoked by the torches and bonfires of the innumer- * Since my visit, this island has been converted into a prison-camp for the Boers, and is not at present accessible to the public. 471 A. HE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 59 able visitors, during nearly 300 years. Another, not far away, con- tains a deep pool of sea-water, but as there is no boat in it, the visitor can only view, from one side, the long sloping roof, hung with stalactites of various sizes. Many of these have been broken off by the vandals who have visited it, and all are badly smoked. But nevertheless, though its beauty has been so much marred, it is an interesting place to visit. The most beautiful stalactitic forma- tions that we saw were in the Peniston Cave, near the Harrington House, to the west of Walsingham. ‘This cave can only be entered though a small and rather difficult passage, near the top of a rather high hill. It descends with a steep slope for about 80 feet. In the bottom there is a deep pool of clear sea-water. ‘The sloping roof is hung with thousands of beautiful, slender, white stalactites, many of them very small, not much larger than a lead pencil, and still form- ing, for needle-like crystals of limestone can be seen forming in the drop of clear water that is suspended from the tips. This cave also contains elegant drapery-like deposits of white stalactite, in many varieties.* (See plate xciii and Geology.) Many other caves, which are accessible to visitors, are known upon the islands. There is a cave on St. David’s Island, near the lighthouse, but I did not visit it. Among the well known caves are Joyce’s, Paynter’s, Chalk, Church, Cooper’s, Hall’s, etc. The cave on Somerset Island, known as Basset’s, is of great extent, for it is said to have been explored for more than a mile, but it has only a few stalactites. See Geology for additional descriptions. Along the high shore cliffs there are many grottoes and caves that can only be entered from a boat, and sometimes only at low-tide. Two large dome-like grottoes of this kind, accessible only by a boat at low water, are situated close together in the shore-cliff a short distance east of Bailey Bay. One of them is lighted from above by a small chimney-like opening in the roof. They have more or less of the shape of huge Indian lodges or wigwams inside, and might well have been called “ wigwam grottoes,” if they ever had a name, or needed one. Smaller grottoes in the shore cliff exist at Clarence Cove, and in many other places, and many are entirely submerged, under the * This cave has not yet been opened to the public, and the walking and climb- ing over the steep, wet slopes, covered with fallen rocks and slippery red clay, render it unsuitable for most visitors, especially ladies, until its exploration shall have been made easier by enlarging the entrance and making steps, where needed. 60 A. #. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 472 coral reefs, and are the abode of innumerable fishes, octopi, and vari- ous other marine creatures. (See plate Ixxiii, and Part VI.) The character and mode of formation of these caves and grottoes will be more fully discussed later, under Geology. 8.—Shore Cliffs; Natural Arches ; Pinnacies. Along nearly the whole length of the southern sides, and on parts of the northern shores of the islands, there are broken and very rough cliffs of limestone, often of considerable height, and not infrequently perpendicular or overhanging. The irregular stratification of the limestone, with layers of unequal hardness, and sloping in all direc- tions, which is characteristic of all such olian limestones, causes this rock to be admirably suited for the ocean waves to carve into curious and fantastic forms. Figure 24.—Chasm and Natural Bridge on Cooper’s Island. In some places former headlands have become detached from the shore and worn by the waves into towers, pyramids, pinnacles and other curious forms, which are often very picturesque. The surface of the rock is deeply eroded and honeycombed by the spray, and covered with hard, projecting, sharp points, so that it looks very rough and weather-beaten, and it 1s certainly very rough to climb over. In most places, where long exposed, it has a dark color. 473 A. FE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 61 “ Pulpit Rock,” on Ireland Island, is a good example of a detached pinnacle rock. (See figure 25.) It also shows well the irregular stratification of the zolian limestone. Some of these pinnacles stand out some distance from the shore, on the flat reefs, showing where an islet, or the shore cliff once stood, long ago. Figure 20.—Pulpit Rock, Iveland Island. The famous North Rocks (figure 30) are pmnacles of this kind, standing on the outer reef, some eight miles from the north side of the islands. They stand on a broad platform of reef rock. They serve as monuments to mark the position of what was once a large and high island. (See Part III, ch. 23, and Geology.) In other cases, owing to the unequal hardness of the rock, and to the frequent existence of masses of unconsolidated sand in the lime- stone, the waves have eaten away these softer parts very rapidly, leaving the harder parts standing. This has sometimes resulted in the formation of natural arches or bridges, of which the double “ natural arch” near Tucker’s Townisa good example. (See plate Ixxxvii.) 9.— Cathedral Rocks. The Cathedral Rocks, or “Old Church Rocks” as they are often called, on the west side of. Somerset Island, have been formed in a 62 A. BE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 474 similar way. (See p. 427 and plates Ixxxviii, Ixxxix.) The sea has here washed out vast quantities of soft rock or scarcely consolidated sand, such as occurs in many places along that coast, and has left the harder parts standing as large, roughly fretted and fluted columns, 12 to 15 feet high, which are partly roofed over by the upper and harder layers of limestone. (See under Geology.) These column- like rocks are very curious and picturesque, but are neither so tall nor so massive as they appear to be from the photographs. Similar rocks, but not roofed over, exist at Tobacco Bay, a cove near Fort Catherine, on St. George’s Island, and in other localities. (See plates Ixxx, fig. 1, xe, fig. 1, and Part IV, ch. 49, Geology.) 10.—Sand Dunes and Drifting Sands. As the entire mass of the land consists of hardened sand-dunes, we should naturally expect to see the process of forming them still actively going on. But at present this is not the case, except in one well marked district at Tucker’s Town, near the southeastern end of the Main Island, and in a few other very local spots. At the time that Matthew Jones wrote, 1872 to 1876, there were extensive moving sands on the south side of the Paget hills, near Elbow Bay. Even as late as the visit of the Challenger (1883) those sands were still moving, and both Moseley and Themson gave very interesting accounts of them. At that time there was to be seen the chimney of a small stone house projecting above one of the sand-dunes, all of the rest of the house having been buried in the sand.* Partially buried trees were then visible, with their dead branches projecting out of the sand. But within a few years these drifting sands at Elbow Bay have become practically quiescent and fixed. Matthew Jones, in 1876, gave the following detailed account of these sand-dunes, which is of interest as showing the contrast. with the present stationary condition. “On arriving at the northeast corner of the sand-hills, the encroachment of the drifting sand will at once be perceived ; as the mass, some ten feet in depth, is now gradually covering a small garden. According to the observations made by persons residing close to, this overwheming body has advanced over the cultivated land about eighty yards, during the last twenty-five years. At the northeast corner of the hills, will be seen among some oleander trees near the top, the chimney of a cottage which formerly stood there, * Another house is said to have been buried at Tucker’s Town, but the chimney is said to have been dug out, for the sake of the bricks and stone. ATS A. FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 63 inhabited by a coloured family. It is now wholly buried in the drifting sand, save the chimney ; which alone rises above the mass to show the position of the structure.” “With the exception of a few irregular patches here and there, and the long reach of white sand gradually encroaching on the culti- vated ground at the northeast corner, the whole slope, which some twenty years ago was almost wholly clear drift sand, with a few patches of bent-grass in scattered spots upon it, is now clothed with wild plants and shrubs, as well as young cedars which will no doubt in a few years attain goodly dimensions, and with the aid of the universal underwood of sage bush put an end to the further encroachments of the sand drift. If people, however, are allowed to cut down cedars, and destroy the vegetation as they have formerly done, the same devastation will commence again, and repeat the calamity which has visited this neighborhood.” “On the western side of the sand hills, there is now a plateau of about half an acre, or perhaps more, of hardened drift sand, forming gradually into rock. On its face are cracks filling with drift sand ; showing that the sun doubtless affects this hardened surface. Ele- vated stumps of a foot or so in height, rise amid this plateau; having each a hole or depression at the centre. These denote the sites in which cedar trees formerly grew. At the east end of the hills may be seen the gradual decay of cedar stumps, exhibiting more clearly the several stages of change ; which are the more worthy of study in consequence of the light they throw upon the many curious chimney-pot looking structures* everywhere to be met with on the Bermuda shores.” In 1897, Stevenson observed that the sand had advanced but little in the previous 20 years, and that the chimney had been buried only 18 inches deeper than when figured by Thomson, over 20 years before. The loose sand in this district has drifted to the height of at least 150 feet, in recent times, and to a third of a mile or more inland. In 1901, the drifting of the sand had practically ceased and the sand hills were fast becoming covered with vegetation. The fixing of the sand has been brought about mainly by the encroachment of sand-loving vines, shrubs, and grasses. Many of these are of foreign origin and have only been introduced in modern times, and in some cases not originally for this purpose, as * These are the structures that have been considered casts of the trunks and bases of palmetto trees. (See Geology and plates 1xxxiy—vi.) 64 A. KE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 476 in the case of Lantana, which was first planted as a fuel supply. Among the plants that have been efficient in stopping the sand are the sage-bushes (Lantana); the “black berry” (Scwvola lobelia); the sea-side morning glory (Jpomca pes-capre); the bay lavender ( Tournefortia), and other herbaceous plants; and also several grasses, of which Cenchrus tribuloides is probably the most impor- tant. In some places, a little away from the seashore, the Lantanas completely cover the sand-hills and are very effectual in stopping their drifting. In other sections, even close to the shore, the Sceevola has thickly covered the newer sand-hills with its rootstalks and prostrate branches, and as its thick leaves, growing in tufts, seem to be almost unaffected by the salt spray, it is a very efficient binder of the sand. (Plate Ixxvi.) This has now already abundantly invaded the sand-hills of Tucker’s Town, close to the shore, and probably they may also become stationary, by its aid, in a few years, for other plants will soon come in to reinforce this pioneer. This result could easily be hastened by the intelligent planting of suitable plants in the loose sand. On the south shore, at Tucker’s Town,* both east and west of the “Natural Arches” for about a mile, there are extensive broad flatish beaches of white shell-sand. (See plates xxv and Ixxvi.) The strong southerly and southwesterly winds at times pick up the dry sand from the upper part of the beaches in large quantities and sweep it up the sides and over the tops of the adjacent hills to the height of 60 feet or more, very much as our winter winds will drift dry snow. Fortunately these calcareous sands, if undisturbed for a time, have the property of becoming cemented together into a crust at the surface, in a short time, by the action of the rain-water, which, by virtue of the carbonic acid gas that it contains in solution, can dis- solve the limestone particles. Then, by partially evaporating, it can deposit it again as a cement between the grains of sands, thus bind- ing them together more and more firmly. Thus it is only necessary that the vegetation should be able to protect the sand from the action of the ordinary winds, for perhaps a few weeks at a time, when, by this cementing process, the surface may become able to resist the action of the stronger gales; still, even after a considerable + * Tucker’s Town was so named because Governor Daniel Tucker laid out a town here in 1616, with regular streets and house lots in squares, and he also built some small frame houses of cedar. It is recorded that he also planted here sugar canes and hedges of figs and pomegranates, in 1616. The streets and buildings are indicated on Norwood’s map of 1622. 477 A. FE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 65 crust has been formed, an unusually severe storm may cut into the weaker spots of the hills, where the sand is least consolidated and protected and, by undercutting, in a few hours it may drift away immense quantities of sand, depositing it farther inland. We noticed, in 1901, marked instances of this mode of action on the sides of some of the Tucker’s Town dunes, where the wind had very recently cut perpendicular sections. Nearly the whole region about Tucker’s Town is covered with this more or less loose sand, which extends about two miles along the shore ; in many places it is becoming covered with vegetation, such as the sage-bush and black- berry (Scevola), etc. This district looks as if it had always been a barren, sandy region, but it is probable that in Governor Tuckev’s time (1616), when he had sugar cane and figs planted here, these sands had not invaded the district, and that the soil was fertile. The Tucker’s Town lands are often mentioned by early writers as cultivated. The early settlers made no mention of shifting sands, nor did they complain of the barrenness of the soil in the several places where active sand-dunes have prevailed in modern times.* Lieutenant Nelson, writing in 1837, says that the Tucker’s Town sand-dunes were reported to have become active about 60 years previously, or about 1777. Probably the cutting of the cedars and burning of the brush and vines to clear the lands, combined with the disturbance of the surface of the soil to build roads or in cultivating it, usually led to the activity of the destructive sands in these later times. Norwood mentioned worthless sandy land as existing on Ireland Island, in his day, but not elsewhere, nor do we find any particular mention of any such drifting sands in the voluminous history of Governor Butler, 1612-24. Lieutenant Nelson, in his account of the geology of the island, 1837-40, described active and extensive sand-dunes as existing at the time of his residence (1827-33), both at Elbow Bay and Tucker’s * Tn the ‘‘Orders and Constitutions” of the Bermuda Company, adopted in 1621, there was an allotment of a tract of public land, in these terms: ‘‘ save that two hundred acres of the Iland called Davies Hand [Davids] shall be annexed to Harrington and Hamilton’s Tribe, to make recompense for the alleaged sterility of the Land in that Tribe.” (No. 107.) This sterile land could not have been that of the Tucker’s Town sand-hills, and the neck of land farther east, because the latter was, at that time, a part of the public land, not a part of either Tribe. It may have been the salt marshes and swamps that were referred to. 66 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 478 Town, and he gave a good history of the beginning of these invasions of sand. After discussing that near Elbow Bay (see under Geology), he gives the following account of this region :— “There is another encroachment at Tucker’s Town, said to have taken place about sixty years ago [about 1777]; and has crossed the neck between Harrington’s Sound and the sea; but beyond this it does not seem inclined to move. The sand has not been stopped at the eastern extremity of the beach, where the bluffs commence, by their very considerable declivity,—though it has been most effectually at the crest of the slope, by a natural fence of sage bush, growing partly in the soil and partly in the sand; which, as it ascended, seems to have thus rolled on with the seeds of destruction to its progress, in its own bosom. The same operations appear to have occurred throughout the sand tracts at and near Great Turtle Bay.” From this description it seems that the vegetation, at this very exposed place, has not been able to much more than hold its ground against the sand, but Nelson’s account is too general to permit us to decide whether there has been any marked change in the extent of these dunes during the last 70 years. It would seem that there has not been any radical change in that period, though there may have been long periods of comparative rest. Nelson also gives a more detailed account of the origin and pro- gress of the sand-dunes at Elbow Bay, which I shall discuss under the geology. He states that it began on the land of a Mr. Lightbourne, in consequence of the cutting away the brush and disturbing the surface to build a fort and military road, about 1763. When he studied the dunes (1833) they were in very active progress and the sands had reached the height of 180 feet, but he observed that they were invariably stopped by a row of cedars, or by thickets of sage bush (Lantana). Nelson also gives an account of an important change in the con- figuration of Shelly Bay, since 1804, due to the cutting of the brush on the sand-hills for fuel, and thus starting the sand to drifting, until the seaside sand-hills were swept away and thus permitted the invasion of the sea. (See plate Ixviil, fig. 1.) “In 1810 Shelly Bay scarcely existed; what is now the mouth, was at that time a row of sand hills, and the road on the north side lay close within. Some free blacks who lived there, being in want of fuel, cut down the plants which kept these sand-hills in a solid state. Being no longer duly opposed, the sea quickly broke through, and now retains possession of the ground at least 100 yards in rear of the AT9 A. FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 67 old road, traces of which are still visible. The Mangrove Swamp between the beach and the present road, was until then a garden.” The mangrove swamp referred to no longer exists. It has either filled up or there has been a farther encroachment of the sea, since 1833. (See under Geology.) Without questioning the accuracy of Nelson’s statement in regard to this bay, it should be noted that on Norwood’s map of 1618-22, Shelly Bay is represented with very nearly its present size and form. This would indicate that the sand-hills described by Nelson had been formed subsequently to Norwood’s survey, and that being of loose sand, when they were destroyed, after 1810, the original outline of the bay was simply restored. This bay is a very shallow, open, and exposed cove, facing north, with a wide sand-beach, and such changes would not be unlikely. Probably the far greater activity of the sand-dunes in the time of the Greater Bermuda was due partly to more violent winds and larger areas of sea.beaches, but there may have been a total lack of sand-binding vegetation at that time. (See Geology.) The drifting sands have often buried and killed cedars and other trees in modern times, as described by Matthew Jones above. When this occurs the rain-water trickling down the sides of the trunk, and perhaps along the roots, carries with it dissolved lime- stone (calcium bicarbonate), which it deposits in its course, and thus hardens the sand into a crust around the trunks and roots of the trees, so that when the wood decays a hollow mould is left, which may then be filled with loose sand, producing a cast of the trunk or roots of the trees. Such casts, large and small, are common in the rocks of the islands at all levels, from below the sea to the highest hilltops, and they can be seen in actual process of formation. Many of them are thought to be the casts of stumps of palmettoes or some other palm tree, now extinct. (See under Geology and plates lxxxiv—vi.) The drifting sands sometimes blow into the sea and accumulate in such quantities, in sheltered harbors, as to fill them up to a great extent. Tucker’s Town harbor, originally called Stokes’ Bay, which is now very shallow, with extensive sand-flats, bare at low tide, is said to have been deep enough, at first, to admit merchant ships of moderate size. Its appearance indicates that it is still filling up, for the upper part of the beach merges directly into the still active sand-dunes of the shore. Mr. Nelson, also, says that before his time (1833) the channel at Crow Lane had been very much filled up, but this was probably by silt. 68 A. EF. Verrilli— The Bermuda Islands. 480 RMUDA_ TS. ’ 2 Bl ¢ ‘ o ° Ay Oo SSA, Ad toy GA Fg o SENS RS tRGeN . \ a \ 4 \ ‘ \ \ \ ‘ { " { 1 ( \ i \ “, ON Bag t \ 2: . vy f 21° be ° % é - Figure 26.—Map of the Bermuda Islands and Reefs. 481 A. EK. Verril—The Bermuda Islands. 69 Explanation of Figure 26. The depths outside the reefs and in the lagoons are in fathoms; those on the reefs and shallows are in feet. I. L—Treland Island and Dry Dock. BZ.—Boaz Island. S. I.—Somerset Island. B. 1.—Bermuda or Main Island. B.—Bailey Bay. H.—Hamilton, the capital. H. §.—Harrington Sound. S. B.—Shelly Bay. F.—Flatt’s Village and the outlet of Harrington Sound. H.—Elbow- Bay, with modern sand dunes. G. H.—Gibb’s Hill Light. D.—Devil’s Hole. C.—Causeway, destroyed Sept. 12, 1899, by a storm, and rebuilt. C. H.—Castle Harbor. G. I.—St. George’s Island and town. G.—St. George’s Harbor. S. C.—Main Ship-channel or entrance to Murray Anchorage. D. I.—David’s Island and Light. ©. I.—Cooper’s Island. N. I.—Nonesuch Island. K. I.—Castle Island and ruins of King’s Castle. The principal submerged sinks or drowned lagoons, over 50 feet deep, are shaded with parallel lines, and numbered I-VI. Their probable ancient outlets, called ‘‘ cuts,” are numbered VII to XV. I.—Murray Anchorage. Il.—Blue Cut Sink. IiJ.—Sink north of Ireland Island, or Western Chub Cut sink. IV.—Brackish Pond Sink. V.—Chub Cut or Western Ledge Sink. VI.—Great Sound Sink. VII.—Cut in Long Bar, leading to a large passage 3 miles long and 6 to 7 fathoms deep, running 8.E. and N.W. inside Long Bar Reef. VIUI.—Hoe-fish Cut, 7-10 fathoms deep, leading to Chub Cut Sink, from the southwest. IX.—Chub Cut, 3-8 fathoms deep, leading to Chub Cut Sink, from the north. Trans. Conn. Acap., Vou. XI. 31 May, 1902, 70 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. A482 X.—Western Blue Cut, apparently partly roofed over by the reef, leading to Sink IIL. XI.—North Rocks Northeastern Cut, leading toward a small sink 11 fathoms deep, not numbered (North Rocks Sink), XV. and XIII.—Ledge Flat Cuts, 7-9 fathoms deep, connected together inside the outer reefs. a XIV.—Mills Breaker Cut, 8-10 fathoms deep, leading towards an irregular sink (not shaded) 9 to 14 fathoms deep, and about 2 miles long. XV.—Main Ship-channel or the Narrows, a narrow, deep cut lead- ing to Murray Anchorage. Norr.—The map is much altered from that of Agassiz by the addition of the three contour lines, at 10, 20, and 100 fathoms depths; by shading the deeper parts of the larger lagoons, where the depth exceeds 50 feet ; and in some other respects. It is based on the Admiralty Chart, reduced by photography. 11.—Anchorages or submerged Lagoons ; Bottom Deposits. As stated on a previous page (p. 465), the area covered by the sub- merged reefs and lagoons is more than ten times as great as the dry land. It has beén estimated at from 200 to 230 square miles. But of this whole amount a very considerable part consists of sub- merged lagoons, ‘“‘sounds,” or anchorages, nearly free of reefs over large areas, or often equal in area to Castle Harbor and Harrington Sound. The more important of these are represented by the ruled areas (I to VI) on the map (fig. 26). One of the largest and best known is Murray Anchorage (1), just within the narrows. This is large enough for a large fleet of war vessels, and the bottom, in 7 to 9 fathoms, is of tenacious white mud. The same white shell-mud and shell-sand are found over the bot- toms of all these enclosed lagoons, at depths of 4 to 14 fathoms. In the deeper parts the mud prevails and often becomes very fine anéd tenacions. It is called chalky mud by the sailors, or simply “chalk.” To the eye it appears to be almost entirely composed of a fine powder, but when washed through seives a considerable amount of shell-sand can almost always be separated, together with many small living mollusks, foraminifera, etc., but it is rather barren of life. We dredged up large quantities of such mud at many localities in Great Sound, Bailey Bay, Murray Anchorage, Castle Harbor, and Harrington Sound. In all these places its nature was similar, only 483 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. via differing in fineness and in the amount of small shells and shell-sand. It was not very profitable dredging, but the siftings yielded many small undescribed shells, annelids, ete. On such white bottoms a very large black Holothurian (Stichopus) is very abundant. It becomes 15 to 18 inches long, and three or four broad. Associated with it are numerous large, nearly black or dark purple sea urchins (Zoxopneustes). Both are conspicuous with a water-glass, on account of their dark colors. (See Part V.) The bottoms of chalky mud make excellent anchorages, for it is said that vessels never drag their anchors in it, owing to its tenacity. It is related that a British sloop-of-war, the ‘“ Driver,” once lost her bowsprit, while weathering a northerly gale in Murray Anchorage, by plunging it so deeply under water that she fouled it under her anchor cable, but yet did not drag the anchor. 12.—The Reefs or “ Flats”; North Rocks. The outer reefs form an almost continuous semioval boundary wall to the region of lagoons, for over 30 miles, from east of St. George’s Island all around to and beyond the western end of the group. They are from half a mile to two miles or more in breadth and in most places are only slightly covered by water at low tide, so that the seas break heavily upon them, in long lines of white breakers in Figure 27.—The Reefs or Flats near North Rock. Phot. December, 1875, by J. B. Heyl. windy weather. In many places, as in the vicinity of the North Rocks, quite extensive areas of the flat reefs are laid bare by low tides. In other large areas the reefs are covered by from 1 foot to 8 feet of water at low tide. These reefs are very irregular in form, 72 A. H. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 484 and often broken up into distinct patches or groups, and small detached heads, with deep and narrow channels between them. These broad nearly level reefs are locally called “ Flats.” (Fig. 27.) The four North Rocks, which stand on the platform of the outer reefs, about 8 miles north of St. George’s Island, are the only points that are exposed at high tide. ‘The largest of these is only about 12 or 13 feet high, above low tide, and about 7 feet in diameter (see figure 30). They are, like the reefs themselves, last remnants of what were once islands, now destroyed by the sea. (See map, fig. 26.) These rocks are interesting historically, as well as geologically, for it was in close proximity to these that the “ Bonaventura,” with Henry May on board, was wrecked in 1593, as mentioned on another page, and so they were represented, with this wrecked vessel, on the reverse of the original seal of the Bermuda Company (see figure 29, ch. 23). They lie 12 miles N.N.W. from Catherine Point, at the eastern end of St. George’s Island. Mills Breaker, which is dry at low water, lies 6 miles N.E. from Catherine Point. (See map, fig. 26.) Within the outer reefs, and between the anchorages, there are innumerable detached reefs and groups of reefs of various sizes and shapes, but often covering many square miles, where the water is so obstructed and filled with reefs that no vessels of any kind can pass through them, except small boats in pleasant weather. All these reefs are overgrown with corals of various kinds, sea-fans, serpule, mussels, sea-weeds, corallines, nullipores, and many other living organisms, which greatly protect them from the wear of the waves, and on the outer parts raise the level considerably above that of the underlying limestone rock. Were it not for this protective covering the reefs would be speedily worn away and destroyed. Among the reef-corals that are most efficient, both in protecting and building up the surfaces of the reefs, are the “ brain-corals” (Meandra), the “star-corals” ( Orbicella and Siderastreea); Porites ; and the finger-coral (Millepora alcicornis). 'The latter is very abundant on all the reefs and rocks, including those near the shores, for it grows in very shallow water. It forms large and handsome masses of elegantly branched fronds, dark russet-brown in color when living. The common brain-coral (JL labyrinthiformis) is exceedingly abundant, and forms thick, rounded masses, sometimes 4 or 5 feet in diameter, orange yellow in life. The other brain-coral (MM. cerebrum) forms similar masses, usually light yellow or greenish in color, chiefly on the outer reefs. (See Part V, and plates.) 485 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. ~r (se) The great star-coral, with star-shaped calicles about one-quarter or one-third of an inch across ( Orbicella cavernosa), forms large solid hemispheres, but it only lives on the outer reefs. The smaller kind (O. annularis), with calicles about one-eight of an inch across, is also found chiefly on the outer reefs, but is more common. The Sider- astrea radians, which has crowded, shallow, confluent stars, about one-eighth of an inch across, is very abundant both in shallow water and on the reefs. It grows in solid, heavy, rounded masses up to a foot or more across. Porites astreoides forms irregular rounded and tubercular masses, up to two feet in diameter, covered with minute stars, about =1, of an inch or less in diameter. It is usually dark yellowish brown when living. (See Part V.) At the western end of the group the reefs cover a very extensive semicircular area, extending 7 to 9 miles from land, with a perfect labyrinth of broken and detached reefs, but more continuous toward their outer margins. his reef area is larger than all the dry land. Figure 28.—Wreck Hill, as seen from the Sea, bearing N. 34 Hast; after Findlay. Among the most dangerous of these reefs are the Chub Heads, which lie 9 miles from the shore at Wreck Hill ; Long Bar, of which the south part is 6 miles W.S.W. from Gibb’s Hill Light; and Southwest Breaker, on which the sea always breaks, and which lies 15 miles from the shore, and about south from Wreck Hill, which is a rather conical high hill, standing detached from the other hills, at the extreme western end of the main island. When seen from the sea it appears dark colored. From the southwest it appears flat- tened at the top, but from the south it is conical. It is usually the first land made in approaching the islands from the westward. (Fig. 28.) ‘The modern sand-dunes in the region of Elbow Bay, East of Gibb’s Hill Light, are conspicuous at sea, from a long distance, by reason of their white color, and are called the Sand Hills. 74. A. HE Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 486 13.—Serpuline Atolls or “ Boilers.” Along nearly the whole southern shore of the islands the reefs are situated much nearer to the shore. ‘Most of them are not more than half a mile away, though in some places they may be nearly a mile from the shore. Along this coast most of them have taken on a peculiar form known as “boilers” or serpuline atolls. (See plates Ixxvii—viii.) These are detached, rounded, elliptical, or irregular reefs with a raised rim and excavated or cup-shaped central part. They vary in size from those only a few feet in diameter up to those of 100 feet or more. Many are very regularly rounded, The rim is formed by a solid, raised, living crust, made up of the hard convoluted tubes of serpule and Vermetus, barnacles, small black mussels, nullipores, corallines, and some true incrusting corals, such as Porites astreoides, and a few others. Usually the living rim rises from 1 to 2 feet above low-tide level, because the serpule and mussels, of which it largely consists, can*endure an exposure to the air of an hour or two, without inconvenience. But they soon reach their limit of endurance in this respect, and stop growing upward. (See Geology.) The seas, even in moderate weather, always break on such reefs, forming a line of outer white breakers nearly parallel with the shore. ‘There is also, in many places, as near Hungry Bay, an inner line of these “boilers” of the same structure and form, very near the shore, and sometimes even united to the shore ledges at some points. These “boilers” are fundamentally of the same structure as the other reefs, for beneath the marginal crust of serpule, etc., they consist of zeolian limestone, like all the rest. Their hollow or cup-shaped form is due to the heavy seas that dash against the hard outer rim and fall over into the unprotected central area like a cataract, rapidly wearing off and carrying away the soft rock. Reefs having this character, in so perfect a form, have not been observed in any other part of the world. 14.— Channels or Natural Cuts through the Reefs. There are, besides the main ship-channel or “narrows,” several other channels or “cuts” through the outer reefs on the eastern, northern, and western sides, through which vessels of small size can reach the anchorages and harbors, if they have a good local pilot and favorable winds. Some of these were formerly considerably 487 A, FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. ~I Or used by commercial vessels ; especially Hog-fish Cut, for reaching Elies Bay, or harbor; some of them are still used by the fishermen. No doubt some of these could easily be improved and made into safe channels for large vessels, if the British government thought it expedient to do so. These channels have a special interest in connection with the geology of the islands, and will, therefore, be discussed under Geology ; most of them are shown on the map, (fig. 26, p. 480). Some of them, which are not indicated on the Admiralty Charts as extending through the reefs at all, are described by others as pass- able for vessels, though narrow and irregular. Therefore I have thought it best to quote the descriptions of most of them from another work. On the map (fig. 26) the cuts are indicated by the Roman numerals, VII-XV. The most important one is the main ship-channel, which is situated at the eastern end of the reefs and near the northeastern end of St. George’s Island. It is sutticiently deep for large naval vessels; but is narrow and crooked. It is, however, very'carefully buoyed. (See map, fig. 26, S. C. and p. 418). In this place it will best serve my purpose to quote the descrip- tions of most of the others, printed with his sailing directions, by A. G. Findlay, 1870, who had personally examined them.* “Proceeding northward, the next channel is Wills’ Breaker Chan- nel, the entrance to which is half a mile North of the Mills’ Breaker, Its direction inwards is 8. W. towards the Narrows, and is only used by Bermudian vessels in and out. (Fig. 26, XIV.) Continuing in the same direction, the north-eastern face of the reef presents an impenetrable and continuous reef, often breaking, until we come to the North Rock Channels, having a southerly direction. {North Rocks are at N., on fig. 26.] There are two channels by the North Rock; that on the eastern side of the Rock is called the Northeast, and the western, the Northwest Channel.t * These descriptions are essentially the same in the various editions, down to the 15th, in 1895, but with some verbal changes. + No passages through the reefs are indicated at the positions of either of these two channels on the U. 8S. Hydrographic Office chart of 1877, corrected to April, 1900, and based on the ‘‘ most recent British Admiralty Surveys” (1874 and later), On the margin it is mentioned that extensive corrections were made in 1895 and 1897. : On that chart the outer parts of both cuts are indicated, as penetrating the reefs, but the inner portions are shown completely interrupted and blocked by 76 A, FE Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 488 They are known only to a few of the pilots, and from that cause but seldom used, although it is said that the North-eastern channel is one of the best through the edge of the reef. Fig. 26, XI. The North-eastern channel is narrow and intricate at its entrance ; the general depth is 6, 7, and 8 fathoms ; but in one spot but 5. At 54 miles in the direct line from the entrance, toward Murray Anchor- age, there lies a cluster of rocks, which renders a circuit to the westward advisable. The mark for clearing the West end of these, the Zhree Hill Shoals, is Painter’s Hill, over a hill on the western side of the Ferry at St. George’s Island, bearing 8.8.E. There is also a channel through the shoals, which is more direct, the mark for which is | Painter’s Hill in the hollow or saddle of two hills (hence their name), at the West end of St. George’s Island, bearing 8. 4 E. As soon as,the shoals are cleared in either case, which will be when 33 miles from the shore, you can bear round to the 8.E. to Murray Anchorage, this part of the reef being clear. (Fig. 26, L.) The next is the Blue Cut, on the western side of the reef, but can be used only by small vessels. It is exceedingly narrow and intri- cate, and has only 8 feet water in places. Its direction is to the Kast of South. (Fig. 26, X.) The Chub Cut is the next channel southward ; this is also narrow and dangerous. It leads southerly to Wreck Hill, or first southerly and then easterly to Ireland Island. (Fig. 26, IX.) Hog Fish Cut lies at the south-western angle of the islands. For half a mile in a north-easterly direction it les through numerous rocky shoals, and then turns to the N.W. It leads to Ireland Island and to Elies Harbour.* (Fig. 26, VIII.) The Hog Fish Cut, which has recently been examined with a view to its improvement, is the most convenient at the West end of the islands, particularly in the winter season, when the winds prevail at N.W., and the danger of being at sea and about the islands is the greatest. the shallow reefs, indicated by shading and crosses. Whether marked natural changes have occurred since 1870, I cannot say, but it seems very doubtful. Perhaps it was not deemed expedient to indicate these channels, as they actually exist, owing to their intricacy and dangers, or for strategic reasons. That such channels are generally filling up with mud at the bottom, and by the growth of the corals on the sides is very certain, but such changes are so slow that in a period of 30 or 40 years we should not expect them to be very evident. The Northwest channel is not indicated on fig. 26. * Hlies Harbor was named for Mr. William Eli, who was settled on its shore in 1621. The name is sometimes erroneously written ‘‘ Hllis.” \ 489 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. ~r ~T The Hog Fish Cut, though not far from the land, is an entrance from the ocean, through the outer barrier of rocks. Before arriving at the Cut there are the Bream Shoals, to be carefully avoided. The course through what are called the Chops of the Cut is nearly at, a right angle; the turn is very sudden and sharp, and the greatest nicety must be observed by the pilots in navigating it. The course in from the ocean to Hog Fish Cut is N.E., and from the Cut to the Avtchen Shoals N.W.; and the passage is so narrow that it does not afford sufticient space for the vessels to tack in, and when a passage through them shall be attempted, it must be without a change of tack. hese difficulties are felt more especially in the winter season, when the winds are generally unfavourable for pass- ing the Kitchen Shoals. To remedy this evil, the committee appointed for the purpose (August, 1846) recommended the removal of the centre Kitchen Shoal, of coral (8 feet on it at high water), by the same means employed at St. George’s Harbor, when a passage sufficiently capacious would be opened, and vessels, now often compelled to remain at sea, or make the circuit of the island in search of shelter, would find an easy and ready access to port. The various channels here mentioned, having different directions, are available according to the wind, that which is fair for one being the reverse for others; but they must not be attempted without a pilot, who will immediately come off from St. David’s Head, upon a signal being given to that effect ; and a vessel in the offing requiring a pilot, it is telegraphed from one part of the island to the other. They will be best understood by referring to the Chart of these islands.* The south-eastern face of the reef forms nearly a continuous line of breakers, about 2 cables’ lengths from the shore, and has no entrance or shelter till we come to Castle Harbour, the entrance to which, past the King’s Castle, is in a N.W. direction. (Fig. 26, KI.) There is no other opening through the reef between this and the channel under St. David’s Head, before described.” 15.— Tides and Currents. The tides vary to a considerable extent according to the force and direction of the wind, and the same is true of the variable currents * A Chart of the Bermudas or Somers’ Islands, with Plans of the Narrows and Murray Anchorage, and St. George’s Harbour, &c., by A. G. Findlay, F.R.G.S., published by Mr. R. H. Laurie, London, 1870, accompanied by a description of the islands. ~J os) A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. ; 490 between the reefs. Ordinary tides rise from 3} to 4 feet, but the spring tides may rise 5 feet, and in gales of wind sometimes 7 feet. In Harrington Sound there is usually only 6 to 8 inches of tide, seldom a foot. Near the shores the tidal currents run in varicus directions, often varying according to the winds. In 1666, the Royal Society of London (founded in 1662) sent to Mr. Richard Norwood, the surveyor, a long series of questions con- cerning these islands and their productions, whale fishing, ete. Many of these were answered in a letter from Mr. Richard Stafford (later Judge Stafford), July 16, 1668. Mr. Norwood replied to the questions concerning the moon and tides, in a letter of June 18, 1667. Both letters were published in the Philosophical Transactions, vols. JOL, JU0E In his letter Mr. Norwood gives several facts as to the tides. He | stated that the tides commonly rise 4 feet, at spring tide 5 feet, but that they are variable according to the wind ; in calm weather the flood tide sets from the southeast ; high water occurs at 7 o’clock on the “change day.” 16.—The Soil ; its Origin and Composition. With the exception of the black peat or muck of the swamps and marshes, all of the soil of the islands has been produced as an insolu- ble residue, or impurity, left after the solution of the limestones and shell-sands of the islands by rain water, but it is usually mixed with more or less disintegrated limestone, and some organic matter. These rocks and sands always contain a small amount of earthy impurities, often not more than 0.5 of one per cent., and seldom more than one per cent., which consists mainly of clay and iron oxide, and with a little phosphate of lime, potash, etc., to which the soil owes its fertility. This process of forming soil is a very slow one, and indicates, as well as anything else, the long period of time that has elapsed since the Bermudas became dry land. The average thickness of this soil has been variously estimated at from one to two feet, which would require the destruction of at least 100 to 200 feet of limestone. (See under Geology.) Where the decomposition has been complete, this soil is a reddish clay, the color being due to an excess of iron oxide, but in most places the clay soil is mixed with considerable shell-sand, or grains of undecomposed rock. In many places the latter forms the greater AQ1 A. FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 79 part of the bulk. In some sections of the limestone rocks, as many as five to seven buried layers of red clay, generally thin, may be seen, indicating as many successive periods of surface decomposition, each of pretty long duration. The mixed soils are the better, and when they contain vegetable mould they are often remarkably fertile. There is ample evidence that the original virgin soil of Bermuda was wonderfully fertile.* Tobacco and corn were the principal crops for nearly a hundred years, and both are notoriously exhaustive to soils, especially the tobacco, which requires much potash. (See Part III, Tobacco.) Large amounts of tobacco were exported for 80 years,—sometimes as much as 200,000 pounds annually, but we find no record of any artificial fertilizers having been used during that time,f and as but few cattle were kept, there could have been but little manure used. Probably seaweeds were used to some extent, as now. The burning of the cedars and brush would have furnished some potash to the soil for a time, but not for any long period. There could have been but little rotation of crops. Therefore, it is very remarkable that any decent crops could have been raised on the same ground during all that time, and ever since, in many cases. Capt. John Smith, in his General History, ed. of 1629, said that the fertility in some places had decayed “and in many places decayeth.” There is abundant positive evidence that the soil did become very badly exhausted in many places, and the crops depreciated greatly in the 18th century. From 1700 to 1840 agriculture was not * The Rev. Mr. Hughes, in his letter of 1614, speaks of their raising two crops of wheat each year, and adds the following as to the fertility of the soil, ete.:— “The earth is very fertile, and so mellow and gentle, as it needeth neither plow- ing, nor digging, so that after the wood is taken off, and the grasse and weeds bee burnt and destroyed, and the common business of Fortifying bee once ended, men shall live heere in much ease, without such moyling and toyling as in England, The greatest labour will be worming and pruning of some plants, which children may doe as well, and better than men.” “T wish that all they that hereafter shal come hither out of England would consider with themselves that these lands were never inhabited till now, and that therefore they must of necessity labour hard at first, and be contented to endure hardnes and some want of many necessaries.” By ‘‘ wheat” he probably meant maize, as is plainly indicated in other pas- sages of his writings. Real wheat does not flourish in Bermuda. + True artificial fertilizers, in the modern sense, were then unknown, but in New England, at that time, it was customary to use fish and fish refuse, as well as wood ashes, for fertilizers. 0 A. BE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 499 og) prosperous, but that was due partly to social and commercial condi- tions. At the present time the soil, in spite of the modern use of fertilizers, is probable much less fertile, in most places, than the original virgin soil. Nevertheless, the soil in some districts is still wonderfully productive. There is no evidence of any change in the~ climate, but quite the contrary. Still it is doubtful if pineapples could be raised there in such abundance, and of so good a quality as they were in 1620 to 1650. The lack of the shelter from the bleak salt winds, furnished at first by the cedars, would account for some of the change, but the exhaustion of the vegetable mould, potash, and phosphates in the soil was probably the main cause. Even now, many planters take far more of such essential materials — from the soil than they give back to it, for they expect to raise two or three crops each year on the same ground, with perhaps only one very scanty supply of fertilizers. The very primitive and imperfect methods of cultivation practiced for over 200 years render it still more remarkable that they could have raised as much as they did. Up to about 1839, the common plough was almost unknown in Bermuda. All the cultivation was done with the hoe, and mostly by slaves. It was, of course, a very shallow cultivation, carried on with no scientific knowledge. Under these circumstances a study of the composition of the natural soils of Bermuda, and especially of the red clay, becomes of much interest. The red clay contains a notable quantity of phos- phates. At the present time a liberal amount of fertilizers is used by many of the more enterprising planters, with marked success. In 1901, 2636 acres were under cultivation, according to the census returns. 17.—Analyses of Bermuda Soils. Governor Lefroy has given the results of several analyses, which are as follows :— (00) A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 493 (Heer ‘4g ‘d ‘eg ON “SUIT FEN “SO ‘TMg ur peyurtdoey) “gggl “WozTmey ‘oyozeH Tesoy x 00°00 0°001 0001 00001 020'F9 , S10'9E | T8608 , GL40°6E | SF6'6L , 8G0'0S ee eesoed ees Pe GF0.0 hae ee eee eee 1 i) O05 0a ee ee a. pots 86'S as OU ee PSO) SP ee ene peeese ag Oar | HE | ee | One I aaa ENO | ees COND | 2° LOO Ore es eee EW eee (REO) || PF Tae eee Ee eee OFS'sI | 9F0°0 | oss'og | e9e'0 | O8G'FT | LF0°0 | G6e'sT pecs OE Pee || Ne Po EW. pee OOOTs | tee OlGa¢ alee O8e'Lh | 77" | OL8F PlLy6 | GOL'0 | oer | O@TO | GeT'9L | G4T'0 | FF'0e 4160 | 6610 | ~~ | 66070 | 0SG'0 | S100 | OFS a aie 1L0°01 | 98@°e | OSs | Tero | Pee | 6g°¢ BORE ADE | =e MEME Pes OBIE | Ao ERED Ogieee | eau = OS69 seme | TecrOn lel Gicr ‘Josuy |‘eTqnjpos | “[osuy |e,qntog| “[osuy |‘e_~qntos Sear agie ae =a ‘TEqV ¢ ON v ON 6 ON ‘Jolg ‘SULUUL], ; ‘sAvudtog “Jord ‘STIOS aay 66 66 TO'cOL 110°0 060°0 vol 0 LL00 +See 9060 O89'cr | 99867 0L0°0 676 0 880°0 7900 eo U | Uae) 20/0 | 080'0 eee | eee E 00F TS LVS 00L °F 918°6 PEL'st | 9180 ‘pnit “puss GONE 1b INT “SULUUV], ‘TIOG GLIA peulutteyep you ‘aja ‘seyeydsoyg ‘seprtoyyg Bees ig seg Che Garage ie hee > ag a auULLOpyA BADE PIO SHR SRS OSRS SSORS ploy omoydsoyg PARP OSE OS A PIGOS 28S OOS ply olmydng epos Yseqod BOTTIS Brae soe = Si ia AvypO V[GN{OSUL pue pues SCC igi te OOO CS SSS pias eulmanypy ES ie Siers sate ones ayeuoqiey WMIseuseyy ase BO Oa ain oe eyeyding wn1aype9g eplxQ WMNLOTRO pie eee te stink gee ae aoURISqns LUeSIOQ NOSES clas Mes by oe aera se (papnpour jou) AAD AL y AOUMAT UONUAAOL) AA GHHSITAOG ASOHL WOU GHidVaV NHUAL TAVH STIOG VGNWUAG AO SASATVYNY YNIMOTION AH, A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 494 (es) bo The numbered samples of soil in the accompanying table came from the following places: The samples of soil forwarded to Mr. Manning for analysis were as follows :— No. 1.