w o r I c
biodiversity
association

o n I u s

Ankylopterix sp M Semenyih, Selangor, Malaysia (forest)

www.biodiversityjournal.com

ISSN 2039-0394 (Print Edition)
ISSN 2039-0408 (Online Edition)

MARCH 2014, 5 (1): 1-92

with the support of

FOR NATURALISTIC RESEARCH
AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

BIODIVERSITY JOURNAL
2014,5 (I); 1-92

Quaternly scientific journal

edited by Edtzioni Danaus,

viaVDi Marco 41, 90143 Palermo, Italy

www.biodiversityjournal.com

biodiversityjournal@gmail.com

Official authorization no, 40 (28. 1 2.20 1 0)

ISSN 2039-0394 (Print Edition)

ISSN 2039-0408 (Online Edition)

The genus Ankylopteryx Brauer, 1864 (Neuroptera Chrysopidae). In 1864, Brauer
established the new genus Ankylopteryx for five species of green lace wings from
Mozambique, India, China, Sumatra and Ceylon (i.e. Sri Lanka), furthermore he
described three new ones from Nicobare Islands, Ambon Island (Moluccas), and Van
Diemens Land (i.e. Tasmania), already reflecting the currently known distribution of the
genus, which shows a continuous presence in the Palaeotropics from Africa (South of
Sahara). Madagascar, Arabian Peninsula, Islands of Indian Ocean, India, South China,
Ryukyu Islands, Indonesia, Australia, New Hebrides, About 50 species are known but
many others are surely waiting for description because this interesting, large, genus needs
to be revised. Brauer named the genus after the curved costa (the external vein of the
wings), deriving it from the Greek avtoAoq [ankylos] crooked, bent, curved, hooked and
jnepov, Jttepu£, [pteron, pteryx] wing. Manifest characters of the genus are the highly
setose wings, fore wings with very broad costal field, narrow hind wings, and, strangely,
tarsi with black lips. Alive specimens show an unusual resting position, with the wings
flattened and not folded in a roof-likc position. Tjedcr ( 1 966, The Lace- wings of Southern
Africa. 5. Family Chrysopidae, South African Animal Life. Vol. 12.) suggested that this
peculiarity is probably due to the broad costal area. Presumably, the resting position, in
connection with the broad and setose wings, allows to improve the adhesiveness to the
large and smooth leaves of the tropical plants, on which these species find shelter. As far as
is known, the adults arc not predaceous and the larvae arc trash-carrying, i.e. they cover
themselves with debris, resembling small packets of fragments thanks to the large setose
tubercles and long body hairs. Ankylopteryx species were cited as predators in crops and
orchards, indeed applied studies suggest their potential role as biological control agents.

Hock Ping Guek, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, e-mail: orionmystery@gmail.com
Roberto A. Pantaleoni, Istitutoperlo Studio degli Ecosistemi, ConsiglioNazionaledelle
Ricerche (ISECNR), Traversa la Crueca 3, Regione Baldinca, 107 100 Li Punti SS, Italy&
Sczionc di Entomolpgia c Patologia Vegctalc, Dipartimento di Agraria, Universita degli
Studi, via Enrico De Nicola, 107 1 00 Sassari SS, Italy, e-mail: r.pantaleoni@ise.cnr.it
pantaIco@uniss.it

Ankylopteryx sp. pl.\ Up: Ulu Yam, Selangor, Malaysia (forest); middle: Nilai, Negeri
Sembilan, Malaysia (open area); down: Bcntong, Pahang, Malaysia (montane Forest,
about 830 m as!)

© Copyright of all photos by Kurt (orionmystery.blogspot.com) [Hock Ping Guek]

Biodiversity Journal, 2014, 5 (1): 3-8

Diversity and distribution of Coccinellidae (Coleoptera) in
Lorestan Province, Iran

Amir Biranvand 1 , Reza Jafari 2 & Mehdi Zare Khormizi 1 *

'Department of Entomology, Fars Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Fars Province, Marvdasht , Iran.
2 Islamic Azad University, Bomjerd Branch, Bomjerd, Iran.

^Corresponding author: persian7002@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT The present study was conducted from April to September 2012 to assess biodiversity and

distribution of Coccinellids (Coleoptera Coccinellidae) in five regions of the west of Lorestan
Provine, Iran. Specimens of coccinellid beetles were collected by netting and hand picking
from Shorab, Veisian, Sarabdore, Teshkan and Kashkan. Identification of these beetles showed
twenty-two different species. Oenopia conglobata (Linnaeus, 1758) (n = 386, 24%) was
recorded as the most abundant species as well as widely distributed on all over the regions.
When distributions of all the areas were compared, it was concluded that Coccinellidae was
mostly distributed in the Shorab area. The maximum and minimum species diversity indices
were obtained in Shorab (Simpson’s diversity index = 0.90) and Kashkan (Simpson’s diversity
index = 0.67) regions, respectively. Maximum similarity index (0.89) was observed between
Sarabdore and Kashkan regions.

KEY WORDS Ladybirds; biodiversity; Coleoptera; Iran.

Received 10.10.2013; accepted 07.01.2014; printed 30.03.2014

INTRODUCTION

About 6000 species of Coccinellids, Ladybird
beetles, (Coleoptera Coccinellidae) are known world-
wide (Vandenberg, 2002). They are of great eco-
nomic importance as predators both in their larval
and adult stages on various important crop pests
such as aphids, coccids and other soft bodied insects
(Hippa et al., 1978; Kring et al., 1985). Coccinel-
lids undergo complete metamorphosis with distinct
egg, larval, pupal and adult stages. Their life cycle
is completed in one month depending upon prey, lo-
cation and temperature; two or three generations are
generally produced in a year. Adults overwinter in
sheltered locations such as tree holes and other nat-
ural hiding places (Majerus & Kearns, 1989). The
coccinellidae are an important group of beetles

from both an economic standpoint in their use as
biological control agent and in their diversity and
adaptation to a number of differing habitats. The
coccinellid beetles are considered to be of a great
economic importance in agro-ecosystems thanks to
their successful employment in biological control
of many injurious insects (Agarwala & Dixon,
1992). The observed degree of their adaptation as
well as their efficiency in controlling aphid popu-
lations varies with the species and the environmen-
tal conditions (Dixon, 2000). Indeed, Coccinellidae
are extremely diverse in their habits: they live in all
terrestrial ecosystems (Slcaife, 1979). They are also
regarded as bioindicators (Iperti, 1999) and provide
more general information about the ecosystem in
which they occur (Andersen, 1999). Iran is an eco-
logically diversified country which includes rich

4

Amir Biranvand et alii

agricultural areas, deserts, marshes, rivers and
mountain habitats. Because of these specialized
geographic and vegetative zones, Djavanishir (1976)
grouped the Iranian vegetation coverage into five
zones, including the Irano-Touranian floristic zone
that encompasses the most extensive area of Iran.
In the confluence of these different climatic and
geographic zones, a rich faunal assemblage is ex-
pected for the country. Unfortunately, there are veiy
few references in the literature about distribution
and diversity of ladybird beetles in Iran. The objec-
tives of the present study were to explore the pre-
datory ladybird fauna of Lorestan Province (Iran),
to estimate the species richness, species evenness
and species diversity of Coccinellids in agro-eco-
systems and to know about the role of Coccinellids
as bioindicators.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The Chegeni (west of Lorestan province) is lo-
cated between longitude 48°02' East, latitude 3 1°32'
North of Iran. It has moderate weather, with the
average temperature in summer reaching 35 °C and
average annual rainfall of about 350 mm, which is
sufficient to keep the soil veiy fertile. This area con-
sists of a lot of fruit orchards. The study area was
divided in five sampling regions, namely: Shorab,
Veisian, Sarabdore, Teshkan and Kashkan. Collec-
tion of beetles was done from different parts of
these regions during 2012, from early spring to the
autumn season. Each locality was frequently visited
weekly. All the available trees were selected for the
sampling and it continued for the total duration of
6 months. The adult ladybird specimens on the
trees, crops and weeds were collected randomly by
netting, hand picking and light trapping. The speci-
mens were collected daily and were preserved in
vials containing 75% ethanol, and then pinned and
placed in collection boxes. Each specimen was la-
beled noting the place of collection, date of collec-
tion, pray name and host plant species and brought
to the laboratory of Islamic Azad Borujerd Univer-
sity, Borujerd for biodiversity count. All specimens
were manually stored and identified to species level
with the help of available literature and already
identified specimens which are preserved in the in-
sect Museum of Islamic Azad Borujerd University.
Collected data were employed for stastistical ana-

lyses to calculate species diversity, abundance and
similarity in different places, crops and periods by
applying Simpson’s diversity index and Sorenson
index.

Simpson’s index (D) is a measure of diversity.
The formula for calculating D is presented as:

Yn,(n,-l)

n(n-i)

where n 7 - = the total number of organisms of each
individual species, N = the total number of organ-
isms of all species and 1-D= Simpson’s diversity
index, 1/D= Simpson’s reciprocal index.

The value of D ranges from 0 to 1 . With this
index, 0 represents infinite diversity and 1 no diver-
sity. That is, the bigger the value the lower the di-
versity. This does not seem intuitive or logical, so
some texts use derivations of the index, such as
the inverse (1/D) or the difference from 1 (1-D)
(Magurran, 1988).

Species similarity

Species similarity between two communities
was calculated by Sorenson’s index (SQ)

(a + b)

where J = number of similar species in both com-
munities; a = total number of species in community
A, b = total number of species in community B.

The value of SQ ranges from 0 to 1 . With this
index, 0 represents no similarity and 1 complete
similarity. That is, the bigger the value the higher
the similarity (Southwood & Henderson, 2000).

RESULTS

The present study was conducted from April to
September 2012. Table 1 shows the list of Coc-
cinellid species captured in the examined regions.
The maximum and minimum numbers of species
were found in subfamilies Coccinellinae and Chilo-
chorinae respectively. Among genera, Exochomus
Redtenbacher, 1843 and Scymnus Kugelann, 1794
were the most abundant. Oenopia conglobata, Coc-
cinella septempunctata, Adalia decimpunctata ,
Scymnus apetzi , Scymnus syriacus and Hippodamia
variegata were found in all places of sampling.

Diversity and distribution of Coccinellidae (Coleoptera) in Lorestan Province, Iran

5

Regions

Shorab

Veisian

Sarab-

Teshkan

Kashkan

Total

Species

doreh

number

Coccinella septempunctata Linnaeus, 1758

+

+

+

+

+

265

Hippodami a variegata (Goeze, 1777)

+

+

+

+

+

332

Adalia bipunctata (Linnaeus, 1758)

+

-

+

+

-

35

Adalia decimpunctata (Linnaeus, 1758)

+

+

+

+

+

53

Oenopia conglobata (Linnaeus, 1758)

+

+

+

+

+

386

Oenopia oncina (Olivier, 1808)

+

-

-

-

-

81

Psyllobora vigintidupnnctata (Linnaeus, 1758)

+

+

-

-

-

3

Propylea quatuordecimpunctata (Linnaeus, 1758)

+

-

-

-

-

56

Scymnus syriacus (Marseul, 1868)

+

+

+

+

+

90

Scymnus apetzi Mulsant, 1 846

+

+

+

+

+

45

Scymnus araraticus Iablokoff-Khnzorian, 1969

+

-

-

-

-

8

Scymnus pallipes Mulsant, 1 850

+

-

-

-

-

3

Scymnus nubilus Mulsant 1850

+

-

-

-

-

8

Stethorus punctillum Weise, 1891

+

-

-

-

-

4

Stethorus gilvifrons (Mulsant, 1850)

+

+

+

+

+

44

Exochomus melanocephalus (Zoubkoff, 1833)

+

-

-

-

-

4

Exochomns nigromaculatus (Goeze, 1777)

+

+

-

-

-

10

Exochomus quadripustulatus (Linnaeus, 1758)

+

+

-

-

-

34

Exochomus pubescens Kiister, 1 848

+

-

+

-

-

71

Exochomus undulatus Weise, 1878

+

+

+

-

+

11

Chilocorus bipustulatus Linnaeus, 1758

+

+

-

-

-

12

Tyttaspis sedecimpuntata (Linnaeus, 1758)

-

+

-

-

-

2

Table 1. Distribution and total number of Coccinellids species collected in sampling localities.

Among them, Oenopia conglobata was eudominant
in all sites under study, as it numbered 386 speci-
mens, which made up 34% of all individuals. The
second most abundant species was H. variegata
(2 1 %) and the next C. septempunctata (17%); Shorab
showed the maximum species richness (21 species)
and Veisian was the second one (13 species). As far
as concerns the species abundance, C. septempunc-

tata had maximum abundance in Veisian region and
H. variegata in Sarabdoreh region. All percentages
are listed in Table 2. Diversity and reciprocal indices
in different places were calculated by Simpson’s
index. This index considers both the number of
species and the distribution of individuals among
species. Simpson diversity and reciprocal indices of
all examined places are reported in Table 3.

6

Amir Biranvand et alii

Regions

Species

Shorab

Veisian

Sarab-

doreh

Teshkan

Kashkan

Coccinella septempunctata Linnaeus, 1758

12.7

29.3

13.2

15.8

20.7

Hippodamia variegata (Goeze, 1777)

7.9

20.5

35.6

35.5

8.5

Adalia bipunctata (Linnaeus, 1758)

3.2

-

3.5

1.9

-

Adalia decimpunctata (Linnaeus, 1758)

1.5

2.1

5.4

3.8

6.4

Oenopia conglobata (Linnaeus, 1758)

24.7

21.9

15.9

25

53.5

Oenopia oncina (Olivier, 1808)

15.6

-

-

-

-

Psyllobora vigintidupanctata (Linnaeus, 1758)

0.38

0.36

-

-

-

Propylea quatuordecimpunctata (Linnaeus, 1758)

10.8

-

-

-

-

Scymnus syriacus (Marseul, 1868)

2.3

7.3

7.3

10

3.5

Scymnus apetzi Mulsant, 1 846

1.7

2.5

4.6

3.8

1.4

Scymnus araraticus Iablokoff-Khnzorian, 1969

1.5

—

-

-

-

Scymnus pallipes Mulsant, 1 850

1.5

-

-

-

-

Scymnus nubilus Mulsant 1850

0.77

-

-

-

-

Stethorus punctillum Weise, 1891

0.77

-

-

-

-

Stethorus gilvifrons (Mulsant, 1850)

2.7

2.5

3.5

3.8

1.4

Exochomus melanocephalus (Zoubkoff, 1833)

0.77

-

-

-

-

Exochomus nigromaculatus (Goeze, 1777)

1.3

1

-

-

-

Exochomus quadripustulatus (Linnaeus, 1758)

2.9

6.5

-

-

-

Exochomus pubescens Kiister, 1 848

0.96

-

1.6

-

-

Exochomus undulatus Weise, 1878

3.6

3.6

9.2

-

5.7

Chilocorus bipustulatus Linnaeus, 1758

1.7

1.09

-

-

-

Tyttaspis sedecimpuntata (Linnaeus, 1758)

-

0.73

-

-

-

Table 2. Abundance percentage of Coccinellids in sampling localities.

Regions of sampling

Index of diversity

Shorab

Veisian

Sarabdoreh

Teshkan

Kashkan

Simpsons diversity index ( 1-D)

0.90

0.81

0.81

0.77

0.67

Simpsons reciprocal index(l/D)

10.01

5.36

5.29

4.42

3.39

Table 3. Simpsons diversity indices of Coccinellids in examined regions.

Diversity and distribution of Coccinellidae (Coleoptera) in Lorestan Province, Iran

7

Regions of sampling

Shorab

Veisian

Sarabdoreh

Teshkan

Kashkan

Shorab

1

0.7

0.64

0.55

0.55

Veisian

0.69

1

0.69

0.6

0.76

Sarabdoreh

0.64

0.69

1

0.87

0.89

Teshkan

0.54

0.6

0.87

1

0.87

Kashkan

0.55

0.76

0.89

0.87

1

Table 4. Similarity indices of ladybird species in examined regions of sampling.

As shown, the highest and lowest values were
obtained in Shorab (0.90) and Kashkan (0.67) re-
gions, respectively (Table 3). The Minimum value
of similarity index (0.54) was found comparing
Teshkan and Shorab; and the maximum value
(0.89) was between Sarabdoreh and Kashkan
(Table 4).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

A previous similar survey of predatory Cocci-
nellid beetles at Lorestan provinces (Iran) was con-
ducted by Jafari & Kamali (2007). Present results
(Table 1) confirm that Coccinellids are the most im-
portant group among crops and orchards predators
in Iran (Modarres-Awal, 1997). Farahbakhsh (1961)
reported the dominance of P. quatrodecimpunctata.
According to Hodek & Honek (1996) and Majerus
& Majerus (1996), C. septempunctata is the pronest
to a sudden population growth as its number largely
depends on the number of aphids. Generally, Coc-
cinellids are density-dependent predators, i.e. their
number rises as the prey number increases (Dixon,
2000). All species, belonging to the Scymnini, can
be potential predators of pseudococcids, at least in
the adult stage (Magro, 1992). Most of these species
were recorded in Iran on a variety of plants by Bo-
rumand (2000). Jafari (2011) reported that H. va-
riegata had rapidly established itself throughout the
west of Iran (Lorestan Provinces) thanks to a suc-
cessful feeding. The present work shows the ex-
treme richness of the Coccinellid fauna in Lorestan.
Dixon (2000) believes that the number of species
largely depends on the number of preys. For exam-
ple, in September most of pests yield great popula-

tions, thus the amount of feeding for Coccinellids
increases too. The predaceous role of Coccinellids
benefits from the maintenance of field diversity,
which supports the population of prey such as
aphids, thrips and mites (Iperti, 1999). Ladybird
beetles migrate between various crop fields throu-
ghout the season depending upon the availability of
prey and habitat disturbance (Maredia et al., 1992).
We hope that this inventory of Coccinellid species
in the Lorestan areas will contribue to improve In-
tegrated Pest Management in crops and orchards in
Iran by reducing or selecting pesticides for less im-
pact on animal and botanical species and, above all,
rearing and releasing those ladybird species which
are recognized to be effective in pest control.

REFERENCES

Beheim Agarwala B.K. & Dixon A.F.G., 1992. Labora-
tory study of cannibalism and interspecific predation
in ladybirds. Ecological Entomology, 17: 303-330.
Andersen A.N., 1999. My bioindicator or yours? Ma-
king the selection. Journal of Insect Conservation,
3: 61-64.

Borumand H., 2000. Insect of Iran: The List of Coleoptera
in the Insect Collection of Plant Pests & Disesases
Research Institute, Coleoptera: Cucujoidea: Coc-
cinellidae, 44 pp.

Djavanishir K., 1976. Atlas of woody plants of Iran.
National Society for the Conservation of Natural
Resources and Human Environment, 84 pp.

Dixon A.F.G., 2000. Insect predator-prey dynamics lady
birds beetles and biological control. University Press,
New York, 257 pp.

Farahbakhsh G., 1961. A Checklist of economically im-
portant insects and other enemies of plants and agri-

8

Amir Biranvand et alii

cultural products in Iran. Department of Plant Pro-
tection Ministry of Agriculture Teheran, 153 pp.

Hippa H., Kepeken S.D. & Laine T., 1978. On the
feeding biology of Coccinella hieroglyphica L.
(Coleoptera, Coccinellidae). Reports from the Kevo
Subarctic Research. Station, 14: 18-20.

Hodek I. & Honek A., 1996. Ecology of Coccinellidae.
Kluwer Academic Publisher, Dordrecht, 464 pp.

Iperti G., 1999. Biodiversity of Predaceous coccinellidae
in relation to bioindication and economic importance.
Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 74: 323—
342.

Jafari R., 2011. Biology of Hippodamia variegata
(Goeze) (Coleopetra: Coccinellidae), on Aphis fabae
scopoli (Hemiptera: Aphididae). Journal of Plant
Protection Research, 51:190-194.

Jafari R. & Kamali K., 2007. Faunistic study of ladybird
in Lorestan province and report of new records in
Iran. New Finding in Agriculture, 1: 349-359.

Kring T.J., Gilstrap F.E. & G. J. Michels G.J. Jr.,
1985. Role of indigenous coccinellid in regulating
green bugs (Homoptera: Aphididae) on Texas grain
sorghum. Journal of Economic Entomology, 78: 269-
273.

Magro A., 1992. Os Coccinelideos na luta biologica con-
tra os Pseudococcideos associados a citrinos. Disser-

tagao de Mestrado em Protecgao Integrada, ISA-
UTL, Lisboa, 198 pp.

Magurran A.E., 1988. Ecological Diversity and its mea-
surement. Chapman and Hall, London, 179 pp.

Majerus M. & Kearns P., 1989. Ladybirds. Rechmond
Publishing, Slough, 101 pp.

Majerus M.E.N. & Majerus T.M. O., 1996. Ladybird pop-
ulation explosions. British Journal of Entomology
and Natural History, 9: 65-76.

Maredia K.M., Gage S.H., Landis D.A. & Scriber J.M.,
1992. Habitat use patterns by the seven spotted lady
beetle (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) in a diverse agri-
cultural landscape. Biological Control, 2: 159-65.

Modarres-Awal M., 1997. List of agricultural pests and
their natural enemies in Iran. Mashhad Ferdowsi Uni-
versity Press, 429 pp.

Skaife S.H., 1979. African Insect Life. Struik Publishers,
Cape Town, 279 pp.

Southwood T.R.E. & Henderson P.A., 2000. Ecological
Methods. Chapman & Hall, New York, 575 pp.

Vandenberg N.J., 2002. Coccinellidae Latreille 1807. In:
Arnett R.H. Jr., Thomas M.C., Skelley P.E. & Frank
J.H., 2002. American Beetles. Volume 2. Polyphaga:
Scarabaeoidea trough Curculionoidea. CRC Press,
Boca Raton, pp. 371-389.

Biodiversity Journal, 2014, 5 (1): 9-18

The marine fossils malacofauna in a Plio-Pleistocene section
from Vallin Buio (Livorno, Italy)

Alessandro Ciampalini 1 , Maurizio Forli 2 *, Andrea Guerrini 1 , Franco Sammartino 1

1 G r u p p o Archeologico e Paleontologico Livornese, M useo di Storia Naturale del Mediterraneo, Via Roma, 234 - 57127 Livorno,
Italy; e-mail: fsammartino@ alice.it

"Societa Italian a di Malacologia, Via Galcianese, 20H - 59100 Prato, Italy; e-mail: info@ dodoline. eu
Corresponding author

ABSTRACT In the present paper the occurrence of marine fossil malacofauna in a Plio-Pleistocenic section

from Vallin Buio (surroundings of Livorno) is described. Three different mollusc associations
are present. The oldest one is typical of the Italian Lower Pliocene, the other two, are charac-
teristic of the Upper Pleistocene fauna. Specimens, sometime poorly preserved, are not nume-
rous for each section, but all the identified species are compatible with the respective fossil
associations. The fossil malacofauna in the calcarenitic level referred to the Upper Pleistocene
shows a remarkable affinity with the biotic component of the pOS idoilic tlllfl biocenosis.

KEY WORDS Pliocene; Upper Pleistocene; molluscs; posidonietum;Vallin Buio; Livorno.

Received 13.12.2013; accepted 19.01.2014; printed 30.03.2014

INTRODUCTION

In the present paper th e o c currenc e o f a m arin e
fossil malacofauna, detected in 1 999 by two of the
authors (AC and M F), in a Plio-Pleistocenic section
in Vallin Buio (C isternino), in the surroundings of
Livorno, is described.

The most interesting level in limestone, inf ring-
ing on the underlying Pliocenic one, includes a
poorly preserved malacofauna that, how ever, shows
a strong affinity with the mollusk community of the
current biocenosis of the marine ecosystem called

“Posidonieto”, Posidonietum oceanicae (Funk,
1 927) M olinier, 1 9 5 8.

The study in detail o f the malacofauna from Cis-
ternino (Livorno) was previously performed by
B o g i & Cauli (1997) and Cauli& Bogi (1997-98),
limited to an outcrop of Pliocene sediments, the
same as those occur ring in the lower part of the sec-

tion, outcropping about a kilometer south-east from
Vallin Buio. Additional data were taken from re-
ports of the IX meeting of the Italian Palaeonto-
logical Society including several contributions on
the eastward malacofauna occurring, on the so-
called "Sezione degli Archi", with layers from the
Upper Miocene to the Middle Pleistocene (Bossio
et al., 198 1).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The la rg e s t molluscs were collected manually in
the various levels of the section, while, by sieving
approximately 5 dm 3 of the reddish sand inter-
spersed with and included within the limestone,
some species smaller in size have been identified;
the poor state of conservation of this finer fraction
allowed us to find only a few specimens.

10

Alessandro Ciampalini et alii

ABBREVIATIONS. AC = A. Ciampalini; d =
maximum diameter; exx = exem plares; h = height;
1 = width; m asl = meters above sea level; MF = M .
Forli. For cartography and acronyms used in the
textwe referred to the Geological Map of Tuscany,
Scale 1:1 0,000 (CARG project).

Geological setting

The peculiarity of the geological section under
study, outcropping over a cliff near Vallin Buio
(Livorno), is to have the Upper Pleistocene sedi-
ments resting in contact with those of the Pliocene
without any other intermediate Pleistocenic layer.
The section is located along the provincial road of
“Sorgenti” on the right of “Rio Valle Lunga”; this
section was highlighted as a result of an excava-
tion for the construction of the road, in the direc-
tion of the Ugione stream, 43°34'05'' N
10°2 1'0 6"E, 8 m asl (Fig. 1).

The section develops with a maximum thickness
of about 3 meters and a length of 20/30 meters de-
grading in both directions. Currently it is in a poor
state of preservation. Its appearance has been mod-
ified by some small landslides which prevented the
observation in minute detail of the reciprocal ar-
rangement between Pliocene limestone and clay,
even if it is still possible to roughly reconstruct the
original arrangement of the overlying strata.

The levels of interest, not mapped in the Geo-
logical Map of Tuscany 1:10,000 (CARG project)
because of their small thickness, present to the bed
a layer of about 1 m eter attrib u ted to th e form atio n

Figure 1. Study area from Geological Map of Tuscany,
Scale 1:1 0,000 (CARG Project).

of the Blue Clay (FA A = p of the geological map
1:25,000 of Livorno Province) of the marine envi-
ron m e n t, fro m neritic to upper bathyal and chrono-
logically attributed to the Pliocene (Barsotti et al.,
1 974), and to the roof a layer of about 1 00-1 30 cm
thick represented by the Red Sands of Donoratico
(QSD = former q 9 of the 1:2 5,0 0 0 map, cf. Sands
of Ardenza), that may be referred to a continental
environment (aeolian, colluvial and of alluvial
plain) attributable to the Upper Pleistocene.

In the sands of Donoratico, on the terrace of
Livorno and also nearby Vallin Buio, Ajaccia,
Lupinaio, and Campacci (Sam martin o, 1989;
Ciampalini & Sammartino, 2007) were found
some Middle-Paleolithic artifacts that confirm
the attribution of the summit sands of the section
to the Sands of Ardenza (Malatesta, 1940). The
middle layer, about 80-100 cm thick, which lies
in transgression on blue clay (FAA) and consists
of a calcarenite with many bioclasts, remnants of
marine gastropods and bivalves and few pebbles,
is attributable lithologically to the “Pan china”
layer (see Castiglion cello Calcarenites Formation
cartography 1:25,000) (QCP = q g ) .

Malatesta (1 942) described small outcrops of
the “Pan chin a” formation to the east of Livorno,
near the Cigna little bridge, at the “Fornaci
Anelli”, at Porca recce, in “Santo Stefano ai Lupi”
and also in the area of Cisternino. The outcrop was
previously studied by the stratigraphic standpoint
by one of the authors (Ciampalini, 2002) and, at
present, we refer to this work because now the
exposure is no longer visible with the initial defi-
nition. The succession showed above the subs tr ate
consisting of blue clay slightly altered and abun-
dant carbonate nodules, a level of marine cal-
carenites (maximum thickness of 100 cm) fol-
lowed by a layer of polygenic gravel in a reddish
matrix here and there with clastic rocks (maximum
diameter 2-3 cm) of 30/40 cm, and finally,in likely
continuity, a layer with a max thickness of 100-
130 cm formed by reddish sands, presumably from
an ancient dune (Fig. 2).

RESULTS

In the upper part of the layer with a calcar enitic
base only two species of gastropods and two of bi-
valves were found (Table 1), with well-preserved

The marine fossils malacofauna in a Plio-Pleistocene section from Vallin Buio (Livorno, Italy)

1 1

specimens (showing original colors). However, all
of them agree with a single depositional facies, re-
lating to a brackish environment with se d ini e n ta tio n
of fine sand. These specimens were taken just
below the polygenic gravels (see section of Vallin
Buio in figure 2). These molluscs are to be consid-
ered a little more recent than those present within
the calcarenite (Figs. 3 — 10).

Mostfossils come front the calcarenite and com-
pressed sands either included within or filling the
cavities (Table 2). The quality of preservation is very
poor because the shells are often eroded and frag-
mented. This is partly due to the softening of the
shell because of water percolating from the upper
layer and partly to the mode of fo s siliz atio n itself.

However, even if battered, the species can be
identified. There are three P o ly p lac o p h o r a , thirty-
five gastropods, thirty bivalves and two Scaphopoda;
among gastropods the most abundant are CcvituiWTl
vulgatum Bruguiere, 1792 , Tricolia speciosa
(M iihlfeld, 1 8 2 4 ), Bolma rUgOSCl (L in n ae u s, 1 7 5 8 )
with other species refer able to the same type of en -
vironment, i.e . Posidonia prairies (Peres & Picard,
1964; Barsotti et al., 1974).

Among B iv a lv ia , re m a in s of Glycymevis gfycy-
meris (Linnaeus, 1758) are the most abundant with
forty valves and a complete specimen, though
small in size, about 3 cm, followed by CHcilTlclCQ.
gallina (Linnaeus, 1758) with eighteen shells,
small compared to the average size of the species,
which suggests a selective post-mortem transport,
since all the bivalves examined are more or less of
the same siz e .

The only remains that seem to be in situ are
those of Spondylus gaederopus (Linnaeus, 1 7 5 8 ) in-
cluded within the limestone but not in the sands in-
side the cavities. The biggest one, although
incomplete, is over 7 cm tall, front the apex to the
opposite edge of the shell. In the absence of a com-
plete paleo-ecological study, due to the lack of sam -
ples and subsequent counts of specimens carried out
properly, it can reasonably be assumed that mol-
luscs occurring in this level lived in a m arine envi-
ronment of sandy bottom alternating to or near to
Posidonia prairies, the so-called “ p o s id o n ie ti”
(Figs. 11-42) typical of the in fr a litto r a 1, which is
also confirmed by the presence o f P o lip lac o p h o r a
that fo r the upper Pleistocene sediments of the s u r-
roun dings of Livorno, are known exclusively from
this location (Dell'Angelo et al., 200 1 ).

S. Stefa no ai Lupi section

1 m

1

ill

Currant ceil - carry-over

f ] |1 [ 1 1 1 f Profil of alteration

I - Blue days Formation
)| - Monttna Formation
HI - Cores Formation

, Marine molluscs
3 Brackish molluscs
Land molluscs
* Mouslenan industry

IV - Cssliglionoello Catcareniles

( panchina)

V - Oonoratlco Sands

(Ardenza Sands)

T r J 1 ' f r-ri-

a S G

Figure 2. Stratigraphic columns of the sections of “Vallin
Buio”, “Corea” (from Ciampalini et al., 2006), modified;
and of “Santo Stefano ai Lupi” (from Malatesta, 1940,
1 942), modified and updated.

Species

N. exx.

Level

GASTROPODA

Nassarius mutabilis

(L innaeus, 1 75 8 )

i

IV

Cyclope neritea

(L innaeus, 1 75 8 )

i

IV

B IV A LV IA

Cerastoderma glaucum
(Bruguiere, 1 7 89)

3

IV

Donax trunculus

Linnaeus, 1758

1

IV

Table 1. Listand amountof molluscs found in the upperpart
of the layer IV of the Vallin Buio section shown in figure 2.

In the lower part of the section, attributable to
the Lower Pliocene, eight species of Gastropoda,
three of Bivalvia and three of Scaphopoda were
recovered (Table 3). For a detailed discussion of the
Pliocene fauna see Bogi & Cauli (1 997) and Cauli

Alessandro Ciampalini et alii

1 2

Figures 3 , 4 . NciSSClriuS mUtabWs (Linnaeus, 1758) d = 1 4 m m h = 20 .5 mm. Figures 5,6. Cyclope neritea (Linnaeus, 1758)
d = 1 2 mm., h = 6 .3 mm.; Figures 7, 8. DonaX trUHCUluS (Linnaeus, 175 8) 1= 21 m m ., h = 1 3 mm. Figures 9, 10. Cerastoderma
glaUCUm (Bruguiere, 1798) 1=22.4 m m . , h = 2 1 mm.

& Bogi (1 997-98), who extensively described and
discussed the same malacofauna, coming from a
place at south-east of the small valley where the
outcrop described herein is lo c ated . A m o n g the species
found in Vallin Buio two not previously reported by
these authors are listed below (Figs. 43-59).

GASTROPODA Cuvier, 1795
PATELLOGASTROPODA L in d b erg , 1 9 8 6
LOTTIOIDEA Gray, 1840
LOTTIDAE Gray, 1840

Tectura Gray, 1847

Tectura virginea (O f. m uiier, 1 7 7 6 ) (Fig. 5 2 )

One specimen, of average siz e (3 mm . in le n g th ),
a little eroded with damaged margins. The species
is reported from the M iocene and currently lives on
muddy bo tto ms of th e in te rtid a 1 plan (C h irli, 2004).

CAENOGASTROPODA Cox, 1960
STROMBOIDEA Rafinesque, 1815
APORRHAIDAE Gray, 1850
Aporrhais da Costa, 1 7 7 8

Aporrhais peralata (Sacco, i 893 ) (Figs. 45-47)

One specimen of average size ( d = 8.5 m m . ; h =
17.3 mm.) with broken digit ends, but, overall, the
shell is definitely recognizable. The species is re-
ported for various locations of Central and Northen
Italy in deep Pliocenic clay sediments (Brunetti &
Forli, 20 13).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The fossil molluscs of the Pliocenic sediments
are compatible with those listed and described by

The marine fossils malacofauna in a Plio-Pleistocene section from Vallin Buio (Livorno, Italy)

1 3

Species

N.

exx.

