NOM BE

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Book B ral

Copyright N°

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT:

a
ap).
i

Harriet says that a book, like an orchard, needs a
promising outlook. How will this do?

Fruit and Orchard Gleanings

From Bough to Basket

GATHERED AND PackeEp INTO Book Form
BY

JACOB BIGGLE

ILLUSTRATED

“*Plant fruit trees. Who plants and tends a tree hath
part in God’s own work, and makes the
earth more beautiful”?

—_____.

PHILADELPHIA
WILMER ATKINSON Co.
1906

LIBRARY of CONGRESS
Two Copies Received
DEC 21 415906

0 Copyright Entry

A0,/90
ciass' A ne No,

! Sok G15

CopyRIGHT, 1906

WILMER ATKINSON Co.

To
WILMER ATKINSON,

Editor of

My best-beloved farm paper

This little book
Is affectionately dedicated.
To his kindly help
And councils,
The author owes

Much.

I_LUSTRATIONS SIN COLOR:

(SPECIAL Note: All colored pictures are two-thirds
natural size.)

APPLES.

Baldwin, . - Plate V.
Ben Davis, rien Sd Whe
1G TTSrY Ie oy, Mig eeeteen taken ALES OUR
Maiden’s Blush, “ X.
Northern Spy, AAO
Oldenbureses). 2) eS
Rambo, aces Sule
Rhode Island

(Gyre, ~ — I00L,
Smith’s Cider, A Cane:
Smokehouse, Ie
SrilGhiiahce oe oe ee, eC
Stayman —

Winesap, Vic
Twenty Ounce, eS RE
Yellow Newtown

Pippin,

(or Albermarle

Bipot ee ess
Work inmnecel, 5 — waguk

CHERRIES.

Black ‘Tartarian, Plate

oe

Montmorency,

Nip Ole Oni aaron in
Nuts.

Paragon

Chestnuts, Plate

PEACHES.

Crawford’s Tate, Plate

Eilibertarc ©) ee
GlObEi wy sss

XVI.

XIX.
XIX.

2 QNAOO(

Mountain Rose, - Plate XII.

Oldmixon Free,- “ XII.
Salway,..-') lene 0:
Smock Free, 1 Xavolelale

PEARS.
Anjou, : 2) Plateexave
Bartlett, ~ Se Xan Te
Duchess, 2 cy Exe
Flemish Beauty, “© XVII
Kieffer, 2 “| EXEVG
Séckel! 3-8 g.sv4 > taxa
Sheldon; 22) <<. 7 seexaiilele

PLUMS
Bradshaw, Plate XIV
Burbank) + asl eee
Coe’s Golden I

Drop, XOXS
Damson, Oo SRG
German! Prune.) a See
Green Gage, See
IXelseyaner once 1 SONG
Lombard, -) scm een
Red June: 2)etr ol ene
Yellow Egg, “ESD

MISCELLANEOUS.

Effects of Pear

Leaf-blight, . . Plate VII.

San Jose on
Apple,
Pear,

Sprayed and Un-
sprayed Fruit,

fe ae

VII.
VII.

VI.

PREFACE.

The writing of this little book has surely been a
labor of love. Harriet and I love trees. They are
our pets, and we
think as much of
them as we do of the
animals and birds on
the farm.

It had sometimes
occurred to me thata
need existed in this
country for a simple,
practical, inexpen-
sive, boiled-down yet complete, printed talk on the
subject of tree fruits,;—a talk that would help the
amateur as well as the more experienced orchardist.
My publishers encouraged tke idea, saying that
requests for such a treatise had often been received
at their office during the past few years. Well—to
make a long story short—this book is largely the
result of their encouragement and kindness; without
such helps I very much doubt whether the idea ever
would have materialized into clear type.

Harriet has helped me, too—bless her heart. So
have Tim and Farmer Vincent. And so have the
artists, designers, engravers and photographers who
are connected with the Wilmer Atkinson Co.

Yes, and my thanks go out, also, to the various
practical fruit men, government experts, and writers,
whose helpful suggestions, letters, pictures and

(7)

8 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

bulletins have been of aid to me in the preparation
of this volume. At times, too, I have been glad to
consult Prof. Bailey’s Cyclopedia of American Horti-
culture, Thomas’ American Fruit Culturist, Barry’s
Fruit Garden, and other standard reference books.
And Iam indebted to H.W. Collingwood, Editor of the
Rural New-Yorker, for permission to reproduce the
excellent dwarf pear photo-engraving in Chapter XV;
and to K. E. Harriman, of the Pilgrim Magazine,
Battle Creek, Mich., for his courtesy in allowing me
to use the peach-grader picture in Chapter XIX.
Occasionally I have used extracts from letters and
from Experiment Station or Department of Agricul-
ture literature, but, in the main, this Orchard Book
embodies my own experiences, observations and con-
clusions—the result of a lifetime of practise and study.

My friend, Wilmer Atkinson, claims that his paper
is ‘‘ Unlike any other.’’ He’sright, too. Itis. And,
following a good example, I have tried to make this
book different from any other. It isn’t an encyclo-
pedia; it isn’t a long-winded two or three dollar
text-book; it isn’t an incomplete pamphlet; it isn’t
hard to understand; and it isn’t a rehash of other
people’s guesswork. No. It’s simply a plain little
book that aims to tell the inquiring reader just what
he or she needs to know—no more, no less. I have
tried to have all the necessary facts set down and all
the unnecessary things left out. It’s boiled-down
‘‘essence of orchard,’’ served with picture trimmings,
and side dishes of the finest colored plates ever put
into a horticultural book. I hope you will like it, and
that your orchard may prosper accordingly.

Elmwood, 1906. JACOB BIGGLE.

CHAPTER I.
CHAPTER IT.

CHAPTER III.
CHAPTER IV.

CHAPTER V.
CHAPTER VI.

CHAPTER VII.

CHAPTER VIII.

CHAPTER IX.

CHAPTER X.
CHAPTER XI.
CHAPTER XII.

CHAPTER XIII.

CHAPTER XIV.
CHAPTER XV.
CHAPTER XVI.

CHAPTER XVII.
CHAPTER XVIII.

CHAPTER XIX.
CHAPTER XX.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Starting an Orchard: Planning

Seed-Growing, Grafting and
Budding

Setting Trees . heath gs

Pruning and Early Care of
Newly-Set Trees

Later Pruning

Cultivation. Fertilization.
Thinning .

Spraying serge bons

Scale Pests: San Jose, Oyster-
Shell, Scurfy, etc. .

Cover Crops. Fall,
and Spring Care

The Apple

The Cherry .

The Peach

The Pear ;

The Plum . ge nn

The Ouince and Dwarf Pear .

Nut Trees . eal Pea

Citrus and Other Fruit Trees

Picking Fruit .

Grading and Packing

Cold Storage and Marketing .
(9)

Winter

11

SadUOAMVAUSD AO Lausvd VW

CHAPTER I.

STARTING, AN ORCHARD: PLANNING.

Tf a man doesn’t start, he will never get anywhere.—Tim.

The first thing to do about starting an orchard is
to plan for it. Put on your thinking-cap, study into
the matter, and do not
jump inthe dark. A
slow start is much better
than a poor start. Har-
riet says that an orchard
set in the right place,
at the right time and of
the right varieties, is PLANNING THE ORCHARD
worth just ‘‘eleven times’’ more than a hit-or-miss
orchard. (Where she secured the data for such exact
figures, I do not know; but I am willing to admit
that she is about right in this statement. )

To begin, suppose we consider the question of
‘“‘right place.’’ The ideal spot for a proposed orchard
is gently sloping and high. ‘This doesn’t mean that
it must be on top of a mountain. No. It means only
comparative height. The spot should be somewhat
higher than its surroundings. Thatistheidea. Then
when a frost comes—or a deluge—it quickly runs off
on to the lower lands. Proper frost drainage is just
as important as good water drainage. More so. Why?
Because water can be tiled away ; frost can not. Some
growers prefer a north or some other slope; but

(11)

— “tim B mv =

—
{f
ay im

12 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

height of land is of more importance than direction of
slope.

Another thing to consider carefully, is the local
climate and conditions connected therewith. For
instance: Before setting a commercial orchard of,
say, peach trees, look around and ascertain whether
the natural local conditions are favorable to that par-
ticular fruit. Is the locality a ‘‘peach section’’? Are

ISN’T SOMETHING LIKE THIS WORTH
PLANNING FOR?

there successful peach orchards already established?
Is the average winter climate mild enough for this
somewhat tender frnit? Does the state experiment
station advise the planting of peaches in your locality?
Do near-by practical fruit-growers advise it? If the
answer to each of these questions is, ‘‘ No,’’ the chances
are that you will be wise to change your plans and
plant some other species of fruit,—some kind which
is exactly adapted to the locality. The same rule
holds good (to a greater or lesser degree) with other
fruits.

STARTING AN ORCHARD: PLANNING is

Other local conditions to consider, before setting
a commercial orchard, are transportation, marketing
facilities, and the help problem. In some localities
it is possible to employ transient help just when most
needed,— men for picking (for example), or women
for packing; in other localities it is almost impossible
to secure such temporary assistance.

Carefully study the question of soil in its relation
to the fruits, etc., to be grown. Some kinds of fruit
do best on light soils, some do best on heavy soils.
The difference between a
sandy or a clayey location
may mean the difference be-
tween success and failure.
In this book will be found,
in the special chapter de-
voted to each kind of fruit,
etc., hints about the soil best
suited to the species.

The foregoing sugges- CES Sl |
mousrapply eithy most force, “26 sume IG aOR:
of course, to large orchards ORCHARD ARRANGEMENT
planted for market purposes. The home orchard for
family use necessarily means an aggregation of various
kinds of trees probably all set together on one kind of
soil, and therefore it is not in this case always possible
to cater to all the requirements of each. But it pays
to do so, as nearly as is practicable, even with a small
family orchard.

Examine the subsoil. Is it so hard and so near
the surface that tree roots can never hope to find
a secure anchorage? Does water stand above the

) Gig
;

e.

14 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

subsoil in such quantity and with such persistency as
to threaten ‘‘wet feet’’ to the trees? If the former,
seek another location; if the latter, make up your
mind to tile the field before setting the trees. There
are few orchards which are not the better for a sys-
tem of underground drains. Better do the necessary
tiling at the start, rather than later. Have the tile
buried three feet deep, and, if possible, lay it midway
between tree rows.

Now let us consider the question of the “right
time.’’ Generally speaking, early spring is the best
season to set an orchard. There are some exceptions
to this, of course. For instance: Sweet cherry trees
often grow better when set in the fall. Some of the
more hardy fruits—apples, pears, etc.,—may be
planted in autumn, if desired. Latitude has much
to do with this question. The farther south you are,
the safer it is to practise fall planting.

In the north, however, it is seldom wise to set
tender trees, like peaches or plums, until spring;
therefore the best rule I can give to the planter
who isn’t an expert, is: Stick to spring planting.
Tim says that it’s “better to be safe than sorry,”’
and I am sure he is not far wrong.

But it is usually good policy to purchase trees in
the fall, ‘“‘heel’’ them in near the proposed orchard,
and thus be ready for instant action when the ground
gets into workable shape in the spring. The fall
buyer gets first choice of trees, and runs no danger
of delayed spring shipments. Or, buy the trees in
the fall, and let the nurseryman keep them for you
until winter is over.

STARTING AN ORCHARD: PLANNING 15

How to.r--héel “in”?
trees : Dig a trench, about
a foot and a half deep, the
same in width, andas long
as may be necessary; if
possible, choose a high,
sheltered, well-drained
spot. Untie the bundles
of trees, and place them
loosely along the trench,
—each variety by itself, ‘i
properly labeled. Half-a- Se ee
dozen trees to a running UNTYING NURSERY BUNDLE
foot is close enough. Of course put the roots in the
trench; then incline the trees backward until they
are ‘‘half lying down’”’ across the excavation. Now
shovel in fine dirt, carefully firm it into place, and
pile the remainder of the excavated dirt well up
around the roots and lower portion of trunks. If
the climate is very cold, or if rabbits and mice
are feared, earth can be piled still higher up
around the trunks and perhaps even around the
lower branches. If large quantities of trees are to be
‘heeled in, ’’ work is les-
sened and matters sim-
plified if close-together
parallel trenches are
used instead of a single
long one, using the dirt
from each new trench to
cover the preceding one.
“HEELING IN’) OPERATION Drain the water away

COMPLETED, EXCEPT SHOVELING
SOIL IN PLACE from the trenches.

16 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

I earnestly advise all intending tree planters to
visit the nearest reliable nursery and personally select
the trees wanted. Pick out straight, healthy, properly-
branched, thrifty trees. Medium-size trees are usually
best. Of course they should be fumigated and
guaranteed free from scale. (They should also be
dipped at home in the lime, sulphur and salt mixture,
to make assurance doubly sure.)

But perhaps 'you may prefer to grow your own
trees, instead of buying them already grown. If so,
you will find directions for seed sowing, pnelees and
grafting, in the next chapter.

At last we have come to the matter of ‘‘right
varieties.’? And this is a very important matter,
indeed. So important, in fact, that if it requires a
year of preliminary study and inquiry to decide the
matter rightly, it will be time profitably spent.

Study the various fruit chapters in this book,
wherein I have endeavored to give desirable lists of
varieties for different localities. Write to your state
experiment station, mentioning the nature of your
soil, and ask for special advice as to the best varieties
for you to plant; and be sure to state whether your
orchard is wanted for market or family purposes.
Talk with practical fruit-growers in your locality.
Consult with your market buyers (if you are to have
a commercial orchard), or with your family’s taste (if
it’s to be a home orchard).

Also, before buying or planning an orchard or
ordering trees, study these facts about pollination of
blossoms: Much of the unsatisfactory fruiting of
orchards all over the country is due to self-sterility.
A tree is self-sterile if it can not set fruit unless
planted near other varieties. The main cause of

STARTING AN ORCHARD: PLANNING Ly

self-sterility is the inability of the pollen of a variety
to fertilize the pistils of that variety. An indication of
self-sterility is the continued dropping of young fruit
from isolated trees or solid blocks of one variety ;
also, fruit from a self-sterile tree is apt to be imper-
fectly formed. Self-sterility is not a constant character
with any variety. Poorly-nourished treesare more likely
to be sterile with their own pollen than well-fed trees
are. The loss of fruit from self-sterility may be pre-
vented by planting other varieties :
among the self-sterile trees, or
by grafting other varieties into
occasional trees. For names of
varieties which are often self-
sterile, consult each special fruit
chapter in this book.

“Getting the ground ready for the tree-setting is
another important part of ‘‘starting an orchard.”’ If
possible, plow it in the fall. At least, it should be
plowed previous to planting. Harrow it until the
field is fine and level.

If the ground was in sod last year, better grow pota-
toes and subdue the grass previous to setting trees.
Preliminary fertilizing may or may not be necessary
or desirable. If the land is fairly fertile, I should pre-
fer, ordinarily, to apply manure or fertilizer after the
trees are planted, rather than before—’ tis more econom-
ical. (See Chapter VI for further fertilizing facts. )

Itisa good idea to make a plan of the orchard, drawn
to scale, and mark thereon just where each tree is to go.
This 1s a great help when figuring out how many trees
to buy, or when setting the trees, orin after years when
somebody asks: ‘‘ What’s the name of ¢/7s tree?”’

18 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

DON'TS.

Don’t plan to start an orchard on sod.
Don’t waste money in buying “ big” trees.
Don’tallow that you know itall; consult with the other fellow.

Don’t locate an orchard on or very near the steep bank of
an abrupt, deep ravine. A big gully often acts like a frost trap.

Don’t plan to set large, solid blocks of trees of any one
variety. Better alternate several varieties in double rows.

Don’t forget that tree roots are not improved by exposure to
wind or sun. Don't let them dry out, unduly, before *‘ heeling
in’? or planting. Protect a newly-dug tree as you would a baby.

Don’t neglect to plan for the planting of a windbreak on the
north and west sides of the orchard,—but not too close; about
forty feet distant will do. Scotch pine or Norway spruce makes
a good shelter.

The orchardist who figures the “ possible net profit from one
tree,’’ and then multiplies that sum by the number of trees in the
orchard, is usually storing up disappointment. Orchards, like
chickens, seldom hatch out a crop exactly “according to rule.”

Don’t figure on “novelties,’’ nor varieties that the market
doesn’t want; nor varieties that are already overplanted. Plant
few kinds for market, rather than many kinds. Remember that
large, uniform lots can be sold to better advantage than an
assortment of many varieties. “‘Carload lots’? always command
attention.

Don’t forget that the near presence of large bodies of water
(preferably to the windward of the orchard), is often an impor-
tant factor in the production of tender varieties of fruit. For
example: Peaches, etc., are successfully grown on the east bank
of Lake Michigan, and not on the west bank; and, on the east
bank, the crop is more sure within three miles of the lake than
it is farther inland.

The age at which different fruit trees begin to bear moderately
profitable crops varies greatly according to soil, climate, culture
and variety, but perhaps a fair average would be: Apples, in ten
or twelve years from setting (Spy, Spitzenburg, Rambo, Seek-no-
further, etc., are very slow) ; cherries, five or six years; oranges
and lemons, eight or ten years; peaches, fouror five years ; pears
(standard), ten or twelve years; pears (dwarf), four or five years ;
plums, five or six years; quinces, five or six years. The peach is
usually the shortest lived of all fruit trees, —twelve or fifteen
years is about the average limit.

PAW ES!
SMITH’S CIDER

SMOKEHOUSE

CHAPTER II.

SEED-GROWING, GRAFTING AND
BUDDING.

Forward tn the name of God: Plant, graft and nourish up
trees in your ground ; the labor ts small, the cost 1s nothing, the
commodity ts great; yourselves Shall have plenty, the poor shall
have somewhat in time of want, and God shall reward your good
merits and diligence.—From an old English orchard book.

Nearly all orchard trees come from seeds originally
planted in nursery-beds, and later, after being budded
or grafted, transplanted to the orchard. They are in
fact usually transplanted once or more before being
finally put out in the orchard,—except in the case of the
chestnut, hickory, etc., which object to being trans-
planted and are more easily grown by planting the
nuts where the trees permanently belong.

To those accustomed to sowing flower and vegetable
seeds it is often a surprise to find that tree seeds do
not germinate so readily asthe others. Itisa fact that
they do not. Still, fair success may be looked for by
attention to the preservation and sowing of the seeds.

Joseph Meehan says:—‘‘As a rule, all kinds of
seeds of trees are the better sown in autumn. As
soon as the seeds are ripe, keep them in a cool place
and in sand so that they will not lose weight by dry-
ing. Ifina building not exposed to winds, it will be
a suitable place. Apple, cherry, peach and the whole
list of such trees are included. Nurserymen who
raise trees by the millions follow this plan.

(19)

20 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

‘“The seeds are sown in beds, usually four feet in
width, the seeds well covered, as any other seeds
would be. A covering of forest leaves, straw or like
material is placed over the beds, kept in place by
adding branches of trees, sticks or prepared slats.
This covering is taken off gradually in spring, as the
seeds germinate.

‘* Should it be inconvenient to sow in autumn, the
same result may be expected from spring sowing, but
the seeds must be properly preserved. There must be
no loss of weight through the winter; the seeds must
be as fresh in spring as when gathered. To accom-
plish this, either keep them in a damp cellar or mix
them with slightly damp soil and keep in a cool cellar
or room. What is required is that the seeds absorb a
little moisture instead of losing any, and this the
slightly damp soil permits of. When so preserved,
sow them the very first thing in spring, just as soon
as the frost leaves the ground. There need be no
covering of leaves or straw to spring-sown beds.

‘‘Nurserymen prefer autumn planting, except for
hickory-nuts, walnuts and a few such seeds which
mice are apt to get away with, and these they sow in
spring.

‘‘ For autumn sowing, any time before the ground
freezes will do, but be sure the seeds are not drying
in the meantime. Seasons following sowings have
much to do with the vegetation of tree seeds, and
even experts sometimes fail to secure a crop.”’

IMPORTANCE OF GRAFTING.—Were all forms of
the art of grafting and budding to be taken from the
horticulturist today, commercial fruit growing in its

SEED-GROWING, GRAFTING AND BUDDING 21

high state of perfection would decay with the orchards
now standing. All the common pomaceous fruits
(apples, pears, and quinces), the stone fruits (peaches,
plums, cherries, and apricots), and the citrus fruits
(lemons, limes, and oranges), are now multiplied by
grafting or budding. The progress in plant breeding
and the great rapidity with which new sorts are now
disseminated could not be attained without the aid of
budding or grafting.

THE SCION AND ITs TREATMENT.—A scion is a
portion cut from a plant, to be inserted upon another
(or the same) plant, with the intention that it shall
grow. ‘The wood for scions should be taken while in
a dormant or resting condition. The time usually
considered best is after the leaves have fallen, but
before severe freezing begins. ‘The scions should be
cut in about six-inch lengths from matured new wood
from bearing trees of known variety; then tied in
bunches and placed in moist sand, where they will
not freeze and yet will be kept cold enough to pre-
vent growth. Good results may follow cutting scions
in the spring just before or at the time the grafting
is to be done, but it is a much better plan to cut the
scions in the fall.

THE STOCK AND ITs TREATMENYT.—The stock is
the tree or part of a tree upon which or into which the
bud or scion is inserted. For best results in grafting
it is essential that the stock be in an active, growing
condition.

How To CLEFT GRAFT.—When in the spring the
sap begins to move in the stock, be ready ; this occurs
early in the plum and cherry, and later in the pear

22 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

and apple. Do the grafting, if possible, on a mild
day during showery weather. The necessary tools
are a chisel or a thick-bladed knife or a grafting iron
(with which to split open the stock after it is sawed
off smoothly with a fine-tooth saw), a hammer or
mallet to aid the splitting process, a very sharp knife
to trim the scions, and a supply of good grafting wax.

SPLITTING THE STOCK TRIMMED SCION SCIONS INSERTED

Hy
al
aay
mn

SECTIONAL ;
TOP VIEW OF SCIONS GRAFTING WAX
IN PLACE APPLIED

CLEFT GRAFTING: FROM START TO FINISH

Saw off a branch at the desired point, split the stock
a little way down, and insert a scion at each outer
edge—taking care that the inner bark of the scion
fits snugly and exactly against the inner bark of the
stock. ‘This—together with the exclusion of air and
moisture until a union results—constitutes the secret
of success. Trim the scions wedge-shaped, as shown
in the picture; insert them accurately; the wedge

SEED-GROWING, GRAFTING AND BUDDING 23

should be a trifle thicker on the side which comes in
contact with the stock’s bark. Lastly, apply grafting
wax. Each scion should be long enough to have two
or three buds, with the lower one placed as shown.
The ‘‘spring’’ of the cleft holds the scion securely
in place, and therefore tying should be unnecessary.
If both scions in a cleft grow, one may later be cut
away.

GRAFTING WAx.—To four pounds of resin and one
of beeswax add one pint of linseed oil; put in an iron
pot, slowly heat and mix well. Pour out into cold
water and pull by hand until light-colored. Keep in
a cool place. To use, oil the hands, work the wax
until soft, and apply around scions and cracks. If
weather is warm, occasionally moisten hands in cold
water. :

Another recipe: One pound of resin, one-half
pound of beeswax and one-quarter pound of tallow,
melted together and applied with a brush. Keep in
an iron pot; heat for use when wanted.

OTHER METHODS OF GRAFTING.—There are many
other methods of uniting scion and stock, a few of
which may be briefly mentioned,—although the
average orchardist seldom has use for methods more
complicated than the ordinary cleft graft :

Bark grafting: A branch
is sawed off, as for cleft
grafting, and the scions,
instead of being inserted in
acleft, are cut very thin and
slipped between the bark
and wood, being inserted yow park GRAFTING IS DONE

24 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

far enough to bring the growing parts together. The
bark is then securely bound and wax is used as in cleft
grafting. It isan excellent method for grafting large
limbs, as it injures the stock less than cleft grafting.

Bridge grafting, so-called, is merely
a method for saving a girdled tree.
Several upright scions are inserted in
ye Ay, the bark, at top and bottom, thus fur-

BRIpcE Mishing bridges or connec-

CASTING tions througm which the sap
can flow. A good coating of grafting wax
is then applied. If all goes well, the tree
grows a new bark on the girdled part. The
illustration explains the operation fully. ~

Crown grafting refers
merely to a grafting opera- oo.
tion (any style) performed GRAFTING
on the stem at or near the surface of
the ground.

Root grafting means the insertion
of a graft in a stock which is entirely
a root.
| Saddle grafting is plainly shown
rig. 1. sappie 11 Fig. I.

GRAFTING Shield grafting: The scion is cut
very thin, as in bark grafting,
and: is: inserted) under «the
bark of the stock as a bud
is inserted in the process of
budding, and is firmly bound
in place with waxed cord or

raffia. SHIELD GRAFTING

SEED-GROWING, GRAFTING AND BUDDING 25

Side grafting: See illustration. A,
B and C show how it is done.

Splice grafting is very simple. It is
like whip grafting, minus the mortising.
The two diagonally cut ends are fitted
together (‘‘spliced’’) and then held in
place by a waxed tie.

Top grafting means, simply, the
inserting of scions (by any desired SIDE
method) in the branches of trees. ane
Many a worthless tree has thus been
changed into a desirable variety.
By using enough scions it is possible
to make an entire new top on almost
aly, itee. See ic. Al, “and Yshidy
the idea shown there. It is not
best to cut away foo much of the
old tree at once; therefore, a few
secondary branches are left, and
eo EW XOF these, atter. the scions are: thatuly
growing, can gradually be cut away the
following season.

Whip grafting, also called ‘‘tongne
grafting’’ (see Fig. III), consists of an
exact ‘‘dovetailing’’ of scion into stock.
Nurserymen use this method in special
cases, and often in root grafting.