—Pure white sand taken from the bottom of the hill on the Pembroke marsh side of Mount Langton. ae No. 2.—A chalky mud, which occurs in a vein in the same locality. No. 3.—Pure virgin red earth from the layer on the east side of Bishop street, Hamilton, about 60 feet above the sea. No. 4.—Good average agricultural red soil, taken from a field on the Devonshire College ground, which at the time was under tomatoes. No. 5.—Very red soil from Mr. Gibbons’ farm near the Causeway, under arrowroot at the time. There can scarcely be a doubt that with so good a soil as a foun- dation, and with so favorable a climate, immense crops could be grown by the modern scientific methods of intensive culture and abundant use of the proper fertilizers, adapted to any required crop. It would seem probable that the culture of a high grade of tobacco, on modern scientific principles, and under cloth frames,* could be made‘very profitable. 18.—The Climate. The tables printed below will give a fairly good idea of the climate, as observed during a series of years. The principal peculi- arities are due to the insular situation and the proximity of the Gulf Stream. Both these factors tend to prevent extremes of temperature and sudden changes. But the temperature and dampness of the air vary greatly according to the direction of the wind, especially in winter. The northerly winds are usually cold and chilly, and are often accompanied by cold rains, but at other times by cool and dry weather. But southerly and southwesterly winds from over the Gulf Stream are warm and damp ; they are the prevailing winds in summer, and usually, also, in the winter and spring, but northerly | winds are often nearly as frequent in winter. Fogs, however, are of very rare occurrence. The average temperature during the three winter months and March is from 63° to 66° F.; April, about 65°.5; May, 70°.5; June, * Tn early times the tobacco crop was often much damaged, or nearly destroyed, by blighting winds, probably due largely to the salt spray in most cases. The use of thin cloth shelters, which has been found so advantageous in this country, especially in Connecticut, would be worth trying in Bermuda. 495 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 83 76_; July, 80°; August, 81°.7; Sept., 80°; Oct., 73°.7; Nov.,68°. The average for the year is about 70° F., but ranges from 69°.5 to 70°.5. But temperatures as low as 50° to 53° are not uncommon in winter ; 42° is rarely reached. It is rarely as high as 87° in summer, but the mean relative humidity, during the summer months, ranges from 80 to 91. a.—Rainfall ; Hail; Thunderstorms ; Logs ; Moisture. The amount of rainfall is large, and it seems to be somewhat larger at Hamilton and Ireland Island than at St. George’s. According to Lefroy’s tables, covering eleven and sixteen years, respectively, it was 54.66 inches at Ireland Island and 48.61 inches at St. George’s. The amount near Hamilton in later years usually varied between 58 and 63 inches, but in 1898 was only 48.19, and in 1900 it was 67.05 inches. (See Tables, pp. 500-502.) The rainfall is usually pretty well distributed throughout the year, but is generally greatest in October and November and least in the summer months, when droughts are not uncommon, but seldom very prolonged. Usually more or less rain falls on from one hundred and ninety to two hundred and seven days; and on at least half of the days of all the months from November to April.* But in many cases the rains are mere showers of very brief duration. Fogs are of rare occurrence, but really dense fogs are scarcely known about the Bermudas, so that vessels rarely if ever get ashore on that account. We observed land fogs in the early morning, several times in March ; sometimes it was somewhat dense, but it soon passed away. The air is, for the greater part of the time, decidedly moist, as shown by the tables below, and in the summer time it is often nearly saturated with moisture, so that it is very oppressive to many persons. Several rather severe hailstorms have been recorded, but they are not at all common.+ Strachy records that in 1609 :—“ In the begin- ning of December wee had great store of hayle.” Lefroy says that on Feb. 20, 1872, “the ground was in some places white with hail, which did not disappear for some hours.” * Owing to the amount of rainy weather in the cooler months, and the mois- ture of the air generally, the climate of Bermuda is not well suited for many invalids who go there. For consumptive patients, especially, who usually need a dry climate, the conditions are not favorable. For nervous diseases it seems to be excellent. + According to the New York papers a hailstorm occurred at Bermuda, April 21, 1902. io) 4 ; A, EK. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 496 Thunder showers are very common, and they occur in all months of the year, but they are usually of short duration, though some- times very violent. b.— Winds ; Hurricanes ; Gales. The climate must be considered as decidedly windy, as the tables will show. Perfectly calm days are of rare occurrence, except during the summer months, when there will sometimes be several perfectly calm days in succession, but a few nearly calm days usually occur in each month. The mean annual velocity is eight to nine miles per hour. Strong gales and severe storms are not uncommon in the cooler months, from November to April, but the very destructive cyclonic hurricanes that have occasionally visited the islands, gen-— erally occur in August or September, more rarely in October and November. One of the most violent hurricanes on record occurred in the night, Sept. 12, 1899. This did very great damage to the trees and to property, but no lives were lost. It carried away most of the long stone causeway from the Main Island to St. George’s, and greatly damaged the wharves and buildings at St. George’s. It also did great damage to the causeway and other works at Ireland Island, and at other places at that end of the islands. (See p. 442.) Another hurricane of nearly the same character, and perhaps of even greater violence, visited the islands just 60 years earlier, on Sept. 11 and 12, 1839. That storm also did great damage by uproot- ing large numbers of trees and unroofing and blowing down houses. Similar hurricanes are several times recorded in the early settlement of Bermuda. One in Governor Moore’s time, 1612, blew down his framed church and did other damage. A severe storm is mentioned in 1615. Captain John Smith stated that in the last of November, 1619, there was a ‘terrible Hericano” which “blew up great trees by the roots.” The magazine ship “ Warwick” was wrecked in the harbor,* and the ‘‘ Garland” was only saved by cutting away her masts. A little later in the same season there was another similar storm which blew down the new lookout tower and blasted the entire crop of corn. * The Rey. Mr. Hughes in 1620 referred to this wreck as follows: ‘‘ Consider also the goodnes of God in preserving all shippes belonging to these lands so as none have beene cast away neither going nor coming: true it is that this last yeare 1619 a ship was cast away, not going nor coming, but riding at anker in the harbour.” 497 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 85 Aug. 16, 1629, there was so great a storm that the governor and council the next year (1630) ordained a proclamation, setting aside its anniversary as a day of thanksgiving and prayer. In Governor Roger Wood’s proclamation, he said that although the Lord had seen fit to destroy their houses and crops, he had spared their lives. In the order of the governor and council it is mentioned that : “Their buildings and croppes in generall were utterly ruinated by the saide guste, without taking away the life of any man, woeman or childe, which ought never to bee forgotten.” It was also ordered that the public buildings then blown down should be repaired as soon as possible, namely :—the Courte of Guard ; the Prison ; Warwick Fort ; and Pembroke Fort. The ship “‘ Virginia Merchant ” was cast away on the south coast, in a severe storm, March 24, 1661, and 170 lives were lost. In October, 1780, there was also one of the severest hurricanes ever recorded there. Houses were blown down and cedars were torn up by the roots. The tide rose to a great height and much damage and loss to shipping occurred. On Monday night and Tuesday morning, Feb. 16 and 17, 1784, according to the Royal Gazette, there was a heavy storm; trees were torn up ; houses damaged ; boats lost and destroyed. The Assem- bly of the Island, which was to have met at St. George’s, could not come out of the country on account of the storm. The Bermuda squalls or gales are sudden and violent tempests, occurring particularly in the winter season. Findlay described these gales as follows : “ As the day closes, the whole horizon becomes obscured by dark and heavy clouds, and the thunder and lightning, which precede the first squall, give notice of its approach. After the commencement, the wind, continually shifting, blows in tremendous gusts at inter- vals of every 20 or 30 minutes, a dead calm intervening ; and the sea, rising in confused and breaking waves, renders the situation of a vessel, particularly a small one, very dangerous. The conduct pursued by seamen, and which appears to be the most advisable under such circumstances, is to furl the ship’s sails, and endeavour to get before the wind; by which means she may ultimately run clear of these local squalls into a steady breeze.” A local tornado is recorded as having occurred at Tucker’s Town in 1875. It destroyed a small dwelling house and carried the occu- pants some distance, injuring the owner and killing his wife and children, Storms of this character appear to be rare in Bermuda. Trans. Conn. Acap., Vou. XI. 32 May, 1902, 86 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Tslands. 498 c.— Temperature ; Frost, Ice, and Snow. Frosts have been recorded only a few times during the whole period of the history of the islands, and in those cases they have been light and probably local. No great damage, even to tender plants, has ever been recorded as caused by frosts. Governor Lefroy cites two authentic cases: Dec. 24, 1840, when ice was formed in tubs, in low situations, “to the thickness of a half- crown,” and vegetation was considerably damaged, according to some writers; and Feb. 21, 1878, when the thermometer on grass registered 28°.2 F. A few scattering flakes of snow have been seen in a few instances, but so rarely that it is regarded as aremarkable event. On March 1, 1784, at St. George’s, according to the Royal Gazette, “A light flight of snow fell here. In a house the thermometer was as low as 48°, out of doors 44°.” One instance was in 1811 or 1812; another, March 4, 1874. There is no evidence of any definite change in the climate since the islands were first settled. Jourdan’s description, in 1610, would still apply very well :— “In August, September, and untill the end of October, wee had very hot and pleasant weather, onely (as I say) thunder, lightning, and many scattering showers of Raine (which would passe swiftly over, and yet fall with such force and darknesse for the time as if it would never bee cleere againe) wee wanted not any: and of raine more in Summer then in Winter, and in the beginning of December wee had great store of hayle (the sharpe windes blowing Northerly) but it continued not, and to say truth, it is wintry or summer weather there, according as those North and North-west windes blow. Much taste of this kind of Winter wee had; for those cold windes would suddenly alter the ayre: but when there was no breath of wind to bring the moyst ayre out of the Seas, from the North and North-west, wee were rather weary of the heate, then pinched with the extreamitie of cold: Yet the three Winter moneths, Decem- ber, January, and February, the winds kept in those cold corners, and indeed then it was heavy and melancholy being there, nor were the winds more rough in March, then in the aforesaid moneths, and yet even then would the Birds breed. I thinke they bredde there most monethes in the yeere, in September, and at Christmasse I saw young Birds,* and in Februarie, at which time the mornings are there (as in May in England) fresh and sharpe.” * The ‘‘cahows” bred in December and J anuary according to all the early accounts. 499 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 87 According to Governor Lefroy the lowest records of temperature are most apt to occur in March. He states that in the years 1872-77, a thermometer on grass registered below 40°, 17 times, viz.:—Dec- ember, twice; January, four times; February, three times; March, eight times. The lowest was 34°, in January, 1874; the lowest in March was 35°, in 1877. Table of Mean Monthly Temperatures and Rainfall. The following table is copied from Governor Lefroy’s work on the Botany of Bermuda : ConpDITIONS OF TEMPERATURE AND RAINFALL AFFECTING VEGETATION IN : BERMUDA.* Temperature | Temperature of the air. | Or He soil: | Mean | rainfall. | | Nl | Inches. | 9a.mM. | 3 P.M. |at 6 Ins.jat12 Ins. ° ° | ° | ° In. TVEMUCTAY Sos Se Sa ae ere lm Gokona noe OMa eG 2eor a) 3.8 HebRUakyeee sss ee scene os sek ees 63.7 65.1 @iloal 61.4 4.2 IMU) bY, 5 esa ee a a 63.8 65.5 61.5 | 61.5 3.6 Ajoiles Bo ee Bs So eo eee sae 67.4 69.3 64.8 | 64.9 3.3 Wii Ramer ames Semin Se Oe Ye ele 72.0 G30 69.9 | 69.5 4.1 UT OME MEE terse Sm oo ne che casas 76.8 78.8 Pay i) ene) 7 3.3 Pet ivan see rey ae te ne he! 81.3 82.9 Visas || ed) 4.0 ATER SE Ss Se Ee hee ene eee 82.5 84.2 79.1 79.2 3.9 DeEplcember eee ea Sete ke ee 80.2 81.9 Yell 76.9 4.8 GLH OST eS a 75.9 76.7 73.4 Wet (O27 INOViETNO OTR ee ee oe arene Ls 69.8 Pi iboal 67.2 68.1 5.7 Decemibenme sss sees Se 65.4 66.4 62.9 | 63.2 4.0 Ee | peas ee De { al@ 73.4 69.3 | 69.4 51.4 The mean annual temperatures of the air during 22 years was 71°.9 at 9 A. M., and 73°.4 at 3 P. M. The mean temperature of the soil at the depth of 12 inches was 69.°4, which is probably very close to the true mean annual temper- ature. He gives the average annual rainfall, for the same period, as 51.4 inches. * The mean temperatures are given by observations extending (with some lacunz) from August, 1855, to March, 1877. The temperature of the soil at 6 inches is the mean between observations at 9 a.m. and 5 P.M., apparently the hours of extreme daily range. The temperature at 12 inches is that at 9 a.m.; the daily range at this depth is under 0°.5, and is about the mean at 9 A.M. 500 A, E. Verrilli— The Bermuda Islands. D D ia ‘Ivad oY} Sutmmp skvep QZ UO [oF Urey ‘sept «= g'QSs * awad OY} LOZ puLM Jo Aytoojaa ATINOY uevodT seeOLSOUOULCOU yt wae sens ea ee nee pe ee saved 4YySTe “MOISD) diel GzP fy, Tee eon. Ivok 94} LoF AZIPIUINY OATZVOL UOT! ysed ot} JO eSvIOAe TOIT [[VJULRL JO oDUELOTIG ‘so0Tsep POL ~7777 Ivok 99 LOZ Iv oy} FO oInqyriodurs} Uvdj[ KOUDUN HCG? 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E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 91 e.—Drouths and Famines. Throughout the early history of the islands there were frequent seasons of scarcity of food, and sometimes of genuine famine during the winter, but the reasons for this are frequently not given, except as an infliction sent upon them by the Lord for their sins, as stated in the proclamations of the governors. The causes of some of these famines have been mentioned in other chapters. Not infrequently lack of food was due to the destruction of the crops by hurricanes, as in 1629, when the “great guste” of August 16 destroyed all their crops and many of their houses and forts, and was followed in the next winter by a partial famine. (See p. 497.) In 1616 to 1619 great scarcity of food was due to the plague of wood-rats that ate up all their crops, even digging up the seed as soon as planted. (See Part III, ch. 33.) But several seasons of great scarcity have certainly been due to summer drouths, though these are not often very severe. A proclamation for thanksgiving was issued by Governor Sayle, Thursday, Aug. 22, 1662, because it had pleased God “to send us a gratious rain in a plentiful manner, thorow his tender mercies and compassions.” He explained that before the rain came, he had been about to appoint a day of fasting and prayer, on account of “a great and terrible drouth upon the land, that all things were even withered and dried upp, soe that the dumb creatures began to languish.” In the summer of 1784 there was a severe drouth. It was so severe that according to an item in the Royal Gazette, “there is scarcely any grain left for the horses and cattle.” J.— Temperature of the Sea. The average surface temperature of the sea varies in different months, about as follows: JERI 35 oe ee eS Seoe eee 59°-63° F. Jitalliya Sepa ye eet § 79°-83° F. Hebruany2e- = 2 ocseece 59 — 63 ATI BUST See ee see ee ease 82 — 85 Mare peer c oe ieee 62 - 66 SCOUEMMI OEP S25 ee 83 — 75 ENT osetIL eS Re os os eens OS as 66 — 71 Octobersissasse ss eee te 75 - 69 WIA Soe ees een, Sc me 70 — 76 INOVem| bere eee 69 — 65 RECESS es ae ia en 75 - 80 Decemberac sess: Saye oe 65 — 61 19.— Remarkable Instance of the Death of Fishes, etc., due to Cold- ness of the Sea, in 1901, During the months of February and the first part of March, in 1901, the weather at Bermuda was unusually cold, stormy, and wet. The temperature fell, at one time, as low as 45 F. The continued 92 A. FE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 504 low temperature and the cold northwest winds, persisting for many days together, appear to have been sufticient to cool the sea-water beyond the limit of endurance for many of the tropical fishes found there, so that vast numbers died and were washed ashore, especially during the first week of March, all along the coast, but more abun- ~ dantly around the shores of Hamilton Harbor and the adjacent islands. The stench from their decomposition became so great that the local government was obliged to aid in their removal, early in March, for sanitary reasons. The fishes that died in the largest quantities were two of the com- mon shallow water species, viz: the hamlet grouper and the red squirrel fish. Later in the season these and other fishes that had previously been common were found to be scarce and difficult to obtain. In fact, most of the ordinary market fishes were much scarcer than ever before. Among other interesting fishes seen dead on the shore were the green parrot-fish, large porcupine-fishes, hog fish, Spanish lady-fish, trunk-fish, angel-fish, ete. The following partial list* of species includes those that were particularly noticed among the dead fishes, March 8th to 10th :— SKoRMIERAIII NY: ooo oe ooen cosece Holocentrus Ascensionis. HamiletiGroupers= = 55 seas oe Hpinephelus striatus. Parco tats ye see less Soa pa Pseudoscarus guacamaia. Roreupime= fis ine eesee e a eee Diodon hystrix. AMrerb cube snklaba see ie aie ens ee Ae Lactophrys triqueter. Cowetish Jokes i Sissi ie nea Lactophrys tricornis. Small Rock-fishes_------._-.___- Mycteroperca bonact (young). Spanish Angel-fish; Catalineta --Holacanthus tricolor. Rainbows Hlound eras = 2) ea ees Platophrys lunatus. Guapena; Ribbon-fish .___-_---- Eques lanceolatus. Green! Morayans= (eso. 2 eee Lycodontis funebris. Bermuda Hog-fish ___.-.-----_--- Lachnolaimus maximus. Spanish Lady-fish _-.---._ .__-- Harpe rufa. In this list, very incomplete as it must be, there are two species that had not been previously recorded from Bermuda waters, so * T am indebted to my son, A. Hyatt Verrill, for part of the above list, for he arrived in Bermuda March 7th, when the shores were still covered with the dead fishes, though most of them were then so badly decomposed that they could not be preserved. Had he been on the ground a week earlier, he could have made, without doubt, a very valuable collection of the fishes, including many rare species not in the above list. When I arrived at Bermuda, April 12th, the most of the dead fishes had disappeared, though skeletons of some of the more abundant species were common; but a few dead, or nearly dead, specimens of some species were still often found floating at the surface. 505 A. H. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 93 far as I know, viz: the Guapena (gues lanceolatus), of which a single specimen, with its characteristic color markings still visible, was found dead on the shore near Hamilton ; and the Green Parrot- fish (Pseudoscarus guacamaia), which was found in considerable numbers on the shore of Long Bird Island. The latter was recogniz- able on account of its remarkable turquoise-blue teeth, some of which were preserved by Mr. A. H. Verrill. Those fishes that habitually live in deep water, among the outer reefs, such as the red snapper (Neomceius aya), large rock-fishes (Mycteroperca bonact), amber-fishes, etc., appeared not to have been much affected. Many of the corals seemed to have been injured also, and some were killed. In Harrington Sound and Castle Harbor we noticed many recently dead specimens of Porites (P. clavaria and P. astre- oides); some of Oculina,; and the “ rose-coral” (Mussa, or Isophyllia, dipsacea), and in Harrington Sound, large numbers of dead spéci- mens of the “hat-coral” or “ shade-coral” (Agaricia fragilis). It was also remarkable that the very common “ rose-coral ” (Mussa, or LIsophyllia, dipsacea), even when apparently healthy, was very rarely seen expanded, in March and April, 1901. Indeed, I do not think that a single specimen, of the hundreds that were examined during the month of April, was in full expansion. Nor could we induce any of the numerous specimens, brought in for the purpose of study, to expand satisfactorily, although they were treated with the greatest care. ‘This was in very marked contrast with its behavior in the spring of 1898, when nearly all the specimens were found fully expanded and active, and when brought into the laboratory, with no particular care, they would expand fully and freely, for days together, presenting a very beautiful effect, owing to their various bright colors, among which emerald-green tints were conspicuous, Last year the brighter tints were mostly lacking, and gray and lav- ender were the predominating colors, probably on account of their less healthy condition. One very large specimen of the Octopus (Octopus rugosus) was found dead on the shore, early in March. This species, also, like many others, seemed to be far less common than in 1898. But as a rule, there did not seem to have been any noticeable change in the numbers of most of the Mollusca, Crustacea, annelids, and other invertebrates that live buried in the sand or sheltered in cavities of the reefs. Some of the crabs that live exposed on the shores appeared to have been killed in large numbers. ‘The very common 94 A. FE. Verrilli—The Bermuda Islands. 506 Cliff-erab (Grapsus grapsus) was found to be much less abundant last spring than it was in 1898, and another species of Cliff-crab, having the same habits (Plagusia depressa), which we found com- mon at Castle Island, Bailey’s Bay Island, ete., in 1898, could not be found at all, last year, though we searched for it in the same places. That the unusually low temperature of the water that prevailed in February and the first part of March was the principal cause of the death of the fishes and corals, hardly admits of doubt. Under ordinary conditions many of the tropical species, found at Bermuda, are living in winter nearly at their extreme limit, as to low temperatures, so that even a small falling off from the usual average, for any considerable length of time, would be certain to prove fatal to them. It is certain that a marked decrease below the usual winter temperature took place during a part of February, amounting to about 2° F. below the average for the corresponding periods in most other years, as shown by the meteorological records. But the same decrease in temperature has repeatedly occurred without killing the fishes. Unfortunately, I have not been able to secure careful observations on the temperature of the water, during February and March, 1901, but any marked decrease in the average temperature of the water, for a number of days, would be certain to affect the air in the same way, though to a less extent. Iam indebted to Mr. H. E. Williams, Acting Chief of the United States Weather Bureau, for the follow- ing statement of the temperature and rainfall prevailing at Bermuda, during February, 1901 : “The mean temperature at Hamilton, Bermuda, for February, 1901, was 59.5 F. The average temperature for February at Hamilton is 61.5. The rainfall for the same month was 5.56, being 1.16 inch in excess of the normal. For March, 1901, the monthly mean tempera- ture was 62.4 F., or 0.2 above the normal. The rainfall was 8.55 inches, or 2.90 inches above the normal. The month of February was an exceedingly stormy one over almost the entire North Atlantic, there being a succession of gales from the beginning of the month to about the 26th. Many of these disturbances extended as far south- ward as Bermuda. The weather for March was decidedly more tranquil, although a greater amount of rain fell.” That the mean temperature of the air was not sufficiently low, during February and the first week of March, to have directly caused the death of the fishes, is evident, because it has often been at least two degrees lower during January and February, in other years, without producing any such effects. yA 507 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 95 The most marked and remarkable feature in the meteorology of February was the unusual persistence of the northwest winds. According to the meteorological tables kindly furnished to me by Mr. T. G. Gosling, of Hamilton, northwest winds are recorded forty-two times in February, 1901, as contrasted with nineteen times in 1900. They were continuous for four days, from the 5th to the 9th, and again six days, from the 13th to the 19th. North and north- east winds were also frequent. These northerly winds were usually accompanied by a fall of six to nine degrees in the temperature of the air, as contrasted with southerly and southwesterly winds. That these persistent northerly winds caused currents of cold northern waters to impinge upon the shores of the Bermudas can scarcely be doubted. Moreover they might easily have caused an upward flow of the cold waters that rest against the submerged slopes of the islands at the depths of forty-five to sixty fathoms and more, for the surface currents, set in motion by the long-continued northerly winds, would inevitably also cause an upward flow of the colder waters of the submerged slopes, as I have many years ago proved to be the case on our own coast. By these combined effects, it is easy to understand how the body of shallow warm waters around the Bermudas could quickly have been cooled sufficiently to kill the more sensitive species of tropical fishes. These would naturally be those that habitually live in shallow water and among the sheltered places near the shores, where the water is usually warmest. I was told by elderly and intelligent persons, who have always lived in Bermuda, that no such instance of the death of fishes in large numbers had occurred there within fifty to sixty years, or so far back as they could recollect. Nor can I find any record of any similar event in the early annals of Bermuda. Several instances of the death of vast numbers of fishes on the Gulf Coast of the southern United States, and especially on the west coast of Florida, are on record. The actual causes of the fatal- ities in that region are not fully known. In view of the instance recorded above, and the famous case of the death of the tile-fishes, etc., beneath the inner edge of the Gulf Stream, in 1882, it is not improbable that the Florida cases were also due to periods of unusually low temperature, acting upon tropical fishes that were living at or near their extreme northern ranges. Thus a slight fall in the temperature of the water, below their critical point, might have been sufficient to kill them, as in the case at Bermuda and in that of the tile-fish. 96 A, EF. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 508 Comparative Tables of Daily Observations for February and March, 1900 and 1901. I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. T. G. Gosling, of Hamilton, for the following tables, which throw considerable light on the con- dition of the temperature and winds just before and at the time of the mortality of the fishes in 1901, as compared with similar tables in 1900. It will be seen that the averages are decidedly lower in 1901. But evidently the most significant point is the great pre- dominance of Northwest winds in 1901, for there are 42 cases, as against 19 in 1900. Such winds not only cause a fall of temperature in the air, but they bring in currents of cold water from the north- ward, and from deep water, if long continued, as they were in Feb- ruary, 1901. The observations were made at 10 A.m.; 12 M.; and 3 P.M. | Frepruary, 1900. Fesruary, 1901. Air; Wind ; Air; Wind ; Day. || Temperature. Direction. Temperature. . Direction. Hours || 10 | 12 | 3 10 12 3 10 | 12) 8 10 12 3 1 ON | OF | OL | We W. | W. 66 | 66 | 64 ||N.W.| N.W.| N.W. 2 66 | 66 | 66 | N.W.| N.W. | N.W. 3 || 63 | 638 | 63 | N.W.| N.W. | N.W. 4 | || 62 | 62 | 62 || N.W.| S.W. | S.-W. 5 66 | 67 | 67 | S.W. | S.W. | S.W. |) 64 | 64 | 63 || N.W.| N.W.| N.W. 6 67 | 68 | 68 | N.H. | EH. E. 60 | 6f | 61 || N.W.|N.W. | N.W. u 67 | 68 | 68 | N.W.| N.W.!| N.W.|| 59 | 59 | 61 || N.W.| N.W.| N.W. 8 || 6 | 66) 65] N. N. N 61 | 62 | 62 ||N.W.|N.W.| N.W. 9 66 | 68 | 68 | N N. N 63 | 63 ) 63 || N.E. | N.E. ; Calm. 10 || 66 | 66 | 66 | N.E. | N.E. | N.E 11 63 | 63 | 62 || N.W.| N.W. | N.W. 12 || 68 | 70) 70) N. N. N. 60 | 60 | GO |;Calm.|} W. W. 13 || 68 | 69 | 69; E. | S.E. | S.E, |] 58 | 58 | 57 N. |N.W. | N.W. 14 I 68 | 68 | 68 | S.W. | S.W. | S.W. || 58 | 58 | 57 || N.W.| N.W. | N.W. 15 || 67 | 67 | 67 |Calm.|Calm.| S.E. || 60 | 61 | 62 || N.W.| N.W. | N.W. 16 Oe OA GS |S), S. |S.W. || 61 | 63 | 64 || N.W.| N.W. | N.W. LG GO Fie) Sa Mc Sb Wo |) Spe 18 | | 65 | 67 | 68 ||N.W. | N.W.|N.W. 19 || 65 | 64 | 63 |N.W.)N.W. | N.W.|| 66 | 67 | 66 N. Se | Sie 20 62 | 62 | 61 |N.W.|N.W.| N.W.|| 65 | 65 | 65 || N.W.| S.W. | W. PAL NW) OB GHE | Oe Tay EH. | S.E. || 62 | 62°) 61 || N.W.|N.W.| W. 22 || 64 | 64 | 64] S. SE eee ss3 64 | 64 || W. W. W. ZN OR OR OR |e ANY W. | S.W. || 63 | 65 | 67 N N. S. 24 || 66 | 66 | 67 | W. W. Ww. 25 | 64 | 64 | 64 || N.W.|N.W.|N.W. 26 64 | 65 | 65 |N.W.|N.W.}N.W.]| 65 | 68 | 68 || S.E. | S.E. | S.W. 2 660966 1) 63) NI W.|)) NaN 66 | 66 | 66 ||S.W.|S.W. | W. 28 || 60 | 60 | 58 | N.E. | N.E. | NE. |] 64 | 65 | 64 || N.W.|N.W. | N.W. Mean | 65.7! 66.1’ 66.0 62.5 63.2! 63.1 509 A. BE. Verril—The Bermuda Islands. 97 | Marcu, 1900. Marca, 1901. | Air; Wind; | Air; {| Wind ; Day. | Temperature. Direction. | Temperature. | Direction. Hours || 10 | 12) 3 | 10 | 12 Se pull OE] 12s Bin eA Oa nate 3 i Gi nGsunG4e | Sees) Soest Sa 6 | 62-| 62° No NG oN: 2 || 66 | 67 | 67 |S.W.| W. | W. || 63 | 63 | 63 || SE. | SE. | SE 3 || 66 | 67 | 67 |N.W.|N.W.|N.W. || | Am | 67 268") 68) || S.E. | StE: |iS.Er 5 || 65 | 66 | 66 | N.E.| N.E.| N.E. || 67 | 69 | 69 || SE. | S.B. | 8. 6 || 64/65/65) N..| N.-| N. || 67 | 68 | 67 ||S.W.|S.W. | S.w. 7 || 66 | 67 | 67 | S. |S.W.|S.W. || 63 | 63 | 63 || N.E.| N. | N, 8 || 67 |68| 69) W. | Ww. | Ww. || 61 | 61/61 /| N. | N. | N. on ll'6e 6z| 68 S.E. | S. |S.W. || 61 | 62 | 65 || SE. | SE. |S. HOMAGE GT 67 I S.Ee ) SRS |) Sim. || 11 | Gat Gu le6i iit S. Se Sawe 12 || 64164/64/ S. |S.W.|S.W.!! 66 | 68 | 69 | W. | W. |N.W. 13. || 58 | 58 | 59 |N.W.| N.W.|N.W.|] 65 | 66 | 68 || N.W.| N.W.| W. 14 || 62 | 63 | 64) W. | W. | W. || 65 | 68 | 68 || S.W.|S.W. | SW. 15 || 64 | 67 | 68 |S.W.|S.W.|S.W. || 68 | 69 | 69 || S.W. | S.W. | S.W. 16 || 67 | 68 | 68 |S.W. | S.W. | S.W. || 66 | 65 | 64 || S.W. |N.W.| W. 17 || 68 | 68 | 68 !S.W. |S.W.|S.W. || 18 | | | 62 | 62 | 62 || N.W.| N.W.|N.W. 19 || 66 | 67 | 67 | S.E. | S.E. | S.E. |) 683 | 65 | 65 || N.W.| W. | N.W. 20) || 66) 67 | 68 | Sm. | SE. | S. || 65 | 67 | 68 || N.E.| E. | S.E. 21 || 68 | 69 | 69 |S Ww.|S.W.| W. || 66 | 68 | 69 || S.E. | S.E. | S.E. 22 || 683 | 63 | 68 | N.W.|N.W.|N.W. | 66 | 66 | 67 || S. S. |S.w. 23 || 64/65 165 | N. | N. | N. || 64 | 66 | 67 ||N.W.|N.W.| N.E. 24 || 64 | G6 | 66 | S.W. | S.W. ee | 25 65 | 68 | 68 |/Calm.| S.W. | S.W. 26 || 67 | 68 | 68 | S.W. | S.W. | S.W. || 67 | 68 | 69 || S.W. | S.W. | S.W. 97 || 68 | 68 | 68 |N.W.|N.W.|N.W. || 67 | 69 | 70 | S.W. | S.W. | S.W. 28 || 69 | 69 | 69 |S.W.| W. |S.W. || 66 | 67 | 67 | N.W.| N.W. | N.W. 29 || 65|65|64| N. | N. | N. |] 64 | 65 | 64 || N.W.|N.W.| NW. 30 || 65 | 66 | 66 | S.E. | S.E. | S.E. 63 | 64 | 64 | N.W.| N.W.|N.W. 31 || 67 | 69 | 69 |S.w.| W. | Ww. || Mean || 65.3! 66.21 66.4 || 64.7| 65.8165.9 Comparative tables showing the number of times that the wind was observed in certain directions, in February and March, 1900 and 1901. Direction of Wind ; Number of Times Observed. S.W. W. N.W. Calm. Month. February, 1900_-_- February, 1901---- March, 1900 March, 1901 N. 11 5 N.E. E. S.H. S. a FP wo or 11 8 i 8 26 12 22 4 19 42 12 19 9 ~ 2 98 A. EH. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 510 20.—Harthquakes. Very few instances of earthquake shocks are on record as noticed in Bermuda, and those few that have been recorded were slight and did no damage. One occurred June 25, 1664 (old style). The following is from the Records of the Port Royal Parish : “upon the 25th day of June Anno 1664 being the Sabbath day, at 9 of the Clock of the forenoon, there was a great and fearfull Earth- quake which did shake churches and Houses, yea and the hearts of men too.” Another is recorded Feb. 19, 1801. In February, 1843, there was also a light shock of an earthquake, doing no damage. 21.—Health and Diseases; Longevity; Historical Epidemics ; Mosquitoes. -Aside from the several former invasions of foreign contagious dis- eases and the local epidemics of typhoid fever, the Bermudas have always been unusually healthful, and the native people have been noted for their longevity. The alleged longevity of some of the inhabitants was made a special subject of inquiry by the Royal Soci- ety of London, in the questions addressed to Richard Norwood, in 1664. Perhaps the natural stamina of many of the earliest families who settled there has had much to do with the longevity. Mr. Richard Stafford, in replying to some of these questions, wrote as follows : “As to the Age of our Inhabitants here, some do live to an hundred years and upwards; many live till they are nigh a hundred, but few above: And when they dye, ’tis age and weakness, that is the cause, and not any disease that attends them. The general dis- temper that is yearly amongst us, is a Cold ; and that is most gotten in the hottest weather. The Air here is very sweet and pleasant. Our Diet is but ordinary, and the People generally poor, and I observe, that poor People are most healthful.” (Trans. Royal Soc., ui, p. 792, Oct., 1668.) That the climate was very healthful for the English settlers, was recognized from the earliest times. Thus the Rev. Mr. Hughes, writing in 1615, says: “Young children doe thrive and grow up exceeding well: the climate is so temperate and agreeable to our English constitutions.” He also mentioned, in 1621, that not one of the original 60 colo- nists, who went there in 1612, had died of disease, though one had been accidentally killed by the bursting of a cannon. Yet there had 511 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 99 been, in at least three of those years, great scarcity of food and more or less famine, when large numbers of the most worthless of the vicious people sent out in 1613 had died miserably. (See ch. 23, d.) The ordinary diseases are essentially similar to those in the eastern United States. Malaria is said to be unknown in the Bermudas, and it is not yet known whether the malaria-carrying mosquito (Anopheles) occurs there or not, though certain species of Cudex are sufficiently abundant in summer.* But typhoid fever is not uncommon. Dr. Christopher Harvey, Staff-surgeon of the Royal Navy, writing in 1890 (British Medical Journal for 1890, pt. 1, p. 1172), says that “the records of the Naval Hospital indisputably prove that remit- tent fever does not occur in the islands,” and that of all cases of intermittent fever, not one was contracted on the islands. In former years there have been several very severe epidemics of yellow fever, introduced from the West Indies, and first appearing among the sailors and soldiers. It is probable, therefore, that the small mosquito that is believed to convey the yellow fever microbe is either native of the Bermudas, or else it was introduced there at each time ot the epidemics, which could easily have happened. Once there, the abundant open cisterns of rain water would have afforded it ideal places for breeding and propagating the disease. It would be of great importance to the inhabitants if they could be induced to take intelligent pains to suppress the mosquito nuisance. Much could be done by more thoroughly covering the openings of their cisterns, using wire gauze over the necessary openings; by introducing gold fishes or other small carnivorous fishes to devour the larvee in cisterns or other bodies of water that cannot be drained off, or that are used for cattle ; and by the use of kerosene or other coal oils on the surface of brackish pools, not used for cattle, where it could do no harm, but would effectually destroy the mosquito larvee, if applied every fortnight, during the mosquito season. Many of the small, stagnant, and brackish pools and bogs should be filled up, for some mosquitoes prefer brackish waters for breeding purposes. In the spring months, when we were there, mosquitoes were not common, but they are said to be very troublesome in summer, which *Mr. F. V. Theobald, in his extensive Monograph of the Culicide of the World, recently published by the British Museum, records no other genus of mosquitoes from Bermuda, except Culex. He had examined a lot of 59 speci- mens sent by Governor Barker, in 1897 (coll. 21, vol. ii, p. 358). He did not determine the species; probably the specimens were too poor. 100 A. H. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 512 could hardly be otherwise, while they have so many ideal places to breed in, The open rain-water cisterns alone are sufficient to supply millions. In case of new epidemics of yellow fever or other similar contagious diseases, it would be of paramount importance to reduce the numbers of both mosquitoes and flies to a minimum. An epidemic of yellow fever occurred in 1819, which is, perhaps, the first one that can be identified with certainty. The disease was doubtless brought from the West Indies on a vessel. A terrible epidemic of yellow fever prevailed in 1843. It appeared first among the troops and convicts in the barracks and prisons at Ireland Island, where the conditions were unsanitary, but just how it first arrived there, I have not seen recorded. It soon spread to Hamilton and over the islands generally, and large numbers of per- sons died. Governor Reid was very ill, but recovered. One of the worst epidemics of yellow fever occurred in 1852 and 1853. Although it was most fatal among the sailors, soldiers, and convicts at St. George’s and Ireland Island, it spread widely among all classes of people. Two acting governors, Phillpotts and Robe, died of it, within a week. Of the 1600 convicts then employed on the public works, 152 died of the fever. Another severe epidemic, which occurred in 1864, was thought to have been brought in by some of the blockade-running vessels of that period. In the early history of the islands numerous epidemics of conta- gious diseases are referred to very briefly, or incidentally, but usually as brought in by the vessels. We know nothing about some of these except by the references to them in the proclamations for days of fasting and prayer to cure them, which are preserved. In those days such diseases were believed to be direct punishments inflicted on the people “by the hand of God,” on account of their sins of various kinds. There is mention of but one physician on the islands for many years; Mr. Walter, a “chirurgeon,” was sent out in 1616; the second, Wm. Plumsted, is mentioned in 1627. Most of the epidemics that are mentioned, up to 1664, were prob- ably the bubonic plague, though descriptions rarely occur. But as the vessels that brought the infection sailed from London and vari- ous European ports, where the plague then prevailed, this was the disease most likely to have been carried in them.* * At that time ‘‘the plague” was very prevalent in Europe. In 1609, the second great London plague occurred, when 11,785 persons died in London alone; in 1620, it prevailed especially in Holland and Germany; in 1625, 35,417 died in London; it continued in England till 1664, and in other parts of Europe much longer. 513 A. BE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 101 Capt. John Smith and Governor Butler both state that when a small vessel, the “‘ Garland,” of 45 tons, arrived in November, 1619, after a voyage of seventeen weeks, many passengers and sailors had died, and most of those remaining were ill. Most likely this illness was bubonic plague. Governor Butler relates that in August, 1620, the magazine ship “‘ Joseph” arrived with a very large number of sick persons on board; many had died, and the crew were so ill and feeble that they were barely able to bring the vessel into port. Twenty to thirty of the passengers and crew had died and been thrown overboard, and others died after they were landed. No quarantine was practised in those days, and scarcely any precautions were used, though the dis- ease was known to be infectious. Governor Butler considered it the genuine plague. He gave the following account of it:— “Truly ther could be noe other judgement or censure passed upon this infectious disease than that it was the plaine plague, the purple marcks being plentifully discerned upon many of them. And with- out doubt, had it bin almost in any other place, it would have enlarged itself to a dangerous desolation ; but the exceedinge excel- lent salubritie of the ayre surmounted all thes dangers and difficul- ties, and in a fewe weekes became such a conquerour as this dreadfull infection wholy ceased, and the former wonted health of the Ilands was fully recovered.” In this connection he also mentions that “in shypeing times” dis- eases had many times been brought into the islands and “thus recouvered.””* He relates that in consequence of his boats being employed in taking the sick ones ashore, some of the crews and others took the disease, and also mentions that many of the laborers sent out by the company were of the lowest classes, ten of the men having been taken from Newgate prison and some of the women from Bridewell, and intimates that the infection was thought to be due to this class of persons. But the wonder is that every vessel was not infected in those pestilent years, for we read of no disinfecting or fumigations. The fact that the houses in Bermuda were, at that time, all made of palmetto leaves, and that the people lived largely in the open air, and very plainly, will account for the speedy arrest of the disease. In Sept., 1621, the “Joseph” again arrived with many sick * Although a pious man, there is no record that Governor Butler ever issued a proclamation for fasting and prayer against the spread of the infection. He seems to have been in advance of his time in respect to the cause and cure of infectious diseases. May, 1902. co co TRANS. Conn. Acapb., Vou. XI. 102 A. FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 514 persons on board, probably with the same disease. Her captain and many passengers had died. She encountered a storm close by the islands, so that it was eight days before she entered the harbor. In this same storm a large Spanish vessel was wrecked on the | western reef, but no lives were lost, though they had to abandon. their ship about ten miles from land, and many of the passengers came ashore on a raft, at Mangrove Bay. This wreck and the recovering of goods and ordnance led to considerable excitement here, and subsequent investigation in London. But the officers and men testified that they were treated with great kindness by the governor. It is recorded by Governor Butler, that the magazine ship “ James” arrived at the Bermudas the last of October, 1621, also in avery sickly condition. The master had died, as well as some of the passengers* and crew. Wecan scarcely doubt that this infection was also the bubonic plague. * In this vessel were sent out two Indian maidens, who were sent to Bermuda in order that they might find white husbands, as was officially stated. These maidens were two of the three companions who accompanied Pocahontas to Eng- land in 1616. They were daughters of Indian chiefs. One had died in England, of consumption, in 1620; another died on the plague-infected ship in which she sailed for Bermuda. Pocahontas herself had died in England and was buried March 21, 1617, according to the parish register at Gravesend. Governor Butler mentions this event as follows : “Ther wer also two Virginian virgins (one wherof died by the way at sea) shypped by the Virginia Company, and very well supplied by them, who wer by that Company recommended unto the Gouvernour, as being not only one of the Company, but a sworne counsellor in that plantation, that by his care and anthoritie honest English husbands might ther be provided for them (a harder task in this place than they wer aware of), who together, after some staye in the Tlands, might be transported home to their sauvage parents in Virginia (who wer ther no lesse than petie kinges), and so be happely a meanes of their conversion.” The only remaining Indian maiden, according to Governor Butler, was well married about April, 1622, at Bermuda, as had been recommended by the Gover- nor of the Virginia Company. ‘‘She being then married to as fitt and agreeable an husband as the place would afford, and the weddinge feast kept at the towne, in the Governour’s newe house, and at his charge.” The wedding was celebrated by a great feast, and in order to further increase the friendship between her people, the Indians, and the Virginia settlers, the Governor wrote letters of advice to the Governor of Virginia and ‘‘ Caused the mayde herself likewise to do as much to her brother, who, by her father’s late death, had succeeded in all his royalties and commande.” Governor Butler did not mention the name of the maiden, nor that of her husband. Nor does he refer to her subsequent history. This marriage took place during the visit of a vessel that came from Virginia for provisions in March, 1621, and remained five weeks. 515 A, EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 103 In a proclamation for a period of fasting and prayer, to be observed every Sunday during Lent, issued by Governor John Harrison, Jan. 29, 1623, he referred to the threatened war with Spain; to a recent famine ; and to a pestilence, then prevailing, in which both the late Governor (John Bernard) and his wife had both died and been buried in one day. Governor Bernard had died only six weeks after his arrival in the islands. He stated that the only means of overcoming the disease was by fasting and prayer, which was the current belief at that time, and for long after, but although this treatment did not prove very effectual, it undoubtedly did much good indirectly, by allaying the fear and calming the minds of the afflicted people. The following proclamation was issued by Governor Fflorentius Seymer (or Seymour) and refers to an epidemic of some importance. It was probably the bubonic plague, which was very prevalent in London, in 1663 and 1664. “ By the Governor, A Proclamation, May 7, 1664.” ““ Whereas the afflicting hand of the Almighty hath bin justly, as well as lately, stretched out against us and most of our ffamilies by sickness and distemper of bodie, which is not yet wholie abated. And I, haveing very lately received Christian premonition from our reverend Ministers, for the averting & absolute remoeving (if the Lord shall soe please) thereof. By appointing and setting apart a daie of Humiliation (the sovaraigne remedy for cureing any Epi- demicall sicknes & distemper). These are therefore (in discharge of my dutie, and in psuance of their desires therein) to Will and require all, and all manner of Inhabitants of these Islands, to repayre to the respective Churches whereatt the severall Ministers shall think fitt to appoint ; there to meete uppon Thursday the 12th of this instant Moneth, then and there duly and humblie to attend with them the worke of that day, more especially at the Church and in the tyme of meeting aforesaid. Whereof all manner of persons are hereby in his Maiesties name charged and Comanded to take notice and to yeald a redie observation of the day and duty as aforesaid, (intended & sett apart for the glory of our Maker, and our spirituall and temporall good,) as they will answer the contrary at their perills. And wholly to refrayne from all manner of bodilie labor and superfluous acting, speaking, or doeing that whole day.” Given under my hand the 7th of May, 1664 Fflor. Seymer.” 104 A, EE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 516 Small pox was often epidemic in the islands, before the introduc- tion of vaccination, and often proved very fatal. In the Royal Gazette for Nov. 27, 1784, (founded Jan. 17, 1784) Dr. Dalzill of Somerset advertises to vaccinate ‘Whites and Blacks, to pay each $7.00, and find all necessaries.” But this was,~ perhaps, vaccination with small pox virus, not with kine pox. The regular vaccination with kine pox was certainly introduced in 1804 ; but a fatal epidemic of small pox occurred in 1829, when it became so alarming that Governor Popple dispatched two war vessels in quest of vaccine matter. One went to Halifax and one to the Bahamas. In 1818 and 1819, there was a bad epidemic, said to have been of yellow fever, that spread all over the islands. In 1779 and 1780 there was a fatal epidemic of “jail fever,” (probably typhus fever) that origmated among the American pris- oners of war, who were crowded into the miserable, foul, and ill-ven- tilated prison, which was described as little better than the “ black hole of Calcutta.” It seems almost incredible, at this time, that English officers and governors could have been so brutal and desti- tute of the ordinary feelings of humanity as many of those of that comparatively modern period proved themselves to have been.