Level

POLYPLACOPHORA

1

Lepidopleurus cajetanus (p o n, 1 1 9 1 )

1 0

IV

2

Chiton olivaceUS Spengler, 1797

1

IV

3

Acantliochitonafascicularis (Linnaeus, 1 767 )

1

IV

GASTROPODA

1

Tectura virginea (0 .f. m uiier, 1 7 76)

3

IV

2

Dioclora graeca { Linnaeus, 1 75 8 )

2

IV

3

Gibbula ardens {\on Saiis, 1793 )

1

IV

4

Jujubinus esasperatus Pennant, 1777

7

IV

5

Clanculus cruciatus (Linnaeus, 1758)

2

IV

6

Clanculus jussieui (Payraudeau, 1 826)

2

IV

7

Calliostoma sp.

2

IV

8

Bolma rugosa {Linnaeus, 1 75 8 )

5

IV

9

Homalopoma sanguineum (Linnaeus, 1 75 8)

1

IV

10

Tricolia pullus (Linnaeus, 1758)

42

IV

11

Tricolia tenuis (Michaud, 1829)

14

IV

12

Tricolia speciosa ( m u h 1 f e 1 d , 1824)

7

IV

13

Smaragdia viridis (Linnaeus, 1 7 5 8 )

1

IV

14

Bittium reticulatum (da Costa, 1778 )

28

IV

15

Cerithium vulgatum Bruguiere, 1792

1 6

IV

16

Monophorus sp.

6

IV

17

Rissoa sp.

1

IV

18

Alvania cimex (Linnaeus, 1758)

1

IV

19

Alvania discors ( a lian , 1 8 1 8 )

9

IV

20

Alvania geryonia { Nardo, 1 8 4 7 )

1

IV

21

Alvania mamillata r is s 0 , 1 8 2 6

4

IV

22

Crisilla semis triata (Montagu, 1 8 0 8 )

1

IV

23

Caecum trachea (Montagu, 1 8 0 3 )

2

IV

24

Vermetus triquetrus Bivona Ant., 1 8 3 2

1

IV

25

Calyptraea chine nsis (Payraudeau, 1826)

1

IV

26

Euspira guilleminii (Linnaeus, 1 75 8 )

1

IV

27

Hexaplex trunculus (Linnaeus, 1 75 8 )

1

IV

28

Columbella rustica (Linnaeus, 17 5 8)

1

IV

29

Euthria cornea (Linnaeus, 1758)

1

IV

30

Chauvetia brunnea (Donovan, 1804)

1

IV

31

Cy elope pellucida r i s s o , 1 8 2 6

1

IV

32

Conus ventricosus Gmeiin, 1791

5

IV

33

Mange lia sp.

1

IV

34

Turbonilla rufa (P h nip pi, 1 8 3 6 )

1

IV

Species

N.

exx.

Level

35

Turbonilla pusilla (Philippi, 1 844)

1

IV

BIYALVIA

1

NllCula nucleus {Linnaeus, 1 75 8 )

2

IV

2

Saccella commutata (Philippi, 1 8 44 )

1

IV

3

Area noae (Linnaeus, 17 5 8)

1

IV

4

Barbatia barbata (Linnaeus, 1 7 5 8 )

6

IV

5

Barbatia clathrata (Defrance, 1 8 1 6 )

2

IV

6

Striarca lactea (Linnaeus, 1758)

1

IV

7

Glycymeris glycymeris (Linnaeus, 1758 )

47

IV

8

Glycymeris insubrica (Brocchi, 1 8 1 4 )

1 1

IV

9

Limopsis c f . aurita (Brocchi, 1814)

1

IV

10

Cardita calyculata (Linnaeus, 1758 )

4

IV

11

Goodallia triangularis (Montagu, 1 8 0 3 )

1 1

IV

12

Flexopecten flexuosus (P 0 ii, 1795 )

2

IV

13

Spondylus gaederopus (Linnaeus, 1758)

3

IV

14

Lima lima (Linnaeus, 1 7 5 8 )

6

IV

15

Anomia ephippium (Linnaeus, 1758)

1

IV

16

Ostrea Stentina Payraudeau, 1826

1

IV

17

Ctena decussata (Costa o .g ., 1 8 2 9 )

1

IV

18

Myrtea spinifera (Montagu, 1 8 0 3 )

1

IV

19

Lucinella divaricata (Linnaeus, 1758 )

1 5

IV

20

Chama gryphoicles (Linnaeus, 1758)

1 1

IV

21

Angulus tenuis (da costa, 1778 )

1

IV

22

Moerella donacina (Linnaeus, 1758 )

1

IV

23

Donax s p .

4

IV

24

Laevicardium eras sum (Gmeiin, 1 7 9 1 )

1

IV

25

Papillicardium papillosum (P 0 ii, 1 7 9 1 )

1 3

IV

26

Dosinia exoleta (Linnaeus, 1 75 8 )

4

IV

27

Chamelea gallina (Linnaeus, 1758 )

32

IV

28

Venus verrucosa (Linnaeus, 1758)

1 2

IV

29

Pitar rudis ( p 0 ii, 1795 )

1

IV

30

Corbula gibba { oiivi, 1792 )

30

IV

31

Rocellaria dubia (Pennant, 1777 )

1

IV

SCAPHOPODA

1

Antalis vulgaris (da costa, 1 7 7 8 )

2

IV

2

Cadulus gibbus J e ffrey e s , 1883

1

IV

Table 2. List and amount of molluscs found in the lower
part of the layer IV of the Vallin Buio section shown in
fig ure 2 .

14

Alessandro Ciampalini et alii

Figures 11, 12. Roccllcivici dubia (Pennant, 1777)internal/externalmodell=32 m m h = 1 2 .5 mm. Figures 13, 14. ChttlTlclcCl
gallina (Linnaeus, 17 5 8) 1= 12. 4 mm. , h = 1 1 m m . Figures 15, 16. Dosillia exoleta (Linnaeus, 1 75 8 ) 1= 22 .4 m m „ h = 2 1 .7 mm.
Figure 17. FleXOpeCteU flexuosus (Poli, 1 795) 1= 1 4 m m ., h = 1 4 mm. Figure 18. Barbatia bcirbdta (Linnaeus, 1758) 1=26. 4
mm., h = 1 3 .5 mm. Figures 19,20. P ' OpUUcardium papillosum (Poli, 1791) 1= 1 1 .6 mm., h = 1 2 mm. Figures 21 , 22 . VenUS
verrucosa (Linnaeus, 1758) 1=24. 4 mm., h = 22.5 mm. Figures 23-25. Gfycymeris glycymeris (Linnaeus, 1758) 1= 33.3 mm.,
h = 3 3 .2 mm.; Figure 26. Lima lima (Linnaeus, 17 5 8) 1=27 mm., h = 20 mm. Figures 27, 28. Ostreola Stentina Payraudeau,
1826 1= 32.4 mm.,h=24.3 mm. Figure 29. SpondvluS gaederopUS (Linnaeus, 1758) 1=33 mm., h = 28.5 mm.

The marine fossils malacofauna in a Plio-Pleistocene section from Vallin Buio (Livorno, Italy)

15

Species

N.

exx.

Level

GASTROPODA

1

Tectura virginea to .f.m uiier, 1776 )

1

1

2

Turrit ella spirata (Brocchi, 1 8 1 4 )

4

1

3

Aporrhais peralata (Sacco, 1 8 9 3 )

1

1

4

Euspira helicina (Brocchi. 1 8 1 4 )

5

1

5

Nassarius cabrierensis (Fontannes, 1 878)

3

1

6

NaSSariuS italicUS (Mayer, 1 8 7 6 )

3

1

7

Turricula dim idiata (Brocchi, 1 8 1 4 )

2

1

8

Stenodrillia allionii (B eiiardi in

Seguenza, 1875)

1

1

BIVALVIA

1

Nucula piacentina Lamarck, 1 8 1 9

1

1

2

Bothy area cf philippiana (N y st, 1 8 4 8 )

2

1

3

Limopsis aurita (Brocchi, 1814)

1

1

SCAPHOPODA

1

Dentalium sp.

2

1

2

Dentalium sexangulum Gmeiin, 1791

3

1

3

Gadilina triquetra (Brocchi, 1 8 1 4 )

1

1

Cauli & Bogi (1997-98) who consider the malaco-
logical paleo-comm unities as characteristic of
muddy bottoms, cor responding to a transition zone
separating the c ire alitto ral and bathyal planes, dated
between the end of Zanclean and the beginning of
Piacenziano. Marine Mollusca in the formation of
the “Sandy Calcarenites of Castiglion cello” (com-
monly called "Pan china") now reported as QCP
(1:10,0 00 map, CARG project) is known in detail
from a study carried out in the dry dock of the
“Torre del Fanale” (Livorno) (Barsotti et al., 1974).

Table 3. List and amount of molluscs found in the Pliocenic
clays, level I of the Vallin Buio section shown in figure 2.

Figures 30, 31. Bolma TUgOSa (Linnaeus, 1758). Figure 32.
Cerithium vulgatum b ruguiere, 1792 . Figure 33 . Bittium
reticulatum (da Costa, 1 7 7 8 ) d = 3 mm.,h=ll mm. Figure 34.
Clanculus cruciatus (Linnaeus, 1758). Figures 35, 36.
Tricolia speciosa (Muhlfeld, 1824)d = 4 mm.,h = 7.3 mm. Fig-
ures 37, 3 8. Hexaplex trunculus (Linnaeus, 1 7 5 8 ); Figure
3 9 . Homalopoma sanguineum (Linnaeus, 1758) x4; Figure
40. Columbella rustic a { Linnaeus, 1 7 5 8 ). Figure 41,42.
Euspira guilleminii (Payraudeau. 1 8 26) d = 9 mm.,h = 6 mm.

16

Alessandro Ciampalini et alii

Figures 43, 44. StrenodrillcL allionii (B ellardi in Seguenza, 1 8 75 ), d = 7 mm.,h = 22 mm. Figures 4 5-47. AporrllClis peraldtCl
(Sacco, 1893)d=8,5 m m ., h = 1 7 ,3 mm. Figures 48, 49. NdSSdfillS itdliciAS (Mayer, 1876) d = 9,2 mm ., h = 18 mm. Figures 50,
5 1 . Limopsis aurita (B roc chi, 1 8 1 4 ) 1=12 m m h= 1 3 m m . Figure 52 . Tectura virginea (O .F. M ttller, 1 776); F ig ure s 5 3, 54.
Batfiyarca cf. philippiana (N yst, 1 8 4 8 ) 1= 1 0.3 mm., h=7 mm. Figures 5 5, 5 6. Turricula dimidiata (Brocchi, 1814) d = 1 0
mm . , h = 3 0 . 5 mm.; Figures 57,5 8. Euspira helicina (Brocchi, 1814) d=12.4 m m ., h = 1 2 mm. Figure 59, Turritella Spiratd
(Brocchi, 1814). 60. Dentdlium SeXdHgulum Gmelin, 1791 d = 7 mm.,h=38.5mm.

The marine fossils malacofauna in a Plio-Pleistocene section from Vallin Buio (Livorno, Italy)

1 7

The level is devoid of "warm guests", particularly
of those for ms currently found along the Senegalese
coasts, so it is possible that the layer belongs to
more advanced stages of the Tyrrhenian transgres-
sion s.s. dating from 125 ka (MIS 5 e) .

Actually, even in the dry dock of Livorno
(Barsotti et al., 1974) with the exception of the first
30-40 cm in which there were, among other forms,
species typical of tropical seas warmer than the
Mediterranean, in the rest of the section these
species disappeared, being replaced by a "normal”
fauna just as that found in the present study.

Malatesta (1942) reported that in the area of
San to Stefano ai Lupi at the base of the escarpment
(Gronda dei Lupi ) that divided the plain of Pisa
from the "Terrace" of Livorno, emerged a bench in
thin slabs of limestone with some rests of marine
fauna. Towards the top there was an increase in
sand fraction, and at the same time the fauna be-
came more and more scarce until it consisted of a
few brackish forms, with above all layers reddish
dune-sand. Bacci et al. (1 939) taking into account
data from surveys and field observations, suggested
the following reconstruction of the series (see also
Barsotti et al., 1 9 74; Dall'Antonia & Mazzanti,
200 1; Ciampalini, 2002), from the roof to the bed:
slightly clayey sand ending with a soil, very fine
reddish aeolian sand with evidence of stratification;
coarser reddish dune-sand; small cross-bedding
gravel, reddish sand with brackish fauna; bench
irregularly cemented or sand with calcareous gran-
ules and beach fauna ever more clayey towards the
base; continental clay; grey sand; and pebbles.

M alate s ta (in Bacci e t al., 1 939) c o n sid ered th e
layers at the base of the section as part of the
Tyrrhenian transgression with a continental level in-
tercalated, as confirmed by Barsotti et al. (1974) on
the basis of the excavation of the dry dock of the
“Torre del Fanale”, with sections showing the two
benches separated by a continental layer. However,
according to most recent studies, the layers below
the “Pan china” (Panchina I Auct.) might belong to
an intercalated cycle of the middle terminal Pleis-
tocene, da ting up to about 180 Ka (MIS 6 ), w ith flu -
vial gravel base separated by a surface of erosion
from the silty clays of the Lower Pleistocene
(Zanchetta et al., 2006; Ciampalini et al., in press).

In the Vallin Buio section the calcarenites with
molluscs rely on the underlying Pliocenic clay
sediments, showing sedimens at first of the

"Panchina" type and then sandy, first with coarse-
grained sedimentation and then thiner. Molluscs
shown in figures 3-10 are from the upper part of
this layer, immediately below the gravel and are
most likely to be referred to a cooling phase, with
more temperate climatic characteristics, dating to
approximately 100-80 ka (MIS 5 d-5 b ) .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to Dr. Marco M orelli,
Director of the Museum of Planetary Sciences
(Prato, Italy), for comments on the manuscript.

REFERENCES

BacciA., MalatestaA. & TongiorgiE., 1939. Diuna for-
mazione glaciale rissiana riscontrata a Livorno nei
sedimenti della fase costruttiva del ciclo tirreniano.
Atti della Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali:
Processi verbali, 48: 74-85.

Barsotti G., Federici P.R., Giannelli L., Mazzanti R.
& Salvatorini G., 1974. Studio del Quaternario
Livornese, con particolare riferimento alia stratigrafia
ed alle faune delle formazioni del Bacino di carenag-
gio della Torre del fanale. Memorie della Societa
Geologica Italiana, 1 3: 425-475.

Bogi C. & Cauli L ., 1 997. Due nuovi gasteropodi per
il Pliocene toscano. Bollettino M alac o lo g ic o , 33:
143-146.

Bossio A., Giannelli L., Mazzanti R., Mazzei R. &
Salvatorini G., 1981. Gli strati alti del Messiniano, il
passaggio M iocene-Pliocene e la sezione plio-pleis-
tocenica di Nugola nelle colli ne a NE dei Monti
Livornesi. IX Convegno S.P.I., Firenze-Pisa 3 -
8/9/1 98 1 , pp. 55-90.

Brunetti M.M. & Forli M., 2013. The genus ApOtrhciis
Da Costa, 1778 (GastropodaAporrhaidae) in the i t a 1 -
ian Plio-Pleistocene. Biodiversity Journal, 4: 183-
208 .

Cauli L. & Bogi C., 1997-98. La malacofauna pliocenica
del Cistern in o (Livorno). Quaderni del Museo di
Storia Naturale di Livorno, 15: 1-24.

Chirli C ., 2004. Malacofauna Pliocenica Toscana. Vol.
4°. Archaeogastropoda Thiele, 1925. Arti Grafiche
B M B , F iren ze , 113 p p .

Ciampalini A., 2002. Studio sul Quaternario Livornese
con particolare riferimento alia tra s g re s s io n e Ver-
siliana. Tesi inedita, Facolta SMNF, Universita di
Pisa, 172 pp.

Ciampalini A., C iu Hi L., Sarti G. & Zanchetta G., 2006.
Nuovi dati geologici del sottosuolo del “Terrazzo di

Alessandro Ciampalini et alii

i 8

Livorno”. Atti della Societa Toscana di Scienze
Naturali, Memorie, 111: 75-82.

Ciampalini A., Da Prato S., Catanzariti R., Colonese
A., Michelucci L. & Zanchetta G ., in press. Middle
Pleistocene continental Deposits in the subsurface of
Livorno area and their relative marine lower pleis-
tocenic substrate. Atti della Societa Toscana di
Scienze Naturali, Memorie.

CiampaliniA. & Sammartino F., 2007. Le industrie mu-
ster iane e le Sabbie di A rdenza (Livorno). Quaderni
del Museo di Storia Naturale di Livorno, 20: 27-46.

Dall'Antonia B. & Mazzanti R., 2001. G e o m o rfo lo g ia e
idrografia. In: (a cura di) Paglialunga S., Tombolo.
Territorio della Basilica di San Piero a Grado. Pisa,
Felici Editore, Pisa, 7-66.

Dell’Angelo B., Forli M. & Lombardi C., 2001. I Poly-
placophora p lio -p le is to c e n ic i della Toscana. Bollet-
tino M alac o lo g ic o , 36: 143-154.

Malatesta A., 1940. L'industria musteriana di Livorno.
Atti della Societa Italiana per il progresso delle
Scienze, 18: 367-370.

Malatesta A., 1 942. Le formazioni p le is to c e n ic h e del

Livornese.Atti della Societa Toscana di Scienze Nat-
urali, Memorie, 5 1: 145-206.

Molinier R., 1958. Etudes des biocenoses Marines du
Cap Corse. These Doct. Marseille.

Peres J.M . & Picard J., 1964. Nouveau manuel de bionomie
benthique de la M er M editerranee. Recueil des Travaux
de la Station marine d'Endoume, 31: 1-137.

Sammartino F., 1989. Ritrovam enti preistorici nel
Comune di Collesalvetti (Livorno). Atti della Societa
Toscana di Scienze Naturali, Memorie, Serie A, 96:
281-294.

Van Der Ben D., 1971. Les epiphytes des feuilles de
Posidonia oceanica D elile sur les cote frangaise de
la M editerranee. Memorie de l'lnstitut Royal des
Sciences Naturelles de Belgique, 168: 1-101.

Zanchetta G ., Beccatini R., Bonadonna F. P., Bossio A.,
Ciampalini A., Colonese A., Dall'Antonia B ., Fallick
A.E., Leone G., Marcolini F., Mariotti Lippi M. &
Michelucci, L ., 2006. Late Middle Pleistocene cool
non - marine mollusc and small mammal faunas from
Livorno (Italy). Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e
S tratigrafia, 1 1 2: 1 35- 1 55.

Biodiversity Journal, 2014, 5 (1): 19-24

Notes on the genus Carabus Linnaeus, 1758 (Coleoptera
Carabidae) of Mount Bing-La-Shan, Xifeng County, Liaoning
Province, Northeast China

Lin Lin 1 , Ivan Rapuzzi 2 *, Li Jingke 3 , Zhang Xueping 1 & Gao Meixiang 1

'Key Laboratory of remote sensing monitoring of geographic environment, College ofHeilongjiang Province. Harbin Normal Uni-
versity, Harbin, 1 50025, P.R . China.

2 Via Cialla 47, 33040 Prepotto (Udine), Italy; entail: info@ronchidicialla.it

3 P. O. Box 22, Vientiane, Laos; Harbin Normal University, Harbin. 150025, P.R. China
* C o rre sp o n d in g author

ABSTRACT The present work provides some preliminary data on the genus CcirClbllS Linnaeus, 1758 col-

lected from Mount Bing-La-Shan, Xifeng County, Liaoning Province, Northeast China. Thanks
to these studies, some species show a greater distribution than previously known. In these lo-
cations is reported a new population of CciVClbllS (CaVClbllS) xiliyCMensis D e uve et Li, 1 998.

KEY WORDS carabid beetles; CciVClbllS ; faunistic; China.

Received 30.1 2.20 1 4; accepted 21.01.2014; printed 30.03.20 14

INTRODUCTION

The CavabuS Linnaeus, 1 75 8 (Coleoptera Cara-
bidae) fauna in Northeastern China consists of two
main faunal elements, the E u ro -S ib erian and Ko-
rean. The majority of the species are of large dis-
tribution with many very local subspecies (Kratz,
1881; Breuning, 1932-1936; Beheim & Breuning,
1 943).

Only few endemic species, the endemics sub-
genera TeVQ,tOCQ.Va,bllS Semenov et Znojko, 1932
and Fulgenticavabus Deuve et Li, 1998 contribute
to the specificity of the fauna. M any taxa were de-
scribed in the last years (Deuve Th. & Mourzine,
1998; Imura, 1991; Deuve, 1994; Deuve & Li,
2000a, 2000b; Rapuzzi, 2007).

Two of the authors (Lin Lin and Li Jingke) had
the opportunity to investigate the Xifeng County in

the northeastern part of Liaoning Province, China,
bordering Jilin Province to the North and East.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The investigated area is a Mountain area
named Bing-La-Shan at the altitude between 700-
750 m, it is on the first mountain spurs East from
Dongbei Plains. CavabuS were collected using pit-
fall traps in a forest area during the period 15/18
July 2012. Pull data: M t.B in g -L a -S h an , alt. 700-
750 m, Liangquan Zhen, Xifeng County, Tieling
City, Liaoning Province, July 15-18, 2012.

The studied specimens are preserved in the col-
lection of one of the authors (I. Rapuzzi).

The adopted systematic order for the listed
species of the genus CavabuS is in accord with
Deuve (2012).

20

Lin Lin etalii

Figure 1. Study
area: Mount Bing-
La-Shan, Xifeng
County, Liaoning
Province, Northeast
China.

RESULTS

List of the species

Carabus ( Aulonocarabus ) rufinus rufinus

Beheim et B reuning, 1943 (Fig. 2)

This subspecies is widespread in a large part of
Liaoning Province and adjacent area of Jilin Prov-
ince till Changbai Shan (Li, 2000; Deuve & Li,
2000a; Deuve et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2013).

Carabus ( Scambocarabus) kruberi c ft. laobeiensis

Deuve etLi, 2000 (Fig. 3)

Only two females collected. The identification
of the specimens will be confirmed after examina-
tion of males.

Carabus ( Tomocarabus ) fraterculus neochinensis

Deuve etLi, 1998 (Fig. 4)

The subspecies is widespread from Liaoning to
Heilongjiang Provinces.

Carabus (Morpho carabus) wulffiusi dekraatzi

K raatz , 18 8 1 (Fig . 5 )

By the small size the collected specimens be-

long to the subspecies dekraatzi, this form is com-
mon and widespread in the N orth east C h in a (Deuve
et al., 2011).

Carabus ( Carabus ) manifestus guanmenshuanus

Imura, 1 9 9 1 (F ig . 6 )

The subspecies is known from many localities
from Liaoning Province and two from Jilin Prov-
ince (Deuve et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2013), the
new locality is inside the range of the subspecies.
The aedeagus in frontal and lateral views is figured
(Figs. 7, 8).

Carabus ( Carabus ) xiuyanensis c fr. xiuyanensis

Deuve etLi, 1998 (Fig. 9)

This species is very close to C. TYlClTlifeStUS
K raatz, 188 1 and C. Stemebergi Roeschke, 189 8
species group by the imago morphology but it has
a different shape of male aedeagus (Figs. 10, 11).
The typical form was described from Xiuyan Xian
and up to now is known only by the holotype male,
a second female specimen very probably belonging
to C. xiuyanensis is preserved in the collection of
one of the autors (I. Rapuzzi). The C. (C.) xiuya-
nensis kuandianicus Rapuzzi, 2007 is very well
separate by the uncinate apex of aedeagus.

Notes on the genus Carabus of Mount Bing-La-Shan, Xifeng County, Liaoning Province, Northeast China

2 1

Figure 2 . Carabus (Aulonocarabus) rufinus (28.5 mm). Figure 3. C. (Scambocarabus) kruberi cfr. laobeiensis ( 24.3 mm).
Figure 4. C. (Tomocarabus) fraterculus neochinensis ( 1 8 .7 mm). Figure 5 . C. (Morpho carabus) wulffiusi dekraatzi ( 20.1
mm). Figure 6. C. ( Carabus ) manifestus guanme ns huanus (2 2 mm). Figures 7, 8: idem, aedeagus in lateral (Fig. 7) and
frontal views (Fig. 8).

22

Lin Lin etalii

Figure 9. Cardbus ( Carabus ) xiuyanensis cfr. xiuyanensis ( 2 1 .8 mm); Figures 10, 11. Idem, aedeagus in frontal (Fig. 10)
and lateral views (Fig. 11). Figure 12. C. ( Acoptolabrus ) constricticollis frumiello ides (24.2 mm). Figure 13. C. ( Copto -
labrus) jankowskii pseudosobaekensis (3 5 .6 mm). Figure 14. C. ( Coptolabrus ) smaragdinus cfr. furumiellus (32 .7 mm). Fi-
gure is. C. ( Terato carabus) azrael mizunumaianus (2 1 mm).

Notes on the genus Carabus of Mount Bing-La-Shan, Xifeng County, Liaoning Province, Northeast China

23

It was described on a single male specimen from
Kuandian Xian area and up to now is known only
by the holotype. The species seems to be very rare
and endemic from Liaoning Province. The new data
are very interesting and after the examination of the
collected specimen we identify it as a form very
close to the typical one.

Carabus ( Acoptolabrus ) constricticollis frumiel-

loides Deuve, 1 9 97 (Fig. 12)

The collected specimens of C. (A.) COYlStvicticol-
lis Kraatz, 1886 are with blue elytra and green
pronotum , by this very particular coloration they
belong to the subspecies furumielloides described
from Bexi Xian (Deuve, 1997) and known from
several localities in the Southeast Liaoning:
Fengcheng Xian, Kuandian Xian, Xinbin Xian and
Huaiyin Xian (Deuve & Li, 2000b), the new local-
ity seems to be the northernmost one. A population
with light blue shades elytra lives in Xiaoduling in
Jilin Province (Deuve et al., 2011).

Carabus ( Coptolabrus ) jankowskii pseu-

dosobaekensis Deuve et Li, 1 998 (Fig. 13)

The new locality is just in the middle between
the typical locality (Benxi Xian, Mount Guanmen
Shan, Liaoning) and the population from Jilin,
Tonghua Xian, Xiaoduling (Deuve et al., 2011).

Carabus ( Coptolabrus ) smaragdinus c f r. furumiel-

lus Deuve, 1 9 94 (Fig. 14)

The specimens are with very deep blu-violet
elytra and dark blue-green pronotum. They very
probably belong to a transition form between C.

smaragdinus furumiellus and C. smaragdinus

CyanelytrOU Deuve et Li, 2003 described and
known from Sou th west Jilin Province but are closer
to the first one by more elongate body and more
green pronotum .

Carabus ( Teratocarabus ) azrael mizunumaianus

Imura, 19 9 1 (F ig . 15)

The new locality is situated more to the North
West than the known localities in Liaoning Prov-
ince (Benxi Xian and Xinbin Xian) (Deuve & Li,
2000b).

CONCLUSIONS

The Carabus fauna from M t. Bing-La-Shan,
Xifeng County, Tieling City, Liaoning Province is
closely related to the Carabus fauna from Central
South Liaoning (Benxi, Xinbin and Fengcheng).
The distribution of several species, namely:

C. ( Teratocarabus ) azrael mizunumaianus, C.
i Acoptolabrus ) constricticollis frumielloides, and
C. ( Coptolabrus ) smaragdinus cfr. furumiellus

was enlarged to the North thanks to the present
investigation. The presence of a new population of
C. ( Carabus) xiuyanensis is the most interesting re-
sult of the present study.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was supported by a grant from the
National Science Foundation of China (No.
41371072; No. 4110 1049).

REFERENCES

Beheim D. & Breuning S., 1943. Neubeschreib ungen von
Caraboidea u. Revisionen an den v. Breuning'schen
Monograph ien von CcirClbuS , CciloSOmCl und
CeWgloSSUS (Kol.). Mitteilungen der MUnchner
entom ologischen Gesellschaft, 33: 1-25.

Breuning S., 1932-1936. Monographie der Gattung
Carabus L. Bestimmungs-Tabellen der europaischen
Coleopteren. Troppau, 1610 pp.

Deuve T., 1994. Noveaux taxons des genres CarabllS L .
et CychrilS F. de Chine (Coleoptera, Carabidae).
L am b illionea, 94: 456-468.

Deuve T., 1 997. Catalogue des Carabini et Cychrini de
Chine. Memoires de la Societe entom ologique de
France, 1: 1-236.

Deuve T., 2012. Une nouvelle classification du genre
Carabus L., 1 75 8. Liste Blumenthal 20 1 1 -20 1 2.
Assocation Magellanes,Andresy, 55 pp.

Deuve T. & Li J.K., 2000a. Diagnoses des trois nouveaux
CarabllS L. de la Chine, de la Coree et du Pakistan
(Coleoptera, Carabidae). Coleopteres, 6: 55-76.
Deuve T. & Li J.K., 2000b. Esquisse pour la connais-
sance du genre Carabus L. en Chine du Nord-Est
(Carabidae). L am b illion ea , 1 00: 502-530.

Deuve T., Li J.K. & Zhang X. P., 2011. Sur quelques
Carabinae du Nord-East de la Chine (Coleoptera,
Carabidae). Les C oleopteriste, 14: 55-61.

Deuve T. & Mourzine S., 1998. Noveaux CarabllS L . e t
CychrUS F. de la Chine, de la Siberie, du Vietnam et

24

Lin Lin etalii

de la Coree septentrionale (Coleoptera, Carabidae).
Coleopteres, 4: 1 49-1 68.

Kraatz G., 1881. Fiinf neue chinesische CcirubllS.

Deutsche entom ologische Z eitschrift, 25: 265-269.
Imura Y., 1991. Notes on carabid beetles (Coleoptera,
Carabidae) from East Liaoning, Northeast China.
Elytra, 1 9: 273-283.

Li J.K., 2000. La distribution de CdrClbuS COnaliculatUS
en Chine (Col. Carabidae). Le C oleopteriste, 3 8: 30.
Rapuzzi I., 2007. Descrizione di due nuovi taxa di

CarabllS L. del Nord Est della Cina (Coleoptera Ca-
rabidae). L am billionea, 107: 362-364

Zhang Xueping, Rapuzzi I., Gao M ., Li J. K., Vongkham-
pha M ., Lin L. & Huang L., 2013. The Carabini from
different altitudes of Changbai mountain, Jilin Prov-
ince, North-Eastern China (Coleoptera Carabidae
Carabinae). Biodiversity Journal, 4: 209-2 1 8.

Shilenkov V.G., 1996. Zhuzhelitsy roda CciTClbllS L.
Yuzhnoy Sibiri. Izdatel’stvo Irkutskogo Universiteta.
Irkutsk, 75 pp.

Biodiversity Journal, 2014, 5 (1): 25-3 8

Ultrasound recordings of some Orthoptera from Sardinia
(Italy)

Cesare Brizio & Filippo Maria Buzzetti

World Biodiversity Association, Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Verona, Lungadige Porta Vittoria, 9 - 37129 Verona. Italy
Corresponding author: cebrizi@tin.it

ABSTRACT During August 2013, Ultramic 250 by Dodotronic was field-tested for application in O r-

thopteran acoustic biodiversity studies. The songs of four species were recorded: UfOincnUS

brevicollis insularis Chopard, 1924 , Rhacocleis baccettii Gaivagni, 1976, Svercus palmeto-
rum palmetorum (Krauss, 1902) and OecanthllS dulcisonans Gorochov, 1993. The recording
campaign proved the viability of Ultramic 250 for field use and provided the opportunity to
assess the presence in South-Western Sardinia oftwo less documented species, SVCTCUS pcil-
metorum palmetorum (Krauss, 1902) and OecanthllS dulcisonans Gorochov, 1 993.

KEY WORDS Orthoptera; ultrasound; ecology; taxonomy.

Received 08.01.2014; accepted 12.02.2014; printed 30.03.20 14

INTRODUCTION

The Orthoptera fauna of Sardinia is relatively
well studied (A. Costa, 1 8 82, 1 8 83, 1 884, 1 8 85,
1 8 86; Nadig & Nadig, 1 9 3 4 ; G alvag ni, 197 6, 1978,
1 990; Gaivagni & Massa, 1 980; Ingrisch, 1 983;
Schmidt & Hermann, 2000; Gaivagni et al., 2007;
Massa, 2010; Fontana et al., 2011) and summarized
in Massa et al. (2012), with information on acoustic
emission to date limited to audible frequencies
(Massa et al., 2012).

A recent field expedition of the first author to
SW Sardinia, Flum inim aggiore (C arbonia-Iglesias
Province), resulted in the ultrasound recordings of
four species herein reported to improve bioacous-
tics knowledge on local Orthoptera.

Study of Orthoptera acoustic emission is impor-
tant for many reasons. The first and maybe most
commonly pursued purpose is taxonomy, being
songs useful in taxa discrimination. Biodiversity in-
ventories can also benefit from bioacoustics studies,
since many taxa that would be very elusive for di-
rect search, are more easily tracked and identified

by their song. Other aim is to investigate or better
understand behavioral implications in intraspecific
communication (reproductive behavior and rivalry
behavior), interspecific communication and preda-
tor avoidance. We therefore focus here on ultra-
sound emissions of the surveyed species.

Species identification from the ultrasound record-
ings, a paramount requirement in biodiversity as-
sessments, was achieved also with the support of
the above mentioned audio data from Massa et al.
(2012): the dissimilarity between acoustic and ul-
trasound recording technologies required special
cautions summarized in the following section.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

All the species reported were recorded within a
15 km range from Flum inim aggiore (Carbonia-
Iglesias Province, Sardinia, Italy) (Fig. 1). All the
audio and ultrasound m ate rial was obtained by field
recording during August 2013. Captured specimens
were not recorded in constrained conditions.

26

Cesare Brizio & Filippo Maria Buzzetti

O Genna Bogai, 549m asl (Rfiacocfeis baccettii, Uromemis b , in&ularis Q Portixeddu-Golfo del Leone Hotel. 30m asl {Srercus p. palmetorum)
O Huminlmaggiore. 30m asl (Oecamftus du/c/sonans)

Figure 1. Recording localities: Flum inirn aggiore, C arbonia-Iglesias Province, Sardinia, Italy.

Oscillograms, spectrograms and frequency anal-
ysis diagrams were produced from 250 kHz record-
ings by Adobe Audition 1.0 software or by the
equivalent Syntrillium Cool Edit Pro version.

Subsidiary stereo, 16 bit, 96kHz sampling fre-
quency recordings, needed to confirm species iden-
tification, were obtained by a self-built, stick
mounted, stereo microphone using Panasonic W M -
64 capsules (obtained from an Edirol R-09 digital
recorder), connected to a Zoom H 1 handheld digital
Micro-SD recorder, using its built-in software.