THE ART OF BUDDING.—This consists
in taking a bud from one tree and insert- |
ing it under the bark of some other tree, i!
says Farm Journal. Theunionof thetwo, *!¢:™

the bud and the stock, takes place at the BO

26 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

edges of the bark of the inserted bud. For this reason
the bud should be inserted as soon as cut from its
twig and before it has had time to dry out. The bud
should also be full, plump and well matured, and cut
from wood of the current season’s growth. The stock
should be in active growth so that the bark will slip
easily. In cutting the bud a sharp knife is required,

‘re
i:
| _
| {Nae

CUTTING A BUD FROM. T-SHAPED RAISE THE
A BUD STICK INCISION IN STOCK BARK, THUS

AND INSERT THEN TIE IT NEXT SEASON CUT
THIS BUD IN PLACE AWAY THE STOCK, THUS

BUDDING: FROM A TO Z

as a clean, smooth cut is desirable. The knife is
inserted a half inch above and brought out the same
distance below, shaving out a small wedge of wood
under the bud along with the bark. This wedge is no
hindrance to the union and should not be removed.
The leaf is always clipped off.

To insert bud, make a T-shaped incision just
through the bark of stock, as shown in the illustra-
tion. Raise the bark carefully without breaking it

SEED-GROWING, GRAFTING AND BUDDING 27

and insert the bud. Practise will give ease and
despatch to the operator. The bud must be held
firmly to the stock by a bandage wound about the
stock both above and below it, being careful to leave
the eye of the bud uncovered. Raffa, bast, candle-
wick or waxed cloth may be used for tying. In about
ten days, if the bud “‘takes,’’ the bandage must be
removed, or the stock will be strangled and its growth
hindered. The work of budding is usually performed
in July or August in the North, and in June in the
South. When the bark peels easily and the weather ts
dry and clear, ts the ideal time.

There are other methods of performing this bud-
ding operation, but the one described is in most
common use. Usually the buds are inserted in young
seedling trees at a point close to the ground. This
done, the operation is complete until the following
season, when all the trees in which the buds have
‘“taken’’ should have the top cut off just above the
bud. (See illustration on page 26.)

BUDDING AND GRAFTING COMPARED. — The
removal of the top forces the entire strength of the
root into the bud, and, since the root itself has not
been disturbed by transplanting, a more vigorous
growth usually results from the bud than from scions
in grafting.

The one objection to budding is that it causes an
unsightly crook in the body of the tree, unless the
tree is afterward planted deep enough in the orchard
to cover the deformity.

The best methods of propagating each kind of
fruit will be found in the special chapter relating to
that particular kind.

28 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

SPROUTS FROM EXPERIENCE.

Repeated freezing and thawing while in a moist condition is
destructive to most seeds.

Tim says that orchard grafters are the only kind of grafters
who don’t get into trouble nowadays.

Be sure that your top grafts are not choked out by being
overshaded or interfered with by growth from the stock. If
lice appear, soak the pests with strong tobacco-tea; do this early,
before the leaves curl and hide the insects.

Cherry, peach and other pits should not be allowed to dry
much after they are taken from the fruit. Wash them clean,
dry in the shade sufficiently to prevent mold, and then stratify,
or store as directed in the beginning of this chapter.

No use to attempt the grafting or budding of unrelated
fruits; the pomaceous fruits, the stone and the citrus kinds, are
families by themselves. For example: The pear works nicely
on the pear, better on the quince, and not so easily on the apple,
but you can’t induce it to grow on the cherry or the plum. And
vice versa.

Nurserymen frequently practise what they call “‘stratifica-
tion’’; it consists in placing layers of seeds alternating with
layers of sand ina shallow box. This box may be buried or it
may be set in a sheltered place and covered with leaves or straw
to the depth of afoot. The object is to soften and decay the hard
covering without starting germination. Freezing is beneficial
in case of walnuts, hickory-nuts, peach pits, and the like, as it
helps to crack the shells. Hence such seeds are sometimes
stratified in boxes placed in sheltered spots on the surface of
the ground, or they may be merely placed ina pile on the ground
with a slight covering of leaves or straw. A special point to be
guarded against in stratification is alternate freezing and thaw-
ing. Seeds receiving this treatment should be planted imme-
diately upon being removed from stratification and before signs
of growth appear. A few hours’ exposure to wind and sun may
prove disastrous.

PLATE II

CHAPTER III.

SETTING TREES.

Trees ave like children: In the beginning they give us @
great deal of trouble and worry, but in the end we are proud of
them.—Farmer Vincent.

Most planters make the mistake of setting their
trees too closely together. It seems to them no better
than an extravagant waste of ground to set little
spindling trees so many feet apart, and it requires
some imagination to think that the trees will ever
completely occupy the ground. As the man stands off
to survey his newly-set orchard, it actually seems as if
there were nothing there! But if he could see that
same orchard a few years hence, in his mind’s eye,
he would surely see the great wisdom of giving each
tree plenty of ‘‘elbow room.’’

Here is a table of planting distances which is safe
to follow :

ALiWOHGdSh ve 6. si <u 16 to 20 feet each way.
Apples, 35 to 40 feet each way.
Apricots; |. «a. 5s 18 to 20 feet each way.
Cherries, sweet, - - 20 to 25feet each way.
Cherries, sour, .- 16 to 18 feet each way.

Chestnuts, Paragon, About 30 feet each way.
25 to 35 feet each way.
18 to 20 feet each way.
- 20 to 25 feet each way.
- . 12 ft. to 1 rod each way.

@fanees, 22 5 « «
Peaches,
Pears, standard,.

Pears, dwarf,

PEGA Stace ns po. fe 35 to 40 feet each way.
Plans qae ts i 2 oe) 18 to 20 feet each way.
MUITICES die Wath s Kort. 12 feet each way.

(29)

(Dwarf kinds less).

30 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

After the tree planter has succeeded in conquering

the temptation to crowd his trees too closely together,
he is often bitten by another temptation—the ‘‘filler’”’
idea. An orchard ‘‘filler,’’ as the word is usually
/understood, is a small-growing, short-lived tree,—
something which begins to bear fruit quickly, and
which can be cut out after a few years when it begins
to crowd the main trees. In theory the idea seems
all right, but in actual practise it does not often work
out entirely satisfactorily. Usually the fillers are not
cut out soon enough. It requires a good deal of pluck
to chop down a nice tree, even if itis ‘‘only a filler.’’
Then, again, there’s often trouble because the tran-
sients and the permanents require different treatment.
For instance, the full-strength Bordeaux mixture
would be all right for apple trees but too strong for
peach or Japanese plum trees; and the latter might
require later or shallower cultivation than the non-
producing apples.

The effect of distance between apple trees set about
1880, was recently studied in its relation to yield.
The following four-year averages were found:

Bushels

per acre:
Trees not more than 30 x 30 feet apart, -.-.-.-- 186
WRrees) sil seo torsos So meet apatty me llc ee
AITECS 36 ex SOntor4 0) x4 OMeekiapatstsi sels tm nianentanns 229

Which goes to show that it does not pay to set trees
too closely together.

The first thing to do in setting an orchard, is to
lay out and mark the outer sides of the field, accu-
rately,—these being the base lines from which to

SETTING TREES 31

work staking operations. Square the corners by
sighting along a steel square laid on three stakes, the
middle stake being exactly on a corner. When the
four corners are thus established, measure and stake
where the outside trees are to go, on two opposite
sides of the square. But do not have these tree-
places nearer than twenty feet to the outer limits of
orchard field (if there are shade or windbreak trees
on the orchard line, make the distance at least forty
feet). Remember that when you come to work the
orchard, you will want plenty of room on the outer
edges,—to turn the team, the harrow, or the wagon.

The square system of planting is easiest and
therefore most commonly used. Trees should be set
exactly straight, because this adds to the looks of
the orchard and facilitates cultivation. Here is an
excellent method of staking and planting: Begin by
using a small rope or wire, stretching this from one
base-line to the corresponding stake on the opposite
side; then put in small pegs along its entire length,
the distance apart at which it is intended to plant the
trees. After the whole orchard has been so laid out,
take a double-staking board having three V-shaped
notches in it. This board may be about four feet long
and perhaps four inches wide; any thickness desired.
Start at the first peg and place board so that the stake
fits in the centre notch,—then remove this stake and
put it in the notch made at one end of the board, and
put another stake in the notch in the opposite end of
the board ; and continue until the whole orchard is
double-staked in this way. A hole can now be dug
between each two stakes. To do the planting the

32 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

staking-board is again brought into requisition and
placed over the hole, so that the two stakes fit into
the notches at the end. Then the young tree is held
so that its trunk fits into the centre notch, — just where
the single stake stood before the double-staking took
place. In either double-staking or planting always
work from one end of the row to the other, and
always keep the centre notch of the board facing away
from you. If one is careful
| in performing this work it is
sure to turn out well) Dire
sounds like a complicated oper-
ation, perhaps ; but really it is
very simple and easy in practise.
The picture plainly shows how
the board is made and used, and
it is hardly necessary to add that
each tree is to be held exactly in
place in the notch until most of
the soil is shoveled into the hole
and firmed securely in place.
Number of trees required for an acre:

STAKING-BOARD IN USE

Gt ete WY SSE HORN Go Gy OG. Bho 6 oo 3 302 trees.
MMSE lem teetbapantyes cl uscd sland cea 160 trees.
Set Sea teetrapaisteye = te) ey sas ete ttt WSL 134 trees.
Lhkset- 20m teetiapanty, -meocte rus Swale taake 108 trees.
IGE GSES) Ne ehoRRE 5 6 OO at ce wthuenbety bare 70 trees.
Lfset}30! sfeetapanrtwsis «. 3. <6) see ee eee 48 trees.
Kiseti3o feet apant wae ctu: elas eee 33 trees.
Jfiset40" feetiapart, ice 60. oaks 6 27 trees.

(Notre: The foregoing figures are based on the square system
of planting. If the triangular method is used, about one-eighth
more trees can be set on each acre.)

SETTING TREES aa

The one objection to planting in squares, says
Lowell B. Judson, Idaho Experiment Station, is that
it does not cover the ground uniformly with trees ; for
instance, A is farther from D, and B from C, than A
from B or C, or B from D or A,—making a waste of
space in the middle of the square. (See
illustration.) This is sometimes utilized
: by planting a tree there, such as a peach
NG or some quick-bearing or short-lived tree,
~® temporarily to oceupy the ground ; but this
results in crowding, in a very few years.

The best scheme for getting the maximum number
of trees at a given distance apart on the land, is the
hexagon or triangle system (sometimes called the
septuple system), which makes every tree exactly
the same distance from each of its neighbors. The
accompanying diagram shows the arrangement, and
the dotted lines make plain the triangles and hexa-
gons. If each tree is joined to each of its neighbors
by a straight line, a network of triangles will be
formed, and each group of six triangles around each
tree forms a hexagon witha tree = g------- @ e
in the centre. There are several Paces
ways of laying out an orchard on ¢ gel eae aa

| ee pa ATO ag = |
: d
‘
'

this plan, the most expeditious \ +
being touseawire. Theendstakes \/
of the second row are mosteasily / es

found by means of a wiretriangle, / at
each side of which is as long as the 97 aR IEE AE,
= ‘ gas TRIANGLE SYSTEM

desired distance between trees. OF PLANTING
Thomas Meehan gives the following directions for
planting fruit trees received from a nursery, and he

34 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

has covered all the points so well that I can not do
better than to quote his method:

‘“Ouickly unpack stock upon arrival; shake out
packing material; dip the roots in liquid mud. In
case stock cannot be immediately set
— out, prepare a place where it can be tem-
ay . 5

\ porarily planted, taking care to cover

at among the fibres. Dig generous holes,
a A \7 provide good soil to fill
TREE SET TOO them; don’t bend roots ;
Sie cleanly cut off severely
bruised or broken roots, and never let
them dry. Dip them in mud, place in
hole, throw good soil in hole, tightly
ramming it around roots after each TOO LOW AND
shovelful. Leave no air-pockets. After To eee
______ hole is filled, cover top of ground thick-
S ly with good, well-rotted stable manure

| as far as roots extend.”’ .
4 Look out for crown’ and root galls.
Burn all such trees. Crown gall is a
common disease in many nurseries and
SOOnS Hapry, it attacks all kinds of fruit. trees a aheae
Paha eee the worst kind of folly
to plant a tree which
has a trace of this disease, for not
only is the tree pretty sure to die be-
fore it comes into full bearing but the
infection may be spread to all parts
of the orchard. If galls (knotty,

TREE SET
bunchy swellings) are found at the PROPERLY

SETTING TREES 35

base of tree trunk, the trouble is probably the fun-
gous disease called crown gall; if found on the voo¢s
of apple trees, an insect called the woolly aphis is to
blame.

USEFUL, SIDE SHOOTS.
A tree out of place is a nuisance; in its place it is a blessing.

Do not let manure come in direct contact with the roots of
young trees. Apply manure as a mulch.

An assistant is very helpful when setting trees. Ttwo men,
or a man and a boy, can work together to good advantage.

Better not dig holes much in advance of the tree-setting.
Soil dries out quickly, and roots need moist earth around them.

Thrifty young trees are more apt to live than the larger, older
ones. Young roots are smaller, and more apt to be all taken
up in transplanting.

How deep should trees be set in the ground? A little deeper
than they were set when growing in the nursery. Deep enough
so that the joint between stock and scion is covered. “aera
AL — ie — —_ a

For measuring purposes a wire is better than a rope or cord,
because it will not stretch. Stick a bit of solder on the wire,
exactly where each tree is tocome. String or bits of cloth tied
on, are apt to slip.

As the tree-setting progresses, it is a good plan often to
‘sight’? the rows across from side to side, both ways, to make
sure that everything is exactly straight. The eye is an excellent
detector of unsuspected crooks in rows.

‘

In exposed situations or in windy localities, itis a good plan
to incline the newly-set tree slightly toward the northwest or
whichever point of the compass the strong winds come from.
The trees will straighten as they grow.

One or two old blankets will come in handy when setting
trees. As fast as an armful of trees is dug from the heeling-in
place, wrap the roots in a blanket until all are planted. Don’t
let the roots lie around in sun and wind, unprotected.

36 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

The safest way when buying fruit trees is to dip them in the
lime-sulphur mixture before setting them or heeling them in.
Do this as a matter of precaution against the San Jose scale
louse. The best way to fight this pest is to fight it from the very
beginning.

Farm Journal says: “The other day we saw Peter Tumble-
down on his way home with a lnad of loose fruit trees from a local
nursery. ‘The wind was blowing, the sun was hot, the trees were
unprotected by even a blanket. Next year Peter will be finding
fault with the nurseryman because the trees are no good.”’

How not to plant trees: “‘ Dig a hole, do not trouble about its
depth nor the space that will be required for the roots. If the
soil consists of brickbats, it will do! Select a tree that is sure to
be too big for its place in a short time. You can then cut off its
branches and make it look like a real work of art, such as a
clothes-prop or a gibbet. Plant the trees as thickly as possible,
and forget to thin them out. You will then produce an imme-
diate effect, and you wiil have the satisfaction of witnessing a
fight—and appreciating a struggle for existence. Having planted
your tree, stake it in such a way that the stem may be snapped
off; this will give the wind something to do. Never think of
removing the stake or loosening its ties—that would involve too
much trouble. Avoid placing any guard around the newly-
planted trees. In this way you will provide fodder for your
neighbor’s horse, which will graze contentedly on the bark;
and you will provide healthful amusement for the boys, who
will playfully score the bark with their knives.’’ My good wife
Harriet clipped these rules from an old publication, and she
says that they are full of ‘contrary usefulness.”

———

we

PLATE III
BEN DAVIS
ime

RHODE ISLAND GREENING

CHAPTER IV.

PRUNING AND EARLY CARE OF
NEWLY-SET TREES.

Take care of your orchard and your orchard will take care of
you.— Harriet.

The newly-set tree must quickly be pruned. As it
stood in the nursery row there was approximately a
balance between the top and the roots, the latter being
just about enough, under the conditions of that soil,
to supply what moisture and nourishment the leaves
and branches needed. Evidently if half of the roots
were suddenly removed this equilibrium would be
destroyed, and each leaf would show its distress at the
decreased sap pressure, by wilting, and the weaker
ones would probably die.

Now, that is essentially the condition of the nursery
tree ; no matter how carefully it was dug, many of its
fine feeding roots are sure to have broken off, or have
dried up; and until it can re-establish its relations
with the soil, and put out new roots to take the place
of those destroyed, it is totally unable to support and
nourish the original amount of top. The fine root-
hairs, which appear like fuzz near the tips of the
smaller roots, and do most of the absorbing for the
roots, dry out almost instantly on exposure to air, and
are practically all destroyed in transplanting. It
takes some time to form these anew, and if the whole
top is left to ‘‘ leaf out’’ during the process, the rapid

(37)

38 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

evaporation from so many points will result in disas-
trous drying of the whole tree.

That can be avoided by cutting back the top to
correspond with the roots, thus reducing evaporation
to the point where they can supply the loss. In the
case of the yearling whip without side branches, it is
sufficient to cut it off at the height at which it is
intended the leader shall start out—ay about two or
three feet above ground.)
Always cut to a bud,
making a sloping cut
which leaves not more
than a quarter of an
inch projecting beyond
the bud. During the
summer all the buds
along the side will de-
velop branches; all the lower ones and those not in-
tended to form the main framework of the tree must
be pinched off, otherwise the lower branches may
make a shrub of your tree. Aim to throw all the
strength of the growth into the requiredmain
branches.

Branched, or two-year-old trees, require a different
style of pruning after being set. The lower limbs
have generally been cut off by the nurserymen before
the tree reaches the planter, so the height of the
‘‘head’’ is, in a sense, already fixed. What remains
to be done is to choose three, four or five limbs to
form the future framework of the tree. These should
come out from the trunk in different directions, dis-
tributed as evenly as possible; and, if feasible, no

TOO HIGH TOO LOW CORRECT

CU WR ENGa LO pee Age pl)

PRUNING: CARE OF NEWLY-SET TREES 39

two branches should come out exactly opposite each
other, or a weak crotch will be formed which may

break and split at some critical
time. Severely cut back the
chosen limbs and (remove all
other limbs.) Each of the re-
maining limbs should now be
about six or eight inches long;
usually with the terminal bud
pointing outward on each. (If
the variety’s habit of growth is
naturally very spreading it is
sometimes best to correct this
tendency, by cutting to terminal
buds which point inward. )
ForRMS OF HEADS.— The

READY TO PRUNE
NEWLY-SET APPLE
TREE

apple, peach, plum, quince, sour cherry, and similar

SAME APPLE TREE

PRUNEDIN OPEN-

CENTRE, STANDARD
FORM

trees, frequently seem best adapted
to the open-centre, spreading,

standard form. In such cases a cen-

tral leading shoot is not needed or
wanted. Thismatter is more or less
a matter of choice. Some folks
prefer a “‘leader,’’ others do not.

The sweet cherry, pear, etc.,
often seem best suited to the up-
right, central-leader form. In
such instances it is usual to have
this main shoot a little longer
than the side branches,— with its
terminal bud pointing toward the
direction of prevailing high winds.

40 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

PRUNING PEACH TREES.—It is customary to prune
newly-set peach trees differently from most other trees.

NEWLY-SET PEACH
TREE, BEFORE
PRUNING

Whether the; nursery tree jase
branchless whip, or a well-branched
tree, the enxtive top should be cut
off at the point where a new head
is wanted. If any branches remain
below that point, those, also, are
cut off,—not too closely, however ;
‘tis usually better to leave stubs
about an inch in length, so as not
to injure. the ‘remaining bud:
Some peach growers cut off their
trees ata uniform height of about
one and one-half feet; others pre-
fer a height of two, or two and

one-half, or even three feet. The decision depends
somewhat on the size of the trees, and the grower’s
personal preference; but there is no doubt that the
lowest possible head, consistent ;

with future cultivation, is most | &

desirable.| Two feet, or two feet
and a quarter, is perhaps a happy

medium.

THE “STRINGFELLOW METH-
opD.’’—A very severe kind of root
and top pruning, known as the
Stringfellow method, is some-
times advocated. The chief ad-
vantage claimed is that the roots

grow straighter downward than
with ordinary trees, giving greater AFTER PRUNING

SAME PEACH TREE,

PRUNING: CARE OF NEWLY-SET TREES 41

security against drought and high winds. The labor
of setting is also much reduced, as a small hole will
| accommodate the stubbed roots,
and it is an easy matter to pack
the earth around them. The tree
is, in fact, reduced to a cutting;
but cuttings of woody plants are
not apt to do especially well out-
of-doors in this country. To grow
a cutting successfully the soil
should be as warm or warmer than
the air, to stimulate the formation of
roots before the top starts to grow;
if the latter starts first, the demand
ee eada for sap, and rapid evaporation, will
PRUNING quickly exhaust the juices of the
stem, and it dies. In the sandy soils of Texas,
in which Mr. Stringfellow planted his trees, he
had a natural propagating bed, a
very warm soil and all the condi-
tions to make cuttings do well. I
will admit that some orchardists
in other states have had more or
less success with this method;
but, personally, I prefer to plant
my trees in the good old way—
with all the roots on them possi-
ble. Tim says that he can’t see
any wisdom in cutting off a tree’s
entire stomach.
RECORD OF VARIETIES.—The SAME PEAR TREE

" PRUNED. CENTRAL-
best way to establish such a record LEADER FORM

42 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

is to make a detailed plan of the orchard as advised in
Chapter I. The map should show the proper name,
place and age of each tree. The next best way is to
label the trees. Whatever you do, don’t trust to
memory.

A good tree label: Procure a thin piece of sheet
zinc, six inches wide, from which cut strips crosswise
three-quarters of an inch wide at one end, and taper-
ing to one-eighth inch at the other end. Odd pieces
of old zinc, stove boards, etc., may thus be utilized.
After being cut, the pieces should be put in vinegar to
allow them to corrode, after which an ordinary lead
pencil will complete the business. Either or both
sides can be written upon. And the writing will last

for years, too, so that ‘‘ he who
runs may read’’; as hundreds of
labels in this vicinity can testify. The diagram ex-
plains the idea. Simply wrap the small end of label
loosely around a limb of the tree—rather than around
the trunk. As the limb grows, loosen the label some-
what, or change it toa smaller limb. On the reverse
side of the label it might be well to write the name
of the agent or nurseryman who furnished the tree;
then, later, if the variety proves untrue to name, you
will know whom to blame.

LOooK OUT FOR CLIMBING CUT-WORMS.—Thou-
sands of newly-set fruit trees die every spring—
‘“unaccountably.’’? Usually, too, the nurseryman who
furnished the stock is blamed; when, in reality, the
trouble is often a climbing cut-worm that comes, like
a thief in the night, to feast on the swelling, luscious
buds. And, when daylight appears, he crawls down

PRUNING: CARE OF NEWLY-SET TREES 43.

and hides in the soil or under a stick. Oh,.he’s a sly
fellow !

This slightly-reduced picture shows how this
whitish pest looks when he’s at
work. Several methods of com-
bating cut-worms have been in-
vented, but one of the best ways
is to fence them out. Fig. I gives
the idea. Cut some stiff tar-paper into strips about
nine inches long and two or three inches wide. Put
a strip around a tree trunk, tightly lap the edges an
inch or more, and push the lower half of the circle
into the soil—to anchor it and to prevent worms from
easily burrowing beneath. It takes but a short time
—and only a few cents—thus to protect several hun-
dred newly-set trees. All that is necessary
is to have the paper at least an inch and one-
half away from all parts of the tree ; to have
the edges lapped tightly ; and to make sure
that no worms are hid in the soil between
the paper and the tree. Any kind of stiff
paper, or wood veneer, or tin, will do; I pre-
fer tar-paper because it is lasting and cheap.
An orchard thus protected is safe for many weeks—
until cut-worm danger is mostly over. Just why the
worms do not ‘‘climb over the fence,’’ isa puzzle. But
they very rarely do. These worms are less trouble-
some on heavy soils than on light soils. They seem
to prefer sandy ground, in which they can more easily
hide and propagate.

DANGER OF PREMATURE FRUIT-BEARING.—The
act of bearing fruit is sure to stunt the growth of

44 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

very young trees. It pays to pick off the blossoms
from all very young fruit trees. Two neighbors tried
this in two similar cherry orchards. One man had
the children pick off all blossoms each year; the
other man didn’t. At the end of five years the first
man’s trees were nearly twice as large as the second
man’s. (Age of trees, care and soil, were the same,
otherwise. )

HINTS FOR THE HEEDFUL.

Don’t forget to visit the young trees often and rub off all
shoots which are not needed in the formation of the new head.

Don’t overlook this fact: Success or failure with an orchard
after it has been planted depends upon the care given the young
trees for the first few years.

Many a nice little tree has been ruined because its owner
forgot to remove the wire label that the nurseryman put there.
Better look after those wires right away.

Don’t neglect, after the first heavy rain in May, to throw
two forkfuls of strawy manure around each newly - planted
tree, —to keep the moisture in and to insure a good start.

If the location is a windy or unprotected one, don’t forget
in late summer to stake the young trees. But use cloth bands
about the bark—not cord or wire, which would probably chafe
and injure the tender trunks.

If the ground around young fruit trees is not kept constantly
cultivated, the trees should be heavily mulched all summer.
Straw or strawy manure is a good mulch. Newly-set trees have
no depth of root and they dry out very rapidly.

Don’t, as a rule, when pruning newly-set trees, cut “to”
terminal buds which point zzwarvd. Why? Because, if you do,
the new top shoots will be apt to grow in the direction the buds
point, thus causing crossed limbs in the centre of the new tree-
head.