* Probably that brutal “type” is not extinct, either in England or elsewhere, but only held in check by public opinion. But this pes- tilence spread beyond the prisons and over the islands generally, affecting the innocent and guilty alike. It may have been typhoid fever. An epidemic of typhoid fever among the soldiers in 1868 1s recorded in the British Medical Journal, p. 474, 1868. Doctor Harvey, in the same work (1890, pt. li, pp. 1172-3), has shown that the principal endemic fever of the Bermudas, as proved by the records of the post mortem examinations in the Naval Hos- pital, continued since 1811, has been typhoid fever, and that it has prevailed more or less every summer and autumn since 1811, and doubtless at least as far back as 1780. But in former times, and up to 1862, it was generally mistaken for typhus fever or remittent fever. He attributes it to the local unsanitary condition of many of the houses and out-buildings, and the use of water from polluted wells “at the grog shops and other native houses” by the sailors and soldiers, when the cisterns fail in summer. *English historians have found the official reports made at the time, regard- ing the condition of this prison, ‘‘ too disgusting for publication.” 517 A, EF. Verrili—The Bermuda Islands. 105 At present, the use of drinking water from wells is prohibited, except after official inspection. But from what is now known of the modes of diffusion of this disease, it is probable that the abun- dant house flies convey it, in many cases, directly from infected excreta to human food and drink, for which the conditions are there generally favorable. He considers that the epidemic of a fatal fever m 1849, which affected the natives in large numbers, but not the soldiers, was typhoid fever, the purer water supplied to the soldiers causing their immunity. But previous to that, nearly one-half the total deaths in the Naval Hospital; for a series of years, was due to this disease. In recent years, since the nature and sources of the disease have become better known, it has very much decreased. 22,.—Principal Productions and Exports, historically treated. a.—Ambergris, Lumber, ish, ete. The first article of export from the Bermudas was the large mass of ambergris found there by the three pioneers, in 1610. The amount is variously stated from 80 to 180 pounds, and its value from $14,000 to $32,000.* Governor Butler put it at nine score pounds, valued at about £5,000 sterling, which was certainly too low for that weight. He intimated that it was not all turned over to the Company, and that the captain of the ship and a Mr. Kendall, an adventurer, both of whom had been engaged with the finders ina conspiracy to retain it all, had each embezzled a portion of it.t There * In the commission given to Governor Moore in 1612, he was instructed to pay the finder of ambergris 138 47 per ounce. Governor Butler records the recovery of 28°4 ounces in his time, for which he paid one-half the value to the finders, at the rate of £3 per troy ounce, their share amounting to £43. 68. 3°. and his own to £4. 15, according to the rules of the Company. In the ‘‘ Orders and Constitutions,” adopted in 1622, No. 124, one-fifth of any ambergris found was reserved to the Company, the rest to be divided equally between the finder and the owner of the land where found, except 3° 4° per ounce, which the governor was to receive. At this time it was considered worth about £3 sterling per troy ounce, but the quality and prices varied somewhat. According to an attestation of Edward Walker, April, 1626, 1914 ounces of ambergris belonging to Capt. Robert Folgate were sold by him for 50 pounds sterling. (See ch. 26, c.) + Capt. John Smith gave its weight as four-score pounds. But probably Governor Butler was a better authority, for Christopher Carter, one of the finders of it, was living at Bermuda, in his time, and probably many others who had seen it were known to him ; the interval was but seven years. 106 A. BH. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 518 is also a hint about other frauds connected with it, in speaking of Mr. Christopher Carter, the one of the finders who confessed it. (See Part III, ch. 26, ¢.) But although ambergris was repeatedly found there, it was never again found in large amounts. This first shipment, however, had- much to do with the rapid settlement of the islands. Cedar lumber, in various forms, was the next article shipped. Ayn entire cargo was shipped to London in 1616, and from that time on, for more than a hundred years, much of it was constantly exported, though during most of that time its exportation was forbidden, except in the form of chests to hold tobacco, oranges, ete., unless by a special license. The chests were made very large and of thick planks, so that the lumber could be sold in London at a good price, for the cedar wood had then a high value for ornamental furniture. It cost 2° 64 to 3° per foot to saw it into planks by hand in Bermuda, which must have made its price high in London. Had the Company allowed its shipment in logs or squared timber, no doubt the islands would soon have been entirely stripped. (See Part III, ch. 26, 4, under Bermuda Cedar.) Yellow-wood timber was also shipped, so long as it lasted, but it was probably nearly extinct as early as 1650. (See Part III, ch. 26.) Cargoes of limestone, to burn for lime, were sometimes shipped to Virginia, in early times, and bricks were received in return. From about 1622, Indian corn, potatoes, beef, pork, honey, wax, and salted fish (mostly groupers) were shipped in considerable quan- tities to the West Indies, and sometimes to the American Colonies. From 1630, oranges and lemons were also shipped to London, Vir- ginia, and New England, more or less. But most of this trade with the other colonies was forbidden by the Company and therefore it was often done secretly. Freedom to trade with other colonies in cattle, hogs, fruit, and other provisions was first allowed by the Company in 1644, probably in consequence of the Dutch war, and the danger of losing their own’ vessels. But trading in tobacco was again strictly forbidden, under all circumstances. b.— Tobacco ; Salt. During the first seventy years of the colony, tobacco was the principal commodity exported. At first it was very profitable, but its price, which was 2° 6° per pound in 1620-25, soon declined to such an extent, about 1627, owing partly to the better Virginia tobacco competing with it, that it was not remunerative, and often 519 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 107 would not bring enough to pay the freight and duties, which were very high. Freight was sometimes as high as 24 to 3° per pound, about 1620-25 ; in 1670, it was, on the magazine ships, three farthings per pound, or if in cedar chests or casks, it was 1¢ per pound, with “the weight of the chests allowed.” This was seven or eight times the modern rates by sailing vessels. The Company derived income from the freight; from a special private impost usually of 1° to 2° per pound; from the profit on household goods and liquors sent out; from their share of tobacco raised ; from vessels seized and condemned ; and from whale-oil, ete. The tobacco was made a monopoly in 1623, and it could be imported into England only from Bermuda and Virginia, except a definite limited amount from the West Indies. At first the King received 12¢ duty per pound ; about 1623 it was reduced to 9%; still later, in 1628, to 6%, and still less subsequently. But the Company, after 1658, imposed an additional duty, for them- selves, of 1° to 2° per pound, in addition to their exorbitant freight charges and large levies made in Bermuda for public expenses. The following extract from a letter sent by Mr. Perient Trott, of London, to his agent in Bermuda, on the tobacco trade, April 15, 1663, shows the condition of the trade at that time:— “‘ Tobacco is a miserable Comodity throut the world, more Burmoo- das in England then will sell this two yeares. I pray take not a roll for me but what is gallant both for cutt & color, as before I writ you, and hope you have don soe, if noe such Tobacco be made take none for mee, let others doe what they will, pray follow my order.” The Bermuda Company was a sort of “‘ Syndicate,” as it would now be called, and did not allow the Bermudians to trade with any other ships, nor to send their tobacco to England on any other vessels, except their own, unless there should be an overplus. Dur- ing the Dutch war, in 1642-44, they sent out no ship in two years, so that the colonists suffered great losses. These restrictions natur- ally led to much illicit traffic and smuggling, in spite of the severe penalties. In such operations the Bermudians soon became very expert and venturesome. It is recorded that two vessels in November and December, 1669, took about 40,000 pounds of “ contraband tobacco” to New England, and numerous other cases are recorded, as well as records of a num- ber of vessels seized and confiscated on account of this traffic. ‘The Bermudians often carried the tobacco far out to sea in small boats and put it aboard of vessels that had cleared. 108 A. FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 520 As much as 200,000 pounds of tobacco was shipped in some of the earlier years. About 1707, its culture was entirely abandoned. In some of the last years of its culture it sold in London for only about 2° and 3° per pound, but this may, perhaps, have been owing to its damaged condition. (See Part II, ch. 23, e, under Tobacco.) In 1623, it was ordered by the Council that the price of a bushel of salt made in the Somer Islands should not exceed one pound of tobacco.* At about that period salt was mentioned as being made at St. George’s and other places, but probably not very largely. It is recorded as made there in 1624 and 1625. It was also made at Crawl Point and other places. But salt was also imported at the same period. Subsequently the Bermudians engaged largely in the manufacture of salt at Turks Island, in the winter, and shipping it to the other colonies. This trade was an important one in the 18th century, for they supplied Virginia, New York, and New England with a large part of their salt, down to the time of the Revolution- ary War and later. During the war this traffic was still kept up secretly to a considerable extent. At that time they had no other means of obtaining necessary provision, etc., except by exchanging salt for them in these colonies. It finally led to disputes with the Bahama government, as to the ownership of the right to make salt there without interference. Eventually the British Government gave the control of Turks Island to the Bahamas, to the great disadvantage of the Bermudians, who had built the works there and enjoyed their rights for a great many years (since 1678) unchallenged, except by foreign enemies. In the official reply of the Company to the government interroga- tions, in 1679, it was stated that no commodities were shipped to England except tobacco and some timber “than which there is nothing else growing or may be produced for shipping”; and that * Bermuda being a small colony, far away from England, and with no trade or commerce allowed elsewhere, it was easy for the grasping persons to make “a corner” in any useful product. So that the Governors or Council often had to interfere and regulate prices of the food and wages by law, and some- times to seize corn that was hoarded for high prices in times of famine to save the lives of those who had no food. + They were attacked and driven away by the Spaniards in 1710. They in turn soon fitted out a privateer, in Bermuda, and drove out the Spaniards. Other quarrels with the Spanish occurred there in subsequent years. The French, from St. Domingo, captured the island in 1764 and destroyed the buildings and works, and took all the people as prisoners to Cape Francois. But the British Government soon caused the French to return the people to the island and pay damages, for there was no war at that time. 521 A, EF. Verril—The Bermuda Islands. 109 the exports to the “‘ Neighbour-Islands are Beef, Pork, Fish, Wax, Honey, Palmetto-hats, Baskets, and Woodden ware. All about the value of six thousand pounds per annum.” They stated that there were about 400 planters; 8,000 men, women, children, and slaves ; about 1,000 white persons able to bear arms. Also that about 50 blacks had been brought in and sold as slaves at about £15 per head during the previous seven years. As to com- merce, they stated that about ten or twelve small vessels came to trade annually from New England, New York, Barbadoes, etc., for provisions, besides eight or ten more touch at the islands ; and there were thirteen or fourteen vessels, of from 20 to 80 tons, belonging to the islands. ~ ¢e—The Whale Fishery; Sharks Oil. The whale fishery was claimed as a royalty by the Bermuda Company, and the colonists were strictly prohibited from taking whales, except with special commissions, and for the Company. Under these circumstances they were not very ambitious to pursue the fishery, though several unsuccessful attempts were made as early as 1617 and 1621. ‘The sperm whale, or “trunk whale” as it was then called, was found there, but was probably never captured in that century. At least Mr. Richard Stafford, in 1668, said that he had never known of one being killed, though he, himself, had killed many whalebone whales. In a few instances dead sperm whales had been found stranded on the reefs, and considerable oil obtained from them. One such case is recorded in June, 1676. The so-called “ Right Whales ” were originally very common in the spring months, breeding in shallow water about the reefs (see ch. 30). But their capture was not systematically undertaken till 1663, when special rules were enacted by the Bermuda Company, and a special stock company was organized for the whale fishery, December, 1663. This effort was not at first a success and resulted in considerable loss to the parties concerned. A writer in the Trans. Royal Society for 1665 (i, p. 11) quotes a correspondent as stating that he had helped to take two old whales and three “cubs” in 1665, and that 16 had been killed in 1666 (ii, p. 132). The largest he claimed was 88 feet long.* In November, 1667, they offered to give those of the natives * From the description that this writer gave it is evident that this was a Hump- Back Whale, with very long flippers and a dorsal fin. Such whales are swifter and harder to kill than true Right Whales. Little account was made of the baleen, which was short, but small quantities were shipped to London. Prob- ably a few Biscay Right Whales were sometimes taken. (See ch. 30.) 110 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 522 who would carry on the fishery one-third of the profits. ~ This resulted in the manufacture of considerable oil, but it also gave rise to great dissatisfaction on the part of the Company, who did not think that they received their share. At this period Norwood stated that they sometimes took two or three whales in a day. In 1671 the whaling company was reorganized, but owing to dis- sensions, the taking of whales was prohibited in 1679. Complaints were frequently made of the illegal taking of whales, but probably no great numbers were ever taken in that way, in early times, for the natives lacked the means of boiling the blubber, except at the established ‘ whale-houses.” The total amount of oil shipped in the 17th century is very uncer- tain, for the amount is only mentioned incidentally in recording the cargoes of certain ships. Probably the business was never very extensive, nor very profitable for the investors. The following entries, though doubtless very incomplete, give some idea of the amount of oi] shipped : The “Elias” of London, August, 1664, carried away 44 hogsheads, or 9 tuns of whale-oil. A ship (Hercules ?), August, 1666, took away 117 hogsheads, or 29 tuns of oil. A vessel not named, August, 1667, carried away 414 tuns of whale- oil. The “Elizabeth and Marie,” June, 1668, took 133 tuns of oil. After 1700 more or less whaling was carried on, generally-in a local way, down to quite recent years, the number of whales con- stantly decreasing. Three whale-houses formerly existed on St. David’s Island; one on Smith’s Island; one on Paget Island; one at Whale Bay; one at Tucker’s Town. Until 1782, licenses were issued by the Governor to those who engaged in the fishery, for which a considerable fee was paid. In 1782, under Governor Brown, the whale fishery was made free to all. Several vessels were built and fitted out for the foreign whale fishery about 1784, by Jennings, Tucker & Co. This business was carried on until interrupted by the war with France in 1793. For the past thirty or forty years very few whales have been taken, though boats are kept in readiness. Sperm Whales are occasionally seen near the islands, but are usually very shy and few are taken. A small one, about 30 feet long, was captured in April, 1901. (See Part III, ch. 30.) 523 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. | ni Large sharks have occasionally been taken, outside the reefs, for their liver oil, from early times down to the present year. The oil was used for lamp-oil, in early times, but is now highly prized as a lubricant. The shark most commonly taken for their oil is called by the fisherman the ‘nurse shark,” but it is probably not the true northern nurse-shark.* It may be the ‘“ Cat-shark” or “Gata,” of which small specimens are not uncommon. d.— Silk, Castor Oil, Olive Oil, etc. In the early history of the Bermudas, many attempts were made to cultivate crops that did not prove successful, for various reasons, but perhaps oftener for the want of a market than for any other cause. Attempts were made very early to raise silk worms, and large numbers of Mulberry trees were planted for this use, about 1630, but the enterprise came to nothing. Governor Reid, about 1839, again tried to introduce silk raising, but without success. Apparently the native laborers are not equal to the constant and faithful care required for this industry. Some silk worms have been raised by individuals in recent years. About 1630, when the price of tobacco had become so low as to be unprofitable, the Company ordered the planting of the Castor-oil plant for its oil, and sent out seed for the purpose. They were planted in 1631-34 in large quantities. That the cultivation of the castor-oil plant was very successful is proved by the following extract from a letter of Governor Roger Wood, to the Company, in 1634 :— ““ Now for your oyle wee have planted and gathered so much seed as it may be lykened to Josephs provision for corne in Egypt, for wee have no place to lay it in, and now we have it wee know not what to doe with it, and before I will put a finger to a presse to make this oyle for 12d the gallon I protest I will plucke up all my trees and burne them. I like well of yor price proposed to sell a bushell as they be gathered from the Trees, the long stalkes takes off the heape of 12d the bushell, and this is so little that men can not live of lesse; but lett those oyle marchants make that good and I will deliver them 50,000 bushells of seed from the Inhabitants of these Islands yearely, * During the time when whales were often taken, large sharks would follow the dead whales that were towed ashore, being attracted by the blood, and some- times they damaged the whales considerably. As an offset, the fishermen used to take the denuded carcasses of the whales outside the reefs and use them for baiting the sharks, spearing those that came around the bait. 112 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 524 for now they will not give a groat a bushell for them, and I believe their mills will stand still if they continue so, yet Mr. Jenour hath bought 1500 bushells for Mr. Gowes cheap enough for such ones, and [he] is my best chapman, who offers me 2s 6d a bushell for cleare seed and 8d a bushell for seed excellently cleared to the white husk ;~ but I heard yesterday Mr. Painter sayth such seed will be worth 12d per bushell by his experiment, who made 22 gallons of oyle in one day, and I think will be able to send home a pipe or a butt or 2 hogs- heads to get the tother £40 of the Compa. w’ch he makes account to have, but he is behoulden to your querne to cleane his seeds, for William will not meddle with that busynesse.” It does not appear from the records that this crop was ever of commercial importance there. The culture of Olives for the oil was many times tried in a small way, and Richard Norwood produced some oil in 1660, and sent it to the Company in London. But the business never succeeded, though large numbers of trees were ordered to be set out. Perhaps the Olive could now be profitably raised for pickling, as in California, if choice varieties should be planted, but it is doubtful if it would make so large returns per acre as the onions. e.—Sugar, Cassava or Tapioca, Wheat, ete. Sugar canes were planted by Somers in 1609, but they were eaten up by the wild hogs. More were planted by Governor Tucker, in 1616. After that time various efforts were made to raise canes for sugar, but it never grew very well, having “uncommonly short joints.” In spite of the unfavorable results of all the early attempts, the Company in 1620 ordered a quantity of canes to be planted on every share of land, and instructed the Governor to see to it that this should be done, which he did, so far as he was able, for suitable places were found to be far from common. But this attempt had no success. Finally, when a small quantity of sugar began to be made, about 1670-75, the Company forbade the use of cedar wood for fuel to boil the juice, and so its manufacture was abandoned. It is probable that enough sugar for domestic use was never made. It is recorded that Capt. John Hubbard made a box of sugar in 1670 and sent it as a present to the Company, for which they returned their thanks and made him a present of an “Anker of Brandy.” But they adhered to their prohibition of the use of cedar for fuel, and passed a more stringent law to the same effect, but with 525 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 113 larger fines, in 1675. The sugar cane is now only occasionally seen in gardens. The cultivation of the Cassava was undertaken about 1619, or earlier, and high hopes were at first entertained of its great useful- ness and profit. Probably the preparation of the cassava required too much trouble and care for the rather indolent natives, for it never became an important crop. It is still cultivated, to some extent, for domestic use on festive occasions, as in making cassava puddings, especially at Christmas time. Cassava roots were among the things sent to Virginia by Governor Butler, in 1621, but probably they were intended for planting. The Taro or Eddoe (Colocasia esculenta), the ‘‘' Tous-les-mois”’ (Canna edulis), and the true Yam (Dioscorea lutea) were probably introduced at an early period from the West Indies, perhaps even in 1616. They have been long cultivated locally, for domestic use ; but none of them have been raised in commercial quantities, though the Tous-les-mois is sometimes sold in the market at St. George’s. Probably either could be largely raised, were the demand sufficient. In 1670, the Company urged the improved culture of “English wheat,” but there is no record of its success at any period.* Attempts had been made in the earlier periods to produce saffron, indigo, madder, grapes, aloes, anise and coriander seeds, and many other minor products, but without any commercial success. (See Part III, chapter 27, for more details.) Sweet potatoes were probably introduced in 1616 and have always been cultivated, to a considerable extent, for domestic use. The amount in 1844 was recorded as 11,269 bushels. There are no records of any considerable amounts having been exported, though probably they may have been quite largely shipped to New England and New York by the local trading vessels, with contraband tobacco, ete., in former times. The amount now raised is about 500,000 pounds annually. J.—Bananas, Pineapples, Oranges, Lemons, ete. Bananas were introduced in 1616 and soon became very abundant. They have formed an important article of food ever since that time, but are now only raised for local consumption, for they cannot com- pete with those from the West Indies and Central America in the * Governor Butler, when enumerating the productions, in 1619, said: ‘‘ Store of corne (I mean Indian corne, for the Christian proves not as yet to be had, by overunkindnesse of the ground runnes all to grasse).” 114 A, EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 526 American markets. In early times they were preserved in different ways and shipped to London to some extent. The present produc- tion is from 10,000 to 12,000 bunches. (See ch. 27.) The Pineapple was also introduced in 1616 and flourished very well for some sixty years. Large quantities were raised, about 1630 to. 1670, and many were shipped to England. But probably the long voyage was not favorable for this trade, at that time. At present they are seldom cultivated. Oranges and Lemons were also introduced before 1617, and flour- ished luxuriantly. They were soon widely cultivated and produced excellent fruit, much of which was exported to London, Virginia, New York, and New England. For a long period, after tobacco ceased to be profitable, oranges formed one of the principal exports to London, and they were sometimes shipped even to Barbadoes. It is recorded that in 1660 a vessel sailed for Barbadoes “ filled up with oranges and potatoes.” There are records of shipments to New England as early as 1636, but especially after 1644, and this trade continued for a long period. Oranges were often shipped in large quantities to London, from 1644 to 1700 and later. The London Company, in 1677, sent a vessel to Bermuda with special orders to take back 400 chests of oranges, and many vessels returning from the West Indies to England used to call there to complete their cargoes with oranges. At some periods (1632, 1671), this trade was nearly destroyed by the Company pro- hibiting the use of cedar lumber for chests in which to ship the oranges. As they had no other material suitable for orange chests, this was nearly equivalent to suppressing the trade altogether, except as it may have been secretly carried on with the colonies. At such times, and later, onions and oranges were sometimes shipped in baskets made of palmetto leaves. Sometimes, as in 1659 and 1673, this oppressive law was so modi- fied as to allow oranges and other native products, except tobacco, to be shipped in cedar chests. But their cultivation greatly declined from 1770 to 1840. . The Bermuda oranges were very highly esteemed, though there is no evidence that any particular trouble was taken to secure choice varieties by grafting, until modern times, as is now universally done in Florida and California. Most of the orange and lemon trees were killed or ruined (about 1855-70) by a disease or blight, which seems to have been caused mainly or entirely by scale-insects, which were neglected and allowed to increase to infinite numbers. 527 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 115 At the present time a few good oranges are raised, on some large estates, for family use, and some are sold for local consumption, but not enough to supply more than a small fraction of the local demand. Most of the trees that I examined were more or less infested with scale insects, but usually were not badly damaged. (See ch. 27.) The number of oranges produced in 1881 was 24,228 dozen ; in 1891, 12,871 dozen ; in 1901, 109 dozen. Of lemons, in 1881, 2,589 dozen ; 1891, 1,125 dozen ; 1901, 264 dozen. Peaches were at one time, especially about fifty to sixty years ago, raised in large quantities, but owing to the ravages of insects, allowed to go on unchecked, and perhaps of fungous diseases also, the trees have nearly all been killed. : g.— Corn or Maize. Indian corn was raised by the three pioneers in 1610-12, and from that time forward it formed, with potatoes, the staple food product of the islands. From 1615 down to 1684, or later, stores of Indian corn were constantly kept in the magazines at the principal forts and elsewhere, for a reserve against scarcity. As much as 300,000 ears were sometimes stored for this purpose, and renewed annually.* It was stated by Governor Butler that Deputy-governor Kendall, in 1616, sold to a pirate vessel 300,000 ears from the King’s Castle, for his own benefit (and the promise of a share in subsequent plun- der, which he did not get). Levies for public purposes were often made in corn, counting the ears, but finally it was found that dis- honest persons cheated by retaining the larger ears and sending away the small or damaged ones, to pay their debts, and so a law was passed in 1623, requiring corn to be reckoned by weight. * The early writers give little information as to the modes of preparation and cooking of the corn. Probably the corn meal was, for a long time, prepared entirely by pounding it in a mortar. In one case the governor complained to the Company that instead of keeping their muskets in good order, the men had converted them into pestles for pounding corn. In connection with the records of the interminable and bitter religious dissen- Sions and persecutions, about 1640 to 1660, a famous ‘‘ Mill” in Pembroke Parish is incidentally mentioned as a place where the dissenters from the established church were wont to meet, for services. This was probably a grist-mill for grinding corn by a windmill. There is a place on Spanish Point still called ‘“‘The Mill,” perhaps the site of the ancient mill, which was thus occupied as an illegal church in 1647 and 1648. The clergyman, Rev. Nathaniel White, was imprisoned in 1648 for ‘‘ continuing the gathering of people at the mill, con- trary to the laws and orders.” He was afterwards’ banished (in 1649) to Eleutheria, but later, was allowed to return. 116 A. EB. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 528 In early times the corn was often badly damaged by “ weevils,” causing great loss.* It was early accidentally discovered that if it were kept with the husks on the ears it was much less liable to be damaged in that way. During the 17th century large amounts of corn were exported to the West Indies, but no definite figures are usually given. It was also sold to vessels touching at the Bermudas for supples. The amount raised in 1900 was 1,301 bushels. h.— Potatoes, Onions, Tomatoes. Potatoes were first raised here in 1613, and soon became very abundant. They were early shipped to the West Indies, Virginia, and New England. In 1620, 20,000 bushels were shipped to Vir- ginia. A large supply was sent to New England in 1636, in a time of scarcity there.t They have always formed a staple article of food in Bermuda, and also one of the most important exports. In modern times the quantity annually shipped to New York has been large, as compared with the amount of land in cultivation. (See table.) According to Governor Lefroy the amount shipped in 1876 was 33,099 barrels or 2,260 tons. General Hastings stated that in 1890-91, 80,000 bushels were shipped, on which the duty was $20,000. The largest crop that I have seen recorded was in 1882, viz: 40,503 barrels, valued at £76,560. ‘The smallest crop in 20 years. was 13,390 barrels, in 1885, valued at £15,091. During this period the crop has generally been between 20,000 and 30,000 barrels. The seed potatoes are all imported into Bermuda from the north- ern United States and the British Provinces. Various early varieties are cultivated, but to be saleable in New York they must be more or less red, like the Early Rose, Garnet, Prolific, etc., otherwise they would not be thought genuine by many.{ They are planted from Oct. 15 to Feb. 15, and mature in 80 to 90 days. * Probably Sitophilus granarius, the grain and corn weevil of Europe and America. (See ch. 87.) + January 8, 1636, the following arrival is recorded: ‘‘The Rebecca arrived in Massachusetts Bay from Bermuda, with thirty thousand weight of potatoes and stores of oranges and limes which are a great relief to our people—but their corn was sold to the West Indies three months before. Potatoes were bought there for two shillings and eight pence the bushell, and sold here for two pence the pound.” t It seems to be popularly believed, in our cities, that the Bermuda potatoes belong to a red variety peculiar to those islands, and some imagine that the color is due to the redness of the soil there. Potato plants, in Bermuda, do not grow just as in the United States, for they form much shorter and less branched roots. Each plant usually produces only 529 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 117% At the present time, and for some years past, the early onions and potatoes have been the principal crops exported. They are now shipped almost entirely to New York, and are always in demand, at a good price, though the import duty is unreasonably high. Owing to the limited amount of fertile land, and its high price, and the expense of labor, intensive farming is the only method that can be profitably employed. The crops must either be such as can be produced in large quantities per acre,* and in two or more crops each year, like the onions and potatoes, or else one that will bring a high price, like the Easter Lily bulbs. The cultivation of onions on a large scale began about 1830; but considerable quantities had been shipped to the West Indies even during the 17th century. In 1832, the crop was 253,000 pounds ; in 1835 it was 478,800 pounds; in 1844, 332,735 pounds. The amount shipped since 1870 has varied considerably. Previous to 1875 it was usually less than 150,000 boxes. Since 1880 it has usually varied from 200,000 to 350,600 ; but in 1899 the amount was 462,701 boxes, valued at £66,252, the largest crop that I have seen recorded. (See table.) General Russell Hastings stated that in 1890-91, the amount paid to the United States, as import duty, on the Bermuda onions, was $104,400, at the rate of 40 cents per bushel. (Garden and Forest, iv, p. 452, 1891.) Such a duty seems outrageously high on food stuffs of such kinds. The soil and climate of Bermuda seem adinir- ably adapted for producing the finest quality of early onions. The variations in the size of the crop are due to several causes. Some seasons are much more favorable than others, though onions are less affected by this cause than many other crops. Sometimes the seed, which is all imported, mostly from Teneriffe and Madeira, has been scarce and not so good as usual. Two varieties are raised, red and white. two or three good tubers, clustered close together on the short roots. Therefore they are planted in drills, and much nearer together than in New England. One barrel of seed potatoes will usually, in good enriched soil, produce from three to six barrels of new potatoes. The United States duty is 25 cents per bushel, which is an unnecessary and exorbitant tax. * The average amount of onions produced per acre here, under the early sys- tem of culture, has been stated at 20,000 pounds. Sometimes the yield was much more in good soils, and in a favorable season. It now varies widely, according to the natural fertility of the soil and the nature and amount of fer- tilizers used. The use of artificial fertilizers for any of the crops is quite modern, but very desirable. Onion seed is planted in carefully prepared seed- ling beds, from September to November. TRANS. Conn. Acap., Vou. XI. 34 May, 1902. 118 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 530 The onions have at times been subject to a serious fungous dis- ease,* which causes great loss. A small insect, the “ Onion Thrips” (Thrips tabaci) frequently causes considerable damage by biting the leaves and causing them to turn yellow. (See ch. 29 and 37.) Tomatoes have been cultivated for a long time, and formerly were exported to New York in large quantities. After 1890, the amount rapidly declined from 28,830 boxes in 1890 to 146 boxes in 1900. This was due partly to competition with the fruit raised in Florida and other southern States, and largely to the high tariff. In 1871, the amount exported was 115,868 boxes, valued at £13,718 ; and in 1876, it reached 154,350 boxes, valued at £12,755, which is the largest crop recorded. Between 1880 and 1890 it varied from 122,160 boxes in 1884 to 11,283 boxes in 1889. The prices rapidly declined at the same time. (See table.) TABLE OF EXPoRTS OF PRopucTs FROM BeRMuDA, 1870-80 anp 1890-1900. Arrowroot. Beets, &c. Onions. Potatoes. Tomatoes. Qnty. | Value. | Pkgs. | Value.| Boxes. | Value. Bris. Value. | Boxes. | Value. | CTP: Ibs. | £ £ £ £ B | 2 1870) 7484) 414 " |106640 19277 |11790 | 9254 | 49245] 5689 | 34884 1871, 32940) 1473 | 81 | 16 |103400/20676 |11549 10958 11586813718 | 46906 1872 34445) 2186 | 151 | 55 |161520/31760 |17948 |17915 |109781/12168 64085 1873) 39573) 1768 | 158 | 94 |124730/30500 [20386 |19667 | 87507) 9432 | 61456 1874 116081 507 | 367 | 145 |156871/48012 19048 |19568 | 80671/11528 74820 1875 39003] 2393 | 846 | 195 |207671/20275 |31116 (26403 | 99775| 93829 58622 1876, 4800 250 1043 | 257 /163590 28457 33099 26102 |15435012755 67901 1877 21485, 1084 | 139 | 162 | 81803 22087 '21004 |21005 | $9429) 9149 | 53573 1878| 16840) 780 /1882 | 295 |17868728090 |29739 14967 113772 5688 | 49820 1879) 21346| 1317 | 789 | 165 |173566/31578 131275 |26785 | 64732) 4862 | 64707 1880, 20624) 1289 /15683| 340 |185531/48553 |27562 20804 | 66975 6048 | 77034 1890, 9213| 613 5180 | 742 |275750 82087 /35714 |84117 | 28830) 2518 |120075 1891) 28050 1626 2514 | 271 |304975'81446 |27576 |27104 | 11438, 814 111264 1892, 10000) 750 1628 | 212 |360842/55027 |26878 |27686 | 5759 282 83957 1893, 35400) 1709 11655 | 206 |[353027/61578 |304864/27788 | 1781 137 | 91418 1894 19880| 1002 | 891 | 111 |177166 45644 20110 |19482 | 2146 190 | 66429 1895, 4547| 227 |1156 | 215 |295269'46048 |27148 |27004 | 1021, 92 | 73586 1896, 8336 484 | 421 | 61 |329477/57437 [22882 |19820 | 456! 38 | 77340 1897 6941, 429 | 438 | 49 |24564584548 20084 118527 | 467 28 |103581 1898 22100, 1212 | 130 | 17 |297346'59737 |213014)18844 | 226) 18 | 79828 1899 22300/ 111 | 67 | 10 [462701 66252 |26800 |24071 | 434 26 | 91470 1900 33350/ 1792 | 67 | 7 [32669748490 [25148 |22914 | 146 11 | 68214 Early beets and some other garden vegetables are now shipped to some extent to New York, but they have to compete with those grown in Florida, South Carolina, etc., with the high tariff in favor of the latter, so that this business is not a promising one, at present. * The onion disease in Bermuda has been discussed by A. E. Shipley, in the Bulletin of the Kew Royal Gardens, October, 1887. No. 10. It causes the leaves to rot at the base. 531 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 119 7.—Arrow-root. Arrow-root was introduced into Bermuda rather more than one hundred years ago, and has been cultivated for commercial purposes for more than eighty years. It is still raised in considerable quanti- ties, but is relatively of much less importance than formerly. From 100 pounds of the root, 15 to 20 pounds of starch are obtained.* The amount produced iv, 1832 was 34,883 pounds ; in 1833, 44,651 pounds ; in 1835, 67,575 pounds. In 1844, the crop of rough arrow-roots was 1,110,502 pounds, yielding about 90 tons of starch for export. During the last thirty years the amount has usually varied between 9,000 to 33,000 pounds, but in 1876 and 1895 it was less than 5,000 pounds; while in 1873 and 1875 it was over 35,000 pounds. In 1900 it was 33,350 pounds, valued at £1,792. The price has been very irregular, and the crop is very exhaustive to the soil. (See table.) j.—faster Lilies, ete. The cultivation of the Easter Lily, for its bulbs, for exportation, was begun about twenty years ago, and soon attained considerable importance. Although this culture still continues, it has very much decreased within the last few years,t owing to the spread of a destructive fungous disease among the bulbs. (See Part III, ch. 27.) . The number of large bulbs suitable for exportation raised in 1890, according to the census, was 2,116,000; those for stock, 4,769,000. The exportation of the leaves of the Cycad or “Sago Palm” (Cycas revoluta) to New York, for decorative purposes, was carried on to a considerable extent, a number of years ago, especially by Mr. G. W. West. Many other vegetable productions have been exported, to some extent, at various times, for a large variety of crops can be grown here, including both those of the temperate and the tropical zones.{ * A modern mill, with machinery for the manufacture of arrow-root, has recently been built at ‘‘ Belle Vue,” near Hamilton, by Mr. W. T. James. Such improvements may lead to a larger cultivation of this crop. + It is said that the remedies now being used by many planters for the disease of the lily, and for the mite with which it is also infested, have been of great benefit, and that the yield is likely to increase. But the past winter, 1901-2, has been very unfavorable for this crop. tI have been unable to find any records of attempts to cultivate certain pro- ducts that have been found profitable in the West Indies, and which might, per- haps, do well in Bermuda. For instance: the cacao-tree (Theobroma), from 120 A. EF. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 532 But a great many kinds of vegetables and fruits are grown here for domestic use only, the quantity often being insufticient to supply the local demand. ‘This is, at present, the case with melons, corn, turnips, lettuce, radishes and other vegetables, as well as oranges, strawberries, bananas, grapes, pawpaws, and all the other fruits raised. The amounts of some of these products raised in 1900 are reported as follows :— Tomatoes! 22 sasha Paes Be als oa 31,730 crates Bananas eae a J 2 eR ee 10,365 bunches ShMBG6 JROURIOS Coos oSac so keo bee sbeo eS 501,700 pounds Turnips and Carrots__---------------- 117,451 pounds Celery, Parsley, Lettuce.--.--.-----.- 18,039 boxes Miscellaneous Vegetables -._._____---- 150,587 pounds Mielomis 2) pie mith eee ARR pepe wy Lina 63,604 Oranges: ee celenen Spooner atria seer) sop 109 dozen Bemons: oie ie eee ete os 264 dozen Other Citrus fruits_...._._..--.------ 178 dozen GREE CS ie) ye ae 1,602 pounds Part IIl.— Changes in the Flora and Fauna due to Man, with a Sketch of the Discovery and Karly History. Modern examples of rapid changes in the flora and fauna of various countries are not lacking, but they have not been sufficiently studied. In nearly all modern instances the advent of man, and especially of civilized man, has been the prime factor in the more marked changes, either directly or indirectly. But as aboriginal man had occupied nearly all countries, even in prehistoric times, it is usually impossible to ascertain the conditions that prevailed before human interference with nature. Therefore in most countries we can only study the influence of civilized man, as following uncivilized and prehistoric man. . Generally the early descriptions of the fauna and flora of countries when first settled by civilized men, even a few hundreds of years ago, like North and South America and the West Indies, are very imper- fect and incomplete, if not misleading, for reliable descriptions seldom date from the earliest settlements. Frequently the earlier changes are the most rapid ones. which chocolate is made. This grows in the West Indies in poor rocky soils where little else will grow, and at elevations up to 1,000 to 1,500 feet, where the climate is relatively cool. In many places it is the most profitable crop that can. be raised. 533 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 121 The Bermuda Islands afford unusually favorable conditions, though on a small scale, for such studies, for at the time when they were first visited by Europeans, in the sixteenth century, they had never been occupied even by aboriginal man. They were discovered a little before 1511. During the next 100 years they were seldom visited, and no good descriptions were pub- lished until 1594 and 1610. We fortunately have, for the latter period, very good accounts of the more important animal and vegetable productions, as they existed before the permanent settle- ment made there in 1612. We also have unusually full records of the remarkable changes that were effected during the next quarter of a century, as well as subsequently. 23.—Sketch of the Discovery and Early History ; Historical Ship- wrecks. The early history of the Bermudas is briefly as follows :—They were discovered by Juan Bermudez, according to Oviedo. Since they are represented on the map of Peter Martyr, in 1511, his dis- covery must have been a little before that time. They were visited in 1515 by Oviedo, but his account indicates that bad weather prevented his landing to leave hogs there, as he intended. At least one or two early shipwrecks, of which we have no details, are recorded shortly after that time. Probably there were many other early ones of which we have no record. The islands were regarded as very dangerous to approach, even at a distance, and as the abode of demons. They were called “Devils Ilands” during that century, and were carefully avoided by all merchant vessels. It is possible that the Spanish government sent other vessels, of which we have no record, to do what Oviedo failed in doing. Probably these islands were visited, during that period, by buc- caneers and pirates, for wood and water, and perhaps for repairs. The hogs may have been secretly put on the islands by such vessels, during that century, in order to furnish a supply of fresh meat, in case of need, for it was a common custom at that time to place hogs, goats, etc., on uninhabited islands. They may have tried to intro- duce goats, also, on these islands, but those introduced later by the English settlers did not thrive there,* though they do at the present time. The wild hogs, however, had become very numerous in 1593. * Probably at that time there were poisonous weeds that they ate, which may now be rare or extinct. Governor Butler suggested later that they ate too much tobacco. 122 A. FE. Vervill— The Bermuda Islands. 534 a.—Shipwreck of the Bonaventura, 1593. The first actual description of the islands was published by Mr. Henry May, in London, 1594. Mr. May was an English sailor, returning from the West Indies, on the “ Bonaventura,” a French privateer. This vessel, through the drunkenness and carelessness of * the officers and crew, as stated by May, was wrecked on the outer reefs of the Bermudas, alongside of the North Rocks, which are detached pinnacles of limestone rock, about 12 feet high, situated about eight miles from the land. The scene of this wreck is engraved on the reverse of the ancient Bermuda seal. (See figure 29.) This wreck occurred at about midnight, December 17th, 1593 (old style). They built a raft, which they towed behind a boat (apparently they had only one boat), and by this means, after rowing all day, 26 of the officers and men were saved, including Mr. May. He was taken on board by the captain, just as they were leaving the vessel, and when he, being an Englishman, little expected it, as he says, “leaving the better half of our company to perish by the sea.” They afterwards recovered some tools, sails, cordage, and provi- sions, so that they were able to build a boat of 18 tons, out of the native cedar wood. In this, at the end of five months, they sailed to the fishing fleet, on the Newfoundland Banks, and by some of those vessels were taken to Europe. . May arrived in Falmouth, Aug. 7, 1593. Mr. May published, next year, an account of his experiences, with a brief, but fairly correct description of the Bermudas and their products. He particularly mentioned the wild hogs that they found there, but which, at that time of the year, they found very lean, for lack of food. The hogs fed largely on palmetto and cedar berries, both of which ripen in the fall and early winter. They found there a great abundance of sea-birds (Cahows and Terns) and lived largely on them and their eggs. The sea-turtles, which were large and abundant, bred there at that time and furnished them with both meat and eggs. Fish were also abundant. The following is his description of their ship-building and furnish- ing :— ‘* Now it pleased God before our ship did split, that we saved our Carpenters tooles, els I thinke we had bene there to this day ; and having recovered the aforesaid tooles, we went roundly about the cutting downe of trees, and in the end built a small barke of some eighteen tons, for the most part with tronnels and very few nailes. As for tackling we made a voyage aboord the ship before she split ; 535 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 18: and cut down her shrouds, and so we tackled our barke, and rigged her. In stead of pitch we made lime, and mixed it with the oyl of tortoises, and as soone as the carpenters had calked, I and another, with ech of us a small sticke in our hands, did plaister the mortar into the seames, and being in April when it was warm and faire weather, we could no sooner lay it on, but it was dry, and as hard as a stone. In this moneth of April, 1594, the weather being very hot, we were afrayed our water should fayle us; and therefore made the more haste away ; and at our departure we were constrayned to make two great chests and calked them, and stowed them on ech side of our mainmaste, and so put in our provision of raine water and thirteen live tortoises for our food, for our voyage which we intended to Newfoundland.” May in his narrative, states that when they went ashore in the night, they supposed they were on the shore of the island, because of the “hie cliffs,” but in the morning they found that they were seven leagues away from it. He also says that after building a raft they towed this ashore “astern of their boat,” and that “ we rowed all the day until an hour or two before night yer we could come on land.” Historians and others have been misled by this statement and have even imagined that they must have been wrecked on some far more distant island which has since been worn away or submerged ; or else that there was more land near the North Rocks. (See Lefroy, Memorials, i, p. 9.) But it is evident that May meant that it was seven leagues as they had to row, for they could not cross the reefs at that point, in the surf, and must have rowed along outside of the reef till they reached the present ship-channel and there entered the bay and landed, probably on St. George’s Island. This would have caused them to row about seven leagues and would doubtless have taken all day with the boat heavily laden and towing a raft astern. On the Norwood map published in 1626,* in the two lower corners * This map was made by a very competent surveyor, Richard Norwood, who resided here many years. His first survey was made between 1615 and 1622. His completed map, dated 1622, and engraved in Amsterdam, was published and for sale in London in 1626; and this seems to be the best edition of it, for the outlines are engraved clearly and with care. Two other editions were published about the same time. He subsequently made another map, finished in 1663, on which every lot of land was located and numbered, (See Lefroy, Memorials, ii, p. 645, reprint of map.) He died in Bermuda, Oct., 1675, aged 84 years, Some of his descend- ants still reside there. 