Monophonic, 16 bit, 250kHz sampling fre-
quency ultrasound recordings where obtained by a
Dodotronic Ultramic 250 microphone, connected to
an Asus Eee 1225B netbook PC, using SeaWave
software by CIBRA (Pavan, 1 998-20 1 1). Ultramic
is supported also by some tablet PC's (including
A n dro id -b a se d models): the use of a Windows-
based netbook was preferred for the authors' pre-
vious experience with the Windows audio analysis
software, installed on the same computer used for
recording. The Ultramic was set to medium gain via
its special internal set of two dip switches: in about
one year of field experience with this device, the
authors observed that the sensitivity of the alterna-

tive settings (low gain and high gain) is respectively
too low and too high to allow a correct representa-
tion of the spectral structure of Orthoptera song.

Optimal USB cable length, following several
previous tests summarized in figure 2, was found to
be under lm. The shortreach of the 45cm cable used
for the recordings didn’t allow stick-mounting, that
would otherwise be ideal to take the Ultramic as
near as possible to the recorded specimen, but in turn
eliminated the inherent noise that may be generated
by U ltram ic .W h en coupled with Asus 1 225B Net-
book, inherent noise displays a 1kHz fundamental
and unitary harm onics up to 12 - 15 kHz, w ith m a in
audible frequency at 2kHz and secondary audible
frequencies at 1kHz, 4 kHz and 7 kHz. From per-
sonal communications, the noise spectral pattern is
unaltered when Ultramic is coupled with different
recording platforms. The 1kHz fundamental was
found to be inherent to the Ultramic, and caused by
the USB polling/packet transmission on which the
communications between microphone and PC (or
tablet) are based, at 1000 cycles per second.

As long as the original scope of Ultramic is
recording inaudible Chiropteran sounds, noise in
the range of the unaided ear was deemed irrelevant.

Ultrasound recordings of some Orthoptera from Sardinia (Italy)

27

Figure 2. Effect of cable length in the mitigation ofU ltram ic
250 inherent noise. Vertical axis: sound pressure (dB), hori-
zontal axis: USB cable length (m), dashed line: typical U 1-
trarnic 250 noise floor under ideal field recording conditions
(-68 dB ref full scale level).

But when recording in the audible range, the whis-
tle at 2kHz becomes definitely undesirable, and the
authors investigated how the USB cable length af-
fects inherent noise, testing whether ferrite cores
along the cable can mitigate it. The tests allowed
to c o n c lu d e th at :

1 . Ferrite cores do not m itigate the noise, that orig-
inates in the very same device used for recording.

2. USB cable length ofless than lm eliminates
the noise bringing it below the level of the back-
ground noise present in any field recording.

It should be noted that the recordings obtained
by using the Ultramic 250, a device specifically de-
signed to collect ultrasonic frequencies, may not be
suitable for specific song pattern recognition by
memory and unaided ear, and thus may require
sonogram and spectrogram comparisons with ex-
isting audio-only recordings, a necessity observed
for example in the case of RJlClCOCleis bdCCettU G al-
vagni, 1976. Two potential problems, lack of pub-
lished ultrasound recordings and lack of audible
components in the Ultramic recording, may com-
plicate such a comparison. Indeed, the greatest ma-
jority of current scientific and popularization works
about bioacoustics investigated only the acoustic
range: available sonograms, spectrograms, fre-
quency analyses and descriptions aim ost in variably
refer to the audible frequency components.

When field-recording with Ultramic, it’s there-
fore advisable to adopt one or more of the following
c au tio n s :

• Visually / photographically identify the singing
specim en .

• Collect and identify a specimen.

• Record the same specimen both by Ultramic
and by audio microphones, capable of generating
audio files whose sonograms, spectrograms, fre-
quency analyses are easily comparable with existing
literature.

Subsidiary audio recordings should possibly be
taken at 96kHz sampling frequency, so that (depend-
ing on the dynamic response of the audio microphone
capsules) low ultrasonic frequency may get recorded,
allowing an easier bridging of the gap between audio
and ultrasound recordings. The first author perform ed
successful simultaneous recordings from the USB
and the audio ports of a portable computer, with audio
microphone and Ultramic coaxially mounted on the
same self-built stick and handle assembly, the draw-
back of this set being the impossibility to have both
microphones at optimal range from the subject
without saturating one of the recordings, and the noise
induced by the length of the USB cable required for
stick mounting. So, in the case of simultaneous
recordings, although the handling of two micro-
phones may prove feasible for a single operator, the
authors advise to operate in pairs by using two sepa-
rate portable digital recorders (one of them , obviously,
should be compatible with Ultramic, such as a porta-
ble PC or one of the supported tablet PC’s).

Whetherornotthe song is audible to the unaided
ear, audible components may not be reproduced in
the U ltram ic recording, depending on hardw are gain
settings, distance from the subject, song structure.

In particular, it’s quite commonplace for the O r-
thopterans with the sm allest stridulatory apparatus,
or the highest repetition frequencies, to reach well
into the ultrasonic domain, so that it’s a routine
practice to locate them with the aid of a bat detector,
as reported for example by Fontana et al. (2002).
For those species, sound pressure at ultrasonic fre-
quencies may be way higher than in the audible
range, with the practical consequence th at U ltram ic
250 may get saturated by the ultrasounds well be-
fore reaching the distance at which the audible com-
ponents may get recorded. Thus, the resulting
recording may be both inaudible and unfamiliar, up
to the point ofbeing useless without supporting ma-
terials such as visual identification, specimen col-
lection or simultaneous audio recording.

A nother distinction between audio and ultrasonic
recordings stems from the higher sampling frequen-
cies of the latter, that (even for the very same sound

28

Cesare Brizio & Filippo Maria Buzzetti

source) may result in a different shape of the sono-
gram, especially when the emission of the louder,
dominating ultrasonic elements is not perfectly syn-
chronous with the emission of the potentially audible
components. As a consequence, species recognition
by listening of an Ultramic recording may prove dif-
ficult even in the case of well-known, common
species’ songs. All these problems were present in
the case of R. baccettii , a low-Q species delivering
a high-pitched call dominated by ultrasounds,
whose sp ec tro gram doesn’t pro vide relevantdistinc-
tive features and whose Ultramic recording, barely
audible, didn’t bear any immediate resemblance to
the audio recording available for comparison.

To overcome the problem, some saturated
(above zero dB) Ultramic recordings were made on

purpose, to ease recognition by ear and comparison
with available reference material: although counter-
intuitive, this practice is in fact very useful. In all the
cases where ultrasonic pressure outweighs audible
frequencies’ pressure, after taking unsaturated
recordings one may decide to get as close to the sub-
ject as needed for grasping the audible components,
even though itmeans making the recording unusable
for analytical purposes. Just for the sake of ease of
recognition, saturation may be disregarded as long
as it occurs in the inaudible range. Obviously, only
regular, unsaturated recordings may be used for
analyses, while the saturated recording may even-
tually being low-pass filtered at 21 kHz, and ampli-
fied as needed. The preceding practical suggestions
outline the protocol illustrated in figure 3.

Figure 3. Suggested protocol to allow species identification form Ultramic recordings (flow chart).

Ultrasound recordings of some Orthoptera from Sardinia (Italy)

29

DISCUSSION

Terminology on Orthoptera song description may
not a lw ays be able to convey the sometimes comp lex
structure of sound emission. The song of all the taxa
here presented is described in Massa et al. (2012) for
their audible range. The authors therefore focused on
ultrasounds, frequency analysis and their description.
A useful distinction can be made between “high-Q”
and “low-Q” spectrum type (Eisner & Popov, 1978;
Montealegre & Morris, 1999). High-Q sound results
in one or more (e.g. Gryllidae) isolated peaks of fre-
quency, clearly distinguishable from the rest of the
frequency emission. On the other hand, “band” or
“low-Q ” of frequency sound gives a wide bandwidth
spectrogram, in which sometimes is possible to dis-
tinguish spectral subpeaks (see Table 1).

For what concerns audible sound description we
use terminology from Buzzetti & Barrientos (2011),
Moore (1989) and Ragge & Reynolds (1 998):

• Chirp (or phonatome, syllable): a short, clearly
definable sound, produced by a complete opening
and closing movements of the tegmina (or upward
and downward movements of hind legs).

• Zip: a series of pulses resulting in a short buzz,
usually shorter than a chirp.

• Trill: a long series of pulses, in which chirps
cannot be recognized.

• Echeme: most basic and simple assemble of
syllables.

List of the recorded species

Uromenus brevicollis insularis Chopard, 1923

Examined material. Italy, Sardinia, Genna
Bogai (C arbonia-Iglesias Province), N 39° 22'

2 5.4 2 8", E 8° 29’ 50.3 5 2", 54 9 m asl, 2 9 . V III.2 0 1 3 ,
1 m ale .

d ist rib ut ion. Uromenus brevicollis insularis is

distributed and locally common in Sardinia and
Corsica (its type locality).

Remarks. This calling song was recorded with
air temperatures in the range of 18°C, around mid-
night, at the Genna Bogai pass. The song could be
just faintly perceived by the unaided ear, but proved
very easy to locate by the earphones connected to
the digital audio recorder. Ultrasound recording
didn’t meet any particular difficulty, apart the usual
tendency to saturate when approaching to the spec-
imen. The male calling song (Fig. 4) consists of a
sequence of chirps that are indeed closing hemisyl-
lables. Each hemisyllable (Fig. 5) lasts for about
250-350ms and is composed of about 75-80 tooth-
impacts (Fig. 6) (Massa et al., 2012). Comparison
between frequency spectrum analysis (Fig. 7) and
time-frequency spectrogram (Fig. 8), shows that
most energy is emitted from 10 to 40 kHz, with
weaker ex te ns ion to less than 60 kHz. From 10 kHz,
the energy rapidly increases to the first maximum
peak at 13. 45 kHz. A min or energy area,with lower
peaks at 16.17, 18.52 and 19.37 kHz, is p re sen t b e-
tween 15 and 21.35 kHz. Then the energy increases
to the power peak at a frequency of 26.7 kHz. From
here, the energy emitted decreases to 41.25 kHz,
with peaks at 29.26, 31.86, 32.83, 33.87 and 35
kHz. A second band oflow energy emission is from
41.25 to 58.68 kHz, with a peak at 43.7 kHz

U. brevicollis insularis emits a very wide energy
band, reaching ultrasonic frequency, that results in
a mostly ultrasonic bandwidth with a ultrasonic
range (26.7 kHz) peak.

The song of U. brevicollis insularis recorded
and here presented, was emitted simultaneously

Species

Principal carrier
frequency in kHz

Spectrum type

Most relevant
energy emission

Singing rate

Sound unit

Uromenus brevicollis
insularis

1 2 to 4 1

Low-Q

Sonic

1 /sec

C hirp (closing

hem isy liable)

Rhacocleis baccettii

2 8 to 7 7

Low-Q

U itrasonic

3-4/sec

Z ip

Svercus palmetorum
palmetorum

6-12-18 -2 5-(3 2)

High-Q

Sonic

7-12/sec

Echeme

Oecanthus dulcisonans

3.5-7-10.5

High-Q

Sonic

40/sec

Syllable

Table 1. Main distinctive parameters in the song of the recorded species.

30

Cesare Brizio & Filippo Maria Buzzetti

Figures 4-7. Song of U VOTYWVIUS brevicolUs insularis. Figure 4: calling song. Figure 5: syllable (closing hem isyllable).

Figure 6: tooth-strokes. Figure 7: frequency analysis, FFT size 8192 bytes.

Ultrasound recordings of some Orthoptera from Sardinia (Italy)

3 1

Figure 8 . Tim e-frequency spectrogram of the simultaneous songs of UromenUS brevicollis insularis and Rhacocleis bdCCettU.

(Fig. 8) with another calling song by Rhacocleis
baccettii Galvagni, 1976. A very careful analysis of
both the graphs about frequency analysis and tem-
poral frequency spectrum was necessary to discrim-
inate the energy emission of the two taxa.
Nevertheless it has become clear (see R. baccettii
discussion) that these two species share the same
sound landscape, with little interference.

Rhacocleis baccettii g aivagni, 197 6

Exam in ed material. Italy, Sardinia, Genna Bogai
(C arbonia-Iglesias Province), N 39° 22' 25.42 8",
E 8° 29' 50.352", 549m asl., 29.VIII.20 1 3, 1 male.

Distribution. Endemic of Sardinia (type local-
ity: Monte Ferru, Oristano), is known for whole
Sardinia and is the commonest species of the genus
in this region .

Remarks. The song of this species varies
among populations from different localities (Massa
et al., 2012). The song here presented is very simi-
lar to what is presented in Massa etal. (2012) to be
the typical song of R. bdCCettU. The calling song of
R. baccettii (Fig. 9) is made of short zip repeated
in sequence at a rate of 3-4/sec. Each zip (Fig. 10)
consists of 30-40, up to 50 syllables of different in-
tensity. Frequency spectrum analysis (Fig. 11)
shows a low-Q band of energy emission between
28 and 77 kHz, with highest frequency at 50-51
kHz. The song of this species is therefore mostly
ultrasonic .

Figure 8 presents the two simultaneous songs of

U. brevicollis insularis and R. baccettii, clearly show-
ing striking differences between the sound emitted by
the tw o species. W hile UromenUS em its a long chirp
mostly sonic with main peak at 26 kHz, Rhacocleis
sings w ith very short buzz that are mostly ultrasonic.
The sound space is therefore shared, with no interfer-
ence since the sound structure, i.e. temporal parame-
ters and frequency em itted, is com pletely different in
the two species. Such differences are known to be
useful in specific mate recognition for sympatric or
syntopic species (Zefa et al., 2012), even in “cocktail
party” conditions (Siegert et al., 2013).

Svercus palmetorum palmetorum (Krauss, 1902)

Examined material. Italy, Sardinia, Flumin-
imaggiore (C arbonia-Iglesias Province), N 39° 26'
53.232" E 8° 25’30.18",30m asl, 8August2013, 1
m ale .

Distribution. Svercus palmetorum is distrib-
uted in North Africa and South West Asia, plus
Italy, Spain, Canary Is., Baleares Is., Corsica, Malta
and Cyprus. In Italy is known for few localities in
Sardinia, Sicily and Calabria.

Remarks. The song (Fig. 12) is composed by
sharp trills that can be continuous or interrupted by
a very short pause. Echemes (Figs. 13-14) consist
of groups of 7 to 9 syllables lasting on average 0.05
s in which the starting syllables are, each syllable
lasting on average 5 ms.

32

Cesare Brizio & Filippo Maria Buzzetti

Figures 9-11. Song of RhdCOcleis baccettii. Figure 9: calling song. Figure 10: sound unit. Fig u re 11: frequency analysis,

FFT size 8192 bytes.

Average silent time between echemes is 0.02 s.

Each trill may include bouts of 8-20 echemes,
or may be continuous (>100 echemes without in-
terruption). Song bouts are separated by intervals
that may last 0.10 s-0.30 s once the song is initi-
ated, or up to several seconds in the initial or final
phases of the song. 250 kHz ultrasound recordings,
besides displaying the same pattern described
above, allowed a deeper high frequency analysis
showing a very elaborated spectral pattern. The
strong harmonic structure of the song is revealed by
a close up of the spectral analysis in a window be-
tween -12 db and -90 db, and for frequencies up to
85 kHz. The pattern of regularly spaced harmonic

frequencies can be made out quite clearly. Opening
hemisyllable is weaker than closing one, emitting
very few energy at a frequency of about 25 kHz.
Frequency analysis of closing hemisyllable (Fig.
15) reveals the fundamental at 6.317 kHz, and three
harmonics at 12.2 kHz, the weakest at 18.82 kHz
and the last at 25.69 kHz. In the first part of each
closing hemisyllable an upper harmonic is present
at about 32.5 kHz, lasting for 1 msec.

Given the peculiarity of this species, we present
here some morphological characters (Figs. 17-19)
and the originaldescription (Fig. 18). In the figures
are clearly evident the diagnostic characters of this

Ultrasound recordings of some Orthoptera from Sardinia (Italy)

3 3

Figures 12-15. Song of SverCUS palmetOVUm palmetorum. Figures 12-13: calling song. Figure 14: sound unit. Figure 15:
frequency analysis, FFT size 8192 bytes. Figure 1 6 . S pectrogram of the 250kHz audio sample from S. paln'ietOfUH'1 palme -
to rum, “G olfo del Leone”, P ortix ed d u, 8 August 2013, 23°C.

34

Cesare Brizio & Filippo Maria Buzzetti

Figures 17-19. SverCUS palmetonim pcilinetoniin. Figure 1 7 : living male from Flum inim aggiore. Figure 18: male hind

tibia, scale 1 mm. Figure 19: male tegmina, scale 1 mm.

Ultrasound recordings of some Orthoptera from Sardinia (Italy)

35

■in. G. p&luetorum mu-, i*|ief.

Stnlura pur eu. Citium fatco-mgto. opaeu. Caput jntrvum, Hujtrrimmm,
uitidwiinmm, tinea iuttrotuinri flam, nrcutrta, nniju.*ltt el hntols* flaeit longi-
hulitmlibui iuirrditm uUntttreKtii/HS in ocripxie omnium, palpi n fluraceulibu*.
Ffmiultnn uif/rtim, fnlen-piihen em. 4mr<nfiq-pcc prntcspiie m mtV'ffimbns jiiliis nu;ris
hirlum. /".Vi tiro fHSca-uiifru, in Mlrtn/nr wjm uIhI tnnine juirunl iirrtiom, poiliee
mtnmtatn, sMtupti itpimli et elnsirpitti, Is rrrjni q*- rcml/ii unrlHhth* dutibun in-
Sfi’iiclit. »vw« ruiliuli uni- i it Jiiniwmnn. mutfrti htlrntli ptllucido renin aWMUiiJ
inter sc rnltle distant ihu* ioxtfHCtO. fne flbortime ret abdominis dimidimi
aefputnle* Fain fuleo-pvbacmle*, itutrn-pHo.u, anteriore* interdnm wrrhde
oehmtw-niarmfirnti. Frmorn ptixlieu oblitpie /iprti-.o/j^fifu, 7 ibitte
pastime is j ulrntptr mn mine x) i r >i in .11 it apier f ii/m'siTif f i tut* rrrjjin far ,

{nlcnrilwi thiabo* iuterut* netpir lentjir OripMitor rectus, frworAu* 1 i'V-

pot&iti* lovgfar

j

v'.'

I.ttnijihidn eorpori* - .

ey

1! —Vintm.

*

12 —lit IHJw,

Fif. II.
ffjyiwr

fill t a*Hm

„ praneiii

33 3 Ti

ta-3 „

„ elylrnrtttn ,

7 -r,- ft ,

t ft r-

n ifi.. V.

„ frtnm'itm port, .

7 •> *

* -&5 *

Ignite KUlr*

. ariportlori* , .

■

S Hi .

i wrreT 3.

In ilen, Fjilimcm'rrildmi non N(;»im» (*V A|tril), ToiLROurt >J, Mai).
Mr.aTer (Jl Mai*. lUMSMiitlinb .nwrli ill don nidi Ufjiilrviilea, vmi ilrn
IkwIi utli-len fiarlfnbrelm, fr*i hum ill wli wolfrni uod wi*f?pn whirr B»hnndij{kril
Ofonuix »rhwor *n fangeu. Dax o' *ir|'1 NachrrtitUg* mid AiienHs. Her Zirplon
ill miiraHtnd but uml rmuli flax riiurluc »grrri“ 1st iteatlich obgexMit, wil'd
nbrr oho* WnUrbrecHnng mcli wMrrholt mnl winiiprt lebhnft .in dm Ton wnw
(.'tends.

(! frontalis mid f;, ahjeiiw) Siui*"! in rtrSwc urn! Kirtmng wlir
ilnlldi, mm Will'll dnrrh die rti'IAngartKi Klj'trea. dvnn SjiitW'iiMil b-iifl q’
volLslindig entiii'lii'li ht, ilwrch die grgm das distnle Kndc »■ I'criktelto Wiia
nidi*] it, ion fl. frontalis iioch in»Vxciiid« , n? dnrrb die ntxrk«r Id it mid hir jjj-Ihj -
geni'ii JIarjwAlerii drs o', wrwir dir wi-il mn riiimnirr mtfrrutm Adrm d«-s
Aktflitllend vcrddumtcn. glasailig durrhwrlirlnrndcii SfilrnMilia »l«r Kill mi vmr-
mdiirdrsi Mil dirwr Bearhaffinhril Him lehskrrft diirfn> lirflrii-lil dir Irilfudlnl.
dfa Zirptonx in ZuxaininmliaDg -t-hm, dri* fill" die firS*sc diner Grille Kami
iiHsnelinumd laut i*t.

Figure 20. SverCUS pClhnetOHAin original description from

Krauss (1902).

taxon, i.e. hind tibia spinulation, wing venation pat-
tern and transverse line on the head.

Oecanthus dulcisonans Gorochov, 1993

Examined material. Italy, Sardinia, Flumin-
imaggiore (C arbonia-Iglesias Province), N 39°26’
53.2 32 " E 8° 25’ 3 0.18", 30m asl, 29 A ugust 20 1 3 ,
1 m ale .

d ist rib ut ion. Oecanthus dulcisonans is known

for Canary Is., Spain, Italy and Middle East. Very
few localities are known forSardinia.The presence
of this species in Sardinia was ascertained by
Schmidt & Herrmann (2000). It is still unreported
in the online version of the Fauna d ’Italia checklist,
but is reported in Massa et al. (2012) with the com-
ment “a few records from Sardinia, central Italy and
Sicily, the status in Italy is unclear”.

In fact, until Gorochov (1 993) description, O.
dulcisonans w asn’t separated from O. pellucens pel-
lucens (Scopoli, 1 763), so particular care was put
in the unequivocal identification of a specimen
from the locality where audio recording (both at 96
kHz and at 250 kHz) took place, namely the town

o f F lu m in im ag g io re (C arb o n ia -Ig le s ias province)
under the bridge of Riu Billittu, at an elevation of
80m. Temperature at the moment of recording was
2 2.1 °C. For a quick identification of O. dulclso-
nans, the acoustic and morphological guidelines by
Cordero et al. (2009) where applied to the audio
sample and to the collected specimen (Figs. 21, 22).
The morphological identification didn't pose any
doubt, even though the Sardinian specimen, with a
tegminal length of 13 mm and a femural length of
8 mm, although obviously larg er th an O. pellucens
pellucens, fell slightly below the measurements pro-
vided by Cordero et al. (2009) for tegmen length

(dulcisonans = 14.01 ± 0.26; pellucens = 10. 80 ±

0.14) ( 1 1 5 = 12.05; P < 0.000 1) and femur length

(dulcisonans = 8.60 ± 0.14; pellucens = i .60 ± 0.17)

( 1 1 4 = 4.06; P < 0.001) for specimens from Spain
and Tunisia.

Remarks. The calling song (Fig. 23) of O. dul-
ClSOnans consists of a melodious trill emitted al-
most continuously. Trills (Fig. 24) consist of
syllables emitted at average rate of 40/sec.

Frequency analysis (Fig. 25) shows high-Q
pitched emission of energy. Dominant frequency is
at 3.295 kHz, with harmonics at 6.286, 9.216 and
12.39 kHz, being therefore strictly in the audio
range. Enhanced contrast in tim e -freq u en c y spec-
trogram (Fig. 26) show very weak harmonics
above 13 kH z.

The song, although somehow different from the
data in Cordero et al. (2009) and in Massa et al.
(2012), remains clearly discernible from the repet-
itive but less continuous echemes in concurrent
songs by O. pellucens pellucens, also living in the
same area although not in the same environment.
Direct observation of the first author confirmed
that O. pellucens pellucens sings preferentially
from trees while O. dulcisonans seems to prefer
high grass such as the vegetation growing along
small stream s .

CONCLUSIONS

Ultrasound songs of four Orthoptera Ensifera
from Sardinia have been recorded. Microphones
with ultrasonic threshold, such as Ultramic 250 by
Dodotronic, proved to be an invaluable device to
investigate the ultrasonic components of Orthopteran
songs. Some limitations addressed herein do not af-

36

Cesare Brizio & Filippo Maria Buzzetti

Figure 21. Comparison between the OeCCinthuS duldsonans from F lu m in im a g g io re (left) and the guideline illustrations
from Cordero et al., 2009 (right), p = O. p. pelluCCHS, d = O. dultisonCUlS. Figure 22. Living male from Flum inim aggiore.

feet its high potential as a scientific tool for field re-
search in Orthopteran bioacoustics, in particular if
the protocol outlined in the introduction is adopted.
Ultramic peculiar features may require specimen
collection or subsidiary audio recordings to make it
an useful tool for species identification on acoustic
evidence. Of the taxa recorded, the only with domi-
nant ultrasonic emission is R. baccettii. U. brevicollis
insularis and S. palmetorum palmetorum emit both

in audio and ultrasound range, while O. dultisOVLCinS
appears to emit almost only in the audio range.

The presence of S. palmetorum palmetorum, of

which to date very few data were available, is con-
firmed in Sardinia by audio recordings and speci-
mens. O. duldsonans is also confirmed in Sardinia
for new localities. W ithin the limits of a clearly rec-
ognizable, more or less continuous stridulation , the
song appears more variable than previously reported
for the species, in particular for its main audible fre-
quency. Also specimen size variability appears to
be higher than previously reported, with a slightly
smaller biometry for the Sardinian specimen. The
ultrasonic components of O. duldsonans calling

Ultrasound recordings of some Orthoptera from Sardinia (Italy)

37

Fig u res 23-25. Song of OecantJlUS dulcisonOMS . Figure 23: calling song. Fig u re 24: sound unit. Figure 25: freq uen cy analysis,
FFT size 8 192 bytes. Figure 26. Zoom-in up to 35kFIz from the 250 kHz spectrogram of OecanthliS duldsOflCltlS song,
displaying a main audible frequency of around 3200Hz, Fluminimaggiore, 29 August 2013, numbers show the approximate
location of the first ten unitary harmonics.

song do not seem particularly relevant. Neverthe-
less the weak harmonics above 13 kHz of this
species could have some role, the significance of
which should be investigated within the frame of het-
erospecific behavior, though in the same genus. Bioa-
coustics is here confirmed to be valuable in
biodiversity assessment and taxonomic distinction.
Sound analysis deeper than simple sonogram illustra-
tion, allow to gain more details for sound description,
taxonomic discussion and ethological observations.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Prof. Gianni Pavan (CIBRA-Univer-
sita degli Studi di Pavia) and the anonymous revie-
wer for their comments on the manuscript, Dr.
Paolo Fontana (Fondazione Edmund Mach) for his
inspiring talks on Orthoptera sounds, Dr. Ivano Pe-
licella (Dodotronic) for his technical support on Ul-
tramic and Dr. Gianfranco Caoduro and the
WBA-World Biodiversity Association for promo-
ting scientific studies on the Mediterranean fauna.

38

Cesare Brizio & Filippo Maria Buzzetti

REFERENCES

Buzzetti F.M. & Barrientos-Lozano L., 2011. Bioacou-
stics of some Mexican Orthoptera (Insecta: Orthop-
tera: Ensifera, Caelifera). Bioacoustics, 20: 193-213.

Cordero P.J., Llorente V., Cordero P. & Ortego J., 2009.
Recognizing taxonomic units in the field - The case
of the crickets 06CQ.ntllUS dulcisOTICITlS Gorochov
1993, and O. pclluCCYlS (Scopoli, 1763) (Orthoptera:
Gryllidae): implications for the ir distribution and con-
servation in Southern Europe. Zootaxa, 2284: 63-68.

Costa A., 1882. Notizie ed osservazioni sulla geo-fauna
Sard a. Memoria prim a. Risultamento di ricerche fatte
in Sardegna nel settembre del 1881. Atti della Reale
Accademia delle Scienze, Fisica e Matematica di
Napoli, 9: 1-41 .

Costa A., 1 883. Notizie e osservazioni sulla geo-fauna
Sarda, Memoria seconda. Risultamento di ricerche
fatte in Sardegna nella primavera del 1882. Atti della
Reale Accademia delle Scienze, Fisica e M atematica
di Napoli, ser. 2, 1: 1-109.

Costa A., 1 884. Notizie ed osservazioni sulla geo-fauna
sarda. Memoria terza. Risultamento di ricerche fatte
in Sardegna nella estate del 1883. Atti della Reale
Accademia delle Scienze, Fisica e Matematica di
Napoli, ser. 2, 1: 1-64.

Costa A., 1 885. Notizie ed osservazioni sulla geo-fauna
sarda. Memoria quarta. Atti delle Reale Accademia
delle Scienze Fisiche e M atem atiche di Napoli, ser.
2a, 1 ( 1 3): 3 1 pp.

Costa A., 1 886. Notizie ed osservazioni sulla geo-fauna
sarda. Memoria sesta. Risultamento delle ricerche
fatte in Sardegna nella estate del 1 885. Atti della
Reale Accademia delle Scienze, Fisica e Matematica
di Napoli, ser. 2, 2: 1-40.

Eisner N. & Popov A.V., 1978. Neuroethology of acous-
tic communication. Advances in Insect Physiology,
13: 229-355.

Fontana P.,BuzzettiF.M.,CogoA.& Ode B.,2002.Guida
al ric o n o sc im e n to e alio studio di cavallette, grilli.
mantidi e insetti affini del Veneto. Guide Natura/1
Museo NaturalisticoArcheologico di Vicenza, 592 pp.

Fontana P., Buzzetti F.M., Kleukers R.M.J.C. &
Ode B., 2011. Platycleis gCLlvagnii, a peculiar new
bushcr icket from Sardinia (Italy). (Insecta, Or-
thoptera, Tettigoniidae). Zootaxa, 2784: 5 1- 61.

GalvagniA., 1976. Le RllClCOCleis d i S aide g na e Corsica
con descrizione di R. bciCCettii n. sp. e R. botlfilsi n.
sp. (Orthoptera, Decticinae). Memo lie del Museo
Tridentino di Scienze naturali, 21: 41-72.

Galvagni A., 1 9 78. Terzo contributo alia conoscenza
degli O rto ttero id e i di Sardegna con descrizione di
Heteracris adspersa massai n. subsp. Atti della Ac-
cademia Roveretana degli Agiati di Scienze, Lettere
ed Arti, 1 6-1 7: 1 63-1 86.

Galvagni A., 1990. II gen ere CtenodeCticllS Bolivar,
1876, nelle sue specie di Sardegna, di Sicilia e

dell’Africa maghrebina (Orthoptera, Decticinae).
Annali dei Musei civici di Rove re to, 5: 219-254.

GalvagniA.& MassaB., 1980.11genere Ptewlepis Ram-
bur, 1 83 8, in Italia, con descrizione della P. pedcitCl
elymica n . ssp. di Sicilia (Decticinae). Atti della Ac-
cademia Roveretana degli Agiati di Scienze, Lettere
ed Arti, 1 8-1 9: 59-90.

GalvagniA., Fontana P. & Ode B., 2007. Considerazioni
sulle specie del genere RhttCOCleis Fieber, 1 85 3, di
Sardegna (Insecta Orthoptera Tettigoniidae). Atti
della Accademia Roveretana degli Agiati di Scienze,
Lettere ed Arti. 7: 131-144.

Gorochov A .V., 1 993. Grylloidea (Orthoptera) of Saudi
Arabia and adjacent countries. Fauna of Saudi
Arabia, 1 3, 79-97.

Ingrisch S., 1983. Neue Arten und faunistisch b e -
merkenswerte Nachweise von Orthopteren auf Sar-
dinien. Nachrichtenblatt der Bayerischen Entomolo-
gen, 32: 88-94.

Krauss FI .A., 1902. Beitragzurkenntniss der Orthopteren-
fauna der Sahara. Verhandlungen der Zoologisch-
Botanischen Gesellschaft in Wien, 52: 230-254.

M assa B., 2010. New or interesting records of Palea retie
Orthoptera (Insecta). Journal of the Entomological
Research Society, 1 2: 75-85.

M assa B., Fontana P., Buzzetti F.M ., Kleukers R., & Ode
B ., 2012. Fauna d’ltalia, vol. XLVIII, Orthoptera.
C alderini, 563 pp. + DVD

Montealegre F., & Morris G.K., 1999. Songs and sys-
tem atics of some Tettigoniidae from Colombia and
Ecuador I. Pseudophy llinae (Orthoptera). Journal of
Orthoptera Research, 8: 1 62-236.

Moore T.E., 1989. Glossary of song terms. In: Cricket
behavior and neurobiology. Huber F., Moore T.E. &
LoherW. (Eds) Cornell Univ. Press, pp. 485-487.

Nadig A. & Nadig A., 1934. BeitragzurKenntnis der Or-
thopteren- und Hymenopterenfauna von Sardinien
und Korsika. Jahresbericht der Naturforschenden
Gesellschaft Graubiindens, 72: 1-39.

Pavan G ., 1 998-20 1 1. SeaWave software, http:// www.
unipv.it/cibra/seaw ave.htm 1

Ragge D.R. & Reynolds W.J., 1998. The songs of the
Grasshoppers and Crickets of Western Europe.
Harley Books, Colchester, 591 pp.

SchmidtG.H. & H errm an n M ., 2000. Occur re nee and d is -
tribution of O rthopteroidea, Blattoptera, Mantodea,
Phasmodea and Dermaptera in S aid in ia/Italy . Bollet-
tino della Societa Sarda di Scienze Naturali, 32: 83-128.

Siegert M.E., Romer H. & Hartbauer M., 2013. M at-
taining acoustic communication at a cocktail party:
heterospecific masking noise improves signal detec-
tion through frequency separation. The Journal of
Experimental Biology, 2 16: 4655-4665.

Zefa E . , Oliveira G.L., Redu D.R. & Martins L.P.. 2012.
Calling song of two sympatric species of cricket
Phylloscyrtini (Orthoptera G ry Hid a e Te ttig o n iid a e ) .
Ethology Ecology & Evolution, 1: 1-7.