The advantages of low-headed trees, says Prof. Bailey, may
be mentioned as follows: Greater ease in picking, thinning,
pruning and spraying, and less damage to trees and fruit from
winds. Some growers object to low-headed trees on account of
the greater difficulty of cultivating around them, but with proper
pruning low-headed trees develop ascending branches which
permit proper working with a team.

a oe
yy, | aa
ea

FLALO iY

STAYMAN

WINESAP

s
fe
Z;
[6a]
S
&

CHAPTER V.

LATER PRUNING.

The ideal pruning consists not in checking growth, but in
adtrecting it.

Before touching saw or knife to a tree, the
orchardist should have well in mind what he ought
to accomplish by the work. Among the following
are the chief objects sought:

1. To restore the balance between top and roots at
time of setting out (as told in Chapter IV).

2. To make the top open-centred,
regulate the number of limbs com-
posing it, fix it at the proper height
from the ground, and do away with
weak crotches.

3 Im older ‘trees; to. remove
crossed branches, and thin them out
to admit sunlight and thus facilitate
spraying, ripening, ete.

4. To induce the production of
fruit rather than wood, and vice
versa; in other words, to correct
shy bearing and overbearing.

5. To keep lower limbs out of
the way of cultivation, and upper
ones from growing out of easy reach
of spraying, picking, ete.

6. To change biennial to annual bearing ; in other
words, to break a tree of the ‘‘off year’’ habit.

(45)

46 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

7. To correct a too compact or a too spreading
growth of top.

The “‘ideal’’ pruning, says W. N. Hutt, would
consist in removing not branches but buds; not in
checking growth but in direct-
ing it/ It is less shock to the
tree to pinch off buds here and
there, than a few years later to
saw off large, misplaced limbs.
From the sap is manufactured
both wood and fruit; it is better,
therefore, to direct the energy
of the mature tree toward grow-
ing fruit which goes to the cellar
and market, than in making
wood which goes to the brush
THREE PRUNING Toots pile. It is largely a question

ee of the proper direction of the
energies of the tree. Many trees may be so formed
and shaped when young that in later years pruning
need be only slight, and it will never be necessary to
cut out large limbs. Few of us, however, are able to
live quite up to this ideal method, and so we often
resort to the saw and shears.

WHEN TO PRUNE.—The time that
pruning should be done is determined
by the purpose such pruning is intended
toserve. Pruning of trees to encourage
fruitfulness should be done in summer
when the trees are in active growth,—
preferably in June. Pruning for wood
growth, on the other hand, should be “~~ ;oors.

LATER PRUNING 47

done when the trees are dormant. The best time is
in the spring before the buds start.

Pruning should not, as a rule, be done in winter
time. When a wound is made in winter the delicate
cambium bark layer is exposed to rough winds and
low temperatures and is killed back for some distance
between the bark and the wood. Every day of zero
weather increases the trouble, and, in spring when
growth starts, in-
stead of the cambium
starting at the cut to
heal over the wound,
it has to start consid-
erably below. Frost-
bitten wounds are
slow to heal.

Thousands of
frnit-growers inva-
riably prune their
trees in early spring,
—not from any well-
considered convic-
tions as to the effect
on the trees, but
merely because it is
the slack season of the year and therefore most con-
venient for pruning operations. These good folks
should ask themselves this question: ‘‘ Do I most
need and want wood growth in my orchard, or fruit
growth? ”’

If the orchard has been recently set, or if it is old
and run-down, wood growth may be more desirable

THREE-YEAR-OLD PEACH TREE,
AFTER BEING PRUNED

48 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

for awhile. But if there zs already sufficient wood
growth, why prune at a time that forces more of it?
Stop and think a bit.

GENERAL RULES FOR PRUNING.— Never cut away
more wood than is necessary to obtain the end in
view. Err on the side of cutting too little rather than
too much, for if too much is taken off it can not be
replaced in many years. Large crops of fruit can not
be grown on trees with a few exposed branches. Cut
out all dead wood as soon as it is discovered. If two
branches rub together so as to injure one another, the
weaker should be cut away. If one branch rests on
the top of another, one should be removed. Head
back and thin out the top rather than cut off the lower

branches, so as to bring the fruit as low

VF as possible, on account of thinning,
NL Y ae spraying, and harvesting. Never
‘ — remove entire side branches if it can
i‘ be avoided. If it must be done, cut
oe. : as shown in Fig. I; thus the tree is
PRUNING A sipE trimmed up for horse cultivation with-
pia eed out sacrificing the whole of main limb.

All cuts should be left as smooth as
possible; and all wounds more than one-
half inch in diameter ought to be covered
with a coat of thick linseed oil paint,—
to keep out dampness and prevent rot
while Nature is healing the cut.-

Never leave a stub. Cut close, yet
not too close. (See Fig. II.) FIG, II

Cut out suckers on a tree whenever CSUTATS OR

2 1S WRONG.
you see them. Also, watch for and cut wno.1,rIGHT

rt ;!tmtt”””™OOOO
a

LATER PRUNING 49

off any suckers which may grow from base of trunk,
Do this at any time.

When cutting off fair-size limbs, saw the eaclrete
of the limb about one-third of the way
through, or till the saw begins to pinch,
and then saw on top about one-half inch
from the undercut; and when sawed
down almost to the undercut the limb
» willsbreak off and not peel Pr. sh
~ down the side of the tree. cur Norso
(See illustrations, Figs. III and IV.)
Then continue the top cut so as to leave
no stub.

ees Root-pruning is sometimes practised,
curso the object being to check the growth of

a vigorous tree (which is old enough to bear, but
which refuses to do so), and thus favor the develop-
ment of fruit buds. This operation is seldom neces-
sary, however, and few orchardists ever aa at.

Pruning a neglected old orchard is
often a puzzling job. To do the work
right, a vast amount of wood must 4
come off, and, consequently, the average
pruner is likely to remove too much,
thus doing more harm than good.
Here’s a good rule for such cases: Do
the job in three installments—one ruis Manis
each year—and no installment unduly WAktse tar
heavy. LEAVING ASTUB

Keep all pruning tools sharp. Prune annually but
not heavily. Never allow stock to prune your trees.
Heavy pruning conduces to wood growth.

50 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

CUTTINGS.

Drastic pruning strikes at the vitality of the tree.
Never hurt the bark, bore holes, or drive nails into trees.
Unpruned, uncultivated orchards are not money-makers.

The orchard is not a profitable source of firewood, says Prof.
Bailey.

A heavy pruning is always followed by a heavy growth of
suckers.

The hatchet and the ax are not good pruning tools, says
Farmer Vincent.

There is such a thing as having the head or centre of a tree
zoo open. A happy medium is best.

Special pruning directions for each kind of tree will be found
in the chapters devoted to The Apple, The Pear, The Cherry, etc.

Don’t leave the pruning to ignorant or careless hired men.
Do it right. The more the pruner knows, the better he can
prune.

It is a common notion that the branches gradually get higher
from the ground as the tree continues to grow. The apparent
gain in height is due solely to the increase in diameter of the
limbs, which soon begin to crowd if sufficient space has not been
left between them. ‘The centres of the limbs will always remain
the same distance apart.

As regards the thinning out of the tops of the pear, apple,
peach, and similar trees, no general rule can be given, as each
tree presents adifferent problem. A thick growth of new branches
results in weak bearing shoots and spurs. When cutting back
limbs on bearing trees the cut should be made just above a strong
Zateral, wherever possible. ‘The tendency of the sap will then be
to flow into the lateral and thus prevent the formation of the
numerous branches which nearly always result when a so-called
stub-cut is made.

The orchardist should become well acquainted with the habit
of growth of different varieties. A few kinds grow slowly and
will not bear heavy pruning. Others are erect growers; and
some are spreading. One can not expect entirely to overcome
such tendencies, but they may be corrected to a marked degree.
The upright varieties may be spread somewhat by pruning to
outside laterals or buds, and the spreading kinds may be con-
tracted by cutting to laterals or buds which have an trward
direction. And by cutting back the vigorous growers each
season, the limbs are made stocky, thus in great measure doing
away with drooping branches.

BALDWIN

YELLOW NEWTOWN PIPPIN

CHAPTER VI.

CULTIVATION: EERTILIZATION. THINNING.

If a man tsn’t willing to curry and Seed his orchard, he
needn't expect thoroughbred results.—Tim.

The offices of tillage are several. Among the more
important ones are:

1. The setting free of plant food by increasing the
chemical activities in the soil.

2. The soil is made finer and hence presents greater
surfaces to the roots, thus increasing the area from
which the roots can absorb nutriment.

3. The surface of the soil is kept in such condition
that it immediately absorbs all the rain that falls
during the summer, when it is aptto be dry. Little
is lost by surface drainage.

4. Moisture is conserved thereby. Where the sur-
face remains undisturbed for weeks the soil becomes
packed, so that the moisture from below readily passes
to the surface and is evaporated, thus being lost to
the growing crop. If the surface is kept light and
loose by tillage, so that the capillarity is broken, but
little of the soil moisture comes to the surface and
evaporation is not so great. In this way nearly all
the moisture remains in the soil, where it can be used
by the roots.

5. Thorough tillage has a tendency to cause deeper
rooting of the roots. The surface of the soil is made
drier by tillage during the early part of the season
than it would otherwise be ; hence the roots go where
the soil is moist. The advantage of deep rooting
during drought is obvious.

6. Weeds and grass are kept out.

(S1)

SY BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

CULTIVATION OF YOUNG TREES.—John A. Warder,
in his book about apples, says: “If the ground, which
has been appropriated to the orchard, be also occupied
as farming land, as is usually done for a few years
after planting, while the trees are small, it should be
exclusively devoted to hoed crops ; by which is meant
those that require constant cultivation and stirring of
the soil.’’ That’s the idea, exactly. While the trees
are coming into bearing, and before they have need
of all the land, we can kill two birds with one stone—
1. €., give tillage to the trees and cultivation to a

STRAWBERRIES IN YOUNG PEACH ORCHARD

marketable crop, all at one operation. We can, for
several years, grow strawberries in rows, or potatoes,
or some other cultivated crop. What we ought zof to
do, is to grow hay or any of the grain crops; nor
should we let the land grow up to weeds. If we do
not care to grow any crop on the land except trees
(and some large orchardists prefer this method), we
should plow the ground in early spring, and then har-
row it regularly every two weeks until about August
first,—at which time some ‘‘covercrop’’issown. (See
Chapter IX.)

CULTIVATION. FERTILIZATION. THINNING 3)

CULTIVATION OF BEARING TREES.—It rarely pays
to attempt the growing of any ‘‘side’’ crop in an old,
bearing orchard. ‘The tree roots need—and occupy—
all the ground. Plow the orchard just as scon as the
soil is dry enough in the spring. Four inches deep
is about right. One year plow ‘‘up”’’ to the tree rows;
the next year plow ‘“‘away.”’
Always plow in the same general
direction. Endeavor to keep the WSs
surface about level during the
growing season. Harrow the
ground regularly and often. “QS
Stop cultivation about August 4. eae a Oa GOD
first—later if season is dry, ORCHARD HARROW
earlier if season is wet. Seed down to some cover crop.

FALL-PLOWING OF ORCHARDS.—Some growers
advocate a second plowing, to take place when regu-
lar cultivation ceases. They say: ‘Plow up to the
trees so as to facilitate drainage during fall and
winter; this ridging-up also helps to protect the
roots from cold.’’ In some soils and climates the
idea is perhaps sound; on properly-drained ground
not too far north, it seems unnecessary. After August
plowing, the harrow and the cover crop should
immediately follow, of course.

SUBSTITUTE FOR CULTIVATION. —The ‘mulch
system’’ has its advocates, and its faults and advan-
tages. Its main faults are: It furnishes a harboring
place for mice and insects; it does not stimulate tree
growth, if growth is wanted; it favors fungous
troubles. Its main advantages are: Lessened labor
(which is somewhat offset by the necessity of mowing
grass and weeds which may push through the mulch);

54 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

lessened wood growth (which in some cases mignt be
temporarily desirable).

IRRIGATION.—In regions of normal rainfall, arti-
ficial watering of orchards is seldom practised or
necessary. Cultivation, under normal conditions,
conserves sufficient moisture for the trees’ needs.
In California and some other states, irrigation is
desirable. Folks who need to practise this method
should write to the U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C., and ask for free Farmers’ Bulletin
No. 116, entitled, ‘Irrigation in Fruit Growing.’’

GOOD TILLAGE, THIS

FERTILIZATION.—Fruit trees need the same ele-
ments that are required by other crops—~. é., nitrogen,
potash and phosphoric acid. Nitrogen is particularly
efficacious in promoting growth. In fact, the amount
of growth and the color of foliage are reliable guides
for the application of nitrogen. Leaves of good size
and dark color, and a wood growth of a foot or more
on mature trees in one season, indicate sufficient
nitrogen.

Nitrogen is usually most easily, advantageously
and cheaply applied in the form of legume cover crops
(Chapter IX). Prof. Bailey, of Cornell, says: “In

CULTIVATION. FERTILIZATION. THINNING 55

orchards which are thoroughly tilled, the use of barn
manures (which contain considerable nitrogen) , should
generally be discouraged. Use tillage and late green
crops to supply the nitrogen,—except perhaps for a
season or two when an attempt
is making to rejuvenate a
neglected orchard.’’ One of
the main objections to stable
manure is that itis apt tocause
trees to grow too latein the fall.

Potash is generally the most
important element to be ap-
plied directly toorchards, par-
ticularly after the trees have
reached bearing age. The
available store of potash in the
soil is much increased by the
thorough tillage which has PEACHES WELL THINNED.

NO PROPS NEEDED HERE!
already been recommended,
but in bearing orchards it should also be supplied
every year in some commercial form. One of the best
sources of potash for orchards is unleached hard-wood
ashes. It gives fruit a high ‘color. Forty or fifty
bushels to the acre is a good dressing.

Muriate of potash is perhaps the best and most
reliable form in which to secure potash at the present
time, says Cornell Bulletin No. 72. . Commercial
samples generally contain about fifty per cent. of
actual potash. Kainit or German potash salts is a
muriate of potash containing about twelve per cent.
of potash. An apple orchard in full bearing and upon
loose soil may receive as high as 1000 pounds of muri-
ate of potash per acre, but a normal and economical

56 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

application is from 500 to 700 pounds. Sulphate of
potash is also thought to be a good form in which
to buy potash. The commercial article will analyze
fifty per cent. or less of actual potash.

Phosphoric acid may be obtained in the form of a
high-grade plain superphosphate (dissolved South
Carolina rock), in bone compounds, and Thomas slag.
The plain superphosphate contains about sixteen or
eighteen per cent. of phosphoric acid, and 300 to 500
pounds per acre is a liberal and very useful dressing
for bearing orchards. The bone fertilizers are always
valuable. Those which are untreated give up their
‘ phosphoric acid slowly, unless they are very finely
ground. Dissolved bone gives more immediate results.
Thomas or basic slag has given good results in many
tests, but it parts with its fertility very slowly. Phos-
phoric acid is rather less important in fruit plantations
than potash, although this order is reversed in general
farming.

Wheat
se [+] ep

A little lesson in fertility: The size of these blocks
shows the comparative quantities of soil fertility
(nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid) removed from
the farm by the selling of various home-grown prod-
ucts. The growing of wheat or beef draws heaviest
on the soil; butter or fruits, lightest. Remem-
ber, too, that most of the fertility removed by
fruits is contained in the seeds or the pit,—the

ce

EA

“im

CULTIVATION. FERTILIZATION. THINNING 57

fruits themselves are largely
water. And that brings us
to the important subject of

THINNING FRUuITS. — If
we can annually reduce the
number of seeds (or pits)
which a tree endeavors to
grow, we remove a great vital
drain upon the strength of pEeacHEs Too THICK ON THIS
bea gree and.soil, oWe saye SS 2eEn Ince Seance
fertilizer, and we save tree vitality. Incidentally, we
accomplish equally important secondary results. By
removing, say, one-half of the baby fruit on a tree,
the remainder is enabled to grow to larger and more
profitable size ; and next season the tree, not having
exhausted itself the previous year, is in proper con-
dition to bear another full crop. In brief, systematic
thinning increases the value of the crop, and helps
to insure full crops every year.

The time to do the work is after the June drop is
about over and before the seeds or pits have hardened.
Often it is necessary to pull off, by hand, almost two-
thirds of the fruit on a heavily set tree; yet, strange
as it may seem to those who have not tried it, the
remaining one-third, at pick-
ing time, will fill almost as
many bushels as the frnit of
a similar tree unthinned.
Which would be most profit-
able, ten bushels of ‘‘medi-
ums’’ or eight ornine bushels
of “‘extra large’’? It fre-
quently pays to hire help to

SAME BRANCH PROPERLY ~ +
THINNED do the thinning.

58 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

NOTEBOOK JOTTINGS.
Cultivation should be shallow —two or three inches at most.
A rope or handle to the harrow helps to guide the implement.

If you grow cultivated crops in a young orchard, never let
the crop come closer than four feet to any tree trunk.

Many orchardists say : “Don’t plow or cultivate fruit trees
while they are in blossom. May cause the embryo fruit to drop.”’

When applying fertilizer, remember that a tree’s root area is
usually as large around, or larger, than its top area. Don’t pile
tree food around the trunk,—spread it farther out.

Use a one-horse plow for the first two or three rounds along
atree row. Do this toall the rows. Then change to a two-horse
plow, and finish the job. ‘This makes easier, closer work.

If you decide to mulch, do it right. Don’t permit yourself
to mow the grass which pushes through the mulch, and then
remove the clippings. Jet the mowed grass lie cn the mulch.

Why should cultivation usually cease about August first?
So as to allow the new growth to stop growing and harden up in
proper mature condition for the winter. The new wood on late
cultivated trees is more apt to winter-kill.

Muzzle the horses when plowing or cultivating around trees.
Yes, and don’t forget to pad the outer end of each whiffletree.
Pad the outer edges of the harrow, too. Butif a tree is acciden-
tally “‘ barked,’’ bandage the wound with cow manure and burlap.

Rules for thinning fruit: Remove all wormy, crooked or
otherwise inferior specimens. Only the best specimen in each
cluster should be allowed to remain. Remaining fruits should
not be closer together than five or six inches apart. Properly
thinned trees need no props.

Learn how to harrow an orchard so as to cover practically all
the ground. Harrow lengthwise one time, crosswise another
time, and diagonally the third time; then repeat. A careful
driver will thus leave only a few inches of untouched ground
around each tree trunk—and a hand hoe easily finishes that.

Sometimes it is desirable to ‘““seed down” to grass, for a
year or so,a thrifty, well-grown pear, apple or cherry orchard.
Plum, peach or dwarf pear, never. And, in any case, such a
course is seldom best until the trees have reached the bearing
age; then, a temporary seeding down may be beneficial,—first,
because it may induce quicker fruitfulness by checking growth;
or, second, it may prevent the bark-burst or pear blight which a
too rapid growth sometimes promotes.

ae ©

; fy»
r Lau
Ul a |

PLATE VI

ce

igs

aS

NOT SPRAYED

CHAPTER VII.

SPRAYING.

Spray, farmers, spray with care,
Spray the apple, peach and pear;
Spray for scab, and spray for blight,
Spray, oh spray, and do tt right.

Yes, that’s the entire secret—‘'Do it right!’’
Every year there is a great deal of spraying that does
very little good. Many individuals go through the
operation and simply waste time and money. I have
observed that unless the operator is very careful there
will be fruits and even large areas on the trees, left
unsprayed. In many cases the operator sprays the
lower limbs of the trees heav- _ |
ily, but the topmost twigs, and jA
Gyen the centre, are left dry, \
and then he wonders why
spraying does not produce
better results.

If you are a fruit-grower —
actual or prospective —make
up your mind to the fact that
a good spraying outfit is just
as important to your success
as a plow or a pruning saw.
The kind of an outfit which
you require depends, of course,

FOR A FEW TREES, NOT

on the size of your orchard. If TOO LARGE, THIS Com-
1 f f PRESSED-AIR SPRAYER
there are only a few trees, o IS ALL RIGHT

(59)

60 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

medium size, perhaps one of the new-style, com-
pressed-air, shoulder-strap sprayers (sold by seeds-
men and implement dealers) will answer the purpose.
Or if the trees are large or numerous, you may require
a barrel or tani
outfit, mounted on
the farm wagon
and worked by
hand ; or perhaps
your require-
ments may neces-
sitate one of the
power outfits
which are oper-
ated by either a
gasoline engine,

POWER SPRAYING FOR LARGE geared connec-
ORCHARDS tion with wagon
wheels, or compressed gas in cylinders. x

Before deciding upon a pump, or buying one, take
a bit of the same advice that Harriet once gave to
me: ‘‘Write to advertisers in the Farm Journal or
other farm papers, get their catalogs and price lists,
and then study, compare, and decide.’’

A good pump should work easily, maintain a
steady spray from one or several nozzles, be simple
in construction, have non-corrosive brass working
parts, be durable and able to stand hard use, be
easily taken to pieces for repair, have pipes properly
arranged to prevent clogging, and be provided with
an agitator which keeps the solution in vigorous
motion and thoroughly distributed. Judging a pump

SPRAYING 61

by cheapness alone often proves poor economy. For
a very finely divided spray the Vermorel nozzle seems
the best of any tested at the Station, says F’. H. Hall,
Geneva, N. Y., and that form should be chosen which
is provided witha joint between
nozzle chamber and elbow, to
allow easy access in case of
clogging. For spraying at
some distance the McGowen
nozzle is useful, and the double
Vermorel is adapted for thor-
ough, rapid work. A light bam- @ss
boo pole, enclosing a brass tube
audehined withy proper connec jcc FoR UTGar Gee
tions, seems the lightest and See

simplest means for raising the nozzles; this with a
light framework tower erected in the wagon or cart
upon which the operator may stand, will usually
afford sufficient elevation for even tall trees.

Spraying mixtures are divided into two classes:
Fungicides and insecticides. Often, however, it is
practicable to unite the two into one spray—and thus
fight both fungus and insects at the one operation.
A mixture of Bordeaux solution and an arsenical
poison, is a good example of such a combination.
Bordeaux mixture is the best and most useful of all
known fungicides for general use.

BORDEAUX MIXTURE.—Four pounds of sulphate
of copper, four pounds of quicklime, fifty gallons
of water. First, dissolve the copper sulphate. The
easiest, quickest way to do this, is to put it into a
coarse cloth bag and suspend the bag in a receptacle

62 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

partly filled with water. Next, slake the lime in a
tub, and strain the milk of lime thus obtained into
R another receptacle. Now get
J) someone to help you, and, with
a buckets, szmulfaneously pour
\ the two liquids into the spray-
Set Sas === ing barrel or tank. Lastly, add
MAKING BORDEAUX sufficient water to make fifty
gallons. (For making this mixture on a large scale,
an elevated platform—with pipes, etc., as shown in
cut—is very handy.) ’Tis safe to use this full-
strength Bordeaux on almost COPUER BARRELS oe Ew ws soem
all foliage,—except on peach comensuexate a)
trees, Japanese plums, and ——<——-
similar tender trees. For
these it is wiser to use the
following half-strength mix-
jabbe os
Half-strength Bordeaux : Miter cater Rae é
Two pounds of copper sul- LARGE SCALE
phate, two pounds of quicklime, fifty gallons of water.
BORDEAUX COMBINED WITH INSECT POISON.—By
adding one-quarter pound of Paris green to each fifty
gallons of either of the Bordeaux formulas, the mix-
ture becomes a combined fungicide avd insecticide.
Or, instead of Paris green, add about two pounds of
arsenate of lead (an excellent commercial form of this,
called ‘‘Disparene,’’ is for sale by seedsmen). The
advantages of arsenate of lead, over Paris green, are,
first, it is not apt to burn foliage even if used in
rather excessive quantities; and, second, it ‘‘sticks”’
to the foliage, etc., better and longer. I believe that
it is the best form in which to use arsenical poison.

SPRAYING 63

INSECTICIDES.—Sometimes it may be desirable to
apply a treatment for insects alone, without the bother
of making the regulation Bordeaux. Here are a few
standard formulas suited for chewing insects:

Paris green : Two pounds of quicklime, one-quarter
pound of Paris green, fifty gallons of water. Keep
mixture well agitated while spraying. (Not so safe
as arsenate of lead on tender foliage of peach, etc.)

Arsenate of lead: This can be made at home, as
follows: Take twelve ounces of acetate of lead, four
ounces of arsenate of soda, and fifty gallons of water.
Put the acetate of lead into a gallon of water in a
wooden pail; in another wooden pail put the arsenate
of soda in two quarts of water. When both are
dissolved, pour them together into the spray tank
containing the required amount of water. A white
precipitate of lead arsenate immediately forms in the
tank and the mixture is ready to be applied. This
remains in suspension longer than Paris green.

FoR SUCKING INSECTS.—Now we come to another
class of insecticides, suited to insects which suck a
tree’s juices but do not chew. Arsenic will not kill
such pests; therefore we must resort to solutions
which kill by contact. Here are some of the best-
known recipes of this kind:

Kerosene emulsion: One-half pound of hard or
one quart of soft soap; kerosene, two gallons; boiling
soft water, one gallon. If hard soap is used, slice it
fine and dissolve in water by boiling; add the boil-
ing solution (away from the fire) to the kerosene, and
stir or violently churn for from five to eight minutes,
until the mixture assumes a creamy consistency. If

64 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

a spray pump is at hand, pump the mixture back upon
itself with considerable force for about five minutes.
Keep this asa stock. It must be further diluted with
soft water before using. One part of emulsion to
fifteen parts of water, is about right for lice.

Whale-oil soap solution: Dissolve one pound of
whale-oil soap in a gallon of hot water, and dilute
with about six gallons of cold water. This is a good
application for the young lice of the oyster-shell and
scurfy scale (see Chapter VIII), or for aphis.

Tobacco tea: This solution may be prepared by
placing five pounds of tobacco stems in a water-tight
vessel, and then covering them with three gallons of
hot water. Allow to stand several hours; dilute the
liquor by adding about sevea gallons of water. Strain
and apply. Good for lice (aphis) on foliage.

