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BETTER
DAIRY FARMING

THE BREEDING, FEEDING,

HANDLING AND CARE OF

DAIRY GATTLE

BY

E. S. SAVAGE, B.S.A., Ph.D.

PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
CORNELL UNIVERSITY

PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 1922-1923

AND

if A. MAYNARD, A.B., Ph.D.

PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
CORNELL UNIVERSITY

"Better Farming, Better Business,
Better Living"

ITHACA, NEW YORK
THE SAVAGE-MAYNARD COMPANY

1923

PRINTED IX THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

o*

4

Copyright, 1923

BY

THE SAVAGE-MAYNARD COMPANY

Set Up and Electrotyped
Published June, 1923

STfjt Uaknsftif tyrtts

R. K. DONNELLEY & SONS COMPANY
CHICAGO

N, C State Collet

PREFACE

Professor E. H. Farrington of the department of dairy hus-
bandry at the University of Wisconsin asks his class of farm boys at
the end of each term this question, " What languages do you speak
besides English?" One boy answered, "I can speak a little Nor-
wegian and a little German, and I understand horses and cows."

That is the very object in writing this book. We want to make
the language of cows a little better understood by the dairymen
of this country. To know about cows, the farms and the best
farm practices in different parts of our great country will make
a man a better farmer on his own farm. With the reading of this
book we hope that farmers may have their vision broadened and
perhaps a suggestion will be found that will change a practice so
that a little more money may be made and saved.

At the time of writing this preface farming is said to be in a
bad way. The lawmakers and the others are all busy trying to
help the farmer. Some good will come of their efforts. We think,
however, that the most good will come through the efforts of the
farmer himself. He will build for himself on his own farm and
will build for himself and for his neighbors when he joins with
them in the community and state enterprises which he will help
to build, at the foundation first, in his own community. Co-opera-
tive effort will make for " better farming, better business and
better living."

The dairy farmer is the best off of all. Conditions in Wisconsin
and New York and the other dairy states show that. This is no
time for anything but optimism because the demand for milk and
dairy products is growing and the market for these is the founda-
tion of the business. With the market for milk and dairy products
becoming increasingly good the market for surplus dairy cattle
will become better.

The object in writing this book is to help some with all this. We
have enjoyed writing it. It has served greatly to make our think-

iii

±1823

IV

PREFACE

ing more definite and to clarify our idea?. We hope you will enjoy
reading it. With design we have been somewhat dogmatic. You
will not agree with all the statements. We have read much of the
evidence on the different points, have weighed it for and against,
made up our minds and given you our opinion. This opinion is
the best solution of the problems at the present time that we can

find.

We wish to take the opportunity at this time to express our
appreciation to Professor H. H. Wing. For many years we have
been associated with him in the department of animal husbandry
at Cornell University, of which he is the head. His ideas have been
sound, his direction of our study and work all that could be desired.
Living and working with him is a pleasure.

Members of the groups of teachers in the departments of animal
husbandry at Cornell University and at the University of Wis-
consin have helped us many times in crystallizing the opinions
that we have given to our readers. Professor H. E. Babcock,
Manager of the G.L.F. Exchange of Ithaca. New York, has also
helped. To all these and all breeders who have contributed pic-
tures and facts about their animals we express our appreciation.

Professor F. B. Morrison has very kindly allowed us to use
some of the tables of the book " Feeds and Feeding" by Henry and
Morrison. This has saved us a great deal of work in our compila-
tion. We appreciate his courtesy.

Ithaca. New York
June 15, 1923.

CONTEXTS

PAGE

Introduction. The General Problems of Dairy Farming vii

Part I. Feeding for Milk Production
Better Dairy Farming Through Better Feeding

CHAPTER

I. Feeding the Dry Cow — The Importance of Minerals. ... 1

II. Feeding through the Lactation Period 9

III. Feeding on Pasture 23

IV. Feeding Calves 30

V. Feeding Yearlings and Two-year-olds 46

VI. Feeding for Official Records 49

VII. How to Buy Feeds 61

VIII.. The Co-operative Purchase and Distribution of Feeds. ... 70

Part II. The Cow
Better Dairy Farming Through Better Cows

IX. The Ideal Cow 82

X. Purebreds or Grades 92

XI. The Leading Dairy Breeds 98

Holstein-Friesian 98

Guernsey 104

Jersey.." 107

Ayrshire Ill

Brown Swiss 114

Milking Shorthorn 114

Part III. The Bull
Better Dairy Farming Through Better Breeding

XII. The Ideal Bull 117

XIII. Buying a Pure Bred Bull 121

XIV. Feeding, Developing and Exercising the Herd Bull 132

Part IV. Dairy Farm Practice
Better Dairy Farming Through Better Practice

XV. Good Breeding Practices 136

XVI. The Control of Tuberculosis 144

XVII. Abortion and Other Diseases Interfering with Breeding. . 154

v

VI

CONTEXTS

CHAPTER PAGE

XVIII. A Few Common Ailments of Cattle 158

XIX. The Dairy Barn and Other Buildings 162

XX. How to Produce Clean Milk— Milking Machines 169

XXI. Buying and Selling Dairy Cattle— Fitting for Sale 175

XXII. Herd Improvement — Keeping Production Records 183

XXIII.
XXIV.

XXV.

XXVI.
XXVII.

XXVIII.

Table I.
Table II.
Table III.

Part V. The Feeds
Better Dairy Farming Through Better Feeds

The Composition of Feeds and their Manorial Value 189

The Dry Roughages 197

Alfalfa. Red Clover and Other Legumes 198

The Xon-Legumes 207

The Succulent Roughages 209

Silage, Pasture, Soilage, Roots, Other Succulent Crops. . 209

Corn and Wheat and Their By-Products 221

Other Grains and Their By-Products 226

Oats, Barley, Buckwheat, Rye, Rice 226

The Oil Meals and Miscellaneous By-Products 232

Appendix
Analysis of Feeds and Computation of Rations

Analyses of Feedingstuffs 238

Morrison Feeding Standard for Dairy Cows 241

Weights of Various Concentrates 246

NOTE
We have worked up a careful index. Reference to it in the back of the
book will enable readers to find things quickly. As an aid to cross reference
the paragraphs have been numbered. Bold-face numbers found in the read-
ing matter refer to paragraphs containing additional information on the
same topic.

INTRODUCTION
THE GENERAL PROBLEMS OF DAIRY FARMING

The great problem in dairy farming is to breed better cows that
will produce more milk at less cost and that will produce offspring
that will sell for more money. We have addressed ourselves to this
problem frankly. More profit from the cows will mean " better
farming, better business, better living."

1. The problem of feeding. — A cow inherits what she will be
from her dam and sire. The development of that inheritance
depends on the feed and handling that she gets. In Part I we have
treated this feeding and development through the year-round
cycle, starting with the cow as soon as she has dried up and carry-
ing her through the entire lactation period, both in the barn and
on pasture. The development of the young stock is a part of our
problem. Some of the finer points in feeding high production

fsfor records are studied.

2. Buying and distributing feed.— Buying feed and the
distribution of feeds co-operatively are treated fully. We must not
forget that one of the main parts of feeding dairy cattle is the
correct selection and purchase of the raw materials of the ration.
Co-operative effort on the part of farmers in solving their problems
is new. We have given, in Chapter VIII, a brief history of its
development in the purchase of feeds.

3. The problem of better cows.— The unit of success in
better dairy farming is the cow. Therefore, we have named
Part II "The Cow," and have contributed what we know to help
form an ideal in the minds of our readers with some suggestions
as to how to realize that ideal. All the dairy breeds are briefly
described. By a study of the leading types of cows and their
records we may learn how far progress has gone in successful units
in each breed up to the present.

4. The problem of better bulls.— The real problems of
better dairy farming come in the department of breeding. We

vii

viii INTRODUCTION

know much more about feeding and we can control nutrition to a
large extent. But we cannot control inheritance as measurably as
we would like. In Part III the question of better bulls and how to
get them and how to feed and handle them is given careful con-
sideration.

5. Dairy farm practice. — We have brought together in Part
IV under this head the best material we can find on the control of
tuberculosis and abortion, the greatest disease problems there are
in Animal Husbandry. Some suggestions are given in the produc-
tion of clean milk, buying and selling dairy cattle, and herd
improvement. Good practices are important. The more we can
learn about them the better.

6. The feeds. — Good roughage is the foundation of feeding.
The man who can get and maintain good stands of alfalfa, clover or
soybeans for hay and then couples up with these legumes, good
silage, has his feeding problems three-fourths solved. A thorough
knowledge of the source, composition and feeding value of the
various concentrates is necessary to know how effectively to
supplement this roughage. Part V gives methods of getting good
roughage on our farms as well as the composition of the different
kinds. Also the concentrates are fully described.

7. Dairy husbandry the foundation of permanent agri-
culture.—L. H. Bailey in his book "The Holy Earth" says, "The
surface of the earth is particularly within the care of the farmer.
He keeps it for his own sustenance and gain, but his gain is also the
gain of all the rest of us.

"He is the agent or the representative of society to guard and
subdue the surface of the earth and he is the agent of the divinity
that made it. He must exercise his dominion with due regard to
all these obligations. He is trustee. The productiveness of the
earth must increase from generation to generation; this also is his
obligation."

This obligation is not a heavy one to the dairyman. The dairy
farmer is the permanent farmer and the satisfied farmer. May he
find something in this book to interest him and encourage him.

Part I
FEEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION

CHAPTER I

FEEDING THE DRY COW — THE IMPORTANCE
OF MINERALS

In beginning a discussion of the feeding of dairy cattle we will
start with a cow that has completed one or more lactations and
tell how to feed her while dry to prepare her for calving and for
the next lactation period.

8. Drying off the cow. — Everybody will agree that the cows
should have a rest between lactations. It is our opinion that the rest
period should be six to eight weeks in length. Cows in thin flesh
should have a full two months and it is quite possible that all cows
would benefit by that much rest. It is good practice with heifers so
to breed them for their second calf that they can be milked for a
full year and still have a two-months' rest. This practice has a good
effect in influencing the length of their later lactation periods. With
the exception of heifers, the cow should drop a calf once a year.

Having decided how long the dry period shall be, the question
that next arises is how the cow is to be dried off. This is a difficult
thing with some cows and one which must be done gradually to
avoid injury to the udder. The first step is to cut down on the
grain ration. If the cow is producing a lot of milk at the time, it
may be best to cut out the grain altogether and perhaps even to
substitute poorer hay for any clover or alfalfa she may be receiving.
However, this last step should not generally be necessary, and, for
reasons that will be pointed out later, we like to have the cow
receive clover or alfalfa hay throughout the dry period.

For the cow on pasture it may be necessary to bring her into
the barn and give her hay only. With the cutting down of the feed

1

2 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

the cow should be milked only once a day. After a day or two
this should be changed to once in two days and then to once in
three, etc. When the cow will go five or six days without milking,
without the udder becoming hard or inflamed, it is generally safe
to stop milking her altogether. However, she should be watched
for several days thereafter for signs of udder trouble.

9. Feeding the dry cow. — The farmer can make no more
serious mistake than to think that because the cow is not giving
milk during the dry period the character and quality of her feed
is of small importance. It is true that she does not require as much
feed and that its protein content may be lower, but she must have
the amount and kind that will properly develop the foetus, put
her in condition to stand the strain of calving and build her up
for the next lactation. The feed should be such as to keep her in
good health and vigor and put on some fat.

10. The grain mixture. — The grain ration should be made up
from feeds fattening in nature. We have used the following mixture
with good success:

100 lbs. hominy feed

100 lbs. ground oats

100 lbs. wheat bran
50 lbs. oil meal
Oil meal is generally rather expensive but it should be an in-
gredient of the ration because of its value as a conditioner. The
ration should be bulky and laxative. A variety of feeds is of less
importance than with milking animals.

The amount of grain to be fed will depend on the roughage.
With plenty of the best roughage the dry cow should receive at
least three to four pounds of grain a day. The amount may be
doubled to advantage with more valuable animals particularly
where records are sought. Succulent feed is important during the
dry period because it is healthful, cooling and aids in keeping the
animal in proper condition. Thus the dry cow should have all the
silage she will clean up. Where silage is limited or unavailable,
roots, such as mangels, rutabagas, or beet pulp mixed with diluted
molasses, make a satisfactory substitute.

FEEDING THE DRY COW 3

11. Importance of good roughage.— Many farmers think
that inasmuch as the dry cow needs less protein they can replace the
legume hay (clover or alfalfa) at this time by a poorer roughage. If
protein were the only consideration here they might be right. How-
ever, legume roughage has other advantages and it is very desirable
that the dry cow have her share. Such roughage is the best source
of lime of any of our feeding stuffs and recent work has shown it to
be very important that the dry cow receive liberal amounts of lime.

12. Minerals in the dairy ration. — There are a dozen or
more different minerals required by the animal body. However,
only two of them, aside from those supplied by common salt and
perhaps a source of iodine in the goiter belt, are at all likely to be
furnished by the ordinary ration in less amount than the animal
needs. These two are lime and phosphorus. They form 90 per cent of
the mineral matter of the body and over 50 per cent of that of milk.

Segis Pietertje Prospect 221846

World's Champion cow in milk production. Yearly record 37,381.4 pounds
of milk, a daily average of 102.4 pounds for 365 days. Owned by Carnation
Stock Farms, Seattle, Wash.

4 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

Thus we can understand why the dairy cow needs plenty. During
the period of heaviest milk production she does not seem to be
able to assimilate enough lime and phosphorus out of her feed.
On the other hand some of these minerals which she secretes in her
milk she takes out of her bones. This has been observed to occur
even where legume roughage and mineral supplements are fed.
Toward the end of the lactation period, and particularly while
dry, the minerals removed from the bones are restored, provided
of course that the feed contains them in a form the cow can use.
Sudden falling off of cows in production after a good start in a
lactation period may be caused by failure to build up the mineral
reserves during the dry period. There is evidence that certain
breeding troubles have a similar cause. How then may these min-
eral reserves best be built up?

The first consideration is feeds rich in the minerals in question.
A good grain mixture will supply ample phosphorus. Legume hay
is rich in lime. Where these feeds are liberally fed, the mineral
needs may be taken care of as well as we know how to at present.
There are some recent experiments, however, that may have a
great practical bearing in this connection.

13. Lime and phosphorus important.— Adequate mineral
nutrition is not simply a case of supplying adequate amounts in
the feed. There seems to be a limit to the lime and phosphorus
that a dairy cow can assimilate from her feed no matter how much
may be supplied. Recently it has been found that there is some-
thing, probably a vitamine, in green feed and in leafy roughage
cured in a certain way that aids in lime assimilation. In fact, it
has been shown that during the heavy lactation, when lime and
phosphorus are ordinarily taken out of the bones, this can be pre-
vented by the use of the feeds mentioned. This means that the
cow on pasture should more readily build up her reserves. The
method of curing the leafy roughage so as to preserve this factor
responsible for lime assimilation has not been definitely worked
out but it may not be long before we will know just how to do it
and thus have a feed which will assure adequate mineral assimila-
tion at all times. It is evident from work done to date that curing

FEEDING THE DRY COW 5

under caps preserves the factor better than long exposure in the
windrow. (38)

A further question arises as to whether the dry cow should re-
ceive a source of lime and phosphorus in addition to her feed.
With a good grain mixture liberally fed and ample legume roughage
we have no proof that such addition will help, at least until we
know more definitely how to cure the roughage so as to preserve
the factor mentioned. With poorer roughage we think it may be
advantageous to add a source of lime, at least, to the grain ration.
Pure, finely ground limestone is a cheap and readily available
source. Both lime and phosphorus are supplied by steamed bone
meal or by ground rock phosphate. AVhere the dry cow is on
pasture, we would add one of the above mineral sources to take
advantage of the factor aiding assimilation supplied by the grass.
We suggest feeding two to four ounces per day.

14. Liberal feeding good insurance.— We have advocated
liberal feeding during the dry period. It means a stronger calf
and a good send-off for the next lactation. A good dairy cow will
return to the milk pail in quantity of milk and in fat content the
fat put on her back during the dry period. We have stressed the
use of silage and legume hay. Every dairyman should try to grow
more of these feeds. They seem to us essential for profitable milk
production and in Part V we give some suggestions as to the grow-
ing and handling of these crops which it is hoped will aid many
farmers to have a larger supply of these essential feeds. However,
we know that many dairymen have only a limited supply of legume
hay and silage, particularly in certain years. The alternative is to
use the best roughage available, bearing in mind that the poorer
the roughage, the more grain is needed.

Where the dry cow is on pasture, of course she does not require
the feeding we have outlined. Where the pasture is good, she
needs no additional feed, but as the pasture fails, both grain and
roughage should be given. Where little feed is obtained from the
pasture the supplementary feeding should be nearly as liberal as
that we have suggested for stable conditions. In Chapter III feed-
ing on pasture is taken up in detail. (49)

6 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

15. Feeding at calving time. — About a week before calving
time the cow should be placed in dry quarters, well ventilated but
protected from drafts. There should be plenty of bedding. At
this time her ration should be laxative and cooling. The feeding
of silage should be liberal. The grain should be cut down to perhaps
half that recommended for the dry cow. At this time we would
change the proportions of the grain mixture so that it would con-
tain relatively more wheat bran and oil meal. If no silage is being
fed such a change is especially desirable. The most important
thing at this time is to avoid constipation. The grain mixture the
last few days may consist entirely of bran and oil meal in the ratio
of 2 : 1, if constipation is evident. In such a case it may also be
desirable to give a purgative such as one pound of epsom salts or
one quart of linseed oil. If one can be sure of giving such a purga-
tive within 24 hours of calving it is always a good thing to do.
The cow should receive little roughage the last day or two so that
the digestive system is not so distended as to interfere with the
expulsion of the foetus.

The above applies to cows freshening out of the pasture season.
There is no better place for the cow to drop her calf than in a
clean, grassy pasture. If it is during the early pasture season, the
cow will probably be receiving no grain or roughage. The pasture
grass will keep her in satisfactory condition for calving. Where she
is receiving considerable supplementary feed, as she should where
the pasture is poor, this feed should be regulated before calving
as we have outlined in the above paragraph.

The animal should have access at all times to plenty of good
clean water, or if this is not possible she should be watered two or
three times daily. The water should never be very cold.

16. Udder troubles. — At this time the dairyman must be on
the lookout for udder troubles. If the cow is receiving plenty of
water and is not constipated no fear need be had for swollen and
caked udders as long as hard feverish spots are not present. If
these occur they are best treated by rubbing with warm water.
There are many proprietary preparations on the market for mas-
saging the udder and the use of one of them or some sort of grease

FEEDING THE DRY COW 7

will aid in keeping the udder from becoming irritated by the rub-
bing, but it is the latter which actually reduces the swelling.

17. When the calf is dropped.— As soon as the calf is born
any slime around its nostrils or in its throat should be removed.
The calf sometimes strangles to death through inability to breathe
on account of the above. At birth the stump of the navel cord

'■'■ -

The Right Kind of Jersey Calf

should be disinfected with tincture of iodine. It can be obtained
at any drug store.

The afterbirth should drop away in a few hours. What to do
when the afterbirth is retained is a question which puzzles many.
To remove it requires skill, and judgment is also needed to know
whether in a given case it should be done at all. The best general
advice we can give is to call a veterinarian or let the afterbirth
alone. Retained afterbirth is less likely to occur if the cow has
been fed with plenty of laxative, succulent food. Thus, the best

8 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

way to help solve the afterbirth problem is to feed properly before
calving.

Unless milk fever is feared the calf should be left with its mother
for the first two days, in order that it may get the colostrum, as
the first milk secreted is called. This milk is laxative and it is
very necessary that the new-born calf should have it.

For the first three or four days after calving the cow should
receive only a limited amount of feed and this feed should be
laxative in nature. At the end of this period, provided the cow
has a good appetite, the feed may be rather quickly increased to
that amount which was being received before calving time, and
this amount gradually raised according to her milk flow.

18. Milk fever. — Milk fever is a disease which may occur with
any cow following calving no matter how well she is handled. It
seems especially likely to occur with high producers. Formerly
it was a very serious trouble but the modern treatment of distending
the udder with air is very effective and few fatalities occur where
the treatment is used. Every dairyman should own a milk fever
outfit for emergency use. Directions are furnished with the outfit.
However, because of the possibility of infection, it is better to call
a veterinarian to give the treatment and to explain the details of
the care needed. Contrary to the opinion held by many, it is a
good thing to milk the cow a little two or three times a day during
milk fever to make sure that all quarters are milking freely.

CHAPTER II
FEEDING THROUGH THE LACTATION PERIOD

This chapter deals with the feeding and management of the
cow that has freshened and is in full flow of milk. We assume that
through her breeding she has the proper capacity for milk pro-
duction and that she has been so fed while dry as to put her in
good condition.

19. Good roughage. Clover and alfalfa hay. — The great-
est direct expense is for feed. Since home-grown feeds are the
cheapest, the first thing to remember is that the ration should be
built around the materials grown on the farm. The dairyman
will feed his cows cheapest who has plenty of good roughage. The
better the roughage the less of the more expensive feeds he has
to buy.

The best roughage for the dairy cow is clover or alfalfa hay and
corn silage. The farmer who grows enough of these feeds so that
his cows can have all they will eat has taken the biggest step
toward cheap milk production. Everybody knows that to get the
most milk the cow must have lots of protein. The high protein
feeds are the most costly. Since clover and alfalfa contain much
more protein than other hays, the larger the amount of these
materials the farmer has, the less of the more expensive feeds he
needs to buy.

It is from the roughage that the cow gets most of her lime, lots
of which are required for milk secretion. Legume hay (clover and
alfalfa) contains three to four times as much lime as do other
hays, and this is another big point in having plenty of it. Further,
it is these leafy roughages, clover and alfalfa, that contain the
vitamines, — substances that we will probably pay more attention
to in making rations as soon as we know more about them.

As between clover and alfalfa, the latter is more difficult to
grow but means cheaper feed per acre once a stand is obtained.
Of course not all land will grow these crops. They require a limed

9

10

BETTER DAIRY FARMING

soil, well drained. Because of the great value of legume hay every
dairyman should try to keep a part of his farm in such a state
that one of these crops can be grown, and we believe that the
extra trouble taken to grow alfalfa will be more than repaid by
the yield. (Chapter XXIV)

20. Corn silage. — The big value of silage lies in the fact that
it is the cheapest source of succulence. The importance of suc-

Four of a Kind
Guernsey cows owned by Oaks Farm, Cohasset, Mass.

culent feed in keeping the cow in good condition and in increasing
her milk flow is known to all. Everybody knows how cows respond
in increased milk flow when turned out on pasture. The feeding
of silage is the best method we have of supplying the succulence
of pasture in the winter time.

21. Selecting the grain mixture. — The proper selection of
the grain mixture is a case of buying what mill feeds are necessary
to go with the home-grown feeds to give a satisfactory ration at

FEEDING THROUGH LACTATION PERIOD 11

the cheapest cost. Thus, the farmer should think first of the kind
and amount of roughage and home-grown grains he has and then
decide what feeds he should buy to go with them. Here he has the
choice of purchasing certain separate feeds and mixing his own
ration or of choosing among the various proprietary feeds one that
will go best with the materials he has at home. We will first con-
sider grain mixtures from the point of view that the dairyman
will mix his own.

22. Variety. — The mixture should have variety. No one
would think of making the grain mixture entirely of one feed.
There should be at least three ingredients so selected that in the
entire ration, including the roughage, at least four plants are
represented. A mixture of corn meal, gluten and hominy would
not do because all of these feeds come from the same plant.

23. Palatability. — Of course the mixture must consist of feeds
the animal likes, — it must be palatable. More feed will be eaten
where it is pleasing to the taste. Nice sweet hay will be consumed
liberally, where moldy, improperly cured hay will be refused
entirely. There is a considerable difference in palatability among
the feeds that can be used in the grain ration and the animal will
eat more if its ration is palatable. Also a palatable ration is more
digestible.

24. Bulk. — The mixture should have bulk. We class wheat
bran, ground oats, distillers' grains, etc., as bulky feeds, in con-
trast to corn meal, the oil meals, etc. Feed lacking bulk forms a
compact mass in the stomach which is digested more slowly and
with difficulty. Every mixture should be made up in part of
bulky materials.

It is a good thing to have at least one laxative feed in the grain
ration. This is very important when no succulence is fed. Wheat
bran and oil meal are laxative feeds.

25. Protein. — The protein content of the grain mixture is of
greatest importance. The cow cannot produce the milk she is
capable of unless she gets enough protein. Farm surveys in New
York State have shown that the average farmer does not feed
enough protein and that the one who is feeding the most is the one

12 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

who is making money. The farmer cannot raise the kino! of feeds
which will give him enough protein, so buying feeds is largely a
case of buying this nutrient. The selection of feeds to go with his
home-grown materials so as to get enough protein into his mixture
as cheaply as possible is thus the thing he should think of most. In
discussing the choosing of mixtures according to the roughage we
will show what the protein content ought to be, and give a list of
feeds classified according to the amount of protein they furnish. (27)

26. Digestibility. — Of course, the ration must be made up of
digestible materials. The cow gets no value out of her feed if she
cannot digest it. We will not attempt here to classify feeds accord-
ing to their digestibility, but the reader may consider that all the
feeds and rations we list in this chapter are satisfactory as regards
this point. (Appendix, table I)

27. Cost. — All through our discussion we have mentioned the
matter of cost. This is the most important part of all to the
majority of farmers. If a man has the right kind of cows he can
afford to give them all they can eat of the best feeds. Even so, he
will save much on his feed bill by noting the relative cost of these
best feeds, for at all times some are relatively cheap and others
high. The true cost of a feed can only be measured by the milk it
puts in the pail. Cheap feeds which are so low in protein, so high
in fiber and so indigestible that the cow gets little out of them to
make milk are the most expensive of all.

With the above things in mind we are now ready to select
specific grain mixtures to go with the home-grown feeds. For this
purpose we will use the following list in which the common feeds
are given according to their protein content.

High-Protein Feeds Medium-Protein Feeds

(23 per cent or more) (12 per cent to 23 per cent)

Linseed oil meal Wheat bran

Cottonseed meal Cocoanut oil meal

Distillers' dried grains Standard wheat middlings

Gluten meal Wheat mixed feed

Gluten feed Germ oil meal

Buckwheat middlings Barley feed

FEEDING THROUGH LACTATION PERIOD 13

Low-Protein Feeds

(below 12 per cent)
Corn meal
Hominy feed
Ground oats
Ground barley
Corn feed meal
Ground buckwheat
Ground rye
28. Mixtures with clover or alfalfa hay.— Where the farmer
has an abundance of one of these roughages and plenty of silage
he is in a position to buy the minimum amount of the more costly
high-protein feeds. His grain mixture should contain 14 to 18
per cent of protein. A simple mixture which would supply a little
over 14 per cent of protein and require the purchase of only one
pound in ten of high-protein feed is as follows :

100 lbs. wheat bran 200 lbs. hominy

150 lbs. ground oats 50 lbs. oil meal

The first two feeds are bulky. Bran and oil meal are laxative. A
variety of plants is represented. The farmer could substitute for
ground oats and hominy any of the other low-protein feeds if they
could be bought more cheaply or if he had them from his own farm.
Cottonseed meal might be substituted for oil meal but we like to
have a little of the latter in every dairy ration. The protein con-
tent could be increased by substituting a small amount of a
medium- or high-protein feed in place of a part of the oats or
hominy.

Another ration which would go well with legume roughage,
giving a somewhat greater variety of feeds and furnishing about
16 per cent protein is as follows:

200 lbs. ground oats
100 lbs. corn feed meal
100 lbs. ground barley
100 lbs. buckwheat middlings
100 lbs. gluten feed
50 lbs. oil meal

14

BETTER DAIRY FARMING

29. Mixture with timothy hay.— When timothy hay or other
poor hay is fed with silage the grain mixture must contain nearly
one-half again as much protein as with alfalfa and the actual
protein content of the ration must be 22 to 25 per cent. A mixture
which would be satisfactory for use with timothy hay is as follows :

100 lbs. wheat bran

100 lbs. hominy

150 lbs. gluten feed

100 lbs. oil meal
50 lbs. cottonseed meal
This mixture contains about 24 per cent of protein. In order to
furnish this amount, 60 per cent of the ration must come from
high-protein feeds, showing that two to three times as much of
these feeds are required as when the farmer has alfalfa or clover.

Spring Brook Bess Burke 2d 131387

One of the largest Holstein-Friesian cows in the world. Weight 2225
pounds. Yearly record 24918.1 pounds of milk, 1032.75 pounds butter fat.
Owned by Winterthur Farms, Wilmington, Delaware.

FEEDING THROUGH LACTATION PERIOD 15

30. Mixtures with hay containing some clover.— Probably
the majority of farmers have mixed hay to feed their cows, — hay
made up of timothy and other grasses, and containing some clover.
Here the farmer must make his mixture according to the quality of
the hay. If it contains little clover he must use a mixture similar
to that suggested for timothy. On the other hand with considerable'
clover present he can lower the protein content of his grain mix-
ture accordingly.

It should be remembered that no harm can come from feeding
more protein than necessary. The first ration we listed (28) con-
tains the absolute minimum of protein and is for use with the
best roughage and is only recommended where the high-protein
feeds are much more costly than the others. We prefer a some-
what higher protein content than 14 per cent even with the best
roughage, where it can be obtained without too much extra cost.
It is better to err on the side of feeding more protein than necessary
even if it does cost more, than to feed too little. Of course, if the
dairyman has lots of legume hay and silage and home-grown grain
it might be more economical for him to make his ration entirely
from these feeds rather than buy feeds to get more protein, even
though maximum milk production may not be realized. Decision
here must rest on the cost of the feed to be bought and selling
price of home-grown feed.

31. A ration of alfalfa and silage alone.— Professor W. J.
Fraser of the University of Illinois has just published a very
interesting report of a six-year experiment during which a herd of
dairy cows received nothing but home-grown feeds. The cows
were fed almost entirely on alfalfa hay and corn silage, the average
daily consumption per cow being 14.5 pounds of alfalfa and 37
pounds of silage. When a cow was producing over 20 pounds of
milk daily she received some corn meal — two to twelve pounds
daily, depending upon her production. The herd was on pasture
in season. With this system of feeding, using no grain except
corn meal and little of that, the average yearly production per
cow over the six years was 7,470 pounds of milk and 262 pounds
of fat. The yearly production per acre of feed was 3,888 pounds

16 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

of milk and 136 pounds of fat. This experiment brings out in a
very remarkable way, what a fine combination is alfalfa hay and
corn silage, and that a fair yield of milk is possible on these feeds
alone. Certainly they must have kept the cows in good condition
or production would not have been maintained over six years.
The reader will do well to ask himself whether his cows are averag-
ing over 7,000 pounds yearly.

32. Minerals. — No mineral supplements have been added to
any of the grain mixtures given. We recommend the addition of
one to two per cent of pure ground limestone, ground rock phos-
phate or steamed bone meal where little legume roughage is fed.
Any material added should be ground fine enough to pass a twenty-
mesh sieve. It may be worth while to add one of these sources
even where legume roughage is used. Certainly this will be true
as soon as we know how to cure the roughage so as to preserve
the factor that aids in lime assimilation. (13) A year's develop-
ments may change our present ideas and recommendations. In
the meantime, we are inclined to advocate the use of minerals as
insurance even where their value is not proved. They are cheap
and can do no harm and we may learn a lot from the experience
of farmers using them.

There are a number of proprietary mineral mixtures on the
market. These mixtures have no merit whatever over unmixed
ingredients which supply the needed minerals, — lime and phos-
phorus. The proprietary mixtures contain a number of ingre-
dients of no proven value which add nothing but cost to the ration.
We advise against their use.

33. Salt. — The cow should receive one to two ounces of salt a
day. Two or three ounces can be fed three times a week if more
convenient, simply throwing it into the manger any time during
the day. Of course, the salt can also be mixed with the grain
ration. The practice of salting the animals once in two weeks is
not a good one.

34. Feeding without silage. — In talking about feeding thus
far we have assumed that the farmer has silage. Of course we
know that many farmers do not have silos and that even those who

FEEDING THROUGH LACTATION PERIOD 17

do, have only a limited amount of silage in certain years. We
believe it will pay every dairyman to grow some silage crop and
that it should be corn if possible. If experience has shown him that
he cannot depend on corn, there may be some other silage crop
suited to his locality. If the farmer has no silage, he should try
to provide some other succulence for his cows. Roots are the
best substitute. They do not furnish an equivalent amount of
food value as cheaply as does corn silage. Otherwise they may
be just as satisfactory. Mangels, sugar beets and rutabagas are
the roots most commonly used. They should be sliced up and fed
with the grain. Where roots are fed the grain may be reduced
somewhat.

35. Other succulence. — Another way to provide succulence
is by the use of dried beet pulp soaked in water before feeding.
Take one pound of beet pulp in place of about eight pounds of
silage and soak it in water ten to twelve hours. The grain ration
need not be quite as heavy where beet pulp is fed. However, it is
the most costly way of getting succulence.

Without succulent feed of any kind the grain feeding must be.
somewhat more liberal than otherwise, and the mixture should
contain more of the laxative feeds.

36. How much to feed. — In determining this point we first
decide on the amount of grain needed on the basis of the milk
produced and then give the cow all the hay and silage she will
clean up in addition. In deciding on the grain for a given amount
of milk we think of three things, — the kind of roughage available,
the price of milk and the fat content of the milk produced. With
the best quality hay and silage or roots, feed one pound of grain
for every four pounds of milk, where the price of the product is
low. If the price is high, the extra milk produced by heavier feed-
ing, one pound of grain to three of milk, will justify the cost.
Where ordinary feeding hay is the roughage, feed one pound of
grain for every two and one-half or three pounds of milk, depend-
ing on its price. The above figures are for 3.5 per cent milk; for
producing richer milk the grain allowance should be increased
somewhat. Under conditions where one pound for three pounds

18

BETTER DAIRY FARMING

of milk would be fed to Holsteins, Jerseys or Guernseys should
have one pound for every two and one-half pounds of milk.

Another way of determining the amount of grain to feed is to
measure it by the butter fat production per week. Feed one pound
of grain per day for each pound of butter fat produced per week

A Good Dairy Barx axd a Leadixg Dairy Man

Mr. Frank O. Lowden, Oregon, 111., President of the Holstein-Friesian
Association of America.

and let the cow get the rest of her feed from a liberal amount of
good roughage.

In addition to the grain mixture the average cow will eat 9 to
12 pounds of hay and 30 to 40 pounds of silage per day, depending
on her size and production.

37. Feed the cows as individuals. — In feeding grain as we
have suggested, the farmer must of course feed each animal as an
individual. This is the only proper way. If each animal in the
herd gets the same amount of grain no matter how much milk she

FEEDING THROUGH LACTATION PERIOD 19

gives, some will get more than they need while others will not get
enough to give the milk which they are capable of producing. As
the cow gets along toward the end of the lactation period her milk
rapidly falls off and the farmer will save much grain here by feed-
ing it according to production. It is a good plan to have a small
blackboard nailed to each cow's stanchion, on which can be
written the amount of grain the cow should receive. When her
milk shows that the amount should be changed it is very easy to
change the figure on the board.

38. Vitamines in the dairy ration.— Certain other sub-
stances besides protein, carbohydrates, fats and minerals are
necessary for health and growth. These substances are called vita-
mines. Their importance has been principally worked out in the
diet of humans, but we do know that our farm animals may suffer
from a lack of them. Further, the dairyman must be interested in
vitamines because milk is the most important source of vitamines
in the human diet. This fact is increasing its use and value.

There are at least three vitamines, distinguished on the basis
of the effect of their absence from the food. The fat soluble
vitamine, vitamine A, is the one that occurs in butter fat. In
animal feeds it occurs in green forage and leafy roughage. Grains
in general contain little, but yellow corn contains considerable
amounts. The absence of the vitamine A affects growth and other
body functions and eventually causes a specific eye disease.

The second vitamine, vitamine B, occurs abundantly in milk,
in grains, in green forage and in roots. Thus it occurs liberally
in animal feeds and is not likely to be deficient in the ration.

The absence of another vitamine, the antiscorbutic or vitamine
C, results in scurvy in humans and certain animals. This vita-
mine occurs liberally in leafy foods and green forage and to a
variable extent in milk. It does not occur in grains or in dry
roughage. Thus it does not occur in much of the material used in
feeding farm animals.

Some animals, however, are not susceptible to a lack of vita-
mine C, and so far as we know at present its importance is not
great in the case of dairy animals.

20 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

Most scientists believe that there is a fourth vitamine, the anti-
rachitic,— a vitamine which will cure rickets. The latter is a
disease due to improper lime and phosphorus nutrition. The
vitamine does not supply either of these minerals but aids in their
metabolism. Cod liver oil is the best source of this vitamine.
Those who have studied the question believe that the factor in
green forage, which helps the dairy cow build up her reserves of
lime and phosp'horus, as mentioned in paragraph 13, is identical
with the antirachitic vitamine. Thus the dairyman is interested
in having.as much as possible of this vitamine in his ration. This
means good pasture in the summer and, in the winter, leafy rough-
age, cured so as to preserve its leaves and bright green color. To
do this, curing under caps is essential.

A dairy ration which is based on good pasture in summer and
plenty of grain and good leafy roughage in winter will supply
vitamines as well as we know how to do at present.

39. Vitamines in the milk. — Vitamines A, B and C are more
important in the case of growing animals than for milch cows and
we will say more about them when we take up the feeding of
calves and young stock. Lack of vitamines in the dairy ration
affects the quality of the milk rather than its quantity, since the
vitamine content of the milk is governed by the vitamine content
of the feed. In particular, milk produced on pasture grass is three
times as rich in C as that produced on good winter rations.

Of course, the dairyman is not primarily interested in this
difference in quality, but the consumer is, particularly where
babies are concerned. As the consumer becomes more educated
on this point there might well be a special market for milk from
cows so fed as to furnish a product high in vitamines. At any rate,
the dairyman must have some interest in the vitamine content
of his milk from the standpoint of his own children. The question
may well be important also where calves or other animals are
being raised on milk or its products.

40. Water, light and air. — Cows should be watered at least
twice a day. The water should be clean, good-tasting and free
from ice. It should not be so cold that the animal will stand and

FEEDING THROUGH LACTATION PERIOD 21

shiver after drinking. A system which keeps fresh water before
cows constantly is perhaps the ideal, but any system by which the
animal gets all it wants at least twice a day will prove satisfactory.
A large, heavy-milking cow will drink 8 to 15 gallons a day,
depending on her feed.

The cow should have plenty of light and fresh air. It is not
costly to provide light in the stable. There should be about four
square feet of window space per cow. A good system of ventila-
tion may be a little more difficult, where not provided in building,
but a little thought on the matter will enable the farmer to better
conditions in this respect, even in an old stable. The ideal tem-
perature for the stable is 60° F. It is not practical to maintain this
temperature in winter in the northern states because some system
of heating would be required, but the stable temperature should
not go below 45° F.

The animals should not be stanchioned all the time. They
need exercise. They should be turned out in the yard for a time
every day that it is not storming. It is fine to have a covered yard
or shed in which they can run loose in bad weather. Some dairy-
men allow the cows to run loose in a large barn or covered yard
all the time except at milking. This is a good idea where the yard
or barn is warm and clean. (262, 263)

41. Kindness and regularity.— Every animal must be treated
with kindness. A club or whip has no place in the dairy barn, nor
has a dog any place in connection with the herd. The dairy cow
has a nervous disposition and anything that upsets her affects her
milk flow. Gentle, thoughtful treatment means more milk.

Regularity in time and manner of feeding is important. The
cow gets used to receiving a certain feed at a certain time and any
variation here upsets her. It is good practice to feed the grain
just before milking and the silage or other succulent feed imme-
diately after milking. In so doing any possibility of the milk
absorbing the odor of the silage is disposed of. The hay should
be fed after the silage. In winter, when the cows are in the barn
all day it may be worth while to omit the feeding of hay in the
morning and give it at noon, if not too inconvenient.

22 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

42. Milking more than two times a day. — Most farmers
milk their cows twice a day. Where the dairyman has a con-
siderable number of high producers it will pay him to milk three
times a day. The extra milk will give him a good return for the
additional labor. The milkings should be eight hours apart, but
the actual times of milking can be arranged to suit the farmer's
other work. On many farms the hours are 5 a. m., 1 p. m. and
9 p.m. Changing from two- to three-times-a-day milking will not
bring any extra milk where the third is simply put in between the
other two without lengthening the interval. The farmer who is
milking at 5 a. m. and 5 p. m. will gain little by milking at noon,
unless he postpones his night milking three or four hours. Where
the cow is milked three times a day she should also receive grain
three times a day. The other feed can be fed twice as usual. (218)

CHAPTER III
FEEDING ON PASTURE

For many farmers the pasture season is the time of greatest
milk production. The cows are bred to freshen in the spring so
that the period of largest milk flow will coincide with the spring
and summer months. This system is called summer dairying. On
the other hand, the cows managed for maximum production in
the winter are well along in their lactation period at the time of
going on pasture and may be dry toward the end of the summer.
Whether the cow is at the height or at the end of her lactation on
pasture the principles of feeding involved are the same.

43. Turning to pasture. — The thing of first importance is to
have as good pasture as possible. Every farmer can better his
pasture by paying a little more attention to proper fertilization,
reseeding and to keeping down brush and weeds. Detailed sug-
gestions for the improvement of old pastures are given in Chapter
XXV. Pasturing as heavily as the land will stand is the best
way to control the brush and weeds, but of course overgrazing
must be avoided. Each animal requires one and one-half to
two and one-half acres. Some shady places where the animals
can go in the heat of the day help a lot. There should be
plenty of good water and the animals should not have to go too
far to get it.

The change from the winter ration to pasture feeding should be
a gradual one. The feed obtained from pasture will be more laxa-
tive and will contain less nutriment in a given amount because of
the large amount of water. Thus, the cow should be allowed to
adjust her system gradually to the change of feed. On turning
the cows out the roughage of winter feeding can be cut down
rapidly but the grain should be decreased more slowly and several
days elapse before it is discontinued entirely.

44. Importance of additional feed. — The next thing is to
give the cows some extra feed as soon as the pasture commences to

23

24 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

fail. In fact there are many who think that heavy producing
cows should have some grain even when the pasture is at its best.

It is our belief that the biggest return the farmer will get for
time and money spent in connection with his herd is that from
giving his cows a little extra feed and care as the hot weather
comes on and the pastures become poor. Along in July and August
the pasture fails, the flies become troublesome, there may be a lack
of shade or insufficient water near at hand, and it is no wonder
that they cannot keep up their milk flow.

The cow which falls off in milk does not easily come back. Thus,
underfeeding her on pasture means less milk not only then but
for the rest of the lactation period. She may dry off a month or
two earlier than she would have with a little more feed. Further,
starving her at this time means less milk in the next lactation

so. A little extra feed means more milk at the time, more milk

* : «pr the rest of the lactation period, a stronger calf and better
*jj 55fondition for the next lactation period.

S3 Cj 45> Grain on pasture. — It is a good rule to remember that

^after July 1, the cow on pasture should have some extra feed.

C ,g This feed should consist of grain, and hay and silage or green

-• crops. The grain mixture should have 30 to 50 per cent of high-

5 ^ protein feeds depending on the quality of the pasture and the

* ^* kind of other feed. The following mixture will give excellent

' -J results under most conditions:

300 lbs. wheat bran
300 lbs. hominy
200 lbs. gluten feed
100 lbs. oil meal
Where the pasture is very poor and good roughage is not to be had,
a mixture which contains more protein should be used. The- fol-
lowing is suggested:

100 lbs. ground oats

100 lbs. corn meal

100 lbs. wheat mixed feed or bran

200 lbs. gluten feed

100 lbs. cottonseed meal

FEEDING ON PASTURE 25

46. Minerals on pasture. — Here again the question of
minerals comes up. It has been previously mentioned that proper
mineral nutrition is not simply a case of adequate amounts in
the feed, but that the maximum utilization of the minerals in the
feed only comes through the presence of a factor which aids in
their assimilation. Pasture grass contains this factor in large
amounts. Thus, when the animals are on pasture it is perhaps
the best time of all to add extra lime and phosphorus to the ration,
to take advantage of the conditions which make for maximum
assimilation. It is of equal importance whether the cow is dry or
in full flow of milk, for any assimilated minerals not needed for
milk secretion will be stored up in the bones for the next lactation.
We suggest one to two per cent of pure, finely ground limestone,
ground rock phosphate or steamed bone meal. (13, 32, 38)

47. Silage and green crops for soilage.— It is not economical
to supplement the pasture with grain alone. The cow should get
some succulent feed and perhaps some hay also. Silage has a large
place in summer feeding. No other feed will so cheaply supply the
failing succulence of pasture. Many dairymen have a small silo
that they use for summer feeding. With a silo of smaller diameter,
a deeper layer can be fed off each day and thus offset the greater
tendency to spoil in hot weather.

Where a farmer is practicing summer dairying and has only a
limited amount of silage, he had better save it to supplement
pasture rather than feed it all up during the winter. Even if the
silo has been opened for winter feeding it can be sealed up to save
some for summer feeding.

A substitute for silage is a succession of green or soiling crops.
A properly planned succession will furnish an abundance of palat-
able feed from July 1 to November 1 — the time when the pastures
need supplementing. The feeding of green crops during the
summer adds variety to the ration by giving the cow a change
from the silage of winter feeding. However, a successful system
of soilage requires careful planning and means considerable work
at a time when the farmer is busiest with his other crops. Among
the crops usually grown for soilage are: peas and oats, soybeans,

26 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

cow peas, corn, alfalfa, various clovers and the smaller grasses.
(385, 386)

We certainly believe that the dairyman should do his best to
grow enough corn for silage so he will have some silage for summer
feeding. It is, in general, his cheapest succulence, yield per acre
and labor involved considered. Without silage he should try to
grow some green crops. Perhaps if he has some silage he can com-
bine the two.

It is more important that the cow receive succulent feed than
that she get hay, but the latter can be fed also to advantage.
The less succulence available the more hay should be fed. If
none is available, hay must be depended upon. Clover or alfalfa
is better than other hay for reasons wTe have previously stated.

48. The additional feed needed. — Remember that the cow
in milk uses from 40 to 60 per cent of her ration for maintenance, —
that is for carrying on her body processes. The remainder goes
into milk. If, due to poor pasture and no supplemental feed, the
cow gets only about half the feed she ought to have, this feed will
be used mostly for maintenance and her milk production will
nearly if not entirely stop.

The amount of other feed needed will depend on the condition
of the pasture and the milk flow of the cow. Where the pasture
is still good, feed one pound of grain for every six or eight pounds
of milk. Feed about five times as much silage or green crops as
grain where no hay is fed. Hay can replace a part of this succulence
at the rate of one of hay to five of succulence. Thus, if all hay
must be fed it should about equal the grain. As the pasture gets
poorer, the amount of feed must be increased.

49. Dry cows need additional feed. — In specifying that
there should be a certain amount of supplementary feed per unit
of milk produced we do not mean that the dry cow should have
none. On good pasture the dry cow needs no extra feed but as the
pasture fails she must have an adequate amount to fatten her up
and put her in good condition for calving, and for the next lacta-
tion period. On very poor pasture the dry cow wTill need three to
five pounds of grain a day and silage or hay in proportion.

FEEDING ON PASTURE

27

50. Flies. — Flies bother the animals a lot in summer. During
the fly season spraying with a good fly repellant means comfort
for the cow and she will stand quieter at milking time. It also
seems reasonable to think that a cow that is not constantly
annoyed by flies will produce more milk. It is convenient to spray
the cows twice a day, — after milking in the morning and when
they come in the barn in the afternoon.

Jersey Cows in Good Pasture

There are many fly sprays on the market. None of them keep
the flies off as long as we would like, but after the use of a good
one the flies should not return for two to four hours. House flies
may come back sooner, but they do not bother the animals much.
It is the blood-sucking flies that one should look for. Some farmers
are afraid that the spray will taint the milk. We have tried several
and believe there is little danger, provided open pails or cans
containing milk are not in the barn during the spraying, and pro-

28 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

vided the spraying is done at least an hour before milking. Spray
thoroughly but lightly, avoiding the head, bag, and between the
legs. Not much danger need be feared of the spray burning the
hide unless spilled on.

51. Winter vs. summer dairying.— It has been clearly
shown that, where a man has easy access to a year-round market
for his milk, winter dairying is in general the more profitable.
With proper feeding and management, fall-calving cows produce
the largest annual yield. The flow is large during the winter,
while in the spring, the time when the yield is falling rapidly due
to advancing lactation, the flow is stimulated by turning the
animals on pasture. On the other hand, with cows freshening in
the spring, the heat and flies and poor pasture of mid-summer are
apt to cause a marked shrinkage in the flow despite supple-
mentary feed. Neither will heavy feeding, after the cows are
brought in for the winter, bring the flow back. Thus in summer
milk production there is apt to be an abnormal shrinkage in the
flow toward the end of the lactation, instead of the stimulus to
sustained flow caused by the turning out on pasture at a corre-
sponding period in the lactation in winter dairying. In the latter,
also, the maximum flow corresponds with the period of highest
price. Thus, fall freshening means both more milk and a better
price for it. There are many other advantages of fall freshening.
The young calves can be raised with less trouble in the winter
than in the hot summer months. Fall calves can be raised more
cheaply because they can be pastured the first summer. Summer
dairying means maximum production when the farmer is busiest
with his crops.

52. Winter dairying increases yield. — It must be remem-
bered that the increased yield under winter dairying will only be
realized if the cows are fed so as to produce all the milk of which
they are capable during the winter months. They must have
plenty of good roughage and a grain mixture of the proper protein
content in accordance with their production.