Biodiversity Journal, 2014, 5 (1): 39-54

Analysis of the vascular flora of four satellite islets of the Egadi
Archipelago (W Sicily), with some notes on their vegetation
and fauna

Salvatore Pasta 1 *, Arnold Sciberras 2 , Jeffrey Sciberras 3 & Leonardo Scuderi 4

‘National Research Council (CNR). Istitute of B iosciences and Bioresources (1BBR), Corso Calatafimi. 414 - 90129. Palermo.
Italy; e-mail: s a lv a to re ,p a s ta @ ibbr.cnr.it

2 133.Arnest, Arcade Str., Paola, Malta; e-mail: bioislets@gmail.com

3 2 4 Camille ri crt Fit 5,Triq il-Marlozz, Ghadira, Mellieha, Malta; e-mail: wildalienplanet@gmail.com
4 via Andromaca, 60 - 91100 Trapani, Italy; e-mail: scuderileo@ yahoo. it
Corresponding author

ABSTRACT This paper represents the first contribution on the vascular flora of the stack named Faraglione

di Levanzo and of three satellite islets of Favignana, i.e. Preveto, Galeotta and a stack located
at Cala Roto n da. A sketch of their vegetation pattern is also provided, as well as a list of all
the terrestrial fauna, with some more detailed information on the vertebrates. The fin ding of
some bones of MllStclci tlivCllis Linnaeus, 1758 is the first record for the whole archipelago
and deserves further investigations. The floristic data have been used in order to analyze
life-form and chorological spectra and to assess species-area relationship, the peculiarity of
local plant assemblages, the occurrence of islet specialists, the risk of alien plants invasion
and the refugium role played by the islets. The significant differences among the check-lists
compiled by the two diffe rent couples of authors during their ow n visits to Preveto and Galeotta
underline the need of planning regular and standardized field investigations in order to avoid
an overestimation of local species turnover rates.

KEY WORDS Ellenberg bioindicator values; Life-form spectra; Mediterranean Sea; Unbalanced biota.

Received 05.02.2014; accepted 12.02.20 14; printed 30.03.20 14

INTRODUCTION

The aims of the paper

Egadi Islands are located in the province of
Trapani and form the westernmost archipelago of
Sicily. The whole archipelago includes three main
islands, i.e. Favignana, Marettimo and Levanzo,
and almost ten islets and stacks, mostly dispersed
in the sea near the coast of Trapani or between
Trapani and Levanzo. In this paper we present the
results of a five-y ears-long investigation carried out
by tw o different teams,mainly focused on the vascular

flora of four of these tiny islets, i.e. the “Faraglione”
(= stack) of Levanzo (hereinafter named “FLE”)
and 3 satellite islets of Favignana, i.e. Preveto
(“PRE”), Galeotta (“GAL”), and a little islet with-
out any official name situated within Cala Rotonda
and therefore indicated as “ROT” (Figs. 1-5).

The present study enters the strand of recent
investigations on the botanical features of circum-
Sicilian satellite islets (Siracusa, 1996; Pasta, 1 997a,
200 1, 2002; Scuderi et al., 2007; Pasta & Scuderi,
2008; Lo Cascio & Pasta, 2008b, 2012; Sciberras &
Sciberras, 2012) and updates the available informa-
tion on the vascular flora of Egadi Archipelago (D i

40

Salvatore Pasta et alii

Martino & Trapani, 1 967; Gianguzzi et al., 2006;
Romano et al., 2006). Some rough information on
the vegetation and the fauna of the islets is given, too.

Basic information on the study area

All the studied islets are characterized by Juras-
sic or Cretaceous calcareous rocks, although some
spots of outcropping marls and radiolarites have
been recorded on PRE (Abate et al., 1997). The
available information on the rainfall and tempera-
ture regimes of the nearest climate recording sta-
tion, i.e. Trapani (Zampino et al., 1 997) suggests
that the islets are all subject to the same bioclimatic
type, which is upper thermo-mediterranean dry ac-
cording to R ivas-M artlnez (2008) classification.

Du ring Last Glacial M aximum (i.e.c. 18-12 Kyrs
BP), the sea level was some 80-120 m lower than
today (Lambeck et al., 2010), so that all the consid-
ered islets were part of the main islands, and they
must have been connected with them at least till 8
Kyrs BP (Agnesi et al., 1993; Antonioli et al., 2002).

M alatesta ( 1 957) noticed plenty of lithic arti-
facts on PRE. No other information seems to be
available on the past land use and human presence
on the islets. Besides, a lot of potsherds have been
observed on the flat inland ofPRE, which also hosts
a little and rough cubic structure, probably built up
some decades ago by shepherds, who used to trans-
fer on PRE their animals during summer, in order
to have a shady and fresh place where to eat and
rest. Moreover, along the eastern border of FLE a
sort of path was noticed, perhaps produced by in-
tense trampling due to the presence of herbivores
left on the islet during summer season. The main
geographical characteristics of the islets are sum-
marized in Table 1.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A specimen of Parapholis pycnantha (Hack.)
C.E. Hubb. (Poaceae), quoted by Cuccuini (2002),
testifies that Giovanni Gussone, the indefatigable
botanist who explored every hidden spot of Sicily
and wrote down the most detailed checklist of Si-
cilian vascular flora ever published, visited FLE
during his botanical expedition to Egadi islands
during May 1 829 (Pasquale, 1 876 ; Trotter, 1948).
The only recent data on FLE flora and vegetation
were collected by S. Pasta during a short visit some
twenty years ago (April 1995; hereinafter indicated
as SP0). More recently the investigation on the vas-
cular flora of the four islets w as carried out through
five visits between 2004 and 2010. More in detail,
three of them were carried out by S. Pasta and L.
Scud eri (PRE: SP-LS 1, 21/0 9/2 004; PRE and GAL:
SP-LS2, 14/08/2005; FLE: SP-LS3, 27/09/2005),
while A. and J. S c ib err as first v is ite d PRE and GAL
(A-JS1, 10/10/2010) and then ROT (A-JS2,

17/10/2010).

The classification of the observed plants was
carried out mainly using Pignatti (1 9 82) and Tutin
et al. (1 964-1 980, 1 993), while their nomenclature
is mainly based on Euro + Med (2006). Moreover,
the families are circumscribed according to the
most recent proposals of A ngiosperm Phylogeny
Group (APG, 2009; Reveal & Chase, 2011), while
families, genera and infrageneric taxa are listed in
alphabetical order.

The check-list also provides basic information
on life forms (Raunkiasr, 1 934) and chorotypes (ac-
cording to Pasta, 1997b) or xenophyte status
(Richardson et al., 2000). In order to perform a bet-
ter interpretation of the floristic similarity among
the islets, the niche width of each taxon was taken

Code

Per (m)

Surface (ha)

Dist (m)

ME (m)

UTM coordinates

PREV

1 ,240

4.3 1 9

224

8

E 262835.73 - N 4199765. 67

GAL

453

0.706

420

2

E 2625 1 2.94 - N 4 1 99493.1 7

ROT

305

0.423

1

4

E 260929.07 - N 4200840.57

FLE

489

0.959

46

20

E 265 3 83.93 - N 4207687.67

Table 1. Main geographic features of the investigates islets. Per: perimeter; Dist: minimum distance from the

main island; ME: maximum elevation above sea level.

Vascular flora of four satellite islets of the Egadi Archipelago (W Sicily), with some notes on their vegetation and fauna 4 1

Figure 1. Location of the investigated islets, a: Preveto (PRE); b: Galeotta (GAL); c: islet of Cala Rotonda (ROT); d:
Faraglione di Levanzo (FLE). Figure 2. Preveto and Galeotta from the southern coast of Favignana (photo L. Scuderi).
Figure 3. The Islet of Galeotta from Preveto (photo A. Sciberras). Figure 4. Cala Rotonda islet from the coast of Favignana
(photo A. Sc ib err as). Figure 5. Faraglione di Levanzo from the south-eastern coast of Levanzo (photo L. Scuderi).

Salvatore Pasta et alii

42

into account through E lie n b e rg e r ’ s b io in d ic a tio n
values (data from Pignatti, 2005, modified), i.e. L
(light, whose range of variation is from 1 to 9), T
(temperature, 1-9), C (continentality, 1-9), U (mois-
ture, 1-12), R (soil pH, 1-9), N (soil fertility, 1-9)
and S (soil salinity, 1-3). Basic information used
for data elaboration is contained in Table 2. In this
Table 2 the Column “LF” contains information on
Raunkiaer’s life forms. Columns 2-8 refer to Ellen-
berger’s b io in d ic atio n values as follows: L (light),
T (tem perature,), C (c o n tin en tality ), U (moisture),
R (soil pH), N (soil fertility) and S (soil salinity).
For further information on the range of these values
see the text in “M ate rial and Methods” paragraph.
Column “Choro” illustrates the chorotype of each
plant. In the last four columns the presence (“1”)
or absence (“0”) of each detected vascular plant is
reported .

M oreover, the m ain literature concerning coastal
Sicilian vegetation (Bartolo et al., 1 982; Brullo et
al., 2001; Minissale et al., 2010) has been consulted
in order to facilitate the interpretation of local plant
c o m m u n itie s .

Data on fauna were collected as a broad brush
baseline survey of all the specimens (including re-
mains, traces and faecal pellets) encountered. Id en -
tifications of most invertebrate species were carried
out according to Fontana et al. (2002).

RESULTS

The vascular flora

AIZOACEAE

Malephora croceci ( J a c q . ) Schwantes - Ch succ
- Naturalized: FLE (LS-SP3)

Mesembryanthemum crystallinum l. - t rept -

Subcosmopolitan: PRE (LS-SP2;A-JS1)

Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum l. - t rept -

Tethyan-Capensis: PRE (LS-SP2; A-JS1); FLE
(SP0; LS-SP3)

AMARANTHACEAE

Arthrocnemum macrostachyum (M o r i c . ) K .

Koch - NP succ - Mediterranean-Irano-Turanian:
PRE (LS-SP1, LS-SP2; A-JS1); GAL (LS-SP2;
A -J SI); ROT (A-JS2); FLE (SP0;LS-SP3)

Beta maritima L - H scap - M editerranean-
A tlantic: PRE (L S - S P 2 ; A - J S 1 )

Chenopodium murale l. - t scap - Subcos-
mopolitan:PRE (LS-SP2;A-JS1)

Chenopodium opulifolium Schrad. - t scap -
S u b c o s m o p o litan : GAL (A-JS1)

f Halimione portulacoides (L.) Aeiien - np -

Te th y an -E urop e an : GAL (LS-SP2)

Suaeda vera j.f. g melin - Ch frut - Tethyan-
A tlantic: PRE (LS-SP1,LS-SP2;A-JS1);GAL (L S -
SP2; A -JS 1)

AM ARYLLIDACEAE

Allium commutatum Guss. - G bulb - Mediter-
ranean: PRE (LS-SP2; A-JS1); GAL (LS-SP2; A-
JS); FLE (SP0; LS-SP3)

ANACARDIACEAE

Pistacia lentiscus l . - p caesp - Mediterranean:
FLE (SP0; LS-SP3)

A P IA C E A E

Crithmum maritimumh. - Ch suffr - Mediter-
raneans tlantic : GAL (LS-SP2; AJ&JS1); ROT
(AJ&JS2); FLE (SP0;LS-SP3)

Daucus bocconei g uss.-H bienn-CW Med ite r-
ranean: FLE (SP0; LS-SP3)

Ferula communis L. - H scap - M editerranean-
M ac aro n e sian : PRE (LS-SP2)

Thapsia garganicah . subsp. garganica- h scap

-CW Mediterranean: PRE (LS-SP2;A-JS1)

A R A C E A E

Aris arum Vulgar e Targ.-Tozz. - G rhiz - Mediter-
ranean: PRE (LS-SP2; A-JS1); FLE (LS-SP3)

ARECACEAE

Chamaerops humilis L. - NP - CW Mediter-
ranean: FLE (SP0; LS-SP3)

ASPARAGACEAE

Asparagus acutifolius L. - G l-hiz - Mediter-
ranean: PRE (LS-SP2); FLE (LS-SP3)

Asparagus aphyllus L. - Ch frut - S Mediter-
ranean: ROT (A-JS2)

Prospero autumnale (L .) Speta (= Scilla autum-

nalis L.) - G bulb - Tethyan-European: ROT (A -
JS 2 )

ASTERACEAE

Anthemis secundiramea Biv. - t scap - cw

Mediterranean: FLE (SP0; LS-SP3)

Vascular flora of four satellite islets of the Egadi Archipelago (W Sicily), with some notes on their vegetation and fauna 4 3

Beilis annua L.-T scap - Tethyan:PRE (A-JS1)
Calendula arvensis l . - t scap - Tethyan-Euro-
pean: PRE (A -JS 1 )

CarduUS pycnocephalus L . - H bienn - Te thy an -
European: PRE (LS-SP2;A-JS1)

Galactites tomentosa m oench - H bienn -
Mediterranean: PRE (LS-SP2;A-JS1)

Helichrysum panormitanum Tine o [= H. rupe-

Stve (Raf.) DC.] - Ch frut - NW Sicilian endemic:
FLE (LS-SP3)

Jacobaea niaritinia (L .) Pelser et M eijden subsp.
bicolor { Willd.) B. Nord. et Greuter [= Senecio
bicolor (W illd.) Tod.] - Ch frut - CW Medit: FLE
(LS-SP3)

Limbarda crithmoides (L.) Dumort. (= Inula
crithmoides l .) - c h suffr - CS - Mediterranean-
A tlan tic : R O T (A-JS2);FLE (SP0;LS-SP3)

Senecio leucanthemifolius Poir. s.i. - t scap -

CW Mediterranean: PRE (LS-SP2; A-JS1); GAL
(LS-SP2; A-JS1); ROT (A-JS2)

Sonchus oleraceus l . - t scap - B oreal-Tethy an :
PRE (LS-SP2;A-JS1); GAL (A-JS1);FLE (LS-SP3)
Sonchus tenerrimus L . -T scap -Tethyan-Paleo-
tropical: PRE (A -JS 1 )

Xanthium strumarium l. subsp. italicum

(Moretti) D. Love - T scap - Subcosmopolitan: ROT
(A -JS2)

BORAGINACEAE

Echium plantagineum L . - H bienn - Tethyan-
European: PRE (LS-SP2;A-JS1);FLE (LS-SP3)
Heliotropium europaeumL . - t scap - Tethyan-
Eu rope an: PRE (LS-SP1,LS-SP2;A-JS1)

BRASS1CACEAE

Diplotaxis erucoides (L.) dc . - T scap -

Mediterranean: PRE (A-JS1)

Iberis semperflorens l . - c h su ffr - C entral

M editerranean: FLE (LS-SP3)

Lobularia maritima (L .) Desv. - h scap - Medit:
FLE (SPO; LS-SP3)

CAPPARACEAE

Capparis spinosa l . subsp. rupestris (Sibth. et

Sm.) Nyman - NP - M ed iterran ean - PRE (LS-SP1,
LS-SP2, A-JS1); GAL (LS-SP2; A-JS1); ROT
(A-JS2); FLE (SPO; LS-SP3)

Dianthus rupicola b iv. su b sp . rupicola - c h fru t -

A p u lian - S ic ilian endemic: FLE (LS-SP3)

Polycarpon alsinifolium (Biv.) dc. - t scap - s

M editerranean-A tlantic : PRE (LS-SP2)

Silene sedoides Poir. subsp. sedoides - t scap -
Mediterranean: PRE (LS-SP2); GAL (LS-SP2);
FLE (LS-SP3)

CRASSULACEAE

Sedum litoreum Guss.-T succ - Mediterranean:
PRE (LS-SP2)

CUCURBITACEAE

Ecballium elaterium (L.) a. Rich. - h scand -
Tethyan-Pontic: PRE (LS-SP1,LS-SP2;A-JS1)

EUPHORBIA CEAE

Euphorbia segetalis l . (inch E. pinea l .) - c h

suffr-CW M editerranean: PRE (A-JS2); ROT ( A -
J S 2 )

Mercurialis annua l. - t scap - r - Tethyan-
Eu rope an: PRE (LS-SP1,LS-SP2;A-JS1)

FA B A C E A E

LotUS CytisoideS L . - Ch suffr - Mediterranean:
ROT (A-JS2)

FRANKENIACEAE

Frankenia hirSUta L. - Ch suffr - M editerranean-
Pontic: FLE (LS-SP3)

Frankenia pulverulenta l. - t scap - Tethyan-
Pontic: PRE (LS-SP2)

GENTIANACEAE

Centaurium tenuiflorum (Hoffmgg. et Link)

Fritsch - T scap - Mediterranean: PRE (LS-SP2)

GERANIACEAE

Erodium malacoides (L.) l’h erit. - T scap -

Tethyan: PRE (A -JS 1)

Erodium moschatum (L.) l’h erit. - T scap -

M editerranean-E uropean : PRE (A-JS1)

LAMIACEAE

Sideritis romana l . - t scap - Mediterranean:
PRE (LS-SP2); FLE (LS-SP3)

44

Salvatore Pasta et alii

M A LVA C E A E

Malva arborea (L .) Webb, et Berthei. [= Lavatera
arborea l.) - h b ienn - M e d iterr an e an - A tla n tic :
PRE (LS-SP1, LS-SP2; A-JS1)

Malva multiflora (Cav.) Soldano, Banfi et
G alasso [= Lavatera cretica L .] - T sc ap - M editer-
ranean: PRE (A-JS1)

PLUMBAGINACEAE

Limonium aegusae B rullo - Ch suffr - endemic
o f F a v ig n an a : R O T (A-JS2)

Limonium bocconei { Lojac.) Litard. - Ch suffr -
NW Sicilian endemic: PRE (LS-SP2)

Limonium lojaconoi Bruiio - ch suffr - nw

Sicilian endemic: FLE (LS-SP3)

Limonium ponzoi (Fiori et Beg.) B rullo - Ch
suffr - W Sicilian endemic: FLE (LS-SP3)

P O A C E A E

Avena cfr. barbata Link - T scap - Tethyan-
Pontic: PRE (A -JS 1 )

Brachypodium retusum (Pers.) p. Beauv. - h
caesp - Mediterranean: FLE (LS-SP3)

Catapodium pauciflorum (Merino) Brullo,
Giusso, Minissale et Spampinato - T scap - CW
Mediterranean: FLE (LS-SP3)

Catapodium rigidum c.E.Hubb.subsp. rigidum -

T scap - Tethyan-European: FLE (LS-SP3)

Dactylis glomerata Roth. l. subsp. hispanica

(Roth) Nyman - H caesp - Mediterranean: FLE
(SPO; LS-SP3)

Hordeum leporinum Link - T scap - Mediter-
ranean-European: PRE (LS-SP2)

LagUVUS ovatus L . s.l. - T scap - M editerranean-
A tlantic: PRE (A S & JS 1 )

Parapholis incurva (L .) c .e . h ub b . - T scap-

Te th y a n - E u r o s ib iria n : PRE (LS-SP2); GAL (L S -
S P 2 ) ; FLE (SPO; LS-SP3)

Parapholis pycnantha (Hack.) c.e. Hubb. - t

scap - CW Mediterranean: FLE (LS-SP3)

f Sporobolus pungens (Sc hr eb .) Kunth - G 1 -hiz
- H o larc tic -P ale o trop ic al : GAL (LS-SP2)

RANUNCULACEAE

Ranunculus bullatUSL. - G bulb - R - Mediter-
ranean: PRE (LS-SP2)

RUBIACEAE

Valantia muralis l. - t scap - r - Mediter-
ranean: PRE (LS-SP2); FLE (LS-SP3)

SOLANACEAE

Hyoscyamus alb us l . - T scap - M editerranean-
Macaronesian: GAL (LS-SP2;A-JS1)

Mandragora autumnalis Bertoi. - h ros -
Mediterranean: PRE (LS-SP1,LS-SP2;A & ESI)

Solatium lycopersicum l . (= Lycopersicon escu-
lentum M ill.) - T scap - Casual alien: PRE (A & ESI)

URT1CACEAE

Parietaria lusitanica L. - H scap - Tethyan-
European: PRE (LS-SP2)

Urtica membranacea Poir. - t scap - m editer-
ranean-M acaronesian: PRE (A-JS1)

Two sea-grasses, Cymodocea nodosa (Ucria)
Asch. and Posidonia OCeanica (L.) Delile, quite
common along the coasts of Egadi islands (Giac-
cone et al., 1985) and present near all the considered
islets, do not figure within the list. The symbol
f underlines that HaWmone portulacoides and
Sporobolus pungens , were no more observed in
GAL. Considering their perennial life-cycle, the
very little size of both their local population and the
islet, they must be considered as locally extinct and
therefore excluded from further data elaboration.

Main structural and floristic patterns of
local plant communities

The distribution and the floristic assemblage of
the observed plant communities firstly depends on
the size and the topography (e.g. flat areas, rocky
cliffs, even or steep shores, etc.) of the islets.

The natural landscape of PRE is also shaped by
the disturbance induced by a huge breeding colony
of yellow - legged seagulls (at least 60 pairs), which
causes important changes on both the structure and
chemistry of the soil due to trampling and to organic
matter input, respectively (see Caldarella et al.,
2010, and references therein). In fact, the northern
half of its inland area (Fig. 6), where most part of
the nesting sites are concentrated, holds a ruderal
community referred to Stellarietea mediae R . Tx.
Lohmeyer et Preising ex von Rochow 1951, rather
rich in annual pioneer plants which are quite com-
mon in disturbed places, arable lands and in fallow
communities; among them, Malva arborea and
CarduUS pycnocephalus are the most common and
dominant species.

Vascular flora of four satellite islets of the Egadi Archipelago (W Sicily), with some notes on their vegetation and fauna 4 5

LF

L

T

c

u

R

N

s

Choro

Scientific name

G

7

7

5

3

6

5

2

M ed

Allium commutatum Guss.

T

1 1

1 1

5

1

3

1

3

C W M ed

Anthemis secundiramea b iv.

G

6

8

4

4

4

4

0

M ed

Arisarum vulgare t a rg . - t o z z .

N P

1 1

9

5

8

9

7

3

M ed-Ir-T ur

Arthrocnemum macrostachyum

(Moric.) K. Koch

G

6

9

4

2

5

5

0

M ed

Asparagus acutifolius l .

Ch

8

8

5

3

7

2

0

S M ed

Asparagus aphyllus l .

T

8

8

5

3

7

2

0

Te t-P o n t

Avena c fr. barbata Link

T

6

9

4

7

2

2

0

Tet

Beilis annua l .

H

1 1

7

4

6

6

5

2

M ed-A tl

Beta maritima l .

H

1 1

10

3

2

5

2

0

M ed

Brachypodium retusum (Pers.) p. Beauv.

T

7

8

5

3

8

5

0

Tet-E ur

Calendula arvensis l .

N P

9

10

5

2

5

1

1

M ed

Capparis spinosa l . sub sp . rupestris

( S ib th . & Sm.) Nyman

H

7

8

4

3

X

3

0

Tet-E ur

Carduus pycnocephalus l .

T

1 1

10

3

1

X

1

2

C W M edit

Catapodium pauciflorum (M erino)

Brullo, Giusso, Minissale et Spampinato

T

8

8

5

2

5

4

0

Tet-E ur

Catapodium rigidum c .e . h ubb .
subsp. rigidum

T

9

8

5

7

7

2

0

M ed

Centaurium tenuiflorum

(Hoffmgg. et Link) Fritsch

N P

1 1

10

3

1

4

1

0

C W M ed

Chamaerops humilis l .

T

8

7

5

4

X

9

0

Subcosmop

Chenopodium murale l .

T

8

7

5

3

X

6

0

S ubcosm op

Chenopodium opulifolium Schrad.

Ch

1 1

8

2

1

X

1

3

M ed-A tl

Crithmum maritimum l .

H

1 1

8

4

2

5

2

0

M ed

Dactylis glomerata l . subsp.
hispanica (Roth) Nyman

H

8

6

5

4

5

4

3

C W M ed

Daucus bocconei Guss.

Ch

1 1

1 0

3

2

7

1

1

End A p u 1-

S ic

Dianthus rupicola b iv. subsp. rupicola

T

8

8

4

3

5

5

0

M ed

Diplotaxis erucoides (L .) d c .

H

7

8

5

3

5

3

1

Te t-P o n t

Ecballium elaterium (L .) a . r ich .

Table 2 . Basic information used for data elaboration. LF = life forms according to R aunkisr (1934); for the meaning of the
abbreviations of the following 7 columns, please see Ellenberger bioindicator values in “ M aterial and M ethods” paragraph;
Choro = chorotype (continued).

46

Salvatore Pasta et alii

LF

L

T

C

u

R

N

s

Choro

Scientific name

H

1 1

8

5

3

5

5

0

Tet-E ur

Echium plantagineum l .

T

1 1

9

4

2

5

2

0

Tet

Erodium malacoides (L .) l*h erit.

t

1 1

9

5

2

5

2

0

M ed-E ur

Erodium moschatum (L .) L'H erit.

Ch

1 1

1 0

4

2

0

2

0

C W M ed

Euphorbia segetalis l .

H

9

8

5

3

5

2

0

M ed-M ac

Ferula communis l .

Ch

1 1

10

4

1

7

1

3

M ed-Pont

Frankenia hirsuta l .

T

1 1

9

4

1

7

1

3

Tet-P ont

Frankenia pulverulenta l .

H

8

8

4

3

X

7

0

M ed

Galactites tomentosa m oench

Ch

1 1

9

3

2

7

1

0

End NW Sic

Helichrysum panormitanum Tin eo

T

1 1

8

5

3

7

2

1

Tet-E ur

Heliotropium europaeum l .

t

9

9

5

3

5

3

0

M ed-Eur

Hordeum leporinum Link

t

8

8

5

2

X

9

1

M ed-M ac

Hyoscyamus albus l .

Ch

6

8

3

3

6

2

0

C M ed

Iberis semperflorens l .

Ch

1 1

10

3

1

X

1

3

C W M ed

JaCObaea maritima (L.)PelseretMeijden
subsp. bicolor (W illd.) B . N ord. et Greuter

T

8

9

5

3

X

2

1

M ed-A tl

Lagurus ovatus l . s.l.

Ch

1 1

8

4

7

9

5

3

M ed-A tl

Limbarda crithmoides (L .) d umort.

Ch

1 1

10

3

1

9

1

3

End Favign

Limonium aegusae b ruiio

Ch

1 1

10

3

1

9

1

3

End NW Sic

Limonium bocconei (Lojac.) Litard.

Ch

1 1

1 0

3

1

9

2

3

End NW Sic

Limonium lojaconoi b ruiio

Ch

1 1

1 0

3

1

9

1

3

End NW Sic

Limonium ponzoi (Fiori et B eg.) B ruiio

H

8

9

4

2

X

1

0

M ed

Lobularia maritima (L .) d esv.

Ch

1 1

1 0

3

1

X

1

2

M ed

Lotus cytisoides l .

Ch

1 1

1 2

5

1

X

1

2

N aturalized

Malephora crocea (Jacq.) Schwantes

H

8

9

4

2

5

4

3

M ed-A tl

Malva arborea (L .) w ebb . & Berthei.

Table 2 (continued). Basic information used for data elaboration. LF = life forms according to Raunkiter (1934); for the
meaning of the abbreviations of the following 7 columns, please see Ellenberger bioindicator values in “Material and
Methods” paragraph; Choro = chorotype (continued).

Vascular flora of four satellite islets of the Egadi Archipelago (W Sicily), with some notes on their vegetation and fauna 4 7

LF

L

T

c

u

R

N

s

Choro

Scientific name

T

8

9

4

2

5

4

3

M ed

Malva multiflora { Cav.) Soldano, Banfi et

G alasso

H

7

9

4

2

7

3

0

M ed

Mandragora autumnalis b ertoi.

T

7

7

5

4

7

8

1

Tet-E ur

Mercurialis annua l .

T

1 1

1 1

5

1

X

1

2

S ubcosm op

Mesembryanthemum crystallinum l .

T

1 1

1 2

5

1

X

1

3

Tet-C ap

Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum l .

T

1 1

7

4

5

7

2

3

Tet-E uro sib

Parapholis incurva (L .) c .e . h ubb .

T

1 1

7

4

5

7

2

3

C W M edit

Parapholis pycnantha (Hack.) c.e. Hubb.

H

7

10

4

3

4

6

0

Tet-E ur

Parietaria lusitanica l .

P

1 1

1 0

5

2

X

2

0

M ed

Pistacia lentiscus l .

T

1 1

1 1

5

2

7

3

0

S M edit-A tl

Polycarpon alsinifolium (B iv.) d c .

G

8

8

4

2

6

3

0

Tet-E ur

Prospero autumnale (L .) s peta

G

7

8

4

2

7

2

0

M ed

Ranunculus bullatus l .

T

1 1

1 0

5

2

3

1

2

M ed

Sedum litoreum Guss.

T

1 1

9

4

2

9

3

2

C W M ed

Senecio leucanthemifolius Poir. sd.

T

1 1

9

4

2

6

1

0

M ed

Side rids romana l .

T

1 1

1 0

3

2

2

1

2

M ed

Silene sedoides Poir. subsp. sedoides

T

7

7

X

5

5

7

1

C asual

Solanum lycopersicum l .

T

7

5

X

4

8

8

0

B or-Tet

Sonchus oleraceus l .

T

7

8

4

2

5

4

1

Tet-Paleotrop

Sonchus tenerrimus l .

Ch

1 1

1 0

5

8

9

7

3

Tet-A tl

Suaeda vera j.f. g m eiin

H

1 1

8

5

3

5

3

0

C W M ed

Thapsia garganica l . subsp. garganica

T

7

8

5

3

6

3

0

Med -M ac

Urdca membranacea Poir.

T

1 1

9

4

2

3

1

0

M ed

Valantia muralis l .

T

8

8

5

5

X

1

0

S ubcosm op

Xanthium strumarium l . subsp. italicum

(M o re tti) D . Love

Table 2 (continued). Basic information used for data elaboration. LF = life forms according to Raunkiter (1934); for the
meaning of the abbreviations of the following 7 columns, please see Ellenberger bioindicator values in “Material and
Methods” paragraph; Choro = chorotype.

48

Salvatore Pasta et alii

The second half ofPRE, more exposed to south-
ern winds and, thus, to salt-spray, is less disturbed
by seagulls and it is covered by a species-poor
chenopod h a lo -x e ro -n itro p h ilo u s scrubland domi-
nated by Suaeda vera (SE) or by Arthrocnemum
macrostachyum (sw and s) and referred to the
class Sarcocornietea fruticosae Br.-Bi. etR.Tx.ex
A. etO. de Bolos 1950 em. O. de Bolos 1967.

ROT is characterized by a low halophilous
shrub land ascribed to CritHlIW-LilflOnietCCl B r.-B 1.
in B r.-B 1., Roussine et N eg re 1952 and dominated

by Limbarda crithmoides and Limonium aegusae
(Fig. 7).

Due to its extremely low elevation and its even
topography, no plant communities could be detec-
ted on GAL, except from a little AvthvOCYl&flUTYl
JflClCWStClchyUJI'l h aloph ilou s scrub. It worths to be
emphasized the local frequency of HyOSCyCUUUS
albuS, a plantwhich is normally associated with shel-
tered/shaded nutrient-rich ruderal com m unities, a pat-
tern also observed at M araone (S. Pasta pers. obs.).

Probably due to its shape and elevation FLE
shows the highest richness in terms of number
of plant communities. In fact, its bare and rocky
coasts host a mosaic-like vegetation dominated by
halophilous species-poor chenopod scrubland re-
ferred to Sarcocornietea fruticosae intermingled
with little spots of therophytic vegetation ascribed
to Saginetea maritimae w esthoff, van Leeuwen et

Adriani 1962, the base of the rocky and steep inland
is colonized by several species of the class Crithmo-
Lunonietea, and the cliffs host some perennial grass-
land species, truly rupicolous species such as
Dianthus rupicola subsp. rupicola and even a little

nucleus of low, scattered and extremely simplified

maquis with Chamaerops humilis , Pistacia lentis-
cus and Asparagus acutifolius.

Notes on the invertebrate fauna

As concerns PRE, a remarkable number of ani-
mals was collected and/or recorded during A & JS
1 visit on the islet. Except from CantareUS apertUS
(Born, 1 778), all the other (8 species) collected spe-
cies ofterrestrialMollusca still awaitidentification.
So goes for three species of Lepisma l in n ae u s ,
1758 and for four species of Hymenoptera.Two spec-
imens of one species of Formicidae were also col-
lected. M oreover, several individuals of Orthoptera,

like Calliptamus barbarus { Costa, 1 83 6 ),Aiolopus
strepens (Latreiiie, 1 804), Anacridium aegyptium
(Linnaeus, 1758), EyprepOCUemis plorans (C h arp en -
tier, 1 825 ) and Acrida sp. (Acrididae) were ob-
served. Among the few collected Coleoptera it has
been possible to identify the narrow endemic

Otiorhynchus ( Arammichnus ) aegatensis (So lari et

Solari, 1913). More detailed information on the ani-
mals o b serv ed /collected atPRE is provided in Table 3.

Phylum

Order

Family

Species

Nr ind.

Status

Mollusca

G astropoda

H elicidae

Cantareus apertus

53

A

Arthropoda

0 rth o p tera

A crididae

Calliptamus barbarus

c. 15

A

Arthropoda

0 rth o p tera

A crididae

Aiolopus strepens

3

A

Arthropoda

O rth o p tera

A crididae

Anacridum aegyptium

7

B

Arthropoda

0 rth o p tera

A crididae

Eyprepocnemis plorans

73

A

Arthropoda

C oleoptera

C urculionidae

Otiorhynchus ( Arammichnus )
aegatensis

1 1

A

Table 3. Prospect, number of individuals and status of the identified terrestrial invertebrates observed and/or collected by
A&JS during their visit to PRE.Abbreviations concerning the “status” column: A = living and B = living and/or migratory.

Vascular flora of four satellite islets of the Egadi Archipelago (W Sicily), with some notes on their vegetation and fauna 4 9

Notes on the vertebrate fauna

As concerns reptiles, Tarentola mauritanica
(Linnaeus, 1 758) was observed close to the aban-
doned building. Interestingly, Podarcis Siculus
(Rafinesque, 1810) was the only lizard found at
PRE (Fig. 8), while at Favignana it co-occurs with
Podarcis waglerianus (Gistel, 1 8 6 8 ) (Corti et al.,
1998, 2006). It was also observed on ROT (Fig. 9).
On both islets it performs very high densities like
elsewhere in Mediterranean microinsular biota (Lo
Cascio & Pasta, 2006, 2008a; Sciberras, 2007;
Sciberras & Sciberras, 2014).

OryctolagUS cuniculus (Linnaeus, 1758) and
RattUS norvegicus (Berkenhout, 1 7 69) were col-
lected at PRE and both were observed on the islet.
Local rabbitpopulation appears to be very massive.

Some vertebrae (8) and a lower jaw bone of Mustela
nivalis (Linnaeus, 1766) were collected from site
but no living individuals were encounte red. Among
the observed bird species (data not shown), only the
permanent presence of LaVUS ntichahellis (Nau-
rnann, 1 840) is very much evident.