SPECIAL REMARKS.— No attempt has been made
in this chapter to cover the various fungous troubles
and insect pests which do damage to orchards and
fruit,— such topics being more appropriately treated
in the chapters on The Apple, The Pear, etc. There
you will find special directions which fit the special
pests which prey on each kind of fruit. Scale insects
have a chapter all to themselves.

Tim wants me to say that fungicides are not cures,
but pveventives. ‘‘ Therefore,’’ he concludes, “the
early bird catches the germ.’’ By which he means,
of course, that the sprayer should begin early in the
season,— before fungous trouble has really begun.
‘“Ves,’’? adds Harriet, ‘‘and he should repeat the good
work several times, at intervals of two or three weeks
apart.’’

SPRAYING 65

HELPFUL HINTS.

Bordeaux mixture is best when used a few hours after being
mixed.

After spraying, pump air or water through the pump and
hose to clean them of the mixture, so that it shall not needlessly
corrode them.

All spraying mixtures should be constantly agitated when in
use. If this is not done, some of the ingredients (particularly
Paris green) are apt to settle to bottom of tank or barrel.

A properly thrown spray is a fine mist, like steam; it
shouldn't be a fall of raindrops. It should settle on a tree like
dew, and there need be very little “drip’’ upon the ground.

Never spray trees while they are in blossom. No need to do
it, and it would kill the orchardist’s best friend—the bees.
Without bees, blossoms would not be properly cross-fertilized.

Don’t try to cover all sides of a large tree at one operation.
Take one side along the row, then when the wind is favorable
come back on the other side (for lack of this precaution many
trees are half-dead on that “other” side).

If rain falls immediately after an application, it must be
repeated as soon as the plants are fairly dry again. But if the
mixture once gets dried on the foliage it will adhere very well in
spite of rains. From one to two hours of sunshine will dry it
satisfactorily.

A few fruit-growers favor the dust method of spraying.
Instead of liquids they use powdered forms of insecticides and
fungicides, blown into the trees by means of special apparatus.
The idea doubtless has some good points, but a liquid spray
seems to suit most folks best.

A. W. Cheever tells in Farm Journal of a contrivance that
will be a boon to the man who holds the sprayer rod,—consisting

of an extension to prevent the liquid getting on the hands. The
pipe has a rod attached set off about four inches, for grasping by
the hands. This does not get wet as does the tube.

Straining Bordeaux mixture: No matter what quantity of
mixture is to be made up, it is necessary to strain the materials
through a good strainer. The best type of strainer is made of
brass wire, with eighteen or twenty meshes to the inch. If all
the copper solution and milk of lime are separately strained, it

66 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

will not be necessary to strain the Bordeaux mixture itself.
Some very good strainers made of copper are on the market and
may be obtained from the makers of spray pumps. One of the
best, which can be made at home, is in the form of a box.

Extra-strong Bordeaux mixtures: Some spraying experts
advocate the following extra-strength formulas: Six pounds of
copper sulphate, four pounds of quicklime, fifty gallons of water.
Or, five pounds of copper sulphate, five pounds of quicklime,
fifty gallons of water. I think these are too strong.

Here is a picture of a disc-shaped spray-
ing-rod shield. ‘Tis a handy little contriv-
ance for preventing the spray-drip from run-
ning down the rod on tothe hands. Can be
made of metal or wood, tightly fitted.

It has been established that in the case of the apple crop,
spraying will protect from fifty to seventy-five per cent. of the
fruit, which would otherwise be wormy, and that in actual
marketing experience the price has been enhanced from $1 to
$2.50 per barrel, and this at a cost of only about ten cents per
tree for labor and material.

In the case of one orchard in Virginia, only one-third of
which was sprayed, the result was an increase in the yield of
sound fruit in the portion treated, of nearly fifty per cent., and
an increase of the value of this fruit, over the rest, of one
hundred per cent. The loss from not having treated the other
two-thirds was estimated at $2,500.

It must be remembered that most spraying materials are
poisonous and should be so labeled. If ordinary precautions are
taken there is no danger, to man or team, attending their appli-
eation. The wetting, which can not entirely be avoided, is not at
all dangerous, on account of the great dilution of the mixture.
Nor is properly sprayed fruit unsafe to eat.

In large orchards much time may be saved by preparing and
keeping on hand separate stock solutions of the lime and copper,
instead of constantly making up a new batch. Dissolve forty
pounds of copper sulphate in as many gallons of water. A gallon
of the solution will thus contain one pound of the copper salt.
In a similar way a stock solution of lime may be prepared. Keep
both solutions tightly covered and thoroughly stir before dipping
from either. It is then a very simple matter to take four gallons
of the copper solution, four of the lime, and dilute to the requisite
amount,— according to the regulation Bordeaux formula.

PLATE VII

EFFECTS OF LEAF-BLIGHT

ON PEAR AND LEAF

SAN JOSE ON PEAR

CHAPTER VIII.
SCALE PESTS: SAN JOSE, OYSTER SHELL,
SCURFY, ETC.

If hogs or cattle could multiply as fast as scale lice, human
beings would soon be crowded of the earth.—Dorothy Tucker.

The most serious insect pest which confronts the
orchardist of today, is undoubtedly the San Jose scale
louse. It came to this country on nursery stock from
Japan, and first took root in San Jose, Cal. Itis sup-
posed that it was brought east to New Jersey about
twenty years ago, and it has gradually spread until
now it menaces the larger part of the United States.

In a single season a female may become the pro-
genitor of 1,608,040,200 individuals. The louse hides
under a scale that is impervious to most insecticides.

It attacks all orchard
trees, roses, small fruit |
bushes, and many lawn
shrubs and vines.

The louse can crawl rap- |
idly, and is often carried by
birds, insects and heavy |
winds.

ADULT FEMALE SAN JOSE

The insects are too small SCALE WITH YOUNG
= aor A (ENLARGED, AS SEEN
to be easily seen with the THROUGH A MAGNIFYING
naked eye, but the scale can GLASS)

be seen. Bark of affected trees has a grayish or ashy
appearance, in bad cases. It is the louse and not the

scale that does the harm.
(67)

68 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

Now search all of your sick trees, and here is a
description that will help you: The San Jose scale
is rather flat, round, pressed close to the bark, and
often is grayish, or resembles the bark of the twig in
color; when fully grown is about one-eighth of an
inch in diameter. At or near the middle of each scale
is a small, round, slightly elongated, black point
or nipple. Badly infected trees are covered so
thickly that the bark is completely hidden. Such
trees must be destroyed or severely pruned and
thoroughly sprayed. A magnifying glass (the Farm
Journal folks sell a good one for fifty cents) should be
a part of every modern orchardist’s equipment. Now
remember: A vound, dark scale with a central dot or
nipple. ‘That’s the idea, ina nutshell. (When found
on the fruit, each scale is usually surrounded by a
reddish ring. See colored plate VII.)

The best time to fight the San Jose is in the early
spring while the leaves are off and before the buds
swell, but if your trees are badly scaled over, and
half dead, it will never pay to try to save such trees;
dig them up at once and burn every vestige of them.
Do not lose a day in this; mow is the word. Near
every badly affected tree will be found other trees that
show the scale to the close observer; these may be
left standing until winter. Then, soon after the
leaves drop, spray the trees; and, if you wish to be
thorough, follow this with a second spraying in early
spring before the buds open.

Since the Farm Journal, four or five years ago,
brought the lime-sulphur-salt spray to the attention
of fruit-growers east of the Rocky mountains, many

SCALE PESTS 69

other things have been tried, but to little purpose.
The lime, sulphur and salt mixture is still the
sovereign remedy on the Pacific coast, no other
material being used there to any extentasa scale spray ;
and elsewhere in the United States it is the best
thing yet found. It is effective wherever used, if
directions are followed, and it is safer to use than
the oil remedies sometimes recommended.

AN ILLINOIS LIME-SULPHUR-SALT OUTFIT.
STEAM-COOKING IN ELEVATED BARRELS

Farm Journal’s winter formula for making the
lime-sulphur spray: ‘*Mix forty pounds of fresh,
unslaked lime in sixty gallons of water, and after
stirring in twenty pounds of sulphur, boil the mix-
ture one and one-half hours. Strain through wire
sieve or netting, and apply while mixture is still
warm. A good, high-pressure pump is essential to
satisfactory work. Coat every particle of the tree.
The salt is purposely omitted, for it does not seem
to do much good and it renders the mixture harder
to manage.”’

LOCI: BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

Dr. Funk’s formula for the lime, sulphur and salt
mixture is as follows: ‘“‘To make 150 gallons, take
sixty-five pounds of best stone lime, fifty pounds of
sulphur and thirty-five pounds of salt. Make a paste
of the sulphur and have from fifteen to twenty gallons
of boiling water in an iron caldron over a brisk
fire. Into this put the lime, immediately adding the
sulphur paste. This is rapidly cooked, either thirty,
forty or fifty minutes, or until it looks as red as
canned tomatoes. It must be vigorously stirred all the
while, when it will get as smooth as glass. Then add
a sufficient amount of hot water to make 150 gallons.”’

The month of March is the best month in which
to spray, if only one application is given. Here is
J. H. Hale’s way with the lime, sulphur and salt
formula: ‘‘ Twenty pounds of best lime dumped into
boiling water will generate a heat that will generally
melt down fifteen pounds of sulphur flour. That
should be dumped right in after the lime. Then by
steam or fire heat keep this mass boiling thirty to forty
minutes; add water to make fifty gallons; fifteen
pounds of salt (to make the mass stick to the trees
longer), and you have the best lime-sulphur-salt
mixture that can be made.’’

Prof. S. A. Forbes gives the following directions for
making what is known as the Oregon wash: “‘ Pro-
vide thirty pounds of best unslaked lime, thirty pounds
of powdered sulphur, three pounds of blue vitriol, and
water sufficient to make 100 gallons. Heat five to
seven gallons of water in an iron kettle, and, while
this is heating, weigh out the lime and sift the sulphur,
keeping the two separate. When the water is ready

SCALE PESTS 71

to boil, put in the lime, and as soon as this begins to
slake pour in the sulphur, one man vigorously stirring
the mass during this operation. A violent boiling
immediately takes place, and water—preferably hot—
should be kept at hand to pour on the boiling mass to
prevent its running over the kettle. Use as little
water as possible, continuously stir, and do not allow
the mixture to boil over. When the lime has finished
slaking, the violent boiling ceases, and the mass
should be thick and stiff. Keep it steadily boiling for
an hour. The mixture becomes thinner as it boils
down, and changes from a deep orange-red through
several shades of yellow, ending with a deep amber
color. When it reaches this color we usually consider
it time to add the blue vitriol. Then fill the kettle
with hot water, thoroughly stir, strain one-half the
contents into a fifty-gallon barrel and fill the barrel
with hot water. Spray this upon the dormant trees
immediately. ’’

OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE.—The most common
scale-insect of the apple, without doubt, is the oyster-
shell bark-louse. Although everywhere
present, and sometimes quite conspicu-
ous, it most often attacks trees that for
some reason are unhealthy, and there-
fore poorly fitted to support the extra
drain put upon them by the pest.

The scales of these insects are elon- oysteR-sHELL
gated, shaped something like oyster- **@(S ROUSE
shells, with the cast skins at the smaller FULL siIzE)
ends. They are brown incolor. Underneath a scale
will be found a cluster of yellowish-whitish eggs,

72 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

plainly to be seen through an ordinary magnifying
glass. The scales are about one-eighth inch in
length, or smaller, and they usually cluster together
as shown in the illustration on page 71.

About the middle of May (later or earlier, according
to latitude) the eggs under the scales hatch into tiny
lice which appear as mere specks to the unaided eye.
These lice, for a few days, move around on the bark.

Remedies: First, give the tree a tonic and a good
tub-down. Fertilizers, pruning and cultivation will
help the tree to better general health; and a brisk
scrubbing of trunk and main limbs with a very stiff
brush or scraper, will get rid of many of the scales.
An old broom with the brush cut short makes an
excellent scrubbing implement. Keep it wet with
whale-oil soap solution. Then, sometime in May,
watch for the hatched-out lice. When they appear,
get out the spray pump and thoroughly spray the
entire tree with whale-oil soap solution, made as
follows: Dissolve one pound of whale-oil soap in a
gallon of hot water, and dilute with about
six gallons of cold water. (Note: The oyster-
shell louse is especially fond of the lilac.)

SCURFY BARK- LOoOUSE.— Another scale
insect, that may be classed with the oyster-
shell bark-louse so far as its economic
scurry importance is concerned, is the scurfy bark-

scaLE louse of the pear and apple. ‘This scale is
Ee ae white in color, and, like the oyster-shell pest,
SIZE) —_ is most apt to work on poorly fertilized and
poorly cultivated trees. The scurfy scale is readily
recognized on account of its whitish, cotton-like

SCALE PESTS 73

appearance, and its oblong shape. The eggs beneath
the scales are in clusters, purplish in color, and they
hatch out about the same time as the oyster-shell eggs.

Remedies: Same as for oyster-shell bark-louse.
(Special note: There is no better remedy for a@// scale
insects, than the lime-sulphur-salt spray. Those who
use it on their trees in the winter, are all right. But
when tree growth is beginning, it is better to fight
oyster-shell and scurfy bark-lice with whale-oil solu-
tion. Or kerosene emulsion may be used. )

OTHER SCALE PESTs.—A variety called the ‘‘ plum
scale’’ is sometimes found on plum trees (and occa-
sionally on quince, apple, pear, cherry and peach
trees). Of this scale pest Prof. Slingerland says:
‘“They remind one of small halved peas colored dark
brown and stuck on the branches.’’ They belong to
the scale family named Lecaniums, several species of
which are serious pests in citrus orchards.

Olive and citrus fruit-growers in California, Florida,
etc., have a long list of scale troubles of their own.
The same remedies advocated for other scale pests
will prove equally successful when applied to the
plum or citrus or olive scales.

FOOT NOTES.

For the lime-sulphur-salt wash the pump should have brass
working parts; nothing should be of copper.

Ladybirds are among the most active destroyers of scale
insects, and the most abundant of these beetles is the twice-
stabbed ladybird.

All dead wood and thick brush should be cut out before
attempting to spray; and all branches that are too high to reach
and cover with the spray liquid should also be cut off.

74 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

Protect the hands by coating them with vaseline or by wear-
ing gloves—rubber being the least injured by the lime-sulphur-
salt wash. Cover the horses. Spray only with the wind, if it
be too strong to spray against it. It is impossible to throw the
spray satisfactorily against a very strong breeze.

Special note: Many folks do not fully realize that the lime-
sulphur-salt spray is a splendid fungicide as well as a louse killer.
Therefore its use may well take the place of the eav7ter Bordeaux
applications, before the buds have opened. (Full-strength lime-
sulphur-salt is not suited for spraying on trees in leaf.)

A fifty-gallon barrel makes a
very convenient unit for even the
most extensive spraying opera-
tions, says M. B. Waite. Here is +
a plan of lime-sulphur-salt boiling
plant of six barrels, rather similar :
to the model of J. H. Hale. (Fig. I
shows general view; fig. II shows
details of one barrel.) The boiler
tests on the ground, the barrels =
and the water-supply pipe on an FIG.I. HALE’S STEAM
elevated platform about eight feet SON

Ml from the ground. The outlet is terminated by about
ie es three feet of flexible hose, through which the finished
mixture can be piped to the wagon tank as wanted.
The steam is conducted directly into the bottom of
each barrel, escaping into the liquid through the per-
forated crosspieces, and then bubbling up and out.
The water inlet and outlet pipes have no connection,
on wattR mer Of Course, with the steam pipes. Stop-cocks should

FIG... be located as shown—fifteen in all. (A scientific

Rei ie friend of mine suggests that a steam coil in the

bottom of each barrel, through which steam could

pass and then vefurn to the boiler, would be more economical of

steam and of fuel. He says that it’s wasteful to allow the steam
to escape in the barrels.—J. B.)

PERFORATED

ne

PLATE VIII

IMFERIAT,

NORTHERN

SPY

CHAPTER IX.

COVER CROPS,
FALL, WINTER AND SPRING CARE.

Orchards, as well as folks, need winter overcoats.—John Tucker.

The seven important advantages of a cover crop
in the orchard are: Ist, to supply nitrogen and
organic matter or humus to the soil; 2d, to improve
the mechanical condition of the soil, z. e., to lighten
a heavy soil or make a light soil more retentive of
moisture ; 3d, to protect the roots from being injured
by deep freezing; 4th, to prevent the fine particles of
soil and plant food from being washed away during
the fall, winter and spring; 5th, to catch and hold
snow and leaves; 6th, to help check late growth of
trees in the fall, and thus aid wood growth to harden
up for winter; and, 7th, to pump the surplus water
out of the soil in early spring so that the ground may
sooner get into condition for plowing.

An orchard cover crop is a crop sown to cover the
ground during that portion of the year when very
little or not any growth is being made by fruit trees.
If a man makes no effort to cover the ground with
economic plants, then Nature steps in and _ starts
weeds and grass in the endeavor to protect the soil.
Cover crops are usually sown just before the last
cultivation of an orchard—about August first. Some-
times as early as July, or as late as early September.

There are practically two classes of plants which
the orchardist may use for the purpose of securing

(75)

76 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

a cover crop, says John Craig, Cornell Experiment
Station, New York. These are: the nitrogenous class
on the one hand and the non-nitrogenous class on the
other. The difference between these two is marked
by the power of the plants of the nitrogenous class to
appropriate the free nitrogen of the air and store it
up in their tissues in such a way that it is more or less
readily available to the succeeding crops. Prominent
among plants which have this property are the clovers,
peas, beans and vetches. These are the farmers’
friends—the ‘‘nitrogen collectors.”’

Prof. C. P. Close, Delaware, says :—‘‘ The amounts
of seed per acre, and crop or combination of crops
which may be used, are about as follows: Rye, one to
one and one-half bushels; cowhorn turnips, one to
two pounds; dwarf Essex rape, eight to ten pounds;
red, mammoth or crimson clover, fifteen to twenty
pounds; cowpeas, ninety pounds; soy beans, ninety
pounds; hairy vetch, forty to fifty pounds; hairy
vetch, forty pounds, and rye, thirty pounds; hairy
vetch, twenty pounds, and cowpeas or soy beans,
forty-five pounds; hairy vetch, twenty pounds, and
turnips, twelve ounces; hairy vetch, twenty pounds,
crimson clover, eight pounds, and turnips, eight
ounces; hairy vetch, twenty pounds, and red, mam-
moth or crimson clover, eight pounds; turnips, eight
ounces, rye, twenty pounds, and red, mammoth or
crimson clover, four pounds; turnips, twelve ounces,
and crimson clover, eight pounds; turnips, twelve
ounces, and soy beans or cowpeas, forty pounds;
dwarf Essex rape, four pounds, and rye, one bushel;
rape, four pounds, soy beans or cowpeas, forty pounds,

COVER CROPS; WINTER CARE 77

and rye, twenty pounds; alfalfa, fifteen pounds, and
red, mammoth or crimson clover, seven and one-half
pounds.’’

Many other combinations may be used successfully.
The object should be to use such a mixture of crops
that a part at least shall live over winter. <A few of
the foregoing combinations contain all fall crops and
for that reason are not so desirable as though they
contained a part of those that live through the winter
and grow in the spring. Oats, one bushel, crimson
clover, ten pounds, is by many fruit-growers con-
sidered a good combination. The oats die down when
cold weather comes, and help protect the living
clover.

FALL, WINTER AND SPRING CARE.—This consists
of several things, the most important of which are:
Protection against injury by mice or rabbits; protec-
tion against sun-scald; protection against live stock ;
careful oversight of drains and drainage; safeguard-
ing, so far as possible, against late spring frosts at
blossoming time; and hunting for borers. Hints on
these and other subjects will be found in the following

HELPS FOR FRUIT-GROWERS.

A bolt put in, now, may save nine bushels of fruitlater. Split
trees and dangerous crotches need attention. Bolts are cheap.
Wse en.

Winter and early spring afford excellent chances to find and
destroy all cocoons, egg clusters, etc., on fruit trees. Make a
practise of doing this each year. It pays.

Be careful not to let the cover crop grow so late in the spring
that it pulls all the moisture out of the soil. Rye, etc., should
be plowed under defore it becomes tall and woody.

Cows, sheep, ete., have no good excuse for being in an
orchard at any time. There’s always danger that they will bark
the trees,—especially when green forage is absent.

78 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

When fall comes, be sure to clean up all trash in the orchard.
Mow the weeds (there shouldn’t be any). Burn all rubbish.
Then the owls, hawks, cats and crows can readily see and catch
all field mice.

Trees which have been completely girdled by mice or rab-
bits, can often be saved by means of bridge grafting. (See Chap;
ter II.) Partially-girdled trees should be bandaged with cow
manure and burlap.

An experienced orchardist says that it is an excellent plan
to leave the clippings under the trees in the winter when prun-
ing an orchard, so that mice and rabbits will eat such tender
twigs instead of gnawing at the tree trunk itself.

Dormant buds: Sometimes every fruit bud or blossom on a
tree will seem to be killed by cold, and yet—to most folks’ sur-
prise—a moderate crop of fruit results. How? By means of the
dormant (undeveloped) buds on the trees. When normal buds
are killed, the trees often force forward the dormant ones in
time partially to supply the deficiency.

Good drainage in the orchard is essential to success. Tike
human beings, fruit trees can not stand wet feet. In the falla
furrow-ditch plowed between tree rows, or wherever needed,
may help to insure better drainage conditions during the winter
and early spring. See that tile drain outlets do not become
obstructed; to keep out small animals, fasten wire netting over
each outlet.

Fruit buds: These are apt to be more plump than leaf buds,
and are therefore usually easily recognized. Slice a fruit bud
through the centre, lengthwise; if it is alive, the interior is
greenish-vellowish in appearance; if dead, the heart ts black-
ened, even though the remainder of interior looks all right.
Frozen buds should be thawed out for several days before
making this test.

Severe pruning-back is the most effective treatment for badly
frozen very young peach trees, etc. Moderate cutting-back is
best for less seriously affected young trees, and also for badly
injured old peach trees, etc. Citrus trees, etc., will often sprout
again from a mere stump. Give all frozen trees a fair chance ;
never pull out a tree until it has had an opportunity to recover.
Nature sometimes performs wonders in this line in one or two
seasons.

Farmers who have been putting axle grease on their trees to
protect them from rabbits, sheep and vermin, should not do so.
It is not a good plan. Thesun shining on the greasy bark drives
the grease into the tree and may killit. The best thing to use is
beef blood, such as is easily obtained in any slaughter house ;
then mix it thoroughly with clay and wood ashes. ‘The ashes
act as a germicide, while the clay forms a paste which prevents
the blood being readily washed off by the rains.

COVER CROPS; WINTER CARE 72

Blossom knowledge: 1. Scarcely one fruit blossom in ten sets
fruit, even in the most favorable seasons and with the most pro-
ductive varieties.V 2. Trees making a very vigorous growth may
drop their blossoms. 3. Brown rot, apple or pear scab, and pear
blight may kill the blossoms. 4. Frost injury to blossoms is of
all degrees. Even flowers which appear to be uninjured may be
so weakened that they can not set fruit. 5. Rain during the
blooming season prevents the setting of fruit, chiefly by destroy-
ing the vitality of the pollen, injuring the stigma, or by pre-
venting fertilization because of the low temperature. The
washing of pollen from the anthers seldom causes serious loss.
6. If a tree stands alone and does not bear fruit, it may .be
self-sterile.

Sun-scald is usually caused by alternate freezing and thaw-
ing, which eventually bursts the bark on the southward side of
the tree trunk near the ground. Sometimes, how-
ever, it is caused by the sun striking too hot in
summer on exposed branches or trunk. It is a
serious trouble in some orchards and with some
varieties, and the only sure remedy is to shade the
trunk in some manner. Wrappings of wood veneer
or laths answer the purpose, generally speaking.
Besides, such wrappings fence out mice and rabbits.
I earnestly advise my brother orchardists to avail
themselves of this double protection. Wood-veneer
tree protectors may be purchased for about $5 per
1000, and will last several years. Protectionagainst =
sun-scald and rabbit injury is especially necessary =

for young trees. VENEER
Abel F. Stev -¢:—"‘Spring frosts hav foes
e . Stevens says: pring frosts have protector

caused an immense amount of damage. We have
been very successful in combating the baneful effects of killing
frosts by the following method: Mix coal-tar with sawdust and
old straw, and place in heaps on the windward side. When
heavy frosts threaten, set these heaps afire. They will burn for
many hours, making a dense smoke which completely protects
blossoms or fruit.’? Anexcellent idea, surely. In this connection
I would say that some western orchardists are using an electric
automatic alarm thermometer, to give warning at night when
frost damage threatens. This saves the owner the trouble of
sitting up nights. The thermometer is fastened toa post in the
orchard, and wires run from it to an alarm bell in the house
bedroom. If the cold reaches the danger point, the bell Tings,
and the fruit-zrower can then hasten out and light his smudges.
Let me say, further, that sprinkling or irrigating an orchard
when frost threatens, is often an excellent preventive of frost
injury.