124 A, FB. Verrilli— The Bermuda Islands. 536 are engravings of the seal of the original Bermuda Company. On the reverse side of the seal (fig. 29) there is a view of a wrecked vessel alongside of two high rocks, which are easily recognized as the two main North Rocks. The vessel, with broken masts, stands upright, between the largest rock and a small one that exists to the right, and is therefore concealed by the hull of the vessel. In a = S =) i \ NPY Figure 29.—Facsimile of the reverse of the ancient seal of the Bermuda Com- pany, engraved on the border of Norwood’s map of Bermuda, published in 1626. It shows the wreck of May’s vessel, the ‘‘ Bonaventura,” in 1593, alongside of the North Rocks, which then appeared much as at present. Enlarged 14 times. photographic view (fig. 30) taken in December,.1875, by Mr. Hey], of Bermuda, a man stands where the vessel stood and the two views are apparently from nearly the same point. The two rocks in the old print are represented as nearly equal in height, but now one is decidedly lower than the other. This ancient sketch, imperfect as it naturally is, corresponds remarkably well with the outlines of the rocks, as seen in the photo- graph. (Fig. 30.) This proves that these rocks have undergone but little change in general form since the early settlement of Ber- muda, for this seal was probably engraved as early as 1616-18. 537 A. EK. Verrili—The Bermuda Islands. 12 Or The drawing was very likely made by Mr. Richard Norwood for this purpose, for he was a man of good ability as a draughtsman, and was making his first survey in 1616. The scene evidently com- memorates the wreck of the French vessel, the ‘“ Bonaventura,” on the 17th of Nov., 1593, on board of which was the English seaman, Henry May, who published after his escape to England, in 1594, an account of his experiences. A comparison of several photographs, taken at various times within the past thirty years, shows but little alteration in these North Rocks, but some severe storm may suddenly overthrow them. They are situated near the extreme edge of the outer reefs, about eight miles from the islands, and stand on an extensive patch of flat reef, part of which is laid bare by low tides. (Fig. 30.) They are 8 to 144 . Figure 30.—North Rocks, bearing N. 80° W.; height of highest point 1414 feet, above low-tide. From a photograph taken by Mr. J. B. Heyl, Dec. 27, 1875. feet high and evidently are the remains of an island of considerable height and extent that has been nearly worn away to the sea-level by erosion. The evidence from the ancient seal indicates that the erosion even in this exposed situation has not been rapid, though these rocks seem to have decreased somewhat in height. b.—Shipwreck of the Sea Venture, 1609. But another remarkable shipwreck, which occurred there in 1609, attracted far more attention, and led to the settlement of the islands in 1612. 126 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 538 The “Sea Venture,” a ship of 300 tons, was the flag-ship of a fleet of eight vessels, on its way to the young colony at Jamestown, Virginia, having on board Sir Thomas Gates, governor-elect of Vir- ginia, and Sir George Somers (also written Summers and Sommers), the admiral, with about 150 others. On July 24th (old style), when about 200 leagues from Bermuda, they encountered a terrific hurricane, which caused the ship to spring a bad leak that could not be stopped. For three days and four nights they were driven about helplessly by the storm. All the company worked day and night with three pumps and many buckets to keep the ship from sinking; 100 men working at a time. According to Strachy* the governor and the admiral took their turns at the pumps to encourage the men. The following extracts are from his account of this storm and shipwreck : ““Windes and Seas were so mad, as fury and rage could make them ; for mine owne part, I had ben in some stormes before, as well upon the coast of Barbary and Algeere, in the Levant, and once more distresful in the Adriatique gulfe, in a bottome of Candy. ... Yet all that I had ever suffered gathered together, might not hold comparison with this; there was not a moment in ‘which the sodaine splitting, or instant over-setting of the Shippe was not expected. * Full descriptions of this tempest and wreck were published by Strachy, Jourdan, and others. The narratives of this remarkable storm and shipwreck were published at about the time when Shakespeare was writing his ‘‘Tempest.’ _ The coincidences in many of the details are so striking that it has been thought that he derived some of his ideas from these accounts, and that Bermuda was, in a way, the island described. During the height of the storm the bright elec- tric discharges, called ‘‘ St. Elmo’s Fire,” appeared, gliding about on the masts, . yards, and shrouds for several hours together, during the night, much as described in the ‘‘Tempest.” Strachy described this appearance as follows :— ‘‘During all this time, the heavens look’d so blacke upon us, that it was not possible the elevation of the Pole might be observed: nor a Starre by night, nor — Sun beame by day was to be seene, Onely upon the thursday night Sir George Summers being upon the watch, had an apparition of a little round light, like a faint Starre, trembling, and streaming along with a sparkleing blaze, halfe the height upon the Main Mast, and shooting sometimes from Shroud to Shroud, tempting to settle as it were upon any of the foure Shrouds: and for three or foure houres together, or rather more, halfe the night it kept with us, running sometimes along the Mainyard to the very end, and then returning. At which, Sir George Summers called divers about him, and showed them the same, who observed it with much wonder, and carefulnesse: but upon a sodaine, towards the morning watch, they lost the sight of it, and knew not what way it made.’’ 539 A, E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 127 Howbeit this was not all; it pleased God to bring a greater afflic- tion yet upon us; for in the beginning of the storme we had received likewise a mighty leake. And the Ship in every joint almost, hav- ing spued out her Okam, before we were aware (a casualty more desperate then any other that a Voyage by Sea draweth with it) was growne five foote suddenly deepe with water above her ballast, and we almost drowned within, whilest we sat looking when to perish from above. This imparting no lesse terrour then danger, ranne through the whole Ship with much fright and amazement, startled and turned the bloud, and tooke downe the braves of the most hardy Marriner of them all, insomuch as he that before happily felt not the sorrow of others, now began to sorrow for him- selfe, when he saw such a pond of water so suddenly broken in, and which he knew could not (without present avoiding) but instantly sinke him.” ... “Then men might be seene to labour, I may well say, for life, and the better sort, even our Governour, and Admirall themselves, not refusing their turne, and to spell each the other, to give example to other. The common sort stripped naked, as men in Gallies, the easier both to hold out, and to shrinke from under the salt water, which continually leapt in among them, kept their eyes waking, and their thoughts and hands working, with tyred bodies, and wasted spirits, three dayes and foure nights, destitute of outward comfort, and desperate of any deliverance, testifying how mutually willing they were, yet by labour to keepe each other from drowning, albeit each one drowned whilest he laboured.” . . . “Once, so huge a Sea brake upon the poope and quarter, upon us, as it covered our Shippe from stearne to stemme, like a garment or a vast cloude, it filled her brimme full for a while within, from the hatches up to the sparre decke. This source or confluence of water was so violent as it rusht and carried the Helm-man from the Helme, and wrested the Whipstaffe out of his hand, which so flew from side to side, that when he would have ceased the same againe, it so tossed him from Star-boord to Lar-boord, as it was Gods mercy it had not split him.” .. . “ Our Governour was at this time below at the Capstone, both by his speech and authoritie heartening every man unto his labour. It strooke him from the place where he sate, and groveled him, and all us about him on our faces, beating together with our breaths all thoughts from our bosomes, else, then that wee were now sinking. For my part, I thought her alreadie in the bottome of the Sea; and 128 A, EK. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 540 I have heard him say, wading out of the floud thereof, all his ambi- tion was but to climb above hatches to die in Aperto colo, and in the company of his old friends.” According to Jourdan, Admiral Somers showed great courage and endurance. He says that the admiral descried the land while sitting “‘on the Poope,” “where he sate three days and three nights together, without meales, meate, and little or no sleepe, conning the ship to keep her as upright as he could, for otherwise shee must needes have instantly foundered.” With all that they could do she had nine feet of water in the hold. On the 28th of July, when they had nearly given up in despair, they made the islands of Bermuda and tried to run the ship ashore on a sandy beach that they saw, but fortunately she struck on an outlying reef, which, according to Somers’ own report, in 1610, was a quarter of a mile from the shore. She lodged in an upright posi- tion between two rocks, and was so firmly wedged there that she remained in that position, so that the entire party, including some women and children, were safely taken ashore in the boats. They landed in a “goodly bay,” “upon which our governor did first leape ashore, and therefore called it, as aforesaid, Gates-his- Bay.” This name, Gates’ Bay, does not appear on any modern maps, nor even on the early ones of Norwood, 1622 and 1663. Governor Butler, in his “ Historye,” stated that this was the bay or cove close by Fort Catherine. He was undoubtedly familiar with the details of this shipwreck. Certainly there were, in his time, some of the wrecked company living on the islands, and certain parts of the wreck were still visible. Indeed, in 1622, he recovered from the wreck two pieces of ordnance; one of these, called a “ saker,” not much damaged; also a large sheet anchor, and sundry bars of iron, steel, and lead, all of which the colony much needed, as he stated in his history. But if this cove were the Gates’ Bay referred to, either the modern location of the “Sea Adventure Shoals,” on the Admiralty Chart, is incorrect, or else Sir George Somers much underestimated the distance from the shore,* for the shoals so named are put on the chart at a distance of about one mile from the beach at Fort Catherine, but only half a mile from that of the nearer bay, now called Buildings Bay. If the site of the wreck be correctly located was * Wim. Strachy, in his narrative, stated that the distance was three-quarters of a mile. Silvanus Jourdan, one of the same company, stated that it was “ half an English mile.” The admiral’s estimate would, naturally, be the more correct. 541 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 129 on the chart, the boats would naturally have landed in the latter bay, which was much nearer and more sheltered, for the wind was then off shore, as narrated. But probably, in the long lapse of time, without any sure marks to indicate the spot, the actual place of the shipwreck would have been forgotten.* It may well have been on one of the numerous reefs that lie much nearer to the land, off this shore. No accurate survey of these reefs was made till 1798, or 189 years after the wreck. There are plenty of reefs that would have caught the ship, within about a quarter of a mile of the beach at Fort Catherine. There- fore it seems more probable that Governor Butler was right, as to the landing place, and that the Admiralty Chart is incorrect, as to the location of “Sea Venture Shoals.” Strachy in his narrative, 1610, designated “Furbusher’s Building Bay” and distinguished it from Gates’ Bay. The main ship-channel now runs close by these shoals and reefs, which are well buoyed. This shipwrecked company, according to Somers, numbered 140, but according to Strachy there were about 140 men, “besides women.” The memorial tablet erected by the governor, when they departed, also stated that there were 150 persons. (See p. 543.) As the storm abated the same day, they were able to strip the ship of almost everything that they could use, including the ord- nance, cordage, and some meal, but the bread was all spoiled. Thus, later in the season, they were able to build and equip two small cedar vessels, in which they escaped to Virginia. They remained on the islands nine months. During that time Admiral Somers surveyed and made a map of the reefs and islands. This map was never published and is unknown. One vessel of cedar, 40 feet long and 19 feet beam, and of about 70 tons, was built under the direction of Governor Gates, on St. George’s Island, by Mr. Furbusher (or Frobisher, as some spelled it), who was a master carpenter. According to tradition, it was built at the eastern end of St. George’s Island, in Buildings Bay, and this is probable true. According to the statement made by Wm. Strachy, 1610, it was built in a bay opening to the northwest, so that when the violent winds blew from the “north and by west,” in the winter, it made great seas and came near destroying the vessel, while on the stocks, so that they had to build around * It must be remembered that the detailed history of those times, by Governor Butler, was not published until’recently, and was previously unknown to the Bermudians and others. The same is true of other documents now available. 130 A. KE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 542 a! her a breakwater of “100 loads of stone” to protect her from the seas. As soon as launched they took her unrigged to the lee of a “little round Iland, lying west North-west, and close aboard to the backside of our land,” for shelter, and to be handy to the pits that they had dug to collect fresh water, and also for greater convenience in sailing away. This was probably at the site of St. George’s, for he speaks of this place, as distinguished from their “old quarters,” on the other side of the island. These water-pits are often mentioned by later writers. The “little round island” was probably Ordnance Island, as it is now called, which lies close to the docks of St. George’s, and thus on the “backside” of their island as they were in the habit of viewing it. There can scarcely be a doubt that the bay or cove still called Buildings Bay was the actual place where they built their larger vessel, for a memorial tablet was set up there, which was preserved for many years afterwards. It stated in Latin, that a ship of 70 tons was built at that place, by Mr. Frobisher, in 1610. Moreover, some of the shipwrecked party afterwards settled in Bermuda, so that the local traditions were continuously handed down. This small bay or cove lies open to the north and northeast, so that a strong north or northwest wind would evidently cause large seas to enter it. It seems strange, at first thought, that they did not build it on the harbor side of St. George’s, but we must remember that at first the ‘channels were unknown and the island was densely wooded, and they probably preferred to live on the outer coast, the better to keep a lookout for vessels. It is also stated that they kept great fires continually burning, probably as a signal to any vessel that might approach the islands. Before sailing away Governor Gates erected a memorial tablet and cross, as seems to have been the custom in those days, to indicate a claim on the islands, for his king and country. Strachy described it as follows : “Our Governour set up in Sir George Summers’ Garden a faire Mnemosynon in figure of a Crosse, made of some of the timber of our ruined shippe, which was scrued in with strong and great trun- nels to a mightie Cedar, which grew in the middest of the said Garden, and whose top and upper branches he caused to be lopped, that the violence of the winde and weather might have the lesse power over her. In the middest of the Crosse, our Governour fastened the Picture 543 A. EH. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 131 of his Majestie in a piece of Silver of twelve pence, and on each side of the Crosse, hee set an Inscription graven in Copper, in the Latine and English to this purpose. “In memory of our great Deliverance, both from a mightie storme and leake: we have set up this to the honour of God. It is the spoyle of an English ship of three hundred tunne, called the SEA VENTURE, bound with seven ships more (from which the storme divided us) to Virginia, or Nova Britania, in America. In it were two Knights, Sir Thomas Gates, Knight, Governour of the English Forces and Colonie there: and Sir George Summers, Knight, Admirall of the Seas. Her Captaine was Christopher Newport, Passengers and Mariners, shee had beside (which came all safe to Land) one hundred and fiftie. We were forced to runne her ashore (by reason of her leake) under a Point that bore South-east from the Northerne Point of the Iland, which was discovered first the eight and twentieth of July 1609.” Sir George Somers built a smaller pinnace, 29 feet long and 154 feet beam, of about 30 tons, at a “ Building Bay ” on the Main Island, but the exact site is unknown.* During this period of nine months they had there three mutinies, one murder, one execution, one marriage, and two christenings, besides other notable events. Strachy states that Admiral Somers laid out a garden at Gates’ Bay, close to the shore, and planted various vegetable seeds, which came up, but came to nothing, and that the sugar canes that he planted were eaten by the wild hogs, for he had no fences. The planting was not done at the best season, and the soil may have been poor or too dry; moreover the exposure to northerly and easterly winds and spray might have killed his plants, for they were near the shore.+ They found fishes, birds, and sea-turtles very abundant, as well as * Strachy’s description of Somers’ pinnace is as follows: ‘‘ About the last of Aprill, Sir George Summers launched his Pinnasse, and brought her from his building Bay, in the Mayne Iland, into the Channell where ours did ride, and shee was by the Keele nine and twentie foot: at the Beame fifteene foot and an halfe; at the Loofe fourteene, at the Transam nine, and she was eight foot deepe, and drew sixe foot water, and hee called her the Patience.” This appears to have been the same vessel in which Somers returned to Ber- muda a few months later, and in which his party returned thence to England. + If the wood rats were then present on the islands, as seems probable, they might have destroyed the plants at night, without being observed, as in later years. 132 A. FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 544 wild hogs. They made salt and salted down fishes and birds for their voyage. They also killed large numbers of wild hogs, not only for their immediate use, but they also dried the meat for future use. These provisions, together with living turtles and what meal they had left, they took to Virginia. They had fed upon palmetto berries, prickly pears, cedar berries, and the heads of the palmettoes so largely that considerable meal had been saved. They sailed for Jamestown, May 10th, 1610, and arrived there on the 24th. They found the Virginia colony in a starving condition on account of a famine. Three persons had already died of hunger, and many were ill. Their fortunate arrival with provisions saved the colony from destruction. Soon after, finding that they had rations for only two weeks, the whole colony abandoned the settle- ment and started for Newfoundland for food, June 8th. Lord Dela- ware arriving just at this time, with three vessels and some provi- sions, met them on the way and they returned. The opportune arrival from Bermuda changed materially the course of history for that colony. Had they not arrived just at that time, with provi- sions, the colony must have been abandoned entirely, and perhaps most of the people would have died of starvation. It is not strange that the devout men of that period attributed this remarkable series of events to the direct interposition of Divine Providence. But Admiral Somers and Governor Gates were cer- tainly very able and efficient men, otherwise these events never could have turned out so favorably. Scarcity of food still prevailing at Jamestown, Admiral Somers undertook to return to the Bermudas in his cedar vessel in search of more food, and probably, also, to look after the two men left there and to plant seeds for future increase. He sailed June 20, 1610, according to his own letter, but June 19th according to others. He was accompanied by another vessel, but they were delayed by fogs and storms and the latter returned to Virginia, but Somers kept on. Thus the passage was much prolonged, the admiral became ill from the hardships and exposure, and died at St. George’s, Nov. 9th. His heart was buried there by his request, but his body was taken to England by his disheartened crew, who, contrary to his orders, would not return to Virginia. But they left three men behind on the islands, perhaps to keep nominal possession, and very likely in ‘accordance with final instructions given by Somers, though that is not stated. It is related that Christopher Carter, who had previ- ously been left there by Somers, declared that he would not desert 545 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 13: he) the islands, though all the others should, and that this induced two others to volunteer to stay behind with him.* Very likely he had promised the admiral to stay and take care of his plantation, which there is good reason for supposing he had started immediately after his arrival, perhaps early in July. We find no record of the nature of his illness, beyond the intimation that it was due to exposure, nor of what was done during the four months before he died, though Capt. Smith intimated that Somers was not idle here. c.— The Settlement of the Bermuda Islands in 1612. The Bermuda Company was soon organized in London, and the first ship, the “ Plough,” with Governor Richard Mooret and about 60 colonists, was sent out in May, 1612, arriving there July 11th. On their arrival at Bermuda, Governor Moore and his company found the three men that had been left there, two years before, well and in excellent condition, though destitute of clothes. They had an acre of corn ready to harvest, and other food in abundance, and had built a cedar house and a boat. They were anxious to sail away, however, and had commenced to build a vessel. Probably they doubted if the pinnace had ever reached England ; or if so, whether another would come for them. Perhaps it was partly due to the fact that they had discovered an enormous mass of ambergris, weighing about 180 pounds and worth about $32,000.00, which they naturally wished to secure for themselves, but which the governor very soon took from them. He punished one of them by imprison- ment for three years for trying to conceal it. (See p. 517.) They must have been supplied with seeds and instructions for their cultivation by Admiral Somers, before he died, for their sub- sequent history shows that they were men of no great ability or knowledge. It is stated that he had actually planned to start a plantation there, even if he had to do it at his own cost. Somerset was named for him, probably because he had selected it for a plan- tation. The anonymous writer of 1612 (Governor Moore ?) also says that they had planted “corne, great store of wheate, Beanes, Tobacco, and melones, with many other good things for the use of man,” and * The other men were Edward Chard and Edward Waters; the latter had previously been left on the islands with Carter. In 1616, he and Carter were two of the Deputy Governors, but neither proved efficient in that capacity. + His name was often written More, but in the official commission from the London Company it is spelled Moore. TRANS. Conn. AcapD., Vou. XI. 30 May, 1902. 134 A. BH. Verrili—The Bermuda Islands. 546 that they had also sawed and hewed timber, intending to build a vessel, in which to sail away. In another place he says that “they have made a great deale of Tobacco.” It is narrated by Governor Butler, by Capt. John Smith, and the Rey. Mr. Hughes, that when the prospective settlers arrived at the_ islands in 1612, they found that these men* had “an acre of good corne [wheat, according to Mr. Hughes|+ ripe and ready for the gatherour; numbers of pompions [pumpkins], Indian beanes, many tortoises ready taken, good store of hogge-flesh salted and made into flitches of bacon.” Therefore the actual first planting of the islands was begun by Somers, or by these three pioneer men, in 1610. Very likely they planted many other things, not mentioned here by name. There is a very important document, quoted above, relating to this * One of these men, Christopher Carter, had also remained on the islands during the absence of Somers in Virginia. He was later (1616) one of the six deputy governors appointed by Moore to rule by turns of a month each, but he was an indolent ruler, too fond of his cups. Subsequently he visited London, and, as is said by some, turned over to the Company another mass of ambergris. Governor Butler said that it was to demand his reward for finding the orig- inal mass, and that that he had begun to take ‘‘ dangerous courses,” perhaps to expose frauds in connection with the large mass of ambergris. However, the Company gave him a ‘‘royal lease” to Cooper’s Island, by which he was entitled to all valuables or royalties that might be found there, including ambergris, which was certainly a remarkable concession, at that time. Governor Butler said that it was in ‘‘ exchange for three lives,” intimating that it was to induce him not to expose the frauds of prominent members of the Company. His acceptance or choice of Cooper’s Island was explained later, by his heirs, to have been because he believed he could find the Spanish trea- sures, supposed to be buried there, from tablets and marks found on certain trees. (See under Yellow-wood Tree, ch. 26.) He returned with the lease in 1622, and died before 1627, when the land passed into the possession of Capt. Folgate, who actually found a lump of ambergris there, in 1627, and claimed it as his own, which led to an investigation of the royal lease. (See p. 517, note.) Governor Butler considered Carter ‘‘a great foole,” and thought that he had been badly cheated in accepting Cooper’s Island, but perhaps he was ignorant of the clause concerning the royalties. The island contains 77 acres, but is not very fertile. + Perhaps Hughes considered the Indian Corn a variety of ‘‘ wheat,” for writ- ing in 1614, he said : ‘“ And now that we have found out the right seasons of the yeare to set corne, we are like, (by the blessinge of God) to have plenty of this countrey wheate, which is very good, large and faire, and more hearty and strong than our English wheate.” This remark would seem to apply to the Indian corn or maize, which was then hardly known in England. Wheat does not grow well in Bermuda. 547 A. FE. Verrili— The Bermuda Islands. 135 voyage and the conditions then existing at the islands, but the name of the writer is unknown. ‘This narrative, or rather report, concern- ing the islands and their productions, was written at Bermuda, in 1612, just before the return of the ‘‘ Plough.” The writer was, in my opinion, Governor Moore himself. This is indicated by the business-like style of the document itself ; by the statement that “ Hastie occasione of business doth make mee write somewhat hastilie, etc.” ; by the remark that “‘ we sent out for Hogges”; and “but our order is not to take Fish or Fowle, but for one or two meales, because that by reason of the flies, and heate of the countrey they will not keep”; and by the fact that he does not in any other way refer to any acts or orders of the governor, nor mention him by name or title, as any subordinate person would have been sure to have done. He does not say that the governor ordered this or that, in any ease. The whole character of the paper indicates that the writer was the leader and the one in authority. His lucid descriptions of the trees and their timber indicates his expert or professional knowledge of such matters, but Governor Moore had been educated as a master carpenter. It is apparently the first official report of the Governor to the Company, written rather hastily, owing to the pressure of numerous official duties, cares, and details incident to the first settlement. If my conclusion be true, it will add somewhat to the value and importance of this report, for it is one of the most detailed of the early accounts, in several respects.* I shall, therefore, hereafter speak of it as Governor Moore’s Report of 1612. Gover- nor Moore was a very conscientious and reliable man, with more education and brains than most of his colleagues, and the character of this useful report is in keeping with his personality. Governor Butler (1619) said of Governor Moore “although he was but a Carpenter, he was an excellent Artist, a good Gunner, very witty and industrious; he built and laid the foundations of eight or nine Forts, called the Kings Castle, Charles Fort, Pem- brookes Fort, Smiths Fort, Warwicks Castle, Saint Katherines Fort, &¢c, mounting in them all the Ordnance he had, preparing the ground to build Houses, plant Corne, and such fruits as they had.” The “forts” built at that time were of cedar wood, but the rock had to be cut away in order to make level places for the gun plat- forms. All the labor had to be done by hand, for they had no beasts of burden, nor machinery. * This report was printed in full by Governor Lefroy, in his Memorials of the ) y> Bermudas, i, pp. 65-72, 1877, but without suggestions as to the authorship. 136 A. EF. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 548 So much of the time and labor of the people was required for this fortification work that the planting of corn and other crops was too much neglected, so that a famine ensued in the winter of 1614-1615, though this was probably not the only cause of it. Drought and tempests had intervened to destroy their creps in 1613, The Lon- don Company was chiefly to blame for this lack of food, for they required of Mr. Moore, above all else, that he should fortify the place at once, but they did not send out sufficient supplies of any kind. As in many other colonization schemes, there was too much ignorance, cupidity, and gross mismanagement on the part of the Company. The “Elisabeth,” with 30 colonists, arrived next, about March, 1613; the “ Martha” arrived in June, 1613, with about 60 passen- gers. ‘The “Elisabeth” brought 40 more passengers in September, 1613,* and also the first potato roots. Tobacco was also planted in 1613, but it had been raised in i610 and 1611 by the men left there. The population, in 1622, as stated by Governor Butler, was 1500, but he may not have included the women and children. In 1629, it was said by Capt. John Smith to have been between 2,000 and 3,000. The colonists began at once to cut down and burn the forests of cedar and palmetto, not only in order to clear the land for planting, but for building fortifications, for firewood, and for other purposes. Governor Moore almost immediately began to fortify the hills and islands near St. George’s, as instructed by the Company and con- firmed by a special vessel, sent out only six months later to warn him of the expected war with Spain and a probable attack on the islands. This compulsion to build forts before houses, and to mount cannon before planting corn, kept the settlers from planting as much corn and other edibles as they should have done, both at this time and in later years. Their first crop of corn was good, according to Hughes (1614), * The sending out of these earlier vessels at such unusually short intervals was mainly due to the desire of the Company to receive the exceedingly large and valuable mass of ambergris, weighing about 180 pounds, that the three men that had been left on the islands for two years had found (see pp. 517, 546), and which, at about that time, was valued at 5 pounds sterling to the ounce. Governor Moore discreetly divided the mass into three parts, and would only send one portion at a time. As each vessel brought additional supplies, of which they were greatly in need, this course was very beneficial to the people, although it displeased the London Company, for they cared only or chiefly for immediate gain, and wished to cause a rapid rise in the price of the stock of the Company. | ~I 549 A. FE. Verrili—The Bermuda Islands. 13 though planted too late (they arrived in July). But he states that their second crop was nearly a failure. This may have been due partly to the neglect of planting at the proper time, on account of the pressing need of fortification work, and partly to the lack of care later ; but the season may have been a bad one, with drouths or tempests, and the Wood Rats may have been present, even then.* Besides, they were mostly ignorant and quite inexperienced, both as to the crops and the climate. But whatever the cause, it is evi- dent that the Company did very wrong to send out, during the first years, so many ignorant and ill-provided poor people, taken largely from the slums of London, expecting them to clear a densely wooded country, plant crops, and build forts and houses, all in one year. The governor had on his hands more than any man could do, with the men and materials at his disposal. It is remarkable that he succeeded by his energy and mt in keep- ing the colony alive. In fact, had not nature provided such. an abundance of birds and fish, at that time, most of the people would surely have starved. It was by mere chance that a stray vessel, the Edwin, loaded with meal, came to the islands from the West Indies, in the middle of their second winter (about January, 1614), when they were on the verge of starvation. This was the vessel said to have introduced the wood-rats. (See Part III, ch. 33.) The following extract is from ‘“ A Plaine and true relation of the Goodnes of God towards the Sommer Islands,” London, 1621 (writ- ten in the latter part of 1620). Mr. Hughes lived in Bermuda from 1615 to 1620. After a visit to London, he returned on the “ Joseph” in 1622 :— ‘Upon your second crop, (partly for the unthankfulnesse of some, and partly for the trial of other some) God denied his blessing, so as you received not your seede againe, therefore feare of great want came upon you Then, even then whem your hearts began to be troubled with feare of want, Almighty God who never faileth nor forsaketh them that are his, did send you a comfortable supply unlooked for.”’+ *Tt is not improbable that the unsuspected ravages of wood rats were the chief causes of the failure of the crops in all these three earlier years, though they did not attract attention till 1615, when they had apparently greatly increased, perhaps largely due to their gathering, for food, in the vicinity of the cultivated land. There is no sufficient evidence that they were first introduced in 1614. (See ch. 33, 6.) + This is a reference to the ‘ runaway frigate’ which came loaded with meal from the West Indies, and was said to have also brought the wood-rats, January, 1614, 138 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 550 The wild hogs and birds were rapidly destroyed by the famished people. Another famine occurred in the third winter (1614-1615), when 150 starving people were colonized temporarily on Cooper’s Island to feed on the cahow and its eggs, which they nearly exter- minated that season. (See history of the Cahow, Part III, ch. 29.) A great curse to the colony, from the first, was the large amount of liquors sent out on every vessel, for many years, by the Company, in order, apparently, to exchange it, at high prices, for the half- shares of tobacco that belonged to the cultivators. Many of the colonists were taken from the lowest classes of people in London, and drunkenness was prevalent among these and others, whenever, by any means, they could secure liquors of any kind.* Such condi- tions were not confined to Bermuda, nor to that particular time, but in this case the Company could have controlled it, had they chosen to do so, for a long series of years. Governor Butler and other early governors denounced the custom in the strongest terms, as did some of the clergymen, but it was continued and gave rise to vari- * The Rev. Mr. Hughes, writing in 1620, alludes to this as follows: ‘*My heart giveth me, that among other sinnes, the abominable sinne of Drunkennesse, that aboundeth among you every shipping time did much favour the bringing of that judgement upon her, [the ship] to admonish some to bee no longer Bawds to Drunkennesse by sending over so much Aqua vite.” ... ‘In Summerset you know how one died suddenly with drinking himself dead drunke.” . . . ‘‘ Also in the Towne at St. Georges, a man of Summerset drunke himself dead drunke, and beeing by a Coroner’s Inquest found guilty of his owne death, was by the commandment of Captaine Butler your Governour, buried in the highway with a stake driven through him, by them in whose company he dranke himself dead. Hach of them having a paper on his backe with this superscription : ‘These are the companions of him which killed himselfe with drinking.’ Two of the most notorious of them were punished, the one whipped at the Whipping Post, the other (because he was a soldier) did ride the Cannon, shot off full charged, which did shake him terribly.” “‘ Forget not the Boats of Summerset that were over-turned with the keele upward, and some of the men drowned, because they that should guide them, were troubled in their braines with Aqua vite.” Governor Butler thus describes the drinking habits of the people, in 1620 :— ‘‘ And, indeed, it is incredibly straunge to report what a huge quantitie of thes hott composed waters are (mis) spent yearely in these smale Ilands. Will it ever be believed (in England it selfe, which is yet too neere akinne to Ger- many in this; in Spaine and Italy certainely it can never) that twelve hundred persons (whereof the one halfe almost are women and children, and soe noe drinckers in this nature) should in three months space only, consume and emptye two thousand gallons of this hartburneinge geare, by powreinge it downe into their vast mawes? And yet this is the least that (truely) can be sayd of it.” 551 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 139 ous crimes, and at times to disgraceful orgies, even on the part of the principal officers, in 1615-1616, and many misfortunes ensued. Governor Moore, instead of receiving praise and encouragement from the Company, was criticised, blamed, and censured by them, so that he gave up his position, shortly before his term of three years expired, in 1615, and turned the government over to six deputy gov- ernors, most of whom proved worthless fellows and drunkards, though they were the “best that were there.” He returned to London, deeply in debt and in disgrace, and never had much justice done him. He had to live in hiding, in an obscure street of London, for some time, to avoid arrest for debts.* The next year (1615-1616) was a year of strange misrule, revelry, debauchery, and idleness on the part of the deputy-governors, their officers, and the people generally. It was also, at this time, that the plague of Wood Rats developed with remarkable rapidity. No tobacco of any consequence was made and little of other crops. Governor Daniel Tucker, who was sent over in 1616, found every- thing in the greatest confusion and the people utterly demoralized by a year of disgraceful revelry and misrule. It needed a man of energy and stern will to put the colony into any sort of order. Governor Tucker, though a man of not much education, with a very irascible temper, and not always with good judgment, was, perhaps, a very suitable man for the time and place. His arbitrary acts, and to us apparently arbitrary executions of crim- inals for minor crimes, may have been based on personal knowledge of their character and deeds that is not apparent from the records. Some of Governor Daniel Tucker’st fortification work and trials have been described in a previous chapter (p. 447). He came with an elaborate commission from the Bermuda Company, which confer- red on him far greater legal power than Governor Moore had held. At the time of his arrival the Wood Rats had become exceedingly abundant, so that they destroyed all the crops, and they continued to increase during the next two years, in spite of all his efforts to suppress them. (See Introduced Mammals, ch. 33, 0.) * Although Governor Butler intimated that there was some great fraud or secret scandal, known to Carter, in connection with the ambergris, it is evi- dent that Governor Moore, himself, had no benefit from it, for he lived in poverty after his return to London. The Company finally gave him six shares of land for his services. But I find no evidence that he went back there to live. + Governor Tucker returned to Bermuda and lived several years on the land conveyed to him by the Company. He died there in 1625. bo 140 A, FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 55 One of his measures was to burn over large districts, and some- times whole islands, thus destroying all the trees and other vegeta- tion, as well as the rats. (See below, ch. 26, 0.) Fortunately, in the winter of 1618-19, the rats suddenly died, all within a few days, as the Rev. Mr. Hughes stated. This averted a “general burninge”’ of all the Main Island, that Governor Tucker had decided to order. : In the meantime the people had become much impoverished and bread had sometimes been lacking for many months at a time. Governor Butler,* 1619 to 1622, who was an able man and also a discreet governor, tried to restrain the reckless cutting of the trees, which had even then become a great evil, and the wanton destruc- tion of the birds and sea-turtles, but with no great success. He also greatly enlarged and improved the fortifications, and built cedar bridges between the islands, which were much needed. Even in his time, most of the land on St. George’s Island had been stripped of its trees and become barren. d.—The Fatal Famine of 1614-15 ; the “ Feauges.” In the winter of 1614-1615 there was a peculiar fatal famine or disease, apparently due to the lack of bread-stuffs and other ordinary * Most that is known of the history of the islands, from 1612 to 1622, is derived from his MSS ‘‘ Historye of the Bermudaes” printed by the Hakluyt Society, London, 1882, edited by Governor Lefroy. The editor, when it was published, supposed that it was written by Capt. John Smith, but it has since been proved that it was written by Governor Butler (see ‘‘The Academy,” Dec., 24, 1892, p. 891). The earlier part, from internal evidence, was written in 1619; the last parts, perhaps as late as 1624 or 25. Governor Butler’s accounts are confirmed by those of the Rey. Mr. Hughes (1621), who lived in Bermuda at the same period. Capt. John Smith, in his General History of Virginia, etc., 1624, made copious and often verbatim extracts from Governor Butler’s Historye, without giving any crecit for this information, nor in any way referring to its source. As this was done during the life of Governor Butler, it is probable that it was with his knowledge and most likely in accordance with his wishes, for it would appear that at that time he had private reasons for not wishing to be known as the author of this work, which was left unfinished at his death. Many of the persons that he exposed and censured were still living and in influential positions. Governor Butler, like Governor Moore, never got much praise or thanks for all his good efforts in Bermuda, but was blamed for obeying his orders and doing his duty, and falsely accused of many things that he did not do. He certainly did not enrich himself, but was much in debt on his return. Governor Lefroy states that he was subsequently made Governor of [Old] Provi- dence, about 1638. 553 A, EK. Verrill— The Bermuda Tslands. 141 vegetable food, although animal food was abundant. This affected chiefly the ignorant, indolent, and vicious persons who had been sent there only a short time before by the Company. The Rey. Mr. Hughes, who was present as an eye-witness, described it in 1620, as follows: ‘ Your looking for more supplies out of Eng- land, and following Tobacco to greedily, did cause you to neglect setting of corne, whereby you were brought into great want, [1615]. Then the number of people encreasing and as they encreased, sin and disorder did also encrease, which brought the correcting hand of God upon you in many wayes, so as divers did perish miserably : but consider I pray you that most of them that so dyed, were ungodly, slothfull and heartlesse men, which sheweth plainly that God hath not reserved these Ilands from the beginning of the world, to bestowe them now upon such as shall dishonor and provoke him every day as many of them did, I cannot but wonder, when I think upon the nastinesse & loathsome lazinesse, wherein too many of them died, crying night and day for meat, notwithstanding they had meat enough, if not too much, for they did nothing night and day but dresse, and eate, and so greedy, as they would not stay till their meate was sod ; but more like dogges than Christians did devoure it blood rawe.” x sf , * % e “They died miserably, some with meate in their mouthes crying for more. This surely was a great jugement of God upon those slothful and greedy Belly-gods and a manifest signe and token (as I said even now) that God hath not reserved these Ilands from the beginning of the world till now to bestow them upon such as shall provoke him every day, as many of them did. The correcting hand of God, which then lay heaviest upon the lazie ones, did stretch out itselfe over all, even the most industrious, when their Lines, Hooks and Nets were worne out, so as many of them also died.” It seems, therefore, that it was a case of ‘“ Natural Selection,” or survival of the fittest, and probably was, on the whole, a blessing to the Colony, though other similar emigrants, quite as bad, were sent out subsequently, in 1619-20. (See p. 567.) In regard to the cause of the death of so many of the miserable people at that time, there may be some doubt. There can be no doubt, however, that it was largely due, directly or indirectly, to the lack of suitable vegetable food, for of bread there was none. But there seems to have been an abundance of animal food, for the cahows and their eggs were still abundant, and there were plenty of fish to be had, with little trouble, as well as shell-fish on the rocks. 142 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 554 Hughes and Butler, as well as Captain Smith, all speak of the gluttony and laziness of these emigrants, and affirm that large num- bers died of surfeit, rather than from hunger, for the cahow was a very fat bird. Governor Moore was compelled to remove the crowd of 150 from Cooper’s Island, where they were killing them- ~ selves by gormandizing the birds and eggs, to Port Royal, where they could get fish. But they were too indolent to do that, and secretly killed and ate the few cattle that had just before been sent there. He eventually had to gather them all at St. George’s, and fish for them himself, to save their miserable lives, and that of others more deserving. They seem to have been affected with some sort of a disease, which Capt. John Smith called the “ Feauges.” But this may have been induced by the exclusively animal diet and their gluttony. Possibly it was akin to scurvy. Hughes stated that none of the sixty original colonists died at that time. This may have been due to their having laid up some supplies of vegetable food, like dried or preserved palmetto fruits, pumpkins, ete., or they may have learned by experience to eat the Palmetto-heads and other native vegetable food, to a great extent. That these native vegetable foods could take the place of cereals and other ordinary crops, without loss of health, was proved a little later, 1616-17, when it is stated that the colonists had no bread for about two years, on account of the ravages of the wood-rats. Capt. Smith described the “ Feauges” as follows: “He |[Gov. Moore] followed the building of these Forts so earnestly, neglecting — planting of Corne, till their store was neere all consumed, whereby they became so feeble and weake, some would not, others could not goe abroad to seeke releefe, but starved in their houses ; and many that were abroad, through weaknesse were subject to be suddenly surprised with a disease called the Feauges, which was neither paine nor sicknesse, but as it were the highest degree of weaknesse, depriving them of power and ability from the execution of any bodily exercises, whether it were working, walking, or what else ; being thus taken, if any presently gave them food, many times they straight recovered, yet some after a little rest would be able to walke, but if they found not present succour, died.” Various other details of the early history, from 1612 to 1625, have already been given in connection with descriptions of the ancient fortifications in Part I, and productions in Part II, ch. 22. Many other historical matters will be given in connection with the dis- 555 A. EB. Verrill—The Bermuda Tslands. 143 cussion of the Cultivation of Tobacco, and changes in the vege- tation and animal life, contained in the following five chapters, and more especially in connection with Deforesting and the Extermination of the Cahow, ete. So much of the early history of the colony was directly dependent on the production of tobacco, which was the principal article of export for over seventy years, that it seems most desirable to describe the Tobacco Cultivation historically, in the next chapter. (See also p. 518.) é.