No terrestrial fauna was encountered on GAL.
Several Larus michahellis were observed on ROT
and GAL. Due to the total lack of traces of nesting
material, both islets probably are only perching/
resting sites. As concerns FLE, it represents the nest-
ing site of few pairs of y e llo w -le g g e d seagulls and
hosts a population of Podarcis Siculus. The pres-
ence of numerous mounds of olive seeds suggests
the occasional visit of Turdidae; most of these
seeds are bitten by a rodent, probably RattUS TattUS
(Linnaeus, 1758).

Figure 6. The flat top of Preveto (photo A. Sciberras). Figure 7. The natural landscape of Cala Rotonda islet (photo A.
Sciberras). Figure 8. Podarcis siculllS at Preveto islet (photo A. Sciberras). Figure 9. Podarcis siculllS at Cala Rotonda islet
(photo A. Sciberras).

50

Salvatore Pasta et alii

DISCUSSION

Phytogeographical insight on the local va-
scular flora

The 73 terrestrial vascular plants recorded on the
four considered islets belong to 28 different families
(the most represented being A steraceae, Poaceae
and A m aran th ac e ae with 12, 11 and 6 infrageneric
taxa, respectively) and 62 genera. If w e consider ab-
solute values, the richest islet is PRE with 46 taxa,
followed by FLE (32), while both GAL and ROT
host only 11 species. A simplified analysis of
species/area relationship seems to separate the most
isolated islets from those that are near to the main
islands. In fact, the value of the rate nr taxa/m " is
0.011 and 0.015 for PRE and GAL, respectively,
while it is 0.026 for ROT and 0.033 for FLE.

Although the striking differences concerning
both the life-form spectrum (e.g. stark prevalence
of therophytes only on PRE and GAL, high vari-
ability of the percentage of chamaephytes, total ab-
sence of h e m ic ry p to p h y te s in GAL and ROT: Fig.

10) and the chorological spectrum (e.g. absolute
dominance of M ed ite rranean taxa only on FLE: Fig.

11) are still unexplained, this is not such a rare pat-
tern on the very little islets, which often represent
‘unbalanced biota’.

As for Ellenberg b io in d ic a to rs values (Fig. 12),
only R show some significant - and yet unexplained
- variation between PRE e GAL (very high) and
FLE (very lo w ).

Although no real islet specialists have been de-
tected, it should be underlined that the only two taxa
whose presence has been recorded on all the four
considered islets, i.e. Arthrocnemum macrostachyum
and Capparis spinosa subsp. rupestris , are very

common in all the c ire u m - S ic ilian islets and stacks
(Pasta, 1 997a).

Faunistic notes

The detected remains of Mustela Tlivalis on
PRE represent the first record of the species for
the whole E g ad i A rc h ip elag o (Sara, 1 998; Siracusa
& Lo Duca, 2008). Its regular presence on the islet
seems quite improbable,while itmighthave reached
PRE as a carcass picked up by a seagull or as a
prey of the barn-owl, TytO alba (Scopoli, 1769), or
the buzzard, ButCO butCO (Linnaeus, 1 75 8), two

1 0

Cho retypes

□Alien

□ Med sX

□ Med-Eur&.l.
□Tet s.l.

□ Tet-Eur s.l.
E Hdarct s.l.
■Wide range

PSE GAL rot fie

1 1

1 2

Figure 10. Life-form spectrum of the vascular flora of each
islet. Figure 1 1 . Chorological spectrum of the vascular flora
of each islet. Figure 12. average values ofEllenberg indica-
tors concern-ing the vascular flora of each islet.

birds which occasionally feed on it according to
Sara & Zanca (1988) and Siracusa & Lo Duca
(2008), respectively. As the western coast of Sicily
seems to be too far away from PRE, future in-
vestigations on its occurrence should start from
Favignana.

Vascular flora of four satellite islets of the Egadi Archipelago (W Sicily), with some notes on their vegetation and fauna 5 1

Considering that PoddTcis siculuS show s a high
morphological plasticity and that all the micro-
insular races described in the past are now treated
as mere synonyms of the species, an accurate field
data collection focused on many different meristic
and morphological parameters should be carried out
in order to assess the pattern and the range of vari-
ability of PRE and ROT lizard populations.

CONCLUSIONS

Small areas , few or no available niches:
effects on microinsular assemblages

If compared with other islets with a similar
size, like Strom bolicchio on Aeolian Islands (Lo
Cascio & Pasta, 2008a) or Lampione on Pelagian
Archipelago (Lo Cascio & Pasta, 2012), the stud-
ied islets do not show a remarkable botanical
value. Nonetheless, they give hospitality to nine
species of b io g e o g rap h ic and/or conservation in-
terest, i.e. Dianthus rupicola subsp. rupicola ,
Iberis semperflorens, Limonium aegusae, Limo-
nium bocconei , Limonium lojaconoi (Fig. 13),
Limonium ponzoi, Helichrysum panormitanum ,
Polycarpon alsinifolium and Silene sedoides

subsp. sedoides, and to several plants which be-
came extinct or are extremely rare on Egadi is-
lands: for example, at FLE thrive 4 out of less than
10 plants of Chamaerops humilis present in the
whole Egadian archipelago, while PRE hosts per-
haps the last individual of Ranunculus bullcitUS,
apparently extinct at Favignana (S. Pasta, pers.
obs.). The same “refugium” role is played by
Strombolicchio, which hosts the only known Aeo-
lian (and Sicilian) populations of Ephedra po-

dostylax Boiss. and Eokochia saxicola (Guss.)

Freitag etG.Kadereit(Lo Cascio & Pasta, 2008b).

On the other hand, only two aliens, probably
recently introduced by seagulls, i.e. Solanum ly-

copersicum (pre) and Malephora crocea (fle),

were noticed. The first one behaves as a casual on
many little islets (Lo Cascio & Pasta, 2008b; Cal-
darella et al., 2010), while the second is becoming
a more and more frequent invasive within the
halo-lithophilous communities of circum - Sicilian
islands (Romano et al., 2006).

Figure 13 . Litnoniwn lojaconoi : P re veto (photo L. Scuderi)

Goodbye or see you soon?

Although they have visited PRE and GAL
nearly in the same period, the check-lists written
down by the two different couples of co-authors
show rather striking differences, perhaps because
of the different intensity and duration of summer
drought period. For example, this could be the case
of ail the ii species ( Avena cfr. barbata, Beilis
annua. Calendula arvensis, Chenopodium opuli-
folium, Diplotaxis erucoides, Erodium malacoides
and E. moschatum, Lagurus ovatus, Solanum lycop-
ersicum, Sonchus tenerrimus and Urtica mem-

branaeeCt) which have been observed at PRE only by
A & JS. The presence and commonness of these
annual pioneer therophytes linked to disturbed habi-
tat is probably subject to annual fluctuations due to
local climatic regime and species patterns (e.g. low
numbered and/or extremely localized populations).

The same goes also for 13 of the 15 taxa which
have been seen only by LS & SP, i.e. two hemicryp-

tophytes ( Ferula communis and Parietaria lusi-

Salvatore Pasta et alii

52

tanica ) and n therophytes (Centaurium tenuiflo-
rum, Frankenia pulverulenta, Hordeum leporinum ,
Parapholis incur v cl Polycarpon alsinifolium ,
Ranunculus bullatus, Sedum litoreum, Sideritis ro-
mana, Silene sedoides subsp . sedoides and Valantia

muralis which may have been totally undetectable
a fte r summer p erio d , w h ile Limonium boCCOUCi was
probably neglected by A and JS). As concerns

Halimione portulacoides and Sporobolus pungens

once recorded at GAL, considering their perennial
life-cycle as well as the very little size of the islet,
they must be considered as locally extinct.

Rather dramatic changes recently affected many
d ifferen t micro-insular systems ofW M ed iterran e an
area (e.g. Bocchieri, 1 998; Lo Cascio & Pasta,
20 1 0, 20 1 2; Caldarella et al., 2010). In order to
avoid a misinterpretation of Species/Area relation-
ships, an o v er e s tim a tio n of species turnover pro-
cesses and to allow a better understanding of the
rate and the driving-forces of such mechanisms,
standard, regular and long-lasting data collections
are needed (Walter, 2004).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We appreciated very much the help of our friend
Pietro Lo Cascio ( A s s o c ia z io n e Nesos, Lipari,
www.nesos.org) for logging support, several a r thro -
pod identifications and for his critical review of a
first draft of this paper, the support of Alan Deidun
(U niversity of M alta) for organising the expeditions
of A. and J. Sciberras as part of a financial grant
from the Research Committee of the University of
M alta, to which the authors are indebted. Moreover,
we are gratefulto Giuseppe Garfi (CNR, Institute of
Biosciences and Bioresources, Unit of Palermo) for
his support du ring data elabo ration, to Carlo Di Leo
(Servizi Forestall s.r.l., Palermo) which provided us
the basic geographical data reported in Table 1 and
cared the layout of figure 1, and to the anonymous
referee whose observations strongly improved the
quality of the final version of the manuscript.

REFERENCES

Abate B ., Incandela A. & Renda P., 1 997. Carta Geo-
logica delle Isole diFavignana e Levanzo (scala 1:10,

500). Dipartimento di Geologia e Geodesia, Univer-
sity d i Pale rm o .

Agnesi V., Macaluso T., O rru P. & Ulzega A., 1 99 3.
Paleogeografia d ell’ A rc ip elag o delle Egadi (Sicilia)
nel Pleistocene Sup.-Olocene. II Naturalista siciliano,
17: 3-22.

Anton ioli F., Cremona G., Immordino F., Puglisi C.,
Rom agnoli C., Silenzi S., Valpreda E. & Verrubbi V.,
2002. New data on the Holocenic sea-level rise in
NW Sicily (Central Mediterranean Sea). Global and
Planetary Change, 34: 121-140.

APG (A ngiosperm Phylogeny Group), 2009. An update
of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification
for the orders and families of f lowering plants: APG
III. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 161:
105-121 .

Bartolo G., Brullo S. & Marceno C., 1982. La vegetazione
costiera della Sicilia S u d -o rie n ta le . Contributo alia
interpretazione delle fasce di vegetazione delle coste
mediterranee. C.N.R., Progetto Finalizzato “Pro-
mozione della Qualita dell’Ambiente”, AQ/1/226,
Roma, 49 pp.

BocchieriE., 1 998. On the failure to find plants on some
minor islands of Sardinia. Flora Mediterranea, 8:
197-212.

Brullo S., Giusso del Galdo G ., Siracusa G. & Spamp-
inato G ., 2001. C o n s id e raz io n i fito g e o g rafic h e sulla
vegetazione psamm ofila dei litorali italiani. Bio-
geographia, 22: 93-1 37.

Caldarella O ., La Rosa A., Pasta S. & Di Dio V., 2010.
La flora vascolare della Riserva Naturale Orientata
Isola delle Femmine (Sicilia nord-occidentale):
aggiornam ento della check-list e analisi del turnover.
II Naturalista siciliano, 34: 42 1-476.

Corti C ., Lo Cascio P. & Razzetti E., 2006. Erpetofauna
delle isole italiane. In: Sindaco R., Doria G., Razzetti
E. & Bernini, F. (Eds), “Atlante degli Anfibi e dei
Rettili d’ltalia”, Polistampa, Firenze, pp. 6 1 3-643.

Corti C ., Lo Cascio P., Vanni S ., Turrisi F.G . & Vaccaro
A., 1998. Amphibians and reptiles of the circum-
Sicilian islands: new data and some considerations.
Bollettino del M useo regionale di Scienze naturali di
Torino, 1 5 : 179-2 1 1 .

C uccuini P., 2002. II genere PciTCipholis C.E. Hubbard
(Poaceae) in Italia. Note tassonomiche e palin ologiche.
W ebbia, 57 : 7-64.

Di Martino A. & Trapani S., 1967. Flora e vegetazione
delle isole di Favignana e Levanzo nell’Arcipelago
delle Egadi. I. Favignana. Lavori dell’Istituto Botan-
ico e Giardino coloniale di Palermo, 22: 1 22-228.

Euro + M ed, 2006. Euro + M ed PlantBase. The information
resource for Euro-Mediterranean plant diversity.
http://ww2.bgbm.org/EuroPlusMed/ [last accessed:
20/01/2014].

Fontana P., Buzzetti F.M, Cogo A. & Ode B., 2002.
Guida al riconoscimento e alio studio di cavallette,

Vascular flora of four satellite islets of the Egadi Archipelago (W Sicily), with some notes on their vegetation and fauna 5 3

grilli, mantidi e insetti affini del Veneto. M useo
N a t u ra 1 is tic o Archeologico di Vicenza, Vicenza,
592 pp.

Giaccone G., Colon n a P., Graziano C., Mannino A.M.,
Tornatore E., Cormaci M ., Furnari G. & Scammacca
B ., 1 985. Revisione della flora marina di Sicilia e
isole minor i. Bollettino dell’Accademia Gioenia di
Scienze naturali, 1 8: 537-78 1.

Gianguzzi L., Scuderi L. & Pasta S., 2006. La flora
vascolare dell’isola di Marettimo (Arcipelago delle
Egadi, Sicilia o c c id e n ta le ) : a g g io rn am e n to e analisi
fitogeografica. Webbia, 61: 359-402.

Lambeck K ., Antonioli F., Anzidei M ., Ferranti L., Leoni
G., Scicchitano G. & Silenzi S., 2010. Sea level
change along the Italian coast during the Holocene
and projections for the future. Quaternary Interna-
tional, 232: 250-257.

Lo Cascio P. & Pasta S ., 2006. Preliminary data on the
biometry and the diet of a m ic ro -in s u lar population
of Podarcis WClglericma (Reptilia, Lacertidae). Acta
H erpetologica, 1: 147-152.

Lo Cascio P. & Pasta S., 2008a. Lucertola di Wagler

Podarcis wagleriana g istei, 1 8 6 8 . in: aa. vv„ 2008 ,

“Atlante della biodiversita della Sicilia: Vertebrati
terrestri”. Studi e Ricerche, 6,Arpa Sicilia, Palermo,
304-305 .

Lo Cascio P. & Pasta S ., 2008b. Flora vascolare e linea-
ment i della vegetazione degli isolotti minori dell’
Arcipelago Eoliano (Tirreno Meridionale). XXXVII
Congresso nazionale della Societa italiana di Bio-
geografia (Catania, 7-1 0/1 0/2008), riassunti: 64.

Lo Cascio P. & Pasta S ., 2010. Floristic and ecological
remarks on the Islet Formica di Burano (Tuscan Ar-
chipelago, Tyrrhenian Sea). Atti della Societa toscana
di Scienze naturali, Memorie, serie B, 116 (2009):
45-48.

Lo Cascio P. & Pasta S., 2012. Lampione, a paradigmatic
case of Mediterranean island biodiversity. Biodiver-
sity Journal, 3: 311-330.

MalatestaA., 1957.Terreni,faune e indust lie quate marie
nell’Arcipelago delle Egadi. Quate maria, 4: 165-190.

Minissale P., Sciandrello S., Scuderi L., Spampinato G.,
2010. Gli ambienti costieri della Sicilia meridionale.
Escursione della Societa Italiana di Scienze della
Vegetazione (14-18 aprile 2010), Guida Itinerario
- Collana “Ambienti e Paesaggi” 1, Bonanno Ed.,
74 pp.

Pasquale G.A., 1876. Documenti biografici di Giovanni
Gussone botanico napoletano tratti dalle sue opere e
specialmente dal suo erbario. Atti dell’Accademia
Pontaniana, X ( 1 8 7 1 - 7 2 ) : 9 9 - 1 5 2 .

Pasta S ., 1 997a. Analisi fitogeografica della flora delle
isole minori circumsiciliane. Tesi di dottorato in
“B io sistem atica ed Ecologia Vegetale” (IX Ciclo),
Universita degli Studi di Firenze, 2 voll.

Pasta S., 1997b. Checklist della flora vascolare siciliana.
Laboratorio diFitogeografia.Dipartimento d i B io lo -
gia Vegetale d e 11’ U n iv e rsita degli Studi di Firenze,
12 7 p p .

Pasta S., 2001. Contributi alia conoscenza botanica delle
isole minori circumsiciliane. I. Sin tesi aggiornata
delle conoscenze botaniche sull’Isola di Lampedusa
finalizzata alia conservazione delle sue emerge nze
flo ris tic o - v e g e ta z io n al i . II N aturalista siciliano, 25
(suppl.): 19-70.

Pasta S., 2002. Appendice 1: Elenco aggiornato della
flora vascolare. In: Corti C ., Lo Cascio P., Masseti
M. & Pasta S., 2002, “Storia naturale delle Isole
Pelagie”, L’Epos, Palermo: 135-148.

Lambeck K., Antonioli F., Anzidei M ., Ferranti L., Leoni
G ., Scicchitano G. & Silenzi S ., 2010. Sea level
change along the Italian coast during the Holocene
and projections for the future. Quaternary Interna-
tional, 232: 250-257.

Pasta S. & Scuderi L., 2008. Nuovi dati sulla flora degli
isolotti del Trapanese. 103° Congresso nazionale
della Societa botanica italiana (Reggio Calabria, 17-
19 settembre 2008), riassunti: 258.

Pignatti S., 1 9 8 2. Flora d’ltalia, vol. 3. Edagricole.
Bologna, 790 pp.

Pignatti S., 2005. Valori di bioin dicazione delle piante
vascolari della flora d’ltalia. B raun-B lanquetia, 39:
3-97.

RaunkiaerC., 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical
plant geography. Oxford University Press, Oxford,
X VI + 632 pp.

Reveal J.L.& Chase M.W., 2011. APG III: Bibliograph-
ical information and synonymy of Magnoliidae.
Phytotaxa, 19: 71-134.

Richardson D .M ., Pysek P., Rejmanek M ., Barbour M .G.,
Panetta F.D . & West C.J., 2000. Naturalization and
invasion of alien plants: concepts and definitions. Di-
versity and Distributions, 6: 93-107.

R i v a s -M artin e z S., 2008. Global bioclimatics (Clasifi-
cacion biclimatica de la T ie rra ) ( v e rs io n 0 1-12-2008).
w w w .g lo b alb io c lim a tic s .o rg /[la s t accessed: 23/ 04/
2013],

Romano S., Tobia G. & Gianguzzi L., 2006. Rassegna
della flora vascolare dell’isola di Levanzo (Arcipelago
delle Egadi, Canale di Sicilia). Inform atore botanico
italiano, 38: 48 1-502.

Sara M., 1998. I mammniferi delle isole del Mediterra-
neo. L’Epos, Palermo, 166 pp.

Sara M. & Zanca L., 1988. Nicchia trofica di TytO alba
in ambienti insulari m editerranei. Atti IV Convegno
italiano di Ornitologia, II Naturalista siciliano, 12
(suppl.): 173-180.

Sciberras A., 2007. Lizards at Id-Dwejra. D w ejra Her-
itage Park, Gozo, Dwejra Management Board, pp.
28-33.

54

Salvatore Pasta et alii

Sciberras J. & Sciberras A., 2012. Flora of ’u Briantinu,
a satellite stack of Panarea island, Aeolian Archipel-
ago (Sicily, Italy). Biodiversity Journal, 3: 397-399

Sciberras A. & Sciberras J., 2014. Behavior of lizards in
the Maltese and Pelagian islands: a personal expe-
rience. L@ certidae (Eidechsen online): 1-10.

Scuderi L ., Pasta S. & Lo Cascio P., 2007. Indagini sulla
flora e sulla vegetazione delle isole minori dello
Stag none di Marsala. 102° Congresso nazionale della
Societa botanica italiana (Palermo, 26-29 settembre
2007), riassunti: 312.

Siracusa G ., 1996. Florula delle Isole dei Ciclopi (Sicilia
orientale). Bollettino dell’Accademia gioenia di
Scienze naturali, 2 8: 2 1 9-23 8.

Siracusa A.M. & Lo Duca R., 2008. Donnola MliS tcltt
nivalis (L., 1766). In: A A. V V. (a c u ra d i) , “ A tlan te
della biodiversita della Sicilia: Vertebrati terrestri”,
ARPA - Sicilia, Palermo, pp. 78-79.

Tutin T.G., Heywood V.H., Burges N. A., Valentine D.H.,
W alters S .M . & Webb D .A . (Eds) (B all P.W ., C hater
A .0 . et Coll.) (1 964-80). - Flora Europaea. Cam-

bridge University Press, Cambridge, London, New
York, M elbourne, 5 voll.

Tutin T.G., Heywood V.H., Burges N.A., Chater A.O.,
Edmonson J.R., Heywood V.H., Moore D .M . , Valen-
tine D.H., Wa Iters S.M., Webb D.A. (Eds), 1993 -
Flora Europaea. Ed. 2, Vol. 1. Cambridge U niversity
Press, Cambridge - London - New York - Mel-
bourne.

Trotter A., 1948. Notizie botaniche s to riche e biografiche
in tor no a Giovanni Gussone ed al suo tempo, desun te
da suoi manoscritti inediti. Delpinoa, 1: 75- 1 08.

Walter H.S., 2004. The mismeasure of islands: implica-
tions for b io g e o g rap h ic al theory and the conservation
of nature. Journal of Bio geography, 31: 177-197.

Zampino D., Duro A., Piccione V. & Scalia C., 1997.
Fitoclima della Sicilia. T e rm o u d o g ram m i secondo
Walter e Lieth delle stazioni te rm o p 1 u v io m e trie h e
della Sicilia occidentale. In: Guerrini A. (Ed.), Atti
del 6° Workshop del Progetto Strategico C. N. R.
“Clima Ambiente e Territorio del Mezzogiorno”
(Amalfi, 28-30 Aprile 1993), I Tomo (a cura di V. Pic-
cione e C. Antonelli), pp. 229-291.

Biodiversity Journal, 2014, 5 (1): 55-60

Spatial distribution of Calomera littoralis nemoralis (Olivier,
1 790) in a coastal habitat of Southern Italy and its importance
for conservation (Coleoptera Carabidae Cicindelinae)

Antonio Mazzei 1 , Pietro Brandmayr 1 , Salvatore Larosa 1 , Maria Grazia Novello 1 , Stefano Scalercio 2 &Teresa
Bonacci 1

'Department of Biology, Ecology and Earth Science, University of Calabria, via P. Bucci, 1-87036 Rende (Cosenza) Italy
2 Consiglio per la Ricerca e la sperimentazione in Agricoltura, Unita di Ricerca per la Selvicoltura in Ambiente Mediterraneo,
Contrada Li Rocchi-Vermicelli, 1-87036 Rende, Cosenza, Italy
^Corresponding author: teresa.bonacci@unical.it

ABSTRACT The spatial distribution of Calomera littoralis nemoralis (Olivier, 1790) (Coleoptera Carabidae

Cicindelinae) was studied on the marine sandy beach area of 1 km, near the mouth of a stream
in Catanzaro province (Southern Italy, Calabria). During the sampling period (July-August
2011- 2012) we investigated the distribution of adults of C. littoralis nemoralis by visual
census method and the spatial distribution of larval burrows of C. littoralis nemoralis along
three transects (A, B, parallel to the coast line; C, embracing the river mouth). All the transects
were selected by soil microclimate (a higher or lower humidity) and food availability. Larval
burrows distribution was performed using QGIS. The dispersal index (ID) shows regular di-
stribution of adults along transects A and B while in C the individuals are aggregated.
Concerning the larval galleries distribution, the QGIS analysis shows a significant difference
in their spatial distribution. The sampled data were analyzed using univariate and multivariate
statistical methods. This is the first report on spatial distribution of adults and larvae of C. lit-
toralis nemoralis in relation to soil humidity and food availability. The adult home range of
this species is much larger than the reproductive habitat, that seems limited to wet sandy river
bank around the mouth. The importance of such experimental studies for cicindelid conser-
vation is briefly discussed.

KEY WORDS Tiger beetles; Calomera littoralis', adults distribution; larval burrows.

Received 10.02.2014; accepted 05.03.2014; printed 30.03.2014

INTRODUCTION

The subfamilia Cicindelinae (Coleoptera Cara-
bidae) classified in the suborder Adephaga includes
many species with predatory habits. Both adults and
larvae are predators hunting for small arthropods
(insects and spiders) (Larochelle, 1974; Pearson,
1988; Pearson & Vogler, 2001) though cannibalistic
behavior was descripted in some species (Acorn,

1991; Cassola et al., 1988; Hoback et al., 2001).
Adults, usually prey visually and catch them after
short and fast running (Gilbert, 1987, 1997; Pearson
& Vogler, 2001). Tiger beetles species prefer hunt
individually for active and usually fast moving
preys (Larochelle, 1974; Wilson, 1978; Gilbert,
1987, 1997; Lovari et al., 1992). Few species have
been observed eating on plant material (Hori, 1982;
Hill & Knisley, 1992; Jaskula, 2013) and rarely on

56

Antonio Mazzei etalii

dead vertebrates (Schultz, 1981) or dead arthropods

r

(Swiecimski, 1956; Pearson & Vogler, 2001; Riggins
& Hoback, 2005). Calomera littoralis (Fabricius,
1787) s.l. has wide habitat range compared to other
tiger beetles and, in Europe, the species lives in dif-
ferent sandy habitats like sandy beaches, salt-
marshes, river and lake banks (Magistretti, 1965;
Contarini, 1992; Audisio, 2002; Jaslcula, 2013).
Calomera littoralis nemoralis (Olivier, 1790) is
the comon subspecies distributed along the sandy
shores of the Italian peninsula and Sicily (Mag-
istretti, 1965).

Females lay eggs in the sand and the larvae dig
a burrow which emerges on the surface of the sand
by a steep vertical pit. The larvae feed on insects
and they draw back into their dens when the tem-
perature drops. In Italy, in the past, the species was
found along the coasts and in Sicily. In the last
decade, the human activity has contributed to the
disappearance of the species on many Italian coasts
(Contarini, 1992). Today in Italy, as well as in other
geographical areas, the species is endangered
(Zanella et al., 2009). The aim of this paper is to de-
fine the spatial distribution of adults and larvae of
C. littoralis nemoralis in response to human in-
duced disturbance, food availability and habitat
suitability, in order to refine basic ecological knowl-
edge for conservation purposes.

Types of spatial distribution of a population

The spatial dispersion of a population is defined
as the distribution or disposition of the individuals
in the space (Southwood & Henderson 2000).
Knowing the type of dispersion of individuals in a
population is a highlight in demographic and eco-
logical studies (Tremblay, 2003). The dispersion of
the sample data provides important information on
the distribution of a population ( Pedigo et al.,
1994), often closely linked to the ecology and ethol-
ogy of the species. The pattern of spatial distribu-
tion (see Tremblay, 1988) are traditionally classified
according to three categories: uniform (uniform,
regular, underdispersed) , random (random), and
aggregated (clumped, contagious, overdispersed).
The statistical measure of aggregation easiest com-
monly used is the ratio between the variance of the
sampling data and the average number of individ-
uals counted. In the theory of probability this ratio
is a measure of dispersion of a probability distribu-

tion or density. If individuals are dispersed ran-
domly in the sample according to a Poisson distri-
bution, the variance of the distribution of
individuals is approximately equal to the average.
In the case of an aggregate distribution, however,
the variance is larger than average.

A ratio variance/mean greater than unity, thus
indicating a deviation from randomness and a ten-
dency to aggregation that will be greater with in-
creasing ratio. This aggregation index is simple to
calculate and there are also simple statistical tests
to assess the significance of the deviation between
the ratio variance / mean observed and the value as-
sociated with a random distribution. A deviation
from random distribution can be tested by multi-
plying the ratio between the variance and the av-
erage for the number of samples minus one (n-1).
This index is called the dispersion index (ID) and
can be compared with the distribution of the
chisquare (j 2 ) with n-1 degrees of freedom. For
more details on mathematical formulas see Selby
(1965) and Cicchitelli (2004). A more general ap-
proach to the relationship between the mean and the
variance is given by an equation known as Taylor
's Power Law (Taylor, 1961), for more details see
Burgio et al. (1995); Pasqualini et al. (1997), and
Furlan & Burgio (1999).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The observations were made in the morning
hours in the July- August 2011 and 2012. The sam-
pling site was the seaside beach located near the
mouth of the Fiumarella di Guardavalle River in the
Catanzaro province (Lat. 38° 28.142'N, Long. 16°
34.926'E) (Fig. 1).

The sampling of adults of C. littoralis nemoralis
was performed using the visual census method con-
sisting in daily observations carried out in morning
hours (7.45-10.30 a.m.) from 20th July to 10th Au-
gust 2011 and 2012. Three transects (A, B, C) (Fig.
1), 400 meter long and 1.5 meter wide, were chosen
after a preliminary investigation of the study area.
The transect A is located north of the mouth, beside
a tourist resort that increases the human-induced
habitat alterations. The transect B is located south of
the mouth where human activity is lower than in the
transect A. The transect C is U-shaped and includes
the river mouth where human activity is very low.

Spatial distribution of Calomera littoralis nemoralis in Southern Italy and its importance for conservation

57

The distribution scheme of adults along the tran-
sects was evaluated applying the Dispersion Index
(DI) (Cicchitelli, 2004): this index is directly pro-
portional to the variance of a sample. A sample with
a variance higher than the mean value may be de-
fined as aggregate, while a sample with a variance
lower than the mean may be defined as regular. A
sample having higher value of DI may be defined
as aggregate, a sample having lower values of DI
may be defined as regular.

To quantify the spatial distribution of individ-
uals, has performed the verification of the adapta-
tion of the data collected in the Poisson model
(random distribution), the model of the binomial
(grouped distribution) and the Rectangular model
(uniform distribution) were performed. For the cor-
relation of data models (Poisson, Binomial and
Rectangular), was chosen the x 2 test . In case of si-
gnificant values x 2 was rejected the hypothesis of
randomness in the Poisson model, or the hypothesis
of aggregation in the case of the Binomial or uni-
formity in the case of the rectangular model, with p
< 0.05). According to the /-square test results, we
may conclude that the observed distribution signif-
icantly deviates from the distribution model
adopted. The numerical analysis of the data was
performed with the program STATISTICA (Stat-
Soft, 1999) .

The spatial distribution of larval burrows was
investigated along the river on a surface of 100
square meters, 30 meters from the shoreline, where
two water bodies are present: one with flowing
water and another with stagnant water. The investi-
gated area was partitioned in 100 cells lxl m (Fig.
2). The abundance of larval burrows was evaluated
within any cell resulting in density values. The lo-
calization of any burrow was georeferred using
QGIS. Geostatistical analysis was performed using
the Minimum Distance Analysis algorithm from
Processing plugin, thus being able to calculate the
values of minimum and maximum distance of bur-
rows for each cell. The investigated area was sub-
divided according to the soil surface wetness
because this soil property contributes to the survival
of eggs, facilitates the digging of larval burrows and
prevents the dehydration of larvae. We defined the
soil surface as wet when sandy grains may stay at
rest like a solid and dry when sandy grains don’t
show this property.

Figure 1. Location of study area. Letters indicate the
sampled transects for adults sampling.

Figure 2. Location of the experimental plot for the study
of larval distribution along the river.

RESULTS

A total number of 3,934 observations of adults
was recorded for the study area subdivided in the
sampled transects as follows:

Transects A: 1,015 observations (Mean = 36.3

58

Antonio Mazzei etalii

individuals; SD = ± 4.00; variance = 18.56; DI =
13.98. Data trend shows that individuals have a reg-
ular distribution Of'2.81 con p = 0,24).

Transects B: 1,382 observations (Mean = 49.4
individuals; SD = ±5.13; variance = 26.31; DI
=14.39). Data trend shows that individuals have a
regular distribution (j 2 3.62, p = 0.06).

Transects C: 1,537 observations (Mean = 54.9
individuals; SD = ± 8.45; variance = 92.80; DI =
45.66). Data trend shows that individuals have an
aggregated distribution (/ 2 2.93, p = 0.23).

265 larval burrows were found in the study area.
They were found only on wet soil surface, as showed
in figure 3. We found a significant difference of bur-
row density between the banks of flowing and stag-
nant water body ( p<0.05). In fact, on the bank of
flowing water body we recorded 85 burrows (4.25
±3.11 burrows/m 2 ), while on the bank of stagnant
water body we recorded 180 burrows (16.36 ±9.93
burrows/m 2 ). The minimum distance between larval
burrows was 4.3 cm, the maximum within a cell
was 72.6 cm, and the mean distance was 13.4 ± 10.6
cm (Fig. 3).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The distribution of adults showed two clear pat-
terns. They are less abundant in the more disturbed
sand beach and more abundant where the human
disturbance is weaker, with no significant differ-
ences between undisturbed sandy shore and river
banks. Furthermore, they showed a gregarious habit
only on the river banks and not on the coastal strips.
Then, abundance depends on habitat disturbance
but distributional pattern depends on habitat type.
C. littoralis is mainly a predator, as all tiger beetles,
and probably it uses the sand banks as hunting ter-
ritory, where it preys visually by inspecting the en-
tire soil surface. This behavior should result in a
homogeneous distribution of adults on the investi-
gated sand habitat. But both sexes show a gregar-
ious behavior in habitats where a high trophic
resource is disposable also for the alimentation of
larvae such as the monitored river banks. This be-
havior was described also in riparian species of
ground beetles (Zetto Brandmayr et al., 2004, 2005;
Mazzei et al., 2006). This biotope could support the
adult aggregation because vegetable material, such
algae and aquatic plants are easily available for their

prey. In fact, the high prey availability inhibits the
aggressive behavior between adults within aggre-
gation sites. In this investigation, the bank river
seems to fulfill the optimal conditions for environ-
mental and alimentary issues for adults and imma-
ture stages. Females search also for optimal soil
moisture that prevents dehydration of eggs and lar-
vae that complete their development cycle inside
the sandy soil.

The larvae showed a clear preference toward
wet soils, avoiding to dig burrows on the dry side
of river banks. An optimal soil humidity rate en-
sures the survival of individuals inside the burrows
and an easier maintenance of their rest site where
they stay for prey. For larvae more than for adults,
the soil moisture is a determinant parameter be-
cause it determines where to dig a burrow. The high
density of burrows near to the stagnant water is
probably due to a higher concentration of preys,
mainly Diptera, in these sites compared to sites lo-
cated along the flowing water. In fact, saprophagous
dipteran communities are more abundant and
species rich on decaying plant materials and around
still waters.

In conclusion, the structure of C. littoralis pop-
ulations is strictly dependent on food availability
and habitat suitability and seems to be linked to the
resources provided by the river mouth. The adult
home range seems to be much larger than the repro-
duction sites, and wet and fme-grained sand banks
along the stream mouths seem to be of outstanding
importance for the conservation of this cicindelid
species.