For the dairyman who sells his product to the cheese factory
and who has no market after the factory closes, summer dairying

FEEDING ON PASTURE 29

is by far the most profitable. He will find it desirable to get his
cows over the winter as cheaply as possible without regard to
keeping up the milk flow. He can use a wide ration but he must
feed enough to keep the cows in good condition and the ration
must be of good quality. Otherwise, the cows will not be in a
proper condition for calving and will not have stored the necessary
reserves for a normal production the next summer. (12, 13, 14)
The farmer who has a year-round market but who does not
have ready access to it during the winter months because of dis-
tance and poor roads may find summer dairying more suitable.
Many farms are not productive enough to raise the required
amount of good roughage for the heavy feeding required in winter
dairying, but they provide excellent pasture for maximum pro-
duction in summer. In view of the several factors involved it is
believed that many dairymen would profit by giving a little
thought to the question as to whether they are practicing the
kind of dairying best suited to their conditions.

CHAPTER IV

FEEDING CALVES

We" cannot have good dairy cows unless we have well raised
calves. No farmer can succeed in breeding up his herd unless he
knows how to raise his calves properly and takes the time to do it.
Their proper feeding and management is just as important as that
of older animals.

53. Grow the calves well. — One frequently hears the state-
ment from the dairyman that he cannot afford to raise his calves
any better because it is so expensive. It does cost money to raise
a calf properly and many are not worth it, but the point is that if
the calf is worth raising at all it is worth the feeding and care
which will mean a properly developed mature animal. Only those
calves should be raised which are normal and healthy at birth and
which have the breeding to make them valuable animals, and they
should have the kind of feeding and care which will grow them
normally so that their potential value will actually be realized.

54. Treatment at birth. — At birth the navel stump should
be immediately disinfected with tincture of iodine. This can be
purchased at any drug store. The calf should be left with his
mother for at least two days. If he does not attempt to suck by
the time he is three to four hours old he should be helped. It is
important that the calf receive the milk secreted by the mother
the first forty-eight hours after birth because this milk, called
colostrum, is laxative and cleans out the calf's digestive system.
The only condition under which the calf should not be left with
his mother during the first two days is where the latter, through
being a very heavy producer and perhaps being fed for test, may
develop milk fever if suckled too much. If the calf is removed
under these conditions he should, nevertheless, receive the colos-
trum.

55. Teaching calves to drink. — When the calf is removed
from his mother he should have a separate pen for at least a month.

30

FEEDING CALVES 31

The pen should be warm, well lighted, and there should be good
ventilation without drafts. Beginning at the third or fourth day
the calf should be taught to drink from a pail.

At the start the calf, depending on his size, should receive six
to nine pounds (four and one-half quarts) of milk a day in three
feedings. During the second week this may be increased by three
pounds if the calf is of good size and doing well. He should be fed
three times a day for at least the first three weeks.

The milk fed should be sweet, clean, and be at a temperature of
90° to 100° F. It is of prime importance that all utensils used in
feeding should be thoroughly cleaned after use. Nothing will
upset the calf quicker than carelessness with respect to cleanliness
in feeding.

56. Increasing the feed. — After the calf is two weeks old
his feeding will differ according to whether he is to be continued
on whole milk, or changed to skim milk, or whether, if the latter is
not available, some substitute method is to be used. The use of
whole milk is an expensive method but it does result in a rate of
growth and in a bloom and finish obtained in no other way. One
can hardly afford to use this method except for especially valuable
animals or where maximum growth and finish are desired for
show or sale. The details of raising calves on whole milk are
similar to those where skim milk is employed. The use of the
latter will be described somewhat at length because it is the method
by which the vast majority of calves are grown.

Raising Calves on Skim Milk

57. Changing from whole to skim milk. — The calf should
get whole milk for at least two weeks. At this time, if it is good
and strong, the change to skim milk may be begun. At least a week
or ten days should be taken for the change, which can thus be
made at about the rate of a pound a day.

If during the period of change the manure becomes liquid or
pasty, a condition commonly referred to as scouring, this is a
signal that the food is not being digested properly and no further
increase of skim milk should be made until the difficulty disappears.

32 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

It may also aid under such conditions to cut down the total amount
of milk fed, or even omit one feeding entirely. The best cure for
such troubles is to give the digestive system a rest. (62)

Xo increase in the total milk fed should be made during the
period of change. After the latter has been completed the amount
fed may be increased as appetite and condition allow. At one
month of age a calf will take 12 to 15 pounds of milk a day; at two
months, 15 to 18; and at three months and thereafter, 18 to 25 or
even more. By the third month the calf is usually consuming
considerable grain and hay, and from then on it can get along with-
out increasing the skim milk, provided the supply of it is limited.

58. Feeding hay. — The calf will begin to eat other food be-
sides milk at three to four weeks of age. The best roughage for
the calf is second or third cutting alfalfa or the second cutting of
clover. This roughage will supply lime and vitamines, other kinds
will not. Some calves will eat so much of the legume roughage at
the beginning that scouring results. Thus it is safer to start the
calf on good mixed hay and change to clover or alfalfa after a few
weeks. If legume hay is not available, of course the best other
hay that can be secured must be used. The calf should receive all
the hay he will eat, for in addition to its food value, the roughage
develops the digestive apparatus — one of the essentials for
capacity in the mature animal.

59. Feeding grain. — At about the time that the calf begins
to eat hay he will also eat a little dry grain. The following mixture
has been used by us with much satisfaction:

100 lbs. wheat bran

100 lbs. ground oats

100 lbs. corn meal or hominy

50 lbs. oil meal
The calf should receive all he will eat of this mixture from a
feed box nailed to the side of the pen. The grain should never
be mixed with the milk or fed in the pail from which the milk is
taken. At three or four weeks of age some of the grain mixture
may be put in the calf's mouth following the feeding of the milk.
He will soon learn to like it and will begin to eat it out of the

FEEDING CALVES 33

feed box. Grain should be put in the latter twice daily but never
in larger amounts than will be cleaned up. We prefer to give the
calf only as much grain as he will clean up within an hour or two
after feeding. Grain remaining in the feed box after it is wet with
saliva loses its freshness rapidly, particularly in hot weather, and
attracts flies. At any rate, any grain not eaten should be removed
before fresh is added. The feed box should be cleaned out fre-
quently, using an iron which will get into the corners. A simpler
grain mixture than the one mentioned above might be made
up of equal parts of cracked corn and crushed oats.

At two months of age the calf will eat one-half to. one pound of
grain a day; at four months, two to three pounds; and four to six
pounds thereafter.

60. Feeding silage. — At four months the calf may have a little
silage. The feeding of milk can be stopped at six months, but it is
worth while to continue it longer if there is plenty. Feeding after
six months is discussed in Chapter V.

It is important that, beginning at three to four weeks of age,
calves receive adequate amounts of good clean water, either by
having constant access to it, or by having it placed before them
twice daily at other times than at which they are fed their milk.
This is, of course, particularly important in warm weather, but it
is necessary in winter also. During the past winter the water
supply at the Cornell University barns became contaminated
with oil, with the result that the calves drank little or refused it
entirely. A marked decrease in the consumption of grain and hay
was immediately noticed and a loss in weight occurred with the
older calves, — conditions that were overcome as soon as good
water was obtained.

61. Clean and dry pens. — It is important that the calves
should have clean and dry quarters. The temperature of the
stable may be rather low but the pens must not be damp. There
should be good ventilation but drafts should be avoided. When
the barn space will allow, it is preferable that each calf have a
separate pen for the first six months. In this way, each animal
can receive more individual attention and be fed as an individual.

34 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

Where a calf is alone a ease of scours will be noticed at once and
the feeding modified accordingly. Separate pens keep the calves
from sucking each other's ears. A pen four by six feet will be large
enough. It should have a feed box for grain at such a height that
the calf can reach it without straining and it should have a slat
feed rack for hay. The partitions between pens should be three
feet high. Where more than one calf must be put in a pen, larger
pens will be needed. In this case, it is a good thing to have
stanchions with a feed manger wide enough to hold the milk pail.
The grain can be fed right after the milk and then the calves can
be loosened from the stanchions.

In summer calves are much annoyed by flies and do not do as
well on that account. During the times when the flies are espe-
cially bad, spraying with a good fly repellant is worth while.

62. Scours. — The most common trouble that will be met with
in rearing calves is scours. We have previously referred to it in
connection with the change to skim milk. It is most likely to
occur during the first two months. When scouring occurs it
indicates that the food is not being handled properly. In addition
to its resulting from a change of food, the most probable causes
are too much food and lack of cleanliness and regularity in feeding.
When the trouble occurs the feeder should satisfy himself that his
utensils are being cleaned property and that the skim milk fed is
sweet, clean and at the proper temperature. If the trouble does
not clear up in a day or two he should next cut down the amount
of food temporarily, or even omit a feeding or two entirely.
Scouring must not be allowed to continue. Not only will growth
be hindered, but the longer the condition exists the more difficult
it is to overcome. Do not be afraid to cut down the feed under
these conditions. Food which is not digested properly not only
is of no use to the animal, but also forms products harmful to the
system. Most feeders are apt to err on the side of overfeeding
rather than underfeeding, particularly in the early months. It is
a good thing to remember in connection with all materials fed
that the calf will do better if he does not get quite enough to
satisfy his appetite than if so much is given that a part is refused.

FEEDING CALVES

35

63. White scours. — This trouble is very different from the
common scours just referred to. It is a contagious form and in-
fection comes a few hours after birth. The germs gain entrance
through the umbilical cord. The best remedy for white scours is
the preventive one of cleanliness. The stalls used for calving
purposes should be kept clean. Particularly they should be
thoroughly cleaned after each calf is born. The disinfection of the
navel with iodine at birth, as we have previously described, is
another preventive measure. (54) In white scours the feces are
very light colored and have a very bad odor. The affected animal
will soon die unless treated, and therefore a veterinarian should
be called.

64. The ideal calf. — He should be round-barreled and plump
and his belly should be held up snugly. He should have a soft
loose hide with glossy hair. He should have a straight back and
straight legs. The calf should have an active but not restless
disposition and its eyes should be clear and alert. Of course, he
should have the proper size for his age and this size should be
shown both in weight and in frame.

65. Normal growth. — The following table has been prepared
from data reported by Eckles in Missouri Experiment Station
Bulletin 36, entitled "The Normal Growth of Dairy Cattle":

Normal Weights of Females During the Groicing Period

Normal Weight in Pounds

Age

Months

Holsteins

Jerseys

Ayrshires

Shorthorns

Birth

90

55

69

73

1

121

76

90

118

2

157

105

128

133

3

200

140

170

174

4

249

174

218

225

5

302

222

254

268

6

349

260

286

316

9

466

376

366

461

12

558

456

456

547

18

686

572

604

668

24

841

716

759

845

30

1021

36 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

66. Dehorning calves. — If calves are to be dehorned the best
time is before they are three weeks of age. It may be done by the use
of a stick of caustic potash which can be obtained at any drug store.

Clip the hair away from the button of the horn. Dip the end
of the potash stick in water and rub the horn hard until the skin
all round the button is raw and bleeds a little. The important

we ,

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*Am. -jyB^L ' wSsk

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rv

ifr *vl> j

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Preventing the Growth of Horns
(a) First step, hold the calf securely.

thing is to do the job thoroughly so that all the horn tissue is
destroyed. Otherwise a nubby, misshapen horn will grow, spoiling
the appearance of the animal's head. Finally the raw skin should
be smeared with vaseline. The sores will rapidly heal and require
no further attention. Because of the burning properties of the
potash stick the end by which it is held should be wrapped in
paper. For the same reason the liquid produced in treating the
horn must not be allowed to run down into the calf's eyes. Cattle
that have been dehorned are more docile and less likely to injure
each other or the attendants.

FEEDING CALVES

37

Preventing the Growth of Horns
(b) Second step, trim away the hair over the button-like lump.

Preventing the Growth of Horns
(c) Third step, rub the skin over the lump with a dampened stick of caustic
potash.

38 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

Raising Calves with a Limited Amount of Milk

On many farms there is need for a method of raising calves
where only a small amount of milk can be used. Otherwise the
farmer cannot raise his own stock and thus breed up his herd.
One method of doing this is to substitute a special ration fed as a
gruel at the time the change is ordinarily made to skim milk.
Another method is to continue the calf on whole milk to two or
three months of age and then use dry grain and hay as the only
feeds.

67. Amount of whole milk necessary. — Where the latter
system is practiced the calf is fed during the first two or three
months similarly to the method described for rearing on skim milk
except that whole milk is used. The time of cutting out the milk
is governed by the thrift iness of the calf. It is usually not best to
attempt it before two months of age and for the average calf it
is better to wait until the middle of the third month, to give the
animal as good a start as possible. The milk should be removed
gradually taking about ten days for its completion. With the
removal of the milk the grain feeding must be increased. The calf
should receive all it will clean up. The same is true of the hay.
It is essential that the hay be clover or alfalfa of the best possible
quality. Professor C. H. Eckles of the Minnesota Experiment
Station has reported a series of trials of raising calves according
to this system. The calves were only a little below normal size at
six months of age and were entirely up to normal at eight months.

Raising Calves on Calf Meal Gruels

The calf meal gruel method involves the substitution for milk,
after the calf is a few weeks of age, of a gruel, consisting princi-
pally of a grain mixture combined with water in such a way as to
come as close as possible to the chemical composition of milk.
There have recently been raised on a calf meal at Cornell Univer-
sity calves comparing favorably at 6 months of age with those of
similar age raised on skim milk. From our experience we have no
reason to believe that calves so raised in a proper manner suffer

FEEDING CALVES 39

in productive ability thereby. Thus, to those farmers who have
only a limited supply of milk to feed their calves we recommend
the use of the calf meal method.

68. Proprietary calf meals. — There are a number of proprie-
tary mixtures on the market under the name of calf meals which
are designed to be fed as a gruel in place of milk. We have tried
out several of these products and in general found them satisfac-
tory, though of course some have given better results than others.
Since we have not tried them all and since the formulas of those
we have used may have changed, it is not fair to the manufacturers
that we select among them here. We can, however, mention
certain things which will aid the farmer in choosing among
them.

We believe a good calf meal should have 20 to 25 per cent of
protein and not over 5 per cent of crude fiber. It should contain
no ingredient which experience has taught to be unsuitable for
feeding young animals. Our experience indicates that compounds
of lime and phosphorus are desirable. The mixture should be
finely ground and should not settle too rapidly when placed in
water. There seems to be an opinion among some farmers that
the more ingredients a calf meal has the better it must be. Unusual
ingredients also make an appeal to some who think that the
manufacturer has discovered something new which is specially
suited for the purpose. To others a high price seems to indicate a
specially valuable product. None of these things necessarily indi-
cate a good calf meal.

It is true, however, that the ingredients of a satisfactory calf
meal must be more specially selected than those of the dairy
ration. A big reason for this is that materials of low fiber content
are essential. This also means a more expensive mixture. How-
ever, it has been our observation that in general the calf meals on
the market are much too high in price in view of the ingredients
they contain. The margin between the cost of the ingredients and
the finished product is much greater for them than for proprietary
dairy feeds. This situation indicates the desirability of a simple
formula which can be mixed at home. Here one meets the diffi-

40

BETTER DAIRY FARMING

culty that the average feed store does not carry the special
ingredients needed.

69. A successful calf meal. — For some years at Cornell
University various formulas have been fed to find a satisfactory
one for home mixing. The following formula (Cornell Formula 2),
devised by Maynard and Norris, has given the best results to date:
250 lbs. red dog flour
250 lbs. corn meal
150 lbs. ground oat groats
150 lbs. oil meal
100 lbs. ground malted barley
100 lbs. soluble blood flour
10 lbs. salt

10 lbs. precipitated bone meal
10 lbs. precipitated calcium carbonate.

Calf Raised on Calf Meal Gruel
Weight at birth 90 pounds. Weight at age of six months, 423 pounds.
Average daily gain 1.85 pounds.

FEEDING CALVES 41

In 1921-22 eight calves were reared on the foregoing ration, all of
which exceeded an average daily gain of one and one-half pounds
from birth to six months of age. In this group were six Holstein
heifer calves. They had an average weight of 400 pounds at six
months of age. The average food consumption for the six months'
period was: 450 pounds whole milk, 300 pounds calf meal, 350
pounds other grain, and about 350 pounds hay. These results
show clearly that it is possible to grow calves satisfactorily on a
calf meal for they represent better growth than the average for
skim milk calves as reported on page 35. These results must not
be taken to mean that the use of this formula is preferable to
skim milk. Where the latter is available, it constitutes the more
economical and satisfactory method.

70. Difficulty with home mixing. — The trouble with the
above formula for home mixing is that some of the ingredients
would have to be specially ordered and this would mean consid-
erable trouble and expense for the farmer with only a few calves
to feed. It is also difficult to obtain the ingredients as finely
ground as desired. When these difficulties were appreciated it
seemed to us that instead of attempting home mixing it might be
preferable for a group of farmers to have the formula mixed by a
local miller.

The Grange League Federation Exchange of Ithaca, New
York, is now marketing a calf meal under an open formula which
is substantially the same as the one previously given. The formula
is given in paragraph 123.

71. A simpler formula for home mixing. — Where a simpler
formula for home mixing is desired we can recommend the follow-
ing as a fairly satisfactory one on the basis of our experience :

250 lbs. red dog flour or flour wheat middlings
250 lbs. corn meal .
250 lbs. ground barley
150 lbs. oil meal
100 lbs. blood flour

20 lbs. steamed bone meal

10 lbs. salt

42 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

Each ingredient of the above should be ground fine enough to pass
a twenty-mesh sieve. If not obtainable locally, the bone meal can
be obtained from the United Chemical and Organic Products
Company, Chicago, 111.

72. How to feed a calf meal. — Most manufacturers of pro-
prietary calf meals furnish directions as to how to use them.
These directions should be read carefully. We will outline the
method used at Cornell University.

73. Changing from milk to calf meal. — The calf should
receive whole milk for four weeks, at which time its gradual re-
placement by the calf meal gruel may be begun. In the case of the
formulas which we have given, one part should be mixed with five
parts by weight of water at about 100° F. Begin by replacing about
one-fifth of the milk by gruel. After three or four days replace
another fifth and so on until the change is completed. Do not
begin the change with any calf while it is scouring. If scouring
develops during the change, make no further replacement until
the trouble clears up. It may be a good thing to cut down the
amount fed for a feeding or two or even to cut out a feeding en-
tirely. If the scouring persists a temporary change back to milk
only may be worth while to get the calf back to normal. From our
experience we can say that the above procedures will rarely be
necessary, but success in using a calf meal comes from feeding it
according to the condition of the calf rather than following fixed
rules.

The period of change and the following two or three weeks are
the crucial period. The substitution of another food at a time when
nature intended the calf to have milk can only be done success-
fully by allowing the calf to become gradually accustomed to
handling the new food.

74. Increasing the calf meal gruel. — As soon as the calf has
been entirely changed to the calf meal gruel and is accustomed to
it, the gruel can be increased with appetite. Do not increase it
quite as rapidly as we suggested for skim milk. It is best to reach
a figure of 15 pounds a day at four months of age and continue
at that amount for the remaining two months. Although maxi-

FEEDING CALVES 43

mum growth will be secured by feeding the gruel until six months
of age it is possible to discontinue it at four months by withdraw-
ing it gradually. Of course, this will cut down the cost of raising
the calf, inasmuch as the calf meal is more expensive than an
ordinary grain ration. The gruel feeding should not be stopped
unless the calf is eating the dry grain and hay well and is in
thrifty condition.

It is clear that the same precautions as to cleanliness, regularity
of feeding, etc., as we have mentioned in connection with raising
calves on milk must be observed where a calf meal is used. The
same directions we gave for feeding grain and roughage to calves
reared on milk also apply. The use of the best possible roughage
is even more important for calves reared on calf meal. The latter
supplies little of the lime and vitamines liberally furnished by
milk, but these essentials will be furnished by leafy roughage,
particularly that cured as described in paragraphs 339, 340,
341. The calf raised on gruel may not eat grain as readily as
where milk is used because the calf meal itself is really a grain
mixture.

75. Calf meal not needed with milk.— Some dairymen use
a proprietary calf meal as a dry grain mixture for calves raised on
milk. There is no object in using such an expensive feed, and as a
supplement to skim milk, a low-protein mixture such as the dry
grain mixtures we have listed is preferable. (59) Skim milk is a
high-protein feed and the grain mixture fed with it should be made
up principally of low-protein ingredients.

76. Dried skim milk for calves. — Occasionally a dairyman
living in the section where milk-drying plants are located is able
to get rather cheaply dried skim milk, which is off quality and
which cannot be used in human food. This dried product, when
mixed with water has been found very satisfactory for use in place
of fresh skim milk for feeding calves. One part of the dried material
should be added to nine parts of warm water and fed the same as
milk. It is best to add only a small amount of water first and to
break up the lumps formed by the dried milk before adding the
rest of the water. If this scrap milk can be bought at three or four

44 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

cents a pound it is the best feed for calves where whole or skim
milk cannot be fed. If the dairyman can get it in limited amounts
only he can use it to advantage in one of the calf meal formulas we
have listed. If it could be made 20 per cent of the mixture, the
blood meal and minerals, except the salt, could be omitted.
Thus the dried milk could replace those materials hard to get.

77. Lead poisoning. — A good many calves are lost from time
to time through lead poisoning. Veterinarians and chemists have
traced many deaths to it, where the owner would have been willing
to swear that the calf had no chance to eat anything containing
lead. Few dairymen appreciate the variety of ways in which a
calf may be poisoned from lead.

78. Most paint contains lead. — This fact is generally under-
stood. Young calves habitually lick everything. A freshly
painted wall, a discarded paint container, carelessly left around
the barn or thrown on a rubbish heap, in the yard or pasture,
furnish the calf his opportunity. Many do not appreciate that
calves will eat paint. We know from personal experience that they
will drink paint right down if given a chance. When calves get
access to a paint bucket, or freshly painted surface they usually
swallow enough to produce acute symptoms rapidly followed by
death. Consequently the cause is generally located.

79. Slow poisoning from lead. — There is another type of
lead poisoning, however, which is harder to locate. It is based on
the fact that lead is a cumulative poison. This means that, even
though not enough may be taken at any one time to cause char-
acteristic symptoms of poisoning, lead gradually accumulates in
the system until there is enough to kill the calf. This is the way in
which a lot of unsuspected lead poisoning occurs. Old, dry paint
is just as dangerous as fresh, and wherever there is a painted
board that the calf can get at, a gradual poisoning may occur.
Many like to have fancy quarters for their animals and thus
everything is painted. Much lead poisoning occurs under these
conditions. Even those who insist that no paint is used around
the calf's quarters frequently find an old painted board handy for
repairing a manger or partition and use it without realizing that the

FEEDING CALVES 45

calf may lick that board until poisoning results. Most dairymen
will, on thinking the matter over, realize that their calves may at
times have a chance to lick a painted board or wall. The thing
that they must also realize is that, though unobserved, a calf may
be getting just a little lead into its system day by day, — an amount
too small to cause any noticeable trouble except as it piles up and
finally kills the animal.

The symptoms of lead poisoning, particularly in the cumulative
variety, are variable. Convulsions and paralysis are frequent.
Curative measures sometimes avail if applied sufficiently promptly,
particularly in cases of acute poisoning. It is a case for a veterina-
rian. About the only thing the owner can do is to give a physic in
an endeavor to get the poison out of the system.

80. Prevention. — The remedy for lead poisoning is prevention
rather than cure. If the dairyman will simply realize that it is
natural for a calf to lick anything and everything, and that if
there is any paint anywhere, no matter how old or how dry, the
calf may gradually get enough to be poisoned, it will not be
difficult for him to guard against the losses from this source. It
is not necessary to paint the interior of the barn to make it look
clean; whitewash will do as well and it is harmless. Or, if a man
insists on paint, he can get one that contains no lead.

CHAPTER V
FEEDING YEARLINGS AND TWO-YEAR-OLDS

Having reared the calf to six months of age the problem of its
feeding and management becomes easier, much less attention and
care being required. However, many dairymen pay too little
attention to the young animal from the time it is six months of
age until the first calf is dropped.

81. Turning out the calf. — The feeding and management of
the young heifer after six months of age will differ according to
whether she is to be turned out on pasture the first summer. This,
of course, depends upon the time of year the calf is born. In gen-
eral, no calf should be turned out before she is six months of age
and under New York State conditions no calf should be turned out
at all during the first summer unless six months old before July
15th. After this date the combination of poor pasture, heat and
flies will keep the young animal from doing well.

82. Feeding in the barn. — While the calf is in the barn after
the six-month period the feeding of skim milk may be continued with
profit if it is available. With calves raised on a calf meal it is our
custom to discontinue the gruel at this age. When the feeding of
either skim milk or gruel is stopped, it should be done gradually,
feeding them in decreasing amounts for at least a week.

The young heifer while in the barn should receive all the hay she
will eat and this should be legume hay where possible. This kind
of hay is especially needed where no milk is being fed, because
otherwise, the feed may not contain sufficient lime or vitamines.
After six months of age the calf should receive some silage. In
fact this feed may be started as early as the fourth month to
advantage if the farmer has plenty. Ten to fifteen pounds of
silage a day is a fair allowance for the young heifer. Of course, the
animal must also receive liberal amounts of grain, — from four to
six pounds a day depending on whether the feeding of skim milk is
being continued. As a grain mixture we know of nothing better

46

FEEDING YEARLINGS AND TWO-YEAR-OLDS 47

than that we have recommended for the younger calves in para-
graph 59.

83. The calf on pasture. — When the calf can be turned out
on pasture the first summer, she can be raised more cheaply and
with less labor than where she must be kept in the barn. However,
we should keep an eye on each animal to make sure that she is

Imp. King of the May 9001
The most noted Guernsey bull. Owned by Langwater Farms, North
Easton, Mass.

growing well. If any calf is unthrifty we should try to arrange
it so that such an animal can have a little grain to supplement
the pasture. In general, by the middle of summer the pastures
have become rather poor and all calves should receive some grain.
For this purpose use the mixture we have suggested for young
calves in paragraph 59. It is fine if the young stock on pasture

48 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

can have a cool dark basement or similar place into which they
can go to escape the heat and flies. Any place that is dark will
cause the flies to leave the animals. When the heifer is brought
into the barn from pasture she should receive all the hay of the
best quality available she will clean up, also all the silage she will
eat if it is available, and four to six pounds of grain a day.

84. Breeding the heifer. — About this time the farmer faces
the question as to when the heifer shall be bred. This is a point
on which there is a considerable difference of opinion. It is our
belief that the heifer should be bred to drop her first calf from
twenty-four to thirty months of age. Of course, the breeder must
be guided somewhat by the size and state of development of the
individual, and he should also remember that Guernseys and
Jerseys may be bred somewhat earlier than the slower-maturing
Holsteins, Ayrshires and Brown Swiss.

In favor of early breeding it should be remembered that until
the heifer becomes a milk producer she yields no income. The
condition of pregnancy has a marked stimulating effect on her
development and experience indicates that milk-secreting capacity
is favored by early breeding. Of course, it is recognized that the
production of the foetus temporarily checks growth, but con-
stantly recurring periods of heat may have just as great a retard-
ing effect on her development.

We have recommended the liberal feeding of young stock. This
is particularly important for the heifer as soon as she is a few
months along with calf. Give her all the legume hay and silage
she will; clean up, and four to six pounds of grain a day. The
mixture to which we have previously referred (59) will prove
satisfactory here. Another used with good results is as follows:
500 lbs. gluten feed 400 lbs. wheat bran

500 lbs. ground oats 100 lbs. oil meal

500 lbs. hominy feed

We could sum up our discussion of the feeding and management
of heifers by saying: " Feed liberally and breed early." All that
we have said in the raising of calves and in the feeding of yearlings
and two-year-olds applies to the bulls as well as to the heifers.

CHAPTER VI

FEEDING FOR OFFICIAL RECORDS

The value of an animal is based upon performance. A high
production record increases the value both of the cow and her
offspring; for high producing cows and bulls with ancestors and
progeny of demonstrated high productive capacity are those
sought for breeding purposes. The advanced registry systems
established by the various breed associations are the means where-
by an animal's performance can be officially recorded. This
development has played a large part in the advancement of our
dairy industry and the feeding for records has an important place
in the breeder's business.

85. The advanced registry.— Advanced registry means a
further registry in addition to that to which every purebred
animal is entitled. To qualify for advanced registry, or register of
merit as it is called for some breeds, an animal must attain a
certain standard of production under official supervision. This
supervision is usually by a representative of the State College of
Agriculture who is present during the test period to weigh the
milk and determine its fat content. Each breed association has
established the standards for that breed. These standards
specify the amount of milk or butter fat which must be produced
in a 'given period. The required production increases with age
up to maturity. Maturity is defined as five years. Any breeder
can obtain from his breed association booklets containing the
detailed information as to the requirements for advanced register .
(151) For our discussion of feeding it is sufficient to bear in mind
that the official records are usually based on seven days, or a
year's production. The first is referred to as a short-time record
and the second as a long-time record. The method of feeding will
be discussed under these two heads. Success in feeding for records
is based on three things: an animal of high productive capacity,
intelligence and skill in feeding, and the right kind of rations.

49

50

BETTER DAIRY FARMING

86. Fitting a cow for the test. — A cow must have an
adequate rest period before calving and must be fed so as to put
her in the best possible condition and have a maximum of stored-up
energy for milk production. It is believed that most animals will
produce a milk higher in butter fat at least for a short period where

Glista Ernestine 117999 Well Fitted to Make an Official Record
Yearly record 23,341 pounds of milk; 833.73 pounds of butter fat. Owned
by Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

they have been well fattened during fitting. Thus fattening is
particularly important where short-time records are concerned.

The dry period should be somewhat longer than usual where a
cow is to be tested. Two to three months or even longer should
be allowed. In the case where heifers are to be tested we should
start planning for the test even farther back and not breed quite
as early as otherwise in order that the}' may have a better start,

FEEDING FOR OFFICIAL RECORDS 51

since the strain of forcing them for high production the first
lactation may keep them from growing normally during the
period. The heifer must be fed from the start so that she will be
as well developed as possible at calving.

87. The fitting ration.— The ration during the fitting
period should consist of a good grain mixture together with
pasture or hay and silage. Legume hay is the kind to use and the
quality should be the best. In feeding for records the dairyman
should adopt the attitude that the cow is to have the best feed
obtainable without regard to price. He cannot afford to waste the
money he spends for official supervision and other extra labor and
expense by economizing on the feed.

There must be succulent feed during the fitting period to keep
the animal in the best condition. If pasture or silage are not
available roots will prove satisfactory if they are to be had.
Roots are especially useful during the test period and if the feeder
has only a limited supply they must be saved for that period.
Beet pulp moistened with three to four times its weight of water,
to which a little molasses has been added, will prove useful in the
absence of other succulence.

The grain mixture should be light, palatable, laxative and not
too high in protein. A good mixture is:

30 lbs. hominy

30 lbs. wheat bran

30 lbs. ground oats

10 lbs. oil meal
Many prefer to increase the oil meal sufficiently to use equal parts
of the four feeds. Corn meal can be substituted for hominy except
during the week or ten days immediately before calving. At this
time corn meal and hominy should be dropped out to lighten the
ration. Ground barley can be used in place of the oats or hominy.

88. Feed individually. — An important thing during the test
period is to feed the cow the things she likes best. With an
animal whose tastes are not known, the best time to find out is
during the fitting period and it is well to dry different combina-
tions for this purpose.

52 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

The amount of grain to be fed during the fitting period will
depend on the animal's size and condition. Usually she should
be fed all she will clean up. Mature cows will eat from ten to
twenty or more pounds a day. Of course, if the cow is on excellent
pasture much less grain is needed.

89. Minerals in the fitting ration.— The fitting period
corresponds with the time when the animal's demands for lime
and phosphorus are high. She is replenishing her bones depleted
during her previous lactation and it is the period when the bone
development of the foetus is going on most rapidly. The legume
hay will furnish lots of lime and the grain mixture is rich in
phosphorus. The question is whether the minerals so supplied
constitute the maximum the cow can assimilate or whether a
further addition would mean a greater storage in the bones. So far
as we know no breeder had made a practice of adding minerals at
this time. We should like to see it tried and suggest that two per
cent of steamed bone meal be added to the grain mixture.

Perhaps it would be worth while to try to increase the assimila-
tion of lime and phosphorus at this time by adding some green or
specially cured feed to the ration, or even a little cod liver oil to
furnish the vitamine concerned. This point has not been settled
absolutely by experiment. If the cow were on pasture this
would take care of itself. In winter this would need to be accom-
plished by specially curing some alfalfa or other leaf}r roughage so
as to preserve its powers of increasing the assimilation of lime and
phosphorus as described in paragraph 13. If cod liver oil is used for
this purpose, feed one-half pint per week as a drench or with a
sjTinge. There is no question about the advantage of maximum
storage of these minerals. Any increase beyond that made possible
by the ordinary fitting ration would probably not affect a short-
time test but it might well aid a cow to hold up on a long-distance
record, in view of our knowledge that the bones are gradually de-
pleted during the lactation period. At least it would constitute
excellent insurance from the standpoint of the animal's health; for
an undue depletion of the bones due to a year of forced production
might easily have a harmful effect on vigor and later productivity.

FEEDING FOR OFFICIAL RECORDS 53

The animal should have plenty of good, clean water, not too
cold. If she cannot have access to it at all times, she should be
watered three or four times a day. The picture of Glista Ernestine,
page 50, illustrates a well fitted cow. This picture was taken just
a day or two before she calved. She made a 30-pound record.

90. Attention at calving time.— A week or ten days before
calving the cow should be placed in the quarters she is to occupy
during the test. At this time the grain ration should be reduced.
Constipation must be avoided. For this purpose the laxative
feeds in the grain ration may be increased if necessary. Often a
purgative may need to be given, such as one pound of epsom salts
or one quart of linseed oil. Attention here will largely obviate
the danger of udder troubles. If the udder becomes caked or
swollen it should be treated by rubbing as we have explained in
paragraph 16. Keeping the bowels loose and cutting down on the
roughage a day or two before calving will do much to prevent
trouble at parturition.

91. Increasing the feed.— For the first few days after calving
the cow should receive only a limited amount of food and it should
be laxative. After the fourth day if she is coming on all right, the
feed can be rapidly increased to that being received before freshen-
ing. Milk fever is always a possibility following calving and high
producers are especially subject to it. (15 to 18)

Feeding for Short-Time Records

Many think of successful feeding for records as being based on a
special manipulation of the cow by some secret process. It does
seem like a secret process to the beginner but the key to the secret
is experience, a keen knowledge of animals and the development
of skill. No one can succeed merely by following directions. Each
animal must be treated somewhat differently for best results and
it is in the proper modification of the methods of feeding and
management from day to day according to the behavior of the
animal that the skillfulness of the feeder is all-important.

92. Cool weather the best.— Short-time records are almost
always made during the cool months because the animal will eat

54

BETTER DAIRY FARMING

a much larger amount of concentrates during this period. During
the test period the cow is fed and milked four times a day. It will
take her some time to get adjusted to this and thus it should
be started right after calving, although a considerable time may
elapse before the period of maximum production is reached.
On the average the time of highest production is three weeks

Agassiz Segis May Echo 41302 (Canadian Herd Book.)
World's Champion in yearly butter fat production. Her yearly record is
30,886 pounds of milk, 1345 pounds of butter fat. Owned by Dominion Ex-
perimental Farms, Agassiz, B. C.

after calving. It may be earlier. Watch for it. The cow is
carried through until the feeder is satisfied that she has made her
maximum record. The production during any consecutive seven
days during this period may be taken as the official record. The
breeder may report a longer period than seven days if desired.
Many 30-and 60-day records have been reported. The record
period may start at any milking but not before the morning of the
seventh day after calving.

FEEDING FOR OFFICIAL RECORDS 55

On short-time test cows are fed all they will eat, but this must
be done with great care particularly as regards the concentrates.
After the cow is back on the same amount of feed received before
calving, the grain ration must be increased gradually thereafter.
It is best to increase it by one or two pounds on a given day and
then watch the results for a day. If the animal does not clean up
the increased amount readily a reduction should be made, or at
least no further increase should be added until the cow is cleaning
up what she is already getting. It is imperative that the animal
be not allowed to go off feed. Again the increases must be stopped
as soon as they fail to give a response in increased milk production.
Proceeding in this careful manner it is quite possible to get the
animal to eating 20 to 25 and even more pounds of concentrates
daily. Any increase above 20 pounds should be made at a slow
rate, say one-fourth to one-half pound daily. This crowding of the
cow on rich feeds must be done with extreme care not only for the
success of the test but also from the standpoint of the animal's
health. Many valuable animals have been spoiled for later
production by lack of skill here.

93. The grain mixture. — There are a large variety of grain
mixtures that have been used with success as shown by the
accounts of how our cows with high records have been fed. How-
ever, all these mixtures have many points in common. They are
made up of a variety of palatable feeds with a considerable propor-
tion of bulky and laxative ones. The following feeds occur most
frequently in such mixtures : wheat bran, linseed oil meal, ground
oats, gluten feed, hominy, distillers' grains and cottonseed meal.
If one should make up such a ration from the above feeds as would
furnish 23 to 25 per cent of protein and weigh about one pound
to the quart, he should have a good mixture.

The following mixture has been used with good results:

200 lbs. distillers' dried grains 200 lbs. hominy

200 lbs. wheat bran 100 lbs. linseed oil meal

100 lbs. gluten feed 12 lbs. salt

100 lbs. ground oats 12 lbs. charcoal

56 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

Some feeders prefer not to put salt in the mixture but to feed it
regularly or have it constantly before the animal. Distillers' grains
is one of the best feeds for test cows but is not as available as
formerly. A satisfactory mixture without distillers' grains could
be made up as follows:

200 lbs. wheat bran

200 lbs. gluten feed

100 lbs. ground oats

200 lbs. hominy

150 lbs. oil meal

150 lbs. cottonseed meal
The salt and charcoal could be added if desired. It is not probable
that the addition of lime or phosphorus would have any effect on
production during a short-time test. If desired, we would suggest
the addition of one per cent of steamed bone meal.

94. Vary the ration for each cow. — Of course, in selecting
any ration it must be borne in mind that it may be desirable to
vary it according to the tastes of the animal. Frequently, it is a
good thing to change the ration entirely for a feed or two and
reduce the amount when an animal shows a tendency to go off
feed due to over-crowding. The fitting ration we have given will
prove satisfactory for this purpose. (87) The sudden change and
reduction will help bring the animal's appetite back. Even when
there is no tendency to go off feed such a change will frequently
be found worth while. Here no reduction in amount is called for.
There is usually some feeding period during the day at which the
cow eats her ration less readily — generally it is the noon feeding.
This is the time for a change.

95. Roots and succulence. — Roots are a necessary feed for
the cow on test. A much larger amount of grain can be fed with
safety where roots are fed. Beets or mangels are preferred. The
''Detroit Red" table beet and the "Norbiton Giant" or the
" Golden Tankard" mangel are satisfactory varieties. It is
customary to slice the roots and feed the grain on them while the
cow is being milked. Use about three pounds of beets for every
pound of grain. In the absence of roots, beet pulp soaked in water

FEEDING FOR OFFICIAL RECORDS 57

may be used in the proportion of two pounds of dry pulp to three
pounds of grain. The pulp may also be soaked in molasses diluted
with warm water. Use one-half pint of molasses to a feeding.
Many use a little molasses in the test ration because it is palatable
and laxative. The molasses may cause scouring in which case it
must be discontinued. (439)

96. The hay and silage. — For roughage alfalfa hay seems to
have the preference. Clover hay will also prove satisfactory, but
good results cannot be expected with poor roughage. The cow
may receive all the hay she will clean up after she has consumed
all the grain it seems wise to feed her. The amount of silage fed
should be limited, or may be eliminated entirely, unless the animal
shows a special liking for it. Succulence is better provided with
beets or beet pulp, as a large consumption of silage means a less
consumption of grain. We suggest 15 pounds per day or even less
as a limit for the silage.

The stall should be well ventilated, but free from drafts. The
temperature should be around 50° F. Regularity in feeding and
milking are essential. The latter should be done by the same man
throughout the test. When a cow is being forced to her utmost it
takes but a little thing to upset her and slow her down. Therefore,
she must be carefully and constantly watched that no detail of
care which may add to her comfort and content may be neglected.
The experienced and skillful feeder realizes these things and he
gets the records.

Feeding for Long-Time Records

The general system of feeding for a year's record is similar to
that 'described for the short-time test but the animal cannot be
forced as much. Relatively less grain and relatively more roughage
are fed. The cow is frequently milked only three times a day
instead of four. This, of course, means adjusting the feeding
accordingly.

97. The grain mixture. — The same grain mixtures as were
recommended for the short-time periods are satisfactory. However,
over the year's period the watchful feeder will modify the mixture

58 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

frequently as the cow tires of it or of some particular feed. Of
course, the animal must have salt regularly either in the grain
mixture or separately. We should also be inclined to add to the
grain mixture one or two per cent of one of the sources of lime and
phosphorus.

There must be plenty of first quality clover or alfalfa available
throughout the year. Due to the scarcity and cost of beets, silage
may be the main reliance for succulence and the cow should
receive the best to be had. Of course, beets should be used in so
far as available. Fed with the grain, they mean a greater con-
sumption with less danger of the cow going off feed. Beet pulp,
soaked in water to which molasses is added, may be used in place
of roots.

Assuming that the record period is to begin as soon as the cow
strikes her gait in a given lactation period she should be gradually
changed to the test ration, following calving, as we have suggested
in feeding for the short-time test. However, she should not be
.crowded as much on grain and should receive relatively more
roughage. The secret of successful feeding over the long period
is to secure maximum consumption without the animal going
off feed. This means that at all times the amount of feed must be
sufficiently limited to keep the appetite keen. The feeding for a
long-time record should really follow closely the suggestions we
have given in Chapter II for feeding during the lactation period,
paying especial attention to the quality of feed, the condition and
attitude of the animal and the other details of individual care we
have mentioned in connection with short-time tests.

98. Use of pasture in long-time records. — The pasture
season presents a special problem. Many feeders keep the animal
in the barn all summer, aside from letting her out for short periods
for exercise when the weather is suitable. Others plan that the
cow shall secure considerable feed from pasture by turning her
out during the cooler parts of the day. In sections of the country
where the summers are not hot it is the custom of many to keep
the animal continuously on pasture when not too cold or wet.
The point is that the animal on test must not be subjected to

FEEDING FOR OFFICIAL RECORDS

59

cold, rainy weather or to heat and flies. If pasture means these
disadvantages it is preferable for her to remain inside. We favor
turning the cow out so that she will have the advantage of as much
of the succulence of pasture as weather conditions will allow,
provided the flies are not bothersome.

If the cow is turned out regularly for sufficient periods during
the day to receive a considerable amount of feed from pasture

Countess Prue 43785
Guernsey world's record in butter fat. Yearly record 18626.9 pounds of
milk, 1103.28 pounds of butter fat. Owned by F. L. Howes, Groton, Mass.

it must be remembered that the change from stable to pasture
feeding must be a gradual one. The ration fed in the barn should
be gradually decreased in amount during the first week on pasture.
Even on the best pasture the cow should continue to receive some
grain and hay and perhaps some silage also, depending on for how
long a period during the day she is turned out. Of course, as the
pasture commences to fail the feeding of grain, hay and silage must
be increased. This may be the period, however, that it will be
advisable to keep the animal in the barn, aside from short periods
out for exercise, in which case the full ration of stable feeding should

60 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

be resumed. For the cow kept in the barn during the summer or a
considerable portion of it, a succession of soilage crops will afford a
substitute for pasture and furnish a welcome change from the
silage of winter feeding. (386)

99. Comfort and regularity. — The cow must be kept as
comfortable as possible at all times. This means moderately warm,
dry quarters in winter and cool quarters as possible during summer.
Be sure to use a fly spray during the summer. Do not forget to
provide plenty of good water at all times. The cow should have
some exercise every day, either by being turned out in a yard when
the weather is suitable, or having the run of a shed, or through
some other means.

Regularity of feeding and milking are essential. The milking
should be done by the same man in so far as possible. r^he most
careful and considerate treatment will be repaid many times in
the larger production secured.

CHAPTER VII
HOW TO BUY FEEDS

The object in buying feeds is to select those which at the least
cost will form a satisfactory ration with the home-grown materials.
By a satisfactory ration we mean one that will produce the
maximum amount of milk. It must have adequate protein and be
highly digestible. It must furnish the proper bulk and variety and
be palatable. These factors have been discussed previously. If
we overlook them in trying to get a cheap ration, any money saved
may be lost many times in lessened production.

100. Digestible part valuable part.— When a feed is taken
into the body, a certain part is digested and absorbed while the
remainder is excreted in the manure. Of course, only that part
which is digested is of use to the animal; thus, in buying feeds
we want to get the maximum amount of digestible material for our
money. In fact, the only real way to tell what feeds are cheapest
is to compare them on the basis of their digestible material. To do
this we compute the total digestible nutrients of each feed. By
actual trials with animals, the amount of digestible protein,
digestible fiber, digestible carbohydrates and digestible fat has
been determined for every common feed. If we multiply the diges-
tible fat by 2.25 and add to this product the other digestible nu-
trients, we obtain the total digestible nutrients. The fat is multi-
plied by 2.25 because it furnishes 2.25 times as much feed energy
as the other nutrients. The total digestible nutrients in 100 pounds
of each of the common feeds are shown in Table I in the appendix.

101. Cost of digestible nutrients.— Now, let us illustrate the
buying of feeds on the basis of total digestible nutrients. Suppose
a feed dealer has the following feeds available at the prices named :

Corn meal $36 . 50 Standard middlings ... $35 . 05

Ground oats 38 . 60 Flour middlings 38 . 80

Corn gluten feed 49 . 80 Wheat mixed feed 36 . 30

Hominy feed 38 .05 Cottonseed meal, 43%. 58 . 05

Wheat bran 35 . 05 Linseed oil meal 59 . 05

61

62

BETTER DAIRY FARMING

What we really want to know is their cost in terms of total di-
gestible nutrients. Thus, we will calculate the cost of 100 pounds
of total digestible nutrients in each feed and rearrange them on
that basis. We figure the total digestible nutrients in a ton by
multiplying the amount in 100 pounds, as shown in Table I in the
appendix, by 20. By dividing the cost per ton by the total diges-
tible nutrients per ton, and multiplying the quotient by 100, we
get the cost of 100 pounds of total digestible nutrients.

Cost per
ton

Total dig.
nutrients
per ton

Cost of 100 lbs.
total dig.
nutrients

Corn meal

Hominv feed

$36.50
38.05
38.80
35.05
36.30
38.60
35.05
49.80
58.05
59.05

1676
1692
1564
1386
1340
1408
1218
1614
1564
1558

$2.18
2.25

Flour middlings

Standard middlings

Wheat mixed feed

2.48
2.53
2.71

Ground oats

2.74

Wheat bran

2.88

Gluten feed

3.09

Cottonseed meal, 43%

3.71
3.80

102. What to buy. — Now, we are ready to decide what to buy.
Though hominy costs $1.55 a ton more than corn meal, it is nearly
as cheap in terms of total digestible nutrients and we prefer it
because it is bulky and a better general feed for the dairy ration.
However, we cannot make our mixture entirely of hominy even
though it is the cheapest feed shown, for we must have variety and
adequate protein content. The protein content will depend on the
roughage. Suppose we have mixed hay containing 50 per cent of
clover. We should then select a grain mixture containing around
20 per cent of protein. This will require a considerable amount of
one of the high-protein feeds. Here corn gluten feed is the cheap-
est. However, if we add much gluten we will not be watching out
for variety, since we have already selected one corn feed in hominy.
Therefore, we had better put in some cottonseed. It costs much
more than gluten in terms of total digestible nutrients, but it runs
nearly twice as high in protein so we will not need to buy much
more than half as much to get the protein needed. Finally, let

HOW TO BUY FEEDS 63

us add one other feed for further variety. Wheat bran would be
very satisfactory but it is quite expensive. Flour middlings are the
cheapest of the remaining feeds but they are rather heavy for the
dairy ration. Let us take wheat mixed feed. The next thing is to
put together the feeds so as to give the proper protein content. One
can set down a trial formula and then compute its protein from
Table I in the appendix. How this may be done is shown below:

500 lbs. hominy 500 x 10.6% = 53.00 lbs. protein

200 lbs. wheat mixed feed 200 x 16.8% = 33.60 lbs. protein

100 lbs. gluten feed 100 x 25.4% = 25.40 lbs. protein

200 lbs. cottonseed meal, 43% 200 x 44.1% = 88.20 lbs. protein

1000 lbs. will contain 200.2 lbs. protein

200.24-1000=20.02% protein

This trial happened to come out exactly 20 per cent. Had it
come out one or two per cent below, the ration would still have
been satisfactory. A wider variation than this would have caused
us to modify the mixture somewhat.

103. How to buy. — We will assume that a man will make up
for use in his herd a mixture similar to the above which will be
composed of the four common feeds, wheat bran, hominy, gluten
feed, and linseed oil meal. Such a mixture to run 20 per cent
total crude protein would be:

% total Lbs. total
Lbs. protein protein

Wheat bran 400 16.0 64.0

Hominy 200 10.6 21.2

Gluten feed 200 25.4 50.8

Linseed meal 200 33.9 67.8

1000 lbs. 203.8

100 lbs. 20.4

This mixture would be a suitable one to go with red clover hay or
with a mixed hay containing more than one-half clover.

Now, in buying feeds for this mixture we will consider the case
where a man will buy these feeds separately and mix them him-
self. The case of the purchase of proprietary feeds and feeds pur-
chased co-operatively is treated in paragraphs 113, 114, 115 and
Chapter VIII.