Beware of borers: Various kinds of borers— fat, whitish
worms —attack the different varieties of fruit trees; there are
the apple-tree borers, the peach-tree borers, etc., etc. It will be
wise to begin looking for signs of these pests the fall or spring

80 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

following the setting of the trees, and, during the life of the
trees, this annual inspection should be continued. Carry a
sharp, small-bladed knife, a piece of stout, flexible wire, anda
trowel or spade. Examine each trunk near the ground for traces
of “sawdust” or “gum” (the last, of course, will be found only
on trees like the peach and cherry). Either or both of these signs,
when found, show that one or more borers probably lurk within.
So, down you:go on your knees; the soil is pulled away from the
trunk to a depth of several inches—and the war is on! With
knife and wire the borers’ burrows are
probed until the enemy is found and
killed. Then on to the next tree. A
few careful cuts in the bark do the tree
far less injury than the damage an
unmolested borer will do. So don’t be afraid. (Note: Some
species of borers—notably the flat-headed apple-tree borer and
the plum-tree borer—often attack the upper part of the trunk,
and even the lower portions of the main limbs. The peach-tree
borer and the round-headed apple-tree borer usually attack
the trunk at a point close to the ground.) Among preventive
measures are several methods which are sometimes successfully
used to keep borers out of the trees: Mound up the earth to a
height of a foot or more around each tree, in May, and then
allow the earth to remain until September. Or, protect the
lower part of each trunk (during the same period of time) with
closely-wrapped building paper. This paper should extend an
inch or so below the ground surface, and about two feet above
it, and be securely tied in place. Or try this wash: Dissolve
one pound of hard soap in two gallons of boiling water; then
add one pint of crude carbolic acid, an ounce of Paris green, and
enough lime to make a thin paste ; apply with a brush to trunks
and larger branches of trees; if bark is rough, scrape trunks
before applying wash.

BORER

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XI ALVId

CHAPTER X.

PEE eee PILE:

Tf there’s a better frutt than an apple it’s another apple.—Tim.

This splendid fruit is almost as “‘old as the hills.’’
King Solomon appreciated good apples. And charred
remains of apples have been found in prehistoric
dwellings in Europe. Southwestern Asia is where
this fruit originated. Harriet says that it is the ‘‘best
job that Asia ever did,’’ and I agree with her.

PROPAGATION.—Apples can be propagated either
by grafting or budding, the former method being
most commonly used by nurserymen. Whip grafts
on seedling roots are often employed. But there are
several ways of obtaining good trees for setting. My
friend, Wilmer Atkinson, says: “‘If I were to plant
another apple orchard, I should buy Northern Spy
nursery trees, set them, and cut off and cleft-graft
(after the tree is set) each trunk at the point where
the first branches are wanted,—using scions cut from
thrifty bearing trees of £xown variety and productive-
ness.’’ To Mr. Atkinson’s excellent plan I might add
that if a man has time, and can’t afford to buy the
trees, he might grow Spy seedling trees and then
graft them—thus saving the nursery bill.

SELECTING NURSERY TREES. — Two-year-old,
straight, medium-size, healthy trees are about right.
See that they are not branched too high ; three or four
feet should be the limit.

(81)

82 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

Soins. —Almost any soil will do for the apple
orchard, provided that it be somewhat elevated and
sufficiently well
drained. Very
light sand, or
swampy muck,
would be least
desirable; a
loamy clay soil,
most desirable.

VARIETIES
WHICH ARE
OFTEN SELF-

MAY’S PROMISE STERIL E.—
‘‘Bellflower, Primate, Spitzenburg, Willow Twig,
Winesap,’’ says Cornell Experiment Station. Some
other varieties might be added to this list. In fact,
the only safe way is to mix the planting, and to
include some of the more self-fertile-blossom kinds, —
such as ‘“‘Baldwin, Ben Davis, Fallawater, Jannet,
Oldenburg, Rhode Island Greening,
Astrachan, Smith’s Cider,’ ete. (And
even some of these are self-sterile in
some localities and under some cir-
cumstances! So I again say, ‘‘ Mix.’’)

PRUNING.—Apple trees should be
cut back (so as not to grow too high),
thinned out (so as to let sunshine and
air into the head), and trimmed up

: 4 AUTUMN’S
(to permit of necessary horse cultiva- FULFILLMENT

tion). For general pruning directions, see Chapter V.
Moderate, regular trimming is preferable to heavy,

THE APPLE 83

irregular trimming. The apple produces its fruit on
twigs or fruit spurs which are at least three or four
years old.

PRINCIPAL INSECT PEsTs.— Aphis (lice) on
leaves. Remedy: Spray with tobacco solution when
lice first hatch out and before they are hidden by curl
of leaves.

Apple maggot: A tiny worm which tunnels the
fruit in all directions. Remedy: Promptly pick up
and destroy or feed to the stock all windfalls.

Apple-twig borer: A tiny blackish beetle which
bores into terminal twigs near buds. Infested twigs
often wilt and die. No good remedy is known, except
to cut off all such twigs, not later than July, and burn
them. ’

Borers: Two kinds—‘‘round-headed”’ and ‘‘flat-
headed.’’ See Chapter IX for borer remedies.

Bud worm: A little caterpillar that attacks buds,
blossoms and starting leaves. Remedy: Arsenical
spray when buds begin to open.

Buffalo tree-hopper: A small greenish insect about
one-third of an inch long, that punctures the twigs,
causing a peculiar scarred appearance. Remedy:
Cut off the injured twigs and burn.

Codling moth: ’Tis estimated that one-half of
America’s apple crop is annually ruined by the cod-
ling moth. This is the pest that causes ‘‘ wormy apple-
cores.’’ The moth seldom flies except at night, and
therefore few fruit-growers have ever seen one.
About the time that the blossoms are falling, this
moth appears and glues its eggs on or near the min-
iature apples. In about a week these eggs hatch,

84 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

and, as a rule, each little apple worm soon finds its
way directly into the upright, open, cup-like blos-
som end.on top of an apple. Here it hides and feeds
for several days—then it bores its way into the apple
to the core. The time to fight this pest is whez it zs
Seeding on the outside of the apple, in the little cup-
like cradle. A drop or two of poison then applied
will quickly kill the worm and thus save the apple;
whereas if the fight is delayed until it has really
enter = the apple, no outward application of poison
a\ipr can affect it. ‘Zhe falling of the blossoms
ts the signal to begin spraying ; the clos-
ing of the calyx lobes a week or two later
is the signal to stop
spraying.’’ The Bor-
deaux-arsenical spray
“srcin is excellent for this
SPRAYING” pDurpose. Two applications—a week apart
—are advised. Banding the trees, and promptly
destroying all windfall apples, are measures which
are also of help.

Canker worm: This ‘‘ looping’’ or ‘‘ measuring ’’
caterpillar feeds upon the foliage and is often very
destructive. Remedies: Sticky bands of tar, printers’
ink, or fly-paper, placed around each tree trunk in
early spring to prevent the ascent of the egg-laying
moths; an arsenical spray all over trees where
worms have hatched.

Curculio: A hump-backed beetle about an eighth
of an inch long (related to the plum curculio, but with
a longer snout) which sometimes stings young apples.
Remedy: Arsenical spray.

“STOP SPRAYING”’

THE APPLE 85

Leaf roller, leaf crumpler, and leaf skeletonizer:
These three pests can be killed with an arsenical
spray.

Scale lice: San Jose, oyster-shell, and scurfy. See
Chapter VIII for remedies.

Tent-caterpillar: The well-known ‘‘nest’’ worm
found on trees in early summer. Remedies: Tie a
piece of cloth around one end of a long stick, saturate
the cloth with kerosene, ignite, and with this torch
quickly burn each silky tent of worms; do this in
early morning or just before nightfall, so as to be
sure that all the worms are ‘‘at home’’; an arsenical
spray is also helpful.

Woolly aphis: There are two forms of this insect ;
one attacks the roots, as told in Chapter III; the
other occurs in masses of white, woolly substance on
the limbs and trunks. Beneath each woolly mass will
be found a number of yellowish lice. Remedies:
Kerosene emulsion, tobacco solution, or scalding hot
water.

PRINCIPAL FUNGOUS PESTS.— Powdery mildew:
Whitish blotches sometimes found, about midsummer,
on terminal shoots and leaves, which soon spread
over most of the new growth. Remedy: Bordeaux
mixture.

Rot: This trouble is also called ‘‘bitter rot,’’ ‘‘ripe
rot,’’ ‘‘apple rot,’’ etc.; it attacks the fruit before the
ripening period, causing decayed brown spots; usually
the infected specimens drop to the ground, although
some of them*shrivel up and stay on the tree all
winter, thus carrying the fungous spores to the next
year’s crop. .Remedies: Destroy fallen fruit; remove

86 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

and burn all mummied apples which stay on the trees
in the fall; spray with the Bordeaux mixture early in
the season. (Note: There is another form of rot
which is called ‘‘pink rot.’’ Bordeaux is the remedy. )

Rust: A fungus which sometimes blisters the
leaves with orange-colored spots, and which usually
originates on cedar trees. Remedies: Spray or cut
down any cedars which may be near the apple orchard ;
spray the orchard with Bordeaux.

Scab: This is sometimes called ‘‘black spot’’; it
produces the well-known scabby places upon apples;
it also affects the new shoots and leaves, causing black
blotches thereon,—and often the early spring leaves
are thus blighted; young apples shrivel and drop
from the tree ; mature apples are seriously disfigured.
Remedy : Bordeaux, several sprayings at intervals of
about two weeks, beginning before buds open.

Twig blight: This apple disease is similar in
nature to the well-known “‘fire blight’’ of the pear;
affected terminal twigs (including leaves, flowers or
fruit thereon) turn black or brown, and die. The
only known remedy is to cut out the diseased parts,
and burn. (See pear blight, Chapter XIII.) This
trouble comes and goes, and is worse some years than
others.

MISCELLANEOUS TROUBLES.—Chief among these
are sun-scald (consult Chapter IX), crown galls
(Chapter III), canker and collar rot. No very good
remedies are known for the two last-mentioned
troubles; they seem to be closely related to “‘twig’’
and ‘“‘fire’’ blight; for instance, a blighted twig will
often cause a canker to form near its base.

THE APPLE 87

Canker is a fungous or bacterial trouble which
causes cracked or sunken irregular dead places to
appear on the bark or limbs, in crotches, and some-
times in such form as practically to girdle small
branches. Cut out and burn such small branches.
If large cankers appear on trunk or main limbs, cut
out the diseased places with a sharp knife, swab out
and disinfect the wounds with corrosive sublimate
solution (one tablet dissolved in one pint of water),
and, when dry, cover the places with thick lead-and-oil
paint. Do this early in the season. Renew the paint
each year until wounds heal. Disinfect knife after
such use. Remember that corrosive sublimate is
poison.

Collar rot most often attacks King and Spitzen-
burg trees, and diseased trees should be treated as
advised for canker. (Note: Top-grafting these va-
rieties on, say, Spy stocks, would secure new trees
less liable to this disease of the bark at the base of
the trunk.)

A WISE ‘‘ COMBINATION ’’ SPRAYING SySTEM.—
The up-to-date grower does not often consider each
insect and fungous pest separately. No. Heplansa
spraying campaign which pretty nearly hits them all
(except borers, aphis, etc.). Here is a good system :
First spraying, Bordeaux, in spring before leaf buds
open ; second spraying (if bud worms, canker worms
or curculios are abundant), Bordeaux-arsenical mix-
ture, just defore blossoms open; third spraying, Bor-
deaux-arsenical mixture immediately after blossoms
fall; fourth, repeat same mixture at end of one
week ; Bordeaux alone, two weeks later, may make

88 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

the fifth application. (Note: Often, only the first,
third and fourth sprayings are necessary. If lime-
sulphur-salt spray is used in February or March for
San Jose, the first application of Bordeaux may be
omitted. Remember, lime-sulphur-salt is a fungicide
as well as a scale killer. )

APPLE By-PRODUCTS.—The poorer grades of apples
can often be advantageously utilized in the making of
jelly, marmalade, dried apples, and vinegar. Witha
hand press about two gallons of cider can be extracted
from a bushel of average apples ; with a power press
it is possible to extract almost twice as much. Barrels
for cider vinegar should be thoroughly cleaned and
scalded out. Fermentation is usually completed in
from three to six weeks, at which time add a small
quantity of mother of vinegar to hasten thé vinegar
process. Admit air freely to the barrels, keep them
in the warmest part of the cellar, and in less than a
year you should have a supply of excellent vinegar.

REINVIGORATING AN OLD, NEGLECTED OR-
CHARD.—Circumstances may alter cases, but in a
general way I suggest the following plan: First, prune
as directed for neglected trees (Chapter V); then com-
mence the ‘‘ combination spraying system’’ recom-
mended in this chapter; look out for borers, sun-
scald, scale lice, etc. ; scrape loose bark off from
trunk and main limbs, and apply whitewash thereto (if
lime-sulphur-salt spray is used, whitewash will not be
needed); plug up or paint all old wounds, first sawing
off all old stubs (grafting wax makes a good plug for
cavities); plow the orchard in spring—as shallow as
possible; never mind if you do cut a few roots; apply

PLATE, X

MAIDEN’S BLUSH

OLDENBURG

THE APPLE 89

fertilizers, and cultivate, regularly, as told in Chapter
VI; sow cover crops as directed in Chapter IX ; con-
tinue to prune, spray, plow, fertilize, cultivate, etc.,
each following year.

VARIETIES.—Those marked with a star are espe-
cially suited for commercial orchards and market.

Ll. B. Judson, Idaho, says that Jonathan, Rome Beauty and
Ben Davis are the greatest favorites, the state over, for com-
mercial plantations.

J. C. Whitten, Missouri, pins his faith to these commercial
kinds: Ben Davis, Gano, Jonathan, York Imperial, Missouri
Pippin, Winesap, Grimes’ Golden, Clayton, Ingram and Rome
Beauty.

W. T. Vincenheller, Arkansas, writes: For a list of market
apples that I would plant in an orchard of 1,000 trees, I beg to
state that I would use Black Ben Davis, Jonathan, Grimes’
Golden and King David, in equal quantities.

Farm Journal’s “best sixteen”’ list of market varieties from
which to select for a commercial orchard located in Pennsyl-
vania, etc., comprises: Oldenburg, Maiden’s Blush, Fameuse,
King, Rambo, Northern Spy, York Imperial, Rome Beauty, Stay-
man Winesap, Baldwin, R. I. Greening, Ben Davis, Grimes’
Golden, Sutton Beauty, Smokehouse, Smith’s Cider.

Ose Chamberlain’ s favorite list of market varieties for Ohio,
is as follows: “For summer, Red Astrachan, Oldenburg ; for
early fall, Maiden’s Blush; for late fall and winter, Baldwin,
R. I. Greening, Seek-no-further, Peck’s Pleasant (short-lived
tree but fine dessert apple), Northern Spy, Roxbury Russet,
Jonathan, Belmont, Canada Red. I would have at least ninety
per cent. Baldwins.”’

For the cold districts of Maine, northern Vermont, northern
New Hampshire, northeastern New York, Quebec, New Bruns-
wick, etc., and the northern peninsula of Michigan, the following
varieties are suggested by the government pomologist:

Tetofsky; *Oldenburg; *Gravenstein; Wealthy; St. Law-
rence; Twenty Ounce; *Fameuse; Pewaukee ; Bailey Sweet;
McIntosh; Wolf River; Tolman Sweet; *Northern Spy.

For Colorado, etc., the following varieties are suggested :

Tetofsky ; *Red Astrachan; *Oldenburg; *Maiden’s Blush;
Bailey Sweet; *Jonathan; Pewaukee; Swaar; Fallawater;
Hubbardston; White Pearmain; Yellow Bellflower; Golden
Russet ; Peck’s Pleasant; *Winesap ; Yellow Transparent; Early
Harvest; Red June; Gravenstein; Wealthy; Wolf River;
*Grimes’ Golden; Northern Spy; Tolman Sweet; *Missouri;
*Tompkins King; Red Canada; Rhode Island Greening ; *Rome
Beauty ; Wagener; White Pippin; Rall’s Jannet.

90 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

For Delaware, southern New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia,
West Virginia, southern Ohio, southern Indiana, Kentucky,
Tennessee, and North Carolina, the following varieties are
suggested :

Yellow Transparent; Trenton Early ; *Oldenburg ; Primate;
Red June; Golden Sweet; Karly Strawberry; Fall Pippin;
Jefferis ; Rambo; *Gravenstein; Wealthy ; *Jonathan ; *Northern
Spy; Esopus; Blue Pearmain; *Ben Davis; Rall’s Jannet; Karly
Harvest; Porter; St. Lawrence; Shiawassee; Melon; *Grimes’
Golden; Newtown Spitzenburg; Fallawater; *White Pippin;
Arkansas (Mammoth Blacktwig); *Stark; *York Imperial;
*Stayman Winesap; *Yellow Newtown.

For northern Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and
Nebraska, the following varieties are suggested:

Tetofsky ; Red Astrachan ; *Oldenburg; Red Stripe; Golden
Sweet; *Benoni; Charlamoff; Borovinka; Porter; *Maiden’s
Blush; Alexander; Dyer; Rambo; Lowell; Shiawassee; Yel-
low Transparent; Early Harvest; Primate; Jefferis; Graven-
stein; Fall Pippin; St. Lawrence; Wolf River; *Wealthy;
Fameuse; McIntosh; Ladies’ Sweet; *Grimes’ Golden; West-
field; Newtown Spitzenburg; Esopus; Domine; Roman Stem;
*White Pippin; Rome Beauty ; *Stark; Rall’s Jannet; *Willow;
*Jonathan; *Hubbardston; Wagener; Red Canada; Tolman;
English Russet; N. W. Greening; *Winesap; *York Imperial.

For New York, Massachusetts, Connecticut, southern Ver-
mont, southern New Hampshire, northern New Jersey, Penn-
sylvania, northern Indiana, northern Ohio, and the lower
peninsula of Michigan, the following varieties are suggested:

Karly Harvest; *Oldenburg; Golden Sweet; Red Stripe;
Sweet Bough; Karly Strawberry; *Maiden’s Blush; Red Astra-
chan; Benoni; *Rambo; Gravenstein ; *Fameuse; St. Lawrence;
Jefferis; Bailey Sweet; Wagener; *Northern Spy; Esopus;
*Rome Beauty; *Baldwin: *Ben Davis; *Rhode Island Green-
ing; Winesap; *York Imperial; Fall Pippin; Shiawassee; Jer-
sey Sweet; Wealthy; *Grimes’ Golden; Smokehouse; *Sutton
Beauty ; *Smith’s Cider; Westfield; Newtown Spitzenburg; Red
Canada; *Tompkins King; Hubbardston; Roxbury; *Stark.

JOLLY GOOD FELLOWS

MONTMORENCY

BLACK TARTARIAN
(IN MIDDLE) NAPOLEON

CHAPTER XI.

THE CHERRY.

Plant enough cherries for both folks and birds.—Farmer Vincent.

This delicious fruit came originally from Europe,
and comprises two distinct species—sour cherries and
sweet cherries.

PROPAGATION. — Budding is the usual method.
Common seedlings may be used for stocks, although
nurserymen commonly use imported stocks such
as the Mahaleb or the Mazzard. For very cold
climates the Mahaleb stock proves more hardy.

SELECTING NURSERY TREES. — Cherries one or
two years old from the bud, are about right. Choose
medium-size trees. If you can get unbranched sweet
cherries, they are somewhat easier to make live.

Soiis.—Cherry trees do best in a light soil, well
drained, but not too dry; sandy, loamy or gravelly.

SPECIAL CULTIVATION RULES.—Owing to the fact
that the cherry matures its fruit so early in the
season, cultivation should begin earlier and cease
sooner than in the case of other tree fruits.

Bark-burst, sun-scald, gum: Cherries (especially
sweet varieties), often grow so rapidly as to burst the
bark at some point or points on the trunk. There-
fore, excessive pruning, cultivation or nitrogenous
fertilizers should be discouraged. In fact, many
growers say that cultivation should cease two or
three years after planting, and the ground be seeded

(91)

92 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

down permanently. This, of course, depends some-
what on climate, variety, and soil. In regard to
sun-scald injury and preventive measures, consult
Chapter IX; for gum, see Chapter XII.

VARIETIES WHICH ARE OFTEN SELF-STERILE.—
S. W. Fletcher places three varieties in this list:
Napoleon, Belle de Choisy, and Reine Hortense.

PRUNING.—The less cherry trees are pruned the
better. Of course, it is necessary to cut back a tree at
time of planting, and to gnide it in the right path for
the first two or three years. The fruit of the cherry
is produced only on wood which is two or three
years old.

PRINCIPAL INSECT PEsSTs.—Aphis (lice): Attack
the leaves on ends of tender young shoots. Remedy:
Tobacco solution, applied early, before leaves curl.

Borers: The flat-headed cherry-tree borer is very
much like the flat-headed apple-tree borer.

Curculio: The plum curculio often stings cher-
ries, too, but the injured cherries are not so apt to
drop off.

Cherry frnit-fly or maggot: A fly which punctures
the skin of the frnit, and deposits an egg which soon
hatches into a small worm or maggot. The curculio
makes a crescent-shaped puncture; this fly does not.
Prof. Slingerland says: ‘‘ Place a temporary wire net-
ting around the trees and turn hens therein soon after
the fruit is picked.’’

Leaf rollers: These pests feed on the leaves
and roll them together for protection. Remedies:
Arsenical sprays; cut off and burn badly infested
twigs.

THE CHERRY 93

May beetle: This well-known “‘June bug’ some-
times attacks the foliage at night. Arsenical sprays.

Rose bug : See Chapter XII.

Slug: The ordinary pear-tree slug often feeds on
the leaves of cherry trees.

San Jose scale louse: Consult Chapter VIII.

PRINCIPAL FUNGOUS PEsTs.—Black knot: Dark,
knotty, wart-like bunches upon twigs and branches.
Easily seen and recognized. Spreads if not promptly
attended to. Remedy: Cut out and burn all knots as
soon as seen: cut well below the diseased parts (also,
spray the trees with Bordeaux).

Brown rot: It causes decayed brownish places on
the fruit, quickly ruining it and rapidly spreading to
adjacent cherries; infected specimens may drop to
the ground, or they may shrivel up and stay on the
tree all winter, thus carrying the disease to next
year'scrop. Remedies: Destroy fallen fruit; remove
and burn all mummied cherries found on the trees in
the fall; spray with Bordeaux, several times, early in
the season; pick the frnit promptly and early.

Leaf-blight or spot: Often called the ‘*shot-hole
fungus.’? Makes round spots on the leaves, which
soon drop off. Remedy: Two or three early spray-
ings with Bordeaux.

Powdery mildew: See Chapter X.

COMPLETE SPRAYING SySTEM.— Properly and
easily to treat most insects (except lice, borers, etc.),
and all fungous pests, I suggest the following com-
bined method : Just before buds open, apply Bordeaux-
arsenical mixture; give second spraying when fruit
has set, using same mixture; two weeks later,

94 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

Bordeaux. (Special note: If the trees receive a lime-
sulphur-salt treatment for San Jose in early spring,
the first Bordeaux application may be omitted. )

BIRD INJURY.—I wish that I were able to suggest
a really satisfactory way to prevent birds from getting
more than their share of cherries. The only prac-
ticable remedies seem to be: Either put mosquito
netting over a few trees, or plant enough trees for
birds, market and family. One or two mulberry
trees help to attract birds away from the cherries.

VARIETIES.—Those marked with a star are espe-
cially suited for market.

H. Ly. Price, for Virginia, recommends: Coe’s Transparent;
Karly Purple; Windsor; Reine Hortense ; *Montmorency ; Olivet.

J. 1. Herbst, Sparta, Wisconsin, recommends just one variety
—FEarly Richmond—as being profitable to plant in that cold
climate.

My friend Wilmer Atkinson’s favorite list for Pennsylvania,
and similar climates, is as follows: *Black Tartarian ; *Windsor;
Gov. Wood; Downer’'s Late; Early Richmond; *Montmorency.

Edward J. Wickson recommends for California, the follow-
ing varieties: *KEarly Purple Guigue; *Napoleon (often called
“Royal Ann”’); *Lewelling; *Black Tartarian; *California
Advance; *Bing.

Benton Gebhart, a successful Michigan grower, says that he
has had best results with the following: *Karly Richmond;
*VMontmorency; *English Morello; *Brusseller Braune; sweet
varieties—*Gov. Wood; *Black Tartarian ; *Windsor.

G. H. Powell and L,. H. Bailey, New York State (where there
are many commercial cherry orchards), recommend these
varieties: Louis Phillipe; *Montmorency; *English Morello;
*Windsor; *Napoleon; *Black ‘Tartarian; *Black Eagle;
*\VMezel: *Robert’s Red Heart ; *Downer’s Late Red; Gov. Wood;
Coe’s Transparent; Belle d’Orleans; Rockport; Knight’s Karly
Black; Yellow Spanish ; May Duke.

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CHAPTER XII.

THE PHACH.

A farmwtithout some peach trees ts like milk without cream.—Tim.

The peach is not a native of America. Probably
the peach originated in China; from thence it went
to Persia and to Europe. Pr,

PROPAGATION. — Bud bs
known varieties on to
seedling peach _ stocks,
close to the ground. A
thrifty tree one year from
the bud is the right size
to set. When buying
trees, choose medium size,
Straight ones; let the
big, overgrown fellows alone. (Note: Plums are
sometimes used for stocks, if the peach orchard must
be planted on rather heavy, damp soil.)

VARIETIES WHICH ARE OFTEN SELF-STERILE.—
Under this heading S. W. Fletcher lists only one kind
of peach, viz.—the Susquehanna.

PRUNING.—Of all fruit trees the peach seems
to need the most trimming (the dwarf pear is
a close second in this respect). Each season the
trees should be pruned—cutting them back and
thinning them out, both. Cutting off one-half or
two-thirds of the new growth each year, is not
too much. Remember that the peach (unlike the

(95)

FOUR HALF-POUND BEAUTIES

96 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

apple, cherry, plum, and pear) produces its fruit
on wood of the preceding year,—that is, on one-
year-old wood.

SPECIAL CULTIVATION HINTS.—The peach, to be
healthy and profitable, must be cultivated. In this
it is unlike the pear, cherry, etc.,— which sometimes
do fairly well in sod. Experienced peach growers do
not, as a rule, plow a bearing peach orchard until
after it has blossomed. Why not? For the same
reason that they often choose a north slope—to retard,
so far as is possible, the blossoming period with its
liability to early frost injury. Remember that no
tree will die so quickly from “‘wet feet’’ as will the
peach (unless it is the cherry).