Studies on conservation biology of tiger beetles
have become very common especially in the last 20
years. Pearson & Cassola (2007) assert their evolu-
tion is consistent with a historical model defined
GCSPN (General Continuum of Scientific Perpec-
tives on Nature, by Killingsworth & Palmer, 1992),
that comprises sex steps from 1, “descriptive natural
history” to 6, “Technical terminology and methods
so refined that they now limit the audience that can
fully comprehend it”. This short study demonstrates
that intermediate steps from 2, “simply experimen-
tal” to 5, “research teams and increasing evidence
of socialization” are still of importance in defining
measures for tiger beetle conservation, and that
species ecology of too many cicindelid species is
unsatisfactorily endeavoured.

Spatial distribution of Calomera littoralis nemoralis in Southern Italy and its importance for conservation

59

mmm

KXXXXX

Dry soil surface

Water body

Wet soil surface

Figure 3. Schematic repre-
sentation of soil typology and
larval burrows distribution,
obtained after QGIS analysis.

REFERENCES

Acorn J. A., 1991. Habitat associations, adult life histo-
ries, and species interactions among sand dune tiger
beetles in the southern Canadian prairies (Coleoptera:
Cicindelidae). Cicindela, 23: 17^48.

Audisio P., 2002. Litorali sabbiosi e organismi animali. In:
Ruffo S., 2002. Dune e spiagge sabbiose - Ambienti
tra terra e mare. Museo Friulano di Storia Naturale
di Udine, Udine, 67-117 pp.

Burgio G., Cornale R., Cavazzuti C. & Pozzati M., 1995.
Distribuzione spaziale e campionamento binomiale
di Sitobion avenae (F.) e Rhopalosiphum padi (L.)
(Homoptera: Aphididae), infestanti il frumento in
Emilia-Romagna Bollettino dell'Istituto di Entomo-
logia "Guido Grandi" della Universita degli Studi di
Bologna, 50:15-27.

CassolaF., 1972. Studi sui Cicindelidi. VIII. Concorrenza
ed esclusione in Cicindela (Coleoptera, Cicindelidae).
Atti del IX Congresso Nazionale Italiano di Entomolo-
gia (Siena, 21-25 giugno 1972), Firenze, pp. 23-37.

Cassola F., Eusebi M.P. & Favilli L., 1988. Predation by
a tiger beetle larva on a conspecific adult (Coleoptera,
Cicindelidae). Fragmenta Entomologica, 21: 81-84.

Cicchitelli G., 2004. Probability e statistica. Maggioli,
Rimini, 595 pp.

Contarini E., 1992. Eco-profili d'ambiente della coleot-
terofauna di Romagna: 4 - Arenile, duna e retroduna
della costa adriatica. Bollettino del Museo civico di
Storia Naturale di Venezia, 41: 131-182.

Furlan L. & Burgio G., 1999. Distribuzione spaziale e
campionamento di Agriotes ustulatus Schaller, A.
brevis Candeze, A. sordidus Illiger (Coleoptera
Elateridae) in Nord Italia. Bollettino dell'Istituto di
Entomologia "Guido Grandi" della Universita degli
Studi di Bologna, 53: 29-38.

Gilbert C., 1987. Visual control of prey pursuit by tiger
beetles. In: HamdorfK. 1987. Insect Vision. Parey,
Hamburg.

Gilbert C., 1997. Visual control of cursorial prey pursuit
by tiger beetles (Cicindelidae). Journal of Compara-
tive Physiology A, 181: 217-230.

Hill J.M. & Knisley C.B., 1992. Frugivory in the tiger
beetle, Cicindela repanda (Coleoptera: Cicindelidae).
The Coleopterists Bulletin, 46: 306-310.

Hoback W.W., Higley L.G. & Stanley D.W., 2001. Tiger
eating tigers: evidence of intraguild predation oper-
ating in an assemblage of tiger beetles. Ecological
Entomology, 26: 367-375.

60

Antonio Mazzei etalii

Hori M., 1982. The biology and population dynamics of
the tiger beetle Cicindela japonica (Thunberg).
Physiology and Ecology Japan, 19: 177-212.

Jaskula R., 2013. Unexpected Vegetarian Feeding Behav-
iour of a Predatory Tiger Beetle Calomera littoralis
nemoralis (Olivier, 1790) (Coleoptera: Cicindelidae).
Journal of the Entomological Research Society, 15:
1 - 6 .

Killingsworth M.J. & Palmer J.S., 1992. Ecospeak:
Rhetoric and environmental politics in America.
Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale, 312 pp.

Larochelle A., 1974. The food of Cicindelidae of the
world. Cicindela, 6: 21-43.

Lovari S., Favilli L., Eusebi M.P. & Cassola F., 1992.
The effects of prey movement, size and colour in
the attack/avoidance behaviour of the tiger beetle
Cephalota circumdata leonschaeferi (Cassola)
(Coleoptera, Cicindelidae). Ethology, Ecology and
Evolution, 4: 321-331.

Magistretti M., 1965: Fauna d'ltalia. vol. VIII: Coleoptera
Cicindelidae, Carabidae. Catalogo Topografico.
Calderini, Bologna, 512 pp.

Mazzei A., Bonacci T., Zetto Brandmayr T. & Brandmayr
P., 2006. Capacita di aggregazione di Coleotteri
Geoadefagi, in ambiente ipolitico di suoli argillosi
del bioclima mediterraneo arido. In: Comoglio C.,
Comino E. & Bona F., Torino, Politeko Editore, 2006.
Ecologia. Atti di convegni - XV Congresso Nazionale
della Societa Italiana di Ecologia (Torino, 12-14
settembre 2005).

Pasqualini E., Civolani S., Vergnani S. & Natale D.,
1997. Indagini sulla distribuzione spaziale, sul cam-
pionamento binomiale e sulla dimensione del cam-
pione su popolazioni di Cacopsylla pyri L.
(Homoptera Psyllidae) in Emilia-Romagna. Bollet-
tino dell'Istituto di Entomologia "Guido Grandi" della
Universita degli Studi di Bologna, 51: 79-90.

Pearson D.L., 1988. Biology of tiger beetles. Annual
Review of Entomology, 33: 123-147.

Pearson D.L. & Vogler A.P., 2001. Tiger beetles: the evo-
lution, ecology and diversity of the cicindelids. Cor-
nell University Press. Ithaca and London, 333 pp.

Pearson D.L. & Cassola F., 2007. Are we doomed to
repeat history? A model of the past using tiger beetles
(Coleoptera: Cicindelidae) and conservation biology

to anticipate the future. Journal of Insect Conserva-
tion, 11: 47-59.

Pedigo L.P., Butin G.D., & Raton R., 1994. Handbook of
sampling methods for arthropods in agriculture.
CRC press. Boca Raton, 714 pp.

Riggins J.J. & Hoback W.W., 2005. Diurnal tiger beetles
(Coleoptera: Cicindelidae) capture prey without
sight. Journal of Insect Behaviour, 18: 305-312.

Schultz T.D., 1981. Tiger beetles scavenging on dead
vertebrates. Cicindela, 13: 48.

Selby B.,1965. The index of dispersion as a test statistic.
Biometrika Trust, 52: 627-629.

Southwood T.R.E., & Henderson P.A., 2000. Ecological
methods. Third edition. Blackwell Science, Oxford,
575 pp.

StatSoft, 1999. Statistica per Windows. StatSoft Italia
S.r.l., via Parenzo, 3 - 35010 Vigonza, Padova.
www.statsoft.com.

Swiecimski J., 1956. The role of sight and memory in
food capture by predatory beetles of the species
Cicindela hybrida L. (Coleoptera, Cicindelidae).
Polskie Pismo Entomologiczne, 26: 205-232.

Taylor L.R., 1961. Aggregation, variance and the mean.
Nature, 189: 732-735.

Tremblay E., 2003. Entomologia applicata. I. Generality
e mezzi di controllo. Liguori, Napoli, 284 pp.

Wilson D.S., 1978. Prudent predation: a field study
involving three species of tiger beetles. Oikos, 31:
128-136.

Zanella L., Uliana M., Scarton F., Barbieri F. & Ratti E.,
2009. Valutazione ambientale di alcuni arenili veneti
con formazioni a dune mediante lo studio della coleot-
terofauna specializzata (Insecta, Coleoptera). Bollet-
tino del Museo civico di Storia Naturale di Venezia,
60: 41-88.

Zetto Brandmayr T., Bonacci T., Massolo A. & Brand-
mayr P., 2004. Peace in ground beetle larvae: non-
aggressive outcome in Chlaenius spp. larvae
interactions. Ethology Ecology & Evolution, 16:
351-361.

Zetto Brandmayr T., Bonacci T., Massolo A. & Brand-
mayr P., 2005. Non aggressive behavioural interac-
tion in larvae of the Ground Beetle Chlaenius
velutinus (Duftschmid) (Coleoptera: Carabidae).
Entomologia Generalis, 28: 213-218.

Biodiversity Journal, 2014, 5 (1): 61-68

Preliminary ecological studies on the Lepidoptera from
Khajjiar lake catchment, Himachal Pradesh, India

Vikram Singh* & Harjeet Singh Banyal

Department of Biosciences, Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla -171005 (HP), India
Corresponding author: proliterate@ yahoo.com

ABSTRACT A study on the Lepidoptera from Khajjiar lake of District Chamba of Himachal Pradesh re-

vealed the presence of 49 species ofbutterflies belonging to 41 genera and 10 fa milies. Anal-
ysis of data revealed that family Nymphalidae and Satyridae (12 species each) dominated the
Lepidoptera fauna ofKhajjiar lake catchment, followed by Pieridae and Lycaenidae (6 species
each), Hesperiidae (4 species), Papilionidae (3 species), Erycinidae and Danaidae (2 species
each), and A craeidae and Riodinidae (1 species each). Categorization of the species further
revealed thatof these 49 species, 5 were very common, 32 common, 5 uncommon and 7 were
rare. M oreover, 3 species were listed in Indian W ildlife Protection Act (1972), LctllC SCCLfldci
(Moore, 1 8 5 7 ) and LcimpidcS boCtidlS (Linnaeus, 1 7 6 7 ) placed under scheduled II and
Castcilius ro Simon (Fabricius, 1775) under scheduled IV of the Act. Our study revealed that
fo rest area supports the highest diversity ofbutterflies followed by lake areas and human set-
tle m e n t s .

KEY WORDS Butterflies; ecology; biodiversity; India.

Received 22.02.2014; accepted 08.03.2014; printed 30.03.2014

INTRODUCTION

A recent estimate shows the occurrence of about
142,500 species of Lepidoptera around the globe,
but estimates within Lepidoptera from the Indian
sub-continent revealed that the group comprises
over 1 5,000 species and many more subspecies dis-
tributed over 84 families and 18 superfamilies (Al-
fred et a 1 . , 1998). In India nearly 1500 species of
butterflies are reported (Gay et al., 1 992). Many
scientists have studied the butterflies from Hi-
malayas including Moore ( 1 8 8 2 ), Marshall & de
Niceville (1 890), Evans ( 1 9 3 2 ), Talbot ( 1 9 3 9;
1 947), W ynter-Blyth (1940; 1945a, b; 1957), Mani
( 1986) and Thakur et al. (2002; 2006).Arora et al.
(2005 ) listed 2 8 8 species from the recently created
state of Himachal Pradesh distributed in 12 districts

with altitudes ranging from 400-4500 m. However
very few studies are there on the ecological aspects
of the butterflies in Himachal Pradesh. Apart from
Thakur et al. (2006) who have listed butterflies of
K a la to p - K h a j j ia r wildlife sanctuary, there is little
information about butterflies from Chamba district.
However recently Singh & Banyal (2013) enlisted
butterflies of Khajjiar along with insect fauna. But
that work was focused only on presenting a check-
list of insects and did not account the ecological
aspects of butterflies. The area under investigation
is one of the oldest conservation areas for wildlife
in Himachal Pradesh and, being a favoured tourist
destination, is also under remarkable anthropologi-
cal pressure which may severely influence habitat
conservation and egg laying habits of butterflies.
Keeping this in mind we explored Khajjiar Lake to

62

Vikram Singh & Harjeet Singh Banyal

assess ecological aspects of butterflies such as
abundance, seasonal occurrence, habitat preference
and conservation status. Besides, an effort was also
made to identify the existing threats to the habitat
of butterflies in the study area.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Study Area Khajjiar Lake “The Mini Switzer-
land of Himachal Pradesh” is situated in the western
part of Chamba district of Himachal Pradesh. K h a -
jjiar Lake lies 3 2° 32" North and 76°03'East about
1 920 m above sea level between Chamba and D al-
ii o u s i e (Fig. 1). The average depth of this lake is
stated to be thirteen feet as per district gazetteer
(Singh & Banyal, 2012). Kh ajjiar Lake has a clump
of reeds and grasses exaggeratedly called an island
in it. This lake is placed in the centre of large glade
and is fed by slim streams. This glade is greenish in
its turf and contains in its centre a small lake having
an approximate area of 464.52 square meters. Kha-
jjiar Lake has thick forest of Kala Top sanctuary

(20.69 sq. km) surrounding the green grass. This
small sanctuary lies in the catchments of the Ravi
river, located in the western part of Chamba District.
It is one of the oldest preserved forests of the state
(notified on 01.07.1949). There is a ‘golden’ domed
temple at the edge of this meadow, dedicated to the
deity ‘Khajjinag’, from whom the area derives its
name (Fig. 2). It experiences south-western mon-
soon rains in July-September and the average annual
rainfall is about 800 mm. The climate of Khajjiar,
summers being mild and winters cold and bitter,
shows a temperature range from -10° C to 35°C.The
vegetation consists of mature mixed Blue Pine
( Pinus wallichiana a . b . jack s.) and Deodar cedar
fo re s ts ( Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) g. Don), with
some Green Oak and Rhododendron plants. Study
area was broadly divided into three main types de-
pending upon the vegetation and human intervention
like dense forests, lake meadow and human settle-
ments. Different butterfly species were sampled at
regular intervals from all three localities.

Sampling of butterflies. Butterflies were sam-
pled using the line transect walk method (Pollard &

y

Jammu and Kaslunir

CHAMBA

[ ahau] and Sph

r

I'Khajjiar Lake

^ . •

/ -

i Dalhousie

'Cliamba

Kangra

To ChiiTnhn

Kalatop-Kh ajjiar Vi Saicluary

Figure 1. Study area: Kh ajjiar Lake, in the western part of Chamba district of Flimachal Pradesh (India).

Preliminary ecological studies on the Lepidoptera from Khajjiar lake catchment, Himachal Pradesh, India

63

Yates, 1993). Six transects measuring 500 m each,
were randomly laid for sampling (two in each site).
Point counts were made after interval of 200 meters
along each transect to record butterfly species and
their number. All butterflies seen within two meters
on either side of the transect were recorded. Tran-
sects were walked between 10:00 hrs and 13:00 hrs
which corresponds to the peak activity period for
most butterflies. Nylon net with long handle was
used for sweeping free flying and free living but-
terflies. After collection specimens were put into
killing bottles containing chloroform. These insects
were transferred to paper envelops. Each envelop
was numbered carefully and the details of specimen
number, date, host etc. were written in a field note-
book. Thereafter, insects were properly stretched
and pinned by rust-free entomological pins. These
stretched and pinned specimens were kept in
wooden insect boxes in dry conditions providing
naphthalene balls (Arora, 1990) to protect them
from fungal infections and other attacks.

Butterfly Identification . Identification of

species was done from description given by Mar-
shall & de Niceville (1 890), Evans (1932),Wynter-
Blyth (1957). Some species were identified after
comparison with reference collections housed at In-
dian Agriculture Research Institute (I.A.R.I.), New
Delhi; High Altitude Regional Centre, Zoological
Survey oflndia, Saproon, Solan; Himachal Pradesh
and Forest Research Institute (F.R.I.), Dehradun.
Dr. M .S. Thakur of Department of Biosciences,
Himachal Pradesh University, Shim la was also con-
sulted for authentication of identification.

Data analysis. Abundance status was assessed
on an arbitrary frequency scale as: very common
(VC), collected more than in eight spots from the
three areas; common (C), collected from four to
seven spots from the three areas; uncommon (UC),
collected from two or three spots from the three
areas; rare (Ra), collected from one spot from the
three areas, according to Davidar et al. (1 996).

RESULTS

Present study revealed the presence of 49 species
of butterflies belonging to 41 genera and 10 fami-
lies (Table 1). Analysis of data revealed that family

Nymphalidae and Satyridae (12 species each) domi-
nated the Lepidoptera fauna of Khajjiar area, fol-
lowed by Pieridae and Lycaenidae (6 species each),
Hesperiidae (4 species), Papilionidae (3 species),
Erycinidae and Danaidae (2 species each), and
Acraeidae and Riodinidae (1 species each) (Fig. 2).
Analysis of these species for abundance revealed
that of these 49 species, 5 were very common, 32
common, 5 uncommon and 7, namely PcimClSSiuS

hardkwickei hardwickei , Lethe insane insane , Lethe
scanda , Ypthima ceylonica hubneri. Pseudergolis
wedah, Issoria lathonia, Polytrema eltola , were rare

(Fig. 3). Moreover, three species were placed under
Wildlife Protection Act (1972). These included

Lethe scanda and Lampides boeticus placed under

scheduled II and CaStaliuS VOSimon und er sched-
uled IV of the Act.

■ Nymphalidae
9 Satyridae
9 Pieridae
9 Lycaenidae
9 Hesperiidae
9 Erycinidae

■ Danaidae
9 Acraeidae

Riodinidae

■ Papilionidae

Figure 2. Lepidoptera diversity of the Khajjiar Lake, India.

Figure 3. Lepidoptera abundance of the Khajjiar Lake,
India; explanation in the text.

64

Vikram Singh & Harjeet Singh Banyal

N.

Name of Butterfly

Family

Wing Size
(in mm)

Conservation

Status

Months of Dominance
from-to

1

Papilio protenor Cramer, 1775

P ap ilio n id ae

100- 130

Common

M arch-September

2

Papilio polyctor polyctor

Boisduval, 1836

90-130

Common

M arch-0 ctober

3

Parnassius hardkwickei hardwickei

G ray, 183 1

5 0-65

Rare

M ay-S eptem ber

4

Delias belladonna horsfieldi

(G ray, 1831)

P ierid ae

70-96

Uncommon

A p ril- J u ly

Sep tern ber-N ovem ber

5

Pieris canidia indica Evans, 1926

4 5-55

Common

A pril-0 ctober

6

Catopsillia crocale C ram er, 17 7 5

55-75

Common

M ay-October

7

Gonepteryx rhamni nepalensis

Double day, 1847

60-70

Common

M arc h-0 ctober

8

Eurema hecabe fimbriata

(W allace, 1 8 67 )

30-40

Common

A p ril-N ovem ber

9

Colias electofieldi Menetries, 1885

42-45

Very common

February-N ovem ber

1 0

Danaus genutia (Cramer, 1779 )

D an aid ae

70-78

Common

M arch-N ovem ber

1 1

Parantica sita sita (Koiiar, 1 8 4 4 )

85-105

Common

A p ril-N o v e m b er

1 2

Mycalesis perseus blasius

(F ab ric iu s , 1 7 9 8 )

S aty ridae

3 8-55

Very common

M arch-N ovem ber

1 3

Lethe insane insane (K oiiar, 1 8 44 )

5 5-60

Rare

M ay-O c to ber

1 4

Lethe SCanda* (Moore, 1 8 5 7 )

55-65

Rare

June-S eptem ber

1 5

Lethe verma verma (K oiiar, i 844)

55-60

Common

A p ril-O ctober

1 6

Lasiommata schakra schakra

(K oiiar, 1 844)

45-60

Common

Apri-O ctober

1 7

Aulocera swaha swaha

(K o liar, 1 844)

60-75

Common

M ay-S eptem ber

1 8

Aulocera saraswati saraswati

(K oiiar, 1 844)

60-75

Common

July-0 ctober

1 9

Callerebia annada (Moore, [ 1 8 5 8 ] )

5 5-70

Common

A pril-0 ctober

20

Ypthima nareda nareda

(K oiiar, 1 844)

30-32

Common

A pril-O ctober

2 1

Ypthima ceylonica hubneri

K irby, 18 7 1

30-40

Rare

A pril-0 ctober

22

Ypthima sakra nikaea Moore, 1 8 7 5

45-55

Very common

M arch-N ovem ber

23

Melanitis leda ismene ( c ram er,

[ 1 7 7 5 ])

60-80

Very common

M arch-N ovem ber

24

Athyma opalina (K oiiar, [i 844])

N y m phalidae

55-70

Common

M arch-N ovem ber

25

Parathyma asura asura

(Moore, 1 85 7 )

65-75

Uncommon

July - August

Table 1. Check list and ecological data of the Lepidoptera from Kh ajjiar Lake, India (continued).

Preliminary ecological studies on the Lepidoptera from Khajjiar lake catchment, Himachal Pradesh, India

65

N.

Name of Butterfly

Family

Wing Size
(in mm)

Conservation

Status

Months of Dominance
from-to

26

Neptis mahendra Moore, 1 8 7 2

55-60

Common

A pril-0 ctober

27

Neptis hylas as to la Moore, 1 8 7 2

50-60

Common

M arch-O ctober

28

Pseudergolis wedah k oiiar, 1 8 44

5 5-65

Rare

A pril-N 0 vem ber

29

Precis iphita (Cramer , [1779])

5 5-65

Uncommon

Jan-D ecem ber

30

Cynthia cardui { Linnaeus, 1 75 8 )

55-70

Common

A pril-N 0 vem ber

3 1

Vanessa indica { Herbst, 1794 ))

5 5-65

Common

M arch-D ecem ber

32

Kaniska canace (Linnaeus, 1 763 )

60-75

Uncommon

M arch-N ovem ber

33

Aglais cashmirensis (Koiiar, 1 8 44 )

55-65

Common

M arch-N ovember

34

Childrena childreni (G ray, 1 8 3 1 )

75-100

Common

M ay-N ovem ber

35

Issoria lathonia (Linnaeus, 1758)

55-60-7 8

Rare

February-0 ctober

36

Acraea issoria anomala

K 0 liar, 1848

A craeidae

4 5-65

Common

A pril-S eptem ber

37

Libythea myrrha g 0 d art, 1 8 1 9

E ry c in id ae

4 5-55

Common

M arch-0 ctober

38

Libythea lepita (Moore, 1 8 5 7 )

55-60

Common

M arch-S eptem ber

39

Dodona durga (Koiiar, 1 8 4 4 )

R iodinidae

30-40

Common

M arch-O ctober

40

Pseudozizeeria maha

(K 0 liar, [ 1 844])

Lycaenidae

20-30

Common

January -N ovem ber

4 1

Lampides boeticus *

(Linnaeus, 1767)

24-36

Common

M arch-O ctober

42

Lycaena pavana (K oiiar, [ 1 8 4 4])

37-40

Common

M arch-0 ctober

43

Heliophorus sena (K oiiar, [ 1 8 44])

28-33

Very common

M arch-0 ctober

44

Castalius rosimon* *

(F ab ric iu s, 1 7 7 5 )

2 5-27

Common

January-N ovem ber

45

Rapala manea schistacea

(M oore, 1 8 7 9 )

30-33

Common

June-0 ctober

46

Coladenia dan (Fabricius, 1 7 8 7 )

H e sp eriid ae

35-45

Common

M ay-October

47

Sarangesa purendra (Moore, 1 8 8 2 )

2 8

Uncommon

M ay-June

48

Polytremis eltola (Hewitson, 1 8 6 9 )

32

Rare

M arch-N ovem ber

49

Borbo bevani (Moore, 1 8 7 8 )

30

Uncommon

A pril-0 ctober

Table 1 (continued). Check list and ecological data of the Lepidoptera from Khajjiar Lake, India.

66

Vikram Singh & Harjeet Singh Banyal

Maximum richness was observed in the forest
area which is rich of trees with well developed
undergrowth. Minimum richness was present in the
human settlement of the study area which is a de-
graded habitat where continuous intervention of hu-
mans generated severe pollution. Intermediate
values of species richness were observed in the lake
meadow area.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Khajjiar lake catchment, which is an important
conserved area of Himalayas, supports a rich fauna
of butterflies with 49 species. These records are in
accordance with the previous study of Arora et a 1 .
(2005) who also recorded some butterfly species of
conservation concern from the state of Himachal
Pradesh. Similar studies were also conducted by
M ehta et a 1 . (2002) who studied butterflies of Pong
Dam wetland in District Kangra (H .P.) and Thakur
et al. (2006) who reported 50 species belonging to
37 genera under seven families; moreover distribu-
tional records of Rhopalocera from Pin Valley
National Park were studied and 14 species belong-
ing to 11 genera and four families were reported.
Nymphalidae is the largest family of the butter f lies
in the study area represented by 12 species along
with family Satyridae having the same number of
species. Nymphalidae is the largest representative
family of butterflies from India with 450 species
(Varshney, 1993). This may be attributed to their
polyp h ago us habits which probably helps these
Lepidoptera to survive in a variety of habitats. M ore-
over, members of this species can forage in distant
areas as they are active fliers.

Maximum numbers of species were observed
from March to November and very few species
were seen from Decemberto February and only one
species was noted in January in a human habitation
far from frozen lake. Two species were present for
a very short period of the year in the study area, i.e.

Parathyma Cisura asura in July and August while

the small-sized species ScirCltlgCSCl pUV€VldvCl in M a y
and June. Maximum abundance of butterflies in
particular periods of the year (months) is related to
seasonal variations and atmospheric temperature.
From March to November the temperature of the
area is favorable to lepidopterans. In the months
from July to September Monsoon is active in this

part of India which results in increased growth of
various type of vegetation. Hence, during this time
abundance of butterflies is more than in the months
from December to February when climatic condi-
tions in the area are very adverse. D uring this period
the area is subject to heavy snow falls resulting in
low temperatures and poor vegetation.

When relative abundance of these species was
studied it was found that of these 49 species, 5 were
very common, 32 common, 5 uncommon and 7
were rare. This shows that 10% species are very
common, 66% species are common, 10% species
uncommon and 14% are rare species of the total
recorded species from the area. In addition, 3 species
listed in W ildlife Protection Act (1 972) viz., Lethe

scanda and Lampides boeticus placed under sched-
uled II and Castalius rosimon under scheduled IV
of the Act have also been reported from the Khajjiar
area. The occurrence of three threatened species
suggests the need of immediate need of implemen-
tation of strategies of sustainable conservation.

In this study it was revealed that maximum
abundance was present in the forest areas of Kha-
jjiar. Similar observations were made in previous
studies on diversity and habitat preference of but-
terflies in various parts of India (Sreekumar &
Balakrishnan, 2001; Ramesh et al., 2010; Sarma et
al., 2012). Butterflies show distinct patterns of
habitat utilization. The nature of vegetation is an
important factor which determines the dependence
and survival of a species on a particular habitat.
Being highly sensitive to environmental changes,
they are easily affected by even relatively minor dis-
turbances in the habitat so much that they have been
considered as indicators of environmental quality
and are also treated as indicators of the health of an
ecosystem. The presence of butter flies emphasizes
availability of larval food plants. As stated before,
most of the butterflies have specific habitat re-
quirements, as females usually tend to lay eggs only
on selective food plants occurring in the area (Thakur
& M attu , 20 10).

With ever increasing number of tourists reach-
ing Khajjiar every year the number of hotels in the
area is increasing. This is good for general socio-
economic development of the area but has adverse
impacts on ecology. M any tourists visit deep in the
forests and enjoy trekking in the hills. Hotels and
tourists produce a large quantity of n o n - d e g ra d a b le
garbage which accumulates in and around the lake

Preliminary ecological studies on the Lepidoptera from Khajjiar lake catchment, Himachal Pradesh, India

6 7

and also deep into the forest. These activities can
affect sensitive microhabitat of butterflies. Present
study revealed that Khajjiar Lake catchment area is
very rich in lepidopteron fauna, which is depicted
from the large number of variety of butterflies in
term of large number of species. But at the same
time 14% of the species comes under the category
of rare species which means their specimens have
been collected only from limited (single) place i.e.
from grassland or dense forestor from human habi-
tations. Additionally, 3 species were placed under
W i 1 d life Protection Act (1972). Therefore this area
needs intervention for implementation of measures
of sustainable conservation.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Authors are grateful to University Grants Com-
mission for providing financial assistance in form
of R ajeev Gandhi National Fellow ship. Authors are
also thankful to Dr. M .S. Thakur of Department of
Biosciences, Himachal Pradesh University, Shim la
and Director, High Altitude Regional Centre, Zoo-
logical Survey of India, Saproon, Solan, Himachal
Pradesh for help in species identification.

REFERENCES

A lfred J.R .B D as A ,K . & SanyalA.K., 1998,FaunalDi-
versity in India. ENVIS Centre, Zoological Survey
of India, Kolkata, 497 pp.

Arora G.S., 1 990. Collection and preservation of ani-
mals: Lepidoptera. Zoological Survey India, Kolkata
p p . 13 1-13 8.

Arora G.S., Mehta H.S. & W alia V.K., 2005. Insecta:
Lepidoptera (B utter flies). In: Fauna of Western Hi-
malaya (Part 2). Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata,
pp. 157-180 pp.

Davidar P., Yogan T.K., Ganesh T. & Joshi N . , 1996. An
assessment of common and rare bird species of the
Andaman Islands. Forktail, 12: 135-142.

Evans W .H ., 1 93 2. The identification of Indian Butter-
flies (2nd ed.). Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay, 454 pp.

Gay T., Kehimkar I.D. & Punetha J.C., 1992. Common
butterflies of India. Published for W orld W ild Fund
for Nat u re-lndia and Oxford University Press,
Mum bay, 67 pp.

Mani M.S., 1986. Butterflies of the Himalaya. Oxford
and I.B.H. Co., New Delhi, 181 pp.

Marshall G.F.L. & de Niceville L., 1890. The b utter flies
oflndia, Burma and Ceylon. Taylor and Francis Ltd.,
London, 3: 1-503.

Mehta H.S., Thakur M.S., Sharrna R.M. & Mattu V.K.,
2002. Butterflies of Pong Dam wetland, Himachal
Pradesh. Bionotes, 5: 3 7-3 8.

M oore F., 1882. List of the Lepidoptera collected by the
Rev. J.H. Hocking, chiefly in the Kangra District,
N.W. Himalayas, with description of new genera and
species, Part 1. Proceedings of the Zoological Society
of London, 1 8 82: 2 34-263 .

Pollard E. & Yates T.G., 1993. Monitoring butterflies for
ecology and conservation. Conservation Biology
Series (1). Chapman and Hall, London, UK. Primer
Ver. 5.22. 2001. Primer- E Ltd., Press, Oxford.

Ramesh J., Hussain K.J., Selvanayagam M., Satpathy
K .K . & Prasad M.V.R., 2010. Patterns of diversity,
abundance and habitat associations of butter fly com-
munities in heterogeneous landscapes of the depar-
tment of atomic energy (DAE) campus at
Kalpakkam, South India. International Journal of
Biodiversity and Conservation, 2: 75-85.

Sarnia K., Kumar A., Devi A., Mazumdar M., Krishna
M ., Mudoi P. & Das N ., 2012. Diversity and habitat
association of butterfly species in foothills of Itana-
gar, Arunachal Pradesh, India. CIBtech Journal of
Zoology, 1: 67-77.

Singh V. & Banyal H.S., 2012. Diversity and Ecology of
Mammals in Kalatop-Khajjiar Wildlife Sanctuary,
District Chamba (Himachal Pradesh), India. Interna-
tional Journal of Science and Nature, 3: 125-128.

Singh V. & Banyal H.S., 2013. Insect Fauna ofKhajjiar
Lake of Chamba District, Himachal Pradesh, India.
Pakistan Journal of Zoology, 45: 1053-1061.

Sreekumar P.G. & Balakrishnan M., 2001. Habitat and
altitude preferences ofbutterflies in Aralarn Wildlife
Sanctuary, Kerala. Tropical Ecology, 42: 277.

Talbot G ., 1 93 9. The Fauna of British India, Including
Ceylon and Burma. Butterflies, Vol. I. P a p ilio n id a e ,
Pieridae. Taylor and Francis Ltd., London, 600 pp.

Talbot G., 1947. The Fauna of British India, B utter flies,
Vol. 2. Danaidae, Satyridae,Amathusiidae and A cra-
eidae. Taylor and Francis Ltd., London, 506 pp.

Thakur M ,S ., M ehta H.S. & Mattu V.K.,2002. B utterflies
of Kalatop-Khajjiar Wildlife Sanctuary, Himachal
Pradesh. Zoos’ Print Journal, 17: 909-910.

Thakur M .S., M ehta H.S. & Mattu V.K.,2006.D istribu-
tional records of butterflies (Lepidoptera: Rhopalo-
cera) from Pin Valley National Park, Himachal
Pradesh, India. Annals of Forestry, 14: 83-85.

Thakur M . L . & Mattu V.K., 2010. The Role of butterfly
as flower visitors and pollinators in Shiwalik Hills of
Western Himalayas. Asian Journal of experimental
Biological Sciences, 1: 822-825.

Varshney R.K., 1993. Index Rhopalocera Indica. Part III.
Genera of butterflies from India and neighbouring

68

Vikram Singh & Harjeet Singh Banyal

countries (Lepidoptera: (A) Papilionidae, Pieridae
and Donaidae). Oriental Insects, 2 7: 347-372.

W y n te r- B ly th M .A 1 940. A list of the butterflies of
Shim la hills. Journal of the Bombay Natural History
S ociety, 4 1: 7 16-74 1.

Wynter-Blyth M.A., 1945a. A list of the butterflies of
Shim la hi 11s. Journal of the Bombay Natural History

Society, 45: 25 6-25 7.

Wynter-Blyth M.A., 1945b. A list of the butterflies of
Shim la hills. Journal of the Bombay Natural History
Society, 46: 73 5-73 6.

Wynter-Blyth M.A., 1957. Butterflies of the Indian Re-
gion. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers.
New D elhi, 5 2 3 pp .

