Please handle this volume with care. The University of Connecticut Libraries, Storrs »»»»»» ■»•■» hbl, stx SH 35.N7N3 1928 Biological survey of the Oswego Ri Hill " 3 ^153 DDM5MSflS 3 2 oo Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2013 http://archive.org/details/biologicalsurveyOOnewy_0 7 STATE OF ]NTEW YORK r CONSERVATION DEPARTMENT A BIOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE OSWEGO RIVER SYSTEM Supplemental to Seventeenth Annual Report, 1927 ALBANY J. B. LYON COMPANY, PRINTERS 1928 STATE OF NEW YORK CONSERVATION DEPARTMENT Alexander Macdonald Conservation Commissioner Francis X. Disney . .Deputy Conservation Commissioner Herbert F. Prescott Secretary Division oe Fish and Game Llewellyn Legge Chief Protector John T. McCormick Deputy Chief Protector Emmeline Moore, Ph.D Investigator in Fish Culture Norman L. Cutler Biologist & Sanitarian CONTENTS PAGE Introduction . .. 9 Area covered by the survey 9 Authorization 10 Statistics 10 Program of investigation 10 General guiding principles 12 Personnel 12 Stocking lists and maps 13 Distribution of fishes in the watershed 13 Colored plates 13 Carp control studies 14 Conditions of pollution in the watershed 15 Plankton studies 16 The lamprey, a pest of lake fishes 16 Papers by specialists 16 Section I. Stocking policy for the streams, smaller lakes and ponds of the Oswego watershed . . . . 17 Water temperature 17 Gaseous content of water 21 Analyses of springs and spring runs 23 Temperature and gaseous relations in Lowery pond 23 Temperature and gaseous relations in Green lake 24 Factors influencing the number of trout to be planted 24 Area 24 Primary food organisms 24 Pool conditions 25 Effects of angling 25 Calculating the number of trout per mile of stream 26 Planting table 26 Miscellaneous considerations 27 Brook trout vs. brown trout 27 Nursery streams 28 Rainbow trout 2S Stream mileage suitable for stocking 30 Some successful trout streams of the watershed 32 Pond acreage suitable for stocking 37 The larger trout ponds 37 Warm water ponds and lakes . 38 Section II. The Finger lakes fish problem 40 Fish catch 40 Distribution of Finger lakes fishes 43 Food of Finger lakes fishes 47 Remarks on food of different species 47 Vegetation , 51 Bottom fauna 52 Conditions affecting abundance of fishes 53 Over fishing 53 Illegal fishing 53 Spawning grounds 54 Stocking methods 54 Condition of the tributary streams 54 Obstructions in outlets 55 Destructive enemies 55 Competition of undesirable fish 56 Condition of the water 56 Food supply 57 [3] 4 Contents PAGE General conditions in various lakes 57 Canandaigua 58 Keuka 58 Seneca 59 Cayuga 60 O vvasco 60 Skaneateles 61 Otisco 61 General suggestions for improving the fish situation 61 Making regulations 61 Law enforcement ; 62 Fish ways 62 Tributary streams 62 Elimination of the lamprey 62 The burbot 62 Carp control 63 Development of fish food 63 Planting of lake trout fingerlings 64 Stocking policy 66 Section III. Carp control studies in Oneida lake 67 Methods of seining 68 Statistical evidence 70 Habits of the adult carp 73 Carp habitats 73 Breeding habits 74 Migration 75 Food habits 75 Food of the adult carp 76 Habits of the young carp 77 Food of the young carp 81 General considerations of carp control 82 Section IV. Fishes of the Oswego watershed 84 Methods of collecting 84 General nature of the region 84 Distribution of fish in the watershed 85 Classification of fish 86 Food and game fish So Non-food, non-game species 87 Bait fish 87 Habitat preferences 88 Fish association 80 Trout stream associations 9 ) Vermin fishes 91 Fishes in regard to pollution 91 Minnow tests < 9 I Special problems • 92 Spawning behavior of carp 92 Fishways 93 Factors contributing to decline of fishes 94 Annotated list of fishes 95 Petromyzonidae Lampreys 95 Acipenseridae Sturgeons 95 Lepisosteidae Garpikes 95 Amiidae Bowfins 95 Clupeidae Herrings 95 Osmeridae Smelts 95 Coregonidae Whitefishes 65 Salmonidae Salmons 96 Catostomidae Suckers 97 Cyprinidae Minnows 97 Ameiuridae Catfishes 99 Umbridae Mud minnows 100 Esocidae Pickerels. 100 Anguillidae Eels. 100 Contents 5 PAGE Cyprinodontidae Killifishes 100 Percopsidae Trout perches 100 Serranidae Sea basses 100 Percidae Perches 1 00 Centrarchidae Sunfishes ;••■•■ 101 Atherinidae Silversides 102 Sciaenidae Drumfishes : 102 Cottidae Sculpins 102 Gasterosteidae Sticklebacks 102 Gadidae Codfishes 102 Section V. Chemical investigation of the Oswego watershed 108 Types of pollution 108 Methods employed HO The canals H° Stream studies 1 12 Spring studies H^ Lake studies 1 1 ' Tabulation of data: Series I. Chemical analyses of streams 118-125 Series II. Chemical analyses of springs 126 Series III. Chemical analyses of lakes 127-132 Section VI. Biological studies of polluted waters in the Oswego watershed 133 Sewage pollution 133 Milk pollution 135 Paper mill and woolen mill wastes 135 Oil pollution 133 Cannery wastes 136 Sulphur pollution 137 Conclusion 137 Tabulation of pollution studies 138; 139 Section VII. Plankton studies of Cayuga, Seneca and Oneida lakes 140 Temperature of the water 141 Transparency of the water 142 Water analyses 143 Quantitative determinations of plankton organisms 143 Genera of plankton organisms 147 Cayuga lake 147 Seneca lake 150 Oneida lake 151 Estimations cf quantities of dry matter, organic matter and ash in the lake water. 