— Tobacco Cultivation, as connected with the Early History of the Islands. It has been doubted whether the Tobacco plant was growing upon the islands before it was planted by the English, but Silas Jourdan, one of Admiral Somers’ shipwrecked party, distinctly stated, in 1610, that they found there “very good tobacco.” If so, it was probably introduced, like the wild olives and the hogs, by some unknown earlier visitors. The first that was cultivated was planted in 1610, by the three men left on the islands from 1610 to 1612, for in his report of 1612, Gov- ernor Moore stated that those men had “ made a great deale tobacco,” among other useful products. Planting it on a larger scale began in 1613. From that time until about 1690 it was the principal commodity exported, but its culture entirely ceased about 1707. During more than sixty years it was also used as the regular currency, in barter, and for paying the wages* and salaries, from that of the government officials down to the cheap- est laborers. Fines and taxes were also paid in tobacco. The value varied, but 2° and 6° was commonly the value per pound, up to about 1627. * An act was passed by the Assembly in 1623 regulating the prices of labor. The wages of a laborer or toiler was to be no more than 1 Ib. of tobacco per day ; of a mason or carpenter 2 lbs.; for sawing lumber the price was to be 3 lbs. of tobacco per 100 feet. If any craftsman should refuse to work when called upon to do so, and when not already employed, or if he should leave a job before it was properly completed, he was to be put in the stocks, or else caged. This law was reénacted in 1627. It was found necessary because these crafts- men had refused to do their work unless paid exorbitant prices, thus making a corner in the labor market of the islands. Or it might be compared to a ‘‘ strike” where substitutes could not be found in trades absolutely essential to the welfare of the public. In 1630, it was ordained that 12 Ibs. of tobacco should be equal in value to 1,000 ears of corn. 144 A. EF. Verrilli—The Bermuda Islands. 556 Wages at the islands were paid in tobacco at the rate of 3¢ per pound in 1670, which was probably more than its net value, after the imposts were paid in London. The revenue from the tobacco was the main source of profit to the Bermuda Company, and they jealously guarded the monopoly of the ~ trade in it during the entire period that they controlled the islands, or up to 1684.* The quantity and quality varied exceedingly in different years, from a variety of causes, but the Company annually and continually complained of its bad quality. Stringent laws were in force for many years requiring careful inspection of all the tobacce by official inspectors before it was shipped, and the bad tobacco was to be immediately burned. Apparently the dampness of the climate was unfavorable for the proper curing of the tobacco, and in wet seasons much of it rotted. In some years the growing tobacco was badly damaged or destroyed by violent storms. This is recorded as occur- ring in August, 1629, 1651, 1668, and in other years. Probably all the autumnal hurricanes had this effect. Doubtless many of the growers were neither skillful nor careful in the art of curing, but the storms and other natural causes were important factors. On the other hand, in some seasons the crop was large and the quality good. I have been unable to find any record of fertilizers of any kind being imported or used during all these years. Probably nothing was used except a small amount of barnyard manure, and perhaps in some cases, seaweed and dead fishes. The domestic animals were few, and the cattle do not require housing in winter, so that such manure must have been scarce and little used. * A law making the stealing of tobacco plants a felony, punishable with death, was passed in 1623 :— “And be yt ennacted by the same, that if any p.son or p.sons shall at any tyme or tymes hereafter enter into or upon the lands or grounds of any other person or p.sons w* in the Island, aforesaid where any Tobacco or plants thereof shal be planted or growinge and shali there steale, drawe, plucke up, gather or carrye away any Tobacco or Tobacco plants against the good will or without the special lycense and consent of the owner of the same land, and be thereof law- fully convicted, that then every p.son soe offending shal be held and reputed a fellon and shall suffer death for the same, as for any other fellonious deed, Any Act, law, usage or Custom to the contrary thereof in any wise notwithstanding.” This law was so modified, in 1627, that the thief was to be fined 200 pounds of tobacco, or if an apprentice, he was to be whipped ; and in addition, in either case, he was to stand at the church door, during services, with a bunch of tobacco plants hanging from his neck, on three successive Sabbath days. 557 A E Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 145 Therefore, it is remarkable that any respectable crops of such an exhaustive plant as tobacco could have been raised on the same land for so long a time. It is certain, however, that the fertility of the soil had very much decreased before tobacco culture was abandoned (about 1707). But in the meantime Virginia and other American colonies had become great tobacco-growing countries (about 1626) and produced a better quality, so that the prices of the island pro- duct had fallen to such an extent that the Bermudians could not compete with any profit. In 1627 it was worth about 1° 10° in Lon- don. It was finally sold at 3° per pound in 1670. For more than a hundred years after this culture was given up, the agriculture of the islands was very much diminished, though the raising of corn, oranges, potatoes, onions, and other products for export still con- tinued to some extent. The early agriculture was doubtless very simple and imperfect. Scarcely any implements except the grub- bing hoes were in use. Plows were practically unknown until 1839, when their use was urged and introduced to some extent by Gover- nor Reid. In Governor Tucker’s time, about 1618, 30,000 pounds of tobacco were shipped in one year. In 1620, 70,000 pounds were shipped by the “Joseph.” In later years 200,000 pounds were often shipped. In 1671 one vessel is said to have carried away 250,000 pounds. In 1679 the officers of the Company stated that the annual value was about £5,000 sterling, but at that time the price per pound was very low. One year it is stated that it brought only 13° per pound. Owing to the increasing production of tobacco in Virginia and the West Indies, and the excessive freight and duties levied upon the Bermuda product, the price rapidly fell from 2° 6¢ to about 9° or less per pound between 1626 and 1630. At first the duty was 1° per pound ; in 1623 it was 9°; in 1628 it was 6°. The duty and freight were often more than it would bring in the London market, so that the more the colonists raised the poorer they became. Although they raised an abundance of corn, potatoes, fruit, poultry, and other food, they had no commodities with which to buy goods from Eng- land, such as clothing, so that they became very destitute of clothing and many other necessities of life, though food was plenty.* * The destitution in clothing, etc., caused by the decrease in the price of tobacco and the high duty on it, is graphically described in letters from Governor Roger Wood, written in 1632. The following extract is from one of these :— ‘*To Mr, Ballene I referr the reporte of his voyage, usage and affection on this very poore Island, only for lacke of Canvasse shirts and shoes and such things 146 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 558 At that time there were no textile materials raised there with which they could have made cloth, even if they had the skill. How- ever, they did plant hempseed and flaxseed, in 1632 and 1633, and subsequently some cotton. But later (1644) they sent a ship to Barbadoes to trade for cotton and it brought back a cargo of 11,018 pounds of cotton, which the women and girls learned to spin. The duty on tobacco was reduced to 6° a pound, in consequence of urgent petitions in 1627, but even then it was not remunerative under the conditions imposed by the Company. The colonists were forbidden to trade with the other American colonies, even for neces- sary things, nor could they trade with any ships except those sent by the Company. Yet they were compelled to do so in order to live at all, and so we find records of cargoes of potatoes, oranges, etc., sent to New England at that time. On the other hand, the Company continually complained of the poor quality of the tobacco sent to them; but those planters who occupied the public lands on half- shares complained that the Company would not pay for any part of the labor necessary to properly cure even their own share, and con- sequently much was spoiled for lack of sufficient help at the critical time. The difficulties connected with the making of tobacco, especially on the plan of half-shares, are well described in the following extract from a letter sent by the Assembly, in 1627, to the Bermuda Com- pany, in reply to a letter from the Company, dated Sept. 20th, 1626 complaining of the poor quality of the Bermuda tobacco, as con- trasted with that from Virginia and St. Christopher’s I., and also requiring them to return to the system of cultivation at one-half gross shares for the Company, as was customary for tenants in England : as will cloathe us from sunne and cold nights I thank god wee abound wth vitualls in varietye and plentie both flesh and fish, rootes and fruits, so that wee excell all the plantacons in the kings dominions, and wee desire to undertake any travell and labour if wee had a subject to worke upon to cloathe ourselves, but it is our miserie to live in these tymes that the more wee labour the more wee are undone through the extreame ympost laid upon our goods, we’h exceeds the value of the commoditie, a thing without precedent and never before heard of. I pray God amend yt and send us help from heaven for on earth I see but little hope.” He sent a present of some tobacco to which he referred as follows, in a post- script :— ‘ the West Indies and the North American coastal regions.* When the islands were first settled the flora was remarkable for the scarcity of edible plants. The only herbaceous plant mentioned, that could afford any human food, was the “prickly pear” or cactus *In naming the native Bermuda plants I have followed pretty closely the nomenclature used by Hemsley, in Voy. Chall., Botany, vol. 1. 573 aA. EH. Verril—The Bermuda Islands. 161 ( Opuntia), which still grows abundantly on the barren cliffs by the sea. Its berries were eaten, both raw and cooked, by the early set- tlers. There are no fruits mentioned, except the berries of the palmetto, cedar, and wild mulberry, although a few shrubs, with more or less edible berries, still exist that were probably native.* But the settlers may not have known that they were edible or they may have been so scarce that they were of no importance to them. Figure 34.—Bermuda Maiden-hair Fern (Adiantum bellum). The list of existing flowering plants and ferns, believed by the writer to have been native of the islands before their settle- ment, includes about 156 species ;.of which 22 species are ferns. Of the whole number, about 120 species are also native of the West Indies. a.— Endemic Plants. Five flowering plants and three ferns are generally believed to be endemic, since they have not yet been found elsewhere, but some of these may eventually be found in the West Indies, when those islands shall have been fully explored botanically. Yet it is possible that some of them, which may have originated in the West Indies, have * The Sea-side Grape (Coccoloba wvifera) and the Myginda rhacoma bear berries that are said to be edible, but perhaps not very palatable. These are supposed to be indigenous, though neither is mentioned by early writers. 162 A. EH. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 574 been exterminated there, by human agency, before disappearing in Bermuda. Aside from the Palmetto, the most interesting of these endemic species are the Blue-eyed grass and the Maiden-hair Fern, both of which are very common and widely diffused. The Blue-eyed Grass* or “Lily” (fig. 33) grows in a variety of situations, both in good soil and on barren rocky and sandy hills, and even on the small barren islands. Its bright blue flowers, which are produced in abundance in spring, are often at least one-half an inch in diameter, being much larger and brighter blue than those of our New England species. The flower stems are often 8 to 10 inches high, but shorter in dry soil. The Maiden-hair Fern (fig. 34) grows in abundance in the cracks and crevices of cliffs, especially in those of the stone cuttings along the roadsides, forming tufts of very elegant and graceful foliage. The endemic species, according to Hemsley (Voy. Chall., Botany, i, p. 12) are as follows :— Flowering plants :— -| Ferns :— Erigeron Darrellianus Hemsl. Adiantum bellum Moore. Maid- Statice Lefroyi Hemsl. Sea Lay-| en-hair Fern. Fig. 34. ender. Asplenium Laffanianum Baker. Sisyrinchium Bermudianum L.| Nephrodium Bermudianum B. Blue-eyed Grass. Fig. 33. Sabal Bluckburniana Gl. Ber- muda Palmetto. Figs. 4, 32. Carex Bermudiana Hemsl. 6.— Localized Plants. Among the 156 species of land plants now considered nativef, about 50 species are very restricted in their distribution, having been found * An ancient law, passed in 1669, required the destruction of two bad weeds, the ‘‘ Wire-weed” and ‘‘Lily.” It is thought that this Blue-eyed Grass was the plant meant by ‘‘Lily,” because there is no other native plant or weed that resembles a lily. If so it would prove that it was more abundant at that time than now, which is not unlikely. + Hemsley reckoned 152 species as native (including eight species added in the Addenda). Lefroy considered a considerable number of additional species as native, some of which were more probably introduced. The additional species, introduced by man and considered as fully naturalized, are about 190, though many more are partially naturalized. So that the total number of flowering plants and ferns is about 350, exclusive of exotic cultivated plants, not natural- ized. To these may be added about 8 mosses; 6 Hepatice ; 32 lichens; 32 Fungi. The algz include about 140 species. 575 A. FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. (es) in but one or two localities ; 34 of these are either found only in the Walsingham district, or rarely elsewhere. This seems to be one of the few limited tracts that have never been entirely cleared of the trees, nor burned over. Owing to the large amount of rocky and rough places and ragged ledges, where the patches of good soil are of very limited extent, considerable tracts of land on this estate appear never to bave been cultivated, so that the primitive vegetation has escaped destruction more than in any other tract. Most of those so restricted are of West Indian origin, but the Ampelopsis is the common Amer that of the eastern United States. Aspidium aculeatum. Nephrodium amplum. N. Bermudianum. Polypodium pectinatum. | Polypodium elasticum. ican woodbine, and the Celtis is Nine of these are ferns, viz.: Asplenium Laffanianum. A. rhyzophyllumn. A. dentatum. Pteris heterophylla. One belongs to the Lycopodiacez (Pstlotum triquetrum Sw.); like the ferns, it occurs about the mouths of caves; also on the shore cliffs. Fourteen are trees and shrubs, viz.:— Chiococea racemosa. “ Blolly” ; ““Snowberry ; David’s Root.” Flowers white or yellow. Dodonea viscosa. “ Broom”; “ Dogwood.” (See p. 580.) Dodonea angustifolia Sw. Re-| corded by Grisebach, 1864. ! Iieg ae WZ ef 1 OF 2 IGah 250 A, EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 662 other spellings, from its singular note. This bird is unknown to science and is, so far as known, totally extinct, for it disappeared within the fir a twelve years of the settlement. Among the other seabirds of less importance recorded as breeding were the Tropic Bird and the “ Pimlico” (Shearwater= Puffinus), both of which probably continue to breed here, though the latter exists — now only in small numbers, if at all. Of the wading birds, the White Heron attracted particular atten- tion and was the subject of an early protective law. It bred so abundantly that a locality, “ Hearn Bay” (originally White Hearn Bay) on Great Sound, took its name from this heronry. Of land birds a considerable number were mentioned, especially by Governor Butler, who distinguished part of them as merely migrants.* The “Crow,” referred to by Governor Butler as flying out to sea about sunset, was doubtless the true American Crow, and if so it had been more numerous at first. It is still found in Bermuda, though bounties have been unwisely offered for its destruction. The bird compared to a crow by Governor Moore, 1612, which has been thought to be the Catbird, from his description of its manners, may have been the real crow. The following extracts give about all of value that is recorded by these early writers concerning the resident land birds, and some others that they noticed as migrants. William Strachy, in his narrative, 1610, has the following account : “Fowle there is in great store, small Birds, Sparrowes,+ fat and plump like a Bunting, bigger than ours, Robins of divers colours, greene and yellow,{ ordinary and familiar in our Cabbins, and other of lesse sort. White and gray Hernshawes [herons], Bitters [bit- * The following 12 species of birds, generally considered native, apparently stillypreed on the islands, though some are in very small numbers: Catbird ; Cardinal Bird; Blue Bird; White-eyed Vireo; American Crow; Kingfisher ; Ground Dove; Florida Gallinule; Blue Heron (rarely); White Heron (rarely) ; Tropic Bird (abundantly) ; Audubon’s Shearwater or ‘‘ pimlico” (perhaps rarely). {t is doubtful whether the Ground Dove was not introduced from the Bahamas. Besides these, at least’seven species introduced by man are now resident, among them the American Quail; English Sparrow; European Goldfinch ; Wheatear ; Mocking Bird, etc. Over 175 species of migrants visit the islands more or less frequently. ¢ This probably applies to the Cardinal Bird, whose female and young would, to a casual observer, resemble a large fat bunting. + This probably refers to the Bluebird, whose male and female differ in color. But the author, writing from memory, must have become hazy as to the colors. § The common native White-eyed Vireo might have been intended here. 663 A. FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. bo 51 terns], Teale, Snites [snipes], Crowes, and Hawkes, of which in March wee found divers kinds Ayres, Goshawkes and Tassells, Oxen birds, Cormorants, Bald-cootes, Moore Hennes,* Owles, and Battes in great store. And upon New-yeeres day, in the morning, our Goy- ernour being walked forth with another Gentleman, Master James Swift, each of them with their Peeces killed a wild Swanne,t in a great Sea-water Bay or Pond | Mullet Bay ?]| in our Iland.” The Rey. Lewis Hughes, 1615, gives the following item as to the song birds : “The birds make a noise almost all night, but not with such pleas- ant tunes as the Larkes, and other birds doe in England, Heere is no bird that singeth in the daie but the sparrow,{ the Robin red- brest§ & the Robin-williams.”’| The following description of one of the birds by Governor Moore has been supposed by Lefroy and others, but without sufficient reason, to apply to the Catbird, which is still very common, and audacious, and as noisy as with us: “Fowles there are of divers sorts, but amongst all there is a bird like unto yours, which you call in England a Crow, which though they talke in the Barmuda language, yet their tongues shall walke as faste as any English womans: wee cannot goe up into the woods, but that they will follow after us with such an outcry that it would fret a man to heare them. They are very good meate, fat, and as white flesh as a chicken. We many times make some of them leave their talking with stones or cudgels, for they will sit and face you hard at your hand.”4 Capt. John Smith, in describing the fatal disease or famine of 1614-15 (see p. 552), mentioned the appearance of birds that he * Probably the Florida gallinule, which still breeds here in small numbers. + The American Swan (Olor Columbianus) has been taken in modern times. ¢ Probably the Cardinal Bird. § The Bluebird, without doubt. || There is no direct clue as to the species intended by this name, but if it be a native singing bird, still resident here, it is probably the White-eyed Vireo,— the only other common, resident, native singing bird, except the Catbird. §| Governor Moore must have been familiar with the English crow. Therefore it is quite probable that these were real crows, for Governor Butler also speaks of the extreme tameness and audacity of the crows when the islands were first visited. JI have personally seen them, especially in the breeding season, very tame, noisy, and fearless on some of the small, distant and seldom visited islands off the American coast. The flesh of young crows is said to be palatable. bo Or bo A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 664 called ‘‘ Ravens.” There can scarcely be a doubt but that they were Turkey Buzzards. These birds, like other vultures, have often been observed to appear during the time of fatal epidemics in other places. During the epidemic of yellow fever in Bermuda, in 1853, a specimen of the Turkey Buzzard was shot and examined by Mr. Hurdis. Capt. Smith’s account is as follows “ About this time or immediately before, came in a company of Ravens, which continued amongst them all the time of this mortality and then departed, which for any thing knowne, neither before nor Figure 43.—Turkey Buzzard (Cathartes aura). since, were ever seene or heard of ; this with divers other reasons caused Master More to goe out to Sea, to seeif he could discover any other Islands, but he went not farre ere ill weather forced him backe ; and it were a noble adventure of him would undertake to make more perfect all the dangers are about the Summer Iles.” I have seen no record of this bird appearing in Bermuda since 1853, but probably it flies near the islands not tn CaneUL ye without attracting attention. None of the early writers mention any birds corresponding to the Ground Dove or the Quail, both of which are common and familiar. Therefore it is probable that they were introduced in later times. (See ch. 34.) Nor do those quoted above mention a parrot. But this would not / be strange, in case a species of shy and retiring habits had existed. Governor Roger Wood, in a letter written about 1632, refers to four parrots that his wife was sending by the ship to a friend in England, as follows : “My wiffe hath sent 4 Parrats in a cage unto my Lady, to bee either kept for your Honor’s pleasure to looke upon, or to give unto who your Honor please who takes delight in keeping of them. The 665 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 953 parrat is a finne bird, and yellow upon the head and necke*—she desyres my Lady to accept it in as good part as she in all love and duty doth tender the same.” Although it is not definitely stated that these were native Ber- muda birds, the manner in which they are described would rather imply that they were so regarded. It is, indeed, quite possible that some species of parroquet did breed there at that time. An aged citizen told me that he once saw a pair of green birds fly out from a hole in a South shore cliff, where they seemed to have a nest. According to his account they looked much like parrots. Of course, it is also possible that parrots escaped from cages or liberated from vessels may have bred here, without becoming permanent residents. Governor Butler, in his Historye of the Bermudaes (pp. 3, 4, 5), gives the following account of the native birds: “ Neither hath the ayre for her part bin wantinge with due supplies of many sortes of foules ; as the graye and greene plover ; some ducks, and mallards, red-pshancks [red-shanks], sea-wigeons, graye bitturnes, cormorants, the white and graye herne, great store of sparrowes and robins (which have lately bin destroyed by the cats), woodpeckers, very many crowest (who for a while overboldly wonderinge at the newe sight of man) many of them findinge the cost of their curiositie, the rest are now flowne away and seldom seene, only some few are sometimes found in the most solitary partes from whence, notwith- standinge, they are generally observed to take their flight to se, about the sunnes settinge, allwayes directinge their course to the north-west ; whence many (not improbably) conjecture that some unknowen iland lieth out that waye; nott farr of here are also, sometimes of the yeare, faulcons, and farfaulcons, osprayes, and a smale kind of hawke, in shape and plume like a sparrow-hawke, but larger winged, and hoofers for her praye, like a caystrell,{ but thes being but seldome found, are (justly) thought to be only passengers. But above all thes, most deserving observation and respect are thoes two sortes of birdes the one (from the tune of his voice), the other (from the effect) called the cahowe and egge-bird.” * This peculiarity of a yellow head and neck would indicate that these birds were Carolina parroquets (Conwrus Carolinensis), or a closely related extinct species. This is thé only existing American species having that character strongly marked. {+ This must have been the American Crow (Corvus Americanus), or the Fish Crow (C. ossifraga Wils.). Perhaps both were native here. { Probably the American Pigeon Hawk, a migrant still. bo On rs A. FE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 666 b.—The Egg Birds (Sterna, sev. sp.). Under the name of “Egg Birds,” the early writers included all the species of terns that were breeding, of which there may have been several. Hughes designated two kinds, viz: “Sandie Birds and Noddies.” The numbers of the Egg Birds originally breeding on some of— the smaller islands must have been exceedingly great. But owing to the reckless and heartless manner in which they were destroyed, with their eggs and young, it took but a few years to exterminate them, or so nearly so that they ceased to breed in any noticeable numbers, and only on the most inaccessible rocks. They are now known only as migrants. As breeding birds they have long been extinct at the Bermudas, the last records of their breeding, even in small numbers, being about fifty years ago. Capt. John Smith, in the 1829 edition of his History, says that both the egg birds and the cahows were even then “all gone.” William Strachy, of Somers’ party, described them in 1610 : “There is fowle in great number upon the Ilands, where they breed, that there hath beene taken in two or three houres, a thousand at the least : the bird being of the bignes of a good Pidgeon, and layeth egges as big as Hen egges upon the sand, where they come and lay them dayly, although men sit downe amongst them: that there hath beene taken up in one morning by Sir Thomas Gates’ men one thousand of Egges: and Sir George Sommers’ men, coming a little distance of time after them, have stayed there whilst they came and layed their eggs amongst them, that they brought away as, many more with them ; with many young birds very fat and sweet.” The Rey. Lewis Hughes, who recognized two kinds of egg birds, noticed the regularity with which these and the Cahow returned each year. He says: ““When the Cahouze time is out, other birds called noddies and sandie birds come in, and continue till the latter end of August.” Governor Moore, in 1612, gives the following graphic account of the abundance of the Egg Birds at that date : — “ And for fowle wee went the third day of our arrival unto the Bird Ilands* (as we call them) and using neither sticke nor stone, bowe nor gunne wee tooke them up in our harids so many as we * One of these was undoubtedly Long Bird Island. They probably bred also on Cooper’s Island, Charles Island, Castle Island, and several other small islands where there was sandy soil. 667 A. EF. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. bo Or Or would, that every one of the company were to have, some three some foure a peese, three for a childe boy or girl, for a man foure, then reckon what those that served some fourscore people did amount unto. But this is certaine, if wee would have brought away twice sO many more wee might, but our order is not to take Fish or Fowle but for one or two meales, because that by reason of the flies, and heat of the countrey they will not keepe, especially these two monthes, June and July, and some part of August.” Governor Butler, writing of the Egg Birds in 1619, said : _ ©Thes last, arriveinge the first of the spring, upon the first of May,* a day constant kept, falls a layeinge infinite store of egges, upon certaine smale sandy ilands reserved for them ; and so continue all that monethe, being all the while so tame and fearlesse that they suffer themselves, with much adoe, to be thrust of their egges, the which, notwithstandinge they laye and sitt upon promiscuously ; so that many thousands of egges (being as bigge as hen’s egges) are yearely eaten, and many more would be, but that by stricte inhibition, they are preserved.” | This was written after certain restrictive laws had been passed, against recklessly killing and robbing these birds and the Cahow, but “overlate,” as Butler himself said. (See p. 673.) From the early accounts it is not possible to tell, with certainty, which species of terns were included under the general name of Egg Birds. Hughes speaks of two kinds: the Noddies, which were probably the same as the West Indian Noddyt (Anous stolidus), and the Sandies, which may have been the Common Tern (Sterna hirundo) and the Roseate Tern (Sterna Dougalli), both of which are recorded by Hurdis as having been found breeding on Gurnet Head Rock in some numbers (40 to 50 pairs), in 1848, but were destroyed or driven away soon after that, so that for about fifty years past they have only been known as irregular migrants, not seen at all some years, but sometimes appearing in flocks of considerable size in autumn. *This being ‘‘old style” reckoning, the corresponding date now would be May 12th. This is about the date when they now arrive at Nautucket Island, where they still breed. + Hughes and the other early historians of Bermuda probably obtained their names of the birds and fishes, etc., directly from the sailors, some of whom had doubtless visited the West Indies in former voyages. It is well known that the vernacular or sailor’s names of West Indian productions are wonderfully per- sistent, large numbers of them being widely used now, just as they were 300 years or more ago, 256 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 668 The Noddy, during the past fifty years, has only been observed as a very rare accidental visitant. But it is possible that the original Egg Birds may have included other species that are now confined to the West Indies and other southern waters, in the breeding season, for they were only summer visitors in Bermuda. The large size of the eggs (equal to a hen’s. egg) might indicate the larger tern (Sterna maxima), which still breeds in the Bahamas. The Sterna anosthetus, which breeds in the Bahamas, may also have been included. c.— The Cahow ; its History and Extermination. The most interesting as well as most important native bird, when the islands were first settled, was called the Cahow, from its note. It bred in almost incredible numbers on some of the smaller islands near St. George’s and Castle Harbor, especially on Cooper’s Island. It was nocturnal in its habits and was readily called by making loud vocal sounds, and then easily captured by hand, at night. Its flesh was described as of good flavor, and its eggs were highly prized as food. As it came to land and bred in the early part of the winter, when no other birds or eggs were available, it was quickly extermi- nated for food by the reckless colonists. It laid a single, large, white egg, described as like a hen’s egg in size, color, and flavor. The nest, according to the earliest writers, was a burrow in the sand like a coney’s, and mot in crevices of the rocks, like that of the shearwaters, with which many writers have tried to identify it. Governor Butler, in his ‘Historye of the Ber- mudaes,’ alone stated that its eggs and young were found in crevices of the ledges, but he evidently did not have the advantage of per- sonal experience, for at that time the bird was probably extinct, or very nearly so. The time of laying its eggs is a very remarkable point, in which it differed from all other birds of northern latitudes. The early con- temporary writers all agree that it laid its egg ‘in December or Jan- uary’ or ‘in the coldest and darkest months of the year.’ The shearwaters, even in the West Indies, lay their eggs in spring! (March and April) and their eggs are so musky that they are not edible ; certainly no one would compare them to a hen’s egg. Their flesh also has so strong a flavor of bad fish-oil and musk that no one would eat it, unless on the verge of starvation ; though the newly hatched young are sometimes eaten by sailors for lack of anything better. 669 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. ~J bo Or The bird itself was variously described as of the size of a pigeon, green plover, or sea mew; its bill was hooked and strong, and it could bite viciously ; its back was ‘russet brown’ and there were russet and white quillfeathers in its wings; its belly was white. It arrived in October and remained until the first of June. There is no known living bird that agrees with it in these several characters. Most certainly it could not have been a shearwater, as Hurdis and others have supposed, nor any known member of the petrel family, all of which have such a disagreeable flavor that neither their flesh nor eggs are used as food unless in cases of starva- tion. The following graphic account of the bird and its habits was written by Mr. W. Strachy, one of the party wrecked with Sir George Somers in the ‘Sea Venture,’ July, 1609: “A kinde of webbe-footed Fowle there is, of the bignesse of an English greene Plover, or Sea-Meawe, which all the Summer we saw not, and in the darkest nights of November and December (for in the night they onely feed) they would come forth, but not flye farre from home, and hovering in the ayre, and over the Sea, made a strange hollow and harsh howling. They call it of the cry which it maketh, a Cohow. Their colour is inclining to Russet, with white bellies, as are likewise the long feathers of their wings, Russet and White, these gather themselves together and breed in those Ilands which are high, and so farre alone into the Sea, that the Wilde Hogges cannot swimme over them, and there in the ground they have their Burrowes, like Conyes ina Warren, and so brought in the loose Mould, though not so deepe; which Birds with a light bough in a darke night (as in our Lowbelling) wee caught, I have beene at the taking of three hundred in an houre, and wee might have laden our Boates. Our men found a prettie way to take them, which was by standing on the Rockes or Sands by the Sea-side, and hollowing, laughing, and making the strangest outcry that possibly they could ; with the noyse whereof the Birds would come flocking to that place, and settle upon the very armes and head of him that so cried, and still creepe neerer and neerer, answering the noyse themselves; by ‘which our men would weigh them with their hand, and which weighed heaviest they took for the best and let the others alone, and so our men would take twentie dozen in two houres of the chiefest of them ; and they were a good and well relished Fowle, fat and full as a Partridge. In January wee had great store of their Egges, which are as great as an Hennes Egge, and so fashioned and white 258 A. #. Verrili— The Bermuda Islands. 670 shelled and have no difference in yolke nor white from an Hennes Egge. There are thousands of these Birds, and two or three [lands full of their Burrows, whether at any time (in two houres warning) we could send our Cockboat, and bring home as many as would serve the whole Company: which Birds for their blindnesse (for they see weakly in the day) and for their cry and whooting, wee ~ called the Sea Owle;* they will bite cruelly with their crooked Bills.” The following description is taken from ‘The Narrative’ (1610), by Silvanus Jourdan, who was also one of Somers’ party : “Another Sea fowle there is that lyeth in little holes in the ground, like unto Coney holes, and are in great numbers, exceedingly good meate, very fat and sweet (those we had in the winter) and their eggs are white, and of that bignesse that they are not to be knowne from these egges. The other birds egges [terns| are speckled and of a different colour.” In “A Letter written from the Summer Islands,” Dec., 1614, by the Rev. Lewis Hughes, the following account of the cahow occurs : “‘ Here is also plenty of sea foules, at one time of the yeare, as about the middle of October, Birds which we call cahouze and Pim- licoes come in. The Cahouze continue til the beginning of June in great abundance, they are bigger bodied than a Pigeon & of a very firm & good flesh. They are taken with ease if one do but sit downe in a darke night and make a noise, there will more come to him then he shall be able to kill: some have told me that they have taken twelve or fourteen dozen in an hower. , When the Cahouze time is out, other birds called noddies and sandie birds come in, and continue till the latter end of August.” This is the only account that gives definitely the time of its arrival and departure (old style). The following extract is from the early part of Governor Butler’s “ Historye,” written about 1619, as shown by internal evidence : ‘“‘ Hor the cahowe (for so soundes his voice), it is a night bird, and all the daye long lies hidd in holes of the rocks, whence both them- selves and their young are in great numbers extracted with ease, and prove (especially the young) so pleaseinge in a dish, as ashamed I am to tell how many dosen of them have been devoured by some one of our northern stomacks, even at one only meale.” * These peculiarities do not apply to the shearwaters, for they are often seen swimming and feeding in small flocks, in the day time, far away from their nests. Nor are they known to utter any loud cry similar in sound to ‘‘ cahow”’; in fact they are rather silent birds, not even making an outcry when pulled off their eggs; nor are they to be seen hovering over the water. See under ‘‘ Pim- lico,” below. 671 A. FE. Verril—The Bermuda Islands. 259 This is the only original statement that I find, among the early writings, that it lived in holes of rocks. It is possible, however, that it lived in all available holes, either in those made in the soil by the abundant land crabs or those found among rocks. It may not have made its own burrows, when other holes were available. Captain John Smith’s account was compiled from those given above. He did not visit Bermuda. The following account, also from Governor Butler’s ‘ Historye,” relates to the famine of 1615 (see ch. 23, p. 552), and shows one principal cause of the very rapid extermination of the birds: “¢ Whilst this Pinnace was on her way for England, scarcetie and famine every day more and more prevayleinge upon the sickly colony, caused the governour to look well about him ; in the begin- ning of the newe yeare, therefore [1615], 150 persons of the most ancient, sick, and weake, wer sent into Coopers Iland, ther to be relieved by the comeinge in of the sea-birds, especially the Cahowes, wher, by this half hunger-starved company, they are found in infinite numbers, and with all so tame and amazed they are, that upon the least howeteinge or noyce, they would fall downe, and lght upon their shoulders as they went, and leggs as they satt, suffering them- selves to be caught faster than they could be killed.” ‘“ Wittnesse the generall carriage and behaviour of this company, who being thus arrived and gott up to a libertie and choice of eateing as much as they would, how monstrous was it to see, how greedily everything was swallowed downe ; how incredible to speake, how many dozen of thoes poore silly creatures, that even offered themselves to the slaughter, wer tumbled downe into their bottomlesse mawes: wher- upon (as the sore effect of so ranck a cause, the birds with all being exceedeingly fatt) then sodenly followed a generall surfettinge, much sicknesse, and many of their deathes.” The season of the year when these people were sent to Cooper’s Island confirms the statement that the cahow was the bird that they fed upon and destroyed so ruthlessly. In the “Plain and True Relation” by the Rev. Lewis Hughes, London, 1621, there is also a graphic account of the famine of 1615, from which the following extract is taken : “The first night that I lay in the Iland, which you call Coopers Tland (whither the lazie starving crewe were sent, and with them some honest industrious persons, though then much out of heart, and now living and well, thanks unto God) when I saw in every Cabbin Pots and kettles full of birds boyling, and some on spits rosting, 260 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 672 and the silly wilde birds comming so tame into my cabbin and goe so familiarly betweene my feet, and round about the cabbin, and into the fire, with a strange lamentable noyse, as though they did bemoan us, and bid us to take, kill, roast, and eate them : I was much amazed, and at length said within myselfe, surely the tameness of these wilde birds, and their offring of themselves to be taken, is a manifest token of the goodnesse of God even of his love, his care, his mercy and power working together, to save this people from starving. Mr. Moore, then Governour, fearing that their overeating themselves would be their destruction, did remove them from thence to Port Royoll, where they found but little or no want ; for birds they had there also, brought to them every weeke, from the Ilands adjoyning, whither some were sent of purpose to bird for them.” That Mr. Hughes referred mainly to the cahow, though he did not mention the name of the “silly birds,” may be properly inferred, because of the season, ‘‘beginning of the newe yeare,” when the large party of starving settlers was sent there for food, for the egg- birds did not arrive until the first of May. This famine with the sending of a large number of starving persons to feed on the defence- less birds at their breeding season, was unquestionably the direct and principal cause of their very rapid extermination, for it was during the next year (1616) that the first law was passed, “ but overlate,” restricting the “spoyle and havock of the cahowes.” Capt. John Smith’s account of this event is as follows : “Thus famine and misery caused Governour More leave all his workes, and send them abroad to get what they could ; one hundred and fifty of the most weake and sicke he sent to Coupers Isle, where were such infinite numbers of the Birds called Cahowes, which were so fearlesse they might take so many as they would.” These accounts of the habits of the cahow would not, in the least, apply to the shearwater. It is probabie that another nocturnal bird called “ Pimlico” by the early settlers was the shearwater; the latter is still called “pimlico”’ by the native fishermen. (See below.) Although it was very unfortunate that Governor Moore was — obliged to place those famished people on Cooper’s Island during the breeding season of the birds, it is evident that he had no other resource. No other food could be had, at that season, to keep the people from sheer starvation. How long they remained there is uncertain, but it was long enough to exterminate nearly all the breeding birds. They may, perhaps, have remained till the egg-birds arrived in spring, and thus helped to exterminate these birds also. 673 A. KE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 261 Indeed, part of Hughes’ account might apply better to the terns than to the cahow, but he does not give the date of his visit to Cooper’s Island. To have remained for the egg-birds would imply a sojourn of about four or five months on Cooper’s Island. There are several references to this bird in the local laws of Ber- muda. Even so early as 1616, a law was passed restricting the taking of the bird and its eggs, because of the rapid decrease in its num- bers. It is thus referred to in Governor Butler’s “ Historye ” “In the same moneth he held his second generall Assize at St. George’s, as irregularly as the first, wherin not any matter of note was handled, only a proclamation (or rather article, as it was then tearmed) was published (but overlate) against the spoyle and havock of the cahowes, and other birds, which already wer almost all of them killed and scared awaye very improvidently by fire, diggeinge, stoneinge, and all kinds of murtheringes.” Among the laws enacted by the Bermuda Company, 1621-22, was the following : “The Governour, and other officers, shall take care for the preser- vation of the breed of Birds, by reserving to them those [ands whereunto they resort.” This doubtless refers to the egg-birds as well as to the cahow, but it was “overlate,” like the former law, for before that time the cahows and the egg-birds had been practically exterminated.* The cahow is said to have bred on various small islands to which the wild hogs could not swim. Previous to the introduction of the hogs they and the egg-birds may have bred also on the larger islands, for they had originally no natural enemies there. The hogs would certainly have exterminated them from all the islands to which they could get access. But Cooper’s Island is the only island mentioned by name as a breeding place. As they burrowed holes in the soil for their nests, they could have bred numerously only on those islands that had some sandy soil (shell-sand). Cooper’s Island, which contains about 77 acres, has a large amount of sandy soil, and was, therefore, admirably adapted for their use and would have afforded room for a vast number of nests. They prob- ably bred, also, on Nonesuch, St. David’s, Charles Island, etc., in those parts that are sandy. * Capt. John Smith in his General History of Virginia, etc. (ed. of 1629), states that the cahows and egg-birds were ‘‘all gone” at that date. Trans. Conn. AcapD., Vou. XI. 43 June, 1902. 262 A. BE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 674 It has long been thought, but without any evidence, that ‘“ Gurnet Head Rock” (pl. lxxix, fig. 1) was one of its breeding places, and from its isolation and inaccessibility, the only place where it might have continued to live long after it had disappeared elsewhere. Perhaps this was partly due to a misunderstanding of the name, which, as I have elsewhere shown, does not refer to a bird but to a fish. (See pp. 454-6 for the history of this name.) Mr. J. L. Hurdis in 1849, visited this rock, which is a small pre- cipitous island, situated off Castle Harbor, and found there the nests of a shearwater (doubtless Audubon’s shearwater) én the crevices of the rocks. He therefore concluded that he had found and identified the long lost cahow. His identification has been accepted by other later writers on the ornithology of the Bermudas, apparently with- out any adequate consideration of the facts stated by the early writers from personal observation. Among others, Newton, in his Dictionary of Birds, 1890-93, has adopted the same view, but with- out any additional evidence and without critical discussion of the records. Mr. John T. Bartram, a resident of Bermuda, after long experience in collecting the birds and their eggs, concluded (1878) that the original Cahow was extinct, and that the Pimlico was the dusky shear-water (Puffinus Auduboni), Capt. S. G. Reid (1884) was inclined to adopt Bartram’s opinion, but suggested that the Cahow might have been one of the larger Shearwaters, still found there occasionally, but in his formal list he put it under P. obscurus,= Auduboni. Bartram was doubtless correct in this case. Governor Butler and the Rev. Lewis Hughes stated that a boat could go to its breeding places and get a load of the bird and its eggs in a short time (see also Strachy’s account, above). This was apparently done only inthe night. Therefore the islands visited must have been near at hand and easily accessible, with safe landings, even in winter, when the eggs were sought. Gurnet Head Rock does not fulfill any of these conditions. It is several miles from St. George’s, then the chief settlement and capital; it stands isolated outside all the other islands, so that it is exposed to the full force of the sea on all sides, and in December and January the sea is here always boister- ous; it has no place where a boat can safely land, unless in nearly calm weather and by daylight ; its sides are formed by nearly per- pendicular, exceedingly rough, high cliffs, which can hardly be scaled without risk of loss of life or limbs, unless by means of ropes and ladders. Moreover, the top is of very small area and almost 675 A. FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 263 destitute of soil. So that there is no possible chance for a bird like the cahow to burrow there. The writer, with two companions, visited this island about the first of May, 1901, on a day when the sea was not very rough and the tide was low. We found it impos- sible to land except by stepping out upon a narrow, slippery, and treacherous reef of rotten rock and corallines, covered with sea- weeds, exposed only at low tide, and standing a little way from the shore, with deep water between. The sea was breaking over this reef, and it was difficult to wade ashore except at one place, on account of the depth of water. With the aid of a long pole the writer climbed partly up the side of the rock, at the only avail- able place, on the inner side at least,* and though he did not reach the summit, ascertained that there is no soil on the top, but only a few seaside shrubs and herbaceous plants, growing from crevices of the rock. This was sufficient to prove that the cahow never bred on this rock, and if it had, the early settlers would never have gone there in the winter and at night to get the eggs or birds. It is far more probable that one of its smaller breeding places was on Charles or Goat Island, which is a larger, barren, uninhabited island about half a mile inside of Gurnet Head Rock. It has a beach of shell-sand on the inner side where boats can safely land. On this island, near the north side, there was a deep deposit of sand and soil, which was early used as a burial place for the soldiers who ‘died in the old fortifications on this and the adjacent Castle Island and Southampton Island. Indeed, we found two human skeletons partly exposed in this bank of sand, where it had been recently undermined by the sea. Evidently a large amount of this sandy deposit, which contains numerous fossil land snails of a species not now living on the smaller islands (Pcecilozonites Bermudensis), has been washed away since the time when the old “ Charles Fort” was built here, about 1615. This sandy patch would have been a suit- able place for the nests of the cahow. It may have bred to some small extent on Castle Island, but the amount of sandy soil was small there. These and other adjacent islands, including Cooper’s Island, were fortified between 1612 and 1621, and it is probable that their occupation, at that time, was one of the causes of the rapid extermination of the cahow and ege-birds. We endeavored to secure some bones of the cahow by digging in * It is quite possible that there may be a better place to ascend the rock on the seaward side, where we could not land on account of the surf, but the boatmen denied this. 264 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 676 the rubbish heaps about the old forts on Castle Island, but though we found numerous bones of fishes, hogs, ete., and a few of birds, none of them belong to the cahow. But probably the deposits that we excavated were of too late a date, for the Castle Island forts were again garrisoned during the war of 1812. (See pp. 462, 463.) We were, much to our regret, unable, for lack of time, to dig for the bones of the cahow on Cooper’s Island. Much of the land there is now cultivated. The loose ground is full of the holes of two species of land crabs. One of these is a very large species ( Cardi- soma Guanhumi), whose holes may easily have served the cahow for nesting places in early times. The chances of finding bones of the cahow would, probably be much better on Cooper’s Island than elsewhere, judging by the above quoted narratives of Governor Butler and Mr. Hughes. The soil of calcareous sand on these islands is admirably adapted for the long preservation of bones and shells. Therefore it is rea- sonable to expect that some fortunate party may yet discover the skeleton of a cahow, by which its real nature may be determined. That its identification with the shearwater or “pimlico” by Mr. — Hurdis was an unfortunate error, seems absolutely certain. The latter differs in size, color, structure, manner and time of nesting, and other habits, flavor of flesh and eggs. It even seems improbable that the cahow belonged to the petrel family. It appears to me more probable that it was allied to the auks (Alcidx), many of which burrow in the ground and lay white, edible eggs. The northern auks have edible flesh and often a strong hooked bill. But no existing species breeds so far south, nor do they breed in winter. The cahow may have spent the summer im the southern hemisphere; or it may have been a localized pelagic species, coming to the land only for breeding purposes. Known Characteristics of the Cahow. The peculiarities of this bird, so far as known, can be briefly sum- marized as follows: 1. The cahow is an extinct web-footed sea-bird, unknown to ornith- ologists. It rapidly became extinct about 285 years ago, as the direct result of the occupation by the earliest settlers of the islands on which it bred. 2. It was not a shearwater, nor like any other member of the petrel family. It may have been related to the auks (Alcidz), some bo o> Or 677 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. of which have similar white eggs and burrowing habits, and are edible. 