Biodiversity Journal, 2014, 5 (1): 69-86

Biodiversity indices for the assessment of air, water and soil
quality of the “Biodiversity Friend” certification in temperate
areas

Gianfranco Caoduro 1 *, Roberto Battiston 2 , Pier Mauro Giachino 3 , Laura Guidolin 4 & Giuliano Lazzarin 1

'World Biodiversity Association, c/o Museo Civico Storia Naturale, Lung. Porta Vittoria, 9 - 37129 Verona, Italy; e-mails: gian-
franco . caoduro@libero . it; giuliano . lazzarin@libero . it

2 Musei del Canal di Brenta, Palazzo Perli, Via Garibaldi, 27 - 36020 Valstagna, Vicenza, Italy: e-mail: roberto.battiston@
museivalstagna.it

3 Settore Fitosanitario Regione Piemonte, Environment Park; Via Livorno 60, 10144 Torino, Italy; e-mail: PierMauro.Giachino@
regione.piemonte.it

4 University of Padua, Department of Biology, ViaU. Bassi, 58/B - 35121 Padua, Italy; e-mail: laura.guidolin@unipd.it
■"Corresponding author

ABSTRACT “Biodiversity Friend” is a standard certification developed in 2010 by World Biodiversity

Association to evaluate the biodiversity and promote its conservation in agriculture. The
procedure to obtain the certification considers the environmental impacts of the agricultural
activities on the agrosystem and the biodiversity and suggests operational strategies to
improve the environmental quality of the agriculture areas. The evaluation is referred to 12
actions related to low-impact methods of pest and weed control, reconstitution of soil fertility,
rational management of water resources, diffusion of hedges, woodlands and nectariferous
plants, conservation of agricultural biodiversity, soil, air and freshwater quality through Bio-
diversity Indices, use of renewable sources for energy supply, lower C0 2 production and
C0 2 storage and other actions that may have beneficial effects on biodiversity.

The environmental conditions of the agrosystem are evaluated by biomonitoring of air, water
and soil. The biodiversity of soil and aquatic macroinvertebrates and the biodiversity of epi-
phytic lichen communities decrease very quickly when the soil, water and air conditions are
altered by different causes such as pollution, synthetic and organic pesticides, bad land use
practices, etc. The protocol of the three indices of the standard certification “Biodiversity
Friend”: Lichen Biodiversity Index (LBI-bf), Freshwater Biodiversity Index (FBI-bf), and
Soil Biodiversity Index (SBI-bf) are here presented in detail.

KEY WORDS biodiversity; bioindicators; pollution; certification; agrosystem.

Received 28.02.2014; accepted 14.03.2014; printed 30.03.2014

INTRODUCTION

Up to date, on the Earth about two million species
have been recorded (Fontaine et al., 2012), but the
naturalists estimate that the total number of species
is at least 8.7 million (Mora et al., 2011), three-
quarters of them concentrated in the tropical rain-

forests. So, we know only about one fourth of plant
and animal species on our planet. Zoologists and
botanists describe about 17,000 new species every
year (Fontaine et al., 2012), but the destruction of
tropical rainforests at a rate of several ten thousands
sq km a year (Skole & Tucker, 1993; Katzman &
Cale, 1990) determines the extinction of thousands

70

Gianfranco Caoduro et alii

of species annually; therefore, the loss of biodiver-
sity is one of the most important environmental
emergencies today.

The recognition of such an emergency has led
150 countries to sign, at the Rio de Janeiro Earth
Summit in 1992, the "Convention on Biological Di-
versity". With the aim of promoting sustainable de-
velopment, the Convention recognizes that the
protection of biodiversity is not concerned only to
living organisms and their ecosystems, but it in-
volves and affects the whole human community and
its basic needs (the right to food, health, air, water
and soil quality). Despite the Convention's member
countries have met regularly to establish actions
and strategies, the rate of biodiversity loss increased
continuously. The minimum target set in the 6th
Conference in Johannesburg on 2002, has been
fixed in a meaningful reduction of the current rate
of biodiversity loss at global, regional and national
levels, within 2010 (Decision 6/26). Unfortunately,
unsustainable patterns of production and consump-
tion, lack of education and awareness about this
problem at any level did not allow to get significant
results: the rate of biodiversity loss has not been re-
duced; on the contrary, the destruction of rainforests
is proceeding very quickly every day.

From a long time, the European Community rec-
ognized the conservation of biodiversity as a key
objective of the strategy for sustainable develop-
ment (Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992).
The preservation of biodiversity is closely connected
with other environmental emergencies, such as
climate change and resources’ availability, about
which in the coming decades the fate of the entire
human community will be played.

Biodiversity as a resource. Most people
have a romantic vision of biological diversity,
mainly linked to emotional and aesthetic criteria.
Even though few people recognize its value, biodi-
versity is the most important resource of natural sys-
tems in the Earth. Therefore, its conservation is
functional to real preservation of ecosystems, from
which depend, directly or indirectly, all human ac-
tivities. In essence, we can say that every living species
is a potential resource, an option for the future, on the
contrary eveiy extinct species is a missed opportunity.

Today, at global level, the destruction and frag-
mentation of habitats, pollution, climate change,
irrational exploitation of resources, human popula-

tion growth and spread of alien species are the main
threats to biodiversity (Convention on Biological
Diversity, 1992).

Biodiversity is a fundamental resource for
human beings, such as energy and water resources.
The maintenance of high biodiversity in the envi-
ronment must be an overriding objective for pro-
duction activities, especially in the primary sector.
The agrosystem can be considered as a man-con-
trolled environment in which the coexistence of veg-
etal and animal species is not characterized by
stable relationships between them; therefore it can
not be considered a true ecosystem. However, it rep-
resents the best possible solution to assure environ-
mental quality and food production. A modern
farmer has to face the problem of how to encourage
biodiversity in its farm and to manage the effects of
a possible reduction since it was established the
close relationship between the biological quality of
the environment and the quality of products. The
use of "good agricultural practices" to ensure con-
servation of soil fertility, correct water management,
weed and pest control through environmentally
friendly methods contribute to the maintenance of
biodiversity in the agrosystems. Other actions such
as the increase of hedgerows, wolds, wooded areas
and nectar species, the leaving of necromasses and
the use of multi-year rotations, increase biodiversity
in the agrosystems, at the same time improving the
quality of air, water and soil (Lowrance et al.,
1986).

Supporting biodiversity in agrosystems. In
this changing world, we are facing a strategic
challenge for the future of the planet: to ensure, in
terms of sustainability, the productivity of economic
systems and the preservation of natural resources.

World Biodiversity Association, a non-profit or-
ganization since its foundation October 4, 2004 at
the Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Verona, has
been engaged in studying and conserving biodiver-
sity hot spots, in Italy and worldwide.

In the matter of environmental responsibility,
World Biodiversity Association is moving for a
long time to promote among the companies a
greater consciousness of their role into the field of
conservation and the sensitization of their clients to
sustainability.

With the support of a team of naturalists, agron-
omists, foresters, and its International Scientific

Biodiversity indices for the assessment of air, water and soil quality of the “Biodiversity Friend” certifi cation in temperates areas 7 1

Committee, WB A developed in 2010, a certification
that, starting from the assumption of reducing the
biodiversity losses in the cultivated areas, encour-
ages fanners to increase biological complexity of the
agrosystem, towards a real sustainability and quality
of the crops. The new certification, named “Biodi-
versity Friend” (BF) is not merely confined to cer-
tify the engagement of the farm to a significant
reduction of the biodiversity loss, but represents an
incentive for the farm towards a progressive increase
of biological diversity, that ultimately coincides with
an improvement of the health and quality of the prod-
ucts. BF certifies that the production processes do
not involve loss of biodiversity, and the certified
company is constantly committed to improve the
quality of the environment in which it operates.

The Biodiversity Friend standard. The Bio-
diversity Friend (BF) protocol considers the envi-
ronmental impacts of the agricultural activities on
the ecosystem quality and biodiversity. BF has the
objective of defining a complete picture of the in-
teractions of a product or service with the biological
diversity of the territory. Moreover, the new proto-
col suggests operational strategies to improve the
environmental quality, with the aim to reduce the
impacts of the agricultural activities on agrosystems
and their biodiversity.

Operative strategies are defined in 12 actions
which are related to:

1) low-impact methods of pest and weed control
(organic or integrated production)

2) low-impact methods for the reconstitution of soil

fertility

3) rational management of water resources

4) presence of hedges, woodlands and dry stone
walls/terraces

5) abundance of nectariferous plants

6) conservation of agricultural biodiversity

7) soil quality through the Soil Biodiversity Index

8) freshwater quality through the Freshwater Bio-
diversity Index

9) air quality through the Lichen Biodiversity Index

1 0) use of renewable sources for energy supply

11) moderate C0 2 production, C0 2 storage and
low-impact manufacturing techniques

12) other actions that may have beneficial effects
on biodiversity.

Each action corresponds with a score. The com-
missioner must obtain a minimum score of 60 out
of 100 to be certified. To maintain the certification
the commissioner must increase the biodiversity
every year through effective actions that can be sug-
gested by the evaluators and verified in the annual
controls. When the farm get a score of 80 out of
100, no other improvement is requested (Caoduro
& Giachino, 2012).

Since 2010 to the present day about 50 organic
and integrated production farms have been certified
“Biodiversity Friend”. Many of them already
placed on the market their products with the brand
“Biodiversity Friend”, to show the consumers their
engagement in biodiversity conservation. In 2010
“Biodiversity Friend” obtained the patronage of the
Ministiy of Agricultural, Food and Forestry Policies
of Italy. The brand “Biodiversity Friend” is exclu-
sive property of the WBA and has been registered
as an international trademark in Italy, European
Union, China and U.S.A.

The Biodiversity Friend environmental
quality assessment

The actions related to the environmental condi-
tions of the agrosystem have a very high importance
for the BF certification. They concern the assess-
ment of the quality of the air, water and soil by
using synthetic biomonitoring procedures based on
methods recognized by scientific community. In the
years 2009 and 2010 a group of WBA naturalists
coordinated by Dr. Gianfranco Caoduro, under the
supervision of the WBA Scientific Committee, de-
veloped different procedures for evaluating the
complexity, in terms of biodiversity, of the soil and
freshwater communities of temperate agricultural
areas. In the same way, the Lichen Biodiversity
Index (LBI), the most frequently used procedure to
assess atmospheric pollution using bioindicators,
has been modified to allow an easier application of
the method. The operation allowed to identify three
different procedures of the “Biodiversity Friend”
protocol for the assessment of the quality of air,
water and soil based on biodiversity indices. The
biodiversity of soil and aquatic macroinvertebrates
and the biodiversity of epiphytic lichen communi-
ties decrease very quickly when the soil, water and
air conditions are altered by natural or anthropic
causes such as pollution, synthetic and organic pes-
ticides, bad land use practices, etc.

72

Gianfranco Caoduro et alii

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The three indices of the standard certification
“Biodiversity Friend” for temperate areas of North
Hemisphere are represented by: Lichen Biodiversity
Index (LBI-bf), Freshwater Biodiversity Index (FBI-
bf), and Soil Biodiversity Index (SBI-bf).

THE LICHEN BIODIVERSITY INDEX OF
BIODIVERSITY FRIEND (LBI-BF)

Lichens and air pollution in agriculture.
Frequently air pollution is considered a problem re-
lated to industrialized and urban areas. However, in
the last decades the impacts of agriculture on air
quality has been recognized. Air pollutants like pes-
ticides and ammonia substances can have negative
effects also on freshwater, groundwater and soil
(National Research Council, 2009). Many authors
showed that air pollutants produced by agricultural
activities have a reliable impact on epiphytic lichens
(Alstrup, 1991; Brown, 1992; Loppi, 2003; Carrera
& Carreras, 2011). Lichens are generally considered
to be good indicators of air quality: altered compo-
sition of atmospheric gases is reflected in changes
in epiphytic lichen communities. The sensitivity of
lichens is particularly relevant to fungicides, but
herbicides and insecticides also have an important
impact on them. In particular, lichen species
richness was demonstrated to be negatively in-
fluenced by the frequency of pesticide treatments
(Bartok, 1999).

Lichen as bioindicators. Lichens are organisms
formed by a symbiosis between a fungus and an
alga. To date, more than 14,000 species of lichens
have been described by lichenologists. Lichens can
give excellent indications on the level of environ-
mental alteration because their metabolism depends
strictly by the air quality. The characteristics that
make lichens excellent bioindicators of the air
quality, both in urban and in rural areas, are: a) high
capacity of absorption and accumulation of sub-
stances absorbed from the atmosphere; b) resistance
to environmental stress; c) impossibility to get rid
of the polluted parts; d) longevity and slow growth;
e) high sensitivity to the pollutants.

In the evaluation of the air quality lichens can
be used as bioindicators and bioaccumulators.

Frequently, a decrease in the number of lichen
species is recorded together with a reduction of the
number of specimens of each species. While mor-
phological and physiological alterations are difficult
to evaluate, the ecological variations allow to con-
vert the lichen reactions into numeric values, related
to different levels of air pollution. Generally, near-
ing the pollution sources, there is a progressive de-
terioration in lichen's health condition.

The first studies on lichen sensitivity to air pol-
lution date back to the XIX century, but only since
some decades they are used in large-scale biomon-
itoring. Recently many methods based on appro-
priate interpretation levels have been proposed. The
most used procedure calculates the Lichen Biodi-
versity Index (LB I) based on the state of the lichen
diversity in standard conditions, after a long expo-
sition to atmospheric pollution and/or other kinds
of environmental stress; the lichens considered for
the index calculation are, essentially, the epiphytic
ones. Specific indications on the sampling system
and survey procedures of the lichen biodiversity are
available on the Manual for the application of the
index, published by ANPA (ANPA, 2001).

A synthetic method to evaluate the air quality of
the rural areas is the use of the lichens as biosensors
of phytotoxic gases (Nimis, 1999). The epiphytic
lichen biodiversity is an excellent indicator of the
pollution produced by air pollutants. By means of
this approach it is possible to correlate different lev-
els of environmental alteration to variations of the
external aspect of the covering and floristic richness
of the lichen communities. A phytotoxic agent, at
determined concentrations, can cause the death of
the lichens sensitive to it. As the sensitivity to the
pollutants is related to the morphology of the lichen
tallus, to its ecological, physiological and structural
characteristics, the disappearance of the lichens
from a polluted area is not simultaneous, but de-
ferred in time: first the more sensitive species die
and then the more resistant ones. Therefore, the floris-
tic composition becomes an indirect measure of the
concentration of pollutants in a certain place.

Lichens answer with a relative velocity to alter-
ations of the air quality, but they can recolonize in
few years industrial and urban environments if air
quality conditions improve, as many European
countries revealed. The studies of ah quality through
lichens found a large diffusion in Italy starting from
the eighty years, at the same time with the resump-
tion of the interests for the lichenological studies.

Biodiversity indices for the assessment of air, water and soil quality of the “Biodiversity Friend” certifi cation in temperates areas 73

Many investigations were realized both in urban and
in rural areas, in natural protected areas and in areas
where the human activities are particularly intense.

The methodology adopted in Italy starting from
the beginning of the 2000 years is indicated as
“ANPA Method” (ANPA, 2001). This approach
minimizes the subjective elements of the guide lines
previously proposed in Italy and Germany, giving
specific attention to the selection of the sampling
sites, of the trees to be monitored and the position
of the sampling grid.

This method estimates the state of the lichen
biodiversity in standard conditions after a long ex-
position to air pollutants and/or other kinds of en-
vironmental stresses. It is important to specify that
lichens considered in evaluation of biodiversity are
essentially the epiphytic ones; this allows to limit
the variability of the ecological parameters unre-
lated with pollution, such as base content or water
capacity, very changeable in the lithic substrates.

The Lichen Biodiversity Index of “Biodi-
versity Friend”

According to the complexity of the ANPA
method, which can be performed only by an expert
lichenologist, Biodiversity Friend uses a simplified
application of it, allowing to use the procedure also
by non specialists. In the application of the “Biodi-
versity Friend” method the taxonomic identification
of the lichen species is not necessary; the operator is
required only to distinguish the major morphological
differences among the species of the lichen commu-
nity. The operator, therefore, identifies the “Species
A”, from the “Species B”, from the “Species C” and
so on. All other operations correspond exactly to the
ones used by the ANPA Method. The use of the tra-
ditional sampling grid allows the calculation of a nu-
merical index based on lichen diversity and on the
frequency of the various species, through which it is
possible to define the alteration level of the lichen
community. The density of the sampling sites is cal-
culated in relation to the extension of the total farm
surface, as described in Table 1 .

Each sample is formed by three trees (phoro-
phyta) with the characteristics required by the pro-
tocol. The site must be located inside the farm
lands, preferably in the central area. The operator
must choose the three trees nearest to the farm cen-
ter. If in the farm there are not trees suitable to be

Total Farm

Surface

Number of samples

< 20 ha

One sample

20-200 ha

1 + (total surface — 50)/50

The result must be rounded to the
inferior integer number

> 200 ha

3 + (total surface - 200)/ 100

The result must be rounded to the
inferior integer number

Table 1 . Number of air quality sampling sites in relation to

farm surface.

sampled the operator must search other trees in the
peripheral zones. The geographic coordinates of the
site must be reported on the sample form, together
with a synthetic map with the location of the trees
to make their finding easier in the following sur-
veys. If the total farm surface is larger than 20
hectares and it is necessary to locate more than one
site, these must be located at least at 150 m of dis-
tance among them. About the selection of the tree
species, two groups can be distinguished according
to the pH of the bark, as in Table 2.

Species with
subneutral bark

Species with acid bark
(to be preferred)

Acer pseudoplatanus

Prunus domestica

Acer platanoides

Olea europaea

Ceratonia siliqua

Quercus petraea

Ficus sp.

Alnus glutinosa

Fraxinus excelsior

Castanea sativa

Fraxinus ornus

Quercus pubescens

Jug Ians sp.

Quercus cerris

Populus x canadensis

Betula pendula

Sambucus nigra

Prunus avium

Ulmus sp.

Tilia sp.

Table 2. Tree species that can be used in biomonitoring of
air quality by the LBI-bf.

74

Gianfranco Caoduro et alii

For the biomonitoring the trees with a bark eas-
ily exfoliable (e.g. Aesculus, Platanus ) must be ex-
cluded; the use of Sambucus and Robinia is not
recommended for the high water tolerance of their
bark. Celt is australis and Populus alba are not rec-
ommended because they maintain for a long time a
smooth bark, poorly colonizable by lichens; Fagus
is suggested only in mountain areas. Samples based
on trees of different groups are not directly compa-
rable. Only one tree species is to be used. When this
is not possible, it is best to use another species of
the same group. It is preferable to use species with
acid bark, in particular, trees of the genus Tilia
(Table 2). The sample trees must have the following
characteristics: 1) the inclination of the trunk must
not exceed 10° to avoid effects due to the excessive
eutrophication of inclined surfaces; 2) circumfer-
ence larger than 60 cm to avoid situations with pio-
neer lichens; 3) absence on the bark of evident
factors of disturbance or pathologies.

The presence and frequency of the lichen species
on the bark are detected by means of a sampling grid
formed by a vertical ladder of 10x50 cm, divided in
five subunities of 10x10 cm; the ladder must be ap-
plied to each of the four cardinal points, with the
base at about 100 cm from the ground level. To ex-
clude from the sample any unfit part of the trunk, a
rotation up to 20° clockwise can be allowed.

Even if the lichen cover is high, the position-
ing of the grid in each cardinal point must avoid:
decorticated or damaged portions of the trunk, por-
tions with evident knots, portions corresponding to
rainwater tracks, portions covered with more than
25% by bryophytes (however, also muscicolous
lichens must be considered in the calculation, if
they are present).

To allow the repetition of the survey, for every
tree in the survey form must be noted: a) the exact
location of the tree, using a geo-referenced system
or a detailed map; b) the exact exposure (in degree)
of each grid position; c) the height, from the ground
level, of the grid base; d) circumference of the trunk
in the middle of the grid.

All the lichen species present in each subunit
must be recorded together with their frequency, cal-
culated as number of squares in which each species
is present (the frequency values of each species,
therefore, vary from 0 to 5); if the same specimen
of a certain species is present in more than one
square, its frequency is equivalent to the number of

squares in which it is present. The removal and dam-
age of the lichens inside the grid area must be
avoided to permit the repetition of the sample. Con-
sidering that the identification at specific level of
each species can be difficult for a non-lichenologist
operator, on the survey form is sufficient to deter-
mine the diversity of epiphytic lichens present on
the tree specimen, by noting on the form: “Species
A”, “Species B”, “Species C”, etc., making sure that
they are not damaged or underdeveloped specimens
of species already present in the grid. In case of
doubts in identifying a species, the operator can use
the magnifying glass to confront at microscopic
level the different morphologies and the camera for
macro photography for a following identification.
The value of lichen biodiversity of each sampled tree
is obtained summarizing the frequencies recorded in
each unit.

Calculation of the Biodiversity Lichen Index

The Biodiversity Lichen Index of the site is sta-
tistically determined on the basis of the values col-
lected during the survey. The first step is to
summarize the frequencies of the species recorded
on each tree. As it is predictable a substantial growth
difference among the sides of the trunk, the frequen-
cies must be noted separately for each cardinal point.
In this way, for each tree will be obtained four sums
of frequencies (BLjN, BLjE, BLjS, BLjW). In each
site the following operations must be realized:

1) for each tree the frequencies of all the lichen
species detected are summed (in this way we have
the biodiversity related to the single phorophyta);

2) all the frequencies gathered on each tree are
summed and the total is divided by three (the
number of phorophyta). In this way we obtain the
Lichen Biodiversity Index of the site (LBI);

The Lichen Biodiversity Index of the site must
be superior or equal to 45. In case of surveys to
make in more sites (farms with total surface larger
than 40 hectares), the total Lichen Biodiversity
Index emerges by the sum of the indices of all sites,
divided by the total number of sites. The ratio must
be 45 or more, for an acceptable air quality.

Classes of lichen biodiversity

Generally, seven classes of Lichen Biodiversity
are used, corresponding to the same number of air

Biodiversity indices for the assessment of air, water and soil quality of the “Biodiversity Friend” certifi cation in temperates areas 75

quality levels. The reference scale under reported is
the one calibrated for the Padan-Adriatic biogeo-
graphical area. For different areas a re-calibration
of the classes is necessary.

- Value ofL.B. equal to 0 : corresponds to the so
called “lichen desert”, and therefore to a situation
of very high alteration of the lichen community,
corresponding to the worst level of air quality (very
poor air quality).

- Values ofL.B. between 1 and 15: are referred
to zones with a high level of alteration of the lichen
community. These zones have a very scarce air
quality.

- Values ofL.B. between 15 and 30: correspond
to situations of medium alteration of the lichen
communities. These zones have a scarce air quality.

- Values ofL.B. between 30 and 45: are referred
to zones with a low alteration level of the lichen
communities and a low air quality.

- Values ofL.B. between 45 and 60: are referred
to zones with a medium level of naturalness of the
lichen communities. In these areas the air quality is
moderately good.

- Values of L.B. between 60 and 75: in these
zones the lichen communities have a high level of
naturalness. The air quality in these areas is good.

- Value ofL.B. more than 75: in these zones the
lichen communities have a very high level of natu-
ralness. The air quality in these areas is very good.

According to the “Biodiversity Friend” proce-
dure, the conformity to the action is reached by a
value ofL.B. equal or greater than 45, correspond-
ing to an air quality quite good, good or very good,
on the basis of the calibrated scale of the Padan-
Adriatic biogeographic area (ANPA, 2001).

The survey can be performed during all the year.
Before starting the survey, the operator must
have the following material:

- handbooks with epiphytic lichens identification

keys

- survey form for LBI-bf

- Global Positioning System

- magnifying-glass (at least lOx)

- digital camera for macro-photos

- sampling grid formed by a vertical grid of 10x50

cm

- compass

- measuring tape (at least 3 m)

THE FRESHWATER BIODIVERSITY INDEX
OF BIODIVERSITY FRIEND (FBI-BF)

There are several ways to make an environmen-
tal quality analysis of the freshwater and each of
them can point out different aspects and critical
points. It is possible to divide these methodologies
in two main groups: the direct approaches, related
to the physical-chemical analyses, and the indirect
ones, represented by the biotic indices. Generally,
the physical-chemical monitoring can be very de-
tailed but it is related to simple problems and reveal
single criticalities in a punctiform way. Chemical
analysis targets only specific substances and it may
miss intermittent or periodic pollutants, or sub-
stances outside the range of the analysis.

To analyze complex systems as the ecological
net of a river or a stream, the biotic indices can be
more suitable. The biomonitoring of the organisms
living in waterways can reveal the effects of pollu-
tants not detected by chemical analysis, as well
recorded in modem literature since the proposal of
the Beck's biotic index (Beck, 1955). The strategy
of the biotic indices is based on the identification
of macroinvertebrates, the sensitivity of which to
water quality is well known; for this reason they are
defined bioindicators. The community of the ben-
thic macroinvertebrates in a water body is particu-
larly adapted to be used as a source of bioindicators
because it is easy to investigate, it is abundant and
generally always available and it has moderate sea-
sonal variations. Monitoring the animals that live
in water bodies can reveal the effects of pollution
not detected by chemical monitoring. For this rea-
son the biotic indices had a very important role in
the wide-ranging environmental analysis of the last
half of the last century, till their recognition and
standardization in the national and European regu-
lations related to the monitoring and classification
of the water bodies (Directive 2000/60/EC).

However, in the last years the standardized
model of the Extended Biotic Index (Woodiwiss,
1964; 1978) has been improved by adding sig-
nificant contributions. The E.B.I. works well if it
is applied in well known areas, where the tolerance
parameters of the single species are known, and if
the investigation has a high detail from a taxo-
nomic point of view, with the involvement of spe-
cialists in macroinvertebrates and hydrobiology.
To bypass this methodological limit, and at the

76

Gianfranco Caoduro et alii

same time to increase the systemic complexity of
the analysis to the study of bioindicators, some au-
thors suggested to reduce the taxonomic resolu-
tion, rewarding it with a more accurate description
of the ecosystem and its functionality, using the
“River Continuum Concept” (Vannote et al., 1980;
Siligardi et al., 2007; or the Italian SEL in the
D.M. 391/2003).

As a further evolution of the biotic index method-
ologies, the Freshwater Biodiversity Index of “Bio-
diversity Friend” is proposed to evaluate the
suitability of a water environment to host a rich bio-
diversity. This protocol adapts common used assess-
ing methods to evaluate biodiversity in freshwater
environments, detecting the diversification and sta-
bility of the biotic communities (Klemm et al.,
1990; Rosenberg et al., 1997), relating them to the
river continuum and to the functional parts of the
hydromorphology.

Determination of the FBI-bf. An environment
suitable to host many kinds of organisms should be
primarily heterogeneous, with different survival
strategies. Therefore, a general classification of the
entire ecosystem functional to the water course, con-
ditioning its dynamics, is necessary. The operator
has to fill out a survey form in which different mor-
phological and ecological parameters are listed. If
the water body presents significantly diversified
ecological conditions, the operator must fill out a
different form for each riparian zone; the final score
will be obtained as the mean of the final values ob-
tained for each zone considered.

Hydro-morphological Assessment

Width. The width of a water body is very impor-
tant considering that the most food sources of the
refuge and reproduction sites of the aquatic fauna
are located near the banks. The width of the bed
must be evaluated in normal water conditions; the
bed of the stream includes the part occupied by the
water and a riparian strip lacking of vegetation,
trees and shrubs that can not survive in conditions
of frequent submersion and erosion of the substrate
caused by high floods.

During periods of low floods, a part of the bed
can be colonized by pioneer herbaceous vegetation.
Therefore, the operator must observe carefully the
banks to locate the real width of the water body. The

width will be evaluated transversally, from the ex-
treme margins of the bed, in normal water conditions.

If the banks and the bed are completely over-
built or if the flows are regulated, involving the
drainage of the water body for more than three
months in a year, or the bed is dredged more than
twice a year, the water body must be considered
“artificial”.

Fluvial morphology. Dikes and canalization and
flood-relief works artificially modify the water
bodies to have as less impact as possible on the
human activities, to prevent overflows and bank
erosion. In many agricultural areas is very difficult
to keep rivers in their natural conditions, especially
in Europe where anthropization and urbanization
are widely spread (U.N., 2012). On the contrary, a
strong artificial management leads to an homoge-
nization of the fluvial structure, reducing the capac-
ity of the water bodies to support complex biotic
communities. A compromise is, however, possible.

A straight channel, completely artificial, with
overbuilt banks offers very few food sources and
refuge sites; it will be colonized, in the best case,
only by few and very resistant organisms. A more
sinuous and irregular course with natural banks, at
least in some reaches, on the contrary, can transform
radically a little agricultural channel in a wetland of
great interest for the freshwater flora and fauna.

Hydrological regime . Water flow variations are
natural and related to seasonality; they can support
the alternation of different host species and increase
aquatic biodiversity. A constant natural flow, deter-
mined by a well-structured hydrological network,
on the other hand, even guaranteeing more stability
and continuity to some species, can reduce the pos-
sible strategies.

Alterations to the natural hydrological regime
such as water withdrawals for agricultural, hydro-
electric or civilian uses can influence significantly
the functionality of the water body, causing tem-
porary shallows incompatible with the life cycles
of many organisms; also the artificial irrigation
ditches can be considered in this category (Bunn &
Arthington, 2002; Ferrington & Sealock, 2005).

The flow variations must not be evaluated by the
size of the wetting bed at the moment of the survey,
but they must be deduced from the extension and
complexity of the perifluvial vegetation and, even-

Biodiversity indices for the assessment of air, water and soil quality of the “Biodiversity Friend” certifi cation in temperates areas 77

tually, by information given by other sources of mon-
itoring (e.g. Literature, recording stations, etc.).

Riparian vegetation. The perifluvial vegetation,
besides conditioning the position and extension of
the shaded areas, influences the riparian morphology
by creating niches and sites adapted to host the
aquatic fauna and produces the most of its food
sources. If, in absence of riparian vegetation, only
few particularly resistant species can survive, every
increase in terms of diversity and complexity of the
riparian communities will be followed by an in-
crease of the aquatic animal species. Compiling the
survey form, different categories can be added to-
gether, if they are present (e.g. trees, shrubs and
herbs). Only hygrophilic and riparian species can be
considered in the survey; exotic species and not ri-
parian herbaceous vegetation must not be considered.

Taxonomic diversity and pollution tole-
rance

After the hydro-morphological assessment of
the water body has been surveyed, the operator eval-
uates the diversity of the aquatic biocenosis by a di-
rect sampling. The “Biodiversity Friend” procedure
does not consider the species as in the classic taxon-
omy but as morphotypes, as a compromise between
a simple evaluation suitable for non-taxononomists
and an accurate quantitative evaluation of species
diversity.

The morphotypes are here considered as groups
of organisms which at macroscopic level are char-
acterized by similar shapes. It is not important to
define the taxonomic level: e.g. a sample of two
species of Plecoptera, one species of Amphipoda
and three different genera of Mollusca corresponds
to six morphotypes.

However, the identification of a morphotype
needs a good knowledge of the aquatic fauna, con-
sidering that many individuals of different species
can look identical to an untrained eye. An adequate
training, even if not at specialistic level, will be nec-
essary to recognize differences in the number of
appendixes, the different form or position of bristles
or hooks and so on.

The number of the morphotypes gives a direct
evaluation of the biodiversity richness and complex-
ity of the communities. The dominance of few
morphs indicates a scarce species richness, the

heterogeneity of the morphs, indicates good species
richness. If an healthy aquatic environment can host
a rich variety of organisms, the presence of a pol-
lutant can limit this condition. Each species, accord-
ing to scientific literature (e.g. Mandaville, 2002;
see Table 3), has a certain tolerance to pollution, but
it is possible to identify a predisposition to tolerance
also at a higher taxonomic level, obviously arriving
at some detail compromises which are considered
acceptable by many authors (Olsgard et al., 1997).
If it is not infrequent to find tolerant invertebrates
in low polluted sites, the opposite is not true.

Therefore, the presence of at least two bioindi-
cators belonging to groups particularly sensitive to
pollution is here considered as a significant indica-
tion to evaluate the minimum quality of the aquatic
environment. In the survey form the two lower val-
ues are identified to define the pollution tolerance,
corresponding to the rounded down mean of these
two values.

Survey: materials and methods

Before the biological survey, the monitoring
procedure of the FBI-bf provides also the analysis
of the main physico-chemical parameters of the
freshwater measured by portable instruments. In
particular must be surveyed and reported on the
FBI-bf form the following parameters: temperature,
pH, electric conductivity and dissolved oxygen.
These additional information can be useful to un-
derstand the reason for eventual discrepancies
between an apparently good environment and a rich
variety of organisms and suggest the commissioner
effective action to reduce the pollution.

Sampling of water macroinvertebrates is per-
formed with a collecting-net for aquatic inverte-
brates (grid 500 pm), according to the procedure
proposed by the British Standards Institute (ISO
10870: 2012). In some circumstances the identifi-
cation of aquatic invertebrates is possible also from
the bank, investigating the lower surface of rocks
and rubbles. Before sampling with the collecting-
net, the operator must verify the activity of surface
insects, collect by hands the stones and submerged
wood of the bottom for at least two minutes. All the
groups of macroinvertebrates observed during these
surveys will be reported on the FBI-bf form. The
sample with the collecting-net must begin from the
most downstream point of the water body, proceed-

78

Gianfranco Caoduro et alii

MACROGROUPS

TROPHIC GROUP

POLLUTION TOLERANCE

Plecoptera

Shredders/ Grazers/Predators

2

Ephemeroptera

Collectors

3

Tricoptera

Collectors/Grazers/Shredders

4

Megaloptera

Predators

4

Platyhelminthes

Collectors

4

Coleoptera (larvae)

Predators/ Grazers/ Shredders/ Collectors

4

Heteroptera

Predators

5

Odonata Anisoptera

Predators

5

Odonata Zygoptera

Predators

8

Arachnida Hydracarina

Predators

6

Diptera (larvae)

Collectors/Grazers/Predators/Shredders

6

Crustacea Amphipoda

Collectors

5

Crustacea Decapoda

Collectors/ Grazers

6

Crustacea Isopoda

Collectors

8

Mollusca

Collectors/Grazers

7

Oligochaeta

Predators

7

Hirudinea

Predators/Collectors

9

N ematoda/N ematomoipha

Predators

8

Table 3. Trophic characteristics and synthetic index of pollution tolerance (from Mandaville, 2002 modified) of the most

common types of freshwater macroinvertebrates.

ing upstream; in this way the aquatic environment
is not disturbed before the sampling. The collecting-
net must be placed against the flow; the operator’s
feet and contemporarily the aquatic net can be used
in deeper water bodies to move the ground debris
and drive out burrowers and climbers. In these con-
ditions the net must be held vertically, in opposition
to the water flow, downstream the operator’s feet.

After 3-4 minutes of sampling, the material col-
lected by the net is put into a little white tank and
the operator will begin the identification of the in-
vertebrates morphotypes, with the aid of a magni-
fying glass. In case of uncertain identification, small
size invertebrates can be collected by means of en-

tomological pincers or little brush and put in a test-
tubes with ethyl alcohol 70% to be identified later.

After having finished the sample the Freshwa-
ter Biodiversity Index of the site can be easily cal-
culated by summing all the scores obtained in each
section of the form: hydromorphology, taxonomic
diversity and pollution tolerance. To have accept-
able conditions of biodiversity the result must be
30 or more.