PRINCIPAL INSECT PkEsts.—Aphis (lice): See
preceding chapter.

Borers: The peach-tree borer is the most common
pest in this line, although the flat-headed borers of
the apple and cherry sometimes (not often) attack the
peach. For remedies, see Chapter IX.

Curculio: The plum curculio often stings peaches.

Fruit-bark beetle: A small black beetle which bores
tiny holes into the bark of upper twigs and limbs, and
then forms inner-bark burrows. ‘This causes some of
the infested branches to wither and die. Remedies:
This beetle is most apt to attack unthrifty trees;
therefore, good cultivation, fertilization, pruning, etc.,
are helpful. Promptly burn all cuttings, so that the
larve within may be destroyed. Early sprayings
with the Bordeaux-arsenical mixture. This insect is
sometimes called the ‘‘ pin borer.’’

San Jose scale louse: Consult Chapter VIII.

THE PEACH 97

The snowy tree cricket sometimes punctures new
wood ; cut off and burn such wood. Rose chafers or
bugs occasionally attack fruit, ete. Knock them into
pans of kerosene.

PRINCIPAL FUNGOUS PESTS.— Brown rot: See
preceding chapter for description and remedies.
Besides affecting the fruit (and sometimes the
blossoms), this fungus often injures or kills the
twigs, as well. The result is something like “‘ twig
blight,’’ although the cause is different from the true
twig blight of the apple, pear, etc. Thinning the
fruit helps to prevent the spread of the rot.

Leaf-curl: This is, some seasons, a very serious
trouble in many peach orchards. Shortly after the
leaves come out in the spring
they begin to curl, soon become ie EN ‘
distorted’ and misshapen, and
ten wiall-off. Thus. the -tree
becomes partially or wholly
denuded of foliage, the immature
fruit is likely to drop off, and the
vitality of the tree is, of course,
more or less injured in the at-
tempt to perfect a second and PEACH LEAF-CURL
later crop of leaves. Some varieties seem more
subject to this trouble than others; and the
disease is apt to be worse in a wet season.
Remedy: Full-strength Bordeaux (or lime-sulphur-
salt) in spring before buds swell; when blossoms
have fallen, spray with half-strength Bordeaux; if
necessary, repeat with half-strength Bordeaux two
weeks later.

98 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

Scab: Somewhat similar to apple scab. Bordeaux.

MISCELLANEOUS TROUBLES.—Crown Gall: See
Chapter ITI.

Gum: Caused by borers, bruises, and fungus.
Common on peach, cherry and plum trees.

‘‘Little Peach ’’: Very little is known of this dis-
ease, and it is as yet common in only a few localities.
The name is quite expressive of the symptoms; the
fruit remains small and tough, the tree seems un-
healthy, the leaves seem smaller than is natural, and
finally the tree dies. The disease spreads from one
tree to another. The only known remedy is to pull
out the infected trees at once, and burn them.

Peach “‘rosette’’ is a disease of the peach in the
southern states. Its effects on the tree are similar to
those of yellows, and, like that disease, it is to be
controlled only by the destruction of affected trees.

Sun-scald: Consult Chapter IX. Some folks call
this trouble ‘“‘frost-crack’’ when it occurs during
freezing weather.

*“Sun-scorch’’ of foliage sometimes occurs during
a drouth, or when hot, dry winds blow. Regular
cultivation is a partial preventive of sun-scorch.

‘*YVellows’’: This is probably the most serious foe
that the peach grower has to contend with, —unless
it be the San Jose scale louse. It is a communicable
disease ; it is always fatal within a few years; and it
attacks both old and young trees, and seemingly nas
an especial fondness for healthy, vigorous trees. No
cure is known, and the exact nature of the disease
has not yet been determined. In bearing trees the
premature ripening of the fruit is one of the first

THE PEACH 99

indications of the presence of ‘“‘yellows,’’ says B. O.
Longyear. Such frmits are also highly colored, pos-
sessing red spots and streaks
which often extend from the
surface to the pit, the flesh
being marbled and streaked
with red. The buds formed dur-
ing the summer, for growth the
next season, are also sometimes
prematurely unfolded. But the
most characteristic feature is
the growth of bunches of
slender, twiggy branches dur-
ing the summer and autumn, from the crotches and
upon the older branches. These wiry shoots bear
narrow sickly leaves of a yellow color, and, being
produced in clusters, give a characteristic appear-
ance to infected trees. “‘ Yellows’’ laws, requiring
the prompt destruction and burning of infected trees,
are strictly enforced in most peach localities, and in
this way the disease has, of late years, been success-
fully held in check.

COMPLETE SPRAYING SySTEM.—A combination
system for fungi and most insects would be about as
follows: First spray, full-strength Bordeaux-arsenical
mixture just before buds swell; second spray, after
blossoms fall and frnit has set, half-strength Bor-
deaux and arsenate of lead; third spray, half-strength
Bordeaux-arsenate when fruit is half grown; if rot
threatens frnit, repeat half-strength Bordeaux spray,
one or more times, at intervals of about ten days or
two weeks. (Special note: If the trees receive a

L. OF G

CASE OF “ YELLOWS”’

_—

100 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

lime-sulphur-salt treatment for San Jose in early
spring, the first Bordeaux application will not be
needed. But if fruit-bark beetles or curculios are
abundant, it may pay to put some arsenate of lead
in the lime-sulphur-salt spray.)

VARIETIES.—Those marked with a star are espe-
cially suited for market.

K. B. Wilkerson, a prominent Missouri grower, gives this
list: Amsden; Heath Cling; Crawford’s Early; *Crawford’s
Late; Stump; *Crosby; *Champion; *Elberta; *Wonderful;
Triumph.

Wilmer Atkinson’s favorite list is: Mountain Rose; Cham-
pion; *Moore’s Favorite; *Reeve’s Favorite; *Stump the World;
*Elberta; *Crawford’s Late; Ward’s Late; Chair’s Choice; Globe;
*Smock Free. -

George T. Powell, for a commercial orchard in New York,
would plant: Champion; Carman; Belle of Georgia; Oldmixon
Free; Stump; Fox Seedling. The list might need modifying
somewhat, according to the location in the state.

For very cold climates, Hill’s Chili, Champion and Crosby
are perhaps the most hardy variety, But the only sure way of
growing a family supply of peaches in such localities, is to ‘lay
down”? the trees each fall, and cover them over with earth, leaves,
straw, or other protection. Such trees should be trained flat-
shaped. Cut the roots on one side; then pull the tree to the
ground and stakeit there. In the spring, right it; put the earth
back in place; fertilize, cultivate, etc.

J. N. Stearns, a prominent western Michigan grower, writes:
—If I were to plant another commercial peach orchard of, say,
1,000 trees, I should set 250 Kalamazoo, 250 Golden Drop, 250
Smock and 250 Salway. ‘These sorts have brought me more
money, for the last twenty-five years, than any others. Elberta
is too unreliable. Golden Drop should be severely pruned and
thinned. (Please note that this successful peach grower includes
no white-flesh varieties in his list. Many markets and buyers
prefer yellow-flesh peaches.—J. B.)

J. H. Hale, the famous peach grower who has enormous
orchards in Connecticut and Georgia, writes that his favorite
list for a succession from early to late in Connecticut, is as fol-
lows: *Greensboro; g Waddell ; *Carman; *Hiley; *Champion;
*Belle of Georgia; *Elberta; *Chair’s Choice ; *Steven’s. Cut
out Chair’s Choice and Steven’s, and the list is a “cream one”’
for Georgia, adds Mr. Hale in his letter. (The peach crop must
be gathered promptly when ripe, or loss results; therefore, in
large orchards, planting varieties which ripen in succession
through a long season is highly desirable and essential.—J. B.)

XIII
SHELDON

BARTLETT SECKEL
(IN MIDDLE)

CHAPTER XIII.

AE oP RAR:

There’s money in pears for the man who knows how to get it out.

Ever since this country was first settled, pears
from European stock have been grown here. They
thrive especially well in the eastern, central and far
western states, and less well in the southern and
prairie states. Wherever the climate is very cold or

A FORTY-ACRE PEAR ORCHARD

very hot, there commercial pear culture becomes
uncertain or unsatisfactory.

PROPAGATION. — Standard pears are budded or

grafted on seedling pear stocks, at a point near the

crown. Nurserymen usually import seedling pear

stocks from France, but it is not difficult to grow
(101)

102 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

seedlings for one’s own use. When buying nursery
trees for setting, choose medium-size, straight, low-
headed, two-year-olds.

So1is.—The ideal pear soil is a rather heavy clay-
loam, with a well-drained subsoil. Heavy clay does
very well if the underdrainage is sufficient. Light
or sandy soils are not so good for this fruit.

VARIETIES WHICH ARE OFTEN SELF-STERILE.—
S. W. Fletcher, of the Cornell, N. Y., Experiment
Station, gives this list: ‘‘Duchess; Bartlett; Clapp;
Idaho; Kieffer; Nelis.’’ (Moral: Don’t set solid,
large blocks of any one of these varieties, —nor of
any other kind.)

PRUNING. —Cut back and thin out, moderately,
each season. Always cut back to a bud or a branch,
so as not to leave a stub. Pruning tools which are
used on blighted trees, should be disinfected before
being used again. The pear produces its fruit on
fruit spurs or wood several years old.

SPECIAL CULTURAI, DIRECTIONS. —Too much
cultivation is often dangerous to pear trees (see fire-
blight). After a new orchard has made a good growth
for several years, it is often advisable to seed down
the land (permanently or temporarily), so as to
stop excessive wood growth. Likewise, it is usually
prudent to stop cultivation earlier in the season than
is customary with other trees (this plan—with an
early-sown cover-crop—will often do away with the
necessity of seeding down the orchard). The same
caution extends to fertilizers. Too much nitrogen
means too much wood growth; therefore use more
potash and phosphoric acid, and less stable manure.

THE PEAR 103

The safest source of nitrogen supply is from occasional
nitrogenous cover crops.

SUN-SCALD.—See Chapter IX.

PRINCIPAT,. INSECD) RESTS: —- Borers? >. ‘The ime
pear-tree borer is something like the peach-tree borer,
only smaller and seldom so troublesomely numerous.
The round-headed and flat-headed apple-tree borers
also attack pear trees sometimes. See Chapter IX.

Codling moth: Often attacks pears as well as apples.
Consult Chapter X for description and remedies.

Midge: A small, grayish, long-legged fly which
early in spring deposits its eggs inside the pear
blossoms. The eggs rapidly hatch into tiny worms
which enter the baby fruits and feed upon them,
causing them to stop growing or to become misshapen.
During the summer these worms leave the fruit, fall
to the ground, enter therein, and make cocoons.
Remedies: Sprays seem of little account in fighting
this pest. The best remedy I have seen suggested, is
to apply about 1,000 pounds of kainit, per acre, to the
infested orchard ground in June. This potash salt
(it’s a good fertilizer) is dissolved by rains, soaks into
the ground, and kills the larvae.

Oyster-shell bark louse : Sometimes attacks pears as
wellasapples. For remedies, consult Chapter VIII.

Pear-leaf mite or “‘blister’’: A minute spider-like
insect which infests leaves early in the season, causing
blisters or galls thereon,—reddish in color at first,
gradually turning to a dark brown later in the summer.
Remedies: Spraying the leaves does little good. But,
as the insects hibernate on the tree bark, I think that
the lime-sulphur-salt spray, applied before buds swell,
would kill mites, scale lice, and fungus.

104 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

Pear-tree psylla: A tiny, jumping louse, yellowish
in color, that attacks tender leaves and shoots, causing
them to droop and exude sap or honey dew,— which
condition soon attracts flies and ants to the feast.
Entire orchards have sometimes been ruined, in a few
years, by this pest. Remedies: Lime-sulphur-salt, or
kerosene emulsion, sprayed on the trees early in
spring before buds swell; followed by tobacco solution
sprays in May or June.

San Jose scale louse: See Chapter VIII.

Scurfy scale louse: See Chapter VIII.

Slug: The pear-tree slug is about half an inch, or
less, in length when full grown ; darkish color ; slimy
appearance. It eats the upper portion of leaves. This
pest comes from eggs laid by a black fly. There are
two broods of the slugs,—one in late June or early
July, and another in August. Remedies: Almost any
of the standard sprays will kill slugs ; in fact, they are
very easily destroyed. A simple remedy would be an
ounce of fresh white hellebore dissolved in three gal-
lons of water and sprayed on leaves when slugs are
there. Or arsenate of lead would do. Or, fine dry
road-dust or air-slaked lime, thrown or blown into the
trees, will kill every slug it covers.

PRINCIPAL FuNGOUS PESTS.— Leaf-blight: This
very common and serious disease produces, on the
leaves in the spring, reddish spots; these gradually
enlarge and turn brown, until all or a large part of
each affected leaf appears dark and dead. Badly
injured leaves soon drop off, and in this way the
trees may lose most or all of their foliage—which
gives them a bad setback. ‘The fungus also attacks

THE PEAR 105

stems and fruit. It produces ugly, hard, scabby-
looking places on the fruit, frequently causing it to
ctack open. Remedy: Spray the trees with Bordeaux
before blossoms open; repeat, after blossoms have
fallen; repeat, once or twice inore, at intervals of
two or three weeks. This trouble should not be
confused with the disease called pear or ‘‘fire’’
blight, which attacks the limbs of trees.

Scab: Scabby fruit is usually caused by leaf blight.
A very similar disease—apple scab—may attack pears.

““FIRE’’ OR PEAR BLIGHT.—This is a bacterial
disease which injures or kills thousands of trees every
year. Itis to the pear orchard what the ‘‘yellows”’
is to the peach orchard—a deadly, relentless, not
thoroughly mastered, enemy. Whatever it touches it
blackens and ‘“‘burns,’’—leaves, blossoms, fruit and
branches wither at its approach. It sometimes walks
down a pear tree limb at the rate of from one to
twelve inches a day ; usually only two or three inches,
or less. One can easily recognize the disease. Watch
the trees carefully during the growing season, and
amputate attacked limbs at once. Have a bottle of
alcohol, and dip the tool in it after each amputation ;
it kills the blight germs that will cling to any imple-
mentand which may infect the next tree that is treated.
Always cut well below the affected part of branch.
Burn all cuttings, promptly. This disease is more
apt to attack fast-growing than slow-growing trees,
therefore an important part of the treatment is toavoid
atoostimulating method of fertilization andcultivation.

COMBINATION SPRAYING SysTEM.—The best sys-
tem yet devised for most insect and fungous troubles,

106 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

is as follows: Spray trees just before blossoms open,
with Bordeaux ; after blossoms have fallen, Bordeaux-
arsenical mixture; two or three weeks later, Bor-
deaux; if season is wet and leaf-blight prevalent,
repeat Bordeaux two weeks later. (Special note: If
scale lice are present, or pear-leaf mite, or psylla,
begin spraying operations by applying lime-sulphur-
salt very early in the spring before buds swell. And,
for psylla, don’t forget the later, special, tobacco
sprayings previously advised in this chapter.)

VARIETIES.—Those marked with a star are espe-
cially suited for market.

M. J. Graham, an Jowa fruit-grower, has had best success
with *Longworth; *Kieffer ; *Warner.

For Virginia, H. I). Price recommends: Summer Doyenne;
Rose; Clapp; *Bartlett; Lawrence; Sheldon.

For Illinois, just three commercial varieties are recommended
by R. O. Graham: *Kieffer ; *Garber; *Duchess.

For the southern states— Mississippi, Alabama, ete.—W H.
Ragan recommends: *Kieffer; le Conte; Garber; Archangel.

For California, E. J.Wickson recommends: *Clapp; *Comice;
*Anjou; *Clairgeau; *Bartlett; *Kaster; *P. Barry; *Winter
Nelis ; etc.

Wilmer Atkinson suggests for Pennsylvania, etc.: Manning’s
Elizabeth ; *Howell; *Bartlett; *Seckel; Dana’s Hovey; Law-
rence; Anjou; Duchess; *Kieffer; Winter Nelis.

B. G. Green, a successful Michigan grower, writes: If I were
to plant another commercial pear orchard of 1,000 trees I should
set: 650 Bartlett, 150 Clapp’s Favorite, 100 Anjou, 50 Flemish
Beauty and 50 Bosc.

For Ohio, New York, Indiana, Connecticut, etce.—Pomologist
Ragan suggests: *Bosc; *Kieffer; *Anjou; *Bartlett; *Howell ;
Lawrence; Sheldon; *Boussock ; Clapp; Brandywine; *Seckel ;
*Duchess; *Louise Bonne; Winter Nelis; and several other
kinds.

For cold districts —Maine, northern Vermont, Wisconsin,
Minnesota, ete.—Pomologist W. H. Ragan suggests the follow-
ing: Vermont Beauty; Flemish Beauty; Wilder Early ; *Besse-
mianka. (At the best, pear culture is prcearious in very cold
climates. Banking earth high up around tree trunks and holdin
it in place with boards, during the winter, is a great help.—J. BY

BRADSHAW Se BEAL, BURBANK

RED JUNE DAMSON YELLOW EGG

CHAPTER XIV.

DHE PEM,

Lf it wasn't for the curculto, Jack Horner would find tt easter to
put his thumb intoa pieand pull out a plum.—Tim.

Generally speaking, plum culture comprises several
types or classes, viz.—European (Prunus domestica) ;
Japanese (Prunus triflora); American (Prunus Amer-
tcana; Prunus hortulana), comprising Wild Goose
and similar native varieties; and Prunus Chicasa
comprising the Chickasaw native types of our south-
ern states. One or two other types are not of sufficient
importance to mention here.

PROPAGATION.— Budding is the common method,
on seedling plum stocks. These may be grown at
home. Nurserymen, however, generally use Myro-
balan, Marianna, or other imported plum stocks,
because it is not easy to secure sufficient seed for
extensive planting. Plums are sometimes budded on
seedling peach stocks,— particulary in the south and
for dry, sandy locations. Americana varieties usually
do best if budded on their own seedlings.

SELECTING NURSERY TREES.—Two-year-old trees
are about right. Fast-growing varieties are some-
times ready for planting when only one year old
from the bud.

So1Ls.—Plums do well almost anywhere,—if the
ground is not foo wet. ‘This fruit, however, will
stand much more moisture than the peach or cherry.

(107)

108 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

A clay-loam, rather moist but without stagnant sub-
soil water, would be ideal for the European and
native varieties. The Japanese kinds do very well
on a lighter soil.

VARIETIES WHICH ARE OFTEN SELF-STERILE.—
S. W. Fletcher says under this heading in Bulletin
181, Cornell Experiment Station: ‘'Coe’s Golden
Drop, French Prune, Italian Prune, Kelsey, Miner,
Marianna, Ogon, Peach Plum, Satsuma, Wild Goose,
and (according to Waugh and Kerr) all other varieties
of native plums except Robinson.’’

PRUNING.—The plum requires more pruning than
the cherry, and not so mich as the peach. Upright-
growing varieties require one style of pruning;
sprawling kinds (like Burbank) require another.
The trees may have a central leader, or be trained in
the open-centre, vase-like style. Some varieties
require more cutting-back than others. Study your
trees. Plum fruits, like cherries, are mostly borne
on fruit spurs which are at least two years old.

PRINCIPAL INSECT PEsTs.—Aphis (lice): See
Chapter X.

Borers: The plum-tree borer sometimes infests the
base of main limbs and the upper part of trunk. The
peach-tree borer, etc., occasionally attacks plum trees.
Remedies: See Chapter IX.

Curculio: A tiny, hump-backed, fly-
ing insect (see illustration) which stings
the frnit shortly after blossoming time.

CURCULIO
(ENLARGED) It makes crescent-shape punctures and

deposits eggs therein. These soon hatch into little
grubs. Most of the stung fruit falls off the tree

THE PLUM 109

before ripe. The curculio is sometimes called the
“Little Turk,’’ on account of the crescent-shape trade
mark it leaves on fruit; in size, this insect is about
three-sixteenths of an inch in length. Remedies:
Bordeaux-arsenical mixture sprayed on trees just
before blossoms open ; repeat the same after blossoms
fall ; repeat, once or twice more, at intervals of a week.
Destroy all fallen fruit. Also, a flock of chickens in
a plum orchard is a great help. But the surest one
remedy is the jarring process. Rig upacloth-covered
frame (like an inverted umbrella), mount it on wheels,
and jar the curculios into it so they can be collected
and killed (see picture). The jarring is best done
(during the cool of early morn-
ing) by tapping the tree briskly
with a padded, long-handled
mallet. The insects, sluggish
with cold or heavy with dew,
drop into the frame below,
instead of flying away. This jarring process should
be repeated every morning or so, as long as the
curculios are plentiful.

Plum gouger: A small snout-beetle without a
hump on its back. Much like the curculio in its
habits and the effect on the fruit. It punctures the
fruit, but does not make a crescent-shape mark.
Remedies are the same as advised for curculio.

Plum scale: Consult Chapter VIII.

San Jose scale louse: Consult Chapter VIII.

PRINCIPAL FUNGOUS PESTS. — Black knot: See
Chapter XI. These dark, warty-looking knots or
bunches on branches need prompt attention.

110 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

Brown rot: Consult Chapter XI.

Leaf-blight or spot: Often called ‘‘shot-hole’’
fungus. See Chapter XI.

Plum pockets: A fungous disease which causes
the fruit to become distorted, enlarged and unhealthy ;
finally it turns dark in color, becomes wrinkled, and
drops off the tree. No pits are found in these diseased
fruits. Remedies: Early sprayings with Bordeaux ;
prune the trees and cut off as much as possible of the
wood which bears diseased fruit.

COMBINATION SPRAYING SYSTEM. —For most
insects (except borers, lice, etc.), and all fungous
pests, I suggest that you turn to Chapter XII and
use the complete system there advocated for peaches.

BARK-BuRST, SUN-SCALD, GuM.—See Chapters
TX. XT and en

VARIETIES.—Those marked with a star are espe-
cially suited for market.

R. O. Graham, an Illinois plum grower, has had best success
with: *Wild Goose; *Miner; *Wolf; *De Soto.

E. I). Mason, Missouri, has had good success with: *Green

Gage; *Lombard ; *Niagara; *Shipper’s Pride; *Damson; etc.

For Alabama, Mississippi, etc., W. H. Ragan recommends:
*Chabot; *Cumberland; *Golden Beauty; Red June; Yellow
Transparent; *Abundance; *Burbank; *Kelsey; ete.

For a commercial orchard in New York, George T. Powell
recommends: *Reine Claude; *Giant Prune: *Peter’s Yellow
Gage; *Quackenboss; *Fellemberg; *German Prune.

For Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Connecticut, etce., Pomol-
ogist W. H. Ragan suggests: *Reine Claude(Bavay’s Green Gage);
*Bradshaw; *Coe’s Golden Drop; *Damson; Black Diamond;
*German Prune; *Grand Duke; Gueii; Imperial Gage; Yellow
Egg; *Fellemberg (Italian Prune); *lombard; *Quackenboss; etc.

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Ay

CHAPTER XV.

THE QUINCE AND DWARF PEAR.

They aren’t btg trees, but there’s alot of them to the acre.

Ouince culture, except in a small way, is not very
popular. A few commercial orchards are to be found,
here and there, and the fruit brings fair prices when-
ever the supply is not overlarge. As the fruit ‘1s
practically uneatable in a raw state, it is in demand
only for canning, for marmalade, etc., and for flavor-
ing preserves, etc. There is no more beautiful sight
than a quince tree in blossom. Every family should
have at least a few of the trees.

PROPAGATION.—Any one of several methods may
be used: Budding, with quince seedlings for stock ;
grafting, on apple roots; layering; and making cut-
tings of ripened wood for planting (in nursery rows)
like currant or grape cuttings. Cuttings should be
taken in the fall, in about ten-inch lengths, tied in
bundles, and stored away like scions until spring. Or
they may be planted in the fall, and protected with
mulch. I do not recommend layering.

CULTURAL HINTS.—Quinces do best on a moist
(but well underdrained) clay-loam. However, they
will grow fairly well on almost any soil which is not
too wet. Thorough tillage is desirable. But remem-
ber that these trees are shallow rooted; do not plow
too deep. Winter cover crops of some kind are
essential; they help to keep the roots from frost

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112 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

injury. Pruning should be systematic. Head back
the new growth in the spring, or thin it out, or both,
—as may be required to maintain a shapely, well-
balanced tree. There is no sense in thinking that
quinces must necessarily be straggling, misshapen
bushes. Start with a straight stem two feet high,
have the head open and well branched,—and you can
make the tree as shapely as you please. The fruit is
produced on little shoots which grow in spring on
wood that is at least two years old. Keep all suckers
cut off from around the trunk.

PRINCIPAL INSECT AND FuNGOoUS PESTS. —The
codling moth, the quince curculio, the round-headed
apple-tree borer, the pear-tree slug and the pear-tree
blister mite, all bother quince trees more or less.
Remedies have been given in preceding chapters.
There, too, you will find hints about leaf blight, rust,
rot, twig blight and fire blight,—all of which are well-
known enemies of the quince. The quince should
be frequently sprayed with the Bordeaux-arsenical
mixture to keep trees and fruit healthy.

VARIETIES.—Comparatively few kinds are grown.
Probably the best, for almost any locality, would be:
Orange; Rea; Meech ; Champion.

DWARF PEAR.

If properly grown and cared for, these trees are
thrifty, productive, long-lived and profitable. But if
neglected, they are equally short-lived and worthless.
I know of several dwarf-pear orchards that are now
twenty to forty years old, which began bearing fruit
when about four years old, and which are still healthy

THE QUINCE AND DWARF PEAR 113

and productive. They have rarely if ever missed a
crop.