3. It was strictly nocturnal in its habits. It flew only at night and made a “strange hollow and harsh howling” and a loud call, from which its name (cahow) was given. It came readily to persons imitating its note, and could then be easily taken by the hand, in the night. 4. It had good powers of flight, but could also run about on the ground without difficulty. It was very tame and unsuspicious. 5. It nested generally, if not always, in burrows in the soil, and laid a single, large, white egg, of good flavor, like a hen’s egg in size and taste. - 6. It arrived at the Bermudas in October or November (old style) and remainéd till about the first of June (Hughes). 7. It laid its eggs in December and January, “in the coldest months of the year.” In this respect it differed from all other sea- birds of the northern hemisphere. Therefore it probably spent its summer south of the equator, or else it was a local pelagic species that remained constantly at sea in summer, perhaps not far away. 8. In size it was compared to a “pigeon,” to a “green plover,” and to a “partridge.” Therefore its egg must have been very large in comparison with the size of the body of the bird. The large number of birds said to have been eaten at a meal also indicates a rather small bird. 9. It had a strong hooked bill and could bite viciously. No men- tion was made of its ejecting oily or other matter from its bill for defence, as do the petrels. 10. Its color was “russet-brown” on the back; its quill-feathers were russet-brown and white ; its belly was white (Sérachy). In this combination of characters it differed from all known birds.* d.—The Pimlico or Audubon’s Shearwater. (Puffinus Auduboni Finsch, 1872 = P. obscurus of Hurdis and Reid.) The early writers refer to a nocturnal bird that they called the “Pimlico” (spelled pimplicoe by Butler, and pemblyco by Capt. Smith) from its peculiar note, helped out, as Governor Butler sug- * These views have also been maintained by the writer in an article on the Cahow in Popular Science Monthly, vol. lx, p. 22, Nov., 1901, and in Annals and Mag. Nat. History, vol. ix, p. 26, Jan., 1902. 266 A, FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 678 gested, by considerable imagination and some fond recollections of a favorite locality in England.* However, it is peculiar that the same name is not only used for the same bird, to this day, by the fishermen in Bermuda, but it is also still used for the same bird by the natives in the Bahamas, where it breeds. — Governor Butler’s account, 1619, is as follows: ‘“ Another smale birde ther is, the which, by some ale-hanters of London sent over hether, hath bin termed the pimplicoe, for so they imagine (and a little resemblance putts them in mind of a place so dearely beloved), her note articulates; and this also, for the most part, is a bird of the night, and whensoever she sings is too true a prophett of black and foule weather. The superstition that this bird is a sign of bad weather still pre- vails among the fishermen and sailors. This bird was found by Mr. Bartram breeding as late as about 1874, in the holes and crevices of the rocks on several of the small, barren islands about Castle Harbor.§ Capt. Reid says that he found two nests with young birds in 1874, and kept one alive for some | time. It always lays its eggs in crevices of the rocks, without any definite nest. : Mr. Wedderburn, Capt. Drummond, and Mr. Ord visited Gurnet Head Rock, May 20th, 1850, and found two nests with a young one in each, and also secured one egg at that date, but did not see the * According to Governor Lefroy, the original Pimlico was a well-known ale house and place of resort near Hogsden. It was referred to in ‘‘The Alchemist,” act V, sc. i., 1610, and in other works of that period, e. g.: ‘‘Sir Lionel. ‘I have sent my daughter this morning as far As Pimlico, to fetch a draught of Derby ale, that it May fetch a colour in her cheeks.’ Tu Quoque, 1614.” The name was subsequently adopted for a similar place near Chelsea, and so eventually extended to the whole of that district. {In Australia this name is given by the natives to the Friar Bird, on account of its peculiar notes, although there is no other resemblance between that bird and the shearwater. {The accounts of this and the other birds given by Capt. John Smith were evidently borrowed, with small verbal changes that did not improve them, directly from Butler's Historye, but he seems to credit them to Norwood. He added some observations taken from Strachy and Hughes, and made some mistakes in his compilations, as when he said the eggs of the Cahow were “«speckled, the others [ege-birds] white,” just reversing the facts. § Mr. Bartram also found a nest of a larger shearwater (P. Anglorum ?), April, 1864, and May 1, 1877, on one of these islets. 679 A. EF. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 267 old birds. This date is quite contrary to the time of breeding of the cahow, but agrees well with the time of breeding of this shear- water in the Bahamas. Whether the pimlico still breeds here in small numbers, on the small uninhabited islands, is uncertain. We did not see it in 1898, nor in 1901. Dr. Henry Bryant* gave a good account of the breeding habits of this bird on the Bahamas, in 1859. The following is his description of a freshly taken adult bird : ‘‘ All the upper parts, wings, and tail, sooty brown; below, white; the boundaries of the colors not abruptly marked; bill bluish, with the tips of the mandibles black; this latter color running up the culmen to the forehead. Tarsi and feet pale flesh-color, with the posterior edge of the tarsus, the whole sole, and the upper and outer surface of the outer toe, running obliquely back- ward at the tarsal extremity to the hind part of the tarsus, black.” é e Men ot eyaeines thee ote SE ae ee NE es ove 344 840 Henetneborend: Of Claws 22= 2k. s9=!oo5-2- sss see 800 040 Wene thi tovend: of wings ss = 2 2/22 212/27 sae 497 .480 ix tenbwers sae waeek Goren ct eee cols. Bess thei .690 .666 AWA op ELOMNGT OXULC Hae ey ye yee ee a ee ee 217 205 TD ESHST OS! eos ORAS ae a I a oe 037 036 NUSUSU Ie HO Sas A eg ee a 041 038 Billigalon geri dle ep ure ety wee Ses EE a pee 035 036 (Sq Wok A Soe Hed eee ca oe .0445 044 He found them nesting there March 24th ; both sexes incubating in turn. He states that the eggs do not much resemble a hen’s egg Poo) 55?) for they are highly polished and much more fragile, and vary a good deal, both in size and form. The old birds are never seen to enter their holes in the daytime, but may be seen feeding in flocks at sea. e.—The Tropic Bird. Tropic Bird ; Long-tail; Boatswain Bird. (/Phaéton flavirostris Br.) See p. 428. Puate LXXII; Ficure 1. This graceful bird was mentioned by some of the early writers, particularly by Governor Butler, in 1619, whose account was copied nearly verbatim by Capt. John Smith, and published by him in 1624. Gov. Butler’s account is as follows : “Some few other kindes of foule ther are also, which are unknowen in our partes ; as the tropick birde, which is as large as a pullett, in coulour white, with one only very long feather in the tayle, and hath * Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. History, vii, p. 132. 268 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 680 its name (as I think) by reason it is never seene, either to the north- ward or southward, far distant from one of the two tropicks.” That it was called “‘ Boatswain Bird” by the early settlers is evident, for it gave that name* to a small island near Spanish Point where it nested. This name appears on various maps, including the Admir- alty chart of 1874. As the flesh and eggs of the Tropic Bird are scarcely edible, it never was destroyed to any great extent for food. At one time, some twenty years ago, it was in some danger of extermination for millinery purposes. But it has been pretty well protected by the laws in recent years.t Still it is probably far less abundant than in the early times of the colony. Mr. A. H. Verrill found, in 1901, large numbers of the very injurious “Spiral Snail” (Rumina decollata) in the stomachs of some specimens, in April, together with broken sea-urchins and the remains of fishes. If it has acquired a decided taste for this snail, as indi- cated by these instances, it will prove a great blessing to the farmers, for the snail is very prolific and has few natural enemies, so that it has already rapidly spread over all the Main Island. On some occa- sions it was seen in the act of eating the snails. Contrary to the statements of several writers, we often saw these birds swimming on the surface of the water. We estimated that there may have been 2,000 pairs breeding about the islands in 1901. j.—The Herons and Egrets. The early writers speak of herons as abundant and breeding — especially the White Herons. Probably both the White Egret (Ardea egretta) and the Snowy Heron (Ardea candidissima) were breeding there at first, as well as the Great Blue Heron (Ardea herodias), which has been found breeding occasionally in modern times. The white herons still occur, but probably rarely breed. Strachy’s account is as follows: “There are also great store and plenty of Herons and those are so familiar and tame, that we beate them downe from the trees with stones and staves: but, such were * On some modern maps the name of this island has been corrupted to ‘¢ Boasting Bird Island.” + A law passed in 1881 imposes a fine of £5 and costs for killing any one of the various singing birds (enumerated), resident game birds, long-tail, crane or heron, woodpecker, kingfisher, etc.; and a fine of 5:4 and cost for every egg taken or destroyed. The same law offers a premium of 48" for every crow destroyed, and 1: for every crow egg destroyed. 681 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 269 young Herons: besides many white Herons, without so much as a blacke or grey feather on them : with other birds so tame and gentle that a man walking in the woods with a sticke and whistling to them, they will come and gaze on you so neare that you may strike and kill many of them with your sticke.” Hearn Bay or “ White Hearn Bay,” as it was called on Norwood’s map of 1626, was one of the principal breeding places, but probably there were others in the mangrove swamps. The wanton destruction of the White Herons or Egrets and their nests, in early times, very soon attracted the attention of the Gov- ernor and Council, for the following law was made in 1621, accord- ing to Governor Butler : “ A proclamation came then abroad also for the preservation of wilde foule, and in particular for the white hearnes, for their breed- inge time draweinge nere, it was doubted that, by the encrease of newe commers, and especially boyes, a great waste might be prac- tised upon them by the takeing away of their eggs and spoyleing of their nests.” In spite of this law which, like many others, was probably never enforced, the White Herons were soon nearly or quite exterminated or driven away. There is no evidence that they bred regularly or ordinarily on the islands for over 230 years, from 1650 to 1880. Hurdis, during his residence of 14 years, recorded both species of white herons, but only as rather rare migrants. Since they and their nests have been protected by the bird law of 1881, and still more, perhaps, by public sentiment, one or two pairs have occasionally returned to breed. Perhaps, with strict protection, more may eventually come back. Apparently one pair of egrets had bred in 1890. g.—The American Crow. (Corvus Americanus Aud.) The crows were abundant and very tame when the islands were first settled, according to Governor Butler and other early writers ; but by constant persecution they were soon mostly driven away or killed. Probably a few pairs have always remained as residents of the islands, nesting in the remoter parts in thick cedars. Possibly the Fish Crow may also have been native here at first. For Gov- ernor Butler’s statement, see p. 665. Mr. Hurdis, about 1849-54, found it breeding in small numbers, and estimated that there were about 12 to 15 pairs living on the 270 A, E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 682 islands at that time. Capt. Reid noticed a few pairs breeding, and found one or two nests in April, 1875. He mentions seeing as many as 16 ina flock. It has been stated, but without good evidence, that it was introduced from Nova Scotia about 1846, but it certainly existed here long before. Whether the species had been entirely exterminated here before that date is not known. It is more likely — that the few individuals left were so wary and shy that they were seldom seen. In 1881 the legislature offered a bounty for their destruction (see p- 680), which seems to us a very mistaken policy, for they destroy large numbers of noxious insects and insect larve, thus doing much more good than harm, In 1901 we saw very few crows, and the species is evidently rapidly disappearing from the islands. 30.—Partial Extermination of the Whales. a.—The Hump-back Whale (Megaptera bobps (L.) or M. nodosa Bonnat.) Fieure 44. According to the early writers whales were at first very abundant and tame about the Bermudas. The common species was the Hump- back Whale, which arrived here about the last of February or first of March, during its northward migrations, and remained till about the Ist of June. Most of these were females, accompanied by a suckling “cub,” 15 to 30 feet long. Figure 44.—Hump-back Whale (Megaptera bodps L. or M. nodosa Bonnat.). After G. O. Sars. But the Biscay Right Whale was also sometimes seen here, and occasionally a ‘“ Fin-back,” but the latter was seldom if ever taken, on account of its pugnacity. The Sperm Whale was also common, though never abundant. In the 17th century it was rarely taken, but in the 18th century many were killed. At the present time all 683 A. FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. Sal these whales have become rare. The Hump-back and the Biscay Right Whale are practically extinct in these waters. The Sperm Whale is still taken occasionally, but must be considered uncommon. The following is the statement of Silvanus Jourdan, 1610 : “There hath beene likewise found some good quantitie of Amber- greece, and that of the best sort. There are also great plentie whales which I conceive are very easie to bee killed, for they come so usually and ordinarilie to the shore, that wee heard them often- times in the night abed ; and have seene many of them neare the shoare, in the day time.” The following is an extract from the letter of Richard Stafford (see p. 510) to the Royal Society of London, in 1668, (Trans., iii, p. 792). The first part evidently refers to the common Hump-back Whale: « “We have hereabout very many sorts of Fishes. There is amongst them great store of Whales, which in March, April and May use our Coast. I have my self killed many of them. Their Females have abundance of Milk, which their young ones suck out of the Teats, that grow by their Navell. They have no Teeth, but feed on Mosse,* growing on the Rocks at the bottom, during these three Moneths, and at no other season of the year. When that is consumed and gone, the Whales go away also. These we kill for their Oyl. But here have been Sperma-Ceti-Whales [Sperm Whales] driven upon the shore, which Sperma (as they call it) les all over the Body of those Whales. These have divers Teeth, which may be about as big as a Mans wrist ; and I hope by the next opportunity to send you one of them. My self with about 20 more have agreed to try whether we can master and kill them, for I could never hear of any of that sort that were killed by any man; such is their fierceness and swiftness. One such Whale would be worth many hundred pounds. They are very strong, and inlayed with sinews all over their Body, which may be drawn out thirty fathom long.” The identity of the commonest Bermuda whale has always remained in doubt. No specimens of the skull or skeleton have ever * This was a common notion at that period, apparently due to the appearance of the contents of the stomach, simulating moss or sea-weeds. Probably the tentacles of jelly-fishes and the remains of various other small surface animals gave this appearance, but more or less of the abundant floating sea-weeds (Sargassum, etc.) would naturally be swallowed with the animal food which they captured at the surface of the sea, for they take in everything within range of the open mouth, as they swim along. Mr. Hayward of St. David’s Island states that they fed on jelly fishes. bo ~T bo A. FE. Verrili— The Bermuda Islands. 684 been studied by any zodlogist, so far as I can learn. Nor are there any complete descriptions of its external characters. There were doubtless two or three distinct species of whalebone whales taken or seen in former times. Of these the one called the Cape Whale by the fishermen was, without doubt, the Biscay Right Whale. It certainly was not the Greenland Right Whale, as Matthew Jones — supposed. The Biscay Whale was formerly common off the eastern coast of the United States, and is still occasionally seen there. Therefore it naturally would sometimes have visited the waters of Bermuda. The best local description of the common Bermuda Whale that I have seen was written by an anonymous writer to the Royal Society of London, and published in vol. i, p. 11, of their Transactions, in 1665. This writer stated that several unsuccessful attempts had been made to take them that year, but without much success. Yet two adult females and three “cubs,” 25 to 30 feet long, were killed. One female was 60 feet long. The other was 88 feet long ;* tail 23 feet ; swimming fin [flipper] 26 feet ; “gills” [baleen] 3 feet long. It had a dorsal fin on the hinder part of the back. The color was black above ; white beneath. The head was somewhat bluff. The presence of a dorsal fin, the blunt head, and the very long flippers show that this must have been the true Hump-back Whalet ( Wegaptera nodosa Bonnat.) of Europe and America. In a later letter, the same writer states (op. cit., li, p. 132) that in 1666 sixteen whales had been taken, yielding 50 to 60 tuns of oil. He does not mention any difference. The small amount and. short- ness of the baleen was quite unlike that of the Biscay Whale. We can only judge of its abundance by the records of the amount of oil shipped, after the whale fishery was organized in 1665. Some data in regard to this early fishery have been given on a previous page (p. 521). Therefore it will be sufficient to add, in this place, the following records, which evidently refer mainly or entirely to the Hump-back, and supplement those given previously. * This is an unusually large size for a specimen of this whale, but the other measurements are in good proportions to the length. In more modern times, specimens of 50 feet in length were considered large. Mayor Hayward says he never knew of one over 60 feet. Mr. Hayward of St. David’s says 50 feet was the largest size, and that the average yield was 30 to 33 barrels of oil, very rarely 70 barrels. This whale of 1665 must have been a giant specimen of its race. + It has, however, received a special name (M. Americana Gray), based entirely on the above description. It is also identical with M. longimana, and with M. bellicosa Cope, of the West Indies, according to the determinations made by Dr. F. W. True. (See Science for May 2, 1902, p. 690.) 685 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 273 Governor Heydon and Council reported to the Bermuda Company, June 22, 1669, that according to the husband’s account, in 1664, 44 hogsheads of “whale oyl with blubber” and ‘400 weight of ftins ” [bone] were sent to London in the “ Elias”; in 1666, 117 hhds. of oil ; in 1667, 474 tuns of oil. Im all, 131 tuns of oil had been sent in four years. Governor Coney, in 1685, reported to the Royal Committee that about fourteen whales had been killed that year, but no account of the oil had been made to him, for the people claimed it as their own property. He stated that a large whale was then worth £80. After the Bermudas became a crown colony, in 1685, the whale fishery was carried on with greater activity than before, especially as the cultivation of tobacco had become unprofitable and was rap- idly abandoned, about 1700. But during most of the 18th century a special license to carry on this fishery was required, for which a considerable fee was charged by the governor. The fishery did not become free till the time of Governor Brown, 1782, or about the close of the Revolutionary War. Perhaps this measure was due partly to the poverty of the people and the lack of other commer- cial resources, at that time, for the war caused very hard times in Bermuda, as did the subsequent war with France. However, the continuous killing of the whales, during the 18th century and later, gradually reduced their numbers, so that for the past fifty years they have been rarely captured. In fact, for forty or fifty years, the Sperm Whale has apparently been much more frequently taken than the Hump-back. As the Hump-back is a migratory whale, visiting the West Indies in winter and the New England coast in summer, the fishery at Ber- muda was not the only cause of its decrease in numbers. Probably the New England whale fishermen killed as many, and perhaps many more, than the Bermudians.* ‘This was certainly the case. with the Biscay Whales, which were formerly taken in large numbers off the New England coast, but apparently only in small numbers at Bermuda. * From 1765 to 1770, there were from 100 to 125 American vessels engaged in whaling, taking from 11,000 to 19,000 bbls. of oil annually. From 1771 to 1775 the average annual number was 304 vessels, tonnage 27,840, sperm oil taken 39,390 bbls.; other whale oil 8,650 bbls. In 1839, 557 American vessels, mostly from New England, were engaged in this fishery ; in 1842 the number was 652 ; in 1846, 675 ships, 35 brigs, and 22 schooners, with a total tonnage of 233,189 tons. 274 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 686 From what is known of the migratory habits of the Hump-backs, on the American coasts, they probably go south in the autumn, as far at least as the West Indies, or even South America, to spend the winter, and while there bring forth their young. In the last of the winter or early spring they start northward, probably following, for the most part, the course of the Gulf Stream. But groups of them, mostly females with their young, were in the habit of tarrying, dur- ing the spring months, about the Bermudas, leaving for the northern waters about the last of May or first half of June, and sometimes not till July. Perhaps the same individuals did not remain there all that time, but those that left early may have been replaced by later arrivals from the south. Whether any of the young ones were ordinarily born in Bermuda waters is uncertain.* From the small size of some of the ‘‘cubs” taken with their mothers (15 feet long) it is not improbable that some were born there ; but most of the cubs were 20 to 30 feet long, and those must have been born in more southern seas. We do not have many facts as to the rate of growth of these young whales, but probably it takes several months for them to become 25 feet long. It appears, from the early accounts, that the females with their cubs used to come into shallow water, near the shores and reefs ; sometimes, though rarely, they penetrated through the reefs by the channels and entered the lagoon, as far as Murray anchorage, at least. An instance of this kind is recorded in 1803, by an officer of H. M. S. “Leander,” who stated that a whale, probably of this species, in Murray anchorage, while he was near it in a cutter, leaped like a salmon, with a sudden spring, entirely out of the sea, so that its body was horizontal in the air and half its breadth above the water. It caused a great commotion when it fell heavily back into the sea, “ with a thundering crash.” Early writers speak of its playing with its young, often tossing them quite out of the water with its snout, when so near the south shore that they could be easily observed. This was done particularly in pleasant moonlight nights. But no such sight has been seen during the past sixty years, so far as I can learn. Bermuda newspapers have records of the capture of single speci- mens, mostly young, showing quite conclusively that they have been comparatively rare for sixty years or more. * The whale fishermen at Bermuda do not think that the whales were in the habit of breeding there. 687 A, E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. bo ~I Or One instance, April, 1866, is given, when a small Hump-back, “a maiden cub of last year,” 33 feet long, was taken, yielding 40 barrels of oil. At the same time it was stated that it was the first one that had been taken “for some years.” Another is mentioned April 26, 1871, a “cub” 22 feet long, yielding 53 barrels of oil. It was accompanied by its mother, which followed the cub and “struck the boat with its tail,” but she was not captured. The flesh of these young whales is eaten by many of the natives of Bermuda, and is considered very good meat, though it always has a flavor of whale oil, more or less evident. The Royal Gazette, Dec. 23d, 1879, records a large school of whales observed off Bermuda. ‘The barque Elsinore, which arrived at New York on the 23d of October, from Rio Janeiro, reports that six days before, when abreast of Bermuda, she passed through an immense shoal of whales. . . . The procession must have been > These were probably Hump-backs migrat- ing southward. Apparently they do not visit Bermuda during their autumnal migrations. Since this date large numbers of Hump-backs, Fin-backs, and other whales have been killed in Massachusetts Bay and northward, hy means of bomb-lances, so that their numbers on the New Eng- land coast are now greatly diminished.* at least two miles long.’ * In 1859, I personally observed large schools of Hump-backs, with some Fin- backs, in the Bay of Fundy. They were especially numerous at the seining grounds known as the ‘* Ripplings,” east of Grand Menan Island, towards the center of the Bay, where the strong opposed tidal currents make a large area of very rough water during flood tide, in which a vast school of large herrings were feeding upon an abundant surface shrimp (Thysanopoda norvegica). The whales were feeding both on the herring and shrimp, and were so tame and so intent on their feeding that they often came within an oar-length of the numer- ous boats and vessels engaged in seining the herring, often, indeed, passing under the bowsprits of the vessels. At that time they were never disturbed by the fishermen, and they rarely came in contact with the nets and boats, which they carefully avoided by turning aside or diving under them. There were dozens of them in sight at once. Many that I saw were 60 to 75 feet long, often exceeding the length of the schooners, alongside of which they often passed near enough to be touched with an oar. It was a rare and imposing sight, never to be forgotten, to see these leviathans so tame and fearless of man. One large hump-back whale, which was easily recognized by means of a large barnacle attached by the side of the blow-hole, so as to cause an abnormal noise in blow- ing, had frequented these waters every summer, for more than twenty years, according to the fishermen. At that time there were more than 50 vessels fish- ing at this place, each with 4 to 6 boats and seines in use. bo -I o> A. EH. Verrilli—-The Bermuda Islands. 688 b.—The Fin-back Whale. (Balenoptera, sp.) It is asserted by those formerly conversant with the whale fishery, that a true Fin-back was sometimes seen, but that it was danger- ously pugnacious, and therefore was not attacked. Which species this may have been is quite uncertain, but it may well have been B. physalus L. (See fig. 44a.) c.—The Cape Whale ; Black Whale; Biscay Right Whale. (Balena glacialis Bonnaterre= B. cisarctica.) FIGURE 45. This whale, which rather closely resembles the true Right Whale or Bow-head of the Arctic Ocean, and has often been mistaken for it, is found on both sides of the Atlantic, in temperate latitudes, entirely south of the range of the Bow-head, which is strictly con- fined to the arctic seas. It has, apparently, never been common at the Bermudas, occurring there at long intervals, irregularly and in small numbers, though it was doubtless more common in early times than now, but the early records are usually not explicit enough to distinguish it from the Hump-back. It isa shorter and thicker species, with a stout, bluff head, and no dorsal fin. The slabs of whalebone are much more valuable, and are often 6 to 8 feet long. or Cape Whale. I have learned from Mr. Hayward of St. David’s Island, who for- merly engaged in the whale fishery, that these whales were occasion- ally taken, but were always comparatively rare. He also states that one was taken in Castle Harbor, im 1792, which is the only known instance of a whale being taken in the enclosed bays of the islands. Mayor J. M. Hayward, of St. George’s, tells me that a pair of them were taken about 1840. But I have not been able to find positive records of any more recent captures of this kind, though Mayor Hayward thinks that two or three of them may have been taken since that date. 689 A, EH. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 277 d.—The Sperm Whale ; Spermaceti Whale ; Trompe Whale; Trunk Whale ; Cachelot. (Physeter macrocephalus 1.) FIGuRE 46. The Sperm Whale has always been found in Bermuda waters, but it has never been abundant there, nor does it often come into shallow water. Its habits are more erratic and it does not migrate regularly, like the Hump-back. It is found in all tropical and sub- tropical seas, and seems to be particularly fond of the Gulf Stream, probably because it finds there an abundance of squids and other cephalopods, which are its favorite food. Probably its migrations are largely dependent on the supply of such food. However, it was certainly much more abundant off Bermuda in the 17th and 18th centuries than it has been in this century. Its decrease cannot be attributed, in any great measure, to the Bermuda whalers, but rather to the American whalers, whose vessels have hunted it up and down the Gulf Stream for two centuries, killing large numbers every year. Formerly it was very numerous in the Gulf Stream, between the Carolina Coasts and Bermuda. There are records of schools contain- ing several hundreds, or even a thousand, having been seen in that region. The number that strayed eastward, within sight of Ber- muda, was comparatively small, but yet the early records often refer to their frequent occurrence, though they were rarely attacked by the local fishermen in the 17th century, for owing to their lack of knowledge and experience the few attempts that were made proved abortive and discouraging. SS = — = = Figure 456.—Fin-back or Rorqual (B. physalus.) Figure 46.—Sperm Whale. But during the 18th century and more recently they have been frequently captured. In fact, it would appear that since 1800 sperm whales have been more often taken than any other kind. During the past thirty or forty years they have been almost the only whales taken. Formerly they seem to have been much larger than those Trans. Conn. AcapD., Vou. XI. 44 JuLY, 1902. 278 A. H. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 690 ive taken recently, though that may be because only the particularly large ones were then thought worthy of record. Mayor Hayward, of St. George’s, tells me that he remembers that when a child he was permitted to stand on the back of one that had been captured and brought inshore, which was 80 feet long and was said to have been the largest ever taken here. Mr. Hayward, of St. David’s Island, probably refers to the same one, in the notes sent to me by his daughter, for he says that in 1839 they took a sperm whale yielding 84 barrels of oil, which was regarded as the largest one ever taken here. It was struck by Josiah Smith. At that period Hayward’s whale oil establishment at St. David’s Island was one of the largest. A local paper, in 1832, in noticing the capture of a sperm whale, mentions that it was the seventh whale taken that season for the Hayward’s. At that time about twelve boats were engaged in the pursuit of whales,—chiefly sperm whales, it appears. Mr. Hurdis, in recording the capture of a half-grown sperm whale in 1840, remarks that it was the first one of the kind that had been captured in nine years. This is inconsistent with Mr. Hayward’s statement of the capture of the large one in 1839, and of the record of seven in 1832. But at that time the communication between St. David’s and Hamilton was not very easy nor rapid, so that Mr. Hurdis may have known very little about the captures of these whales. He records another, in July, 1851, as a rare capture. Matthew Jones records the capture of one 47 feet long, in May, 1863 ; and of another 40 feet long, taken 14 miles south of David’s Head, June 19, 1869. Very few have been taken in recent years, the fishery having been nearly abandoned. I saw a small one, about 30 feet long, captured in April, 1901. It was regarded as a curiosity, even by the natives, and was kept several days for exhibition, under a tent, where it attracted crowds of visitors. This whale has certainly become comparatively rare in the Atlantic Ocean, as well as in all other regions, during the past sixty years. 31.—The Exterminution of Breeding Sea Turtles ; the Lizard. a.—Former Abundance of Sea Turtles. Mr. Henry May and his company, 1593, and the companions of Sir George Somers, in 1609, found the sea-turtles breeding in large numbers on the sandy shores of the Bermudas, and those ship- 691 A. EH, Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 279 wrecked people, as well as the early settlers in 1612, depended very largely on their eggs and flesh for their food. At that time the turtles attained very large sizes, far beyond any found there in modern times, for being undisturbed by any enemies, they lived to a great age. Probably most of the breeding turtles were Green Turtles, but it is likely that the Hawksbill and Loggerhead were also found here at that period. Silvanus Jourdan gives the following account of them : “There are also great store of Tortoises (which some call turtles), and those are so great, that I have seene a bushell of egges in one of their bellies, which are sweeter than any Henne egge: and the Tor- toise itselfe is all very good meate, and yieldeth great store of oyle which is as: sweete as any butter: and one of them will suffice fifty men at a meale at least : and of these hath beene taken great store, with two boates at the least forty in one day.” The following account was given by William Strachy, in 1610: “But even then the Tortoyses came in againe, of which wee daily both turned up great store, finding them on land, as also sculling after them in our Boate strooke them with an Iron goad, and sod, baked, and roasted them. The Tortoyse is reasonable toothsom (some say) wholsome meate. I am sure our Company liked the meate of them verie well, and one Tortoyse would goe further amongst them than three Hogs. One Turtle (for so we called them) feasted well a dozen Messes, appointing sixe to every Messe. It is such a kind of meat as a man can neither absolutely call Fish nor Flesh, keepmg most what in the water, and feeding upon Sea-grasse like a Heifer, in the bottome of the Coves and Bayes, and laying their Egges (of which wee should find five hundred at a time in the opening of a shee Turtle) in the Sand by the shoare side, and so covering them close leave them to the hatching of the Sunne.” Governor Moore, in 1612, referred to the Sea-turtles as follows : “Turkles thare bee of a mightie bignesse : one Turkle will serve or suffice three or four score at a meale, especially if it be a shee Turkle, for she will have as many Egges as will suftice fiftie or three- score at a meale ; this I can assure you, for thay are very good and wholesome meate, none of it bad, no, not so much as the very guts and maw of it, for they are exceeding fat, and make as good tripes as your beastes bellies in England.” The great number of turtles destroyed in those early years caused their rapid decrease, even before 1620. In August of that year was passed “ An act agaynst the killing of over young Tortoyses.” 280 A. H. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 692 “Tn regard that much waste and abuse hath been offered and yet is by sundrye lewd and imp’vident p’sons inhabitinge wthin these Islands, who in there continuall goinges out to sea for fish doe upon all occasions, and at all tymes as they can meete with them, snatch & catch up indifferentlye all kinds of Tortoyses, both yonge & old, little and greate, and soe kill, carrye awaye and devoure them to the much decay of the breed of so excellent a fishe, the daylye skarringe of them from of our shores and the danger of an utter distroyinge and losse of them. It is therefore enacted by the Authoritie of this present Assembly That from hence forward noe manner of pson or psons of what degree or condition soever he be, inhabitinge or remayning at any time within these Islands, shall p’esume to kill or cause to be killed in any Bay, Sound, Harbor or any other place out to Sea: being within five leagues round about of those Islands, any young Tortoyses that are or shall not be found to be Eighteen inches in the Breadth or Dyameter, and that upon the penaltye for everye such offence of the fforfeyture of fifteen pounds of Tobacco, whereof the one half is to be bestowed in publique uses the other upon the Informer.”’ b6.—The Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas (L.) Sch.= O. viridis T. and S.). See p. 448.* Figure 47. At the present time this is much more common than either of the other species and is still taken in small numbers, for the market, by the turtle fishers of St. David’s Island, as described in a former chapter (p. 448). Those taken in recent years are nearly all young or half-grown specimens, seldom weighing more than 70 or 80 pounds, though sometimes 150 pounds or more. They have not been known to breed on the Bermuda shores for more than two hundred years, so far as I can learn. ‘Therefore all that are captured here come northward from the West indies in the Gulf Stream. In the West Indies they are believed to reach the weight of 15 to 20 pounds the first year; those weighing 80 to 100 pounds are thought to be three or four years old (Garman). In the West Indies green turtles have been taken weighing 850 pounds and even 1000 pounds, but such giants are now very rare, * Good accounts of the sea-turtles are given by Holbrook, North American Herpetology, ii, 1849: L. Agassiz, Contributions to the Nat. Hist. of the United States, ii, 1857; S. Garman, Bull. U. S. Nat. Museum, No. 25, pp. 287-3038, 1884 (with detailed synonymy); F. W. True, The Fisheries and Fishery Indus- tries of the United States, sec. ii, p. 147, 1884. 693 A. H. Verrilli— The Bermuda Islands. 281 though it seems that formerly they were not uncommonly found of similar sizes. Therefore, it is not improbable that the huge turtles mentioned as found breeding at the Bermudas by the early writers, quoted above, were really green turtles that had lived here unmo- lested to a great age and large size. In proof of this, Lieut. Nelson records the finding of huge skeletons of sea turtles, nine feet long and seven feet broad, in the sand dunes. (See under: Geology, Part 1V.) These may well have been the bones of large green turtles, killed by the early settlers for food. Figure 47.—Green Turtle. Figure 48.—Hawksbill. In the West Indies adult turtles, not of the largest size, will lay three or four lots of eggs, or sometimes five, at intervals of 14 or 15 days, with about 75 to 200 eggs in each lot, making a new nest each time. The total number might, therefore, be 500 to 1000. Thus the number of eggs, mentioned by Strachy as contained in those large turtles, may not have been exaggerated. The eggs hatch in six to eight weeks, according to the temperature, and the young take to the water at once.* The Green Turtle is peculiar in feeding chiefly on a vegetable diet, while the others are partly or mainly carnivorous. This species is particularly fond of the roots and crown or base of the “turtle grass” or eel-grass (Zostera marina), which grows in shallow water; but it will also eat various succulent sea-weeds,t and does not object to a certain amount of animal food. In confinement they will eat fish of any kind. They have now become rather shy and wary, so that their cap- ture, even in large seines, requires considerable skill and patience. eo The v very young turtles are devoured in large numbers by various pirds and fishes, and doubtless also by the, hawksbill and other sea-turtles. Sharks are fond of them, even when eight to twelve inches in diameter. + Mr. True mentions that the stomach of one taken at Noank, Conn., in 1874 was full of Irish Moss (Chondrus crispus), a very succulent and nutritious sea- weed, abundant on the rocks of the New England coast, just below ordinary low tides. This would make an excellent food for fattening these turtles in confinement. 282 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 694 There is every reason to believe that the Green Turtle could be raised artificially with much profit, at the Bermudas, in suitable localities, where they could be easily confined and fed on their natural food, or on some cheap substitutes.* The Green Turtle has a wide range, being found as far south as southern Brazil, and north to Cape Hatteras; rarely on the New England coast. Their numbers are rapidly decreasing, even in the West Indies, and if not protected they will become practically extinct in a few years. Their nests and eggs should be thoroughly protected, wherever possible, and the taking of female turtles on the beaches, while depositing their eggs, should be utterly prohibited, and a close period during their breeding season, from March to July, should be provided. t A similar species (C. virgata) occurs in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and is found on the California coast. ce.—The Hawksbill; Caret; Tortoise-shell Turtle. (Caretta imbri- cata (L.) Merr., 1820{ = Eretmochelys imbricata Fitz., Agassiz). Figure 48. This species, though less common than the Green Turtle, is still frequently taken about the Bermudas, and is sold for food, though * Whether they would breed in confinement is doubtful, but very young ones could be secured in the West Indies in large numbers, and brought to Bermuda in vessels provided with wells. They are believed to grow rapidly, but I have seen no record as to the amount of increase of those that are frequently kept in the natural fish ponds, as at Walsingham ; nor do I know whether they receive an abundance of suitable food in those places. They will eat purslane (Portu- lacca oleracea) and grow fat on it (Holbrook and others). This weed is still used to feed them in the turtle ponds at Bermuda. Probably they would also. eat many other land plants, such as pumpkins and cabbages. + At present it would probably be impossible to get the various governments, owning the islands on which the turtles breed, to codperate, to any great extent, in any such measures. They are more likely, as in the case of the fur seals, to wait until the species are exterminated before making laws to preserve them. Much might be done, however, by private owners taking up lands along the shores where they breed and protecting their nests and young, and raising the young for the nort hern markets. + The generic name Caretta Merr., 1820, has clear priority over Hretmochelys Fitz., 1843 (as a subgenus), adopted by Agassiz, as a genus, in 1857. As used in 1820, it included also Thalassochelys Fitz., 1841, but the elimination of the latter restricted the name to the type, C. imbricata, for which it should be used. Another allied species (C. squamata Ag., Kr.) is found in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and also occurs on the California coast. 695 A. FE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 9838 at a smaller price. It is taken in seines, in the same manner. When confined in the turtle ponds it is apt to bite the Green Turtles, being more pugnacious. It is carnivorous in its diet, feeding upon fishes, mollusks, crustacea, small sea-turtles, etc. These and all the other sea-turtles are said to be very fond of the Portuguese man-of-war (Physalia), which they eagerly devour, shutting their eyes to avoid the stings of its tentacles, which they continually brush away with their flippers, and when thus feeding they are so preoccupied that they can easily be approached by a boat and captured by hand.* In confinement they will eat meat and fish of all kinds, as well as turtle grass and purslane. This turtle never becomes so large as the Green Turtle, seldom exceeding 150 pounds in weight, even in the West Indies, though specimens much larger are sometimes taken. Those caught about the Bermudas are generally much smaller.t In the West Indies and on the Florida Keys they breed at the same season as the Green Turtle, and lay their eggs in the same way. The eggs are well flavored and much sought after as food by the natives, like those of the Green Turtle. The flesh of the young Hawksbill is considered palatable, and is often sold in our markets, but that of the old ones becomes tough and oily, so that it is not valued as food. In fact, it is said to be often very unwholesome in the West ‘Indies, having purgative properties, perhaps due to the food that it eats there. The shells or dermal plates of this and the similar Pacific species, known as tortoise-shell in commerce, is of considerable value, when taken from large adult specimens. ] ? ID description of this species. bo (o/s) (ep) A. HE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 698 they were as large as the unstriped ones, nor is it a sexual differ- ence. We also found it, in small numbers, on Charles (or Goat) Island, which has not been inhabited for 250 years, and is very dry and barren, with few insects, except ants, on which the lizard probably feeds. A few individuals were seen in certain places on the Main Island, in walls, but it was regarded as rare by the natives, many of whom had never seen it at all. Matthew Jones, 1859, reported it as common. The early writers did not mention it, but they were not close observers of small crea- tures. So far as known, it is an endemic species, not very closely related to any species found elsewhere. Its occurrence on the small Figure 51.—Bermuda Lizard (Humeces longirostris). barren islands indicates that its occupancy dates back to a remote period when nearly all the islands were united by land. Probably it was originally much more abundant and more gener- ally diffused than at present. Very likely the wood-rats and com- mon gray rats, which are abundant, prey upon its eggs and young, and thus reduce its numbers. Owing to its quickness and the inac- cessible holes to which it retreats, it can scarcely be destroyed by any other enemies here. There may be no rats on Castle Island,— at least we saw no evidence of any. This may account for its greater abundance there, where food would seem to be very scarce indeed. 32.— Decrease of certain Fishes and Shell-fish. a.