The survey must be done in low or normal water
conditions coming from decreasing flows, from
spring to autumn. Most benthic invertebrate popu-
lations are subjected to seasonal life cycles and this
should be considered in the results. The sampling

Biodiversity indices for the assessment of air, water and soil quality of the “Biodiversity Friend” certifi cation in temperates areas 79

can give results not reliable in the following situa-
tions:

- during or immediately after flood events (it is
recommended to wait at least two weeks to allow
the recolonization of the substrates);

- during or immediately after periods of drought
(it is recommended to wait at least four weeks);

- impediments caused by environmental factors
such as the high turbidity of water.

The samples must be done in a congruous num-
ber, also in relation with the extension of the super-
ficial water grid of the farm or in near areas, on the
base of the Table 4.

Total Farm

Surface

Number of samples

<20 ha

Two samples

20-200 ha

2 + (total surface - 40)/50

The result must be rounded to the
inferior integer number

> 200 ha

5 + (total surface - 200)/ 100

The result must be rounded to the in-
ferior integer number

Table 4. Number of water quality sampling sites in relation

to farm surface.

Completed the samples, in relation to the exten-
sion of the farm surface, the general Freshwater
Biodiversity Index of the farm can be easily calcu-
lated by summing the scores obtained in each
survey form. The mean of the results must be 30 or
more, for acceptable condition for biodiversity.

Before starting the survey, the operator must
have the following material:

- handbooks with aquatic macroinvertebrates iden-

tification keys

- survey form for FBI-bf

- digital portable thermometer

- digital portable pH meter

- digital portable EC meter

- dissolved oxygen test kit

- aquatic net (ISO 10870:2012)

- magnifying glass lOx

- little white tank 30x40 cm

- lattice gloves

- entomological pincers

- test-tubes with ethyl alcohol 70%

- digital camera for macro photos

- Global Positioning System

THE SOIL BIODIVERSITY INDEX OF
BIODIVERSITY FRIEND (SBI-BF)

The soil can be considered an ecosystem formed
by a complex mixture of mineral particles, water,
air, organic matter and living organisms; being the
basic factor of the agricultural production, it is one
of the most valuable natural resources on the Earth.
A large part of Europe’s land is affected by soil de-
terioration due to erosion, compaction, contamina-
tion, loss of organic content and change in land use
(Jones et al., 2012). To be sustainable, agriculture
in the future must adopt a careful soil management.

The utilization of the soils for the purpose of
producing food needs a very high level of mainte-
nance of the resource. The soil quality is tradition-
ally evaluated by means of physical, chemical and
microbiological indicators. Some methods based on
the use of soil microarthropods in evaluating the
soil quality were proposed in the past by different
authors. In fact, many endogean animals show high
sensitivity to land management practices and can
be easily related to the soil ecosystem functions
(Black, 1965; Menta, 2008).

The evaluation of the state of natural integrity,
or alteration, of the edaphic ecosystem can be ef-
fectively realized through the study of the soil
fauna. The edaphic or subterranean animals living
in the soil have a close series of relationships among
them and interact continuously with the physical
environment. Any alteration of this environment is
“registered” by the soil community which, there-
fore, can be used as indicator of the variation of the
natural conditions (Giachino & Vailati, 2005; 2010).

Considering the complexity of soil communi-
ties, in qualitative investigations are usually exam-
ined some groups of animals that have species with
fundamental requirements to be considered good
biological indicators: to be assessable, to be easily
determined and to be sufficiently known from an
ecological and biogeographic point of view.

80

Gianfranco Caoduro et alii

Coleoptera Carabidae and Staphylinidae, Opil-
ionida, Lumbricidae and Enchytreidae were the
groups more frequently used in the past for investi-
gations of this kind (Brandmayr et al., 2005). But
the application of these procedures were often lim-
ited by the difficulty of classification at species level,
that requires the work of specialists in zoology.

The method of evaluation of the biological soil
quality in relation to the presence of edaphic mi-
croarthropods, was proposed by Parisi in 2001
(QBS-ar, Qualita Biologica del Suolo-Arthropoda),
initially with the aim to develop a procedure able
to characterize the maturity of woodland soils.
Using the ecological concept of Biological Form
(or ecotype), similar to Sistematic Unit in the Ex-
tended Biotic Index, and analyzing the morpholog-

ical and functional convergence among the soil mi-
croarthropods, Parisi (2001) assigned a different
importance to each group characterizing the struc-
ture of the soil community, defining the so called
ecomorphological indices (EMI).

The method of the standard “Biodiversity
Friend” is based on the analysis of soil samples
in which the presence of the animal taxa (Table 5)
is detected to determine the Soil Biodiversity Index
(SBI-bf); the presence of each group is recorded
with a score in the proposed form. In comparison
with the QBS-ar method, in addition to the Arthro-
poda, Mollusca and Annelida have been consid-
ered. These groups have a fundamental role in the
dynamics of the edaphic ecosystem (Liu et al.,
2012 ).

PHYLUM

CLASSES

ORDERS (or families)

SCORE

Mollusca

Gastropoda

Pulmonata and terrestrial Prosobranchia

10

Annelida

Oligochaeta

Enchytraeidae

10

Lumbricidae

25

P seudoscorp ionida

20

Arthropoda

Aracnida

Palpigrada

20

Araneae

5

Opilionida

10

Acaroidea

25

Crustacea

Isopoda

10

Myriapoda

Diplopoda

15

Chilopoda

15

Pauropoda

20

Insecta

Symphyla

20

Collembola

25

Protura

20

Diplura

20

Thysanura

10

Orthoptera (Gryllotalpidae and Gryllidae)

10

Dermaptera

5

Blattodea

5

Embioptera

15

Psocoptera

5

Coleoptera

10

Hymenoptera (Formicidae)

5

Larvae of

Holometabola

Diptera

10

Coleoptera

10

Other Holometabola

5

Table 5. Table for the determination of the Soil Biodiversity Index of “Biodiversity Friend” (SBI-bf)

Biodiversity indices for the assessment of air, water and soil quality of the “Biodiversity Friend” certifi cation in temperates areas 8 1

BIODIVERSITY FRIEND CHECKLIST

SURVEY FORM OF THE LICHEN BIODIVERSITY INDEX (FORM LBI-bf)

Farm Locality _ Province

Date O p e rator

Site UTM Coordinates: Altitude m a,s.l. _

Lichen Biodiversity lndex-bf:

List of the species

TOTAL

LB)

LBI TOTAL

Code of the phorophyta and exposition

1

2

3

N

E

S

W

N

E

S

W

N

E

S

W

NOTES:

Figure 1. Survey form of the Lichen Biodiversity Index (Form LBI-bf).

82

Gianfranco Caoduro et alii

BIODIVERSITY FRIEND CHECKLIST

SURVEY FORM OF THE FRESHWATER BIODIVERSITY INDEX (FORM FBI~bf)

Farm Locality _ Province

Date Operator

Site UTM Coordinates: Altitude m a.sJ.

Length of the considered reach: m Freshwater Biodiversity Index-bf;

H 2 O physico-chemical parameters: t pH Elect, cond, pS/cm dissolved O 2 mg/I

1) HYDROMORPHOLOGY

Category

Score: 5

Score: 3

Score: 2

Score: 0

Total

Width

>6 m

2-6 m

<2 m

artificial

Riparian vegetation

hygrophilous

herbaceous

arbustive riparian

arboreous riparian

absent or not functional

Hydrolog. Regime

seasonal natural

constant natural

seasonal altered

Artificial

Fluvial morphology

heterogeneous

irregular

simple

canalized

Final score {1}

BIOINDICATORS GROUPS

NUMBER OF
MORPHOTYPES

POLLUTION

TOLERANCE

Plecoptera

2

Ephemeroptera

3

Tri chapters

4

Megaloptera (Siaiidae)

4

Platelmintes (pianarian flatworms}

4

Coleoptera

4

Hemiptera

5

Odonata: Anisoptera

5

Odonata: Zygoptera

8

Hydracartna

6

Diptera

6

Amphipoda

5

Decapod a

6

Isopoda (Asellidae)

8

Bi va I vi a/Gaste ro poda

7

Oligochaeta

7

Hirudinea

9

Nematoda/Nematomorpha

8

TOTAL MORPHOTYPES

n

MEAN OF THE TWO LOWER
VALUES OF TOLERANCE

r>

2) TAXONOMIC DIVERSITY

Category

Score: 25

Score: 15

Score: 5

Score: 0

Final score {2)

N. morphotypes (*)

heterogeneous
distribution (>20)

light dominance

{9-20)

heavy dominance

(4-8}

domi n a ncefcompl ete
absence (0-3)

3) POLLUTION TOLERANCE

Category

Score: 25

Score: 15

Score: 5 Score: 0

Final score (3)

Mean tolerance (**)

0-2

3-4

5-7

8-9

Index FBI-bf (1+2+3)

Scarce 0-29 Acceptable 30-44

Good 45-84

Excellent >65

NOTES:

Figure 2. Survey form of the Freshwater Biodiversity Index (Form FBI-bf).

Biodiversity indices for the assessment of air, water and soil quality of the “Biodiversity Friend” certifi cation in temperates areas 83

BIODIVERSITY FRIEND CHECKLIST

SURVEY FORM OF THE SOIL BIODIVERSITY INDEX (FORM SBI-bf)

Farm Locality province

Date Operator

Site UTM Coordinates: Altitude m a.s.l,

Meteo conditions: o clean □ moderately cloudy □ cloudy t = “C Soil Biodiversity lndex-bf:

Soil (texiture): □ clay □ silty-clay c silt-loam □ loam o sandy-loam □ sandy skeleton %

PHYLUM

CLASSES

ORDERS (or families)

Score

Presence

Mollusca

Gasteropoda

Pulmonata and Prosobranchia

10

Annelida

Oligochaeta

Enchytraeidae

10

Lumbricidae

25

Arthropoda

Arachnida

Pseudoscorpion ida

20

Palpigrada

20

Araneae

5

0 pi lio n ida

10

Aearoidea

25

Crustacea

Isopoda

10

Miriapoda

Chilopoda

15

Pauropoda

20

Syn phyla

20

Dipiopoda

15

Collembola

25

Insecta

Protura

20

Diplura

20

Thysanura

10

Orthoptera {Gryllotalpidae and Grylfidae)

10

Dermaptera

5

Blattodea

5

Embioptera

15

Psocoptera

5

Coleoptera

10

H yme n opte ra ( F o rm i cidae }

5

Larvae of

Holometabola

Diptera

10

Coleoptera

10

Other Holometabola

5

Final score SBI-bf

NOTES:

Figure 3. Survey form of the Soil Biodiversity Index (Form SBI-bf).

84

Gianfranco Caoduro et alii

Survey methodology of the SBI-bf

One of the most common methods of collecting
soil macroinvertebrates is through the “free hunting”
(with or without aspirator). During this operation the
exploration of the muscicolous, saproxylic and la-
pidicolous enviroments must be done. In the “Bio-
diversity Friend” survey the collecting of the
specimens is not required; the simple observation of
the animals will be recorded on the survey form. By
describing carefully the content of the samplings is
possible to evaluate the Soil Biodiversity Index and,
therefore, the variety of the soil community of a cer-
tain soil. The synthetic value obtained is used in the
“Biodiversity Friend” checklist to evaluate the con-
ditions of the cultivation substrate.

According to the “Biodiversity Friend” stan-
dard, the technique used for the soil survey is based
on the use of the entomological litter reducer. The
survey is made by digging with a spade a volume
of soil of about three square decimetres. The hole
must have a depth of about 25-30 cm. The soil is
collected and put into an entomological litter re-
ducer with a sieve having meshes of 10 mm. The
material obtained is sieved again through another
sieve with 4 mm mesh. The particles of soil must
be sieved on a white square piece of cloth (lxl m
large). The large soil particles collected in the sieve
are put in a comer of the cloth.

At this point, the operator begins the identifica-
tion of the invertebrates, directly or with the help
of a magnifying glass. Little by little the different
taxa of invertebrates are found and identified; their
presence is noted on the survey form. In case of un-
certain identification, for large size organisms
(more than 5 mm) a camera can be used, while
small size organisms can be collected by means of
entomological pincers or little brush and put in a
test-tubes with ethyl alcohol 70% to be identified
successively.

Before starting the survey, the operator must
have the following material:

- handbooks with invertebrate identification keys

- survey form for SBI-bf

- Global Positioning System

- entomological litter reducer

- work gloves

- portable spade

- sieve with 4 mm mesh

- magnifying glass 1 Ox

- white cloth lxl m

- entomological pincers

- aspirator

- little bmsh with soft bristles

- test-tubes with ethyl alcohol 70%

- digital camera for macro-photos

The samples must be collected in workable (in
“tempera”) soil; too dry or too rainy periods must
be avoided. The most favourable seasons are
spring and early autumn. However, surveys must
be realized with sunny and warm conditions (more
than 18° C), to stimulate the soil fauna to move
after sieving.

If the surveys are made during a droughty spring
or autumn, with dryness of the superficial soil lay-
ers, the samples can be taken sieving the soil col-
lected from around the roots of cultivated or
spontaneous plants of the crop. The most advisable
thing is to collect the whole plant and insert it with
all its roots and soil clod in the litter reducer. In the
driest periods the pedofauna looks for moisture in
the deepest layer of the soil or near the root appara-
tus of cultivated or spontaneous plants.

In the same way, further investigations by hand-
collecting can be made under stones deeply buried
in the soil, if they are present in the crop.

At the end of the survey, the operator sums all
the scores registered on the form SBI-bf. According
to the Soil Biodiversity Index a biologically active
soil must reach a total score of 100 or more. The
surveys must be done in an adequate number of
samples in relation to the extension of the farm sur-
face. The number of samples on each more repre-
sentative crop of the farm must be proportionally
related to the extension of the farm (Table 6).

After having finished all the samples, in relation
to the extension of the farm surface, the Soil Biodi-
versity Index can be easily calculated by summing
the scores of each samples, divided by the total
number of samples. The ratio must be 100 or more,
for a farm with soils of acceptable quality. Besides
the surface extension, the definition of main or
more representative crops considers also the criti-
cality in terms of the use of resources. The wood-
lands must be considered as crops if they are
managed using various silvicultural systems.

Biodiversity indices for the assessment of air, water and soil quality of the “Biodiversity Friend” certifi cation in temperates areas 85

Total Farm

Surface

Number of samples

<20 ha

Three samples distributed on the
main or more representative crops

20-200 ha

3 + (total surface - 20)/40

The result must be rounded to the in-
ferior integer number. The samples
must be distributed in the 4 main or
more representative crops

> 200 ha

7 + (total surface - 100)/ 100

The result must be rounded to the
inferior integer number. The samples
must be distributed in the 5 main or
more representative crops

Table 6. Number of soil quality sampling sites in relation

to farm surface

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The three indices here presented are (for survey
forms see figures 1-3) original contribution based on
existing and largely used method of assessing bio-
diversity and the quality of different environments
adapted to the operative methodology of the certi-
fication protocols. The procedures here proposed
are the result of a rational compromise between a
detailed and complete anal-ysis and the need of fast
assessing protocols for non-specialist operators. To
reduce the potential errors and approximations due
to a high level of taxonomical identification of the
samples a multidisciplinary approach has been
used. The different fields of investigation and kind
of source of information allow a comparison of dif-
ferent trends that can lead to a single solid conclu-
sion, reducing the aberration possible in a
mono-thematic approach. The open structure of the
surveys and all the collateral information obtained,
with every step forward a more detailed analysis
beyond the final score, allow the operator to get also
an idea on the single issues that may threat or alter
the analysed environment, and propose resolutions.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank the members of
the Scientific Committee of the World Biodiversity

Association for their support in developing these

new indices; their suggestions and criticisms were

very helpful in achieving our goal.

REFERENCES

Alstrup V., 1991. Effects of pesticides on lichens. Bry-
onora, 9: 2^4.

ANPA, 2001. I.B.L. Indice di Biodiversita Lichenica.
Manuale ANPA 2. ANPA, Roma, 85 pp.

Bartok K., 1999. Pesticide usage and epiphytic lichen
diversity in Romanian orchards. The Lichenologist,
31: 21-25.

Beck W.M. Jr., 1955. Suggested method for reporting
biotic data. Sewage and Industrial Wastes, 27: 1 193—
1197.

Black C.A. (Ed.), 1965. Method of Soil Analysis, Part 2,
Chemical and Microbiological Properties, American
Society of Agronomy, Inc, Publisher, Madison,
Wisconsin USA, 1159 pp.Brandmayr P., Zetto T. &
Pizzolotto R., 2005. I Coleotteri Carabidi per la va-
lutazione ambientale e la conservazione della biodi-
versita. Manuale operativo. APAT, Manuali e Linee
Guida, 34: 240 pp.

Brown D.H., 1992. Impact of agriculture on bryophytes
and lichens. In: Bates J.W. & Farmer A.M., 1992.
Bryophytes and Lichens in a Changing Environment,
Oxford, Clarendon Press, pp. 259-283.

Bunn S.E. & Arthington A.H., 2002. Basic principles and
ecological consequences of altered flow regimes for
aquatic biodiversity. Environmental Management,
30: 492-507.

Caoduro G. & Giachino P.M., 2012. “Biodiversity
Friend”: certificare la conservazione della biodiver-
sita in agricoltura. Regione Piemonte, Annali del
Settore Fitosanitario regionale, 2011: 69-73.

Carrera M.F. & Carreras H.A., 2011. Efectos de la
aplicacion de glifosato sobre parametros quhnico-
fisiologicos en Usnea amblyoclada (Mull. Arg.)
Zahlbr. Ecologia austral, 21: 353-361.

Ferrington L.C. Jr. & Sealock A.W., 2005. Relationship
of benthic macroinverbetrate biodiversity to recent
and past ditching practices in Hardwood Creek near
Hugo, Minnesota. Interim Report, 11 pp.

Fontaine B., van Achterberg K., Alonso-Zarazaga M.A.,
Araujo R., Asche M., Aspock H., Aspock U., Audisio
P., Aukema B., Bailly N., Balsamo M., Bank R.A.,
Belfiore C., Bogdanowicz W., Boxshall G., Bur-
ckhardt D., Chylarecki P., Deharveng L., Dubois A.,
Enghoff H., Fochetti R., Fontaine C., Gargominy O.,
Lopez M.S., Goujet D., Harvey M., Heller K.G., van
Helsdingen P., Hoch H., De Jong Y., Karsholt O., Los
W., Magowski W., Massard J. A., Mclnnes S.J.,
Mendes L.F., Mey E., Michelsen V., Minelli A.,

86

Gianfranco Caoduro et alii

Nafna J.M., van Nieukerken E.J., Pape T., De Prins
W., Ramos M., Ricci C., Roselaar C., Rota E., Segers
H., Timm T., van Tol J. & Bouchet P., 2012. New
Species in the Old World: Europe as a Frontier in
Biodiversity Exploration, a Test Bed for 2 1 st Century
Taxonomy. PLoS ONE.; 7(5):e36881.

Giachino P.M. & Vailati D., 2005. Problemi di protezione
delTambiente ipogeo e note sulTimpatto delle atti vita
di ricerca in ambiente sotterraneo. In: Gili R.R. &
Peano G., 2005. L’ Ambiente Carsico e TUomo. Atti
Convegno Nazionale, Bossea (5-8 settembre 2003):
303-314.

Giachino P.M. & Vailati D., 2010. The subterranean
environment. Hypogean life, concepts and collecting
techniques. WBA Handbooks 3, 130 pp.

ISO 10870:2012, 2012. Water quality. Guidelines for the
selection of sampling methods and devices for
benthic macroinvertebrates in fresh waters. British
Standards Institute, 38 pp.

Jones A., Stolbovoy V., Tarnocai C., Broil G., Spaargaren
O., Montanarella L., Anisimov O., Arnalds O.,
Arnoldusen A., Bockheim J., Breuning-Madsen H.,
Brown J., Desyatkin R., Goryachkin S., Jakobsen

B. H., Konyushkov D., Mazhitova G., Mccallum I.,
Naumov E., Overduin P., Nilsson, Solbakken E., Ping

C. L. & Ritz K.S., 2012. The State of Soil in Europe.
JRC Reference Reports, European Environment
Agency. Report EUR 25186 EN, 71 pp.

Katzman M.T. & Cale W.G. Jr., 1990. Tropical forest
preservation using economic incentives. Bioscience,
40: 827-832.

Klemm D.J., Lewis P., Fulk F., & Lazorchak J.M., 1990.
Macroinvertebrate field and laboratory methods for
evaluating the biological integrity of surface waters.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington,
256 pp.

Liu J., Lu Z., Yang J., Xing M, Yu F. & Guo, M., 2012. Ef-
fect of earthworms on the performance and microbial
communities of excess sludge treatment process in
vermifilter", Bioresources Technology, 117: 214-221.

Loppi S., 2003. Mapping the effects of air pollution, ni-
trogen deposition, agriculture and dust by the diver-
sity of epiphytic lichens in central Italy. In: Lichens
in a changing pollution environment. English Nature
Research Reports. Rep. N. 525: 37-41.

Lowrance R., Hendrix F.P. & Odum E.P., 1986. A hier-
archical approach to sustainable agriculture. Ameri-
can Journal of Alternative Agriculture, 1: 169-173.

Mandaville S.M., 2002. Benthic Macroinvertebrates in
Freshwaters-Taxa Tolerance Values, Metrics, and
Protocols. Project H-l, Soil & Water Conservation
Society of Metro Halifax, 128 pp.

Menta C., 2008. Guida alia conoscenza della biologia e
delTecologia del suolo. Funzionalita, diversity biolo-
gica, indicatori. Oasi Perdisa Editore, Bologna, 304 pp.

Mora C., Tittensor D.P., Adi S., Simpson A.G.B. & Worm
B., 201 1 . How Many Species Are There on Earth and
in the Ocean? PLoS Biology, 9 (8): e 100 1127.

National Research Council, 2009. Global Sources of
Local Pollution: An Assessment of Long-Range
Transport of Key Air Pollutants to and from the
United States. The National Academies Press, Wash-
ington, 248 pp.

Nimis P.L., 1999. Linee guida per la bioindicazione degli
effetti delTinquinamento tramite la biodiversita dei
licheni epifiti. In: Piccini C. & Salvati S., 1999. Atti
Workshop "Biomonitoraggio della qualita delfaria
sul territorio nazionale". A.N.P.A., Roma, pp. 267-
277.

Olsgard F., Somerfield P.J. & Carr M.R., 1997. Relation-
ships between taxonomic resolution and data trans-
formations in analyses of a macrobenthic community
along an established pollution gradient. Marine Ecol-
ogy Progress Series, 149: 173-181.

Parisi V., 2001. La qualita biologica del suolo: un metodo
basato sui microartropodi. Acta naturalia de "LAteneo
Parmense", 37: 97-106.

Rosenberg D.M., Davies I.J., Cobb D.G. & Wiens, A.P.
1997. Ecological Monitoring and Assessment Net-
work (EMAN) Protocols for Measuring Biodiversity:
Benthic Macroinvertebrates in Fresh Waters. Dept,
of Fisheries & Oceans, Freshwater Institute, Win-
nipeg, Manitoba. 53, Appendices.

Siligardi M., Avolio F., Baldaccini G., Bemabei S., Bucci
M.S., Cappelletti C., Chierici E., Ciutti F., Floris B.,
Franceschini A., Mancini L., Minciardi M.R.,
Monauni C., Negri P., Pineschi G., Pozzi S., Rossi
G.L., Sansoni G., Spaggiari R., Tamburro C. &
Zanetti M., 2007. I.F.F. 2007 Indice di funzionalita
fluviale APAT, Ministero delT Ambiente e della Tutela
del Territorio e del Mare, ARPA Trento, 325 pp.

Skole D.L. & Tucker C., 1993. Tropical Deforestation
and Habitat Fragmentation in the Amazon: Satellite
Data from 1978 to 1988. Science, 260: 1905-1910.

United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Af-
fairs, Population Division, 2012. World Urbanization
Prospects: The 2011 Revision. United Nations, New
York, 32 pp.

Vannote R.L., Minshall G.W., Cummins K.W., Sedell
J.R. & Cushing C.E., 1980. The river continuum con-
cept. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic
Sciences, 37: 130-137.

Woodiwiss F.S., 1964. The biological system of stream
classification used by the Trent River Board. Chem-
istry and Industry, 14: 443-447.

Woodiwiss F.S., 1978. Comparative study of biological-
ecological water quality assessment methods. Second
practical demonstration. Summary Report. Commis-
sion of the European Communities. Severn Trent
Water Authority. Brussels.

Biodiversity Journal, 2014, 5 (1): 87-91

Heliographic signalling in Haploglenius Burmeister, 1839
(Neuroptera Ascalaphidae)

Giovanni Onore 1 , Davide Badano 2 & Roberto A. Pantaleoni 2 *

'Fundacion Otonga,Apartado 17-03-1514A, Quito, Ecuador; e-mail: gonore@otonga.org

2 Istituto per lo Studio degli Ecosistemi, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (ISE-CNR), Traversa la Crucca 3, Regione Baldinca,
071 00 Li Punti, Sassari, Italy & Sezione di Entomologia e Patologia Vegetale, Dipartimento diAgraria, Universita degli Studi, via
Enrico De Nicola, 07100 Sassari, Italy; e-mails: davide.badano@gmail.com, r. pan taleoni@ise. cnr.it, pan ta leo@uniss.it
* C orresponding author

ABSTRACT The males of the ascalaphid genus HciplogleniliS are equipped with a movable pronotal flap,

covering a white thoracic membrane, whose function remains poorly known. Few recent
original observations, conducted on undisturbed specimens in their natural environment,
suggest that this structure is part of a complex visual communication system based on inter-
mittently showing the bright, reflecting, thoracic white area on a dark background. This be-
haviour is probably associated with courtship.

KEY WORDS Animal communication; reflected light; camouflage; Owl-flies.

Received 28.02.2014; accepted 18.03.2014; printed 30.03.2014

On July 23 th 2009, during a field survey in Oton-
gachi Forest (Ecuador, Pichincha, La Union del
Toachi) at 850 masl, 0° 18’ 49” S, 78° 57’ 15” W,
the attention of one of the authors (GO) was at-
tracted by a blinking “bright white spot” located
into a small hole (about 15 cm deep) among tree
roots. The frequency of the signal reminded the
flash displays of a firefly, starting whenever the
shadow of the observer clouded the midday light.
At a closer look, the source was revealed to be an
immobile and perfectly hidden adult A scalaphidae
rhythmically lifting up and lowering a flap-like
structure on the pronotum with a shining white
inner face. The specimen was immediately col-
lected and later identified as a male of Haploglenius
latoreticulatus van der Weele, [1909] (Fig. 1); it is
now preserved in the R.A. Pantaleoni collection.

Furthermore, during the editing of the present
work, on March 4 th 2014 and again during the day,

Giovanni Onore had the opportunity to witness the
behaviour in another male ascalaphid in the same
locality and just a few hundred m eters from the pre-
vious observation site (Fig. 3); the owl-fly was dis-
playing inside a thick tuft of Poaceae. On March
23 th 2014 a further specimen was observed at Oton-
gachi station, in this occasion attracted to light
(Figs. 4, 5). Both specimens have been collected
and photographed and, in spite they still require to
be appropriately studied, it is possible to identify
them as two males belonging to the same species,

H. latoreticulatus.

The presence of a pronotal flap in South Ameri-
can male owl-flies of subfamily H ap lo g len iin ae
has been formerly observed by van der Weele
(1909) and Penny (198 1), mo re over Tjeder (1992)
notably reported a similar structure in a still unde-
termined African genus belonging to subfamily

88

Giovanni Onore etalii

Figures 1-3. HapIogleniuS latoreticulatus van der Weele, [1909](Otongachi, Ecuador), views of the pro thoracic signaling
lobe. Figure 1: habitus of a male specimen with lifted up pronotal flap, showing the bright white marking. Figure 2: detail
of the pronotal flap and of the underlying reflecting white membrane. Figure 3: live specimen performing heliographic
signals; photos courtesy: A. Barragan.

A scalaphinae. The only observation about its func-
tion in a living specimen was compiled by Eisner
& Adams (1975). This striking morphological fea-
ture remains poorly investigated, indeed neither an
accurate morphological description of the flap (or
“dorsocaudal lobe of the pronotum ’’according to
Penny) nor a comparison of the same among dif-
ferent taxa has been published. The structure is cer-
tainly present in the males of two closely related
South American genera of the tribe H aplogleniini:
Haploglenius Burmeister, 1 8 39 and AsCCtlobyClS
Penny, 1981. However, as the flap is often notmen-
tioned in the descriptions of these taxa, it is unclear
if it lacks in certain species or if it has been simply
om itted .

The flap is a lobe resting on the pronotum when
inactive, and rising up when excited (Figs. 2, 3, 4).

Its superior/exterior face is homochrome with
pronotum, while the inferior/inner face is bright
white like the pronotal membrane, with which it is
in contact, therefore displaying a rounded white
spot when lifted (Figs. 2, 3). The only published ac-
count regarding the flap mobility in an alive speci-
men was done by Thomas Eisner who had a
opportunity to observe the response to manipulation
of a male of Haploglenius luteus (Walker, 1 853) at-
tracted to light at the Sm ithsonian Tropical Research
Station, B arro Colorado Island, Canal Zone, on No-
vember 17 th 1968. Every time the male owl-fly was
touched or grabbed, it immediately showed the bright
marking. Eisner & Adams (1 975) speculated “that
this “flashing” behaviour is defensive in function.
W hether it merely startles predators or serves also as
reinforcement of distastefulness cannot be said, [... ].

Heliographic signalling in Haploglenius Burmeister, 1839 (Neuroptera Ascalaphidae)

89

5

Figures 4-5 . HaplogenillS latoreticulatus van der W eele, [1909] (O tongachi, Ecuador), live specim en show ing the pronotal
flap in re sting position. Figure 4: dorso-lateral view. Figure 5: lateral view; photos courtesy: M. Kozanek.

90

Giovanni Onore etalii

Figures 6-7. H. luteilS (Walker, 1853). Figure 6: lateral view of live specimen (Bigal River Biological Reserve, O re liana,
Ecuador), the white pronotal membrane is visible under the lobe; photo courtesy; Thierry Garcia. Figure 7; live male
specimen from Ecuador with lowered pronotal flap; photo courtesy; Arthur Anker.

Heliographic signalling in Haploglenius Burmeister, 1839 (Neuroptera Ascalaphidae)

91

The startling function need not be the only, or for
that matter primary, function of the flap. Since the
device is restricted to one sex, it probably serves
also for signalling purposes in courtship.”

The observations of Giovanni Onore make clear
that the flap and the underlying membrane are com-
parable to a heliograph as the owl-fly does not emit
light but it is able to efficiently signal by reflecting
light by means of the white membrane, while the
frequency of the signal is regulated by the up-and-
down movements of the lobe.Apparently, the blink
is associated with courtship and it is very similar to
that of fireflies. The illumination may play a deci-
sive role in stimulating the beginning of the behav-
iour, since it is probably triggered when the light
environment ensures the visibility of the signal and
at the same time the crypsis of the displayer. No-
tably, the species equipped with the pronotal lobe
are characterized by a cryptic coloration (Figs. 6, 7).

The displaying behaviour observed in male Hap-
logenilAS is surprising, as there was no clue permit-
ting to presume a similar communication mode.
The “heliographic” structure is very peculiar and
such a wilful and controlled use of the reflected
light is rare if not unique in nature. The greater
affinities appear to be with the crom atophores of
cephalopods (Mathger et al., 2009). A main future
question to solve about the owl-fly signal is if the
flap is able to reflect polarized or ultraviolet light
as well known, e. g., in in butterflies of the genus
Heliconius Kluk, 1780 (Sweeney et al., 2003;
Bybee et al. 2012). Similarly, it would be very in-
teresting to understand the role of the displaying
system in courtship and its analogies with, e. g., that
of fireflies (Lewis & Cratsley, 2008). Unfortunately,
the brief period of the day in which the suitable light
conditions stimulating the behaviour occur and the
elusiveness of these owl-flies make difficult to
observe the display in the field.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Grateful thanks to Arthur Anker (Department of
Biological Sciences, National University of Singa-

pore, Singapore), Alvaro Barragan (QCAZ Mu-
seum, Pontificia Universidad Catolica del Ecuador,
Quito, Ecuador), Thierry Garcia (Fundacion Ecolog-
ica Sumac Muyu Proyecto de Conservacion del Rio
Bigal, Ecuador, http:// www. bigalriverbiologicalre-
serve.org/es/) and Milan Kozanek (Institute of Zo-
ology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava,
Slovak Republic) for providing their photos of live
o w 1-flies .

REFERENCES

Bybee S. M ., Yuan F., Ramstetter M . D., Llorente-Bous-
quets J., Reed R. D., Osorio D. & Briscoe A. D.,
2012. UV photoreceptors and UV-yellow wing pig-
ments in HeliconillS butterflies allow a color signal
to serve both mimicry and intraspecific communica-
tion. The American Naturalist, 179: 38-5 1.

Eisner T. & Adams P. A., 1975. Startle behavior in an
ascalaphid (Neuroptera). Psyche, 82: 304-305.
Lewis S. M. & Cratsley C. K., 2008. Flash signal evolu-
tion, mate choice, and predation in Fireflies. Annual
Review ofEntomology, 53: 293-321.

Mathger L. M ., Shashar N. & Hanlon R. T., 2009. Do
Cephalopods communicate using polarized light re-
flection from theirskin? The Journal of Experimental
Biology, 2 12: 2133-2140.

Penny N. D ., 1981. Neuroptera of the Amazon Basin.

Part 3. Ascalaphidae. Acta Amazon ic a, 1 1: 605-65 1.
Sweeney A., Jiggins C. &Johnsen S., 2003. Polarized
ligh t as a b utter fly m a ting signal. N atu re, 42 3: 3 1-32.
Tjeder, B. 1992. The Ascalaphidae of the Afrotropical
Region (Neuroptera). 1. External morphology and
bionomics of the family Ascalaphidae, and taxonomy
of the subfamily H aplogleniinae including the tribes
Proctolyrini n. tribe, Melambrotini n. tribe, Campy-
lophlebini n. tribe, Tmesibasini n. tribe, Allocor-
modini n. tribe, and Ululomyiini n. tribe of As-
calaphidae. Entomologica Scandinavica, Supple-
m ent, 41: 3-169.

van derWeele H.W., 1909.Ascalaphiden,monographisch
bearbeitet. Collections Zoologiques du Baron Edm.
de Selys Longchamps, Catalogue Systematique et
Descriptif, fasc. VIII, 1908, 1-326.