PROPAGATION.— By budding the pear on quince
seedlings, dwarf-growing pear trees result. But the
fruit is not dwarfed ; on the contrary, it is unusually
large and fine, and the trees come into bearing much
sooner than standard pears.

CULTURAL Hints.—The best soil is a moist clay
or clay-loam soil, thoroughly underdrained. Cultiva-
tion, fertilization, spraying, pruning, etc., must be

A MICHIGAN DWARF-PEAR ORCHARD

systematic and thorough. Unlike the standard pear,
the dwarf never does even ‘‘fairly well’’ in sod.
When setting the trees, be sure to set them very
deep,—so that the bud joint will be, say, six inches.

114 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

below the surface. If thus set the trees are less likely
to break off at the joint (which is always a weak spot
in dwarf pears); and, too, deep setting will encourage
the pear wood to send out some roots of its own,
which adds to the vigor and stability of the trees.

PRUNING.— Dwarf pears need a great deal of trim-
ming,— principally ‘‘ cutting back.’’ And they need
it regularly each year. About two-thirds or three-
quarters of the new growth should be cut off annually,
— making the cut each time to buds which point out-
ward, so as to broaden the trees. Tall, spindling
trees have little ‘‘ bearing surface,’’ and, besides, such
trees are more apt to blow down during heavy wind
storms. (Windbreaks are a specially good thing for
all dwarf pears. )

INSECT AND FUNGOUS ENEMIES.—The same pests
that trouble the standard pear, also bother the dwarf.
Consult Chapter XIII.

VARIETIES.— Only a few varieties of pears do
especially well as dwarfs.

L,. Tf. Yeomans, whose dwarf-pear orchard is about fifty years
old, expresses a decided preference for the Duchess variety.

I,. H. Bailey, New York, says that the most successful
kinds are Duchess, Anjou, Iouise Bonne, Manning’s Elizabeth
and Clairgeau.

C. S. Mills, a Michigan grower who has been remarkably suc-
cessful with a commercial dwarf-pear orchard, writes that if he
were going to set another dwarf orchard today, he would plant
six-tenths *Duchess trees, three-tenths *Anjou, and one-tenth
*TLouise Bonne. (I do not think this list can be much improved
for any section of the country.—J. B.)

PLATE XVI

PARAGON CHESTNUTS

CHAPTER XVI.

NUT TREES.

It seems to me thata good nut orchard ts worth working for.—Tim.

The almond of commerce is the “‘soft shell’’ or
‘‘paper shell’’ type, but the variety is too tender for
satisfactory orchard growing in cold sections of our
country. In California, etc., the business is a mod-
erate success. Occasional trees have been made to do
fairly well in northern and eastern states where the
peach succeeds, but, without protection, such attempts
are uncertain. In the South, the trees are apt to
bloom very early and be nipped by spring frosts.

BEECH Nut.—This well-known forest nut is hardly
adapted to orchard planting.

BUTTERNUT AND BLACK WALNUT.—These, though
very useful trees in their way, are scarcely in the
orchard class at the present time. Trees are usually
propagated by raising seedlings from choice nuts. I
believe that more of these trees should be planted.

CHESTNUT. —Now we come to a species of nut
which has distinct commercial possibilities for the
average American. Mr. Joseph L. Lovett, of Pennsyl-
vania, now has about fifty acres on his own farm
planted to improved chestnuts,— mostly Paragons.

Mr. Lovett plows his orchard each spring and then
gives the soil regular cultivation until September
first. No autumn or winter cover crop is planted,
because such a growth would interfere with the

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116 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

finding of the nuts when they fallonthe ground. The
trees are set about thirty feet apart each way; they
begin to bear when quite young, and are not pruned
or sprayed—unless it is to trim up an occasional
branch that droops too near the ground. The red
spider leaves its mark on the foliage every season,
but Mr. Lovett says that he “‘ pays no attention ’’ to this
insect pest.

CLUSTER OF PARAGON CHESTNUT BURS

The weevil has found its way into the Lovett
groves. ut not in force. ‘There are no overlooked
nuts, no stumps, no underbrush, in which they can
breed ; the soil is frequently cultivated, all the nuts
are picked up each season, and, consequently, the
weevil has not proved to be a serious pest on this farm.

When harvesting the nuts, they are never picked,
knocked or shaken off. Mr. Lovett waits until Jack
Frost loosens the crop.

NUT TREES IO

’

““ Plow a chestnut orchard deeply,’’? says Mr.
Lovett. ‘‘You should endeavor, in every way pos-
sible, to encourage a large, deep-growing root system.
This is very important.’”’

Some nut-growers are taking chestnut stump land,
and are grafting Paragons, etc., on the sprouts which
come from stumps. But Mr. Lovett says that this
method has many objections.

Whip grafting is the usual method of propagation,
but the union is not always successful. Nut grafting
of any kind requires great skill, and the average nut-
grower had better buy his nut trees of a nurseryman,

CHINOQUAPIN.—A wild, dwarf, bush-like variety of
chestnut, of little commercial value.

CocoaNnut.—There are a few successful groves in
southern Florida.

FILBERT AND HAZELNUT.—We call the American
product ‘‘hazelnuts,’’ and the imported kind ‘‘filberts.”’
Botanically they are both Cory/us. Commercially the
culture of hazelnuts has not been much of a success in
this country in the East, and but slightly more so in
California.

Hickory Nut.—The shellbark hickory is as yet
mainly known as a forest tree, but the time is no
doubt coming when some of the finer varieties—Hale’s
Paper Shell, for instance—will be commercially
planted. Hickories (like black walnuts and butter-
nuts) object to transplanting, and it is not easy to
propagate them by grafting or budding; therefore
they are usually grown from selected seed.

PECAN.—This highly-esteemed nut tree is a species
of hickory indigenous on fertile, moist lowlands in

118 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

Ohio, Indiana, Iowa, etc., and in many of the southern
states. Commercially, the culture of this nut is not
likely to extend much north of the Ohio and the
Potomac rivers, says Prof. Bailey. Trees farther north
are not apt to be very productive, and the nuts are
smaller in size. Seedling trees seldom grow true to
type; therefore grafted or budded trees are most
desirable. A splice crown-graft, on a pecan seedling
stock, 1s one of the best recommended propagation
methods. But all methods are difficult; better buy
trees of a nurseryman. Very little pruning is required
after the tree is well started. Cultivation is very
helpful to a nut orchard. Paying crops should not be
expected before ten or twelve years. Every locality
has its favorite varieties, some of the best known
being: Century; Van Deman; Stuart} Saitjoaba:

WALNU’T.— Our excellent native variety, the black
walnut, has previously been mentioned in this chap-
ter, in connection with the butternut. The English
walnut (also called ‘‘ Persian ’’ walnut and ‘‘ Madeira’?
nut) is not suited to cold climates, and commercially
it is profitable, in this country, in practically but one
state— California. Specimen trees can be grown,
however, in Pennsylvania and similar climates.
Another imported species—the Japan walnut —is
often grown as an ornamental tree in the East and
North. It is hardy, bears its nuts in odd-looking
clusters, but has little commercial value.

KIEFFER

Cute tTrR CV LI.

CITRUS AND OTHER FRUITS.

There’s a spectal frutt for everyvbods’s taste; take your choice.

APRICOT.—This delicious fruit is like both peach
and plum. Itcan be grown, under right conditions,
as far north as western New York, being about as
hardy as the peach and requiring the same special con-
ditions. Borers, rot and the curculio are the principal
enemies.

AVOCADO OR ALLIGATOR PEAR. — Occasionally
grown in southern Florida.

CITRON.—This is a small, bush-like tree which
bears a large, thick-rinded fruit which somewhat
resembles a lemon in appearance. Grown to a mod-
erate extent in Florida and California, for preserves.

CRAB APPLE.—The best-known varieties are:
Hyslop; Martha; Red Siberian ; Transcendent; Whit-
ney; Yellow Siberian; etc. For insects, fungous
troubles, culture, etc., see chapter on The Apple.

DATE PALM.—Occasional plantings of this noble
tree are to be found in Florida, Mexico, Arizona,
California, etc. The dry, even climate of Arizona will
probably produce this fruit better than any other
place in the United States.

Fic.— Except on the Pacific coast or in the far
South, fig trees are not commercially successful in this
country. But by bending the trees down to the
ground in the fall and covering them, or by growing

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120 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

them in tubs which can be put in a cellar during the
winter, it is quite possible to raise figs for home use
almost anywhere.

GuAvA.— An attractive, refreshing fruit of the
tropics. Successfully grown in southern Florida.

LEMON.—Grown commercially in California,
southern Florida, etc. Propagation is usually by
means of budding on seedling stocks (orange seed-
lings are often used). ‘The trees are generally set
twenty to twenty-five feet apart. Cultivation should
be given. Cut back and thin out the shoots each
season. ‘The lemon is more tender, as regards frost,
than the orange. Some of the leading varieties are:
Belair; Genoa; Imperial; Sicily; Villa Franca; Lis-
bon; Eureka; Messina. ‘The fruit is picked before it
colors, and placed in shallow curing-trays until ready
for packing. Each fruit is cut, instead of being pulled,
from the tree.

LIME.—A valuable member of the citrus family,
although not much cultivated in this country. The
fruit is used in making cooling drinks, and in the
manufacture of citric acid.

Loguat.—This fruitis sometimes incorrectly called
‘Japan plum’’ or ‘‘Medlar.’’ It is a small, ever-
green tree. Hardy as far north as Charleston, but
will not fruit satisfactorily much outside of the
orange belt.

MAnco.—This tropical fruit is too tender except
for southern Florida, etc.

MULBERRY.—Not grown commercially, but every-
body should have one or two trees. Downing is
probably the best variety, but it is not entirely hardy

CITRUS AND OTHER FRUITS 121

much north of Philadelphia. New American is the
most promising variety for northern localities.
Russian is most hardy, but the fruit is not so good as
Downing, etc. Mulberries may be propagated by
cuttings of the ripe wood.
NECTARINE.—This fruit is practically nothing but
a smooth-skin peach; it is not so popular as the
peach and is not much grown except in California.
OLIvE.—A commercial success only in California.
ORANGE.—In California the orange industry has
reached enormous proportions; and in Florida the
business is rapidly recovering from the disastrous
freezes of a few years ago,—the centre of the orchard
region having been moved farther south. Seedling
groves are not uncommon, but the most satisfactory
method of propagation is budding upon sour or sweet
orange seedling stocks. ‘‘Trees should not be set
deeper in the ground than they were in the nursery,’’
says a prominent grower. Cut back the head severely
and trim the roots. After the tree is well started but
little pruning is required,—except to cut out dead or
crossed limbs, and watersprouts, etc. A loose, mel-
low, well-drained soil, free from hard-pan near the
surface, is desirable. The trees need plenty of potash
and phosphoric acid, and not too much nitrogen.
Principal insect and fungous troubles: The rust-
mite, red spider, mealy bug, leaf roller, caterpillars,
aphis, and the ‘‘purple,’’ “‘long,’’ ‘‘red,’’ ‘‘circular,’’
“‘white,’’ “ribbed,’’ “‘broad,’’ ‘‘black’’ and San Jose
scales, are all enemies of the orange grove, and are
fought with the usual remedies—whale-oil soap, kero-
sene emulsion, arsenate of lead, lime-sulphur-salt, etc.

122 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

‘*Foot-rot,’’ ‘‘ die-back,’’ limb-blight, scab, etc., all
require special treatment, if present.

Varieties: Some of the most popular varieties in
Florida are: Indian River; Centennial; Tardiff;
Homosassa; Jaffa; Majorca; Parson Brown ; Satsuma ;
Dancy; King (the last three are Tangerine or “kid-
glove’’ varieties). In California the Washington Navel
orange is, of course, the most popular; Paper-rind
(St. Michael) ; Jaffa; Mediterranean Sweet; Malta
Blood; etc.; and some of the Tangerines, are also
planted. Oranges should be mature when gathered.

Pawpaw.—This tree is a native of our central-
states valleys, and is found along the banks of rivers.
Commercially it is of little importance.

PERSIMMON.—The American persimmon, or, as it
is sometimes called, ‘‘date plum,’’ grows wild in
many parts of the United States. Few attempts have
been made, as yet, to improve it or to grow it ona
commercial scale. It is a difficult tree to transplant.

A foreign variety called Japanese persimmon, or
Kaki, bearing larger and finer fruits, is grown in the
far South for market. ‘This is not hardy in the North.

PoMELO.—Also called ‘‘grape fruit’? and ‘‘shad-
dock.’’ A variety of citrus tree which is planted,
cultivated, and cared for about the same as the orange.

PLATE XVIII
SMOCK FREE (TWO SPECIMENS. NOT LARGE, BECAUSE NOT THINNED)

CHAPTER XVIII.

PICKING FRUIT.

Two good fruit rules: Never pick fruits when they are wet,
and handle them itke eggs.—Tim.

‘© How am I to know the right season to pick my
apples or pears?’’ is a question often asked. pie
simplest method of determining the matter is to take
hold of a pear or an apple on the tree and
gently bend it upward. If ripe enough to
pick, the stem will part from the branch
without breaking. But, in addition to this
method, the experienced grower is guided l
largely by the ‘‘time of ripening’’ of each
variety. Each kind of fruit has its own
season for reaching maturity ; catalogs, fruit
lists and observation easily make that season
known to any one who desires the informa- yanpy
tion. The appearance of the frnit, and whether *4??F®
or not its seeds look black and mature, are further
guides. It is important to do the picking only during
cool, clear weather.

All orchardists should pick (not pull or shake)
their fruit from the trees if they would get the best
prices. But, many trees are being slowly ruined by
careless picking—the kind that pulls off the little
spur that has developed the fruit, which if left will
develop frnits in after years. There is a slaughter of
these spurs in most orchards. Grasp the apple or

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124 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

pear firmly, as indicated in the cut, and give an
upward bend of the wrist; then the
frnit comes off with only the stem at-
tached. No time will be lost, either, in
thus doing the picking right, and the
stems will be left on the fruit—as they
dee Shonld pe:

Apples should be ripe, but hard, when picked.
In the latitude of Philadelphia the main-crop winter
varieties are usually gathered in early October.

THE FRUIT HARVEST

Pears, on the contrary, are still green when ready
to pick. They are mature but not ripened,—the
coloring process should come after they have been
taken from the tree; this insures better eating,
keeping and shipping qualities.

CHERRIES.—The principal points of importance
are, care in picking the fruits with the stems on, and

PICKING FRUIT 125

in not pulling the spur off to which the stem is
attached, says T. A. Farrand, in a special report to
the American Pomological So-
ciety. Throw all inferior,
bruised or decayed fruits on
the ground rather than in the
basket, and thus avoid a mussy
lot of fruit for the packers to
cull over. Have good ladders
and pick all the fruit you can
from thence, rather than climb
around in the tree and break “== :
the limbs and fruit spurs. HOR BIGH TREES

Two pickings, with an interval between, are
usually all that are necessary to clean up the tree.
One of the most successful Michigan growers, Mr.
Benton Gebhart, harvests all his cherries, both sweet
and sour, by spreading sheets under the trees; the
pickers then clip the fruit off with scissors, leaving
about a half-inch stem with the fruit, allowing it to
drop on the sheets. Mr. Gebhart is far better satis-
fied with this method than with the usual way, as
there are no fruit spurs pulled off as in picking. The
pickers are well satisfied to do the work in this way.
The fruit is sorted from the sheets into the market
packages, and Mr. Gebhart claims that he gets on an
average seventy-five cents more for a sixteen-quart.
crate of cherries with clipped stems than for unclipped.
It takes from two, to two and a half, quarts more of
clipped stem fruit to fill a sixteen-quart crate, than
where the whole stem is left on. Cherries (particularly
the sweet varieties, which are very subject to rot):

126 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

are quickly perishable and must be picked the
instant they are ready. Delay means loss by birds
and rot.

PEACHES.—To determine ‘‘just when a peach is
ready,’’ requires a little observation and experience.
For eee purposes the fruit should be ripe, but
hard,— the degree of hardness
depending upon the distance the
fruit must travel. Many expert
peach growers “‘go over’’ each tree
at least twice; and, often, three or

PICKING BENCH four times, at intervals. Why?
Because peaches seldom ripen evenly on a tree, and, by
the time all were ready to pick, some would be too soft
for shipment. Peaches, like cherries and plums, are
quickly perishable and therefore must be handled
promptly and at just the right minute. Each variety
has its own ripening time, and by dividing an orchard
into, say, six kinds which ripen at intervals of about
a week apart, the orchardist is enabled easily to handle
one variety before the next is ripe. This
is a great point in large orchards where
competent help is hard to get, — spreads
the picking and packing over six weeks,
instead of crowding it into only one or
two.

PLuMS.—If possible, pick plums, for
market, ‘‘ with the stems on.’’ The fruit
should be ripe, well colored, but not soft. If rot
threatens (as it often does), the sooner you can pick
the crop, the better. Don’t delay a moment. Watch
for the right time, and then hurry matters.

ia

PICKING FRUIT 127

OUINCES.—A quince should be ripe and well
colored before it is picked. Green specimens are not
very attractive to the average buyer. If necessary,
pick the trees several times, at intervals, so as to
secure all the fruits in a proper condition.

FRUIT SPURS.
Better bruise your shins than your fruit.

If possible, pick fruit during the cool of the day; and avoid
picking during extra hot, murky days.

For home use, let peaches and plums thoroughly mellow
and ripen on the trees. But this won’t do for fruit which is to
be shipped.

Fruit should be set in the shade
or taken to the packing house as soon
as picked. Don’t let it sun-cook. Get
it cool and keep it cool.

Figs. I and II show two styles of
long-handled fruit pickers which are
sometimes used for high-up fruit.
Fig. II has a canvas chute arrange-
ment for letting the fruit down into
the picker’s hand.

With either apples or pears, one
picking is usually sufficient to secure
all the fruit in ‘proper condition.
Sometimes, however, it pays to pick
the larger, more mature specimens first, and then clean up the
tree a few days later.

FIG. I

Look to the safety of the fruit ladders. A rotten spot may
mean a broken leg or arm. Frequent coats of paint will preserve
the soundness of the wood. In this chapter will be found several
pictures of different styles of picking ladders.

Do not handle fruit more than is necessary. The natural
bloom should be left on. And endeavor to pick apples, pears,
etc., before winds blow many of them off. Pick the outside trees
first, as the inside trees in an orchard are more protected from
the wind’s force.

Do not squeeze peaches on a tree, to see whether or not they
are sufficiently soft to pick. Decay swiftly follows such treat-
ment. Expert pickers soon learn the knack of “feeling” of a

128 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

peach without really squeezing it. The eye, and this delicate
sense of touch, become trained to work together.

A basket hung from the rounds of
a ladder is inconvenient toreach. Fit
an ironin the shape shown in the cut, ay /
and you can then have your basket at

the side of the ladder, in the handiest
of all positions. A few wooden pegs
up and down the ladder will keep the
ironfromslipping. A blacksmith can
makeitinafew minutes. And here’s
the picture of a double-basket holder
for hanging on to a tree limb.

Wilmer Atkinson says: “We pick all sound apples from the
trees into tin pails, gently pour into slatted bushel-crates, and
take them to our cool “apple mow’ (once a hay mow). ‘This
storage place has been double walled and lined, and keeps our
winter apples until May. We do the sorting in the winter.”’
(See Chapter xX for further Dacheulats about this simple
method of cold-air storage.—J.

A well-known Pennsylvania apple grower has issued to his
men the following printed rules for picking: 1. Pick lower limbs
first. 2. See that the ladder is pushed into the tree gently so as
not to knock off or bruise the fruit. 3. Hang the kettle or basket
so as to be able to pick with both hands. 4. Tay the applesin;
do not drop or throw them. 5. Pick no specked apples. 6. Pick
no small, green ones. 7. Do not take much time in picking afew
little apples out of reach,—let them go. 8. In emptying, pour
gently, as you would eggs. 9. Do not set one basket or crate on
another so that the apples below will be bruised. 10. Lift and set
down gently all filled crates. 11. Use spring wagon in hauling,
avoid rough ground, and go slow except on smooth road. ‘These
tules are necessary for the proper harvesting of the crop.

“When swallows on the barn roofs perch, to chatter of their fight,
When hints of frost are in the air, and crickets chtrp at night ;
Then come the pleasant days we love in Autumn’s mellow prime,
The jolliest days of all the vear—the apple-picking time.

For the laden boughs ave bending low o’er all the orchard ways,
The abples’ cheeks are burning ved, and father smiles, and says
Some sparkling morn: ‘I think today we might as well begin ;—
Be smart now, boys / youw ll need a week to get those apples tn.’”’

re

CRAWFORD’S

LATE

PLATE XIX

ELBERTA

CHAPTER: XIX.

GRADING AND PACKING.

Instead of a coreless apple, we need one that 1s as big in the
middle of the barrel as at the ends.

The package that has been most commonly used
up to the present time, for apples, is the barrel. The
standard of size is not uniform throughout the apple
region.

The New York law calls for a barrel with ‘‘head
diameter seventeen and one-eighth inches; length of
stave twenty-eight and one-half inches ; bulge not less
than sixty-four inches, outside measurements, ”’

The Missouri barrel is as follows: ‘‘Length of
barrel twenty-eight and one-half inches, with chines
of three-fourths of an inch at
the ends; the diameter of the
heads shall be seventeen and
one-fourth inches and the diam-
eter of the centre of the barrel
inside shall be twenty and one-half inches.’’

The Canadian barrel for export apples is required

by law to be ‘“‘twenty-six inches and one-fourth

between the heads, inside measurements, and a head

diameter of seventeen inches, and a middle diameter

of eighteen inches and one-half, representing as nearly
as possible ninety-six quarts.”’

The barrel recognized by the National Apple-
Shippers’ Association is seventeen and one-eighth
inches in diameter of head, twenty-eight inches in

' (129)

130 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

length of stave, and bulge not less than sixty-four
inches, outside measurement.

The barrel should be well made, clean, neat and
attractive. The statement is sometimes made that the
‘‘package sells the frnit."’ While this may not be
strictly true, still the package, making as it does
the first impression, favorable to the product or
unfavorable, has much to do with disposing of its
contents. Under no conditions should the barrel be
undersized ; it should give full measure as determined
by law or the custom in the region from which the
fruit comes.

BOXES FOR APPLES.—During recent years the
bushel apple box has been brought into prominent
notice. Probably the box has come to stay and will
continue to grow in popular favor. The strong point
in favor of the box is that it suits the needs of the
small housekeeper. Many hesitate to buy a barrel
of apples who would be glad
to get the same material in a
smaller package. But the box
should not be used for any-
thing but strictly first-class
fruit; it will not pay to pack
inferior or even ordinary
apples in a box. The boxes
should be neat and attractive,

ee inside and out — the best that
can be produced in every respect, package and
contents.

The ordinary size of a bushel apple box is
10x 11x20 inches, inside measurement.

GRADING AND PACKING 131

* PACKING HOUSE.—A portion of the barn may
be arranged for packing fruit, or a special shed or
packing house may be erected. Some growers do
their packing on tables placed in the shade in the
orchard. Padded tables with sloping tops and rim
sides, are very helpful aids to the sorting or grading
operation. Endeavor to have the packing house or
place as cool as possible.

GRADING APPLES. —Three grades are sufficient, or
tather, two grades and the cull-heap. I believe it best
to follow the standard of size as determined by the
National Apple-Shippers’ Association, says Mr. H.
H. Hume, and their remarks on quality are quite in
place: The standard of size for No. 1 apples of large
varieties, such as York Imperial, Stayman, Rome
Beauty and Ben Davis, is set at not less than two and
one-half inches in diameter. The standard of size for
No. Lapples of the smaller varieties, such as Winesap,
Jonathan and Bonum, is not less than two and one-
fourth inches. All No. 1 apples should be practically
free from worm-holes, bruises, breaks in the skin, and
be of good color, well-grown and hand-picked.

No. 2 apples are those which are not less than two
and one-fourth inches in diameter. The frnit must be
free from bruises and breaks in the skin. The size of
No. 2 apples of the smaller sort has not been fixed,
but two-inch diameter apples might be included.

The stems should be in all first-class apples, or in
at least-eighty-five or ninety per cent..of them, and
the specimens in a lot of this kind should be uniform
in size, color and appearance. The fruit may be
graded as it is packed. Two barrels should be set

132 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

up—one for No. 1’s, the other for No. 2’s—and as the
fruit is picked over, each class finds its way into its
respective barrel. Whether this work should be done
soon after picking, or later during the winter, depends
largely upon the grower’s own methods. Wilmer
Atkinson prefers the latter way (see preceding
chapter). One thing is certain: /¢ pays to grade
Jruit. Most of this grading is done by ‘‘hand and
eye’’; machine graders are sometimes used.

PACKING APPLES.—Two layers of fruit should be
placed in the bottom of barrel, with stems down and
as close together as possible. These will form the
facing, for this end will be
the top when opened. Fill
in with the same grade, often
shake, and when near the
\ top put in two more layers
”! with stems up, letting the

last layer stand a full inch
above the chine of barrel. Now put on lid and
slowly press into place, shaking the barrel in the
meanwhile.

Some packers place a round, corrugated paper
cushion beneath and on top of the fruit in each barrel ;
some nse no cushion of any kind; others use ordinary
paper; a few decorate the top with an edging of white
lace-paper, in addition to the corrugated cushion.
For filling the barrels, a small basket, one that will
go down into the barrel, and provided with a swing
handle, will be found very convenient. This basket
is filled with fruit, let down into the barrel and turned
over, allowing the fruit to run out.

FANCY, APPLE-PACKING

GRADING AND PACKING 133

A barrel header, such as the stores sell, is a handy
implement toown. But if there are only a few apples
to be barreled, it may not
pay to buy a press. One can
be rigged very quickly by
using a plank or scantling
with one end under a stud
teaching to the shed plate
and temporarily nailed in
place. The barrel to be HOME-MADE BARREL PRESS
headed forms the fulernm. Be careful not to press
the apples too hard.