64 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

104. Ways in which feed can be bought.— Leaving out of
the discussion now the question of buying feed co-operatively, there
are several ways that feed can be purchased: the feed can be
bought of a local dealer, 100 pounds at a time, on credit; 100
pounds at a time for cash; a ton at a time for credit or for cash; or
the number of tons of each kind may be ordered through the dealer
in advance for future delivery and cash paid on delivery.

105. Buy for cash. — The place to buy money is at the bank.
That is what banks are for. They will keep your money and pay
you interest on it or they will sell you some money to use for a
time. The thing to do is to establish a line of credit with your
banker and learn to use that line of credit properly. What we
mean by a "line of credit" is to arrange with the banker with whom
you have your checking account to allow you a certain amount of
credit on notes signed by you and secured by collateral security
such as bonds. Or, the note may be endorsed by your wife and the
credit extended to you by your banker upon the deposit with him of
a definite statement of the condition of your finances which shows
that your business is in such condition that he would be safe in
extending to you a certain amount of credit. Then when you need
the money you can get it and pay cash for the feed.

106. Expensive to buy in small quantities. — It costs too
much to buy a bag of feed at a time. The only way to buy feed is
to order it for future delivery at the time when you think the price
is right, take it off the car when it comes, pay the dealer cash for
it at the wholesale price agreed upon at the time the feed was
ordered, plus a small margin to the dealer for doing the business.
That margin should not be more than one dollar a ton over the
wholesale price to the dealer if you pay cash and take the feed off
the car when the dealer calls you up and tells you to come and get
it. So long as you do not yourself buy feed in carloads you must
expect to pay for the service rendered by the dealer and the
amount of profit to which he is entitled is determined by the service
he renders. But there is nothing secret about it. You should
know through your dairy paper about what the wholesale price of
each feed is. Then it is a matter of a business deal between you

HOW TO BUY FEEDS 65

and your dealer as to what service he shall render and what you
shall pay for that service. Remember all the way through that the
thing that really talks is the cash.

107. Order in advance. — If you order in advance the dealer can
know how much to buy and if you have the right relations with
him he can buy at the right time and price for future delivery.
Feed is usually the cheapest between May 1 and October 1 each
year, the so-called " grass price" usually obtaining in these
months. We will illustrate this in the case of the four feeds chosen
above. All prices quoted are on the basis of the Utica, New York,
freight rate from western points in carloads, wholesale, for cash,
draft attached to bill of lading, which means that the draft must be
paid before the car can be unloaded.

108. Time to buy wheat bran. — The following little table
shows the highest and lowest prices per ton in each year named for
the ten years 1912 to 1922. We have broken the year to run from
May 1 to April 30 of the next year because prices usually begin to
break in the feed market about April 1.

Year

I

jowest price

Highest price

1912-13

April.

, 1913,

$21.15

May,

1912,

$27.65

1913-14

May,

1913,

21.15

Feb.,

1914,

28.15

1914-15

July,

1914,

23.15

Feb.,

1915,

28.35

1915-16

Nov.,

1915,

22.85

Apr.,

1915,

25.85

1916-17

June,

1916,

22.85

Feb.,

1917,

42.85

1917-18

June,

1917,

32.85

Dec.

, 1917,

46.00

1918-19

July,

1918,

31.20

Jan.,

1919,

56.80

1919-20

June,

1919,

41.80

Apr.,

1920,

57.00

1920-21

Apr.,

1921,

20.40

June,

1920,

64.20

1921-22

Oct.,

1921,

21.35

Feb.,

1922,

35.45

1922-23

Aug.,

1922,

22.55

Mar.

, 1923,

37.00

A glance at this table shows that bran is cheaper as a rule in the
summer months and that a normal summer price is $20 to $23.

109. Hominy. — The hominy table shows that the best price on
this feed is likely to come later in the year after the new corn
comes on the market, although the low price on this feed varies all
over the year. The clearest thing in the table is that $20 to $25 is
about the price to pay most years.

66 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

Year

Lowest price

Highest price

1912-13

Mar.,

1913,

S21.25

Sept.,

1912,

831.00

1913-14

May,

1913,

24.00

Sept.,

1913,

30.70

1914-15

Nov.,

1914,

27.97

Sept,

1914,

33.41

191.5-16

Nov.,

1915,

27.97

Sept,

1915,

33.00

1916-17

May,

1916,

28.50

April,

1917,

56.05

1917-18

Nov.,

1917,

54.66

Mar,

1918,

67.25

1918-19

Mar.,

1919,

53.83

Aug,

1918,

66.50

1919-20

Dec,

1919,

57.75

Aug,

1919,

78.83

1920-21

Apr.,

1920,

28.65

July,

1920,

76.20

1921-22

Apr.,

1922,

25.92

June,

1921,

31.90

1922-23

May,

1922,

26.00

Dec,

1922,

37.75

110. Gluten feed. — The lowest price on gluten feed comes
quite consistently along in late spring and early summer. If you
buy at this time at a price between .$30 and S35 you are fairly safe
that it will not go higher. It is not at all likely that high-protein
feeds will go under 830 for some years.

Year

Lowest price

Highest price

1912-13

April.

, 1913,

S24.05

Jan.,

1913,

$29.85

1913-14

May,

1913,

24.05

Jan,

1914,

30.80

1914-15

Apr,

1915,

27.11

Feb.:

, 1915,

31.61

191.5-16

Nov,

1915,

26.03

Jan,

1916,

31.36

1916-17

May,

1916,

27.06

Apr,

1917,

45.11

1917-18

June,

1917,

43.76

Apr,

, 1918,

58.71

1918-19

June,

1918,

48.71

Jan.,

1919,

62.99

1919-20

May,

1919,

61.74

Feb,

1920,

73.95

1920-21

Apr,

1921,

35.90

June,

, 1920,

80.20

1921-22

Nov,

1921,

33.05

Dec,

, 1921,

41.23

1922-23

July,

1922,

34.75

Jan,

1923,

49.05

111. Oil meal. — In most years oil meal appears to be cheapest
along in the spring and early summer. The low price on oil meal
appears to vary around S3 5 to $40.

Year

Lowest price

Highest price

1912-13

Apr, 1912,

$29.50

Mav, 1912,

$39.00

1913-14

May, 1913,

27.50

Aug, 1913,

35.50

1914-15

Oct, 1914,

31.50

Feb, 1915,

42.00

191.5-16

Apr, 1916,

33.00

Dec, 1915,

41.50

1916-17

May, 1916,

31.50

Dec, 1916,

49.50

1917-18

June, 1917,

49.50

Dec, 1917,

63.50

1918-19

May, 1918,

60.50

Jan, 1919,

79.50

1919-20

April, 1920,

71.50

Aug, 1919,

94.50

1920-21

Apr, 1921,

35.90

July, 1920,

70.20

1921-22

May, 1921,

35.85

Mar, 1922,

58.75

1922-23

Aug, 1922,

42.10

Dec, 1922,

56.60

112. Saving money. — A study of these tables will show what
we have tried to bring out at the beginning of this chapter. Money

HOW TO BUY FEEDS 67

will be saved by buying for cash for future delivery. Your feed
dealer will help in finding out the proper time to buy. But do not
leave it all to him. Know feeds and prices and form your own
judgment as to when and how to buy.

113. Proprietary feeds. — Thus far we have been thinking of
the farmer who mixes his own ration. We know that a large num-
ber of farmers use proprietary feeds. It has been our observation
that the average dairyman can mix his own grain ration more
cheaply if he will take the trouble to do it. In so doing, he has the
opportunity of making it up to fit his home-grown feeds, and he is
surer of what he is getting than he is if he tries to choose from the
large number of proprietary feeds on the market which do not have
public formulas.

According to law a proprietary feed must be sold under a
guaranteed analysis, and in most states the ingredients must be
stated. However, this tells the farmer nothing as to how much of
a given ingredient is present. In a proprietary feed listing six or
eight or more ingredients those the farmer wants most may or may
not be present in any considerable amount. This is why we say
that such a feed does not enable the farmer to get what he wants as
well as though he mixes his own ration. Fortunately manufacturers
are commencing to recognize this and there are now on the market
certain proprietary feeds with "open formulas" — that is, the
amount of each ingredient is stated. We believe that these are the
kind of proprietary feeds that should be bought when looking for
a ready-mixed feed. (123, 124, 125)

114. Feeds with secret formulas. — If a proprietary feed of
unknown formula must be bought, the farmer should study the tag
on the bag before buying. Note the guarantee to see whether the
protein content is what is desired and that the fiber content is
not above 12 per cent. Study the list of ingredients. Certain
proprietary feeds contain materials which are so low grade that
the cow can make no use of them for milk production. Many feeds
contain ingredients which are about equal in value to hay and the
farmer cannot afford to buy such unless they are charged into the
feed at a price no higher than it would cost him to buy or raise hay

68

BETTER DAIRY FARMING

at home. Unfortunately when the farmer does not know how much
of this low-grade material is in the feed he cannot tell whether he
is paying a fair price for it or not. Thus, in buying a feed of un-
known formula it is safest to purchase one containing high-grade
ingredients only.

sfGX.E%

G. L. F. MILK MAKER

ANALYSIS

Protein 24%

Fat 5%

Fiber N.0T.0VER 9%

INGREDIENTS

Corn Distillers' Grains, Corn Gluten Feed,
Cottonseed Meal 43 9c, Oil Meal, Stan-
dard Wheat Bran (with mill ran screen-
ings), Standard Wheat Midds (with mill
ran scre£«ingv)» Yellow Hominy, Ground
Oats, Molasses, Peanut Meal 40 7c, Salt,
Calcium Carbonate.

See exact amount of each ingredient per
ton on other side.

MANUFACTURED BY

Co-operative G. L, F. Exchange, Inc.

BUFFALO. N. Y.

<&>

G. L F. MILK MAKER

Distillers' Grains

200 Lbs.

Gluten Feed

500 "

Cottonseed Meal 43%

260 "

Oii Meal

240 -

Standard Wheat Bran

200 "

Standard Wheat Midds

100 *

Yellow Hominy

160 "

Ground Oats

100 *

Molasses

100 "

Peanut Meal 40%

100 "

Salt

20 u

Calcium Carbonate

20 w

2000 Lbs.

The G.L.F. Seal of Qtjalmt

The open formula of G.L.F. Milkmaker. The tag on every bag tells the
story.

Of course there are good proprietary feeds of unknown formulas.
There are many such feeds that have enjoyed a good market for
years and they must give satisfaction or farmers would not con-
tinue to buy them. Unfortunately there are also many proprietary
feeds of poor quality and some that are practically worthless.

HOW TO BUY FEEDS 69

It is therefore difficult except on the basis of an open formula
to tell a farmer how to select and use a proprietary feed.

115. Feeds with public formulas. — What we mean by a feed
with a public formula is a feed sold with a tag attached to each bag
with the formula by which the feed is mixed printed on the tag.
From this the buyer can tell not only from what ingredients the
feed is made but he knows exactly how much of each ingredient is
used. This will enable one to compute the value of the ready-
mixed feed and compare it with what he can do in home mixing
when he buys the separate ingredients. We believe that all
farmers should insist on having public formulas printed on the
tags of all the mixed feeds they buy. In Chapter VIII we will show
how this can be and has been worked out successfully. An example
of a feed with public formula is G.L.F. Milkmaker. The formula
given on page 68 is printed on the tag accompanying every bag of
G.L.F. Milkmaker.

CHAPTER VIII

THE CO-OPERATIVE PURCHASE AND DISTRIBUTION

OF FEED

In order to get feed from where it is grown or manufactured
to our barns, a series of operations musj take place which, as far
as making the feed available for use is concerned, are as essential
as the production of the feed itself. These operations include
financing, assembling quantities of feed at points of origin, grading
it, sacking it, transporting it, and finally distributing it locally.
Of late farmers have had a feeling that they themselves could per-
form some of these operations and a large number of co-operative
corporations have been organized.

116. Advantages of a corporation. — All corporations are
legal entities. They derive the authority for their existence from
the state. The advantages of a corporation as an instrument to
conduct business are several: first, through it individuals may
pool their capital; second, it is a permanent institution; third, it
limits personal liability through assuming a personal liability of its
own; and finally, it provides a means whereby the small capitalist
or the small producer may invest his capital and secure skilled
management of it. In short, the corporation is a useful way of
concentrating money and management for great undertakings that
could never be handled by individuals because of their great size.
At the same time it provides a means whereby individuals may par-
ticipate in enterprises without endangering their personal fortunes.

117. Character of co-operative corporations. — In the ordi-
nary business corporation money rules; men vote in the management
of the corporation in proportion to the shares of stock tliat they
own. In the case of the co-operative corporation, it is a generally
recognized principle that each member has one vote regardless of
his share of ownership in the corporation.

In the ordinary form of business, corporation profits that accrue
are distributed in the form of stock dividends. In the co-operative

70

PURCHASE AND DISTRIBUTION OF FEED 71

form the usual plan is to distribute profits on the basis of patronage.
Farmers have organized co-operative corporations to buy and
distribute feed quite generally during the past few years and with
a few exceptions — probably no more than would occur in connec-
tion with the organization and operation of a like number of
business corporations — these companies have been successful.

To begin with, the character of the corporation is such that it
is always operated in the interest of its members. Service rather
than money-making is the primary aim of the corporation itself.
This means that it is used to get feed marketed as cheaply as
possible, instead of trying to see how much can be made off the
various marketing operations. Again, since the men who own it
are the men who use the feed, greater attention is given to quality
and to making available those feeds which it is to their best interest
to use.

118. Service costs. — Despite these marked advantages in
favor of co-operative buying, members of co-operative corporations
everywhere should remember that marketing operations cost
money, whether performed by their own co-operative, an ordinary
business corporation, or a private individual; and that the lack of
good business management, sufficient working capital, or the
necessary volume of business may so handicap the co-operative
that it becomes the most expensive method of buying and dis-
tributing feed.

119. Examples of successful co-operative corporations. —
Successful co-operative feed-buying corporations operating over
large territories are the Eastern States Farmers Exchange, with
headquarters at Springfield, Mass.; the Michigan Farm Bureau
at Lansing, Mich.; the Pennsylvania Farmers' Co-operative Feder-
ation at Philadelphia, Pa.; the Co-operative Grange League Fed-
eration Exchange, Inc., with headquarters at Ithaca, New York.
Operating locally are hundreds of smaller concerns; in fact, in
New York State alone there are reported to be around seventy-
five local co-operatives owning and operating warehouses. Two
co-operatives, the G.L.F. Exchange, as it is popularly known, and
the Adirondack Farmers Company, will be described in some detail.

72 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

The first is an example of a farmer-owned corporation engaged in
the manufacture and wholesale distribution of feed; the other
operates as a local buying and distributing agency. Both have
been successful to date and each has supplemented the other.

120. The Co-operative Grange League Federation Ex-
change, Inc. — This is, as its name implies, a co-operative corpora-
tion developed by the New York State Grange, the Dairymen's
League Co-operative Association, Inc., and the New York State
Farm Bureau Federation. The history of the organization of the
Exchange is about as follows:

For a number of years prior to 1918 the New York State Grange
had attempted through various agencies to purchase farm supplies
for its members. In 1918, after some unfortunate experiences, its
executive committee authorized the organization of a co-operative
stock corporation, the stock to be subscribed by Grange members
and the corporation to be used to purchase farm supplies for the
members of local granges.

The authorized capitalization was $100,000. For some reason
or other, only about $35,000 worth of stock was subscribed. This
corporation, known as the New York Grange Exchange, began
operation, and during 1919 and the early part of 1920 did a fair
volume of business.

At this time, due to war conditions, prices were rising very rapid-
ly and many feed manufacturers and local dealers were taking
advantage of the situation to make a good deal of money. This
condition was noticed by farmers who became restive and who
began to demand through their organizations — the Grange, the
Dairymen's League, and the State Farm Bureau Federation —
that something be done to put them in a stronger position. Not
only were those engaged in marketing feed making undue profits,
but great quantities of inferior feed, seed and fertilizer were being
distributed.

121. The New York State Agricultural Conference Board.
— The executive committees of the leading farm organizations
in New York State belong to a body known as the Agricultural
Conference Board which serves as a clearing house for all agri-

PURCHASE AND DISTRIBUTION OF FEED 73

cultural matters. At meetings of the Agricultural Conference
Board during the spring of 1920 the need of some sort of a farmer-
owned co-operative buying corporation was discussed frequently.
Careful thought was given to the whole matter and considerable
investigation was done by special committees of the Board, with
the result that it was finally unanimously agreed by all members
of the Board to unite in the organization of a purchasing corpora-

5 ■!.♦ t J I.

The Board of Directors and Manager of the
Co-operative G.L.F. Exchange
Typical farmers who operate the Exchange for the benefit of themselves
and other farmers.

tion of sufficient size to insure an adequate volume of business
and to make possible the employment of the most skilled manage-
ment available. It was also agreed that this new corporation should
purchase the assets of the Grange Exchange and begin operations
with the business of that corporation.

A million-dollar co-operative stock corporation was finally
agreed upon, to be known as the Co-operative Grange League
Federation Exchange, Inc. The board of directors was made up
of nine members, three from each of the supporting organizations.
The certificate of incorporation was filed in June, 1920, and the

74 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

stock in shares of $5 each offered to the members of the supporting
organizations during the same month. As a result of a quick and
comprehensive campaign about two-thirds of the stock was sub-
scribed and the Exchange began business about July 1, 1920.

122. The feed and grain department. — This department of
the Exchange was at the very beginning located at Buffalo, New
York, where a fairly large mill was built and equipped. This de-
partment early began the manufacture of public formula, ready-
mixed rations for G.L.F. members. The demand for these rations
soon outgrew the Buffalo plant and it became necessary for the
Exchange to secure additional manufacturing facilities.

In the meantime, coincident with the development of the
G.L.F., New England farmers were developing the Eastern States
Farmers Exchange, Michigan farmers the Michigan Farm Bureau,
and Pennsylvania farmers the Pennsylvania Farmers' Co-opera-
tive Federation. These organizations all had the same problems,
among them the manufacture of the best possible dairy and poul-
try rations.

123. Feeds with public formulas. — The managers of these
farmers' co-operative corporations early in 1922 got in touch
with the feeding experts of the eleven eastern agricultural colleges
and invited them to meet and agree upon the best possible formulas
for dairy rations and other mixed rations. This meeting was held
in Springfield during the summer of 1920.

Probably the greatest single success of the feed department of
the G.L.F. has come through the manufacture and distribution of
the G.L.F. dairy feeds, particularly of G.L.F. Milkmaker. The
formulas of the G.L.F. dairy feeds follow:

G.L.F. Milkmaker

Pounds

Distillers' grains 200

Gluten feed 500

Cottonseed meal 43% 260

Oil meal O. P 240

Std. wheat bran 200

Std. wheat middlings 100

Yellow hominy 160

Ground oats 100

Cane molasses 100

Peanut meal 40%

Pounds

100

Salt

20

Calcium carbonate..

20

2000

Digestible nutrients.

1506

Guarantee :

Protein, 24%; Fat,

°/0i

Fiber, 9%.

PURCHASE AND DISTRIBUTION OF FEED 75

G.L.F. Exchange Dairy

Pounds

Distillers' grains 100

Std. wheat bran 360

Yellow hominy 260

Ground oats 200

Gluten feed 440

Peanut meal 40% 140

Cottonseed meal 43% 160

Oil meal O. P 100

Cane molasses 200

Salt 20

Calcium carbonate 20

"2000

Digestible nutrients 1452

Guarantee :
Protein, 20%; Fat, 4£%; Fiber, 9%.

G.L.F. Sixteen Per Cent

Pounds

Yellow hominy 530

Ground oats 280

Std. wheat bran 300

Std. wheat middlings 300

Gluten feed 400

Oil meal ' 50

Cottonseed' meal 43% 100

Salt 20

Calcium carbonate 20

2000
Digestible nutrients 1476

Guarantee :

Protein, 16%; Fat, 4|%; Fiber,
9%.

G.L.F. Young and Dry Stock Feed

Pounds

Corn meal 480

Ground oats 480

Wheat bran 500

Oil meal 200

Molasses 200

Alfalfa meal 100

Calcium carbonate 20

Salt 20

2000
Digestible nutrients 1369

Guarantee :

Protein, 13%; Fat, 3|%; Fiber,
9%.

G.L.F. Calf Meal

Pounds

Oil meal 300

Barlev, malted 200

Red Dog 440

Oat flour 300

Blood flour 200

Yellow corn meal 500

Salt . 20

Prec. calcium carbonate 20

Prec. bone meal 20

2000

Digestible nutrients 1560

Guarantee :

Protein, 22%; Fat, 4%; Fiber, Z\%.

These feeds can all be used as suggested for similar mixtures in
earlier chapters.

124. A complete feed service. — In addition to the above dairy
feeds, the G.L.F. Exchange manufactures G.L.F. Horse Feed,
G.L.F. Hog Feed, G.L.F. Laying Mash, G.L.F. Coarse Scratch
Grains, G.L.F. Growing Mash, G.L.F. Fattening Mash, G.L.F.
Chick Scratch Grains, and G.L.F. Intermediate Scratch Grains.
These feeds all have public formulas. We will not take the space
to give the formulas of any but the dairy feeds. There is in the
G.L.F., feed service a feed for every farm animal.

76 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

In addition, the G.L.F. carries the following stock of standard
ingredients for home mixing:

Choice recleaned yellow corn 46-pound barley-
Yellow sifted cracked corn Corn gluten feed
Fancy yellow corn meal Choice white hominy
Yellow corn feed meal Standard bran
Corn and oats half and half ground Standard middlings
Recleaned white oats Choice flour middlings
40-pound white clipped oats Wheat mix feed
Crushed oats Cottonseed meal 43%
Ground oats Choice alfalfa meal
Fancy feed wheat O. P. oil meal 30% protein

125. Manufacturing the feeds. — The American Milling
Company, Peoria, Illinois, one of the largest and most modern
feed-mixing plants in the country, watched the development of
farmer-owned co-operative corporations like the G.L.F. , and its
president and directors became convinced that the movement was
sound and likely to endure. Mr. H. G. Atwood, its president,
therefore entered into negotiations with the managers of the
Co-operative G.L.F. Exchange, the Eastern States Farmers
Exchange, the Pennsylvania Farmers' Co-operative Federation
and the Michigan Farm Bureau, and finally contracted to manu-
facture for them under their supervision the feeds recommended
by the agricultural colleges.

As a result of all the co-operatives contracting with the American
Milling Company for the manufacture of their feeds, a tremendous
purchasing power was built up. This immediately placed them in
an enviable position as regards purchases and low manufacturing
costs. The feed department of the G.L.F. Exchange — and what
was true of it was equally true of the other co-operatives — found
itself in a position to furnish its members with high quality ready-
mixed rations of known ingredients and with public formulas at
lower costs than the most optimistic of its members had ever
anticipated.

126. A successful feed pool.— During the fall of 1922 it
appeared to the management of the G.L.F. and Eastern States
Farmers Exchange that feed prices would be likely to go higher.
Both organizations accordingly got in touch with their members

PURCHASE AND DISTRIBUTION OF FEED 77

A Farmer Owned and Managed Farm Supply Store

At Fort Edward, Washington County, New York, the community got
together, organized and capitalized a community purchasing corporation.
They bought out a local merchant. Now they have their own store through
which the community buys Public Formula G.L.F. Feeds, known origin
G.L.F. Seeds, and dependable quality G.L.F. Fertilizers and Binder
Twine. They have paid dividends on their capital stock and have ac-
cumulated a small reserve. Good business management, G.L.F. service and
the loyal support of shareholders have made this co-operative association a
success.

Are You Using

At many other points in the
State, farmers are providing
themselves with warehouse fa-
cilities. They have organized
co-operative corporations, or ar-
ranged with their local dealers to
handle G.L.F. goods for them.
At other places they have elected
a community agent to assemble
carload orders, the purchasers
taking the goods from the car
when it arrives. If

G.L.F. Service?

munity has not vet arranged to
get G.L.F. Feeds, Seeds, Fer-
tilizers, Coal and Binder Twine,
write direct for full details.

The public formula G.L.F.
dairy feeds now being mixed for
you by the G.L.F., are the best
that money can buy, and qual-
ity considered, are the cheapest
on the market.

You get more milk and have
a better cow left.

your com-

The Co-operative
Grange League Federation

Syracuse, N. Y.

('gfagurfanZ&A:'^

nave a

78 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

and suggested that they place orders for feed without price, the
feed to be purchased by the corporations at the best possible
figure and delivered to them as needed. The members responded
readily and orders were placed for a very large tonnage as needed.

As a result of this operation, the G.L.F. purchased and delivered
to its membership in the fall and winter of 1922-23, its leading
ready-mixed dairy ration, G.L.F. Milkmaker, a feed carrying 24
per cent protein, at a price of $41 per ton, Utica rate basis. Before
the feeding season was over this same feed went to $51 per ton.

The feed pool, as it came to be known, because of the collective
placing of orders, has become very popular; and it is likely that
almost too much has come to be expected from this form of feed
purchasing. On the other hand, as shown in a previous chapter,
feeds are usually lowest in the summer months and it therefore
follows that one year with another the owners of co-operative
corporations like the G.L.F. may profitably use their organizations
to purchase large quantities of feed at what appear to be low
prices, with the idea of taking these feeds as needed throughout
the winter months.

Because it was well capitalized in the beginning, because it was
able to secure skilled management, and because it enjoyed from
the outset a fairly satisfactory volume of business, the feed depart-
ment of the G.L.F. has been a successful venture upon the part of
New York State farmers. However, they can at best only use it to
perform the functions of a manufacturer and wholesaler. When it
comes to the problem of receiving and distributing feed locally
new agencies must play a part.

127. Local distribution. — After studying the problem, the
management of the G.L.F. Exchange has adopted the policy of
asking its shareholders in a community to determine the type of
agency which they desire to use to purchase and distribute G.L.F.
feeds for them. In some instances farmers have developed local
co-operative associations ; in others they have made arrangements
with established dealers whereby these dealers agree to work with
them in purchasing feed at favorable times, and in giving price
recognition to cash payments, and to feed that is drawn direct

PURCHASE AND DISTRIBUTION OF FEED 79

from the car on arrival instead of being taken from a warehouse;
and in still other communities, farmers themselves have operated
as individuals and as groups in bringing in and distributing among
themselves carloads of feed.

128. The Adirondack Farmers Co-operative Exchange, Inc.
— One of the most successful of the co-operative associations,
and one which typifies, according to the best experience to date,
sound organization and operation, is the Adirondack Farmers
Co-operative Exchange, Inc., located at Fort Edward, New York.

Like the G.L.F. Exchange, this is a co-operative stock corpora-
tion. Since co-operative associations receiving and distributing
feed usually need to own property and maintain stocks of goods,
experience has developed the fact that the co-operative stock form
of corporation which has paid-in capital is a better business in-
strument for farmers to use than the non-stock form.

In practice the Adirondack Farmers Exchange uses the G.L.F.
Exchange to purchase grain for it in the primary markets and to
manufacture its dairy rations. This is proper, since the same farm-
ers are stockholders in or owners of both companies.

In the operation of the G.L.F. Exchange and the Adirondack
Farmers Exchange, it has been demonstrated beyond a doubt that
the most important factors, next to the absolutely essential skilled
management, are volume of business and adequate working
capital. These factors are so important that men who are author-
ities on the question are very doubtful of the success of a co-opera-
tive corporation which cannot be adequately capitalized, which
cannot be assured of an adequate business, and which cannot secure
a trained manager. Unquestionably to make the greatest success
possible all three of these factors must be combined. Groups of
farmers who are not reasonably sure of combining them had best
not develop local co-operative associations. They might better
depend upon the services of established dealers who will work with
them and who will give their business to the larger farmer-owned
co-operative organizations like the G.L.F., or depend upon their
own efforts in pooling and bringing in carlot shipments to be
distributed out of the car.

80 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

Adirondack Farmers Co-operative Exchange, Inc.
s at Nove

ASSETS

Balance Sheet as at November 30, 1922

Current Assets
Cash:

In Sandy Hill National Bank $1,385.70

In Safe 285.10 $ 1,670.80

Accounts Receivable 10,225.94

Less Reserve for Bad Debts 102.26 10,123.68

Inventories

Supplies 267.66

Sacks and Bags 207.53

Gasoline 67.20

Feed, Seed and Twine 20,404.90 20,947.29

Total Current Assets, $32,741.77

Capital Assets

Building and Land 19,802.62

Motor Delivery Equipment 2,334.60

Less Reserve for Depreciation 466.06 1,868.54

Horse and Wagon 306.67

Less Reserve for Depreciation 45.99 260.68

Machinery and Equipment 2,264.66

Less Reserve for Depreciation 333.99 1,930.67

Office Equipment 1,523.07

Less Reserve for Depreciation 219.02 1,304.05

Stock Subscription Account " 2,610.00

Total Fixed Assets, 27,776.56

Deferred Assets

Unexpired Insurance and Deposits 628.11

Total Assets, $61,146.08

LIABILITIES

Current Liabilities

Accounts Payable $ 454.36

Notes Payable S. H. Bank 14,500.00

Trade Acceptances Payable 4,060.57

Total Current Liabilities, $19,014.93

Capital and Reserves

Capital Stock 35,000.00

Reserve for Contingencies 4,605.45

Net Earnings Six Months Ended Nov. 30, 1922. . 2,525.70 42,131.15 $61,146.08

I have examined the Books and Accounting Records of the Adirondack Farmers Co-operative
Exchange, Inc., for the six months ending November 30, 1922, and hereby certify that the at-
tached Balance Sheet and Statement of Earnings reflect in my opinion the true financial position
of this Exchange as at November 30, 1922, and cheir operations for that period.

ROBERT E. DAME,
Special Accountant for Local Co-operatives.

Careful bookkeeping is as essential to the successful operation of a co-operative as to any
other business. Books should permit the drawing off of such a statement as this at frequent
intervals.

PURCHASE AND DISTRIBUTION OF FEED 81

Whatever method may be worked out locally, farmers should
realize that in the purchase of all farm supplies, " Volume Saves."
Taken collectively the feed and grain purchases of dairy farmers
are enormous. Co-operative corporations such as have been
described make it possible for dairy farmers to pool their feed
grain purchases in the hands of their own companies. The de-
velopment is so logical and the objects to be gained so important
that it seems hardly conceivable that the co-operative movement
will fail.

Part II

THE COW

Better Dairy Farming Through Better Cows

CHAPTER IX

THE IDEAL COW

The main objects of better dairy farming are to produce better
cows that will sell for more money and to produce milk at less cost.
Better cows can be produced only by improvement in breeding. A
breeder can best form his ideal by seeing good animals, noting
the work of judges at the best fairs and by studying the relation
between form in animals and their production. Not all, however,
can attend national shows and state fairs, therefore, for many of us,
our ideals must be formed more or less at home by means of
pictures, studies of production and descriptions. In forming the
mind's picture of the ideal cow, we must always remember what is
necessary in a cow.

129. The purpose of a cow. — A cow exists to turn forage and
grain into milk, butter and other milk products. Therefore, to
handle large amounts of coarse, cheap roughage and grain, size is a
tremendous factor. A cow is the hardest working animal on the
farm. Strength of constitution is equal in importance to size. The
standard weights for the dairy breeds are, for Jersey cows, 800 to
1000 pounds; for Ayrshires, not less than 1000 pounds; for Guern-
seys, 1050 pounds; for* Holsteins, well above 1200 pounds for
mature cows. These weights are all minimum and in his ideal cow,
the breeder should always strive to have larger cows than these at
maturity.

130. Capacity. — The value of a cow is in direct relation to her
capacity to produce milk. Above that needed to pay for her
maintenance and the reproduction of her kind, she must always

82

THE IDEAL COW

83

pay her way and yield a profit. Besides, she must pay during her
life what it costs to bring her up to producing age. Therefore, in
forming one's ideal for a cow in any breed, the foremost things to
keep in mind are size, strength of constitution and capacity to
utilize food above maintenance.

The picture of Imported Hayes Rosie 15476 illustrates an ideal
type of dairy cow. She happens to be a Guernsey but she em-

>airy Type

Imp. Hayes Rosie 15476. Yearly record 14,630.08 pounds of milk, 714.31
pounds of butter fat. Owned by Langwater Farms, North Easton, Mass.

a, muzzle; b, eye; c, forehead; d, ear; e, horn; f, neck; g, withers; h, shoulder;
n, chest; p, back; q, loin; i, hip; o, barrel; j, rump; k, thurl; 1, thigh; u, switch;
r, udder; s, teat; t, milk vein; m, shank.

bodies the things which should be emphasized as ideal in a mature
cow of any breed.

The Front Quarters
131. The head and face. — The head of an ideal cow should be
fine and lean and long, with no meatiness, but it must not be too
long and must have the right balance to give the right appearance
to the animal. The face should be smooth with some of the larger
veins showing and not so long and thin as to indicate weakness.

84 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

The forehead should be broad between the eyes and slightly dished.
The muzzle is particularly important and should be large with good
sized nostrils. Size of muzzle is a good indication of feeding capac-
ity and size of nostril is a good indication of breathing capacity.

132. Eye and ears indicate temperament. — The cow's eye
is indicative of her temperament. It should be large and placid,
but together with the carriage of the head and size and placing of
the ears, it should give evidence of quality, alertness and the
possession of enough nervous energy to carry the animal through
a heavy lactation. The ears should be set well upon the head and
the tips should not rise any above the poll. The ears should stand
up well and be inclined forward when the cow is alert. The texture
of the ears should be rather fine and it is thought by some experts
that the color of the secretion in the inside of the ear indicates
something of the capacity of the cow to produce butter fat. The
yellower and more abundant the secretion, the more butter fat the
cow is supposed to yield. The hair on the head, ears and face
should be fine. The horns, if present, should be of good quality,
not too scaly and rather tapering. For the best interests of the
cow and her owner, the horns should be removed from all cows in
grade herds and possibly also in purebred herds. (66) This can
most easily be done during the first three weeks of a cow's life.
The neck should be lean and long with little dewlap. The fineness
and quality of a dairy cow are shown up quite largely in the ap-
pearance of the head and neck. The attachment of the head to the
neck should be neat with a clean throat. The neck should set
smoothly into the shoulders.

133. The vital organs. — Forequarters are important. They
house the vital organs that really run the machine. They should
be light but roomy. The heart girth should be large and the
floor of the chest broad and wide between the legs. There must be
room for capacious lungs. This means that the ribs must be well
sprung, the withers should be rather sharp and the shoulders not so
prominent as to give a coarse appearance to the animal. The
shoulders can give some idea of angularity to the animal, but must
never appear rough or coarse.

THE IDEAL COW 85

The Middle

134. Size and capacity. — The capacity of the dairy cow to
utilize feed and to give milk is indicated in the size of barrel and
udder. Our ideal Holstein cow ought to give 100 pounds of milk in
a day. This means that she has to have a barrel that will hold
several bushels because she must eat a bushel of silage, several
pounds of hay, some beets, some beet pulp and molasses, large
quantities of water and about a bushel of dry grain. High produc-
ing cows of the other breeds must have barrels in proportion to
their size. When we visualize this ration we see the necessity of a
large barrel with well-sprung ribs, giving plenty of room. The flank
in front should be deep indicating good heart girth. The deep
flank in the rear indicates depth of barrel and good length of rib.
The flanks should be thin in flesh as indicating good dairy type.

135. The abdomen and back.— To carry this barrel, the
abdomen must be held well up and the muscle walls strong and
fine. The back must be straight. No breed type allows any sway-
backed animal to represent the ideal of that breed. The top line
must be straight right through from withers to tail head with per-
haps a slight rise above the pelvis, the ribs well rounded out from
the back with no slabsidedness. There is a feeling among breeders
of dairy cattle that high production is linked up with a good
nervous development. A strong back with plenty of room for the
spinal canal will allow full nervous development of the rear
quarters. A straight top line means a strong back.

The Rear Quarters

The organs of reproduction are in the rear part of the barrel, so
that width and depth here are necessary for the growth and
development of the unborn calf. The loins must be broad and
level and there must be no depression in front of the hips, indicat-
ing weakness here.

136. Hips and rump. — The hind quarters of the cow are par-
ticularly important. Here the machinery must work smoothly and
properly. Wide, level hips give room for a wide udder below and
room for the uterus to grow above. The rump must be strong and

86 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

level, with the thurls high and wide apart. The whole nutrition of
the dairy cow is directed to the udder to make milk. A large quan-
tity of milk cannot be manufactured in a small udder and a large
udder will not develop unless there is room for it. The backbone
must be carried on a level clear up to the tail head and no sloping
in the rump can be allowed. The pin bones should be wide apart
in order that the calf may be delivered without difficulty. Some
men say that cows with a sloping rump will give just as much milk
as cows with level rump. We cannot allow sloping rumps even if
this were so because in each breed we must have uniformity of
type and straight backs and level rumps must be held to. We must
not neglect uniformity in type even to gain in production. There
is much in the beauty of animals and beauty can be maintained
without loss in production if we will establish an ideal and breed to
it. Beauty and production are both possible.

The tail should be long and fine with a good switch. The
boniness of the tail helps to indicate the openness of structure.
Good dairy cows when mature are open and rangy in conformation.

137. Dairy type, not beef .—The thighs must be long and thin
and widely separated. There must be no evidence of meatiness as
in the beef cow. In the dairy cow we need room between the thighs
for the udder. In the beef cow we need thickness of the thighs in
order to get a large amount of meat. Right here is one of the
great differences between the beef and the dairy type. The udder
is hung between the thighs and a big udder must have room. The
hind legs should be straight and carried well apart for the same
reasons. The legs must be clean with good bone.

The Udder and Milk Veixs

We now come to the most important parts of our ideal cow,
the udder and milk veins. First, we must learn just what the
udder is and what it does. With the exception of what we get in
the way of income from the offspring, the whole product of the
dairy cow comes through the udder. This milk is derived from the
blood in two glands, one on each side, which go to make up the
udder. Therefore we see what a wonderful thing the udder of an

THE IDEAL COW

87

ideal cow is. The whole function of the mature cow is to consume
large quantities of feed and turn that feed into forms which can be
taken up by the blood. This is the digestion and assimilation of
the feed. When the proper amounts and kinds of nutrients are
absorbed into the blood these nutrients are then carried to the
udder and manufactured into milk.

138. Size of udder.— Therefore, first of all the udder must be
large enough to do the work that it is called upon to do. And when

DeKol Plus Segis Dixie 25787 (Canadian Herd Book)
One of the world's highest record cows. Yearly record in June, 1923, 32,632.8
pounds of milk, 1151.48 pounds of butter fat. She is on test and will probably
finish with the world's record in butter fat production in July, 1923.

this work is to secrete 60 to 100 pounds of milk a clay containing
all the nutrients found in milk, the job cannot be done unless the
udder is large enough to do it.

The udder shall be long and extend high up between the thighs
and be carried well along under the belly. The bottom or floor of
the udder must be flat or level. It must also be wide. There must

88 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

be no open space in front of the udder, but it should extend forward
so that the underline of the cow's body made by the abdomen and
udder will be comparatively straight. The muscular development
must be such that the udder is well supported and not pendulous.
In some of the earlier imported cows the udder was really a bag
hanging down between the thighs. This is not the kind of udder
now wanted on the ideal cow in any of the dairy breeds. We
want the udder to start high up behind and fill in all the space
between the thighs and extend way forward. The udder must
not be cut up between the right and left halves and between the
fore and rear quarters. Probably the greatest general defect in
the form of the udder in all breeds is the lack of development of the
fore quarters. In selecting a bull, his dam, maternal granddam and
the dam of his sire should be seen to determine what the chances
are for him to transmit the proper form and size of udder. In
selecting within our own herds, the inheritance to be expected
from the females is known and should be considered in deciding on
which heifers to keep for breeders.

139. Quality of udder tissue. — The quality of the udder is
highly important. There are two extremes in udder quality, the
meaty udder, and the highly elastic udder. The meaty udder as a
rule will not yield much milk, no matter how large it is. The tissue
in a meaty udder is not truly secreting tissue. This emphasizes
the importance of milking out a cow when buying her in order to
thoroughly examine the tissue of the udder. Of course, we have all
kinds of variation between the large meaty udder with a small
amount of true secreting tissue and the very fine large udder made
up of true, elastic, secreting tissue that milks out when the milk is
drawn.

140. The manufacture of the milk. — The udder of a cow
does not hold much milk. When we milk out a cow, most of the
milk is secreted from the blood during fche process of milking. Of
course, there is some space in the udder that fills up with milk
between milkings, but most of the space is filled up with secreting
cells in which the materials from which milk is made are deposited
between milkings and the tissue of the udder made ready for the

THE IDEAL COW 89

next milking. In this process of getting ready for the next milking
between milkings, the cells of the tissues in the udder are distended.
When the milk is drawn off from an udder made up largely of truly
secreting tissue, the cells are not so distended at the end of the
milking process and the udder is soft, elastic and mellow and very
easily manipulated. After the milk is drawn from a good udder,
there should be no hard spots in it. One should be able to manip-
ulate the whole udder thoroughly.

The skin of the udder should be rather thin, mellow and abun-
dant, so that even when the udder is fully distended it will not
be too tight. The hair should be soft and silky and short, with no
evidence of coarseness.

141. Teat placement.— The teats should be only four in
number. Extra teats do not mean a better cow. These four teats
should be well placed and of such a size and length that the milk
can be easily drawn. The udder should be snugly held against
the body so that it will not hang down too much. If the udder is
pendulous, as the cow grows older it is likely to break down and be
dragged in the mud, which will cause the teats to become sore and
make her hard to milk. In our breeding operations, we should
be very careful to keep firmly in mind the ideal form and quality
of udder in the selection of breeding animals.

142. Capacity of milk veins. — The milk veins carry the blood
away from the udder. Since the amount of milk depends on the
amount of blood circulating through the udder, the milk veins are
an indication of the capacity of the circulation of the cow. They
should be long and tortuous, from one-half inch to one inch in diam-
eter on a mature cow. On the very best milkers they are usually
crooked and extend at least half way forward to the front legs. It
is usually a good sign if the veins branch and enter the body
through more than one milk wall or hole in the abdominal wall. It
is also a usual thing on the best milkers to be able to see the net-
work of veining on the outside of the udder itself. We never see a
large mature milk producer without seeing the milk vein system
very well developed on each side. The walls of the milk veins
should be elastic.

90 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

General Conformation
In general conformation the skeleton structure must be open
instead of close and tight. The bones should be fine and strong
and large enough to support the animal properly. The bones of an
animal may be large and yet fine. We must have large frames in
order to get capacity, but largeness of frame and good-sized bones
must not be confused with coarseness. The bony structure while
indicating size and openness must also have quality.

143. Dairy quality. — There is such a thing as dairy quality as
indicated by the appearance of the whole animal. She must
appear to be alert and in the best of health. This is indicated by a
fine, mellow skin not too thickly covered with fine hair of silky
texture. The skin and hair must be of such quality that more or
less of the surface veining of the body will show through as it does
in a well groomed race horse. The whole animal must show a
bloom which when once recognized will not be forgotten and will
be sought for by proper methods of breeding and feeding. Abun-
dant oily secretions in the ears, at the end of the tail and on the skin
in general are an evidence of quality. This waxy secretion is yellow
in color.

144. The wedge shape. — The form of the entire body of our
ideal cow will show three distinct wedge shapes. The form of one
wedge is seen from the side by the top and bottom lines ending at a
point a little in front of the cow. This wedge is accentuated by a
deep barrel and deep, full udder. The second wedge is the wedge
formed with the point at the withers and the side lines running
from the withers to the hip bones. This wedge is seen by looking
down on the cow. The finer the withers and the wider the hips and
rump, the broader this wedge will be. The third wedge is seen
from the front with the point at the withers. The sides of this
wedge are made by the general lines formed by the sides of the
chest and barrel. The better the chest development and the
larger the barrel the more clearly defined this wedge will be. This
idea of the ideal wedge shape is merely checking in the ideal
general form the points that have been described in detail. In
breeding for capacity we must get it in the chest and barrel.

THE IDEAL COW 91

145. Dairy temperament.— We say that the ideal cow must
have the right dairy temperament. This does not mean excit-
ability. We can see something in the race horse or even in the
fine quality draft horse which makes us know whether he will work
or not. That same quality must stick out on the ideal cow. She
must show evidence of great nervous force that will carry her
through a long lactation and force her at all times to be thoroughly
alive, consume large quantities of food and turn every ounce of
that food into milk with just barely enough taken out to maintain
her. We must strive for this, breed, and select for it. It will be
shown in carriage of head and body, balance and poise on properly
placed legs, silkiness and quality in skin and hair, and appearance
of eye. Together with this suggestion of abundant life and milk-
producing power in form and quality, must be associated the
docility, quiet and content and lack of temper that is always asso-
ciated with maternity. Maternity is, after all, the greatest force and
factor behind high milk production.

CHAPTER X

PUREBREDS OR GRADES?

We have told what to look for in an ideal cow of any breed. Now
shall we be content to have only grades in our herds or shall we
have purebreds?

The title of this book is "Better Dairy Farming." Its purpose
is to stimulate those who may read it to greater efforts to make
more money and to have a business in which they can take more
pride. Better money returns will mean a greater comfort in living.
All these things will surely come about faster with purebreds than
with grades.

146. Pure bred sire first. — There can be no argument in the
mind of an enlightened man as to the necessity of using pure bred
sires. Intelligent farmers are beyond that. "We sa\T without fear
of contradiction that no farmer can afford to use anything but
pure bred sires if he is growing any young stock at all or is selling
any offspring. The offspring of grade sires will not bring enough
in the market today to pay for its production. The whole study
must be along the lines of how to select the pure bred sire and how
much to pay for him.

Now, comes the question of whether we shall be content to use
only grade females and improve the offspring from them when
mated to pure bred males or shall we go in for pure bred females
also? Our answer is to go in for as many pure bred females as
possible as soon as your pocket book will allow it.

147. Purebreds produce more than grades. — We will quote
two sets of figures to support our argument to induce you to do this.
Mr. LeRoy Hoffer of Pennsylvania reports on this point in the
"Holstein-Friesian World" as follows:

"The dairy extension department of the Pennsylvania State
College made a study of the records of ten cow-testing associations
in seven counties in this state, comparing the production of the pure
bred Holstein cows and grade Holstein cows in these associations.

92

PUREBREDS OR GRADES

93

"The total number of cows completing a year's work in the
associations having the proper age specification numbered 1013
cows. Every record in this comparison represents the production
of twelve months, including the dry period. The classification
made consisted of comparing two, three, four, five and over five-
year-old grade Holstein cows with two, three, four, five and over
five-year-old pure bred Holstein cows.

Production of Purebred Holsteins versus Grades in Ten Cow-
Testing Associations in Pennsylvania

PUREBREDS

Grades

No.
Cows

Age

Lbs.
Milk

Lbs.
Butter fat

No.
Cows

Age

Lbs.

Milk

Lbs.
Butter fat

36
76
42
50
102

306

2yr.
3yr.

4yr.
5 yr.

overl
5 yr./
all ages

7771

8378
8017
9581

8420

8467

276.8
287.4
273.2
320.6

311.4

299.1

80
111
140
120

256

707

2yr.
3yr.

4yr.
5 yr.

over)

syr.l

all ages

6164
6480
6977
7271

7223

7124

235.0
234.6
256.6
258.1

282.7

260.4

"The difference in favor of purebreds was 1343 pounds of milk
and 38.7 pounds of butter fat."

148. Banks recognize purebred breeders. — In the "Guernsey
Breeders' Journal" for February, 1922, we see how the banks of
Wisconsin look at this question in the following quotation from
D. H. Otis, Director, Banker-Farmer Exchange, Madison, Wis.

" Banks depend for their success upon the success of the com-
munities in which they are located. In the rural districts and to a
very large extent in the cities, the success of the community is
dependent upon the success of the farmer. The farmer's success
depends largely upon the development of the livestock industry.
The higher the grade of livestock, or the nearer the livestock
comes to being purebred, the larger the farm profits. This is well
illustrated with dairy cattle in the following table :

No.

of

farms

I Grade cows only 70

II Grades and purebreds 42

III Purebreds onlv 8

No. of

Total

cows

income

Profits

per

farm

per

per

cow

farm

18

$ 95

$ 819

19

124

1151

20

189

2157

94 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

"The farms having purebreds only show a profit of SI 006 per year
over those having part grades and part purebreds, and $1338 per
farm over those having only grades. This is a good showing for
improved blood in dairy cattle and indicates that where one is
equipped and sufficiently experienced to handle them, judicious
investments in high quality dairy cattle will not only pay the
interest on the investment, but much more. Banks can well afford
to loan money to farmers who want to use it to invest in high
grade or pure bred dairy cattle.

"At the Wisconsin State Fair and at the National Dairy Show
last October there was an exhibit of a pure bred Guernsey bull
and ten of his daughters. These daughters produced an average of
119 pounds of butter fat in excess of their dams. Such a bull is an
asset to any community even though his purchase price runs up to
several thousand dollars. When properly handled he will make
good returns on the investment. Banks can well afford to en-
courage and stake the purchase of tested sires. It will mean much
to the prosperity of the community."

149. Surplus purebreds sell better. — In addition to the
greater amount of milk that will be produced by purebred animals is
the added fact that the surplus animals to be sold from the pure
bred herd are worth much more than surplus grades. Therefore,
each breeder should strive to replace his grades with purebreds
just as fast as possible. It is not advisable to sell the grade herd
off all at once but to purchase one or two foundation pure bred
cows and gradually replace the grades with their offspring and
perhaps further purchase.

150. The choice of breed. — The "best" breed will not be
argued here. It is assumed that the reader has made his choice
of breed already. We only hope that he may pick up some points
that may be helpful to him in the improvement of the animals in
the breed that he has already chosen. The breed that a man likes
and which produces the products that are in demand at the best
prices in his community is the breed for him to raise. This much
may be said, however, — very few men have tried to stimulate a high
class market for high grade products in close touch with their

PUREBREDS OR GRADES

95

farms. (285) It is not hard to produce such a product and create a
market that will yield a cent or two a quart margin over the average
price in the community if one will produce a clean product and
stimulate his demand. It is this margin won on clean products
that will mean profit and comfort.