154 Section VIII. Life history and economics of the lampreys of New York State. . . . 158 Part I. Life history of lampreys 158 Character and distribution of lampreys 158 Coloration and distinction of sexes 159 The three or four kinds of lampreys in New York 161 Nest-building and egg-laying 165 Number of eggs laid by the different forms 168 Death of lampreys after spawning 1 69 Persistence of the notochord 170 Development of the eggs and duration of larval life, transformation and buccal glands 174-177 Brook lampreys not parasitic 178 Summary of the life history of lampreys 180 Part II. Economics of lampreys 181 Economics of larval lampreys 181 Economics of the brook lamprey 181 Economics of the sea lamprey 182 Economics of the lake lamprey 182 Experiments on the predatory habits of lampreys 184 Amount of damage done to food-fish by lampreys 188 Ridding a lake of lampreys 190 Summary of the economics of lampreys 191 Contents PAGE Section IX. A quantitative study of the fish-food supply in selected areas 192 Relation of width of stream to quantity of food organisms 193 Relation of bottom to quantity of food 196 Comparison of quantity of food in stream and pool bottoms 196 Comparison of quality of food in stream and pool bottoms 197 Terrestrial and other food animals falling into streams 197 Summary of stream drift 199 Relative abundance and kinds of animals taken in stream drift studies 201 Pool drift 202 Summary of pool drift 202 Comparison of total available food and food actually eaten by trout 203 Available fish-food in submerged plant beds 204 Appendix I. Blank forms used in the field 207 II. Abbreviations and symbols used 208 III-XL Stocking lists 209-242 XII. Vegetation of Cayuga and Seneca lakes 243 Key map of Oswego watershed 1 Maps showing stocking of streams Map 1. Highmarket and Port Leyden quadrangles Map 2. Oswego, Fulton, Mexico, Kasoag, Taberg and Boonville | quadrangles | Map 3A. Macedon, Palmyra, Clyde and Weedsport quadrangles Map 3B. Baldwinsville, Syracuse, Chittenango, Oneida and Oriskany quadrangles [ Follow page 243 Map 4A. Canandaigua, Phelps, Geneva and Auburn quad- rangles Map 4B. Skaneateles, Tully, Cazenovia, Morrisville and San- gerfield quadrangles Map 5. Naples, Penn Yan, Ovid, Genoa, Moravia and Cortland quadrangles Map 6. Bath, Hammondsport, Watkins, Ithaca, Dry den and Harford quadrangles Map 7. Elmira quadrangle Shaded area is coverage included in the survey of the Oswego river system. Area 5,002 square miles A BIOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE OSWEGO RIVER SYSTEM Supplemental to the Seventeenth Annual Report, 1927 Introduction By Emmeline Moore Investigator in Fish Culture, in Charge of Survey The report submitted herewith deals with the biological survey of the Oswego river system in its relation to the fisheries. This is the second watershed to receive intensive study since the estab- lishment of the Conservation Fund in 1925. With the completion of the two surveys, the Genesee system last year and the Oswego system this year, the ground covered comprises a little more than one-sixth of the area of the State. As the surveys progress, the Department is enabled to proceed with its program of stocking the streams and lakes of the State on a more intelligent and scientific basis and to provide for further study where the survey brings to light urgent problems bearing on the future status of the fisheries. Area Covered by the Survey. — The portion of New York State included in the Oswego river system and covered by the survey is shown on the accompanying map (frontispiece) . The area of 5,002 square miles covers in part 12 counties. In point of size in the State, this watershed is exceeded only by the Hudson river system. Within this coverage lies a water storage basin and stream system of unusual interest and importance to the people of the State. The seven Finger lakes are a conspicuous differentiating feature. Each is a deep glacial valley, the reservoir of a vast volume of naturally pure, cold water supplied by underground springs and inlet streams. The great diversity of beauty existing in the valley slopes and the accessibility of the lakes combine to make this region a distinctive recreational resource. The water area of the Finger lakes comprises 195.60 square miles. The largest of these (Seneca) has a length of 30 miles, and a depth of 634 feet. As to fish life, the Finger lakes have a vary- ing reputation in productivity. Oneida lake, the largest single lake in the watershed, with an area of 79.80 square miles, is rela- tively shallow, rich in the elements that make good fishing water and rates high in productivity. Besides these larger bodies there is an assemblage of about 40 small lakes and ponds aggregating approximately 95.52 square miles which with the above mentioned areas supply a combined water surface in lakes and ponds of about 289.22 square miles. 