Apples in boxes: Each apple should be put in
place by hand—in rows and tiers (like oranges), every
apple perfect. The number and arrangement of rows
depends upon what size apple is being packed ; each
size will require a different method of ‘‘placing to fit.’’
Sometimes the rows will need to be diagonal or irreg-
ular; a little experimenting, practise and “‘knack’’
will soon determine the best way to make a size fita
box and “‘come out right’’ on top. Every apple ina
box should be uniform in size. Some packers line
the boxes with white paper; and some wrap each
apple in paper made for the purpose.

Stenciling apple packages: As soon as the package
is closed up and securely nailed, it should be properly
marked. ‘The box should be marked on both ends,
while the barrel should be marked on the faced end
intended for the top. Both should bear the name of the
variety ; the grade of apple, whether No. 1 or No. 2;
the name of the grower and the place where
grown.

134 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

Handle frnit like eggs—with care. Don’t mix
different varieties, shapes and colors in one package.
Don’t mix windfalls with hand-picked fruit.

CHERRIES.—Baskets not larger than eight or ten
pounds should be used in picking. The packing
house should have tables or frames with canvas bot-
toms, on which carefully to lay the cherries for sorting
into packages. The fruit in the package should be
uniform throughout and tastefully faced to attract the
attention of the fastidious, who will pay the highest
market price. In California, sweet cherries are usually
packed in shallow, small, wooden boxes holding about
ten pounds, and the fruit is carefully sorted and faced
in regular rows—stem end down and out of sight.
The effect is very pretty, but such packing requires
labor and time; it undoubtedly pays, however. In
the East, sweet cherries are commonly packed in
ordinary quart berry boxes, sixteen (or more) boxes
to the crate. If the top of each box is properly faced,
the effect is good; but not so good as the California
package.

Sour cherries are usually packed either in eight-
pound grape baskets, or in the quart boxes mentioned
in the preceding paragraph. ‘The top layer of fruit
should be placed, stems down, in regular rows.
Girls or women can do this work nicely. The extra
expense of thus facing a basket of cherries amounts
to about four cents. Does it pay? Asarule, yes. A
Michigan friend of mine does even more: He packs
his cherries in quart boxes in sixteen-quart crates, and
along the top edges of crate, folded down over the
fruit, he places a narrow edging of white lace-paper,

GRADING AND PACKING Lg

—something similar to the edging often seen on
candy boxes. The edging he uses is about two inches
wide and costs “‘less than a cent a crate.’? Then, with
a smnall cluster of fresh cherry leaves placed in the
centre of fruit at each crate end, he considers that the
job is complete. His fruit certainly does look remark-
ably nice, and the prices received for it are extra
good. His name and guarantee go on every crate.
PEACHES.—Different peach-growing districts have
different styles of packages. In Michigan, for instance,
the favorite package for
peaches is the sixth-bushel
Climax basket with extension
slat cover; in New Jersey,
high, round, flaring-top ,bas-_
kets are in favor, holding
about half a bushel; in
Georgia, the six-basket crate
is the thing, each basket
holding about four quarts.
: Then there are four-basket
AAV) crates, open-sided peck
f// Climax baskets (for fancy
fruit), fifth-bushel Climax
= baskets, round bushel bas-
kets with slat covers, etc.,
etc. “‘What package to
use’’ is largely a matter of locality and choice.
Peaches are usually graded into three or four sizes,
and each size is packed by itself and labeled accord-
ingly. Machine graders do excellent work, and are
often used by large growers. In the Michigan and

CLIMAX PEACH-BASKET

SIX-BASKET PEACH CRATE

136 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

Georgia baskets, the peaches are fitted into regular
rows and tiers, all arranged ‘“‘just so.’’ The largest
or first-grade peaches are often labeled ‘‘ Fancy”’ or
‘‘Selects.’? Red tarletan is sometimes fitted over each
basket, giving the
fruit a pink, pretty,
but rather decep-
tive look.
PEARS. —This
fruit is. usually
packed and shipped
while still in a
green state. Bushel
boxes, barrels,
round bushel or
A MACHINE PEACH-GRADER half-bushel baskets,
kegs, etc., are favored by different growers and local-
ities. The ripening is nearly always done by the
dealer. Grading must be done by hand and eye:
have not yet heard of a successful machine grader
for pears. Fancy fruits should each be wrapped in
paper, — California style.

PLUMS.—AIl sorts of packages are used for this
fruit; it does not seem to have an individual package
especially adapted to its needs. Peach baskets, grape
baskets, strawberry boxes in crates, etc., etc: arevall
used. Hach grower has his own preference; and, of
course, the style of package chosen should depend
largely upon the distance it must be shipped.

QUINCES. — Barrels, half-barrels, bushel baskets,
etc., are all suitable for quinces. Each fruit should be
well colored, unbruised and perfect. Make two grades
or sizes. Use the culls at home.

PLATE XX
COE’S GOLDEN DROP LOMBARD

GERMAN PRUNE GREEN GAGE

CHAPTER XX.

COLD STORAGE AND MARKETING.

After producing fine Jrutt, learn how to sell tt; the proof of
the selling ts tn the size of the cheque.— Farmer Vincent.

It is not advisable, in my opinion, for the average
fruit-grower to use ice for cold Ee purposes for
winter apples, etc.,—at
least in the latitude of
Philadelphia and _ north-
ward. In Chapter XVIII
I referred to Wilmer Atkin-
son’s cold storage method,
and I want to say more
about it, now. Here is a
copy of a letter from him, dated October 3d, 1900, in
which he gives particulars about the method:

‘“On Monday we begin to pick our crop of Mayfield
apples and expect to have between 4,000 and 5,000
bushels. The orchard has just come into bearing, this
being really the first crop. Having a very large barn,
much of the space contained therein is available for
storing other things than hay, wheat, etc.; so I have
converted a mow, 25 x 40 feet, into two storage rooms,
one above the other. It is a stone barn with thick
walls, sufficient, with a little lining inside of thick
paper (on two sides), to keep out frost. I have also
doubled the wooden walls on the other two sides, with
felt between, and now have what I deem to be an
admirable place to keep winter apples,—up to the first

(137)

138 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

of April. The two rooms will hold, I think, my entire
crop. ‘Three double doors are made in each room for
the ingress of air on cold nights, my purpose being to
use cold night air instead of ice for keeping down the
temperature. Whenever the temperature outside is
colder than it is inside, the doors will be opened and
the air let in; the doors will be all closed when it is
warmer outside. We expect, before October is out, to
get the temperature down below fifty degrees and keep
it there through November; and by December we can
easily get it down to thirty-five. Were I going to
build-a cold storage house for winter apples I should
do it upon this principle and not bother with ice at
all. But the walls must be tight, double, paper lined,
and with an airspace between. Heat must be kept
out, cold must be kept zz. Open the doors and let in
cool night air; close them during warm days. During
the winter if the thermometer sinks to zero or lower,
and stays down for three or four days, as it sometimes
does, it may be necessary to leave a lighted lantern or
small oil stove in the storage room during the cold
snap, so that the fruit will not be frozen. Apples
thus stored keep all their good flavor,—which is more
than I can say for fruit stored in ice or ammonia-
cooled buildings.”’

I happen to know that Mr. Atkinson has subse-
quently proved the truth and success of his plan, and
I can heartily recommend the idea to other fruit-
growers. ‘This method will keep good winter apples
as late as April lst. What more is necessary? I can
see no advantage in later keeping of apples. After
April, apples come into competition with strawberries,
etc., and are not usually very much wanted ; besides,

COLD STORAGE AND MARKETING 139

the average grower hasn’t time, after April, to attend
to the proper marketing of apples—he is too busy
with the spring work. And, too, many growers can
not afford to pay the charges demanded by some of
the big refrigerating plants.

Pears will not keep nearly so long as apples, and
are usually all marketed, green, early in the season.

SELLING FRuIt.—J. H. Hale says: ‘‘Get a good
dealer and tell him you have a good thing. Have your
commission man go and see your
place. The business side of fruit-
growing means belief in yourself
and then making those with whom
you trade believe in you.”’

H. Hi. Hume says :—‘‘ The best
plan is to get in touch with fruit
dealers or commission men in good markets and get
them to handle the fruit. Either ship to them on con-
signment or sell to them outright. Pick good, reliable
men; send them good material, treat them squarely,
and you will receive like treatment in return.”

Another good way to sell fruit is to secure a num-
ber of personal, retail customers to whom you can sell
direct. Or make arrangements with stores.

In some localities and with some kinds of fruit, it
is possible to sell the crop, on the trees, for a lump
sum per acre or for the entire orchard. The buyer
does the rest.

Oftentimes buyers will buy an entire orchard’s
product, and agree to pay so much per barrel for firsts
and so much for seconds; or they may offer so much
per barrel ‘‘as the fruit runs.’’ Sometimes the
arrangement is that the grower is to do all the picking,

140 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

grading and packing, and deliver the fruit at the
nearest railway station or steamship wharf.

Wilmer Atkinson’s method is to store the fruit
until winter or later, and then gradually sort, pack
and market it during the leisure months.

‘*Central Packing MHouses,’’ ‘‘ Fruit- Growers’
Exchanges,”’ ‘‘ Co-operative Marketing Associations, ’’
etc., have been more or less successfully operated in
California, Michigan, Wisconsin, Cobden, IIL,
‘Springfield, Mo., Maryland, Georgia, etc. These
concerns are usually incorporated, and the surround-
ing fruit-growers own stock and control the manage-
ment. Such mutual associations, when rightly officered
and conducted, are often a great blessing to a fruit-
growing community. Instead of, say, one hundred
different brands in one locality —all different and all
competing against each other in open market — there
is (where acentral packing and selling concern exists)
just one brand. And this one brand, being all graded
and packed uniformly and in very large lots, can be
sold to better advantage than a diversified product.

Well, Harriet hints that it is time for me to stop,—
that this book is already too long. So, while she
looks over my shoulder and nods her head encourag-
ingly, I believe that I had better say : ‘‘ Good-night.”’

cE g

INDEX

PAGE

A
Age at which trees bear, - . 18
Alfalfa in oecherds, stag ota

Almond, . *. Sal
Aphis (5245 7% % 83, ‘92, 96, 108
ApIISe wOOlliy.:.0.- « « 35, 85

Apple, The. Culture: Pests;
Pruning; Spraying; Va-
tfieties etc... . - - 81 to 90

Apples, cold storage and

marketing, . . - . 137 to 140
ADMlESNGEADy ste cs ene. 119
Apples, grading, . 131, 132, 133

Apples, packing, -. . 129 to 133
Apples, picking,

123, 124, 127, 128
5 te)

JS OSAP) BN Ga Ce Ren

Arsenate of lead and soda, 63

Ashes, hard-wood, . . . 55, 78

Avocado or Alligator pear, 119
B

Bark-burst, 91, 110

Batkeoratting, . . . = - 23, 24

Bark injury, preventing,

77, 78, 79, 80, 91
“Barked ” trees, saving, 24, 58
Bathelspresss «2s + « « 133
Barrels, apple, 129, 130, 132, 133
Baskets, packing, 134, 135, 136

Baskets, picking,'. . . 128, 134
BeeCheritit cr fo 6s si, sere) iS;
Beetle.
(See May Beetle, etc.)

Veta, hath fr beaten ee OC 94
BiteteTObs ys: «ss. ence 8s 85
BiackeWOt, 2. 6 « » « 93, 109
Blackismotyee © 6-6 +c 86
Blackawalmut, = «2. 3 --- = 115

Blight, fire or pear, - - 86, 105
Blight, leaf, . . 93, 104, 105, 110
Blishtiertwik, « . 5. « 86, 97
Blossom facts,

16, 17, 44, 58, 65, 77, 78, 79, 96
Blue vitriol.

(See Copper Sulphate.)

Bolts, use of,
Bone fertilizers,
Bordeaux mixture, 61,62,65, 66
Borers,

77, 79, 80, 83, 92, 96, 103, 108
Boxes, fruit, ~- 130, 133, 134, 136
Bridge grafting,..-...-.- 24
BEG TOt, ... ..« « 939,97; 110

PAGE
Budding, ON 2S lone eos
Buds. (See Blossom Facts.)
Bud Gwortiee ater sane eer 83
Buffalo tree-hopper,...- . 83
lsvonmeraahbty) Gcge cube bao. Ss 1S
Birvincathees sis veetiee 14, 16
Cc
Came Fe GeO ver faph eee 86, 87
(Orbe Sci Kopala 6 Ho HB Ooe 84
Caterpillars stent ys 1. 85
Cherry, The. Culture; Pests;
Pruning; Spraying; Va-
rieties; etc., -91to 94

Cheraes, etadities~ 1 2 =. 134
Cherries, packing, 2154-35
Cherries, picking, 124, 125, 126

Chestnutticees see iss alates ally
Chinguapin! eee bly
Citron. ostrtoean wee te 2 lie
Citrus fruits, palnle) to 122
Cleft grafting, BA a. Ss

Climaticconditions,. ... 12
Clover inorchards,.. .
Cocoanut,
Cocoons;, desttoy, = =) - Ti
Codling moth, 2) Sen o45 203
Cold storage, . 137, 138, 139, 140
‘SOMMENE TRO) SS slahs S Gla sl
Commission men,..... 139
Co-operative associations, - 140
Copper sulphate, . . 61,62, 66
Cover crops, Sina ZyAsn Y)
Cowpeasin orchards, - . - 76

Crabiapple: sites wens bLO
Crates... 128, 134, 420) 136
Cricket, snowy tree,- . - 97
Crop-growing in orchards,

52; 53
Crops, cover, ET MoR T7/
Crotches; weak? \\- cpm 400 ih
Crow Galle ei. enw a 35, 98
Crown grafting, .- - 24
Culls, fruit, - se Asie 136
Cultivation, . 51, 52, 53, SoS

(See also under Apple; Pear; etc.)

Curculio, . 84, 92, 96, 108, 109
Cut-worms, climbing, . 42, 43
D
DD atespalinay es suck ickismicn en ree 119
Weadiwvood:) hs) ententata 48

Diseases.

(See Spraying; Apple; Pear; etc.)

(141)

142 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

PAGE
Double-stalcatne-au- -) sol. o2
Drainage, frost and water,

11, 14
Drainage, tile,. -11,14,77, 78
OKRoyS.. AUN GG Gola ates sy
DOSE Somehpbales 6 a6 A oa OS
Dwarf pear, 1D. ables ale!
Emulsion, kerosene, - - 63, 64
“ Facing,” 132, 133, 134
Fall setting,.-.- - 14

Fertilization, ‘teeeernl, : 16; 17
Fertilization, soil,
17935, 54505, D0; 08

Foe Wee aioe as 119, 120
uber teens eae eee. atcense 117
sm illermwkheesemrnc eens SO
Tehuge lolhveanttin, Go Jo 6) lo 6 etsy ils
Frost alarm, automatic, . . 79
WNROORIO, 6 5 oO o suo o 6 98
Frost drainage, Sue is alts}
Frost injury, - 77, 78, "79, 96, 98
Fruit-bark beetle. © Psa 96
Fruit- bearing, premature,

43, 44

Fruit budding, picking, va-
rieties, etc.

(See under Budding; Picking; etc.)
Bruittiv cherie = loses ns 92
Fruit-growers’ exchanges, 140
Fungicides. (See Spraying.)
Fungous diseases.

(See Spraying; Apple; Pear; etc.)

‘Galls, crownand root, 34, 35, 98
Girdled trees, how to avoid,

THs os OS)
Girdled trees, saving, - 24, 58
Gouger, plum, ..- . . 109
Grading fruit,...- eat to 136
‘Gratting, - - -19to 28
SSeiobe Wb 6 OG bl oo 23
Grease, axle, .- 5, Wf
‘Ground, preparation lane calf)
(GURBBIA 0 co o.oNbo 6s 120)
Gum® Sites 4 80, 91, 98, 110
IsGhowoyyaboley, 6 6 0 O-0 BA. SS), SOs
raze lait = = ccecrace: covers 117
Head, advantages of low,

40, 44, 48

PAGE
Head, forming the,
38, 39, 40, 41, 44
il

Header, bartel) =) sence 33
Heeling-in trees,. - - .14, 15
Help problem, the; 3 2)... 26

Hexagon planting system, 33
Hickory nut, SAblyy

High ground, importance
Of, ss 3 eee iil
I
Insecticides. (See Spraying.)

Insects.

(See Spraying; Apples; Pears; etc.)

Irrigation, © ese 54
af

june bug, <5 aches S

June drop,.- - 3 a SE aoe
K

Keatiiite: «oho. an ecu eee 55, 103

Keak jd eu ee 122

Kegs for pease emi 136

Kerosene emulsion, . . 63, 64

Knot, black, a os 93, 109

abel, trees) <P -o ae 42, 44
adders; = 123,125) 126; ie 128
Lady birds, ie 73
Lead, arsenate one Meat’, BA 63

Leaf-blignht or spot,

93, 104, 105, 110
Leaf-curl, peach, ...-.-. 97
Leaf mite or blister, pear, . 103

Meat roller, etc. mene 85, 92

Memon, —. eee 120
Lice. (See Aphis.)

WCE, SCaleye set imine 67 to 74
Wiles coy ce sear «£1120

Lime-sulphur-salt mixture,
68, 69, Ke us ie

“Little peach,”’ . .
Tittle (Turk: a. = see pee
Location of the orchard,
sla Ze eh, sale!
Toquiat.. «ict, 2) 6, ae ee 120
M
Maggot;apple, « . 2s 2%. 83
Magzot? chenry, .0-m menos
mWwiehote(o we GG moO oO 120
Map of orchard, ae dfs CM
Marketing fruit, . 137 to 140

Marking packages, .- - - 133
May beetle, PREPAC, So) OO. eee)

INDEX 143

PAGE
Mediate = st te8 e o s 120
LAGIES rhanjobaysy Ooo 0 0 M5 iis 79)
Waadees © eitecks fi sees toe 103
Wiikey, @ eV heo 85 5 85, 93
Moisture, conservation of,

Sosa
Mulberry trees, 94, 120, 121
WVintehimes. =< 44,53, 58
WTALESR EGG war no sd RO matt oys)

oN

WECIAIDENEY oh on ola So 9. 6 NPIL
Nitrogen, oe os) S15, 76
Nozzles, spraying, -.-.- 61

Nursery trees, selecting,
16, 81, 91, 95, 102, 107
115 to 118

Nut trees,

OvwiiG whol Ormelieoneley’ 5 4 5 a 6 FI

OIG a eee sel c) ciel si et e-fe 121
‘OienOeKS, 5 og too eo Go WAL Wy
Orchard requirements.
(See under Setting ; Pruning;
Spraying; etc.)

@Oreconawash;, =. = =» & #0; 71
Ovepoecatitle ers). = 45
Oyster-shell ecaie, 6 fals 72, 103
Packages, fruit, . . . 129to 136
Packing fruit, . . . - 129 to 136
Packing house, - 131, 140

Paper, for packing,
SZ ekso 4 136
paragon chestnut, 115, 116, 117
Paris green, 62, 63, 65
Pawpaw,
Peach, The. Culture; Pests;
Pruning ; Spraying ; Va-

rieties; etc., 95 to 100
Peaches, grading, Sate dss), 1ei5
Peaches, packing, 135136

Peaches, picking, 126, 127, 128

Pear, The. Culture; Pests;
Pruning; Spraying; Va-
Fieties;-et¢., &.2-., -. 101 to:106

eAEG. SrAghitOo gs sa ss cog 136
Pears, marketing, 139, 140
REAGS. PaCkinos<sh cast = 136
Pears, picking, 123, 124, 127
CCAM art oped tet vol oct iA ARS
Persimmon, « <=. < «+ ee 22

Phosphoric acid, 54, 56
Bickine truit. «2+. 123 to 128

PAGE
Jes HU TROVE Sreiuists:
Planning the orchard, Symes]!
Plan of orchard, making a,
17, 42
Planting, 29 to 33
Plowing, . - 523193; 1985, 8S
Plum, The. Culture; Pests;
Pruning; Spraying; Va-
rieties ; etc., - 107 to 110
Alors. jonas, = 5 So ole 136
Plums) picking. | 0) 126, 127
Pockets) pila, Yee en ele 110
Pollination of blossoms,
16e 7. 9
Pomelo ss) =) see vere. 122
1EVAISINI, a OG Boo S 54, ao 56

Powdery mildew, -..- . a 93
Press, barrel,
Propagation, 19 to 28, 81, 91,

OS OZ OA lease age 118
Protection,against frost,11, 18
Protection, root, - 507 oO
Protection, soil. (See Cover Crops)
Protection waltelyuemen mom 18
Pruning, later,. - . .45to 50

(See also under Apple; Beas etc. )

Pruning newly-set trees,

37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 44
Pruning, root, . . 34, 40,41, 49
Pruning tools, - 46
Psylla, pear-tree, .... .104
Pumps, spray, and fittings,

59, 60, 61, 65, 66, 73

OV ts mone Oo

Quince. The, ait 1122 127,136

Sap OT, Aho
in orchards, 76

Rabbit injury,
Rape, Essex,

Record of varieties, -17, 41, 42
Red spider, Serra eae 116
Ripening, time of, - . 123, 126
RapeTrote., c1< sot saree 85
Poel 5 og A ooo one os
Rooeerattine ey oc 9 vse Oke 24
Root protection, - 35, 36
Root pruning, . . 34, 40, 41, 49
Rose bue, ono: 2 26 93.097,
Rosette, peach, <« - « == 13)
ROtNCOllatie &) ls) kee so-so
Rot, fruit, . . 85, 86, 93, 97, 110
PRITS Estos, Us esch Nah ad Okie e 86

Ryein/ orchards: = = 5076, 77

144

PAGE
Ss

Saddle grafting,...... 24
Salt. (See Lime-sulphur-salt. )

San Jose scale, - 67 to 74
Seale, oo o po 6 6c 86, 98, 105
Scale pests, 67 to 74
Scion, and its treatment, . 21

Scraping tree trunks, 72,80, 88
Scurfy scale, . . - - 72, 73, 104

Seed-growing, LOE 20M e28
Self-sterility, 16, 17, 79, 82,

92, 95, 102, 108
Sellinepinutty aye eloo, 40

Septuple system of plant-

ATG domiayy ee Nov etvice oO = 82
Setting trees, .-- - 29to 36
Shieldlsraftines, <=. = - -- 24

Shot-hole fungus, . . - 93, 110

Shiy-heabkitie; sete = a= 45
Side srattine ss 25
Slag, Thomas or basic, . - 56
Sites G boo Bia o 6 GS 93, 104
SyonqutelexeSy oo glo lo 6,0 c 5 9)
Soap, whale-oil, . . . . 64,72
Soda, arsenate of, AEA hone 63

Soils, 13,82, 91,95, 102,107,111, 113

Sorting fruit, _ 131 to 136
Soy beans in orchards, =.) 46
Splice means, 6 0 oe op 6 LS
Spraying, - - S9to 74
(See also ander AGE Pear; etc.)
Spring setting, - - en
Spurs, fruit, 123, 124, 125
Stalkcaine=hboard a = = oly a2
Steam-cooking apparatus,
, 74
Stems, fruit, . 124, 125, 126, 134
Stenciling packages, -. . - 133
Stock, the, and its treat-
MEME, “= 3 = Le 21
Storage, cold, 137, 138, 139, 140
Straimenrsws eo) ee 65, 66
Stratification, as. 4 Re 28

Strawberries in orchards: =~ 852
Stringfellow method, .40, 41
Stub, never leave a, . . 48, 49
Subsoil,
Suckersy nents re on 4o OU
Sulphur. (See Lime-sulphur-salt. )

Sun-scald, 77, 79, 91, 98, 103, 110
Sun-scorch, 98
Superphosphate, -.-.-.-- 56

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BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK

PAGE

T
Tables, packing, 131, 134
Abrhalehiececlg bo! a G bo = 136
TNent=caterpillar, ances tonee 85
Awowsabiuboversaqpoys 5 oo cei, Se

Tile drainage, -. - 11, 14,77, 78

Tillage, = « OL, .52) Do DAs
AKO ooo) Hopiyavord, Gg a os a - 64
‘Tonewe stahtine: eens 25
TLOOIS phn; ye eee AG
4 Noyes gb bee MEO OO! P95
‘Transportation. scala 13.
Tree cricket, snowy, -- - 97
“ree labelta.. acer tome 42, 44
Tree protectors, ... .79, 80

Trees, nursery, selecting,
16, 81, 91, 95, 102, 107
Trees, treatment of.
(See under Setting; Pruning;
Spraying; etc.)
Triangle system of PRE

renkegueey Bee
Turnips in ercharde) RO:
IP wakes bist 6s 6 my 5 86, 97
Twig-borer, apple, =) ao
V
Varieties, different fruit,

16, 89, 96, 94, 100, 106, 110,
112, WA ae
Varieties, nut, 115, 116, 117, 118
Varieties, record of, 17, 41, 42
Vetch cover crop, -.---.-- 76

Winegar, — = 0) 6) etenenre 88
AVWeIbaous, o.oo O90 ity alts?
Wash. (See Lime-sulphur-salt. )

Wash, for borers, --- - 80
Wash, Oregon, =a Opera

Water drainage, --.- ll, 14
Water protection, ...-.- 18

Wax. Stal tins) nine 23
Weevil, avestongole, 6 no oO 8 116
Whale- oil soap “oo 64, 72
Whip grafting, 25
Whitewash, .- +... = - 88
Windbreaks, -.-..--.- 18,114

Wood-venleer, = «i cniaicniennaeye

Woolly, aphis, Me cio)

Wrapping ries. ee LSS LSS
r°C

Yellows, peach, -- - - 98, 99

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