151. Breed associations will help.— All the national breed
associations, formed for the purpose of registering pure bred

- ^^flii

W^^vjf ^nS

W mSr

S ^

Minerva Beets 85791
The only five times champion at the National Dairy Show. Owned by
R. E. Haeger, Algonquin, 111.

animals, are anxious to help farmers who have grade stock to get
started with purebreds. It is well to get in touch with these
national associations at the start. The addresses of the national
associations of the leading dairy breeds are:

The Holstein-Friesian Association of America, Brattleboro,
Vermont.

The American Guernsey Cattle Club, Peterboro, New Hampshire.

96 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

The American Jersey Cattle Club, 324 West 23rd St., New York,
N. Y.

The Ayrshire Breeders' Association, Brandon, Vermont.

The Milking Shorthorn Society, Independence, Iowa.

The Brown Swiss Cattle Breeders' Association of America,
Beloit, Wisconsin.

Write to the breed association of the breed you are most inter-
ested in and get their literature as to the best type, the most popular
families and things of this kind. It will take only a two-cent stamp
and five minutes' time. The result will be well worth while and
helpful because it is important to know the right type of the breed
and to get the right ideal in mind.

152. State associations and state representatives. — Many
of these associations have a state secretary in your state who will
be only too glad to help you find what you want to get started with
and to help you in your sales when you have animals to sell. We
have known of very successful state secretaries who have made
good in helping the farmers who own the animals of the breed they
represent.

153. Local associations. — Perhaps most important of all is
your local county association. After all, it is the combined efforts
of the many local units that make any great group a success.
Therefore, we should all be members of our local county breeders'
associations. Some of these county associations are doing a wonder-
ful business. Columbia County, Pennsylvania, is doing well with
Guernseys. Waukesha County, Wisconsin, is noted for its Guern-
seys and Holsteins. Buyers come to the clean, well-known counties.
Your county can be such a county through you and your neighbors.

(191)

154. Breed magazines. — Every breeder of grades or pure-
breds should be a subscriber to his own breed magazine. This will
help him immensely in keeping up with what is going on in his
breed world and in the dairy world in general. We will not take the
space here to list the breed magazines. The names and addresses
can be obtained from the breed associations listed above when you
are read v.

PUREBREDS OR GRADES 97

It is a great thing to be associated in a national group of earnest
men all working for the same ideal. No better fellows live in the
world than dairymen who are breeding pure bred stock. The local,
state and national pure bred dairy cattle breeders' associations are
groups in which it is an honor to be counted. Membership is easy.
The ownership of a pure bred sire and some pure bred females
marks you as a member and from that day your road will be easier,
happier and leading to an ideal.

CHAPTER XI

THE LEADING DAIRY BREEDS

We will now discuss briefly the leading breeds of dairy cattle and
something of the ideal already reached in each will be illustrated.

The Holstein-Friesians

This breed is the most popular breed of cattle for market milk
and is the largest breed in size and in numbers in the main dairy
states. In this breed it is well understood that size is a desirable
feature. Spring Brook Bess Burke 2d, 131387, page 14, illustrates
in a wonderful way size and capacity in this breed. Her yearly
record is 24,918.1 pounds of milk containing 1032.75 pounds of
butter fat. She held the record as the largest dairy cow in the world
for a time at a weight of 2225 pounds. In 1921 her granddaughter,
Wisconsin Fobes 5th, 370303 took her world's record away from her
when she attained a weight of 2240 pounds. This is the record
weight as it stands today.

Glista Ernestine, 117999, page -50, shows remarkably fine develop-
ment in mature form. Her yearly record is 23,341.0 pounds of milk
containing 833.73 pounds of butter fat. She reached a weight of
about 1900 pounds. In 1922, July 3, Glista Ernestine dropped
her eleventh calf. Glista Ernestine is a world's record cow in that
she has made a seven-day record of over 24 pounds of butter fat
in each of seven different lactations. No other cow has done this.
Twenty-four pounds of butter fat is equivalent to 30 pounds of
butter, 80 per cent fat. Cows producing over 24 pounds of fat in
seven days are called " thirty-pound cows." Glista Ernestine has
produced an average of 100 pounds of milk a day for 100 consecu-
tive days in two different lactations. In one lactation she kept her
100-pound gait for 119 consecutive days.

155. The best record Holsteins. — In order that our readers
may form an estimate of the ideal production among Holsteins, we
give the following records : Segis Pietertje Prospect, 221846, page 3,

LEADING DAIRY BREEDS 99

has the largest yearly milk production, 37,381.4 pounds of milk
in one year, an average of 102.4 pounds per day. Agassiz Segis
May Echo, 41302 (Canadian Herd Book), page 54, is the holder
of the world's record in butter fat production for all ages and breeds.
She produced in 365 days, 30,886 pounds of milk containing 1345
pounds of butter fat. DeKol Plus Segis Dixie, 25787 (Canadian
Herd Book), shown on page 87, will probably finish a record in 1923
that will be the world's record in fat production for all ages and
herds. Her record (June, 1923) is 32,632.8 pounds milk, 1151.48
pounds butter fat.

156. The production of grade Holsteins. — The publication
of these world's records may seem to be out of place in this book
when we expect that most of our readers will not have world-record
cows. They are printed with the idea that each one of us must
have his ideal and we cannot form the right ambition and ideal
unless we have something concrete to go by.

It should be the ambition of every dairyman owning Holstein
cattle to get the average production of his herd to 10,000 pounds of
milk per year. Better breeding, better bulls, careful selection, care-
ful buying and better feeding will do it in time. These wonderful
world's records show that three times this may be accomplished.

157. The best Holstein type. — The Holstein-Friesian Associa-
tion of America, through its " true-type" Committee, W. S. Mos-
crip, W. W. Stevens, R. E. Haeger, H. H. Kildee, T. E. Elder,
W. H. Standish, A. C. Oosterhuis, Axel Hansen and Fred Pabst,
has done a most excellent piece of work in standardizing the type
of Holstein-Friesian cattle by means of painting and sculpture.
We show pictures on pages 100 and 101 of the ideal type of bull and
cow as visualized by a skillful artist under the direction of this
committee.

The pictures of Minerva Beets, 85791, page 95, the only cow
five times champion at the National Dairy Show, of Segis Pietertje
Prospect, Agassiz Segis May Echo, of Spring Brook Bess Burke 2d,
and of Glista Ernestine give us an idea of the possibilities in this
great breed of cattle as living representatives of the type that also
leads in production.

100

BETTER DAIRY FARMING

The best way to summarize the ideal Holstein type of cow is to
give the following on Holstein type from W. S. Moscrip, one of the
leading judges of the Holstein breed, as published in the "Holstein-
Friesian World."

158. W. S. Moscrip on Holstein type.— " My understanding
of the expression so often used, or applied to an animal as ' typey '

True Type Holstein-Friesian Bull
is that it is as nearly as possible an ideal representative of its breed,
having all the essential characteristics of that breed.

" In starting out to select your foundation animals, or in choosing
from your herd already established, to obtain the highest possible
success, you must so train yourself that vou can readily recognize
an animal of superior type The Holstein breed has made wonder-
ful progress during the past few years, but it is absolutely impera-
tive that all who are interested in the advancement of our breed
should make every effort humanly possible for the attainment of
the greatest possible perfection in the conformation of our animals.

LEADING DAIRY BREEDS

101

159. Conformation important. — "You must select animals
with great, deep, well-sprung middles. Avoid the kind that have
the appearance, when viewed from the rear, of an underfed sun-
fish. In the middle are the digestive organs that manufacture into
milk the feed we give our animals, and they must be large in order
to have the necessary room to handle a great amount of bulky

True Type Holstein-Friesian Cow
feeds. Remember, our Holstein type is not exemplified by the cow
that will exist on the smallest possible amount of feed, but is the
cow that will consume and turn into milk the greatest possible
amount of feed beyond what is needed for bodily maintenance.
Consequently, we must have the tremendous capacity that is
found in the animal of our ideal type.

160. Constitution. — "Now, you must select the ones that
have the strength and constitution to carry on their tremendous
labor. Remember that a heavy producing cow is the hardest
working animal on any farm. She must be deep through the chest,

102 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

and have wide spring of forerib. This chest cavity contains the
heart and lungs, and in order to properly do their work they must
have ample room. An undesirable type sometimes found has the
appearance of having been drawn in behind the shoulders with a
belt.

161. The forequarters. — "They should be fine — free from
any coarseness. The vertebrae should be very open from the
shoulders along the back and free from flesh. This will not be so
pronounced in animals in good flesh that are dry and soon to
freshen; nor in heifers that are below the milking age. A great
change very frequently takes place in the structure of the shoulders
during the first lactation period. In these animals you must learn
that the broad shoulders will, as it is put, 'milk off.'

"The neck must be clean-cut and fine, neatly attached to the
body and free from any coarseness or superfluous flesh.

"The head should appear as clean and fine as if chiseled by a
master sculptor, the veins standing out prominently on the face,
and the entire head free from any meatiness. The eyes must be
expressive of great intelligence, and large and bright and full —
the term is 'broad between the eyes.' The nostrils must be wide —
very wide and full; a large, broad mouth; a clean, powerful jaw.
The entire head must be clean-cut, showing intelligence and tem-
perament.

162. The milk system. — "The udder of our ideal type is one
whose attachment to the body is both long and broad, the udder
coming up well behind, and joining the body smoothly in front.
The floor, or bottom, should be level; the teats of medium size,
placed well apart and squarely upon the udder. It is desirable that
the udder be covered with a network of prominent veins. When
milked out the udder should be soft and pliable and free from any
indication of meatiness. In our ideal Holstein cow you will find that
milk veins which are long and crooked and branching, and which enter
numerous wells, are much to be preferred to shorter, heavier veins.
In superior animals, we often find a very well defined middle vein.

"The hide should be soft, pliable, and covered with soft, fine
hair.

LEADING DAIRY BREEDS

103

163. General appearance. — "An animal of the type described
above will have a stylish appearance, an alert carriage, an in-
telligent look, which will impress you with the fact that she is wide
awake, ready to take advantage of every opportunity of converting
feed into milk.

"I want to take this opportunity to impress on your minds that
in order to become successful breeders of high class dairy animals
you must be able to see and acknowledge defects in your own
animals and to see and acknowledge the superiority of the other
fellow's — if they are superior. Study superior types as often as
opportunity offers. Show your animals as often as you can. Keep
trying to make each succeeding generation better than the one
before. No higher calling than yours, as breeders of dairy cattle,
exists. No one — no matter what his calling or profession — can do
more for the advancement of our country than can you, by pro-

Oak DeKol Ollie Homestead 85529
Grand Champion at National Dairy Show in 1916. Owned by Iowana
Farms, Davenport, Iowa.

104 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

ducing better dairy animals than have been produced before. It
can be done. Study the score card and keep trying."

164. Holstein bulls. — With regard to " true-type" bulls, Mr.
Moscrip expresses himself in the ''Breeder's Gazette" as follows:

"In passing on bulls the judge notes the impressive, masculine
head and neck; strength of back and loin; long, level rump; great
constitution and capacity, and, in fact, all the qualities that have
made the Holstein-Friesian breed the leader it is today. All these
are wrapped up in this one animal. Surely he will prove an in-
spiration to all who carefully study his structure, and apply the
lesson to the selection and mating of their animals. "

165. Living example of type. — The proper type of Holstein
bull is illustrated by Oak DeKol Ollie Homestead, 85529, page 103,
owned by Iowana Farms, Davenport, Iowa, and grand champion
at the National Dairy Show in 1916.

This picture of a great show bull defines better than words what
is wanted in a mature Holstein sire. The air of masculinity, the
dairy temperament, the lack of beefiness, and the quality are all
shown in a fine way. The straight back line, the deep front and
rear flanks, the great heart girth are all there. And with plenty of
size, there is no sluggishness or lack of alertness.
The Guernseys

The Guernsey breed of cows is much loved by many breeders
of cattle in the United States. The most noted characteristic of the
Guernsey breed is the color that this breed gives to its milk and
milk products. No other breed can equal the Guernsey in quality
of milk, so far as appearance is concerned.

166. Their production. — The great producers of the breed, of
course, do not equal the great producers of the Holstein breed in
pounds of milk per year. But they are not so far behind in pounds
of butter fat. The best year's record of the Guernsey breed in
pounds of milk is 24,008.0 made by Murne Cowan 19597. This
cow also holds the second highest record in pounds of butter fat
per year. Her best yearly record is 1098.19 pounds of butter fat.
The best year's record of butter fat production is 1103.28 pounds,
made by Countess Prue 43785, page 59.

LEADING DAIRY BREEDS 105

A good high record in Guernseys would be 10,000 pounds of milk
and 500 pounds of butter fat. The average of 4043 records in the
mature class, five years old and over, is 10,485 pounds of milk
and 519 pounds of butter fat. The average percentage of fat in
Guernsey milk is almost exactly 5.0, the average of 13,474 registry
records being 4.988 per cent butter fat.

167. Size and type in Guernseys. — In size, Guernsey cows
should be well above 1000 pounds, and in the Guernsey breed, as

Mildred II of Les Godaines 55120
Grand Champion at the National Dairy Show in 1920. Yearly record 11,546.9
pounds of milk, 575.06 pounds of butter fat. Owned by Jones & McKerrow,
Waukesha, Wisconsin.

in other breeds, size counts and it should be the endeavor of every
Guernsey breeder to get 1200-pound cows as the average size of
his herd. Guernseys perhaps lack a little in uniformity of type and
may be criticized as being a little thick over the withers and apt
to drop a little in the back line. The ideal of the best breeders,
however, is for a straight back line in Guernseys as with other
breeds. The best milking Guernseys are spare in form with beauti-
ful mellow hides, covered with silky hair. The color of the Guernsey

106 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

varies from a light fawn to a reddish fawn, splashed with white.
The muzzle of the Guernsey should be white and the switch should
be white. The Guernsey breed is troubled a little with dark noses.
Probably it is not worth while to discard breeding females with
dark noses, but a bull calf with a dark nose should not be used in
a pure bred herd. Of course, if dark noses are allowed to continue
in the females, they probably can never be bred out of the breed,
but it seems not worth while to discard promising females because
of this faddish characteristic.

168. Examples of Guernsey type. — As a good example of the
Guernsey type, a picture of Mildred II of Les Godaines, 55120, is
shown on page 105. This cow was grand champion at the National
Dairy Show in 1920. She js owned by Jones & McKerrow of
Waukesha, Wisconsin. A beautiful udder, fine milk veins, large
size and quality are well illustrated in this cow. Langwater Cleo-
patra, 47043, page 188, attained great fame in 1922 by bringing
the record price for the Guernsey breed at $19,500, when she
was sold to R. L. Benson, Princeton, New Jersey. These cows
all show that size and quality count.

169. Guernsey bulls. — Probably no bull in the Guernsey
breed has had as great an effect on the breed as Imported King of
the May, 9001, page 47. He has had more influence than any
other bull in the introduction of the popular May Rose blood.
May we discover many other bulls like him.

Ladysmith's Cherub, 30670, page 107, owned by D. D. Tenney,
Crystal Bay, Minnesota, was the grand champion Guernsey bull
at the National Dairy Show in 1918.

Of course, all breeders of Guernsey cattle cannot hope to own as
good bulls as these, but their pictures are shown to illustrate the
ideal type to which we must aim in breeding Guernsey cattle.

170. Guernsey milk. — One of the characteristics of Guernsey
milk is to hold its customers. The Guernsey breed is the dairy
breed above all others which can well be chosen in case one has
opportunity to develop a fancy toward any milk and dairy products.
The milk of no other dairy breed is more palatable or more highly
colored than the milk of the Guernsey breed. When a customer

LEADING DAIRY BREEDS

107

gets accustomed to Guernsey milk, that customer is not likely to be
lost if the Guernsey milk is put up in bottles and proper sanitary
measures taken all through to insure a clean product. More
breeders of dairy cattle should try to establish high quality prod-
ucts and attract people to such products. It is a mistake to
suppose that only rich people will buy high class milk and pay a

Ladysmith's Cherub 30670
Grand Champion at the National Dairy Show 1918.
Tenney, Crystal Bay, Minn.

Owned by D. D.

premium for color and quality and butter fat. This is not true. A
high color and fine quality of milk will sell and hold customers in
any city.

The Jerseys

The standard in size for the Jersey cow is not quite so large
as the standard for Guernseys. A Jersey cow must weigh in
mature form 800 to 1000 pounds. The Jersey breed is one of the
breeds first imported into this country and has been bred very

108

BETTER DAIRY FARMING

extensively so that large numbers of Jersey cows are scattered all
over. The Jerseys have been crowded out by the Holsteins in the
market milk section, because the butter fat test of Jersey milk is
the highest of that of any breed. The average butter fat from
13,840 records is 5.36 per cent butter fat. As will be remembered,
the average butter fat for the Guernsey breed was 4.988 per cent

Fauvic's Prince 107961
A good type of Jersey bull. Owned by A. V. Barnes, New Canaan, Conn.

or practically 5 per cent. Therefore, because of the very high
butter fat content of the milk, it will be seen that Jersey milk could
not compete in the fluid milk market with Holstein milk at the
ordinary differential price paid for butter fat.

Jerseys are economical producers of butter fat. The advocates
of the Jersey breed have always stood up for their breed as being
the most economical producers of butter fat. Figures will not be
attempted to prove this one way or another. It is sufficient to
say that Jerseys are at least the equal of other breeds in economical
production of butter fat. Therefore, we find them in the largest

LEADING DAIRY BREEDS

109

numbers in those parts of the country where butter fat is the form
in which milk is sold.

Like the Guernseys, the Jerseys offer a breed for use in those
places where a fancy market may be developed for high class milk.
The Jerseys produce milk of the same richness and flavor and butter

Fauvic's Star 313018
World Champion milk producer of the Jersey breed. Yearly record, 20,616
pounds of milk, 1006 pounds of butter fat. Owned by A. V. Barnes, New-
Canaan, Conn.

fat as do the Guernseys, and it has nearly as much color, so that
Jersey milk is a wonderful milk for market milk and, of course,
Jersey butter is very fine in quality where it is handled in the right
way so as to bring out the natural flavor.

171. Jersey type. — Due to the long and careful breeding and
selection on the Island of Jersey and also in this country, the
Jersey type is fairly well fixed. And Jersey breeders like to say
that the Jersey type is the standard by which all dairy breeds are
judged. Fanciers of other breeds probably would not admit this,

110 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

but it is true that the Jersey breed does typify the characteristics
of the real dairy cow, perhaps better than any other breed. As an
example of one of the good cows of the breed, the picture of Fauvic's
Star, 313018, is shown on page 109. This cow is owned by A. V.
Barnes, New Canaan, Connecticut. She is the champion milk
producer of the Jersey breed with a yearly record of 20,616 pounds
of milk and 1006 pounds of butter fat.

Darling's Jolly Lassie, 4359-48, page 205, has the world's record
in butter fat for Jerseys and the world's record over all breeds as
a junior four-year-old. Her record is 16,425 pounds of milk and
1141.3 pounds of butter fat. The following quotation from the
American Jersey Cattle Club is of interest here:

"Pickard Brothers, of Marion, Oregon, bred and tested Lassie.
Ovid Pickard takes full charge and does all of the labor in con-
nection with the Jersey herd, while his brother, Elzie, takes full
charge of the farming end. Many articles have been written on
the accomplishments of cows owned by wealthy breeders, and it
has been generally believed that the cow owned by the practical
dairy farmer in very moderate circumstances could not hope to
compete against the cow that is favored with de luxe surroundings.
The achievements of the Pickard herd, however, show that there
is one factor in the making of official records which the wealthy
owner finds it very difficult to compete with, and that is the amount
of care and sacrifice which the practical hard-working dairy farmer
will give to the animals he loves and which furnish his livelihood.
It is very difficult, indeed, to find a paid herdsman who will place
the health and comfort of his charges above his own. This is the
secret of the Pickard Brothers' success; Ovid Pickard loves his
cattle and he has found that it has been a paying proposition to
sacrifice and to make his cattle return his affection."

172. Jersey bulls. — One of the Jersey bulls which shows good
dairy type and that also have been able to back up his form with
performance is Fauvic's Prince, 107961, page 108, owned by A. V.
Barnes, New Canaan, Connecticut. Fauvic's Prince has seventeen
daughters that have made records averaging 10,097 pounds of milk
and 560 pounds of butter fat with their first calves. Fern's Wex-

LEADING DAIRY BREEDS 111

ford Noble, page 119, owned by P. H. B. Frelinghuysen of Morris-
town, New Jersey, was the grand champion Jersey bull at the 1922
National Dairy Show.

The Ayrshires

The Ayrshire is many times called the aristocrat of the dairy
breeds. Probably no group of cows in a show ring will produce
a more handsome or uniform appearance than a group of Ayrshires.
The lines on the Ayrshire cows are straight and strong. There is
rarely any question about the back line in an Ayrshire or about the
ideal type of udder. Ayrshires in show condition are usually a
little more fleshy than the other dairy breeds and perhaps there is
a little more difference in condition of flesh between the Ayrshire
cow in perfect show condition and the Ayrshire cow in good pro-
ductive condition.

173. Ayrshire type. — Style receives considerable attention in
the Ayrshire cow bred for show purposes and judges pay some
attention even to the way a cow moves around the show ring, when
he is judging Ayrshires.

To illustrate the type of good producing Ayrshires, a picture of
Garclaugh May Mischief, 27944, page 112, is shown. She is the
highest record cow in milk production in the Ayrshire breed, name-
ly, 25,329 pounds of milk containing 894.91 pounds of butter fat.
However, this high milk record does not entitle her to the highest
place in pounds of butter fat. Lily of Willowmoor, 22269, page 184,
holds the butter fat record with 955.56 pounds of butter fat from
22,596 pounds of milk. No Ayrshire cow has yet made 1000
pounds of butter fat, but this breed is not very far from the other
breeds in this respect.

These two cows whose pictures are given illustrate the wonder-
ful dairy type and beauty of mature Ayrshire cows.

174. Ayrshire milk. — The milk of Aj^rshire cows does not test
quite as high as the milk of the Guernsey and Jersey breeds, but
the average happens to be almost exactly 4 per cent. For example,
the average test of the seventy leading cows and heifers of the
breed is 4.03 per cent of butter fat. This percentage of butter fat

112 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

in the milk is just at the popular percentage in the minds of most
people who buy a high grade market milk. Market milk, to sell
well, must contain at least 4 per cent butter fat and the milk of the
Ayrshire breed just nicely fits in with this popular demand.

Further, there has been a good deal said concerning the right
percentage of butter fat in milk for children, and the enthusiasts
for Ayrshires point to this percentage of fat in Ayrshire milk in

Garclaugh May Mischief 27944
Record Ayrshire cow for milk. Yearly record, 25,329 pounds of milk, 894.91
pounds of butter fat. Owned by Penshurst Farm, Narberth, Pa.

claiming that Ayrshire milk is the finest milk for the babies and
children. In a good many places this belief is taking root and
here is another opportunity for those who love Ayrshire cattle to
make a special effort in the marketing of milk for babies and
children.

Ayrshire cows are good producers, strong and lively. A further
point much emphasized by Ayrshire breeders is the ability of the
Ayrshire cow to graze. She seems to be somewhat lighter and
perhaps more active than cows of the other breeds and will range

LEADING DAIRY BREEDS

113

over rough pastures and perhaps pick up more than cows of the
other breeds.

175. Ayrshire bulls. — A glance at the picture of the Ayrshire
bull, Morton Mains Lord Barry lyndon, 25000, shown below in
connection with this discussion of the Ayrshire breed shows what
wonderfully fine animals they are and how beautiful is their ap-

Morton Mains Lord Barrylyndon 25000
A leading Ayrshire show bull. Owned by Alta Crest Farms, Spencer, Mass.

pearance. This bull has been a leading show bull and is owned
by Alta Crest Farms, Spencer, Massachusetts. Perhaps it may be
said that the Ayrshires exhibit greater uniformity than the cattle
of any other dairy breed. They are not quite so open or rangy in
form, but the greater producers the individuals are, the more open
conformation they must have and the lesser tendency to lay on fat.
In fact, as in any other breed of cattle, as we approach great pro-
duction of milk and butter fat, we must more nearly approach the
ideal dairy type and form.

114 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

The Brown Swiss
This breed of dairy cattle is now demanding more of our atten-
tion, particularly in Wisconsin, where their popularity is growing.
While not so numerous in the United States as the other dairy
breeds, they are making a fine place for themselves.

176. The Brown Swiss type. — The ideal of the Brown Swiss
breeder is found in cows that are small-boned for their size with
quality indicated by a fine, silky coat and rich, elastic skin. The
eyes are full and mild, indicating, together with the general ap-
pearance and carriage of the animal, an unusually docile disposi-
tion. The large, round ears, lined with long, silky hair, add to the
appearance.

The body is large and well rounded and the appearance of
the whole animal shows a strong healthy individual, with easy
feeding qualities, indicating that they are easy keepers and strong
breeders. The Brown Swiss breed is remarkably uniform. The
Brown Swiss as a rule are long-lived animals and have hardiness as
a strong characteristic.

177. The milk. — The milk of the Brown Swiss breed is about
4 per cent butter fat, which would show them to be a good breed
for the production of market milk.

178. Their records. — Hawthorn Dairy Maid, 6753, page 129
owned by Hawthorn Farms, Lake County, Illinois, has the highest
record in both milk and fat in the Brown Swiss breed, with a record
of 22,622.6 pounds of milk and 927.23 pounds of butter fat.

The best types of the Brown Swiss are illustrated in Nellie's
Stasis, 6721, page 128, owned by L. S. Marshall and Sons, Leslie,
Michigan, grand champion bull at the National Dairy Show in
1922, and in Hawthorn Dairy Maid.

The Milking Shorthorxs

The dairy world has had its eyes directed toward an entirely
new quarter in 1923. The Australian Milking Shorthorn cow,
Melba 15th of Darbalara, page 149, owned by the Scottish- Aus-
tralian Investment Company of Gundagai, New South Wales,
finished her wonderful year with a record of 29,423 pounds of

LEADING DAIRY BREEDS 115

milk and 1,316 pounds of butter fat. This places her second in
world's production of butter fat. Her record is exceeded only by
that of Agassiz Segis May Echo, with 1345 pounds. This record
clearly centers attention on the Milking Shorthorn as a contender
for dairy honors among strictly dairy cattle.

179. Milking Shorthorn type.— It is rather plain from their
writings that breeders of Milking Shorthorns do not wish to be
classed as breeders of dairy cattle strictly speaking. They believe
that their cattle are really dual-purpose and that the ideal type
of Milking Shorthorn must not go to the extreme dairy type
because of the necessary beefing qualities of the breed.

Instead of trying to put the qualities and points to be attained
in the ideal of the Milking Shorthorn into our own words, we
will quote from the statement of the breed association on judg-
ing Milking Shorthorns:

"Milking Shorthorns are produced to perform a dual function,
viz. : the production of beef and the production of milk and butter
fat. A good judge knows that there are close relationships existing
between form and function. To produce beef and milk, an animal
must be a good feeder, indicated by a wide muzzle and roominess
in the region of the digestive organs. The good beef animal must
have a strong, straight and wide back, with strong loin and well-
sprung ribs. The milk animal shows her ability to produce by
having a good udder well held up between the thighs and carried
well forward beneath to the belly. The teats should be uniform in
size and evenly placed well apart. Milk veins should be large and
extend well forward toward the front legs.

"It is not possible to attain the extreme dairy type and retain
the necessary beefing qualities of the Milking Shorthorn. There
are characteristics common to both beef and dairy animals and
these the Milking Shorthorn should have. Shorthorn character
should be noticeable in the shape and type of head and horn. The
eye should be clear, indicating health, and the horn ought to be
short and slightly curving forward. The neck (on the cow) should
be graceful but not slight; shoulders well laid in, smooth and not
too thick at the top. The chest should be deep and wide, indicating

116 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

sufficient room for heart and lung development. A straight wide
back indicates room for development of meat when the cow is dry
and a good udder indicates capacity to produce milk.

"The bull will naturally show indications of masculinity and is
stronger in the head, neck and forequarters. An erect head grace-
fully carried on a strong neck showing a well pronounced crest is
desirable. The shoulders are prominent but smoothly laid in.
The top and bottom lines should be straight and the thighs and
whole conformation less thick than in the case of the beef bull.

"The Milking Shorthorn bull has a more open loin, slightly
longer body and greater length of rump than the beef bull, but he
must present a larger chest and middle, indicating health and feed-
ing capacity. "

180. Good Milking Shorthorn individuals.— As represen-
tative of the best of the type of Milking Shorthorn cows in America,
we show the picture of Bare Fashion, 634770, page 139, owned by
H. E. Tener of New York. She has a record of 17,027.9 pounds of
milk, 581.47 pounds of fat. Illington Beauty, 1070790, owned by
Sherwood Farms, Far Hills, New Jersey, is the highest milk
producer among the Milking Shorthorns in America. Her record is
18,257.3 pounds of milk and 677.11 pounds of butter fat. The best
Milking Shorthorn fat producer in America is Snowdrop, 647217,
also owned by Sherwood Farms. Her record is 15,550.8 pounds of
milk and 692.22 pounds of butter fat. A good type of Milking
Shorthorn bull is illustrated in Count Tickford, 738427, page 146,
the grand champion bull at the International Live Stock Show in
1922. He is owned by F. W. Sullivan, Battle Creek, Michigan.

Part III

THE BULL

Better Dairy Farming Through Better Breeding

CHAPTER XII

THE IDEAL BULL

We assume in urging certain principles upon our breeders by-
use of which they may make more money in better dairy farming,
that they are all interested in improving their own herds by breed-
ing and raising better cows of their own breeds and the feeding
out of the young stock to proper maturity.

181. A pure bred bull on every farm.— If a man is to im-
prove his herd through breeding, then the bull is the all-important
factor. First of all, the bull must be a purebred. There is no
argument for using a grade bull. Not even the money argument
can be used any longer because pure bred bulls can be purchased
for very small sums as calves. Hugh Van Pelt, a veteran breeder
of Jerseys, says in the "Dairy Farmer" of August 1, 1922, that we are
registering only about 75,000 pure bred bull calves each year and
175,000 are being slaughtered. We need four million pure bred
sires to have a pure bred sire on every farm where cows are milked.
If every pure bred bull were saved it would take 20 years to get a
pure bred bull on every farm.

- 182. Strive for improvement. — Due to the continued pound-
ing of leaders in the dairy business and extension workers on the
idea that pure bred sires must be from dams with advanced registry
records, if we are going to have improvement, perhaps farmers
have got the idea that they can get along just as well with scrub
and grade sires as they could with pure bred sires from dams that
have not been tested for advanced registry. Also breeders having
herds of pure bred cattle have at times taken the point of view that

117

118 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

it was very bad business policy for them to sell bulls from their
herds at low prices. They have knocked the calves in the head
rather than let them go out for small sums.

183. Purebreds create interest.— Now our ideas and the idea
of Mr. Van Pelt is that a farmer should certainly have a pure bred
bull at the head of his herd and without question the thing for him
to do is to have the best one that he can get and if he cannot make
up his mind to put real money into a bull, then let him get the best
one he can for the price that he can pay. If he cannot pay more
than $10, then get a pure bred bull from an untested dam as a new-
born calf for this price and be sure that the calf is registered and
feed him out to take the place of his scrub or grade bull. Certainly
it is true that if the calf is a good individual coming from a good
individual pure bred cow and from a good individual pure bred
bull, this calf will improve the herd better than a grade bull. A
farmer that gets interested in having a pure bred bull will never
go back to the use of a scrub or grade bull and the fact that he has
a pure bred registered male at the head of his herd will soon interest
him to have one or two pure bred females to mate to this bull and
then his interest is soon awakened to such an extent that he is
ambitious to have a pure bred herd. From then on, the improve-
ment in his herd will be rapid.

Many breeders even when operating on an extensive scale
cannot test all of their animals and there are many small breeders
who can not afford to test at all, even though their herds may be
all pure bred. Yet the animals that are not tested in the larger
herds and the animals that are not tested in the small herds may be
of very strong blood lines and the bulls from untested dams in
these herds may be as prepotent and as powerful in bringing about
increased production as bulls from tested dams.

184. Bull all-important. — Therefore, each breeder of grade
cattle should secure the help of his agricultural college or that of a
neighbor who is a purebred breeder, to find some breeder that has
bulls from untested dams that he will sell cheaply. Then he should
buy one of these bulls for his use until such time as he can afford
to get the bull he wants from a tested dam.

THE IDEAL BULL

119

No misunderstanding should arise from the above argument.
The bull is more than one-half the herd. Farmers should learn this
first of all. In the herd of 20 cows the bull influences every one
of the 20 offspring. Each one of the 20 cows can only influence
one offspring in any one year. Therefore, since the hereditary
contribution of the bull is on the average one-half of each of the

Fern's Wexford Noble 172066
Grand Champion Jersey bull, at the National Dairy Show, 1922. Owned
by Twin Oaks Farm, Morristown, N. J.

offspring produced each year, the influence of the bull on the
productivity of the herd and on the uniformity of the herd is as
great or greater than the influence of all the cows put together.
This seems hard to believe, but the hereditary contribution of the
cows is very divergent because there are 20 of them, but the he-
reditary contribution of the bull is the same in the case of every
heifer produced from him.

185. Buy the best you can.— Therefore, we see the tremen-
dous reason for having the best bull that we can possibly afford.

120 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

We say that we cannot afford to pay two or three hundred dollars
for a pure bred bull. Yet, when a horse in a team dies, we do not
hesitate a minute about borrowing the money to replace that horse
because we have to have the horse to do the work. We can get
the breeding work done with a scrub bull, but we do not realize the
importance of having a good bull. Wonderfully good bulls can
be purchased today in all of the dairy breeds as calves for two to
three hundred dollars each. Therefore, let us drive this thought
home to every reader. If you do not have a good pure bred bull,
do not breed another cow until you get one.

CHAPTER XIII
BUYING A PURE BRED BULL

186. The value of pedigree.— In buying a pure bred bull to
head either a grade or a pure bred herd the first thing to look
at is the bull and then look over his pedigree. No matter how
good the pedigree may be, a poor individual should not be bought.

However, the pedigree is so important that a bull will not be
likely to bring about much improvement in production unless he
comes from a line of high-producing ancestors, so that we must
conclude that after all is said, the pedigree is as important as the
individuality and we must study both equally well to judge our
animal.

187. How to read a pedigree. — The best way to show how to
read a pedigree and to judge the value of the breeding of the
animal, and to judge his ability is to show a pedigree and pick
out the ancestors which give us a basis to form our judgment. On
page 123 is given the pedigree of Carnation King Setske Segis,
361477. He was sold at the third co-operative national sale held in
connection with the annual meeting of the Holstein-Friesian
Association of America in June, 1922. He was purchased by the
Pereley Dairy Company of Crescent, Missouri, for $1500. What
was there in his pedigree in connection with his own individuality
which gave him this value?

The immediate ancestors of an animal used for breeding are
more important than those farther back. The real value of an
animal for breeding and improvement can be judged, (1) from his
dam and her record ; (2) the sire and his record ; (3) from the dam
of the sire and her record; (4) from the sire of the sire and his
record; (5) from the dam of the dam and her record; (6) from the
sire of the dam and his record; and (7) from the more remote
ancestors and their breeding and records. In short, we must study
intensively the records of the first two generations back of the
animal under consideration and then learn the family lines and

121

122 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

the records in the back generations which give him his breeding
power.

188. The records on the dam's side. — This pedigree shows
that this bull is out of a dam with a record of 33 pounds of butter
in seven days at five years of age and another record of 28 pounds
at 4 years. In the Holstein-Friesian breed a "thirty-pound cow"
is a cow with a record of thirty pounds of 80 per cent butter or 24
pounds of butter fat in seven days. Thirty-pound cows are con-
sidered good producing cows. The dam comes from a good line of
breeding with a sire who not only has many advanced registry
daughters but who was evidently an outstanding individual, as
evidenced in his show yard winnings in Oregon and Washington
fairs. Her dam, the maternal grandam of the bull under con-
sideration, had a record of 28 pounds and was a full sister of Belle
Josephine Ormsby, with a yearly record of 1127 pounds of butter.

189. The records on the sire's side.— The sire of this bull
was Carnation King Sylvia, the only bull to sell for $106,000. He
gets his value from his dam, May Echo Sylvia, whose seven-day
record of 41.01 pounds of butter and 1005.8 pounds of milk is a
wonderful record. She also has five thirty-pound records. She
was the first cow to produce 150 pounds of milk in one day.

Carnation King Sylvia gets further value from the fact that
his dam, May Echo Sylvia, is also his great grandam on his sire's
side because she is the dam of Avon Pontiac Echo, the sire of
King Echo Sylvia Johanna. In this way it is seen that he is
"line bred" from May Echo Sylvia. Also the dam of his sire has a
record of 37 pounds. Taken altogether it is seen that the records
on both sides of the pedigree are very fine.

It was said of Carnation King Setske Segis at the sale that he
was "an excellent individual from a cow that is making a large
milk record." This pedigree and brief description will make it
plain how one should go about reading a pedigree.

190. The value of advertising. — When one is buying a bull to
head his herd he should buy some advertising with him. We have
chosen this pedigree of Carnation King Setske Segis to illustrate
another point. Mr. A. C. Oosterhuis, member of the "true type"

BUYING A PURE BRED BULL

123

CARNATION KING SETSKE SEGIS 361477

Born November 20, 1921

Owned by Pereley Dairy Co., Crescent, Mo.

Carnation King Sylvia

231045
1 A. R. O. daugnter
Carnation Sylvia Pietertje
Butter 2Jy 23.48

Milk 417.40

The records of his 7 nearest
dams average
Butter 7 da 33.13

Milk 646.84

He is line bred on both sides to
the greatest family in the world.]
His dam, the world wonder milk |
producer, May Echo Sylvia, is
also his great grandam on his
sire's side. His 37-lb. sire is from
the only three times 30-lb. cow to
have a three times 30-lb. daugh-
ter. His dam holds all world
milk records from 7 days to 90
days, and was the first cow to
produce 150 lbs. of milk in a sin-
gle day.

King Echo Sylvia Johanna
203054

5 A. R. O. daughters
King Segis D K Korndyke

Duch. 2d

Butter 3|y 29.05

Milk 476.40

Avon Pontiac Echo

203055

36 A. R. O. dau. 18 over 20 lbs.
3 over 30 lbs.
7 Semi-official daughters
Raymondale Abb. D K 4y

1167.00

Echo Sylvia Rose 3|y

Milk 402.60

Sylvia Johanna Parma 2yl7.58

Milk 404.50

Echo Sylvia Queen 2|y 17 . 13

21.58 Belle ModelJohanna 2d

113357

Butter 37.34

4 A. R. O. dau. 3 over 20 lbs.
2 over 36 lbs.

May Echo Sylvia

Butter

Milk

(World record)

flnka Sylvia Beets Posch
223725 122780

410l| 36 A. R. O. dau. 4 over 30 lbs.
| May Echo Sylvia 7y 41.01

1005 . 80 20 others over 20 lbs.

12 Semi-official daughters

Carnation Setske Segis

Butter 5y
Milk

376194

33.18

573.70

From a full sister to
Belle Josephine Ormsby
Butter lOy 31.58

Milk 543.40

Five times 30-lb. cow

Forward Prince Segis

125061

25 A. R. O. dau. 13 over 20 lbs.
Carnation Setske Seg. 5y 33. 18
Carnation Sky. Segis 4y 30.89

Milk 745.30

fi Semi-official daaghters
Lady Mollie Segis 3Jy 834 . 60

Belle Setske Josephine 2d

167903

Butter 5y 28.19

Milk 506.80

3 A. R. O. dau. 2 over 20 lbs.

Carnation Setske Segis 5y 33 . 18
Milk 573.70

Lady Ollie Fayne 3y 22 . 02

May Echo Verbelle

223724
Butter 10| y 29 80

4 A. R. O. dau. 1 with 41 lbs.
1 with 33 lbs.

(Segis Lyons Hengerveld

69558
14 A. R. O. daughters
Forward Segis Pontiac 21.95

Milk 464.90

Forward Seg. Cor. 4|y 19.01

Inka Princess Mutual DeKol

65425

Butter 7§y 33.25

3 A. R. O. dau. 2 over 20 lbs.
lSemi. with 1087 lbs.

Sir Skylark Ormsby Henger-
veld 39138

6 Semi-official daughters
Belle Josephine Orm. 8yll27.27
38 A. R. O. dau. 25 over 20 lbs.
5 over 30 lbs.

Belle Setske Josephine

56593

Butter 2^y 12.48

Milk 258.60

3 A. R. O. dau. 1 over 30 lbs.
One 1127-lb. Semi-official

124

BETTER DAIRY FARMING

committee of the Holstein-Friesian breed, was asked by one of the
authors, how to buy a bull calf. He said that one of the most
important things for a beginner to do was to choose a bull from a
well known line of breeding that was sure to receive a large amount
of advertising. Then whatever good may result from the use of
the bull will share in the benefit of the general advertising of the

Langwater Fearless 77111
Owned by Columbia Countv Breeders' Association, Columbia Countv,
Penn. Purchased 1922, for $7500.00.

family by all the owners of members of the family. It is hard to
sell good individuals from unknown lines or families in any breed.
The offspring of this bull calf will sell easier because they will be of
May Echo Sylvia and Carnation King Sylvia breeding.

191. Buying a community bull. — Good breeding can be
brought about through the community bull. One of the best exam-
ples of the interest that some* farmers take is shown by the purchase of

BUYING A PURE BRED BULL 125

Langwater Fearless, 77111, page 124, for $7500 by 25 of the foremost
breeders of Columbia County, Pennsylvania. The money was
raised by the sale of shares at $25.00 each. Each share carries
with it the right to one service during the period of five years.
Each breeder has made himself responsible for the number of
shares he expects to require. A breeder having 25 shares will get
five services a year for the period of five years. This represents
the high extreme to which community breeding may go. Of
course a group of men in a neighborhood could go into this sort of
thing on any scale.

192. The pedigree of Langwater Fearless.— On page 126 is
shown the pedigree of this young bull. It was said that he was the
most valuable young Guernsey bull in the world at the time of the
Langwater dispersal sale in June, 1922. In connection with the
idea of advertising as expressed in another paragraph the whole
community gained from the purchase of this bull and all the
Guernsey cattle in Columbia County of May Rose and Langwater
breeding will be distinctly benefited from the fact that a young
bull of exceptionally popular blood lines is coming into their part
of the country. These men have done more than to buy a bull.
They have put their community on the map and have stimulated
better breeding and better care of animals in that whole part of
Pennsylvania.

193. His ancestors. — A study of the pedigree will show that
he is a son of Langwater Phyllis, 70607, who is a granddaughter of
Imp. King of the May, 9001. She has a record of 13,288.4 pounds
of milk and 746.23 pounds of butter fat at two years of age. His
sire was Langwater Warrior, 26509, who is a son of Imp. King of
the May, 9001. Imp. King of the May, 9001, was the greatest sire
of his day. The dam of Langwater Warrior was Langwater Lily,
26606, who in turn was the dam of Langwater Levity, 70293, that
made 12,785.9 pounds of milk and 662.15 pounds of butter fat as a
three-year-old.

This shows the value of this young bull because of the line
breeding to Imp. King of the May, 9001, and the very fine breeding
and records of his nearby ancestors.

126

BETTER DAIRY FARMING

LANGWATER FEARLESS 77111

Born July 26, 1921

Owned by Columbia Co. Accredited Herd Guernsey Assn., Penn.

Langwater Warrior 26509 A.R.

Sold for $15,000.00

Sire of

14 A. R. Daughters 1 A. R. Son

Langwater Queen of the East
13221.51b. M., 646.82 lb. B.F.
Sold for $11,000.

Langwater Memoir 13949.00 lb.
M., 639.19 lb. B. F. Sold for
$13,000.

Langwater Forever 12668.40
lb. M., 602.67 lb. B. F. Sold for

Craraond Patricia 12271.7 lb.
M., 594.62 lb. B. F.

Brookmead's Dorothea 12721.6
lb. M., 605.56 lb. B.F.

Lone Pine Charity 13175.2 lb.
M., 599.92 lb. B. F. Warrior's
Lustre of Fernbrook 12257.2 lb.
M., 582.16 lb. B. F. Sold for
$1100. Langwater Helpmate
77759, sold for $15,000. Lang-
water Eastern King 63072, sold
for $9600. Brooklandwood War-
rior 45696, sold for $6000.
Cramond Chieftain 60857, sold
for $5500.

Imp. King of the May 9001

32 A. R. Daughters including
5 Class Leaders. 24 A. R. Sons.

Langwater Hope 19882.0 lb.
M., 1003.17 1b. B. F.

Langwater Lustre 17307.2 lb.
M., 806.10 lb. B. F.

Langwater Heroine 805.64
lb. B. F.

Imp. Langwater Lily 26606

10290.10 lb. M., 548.66 lb.
B.F.

Dam of

Langwater Levity 12785.90
lb. M., 662.15 lb. B.F.

Langwater Amazon 11548.40
lb. M., 631.99 lb. B. F.

Imp. May Rose King 8336
Queen of the Roses 17753.10
lb. M., 852.86 lb. B. F. Florham
Daisy 14876.60 lb. M., 747.08
lb. B. F.

Imp. Itchen Daisy III 15630
13636.80 lb. M., 714.10 lb. B.

F. 3 A. R. Daughters, 3 A. R.

Sons.

Langwater Dairymaid 16949.-

21b. M., 812.66 lb. B.F.

Imp. Golden Secret 12599
15 A. R. Daughters, 15 A. R.
Sons. Nella Jay, 3rd 17047.20
lb. M., 809.38 lb. B.F.

Imp. Itchen Lily V 23540

Dam of Langwater Hope

19882.0 lb. M., 1003.17 lb. B. F.

Langwater Phyllis 70607

13288.40 lb. M., 746.23 lb. B. F.
CI. G. 3rd. pi. in CI. G. Leaders.
Sold for $10,500.

Langwater Fashion

Sire of 8 A. R. Daughters, 3
A. R. Sons. Langwater Yvette
12203.2 lb. M., 679.66 lb. B. F.
Langwater Glory 13182.5 lb. M.,
647.16 lb. B. F. Langwater
Crystal 12359.2 lb. M., 603.53
lb. B. F. Langwater French
Lady 12614.5 lb. M., 590.10 lb.
B.F.

Langwater Faithful 39949
10489.00 lb. M., 492.67 lb. B. F.
Dam of
Langwater Phyllis 13288.40
lb. M., 746.23 lb. B. F. Sold for[492.67 lb. B. F.
$10,500.

Langwater Monarch

4 A. R. Daughters, 1 A. R.
Son. Langwater Desire A. R.
4877. 17086.2 lb. M., 817.36 lb.
B.F.

Langwater Pauline $3566
10918.801b. M., 595.271b. B. F.
Dam of 2 A. R. Sons.

Imp. King of the May 9001

A. R. 32 A. R. Daughters in-
cluding

Langwater Cleopatra 15364.7
lb. M., 792.51 lb. B. F. Sold for
$19,500.
Langwater Faith 31568

Dam of Langwater Faithful
A. R. 3409. 10489.00 lb. M.,

BUYING A PURE BRED BULL

127

CORIUM RAIDER'S DURAND

Born August 8, 1922
Owned by Larsen Canning Co., Green Bay, Wisconsin

Border Raider's Governor

No. 61872

6th prize bull, 18 mos. and
under 2 yrs., National Dairy
Show, 1921.

Imp. Border Raider No. 22243

20 A. R. daughters including:
Raider's May Star of Wadding-
ton. Fat 823.29 lb.

Raider's Rosetta of Wad-
dington. Fat 748.82 lb.

Raider's May Wirt. Fat 599.95
lb.

Raider's Violet of Wadding-
ton. Fat 532.16 lb.

Imp. Nelly of Clovelly

No. 65614

Milk 11533.7 lb. Fat 629.50 lb.

Imp. Itchen Red Raider

No. 27343

5 A. R. daughters including:
Golden Cross Alice of Linda

Vista

Fat 532.63 lb.
Golden Cross Elois of Linda

Vista

Fat 518.85 lb.
Raider's Belle of Linda Vista

Fat 459.88 lb.

Itchen Verbena 5501 E G H B

Milk 13673.75 lb. Fat 693.25 lb.
2 A. R. sons

Governor of the Chene

R G A S 1297 P S

119 A. R. daughters includ-
ing:
Imp. Loulou's Maid

Fat 730.81 lb.
Imp. Nettie of the Hubits

Fat 718.97 lb.
Imp. Bon Espoir XII

Fat 713.31 lb.

Nelly II of La Croisee

R G A S 6061 P S
Milk 13157.0 lb. Fat 724.84 lb.
2 A. R. daughters

Imp. Adeline of St. Croix

No. 54122

Milk 6994.5 lb. Fat 336.77 lb.
in Class G.

Re-entry.

Milk 13656.2 lb. Fat 646.33 lb.
in Class A.

On retest and promising to
make about 750 lb. Fat.

Imp. Flora's Sequel II of
Vimiera No. 28603

18 A. R. daughters including:
Imp. Snowdrop III of Havil-
land. Fat 707.08 lb. Imp. Hon.
Lady Jeff of the Chene. Fat
706.5 lb. Imp. Adeline of St.
Croix. Fat 646.33 lb. Imp.
Pansy III of Havilland. Fat
610.99 lb. Imp. Kiluna's Wel-
come. Fat 562.77 lb. Imp.
Queen Mary of Sunnyside. Fat
515.48 lb.