—Former Abundance of Fishes. The early writers describe, in expressive terms, the remarkable abundance of the edible fishes when they first landed, and give lists of various species that they took, most of which can easily be identi- 699 A. EF. Verrili—The Bermuda Islands. bo DM ~T fied now. But they also state that the fishes soon became more shy and scarce, so that they had to go farther away at sea to catch them. The fishes have contributed largely to the food of the Bermudians, ever since the first settlement, and therefore it is not strange that they have decreased both in number and size. But it is difficult to determine definitely how much they have decreased, for accurate records and statistics are lacking. Moreover, it is possible that natural physical causes, as in the instance given above (ch. 19), may have, in other cases, caused the death of multitudes of fishes. How- ever, it has long been recognized in Bermuda that legal restrictions were necessary to prevent the wanton destruction of the fishes. Silvanus Jourdan, in 1610, gave the following account of the fishes : “Sir George Summers, a man inured to extremities (and knowing what thereunto belonged) was in this service neither idle nor back- warde, but presently by his careful industry went, and found out sufficient of many kind of fishes, and so plentifull thereof, that in half an houre he tooke so many fishes with hookes, as did suffice the whole company one day. And fish is there so abundant, that if a man steppe into the water, they will come round about him: so that men were faine to get out for feare of byting. These fishes are very fat and sweete, and of that proportion and bignesse that three of them will conveniently lade two men: those we call Rockfish.* Besides there are such store of mulletst that with a seane might be taken at one draught one thousand at the least, and infinite store of Pilchards, with divers kinds of great fishes, the names of them unknown to me: of tray fishes very great ones, and so great store, as that there hath been taken in one night with making lights, even sufficient to feed the whole company [150 persons] a day.” The following is an extract from the account of Wm. Strachy, 1610: “The shoares and Bayes round about, when wee landed first afforded great store of fish, and that of divers kindes, and good, but * The rock fishes (Mycteroperca bonaci and- other species, see plate xcv, figs. 3, 4) still grow to large size, those taken off the outer reefs sometimes weighing 80 to 100 pounds, but such large specimens are not now found in shallow water. Very likely the Hamlet Grouper (plate xev, fig. 2), may also have been here included as a Rockfish, though Hughes, in 1614, distinguished between groupers and rockfishes. This fish has always been one of the commonest of the large Bermuda market fishes, often weighing 20 to 30 pounds, but it may have been still larger and much more abundant at first. | White Mullets (Mugil Braziliensis), fig. 58, are still found here, but not in great abundance. Pilchards are still abundant. 288 A. EK. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 700 it should seeme that our fiers, which wee maintained on the shoares side drave them from us,* so as wee were in some want, untill wee had made a flat bottome Gundall of Cedar, with which wee put off farther into the Sea, and then daily hooked great store of many kindes, as excellent Angell-fish,t Salmon Peale [not identified], Bonetas, Stingray, Cabally, Senappers, Hogge-fish (Lachnolaimus), Sharkes, Dogge-fish, Pilchards, Mullets, and Rock-fish, of which bee divers kindes: and of these our Governour dryed and salted, and barrelling them up, brought to sea five hundred, for be had pro- cured Salt to bee made with some Brine, which happily was pre- served, and once having made a little quantity, he kept three or foure pots boyling, and two or three men attending nothing else in an house (some little distance from his Bay) set up on purpose for the same worke. Figure 52.—Green Angel-fish. Likewise in Furbushers building Bay wee had a large Sein, or Tramell Net, which our Governour caused to be made of the Deere Toyles, which wee were to carry to Virginia, by drawing the Masts more straight and narrow with Roape Yarne, and which reached from one side of the Dock to the other: with which (I may boldly say) wee have taken five thousand of small and great fish at one hale. As Pilchards,}| Breames, Mullets, Rocke-fish, &c., and other kindes for which wee have no names. ... True it is, for Fish in everie Cove and Creeke wee found Snaules, and Skulles in that abundance, as (I thinke) no Iland in the world may have greater store or better Fish.” The following is from Goy. Moore’s description, 1612: “With a hooke and line wee tooke more then our whole company was able to eate. So that there was enough to feed many more. * This was more likely due to the constant fishing carried on at that time. + The Green Angel-fish (Angelichthys ciliaris) is still common and highly - esteemed as a food fish. { This was probably the Harengula macrophthalma Ran., still called pilchard here, and often seined in large numbers in the spring. 701 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 289 The next day after the Sabbath wee went with our net and boat, and if we would have loaded two boats we might: and so you may do day by day. Fishes do so abound, and they be of these sorts, Mullets, Breames, Hogge fish, Rock fish and Lobsters [ Panulirus argus|, with more sorts of other Fish which I cannot name.” Figure 53.—White Mullet (Mugil Braziliensis). The following is by the Rev. Mr. Hughes, 1614 : “For the present Tobacco is the best commoditie, and for victuals, if men have boates, nets, lines, hookes, and striking irons, they may have good fish at all times, as Rockfish [ PI. xev, figs. 3, 4], Angell- fish, Hogge-fish, Amberfish [Serio/a], Cutlefish [Octopus or Squid], Pilot-fish, Hedgehogfish [Diodon|, Cunnyfish [Coney-fish, Pl. xev, fig. 1], Old wives, Stingraies, Snappers, Groopers, [hamlets], Cavallies, Morraies, Mullets, Mackerels, Pilchers | pilchards|, Breames, Lobsters, Turtles, Sharkes, &c. Also heere are Eeles in freshwater ponds [true Anguilla, still found]. Rivers here are none, but ponds and welles of very good and holsome water, and a water descending from an hill, which floweth and ebbeth with the. sea, and yet drinketh alwaies sweet like milke.” Governor Butler gave the following account of the fishes : “But above all the rest of the elements the sea is found most aboundantly liberall to thes islands ; hence have they as much excel- Figure 54.--Rockfish (Mycteroperca bonaci). lent fish and of a much varietye most easily taken as any place in the world ; the most of which being unknown to our more northerly partes, have lately gotten them names, either from their shapes or 290 A. FE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 702 conditions, as the large rock fish | Mycteroperca bonaci, and others], from his like hewe, and hauntinge among the rockes; the fatte hogge fish [Lachnolaimus maximus], from his swine-like shape and g co? BS =S a5 cy se SoS jee Va i 1 t H Figure 55.—Hog-fish (Lachnolaimus maximus). snoute (for this is not the old knowen [European] hogge fishe with prickles on his back); the delicate amber fish [Seréola], from his taste and smell; angell fish; cony fish, the smale yellowe tayle [ Ocyurus|, from that naturall pointeinge; the great grouper [hamlet grouper, pl. xcv, fig. 2], from his odd and strange gruntinge ; with many other kindes, some of them knowen to the Americans only, as the porguise [porgy], the cavallo, the garrfish ; the rst In common to them with other continents, as they are in parallel with them, as Figure 55a.—Amber-fish (Seriola Dumereili), V4. the whale, the sharke, the pilote fish, the sea-breame, the oyster [pearl oyster], the lobster [Panulirus, pl. xciv|; and, for the amphybians, the tortoise [sea-turtles], with divers others tedeous to reherse.” Most of the species here named are still called by the same names by the fishermen, both here and in the Bahamas. 703 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 29] We also learn from Governor Butler and Captain Smith, that in the famine of 1614-15 most of the people lived for some two or three months mainly on the fishes that were caught under the guid- ance of Governor Moore, who made great exertions in this direction. Governor Butler, in describing the famine, thus alludes to this fishing : “The people being once againe for the most part all of them at the towne, [after they had been removed from Port Royal] the Governour takes exceedeinge care for their releife, and trimminge up all his botes, manns them with the best and ablest of his men, and so putts them to continuall fishinge for the rest ; in so much that ordinarily 150 and sometimes 200 great fishes are brought home in a daye: at last the hookes and lines groweing scarce, he causeth the smithes to‘'make hookes of old rustye swords ; and cutting a cable belonging to the pinnace called the Thomas, setts the people on worck to make lines, and oft times would he rise himselfe at mid- night, call up his fishermen and sett them out to sea: with which course and by which meanes for two or three monethes wer the peo- ple in some convenient fashion kept and maintayned.” We learn other details of this matter from Mr. Hughes and Capt. John Smith, who add that finally these crude hooks and lines gave out, and then there was much suffering and many deaths from disease and starvation. For a number of years after this, the wild hogs, sea-birds, and sea-turtles having been already mostly destroyed, the fishes furnished a large proportion of their food, and some of these early writers speak of the rapid decrease in their numbers. ‘This decrease in the fishes, due to overfishing, soon attracted the attention of the govern- ment. In March, 1627, the Assembly passed the following law : “ An act against the drawing of Pilchards and ffrye to make oyle.” ‘“¢ Whereas it hath bene and still is a usuall Custome of the Inhab- itants of theise Islands to hale and draw pilchards in severall bayes and places where they doe frequent, more for the benefitt of the oyle than present use of fishing, to the generall losse of the same Inhab- itants, not only by reason of the destroying of very much frye but also to the greate losse and prejudice of the said Inhabitants by chasing away other greate fishe from the shoare, weh live upon the said frye. And further doth hereby cause the said Pilchards and other small fish to be so shie that there is greate scarciety of Bayte for necessary fishing, wch beeing considered by this worthye and grave assemblie. It is enacted by the power and authoritye of the 292 A, E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 704 same. That from henceforth noe manner of pson whatsoever do hale or drawe any pilchards or other frye or small fish (uniess for baite or food) out of any of the bayes or other places belonging to these Islands as aforesaid. And the rather for that it is a greate reliefe being taken only for baite to bring in sea fishe, and otherwise a greate losse, especially in tyme of scarceitye of corne. And it is further enacted by the power and authority aforesaid, that noe mar of what quality so ever shall hale or drawe in any bay or about any Island wth any long netts any manner of breames, to the distruccon and fraying of the greate fishe from shoare, but only wth netts of Tenn fathom long at the most, in forfeiture of the said netts soe used to be sould, and converted to genrall uses of the plantacon.” Capt. John Smith, in 1629, says that there were “fish enough but not so much near the shore as it used.” A law was passed Jan., 1677, against taking ‘“ White-bone Porgaye” when schooling in April and May, except for immediate family use. Modern laws, regulating and restricting the methods of fishing, have been in force for many years, and have, without doubt, been very useful in preserving some of the most valuable fishes.* Although the records are rather indefinite, there can be no doubt whatever that the larger and more important fishes decreased very rapidly during the first 20 years of the settlement, and probably they continued to decrease more gradually during all the 17th and 18th centuries, because during that time the inhabitants used fish very largely as food, there being but little meat or fish imported. Moreover, there was a considerable fishery carried on in the 18th century for the export trade with the West Indies. The fishes exported are said to have been mostly Hamlet Groupers (Hpinephelus striatus), but probably various other large fishes were taken for this purpose, especially the several species of Rockfishes (as MJyetero- perca bonaci, M. tigris, M. falcata, pl. xcv), and the large Hogfish (Lachnolaimus maximus, fig. 55). The latter was evidently very * During the months of May, June, July, and August, it is illegal to catch any fish with a net of less than a four inch mesh—excepting turtle, cast, or fry nets, the use of which, for their respective purposes, is not prohibited. The catching of Oysters and Scallops is illegal during the same months. Harrington Sound is prohibited water the year round for any other than a cast-net, used to take fish. The selling of Rockfish and Hogfish under 2 lbs.; Porgy and Hamlet under 1 1b.; Shad, Bream, Yellow Grunt, Chub, and Mullet under 5 inches in length is illegal. Turtles (except the Hawksbill) must not be taken if under 10 lbs. in weight, save for the purpose of stocking turtle ponds. The destruction of fish in inland waters by explosives is prohibited. 705 A. E. Verrilli— The Bermuda Islands. 293 abundant in the early times, for it gave its name to Hogfish Cut, Hogfish Ledge, and Hogfish Beacon. At present it is by no means abundant, though many of moderate size, the largest weighing 15 to 20 pounds, are still brought to the markets. However, owing to the great extent of the outer reefs, it is not likely that the fishery will be reduced much below its present standard by the methods now practiced. ¢e.—The Bermuda Lobster. (Panulirus argus.) Figure 56. Puate XCIV; Ficure 1. Most of the early writers mention the Lobster or Crayfish as abundant, and Strachy says that they could be found under stones, on the shores, indicating that it was far more abundant than at pres- Figure 56.—-A large Bermuda Lobster (Panulirus argus), and a characteristic Bermuda fish-trap. ent, though it is still taken in considerable quantities, both in traps and by spearing it. The fish and lobster traps used in Bermuda are rather peculiar .in construction, looking like two square crates, united cornerwise, and with the funnel-shaped entrance in the reén- trant angle. (Figure 56.) But the principle involved is the same as Trans. Conn. Acap., Vou. XI. 45 JuLy, 1902. 294 A. EF. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 706 in the simpler New England lobster pots. A skillful person may still obtain many lobsters by quietly rowing along the reefs and rocky shores and spearing those that show themselves in front of their holes or dens, which are under stones or in cavernous places in the reefs. They rarely weigh more than 20 pounds, but most that are taken for the market do not exceed 4 or 5 pounds. As they have no large claws, the weight is much less, in proportion to the size of the body, than in the American lobster. The flavor is equally good, but perhaps rather sweeter. The colors, especially in the young, are bright and striking, the back is greenish, specked with yellow; usually there is a row of two or three large, round, pale, yellowish spots along each side of the back of the abdomen ; the telson and caudal appendages are hand- somely banded near the borders with black and white; the legs are light blue, whitish below. The decrease in the numbers of the large and voracious fishes, like the groupers and rockfishes, would naturally have had a tendency to cause an increase in the number of lobsters, for those fishes and many others depended upon the lobsters for a part of their food. This, in a measure, has counteracted the effects of the lobster fisher- men. Owing to the absence of claws the Bermuda lobster is a very helpless and timid creature, depending for safety upon quickly retreating into its holes on the approach of an enemy. It has great fear of the Octopus, which often captures it. d.—The Land Crabs. (Gecarcinus lateralis Frem., etc.) FIGURE 97. The Land Crabs were mentioned by Capt. John Smith as very abundant and injurious, “ As thick in their Burrows as conies in a Warren and doe much hurt.” Figure 57.--Land Crab. (Gecarcinus lateralis.) Complaints were also made that persons in digging them for bait trespassed on the lands of others and did much damage by digging large holes, so that an early law was passed to prevent that evil. Or 707 A. EH. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 29 No mention is made of its being used as food, except in one instance, by Capt. Smith (see under Whelk). This may, however, have been common in times of scarcity, for the land crabs are much eaten in the West Indies, by the natives. This smaller land crab is still common enough in certain barren and sandy localities, as at Tucker’s Town, and especially on the smaller uninhabited islands, wherever there is sandy soil, but it is evidently far less abundant than formerly. Probably the introduc- tion of poultry was an important cause of this decrease, for turkeys, chickens, and other species will greedily devour the young crabs. The adult crabs often make a burrow three or four feet deep and six to seven feet long. These are often situated among the matted roots of cedars, or between and under large rocks, so that they are very secure: The living specimens are reddish brown or chocolate- brown above. The great Land Crab (Cardisoma Guanhumi Lat.) is compara- tively rare. It is often 16 to 18 inches across its outstretched legs, with the carapax three to four inches across. It makes very large and deep holes. We saw a number of these holes at Hungry Bay, among the roots of cedars, where they could not be dug out without great labor. It also occurs on Cooper’s Island, whence I have a specimen sent by J. M. Jones, many years ago. Mr. Moseley ob- tained specimens by using torches at night, which we did not have an opportunity to try. This species was probably much more abun- dant formerly than at present. e.—The Devil Fish; Octopus ; “ Scuttle.” (Octopus rugosus Bosc). PuatE XCIV ; FicuRE 2. This large octopus is by no means uncommon, but the fishermen claim that it was formerly more abundant. The decrease in the large Rockfishes and Groupers that feed on the Octopus would seem to have favored its increase, but on the other hand, it is taken by the fishermen in considerable numbers for bait, by the use of grains. It is sometimes eaten by the natives, but probably to no great extent, owing to the abundance of excellent fishes. I am not aware that it is ever brought to the market, as it is in many other countries. The largest are said to have weighed 40 to 50 pounds, with arms 7 or 8 feet long. The largest that we caught by hand were only about five feet across the outstretched arms.* * We captured about a dozen by hand, in shallow water, suddenly grabbing them around the neck and holding them firmly till their violent struggles were subdued. They make a lively fight for a short time. 296 A, FE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 708 J.— Gastropods: Whelks ; Conchs, ete. The “ Wilk,” or West Indian Whelk. (Livona pica.) See p. 464, figure 22a. This mollusk was apparently referred to by Strachy in 1610, under the name of Wilke: “ We have taken also from under the broken Rockes, Crevises,* oftentimes greater than any of our best English Lobsters ; and likewise abundance of Crabbes, Oysters [Pearl oys- ters|, and Wilkes.” Capt. John Smith, describing the famine of 1614-15, says: “One amongst the rest hid himself in the woods, and lived only on Wilkes and Land Crabs, fat and lusty, many moneths.” Henry May mentioned that they burned the shells of “ wilkes” and pieces of limestone to make cement for the seams of their vessel, by mixing the lime with turtle oil. These and other incidental allusions to the “ wilk,” render it prob- able that this mollusk, still known as “the whelk” or “wilk” in the West Indies, and used there in many places as food, was abun- dant at the time of the settlement of Bermuda and was used as food, more or less. It is a shallow water species, with a large conspicuous shell, and therefore easily taken. | But no living specimens have ever been found here in modern times,t so far as recorded, nor could I learn that any had been taken within the memory of the oldest inhabitants. However, its shells are abundant as fossils in the sand dunes and in the eolian limestones all over the islands, where they had doubtless been carried on the backs of the land hermit crabs (Cenobita diogenes, see fig. 22a, p. 464). At present these same crabs again utilize the old fossil shells, when they find them weathered out and scattered loose on the sur- face, as they often are. We also dredged up two dead, but perfect, specimens from about ten feet of water, in “The Reach,” at St. George’s, but they may have been buried under the calcareous mud many years, without showing much alteration. Somewhat better evidence was obtained by digging in the kitchen middens at Castle Island, probably deposited about 1812, in which we found a few broken but unaltered shells of this species, looking as if they had been broken to extract the meats. * This is the Bermuda Lobster (Panulirus argus), still common, but now rarely found under the stones on the shore. + During our visit in 1901, a large number of these ‘‘ whelks,” brought alive from the Bahamas, were liberated in Hamilton Harbor, by Mr. Roberts, .so it may become naturalized here. 709 A. E, Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 297 It is probable, therefore, that this was a species formerly common, but exterminated by the settlers for food. Probably it was rare even in 1812, otherwise there would have been more shells in the kitchen middens. The last of the race may have been exterminated by the soldiers in 1812, or perhaps by some natural cause, about that time. The Great Conch or Pink Conch. (Strombus gigas.) The large pink conch has, in recent times, been so extensively fished for sale to visitors that its numbers have very much decreased, though some are still taken in a few places. One of its localities is in Castle Harbor, about half a mile north of Castle Island ; another is in Great Harbor. The Trumpet Shell. (Triton variegatus.) This large shell has also become rare in these waters, only a few scattering specimens being now found. The Spotted Cowrie. (Cyprea exanthema.) This handsome shell has also become very rare, like several others that are caught for sale as curiosities. Some of the specimens for- merly taken were of great size and very handsomely colored. I have seen some that were 44 inches or more in length. g— Bivalves: Scallops ; Oysters, ete. The Scallop. (Pecten ziczac Lam.) This large scallop is still found in small numbers in certain parts of Harrington Sound and in a few other localities, but is said to be much less abundant than formerly. Its flesh (adductor muscle) is well flavored and it is, therefore, much in demand. ‘ The Oyster; Pearl Oyster. (Margaritophora radiata Lam.) The so-called oyster of Bermuda is not a real oyster, but is a true pearl oyster, smaller in size than most of the pearl oysters of the Pacific and Indian oceans. It is, however, used to a considerable extent as food, but is neither so tender nor so palatable as the Ameri- can oyster, nor does it contain so much nutritive material. It is still fairly abundant in certain parts of Harrington Sound and many other places, but is said to be less abundant and smaller than for- merly, owing to overfishing. In the early days of Bermuda, the settlers and the Company had great hopes of finding valuable pearls in these shells, but though bo Wo) io) A. EH. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 710 some were obtained, they were so few and small that the search was soon abandoned as unprofitable. Silvanus Jourdan wrote as follows: “There is great store of Pearle and some of them very fair round and orientall, and you shall find at least one hundred seede pearle* in one oyster.” The Mussle. (Arca Noe U..) It is curious that the name “ mussle”’ should have been transferred to this shell, which is fished up in considerable quantities for food. It is mostly obtained by means of “nippers ” in shallow water, for it often grows in large clusters, firmly attached to rocks, ete., and to each other, by a very strong byssus. Usually it is intermixed with © ‘oysters ” in the clusters. It is still abundant in Harrington Sound and many other places, and perhaps it has not decreased to any great extent. It is not particularly well flavored and is rather tough, and therefore is not in much demand. A true mussle (Modiola tulipa), large enough for the market, is also found here, but I could not learn that it is caught for food, nor does it seem to be abundant. The “rock cockles” (Chama, sp. and Spondylus, sp.) are some- times collected to some extent for food, but not regularly. They are fairly well flavored, as I ascertained by trial. Some of the large species of Ze/lina are also used as food under the name of “clams.” But the large and common bivalve called “‘Spanish Clam” ( Codakia tigrina) is considered poisonous. 33.—Introduction of Domestic Animals. a.—The Wild Hogs. (See p. 589.) In a previous chapter the introduction of the wild hogs has been described as probably due to pirates or buccaneers who visited the islands in the 16th century, rather than to the accidents of ship- wrecks, for in case of shipwrecks any hogs that might have been. saved would probably have been afterwards killed and eaten by the people who escaped. The chances of hogs escaping from a total wreck on the distant reefs would be very small. Henry May and his party, in 1593, found them there. He said : “In the South part of this Island of Bermuda there are hogs, but they are so leane that you cannot eat them, by reason the Island is so barren, but it yieldeth great store of fowle, fish and tortoises.” * It seems from another account that this referred to a single lucky find, which was not repeated. elal A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 299 This was probably on St. George’s where they landed, and the sea- son was unfavorable for the hogs. There must have been a long period of famine for the hogs every winter, after the cedar and palmetto berries were all gone, for at that time, and perhaps partly in consequence of their previous ravages (see p. 589), there were but few other edible plants for them on the islands, though they could always find more or less food cast up by the sea on the beaches. Silvanus Jourdan stated that Sir George Somers sometimes took 32 hogs in one day. His party of 150, who lived nine months on the islands, not only depended largely on the hogs for food, but also took a supply of the dried flesh to Virginia. But they also took pains to gather food to fatten them in confinement. Strachy gave the following graphic account of the wild hogs as they existed in 1609:— “Wee had knowledge that there were wilde Hogges upon the land, at first by our owne Swine preserved from the wrack and brought to shoare: for they straying into the woods, an huge wilde Boare followed downe to our quarter, which at might was watched and taken in this sort. One of Sir George Summer’s men went and lay among the Swine, when the Boare being come and groveled by the Sowes, hee put over his hand and rubbed the side gently of the Boare, which then lay still, by which meanes hee fastened a rope with a sliding knot to the hinder legge and so tooke him, and after him in this sort two or three more. But in the end (a little busi- nesse over) our people would goe a hunting with our Ship Dogge, and sometimes bring home thirtie, sometimes fiftie Boares, Sowes, and Pigs in a weeke alive ; for the Dog would fasten on them and hold, whilest the Hunts-men made in: and there bee thousands of them in the Ilands, and at that time of the yeere, in August, Sep- tember, October, and November, they were well fed with Berries that dropped from the Cedars and the Palmes, and in our quarter wee made styes for them, and gathering of these Berries served them twice a day, by which meanes we kept them in good plight ; and when there was any fret of weather (for upon every increase of wind the billow would be so great, as it was no putting out with our Gundall or Canow) that we could not fish nor take Tortoyses, then wee killed our Hogs. But in February when the Palme Berries began to be scant or dry and the Cedar Berries failed two months sooner, true it is the Hogs grew poore, and being taken so, wee could not raise them to be better for besides those Berries, we had nothing wherewith to franke them.” 300 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 712 In Governor Moore’s report, of 1612, the following occurs: “Some sixe days after our coming, | July] we sent out for Hogges, so the company which went out brought home some. I hould your mutton of England not of so sweet and pleasant a taste.” Hughes, in 1614, wrote as follows: “Here is no kinde of beasts but hogges and cattes and they but in one or two places which are thought to come at first by meanes of shippe-wracke. The hogges were manie but are now brought to a small number.” The wild hogs were probably nearly all exterminated within the next two or three years; indeed it is probable that most of them were killed in 1614 and 1615, during the partial famines that then prevailed among the settlers. Governor Butler, in 1619, wrote that there were then “some fewe wild.” Probably many of the wild ones were taken alive and kept as domestic hogs. But tame hogs were also taken there from England by the early settlers, in 1612-16, and increased very rapidly, as soon as corn and other food could be provided for them in winter, so that Governor Butler, in 1619, said that they were “in great numbers.” Figs were used, a little later, to fatten the hogs. (See p. 631.) Hver since that time hogs have been abundant. b6.—The Plague of Wood Rats. (Mus tectorwm Savi.) See p. 590. It was generally believed by the early writers, but without suffi- cient reasons, that this very destructive rodent was first brought to Bermuda about January, 1614, in the runaway frigate commanded by Capt. Daniel Elfred, but the name of the frigate was not given. She arrived two months before the “ Blessinge,” and thus relieved the famine which then prevailed. This was largely due to the fact that the earlier visitors did not notice any rats. Thus Silvanus Jourdan, 1610, says: “The countrey (foreasmuch as I could finde myself, or heare by others) affords no venimous creature or so much as a Rat or a mouse, or any other thing unwholesome.” But such writers were not likely to have noticed a strictly noctur- nal species like this, which at that time was confined to the cedar forests. Governor Butler, in speaking of this arrival, wrote as follows: “But howsoever this runne away frigate brought with her a timely and acceptable sacrifice of her meale; yet the companions of rales A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 301 her meale, numbers of ratts (which wer the first that the ilands ever sawe), being received with-all and on a soudaine multiplyinge them- selves by an infinite increase (for ther is noe place in the world so proper for them), within the space of one only yeare they became so terrible to the poore inhabitants, as that (like one of Pharaoths plagues) the whole plantation was almost utterly subverted therby ; and so farr gone it was at last, that it proved Captaine Tucker’s masterpiece all his time (which was not long after) to devise trapps and stratagems to conquer and destroye them, though indeed all of them proved to noe purpose (as you shall see hereafter) untill after- wards, one moneth of cold and wett weather [probably March, 1618] did the deed.” In a later chapter he gave many additional details. He, like Hughes, attributed the death of the rats mainly to a spell of cold rainy weather, but this was, of course, derived from the statements of others, for it happened before his arrival there. Other writers denied that the weather had been any colder than on various other occasions. His fuller account is as follows: “Sone after the conclusion of this assize [March, 1618] came a hotte alarme from Sands his tribe, of a fierce assault made by the ratts upon their new sette corne, who scratched it out of the ground in the night as fast as they put it in in the day; thes race of ratts being (as you have heard) first brought in by the runne away frigate from the West Indies, in Mr. Moores time, began presently so sylently and sodainely to encrease (ther being noe place of the world more apt to nourish them, partly by reason of the sweet temper of the aire, but especially through the general shelter and covert that it affords them) that they then became felt before they wer feared, and yet not so duely feared as befitted ; so that little or noethinge being done against them at that time, and lesse in the lazie dayes of the six Governours [1615-16], they wer by this time gotten to so ranck a head that swimeinge in huge troupes from iland to iland (for fishes have bin taken three leagues of at sea with whole ratts in their bellyes), they eate up the whole country before them, wheresoever they went, utterly devoureinge all the corne they mett with all in an instant ; so that, in despight of all the catts sent from out of England, and the layeinges of poyson, the Governours often firemge of the whole ilands, to the huge waste and spoyle of much excellent cedar timber, or whatsoever els could be devised against them, they every day more and more so multiplied and grew upon the poore amazed people, as that it very little wanted that the 302 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 714 whole place had once againe bin utterly and quite left voide of her reasonable inhabitants: and with out all question, this ill had not fayled to have befallen, had not God (who noe doubt hath an especiall worck in the peopling of thes partes with Christians), by his owne hand, in great merey, swept them all away in an instant, when it was least expected ; for not long after that the Governour (having thus received this loathed report of this ratt-warre in Somersett, and being at his non-plus of newe devises to helpe him- selfe), had determined once againe to fall upon another generall burneinge of the whole ilands, to the extreame discontent of all men, and especially of Mr. Lewes [Hughes] the minister, who openly preached against it, so that the Governour could never endure him afterwards ; behold by a soudaine fall of a great store of raine, and some cold northerly windes bloweinge with all, in a moment, and when noe man durst so much as hope for so happy a turne, thes mightie armies of ravenous ratts are clean taken awaye, vanish, and are scarce one to be found in a share; but in steed of - them, shortly after, come in marchinge towards the houses, whole troupes of great and fatte wild catts, who havienge formerly found foode ynough upon these vermin abroad, and so become wild and savage, are now againe in this their necessitie, and by want of wonted reliefe, forced to returne to their first tamenesse.” The Rev. Mr. Hughes, who was present during part of the time, gave the following account: “Tet not the hand of God, which lay heavy upon you in Captain Tucker’s time [1616-18], be forgotten, when the rats did abound, and goe by sea from Iland to Iland, so as no Iland was free, but all were like so many Coney-warrens: I say they went by sea from Iland to Iland, because fishes have at divers times been taken three leagues off at sea, with Rats in their mawes, which sheweth plainly that the Rats did swim, and were snapt up of the Fishes. Consider what a plague of God they were unto you beth within dores and without : within they devoured your Corne and other provision of foode, and your cloathes and shooes (as myselfe has good cause to remember :) without, they devoured your corne by scraping it out of the ground, when it was new set, the grains which were thrust in so deepe as they could not scrape [rotted], untill God in mercy hear- ing our poore prayers, tooke them away, on the sodaine in three or foure dayes. I mention the time, because I took good notice of it. As soon as the Rats were destroyed wild Cats, that were neither seene nor knowne to be in any such abundance, came marching out 715 A. BH. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 303 of the woods, to your houses, six, seven, or eight in a company : then lt was in every bodie’s mouth, that the Cats had destroyed the Rats, and some said that the coldnesse of Winter killed them. I remember indeede that we-had a very colde time a little before they were destroyed, which, (I am persuaded) God in mercy did send for the killing of them, nor (as some doe) to the Traps, nor to the ruinat- ing of the Islands with fire ; and take heede that your unthankful- ness bring them not againe, or some other plague as bad.” Capt. John Smith, in his General History, 1624, gave a detailed account of these rats, compiled chiefly from the works of Butler and Hughes, but with a few additions from other sources.* Among other items he stated that every man was enjoyned to set twelve traps and some set nearly a hundred, which they visited twice each night, and that they used ratsbane, and both cats and dogs in large numbers, setting fire, and various other devices, ‘‘but could not prevaile, finding them still increasing against them; nay they so devoured the fruits of the earth that they were destitute of bread for a year or two.” He also discussed the various supposed causes of their sudden death, and objected to the theory that it was due to cold, for he said that “they wanted not the feathers of young birds and chickens which they daily killed, and Palmetto mosse to builde themselves warm nests out of the wind; as usually they did;t neither doth it appeare that the cold was so mortal to them, seeing they would ordinarily swimme from place to place, and bee very fat even in the midst of winter.” He concluded, therefore, that “there was joyned with and besides the ordinary and manifest meanes, a more mediate and secret work of God.” The real cause of their sudden disappearance, as mentioned above (p. 590) was, in all probability, starvation,{ after they had destroyed all available sources of food, in consequence of their vast increase. This disappearance of food, in the winter, would necessarily cause their sudden death, “all in three or four days,” as Mr. Hughes stated. A very few, however, seem to have survived, for they have * His account has been copied entire in Lefroy’s Memorials, I, and by J. M. Jones, in Bull. 25, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 158. Therefore I have not repeated it here, but only give the facts supplementary to the others. +In another place he says the nests were built in trees, thus proving that it was the wood-rat. {It is curious that their starvation was not thought of as the actual cause of their death, neither by the early writers nor by Jones and others who have dis- cussed this subject in modefn times, especially as Hughes and others recog- nized the potency of starvation in the case of the cats and hogs. 304 A. FE. Verrili— The Bermuda Islands. 716 been found there in recent times, in small numbers.* They are now probably kept down to small numbers by the gray rats, which are now common, even in the woods and fields, as we learned by trap- ping them in 1901. We did not succeed in taking wood-rats, but that may have been because we did not have an opportunity to set traps in the thick swamps, to which they are mainly confined, it is said. But most of the planters, who were questioned, claimed that they had never seen such a rat. Therefore it is probably local and not in any large numbers. Matthew Jones, 1884, fully describes the nests found in cedar trees, and sometimes in low bushes in the swamps. He states that they are spherical and about a foot in diameter, lined with soft materials. Mr. Hurdis also mentions find- ing this species in 1850, but says he met with it only once in four- teen years, and never saw the nest. Jones says that they did much damage to the oranges. In 1898, I saw bananas damaged on the trees by rats, as the owners said ; and very likely by this species, though the more common brown rat might also ascend the banana stalks. As for the time and mode of introduction of this species, it seems to me impossible to believe that it was first taken there by the frigate, in 1614. This frigate might have had some of these rats on board, but she was more likely to have had the common domestic rats, which may have escaped to the shores and thus gave rise to the notion that the subsequent rat plague was due to them. But the vast numbers in which the wood-rat appeared a year or two later (one year according to Butler) cannot by any possibility be explained by the natural increase from any number likely to have been contained in any one ship ; for there must have been tens of thousands of them, and that in spite of the numerous wild and half- wild cats then on the islands. Probably these rats had found their way to the islands at a much earlier period, either by shipwrecked vessels from the West Indies, or by the buccaneers landing there. They may have been introduced at the same time as the wild hogs. It is also possible that they might have been introduced by the ship- wreck of the Bonaventura, in 1593, for they are such good swimmers that they could easily have reached the land from the wreck at North Rocks. Even in the latter case they would have had 21 years to increase before they attracted attention by their numbers. I am more inclined to believe that they were introduced even earlier than that. * Butler stated that a very few were left in his time, 1621. 717 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 305 As they are very nocturnal in their habits and inhabit by preter- ence the thick woods and swamps, it is not strange that the early writers did not observe them, even if common. But after the settlers began to plant corn and other crops and fruits attractive to these rats, they naturally began to collect around the plantations and storehouses in large numbers, especially in winter and spring, when their natural food was scarce, and thus forced themselves into notice at once. At the same time this new source of supply of food in the winter would have prevented the death of large numbers by starvation, as may have occurred previously on many occasions, for their sources of food supply, like those of the hogs, were very limited at that season, for lack of native edible plants and seeds. (See pp. 589, 590.) The Wood-rat can easily be distinguished from the other rats by having a more hairy and less scaly tail, and especially by the pure white, or nearly white, color of its under parts, while its back is light chestnut-brown. It is smaller than the brown rat, and not so stout. It is a native of the warmer parts of the Old World, but was early introduced into the West Indies, Central America, and the southern United States. e.—Common Rats and Mice; Bats. The Brown or Gray Rat (Mus decumanus Pallas) and the mouse (MW. musculus L.) are very common in Bermuda, both in and about the buildings and in the woods and fields, far away from houses. We have no positive data as to when they were introduced, but the mouse was probably there in the early years of the settlement. The Gray Rat probably did not arrive till the middle of the 18th cen- tury or later. , The Black Rat (Mus rattus L.) was formerly very common, but has been largely exterminated by the brown rat, which arrived later, as in most other places in America. Hurdis states that it was common about 1850. Jones, 1884, states that it was rare. This rat, like the mouse, was probably introduced from Europe with the early settlers, or from the West Indies on the “runaway frigate,” in 1614. There are no native land mammals* in Bermuda, except a few migrating North American bats. * J. M. Jones thought that he had seen a shrew, 1876, but it has not been seen by others. A single specimen of a seal, supposed to be Phoca vitulina, was taken in April, 1887. Its skin was preserved by Bartram, and is still extant, but I did not see it. Bartram recorded its capture in the Royal Gazette, at the time. It was also noticed by Hurdis (Rough Notes, p. 340). No other instance is known. It might be the young of the West Indian Seal. 306 A, KE. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 718 Two species of bats are known to occur here apparently during their'autumnal migrations, but yet they may have been brought in the holds of vessels. Others may hereafter be observed. The most common is the Hoary or Gray Bat (Atalapha cinerea (Beauy.) Peters ; Allen,* p. 155, pl. xxix—-xxxi = Vespertilio pruinosus Say, and in Jones, 1876, and Hurdis= Lasiwrus cinereus in Jones, 1884). Several instances of the occurrence of this species are given by Hurdis and others, but only in autumn. The other, which is much more rare, is the Silver-haired Bat (Lasionyteris noctivagans (Lec.) Peters; Allen, 1893, p. 105, pl. xu; xiv=Scotophilus noctivagans in Jones, 1884). This was recorded as taken alive by Hurdis, Oct. 8, 1850. It is singular that there are no native bats known here, for the numerous caves would seein to afford excellent homes for them. Some of the earliest writers mention the occurrence of bats, but they were probably only the migratory species named above, though the season of the year was not given. Possibly there were resident species at that time. d.—The Wild or Half-wild Cats. In the accounts quoted above, Strachy, Hughes, and Governor Butler (pp. 712-715) describe the great abundance of feral cats that came out of the wood to the settlements, when the rats died out, as an unexpected and surprising event. They evidently believed that the cats had been on the islands before the settlement in 1612, and that they had been living there in the feral condition, feeding on the . rats. This may have been correct, and if so it would go to prove that the rats had also been there longer than was then supposed. It is mentioned that the party shipwrecked there in 1609 saved their ship dog and also some live hogs. (See Strachy’s account, quoted above.) Therefore they probably also saved their cats, if they had any, which is almost certain to have been the case. These cats escaping into the woods and increasing as they do there, might have given rise, in the nine years, to the large number observed in 1618. Possibly cats may have been introduced still earlier, like the hogs, but we have no record of any being there in 1609. Doubtless the settlers carried cats there in 1612, and perhaps every year after- wards, so that their numbers need not have been surprising. * Harrison Allen, M.D., Monograph of the Bats of North America, Bulletin U.S. National Museum, No. 43, 1893. 719 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 307 e.— Cattle and other Domestic Animals. A few cattle, goats, sheep, and English rabbits or coneys were sent over very soon after the settlement, in 1612, but these first importations were probably mostly, if not all, destroyed during the famine of 1615. Governor Butler, as mentioned above, stated that the lazy people then colonized at Port Royal, rather than to fish, killed for food the few cattle then existing and pretended to the Governor that they ran into the sea and were drowned. But prob- ably other cattle were sent out by nearly every magazine ship, for several years, till they increased naturally and became common. Governor Butler mentioned that Governor Tucker, in 1616, was engaged in building fences, to protect his introduced plants against domestic animals, and stated that the cattle had beén sent partly by the general Company, but mostly by the Earl of Warwick. Governor Butler, in 1619, also wrote as follows: -** As for the beasts of the field,—cowes and bulls ther are which prosper exceedingly ; hogges (wherof some fewe wilde) in great numbers; Indian and English goates likewise, but of noe great hope, * for (like the pigeons) they are also found dead and dieinge in every corner;* and lastly, there are a late great increase of tame conyes, the which, being reserved in certaine empaled places about the houses, are ther fedd with the potatoe slipps and other simples native of the place, the which they eate very greedely ; they fare well withall.” Sheep do not appear to have been kept in large numbers, at any time. Probably they did not thrive very well, as in most hot climates. But Hughes, in 1615, says: “The Calves and Lambes that we brought out of England, did prosper exceedingly, till the hunters met with them.” jf.—Hfforses. I can tind no record of the arrival of horses, mules, or asses in the early years, nor any mention of their presence there for many years later. The narrowness of the highways and of the early streets in St. George’s indicates that horses and carriages were not commonly used there till long after the settlement. Probably the earliest horses were only used for horseback riding, by the more wealthy * Doubtless due to poisonous plants that they ate, including tobacco. (See p. 592.) At the present time goats are common enough. 308 A. EF. Vervill—The Bermuda Islands. 720 people. The general use of boats for the transportation of goods and persons rendered horses of less importance than in most places. Horses, however, must have become somewhat common by 1672, for some of the militia men were mounted, and orders were given to have the horses trained so that they would stand the noise of drums and the discharge of firearms. 34.—Introduction of Birds. a.—Poultry. Domestic poultry, including turkeys, were probably introduced by the earliest settlers, in 1612, and became abundant in a few years, though Governor Butler stated that the geese and pigeons, like goats, did not succeed very well at first. But probably this was only a temporary drawback, due to unaccustomed food. Governor Butler, 1619, mentions the poultry, as follows : “ And thes are the natives of the ayre ; to which have bin added, ‘by the late inhabitants, great store of turkeys and abundance of cocks and hens, which every daye growe wilde ; numbers of tame chicks, and some fewe geese and house pigeons; but thes last two like not so well, for by some disagreeinge foode they kill them- selves.” - Probably some of the native fruits and seeds, which they had not then learned to avoid, were poisonous to these fowls.* | The Rev. Mr. Hughes, 1614, says :: “The cocks and hennes wee brought with us doe prosper and increase much, and are a great comfort unto us.”’ Ducks and the Guinea Fowl or Pintado were introduced later, as also the Peacock, ete. Mr. Hurdis (p. 407) also mentions the South American Powee or Crested Curassow, as not uncommon in his time, kept with other poultry as an ornamental bird. Domestic Pigeons at certain periods appear to have become halt wild, and are said to have nested in holes and caverns of the cliffs. One locality is still called Pigeon Cave. At present they are not abundant, so far as we observed. * Mr. Hurdis, Rough Notes, p. 303, states that he repeatedly tried, without success, to keep imported fowls bought from vessels, but they invariably died very soon, though the native ones were perfectly healthy. Some of the people complained to us that the Octopus often seized and killed their ducks and geese. Tail A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 309 6.