Favourite of Le Douit Farm
R G A S 9145 P S

Milk 11113.00 lb. Fat 558.75 lb.
Class AA
3 A. R. daughters

Imp. Clara's Sequel No. 29414

50 A. R. daughters including:
Brownie of Li ii wood
Fat 831.07 lb.
rip. Primrose
III. Fat 682.46 lb.

Imp. Flora of Vimiera

No. 45954

Grand Champion, Eastern
Show Circuit, 1913-14.

Imp. Raymond's Emperor

No. 15380

4 A. R. daughters
Imp. Favourite of Le Douit

Farm. Fat 558.75 lb.
Imp. Nina's Iowa Dairy Girl

Fat 490.78 lb.
Imp. Aurora of Sarnia

Fat 398.82 lb.

Master's Beauty

R G A S 3474 F R
Commended London Show,
November 12, 1908.

128 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

194. Buying a bull for $500. — We believe that farmers can
aspire to paying $500 for a bull when they have ten pure bred
females. What does the pedigree of a $500 bull look like? At the
Wisconsin State Sale of Guernseys the bull calf, Corium Raider's
Durand was sold for $540. His pedigree is given on page
127. The breeding brings together the blood of Imp. Border

Nellie's Stasis 6721
Grand Champion Brown Swiss bull at the National Dairy Show in 1922.
Owned by L. S. Marshall and Sons, Leslie, Mich.

Raider, Governor of the Chene, and Imp. Clara's Sequel, all of
which have been popular bulls with many advanced registry
daughters. The records of the nearest dams are high. This
pedigree will illustrate what to look for in hunting out a bull.

195. Buying a bull for a grade herd. — In buying a bull to
head a grade herd perhaps it will be well to look for a bull from
less popular blood lines, but production should not be lost sight
of. The thing to do is to buy the best one can afford. Take plenty
of time and consult as many persons as possible so as to learn

BUYING A PURE BRED BULL

129

where bulls are for sale in order to get a choice. Sometimes bulls
will be farmed out by breeders who wish to see how they may
develop or how their dams may test before selling. In this way
the service of a son of a great sire from an untested dam may be
secured for a time for his keep.

Hawthorn Dairy Maid 6753
Champion Brown Swiss cow in both milk and butter fat. Yearly record,
22,622.6 pounds of milk, 927.23 pounds of butter fat. Owned by Hawthorn
Farms, Lake County, 111.

196. Type and individuality. — A dairy bull should be long,
deep and rather angular. Especially should he have marked con-
stitutional vigor. The chest should be particularly deep and the
front legs should be far enough apart to give good width of chest
with the ribs well sprung. He should have no heaviness or coarse-
ness in the withers and shoulders, beyond that which goes with
his sex character. A bull, of course, does not have as fine withers

130 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

as a cow. The neck will be heavier than that of the dairy cow
and should show some arch. The throat will be fuller and the
head somewhat heavier with thicker and shorter horns. The face
and eyes and muzzle should exhibit many of the same character-
istics as found in the dairy cow.

A bull does not have the same wedge shape that is found in the
dairy cow, but he must have the same straight back. The hips
will not be as prominent nor the rump quite so wide. He must
have a strong back and there must be no droop in the rump or sag-
in the loin. A bull must show no tendency to lay on flesh. This is
very important. The hind-quarters should be lean and muscular
and the thighs not fleshy but well separated. Good depth of flank
in front of the thighs is a fine thing to see.

197. Size. — Large size is to be preferred if it is associated with
quality and not with exceedingly large bone and coarseness. Size
and weight should not be secured through fleshiness.

A dairy bull should show an active, nervous disposition with
little evidence of sluggishness. Sluggishness in a young bull is
likely to indicate that he will take little exercise and will be slow
in service as he gets older.

Many of the readers of this book will probably be forced to
choose their bulls while the animals are young which makes the
problem doubly hard. Therefore, in the young calves, look for
indications of constitution, capacity and quality. Long, level,
wide rumps and comparatively thin thighs must be insisted upon.

198. See the dam.— Wherever possible, the dam of the bull
should be seen, and, of course, the pedigree should be studied and
if money is available a bull should be purchased with as high a
record on the part of the dam, maternal grandam and dam of the
sire as can be found. The records of the dams close up in the pedi-
gree are the ones likely to have the most influence and certainly as
much as possible should be found out about the individualit}' of
the first four animals in the pedigree, as it is possible to find out.
Particularly, should one find out about the conformation of the
udders of the nearest dams; whether their fore-udders were well
developed; whether the quality of the udder is right and placing

BUYING A PURE BRED BULL 131

of the teats and things of that sort are right in the dam, and the
placing of the rudimentary teats on the bull calf himself.

The importance of the bull in the herd must always be em-
phasized. He is by far the most important and valuable animal on
the dairy farm, and better dairying will come about on farms more
quickly through the use of good dairy sires than in any other way.

CHAPTER XIV

FEEDING, DEVELOPING AND EXERCISING THE
HERD BULL

Much has been written about the feeding, care and manage-
ment of the dairy cow, but writers as a rule do not pay much
attention to the herd bull. He is rarely appreciated until he will
not get the cows in calf or until he has a daughter or two which
turn out exceptionally well. When this happens then he will be
looked after more carefully. Often it is the$i too late.

199. Bull one-half the herd. — This is an old saying, probably
overworked, but it is one of the truths that we should really try
to learn and appreciate. He may be even more than half the herd
if he is found to be valuable and then is used on some of his own
daughters in inbreeding or used on relatives in line breeding.
Anyhow, it is certainly true that a bull contributes in the long
run one-half the makeup of a herd as his daughters come into the
herd. For example, if one herd is made up of 20 daughters of
one bull, that bull will have furnished one-half of the blood found
in that herd, whereas it has taken 20 dams to make up the
other half. Therefore, the contribution of any single dam has been
only one-twentieth of the blood of the present herd. Whether she
were a poor or good individual, she would have influenced only one
out of the 20, whereas the bull, good or poor, would have in-
fluenced each and every one of the 20.

200. Bull the source of fastest improvement.— Therefore,
we easily see that the bull is always the source of the quickest
improvement. Again, the bull will have a great influence in making
the herd uniform, because his daughters should be more uniform
than their dams. For these reasons let us pay attention to the
selection and care and management of our bulls.

201. Feeding the young bull. — For the first six months the
feeding and care of the bull calves will not be materially different
from the treatment of the heifer calves. (Chapter IV) The main

132

FEEDING AND EXERCISING THE HERD BULL 133

thing is to keep them growing. A little fat will do no harm. We
are taught that there is no such thing as acquired characteristics
that can be transmitted, but we believe that environment and
feeding and care will have something to do with the offspring.
An underfed, undersized bull will not have as large, well-developed
daughters as a bull will have if he has been well grown and has
attained a desirable size and stretch for his breed. Therefore, let
us grow out our young bulls properly. The best treatment is
raising them on nurse cows. A good nurse cow will raise two good
calves if she is well fed and for valuable animals this method
cannot be beaten. The next best way to raise the calf is on skim
milk, hay and grain.

202. Management as yearling.— The bull calves must be
separated from the heifers at six months of age because they will
annoy the heifers then and some young heifers are very preco-
cious and might breed soon after this age. Therefore, it is better
to be safe.

From six months on the young bull may have silage and hay
and grain enough to keep him growing well. One hundred pounds
each of corn meal, wheat bran and ground oats, and fifty pounds
of oil meal make an excellent grain mixture for bulls.

A young bull well grown can be used at ten months for a cow or
heifer or two, but it is better to delay using him if possible until
he is twelve months old. Then to get good growth he should be
used sparingly until he is two years old. We want size. Therefore,
let us do nothing to retard growth.

203. Management of older bulls.— It is best to ring a bull
at one year old. He is dangerous to handle as soon as he gets any
size on him and it is better to be safe than sorry. Bulls that have
gotten their growth should be fed sparingly on silage. Feed them
good hay, preferably legume hay, and grain. Limit the silage to
fifteen to twenty pounds per day. The grain should be regulated
by the service. Bulls serving two or three cows a week need grain.

Bulls can probably handle as high as two hundred cows per
year if properly fed and managed, if the cows are distributed.
The trouble is that in most herds the calves are all wanted at a

134

BETTER DAIRY FARMING

particular season, which makes it impossible to distribute the
service to the best advantage for the bull. In no case should a
bull serve more than two cows in the same day and then these
services should be as many hours apart as possible. One serv-
ice to one cow is enough. Two services cannot possibly help

Exercising the Bull
Special tread power built by Lyon Iron Works, Greene, N. Y., as used at
Tarbell Farms, Smithville Flats, N. Y., with bull Eminent Secret.

in settling a cow and two services at one time are very hard on
the bull.

204. Exercise. — All-important is exercise. There are many
ways, not any one of which is very satisfactory. The bull may
have a half -acre paddock in which to run but if alone he will not
do much, particularly when along in years. Two bulls together
will do much better. Any number can be turned together if they
are dehorned. Some breeders think dehorning a bull will decrease

FEEDING AND EXERCISING THE HERD BULL 135

his power to bring about improvement. This cannot be so. All
bulls should be dehorned for safety and convenience in handling.
A long wire, to which he may be hitched so that he can walk
back and forth, may help. An empty beer keg in his pen will give
him something to butt around. Probably, the best way is to drive
him or to use him in a tread power. Certainly a bull will breed
better if he is kept down in weight and is exercised regularly. It
is an axiom that all animals will be improved in their breeding
powers, if regularly worked or exercised.

205. Housing. — Except in severe weather the bull needs
nothing more than an open shed that will protect him from the
wind. A bull pen off from his paddock with the door open at all
times will keep him in better physical condition than if penned or
tied in the barn.

The objection to this is that he will look unkempt and shaggy.
It is better for him and we can forgive him his looks if he will give
us good daughters and sons. Judge the looks of a proven sire in
his daughters and sons, and not through his own appearance,
particularly if he is a little thin but good and lively. Much time
is lost through the use of impotent bulls.

206. Have the bull examined. — If your cows are not getting
with calf easily it may be that the bull is impotent. If there is
any serious delay, or cows have to be served more than once, it
is certainly good practice to have the semen of the bull examined
to see if the spermatozoa are alive and motile. The trouble may
all be in the bull even if he does appear to be lively and serves
the cows promptly.

Lastly, do not overlook the importance of the bull. He is
entitled to more care than just the care of one individual in the
herd. His care is all-important because improvement cannot go
on without him.

Part IV
DAIRY FARM PRACTICE

CHAPTER XV
GOOD BREEDING PRACTICES

There are two ways to build up a herd. One is by purchase of
all the cows and then keeping the numbers good by continued
buying. The other is by the use of a pure bred bull and the raising
of daughters to replace the cows that must be discarded. It seems
to us that this latter practice is the only good one for the solid,
successful farmer. To be sure, a man is pitting himself against
odds in selecting bulls to maintain the productivity of his herd.
But it is the most fascinating thing in the world to select animals
and mate them and watch for the development and improvement
in the offspring.

207. The bull the main factor.— At the risk of some
repetition we are going to bring in here again the importance of the
sire. To bring about improvement the sire must be better than
the females to which he is bred. Therefore, the finer and the higher
the average of the females, the better must be the bull. How are
you going to know the value of the bull and to know that he is
better than the females in the herd? The answer must be given
in two ways. First, we can know that he is better than the females
if he has produced stock that have better records and are better
individuals than the females in the herd. The second way is to
judge from the uniformity of his ancestors through the study of
the pedigree.

208. The value of a proven sire. — The above illustrates the
wonderful thing that is represented by a proven sire. If a bull
has daughters with records, either official records or cow testing-
association records, then we can actually compare the records of
these daughters with the records of the females in our herd and

136

GOOD BREEDING PRACTICES

137

know beforehand what he will do. Proven sires are expensive and
hard to find but occasionally they can be found and of course are
the best. The pedigree form below shows how valuable such a
sire is. This pedigree form is quoted from F. R. Marshall in
"Breeding Farm Animals," published by the Sanders Publishing
Company, Chicago, 111.

Pedigree Form Showing Relative Importance of Ancestors

Record for uniformly

siring good stock. . .

Individuality

Record as a sire 4

Individuality 2

Record as a sire.
Individuality. .
Ancestry

Record as a producer

of good stock

Individuality

Record as a producer 1

Individuality 1

[Ancestry 1

Record as a sire 1

Individuality 1

Ancestry 1

Record as a producer .

Individuality

[Ancestry

[Record as a sir
Individuality.

Record as a producer

of good stock

Individuality

[Record as a sire 1

I Individuality 1

I Ancestry 1

Record as a producer.

Individuality

Ancestry

Record as a producer

of good stock

Individuality

Record as a sire .
Individuality. .
Ancestry

Similarity in type
of sire and dam.

Record as a producer.

Individuality

Ancestry

24

24=100

209. Judging the bull from his ancestors. —This suggestion
of Marshall's is very helpful in selecting the young bull that is

138 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

to be saved for a sire from one's own herd, or in buying a sire
from another herd. The value of the individuality, of the animal
is as important in the sire as his record, and in the dam of the
sire the value of the individuality is greater than the record.
Marshall gives a great deal of weight in this suggested scheme
to the record of production of good stock.

210. A balanced pedigree. — This illustration of a pedigree
shows the value of balance. The sire and dam contribute equally
and also their similarity of type must be given some consideration.
The four grandparents contribute only one-half as much influence
as the sire and dam, but if by their individuality, records of pro-
duction of good offspring, and records of production of milk in
the dams, they can show uniform high character, then the indi-
vidual is almost sure to be an animal that can be depended on.
Strive to get such a balanced pedigree.

The influence of a single animal in the generation of the great-
grandparents is not important in the sense that we would pay
very high for an animal on the strength of individual performance
in that generation. However, the more good ones found back in
the generation of the great-grandparents, the better balanced the
pedigree.

211. Heredity and environment. — What a cow is going to
contribute to her calf is all contained in a single little egg pro-
duced in her ovaries at the time she is in heat. It is all there.
All that the bull is to transmit to this calf is in the sperm cell
which fertilizes that egg. The contribution of the thousands of
individuals for generations back is all carried along into the new
calf when this tiny egg and sperm cell unite. It is hard to believe
that all the calf can ever be is thus passed on to him in this way
from his dam and sire, but it is so. This is heredity. Environment,
or feeding and care, can only develop what is inherited. We cannot
create by feeding. We can only develop. Of course, heredity is
not of value if it is not properly developed, but the important
thing is that no care or management can amount to a thing if the
material is not supplied by heredity ready for proper feeding and
development. Let us learn this and then there will surely come

GOOD BREEDING PRACTICES

139

home to us the necessity of learning to select the proper sire first
of all and then the best dams we can afford on which to breed him.
212. The selection of the females.— In selecting both bulls
and cows, size should be the first thing to have in mind. Indi-
viduality is important. Then try to have the herd uniform and
have an ideal in selecting the herd. In buying females, know

Bare Fashion 634770
Yearly record 17,027.9 pounds of milk, 581.47 pounds of butter fat. Owned
by H. E. Tener, Washingtonville, N. Y.

the records if possible. The time has come when we should always
have in mind that we are buying foundation cows. Therefore,
buy from accredited herds and from members of cow testing
associations.

There is a thrill in buying the first pure bred female. Enjoy
it to the utmost by paying a good price and get a good one. Do
not make the mistake of buying a pure bred female that is not the
equal of the best grade you have. If you do, she will be a dis-

140 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

appointment. Above all in this first pure bred female get a good
one because she truly is the foundation cow.

213. Mating. — In mating animals a single service is all that
is necessary. Nothing is accomplished by a second service. There
are thousands and thousands of sperm cells in the semen coming
from a single service and only one is needed to fertilize the egg.
Therefore, protect the bull by not overworking him. Try to dis-
tribute the breeding so that at no time will it be necessary to use
the bull twice in the same day.

Heavy, old bulls can safely be used on young heifers if a breed-
ing crate is used. Directions for building one can be obtained by
writing to your agricultural college.

214. Inbreeding. — Much has been said on this subject, but
more good has come from inbreeding than any single instrument
in the hands of the breeder. Inbreeding is the breeding together of
related individuals. It may be as close as the breeding of a sire
to his daughters or of breeding together full brothers and sisters.
Judicious inbreeding can always be depended on to help in bringing
about uniformity and increased production, if it is combined with
careful selection always toward the ideal of greater size, better
type, and better production. The only thing to remember is that
bad points will be emphasized just as strongly as good ones.

215. Line breeding. — Line breeding is the use of inbreeding
among related animals within a family without having the relation-
ship too close. Line breeding is illustrated in the pedigree of
Langwater Fearless, page 126. Imp. King of the May is the grand-
sire on the sire's side and the great-great-grandsire on the dam's
side. Thus, Langwater Fearless is said to be line bred to Imp.
King of the May on both sides. This line breeding of course makes
him an inbred bull also, but not closely inbred. Such line breeding
has been the instrument which has fixed type and made families
famous.

216. Breeding efficiency. — One of the strongest factors in
the success of any herd is breeding efficiency. For the greatest
milk production we must have our cows produce a calf once a year.
A simple record of the time each cow is bred and the number of

GOOD BREEDING PRACTICES

141

times she has to be bred should be kept. If she has to be bred
more than once she should be looked after carefully. If several
cows in the herd have to be bred more than once the bull should
be examined. A good veterinarian should be a consultant of the
stock owner and a systematic record kept of the breeding efficiency
of the herd. Forms are not important so long as it is possible
from a simple record to know just where each cow stands. The
following is a gestation table which will make it possible to work
out and know just when each cow is due to come in.

Gestation Table for

Dairy Cows

Date
of

Due
to

Date
of

Due

to

1 Date
of

Due

to

Date
of

Due
to

Date
of

Due

to

Date
of

Due

to

serv-
ice

calve

serv-
ice

calve

serv-
ice

calve

serv-
ice

calve

serv-
ice

calve

serv-
ice

calve

Jan.

Oct.

Mar.

Dec.

May

Feb.

July

Apr.

Sept.

June

Nov.

Aug.

1

10

1

8

1

7

1

9

1

10

1

10

3

12

3

10

3

9

3.

11

3

12

3

12

5

14

5

12

5

11

5

13

5

14

5

14

7

16

7

14

7

13

7

15

7

16

7

16

9

18

9

16

9

15

9

17

9

18

9

18

11

20

11

18

11

17

11

19

11

20

11

20

13

22

13

20

13

19

13

21

13

22

13

22

15

24

15

22

15

21

15

23

15

24

15

24

17

26

17

24

17

23

17

25

17

26

17

26

19

28

19

26

19

25

19

27

19

28

19

28

21

30

21

28

21

27

21

29

21

30

21

30

Nov.

23

30

Mar.

May

July

Sept.

23

1

Jan.

23

1

23

1

23

2

23

1

25

3

25

1

25

3

25

3

25

4

25

3

27

5

27

3

27

5

27

5

27

6

27

5

29

7

29

5

29

7

29

7

29

8

29

7

31

9

31

Apr.

7

31

June

9

31

Aug.

9

Feb.

Oct.

Dec.

1

10

1

8

1

10

1

10

1

10

1

9

3

12

3

10

3

12

3

12

3

12

3

11

5

14

5

12

5

14

5

14

5

14

5

13

7

16

7

14

7

16

7

16

7

16

7

15

9

18

9

16

9

18

9

18

9

18

9

17

11

20

11

18

11

20

11

20

11

20

11

19

13

22

13

20

13

22

13

22

13

22

13

21

15

24

15

22

15

24

15

24

15

24

15

23

17

26

17

24

17

26

17

26

17

26

17

25

19

28

19

26

19

28

19

28

19

28

19

27

21

30

21

28

21

30

21

30

21

30

21

29

Dec.

23

30

Apr.

June

Aug.

Oct.

23

2

Feb.

23

1

23

1

23

1

23

1

25

4

.25

1

25

3

25

3

25

3

25

3

27

6

27

3

27

5

27

5

27

5

27

5

29

8

29

5

29

7

29

7

29

7

29

7

31

9

31

9

31

9

142 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

217. Records of production. — It is easy to distinguish from
their conformation between the cows that will produce 365 pounds
of fat in a year from those that will produce only 200 pounds, but
it is not possible to pick out those that will produce 500 pounds
in a year from those that will produce 360. Therefore, consistent
records of production are necessary as an aid to selection. We
believe in cow testing associations because they help in many
ways. The milk of every cow should be weighed at every milking.
It will help in selection and it will help in feeding. We know of
no good breeding practice that will be as stimulating as weighing
and recording the production of individual cows every milking.

Advanced registry testing with purebreds is to be advised just
as soon as one can possibly get to it. It is expensive but will pay
for itself as soon as one is established.

218. Milking three times a day. — When one is established
and has gotten his herd going well, it is worth while and will pay
to milk three times a day all cows that produce over 40 pounds per
day for Holsteins or 30 pounds per day for cows testing over four
per cent butter fat. (42)

219. General effect of good breeding. — The best crop on the
farm is the boys and girls. Mr. George M. Rommel, former chief
of the Bureau of Animal Industry, says, "Why cloud a boy's
dreams with poor stock? Give the youngsters well bred pigs,
calves, sheep and chickens." This will be giving the children the
proper environment to develop to its best the heredity that is in
them and they are entitled to that environment.

220. Outside help. — The breed associations, whose addresses
are on pages 95 and 96, maintain extension departments through
which record forms can be obtained at cost. This is the best place
to get them. These forms are for keeping breeding records and
production records in the best manner for that particular breed.

Every breeder should subscribe for his breed paper and at least
one good farm paper. He should be a member of his farm bureau
and a member of his county breed association and his state breed
association. All these things help. We must all help out in our
community life and in the welfare of the state.

GOOD BREEDING PRACTICES 143

Community breeding is being worked out in a large way with
Langwater Fearless in Columbia County, Pennsylvania. It is
reported (May, 1923) that 30 selected cows are safe in calf to him
and it is hoped to have 400 selected cows in calf to him in the next
five years. (191)

Professor H. H. Wing of Cornell University says: "When we
have pure bred chickens, pure bred sheep, pure bred hogs, pure
bred horses and pure bred cattle, then we will have pure bred men
and women and that is what we all want."

CHAPTER XVI

THE CONTROL OF TUBERCULOSIS

221. General herd sanitation. — The profitable dairy herd
must be made up of sound, healthy cattle. The diseased animal is
not an efficient producer and such an animal is frequently a menace
to the herd through the spread of the disease to others. The first
essential for a healthy herd is the practice of sanitation — that is,
keeping disease away from the herd in so far as possible, and pre-
venting its spread when it does get in, by the use of whatever
measures the nature of the specific disease may require. The
successful dairyman must practice disease prevention. The cure
of disease falls primarily in the realm of the veterinarian and his
services should be sought wherever the value of the animal justifies
it. The good dairyman should know how to recognize the symp-
toms of the common ailments, since many of them will respond
to simple remedies which he can apply. Others require the serv-
ices of a veterinarian. Even the simplest troubles may develop
to the point where a veterinarian must be called if the animal is to
be cured. Thus a knowledge of symptoms will help one to decide
when a veterinarian should be called.

As regards general sanitation, the following will help keep the
herd healthy: plenty of good, clean, palatable feed; light, well-
ventilated, dry quarters; clean stables, stalls and mangers, and
plenty of fresh, clean water.

222. The tuberculosis problem. — Everyone is familiar with
the strenuous campaign that is being waged against bovine tuber-
culosis. This disease has spread from herd to herd and from animal
to animal until its annual toll has reached enormous figures. Not
only is the disease a serious menace to the dairy industry, but also
it is taking its toll of human lives by its transmission to babies
through infected milk. It is high time that tuberculosis is stamped
out. That success here is possible has been shown by the results
of the nation-wide plan for cleaning up the disease started five

144

THE CONTROL OF TUBERCULOSIS 145

years ago. Its complete eradication can only come through united
action. To get this action every dairyman must understand why
sound and profitable dairying demands that his herd be free from
tuberculosis.

223. The losses.— The disease takes a regular toll by death
from herds where it has become established. Long before death it
lowers the usefulness of the animal and makes her an unprofitable
producer. Once tuberculosis gets into the herd it spreads from
animal to animal. The calves become infected through the milk
and the pigs also fall victims if fed dairy by-products. Tubercu-
losis destroys the reputation of the herd, making it difficult to sell
either the animals or the milk. An animal showing physical signs
of tuberculosis has practically no market either for milk production
or breeding. More and more buyers are demanding animals
shown by test to be free from the disease. With the realization of
the possibility of the spread of the infection to children through
the milk, the consumer is commencing to demand milk from tuber-
culosis-free herds and public health officials are giving this subject
increasing attention.

224. Nature and symptoms.— Tuberculosis in cattle is
similar to the disease in man. It is caused by a germ which grad-
ually eats away the tissues of the body. The process may go on
for four or five years before the presence of the disease can be
recognized by any physical or external symptoms. The germ gets
into the body in the air breathed in or may be taken in with the
feed. When breathed in, it goes directly to the lungs which we
frequently think of as the principal seat of the disease, and from
the lungs gets into the blood. When taken in with the feed it gets
into the blood through the digestive tract. Once the germ gets into
the blood, any part of the body may be attacked. Thus, we
have tuberculosis of the joints, of the udder, etc., as well as of
the lungs.

225. How the disease starts. — The germs float around on the
dust in the air and may live in the cracks of the mangers and in
other places around the barn for months. These germs must come
from some animal which is giving them off. The}- are given off in

146

BETTER DAIRY FARMING

the manure, in material coughed up and in the milk from a tuber-
cular udder. The disease of the udder is not very common but
when it does occur it is a sure method of passing the disease on to
the calves, swine and humans receiving the milk therefrom, unless
it is pasteurized. The milk may also contain the germs from
infected manure getting into it. There are periods when the germs
are being given off by a diseased animal and periods when they

Count Tickford 738427

Grand Champion bull at the International Live Stock Show, 1922. Owned
by F. W. Sullivan, Battle Creek, Mich.

are not, but one cannot recognize these different periods; thus a
tuberculous animal must be considered as a constant menace to
the rest of the herd. Infection is spread from cow to cow through
a common watering trough, through germs in the air breathed or
coughed up by an infected animal, and through the manger. If a
sound animal eats from a manger recently used by a diseased one,
infection is sure. The use of mangers without partitions makes the
spread of the disease more certain. Watering the cows by running

THE CONTROL OF TUBERCULOSIS 147

the water down through a common manger is an almost certain
way of passing on the disease to animals drinking the water after
an infected one.

The disease may be brought into a herd by the purchase of
infected animals. The feeding of unpasteurized skim milk and
whey from creameries and cheese factories to calves and pigs
frequently brings in the disease. If these products are properly
pasteurized they are safe to feed. A healthy herd may become
infected through mingling with diseased animals at the fairs or by
occupying premises previously occupied by infected animals and
not disinfected. Similarly, infection may result from shipment
in contaminated cars.

226. Physical symptoms not marked. — It has been men-
tioned that a cow may have the disease for years before physical
sjrmptoms are evident. In the advanced stage there may be
coughing and sometimes there is lameness due to the joints being
affected. The cow generally has a dull eye, a rough coat, a droop-
ing head and shows loss of weight. But these symptoms are not
satisfactory for detecting the disease. By the time they have
become evident the animal may have spread the disease through-
out the herd, as well as having been a liability for some time as
regards production.

227. The tuberculin test. — Fortunately we have in the tuber-
culin test a method which will detect tuberculosis in its earliest
stages. The method is not perfect but it certainly has proved so
valuable that a man is foolish to disregard it.

228. Control and eradication. — The first step for the inter-
ested dairyman is to find out whether he has any diseased animals
in his herd. This is done through the tuberculin test. An animal
which is shown to have the disease by this test is called a reactor.
Where reactors are found they must be removed from the herd.
Next the barn must be thoroughly disinfected to get rid of germs
present. Finally the herd must be so handled as to prevent future
contamination. This is an outline of the method of getting rid of
tuberculosis. The details will be brought out by a discussion of
the accredited herd plan.

148 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

229. The accredited herd plan. — This is a plan adopted in

1917 to be used as a nation-wide program for the stamping out of

tuberculosis. It provides for co-operation between the United

States Government and the various states both as to financial

support for carrying out the program and as to its supervision.

To accredit a herd as free from tuberculosis means to certify

officially that the owner has complied with certain specific rules

laid down in the plan. These rules specify that an accredited

herd is one that has been tuberculin tested under the supervision

of the Bureau of Animal Industry or of a state official, and found

to have no animals showing the disease upon two annual or three

semi-annual tests and upon physical examination. It is further

provided that where reactors are found they must be removed

either by slaughter or segregation and that two more tests show-

s SfS no further reactors are required. A thorough disinfection of

•^ *^me barn is also required. All milk and other dairy products fed to

^ © calves must come from tuberculin tested cows or else be pasteur-

kj ^ ized. Xo cattle can be added to the herd unless they have passed

^ "g* certain specified tests. Compliance with the above rules entitles

fc <Jb* the owner to an official certificate — " Tuberculosis-free Herd" —

9 ^ • good for one year and renewable at the end of that time if all the

^* animals again pass the test.

i^J 230. Payment for losses. — The feature of this plan which

makes many owners hesitate to adopt it is the probable loss due to
the removal of reactors. It is possible to retain them by keeping
them entirely separate from the rest of the herd and this may be
done to advantage with animals in the early stages of the disease
and of special value for breeding purposes. However, many
problems of management arise here and all reactors should be
headed toward slaughter. Most owners want the reactors killed
at once and out of the way. To compensate for these losses, the
Federal Government pays a certain indemnity for each animal
slaughtered. Most of the states also pay a further indemnity, with
the result that unless the animals are especially valuable the owner
may actually lose little. The possible loss varies greatly in different
states according to the amount of indemnity provided. However,

THE CONTROL OF TUBERCULOSIS 149

no man who is making dairying a business can afford to hesitate
on this account, for over a period of ten years he will be money
ahead by cleaning up his herd even if his reactors are largely a
dead loss.

231. Area work. — We cannot go into details as to the actual
working of the accredited herd plan because it varies in different

Melba 15th of Darbalara

World's Champion Milking Shorthorn Cow. Yearly record 29,423 pounds
of milk, 1316 pounds of butter fat. Owned by Scottish-Australian Investment
Company, Gundagia, New South Wales, Australia.

states. Generally it is preferred to clean up by intensive campaigns
in small areas, such as counties or townships aiming at testing
every herd in the area, rather than by disconnected work all over
the state. The area system stimulates local interest and a clean
herd in a clean area has a better chance of remaining clean than
where surrounded by infected animals.

150 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

232. Owners must help. — The value of the area system is,
however, being overemphasized. It must be borne in mind that
the accredited herd plan is only a method of helping the owner
clean up and of giving him recognition when he has done it. No
plan, no matter how good or how well directed, will succeed unless
the owner has the desire and the ability to carry it out. Desire
which is stimulated by indemnities is not the kind that will result
in clean herds. Under the present accredited herd plan, which
places insufficient emphasis on the attitude and ability of the
owner, money is being paid to owners who never will clean up
their herds and keep them clean. This is a big objection to the
area plan. No area will remain clean except by the intelligent and
constant effort of every owner. The area plan may ignore owners
sufficiently interested and intelligent to make a clean-up successful,
because they are not in areas being worked, and waste time and
money on other owners, who have no qualifications except being
in the path of the projected clean-up. The idea of the accredited
herd plan is fine but its absolute dependence for success upon the
individual owner should be realized by everyone,- not only in clean-
ing up his own herd, but also in supporting the working out of the
plan in his state and locality.

233. The Tompkins County plan.— This is a modification
of the accredited herd plan being tried out in Tompkins County,
New York. One bad feature of the accredited herd plan is that
the testing must be done by a state or federal veterinarian or no
federal indemnity is received. Thus, the local veterinarian whose
services the dairyman prefers and who is entitled to do the work,
provided he is properly qualified, is discriminated against. To
overcome this objectionable feature there has been organized the
Tompkins County Accredited Herd Co-operative Association,
Inc., which has entered into an agreement with state and federal
authorities whereby the testing may be done by properly accredited
local veterinarians without loss of federal indemnity. This plan
localizes the responsibility of conduct and supervision. The work-
ing out of this plan should be watched with interest and if success-
ful should commend itself to other localities. Further details of the

THE CONTROL OF TUBERCULOSIS 151

plan can be obtained by writing the Bureau of Animal Industry,
Department of Farms and Markets, Albany, New York.

234. Should every owner test?— We have stressed the desir-
ability of eliminating tuberculosis and have stated in general
terms that a clean herd is an essential of profitable dairying. Now
that we have discussed the losses due to disease, described the
working of the accredited herd plan for cleaning up and indicated
the cost involved, let us face the question as to whether every
owner should plan to apply the tuberculin test and test his herd at
once. This is difficult to answer because conditions differ in
different states and areas and because each owner has his own
special problems, but we believe we will help our readers most if we
answer this question as definitely as we can. The owner of pure
bred cattle should by all means plan to test at once. Profit in the
pure bred business must rest in part on sales. No reliable public
sales will take other than tested animals. In fact, so many pure
bred owners are striving for clean herds that there is little market
for untested animals even at private sales. Animals cannot be
shipped out of the state unless tested. Thus, the purebred owner
must test or go out of business.

235. Testing the grade herd. — Where there is an opportunity
for a special market for milk from a clean herd it will be profitable
to test whether the animals are purebreds or grades. Where grades
are being raised for sale it is profitable to test. There are condi-
tions, however, where it may not be profitable to test a grade herd
now. Let us take an extreme case. Take a herd in an area which
has a high percentage of the disease and where indemnities are
low and slow in coming. To test the herd means to lose a large
part of it with no nearby place from which to buy tested cattle
and little money to buy them. Assuming that the milk is so dis-
posed of as to be pasteurized before being consumed, it is not a
menace to health, except possibly to the young members of a
farm family. The local veterinarian can be called upon to locate
an animal producing milk safe for the children. This can also be
done for the calves, or pasteurized skim milk can be used. There
are many owners of grade herds in these badly infected areas.

152 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

Their herds should, in general, be left until later when the area can
be cleaned up as a unit and when clean cattle are more available.

What we have said above in no way denies the principle that
everyone must be behind the clean herd program. The program
must be carried out as rapidly as public money is available and
owners can stand their share of the losses. Because of the tendency
of the disease to spread, and the losses in production incurred
with diseased animals, it certainly is true that the men who have
the will to do it should test their herds at once and get on a clean
basis.

236. How to proceed. — There are many other questions that
will arise in the mind of one desiring to clean up his herd. He will
want to know just how he should go about it, how soon the work
can be begun and how much it will cost. The answers to these
questions will differ according to the state and other conditions.
The owner desirous of cleaning up his herd, but in doubt how to
proceed, should consult his Farm Bureau Agent or State College
of Agriculture for information.

We can offer a few suggestions which may tend to keep the
disease from spreading in a herd while the owner is waiting for the
actual clean-up. In the first place, the chance of further infection
from without should be shut off by adding no animals to the herd,
unless they are tuberculin tested, and by avoiding the use of
skim milk from a creamery for feeding calves unless it is properly
pasteurized. The chances of the further spread of the disease
within the herd may be lessened by a separate manger for each
animal and individual drinking cups, and by seeing that every
cow has her own regular stall and avoiding the shifting of animals
around. These same precautions, coupled with the elimination of
any animals showing physical symptoms, are worth while for
every owner to follow even if he is not planning to have his herd
tested in the immediate future. But no one can hope to get rid of
tuberculosis except by the test method, and every dairyman
should look forward to having his herd cleaned up by the accredited
herd plan. It will pay him in the long run, even if the first cost
be high. The quicker it is done the smaller will be the losses.

THE CONTROL OF TUBERCULOSIS 153

237. Keeping the herd clean —The principal things that an
owner must do to keep his herd clean under the federal plan have
been mentioned. We want to emphasize here the importance of
following the regulations closely. The utmost care and vigilance
are necessary to prevent reinfection particularly in areas where
the disease is widespread. The greatest care should be exercised
in buying in animals. They should not be bought simply on the
basis of passing one tuberculin test but they should come either
from accredited herds or one should be sure that the test is reliable.
Showing at fairs should be limited to those where adequate sani-
taiy regulations safeguard against infection. The man who has a
tuberculosis-free herd will win back the losses he suffered in clean-
ing up only if he keeps it clean. A clean herd is an asset that will
increase in value from year to year. More and more, buyers will
demand that the animals they purchase shall come from accredited
herds and the selling price of such animals will increase.

238. Clean areas ideal. — Every owner of a clean herd should
be behind the accredited herd campaign and should urge his
neighbors to clean up. A clean area means less chance of rein-
fection and buyers are going to purchase in areas free from the
disease in preference to buying from clean herds surrounded by
the disease. The nation-wide campaign has progressed to the point
where certain areas are recognized as fairly free from tuberculosis
and others as widely infected. The latter areas will shortly find
little market for their cattle unless they clean up. Thus, every
owner of a clean herd should strongly support a campaign for
cleaning up his community and state.

CHAPTER XVII

ABORTION AND OTHER DISEASES INTERFERING
WITH BREEDING

It is estimated that abortion and related diseases are causing
more losses to dairy farming than is tuberculosis. The importance
of stopping these losses is, therefore, evident. Unfortunately,
the knowledge of how to do this is very incomplete at the present
time and we must state at the outset that no plan can be offered
which may be counted on to clean up abortion troubles in the
way that tuberculosis may be cleaned up. There are, however,
certain preventive measures that any breeder may use which
will decrease his losses, and it is these measures which we will
take up.

239. Definition of terms. — There is much confusion in the use
of terms in discussing breeding troubles and it is necessary to state
at the outset just what we mean by certain terms. Abortion is the
premature birth of a dead calf. The premature birth of a live
animal or the birth of a weak or dead calf at term are not abortions
strictly speaking, but they are related troubles which may have a
similar cause. Retained afterbirth commonly goes along with these
other troubles and sterility is a frequent result of them.

240. Causes of breeding troubles. — Occasionally accidents
may cause premature birth but this is not a very common cause.
Everyone agrees that abortion is generally due to an infection, but
whether this infection is due solely to a specific organism, B.
abortus, or whether a variety of infections may cause an inflam-
mation of the uterus and result in a premature birth are points
which are in debate. Lack of mineral matter in the ration has been
given as a cause of breeding troubles. In fact, many have been
led to believe through garbled reports of experimental work and
through statements of unscrupulous persons having mineral mix-
tures to sell that feeding the proper minerals will prevent and
cure abortion. This is untrue. No infectious disease can be cured

154

BREEDING TROUBLES 155

or entirely prevented by feeding, but the question of deeding can-
not be ignored in this connection.

241. How the diseases are spread.— It seems clear that
infection may gain entrance both through the feed and through
the genital organs and perhaps by other means. It is not known
what is the most common way. Experience indicates that an
entire herd may become infected by a bull having infected organs;
on the other hand, many infections have occurred where the bull
quite evidently had nothing to do with them. B. abortus, the
specific organism, has been found in the milk and in the dis-
charge from the vagina of cows that have aborted; thus, these are
sources of infection.

242. Preventive measures.— Since we know that abortion
and related troubles are due to an infection but are not sure as to
its source or method of spreading, the preventive measures must
be primarily those of general sanitation. Cows which abort or
calve prematurely and even those which calve normally may have
a discharge from the vagina which is dangerous to other animals.
Such a cow should be placed in a separate pen until the discharge
has ceased. A cow should be so isolated as soon as there is any
evidence that an abortion or premature birth is likely to occur.
If abortion takes place the foetus and afterbirth should be burned.
When a cow is removed from the separate pen after the discharge
has ceased, the bedding should be burned and the pen scrub-
bed and sprayed with a coal-tar disinfectant. This isolation
cannot be expected to stop all abortions, for others will occur
from cows already infected and cows may become infected
from some other source. Isolation simply shuts off one channel
of infection.

There is no point in keeping a cow that has aborted isolated
after the discharge has stopped. It is true that she may retain the
infection in her system, but there is little danger of the spread of
the disease merely from a cow being stabled next to one that has
aborted. Further, cows which are due to abort may be giving off
the infection in their milk and thus be a menace, but they cannot
be isolated because they are not recognized.

156 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

243. Infection in calves.— It is a good practice not to feed
milk from a cow, which has just aborted, to calves, since the specific
organism has been found in milk and since it may enter through
the digestive tract. However, this is only a partial safeguard
since cows which have not yet aborted may be infected and may
infect their milk.

244. Infection from bull. — Since infection is possible through
the bull, the question comes up as to what preventive measures
should be used with him. Here we are handicapped by lack of
knowledge. This method of infection is difficult to combat and
we do not know how big a factor it is and thus how much it is
worth while to try to do. Some douche the sheath of the bull
before and after each service. This could be done after instruction
from a veterinarian but we do not know whether it is worth while
or not. A periodic examination of the bull by a veterinarian would
help but we are not prepared to say that the danger of infection
is great enough from this source to justify the cost of the service.

This brings up the question of how far the breeder should go
in getting veterinary service in connection with abortion. This
depends on the value of the herd and the distance from the vet-
erinarian. We believe he can be of service in advising as to sani-
tary measures to be carried out, in examining the cows and bull,
in cleaning out the genital organs, etc., and that with the real
support and co-operation of the owner he can keep the herd reason-
ably free from the disease.

245. Liberal feeding a help. — Improper feeding cannot
cause an infection but it may put the animal in such a condition
as to be more susceptible to it. A properly fed animal will resist
infection where a poorly fed one will succumb. As regards repro-
duction troubles, experience seems to indicate that the liberal
feeding of heifers makes them less likely to abort. A cow which
depletes her reserves during a heavy and prolonged lactation
should reasonably be expected to stand the strain of calving
better if these reserves are built up during the dry period. This
consideration is being given particular attention at the present
time with respect to the feeding of minerals. Both experimental

BREEDING TROUBLES 157

work and practical experience indicate that a continued lack of
adequate mineral matter may increase breeding troubles. The
minerals which are important here are lime and phosphorus. The
evidence is not sufficient to say that a lack of these minerals is an
important cause of abortion, but we do believe that adequate
mineral nutrition should be considered along with the general
question of feeding to put the cow in the best possible condition
at calving time. (12, 13, 38, 89)

246. Retained afterbirth.— The afterbirth should normally
drop away in a few hours. Cows which abort are likely to retain
it. Only an experienced person should attempt its removal, for
if not properly removed and at the proper time, sterility is apt to
result. Sterility frequently follows retained afterbirth anyway,
but proper handling of the afterbirth will decrease the likelihood
of its occurrence. (17)

247. Sterility.— Sterility frequently follows the troubles pre-
viously mentioned. A variety of causes may prevent conception
or cause the early, unobserved expulsion of the foetus. Where an
animal fails to conceive, a veterinarian can sometimes correct the
trouble and his services should be enlisted if the cow is of sufficient
value; otherwise, get rid of her. Get rid of her anyway if the
veterinarian fails to correct the trouble.

248. Cutting down breeding losses.— In summary, we
believe every breeder can decrease his breeding troubles by thor-
ough sanitary measures. When an abortion takes place the foetus
and afterbirth should be immediately burned. Any cow which has
a discharge from the vagina, even if she has calves normally,
should be placed in a separate pen until the discharge has ceased.
When she is removed from the pen, it should be scrubbed and dis-
infected and the bedding burned. No milk from cows which have
recently aborted should be fed to calves. One should not buy an
animal which has just aborted nor purchase from a herd with a
high record of abortions. Finally, we believe that every breeder
that can possibly afford it should put his herd in the hands of a
competent veterinarian, for we do feel that the cost of the service
will be more than repaid in decreased losses.

CHAPTER XVIII
A FEW COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE

249. Garget. — This is a disease of the udder characterized by
inflammation and swelling and the production of stringy and some-
times bloody milk. It may occur at any time either during the
lactation or dry period. One or more* quarters may be affected.
Exposure to severe weather, lying with the udder on a cold floor,
bruises and overfeeding are the most frequent causes of garget.
An infection is probably always present in a gargety udder; thus
the trouble may be spread by the hands of the milker and in other
ways.

250. Treatment. — Mild cases of garget if promptly recognized
and treated can usually be cured by home measures. A physic such
as a pound of epsom salts should be given and the grain ration re-
duced by at least one- half. Follow the purgative by a tablespoon
of saltpeter each day for three days. It frequently helps to massage
the udder with lard, camphorated oil or some similar oil. The cow
should be milked regularly and frequently — perhaps as often as
every two hours. Catch the milk in a pail and throw it away out-
side the barn, rather than let it go on the floor and thus give the
infection a chance to spread. We advise against the use of a milk-
ing tube because of the danger of further infection. The animal
should be kept in warm dry quarters and her ration should be
laxative and light.

If the trouble does not respond to the above treatment in a day
or two, a veterinarian should be called. If the disease comes on
suddenly and the udder becomes hot and tender and no milk can
be drawn from it, it is best to call a veterinarian at once. These
severe cases are very likely to result in the loss of a quarter, or
perhaps the entire udder, for the rest of the lactation period, or
even permanently.

Good bedding will remove one cause of garget. Thorough
washing of the hands after milking a gargety teat is essential to

158

COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 159

prevent the spread of the infection to the other teats of the cow
and to the other cows of the herd. The inflammation of the udder
frequently occurring at calving is not the same thing as garget.
(16, 17, 18)

251. Bloat. — In this trouble the paunch fills up with* gas and
there is an excessive distention of the left side in front of and above
the flank. Bloat is caused by eating spoiled feed or too much
green feed, particularly when the cow is not used to it. The trouble
frequently occurs when cows are first turned out on legume pasture.
It may occur with any kind of feed. Mild cases of bloat may be
relieved by giving a good physic and keeping the animal's mouth
open so as to let the gas escape. If a piece of fork handle is tied in
the mouth as a bit, the cow chews the stick and gas comes up. If
a bloated animal is kept moving this stimulates the action of the
rumen and may help liberate the gas.

If none of the above remedies relieve the trouble it is necessary
to pierce the flank and let out the gas, for if bloat continues death
may result from suffocation or from rupture of the stomach. For
piercing the flank, special instruments, a trocar and cannula, are
needed, but a pocket knife may be used in an emergency. This is
a task for a veterinarian, unless one knows just how to do it.

252. Indigestion. — This trouble may result from a variety of
causes the most common of which are overeating, spoiled feed
and a sudden change in the ration. The first symptom is refusal
of food and frequently the cow stops chewing her cud. The manure
is usually abnormal, sometimes hard and dry, sometimes liquid.
In severe cases the bowels may refuse to move. Treatment con-
sists of giving one pound or one pound and a half of epsom salts,
or a quart or more of raw linseed oil. When the cow commences
to show appetite again a light palatable ration should be given.

253. Foot rot. — This trouble, also called foul foot, is an
infectious disease generally occurring between the toes. The first
symptom is lameness and there is a foul odor due to the discharge
of pus. Once foot rot is present in the herd it is difficult to get rid
of it, because the germs live in the mud around the barn. The
first treatment should be to make sure that the affected animal

160 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

has a dry place to stand in. This means a dry cattle yard. The
diseased hoof should be thoroughly cleaned, using a brush and
soap suds. Then it should be swabbed with a 20 per cent solu-
tion of creolin. The cleaning may be repeated. If the treat-
ment does not prove effective, veterinary assistance should be
obtained.

254. Prevention. — A very simple way to treat foot rot and pre-
vent its spread is to have all the animals walk through air-slaked
lime. Put a shallow box of lime just inside the stable door. Build
it as wide as the stable door and five or six feet long and four inches
deep. Put into it about three inches of loose air-slaked lime.
Stir the lime up each. day before the cows come into the stable.
This will help with foot troubles coming from muddy pastures.

255. Teat troubles. — Frequently the teats become sore. In
cold weather this may be due to chapping. To treat this, first wash
with warm water and castile soap, then rub on carbolated vaseline.
Sometimes the ends of the teats become sore due to an infection.
This soreness is very hard to get rid of. Our suggestion is to take
a 5 per cent solution of creolin in a basin and dip the ends of the
teats in it regularly after milking.

256. Lice. — Cattle are frequently infested with lice, particu-
larly in the winter season. Calves and young stock are most often
affected. Lice may be suspected where the animal is frequently
rubbing its neck and shoulders against posts, trees, etc. The hair
may come out in long-standing cases. Kerosene emulsion is an
excellent remedy. To make this emulsion, first dissolve one ounce
of ordinary soap in one pint of boiling soft water. Then add this
to one quart of kerosene. Place the mixture in a bottle or Mason
jar large enough so that the mixture can be well mixed by shaking.
Cork up the bottle and shake until a foamy emulsion is formed.
Finally, add nine quarts of water and apply with a spray gun or
brush. The hair of the animal must be thoroughly wetted. In
winter time, if the quarters are cold, one should hesitate about
following this procedure. An alternative is to brush crude oil
thoroughly into the coat. Whatever treatment is used it must be
repeated at least once after fourteen to sixteen days to kill lice

COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 161

which were in the egg stage during the first treatment and thus
unaffected.

257. Warbles. — Everyone is familiar with the lumps on the
cow's back caused by the warble fly, but few appreciate that these
lumps are just one phase of the effect of this fly. The warble or
heel fly lays its eggs on the heel. The eggs develop into grubs which
burrow into the skin and travel all through the body. After about
eight months they work up under the hide on the back and develop
further, producing irritation and pus formation, until they finally
emerge and drop off to change to mature flies and start the egg-lay-
ing process again. The grubs harm the animal all the time they
are in the body and hurt the value of the hide for leather. The
treatment consists of squeezing them out of the hide and killing
them so they will not develop into the egg-laying flies. If this
is done thoroughly for the entire herd, the pests can be got rid of.

258. Wire in feed. — So many cases of death in cattle occur
from the swallowing of wires and other sharp objects which later
pierce the heart, that it seems worth while to emphasize the need
of preventive measures. The wires of label tags on the feed bags,
wire bristles out of the cleaning brush, nails, screws, tacks and
many other sharp objects have caused death through heart punc-
ture. Of course the thing to be done is to be constantly on guard
against such objects getting into the hay or feed that the animal
eats.

259. Scours. — Both common and white scours have been dis-
cussed (63, 64) in connection with the rearing of calves.

CHAPTER XIX
THE DAIRY BARN AND OTHER BUILDINGS

More than anything else the dairy barn should be a place
where the cow will be comfortable and be able to do her best.
That production is greatest in the early summer on pasture is
partly due to the feed, but the ideal surroundings are also a
factor. There is an abundance of fresh air and sunlight and the
temperature is moderate. The animal is free to move and the
surroundings are clean and in every way comfortable. We should
reproduce these conditions in the barn as far as possible. Thus it
should be well lighted and ventilated, warm and clean. Space should
be provided so that the cows need not be stanchioned all the time.

260. Convenience. — The dairy buildings must be constructed
with an eye to the convenience of the dairyman so that he can do
his work as easily and quickly as possible. This calls for the proper
location of each building with respect to the other and the proper
arrangement within the dairy barn. How these things may be
realized is best indicated by describing a specific plan for a dairy
barn and related buildings. Such a plan is shown.

261. A suggested plan.— The plan on page 163 does not go
much into detail but serves to illustrate a type of layout which
provides for the cow's comfort at all times and saves many steps
for the dairyman. The plan is actually being worked out on an
eastern farm. It provides for a bank barn, with the bank on the
north side, but the bank does not extend more than one-half the
length, so that there will still be plenty of light in the basement
stable. A basement stable with light along one side only does not
allow sufficient window space, nor proper ventilation, unless a
special system is installed. Space for 20 cows in stanchions is
provided and there are several box stalls. There is also provision
for three horses.

The barn is 100 feet long and 34 feet wide. This gives a working
space inside 98x32. It is better in planning a new barn to build

162

DAIRY BARN AND OTHER BUILDINGS 163

36 feet wide. We give the plan of the smaller barn to show how
the space could be used in remodeling an old barn. We do not
think it worth while to show many elaborate plans. Each man
must work them out for himself. Start with the ideas we suggest

BOX STALLS

Floor Plan for Handy Dairy Barn

and then plan very, very carefully the modifications you want to
make suited to your own conditions. The dimensions we give
should be modified if necessary to suit your own farm.

262. The covered barnyard. — We are very firm advocates
of the covered barnyard. The plan suggested is one which one of
the authors is working out on a farm of which he is part owner.
He is buying an old barn and moving it to the farm to make this
covered yard and a run for young stock and a bull pen.

164 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

X

263. Arrangement of barns and yard. — The buildings other
than the barn proper are all arranged both with the idea of con-
venience and also of protecting the barnyard from winds. The
milk house, ice house and garage form the west side of the yard.
On the east is another barn with an open basement. The basement
is designed to furnish a shelter and feedirg place for young stock
and dry stock, since it is convenient to the silo and feed room.
The bull pen will go in this barn. Up over this basement or covered
barnyard is to be stored the hay for the young stock. Along the
north side of the covered barnyard is shown the feed alley for the
young stock. It is intended that the manure should go through
this alley into a manure pit on the east. Along this alley are to be
mangers in which the young stock are to receive their grain. It is
intended that they shall be tied up only a short time while they
are eating their grain and silage, with the idea that they will
have free access to hay in racks somewhere else in the covered
barnyard.

Two silos are shown. The smaller one will be used as a summer
silo.

264. The plan of management. — The open barnyard is very
well protected on the north, west and east sides. On pleasant days
the dairy cows can be turned out into the sun. If it is a little too
cold for the milking cows to go out into the open barnyard, the
3Toung stock running in the covered barnyard can be turned out
into the open barnyard and the milking cows put into the covered
barnyard for their exercise. This will enable the dairyman to
insure reasonable exercise for his cows every day and he can take
care of his young stock in the open barnyard with a minimum of
labor. This covered barnyard connected with the sheltered yard
and stable will insure the maximum of comfort with a minimum
of labor.

265. Care of the manure. — It is planned to build a manure
shed with pit at the east end of the feed alley shown in the covered
barnyard. Then the manure can go easily from both the stable
and the covered yard to this manure shed. We believe a manure
shed should be provided because it is seldom convenient to get out

DAIRY BARN AND OTHER BUILDINGS 165

the manure every day even though highly desirable. Hogs can
run on the manure in the manure shed and thus it will keep better.
It is desirable also for hogs to follow the young stock and dry
cows in the covered yard in the same way that hogs follow beef
cattle to clean up the grain wasted in the droppings.

266. Ventilation and light.— The plan gives no details of
construction. Proper ventilation must be provided. In very cold
weather it is difficult to secure the proper amount of ventilation
with windows alone without overdoing it. Ventilation which is
satisfactory in all temperatures requires some special construction.
A large flue opening from the ceiling and extending to the roof
takes out the foul air. Fresh air comes in by several smaller
openings. This system will work only where the barn is so tightly
constructed that the air cannot get in or out, except through the
flues provided. (272)

To provide adequate light there should be four square feet of
window glass per cow. The bottom of the window should be about
four feet from the floor and the window should extend to the ceiling.

267. Dampness. — To guard against dampness, the barn should
be located where there is good drainage and the floor should be so
constructed as to be impervious to moisture. A poorly drained
location means a muddy barnyard. This in turn means dirty
cows, more chance of foot rot and rheumatic troubles. An ideal
dry floor can be constructed by putting down a layer of concrete,
then a layer of tar paper and covering it with concrete two inches
thick. Do not finish the concrete smooth. Leave it rough so that
the cows will have a better foothold.

In the plan we have described, the barn has its long way from
east to west, with the side having full window space facing south,
to take full advantage of the sun. Where no part of the barn is
banked, it is preferable to have the long way from north to south
to allow the sun to get at both sides at some time during the day.

268. Facing the COWS. — It is always best to arrange the barn
to provide for a double row of cows. The question frequently
comes up whether the cows should face in or out. If a manure
carrier is used, it is better to have the cows face in, as it saves time

166

BETTER DAIRY FARMING

in feeding and causes no loss in cleaning. We show a suggested
plan for utilizing the space with a double row of cows in a barn
34 feet wide. In a 36-foot barn a wider feed alley and a wider
walk behind the cows will be available.

269. Build for essentials. — In building a barn one should put
his money into essentials only. Sometimes a farmer puts unnec-

Interior of Modern Dairy Barn. Good Type Manger.

essary money into a barn in a desire to have a good looking one,
perhaps a better one than his neighbors. The money should
be spent for the things that make for labor-saving and for per-
manence rather than for show. A barn will last as long as its roof
and foundations. Paint adds to the appearance but its importance
in adding to the life of the barn has been overemphasized. After
the essentials of housing have been provided, any extra money the
farmer may have should be invested in animals, not in showy
equipment. A good cow pays a dividend. An unnecessarily ex-
pensive barn means more outgo for taxes and upkeep.

DAIRY BARN AND OTHER BUILDINGS 167

270. Relate the barn to the farm.— There is one other thing
worth while to bear in mind in planning a new building. It should
be in keeping with the farm. One should not build an expensive
barn on a cheap farm, nor a larger barn than the amount and
quality of the land justifies. Money so spent will by no means be
realized when the farm is sold. Even if it remains in the family,
the money invested in buildings out of proportion to the value of
the farm represents an over-capitalization which will give no
return.

271. Remodeling old buildings.— The plan previously de-
scribed represents what could be done if an entire set of dairy

Cross Section of Stable Showing Plan for Cement Work

buildings were to be built. Of course, the building problem that
most face is one of remodeling or enlarging the dairy barn, or
adding some unit such as a silo or milk house. In rearranging or
adding to the farm buildings, a careful plan should be worked out
looking towards convenience and labor saving. In the past farm
buildings have been put up at different times, usually without
any definite plan. The farmer cannot tear down his buildings and
start over but he can go over his layout to see if there are not some
changes which can be made sufficiently cheap to be justified in
terms of labor saved. Further, he can work out a careful plan with
respect to any building or remodeling he may do in the future, so
that any further construction may correct, in so far as possible, the
mistakes of previous haphazard building.

272. Aids to building. — The strongest suggestion we can
make is to build on paper before doing anything else. The manu-
facturers of barn equipment are very willing to help any farmer

168 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

with his building problems. Consult them and get their adver-
tising booklets. The illustrations will help and give many useful
ideas. These companies maintain competent engineers who will
furnish plans for new buildings or for the rearrangement of old
ones. The cost of this service is very small compared with the
help that can be obtained. The best known companies are the
James Manufacturing Company, Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin, or
Elmira, New York; the Louden Machinery Company, Fairfield,
Iowa, or Albany, New York; or Hunt, Helm, Ferris & Company,
Harvard, Illinois, or Albany, New York.

Most of the agricultural colleges of the various states have
agricultural engineering departments in which the problems of
farm buildings are treated. We have tried all through our discus-
sions to interest our readers in utilizing these public agencies,
namely, their farm bureau agents and their colleges of agriculture.
Right here is an opportunity to get very definite help. One or two
little suggestions from an engineer may be worth a great deal to a
farmer planning to build. Again, be sure to build on paper first
by drawing and studying plans.

CHAPTER XX
HOW TO PRODUCE CLEAN MILK

MILKING MACHINES

Clean milk can be produced if just two things are borne in mind
in the operations connected with it. These two things are cleanli-
ness and coldness. Cleanliness means a clean cow, clean utensils
and a clean dairyman. The practical question is as to just what
things must be done to get this necessary cleanliness. Entirely
satisfactory milk can be produced by paying attention to a few
essentials that need not entail much extra expense or labor.

273. First, a clean cow. — The first essential is a clean cow.
This means a healthy cow. Milk from tubercular animals or those
with udder troubles is dangerous. Then the cow must be clean on
the outside to keep dirt and manure from getting into the milk.
Many think of this as meaning lots of washing and grooming but
these processes can be reduced to a minimum if care is taken to
keep the cow from becoming covered with manure and dirt in the
first place. This means good bedding and keeping the stable clean.
Then, by brushing the cow daily to remove loose dirt and hairs,
giving especial attention to the region of the udder, a satisfac-
torily clean cow will result. It will also help to sponge off the
udder and teats with clean water. A small-topped milk pail is the
simplest way to keep the dirt out.

274. Clean utensils. — Pails, strainers and other utensils
should be first cleaned with warm soap and water, using a brush.
Be sure to get into the cracks along the seams and elsewhere.
The utensils should next be rinsed and then scalded with boiling
water. Heating in steam is better if it is available. The object of
this thorough cleaning is to kill the bacteria, which will multiply
rapidly as soon as warm milk is put in the utensils. The scalding
is the most important part of the cleaning process. Hanging the
utensils in the sun to dry will also help a lot. It is better to let the

169 i

170 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

utensils dry by themselves than to wipe them out. Finally, do not
forget to wash the brush used in scrubbing the pails.

275. A clean farmer. — The dairyman himself must be clean
— he must have clean clothes and clean hands. The overalls worn
by the milker do not need to be white but they should be different
from those bearing the accumulated dirt of the farm and they
should be washed frequently. The next thing is clean, dry hands.
There should be soap and water and a towel at a convenient place.
Milk should not be handled by anyone suffering from a contagious
disease.

276. Cool the milk at once. — Keeping the milk clean as we
have outlined above keeps most of the bacteria out. But the
few that do get in can multiply rapidly and the next essential is
to cool the milk at once and keep it cool to keep down the bacteria
as much as possible, for the product is graded with respect to
cleanliness by counting the bacteria in it. Effective cooling means
bringing the milk to 50° F. or lower within an hour after it is drawn.
There is no question but that cooling the milk to near its freezing
point is better but it is expensive. The best way to cool the milk
down quickly is to run it over a cooler in which cold water also
circulates. Many such coolers are on the market. Ice water is
preferable to use for this cooling but many farmers pump well
water through the cooler with satisfactory results. Sometimes the
water as it comes from the cooler is run into the watering trough.

277. The milk tank. — Next to the use of a cooler through
which water circulates, the best method of cooling is to set the
cans in a tank of ice water and stir the milk frequently. This
method requires the least labor and equipment and is perhaps the
most practical for the average dairyman. Once the milk is cooled
it must be kept so until it is consumed, for cold does not kill the
bacteria and they will become active if the milk gets warm again.
Thus milk which has been run through a cooler should be kept in
a tank of cold water thereafter.

There are other things sometimes emphasized in producing
clean milk — avoiding dust in the air at milking time, having the
barn floors and ceilings tight, etc. Dust does add dirt to the milk

HOW TO PRODUCE CLEAN MILK 171

but this is of very small importance compared to the dirt that
gets in from the dirty cow or from the milker who is careless as to
his personal habits.

278. Flavors and odors.— Garlic is particularly apt to give
milk a bad flavor if eaten in any quantity. Large quantities of
cabbage or turnips may do it. Sometimes it is something else
which the animals have eaten in the pasture. Milk will absorb
odors and sometimes it gets contaminated while standing in the
barn. Spraying the cows immediately before milking is occasion-
ally responsible. Where tainted milk occurs the farmer must
check up on what his animals are eating and the other possibilities
in an endeavor to locate the trouble. To guard against flavors and
odors getting into the milk after it is drawn, the milk should be
removed from the stable at once. It will help to have the milk-
room separated from the barn by a passage so that the milkroom
itself will always be clean and free from barn odors.

Feeds that might flavor the milk through the cow should be
fed only and at once after milking. The flavor will then not get
into the milk. Cows may be pastured on wild onion or garlic
infested pastures if they can be removed from such a pasture four
hours before milking.

279. Milking machines.— With the increasing difficulty of
getting men who like to milk, or those that will do a thorough
job, many owners of good-sized herds are wondering whether they
should install a milking machine. Many factors are to be con-
sidered, and perhaps we can help a man make a decision by
pointing out some of the things that have been found out about
milking machines by those who have used them.

280. Labor saved by machine. — In the first place, does a
milking machine save labor? Mr. H. E. Babcock gave a direct
answer to this question in the Jan. 27, 1923, number of the "Ameri-
can Agriculturist." In summarizing the experience on one of his
own farms he wrote: " Based on our experience to date, it would
seem that one man using a milking machine can milk and care for
eighteen cows three times a day about as comfortably as he can
milk nine head by hand.*' Others have given similar evidence.

172 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

281. Yield is maintained. — How does the use of a milking
machine affect the yield? Experience indicates that where cows
are stripped by hand after machine milking, as they always should
be, no decrease in yield is, in general, evident. Of course, some
cows do not take kindly to the machine and sometimes cows
shrink prematurely with machine milking. These instances are
not common. A larger question deals with the quality of the milk
— whether as clean milk can be produced by a machine. The
answer is, "yes, with proper care." The care is a question of
properly cleaning and sterilizing the machine after use. Some
very satisfactory methods of doing this have been worked out at
the New York State Experiment Station at Geneva, New York,
from which the exact details can be obtained. We know of cases
where certified milk has been produced with milking machines,
following the Geneva methods as to care.

282. Machines save money. — The relative cost of machine
and hand milking is another very important question. Bulletin
241 of the Illinois Experiment Station, published in 1923, fur-
nishes an exact and up-to-date answer to this question. By a
survey of some sixty farms it was found that the average annual
saving in expense resulting from the use of milking machines was
$3.23 per cow in herds of less than 25 cows, and $5.70 in herds of
over 25 cows. These differences are based on a labor rate of 17.5
cents per hour. For higher rates, the advantage would be more in
favor of the machine.

283. Milking machines not complicated. — It is generally
accepted that the milking machine has been perfected so that it is
mechanically satisfactory. It will give no more trouble than the
more common pieces of machinery used on the dairy farm. Users
are also in fair agreement that the use of the machine does not
harm the cow in any way, provided she is stripped by hand to
avoid udder troubles.

284. Keeping individual records. — One drawback to the use
of the milking machine is that it prevents the keeping of individual
production records. Such records are desirable for proper feeding
and for keeping tab on whether a cow is a profitable producer. The

HOW TO PRODUCE CLEAN MILK 173

only way to get around this difficulty is to milk each cow by hand
at frequent intervals, say once a month. Of course, this means
extra work and many will not do it. Thus, the use of the milking
machine is objectionable because it is wholesale milking. Interest
is lost in the individual animal because the owner does not know
what she is doing.

We have covered the common questions about milking machines.
In herds of twenty cows or more, it would seem to be economical
on a cost basis. We believe that most dairymen will find the milk-
ing machine satisfactory.

285. A special market. — The dairymen who are apparently
making the most money are those who are marketing their milk
direct to consumers at a high price. Good, clean, cold milk is
worth fifteen cents or more per quart and cannot be manufactured
and sold in bottles for less and yield a reasonable profit. There are
thousands of families in a thousand towns that want clean milk
and they are glad to pay fifteen cents a quart for it delivered to
them cold in bottles. These special markets can be developed in
almost any town of 5000 people or more by dairymen who will go
after their customers and give them clean milk. (39)

286. Four per cent milk wanted. — The milk should be
guaranteed at least four per cent butter fat and if the cows do not
produce this kind of milk it should be standardized to this per
cent by separating some of the milk, using the skimmed milk for
feeding calves and pigs and using the cream to bring the balance
of the milk to four per cent. It is probable that one will do better
in developing a special retail market to choose one of the breeds
that will produce a milk testing four per cent or better. Then
advertise and push that milk.

287. Ten thousand bacteria the limit. — In developing a
special market, cleanliness is all-important. The clean cow, the
clean utensils, the clean stable, the clean wagon, the clean man,
and most of all it is the attitude of the man doing the work which
keeps the bacteria count down and the milk cold. Clean milk
must be delivered with a bacteria count of less than 10,000 to
command the price that will make a profit.

174 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

288. Milk must be uniform in quality. — The milk must be
the same in quality every day. This is not hard if it is watched at
all points. Two fundamental things are true. The milk is clean
in the udder and it will keep clean if the dirt is kept out and the
milk is kept cold. Keep the dirt out, as it cannot be strained
out if once it gets in, and cool the milk at once and keep it cold.
If this is done with clean utensils the bacteria count will be low.

289. Advertise. — When you once know that you have a clean,
uniform product, advertise that milk at a good price and you will
get the trade. Invite the doctors, teachers, ministers, and mothers
to visit your farm and show that you have a clean place, clean
cows, clean helpand clean milk. They will all tell their neigh-
bors. Not all of us can have a special market, but more can
have one than have one now by just knowing the meaning of
the word " clean."

CHAPTER XXI

BUYING AND SELLING DAIRY CATTLE
FITTING FOR SALE AND SHOW

Grade Cattle

We should figure our income principally on the receipts from the
milk produced by our cows every day. That should really be the
foundation of our business. Therefore, the utmost attention must
be paid to feeding, breeding, care and handling of our herds. How-
ever, the buying and selling of cows will always be a big factor in
the money success of the dairy farmer.

290. Buying grade cows. — When we go to buy cows we should
look for size, evidences of production, and a good amount of flesh.
It is always a good thing to buy some feed along with a springer.
If she is too thin she will not carry through in her next lactation
to the best advantage. The lesser price at which the thin cow can
be bought will not pay for the feed that will be necessary to put
her back into condition to do the best at the pail.

291. Disease. — Find out if you can the health history of the
herd from which you buy cows. Buy only tuberculin tested animals.
Buy only from herds that are free from abortion. It is a big job
to find herds that are as clean as we suggest, but it will pay to look
further and pay a little more to get this kind of stock. Because if
we are to carry out our plans and breed these cows, they must be
clean when we get them. If we buy springers and are going to save
their heifer calves, we must get cows that are bred to good pure
bred bulls.

Wisconsin probably sells more grade cattle than any other state
in the Union. Professor G. C. Humphrey and A. O. Collentine, in
a circular published in October, 1922, summarize what good buyers
demand.

292. Dairy cattle market demands. — " Buyers demand cer-
tain standard conditions that will enable them to buy most con-

175

176 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

veniently and successfully the cattle they wish to obtain. The
most important of these are:

" Communities or counties that are organized and producing a
large number of cattle of a given dairy breed. This condition
enables buyers to secure their 'pick' quickly, with little travel,
and to load and to ship from a single shipping point at the least
expense in time, trouble and money.

" Community breeders' associations for the improvement of
dairy cattle have been growing in Wisconsin since 1906. They
have been the means of securing united effort by a large number of
farmers within their territories on the breeding of high grade and
pure bred dairy cattle and in serving buyers in the most advan-
tageous manner. Some of these associations have reached a
development where the secretary or some member devotes his
entire time to promoting the interests of the association and wait-
ing on buyers.

293. Animals that are well-bred and well-developed are
wanted. — "Two questions are invariably asked, 'Are the cattle
sired by a pure bred dairy sire? ' and, where animals are of breeding
age, 'Are they bred to a pure bred sire?' Nearly all of the buyers
who come to Wisconsin to make purchases are either judges of
cattle or are accompanied by a county agricultural agent or a dairy
specialist capable of exercising good judgment in making selections.
Experience has taught, or is fast teaching, farmers that the best
cattle are the most profitable for them to select for foundation
stock and milk-producing herds. A common remark made by
buyers is : l If I can only take back this first car of the right kind
the farmers of my community will be in the market for many more
carloads. If they can see but once the value of a real cow they will
convince their neighbors of the importance of securing good cows. '

294. Cattle of known production are in demand at a
premium. — "Cows with known and creditable production, or
the offspring of such cows, are always in demand at highest prices.
Cow-testing associations enable many farmers in Wisconsin to
know records of their grade cows and to secure from $10 to $25
more a head for production record cows than buyers are willing

BUYING AND SELLING DAIRY CATTLE

177

to pay for untested cows. For several years Wisconsin has estab-
lished a 'Register of Production' for ' a-pound-a-day ' cows,
those that make a cow-testing association record of 365 pounds or
more of butter fat in a year. This register is helpful in locating
herds and cows with creditable records of performance made in
cow-testing associations. There are 110 active cow-testing associa-
tions in Wisconsin with a membership of 3,200 members having

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Guernsey Cows at Pasture

54,661 cows on test. Buyers seeking pure bred cattle demand
the offspring of those having official or semi-official records. Such
animals command a much quicker sale at much higher prices than
purebreds without such records. Testing for official or semi-
official records of pure bred cattle is becoming a more common
practice in Wisconsin each year.

295. Only cattle free from disease are wanted. — "It is not
only desirable for buyers to purchase cattle free from tuberculosis

178 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

in order to establish clean herds, but it is necessary for them to
secure such cattle, owing to health certificates that must be fur-
nished before cattle can be shipped to most of the states. Wis-
consin breeders are able to furnish buyers with animals free from
disease. For several years a campaign to eradicate disease has
been carried on, and Wisconsin has been one of the leaders in
tuberculin testing. There are more federal-state accredited herds
and more herds under supervision in Wisconsin than in any other
state in the United States. Large areas have tested all animals,
which fact lessens possible chances of infection and makes it
possible to buy stock generally free from disease.

296. Buyers from out of the state naturally prefer to go
to counties having a county agent. — ''Practically all of the
purchasers coming to Wisconsin to buy cattle are instructed or
accompanied by their own county agent or dairy specialist. These
men recognize the Wisconsin county agricultural agent and realize
that he is familiar with the cattle of his county ; county agents take
particular pride and interest in having buyers secure the kind of
cattle that will be of lasting credit to the county in which they are
purchased and become a standing advertisement for future busi-
ness. With the aid of the agent who is familiar with his county,
buyers save much time and inconvenience in making purchases.
In the encouragement and assistance that county agricultural
agents can give to the breeding and selling of dairy cattle they are
of great service in giving the state its deserved reputation."

Pure Bred Cattle

At the time when this book is being written (1923) it is surely
a seed time for the pure bred cattle business. Pure bred cattle are
relatively low in price. The harvest is coming in the next ten years.
The world is not always going to be upset. As the world settles
down and foreign markets develop, the pure bred cattle market
will improve.

297. Buying pure bred cattle. — We had the pleasure of buy-
ing the bred Guernsey heifer, Aurora of Willow Lane, 120016,
for a friend at the Wisconsin State Sale of Guernseys in March,

BUYING AND SELLING DAIRY CATTLE

179

AURORA OF WILLOW LANE

Born February 28, 1921
Owned by American Milling Co., Peoria, 111.

Imp. Flora's Sequel II of Le
Briquet No. 61807

This bull has an exceptionally
good pedigree. He is backed by
some of the best breeding. His
dam is by the only bull of the
breed to have over 100 A. R.
daughters.

His sire's dam has a record of
783.10 lb. B. Fat, which was
made on Island of Guernsey and
she was a wonderful show cow.

His dam's dam is by Golden
N'oble II (1836 P S) A. R.

Sire of 29 A. R. daughters in-
cluding several with records over
700 lb. B. Fat.

Valentine's Honor of the
Passee (R G A S 3784 P S)
6 A. R. daughters including:

Imp. La Belle Valentine A. R.

9333
Milk 10722.90 lb. Fat 552.28

lb.

Imp. Valentine II of Carteret
Milk 9789. 10 lb. Fat 550.79 lb.

Imp. Flora of Edgemoor

No. 94252

Milk 11035.70 lb. Fat 530.30
lb. at 2 yrs.

Dam of Imp. Lady Flora II-
of the Briquet

Milk 6517.50 lb. Fat 349.19 lb.

Honoria's Sequel II

(2816 P S)

King's Cup, 1913.

14 A. R. daughters including:
Imp. Sylph's Milkmaid of Alba-
mont

Milk 13699.0 lb. Fat 647.0 lb.

Valentine III (7514 P S)

(Island A. R. 75)

Milk 15477.751b. Fat 783.101b.
1st prize, Champion and
Challenge Cups, Whit, 1915.
King's Cup, 1915.

Governor of the Chene

(1297 P S)

109 A. R. daughters including:
Imp. Loulou's Maid A. R. 5412

Milk 12191.40 lb. Fat 730.80
lb.
Imp. Bon Espoir XII A. R. 2738

Milk 15918.90 lb. Fat 713.30
lb.

Flora II of Le Briquet

(R G A S 8724 P S)

Milk 11429.20 lb. Fat 573.56 lb.

Imp. Marie II of Quesnard

No. 94241

A. R. 11131
Milk 7512.30 lb Fat 416.80 lb.

Class CC.

Emperor of Quesnard
(R G A S 194 P S)

Sire of Imp. Wild Rose of
Grand Rue

Milk 8012.70 lb. Fat 337.55 lb.
Imp. Marie II of Quesnard

Milk 7512.301b. Fat 416.80 lb.
Lady Bird of La Siegneurie

Milk 7221.32 lb. Fat 414.3 lb.

Umpire of Quesnard

(R A A S 73 F S)

Sire of Imp. Cypress of Sar-
nia A. R. 5648

Milk 8969.60 lb. Fat 423.48 lb.

Marie of Quesnard

(R A A S 1098 P S)

Dam of Imp. Marie of Ques-
nard A. R. 11131
Milk 7512.30 lb. Fat 416.80 lb.

Daisy of Quesnard

R A AS 198GP S

Conqueror

(R A A S 72 P S)

6 A. R. daughters including:
Imp. Lucy of theCourtils A.R.
1996

Milk 9709.30 lb. Fat 526.40 lb.
Imp. Duchesse of Chateau
a l'etocq A. R. 2408

Milk 10249.50 lb. Fat 524.40
lb.

Betsey of Quesnard

(RAAS568FS)

180 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

1923. Her pedigree is given on page 179 to illustrate what could be
purchased at this time in the way of breeding in a very nice,
straight heifer for $270. Her pedigree is well balanced along the
lines illustrated in Chapter XV. One outstanding fact in her case
was the fact that she was bred and safe in calf to Cinderella's King
of Mound City, 40476, whose dam has a yearly record of 909 pounds
of fat at six years. Therefore, a calf from this heifer, bull or heifer,
will have a sire whose dam is a 909-pound cow. This illustrates
some of the things to look for in buying purebreds along with
individuality.

298. Advertising. — When owning purebreds it is well to have
them of families that are being widely advertised. Then it pays to
show all we can at fairs. Enough prize money can be won with
good individuals practically to pay expenses, and inquiries for
stock and sales made later will justify the adventure from every
standpoint. It is a good thing to line one's animals up against a
neighbor's for an impartial judgment and find out where one
stands.

299. Fitting for show and for sale. — When selecting dairy
animals for show they should have good size for their age. Straight
top lines, good middles and clean-cut features in general are im-
portant. The females should have good udder development. The
size, shape and quality of udder must be right. Well-placed teats
are important. Cows just fresh or about to freshen show to ad-
vantage.

R. S. Hulce, Associate Professor of Animal Husbandry at the
University of Wisconsin and a judge of dairy cattle of national
reputation, teaches his students the following in regard to fitting
daily cattle for show and for sale:

300. The fitting ration. — "A good fitting ration might con-
sist of equal parts by weight of wheat bran, ground oats, hominy
and oil meal. Bran and oats tend to lighten the ration and give
variety; the hominy puts on soft flesh and the oil meal helps to
condition the animal and put on a sleek coat. Good clover or
alfalfa hay and corn silage are important. The silage, however,
should be discontinued some time before the animals leave home,

BUYING AND SELLING DAIRY CATTLE 181

so that they will be receiving the same feeds that are to be fed
while at the fair.

301. Blanketing and clipping.— " Each animal should be
stabled and blanketed several weeks before the date for showing.
The animals may be clipped or the long hair may be worked out
by brushing the body with coarse sand paper tacked to a block
for convenience in handling.

"The purposes of blanketing are to:

(1) Keep the animal clean;

(2) Sweat the hide and better its handling qualities;

(3) Help shed old hair and make the rest lay to the body.
"To aid in putting the skin and hair in condition, wash a few

times with green or castile soap and water. Rub the hide well with
a mixture of equal parts of sweet oil, soap liniment and alcohol. A
mixture of goose grease and sweet oil is also very good. These mix-
tures not only improve the quality of skin, but add a gloss to the
hair and give the body a very clean appearance. The mixtures
mentioned should not be applied to white hair on an animal later
than four or five days before showing because of coloration. For
grooming, a soft brush is advisable. Avoid the use of a curry
comb except for the purpose of removing dirt that clings tightly.

302. Horns and hoofs. — "The horns must receive attention.
Scrape down the rough portions by the use of a file. The edge of
a broken piece of glass is sometimes used after filing. Be careful
not to make the skin sore at the base of the horns. When the horns
have been worked down nicely, rub them with emery cloth to put
on a smooth surface. For polishing, fix up a paste using sweet oil,
powdered pumice stone or tripoli and add a little alcohol. Apply
this paste mixture to the horn and rub with a woolen cloth. If
the horns have been put in good condition before leaving home,
polishing will be all that is necessary at the fair. The hoofs may be
trimmed by use of pinchers followed by a rasp.

"It is necessary to do some clipping just previous to showing.
This will include the tail above the switch and usually the ears
and portions of the head or face and the belly. In the case of
females, the udder should be clipped.

182 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

303. Training for the ring.— "A point often overlooked is
that of breaking the animal to lead and to stand properly. If the
efforts of the attendant are taken up in dragging and pushing an
entry about, many of the good points which the animal might
otherwise show are concealed. An exhibitor should have just one
thought in mind while showing in the ring, and that is to give his
entry every possible chance to show at an advantage. By this is
meant that when his animal stands its feet are properly placed,
back straight, and head alert. Any movement either on the part
of the attendant or the animal should be as graceful as possible.
A good animal poorly shown does not always get its just dues.
'Keep one eye on the judge and the other on the animal/ is the
advice of experienced showmen. Until the ribbons are placed a
good showman takes no chances of his animal slumping or going
to sleep.

"Two or more breeders who feel that each individually does not
have a sufficient number of animals that they wish to enter may
well go together and put on a combination exhibit. This plan,
carried out on a more comprehensive scale, may be made an
excellent advertisement for a community or county association."

304. Fitting for private sale. — All the points covered so far
for getting animals ready for the fair or the sales ring apply at
home in the barn, if we are selling regularly our surplus stock at
private sale. Appearances play a big part in the sale value of any
herd. A buyer makes up his mind often when he first steps into
the barn. He cannot help it. Therefore, keep the herd arranged
properly in the barn to make a good show. Properly stabled they
will appear uniform in size. The larger ones should be where they
can be seen first. If the udders and tails and coarse hair on any
part of the body are kept clipped off, much will be added to the
appearance of the herd. Besides, it will be more pleasant to milk
and the milk will be cleaner. Keep the switches washed and
brushed out. This dressing up of the herd will add dollars to the
selling price. We do not sell cows just "to get rid of them."
Good salesmanship pays on the farm just as well as anywhere else,
and is accomplished by attention to details.

CHAPTER XXII
HERD IMPROVEMENT

Keeping records of individual production is essential to profit-
able dairying. Not only are such records essential for economical
feeding but also for eliminating from the herd the cows that are not
producing enough to pay for their feed. It has been repeatedly
shown that in herds where no records are kept, 25 per cent to 50
per cent of the animals are not producing enough milk to pay for
their feed and care. They are an actual loss to the farmer every
day he keeps them, yet such animals may stay in the herd for
years. It is a surprising thing that such animals are found even
in herds which as a whole are showing a good profit. This is
because even the observing and experienced dairyman will fre-
quently fail to discriminate between a profitable and unprofitable
animal, unless he has some record of their production.

305. Production records. — Many farmers do not keep any
production records because of the trouble and expense. It is a lot
more expensive to keep several animals at a loss. The dairyman
who will keep such records and act on them to get rid of his poor
producers will save the cost many times over.

The records that are needed are the amount of milk produced,
its fat content and the amount of feed eaten. From these records
the dairyman can tell whether a given cow produced milk of
sufficient value to pay for her feed and give him a fair return for
hfs labor. These records may be kept by the dairyman himself or
through some organization like a cow-testing association.

It will be easier to explain how these records are kept by first
showing how it is done in an association.

306. Cow-testing associations. — A cow-testing association is
made up of a group of farmers who employ an agent to make tests
and keep records for them. This man visits each herd at least once
a month, makes a record of the day's milk produced by each cow
and determines its fat content. From these figures the amount of

183

184 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

milk produced during the month and its value are computed.
The tester also observes what the farmer is feeding and weighs
the day's feed, both grain and roughage. A good dairyman can
give the tester a pretty good idea of how the amount fed on that
day corresponds to what the cow has been getting during the
month. The amount of feed for the month is thus estimated and
its value computed. All of these figures are entered in a book

Lily of Willowmoor 22269
Record Ayrshire cow for butter fat. Yearly record 22,596 pounds of milk,
955.56 pounds of butter fat. Owned by Gossard Breeding Estates, Martins-
ville, Ind.

which the farmer keeps in his possession. There he can see just
what each cow produced during the month and compare the value
of the product with the cost of the feed. Thus he learns what
animals are not paying their way and discovers what ones are the
best producers. The associations may be organized somewhat
differently in different states. It costs about $40 a year to belong
to an association in New York State.

HERD IMPROVEMENT 185

Of course, a farmer cannot join a cow-testing association unless
there is one in his neighborhood, or unless he can persuade sufficient
of his neighbors to form one. On the other hand, there is nothing
that the expert employed by an association does that a dairyman
cannot do for himself if he will. In fact, he can have more com-
plete and more accurate methods thereby, and there are other
advantages that will be mentioned.

307. Weighing the milk.— To get a record of the amount of
milk, all that is required is a spring balance. Many milk scales
are on the market which have two indicators, one of which can be
set according to the weight of the pail, making it possible to read
the weight of the milk directly. Such a balance will cost about $5.
Where a farmer has his own balance he can weigh his milk oftener
than once a month as is done in an association, and thus have a
more accurate record of production. He should do it at least once
a week and preferably at each milking. It is not much trouble to
hang the pail on the balance at the end of the milking and record
the weight of milk on a record sheet tacked up in a convenient
place. In fact, many members of cow-testing associations weigh
their milk frequently during the month and turn the figures over
to the tester when he comes around, thus enabling him to make
more accurate calculations.

308. Testing the milk.— The determination of fat requires a
special apparatus, — the Babcock tester. The cost of such a tester
will depend on its size — that is, on the number of samples of milk
that can be tested at once. For a herd of 15 cows, a tester holding
eight samples is a satisfactory size. Such a tester complete with
necessary glassware will cost around $18. A run with such a tester
can be made in an hour. Two runs would take care of the 15
cows. A careful test once a month will give a fair idea of the fat
content.

309. Keeping the records. — To keep a record of the feed
there should be a sheet on which there can be recorded just what
each cow is getting at the start — say, the first of the month. Then
all that is required is to make a record when the feed is changed,
which will not be often. Even if the farmer makes no change he

186 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

should check up on the weights of the feed occasionally to make
sure that he is actually feeding what he thinks he is.

The calculation of the value of the milk and the cost of the feed
will require some arithmetic. In fact, the dairyman who starts
to keep his own records should have more detailed directions than
we have space to give him here. His Farm Bureau Agent will be
glad to help him get started or put him in touch with some other
farmer who has had experience.

The man who keeps his own records will get more benefit from
them than where they are kept through an association. He will
gain a better knowledge of his animals and after taking the trouble
to get the records he will be sure to make the maximum use of
them in improving his herd. Unfortunately, few dairymen will go
to the necessary trouble. Either they think the process is too
complicated to try, or else they start but do not stick at it. Thus,
most of the records are actually kept through cow-testing associa-
tions, where the figures are all set down in a book, so the farmer can
see at a glance just what should be done to improve the herd. Un-
fortunately, some farmers fail to open the book.

310. Dairy improvement clubs. — There was recently de-
veloped in Wisconsin a plan for general herd improvement through
organizations called "Neighborhood Breed Clubs"; somewhat
similar organizations have been started in New York State under
the name of Dairy Improvement Clubs. These organizations are
in their infancy and one cannot predict how successful they will be
or how they may be changed. In these clubs as organized in New
York State, a group of farmers weigh their own milk, keep their
own feed records and have their milk tested for fat at intervals
of three or four months at a local creamery. Once in two months
the farmers bring their records to a group meeting where a repre-
sentative of the State College goes over the records with them and
makes recommendations. Under this plan there is a group stimulus
to urge the farmer to keep his own records. The method of keeping
them and of making the necessary calculations is explained to him.
He receives specific recommendations from an expert as to how to
improve his herd on the basis of his records. Further, he has a

HERD IMPROVEMENT 187

chance to hear his neighbors' problems discussed and thus in-
creases his knowledge as to the general business of dairying. It
will be interesting to watch the development of this plan which
seems to have much in its favor.

311. Herd improvement.— We have discussed the different
methods of keeping records of milk produced and feed consumed.
Now, we want to point out just what value these records have and
how they may be used to improve the herd and make it more
profitable.

The first thing the records tell is what cows are not paying for
their feed. Obviously these cows should be disposed of at once.
Next, the dairyman will know just how much each of the rest of
his cows is paying for his labor, interest on his investments, etc.
When these things are taken into consideration, the value of the
product should be at least twice the value of the feed to justify
keeping the cow, except under special conditions as will be men-
tioned later. Thus, the records show what cows should be sold and
what ones should be kept.

312. Weeding out poor producers.— The question arises as
to what period of time the records should cover to justify a de-
cision to get rid of a cow. Many factors enter in here. For an old
cow a month's record may be sufficient to condemn her; on the
other hand, a younger animal should be given a much longer test.
A cow may give a very poor yield following an abortion, yet recover
her production in a succeeding lactation. Certainly an animal with
a good previous record should not be discarded on the basis of her
production following an abortion. Again, a cow with a good record
may lose a quarter and thus become a poor producer and yet
warrant retention in the herd because of the possible value of her
calves. The idea which should constantly be borne in mind is to
get rid of the lower producers year by year and thus continually
raise the standard of the herd, for the higher the production the
greater the profit.

313. Breeding value of cows.— Another big possibility of
herd improvement through production records is the knowledge
furnished as to breeding value. Obviously, the heifers from the

188

BETTER DAIRY FARMING

high producing cows should be kept in the herd. The breeding
value of a bull shows in the records of his offspring. One cannot
hope to make much improvement along these lines without
records.

Keeping records produces a return in herd improvement and
value in many other ways. When cows are to be sold the good ones

Langwateb Cleopatra 47043
Yearly record 15,364.7 pounds of milk, 792.51 pounds of butter fat. Sold
in 1922 to R. L. Benson, Princeton, X. J., for §19,500.00, the record price for
the Guernsey breed.

will bring more if the owner can show their records. A calf from
a cow with a good record will sell for much more than from a cow
with no record. The farmer who begins keeping records will find
himself taking more interest in his herd, giving them better care
and increasing their value thereby. By giving each cow just what
feed she should have on the basis of her production, more economi-
cal feeding will result. The tests for fat will serve as a check on the
test given by the milk purchaser.

Part V
THE FEEDS

CHAPTER XXIII

THE COMPOSITION OF FEEDS AND THEIR MANURIAL

VALUE

The feeding of animals consists of supplying them with certain
chemical substances called nutrients which their bodies require
for life and growth and for the manufacture of some product such
as milk. Thus, the value of a given feed rests on its content of
these nutrients. The chemical substances which we will consider
in this connection are: water, proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and
mineral elements.

314. Water. Dry matter.— Water forms about 50 per cent
of the live weight of the animal body. All feeds contain some
water but we are primarily interested in the part which is not
water, which is called dry matter. All the other nutrients are parts
of the dry matter and thus the more water the less the content of
these other nutrients in the feed.

315. Proteins. — These are complex compounds containing
nitrogen. In the body the muscles, the organs, the skin and the
hair consist almost entirely of proteins. Thus, it is easy to under-
stand that the animal requires large amounts of these compounds
in its feed both for growth and for replacing worn out body tissues.
Similarly, milk contains a high percentage of proteins and there-
fore the dairy cow needs a liberal supply for milk production.

Everyone is familiar with the term, crude protein, used in
expressing the analysis of feeds. Actually there are several different
kinds of proteins in a feed and feeds differ among themselves in
this respect. A given amount of protein in one feed may cause
more growth or produce more milk than the same amount in

189

190 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

another feed. Thus, we speak of differences in quality of proteins,
meaning that one may have a higher feeding value than another.
Though we know that these differences occur, we do not yet know
how to classify the feeds on this basis, so we use the general term,
crude protein, or simply protein, to cover all the proteins. How-
ever, we do know that certain combinations make for high quality
— for example, a leafy roughage combined with cereal grains.

316. Carbohydrates. — These comprise substances which are
familiar to all, namely, sugars, starches, and celluloses. They are
of only limited occurrence in the animal body, but occur in plants
in a larger proportion than do any of the other chemical com-
pounds. Cellulose forms the framework of plants and the protec-
tive coating of seeds, while starches and to a less extent sugars
constitute the reserve material which furnishes energy for growth
and for building new tissue.

Over one-third of the dry matter of milk consists of the carbo-
hydrate, lactose. Thus in milk production the carbohydrates of
the feed may serve not only to furnish energy for the process but
also as a source of one of the constituents of the product.

There are two other terms used in connection with carbohydrates
which we should know, namely, crude fiber and nitrogen free
extract (X.F.E.). These terms do not represent distinct chemical
groups but rather classes into which all carbohydrates have been
divided, using feeding value as a basis. Crude fiber is what is left
of the carbohydrates of a feed after the removal of the more sol-
uble ones by the use of certain chemical agents. This residue is
woody in nature and consists principally of the more complex
celluloses. The remaining carbohydrates — the sugars, starches,
and some of the celluloses — form the group known as the nitrogen
free extract.

317. Fats. — These compounds occur in all parts of the animal
body as fatty tissues. In plants they occur especially in the seed
portion, and many seeds, such as the seeds of cotton and flax, are
very rich in them. Like the carbohydrates, the fats of the feed
serve as sources of energy. The fat which is stored in the animal
body constitutes the energy reserve to be drawn on in time of need.

THE COMPOSITION OF FEEDS 191

The process of fattening consists of building up this reserve by-
continuous feeding of energy-forming material in excess of the
animal's requirements for it. Since fat is one of the principal
constituents of milk, the production of the latter requires a liberal
amount of fat-forming material in the feed.

318. Protein important. — Of the nutrients mentioned, pro-
tein is the dominant one, because no other nutrient can serve as a
substitute for it, either for growth or milk production. The case is
different as regards carbohydrates and fats in that, although the
body must have energy to carry on its processes, either of these
two nutrients can supply it. If both are insufficient, protein itself
can be used as energy. Similarly, carbohydrates and fats can be
used interchangeably for the manufacture of these nutrients in
milk and for the production of fatty tissue, or even protein may be
employed for these purposes by means of certain chemical changes
in the body. Thus we have become accustomed to state that the
body requires a certain amount of protein plus sufficient total
nutrients to supply the needed energy, with the understanding
that fats, carbohydrates and proteins may all serve to furnish this
energy.

319. Mineral elements.— This group of nutrients, collectively
referred to as ash, comprise two to four per cent of the animal body.
There are many different mineral elements but only two, aside
from common salt, require consideration in putting together
rations.

320. Phosphorus and lime. — The phosphorus of plants
occurs principally in the seeds where it is located in the germ or
branny coating. It does not occur in any considerable amount in
hulls or stems. The leaves have more than the stems but less than
the seeds.

Lime, on the other hand, occurs in largest amounts in the
leaves, to a lesser extent in the stems, and only in small amounts
in the seeds. Thus, the chief source of this mineral is the roughage,
and leafy roughage is far superior to the other kind. The farmer
who feeds plenty of alfalfa or clover and a grain mixture made up
of high grade feeds has the ration which is best from the standpoint

192

BETTER DAIRY FARMING

of lime and phosphorus. Of course common salt must be provided
for all animals at all times in a suitable way. (12, 13)

There is one other mineral that may be lacking in the diet
in certain areas. This mineral, iodine, is the one connected with
the development of the most common type of goitre. Its lack is
also responsible for the hairless pig. In the goitre area, cows are

Pearl's Dot 57445
Yearly record 19,602. 5 pounds of milk, 965.8 pounds of butter fat. Owned
by D. D. Tenney, Crystal Bay, Minn.

sometimes affected. It has been recommended that cows in these
areas receive one-tenth of one pound of potassium or sodium iodide
per thousand pounds of grain.

321. Measuring the value of feeds. — The first thing we want
to know about a feed, in estimating its value, is its chemical anal-
ysis,— that is, its content of the nutrients we have just mentioned,
namely, protein, fat, carbohydrates, etc. However, chemical anal-

THE COMPOSITION OF FEEDS 193

ysis is only a rough measure of value. It shows what is in a
given feed, but feeds having the same analysis are not necessarily
of equal value because the animal body makes better use of the
nutrients of some feeds than of others. The big difference lies
in the extent to which a feed is digested. Finally, in comparing
the general usefulness of feeds we should consider their manurial
value.

322. The manurial value of feeds. — It has been stated that
the part of the feed which is excreted in the feces represents the
indigestible portion from which the animal gets no value. How-
ever, this portion is very useful as fertilizer as we all know. This
is such an important item, if the manure is properly handled so that
its fertilizing value is not lost, that it should be taken account of
in considering the value of feed.

323. Manure the cheapest fertilizer. — Every crop which is
grown takes nutrients out of the soil and the land becomes poorer
and less productive each year unless these nutrients are returned
either as manure or commercial fertilizer. Of course the use of
manure Is much the cheaper method. Here the dairyman has a
great advantage over the hay and grain farmer because he has a
lot of manure to use, coming from both feeds he raises and feeds
he purchases. In order to make the most of this advantage he
must know the feeds from which he can get the most fertility.

324. Conserve the urine. — The fertilizing constituents we are
interested in are nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. Of course,
we must include the urine as well as the solid excreta under the
term manure. The urine contains on the average 40 per cent of the
nitrogen and 60 per cent of the potash of the total fertilizing con-
stituents excreted. This shows how important it is to see that the
urine is not lost. Of the total fertilizing constituents in a given
feed the amount of each actually excreted in the manure will
depend on the animal. Unless an animal is growing or storing fat
or making some product such as milk, nearly all of these consti-
tuents eventually appear in the feces and urine. A horse which is
not gaining in weight, developing a foetus, or nursing a colt must
thus return as manure nearly all of the fertilizing constituents of

194 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

the feed. On the other hand the dairy cow which puts part of the
nutrients of her feed into milk can, of course, return the balance
only as fertilizing constituents.

325. The fertilizer in feeds.— The following table from Cor-
nell Reading Course Lesson 141, by Fippin, shows the percentage
of fertilizing constituents returned in the manure under different
conditions :

Nitrogen Percent

Dairy animals 35 to 75

Meat animals 65 to 90

Work animals 85 to 95

Phosphorus

Young growing animals 35 to 50

Dairy animals 50 to 80

Work animals 75 to 95

Potassium

Dairy animals 65 to 85

Meat animals 75 to 90

Work animals 90 to 98

326. Legume roughage the highest. — As regards home-grown
feeds, we have in manurial values another argument for using
legume roughage. Clover and alfalfa are higher in protein than
are other hays and the manure from them is higher in the fertilizing
constituent nitrogen. Of course, one might raise the objection here
that legumes must also take more nitrogen out of the soil and that
this fact would offset the greater amount of nitrogen returned in
the manure. Fortunately, this objection is not a real one because
legumes are able to take nitrogen out of the air and under proper
conditions of cultivation leave the soil actually richer in nitrogen
than before the crop was grown. No other crop can take nitrogen
out of the air. Thus legumes have the double advantage of enrich-
ing the soil during growth and in addition furnishing more nitrogen
in the manure than other roughages.

327. Importance of manurial values. — To show the im-
portance of a consideration of manurial values in buying concen-
trates a table has been constructed to show what part of the cost
of a feed may be returned as fertilizer. The table has been made
on the basis that 55 per cent of the nitrogen, and 65 per cent of the
phosphoric acid and 75 per cent of the potash of the feed of the

Manurial

Net cost

alue per ton

per ton

3.10

33.40

4.22

34.38

7.18

27.87

8.75

41.05

14.48

43.57

9.97

49.08

THE COMPOSITION OF FEEDS 195

dairy cow are voided in the manure, these figures being averages
of those given in Fippin's table previously listed. The costs per
ton are current prices and the figures used for getting the value of
the fertilizing constituents were as follows: nitrogen, 15c per pound;
phosphoric acid, 4c per pound; potash, 5c per pound.