— Game Birds, etc. The American Quail or Bobwhite. (Colinus Virginianus (L.) Les.) Ficure 58. The early writers do not mention any bird of this sort, therefore it is altogether probable that the Quails said to have been found here in the wild state more than sixty years ago were introduced by some enterprising person at an earlier period, but of this no record is known tome. Possibly some governor or army officer fond of shoot- ing game may have done this.* But it seems to have become extinct Figure 59.—Mocking Bird (Mimus poly- glottos (L.) Brewer= M. Carolinensis white (Colinus Virginianus (L.) Cab.) Both from Webster’s Inter- Les.) national Dictionary. here before 1840. Mr. Hurdis, during his entire residence, 1840 to 1855, did not meet with it. It was subsequently introduced again, by Mr. Richard Darrell, about 1858 or 59, according to Capt. Reid, and having been better protected by the modern game laws it has become common for the past twenty-five years or more. It not infrequently comes into the poultry yards and feeds with the chickens, as I have personally observed. The English Pheasant and Partridge were introduced in 1877 by Governor Robert M. Laffan, according to Hurdis (p. 407), but whether either of them long survived I do not know ; they certainly had not become common in 1901, if present at all, which I doubt. * References to the birds of Bermuda are practically wholly lacking in the literature from 1650 to 1850. TRANS. Conn. ACAD., Vou. XI. 46 Sept., 1902. 310 A, E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands, 722 Bahama Ground-dove. (Columbigallina passerina (L.) Bry., Baha- mensis Mayard).* Figure 10. Pace 430. The early writers mention no bird corresponding to this, which, owing to its very familiar habits, would surely have been noticed had it been present in any numbers. Therefore it seems altogether probable that it was introduced from the Bahamas like large num- bers of the plants, but we have no record of the time or manner of its introduction. It is mentioned as very common in the earliest of the modern lists of birds (1850, 1851). For about 200 years previ- ously, however, there is scarcely anything recorded concerning the birds of Bermuda. It may have been introduced in the 18th cen- tury, which would account for its present abundance. It does not appear to differ from the Bahama form, even as a variety. e.—Singing Birds. Mocking Bird. (Mimus polyglottos (L.) Brewer=M. Carolinensis Cab.) FIGURE 59. A few individuals of this species seem to have been introduced at several dates. One instance was at Bailey Bay, in 1892. Six pairs are said to have been liberated at St. George’s, in 1893, by Capt. Myers, but I have seen no record of the locality from whence they came. ‘ It has increased very slowly and is still far from common, though often seen in a few localities. It seems to be more fond of the Walsingham region than any other. It seems strange that it has not increased more rapidly, as it has few enemies, unless the English Sparrows or Catbirds destroy its eggs. Some of the West Indian Mocking Birds, as JZ. orpheus, etc. might be better adapted for the locality. English Sparrow. (Passer domesticus (L.) Koch.) The European sparrow was introduced here in 1875, as previously into the United States, under the impression that it would prove very beneficial by destroying insects, which it has not done to any *Tt was first identified as the Bahama subspecies by Mr. A. Hyatt Verrill (Amer. Journ. Science, xii, pp. 64-90, and The Osprey, v, June, 1901, p. 83). Mr. Bangs described it, about the same time, but apparently a few days later, as a new species (C. Bermudiana) in the Auk, July, 1901. See also this vol., p. 58, for discussion of dates. f 25 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 311 appreciable extent. It has, however, become very abundant and familiar in all parts of the islands and does considerable damage to fruits and in other ways, so that it is generally considered a nuisance. It does not confine itself so much to the settlements and highways as in the United States, but is seen everywhere in the fields and woods. It is accused of destroying the eggs of other more useful birds, as with us. The Bluebird, especially, is said to suffer thus from its depredations. In 1883, an act was passed “To encourage the destruction of Sparrows.” But this did not seem to cause any apparent decrease in its numbers, though the amount paid in boun- ties is said to have been £800 in one year. It was introduced into Bermuda from the United States in 1875. European Tree-Sparrow. (Passer montanus (L.) Koch.) This bird is apparently not uncommon. It was probably intro- duced accidentally with the English Sparrow and has similar habits, but it is less familiar. It was first recorded by A. H. Verrill, who found it common in Paget Parish, March, 1901.* Figure 60.—European Goldfinch (Carduelis carduelis (L.) Schif.) Phot. from life by A. H. Verrill. European Goldfinch. (Carduelis carduelis (L.) Schif.) Ficure 60. This elegant little bird is becoming quite common in certain locali- ties and seems to be fully naturalized. Numerous specimens were seen in 1901, especially about Hungry Bay. ——__— * Amer. Jour, Science, xii, p. 64, July, 1901; and The Osprey, July, 1901, 312 A, #. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 794 It was recorded by Capt. Reid (1884), as seen in a single instance in 1875. He thought that it might have been an escaped cage-bird, but it is not improbable that efforts had been made before that to introduce it here. A considerable number of cage-birds of this and other species are said to have escaped from a wrecked vessel, near St. George’s, about 1885, and the recent increase is supposed to be due largely to that event. : American Goldfinch. (Astragalinus tristis (L.) Cab.=Spinus tris- tis Boie.) i . IGURE 61. This was also seen, in March, 1901, and is said to have been intro- duced intentionally, in 1896, although it may have come here previ- ously, from time to time, as a migrant. Hurdis mentions a small flock of yellow birds, supposed to have been of this species, seen in March, 1850, but not shot. European Wheat-ear. (Saxicola cenanthe Bech.) This bird is now common in some places and seems to be fully naturalized. It was seen in flocks, especially at Coney Island and near St. George’s. It is said to have escaped from the wrecked vessel, about 1885, like the Goldfinch. European Starling. (Sturnus vulgaris 1.) FIGURE 62. Several wild specimens of starlings have been observed at different times, and it may now be sparingly naturalized. Perhaps it escaped from the wrecked vessel, about 1885, with the Goldfinch and other cage-birds. (jj Figure 61.—American Goldfinch (Astragalinus tristis Cab.) (Sturnus vulgaris L.) European Skylark. (Alauda arvensis L.) Hurdis recorded the occurrence of the Skylark, June 12, 1850. He shot one male specimen which had the song, habits, and appear- ance of a wild bird. It has not been recorded by recent collectors. 725 A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 313 Note.—The following are the principal works on the birds of Bermuda : William Jardine.—Contributions to Ornithology. Ornithology of the Ber- mudas. Vol. for 1849, pp. 76-87; vol. for 1850, pp. 5-14, 35-38, 67. Gives lists of birds furnished by Lieut-Col. J. W. Wedderburn and Rey. H. B. Tristram, supplemented by the observations of Col. H. M. Drummond-Hay and Mr. J. L. Hurdis. ‘‘ Mr. Tristram, (who lived in Bermuda three years,) printed a list in the islands, of all the birds that had occurred to his notice in 1847,” p. 77. In 1849 twenty species were added, and one in 1850. John L. Hurdis.—Birds of Bermuda, in the Bermuda Pocket Almanac for 1851, pp. 65-68. < A. Hyatt Verrill, Phot. Gill Eng. Co. FIDDLE-wooD TREE AT PAYNTER’S VALE. aghe PLATE LXXI. Conn. Acad. Vol. XI. Trans. ‘dNNO0G NOLONIUUV FT il Tatar. ect Eng. Co Gill ill, Phot. r att Ver A. Hy Trans. Conn. Aead. Vol. XI. IPIL/NIMS, JEDI, A. Hyatt Verrill, Phot. Gill Eng. Co. Tropic Birp; Cuirr oN HARRINGTON SD. > Cen wile byt? scare =U Gents Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. X eexXexe elie A. Hyatt Verrill, Phot. SHarks Hote; CEDARS. TAT EEE XOXS I= XI. Aead. Vol. Conn. Trans. Gill Eng. Co . A. Hyatt Verrill, Phot MANGROVES; BANANAS. PLATE LXXV. Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XI. SUMMON T, YVAN SHANA GNVS 5 (Gio ill Eng G ill, Phot. Hyatt Verr A ie ‘i ae claele mae Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. A. Hyatt Verrill, Phot. XI. PLATE LXXVI. Gill Eng. Co. Sanp DUNES NEAR TUCKER’S TOWN. Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XI. ; PLATE LXXVII. A. Hyatt Verrill, Phot. Gill Eng. Co. SERPULINE ATOLLS OR BOILERS. PLATE LXXVIII. Conn. Acad. Vol. XI. Trans. ‘SUMTIOG YO STTIOLY ANITOAdHHS 4 CO; ill Eng G Phot. ratt Verrill, A. Hy fhe ah ris Tue! File Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XI. IIL YN ADI) ILD DCI EDS A. Hyatt Verrill, Phot. Gill Eng. Co. Ruins, Gurnet Heap, Caste I.; PRorILE oF GuRNET HEAD. Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XI. PLATE LXXX. A. Hyatt Verrill, Phot. No. 2. Gill Eng. Co. Rocks, Topacco Bay; Ruins, CastiE I. Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XI. PLATE LXXXI. si a Ae A. Hyatt Verrill, Phot. Gill Eng. Co. CRESPHONTES BUTTERFLY. Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XI. JPIL/NAMB ILO A. Hyatt Verrill, Phot. Gill Eng. Co. MonarcH BurrERFLY AND VICEROY. ~ Sem c Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XI. [PIL Y/N ILO A. Hyatt Verrill, Phot. Gill Eng. Co. QUEEN BUTTERFLY AND MONARCH. PLATE LXXXIvV. XI. Acad. Vol. Conn. Trans. ‘AVG AUDNAPT UVAN rill Eng. Co. G , Phot. ill Hyatt Verr A, Saf Sie nee aya Rena ei Trans. Conn. Aead. Vol. A. Hyatt Verrill, Phot. XI. IPI VAN IDI Ey ILD, OW Gill Eng. Co. Fossin ‘‘ PALMETTO STUMPS.” me - y i. PLATE LXXXVI. XI. Trans. Conn, Acad. Vol. dWALG OLLAWIV ,, Q IISsso,y Co Gill Eng. A. Hyatt Verrill, Phot. Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XI. A. Hyatt Verrill, Phot. PLATE LXXVII. Gill Eng. Co. Naturan ARcHES, TUCKER’S TOWN. Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XI. IRIE YNIMS, 16> A. Hyatt Verrill, Phot. No.1; J. B. Hey], No. 2. CaTHEDRAL Rocks; CLIFFS, SOUTH SHORE, WITH POT-HOLE. Fi rs MY ee Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. A. Hyatt Verrill, Phot. PLATE LXXXIX. Gill Eng. Co. CATHEDRAL ROOKS. en sels Trans. Conn. Aead. Vol. XI. IDIL/NAIM EE > Ap (é. Oak, English, 626. Oaks, American, 626. Ocean-bug, 801. Octopus or Devil-fish, 505, 720, 909. kills ducks and geese, 720. rugosus, 505. Oculina, 505. diffusa, 848. Ocyurus, 702. Odes to Nea, 444. Odonata, 812. Odontomachus insulans, 756. Odontomyia, 749. Cidipoda Carolina, 821. Ogilvy, Dr., on Tamarisk hedge, 865. on White Ant, 894. on Yellow fever, 865. Oil, castor, made in 1654, 528, 524. olive, made in 1660, 524, 638. sharks, 523. whale, amount exported, 522, 684, 685. Okra, 653. Old Church Rocks, 428. Old-Wives, 701. Oldwife, Blue, 434. Olea EKuropoea, 682. Oleander, 426, 627, 655. Olibris, 797. Oligocheeta, 845. Olive, 441, 524, 682, 633. Mangrove, 585, 622. oil made by Richard Norwood, in 1660, 524, 683. 528 Olive, ordered planted in 1662, 634. Seale-insect, 806, 807. tree, large, on Somerset I., 634. trees, at Walsingham, 441. wild, native, 575, 620. Olive-wood Bark, 575, 620. Olor Columbianus, 663. Onchidium, 728. Onion, diseases in Bermuda, 530, 812, 859. Fly, 742. Maggot, 742. seed, imported, 529. Thrips, 530, 812. Weevil, 785. Onions, 425, 623. amount exported, 528, 529, 530. amount produced per acre, 529. cultivation of, 529. duty on, 529. Oreodoxa regia, 601. Oénops Bermudensis, 833. Opatrinus anthracinus, 787. Opeas octonoides, 732. Swiftianum, 732. Ophion macrurus, 754. Opuntia, 482, 451, 573, 578. ficus-indica, 581. pes-corvi, 581. tuna, 581. vulgaris, 581. Orange, 425, 518, 525, 526, 810. Aphis, 802. bitter, 636. Chionaspis, 809, 810. Dog, 759. dwarf, 653. Fly, 748, 744. Mandarin, 634. Mealy-bug, 806. Rust-mite, 841. Seales or Bark-lice, 527, 804, 806, 807, 808, 809, 810, 811, 893. Spider, 834. tree, 441, 623, 631. tree, decrease of, 526, 810. - tree, early introduction, 026. Oranges, amount raised, 526, 527. exported formerly, 526. Orbicella, 484. A. FE Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 940 Orbicella annularis, 485. cavernosa, 485. Orchelimum vulgare, 822. Orchestia agilis, 889. Orcus Australasiz, 805. chalybeus, 805. ; Ordeal by water for witchcraft, 614, 879. Orders and Constitutions, 454, 517, 568, 602. Ordnance, 453. Island, 542. Oreodoxa oleracea, 651. Oriental Cockroach, 823, 825. Smilax, 661. Origin of the native flora, 571, 580, 587. Ormenis pruinosa, 801. Orphula, 822. maculipennis, 821. Orthezia insignis, 806, 892. Orthocladius, 749. Orthops, 799. Orthoptera, 821. Osage Orange, 642. Osmunda, 467. Osprayes, 665. Osprey, The (periodical), Bermuda birds in, 722. Otaheite Gooseberry, 649. Walnut, 649. Ouatilibi, 909. Outerbridge, Dr. T. A., 435. Outer Island, butterflies roosting on, 764, Earwigs on, 827, 828. plants injured by salt foam, 579. Overpopulation in early years, 569. Oviedo, narrative of, 533. Owles, 663. Oyster, American, 849. pearl, 702, 708. Oxen-bird, 663. Oxeye, sea, 582. Oxyopes salticus, 882. Pachydiplax longipennis, 813, 816. Peciloptera pruinosa, 801. Page, Elizabeth, trial of, 584. Paget, parish, 426, 466. Paget’s Fort, 448. Island, 447, 465. 941 Painted Lady, butterfly, 760. Painter’s (or Paynter’s) Hill, 488. Palisado (or palisade), 450. Palm, Barbadoes Cabbage, 434, 651. * Catechu, 652. Cocoa-nut, 422, 424, 651. Date, 424, 441, 642, 652. Grigri, 651. Gru-gru, 651. Japanese, 652. Mountain, 651. Royal, 424, 651, 865. Sago, 650. Scale-insect on, 893. Palmetto, 421, 422, 423, 571, 593. baskets made from, 595. berries edible, 596. bibby from, 422, 595, 596, 597. hats and fans made from, 521, 595. head used as food, 554, 595, 596. hedges or fences of, 603, 631. laws against cutting, 421, 597, 598. leaves used for thatching, 595, 597, 598. size of large ones, 594. Pamera bilobata, 800. Pangzeus bilineatus, 800, 801. Panchlora Madere, 737, 826. Surinamensis, 825. Pandanus ordoratissimus, 652. utilis, 682. Veitchi, 652. Panestrinz, 827. Panicum, Coccids of, 892. Panulirus argus, 702, 705, 708. Papain, 425, 650. Papaues (Pawpaws), 624. Papilio cresphontes=thoas, 759, 908. polyxenes, 760. troilus?, 760. Paritium tiliaceum, 579. Parlatoria Pergandii, 811. Parrats, or parrots, Gov. Wood on, 664. Parrot-fish, 484, 468, 504. Parsley, 532. Parsnips, 623. Partial extermination of whales, 682. extermination of birds, sea-turtles, etc., 661, 682, 710. Partridge, 721, 888. A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. Or bo Wo} Paspalum distichum, 578. Passer domesticus, 722. montanus, 723. Passiflora ciliata, 575, 640. laurifolia, 640. melifolia, 640. quadrangularis, 640. suberosa=P. minima, 659. Passion-flower, cultivated, 640. Wild, 575, 640. Patella pellucida, 868. Pavement-ant, 754. Pavonia spinifex, 577. Pawpaw, 425, 624, 629. digestive properties, 630. Paynter’s (or Painter’s) Vale, 438, 648. Pea, Blue, 659. common, 623. No-eye, 653. Weevil, 785, 788. Peach Borer, 639. tree, disease of, 639, 803. Peaches, 527, 638. decline of, 688. Peach-fly, 638, 639, 743. Peach-maggot, 743. Peach-pest, 743. Peacock Butterfly, 762, 763. Pear, avocado, 425, 804. tree, 639, 803. Pearl Oyster, 708, 709. Pearly-eye Butterfly, 766. Peat bogs, 467. large cedars in, 607. Pecten concentricus, in Godet, 868. ziezac, 709. Pedilanthus tithymaloides, 657. Pedipes, 728. tridens, 729. Peirescia aculeata, 640. pereskia, 640. Pelopzeus cementarius, 752. coruleus, 753. fasciatus, 753. flavipes, 702. lunatus, ‘752. Pemblyco (see Pimlico), 677. Pembroke Church, 598, 607. Fort, 454, 547, 618. Marsh, 467. 5D 530 Pembroke Parish records, 607. Penfield, S. L., 464. Peniston, Annie, Essay on Snails, 731. W.S., 438. Peniston’s Cave, 488, 471. Island, 461, 465. Pond, 467. Pentatomids, 798, 891. Peperomia amplexicaulis, 576. magnolifolia, 576, 577. obtusifolia, 576. Pepper-bush, 438, 655. Guinea, 655. Red, 655. Spanish, 638, 655. Pepper Sphinx, 767. Peppers, Gov. Moore on, 655. Pergande, Th., 889. Perichzeta Bermudensis, 847. Dyeri, 847. Peridroma incivis, 769, 771. Perigea subaurea, 782. Periplaneta Americana, 737, 823, 824, 871. Australasiz, 825, 871. Periwinkle, red, 627. Perjury, trial for, 1618, 878. Perna, 621. Pernigia latipes, 774. Persea gratissima, 637. Persimmon, American, 641. Japanese, 641. Pestilence (see Epidemics), 515. Pheeton zthereus, 869. Phalena eridania, 890. Phalangide, 830. Phaleria testacea, 787. Pheasant, 721. Pheidole pusilla, 755, 889. Pheretima Bermudensis, 847. Rodericensis, 847. Schmarde, 847. Philereme albosignata, 776. Philoscia Bermudensis, 845. Philosophical Transactions, 490, 510, 683, 684, 827. Phlegothontius cingulatus, 766, 871. convolvuli, var. cingulatus, 766. Phoenix dactylifera, 642, 652. Pholcus tipuloides, 831, 835. A. BE. Verritl— The Bermuda Islands. | Phora, sp. 749. | Phorbia ceparum, 742. Photinia Japonica, 639. Photinus pyralis, 793, 794. Photuris Pennsylvanicus, 793, 794. Phyllanthus distichus, 649. nobilis, 649. Phyllodromia, 827. Physa fontinalis, 868. Physalia, eaten by turtles, 695. Physalis Peruviana=P. edulis, 641. Physeter macrocephalus, 689. Physic Nut, 575. Physiography, including Meteorology, etc., 464. Physopoda, 812. Phytoptus oleivorus, 841. Pickle-worm, 776. Pieris brassicee, 870, 871. rape, 759, 871. Pigeon Berry, 606. Cave, 720. Domestic, 720. Hawk, 665. Pea, 653. Pilchards, 700, 701. Pilot-fishes, 468, 701. Pilots, 489. Pimenta acris, 640. vulgaris, 640. Pimento, 640. Pimlico or Pimlicoe, 456, 674, 677, 678. description of, 679. in Bahamas, 679. Pine Apple, 492, 525, 526, 624, 628. Gov. Butler on, 628. John Hardy on, 628. Gov. Wood on, 628. Scale-insects on, 892, 893. Pink-underwing Moth, 769. Pinnaces, built by Somers and Gates, 542, 548, 544. Pinnacle Rocks, 909. Pintado introduced, 720. Piophila casei, 742. Pirates, 533, Pitch Pine, 579, 589. Pittosporum coriaceum, 643, undulatum, 643. Plague, bubonic, 512-515. 943 Plague, early epidemics of, 518, 514, 515. of Wood-rats, 1614-1618, 590, 712. Plagusia depressa, 506. Planarians, land, 848. Plantains, 624, 627. Plantation holes, 468. Plant-lice, 802. Plants brought from Bahamas, 1616-25, 624, 627, 628, 629. Platophrys lunatus, 504. Platynus, 797 Platyptilia pusillidactyla, 891. Plecotrema, 727. Plexippus Paykulli, 831, 839. Pliocene Bermuda, 465. Plodia interpunctella, 779, 780. Plot, in 1673, 564. Plough, the ship, 545, 547, 596. Ploughs, introduction of, 492, 557, 895. Plover, 665. Pluchea camphorata, 577. odorata, 577. purpurascens, 577. Plum tree, 639. Plume-moth, 891. Plumeria rubra, 647. Plumsted, Wm., 612. Plusia dyaus, 889. fratella, 775. ou, 775, 782, 911. rogationis, 889, 891. Pocahontas and companions, fate of, 514. Peecillozonites Bermudensis, 675, 728. circumfirmatus, 728. Nelsoni, 728. Reinianus, 728. zonatus, fossil, var., 728. Poinciana regia, 646. Poison Ivy, 579, 588, 658. remedies for, 658. seeds eaten by catbird, 589. Poisonous secretion of Agua toad, 727. Poison Vine, 658. Polistes Canadensis, 750. pallipes, 750, 752. perplexus, 750, 751, 752. Polygyra appressa, 732. microdonta, 729. Polypodium elasticum, 575. A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. Polypodium pectinatun, 579. Pomace-fly, 742. Pomegranate, 433, 604, 629, 630, 631, 803. hedges of, 433, 624, 630, 681. Pomelo, Scale-insects of, 893. Pompilius Philadelphicus, 752. Pompions (pumpkins), 546. Pontodrilus arene, 846, 847. Bermudensis, 847. Popple, Governor, 516. Population at different periods, 568. Population in 1679, 521. Porcellio levis, 844. parvicornis, 844. Poreupine-fish, 504. Porguise, 702. Porgy, 702, 704. Porites, 484, 485. astreoides, 505. clavaria, 505. Pork, exportation of, 521. Port Royal Parish records, 510. Porter, Wm. E., 414. Portulacca oleracea, food of sea-turtles, 694. Potato-beetles, 788. Potatoes, 425, 528. duty on, 529. exportation of, 528, 5380. first cultivated in 1613, 628. sent to Massachusetts, 1636, 528. sent to Virginia, 1620, 528, 623. sweet, 425. varieties of, 528. Poultry, introduction of, 720. Powder magazine robbed, in 1775, 456, 872. Powee, 720. Prentiss, D. Webster, Notes on birds of Bermuda, 725. Price, regulated by law, of labor, 555. of salt, 520. of sawing cedar timber, 602. of tobacco, food, ete., 520. Prickly Pear, 482, 572, 578, 581. Pride of China, 644. Pride-of-India, 424, 644. Principal introduced fruits and fruit trees, 627. Or sy) bo Principal introduced shade trees and ornamental shrubs, 643. shrubs introduced or cultivated, 652. Pristonychus complanatus, 797. Privateers in Bermuda, 520. Privet, Japanese or California, 626, 655, 811. Proclamation against cutting or export- ing cedar and yellow wood tim- ber, 603. by Goy. Bell, in 1627, stealing of fruit, 631. by Gov. Heydon, 1669, ordering planting of fig trees, etc., 631. by Gov. J. Harrison, 1623, as to pestilence, 515. by Gov. Wm. Sayle, destruction of cedars, 603. by Goy. F. Seymer, in regard to pestilence, 1664, 515. by Gov. Roger Wood, 1630, 1682, 497, 609. Prodenia commeline, 774. eridania, 890, 891. Productions and Exports, principal, historically treated, 517. Ambergris, lumber, fish, etc., 517. Tobacco, salt, 518. Whale fishery, sharks oil, 521. Silk, castor oil, olive oil, ete., 528. Sugar, cassava or tapioca, wheat, ete., 524. Bananas, pineapples, oranges, lem- ons, etc., 529. Corn or maize, 527. Potatoes, onions, tomatoes, 528. Arrow-root, 531. Kaster lilies, ete., 531. Productions, principal. See Principal productions, 517. Profile, human, on cliff at Castle I., 455. Prominent climbing plants or vines, 658. Propagation of yellow fever by mos- quitoes, 747, 865. Prospect Hill, 428. Protoparce Carolina, 768. cingulata, 766. Prussic-acid gas, fumigation with, 634, 803. concerning A. EF. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 944 Psammodius, 792. Pseudatolls, 414. Pseudoneuroptera, 812. Pseudoscarus guacamaia, 504. Psidium Cattleianum, 640. guaiva, 640. pomiferum, 640. Psilopus chrysoprasinus, 749. chrysoprasus, 749. Psilotum triquetrum, 575, 587. Psoquilla, 817. Psychotria undata, 575. Pteris aquilina, 467. heterophylla, 575. Pterophorid, 891. Ptinids, 792. Ptinus brunneus, 792. fur, 792. Public Garden, 739, 886. Library, 895. Museum, 895. magazines of corn, 602. Puffinus Auduboni, 674. Pulex canis, 749. irritans, 749. penetrans, 749, 871, 872. Pulmonata, 727. Pulpit Rock, 473. Pulvinaria innumerabilis, 810. Pumpkins, 546, 623, 640. Punica granatum, 629. Punishments of crime, 874. by banishment, 560, 563, 564, 570. by burning and hanging, 564, 614, 885. driving stake through body when buried, for suicides, 550. ducking, 431. enslavement to Company, 447, 561, 563, 876. fine for killing a slave of another, 568. hanging, 447, 556, 562, 875-885. head impaled on stake, for burg- lary, 1664, 563. placing in a cage, 55d. putting in stocks, 550. riding cannon when fired, 550. serving as executioner, 562, 563. slitting nose or ears, 564, 876. 945 Punishments, standing at church door with bundle of tobacco tied to neck, for stealing tobacco, 1627, 506. stigmatizing ‘‘in ye face” (brand- ing) with a hot iron, 564. whipping, 550, 556, 562, 564, 877. Pupa chrysalis, 868. (Bifidaria) Jamaicensis, 729. pellucida, 729. (Bifidaria) rupicola, 729. (Bifidaria) servilis, 729. Pupoides marginata, 729. Purple Scale-insect, 808, 809. Purpura lapillus, 868. Purslane or pusley, food of sea-turtles, 448, 694. Pynes (Pine-apples), 624. Pyralis farinalis, 779. Pyrameis cardui, 760. Pyrausta orphisalis, 782. Pyrrharctia isabella, 768, 901. Quail, American, 429, 664, 888. extinct at one time, 721. Hurdis on, 721. reintroduced by R. Darrell, 721. Quaker, grasshopper, 821. Quakers, banishment of, 570. persecution of, 564, 569. Quamoclit coccinea, 660. quamoclit=vulgaris, 660. Quarantine, 513. station, 449. Quarries of limestone, 482. Quassia amara, 644. Quebec Steamship Co., 415, 879. Queen Butterfly, 764. Queen of Shrubs, 654. Quince, 639. Radishes, 532, 623. Rainbow Flounder, 504. Rainfall, 494, 495. remarkable in July, 1886, 866. Rain-water for domestic use, 467, 511, 517. Raisin-moth, 779. Raleigh, Sir Walter, on storms, 419. Randia aculeata, 578, 582. Trans. Conn. Acap., Vou. XI. A. EF. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 533 Raphigaster cydnus, 798. prasinus, 798. Raspberry, 639. Rat, Black, 717. Brown, 717. Gray, 717, 869. Water, 869. Wood, 549, 551, 590, 591, 712-717, 869. Rats and Mice, 717, 869. Ravens, Capt. John Smith on, 664. Records of Port Royal Parish, 510. Red Admiral butterfly, 761. Red Bird, 888. Cedar, 579, 600. Dragon-fly, 816. Mulberry, 625. Periwinkle, 627. Scale-insect, 810. Snapper, 505. Spiders, 841, 842. Red-bud, 626. Red-head, plant, 627. Redfield, Wm. C., 895. Red-pshancks (red-shanks), 665. Reefs or Flats, 465, 483. Register of Pembroke Parish, as to age of cedars, 607. Reid, Capt. Savile, on birds, 674, 678, 682, 725, 896. Reid, Gov. Wm., 625, 635, 643, 646, 895. introduced choice oranges, 635, 646. letters of, unpublished, 857, 895. on storms, 856, 895. personal data of, 895. plants and trees, 625, 865, 895. ploughs, introduced by, 492, 895. Remarkable instance of the Death of Fishes in 1901, 503. rainfall in July, 1886, 866. Remedies for mosquitoes, 511. poison ivy, 658. Remigia disseverans, 774. hexastylus, 774. indentata, 774. latipes, 774. marcida, 774, 782. perlata, 774. 60 varieties of Frs., 1908. 534 Remigia repanda, 774, 782, 891. Texana, 774. Remittent fever, absent, 511. Replies from the Bermuda Company, 1679, 608. Reptiles: American Blue-tailed Lizard, 720. Rhachicallis rnpestris, 581. Rhapis flabelliformis, 652. Rhizobius debilis, 805. satellus, 805. ventralis, 805, 893. Rhizoglyphus echinopus, 840. Rhizophora mangle, 581, 621. Rhus toxicodendron, 588, 658. Ribbon-fish, 504. Rice, Prof. Wm. North, 484, 853, 857. Rice Bird, 888. Rice-weevil, 737, 785. Richardson, Rev. A., 560. Right Whales, 521, 684, 688. Riley, C. V., 748, 809, 810, 811. Roach, Theophilus, Essay on Snails, 731. Road-beds, 430. Road-cutting, 431. Robber-fly, 745. Roberts, Mr., introduced whelks, 708. Robin redbreast, 663. Robinia pseudacacia, 645. Robins, 662. Robin-william, 663. Rock-cockles, 710. Rock-fish, 504, 505, 700, 701. Rock-sucker, 909. Rod Wood, 575. Rollo, Capt., 642. Rosa leevigata, 654. Rosa rugosa, 626. Roseate Tern, 667. Rose-banded Sphinx, 766. Rose-coral, 505. Rose, Japan, 626. Rose, Wild White, 604. Roses, 426. Rough Notes and Memoranda, John L. Hurdis, 725. Rove-beetles, 796. Royal Gazette, 497, 516. Royal lease or deed to Chr. Carter, 546, 617, 618. A. E. Verrili— The Bermuda Islands. 946 Royal Palm, 424, 651, 865. Royal Society of London, 490, 510, 683. Ruins of King’s Castle, 450-460. Old Forts, 449-464. Rumina decollata, 591, 680, 730, 731. Ruppia maritima, 586. Russelia juncea, 627. Sabal Blackburniana, its History, 574, 593. Saffron, planted, 525, 625. Sage Bush, 482, 655. Common, 655. Prickly, 656. Red-flowered, 656. Yellow-flowered, 656. Sago Palm, 581, 650. Saint Andrew’s Cross, 652. Christophers I., 558. David’s Head, 489. David’s Island, 418, 448. David's L., large cedars on, 601. David’s I., Turtle-fishery of, 448, 692. David’s I., Whale fishery of, 684, 688, 690. Elmo’s Fire, 538. George’s, 419, 421, 443. George’s, blockade running at, 444. George’s Hotel, 443. George’s Iland, early overclearing of, 598. George’s, narrow streets, 443. Helena, goats and hogs destructive on, 663. Helena, vegetation of, 626, 633. John’s Wort, 602. Lucia, emigration to, 569. Saissetia hemisphzricum, 807. Salicornia, fruticosa, 585. Salix Babylonica, 649. Humboldtiana, 649. Salmon Peale, 700. Salt made at Crawl Point, 520. St. George’s, 520. Turks I., 518, 520. Salt spray, injurious effects of, 494, 579. Salvia coccinea, 626. Sambucus nigra, 604. Samphire, 585. 947 Sand-box Tree, 649. Sand-dunes, 437, 474. Sand Hills, 485. Sand-wasp, 752. San José Seale, 803. Sannina exitiosa, 639. Sapindus saponaria, Sapodilla, 641. Sapota achras, 641. Sarcophaga carnaria, 740. rabida, 740. Sarcophagula, 749. Sarcopsylla gallinacea, 750. penetrans, 749, 871. Sarsaparilla, 661. false, 658. Satin Wood, 644. Saunders, Wm., 808. Saw-flies, 739. 77, 579, 588. Sawing lumber, legalized rates, 555, 602. Saxicola zenanthe, 724. Sayle, Gov., 540, 543, 545, 584. on planting olive trees, 651. proclamations by, 503, 603. Sezevola lobelia, 583. Scale-insects, 526, 591, 802-811, 892. destructiveness of, 804. | disinfection for, 803. fumigation for, 803. kerosene emulsion for, 803. Lady-bugs devour, 805, 893. laws against, 803, 804. liable to be introduced, 804. remedies for, 803-805. Scarabzids, 790. Searlet-bean Tree, 646. Scarlet sage, 626. Scatopse atrata, 749. Seaur, 427. Sceliphron cementarium, 752. fasciatum, 753. flavipes, 752. Schinus molle, 638. Schwarz, EH. A., 785, 795, 796. Scinecus fasciatus, 869. ocellatus, 869. Sciomyidie, 749. Senappers [Snappers], 700. Scolopendra subspinipes, 842. Scolosanthus Sagreanus, 654. A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 53: Or Scorpio afer, 871. Scorpions, 830, 871, 894, 895. Serew Pines, 652. Scudder, 8. H., 757, 764. Scurvy Grass, 579. Scutigera forceps, 848. Scytodes fusca, 852. Seytodes longipes, 832, 834. Sea Adventure, ship. See Sea Venture. Shoals, 540. Anemones, 909. Sea-breame, 702. Sea-foam, destructive effects of, 579. Sea-turtles, former great size of, 448, 693. Sea-wigeons, 665. Sea Grass, 586. Lavender, 576, 584. Lawyers, 438. Marigold, 582. Mulberry, 581, 620. Orache, 585. Owle, 670. Oxeye, 582. Purslane, 581. Turnstole, 584. Venture, wreck of, 1609, 538-540, 543, 880. Sea-side Bean, 580. Golden-rod, 583. Grape, 573, 579, 585. Locust Tree, 580. Morning glory, 476. Plants, 578. Vine, 585. Seal of the Bermuda Company, 5386. Seaward, 485. Seed potatoes imported, 528. Seeds that float in the sea many weeks, 588. Serpuline Atolls, 486. Serraticeps canis, 749. Sesuvium portulacastrum, 581. Setomorpha, sp., 891. Settlement of the Bermudas in 1612, 545. Settlers, early, number and character, 452. Seymour, Captain, 612. Seymour, Governor, Proclamation by, 515, 536 Shad, 704. Shaddock, 636. Shade-coral, 505. Shade trees; Ornamental trees, 643. Shakespeare, 538. Sharks, 523, 700. Hole, 438. Oil, 521, 528. Shearwater, 456, 662, 674, 679. notes of, 670. Sheep and goats, destructive to vegeta- tion, 591. Shelly Bay, 435. Shelly, Mr. Henry, 435. Shiner, 828. Ship, Blessing, 452. Edwin, 624. James, 514. Joseph, 518. Leander, 686. Sea Venture, 439. Starre, 452. Warwick, wrecked, 460. Shipbuilding and commerce, 608. Ship-channel, 487. Shipley, A. G., 811. Shipment of a cargo of cedar, 600, 601. Shipworm, 442. Shipwreck of the Bonaventura, 534. historical, 5338. of the Sea Venture, 537. Shore Cliffs, Natural Arches, Pinnacles, 472. Sicyos angulatus, 575. Siderastrea radians, 484, 485. Silk, Castor Oil, Olive Oil, etc., 523. Cotton-tree, 643. Spider, 829. Worms, 5238, 625, 641. Silver Witch, 828. Silvanus Surinamensis, 788. Silvery Sphinx, 768. Singing Birds; Tree Sparrow, Goldfinch, Wheat-ear, Starling, etc., 722. Sinks, 466. Siphonostoma citrifolii, 802. Sisyrinchium Bermudianum, 572, 574. Sitodrepa panicea, 793. Sitophilus granarius, 528, 784. oryze, 785. A. EH. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 948 Sitotroga cerealella, 779. Sketch of the Discovery and Early History, 582, 538. Skin-beetles, 792. Skipping-beetles, 794. Skylark, European, 724. Slater, 844. : Slavery : Negroes, Indians, Whites, 560- 566, 866. Slaves allowed legal marriage, 564. apprenticed to trades, 562. banished when freed, 560. baptised sometimes, 564, 565. children divided, 569. conspiracies of, 1656, 16738, 1761, 563, 564, 866. denied religious privileges, 564. emancipation of, 566, 570. executed in 1763, value of, 866. fine for killing, 310, 563. Indian, 565. killing not a felony, 563. laws to restrain, 563. number of in 1834, when freed, 566. sold away from theislands, 562, 566. too numerous, 562. white, 566-568. Slaves to the Company, 447, 561, 568, 566, 875. Slender Snails, 732. Slicker, 828. Slipper Plant, 657. Slugs, 591, 734. Small pox, epidemics of, 516. vaccination for, 516. Small Shot, 575. Smilax aspera=S. sagitteefolia, 661. Oriental, 661. Smith, Capt. John, 448, 458, 459, 545, 546, 554, 656, 672, 677, 678, 679, 707, 708, 715. History quoted, 4538, 455, 458, 459, 491, 496, 513, 517, 546, 672. - on cahow, 672. 673. on egg-birds, 661, 666, 673. on famine of 1615, 672. on fishes, 708, 704. on introduced plants, 624, 625, 627, 631. on medicinal plants, 580. 949 Smith, Capt. John, on ravens (turkey buzzard), 663, 664. on wood-rats, 7195. personal data, Expl. pl. ciii, 911. portrait of, pl. ciii. Smith, Rev. Samuel, 565. Smith’s Island, 447, 465. Smyrna figs, 632. Snails and Slugs, effects of, 591. Snails eaten by Tropic-bird, 731. Snappers, 438, 505, 701. Snapping Beetles, 794. Snites (snipes), 663. Snow, very rare, 498. Snow-berry, 575. Snowy Heron, 680. Snuff-bush, 433. Snuff Plant, 655. Soap-berry Tree, 577. Sober Island, 612. Soil, analyses of, 492. natural fertility of, 491, 494. origin of, 490. Solanum melongena=S. ovigerum, 641. Soldier-flies, 749. Solidago sempervirens, 583. Somers, Admiral Sir George, 435, 444, 588, 641, 542, 544, 545, 622, 873. character of, 540, 699, 911.. death of, 444, 544, 545. garden made by, 1609, 548. letter from, 1610, 544, 596, 878. pinnace built by, 548. portrait of, 1610, pl. cii, 911. Saint Elmo’s fire seen by, 538. Tablet at St. George’s, 444. taking fish, 1610, 699. * wreck of, 1609, 558-541. Somerset Island, 419, 426, 427, 466. Sophora tomentosa, 577, 580. Sour Sap, 638. Southampton Fort, 458, 459, 460, 462. Gov. Butler’s description of, 459, 460. Island, 454, 460, 465, 675. Sow-bug, 844. Spanish Angel-fish, 504. Bayonet, 433, 657. buccaneers, 663. Clam, 710. A. FE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 537 Spanish Lady-fish, 504. Pepper, 638. Point, 423, 527, 613. Rock, x, 615. ships driven from Castle Island, 1612, 451, 615. treasures, 546, 610-619. vessel wrecked, 514, Sparrow, English, 429, 662, 722, 888. European, 722. Tree, 723, 888. Sparrow-hawk, 665. Spartina juncea, 586. Spectrum bivittatum, 823. Spencer, Sarah, trial of, 885. Spenser, Archdeacon, 659. Spermaceti Whale, 683, 689. Spermacoce tenuior, 576, 768. Sperm Whale, 521, 689, 690. Sphargis coriacea, 697. Sphex cementarius, 752. Sphinx argentata, 768. -atropos, in Godet, 871. Morning-glory, 766. Musk, 766, 767. Pepper, 767. Rose-banded, 766. Silvery, 768. Sweet-potato, 766, 871. Tobacco, 768. Spider-beetle, 792. Spider, Brown, 832, 834. House, 831, 835, 838. Jumping, 831, 832, 839, 840. Long-legged, 834, 835. Orb-web, 838. Red, 841, 842. Ring-legged, 836. Silk, 829, 882. Silvery, 837. Venomous, 832, 835, 836. Wolf, 833, 839. Spiders, colors of, 833. webs of, 850, 857. Spider-wasps, 752. Spinus tristis, 724. Spireea prunifolia, 654. salicifolia, 654. Spiral Snail, 591, 680, 750. Spiranthes tortilis, 578. 538 Spirobolus Heilprini, 843. Spondylus, 710. Sponge, bright red, 484. Sponia Lamarckiana, 575. Sporobolus Virginicus, 587. Spotted-winged Grasshopper, 821. Spruce, or tamarisk, 433, 654. Squash-beetle, 796. Squashes, 640, Squid, 909. Squirrel-fish, 504. Stable-fly, 740. Stafford, Judge Richard, 490, 510, 569, 829. on buried treasures, 614. on longevity, ete., 510. on whales, 521, 683. Stagmomantis Carolina, 823. Stake driven through body of a suicide, 590. Stalactites, 441, 855. Staphylinids, 796. Star Corals, 484. Starfish, 909. Stark’s Bermuda Guide, 607. Starling, Huropean, 724, 888. Statice Caroliniana, 576. Lefroyi, 574, 576, 584. Stealing of timber provided against, 604. of tobacco plants a felony, 556. Stegomyia fasciata, 747, 865, 893. Stenobothrus bilineatus, 821. maculipennis, 821. Stenopteryx hybridalis, 782. Stenotaphrum Americanum, 586. glabrum, 586. Sterculia Carthaginensis, 643. Sterna anostheetus, 668. Dougalli, 667. hirundo, 667. maxima, 668. Stevenson, Goody, trial of, 881. Stevenson, J. J., on dunes, 474, 475, 569. Stichopus, 483. Stingray, 700. Stokes’ Bay, 479. Stokes, Capt., 455, 461, 611, 630, 631. Stomoxys calcitrans, 740. Stone flies, 739. Stone monuments and labeled trees, 612. A. BE. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 950 Stone residences, 422, 454. Stopper, 575. Strachy, Wm., extracts from narrrative of 1611, 419, 439, 494, 538, 540, 541, 542, 543, 598, 661, 662, 666, 667, 669, 680, 691, 699, 708, 711, 784, 829. on birds, 661, 662. on cahow, 669. on egg-birds, 666, 667. on fish, 699. on herons, 680. on palmetto, 598. on sea-turtles, 691. on shellfish, 708. on storm and wreck of Sea Ven- ture, 538-540. on wild hogs, 711. Stratiomyide, 749. Strawberry, 532, 639. Flea-beetle, 789, 790. Strombus gallus, in Godet, 868. gigas, 697, 709. Stroud, Rich., trial of, 877. Sturnus vulgaris, 724, 888. Stylopyga orientalis, 823, 825. Styver Bush, 659. Submerged Lagoons, 482. Subulina octona, 732. Succinea Barbadensis, 729, 732, 733. Bermudensis, 868. Sugar-apple, 638. Sugar, Cassava, Wheat, etc., 524. canes, 524, 624. manufacture of, 524. Suicide by drunkenness, punished, 550. Sulphur, Clouded, 758. Cloudless, 759. Common American, 758. Little, 757. Summer drouth in 1849, 592. Summers, Sir George. See Somers, 538. Sunsets, brilliant, 428. Surinam Cherry, 640. Cockroach, 826. Toad. See Agua Toad, 726. Swamps, 466. Swanne (Swan), 663. Sweet Almond, 639. Bay Tree, 648. 951 Sweet Fennel, 623. Marjorum, 623. Orange, 634. Potatoes, 425, 525, 532, 660. Sop, 638, 896. Sweet-potato Fire-worm, 777. Leaf-miner, 781. Sphinx, Musk, 766, 767. Swietenia mahagoni, 644. Sword Plant, 646. Synchlora denticulata, 775. excurvaria, 770. Syngamia florella, 778. Syrphus-fly, 745. Syrphus obliquus, 745. Tabanus, 745. cincta, 745. lineola, 745. Tabebuia pentaphylla, 647. Table of Exports, 530. of mean monthly temperature and rainfall, 499. Tables, comparative, 508. Tablets and marks, 546. Tamarind, 645. Plum, 642. tree, 435. Tamarindus Indica, 645. Tamarisk hedge, 433, 654. age of, 865. Tamarix Gallica, 654. Tanning leather a trade in Bermuda, 620. Tapestry-moth, 781. Tapinattus melanognathus, 831, 839. Tapioca, 524, 656. Tarnished Leaf-bug, 799, 801. Taro, 525, 624. Tassells, 663. Tassel Plant, 580. Tea, South-sea, 653. Teal, 665. Tecoma Capensis, 660, pentaphylla, 647. radicans, 660. stans, 647, Tegenaria Derhami, 831, 835. Tellina, 710. meteorological, A. EF. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. Temperature, 416, 498, 499. Temperature of the Sea, 503, 507. Tempest, Shakespeare’s, 538. Tenebrio molitor, 787. Tenebrionids, 787. Teredo, 442. Terias lisa, 757. Termes antica, 817. Terminalia catappa, 647. Termites, 817. Terns, 442. Terrestrial Isopod Crustacea, 844. Testacella haliotoidea, 868. Tetanocera pictipes, 749. Tetragnatha extensa, 871. Tetranychus bimaculatus, 841, 842. tilarius, 842. : Tetrastemma agricola, 847. Thallassochelys caouana, 699. caretta, 695. Japonica, 696. olivacea, 696. Thatching roofs and sides of dwellings, 595. palmetto leaves used for, 595, 595, 598. Theft, trials for, 877. Theobald, F. V., 384, 511, 746-748. Theobroma, 531. Theretra tersa, 896. Theridium rufipes, 851. studiosum, 832, 835. tepidariorum, 831, 835. Thermesia monstratura, 782. Thermobia domestica, 828. Thermonectes, irroratus, 796. ornaticollis, 796. Thespesia populnea, 643. Thevetia nereifolia=T. thevetia, 655. Thistle Butterfly, 760. Thomisus pallens, 833. Thomson, C. Wyville, on sand-dunes, 475. Thorn, Japan, 626. Thousand-legs, 843. Three Hill Shoals, 488. Thrips, onion, 811, 812. Thrips tabaci, 530, 812. Thunderstorms, 495. | Thysanophora vortex, 728. 540 Thysanopoda, food of whales, 687. Thysanoptera, 812. Tick, cattle, 840, 841. Ticks and Mites, 840. Tides, 490. in Harrington Sound, 436. Tides and Currents, 489. Tiger Beetle, 797. Mosquito, 747. Tile-fish, death of, 507. Tinea, or Tineola, biselliella, 780. flavifrontella, 780. granella, 779. pellionella, 780. tapetzella, 780, 781. Tipulide, 748. Tobacco, 462, 491, 494, 518-520, 545, 555-560. amount formerly exported, 520,557. capital crime for stealing, 556. condemned and burned, 556. contraband, 519. Cultivation, as connected with Karly History of the Islands, 555-560. cultivation, when abandoned, 559. first planted, 1610, 545. Flea-beetle, 789. monopoly, 519. prices of, 518, 555-558. shelters for, 494. tariff on, 519, 557, 558. used as currency, 461, 462, 555. Tobacco Bay, 474. Tobacco Beetle, 793. Tobacco Musk, 768. Tobacco Thrips, 811. Tobacco-worm, 767. Tomato, 528, 580, 5382, 641. Leaf-bug, 799. Tomatoes, amount exported, 530. Tom Moore’s Calabash, 648. Tornado, 497. Tortoise-shell Turtle, 694, 695. Tortola, Governor of, 561. Tournefortia gnaphalodes, 584. Tous-les-mois, 525. Town House at St. George’s, first stone building, 608. Toxopneustes, 483. Trachyops cirrhosus, 867. A, EF. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 952 Traditions of buried treasures, 612-619. Tramea abdominalis, 813, 816. Carolina, 813. Treasures, buried, traditions of 449,612. Tree Snails, 732. Trees, large, ages of, 438, 607, 865. Trial of Paul Deane, 447. Trials for abusive language, 875. for blasphemy, 877. for disrespect, 876. for drunkenness, 550, 631. for perjury, 878. for theft, 447, 562, 563, 877. for witchcraft, 614, 878-885. Tribolium confusum, 787, 788. ferrugineum, 788. Trichophaga tapetzella, 781. Trichoptera, 782. Trigonotylus ruficornis, 799. Trinoton luridum, 819. Triphasia aurantiola=T. trifoliata, 653. Tristram, H. B., Canon, 725, 762, 766. Triumfetta semitriloba, 570. Trochosa, 833. Trogoderma tarsali, 796. Trompe Whale, 521, 689. Tropic-bird, 428, 679, 680, 888. eating snails, 680, 731. Louse, 819. Mites, 841. Trott, Perient, on tobacco, 1663, 519. Trott’s Pond, 467. Trox scaber, 792. scabrosus, 910. suberosus, 792. True, F. W., Fisheries and Fishery In- dustries of United States, 692. on whales, 684. Trumpet Flower, French, 655. Red, 660. Yellow, 647. Truneatella, 728. Trunk-fish, 504. Trunk Island, 465. Turtle, 697. Trunk-whale, 521, 689. Trypeta capitata, 743. humilis, 749. Tucker, Governor Daniel, 447, 455, 476, 551, 552, 628, 631, 874. 953 Tucker, Governor Daniel, character of, 447, 551. Commission of, 551. executions by, 447, 875. islands burned by, 552, 713, 714. made hedges and fences, 719. Paget Fort built by, 448. planted fig trees, etc., 624, 630. Tucker, Miss Hesthea Louisa (‘‘ Nea’), 444, Tucker, Wm., 444. Tucker’s Island, 456, 465. Tucker’s Town, 437, 476, 630. streets laid out in, 1616, 476. tornado at, 1875, 497. Tulip Tree, 645. Tumble-dungs, 790. Turbot, 434. Turkey Berry, 576, 656. Turkey Buzzard, 664. Turks Island, manufacture of salt at,520. Turnips, 532, 623. Turtle, caret, 694. green, 448, 692, 693. hawksbill, 448, 693, 694. leather-back, 696, 697. loggerhead, 695, 696. tortoise-shell, 694. trunk-back, 697. Turtle fishery, 448, 692. Turtle-grass, 448, 587, 693. Turtle ponds at Bermuda, 448, 694. Two-lined Walking-stick, 828. Tylos Latreilli, 844. niveus, 844. Typhoid fever, 511, 516. Typhus fever, 516. Tyroglyphus siro, 841. Uhler, P. R., 800, 822, 826. Ulex Europzeus, 653. Uloborus geniculatus, 831, 836. United States Weather Bureau, 506. Uropoda, 842. Uropodias Bermudensis, 844. Useful Plants from the Bahamas, 1616- | 1625, 624. Utetheisa bella, 769. Vaccination, 516. A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. 541 Vaillantia muralis, 581. Valleys, 466. Vallonia pulchella, 782, 733. Valuation of slaves executed in 1763, 866. Vampyre Bat, 867. Vanessa antiopa, 761. atalanta, 761. cardui, 760. io, 762. polychloros, 762. Van Name, W. C., 414, 864, 897, 906. Vaughan, Daniel, 641. Vedalia cardinalis, 796, 805, 893. Venomous Spider, 835. Vermetus, 486. Veronicella Schivelyz, 728, 735. Verrill, A. Hyatt, 414, 504, 680, 722, 725, 733, 819, 820, 897, 906. Bermuda birds, 722, 723, 720. Butterflies, 759, 767, 768. drawings, 897-911. fishes found dead, 504, 505. food of Tropic Birds, 680. photographs, 414, 897-911. poison of Agua Toad, 727. Verrill, Clarence 8., 414, 897. Vesey, Capt. Nathaniel, 886. introduced toad, 727. Vespa vulgaris, 750. Vespertilio pruinosus, 718. Viburnum tinus, 654. Vigna luteola, 580. Vinea rosea, 627. Vine cuttings from England, 6238, 636. Vines, cultivated, 636. ornamental, 658. Vinegar-fly, 742. Vino, 597. Vireo musicus, Godet on, 869. white-eyed, 429, 869. Virginia, 538. ’ Colony, plants sent to, 518. Company, 9514. Creeper, 608. emigration to, 569. History of, 443. Indian Maiden, marriage of, 514. Merchant, ship, 497. Virginian Indian virgins, 514. 542 Visitor’s Guide to Bermuda, J. M. Jones, , 725. Vitis hederacea, 658. inconstans, 658. Vitrina pellucida in Godet, 868. Wages regulated by law, 1623-26, 461, 505. Waite, F. C., on Agua toad, 726. Wala vernalis, 832, 839. Walker, Edward, 517. Walking-stick, insect, 823. Walnut-tree, Black, 650. Walsingham, Bay, 439. Caves, 441, 470, 471. Coffee trees at, 441, 641. Date Palm at, 441. Mr., cockswain of Sea Venture, 1609, 439. natural fish-ponds at, 441, 468. Olive trees at, 441. place, 438. Thos. Moore at, 439. Wild Jasmine at, 659. wild plants, rare, at, 441, 575, 590. Waltheria Americana, 576. Wampee, 653. Warwick parish, 426. ship, wreck of, 460, 496. Washington, General George, from, 456. George, charged with treason and convicted, 1650, 569. Wasp, Bermuda, 750, 751. Burrowing, 752. Digger, 752. Mason, 752. Mud, 752. Sand, 752. Spider, 752. Wood, 752. Yellow, 750. Waltheria Americana, 576. Water Beetles, 796. cisterns, 422, 467. Melons, 640. of wells, 422, 516. ordeal, 879-881. rain, universally used, 422, 517. sea, bright colors of, 415, 429, 430. letter A. E. Verrili— The Bermuda Islands. 954 Water, transparency of, 415, 419, 480. Waters, Edward, 545. Wax, export of, 521. Wax-moth, 779. Webbing-moth, 780. Wedderburn, Lieut.-Col. J. W., 720. Weevil, Bean, 788. Black, 785. Coffee-bean, 786. Corn, 528, 784. Cow-pea, 786. Fly, 779. Grain, 528, 784. Onion, 784, 785. Pea, 784. Rice, 784, 785. Weevils in corn, 528. Wells, brackish, 422. Wentworth, Capt. John, 561. West, George W., 531, 650. West Indian Whelk, 463, 464, 708, 849. Whale Bay, 522. Whale, Biseay, 683, 688. Cape or Black, 688. Fin-back, 688. fishery, 521, 522. fishery, American, extent of, 689. Greenland, 684. houses, former, 522, 690. Hump-back, 521, 682. oil, amount taken, 522, 684, 685. Right, 521, 684. Sperm, 521, 522, 683, 689. Spermaceti, 683, 689. Trompe, 521, 689. Trunk, 521, 689. Whalers, American, 685, 689. Whales, abundance of, formerly, 684. breeding of, 686. broaching of, 686. cubs, 521, 686, 687. flesh eaten, 687. food of, 688. Hayward, Mayor J. M., on, 688, 690. Hayward,Thos. B., on, 683,688,690. Hump-backs and Fin-backs, in Bay of Fundy, 687. Jones, J. M., on, 690. Jourdan, Silv., on, 688. large school of, 687. 955 Whales, migrations of, 686. Norwood, R., on, 522. playing of, 686. size of, 684. Stafford, R., on, 683. sporting, 686. - tameness of, in Bay of Fundy, 687. Wheat, common, 491, 524, 525, 545. Wheatear, 429, 724, 888. Whelks, West Indian, 463, 464, 708, 849. recently introduced, 708, 849. shells, fossil, 464. “« in kitchen middens, 463. Whinn, 653. Whipping Post, 550. punishment by, 556, 568, 564, 876. White, Rev. Nathaniel, 527. White Ants, 739, 817, 894. blast of onions, 812. Coccus, 637. Egret, 680. Hearn Bay, 681. Heron, 662, 680. Heron, laws to protect, 662, 681. Mangrove, 581. Mulberry, 625. Mullets, 699. Scale-insect, 810. slaves, 566. White-eyed Vireo, 429, 662, 887. Whitefield, Rev. George, 645. Whites, number of, 560, 570. Wild Birds Protection Act, 886. Wild or Half-wild Cats, 718. Box, 582. Bryone, 575. Olive, 575. Passion Flower, 579. Tobacco, 577. Wild Hogs, 550, 589, 710. bewitched, 615. their extermination, 710. destructive effects cf, 589. destructive on St. Helena, 633. Wilk [whelk], 708. Williams, H. E., 506. Williams, W. F., on meteorology, 809, | 810. Willow, Caracas, 649. Weeping, 649. A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 543 Winds, 496. salt, damage done by, 579. Wine-fly, 742. Wine-grape of Europe, 636. Wire-weed, 574. Wire-worms, 794. Wistaria, American, 659. speciosa= W. frutescens, 659. Wistowe, 4984. fishes confined at, 434. Witchcraft, executions for, 614, 878- 815. ordeals by water for, 614, 880, 881. prosecutions, 641, 878-885. Women appointed executioners, 562. punished by ducking, 481. sold for wives to the highest bid- ders, 566. Wood Beauty, 769. Wood, Governor Roger, 421, 523, 557, 607. on castor oil crop, 523. on destitution of people, 557, 558. on negroes, 561, 562. on Pineapples, 628. on Tobacco, 558. Proclamation of, 497. Wood, John, trial of, 875. Wood, Shaw, 648. Woodbine, Capt. Smith on, 580. Virginian, 575, 658. Wood-borers, 794. Woodhouse, Governor, 447, 608. Woodpeckers, 669, 888. Wood-rats, 543, 549, 551, 552, 590, 611, 712. Capt. John Smith on, 715. effects of, 590. extinction of, due to starvation, 715. Goy. Butler on, 713. Hughes on, 714. origin of, 712. Wood-wasp, 752. Wooden-ware, exported, Woodwardia Virginica, ¢ Wreck of Bonaventura, 534-537. Garland, 496, 513. Sea Venture, 537-041. Spanish ships, 514. Virginia merchant, 1661, 497. 544 Wreck of Warwick, 496. Wreck Hill, 485. Wrecks, 514. Xanthoxylum aromaticum. See Zan- thoxylum, 609-618, 896. Yam, 624, 525. Yates Island, 465. Yaw-weed, 579. Yellow Daisy-bush, 582. Yellow Fever, 511, 516, 865. caused by mosquito bites, 511, 747, 865. epidemics of formerly, 511,512, 865. Godet on, 865. : in Havana, table of deaths, 747. Mosquito, 746, 747, 865, 893. Ogilvy on, 865. on convict hulks, 865. Yellow Grunt, 704. Tayle, 702. Tree, 646. Wasp, 750. Yellow-wood, Gov. Moore on, 1612, 609. GAS A. EK. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 956 Yellow-wood, proclamation against ex- portations of, 1632, 609. timber valuable, 518, 609. Tree, 441, 575, 609, 610, 646. Tree and Legends of Buried Trea- sures, 610-618. Tree on Cooper’s Island, 611, 616, 618, 619. Tree on Ireland Island, 611-614, 646. Tree on Walsingham tract, 441, 610. with brass tablet and cross, 610, 611, 616, 618, 619. Yellow-footed Wasp, 752. Yucca, 433. aloifolia=Y. serrulata, 657. filamentosa, 657. Whippleyi, 657. Zanthoxylum aromaticum, 575, 609-618, 896. Zaragoza Mangrove, 581, 620. Zonitoides minusculus, 729. Zostera marina, 448, 586, 693. Figure 245.—Southern Army-worm and Moth (Laphygma frugiperda), nat. size ; after Packard. 957 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 545 ww YJ ZO BIIIS. (C e (DMA Rae PC AREAL 85 Figure 246.—Portuguese Man of War (Physalia arethusa) ; §; after L. Agassiz. 546 A, EF. Verrili—The Bermuda Islands. 958 Figure 247.—Purple Sea-urchin (Toxopneustes variegatus); 2g. See p. 71. Phot. A. H. V. OPE AoC Tee : ; Figure 248.—Large Holothurian (Stichopus Mébii), spotted variety; 1a, ventral; 1b, dorsal side; 1¢ nat. size. Seep. 71. Drawing, A. H. V. ae a 959 A. E. Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. 547 Figure 249.—Ivory Coral (Oculina varicosa) with the coral-animals expanded ; x4. See p. 98. Drawing from life, A. H. V. Figure 251.—Common Bermuda Seatcat, Sea-hare, or Aplysia (Tethys dacty- lomela) ; 1g. Drawing from life, A. H. V. 72° 548 A. EF. Verril—The Bermuda Islands. 960 Figure 252.—Bermuda Rose-coral (Mussa dipsacea), with the animals expanded ; 34 nat. size. See p. 93. Drawing by A. H. V. leaeie ASS Mikey Vpihontal Ke i} 7 Ni hoary be V/k ied LPR Atm ae i tee ty Giue uv eet Pat ees at ‘are a mM i mM 3 | 2044 SAN Ni SN SON AN AS S SS x AS SS S SRS MQ SN NS AK RAN SN Ni