Cost
Feed per ton

Corn meal 36.50

Ground oats 38.60

Wheat bran 35.05

Gluten feed 49.80

Cottonseed meal 43% 58.05

Linseed oil meal 59 . 05

Of course, the figures shown in the above table will vary accord-
ing to feed prices and the values placed on fertilizing constituents.
More important, however, it must be remembered that the man-
urial values represent the maximum return and assume that all of
the manure reaches the soil without loss. No farmer obtains these
values in full and many get only a small percentage of them. How-
ever, the table is of value for two reasons : First, it shows that it
pays to conserve the manure; and secondly, it demonstrates that
the difference between the cost of high and low protein feeds be-
comes less when the value of the manure is considered.

328. Care of manure. — The first thing of importance here is
to see that the urine is not lost since it contains such a large per-
centage of the nitrogen and potash. To prevent this loss there
should be plenty of bedding to absorb it, the gutters should be
tight, and in cleaning the stable any urine in the gutter should be
soaked up by the bedding and other manure. Fermentation causes
a large loss of nitrogen in manure. The strong smell common in
horse stables is due to ammonia, the form in which nitrogen
largely escapes through fermentation. The fertilizing constituents
may also be washed out of the manure by rains if it is stored out
doors. The best way to avoid both these losses is to draw out the
manure and spread it on the fields daily. Where this is not possible
it should be stored under cover in compact piles, preferably under
shelter.

196 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

If horse and cow manure are mixed the cold cow manure will
keep the horse manure from heating and result in a large saving
of nitrogen otherwise lost through fermentation. It is a fine thing
if the manure can be stored in such a place that it can be tramped
down into a compact mass by hogs or other animals. If the manure
must be stored outside it should be in high compact piles and by
no means under the eaves where rain running off the roof will wash
out its constituents.

CHAPTER XXIV

THE DRY ROUGHAGES

329. Legumes vs. non-legumes.— The legumes are the leafy
roughages, such as clover, alfalfa and peas. They are much higher
in protein and lime than are the non-legumes as is shown by the
following table :

Crop Protein Lime

Red clover hay (legume) 12 . 8% 1 . 60%

Alfalfa hay (legume) 14.9 1 .95

Timothy hay (non-legume) 6.2 0.25

Corn fodder (non-legume) 7.8 0.66

Considering that neither class of roughages has a marked
advantage as regards other nutrients, the above figures show
clearly the greatly superior feeding value of the legumes. The
latter have another point of superiority. By the aid of certain
bacteria which grow in nodules on their roots, legumes obtain
nitrogen from the air to form protein. Therefore, instead of
depleting the soil of its nitrogen as do other crops, under the right
conditions of culture they actually leave the soil richer by adding
to it nitrogen from the air. In this way the legumes furnish more
protein for feed with less depletion of the soil than do non-legumes.
However, the same thing does not hold true as regards lime.
Legumes, due to their high lime content, take lots of tLAs element
from the soil and they will not grow unless the soil contains plenty
of it either naturally or through its addition as fertilizer. In fact,
this is the big reason why it is difficult to grow legumes in many
places — the soil does not contain enough lime; it is too "acid"
or "sour, " as we commonly say. Liming overcomes this.

330. Legumes the best roughage.— From the standpoint of
feeding value and keeping up the fertility of the soil, everything is
in favor of the dairyman's raising legumes for his dry roughage.
The only disadvantage is that they may be more difficult to grow
because they require special soil conditions.

197

Dig. crude

Total dig.

protein, lbs.

nutrients, lbs.

463

2250

199

1336

70

1134

150

2251

198 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

Alfalfa Hay

331. Comparative yield. — The crop for roughage which
produces the greatest yield and the greatest amount of digestible
protein per acre is alfalfa. In the production of total digestible
nutrients it is equalled only by corn. These facts are shown by the
following table, given by Henry and Morrison.

Yield per
acre, lbs.

Alfalfa hav 4372

Clover hav 2624

Timothy hay 2340

Corn (ears and stover) 3574

These figures are averages of country-wide returns and do not
represent what may be expected in every locality. However, they
leave no doubt as to the widespread superiority of alfalfa, and
explain why its acreage is so rapidly increasing. A good stand,
once secured, will last for at least five years. Every dairy farmer
should consider first the possibility of growing alfalfa for his
roughage.

332. How to get a stand of alfalfa. — Three things are of
prime importance for growing alfalfa successfully: (1) a well-
drained, fertile soil; (2) lime; and (3) inoculation.

The soil selected for growing alfalfa must be well drained. The
crop will not live on wet land and is particularly sensitive to
standing water during the winter months. On certain hardpan
soils where the water table comes close to the surface in winter,
alfalfa culture is very uncertain due to winterkilling.

333. Good soil necessary. — Alfalfa will not do well on a poor
soil. It is not a crop suitable for building up the latter as is clover.
Unless the soil will produce a good yield of other crops such as
corn or wheat it is not suitable for alfalfa until manured and
fertilized.

334. Lime indispensable. — Certain crops do best on an acid
soil, others will not grow at all on such a soil, while still others are
rather indifferent to this condition. Alfalfa and red clover are
crops which simply will not grow where the soil is acid. Acid soils

THE DRY ROUGHAGES 199

are primarily those which lack lime. This element is supplied
naturally in certain soils as those containing limestone; to others
it must be supplied for growing crops which require it. The major-
ity of the cultivated soils of the eastern states are acid. This is
the principal explanation why so little alfalfa is grown in this
section. With conditions otherwise suitable this difficulty can
be overcome by liming. If the farmer does not know whether his
soil is acid or not the best thing for him to do is to take it up with
his Farm Bureau Agent and ask him to have the acidity deter-
mined. In this way he can learn just how much lime is needed per
acre. Probably the answer will be in terms of quicklime, also
called burnt lime. This is the most concentrated form. Where
ground limestone is used, twice as much is required as of the quick-
lime to get the same effect. Lime can be spread on the land any
time when there is no crop growing.

335. Inoculation. — Supplying the soil with the bacteria which
enable legumes to take nitrogen out of the air is called inoculation.
We have mentioned that legumes are the only crops which can do
this, and how the soil is enriched in nitrogen in this way. However,
this cannot occur unless the right bacteria are present in the soil
and the chances are that they are not, unless the legume crop to be
sown has been grown recently on the land in question. Thus, the soil
must be inoculated. One way to do this is to send to your College
of Agriculture, telling them the number of acres to be grown and
asking for a " culture of the bacteria for alfalfa." The College
will either supply a sufficient amount of the culture for the acreage
in question at a nominal cost, or advise where it can be obtained.
Another method of inoculation is to take soil from an old alfalfa
field and apply it at the rate of 200 to 300 pounds per acre to the
new field. This assumes that the cultures were actually present
in the old field. If there is any doubt here the method should not
be used. One can tell whether the bacteria are present where
alfalfa is growing by noting whether there are any nodules on the
roots. Where soil from an old field is used, it should be taken at a
depth of two or three inches. It is best applied and harrowed in
immediately. Exposure to air, wind, and sun destroys the bacteria.

200 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

336. Seeding. — The soil should be well prepared and compact,
as the crop will not winter well in a loose seed bed. Sowing in
midsummer can be practiced except on heavy soils or where dry
summers are the rule. On heavy soils the plants may not get
sufficient start to live through the first winter. In a dry season
it is difficult to prepare the seed bed properly. Earlier sowing is
the alternative. Many prefer to sow in June. Weeds bother more
at this time, but they can be killed if the soil is frequently harrowed
from early spring until sowing. On verjr heavy soils still earlier
sowing, say May 1, may be advantageous if the soil can be properly
prepared. Usually it is best to sow no nurse crop with alfalfa since
the young plants are tender and must be favored at the start.
Where the land is especially well adapted to alfalfa a nurse crop
may be used.

337. Use only good seed. — Only the best seed should be used.
Northwestern grown seed of the Grimm variety is the kind best
adapted to New York State and areas of similar climate. Recom-
mendations differ widely as to the amount of seed to use. We
suggest 20 pounds to the acre, but believe that the farmer should
be governed by the practice in his own locality and by the advice
of his Farm Bureau Agent, since many local factors affect the
question as to the amount of seed to be used.

338. Time to cut alfalfa. — For the largest total yields alfalfa
must be cut promptly whenever it is ready. Some judge this by
the extent of the bloom, cutting it when it is one-fourth in bloom.
However, in certain sections of the country the plant fails to bloom
at all. Thus a better general rule is to cut as soon as the new buds
at the base of the plant are well started. By harvesting the crop
at this early stage the hay will contain more protein and less fiber
and be more digestible than if cut later. Further, early and
frequent cutting means maximum yield. The number of cuttings
will, of course, depend on the growing season. Usually a cutting
can be made every 30 or 40 days during this season.

339. Curing. — The ideal hay for feeding must be bright in
color and have a nice, sweet aroma. It is very important that as
little as possible of the leafy material be lost. The leaves are tender

THE DRY ROUGHAGES 201

and break off easily. Good alfalfa should be about one-half leaves.
These leaves have four-fifths of the protein, as well as most of the
lime and over one-half of the fat and of the more digestible car-
bohydrates. Unless care is taken to save the leaves, the advantage
of growing alfalfa is largely lost. The hay should be free from dust
and mold. On new seeding or where land is overflowed the hay
may be dirty from such a source, but usually dirt and dust result
from improper curing.

340. Save the leaves. — It is a very common practice at present
to cure hay in the windrow instead of in cocks. The curing is
speeded up by frequent tedding, raking into windrows and loading
without cocking, by the use of the hay loader. This method is a
time-and-labor saver but it does not make the best hay because of
the loss of color and leaves, due to exposure to the sun.

We prefer to cure legumes in the cock because we believe that
the smaller loss of feeding value more than pays for the extra
labor. Where the hay is cut in the morning after the dew is off it
should be raked up and cocked as soon as well wilted and while hot.
By allowing the minimum time to elapse before cocking, the hay
is not unnecessarily exposed to the bleaching action of the sun
which hurts its color. In the cock, fermentation continues during
the drying and the best color and aroma are thus developed. Also
the movement of water from stems to leaves continues so that
more uniform drying results. Where the hay lies as mowed too
long the leaves dry much quicker than the stems and more of them
are lost. The day after the hay is cut, or perhaps the second day,
the cocks should be opened out into large flakes, shaking as little
as possible. Of course, the hay should then be drawn in as soon as
sufficiently dry. Where the hay is cut in the afternoon it should
be cocked up the next morning as soon as the dew is off and drawn
in the next day. These directions assume fair weather. Unfortu-
nately rain is a frequent trouble-maker in haying time. Everybody
understands how the curing process must be modified where rain
interferes.

341. The use of hay caps. — The use of caps to protect the
cocks from rain and dew has long been advised, since water leaches

202

BETTER DAIRY FARMING

out the nutrients and destroys the bright color. It is now known
that alfalfa hay, cured in cocks under caps, has much more of the
factor aiding mineral assimilation than where cured in the win-
drow. Here we have a further argument for this method of curing.
Curing in cocks, particularly under caps, means a product higher
in protein, lime and vitamines and a more palatable feed. (38)

342. Alfalfa as a feed. — In previous pages we have shown the
great value of alfalfa hay in the dairy ration due to its high pro-
tein content resulting in less of the costly high protein feeds being

Field of Good Alfalfa
The best roughage.

needed, its lime content, its palatability, its laxative effect and its
vitamines. These qualities, coupled with its superiority over all
other forage crops as regards yield, give it undisputed first place
as hay for dairy cows where it can be grown successfully. The
second and third cuttings are more valuable than the first. We
believe that many daymen who think they cannot grow it on
their farms could do so if they would bear in mind the things we
have mentioned about its culture. Getting a stand may mean
extra trouble and expense at first but success will mean so much
that it is worth a trial.

THE DRY ROUGHAGES 203

343. Alfalfa for summer feeding. — Alfalfa is a fine crop for
soilage because of its high yield and because it furnishes several
cuttings throughout the summer. As a pasture grass it is not very-
successful because the stand is rather easily injured by grazing,
particularly when the ground is soft.

Alfalfa finds some use as a silage crop but a poor product fre-
quently results when it is ensiled alone. The first crop may be put
in the silo to save it in poor weather. Because of its palatability as
hay there seems to be no advantage in ensiling it unless it cannot
be cured properly for hay.

344. Alfalfa meal. — Grinding the hay does not take it out of
the roughage class and the dairyman will find in general that
he can raise his roughage cheaper than he can buy it. It is more
difficult to judge the quality of alfalfa after it is ground. Frequent-
ly the meal contains more stems and less leaves than a good alfalfa
hay should. Thus, in buying, the guarantee on the tag should be
noted. A good meal, having the proper proportion of stems to
leaves, should not contain over 30 per cent crude fiber.

The Clovers and Other Legumes

Red clover stands verjr close to alfalfa from the standpoint of
feeding value but is ranked below it as a roughage crop for the
dairy farm because of its much poorer yield. However, as regards
extent to which it is grown, it is the more important forage crop.

345. Soils for red clover. — Red clover differs from alfalfa in
not requiring as fertile a soil and in preferring a less dry soil, thus
drainage is not so important. However, clover requires lime the
same as does alfalfa and will not live on an acid soil. It also re-
quires, for satisfactory growth, the presence of the proper bacteria
which enable the plant to take nitrogen from the air, as we have
described for alfalfa. Where the soil has grown clover before,
these bacteria are probably present; otherwise, it must be in-
oculated as we have mentioned in the case of alfalfa.

346. Seeding. — Red clover is largely sown in March or April,
as it is best to sow it when alternate freezing and thawing are
taking place. However, it may be scattered on the land in most

204 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

any winter month with fair assurance of success. Do not sow it in
midsummer because the young plants do not do well in hot weather.
The crop is usually sown on winter wheat or spring grains. If
sown alone, 10 to 12 pounds per acre is the proper rate.

347. Clover with timothy. — It is a common practice to sow
red clover with timothy. By so doing a greater yield of forage is
obtained because timothy does not come to full yield the first year
while clover does, the clover dying out the second year as the
timothy comes to maximum production. In the meantime the
clover, through its ability to take nitrogen from the air, has bene-
fited the soil and made possible a better crop of timothy. Further,
the two crops go well together because the clover roots penetrate
much deeper and thus the roots from the two plants do not com-
pete directly for the same nutrients.

348. Red clover in rotations. — All good farmers practice crop
rotation; that is, on a given field they alternate cultivated crops
and grain crops with grass and clover. Such a system aids in keep-
ing up the fertility of the soil. Crops with different root systems
are grown in different years, the nutrients being drawn from dif-
ferent depths of the soil accordingly. A field continually sowed to
grain crops rapidly loses its humus or supply of decaying organic
matter, which results in a loss of fertility. Grass crops maintain or
increase this humus. Rotation helps to control weeds, diseases
and insects. Having a legume in the rotation aids in keeping up
the nitrogen content of the soil by bringing it nitrogen from the
air. Red clover fits into a crop rotation better than any other
legume. It can be sown with a grain crop one year, harvested at
full yield the next season and then plowed up for sowing grain
again. Growing red clover once in four years will maintain the
nitrogen and humus content of the soil.

349. Harvesting red clover. — Clover usually yields two cut-
tings per season, the second being lighter but of better quality.
The crop should be harvested when in full bloom. After this period
the stems become more woody and some of the leaves are lost.
When harvested alone it is difficult to cure. Harvested with
timothy there is the disadvantage that it matures about two weeks

THE DRY ROUGHAGES

205

before the timothy is ready and some of its nutritive value is lost.
This is the only disadvantage of growing the two together. We
have discussed in detail the curing of legume hay for roughage
under alfalfa. The same applies to clover. (339, 340, 341)

350. Red clover as a feed. — We have mentioned that clover
ranks with alfalfa as a dry roughage for dairy cattle and that these
two legumes are in a class by themselves for the purpose. Every
dairy farmer should try to grow a liberal amount of one or the

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other. Red clover is a valuable crop for soilage and may furnish
three or four cuttings annually under favorable conditions. It is
also a good pasture grass but one should be careful in turning cattle
out on clover the first time because they may eat too much and
bloating result.

351. Alsike clover. — This clover is finding increasing favor
as a legume crop for poorer soils because it will grow in many
places where both alfalfa and red clover will fail. The big point
in its favor is that it will flourish on soils too acid for the legumes

206 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

previously mentioned. Alsike will withstand more cold and heat
than will red clover, and will grow in regions where the latter will
winterkill, as well as in sections too hot for red clover to thrive.
Alsike is the hardier plant and will continue four to six years on a
good soil. However, it furnishes only one cutting a season and thus
is at a disadvantage as regards yield. Where red clover does well,
alsike cannot compete with it but the dairyman who does not
succeed with either red clover or alfalfa, due to the nature of his
soil, has a much greater promise of success in alsike. The culture
of alsike is very similar to that of red clover. A mixture of three
parts red clover, three parts timothy and one part alsike often
gives splendid results.

Other clovers which are grown to some extent for hay are sweet
clover, mammoth clover, crimson clover, and hubam clover.

352. Peas and oats. — Field peas are not usually sown alone
because it is difficult to harvest the low vines. The favorite com-
bination is peas and oats. Using equal parts of seed, three to
four bushels should be sown to the acre. The yield of the mixture
will be two to three tons of dry forage per acre. Barley and spring
wheat may also be sown with field peas. For the best growth of
peas the soil should be inoculated. A culture of bacteria for peas
can be obtained through your State College of Agriculture.

When cut early, field peas, either alone or in combination with a
cereal, make a palatable and nutritious hay for dairy cows. Peas
and oats make the best soilage crop for the northern states. The
combination also makes very good silage.

353. Soybeans. — This legume crop is especially adapted to
a hot dry climate, and can be grown for hajT wherever corn will
mature for silage. The hay is nearly equal in feeding value to
alfalfa and a j-ield of one to three tons per acre may be expected.
Soybeans are a comparatively new crop, but are proving very use-
ful for growing in sandy soils and where other legumes do not
flourish.

354. Cowpeas. — This crop is a very important legume for
roughage in the cotton belt but will not thrive in the more northern
latitudes.

THE DRY ROUGHAGES 207

The Non-Legumes
The feeding value of non-legumes lies principally in their car-
bohydrate content. They are much lower in protein and in lime,
and in general are less palatable than the legumes. In actual
practice the low protein content is their most serious disadvantage.
It can be overcome only by buying more high protein feeds for the
grain ration.

355. Timothy low in protein. — Timothy has less than one-
quarter as much digestible protein as has alfalfa. Where it is
the sole roughage the grain mixture must contain one-half again
as much protein as where all legume hay is used. Where the latter
is available to mix with timothy the protein content of the grain
mixture can be changed accordingly. Of course, most dairymen
will grow some timothy for their horses, but for dairy cows this
roughage should be looked upon as a supplement to an insufficient
supply of legume roughage. Since timothy hay is not very palat-
able it is especially important that the dairyman feeding large
amounts of it should have plenty of silage. Timothy is also some-
what constipating and this fact must be remembered in choosing
the rest of the ration.

For dairy cattle timothy should be cut at full bloom since this
is the time that it contains the greatest amount of total digestible
nutrients and makes the most palatable hay. It is a little more
difficult to cure at this time, but since even at its best it is much
less palatable than legume hay, it must be so harvested as to
be as valuable as possible.

356. Hay from mixed grasses. — We use this term to denote
a hay which many farmers have, through cutting the same field
year after year, a hay which varies according to the season. Such
hay consists largely of timothy, but may in wet years contain
considerable clover. In some years it may consist largely of weeds.
Such a roughage must vary greatly in feeding value, and we men-
tion it to call attention to the fact that the rest of the ration must
be adjusted according to the nature of the cutting in a given season.
The thing to bear in mind regarding such hay is that the more
clover in it the better it is in palatability and protein content.

208 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

Whore weeds occur in large amount, the reverse is true. The other
feeds must be chosen accordingly.

357. Corn fodder and stover lack protein.— Corn fodder
means either the fresh or cured corn plant grown primarily for
forage, with any ears produced on it. Corn stover is cured shock
corn from which the ears have been removed. No dairyman
can afford to be without a silo, and preserving the entire corn
plant as silage rather than as fodder means less loss of nutrients
and a more nutritious and palatable product.

When corn is grown thickly, harvested while still green, cured
in well made shocks, and drawn in as soon as dry, a very nutri-
tious roughage results. Corn fodder is high in carbohydrates and
low in protein. It is best fed along with a legume roughage and ne-
cessitates the use of a high-protein grain mixture, even as does
timothy.

Corn stover has less protein and less feed value than the fodder
and is much less palatable. The best course for the farmer to
follow who has stover as a by-product on his farm is to place it
before his dairy cows and young stock, and let them eat what
they will of the leaves and more tender stalks.

358. The cereal straws. — Straw has less feeding value than
corn stover and can have little place in the ration of the dairy
animal. A limited amount of oat straw, if of good quality, may
be used to supplement better roughage. The cows should be al-
lowed to pick out the more tender parts of the straw and then the
remainder can be used for bedding. Barley straw stands next to
oat in value. Wheat and rye straws are too coarse and woody to
feed.

359. Computing the amount of hay in a mow. — Frequently
one wants to know how much hay is left in a mow. In a mow of
timothy hay of average depth, there will be a ton of hay for every
500 cubic feet. Of course, the hay is heavier toward the bottom
of the mow. Near the bottom 450 cubic feet will make a ton.
On the other hand, near the top 550 cubic feet would be required.
Clover and alfalfa weigh somewhat less than timothy. About 1200
cubic feet of settled wheat straw are required to make a ton.

CHAPTER XXV

THE SUCCULENT ROUGHAGES

The Silo and Silage Crops

Making silage is a method of food preservation. Decay of food
is caused by the action of minute organisms, bacteria, yeasts and
molds. There are three common methods of preserving food.
The organisms are not active where moisture is not present, thus
food may be preserved by drying. This is the method we employ
in curing hay. Neither are the organisms active at low tempera-
tures, thus fruits and vegetables are stored in cold cellars. We
store roots for winter feeding
in a similar manner. Finally
the absence of air is another
preserving factor. Making si-
lage is based on this principle.
At the start there is consider-
able action by the micro-organ-
isms due to a certain amount
of air present, but the action
stops at a definite point as will
be described.

360. Keep out the air.—
When a green forage is so
packed in a closed space as to
exclude most of the air, fer-
mentation sets in and the
sugars present are largely
changed to acids. The proc-
ess is similar to the forma-
tion of vinegar. When a cer-
tain amount of acid is formed
fermentation stops and the

4 5

I \

! Ei

The Stave Silo
Notice power pulley for filling.

209

210

BETTER DAIRY FARMING

acid serves to preserve the green material even as vinegar
preserves vegetables in pickling. This, in brief, is the process
which takes place in the silo. Thus, the green forage is pre-
served in nearly its original condition with less loss of nutrients
than when cured for hay, and a more palatable feed results.

361. Silos. — A good silo should have air-tight walls, otherwise
the silage will spoil. A cylindrical silo is preferable to any other
shape because it provides the greatest storage capacity for a given
amount of building material and because it is easier to pack the
silage down in it thoroughly than where corners must be filled.
The silo should be deep because this means increased compactness
due to the pressure of the upper layers, and the more compact the
silage the less loss of dry matter through fermentation. This
pressure of the upper layers requires strong walls for the silo,
otherwise it will collapse. These walls should be smooth, other-
wise, as the silage settles, pockets will be left and here spoiling

will occur due to contact with
air.

362. Types of silos.— There
are several kinds of silos in
use. The stave construction
with iron hoops is the most
popular because of its low cost
and ease of building. The stave
silo is not as lasting as a more
permanent construction such
as concrete or brick, but if
well built of the right kind of
wood and not allowed to go
into disrepair it will last from
ten to twenty years. Since it
has been shown that on many
farms such a silo will pay for
itself in one year, it certainly
The Wood Wrapped Silo must be a very excellent in-

A good type of modern silo. vestment for every farmer.

THE SUCCULENT ROUGHAGES

211

Manufacturing concerns have specialized in stave silo construc-
tion and in most cases the farmer can purchase such a silo to
better advantage, when length of life is considered, than he can
build himself.

363. The wood- wrapped silo.— Using the stave type of con-
struction as a basis other silos have been designed with double or
triple walls. These silos are more durable, furnish more protection
against freezing, and, of course, withstand wind and weather to
better advantage. They cost more but are probably worth it.

364. Masonry silos.— The
use of brick, concrete or hol-
low tile is increasing for silo
construction. These materials
make a much more permanent
silo but, of course, are con-
siderably more expensive and
many farmers cannot afford
to make such a large invest-
ment. Further, it may not be
profitable for them to do so.
Concrete is cheaper than brick
or hollow tile.

In trying to decide what
kind of a silo to build, it will
help to look through the dairy
papers and send for literature
on the various ones advertised.
It would also be a good thing
to talk with neighbors who
have silos and with the Farm
Bureau Agent.

365. Size of silo.— The
size of silo to be built will de-
pend on the size of the herd,
assuming, of course, that the
farmer can grow a sufficient Concrete Block Silo

212 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

crop to fill it. Two things are important here. In the first
place, the silo must be large enough to hold a year's supply. In
the second place, the diameter of the silo must be small enough so
that enough will be fed off each day to prevent spoiling at the sur-
face. This means one and one-half to two inches in winter and
somewhat more in summer.

366. Capacity of silos. — The following table can be used
in estimating the weight of silage at the time filling is completed,
and thus will show what size of silo must be built to hold a given
amount. The table is taken in a condensed form from Missouri
Circular 89 by Eckles. The figures assume that the silage is well
tramped down and that after settling two days the silo is refilled :

Depth

10

12

-Inside diameter of
14

silo (feet)

16

18

of

Tons

Tons

Tons

Tons

Tons

silage

of

of

of

of

of

(feet)

silage

silage

silage

silage

silage

20

22.8

32.8

44.6

58.3

73.8

25

31.3

45.2

61.3

80.0

101.3

28

36.8

53.0

72.1

94.1

119.2

30

40.6

58.5

79.5

103.8

131.6

32

64.1

87.2

113.8

144.5

34

69.8

95.1

124.2

157.4

36

103.2

134.7

170.7

367. Calculating the requirement. — Knowing the size of the
herd, the rate fed per day and the feeding period, the tonnage needed
is easily computed. A herd of 15 cows consuming 35 pounds per
day for 300 days would require :

15x35x300 _ 0

= 78. 8- tons

2000

By referring to the above table we see that a silo 14 feet in diam-
eter by 30 feet deep would hold 79 . 5 tons. The figures in the table
must not be relied upon too closely because the capacity of a given
silo in terms of tonnage will vary according to the condition of the
corn as it goes in and the method of filling.

368. Calculating the acreage. — In determining the acreage
needed to produce the tonnage desired, the farmer must be guided
by his own experience as to what his land will produce. A good
crop of corn will yield 10 to 15 tons of silage to the acre.

THE SUCCULENT ROUGHAGES 213

Most silos are constructed 14 feet in diameter. This is small
enough to allow sufficiently rapid removal of the silage in winter
for a herd of 15 animals. Where silage is fed in summer there is an
advantage in having one of small diameter, so that it may be fed
off sufficiently rapid to prevent spoilage at this time when less is
fed per cow. A 14-foot silo for winter feeding and a 12-foot silo for
summer is rather an ideal combination for a herd of 20 to 30 cows.

369. Crops for silage. — Corn, sorghum, peas and oats, sun-
flowers, alfalfa, soybeans and rye are among the crops grown for
silage. Corn is the ideal crop for the silo. There is considerable
difference of opinion as to whether a well matured corn which will
furnish the largest yield of dry matter, or a type furnishing great-
er succulence but less dry matter is to be preferred.

370. The variety of corn to grow.— In New York State,
Luce's Favorite is the most popular type of corn at present. It is a
type which will mature or nearly mature at a latitude, and under
the climatic conditions of central and western New York. It thus
makes a silage containing a considerable proportion of ears and
represents the type to grow where maximum yield of nutrients
rather than succulence is desired.

Cornell 1 1 is another variety of corn for silage where a mature
type is desired. It is not quite as good a yielder as Luce's Favorite
but matures somewhat earlier and thus may be more suitable to
localities with a short growing season.

371. Grow to glazing stage. — We believe that the variety
which will reach the glazing stage before the first frost will give
the best satisfaction. Luce's Favorite and Cornell 11, in New
York, and Golden Glow and Silver King, in Wisconsin, are such
varieties. Many states are making much improvement in their
strains of corn. Follow the recommendations of your State College.

The time to harvest corn for silage must vary with the locality.
It should be done before the first frost. In such a latitude as
central New York this means around September 10.

372. Filling the silo.— The corn should be cut in uniform
lengths not over one inch and so delivered to the silo as to dis-
tribute evenly the pieces of stalk, ear and leaf. The material must

214 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

be thoroughly packed in the silo to get minimum loss during
fermentation and to secure largest tonnage for size of silo. Once
the silo is filled, it should not be entered for some time because of
danger to life from the accumulation of carbon dioxide given off
during fermentation. The danger can be overcome by removing
the door near the surface of the settled silage and allowing it to air
out before entering.

373. Adding water. — If the corn is overripe or very dry when
placed in the silo a certain amount of water should be added with
it. It is difficult to decide how much water to add, for too much
means silage of poor quality and too little may mean moldy silage.
The best guide here is to add enough water so that it will pack well.
The only really satisfactory way to get the silage thoroughly and
evenly wet is to run the water in through the blower of the silage
cutter.

374. Silage from frosted corn. — We have recommended cut-
ting corn for silage before the first frost. This is because frosted
corn is more difficult to handle properly to preserve its nutrients.
However, in an effort to let the corn come to the proper stage of
maturity for maximum yield the farmer in the more northern
sections must take some chance on having his corn frosted, and
the question frequently comes up as to how it should be handled.
Corn which has been frosted should be cut at once, otherwise there
will be a loss in the field due to leaves dropping off. Further, rain
will leach nutrients out of frosted corn as it does out of corn in the
shock. When frosted corn is put in the silo, enough water must be
added to make it pack well, putting it in through the blower of
the silage cutter. If the farmer will cut his corn as soon as frosted
and can put it in the silo with the proper addition of water, he
can be certain of good silage from frosted corn, and he can afford
to take a chance on frost, if necessary, to secure maximum yield
through proper stage of maturity.

375. Silage remaining in a silo. — A farmer often wants to
know how much silage he has left. This can be found out from the
following table, taken from Missouri Circular 89, which shows
the estimated weight of settled silage:

THE SUCCULENT ROUGHAGES 215

-Inside diameter of silo (feet)-

Depthof 10 12 14 16 18

silage Tons of Tons of Tons of Tons of Tons of

(feet) silage silage silage silage silage

10 13.7 19.7 26.9 35.1 44.4

12 16.7 24.1 32.8 42.9 54.2

14 19.9 28.6 39.0 50.9 64.3

16 23.0 33.2 45.2 59.0 74.5

18 26.2 37.7 51.4 67.1 84.8

20 29.4 42.4 57.7 75.3 95.2

22 32.6 47.0 64.0 83.5 105.6

24 35.9 51.7 70.4 91.9 116.1

26 39.2 56.4 76.8 100.3 126.8

28. 42.5 61.2 83.4 108.9 137.6

30 45.9 66.0 90.0 117.5 148.5

Suppose after the silage had settled, a man had 24 feet of silage in
a silo 14 feet in diameter. By the table, he had 70 . 4 tons. Suppose
that on a given date his silage remaining indicated that he had
fed off 16 feet. This would mean that he had used 45 . 2 tons ac-
cording to the table. This amount subtracted from the original
weight would show 25 . 2 tons left in the silo.

376. Sunflower silage. — The great popularity and proven
merit of silage rests largely on results secured from corn, and today
probably 90 per cent of the silage used is from the corn plant.
However, the remarkable results with corn have caused other
crops to be tried, particularly for conditions where the corn crop
cannot be depended upon. Many farmers and Experiment
Stations recently have been trying sunflowers for silage. Satis-
factory results have been obtained as regards yield and quality of
silage to give this crop a real place, at least in sections too cool and
too high in altitude for corn to thrive.

377. Sorghum silage. — Silage made from the sorghums cut
at the proper stage of maturity ranks close to corn in value. The
sorghums are primarily grown in the Southwest, although certain
early varieties may be grown in the North.

378. Silage from legumes.— The legumes make rather un-
certain silage when used alone because due to the higher protein
and less carbohydrate content the proper fermentation may not
take place. However, certain combinations of legumes and grains,
such as oats and peas, make excellent silage of higher protein

210

BETTER DAIRY FARMING

content than corn. However, none of them are equal to corn in
terms of food value produced per acre.

Pasture, Soilage, Roots and Other Succulent
Roughages
For two or three months of the year or even longer, dairy
animals depend primarily on pasture for their feed. When cows are

Ayrshires at Pasture
Owned by Edgerstown Farm, Princeton, X. J.

on pasture the dairyman gets his milk for the least trouble and ex-
pense for feed and thus it is very important that he maintain his
pastures in as good shape as possible.

379. Improvement of pastures. — Most of the land used for
pasture is that which is either too wet, stony or hilly for cultiva-
tion, or too worn out to grow crops satisfactorily. A large propor-
tion falls into the latter class and thus the question of better
pastures is largely one of improvement of these poor lands. Most

THE SUCCULENT ROUGHAGES 217

of these lands are acid, clover has disappeared and weeds have
taken its place. The best aid in building up these pastures so that
a good stand of grasses will come in is the use of lime. Acid
phosphate will also help. Getting clover back into the pasture
through the use of lime and acid phosphate means more nutritious
forage and the improvement of the soil through the addition of
nitrogen by the legume.

380. Use lime and acid phosphate. — If one does not wish to
go to the labor of plowing up the old pasture and reseeding or if
its nature makes plowing difficult, the lime and phosphate may be
added as a top dressing. However, the effect is much slower, for
it takes time for the materials added to penetrate the soil. It
will take at least three years to get much effect from such a top
dressing.

381. Ploughing and reseeding. — On the poorest land where
the vegetation is mostly weeds, ploughing and reseeding are cer-
tainly the best practice. The weeds will be destroyed at once and
the lime and phosphate will take effect immediately. The pasture
is best ploughed late in the fall, the lime and phosphate being
applied either before harrowing or early the next spring. Use one
ton of lime and 200 pounds of acid phosphate per acre. The next
spring the grass seed mixture can be sowed with oats. The next
year a crop of hay may be cut and the third year the land is ready
to be pastured. It may be pastured lightly the second year, but
cutting for hay enables the clover to come in better. Further, a
good hay crop will repay in part for the labor and fertilizer used to
establish the pasture. A good pasture lasting many years should
result, where the soil is not too poor.

382. Grasses for reseeding. — Only certain grasses will grow
on a distinct soil type. If the farmer knows by previous observa-
tion what grasses will grow on the land in question he should sow
these only. However, he usually does not have this knowledge
and further the soil may differ in the same field. Thus, it is safer
to use a mixture of several grasses.

Montgomery, in Cornell Extension Bulletin 46, suggests the
following mixtures and amounts for one acre:

218 BETTER DAIRY ' FARMING

1. Field to be hayed one or two years, then pastured

! timothy 8 pounds

red clover 2 pounds

alsike clover 2 pounds

Kentucky bluegrass 2 pounds

white clover 2 pounds

redtop 2 pounds

Orchard grass* 2 pounds

Total 20 pounds

2. Field not hayed — pasture only

Timothy 4 pounds

Alsike clover 2 pounds

Kentucky bluegrass 2 pounds

White clover 2 pounds

Orchard grass 2 pounds

Redtop 2 pounds

Meadow fescue 2 pounds

Total 16 pounds

3. For very unproductive or wet land:

Alsike clover 2 pounds

Canada bluegrass 4 pounds

White clover 2 pounds

Orchard grass 4 pounds

Redtop 4 pounds

Total 16 pounds

* Meadow fescue may be substituted for orchard grass on the best limestone soils.

383. Grasses differ in value. — The feeding value of pasture
grass will depend upon the variety of grasses. A pasture contain-
ing considerable clover will furnish the cow much more protein
and lime than where the grasses are made up of non-legumes.
The same advantage for legumes hold here as in the case of the dry
roughages and this is an important thing to remember in seeding
and fertilizing the pasture.

384. Pasture aids assimilation of lime. — There is a response
in milk production when animals are turned out on pasture, —
a response which seems out of proportion to the feed. It has been
explained on the basis of succulence, the high digestibility of the
grass, its content of easily assimilated minerals and on other
grounds. Now, as we have mentioned in discussing minerals, we
know that green feed contains something which aids in lime assimi-
lation. When this important discovery is considered in the light
of the fact that on a winter ration a dairy cow takes lime out of
her bones to make milk and that this drain on her bones must be

THE SUCCULENT ROUGHAGES 219

replaced, the response of animals to pasture takes on a new mean-
ing. The desirability of good pasture, even during the dry period,
since lime is being restored to the bones at this period, thus be-
comes increasingly important. (13, 38)

385. Soiling crops. — These crops are grown to furnish a suc-
cession of green feed to supplement the pasture as it fails in the
late summer and fall. Peas and oats, soybeans, alfalfa, corn and
various clovers and grasses are among the crops grown for this
purpose.

A chart should be prepared showing the crops to be grown, the
acreage, and the time of sowing and harvest. The kinds of crops
and the times of planting will depend on the locality. The acreage
will be governed by the number of animals. However, the farmer
cannot plan very accurately here because the kind of season
which will cause the pastures to fail early, thus making the amount
of green crops needed a large one, will also probably cause a poor
yield of these crops.

386. Planning for green feed.— The following table illus-
trates what we mean by a chart to be used in planning for a suc-
cession of soilage. The acreage suggested should provide a reason-
able amount of supplementary green feed for a herd of 12 or 15
cows, assuming that some pasture is available:

Crop Acres Date of Seeding Period of Cutting

Oats and peas ^ Apr. 2 June 25 — July 4

Oats and peas y% Apr. 10 July 5 — July 10

Alfalfa, second cutting Y2 July 11 — July 20

Oats and peas Y^ May 5 July 21 — July 31

Alfalfa, third cutting, or

clover, second cutting. ... J^ Sept. 1 — Sept. 15

Sweet corn 1 June 10 Sept. 16 — Oct. 15

Soiling crops should be reasonably mature before they are cut
for feeding, because when too green they are mostly water, — peas
should be podded, oats should be in the milk stage, etc. The best
results are obtained by cutting and hauling the green crop to the
barn daily. If left in the field it wilts rapidly and the object for
which it is grown, namely, to provide succulence, is lost. At the
barn the crop should be fed the day it is cut unless it can be spread

220 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

out. If left in piles it spoils quickly in hot weather. Some farmers
find it convenient to spread the green crop out on the barn floor.
This will keep it from spoiling but the more it dries out the less
is its value as succulence. It must be remembered that soiling-
crops contain lots of water and that two or three times as much
must be fed as of dry roughage to furnish the same amount of
nutrients. (47)

387. Mangels. — Mangels are the favorite roots for the dairy
farm, because they can be grown with the least labor and because
they have the best keeping qualities. They are the greatest
yielders, in terms of green material, but in terms of dry matter
their superiority is not so great. Mangels, as is the case with all
roots, should be stored where it is dry, dark, well ventilated, and
cool. They should not be fed in any large amount when freshly
harvested, as scouring may result.

388. Other root crops. — Rutabagas and sugar beets are other
roots which may be grown. The former, also called swede, are the
easier to cultivate, but do not produce as much dry matter. They
should be fed after, rather than before, milking because, other-
wise, they may taint the milk. Sugar beets are very palatable and
are the roots preferred by many for feeding cows on test.

389. Feeding roots. — Roots are generally fed by slicing them
and placing in the manger with the grain sprinkled over them.
From 30 to 60 pounds per day can be fed. To obtain the same
amount of food value the amount fed must be somewhat larger
than with silage because the latter has more dry matter. For
the cow on test the addition of roots seems to increase the milk
flow even where silage is being fed. This is attributed to their
cooling effect. It has been shown that, except where records are
sought, the feeding of roots in addition to silage is not justified
because the increase in milk will not pay for the additional feed.
However, where roots are fed somewhat less grain is necessary.
Ten pounds of roots will replace one pound of grain.

CHAPTER XXVI

CORN AND WHEAT AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS
Corn and Its By-Products

The corn kernel is lower in protein than most of the other cereal
grains. It contains little fiber, is rich in starch and fat, and thus
ranks high in total digestible nutrients. It is low in mineral matter,
especially lime.

390. Corn meal. — This is the entire ground corn grain. Be-
cause of its high percentage of oil it becomes stale to the taste
on standing, and thus its palatability decreases. It possesses
little bulk, and, therefore, is " heating." We may have either
white or yellow corn meal. There is considerable evidence that
the latter has a higher vitamine value but there is no other dif-
ference. Corn chop is another name for corn meal.

391. Corn and cob meal. — This product consists of the ground
ear corn. The cobs have a rubber-like consistency and require

Corn is the Foundation of all Good Rations
221

222 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

much power for grinding. The product must be fine or the animal
will not eat it. It is not likely to become rancid and has better
physical condition than corn meal because the cobs add bulk.
It is nearly equal to corn meal in feeding value.

392. Cereal milk by-products. — In cereal mills, corn is
milled to produce the so-called "breakfast foods" such as hominy,
corn flakes, etc. The by-products used as feeds are corn bran, corn
feed meal, hominy feed and corn germ meal.

393. Hominy feed. — This feed has more fat and somewhat
more protein than corn meal. It has more fiber and is therefore
more bulky. Due to its greater bulk and smaller percentage of
water, hominy will keep better in storage than corn meal. It is
also better adapted to combining in rations than is corn meal,
which requires special feeds to supplement its lack of bulk. Thus,
hominy is much more widely used in the dairy ration than corn
meal, although on the basis of nutrient content the two feeds are
about equal. When the word "horniny" is used, white hominy is
meant. Most of the corn used in the cereal mill is white. There
is also a similar feed from yellow corn, called yellow hominy feed.
Hominy meal and hominy chop are other names for hominy feed.

394. Corn germ meal. — This feed is nearly twice as high in
protein as corn meal, and is somewhat higher in fat and also in
fiber. It is an excellent medium protein feed of high digestibility,
but its palatability decreases on standing since rancidity develops
from its high fat content. Corn germ meal is one of the less im-
portant corn feeds because a relatively small amount of it is pro-
duced. A similar product is obtained in the manufacture of
starch from corn.

395. Corn feed meal. — Corn feed meal is a by-product either
from the manufacture of cracked corn or table meal. It is rather
variable in analysis and, therefore, in feeding value, depending
on how the milling process is carried out. It is usually spoken of as
similar to corn meal. Actually, by reason of its higher fiber and
bulk, it more closely resembles hominy, However, it must be
remembered that it is more variable in value than either corn
meal or hominy.

CORN AND WHEAT— THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 223

The manufacture of oil, starch, sugars, and syrups from corn
gives us gluten feed, gluten meal and corn germ meal.

396. Gluten feed. — This product has over twice as much
protein as corn meal and is about equal in total digestible nutri-
ents. It is one of the most useful feeds, as it is a high protein feed
which is usually comparatively cheap and which has the proper
bulk to lend itself well to combination with a large variety of
materials. The protein of gluten feed is not of as high a quality
as that of many other feeds, thus gluten feed should not be fed
alone. It should never make up over one-half the grain ration.

397. Gluten meal. — Gluten meal is that portion of the corn
kernel that remains after the separation of the larger part of the
starch, germ and bran in the manufacture of starch and sugars.
This product has nearly 50 per cent more protein than gluten feed
and somewhat more total digestible nutrients. It has little fiber
or ash and is a heavy feed. Its lack of bulk limits its usefulness as
compared with gluten feed. The particular place of gluten meal in
the ration is where a heavy, high protein feed, low in fiber, is needed
to supplement ingredients which are low in protein and bulky.

398. Corn distillers' grains. — This is the corn feed which is
a by-product of the distillery. Corn distillers' grains is a high pro-
tein feed, which is very digestible. It has the proper bulk and a
high feeding value. The feed is very useful as an ingredient of the
ration for cows on test. Unfortunately, there is little of it on the
market at the present time.

Wheat and Its By-Products

In the manufacture of flour the miller tries to separate from
the rest of the wheat kernel as large a percentage as possible of
the white floury portion. He actually gets about 70 per cent of
high-grade flour in the process. The remainder goes into feed.
It consists of bran, middlings, red dog flour, and screenings.
Taken as a whole these by-products have a higher percentage of
protein, fat and minerals than the flour, and have a greater nutri-
ent content than the entire kernel, except as regards carbohy-
drates. Thus, the wheat by-products have a high feeding value.

224 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

399. Whole or ground wheat.— It is well known to all that
the entire grain is used relatively little for feed. However, wheat
having many broken or shrunken kernels and containing a con-
siderable amount of screenings brings a poor price for milling, yet
its feeding value may not be appreciably lowered. Thus the farmer
should feed such wheat rather than market it. Whole or ground
wheat contains more protein and mineral matter than corn and
is at least equal in carbohydrates, but is much lower in fat. It
is a palatable, highly digestible feed.

400. Screenings. — Previous to milling, the wheat is cleaned to
separate out bits of straw, imperfect kernels, weed seeds, etc.
These materials, called screenings, are either mixed and sold with
the other wheat bj^-products, or marketed in proprietary feeds.

Screenings vary greatly in feeding value. A sample consisting
largely of broken wheat and other grains has a high feeding value,
while one consisting of straw, dust and certain weed seeds may be
practically worthless. Screenings must be ground so as to destroy
the life of the weed seeds. It is believed that most mills using
screenings in quantity are equipped to do this. Thus, this objec-
tion is no longer a serious one.

The screenings in wheat feeds do not present a serious question,
because by law they cannot be present in greater amount than
is contained in the wTheat from which the feed was made. The
purchase of a proprietary feed containing screenings is another
question. Because of the indefinite nature of the ingredient in
question, it is believed that no mixed feed containing screenings
should be bought unless manufactured under an open formula
by a firm whom the farmer feels he can trust. (113, 114, 115)

401. Wheat bran. — The outer layers of the wheat kernel
comprise the bran. The product is very rich in phosphorus.
Though containing more protein than the entire wheat kernel
and other cereal grains, bran is not equal to them in total di-
gestible nutrients. This is partly due to its rather high fiber con-
tent. It seems, however, to have a value not shown by its nutrient
content, particularly in rations for dairy cows. This extra value
is probably due to its laxative effect and to its bulk, making it

CORN AND WHEAT— THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 225

very useful for combining with a wide variety of materials in the
dairy ration.

A good sample of bran should consist of large flakes, light in
weight and free from foreign materials. Where the screenings
contained in the wheat from which the bran was made is com-
bined with it, the feed is sold as " wheat bran with mill run
screenings." This is the usual product now found on the market.

402. Red dog flour. — This product consists of flour with some
fine particles of bran. Its protein and fat content are similar to
that of bran but it contains a minimum of crude fiber and thus
exceeds bran in total digestible nutrients. It is a much more ex-
pensive feed than bran and lacks the bulk and laxative properties
which make the latter so valuable in the dairy ration. Red dog
is a very useful feed where low fiber is desired, being especialty
valuable for young pigs and calves.

403. Standard middlings. — This product is intermediate
between bran and red dog, consisting of fine particles of bran to-
gether with some flour. It contains less fiber than bran but more
than red dog, as would be expected. Similarly, its bulk lies be-
tween the two. The protein and fat content of the three feeds is
similar. Pound for pound, bran is preferred to standard middlings
in the dairy ration. The middlings may be used if cheap enough,
provided it is recognized that this feed is not a substitute for bran
as regards bulk and laxative effect.

404. Flour middlings. — This feed is a mixture of standard
middlings and red dog flour in the proportions obtained in the
usual milling process. Its properties and value are thus evident.

405. Wheat mixed feed. — This is a term used for various
mixtures of bran, red dog flour and middlings. Its feeding value
varies according to the mixture.

406. Palmo middlings. — This material is a by-product from
the manufacture of tin plate. In putting the finish on the latter,
it is passed through palm oil and the excess oil later removed by
absorption on wheat middlings. The middlings are later cleaned
and sold as palmo middlings. The product is usually lower in
moisture and higher in fat than the original middlings.

CHAPTER XXVII
OTHER GRAINS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS

Oats, Barley, Buckwheat, Rye and Rice

Oats are one of our most useful feeds, not only for horses but
for dairy animals as well. The part left after the hull is removed
is called the groat. This is the part used for human food. The hull
has less than one-third as much protein and over three times as
much fiber as the entire kernel.

407. Whole and ground oats. — The oat kernel is covered
with a husk or hull which constitutes an average of 30 per cent of
its weight. This hull together with its awn and beard makes the
oat light. In very light oats, the husk may comprise as much as
45 per cent of the entire kernel. The lighter the oat, the lower
is its protein, the higher its fiber, and the less its feeding value.

Oats have somewhat more digestible protein than corn but
are lower in total digestible nutrients. They contain much more
fiber than corn due to the large percentage of hull. This fact
makes them bulky and better adapted than corn for combining with
a variety of materials in the ration. Oats are particularly useful
for lightening up a heavy mixture. They are palatable and easily
digested. For the dairy ration they should be crushed or ground.
We prefer crushed oats to a finely ground product.

408. Oats good for young stock. — Oats are very useful as an
ingredient of the grain ration for calves and young stock. Some
feeders recommend the whole kernels for this purpose but we
believe that they will be better digested if the hull is broken by
crushing rather than if mastication and rumination are depended
upon to do it. If the indigestible hull is not broken the digestive
juices cannot get at the material beneath. Even crushed oats alone
will serve fairly well as a grain ration for young stock.

Ground or crushed oats also make an excellent ingredient of the
mixture used in fitting animals for test. Their value here has been

226

OTHER GRAINS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 227

repeatedly proven according to the records of how cows have been
fed in preparation for records. Doubtless much of the good effect
obtained from including them in the ration here is due to their
lightness, bulk and ease of digestibility.

Ground oats with the hulls sifted out make a feed low in fiber
which, though rather expensive, is frequently used for feeding young
calves and pigs. Such a material is frequently found in proprie-
tary calf and pig meals under such names as oatmeal, oat flour
and ground oat groats.

409. Oat feed. — Everybody is familiar, through many a break-
fast, with the human food obtained from oats. The milling of
this cereal for oatmeal is one of our largest food industries. The
by-product sold for feed is called oat feed or oatmeal-mill by-prod-
uct. It has very little feeding value, but merits discussion because
of the large amount which is sold in proprietary dairy feeds.

The residue from the oatmeal-mill consists of oat hulls, oat
shorts, oat middlings and dust. However, the hulls are in by far
the largest proportion and this is what makes oat feed so poor.
Its average analysis is as follows: protein, 5.5 per cent; fat, 2
per cent; carbohydrates, 52 per cent; fiber, 27 per cent. The
above analysis shows that oat feed does not have a higher nutrient
content than timothy hay. It contains somewhat more digestible
protein but less total digestible nutrients. Thus, oat feed must be
classed as a low grade roughage, not as a concentrate. This fact
must be borne in mind in considering the place of oat feed in the
dairy ration. No one would think of buying chopped oat straw
to put in his grain ration.

410. Clipped oat by-product. — Oats are frequently clipped to
decrease their bulk either at oatmeal mills or elevators. There are
removed during this process the fuzzy ends, a little of the inner
kernel and also the refuse matter from the grain, such as chaff,
straw and weed seeds. Oat clips or clipped oat by-product is the
name under which the resulting product appears on the market.
The product is light, bulky and of a chaffy, fibrous character.
The material is widely used in proprietary feeds as an absorbent
for molasses. Though we believe that the clips on the average

228 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

should have a somewhat greater feeding value than oat feed, they
must be classed with the poorer roughages.

411. Ground barley. — The barley kernel is covered with a
hull which constitutes some 15 per cent of the entire seed, in
comparison to the oat kernel where the hull makes up 30 per cent
of the whole. Barley is a rather bulky, highly digestible, low
protein feed, which may be used more or less interchangeably with
corn and oats, if it is available on the farm. It is believed that
for all classes of daily animals, crushed or ground barley is pref-
erable to whole. For milk production, tests indicate that ground
barley is equal to corn meal, while for feeding pigs it is also a close
competitor of corn. Ground barley is a useful feed for calves and
young stock.

412. Feed barley. — In general barley will be found more ex-
pensive to purchase than a mill feed of equal value as regards total
digestible nutrients, such as hominy. Where barley is purchased
one must be careful to secure a good product since varying amounts
of foreign material may be present. Bylaw, ground barley must be
made from grain containing not less than 90 per cent pure barley.
"Mixed feed barley" is a term used to cover a product containing
not less than 75 per cent of pure barley, while "feed barley"'
is a name under which barley screenings may be sold. These terms
are very confusing, particularly as they must be distinguished
from barley feed and barley mixed feed, to be described later.
However, the only way to be sure of not being cheated is to know
what these various terms mean.

413. Brewers' dried grains.— The malting of barley furnishes
two by-products for feed, malt sprouts and brewers' grains. The
latter has about 25 per cent of protein. It is bulky and its high
fiber content must be balanced off by using with it other feeds, low
in fiber. On the basis of digestible nutrients furnished, it ranks
somewhat above wheat bran but considerably below gluten feed.

414. Malt sprouts. — This by-product is also a bulky feed
having as much digestible protein as brewers' grains, though of a
poorer quality. The feeding value is less than that of brewers'
dried grains.

OTHER GRAINS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 229

415. Barley feed. — At the cereal mill two products may be
manufactured for human food, — pearl barley and barley flour.
The residues from both processes appear to be similar, namely chaff,
outer coatings and floury residues. However, the pearl barley prod-
uct called barley feed contains more of the flour and less of the
hull than does the flour by-product, barley mixed feed. The former
contains somewhat more protein and twice as much fat and fiber
as ground barley and should be at least equal to it in feeding
value. Barley mixed feed is a poorer and more variable product.

416. Ground buckwheat.— Though not one of the cereals,
buckwheat is usually discussed with them but ranks lower in
feeding value. It contains somewhat more digestible protein
than corn, but is much lower in total digestible nutrients. The
kernel is about one-third hull and as a result ground buckwheat
has a high fiber content, — about the same as oats. This hull has
much less nutrient value than wheat straw. Ground buckwheat
is most nearly like ground oats and wheat bran and could replace
these feeds in mixtures we have listed. Though containing some-
what more total digestible nutrients than bran, buckwheat does
not contain as much protein nor is it laxative and thus does not
have as great an all-round value for mixing in rations. It is be-
lieved that where prices are such that the farmer can sell his buck-
wheat and buy an equal amount of bran with the money he had
better do so.

417. Buckwheat middlings. — The milling of buckwheat to
produce flour for human food is carried on in a number of small
mills. The by-products are hulls and middlings. Buckwheat
middlings is a very excellent feed for milk production provided
it is as free as possible from hulls. A high-grade product will
contain more protein than gluten feed and will be nearly as high
in total digestible nutrients. Thus buckwheat middlings may be
substituted for gluten in mixtures. Since some samples contain
more hulls than others, the purchaser should make sure that he
is getting a good grade by looking at the guarantee, bearing in
mind that an average sample should contain 28 per cent of protein
and not over 6 per cent of fiber.

230 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

418. Buckwheat feed. — It has been stated that hulls are a.
by-product of flour milling. They contain 45 per cent of fiber and
little protein or fat and thus have practically no feeding value.
They should be thrown away. Many millers are unwilling to do
this, but instead mix hulls with middlings and setl the product as
buckwheat feed. Such a feed may be fairly good or practically
worthless depending on the amount of hulls added. Of course, the
more hulls, the less protein and the more fiber and thus the guar-
antee will give an indication of the value of the feed. However,
many small millers sell buckwheat feed locally without any
guarantee and cause the dairyman to buy a lot of hulls under the
impression that a feed nearly as good as buckwheat middlings
is being bought at a bargain. Mixing a worthless material such as
buckwheat hulls with a high-grade feed like the middlings is wrong
in principle even if a fairly good feed results. The high-grade feed
should be sold for what it is worth and the useless stuff thrown
away. Certainly buckwheat feed should not be bought except
under a definite guarantee as to analysis.

419. Ground rye. — The rye kernel is very similar to wheat in
analysis. The ground grain may be used in the dairy ration in
place of such feeds as oats, barley or corn. It ranks somewhat
higher in total digestible nutrients than barley, but lower than
corn. It may be doubted whether ground rye is as valuable as
either ground barley or corn meal for milk production but it is a
useful feed where the farmer can grow it to advantage over the
other grains or finds it especially suited in his rotation of crops.

420. Rye middlings or rye feed. — Formerly in the milling
of rye for flour, bran and middlings were separated as by-products
and sold separately. Now they are usually combined and sold
under the names rye feed or rye middlings. The rye by-products
are similar in analysis and feeding value to the wheat by-products,
but so little of them are produced that they are of small importance
as feeds.

421. Rice bran. — This is a highly nutritious feed containing
around 12 per cent each of protein, fat and fiber. The fat content is
rather variable and frequently runs considerably higher than the

OTHER GRAINS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 231

figure given. Due to this high fat content rice bran may quickly
cake and become rancid. It is high in the B vitamine and con-
tains protein of excellent quality. Rice bran could be used in place
of wheat bran in mixtures.

422. Rice polish. — This feed is somewhat lower in protein
and fat than the bran, but also is very much lower in fiber. A good
product should not contain over 3 per cent. Thus the polish is
especially useful for feeding young calves and pigs, and is a fre-
quent ingredient of calf meals. It could replace corn meal in vari-
ous rations.

423. Rice hulls. — The hulls are woody and tasteless, and have
sharp flinty edges and needle-like points, which are irritating to
the lining of the digestive tract. They should never be fed to
animals. Reputable millers use them for fuel or packing or throw
them away altogether. The best samples of rice bran contain some
hulls due to inability to get a complete separation. Some millers
may allow considerably more of the hulls than necessary to go
into the bran.

424. Rice feed. — A mixture of hulls and bran is sometimes
offered for sale as rice feed. Needless to say, it should not be
bought because the hulls are not only useless but also harmful.

CHAPTER XXVIII
THE OIL MEALS AND MISCELLANEOUS BY-PRODUCTS

The oil meals comprise a class of feeding stuffs which are the
residues left after the extraction of the oil from various seeds and
nuts. In general, oil-bearing seeds are much higher in protein
than the cereals, while the fat content is some ten times as high.
Cottonseed and linseed oil-meals are by far the most important,
but cocoanut oil meal, peanut oil meal and soybean oil meal
are finding increasing use, particularly in certain sections of the
country.

425. Cottonseed by-products. — The cottonseed, formerly
allowed to rot after the cotton was removed, now furnishes a
great variety of products for industrial use and for human and
animal food. The oil, which is the main product of the cottonseed
industry, is largely used for human food as salad oil and lard
and butter substitutes.

426. Cottonseed hulls. — The hull is of smooth, hard texture
and has little if any feeding value. As separated in the manufac-
turing process the hulls contain over 40 per cent of crude fiber with
only 4 to 5 per cent of protein and 2 per cent of fat. The
protein and fat content is mostly due to incompletely separated
meats. Despite their low value the hulls are largely marketed in
cottonseed products sold as feed and occasionally as " filler" in
proprietary feeds.

427. The cottonseed meals. — Three grades of cottonseed
meal are recognized by official definition: 41.12 per cent protein
(choice quality), 38.56 per cent protein (prime quality) and 36
per cent protein (good quality). Color, lint content, etc., are
other differentiating factors, besides protein. The best grade is
the brightest in color. While it is true that products differ in com-
position according to the place where the source was grown, the
principal difference among the three grades is hull content, — the
more hull the less protein and the more fiber. It is not possible

232

THE OIL MEALS 233

to separate the hulls from the meats completely and the extent
of separation differs in different mills according to their machinery
and practice. On the other hand, extra hulls may be added to the
meal as it is ground. This is a common practice. That is, the
presser merely dilutes 41 per cent protein meal up with hulls and
makes 36 per cent. Such a practice makes possible a larger disposal
of the hulls as feed. It is believed to be wrong in principle to dilute
a high-grade product with a material so poor in feeding value
that the farmer would not think of buying it at any price if offered
to him separately.

428. Choice quality most economical. — The 41 per cent
protein cottonseed meal is, of course, the highest in price, but on
the basis of total digestible nutrients it is in general the most
economical to buy, particularly when its higher manurial value
is considered. We believe that dairymen should purchase the
highest grade meal. At least they should remember that there
are three grades and not merely buy meal regardless of protein
content. A little experience enables one to judge roughly the
quality of cottonseed meal by its color and hull content. Fre-
quently the hulls are ground, but this darkens the meal even
though the hulls as such cannot be recognized.

429. Cottonseed feed. — Any mixture of meal and hulls con-
taining less than 36 per cent protein must by law be designated as
cottonseed feed. In addition to being a further dilution of the meal
with low-grade material, it is open to the additional objection of
being a product of very indefinite value. There is no limit to the
percentage of hulls that may be added. Cottonseed feeds have
been reported with as high as 80 per cent of hulls. Such a product
could have little if any feeding value.

430. Feeding cottonseed meal. — Cottonseed meal is in
most years about the cheapest source of protein which can be
bought for the dairy ration and it is a very satisfactory feed for
milk production. It is somewhat constipating and this fact must
be remembered in choosing the other ingredients.

That cottonseed meal is harmful to young calves and pigs is
well known. We do not know just what property of the meal

234 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

causes trouble but it is generally believed that the meal contains
a poisonous substance. Dairy cows are little susceptible to the
trouble and there is no danger in feeding them any moderate
amount of the meal. We do not believe the grain ration should in
general contain more than 30 per cent cottonseed meal, but this
amount may be raised somewhat if the animals are on pasture or
receiving silage liberally. There is some basis for the belief that
cows fed heavily on cottonseed meal are likely to develop garget
or other udder troubles. Whether this possibility is due to the
same property that causes trouble in young pigs and calves is
not known, but it is believed that the meal may be fed in the
amount we have stated with little if any extra likelihood of udder
troubles.

431. Flaxseed products. — Ground flaxseed is sometimes fed
to young calves along with skim milk or as an ingredient of a calf
meal. The seed is about one-third oil, thus the ground product
quickly becomes rancid.

In the oil pressing process, the cleaned seeds are ground, heated
and pressed to extract the oil. The residue which is in the form
of hard slabs or "cake" is ground to give the oil meal. This
method is called the old process (O. P.) in distinction to a new
process, which at one time came into use but was later largely
abandoned, whereby the oil was dissolved out instead of being-
extracted by pressure.

432. Linseed oil meal. — This feed is laxative and stimulating
to appetite and milk flow and helps keep the animals in good con-
dition. A fine, sleek, oily coat results from the feeding of Unseed
oil meal. It is widely used in feeding for records and is a particu-
larly fine feed for growing animals. We like to have it as an in-
gredient of every dairy ration, particularly where no silage is fed.
It is generally somewhat more costly on a total digestible nutrient
basis than cottonseed meal, but it is worth more because of the
special qualities we have mentioned, and the price difference at
most times is not so great but that at least 5 or 10 per cent
can be included in the ration. Its laxative properties will result
in scouring when used in too large amounts. The upper limit

THE OIL MEALS 235

may be considered as 20 to 30 per cent, depending on the rest of
the ration.

433. Peanut oil meal. — This feed contains approximately
47 per cent protein, 8 per cent fat and 5 per cent fiber, and being
highly digestible, is thus somewhat more valuable pound for
pound than choice cottonseed meal. It is palatable to dairy cattle
and is a very excellent feed for milk production. Due to its
high fat content, peanut oil meal will become rancid on storage
in hot weather. Sometimes the product sold as meal has been
adulterated with shucks. Such an adulteration lowers the pro-
tein content and raises the fiber. Thus, a meal which falls much
below the average in these respects should be regarded with
suspicion.

Unhulled peanut oil feed has one-third less protein than the
meal and four times as much fiber, clue, of course, to including
the shucks. We do not believe the farmer should purchase a feed
containing peanut shucks.

434. Cocoanut oil meal. — The dried kernels of the cocoanut,
called copra, are pressed for oil which is used largely in nut-
oleos, sold as butter substitutes. The feed is also called copra oil
meal from the name of the dried kernels. It has a protein content
of somewhat above 20 per cent, thus ranking much lower in this
respect than the other oil meals. On the basis of its digestible
nutrients it may be considered nearly as valuable pound for pound
as gluten feed. Cocoanut oil meal has a pleasant odor and taste
which make it palatable to dairy cows and it is a very satisfactory
feed for the dairy ration. It is reported not to keep well in warm
weather, but our experience is that this difficulty is not a serious
one, provided the feed is dry.

435. Soybean products. — The soybean is a very important
crop in the Orient and is rapidly gaining in favor in the temperate
regions of the United States. The bean is rich in oil which is
pressed out for human food and industrial use, leaving soybean
oil meal as feed. The beans themselves are also being advocated
as a high protein home-grown feed which could be substituted for
much of the high priced protein supplements now purchased.

236 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

Recent experiments with laboratory animals and with hogs
indicate that the soybean contains protein of very high quality
compared to other vegetable sources. This fact, coupled with the
excellent results obtained in the limited trials that have been made
with dairy cows, cause us to regard this source of feed as one well
worth trial and investigation.

436. Soybean oil meal. — The residue from the extraction
of oil contains somewhat more digestible protein and total di-
gestible nutrients than choice cottonseed meal. The use of this
feed has been limited to certain sections of the country, nota-
bly to the Pacific Coast where it is imported from the Orient.
There are some mills in the South where soybeans are pressed
but the amount of the oil meal on the market is very limited.
It appears to be highly liked by dairymen where it has been
tried and farmers may well bear this in mind, as an increasing
output may be expected.

437. Sugar factory by-products. — The two sources of the
sugar used on the table are the sugar cane and sugar beet. Most
of the molasses used for feed is a by-product from the manufacture
of cane sugar. The beet sugar process furnishes dried beet pulp
as well as some beet molasses.

438. Cane molasses. — A good grade of cane molasses should
contain not less than 53 to 55 per cent of total sugar, not over
6 per cent of ash and not over 21 to 22 per cent of water. The
feeding value of molasses is based primarily on its sugar content.
It contains some 3 per cent of protein but only one-third of
this is digestible. There is no fat. An average grade of molasses
is worth about three-fourths as much as corn meal on the basis of
its total digestible nutrients, though, of course, it has much less
protein. However, molasses has a special value in toning up the
system and in keeping the bowels open. It also puts a nice smooth
coat on the animal. Because of these beneficial effects, many
feeders like to have a little molasses in the ration even though it
may be a costly source of total digestible nutrients. Particularly
this is true in rations for cows on test. For this purpose molasses
finds a very general use.

THE OIL MEALS 237

439. How to feed molasses. — The feeding of molasses pre-
sents some difficulty. The best way is to thin it with warm water
and pour it over the roughage. Used in this way, an extra amount
of roughage will be consumed. Particularly, molasses will add
palat ability and increase the consumption of poor roughage.
Molasses diluted with water may be used to soak up beet pulp.
This is a frequent practice in feeding test cows.

We are in favor of 5 to 10 per cent of molasses in the dairy
ration provided it can be bought at a reasonable price. We are
willing to pay somewhat more for it than its digestible nutrients
would warrant, due to its special properties. These properties
are of particular value where no silage is fed. In the ordinary
ration with silage available, we do not recommend the purchase
of molasses where it costs more than corn.

440. Beet molasses. — This product is the residue from the
crystallization of sugar out of beet ju:ce. It contains fully as
much sugar as cane molasses but has a distinct disadvantage as
a feed due to its content of alkaline salts which give it a purgative
action. Thus, beet molasses can be fed in limited quantities only.

441. Dried beet pulp. — After extracting the juice from the
sugar beets there remains a residue which when dried contains
9 per cent of protein, 60 per cent of nitrogen free extract, and 19
per cent of crude fiber, with about 1 per cent of fat. On the
basis of its nutrient content it ranks somewhat below corn in
feeding value and its high fiber content limits the amount that
can be used in the ration. However, beet pulp is a very useful feed
because of its palatability, bulk and laxative effect. These qualities
cause it to be highly esteemed to lighten up a heavy ration fed
cows on test. It has another property which gives it special value.
It will absorb two or three times its weight of water. Thus moist-
ened beet pulp may be used to furnish succulence where no silage
or roots are to be had. Similarly, diluted molasses can be fed
on it as has been mentioned.

SU» CoM*

APPENDIX

THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF COMMON
FEEDINGSTUFFS

In Table I are given figures for total analysis and for digestible
nutrients in the common feedingstuffs used for dairy animals.
This table has been compiled mainly from the extensive data in
Tables I and III of " Feeds and Feeding," eighteenth edition, by
Henry and Morrison, by special permission of the authors.

Table I. Analyses of Feedingstuffs

Feedingstuffs

Concentrates

Barley, ground

Beans, navy, ground

Beet pulp, dried

Brewers' grains,

dried

Buckwheat, ground..
Buckwheat

middlings

Cocoanut meal

Corn, dent, ground. .
Corn-and-cob meal . .
Corn and oat feed. . .

Corn germ meal

Cottonseed meal,

43%

Cottonseed meal,

36%

Distillers' grains,

dried, corn

Dried blood

Fish meal

Gluten feed, corn

Gluten meal, corn. . .

Hominy feed

Kaffir grain

Linseed oil meal

Water

Per

cent

9.3
13.4

8.2

12.0
10.2
11.3
10.4
11.4
8.9

7.5

6.6

9.7

10.5

8.7

9.1

10.1

11.8

9.1

Total Nutrients

Ash
Per

cent

2.7
3.6
3.5

3.5
2.1

4.8
5.6
1.3
1.5

2.8
2.7

6.2

6.4

2.6
3.3
28.1
2.1
1.1
2.6
1.7
5.4

Crude

Protein

Per

cent

11.5

22 7

8.9

26.5
10.8

28.3

20.7

9.3

8.5

9.6

22.6

44.1

37.6

30.7
82.3
51.4
25.4
35.5
10.6
11.1
33.9

Carbohydrate

Fiber
Per
cent

4.6

5.8
18.9

14.6

10.3

10.3
2.3
7.9
7.4
9.0

11.5
11.6

7.1
2.1
4.4
2.3

8.4

N.F.E.
Per
cent

69.8
53.0
59.6

41.0
62.2

42.7
44.8
72.0
67.6
65.0
46.0

25.0

28.4

36.3

3.8

52.9
47.5
64.3
70.1
35.7

Fat
Per
cent

2.1
1.5
0.9

6.9
2.5

7.4
8.4
3.8
4.1
3.8
10.8

9.1

8.2

12 2
0.9

8.3
3.8
4.7
8.0
3.0
7.5

Digestible Nu-
trients in 100 lbs.

Crude

Protein

Lbs.

9.0

18.8
4.6

21.5

8.1

24.6

18.6

6.9

6.1

7.3

16.5

37.0

31.6

22.4
69.1
40.1
21.6
30.2
7.0
9.0
30.2

T.D.N.
Lbs.

79.4
71.9
71.6

65.7
63.4

76.6

78.8
83.8
78.1
75.6
82.5

7S.2

74.8

88.9
71.1
58.8
80.7
84.0
84.6
80.0
77.9

238

APPENDIX

239

Table I. Analyses of Feeding stuffs — {Continued)

Feedingstuffs

Malt sprouts

Molasses, cane or
blackstrap

Oats, ground

Peanut oil meal

Red dog flour

Rice bran

Rye, ground

Rye feed

Skim milk

Soybean seed

Soybean oil meal

Tankage, 60% pro-
tein

Wheat, ground

Wheat bran

Wheat mixed feed. . .

Wheat middlings,
flour

Wheat middlings,
standard

Whey

Dry roughage

Alfalfa hay, whole
or ground

Barley straw

Bean straw

Clover hay, alsike. . .

Clover hay, red

Corn fodder

Corn stover

Kaffir fodder

Millet, common or
Hungarian

Mixed hay, all grasses

Mixed hay, clover
and timothy

Oat hay

Oat straw

Peas, field, hay

Peas and oats

Peas, oats and bar-
lev

Total Nutrients

Water
Per
cent

7.6

25.7

9.2

6.6

11.1

10.1

9.4

11.5

90.1

9.9

10.5

7.9
10.2
10.1
10.1

10.7

10.5
93.4

14.2
10.5
12.3
12.9
18.3
19.0
9.0

14.3

12.8

12.2
12.0
11.5
11.1
16.6

16.5

Ash
Per
cent

6.1

6.1
3.5
4.8
2.5
9.7
2.0
3.8
0.7
5.3
4.9

15.3
1.9
6.3
5.2

3.7

4.4
0.7

8.6
5.7
7.2
8.3
7.1
5.0
5.5
9.4

6.3
5.6

6.1
6.8
5.4
7.9
7.3

6.0

Crude

Protein

Per

cent

26.4

3.2
12.4

44.8
16.8
12.1
11.8
15.3
3.8
36.5
43.2

60.4
12.4
16.0
16.8

17.8

17.4
0.8

14.9
3.5
7.3
12.8
12.8
6.7
5.7
8.9

8.3
7.6

8.4

3.6

15.1

11.4

12.6

Carbohydrates

Fiber
Per

cent

12.'

4.3
5.3

5.3

2.2
9.5
7.6

4.7

6.0

28.3
36.0
30.8
25.7
25.5
22.0
27.7
26.8

24.0

28.8

29.9
28.3
36.3
24.5
25.6

29.5

N.F.E.
Per
cent

45.6

65.0
59.6
26.0
63.3
44.3
73.2
61.5
5.2
26.5
29.5

3.7
71.2
53.7
55.7

58.1

56.8
4.8

37.3
39.1
42.9

38.4
38.7
45.8
40.9
43.1

40.8
41.7
40.8
37.9
36.5

32.4

Fat
Per
cent

1.5

4.4

10.2

4.1

11.4

1.8

3.2

0.2

17.5

6.6

7.4
2.1
4.4

4.6

5.0

4.9
0.3

2.3
1.5
1.3

2.5
3.1

2.2
1.2

2.8

2.8
2.5

2.4
2.8
2.4
3.5
2.6

3.0

Digestible Nu-
trients in 100 lbs.

Crude

Protein

Lbs.

20.3

1.0

9.7

40.3

14.8

7.9

9.9

12.2

3.6

33.2

39.7

56.2

9.2

12.5

12.9

15.7

13.4
0.8

10.6
0.9

3.6
7.9
7.6
3.0
2.1
4.1

5.0
4.3

4.0

4.5

1.0

12.2

8.3

9.2

T.D.N.
Lbs.

240

BETTER DAIRY FARMING

Table I. Analyses of Feedingstufs — (Continued)

Feediagstuffs

Prairie hay

Sorghum fodder

Timothy hay

Wheat straw

Fresh green
roughage

Alfalfa

Alfalfa silage

Beets, garden

Carrots

Clover, red

Clover, red, rowen. .
Corn and soybean

silage

Corn fodder

Corn silage

Corn stover silage. . .

Kaffir fodder

Mangels

Millet, common or

Hungarian

Mixed grasses

Oat fodder

Oat and pea silage. .
Pea, field, Canada...

Peas and oats

Pea cannery refuse

silage

Potatoes

Pumpkins

Rape

Rutabagas

Sorghum fodder

Soybeans

Soybean silage

Sunflower silage

Timothy

Wheat fodder

Total Nutrient?

Water
Per
cent

6.5

9.7

11.6

8.4

74.7
46.0
87.0
88.3
73.8
65.6

74.9

78.1
73.7
79.4
76.4
90.6

72.4
70.3
87.0
69.9
83.4
77.4

76.8
78.8
91.7
83.3
89.1
75.1
76.4
72.8
78.1
62.5
72.6

Ash
Per

cent

7.7
7.8
4.9
5.2

2.4
5.3
1.5
1.2
2.1
2.5

2.0
1.2
1.7
1.3
1.9
1.0

2.1
3.0
1.6
3.0
1.6
2.0

1.3
1.1

Crude
Protein

Per

cent

8.0
7.4
6.2
3 1

4.5
10.0
1.6
12
4.1
5.3

2.6
1.9
2.1
1.5
2.4
1.4

2.9
5.1
4.9
4.1
3.6
3.2

2.8
2.2
1.4
2.9
1.2
1.5
4.1
4.2
2.0
3.1
3.6

Carbohydrates

Fiber
Per
cent

30.5
26.1
29.8
37.4

7.0
14.2
0.9
1.1
7.3
9.1

6.7
5.2
6.3

6.8
6.6
0.8

8.4
6.3
1.7
10.0
4.0
6.3

6.5
0.4
1.3
2.6
1.4
7.0
6.3
7.9
6.4
11.7
7.5

N.F.E.
Per
cent

44.7
45.9
45.0
44.4

10.4
22.0
8.9
8.0
11.7
16.2

12.8
13.0
15.4
10.5
12.0
6.1

13.3

13.8
4.0

11.7
6.9

10.1

11.3

17.4

4.2

8.4

7.0

14.0

9.8

10.1

10.2

19.3

12.8

Fat
Per
cent

2.6
3.1
2.5
1.5

1.0
2.5
0.1
0.2
1.0
1.3

1.0
0.6
0.8
0.6
0.7
0.1

0.9
1.5

0.8
1.3
0.5
1.0

1.3
0.1
0.5
0.6
0.3
1.0
1.0
1.5
1.1
1.2
0.8

Digestible Nu-
trients in 100 lbs.

Crude

Protein

Lbs.

4.0
2.8
3.0
0.7

3.3
5.1
0.9
1.0
2.7
3.3

1.6
1.0
1.1
0.6
1.1
0.8

1.9
3.6
3.4

2.8
2.9
2.4

1.6
1.1
1.1
2.6
1.0
0.7
3.2
2.8
1.0
1.5
2.8

APPENDIX

241

FEEDING STANDARDS
A feeding standard is a statement of the amount of digestible
nutrients required by an animal over a certain period of time for
a given purpose, such as milk production, growth, etc. Several
investigators have worked out feeding standards for the various
classes of animals. We reproiuce here in Table II the feeding
standard for a dairy cow worked out by Professor F. B. Morrison
of the University of Wisconsin, as published in " Feeds and Feeding,"
previously mentioned.

Table II. Morrison Feeding Standard for Dairy Cows

Total
Digestible Digestible

Protein Nutrients

(pounds) (pounds)

1. Dairy cows*

For maintenance of 1000-pound cow. . . . 0.700 7.925

To allowance for maintenance add:

For each pound of 2.5 per cent milk 0.045-0.053 0.230-0.256

For each pound of 3.0 per cent milk 0 . 047-0 .057 0 . 257-0 . 286

For each pound of 3.5 per cent milk 0.049-0.061 0.284-0.316

For each pound of 4.0 per cent milk 0.054-0.065 0.311-0.346

For each pound of 4.5 per cent milk 0.057-0.069 0.338-0.376

For each pound of 5.0 per cent milk 0 . 060-0 .073 0 . 362-0 . 402

For each pound of 5.5 per cent milk 0.064-0.077 0.385-0.428

For each pound of 6.0 per cent milk 0 . 067-0 .081 0 . 409-0 . 454

For each pound of 6.5 per cent milk 0.072-0.085 0.434-0.482

For each pound of 7.0 per cent milk 0 . 074-0 .089 0 . 454-0 . 505

*Cows producing 1 0 lb. of fat daily should receive about 21 to 25 pounds dry matter per 1000
pounds live weight.

In Table II the figures give the amount of nutrients required
for a 24-hour period. In the first place, it is noted that a certain
amount is required for maintenance. Figures are given for a 1000-
pound cow. The requirements for other weights are proportional.
An 800-pound cow would require only eight-tenths as much.
Next, a certain amount of nutrients is added according to the
amount and richness of the milk.

These figures are the same no matter what the weight of the cow.
In stating certain limits, instead of an absolute requirement for
each unit of production, Professor Morrison gives an opportunity
for choice according to feed costs. He states that feeding the upper
limits of protein and total digestible nutrients will usually increase

242 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

production slightly but that it may not be economical to do so
where feed prices, particularly for protein-rich feeds, are high.
Feeding standards are used for computing rations.

442. Computing a dairy ration. — Suppose it is desired to
compute a ration for a 1200-pound cow producing 30 pounds of
milk testing 3.5 per cent fat, using those feeds which at current
prices will give the cheapest ration and still be satisfactory in other
respects. For maintenance the cow will require 1.2 times the
requirements for a 1000-pound cow given in Table II. For her
production requirements we will use an average of the limits set
in the table. For one pound of 3.5 per cent milk this would be
0.055 pounds digestible protein and 0.30 pounds total digestible
nutrients. For 30 pounds it would be 30 times as much. The cow's
requirements would thus be as follows:

Digestible
Protein

0.84
1.65

Total
Digestible
Nutrients

9.510
9.000

For maintenance

For 30 lbs. of 3.5% milk

Totals 2.49 18.510

The above shows the nutrients the cow must have in a day's
ration. Suppose there are red clover hay and silage available on
the farm. To obtain the proper variety at least three concentrates
must be bought. The next thing to do is to find out from the feed
dealer the current prices of various feeds and compute their relative
cost in terms of total digestible nutrients. The latter can be
obtained for a given feed by multiplying the total digestible nutri-
ents in 100 pounds, as given in Table I, by 20 and dividing the
result into the price per ton. This result, the cost per pound
T.D.N., multiplied by 100 gives cost per 100 pounds T.D.N.
This is illustrated below for hominy:

$38.05

X100 = $2.25

84.6X20
Suppose the following feeds are available at the prices named:

APPENDIX 243

tv_j_ Cost Cost per

^ , per ton 100 lbs. T.»N.

Corn meal $36.50 $2.18

Hominy feed 38.05 2.25

Flour middlings 38.80 2.48

Standard middlings 35 . 05 2 . 53

Wheat mixed feed 36.30 2.71

Ground oats 38 . 60 2 . 74

Wheat bran 35.05 2.88

Gluten feed 49 . 80 3 . 09

Cottonseed meal, 43% 58.05 3.71

Linseed oil meal 59 . 05 3 . 80

Having the necessary information as to feeds available we are
ready to select the kinds and amounts to be used. When a cow
is fed the right proportion of roughage to concentrates she will
consume daily about one pound of hay and three pounds of silage
for every hundred pounds of live weight. Thus, as a starting
point we decide that our ration should contain 12 pounds of hay
and 36 pounds of silage. The next problem is to select the grain
ration so as to make up the rest of the requirements. At the same
time we must keep the dry matter within the limits noted under
Table II. Of course, if we added enough we could get all the re-
quirements by using only low protein feeds, but this would increase
the dry matter much above the upper limit and might make the
ration in excess of what the cow would consume. The dry matter
allowance for a 1200-pound cow is 1.2 times that given in the note
in Table II, or 25 to 30 pounds.

Experience tells us that to get sufficient protein and the proper
amount of dry matter in a grain mixture a part of it must come
from a high protein feed. Gluten feed is the cheapest feed in this
class according to the table. Hominy is a cheap, low protein
feed, but we cannot make the mixture entirely of gluten and
hominy because it would lack variety and come entirely from
one plant. Thus, let us include one of the wheat feeds. We prefer
bran to middlings but it costs considerably more and we may
compromise by using a mixture of the two — wheat mixed feed.
We will also select ground oats to use in a small amount to add
further variety. Next we start constructing the table shown on
page 244 trying different amounts of the concentrates selected
until the figures come out as we want them.

Total

Digestible

Digestible

Protein

Nutrients

.912

6.11

.396

6.37

.140

1.69

.097

.70

.387

2 01

.432

1.61

244 BETTER DAIRY FARMING

Dry
Feeds Matter

12 lbs. red clover hay 10 . 45

36 lbs. corn silage 9 . 47

2 lbs. hominy feed 1 .80

1 lb. ground oats .91

3 lbs. wheat mixed feed 2.70

2 lbs. gluten feed 1.83

Totals 27.16 2.364 18.49

Table I does not give figures for dry matter but they can be
obtained by subtracting the figures for water from 100. To con-
struct the above table we thus multiplied the pounds of each feed
by the appropriate figure for analysis from Table I, remembering
that we had to point off two places. For example, the computation
for clover hay was as follows:

12 X (100— 12.9) = 10.45 lbs. dry matter

12 X 7 . 6 = .912 lbs. digestible protein

12X50.9 = 6.11 lbs. T.D.N.

It takes some time to construct the table so as to have it come
out the way we want it, but it goes much easier after a little prac-
tice. It is easy to get the dry matter to come in the range specified.
We try to come within .2 pounds for the digestible protein and
.5 pounds for the total digestible nutrients. The grain mixture
we have selected would cost 16.2 cents for the eight pounds for
a day's feeding, or $40.40 per ton.

We like to have some oil meal in the dairy ration where it is
not too expensive. Here is a mixture containing it which would
meet the requirements:

Dry
Feeds Matter

12 lbs. red clover hay 10 . 45

36 lbs. corn silage 9 . 47

3 lbs. hominy 2 . 70

3 lbs. wheat mixed feed 2.70

lib. gluten feed .91

1 lb. linseed oil meal .91

Totals 27.14 2.423 18.62

Total

Digestible

Digestible

Protein

Nutrients

.912

6.11

.396

6.37

.210

2.54

.387

2.01

.216

.81

.302

.78

APPENDIX 245

This mixture, containing slightly more protein, would cost 16.6
cents for the day's feeding or $41 . 50 per ton.

Of course this method is too complicated for regular use. The
methods for putting together rations we have discussed in Chapter
II are more practical. However, the question frequently comes
up as to whether a given ration contains enough protein, or as to
whether a cow is getting the right amount of nutrients for her
production. Her ration can be easily checked up against the
feeding standard. Finding whether a ration corresponds to the
standard is much simpler than trying to make one fit it. For
example, is 10 pounds of mixed hay, 25 pounds of silage and 8
pounds of equal parts of wheat bran and gluten feed a satis-
factory ration for a 1200-pound Holstein cow producing 25 pounds
of milk? Such a question came to us recently. The nutrient con-
tent of the ration works out as follows:

-,-, j Dry Digestible

Feeds Matter Protein T.D.N.

10 lbs. mixed hay 8.72 .430 5.13

25 lbs. corn silage 6.58 .275 4.43

4 lbs. wheat bran 3.60 .500 2.44

4 lbs. gluten feed 3.65 .864 3.23

Totals 22.55 2.069 15.23

The cow's requirements are as follows, assuming 3.5 per cent
milk:

Digestible
Protein T.D.N.

For maintenance 0 . 840 9 . 51

For 25 lbs. of 3.5% milk 1.375 7.5

Totals 2.215 17.01

Thus, the ration is adequate as regards protein but low in total
digestible nutrients and dry matter. It could be corrected by
increasing the roughage. This would probably also add more
protein than necessary, making it possible to substitute at least
one pound of a lower protein concentrate which would cheapen the
grain ration, or perhaps one pound of the concentrates could be
omitted without further addition. However, the grain ration lacks
variety as it stands.

246

BETTER DAIRY FARMING

WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS CONCENTRATES

A grain mixture will have the proper bulk if a quart of it weighs
not more than a pound. Thus, in making up such mixtures it is
useful to know the relative weights of the common feeds. The
following table is taken from " Feeds and Feeding." eighteenth edi-
tion, by special permission of the authors:

Table III. Weights of Various Concentrates

Feedingstuff

Barley, whole

Barley, ground

Beans, navy

Beet pulp, dried

Brewers' grains

dried

Buckwheat, whole. .
Buckwheat

middlings

Cocoanut meal

Corn, whole

Corn-and-cob meal .

Corn meal

Corn germ meal

Cottonseed meal

Distillers' grains

dried

Gluten feed

Gluten meal

One
quart
weighs

Lbs.
1.5
1.1
1.7
0.6

0.6
1.4

0.9
1.5
1.7

1.4
1.5

1.4
1.5

0.6
1.3
1.7

One

pound

measures

Qts.
0.7
0.9
0.6
1.7

1.7
0.7

1.1
0.7
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7

1.7

0.8
0.6

Feedingstuff

Hominy feed

Linseed oil meal. .

Malt sprouts

Molasses, cane ....

Oats, whole

Oats, ground

Rice bran

Rye, whole

Rye, ground

Rye feed

Soybeans

Wheat, whole

Wheat, ground. . . .

Wheat bran

Wheat mixed feed .
WTheat middlings,

flour

Wheat middlings,

standard

One

quart
weighs

Lbs.
1.1
1.1
0.6
3.0
1.0
0.7
0.8
1.7
1.5
1.3
1.8
1.9
1.7
0.5
0.6

1.2

0.8

( im-
pound
measures

Qts.
0.9
0.9
1.7
0 3
1.0
1.4
1.3
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.6
0.5
0.6
2.0
1.7

0.8

1.3

INDEX

Abortion, 154-7

bull as a factor in, 156

causes of, 154

feeding in relation to, 155, 156

losses from, 154

prevention of, 155, 156

spread of, 155

veterinary service for, 156
Accredited herd plan, 148
Advanced registry. 49
Advertising and marketing milk, 173, 174
Afterbirth, removal of, 7, 157
Alfalfa, as a soiling crop, 203

enrichment of soil by, 197

how to get a stand of, 198

inoculation for, 199

lime for, 199

meal, 203

seeding, 200

silage, 203

soil for, 199
Mfalfa hav, 198-203

as a feed, 9, 202

curing, 200

cutting, 200

grain mixtures for, 3, 13

yield, 198
Alsike clover, 205
Analvses of feeds, table of, 238
Ash in feeds, 191
Ayrshire bulls, 113

cows, 111

Babeock test, 185

Barley and its bv-products, 228-229

feed, 229
Barns, 162-8

arrangement of, 163

building on paper, 167

covered barnyard for, 163

facing cows in, 165

light in, 165

location of, 165

plans for, 162

remodeling, 167

ventilation in, 165
Beet pulp, dried, 17, 57, 237
Bloat, 159
Breed, associations, 95, 96

choice of, 94

magazines, 96
Breeding, 136-143

community, 113

heredity a factor in, 138

inbreeding, 140

line breeding, 140

points for success in, 94
Brewers' grains, 228
Brown Swiss cows, 114
Buckwheat, 229

middlings, 229
Bulk, 11
Bull, age to begin service, 133

Ayrshire, 113

Bull, buying, 121-131
community, 124
exercise for, 134
feeding, 132
for a grade herd, 128
grain mixture for, 133
Guernsey, 106
handling, 133
Holstein, 103
housing, 135
impotence, 135
improvement with, 132
Jersey, 110

Milking Shorthorn, 116
purebred, value of, 92, 118
the ideal, 117-120
tvpe, 129
value of, 118, 132, 136

Calf meals, 38-43, 75

how to feed, 42

proprietary, 39
Calves, 30-48

birth, treatment at, 30

birth weights, 30

cleanliness in feeding, 34

dehorning, 36

dried milk for, 43

feeding on pasture, 47

grain for, 32

hay for, 32

ideal, 35

lead poisoning in, 44

pens for, 33

raising on calf meal, 38

raising on skim milk, 31

raising on whole milk, 31

raising with limited use of milk,
38

scours in, 34

silage for, 33

teaching to drink, 30

turning to pasture, 46
Carbohydrates, 190
Cellulose, 190
Clean milk, its production, 169-174

cooling, 170

essentials for, 169
Cleanliness

in feeding calves, 34

in producing milk, 169-72
Clipped oat by-product, 227
Clover, alsike, 205
Clover, and timothy, 204

as a feed, 205

culture, 203

harvesting, 204

in rotations, 204

red, 203-205
Cocoanut oil meal, 235
Cod liver oil, 52
Community breeding, 143

bulls, 124
Computing a ration, 242

247

248

INDEX

Co-operative distribution of feeds, 70-81

benefits of, 78, 81
Copra oil meal, 235
Corn and cob meal, 221
Corn and its by-Droducts, 221-223
Corn feed meal, 222
Corn fodder, 208
Corn germ meal, 222
Corn meal, 221
Corn silage, 213, 214
Corn stover, 208
Cottonseed, 232
feed, 233
hulls, 232
meals, 232

feeding of, 233
Cows

amount to feed to, 17

breeding efficiency of, 140

buying and selling, 175-182

capacity in, 82, 85

conformation of, 83-91

feeding at calving time, 6

feeding on pasture, 6, 23

feeding while dry, 2

fitting for sale, 180, 182

fitting for show ring, 180

front quarters of, 83

grain mixtures for, 2, 13, 24, 51, 55, 74

ideal, 82-91

individual feeding, 18

kind wanted by buyers, 175-178

middle of, 85

milk veins of, 89

minerals for. 3, 16

on test

feeding at calving, 53
fitting rations for, 51
grain mixtures for, 55
handling at calving, 53
hay for, 57

method of feeding, 55, 56
minerals for, 52
pasture feeding, 58
quarters for, 60
roots for, 56
silage for, 57
purebred, sale value of, 94
purebred, superior production of, 92
purebreds or grades, 92-97
rear quarters of, 85
selecting for breeding, 139
standard weights of, 82
temperament of, 91
training for show ring, 182
type of, 86
udder of, 86
vital organs of, 84
water for, 20, 60
Cow-testing associations, 183
Crude fiber, 190

Dairy improvement clubs, 186
Dehorning calves, 36
Digestibility, 12, 61, 193
Distillers' grains, 223
Dried skim milk for calves, 43
Dry cows, feeding, 2

minerals for, 3

on pasture, 6
Dry matter, 189
Dry period, length of, 1, 50

Drying off the cow, 1

Exercise. 21, 134

Fats, 190
Feed records, 184
Feeding standards, 241
Feeds, feedingstuffs,

buying, 61-81

buying according to market, 65. 66

buying for cash, 64

buying in quantity, 64

chemistry of, 189

composition of, 189-193, 238

co-operative distribution of, 70-81

digestible nutrients, 242

digestibility of, 12, 193

high protein. 12

low protein, 13

manurial value of, 193-196

measuring value of, 192

medium protein, 12

proprietary, 67

saving money in buying, 65

tables of analyses, 238

with public formulas, 69, 74
Fitting cows for official test, 50
Flaxseed, 234
Flies, 27

Flour middlings, 225
Foot rot, 159

Garget, 158

Gestation Table, 141

Gluten feed, 223

Gluten meal, 223

Goitre, 192

Grain mixtures, amount to feed, 17

cost of, 12

for bulls, 133

for calves, 32

for cows in milk, 13, 24, 51, 75

for cows on test, 55, 56, 74

for dry cows, 2

for young stock, 32, 48, 75

with alfalfa or clover, 13

with mixed hay, 15

with pasture, 24

with timothy, 14
Grange League Federation Exchange, Inc., 72
Guernsey bulls, 106

cows, 104

production, 105

type, 105

Hay, 197-209

alfalfa, 198-203

alsike clover, 205

computing amount in mow, 208

cowpea, 206

curing and harvesting, 200, 201

for calves, 32

for cows, 3, 9, 57

legume vs. non-legume, 197

mixed, 207

pea and oat, 206

red clover, 203-205

soybean, 206

timothy, 207
Health, an essential for the herd, 144
Heifers, feeding of, 46-48

when to breed, 48

INDEX

249

Herd improvement by keeping records, 183-8!
by weeding out poor cows, 187
individual records essential for, 183
Holstein bulls, 103
cows, 98-103

conformation, 101
milk system, 102
type, 99
Hominy feed, 222

Inbreeding, 139, 140
Indigestion, 158, 159
Iodine, 192

Jersey bulls, 110

cows, 107-110
milk, 109
type, 109

Lead poisoning, 44

Legume hay (see clover, alfalfa, etc.)

importance in ration, 9

manurial value of, 194

vs. non-legume, 197
Lice, 160

Light, importance of, 21, 165
Lime, commercial sources of, 5

in rations, 4, 191

vitamine aiding assimilation of, 4, 20
Line breeding, 140
Linseed oil meal, 232

Malt sprouts, 228

Mangels, 220

Manure, care of, 164, 193

value of feeds for, 193-196

value of urine as, 193
Mating, 140
Milk, cooling, 170

fever, 8

flavors and odors in, 171

Guernsey, 106

Jersey, 109

marketing, 173

production on alfalfa and silage alone, 15

tanks, 171

testing for fat, 185

veins, 89

vitamines in, 20

weighing, 142, 185
Milking machines, 171

individual records with, 172

labor saved by, 171

money saved by, 172
Milking Shorthorns, bulls, 116

cows, 114-116

dual function of, 115
Milking, times a day, 22, 142
Minerals in the dairy ration, 3, 16, 191

for cows on pasture, 25

for test cows, 52

proprietary, 16

source of, 5
Molasses, beet, 236

cane, 236

feeding value of, 236
for test cows, 57
how to feed, 237

Neighborhood breed clubs, 186
Nitrogen-free-extract, 190

Non-legumes, 207

Oat feed, 227

groats, 227

meal mill by-product, 227
Oats, 226-228
Oil meals, 232-236

Premature birth, 154

Production records, 183

for determining breeding value, 187
for herd improvement. 187
increased sale value by, 188

Protein, 189

importance in ration, 11, 191
quality of, 190

Rations, how to compute, 242
Records, feed, 184

official (see official records)

production (see production records)
Red clever (see clover, red)

dog flour, 225
Register of merit, 49
Regularity in feeding and milking, 21
Rice, bran, 230

feed, 231

polish, 231
Roots, 17

feeding of, 220

for test cows, 56
Roughages, dry, 197-208

succulent, 209-220
Rye, 230

middlings or feed, 230

Salt, 16

Sanitation, 144
Scours, common, 34

white, 35
Screenings, 224
Silage, 209-216

as supplement to pasture, 25

calculating amount required, 212

computing amount in silo, 214

corn, 213

crops for, 213

for calves, 33

for test cows, 57

from frosted corn, 214

how preserved, 209

importance in ration, 10

legume, 215

substitutes for, 17

sunflower, 215

year-round succulence, 212
Silos, capacity, 212

filling, 213

size, 212

types, 210
Skim milk for calves, 31
Soiling crops, 219-220

planning for, 219

with pasture, 25
Soybean, 235

hay, 206

oil meal, 236
Sterility. 157
Straw, 208
Summer dairying, 28

Teat troubles, 160

250 INDEX

Testing milk for fat, 185 Variety in ration, 11

Timothy hay, 207 Ventilation, 21, 165

Total disgestible nutrients, 61, 62, 241 Vitamines, 19
Tuberculosis, 144-153 and lime assimilation, 20

accredited herd plan for, 148 in milk, 20

area work in, 149, 153 in pasture grass, 218

how it starts, 145 in rations, 19

importance of owner in cleaning up, 150 preservation by proper curing, 202

keeping the herd clean from, 153

losses from, 145 Warbles, 161

nature and symptoms, 145 Water, 189
physical symptoms, 147 for calves, 33

preventing spread of, 147 for cows, 20, 60

problem of, 144 Weighing milk, 185

should owner test, 151 Weights, of various concentrates, 246
Tompkins County plan for, 150 standards for different breve's, 82

tuberculin test for, 147 Wheat and its by-products, 223-225
Two-year-olds, feeding of, 46-48 bran, 224

middlings, 225
milling, 223
Udder, size of, 87 mixed feed, 225

structure of, 86 Winter dairying, 28

teats of, 89 Wire in feed, 161
tissue of, 88

troubles, 6, 158 Yearlings, feeding of, 46-48

684 p;

02/04/02 *1£4

SDjB

V