10 Conservation Department The lake and pond water areas are further augmented by about 7,000 miles of streams and 106 miles of barge canal waters. Three large rivers, the Clyde, Seneca and Oneida, unite the outlets of the lakes to form the Oswego river which carries the drainage into Lake Ontario. Of the 7,000 miles of streams in this watershed, 1,888 miles are considered worthy of stocking and of this mileage, 1,430 are suitable waters for trout. Authorization of Survey. — On March 31, 1927, an appropria- tion of $50,000 was made from the Conservation Fund (chap. 592 of the Laws of 1925) for ''the biological survey, including fish protection." In pursuance of this provision this survey, the second in the series, was undertaken in the Oswego watershed during the summer of 1927. The report of the first survey, that of the Genesee river system, became available for distribution early in the current year. Statistics. — According to the records of the Conservation Department the number of fry and fingerlings distributed from the State hatcheries into the Oswego river system totals for the ten-year period, 1917-1926, 365,630,572 young fish. The distribu- tion by species is shown in Table 1. It is a staggering number of fish to have carried through the hatching process and to have distributed in the watershed. The question may well be asked, "What has been the catch?" In practice such data are very hard to get. A few sporadic attempts are made by sportsmen's clubs to collect data on the catch but as a whole interest lags. Yet it is no longer a matter of individual or even local interest but a part of a larger problem of the evalua- tion of the fishery water. Any sort of satisfactory fishery statis- tics if they could be obtained would assist in disclosing the condition and trend of each fishery and in the improvement of legislation therefor. Program of Investigation. — The primary object of this survey, as in the initial one of the series, is the development of a stocking policy for the streams and lakes of the watershed based on a scientific understanding of conditions existing therein. Important considerations relate to productivity, the correlation of species of fish with different types of waters and the control of competitive or destructive species. Investigation has proceeded under three main lines — lake survey, stream survey and carp control studies together with contributory studies dealing with pollution, dis- tribution, parasitism, plankton and other food resources. The several papers on these subjects incorporated in this report present the results of the survey for this year included mainly within the dates of June 15 to September 15, 1927. It is manifestly impossible in a single season to cover by inten- sive study all fisheries problems arising in the region of the survey. For this reason each unit stream system is given a somewhat comprehensive treatment with subsequent arrangement and pro- vision for correlated research on urgent problems. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 11 £ 2 C w I T3 s H a * 2 00«500'0 iO id t-- ■* O CD b- rf< CD OJ "5 CO OS t- C to i-t r^ ■* co ■* »oo CIO CO O'O^H t>eoocoo OOOOOO'OOO'tN ^OOWHHlOOHj..^ >ooo >ooo )Tft>0 O O ■* iO 'O OOO ooo OOO OThO OiOO oooo oo oo oo o"o* OGC o-# OiOOOO 0 0)000 OTt^CCCN O iC iO O O iO CD iCNNiOOcD i-h iO 00 tJH c3 o " Mo 2 o M™ij V * I* ^ ■*-> SOMwOOmO ONiOO 0"OCNO 00 CN t^cD iOtH »ooo i COO ooo ooo OrfHcD ONH ■ococo OOiO 0 0} CO CD cot^ OfflM 12 Conservation Department The preparation of a program and the conduct of so large a project as the survey involved were made the object of a con- ference called by the Conservation Commissioner. Scientists representing each of the cooperating institutions and others were present as follows : Alexander Macdonald, Commissioner, presiding. Dr. W. C. Kendall, Ichthyologist, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries. Mr. E. Higgins, Scientific Inquiry, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries. Dr. Geo. C. Embody, Aquiculture, Cornell University. Dr. A. H. Wright, Zoologist, Cornell University. Dr. W. C. Muenscher, Botanist, Cornell University. Dr. E. H. Eaton, Biologist, Hobart College. Dr. Chas. C. Adams, Director, State Museum. Dr. Gertrude Douglas, Botanist, State College. Mr. F. E. Wagner, Chemist, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Dr. P. H. Struthers, Zoologist, Syracuse University. Llewellyn Legge, Chief Protector, Division Fish and Game. Emmeline Moore, Director of Survey. Sumner Cowden, Field Superintendent. General guiding principles were adopted governing action between the Conservation Department and outside agencies (State universities, colleges or other educational institutions) cooperating with the Conser\ration Department. They are as follows : 1. The present policy of considering watershed areas as the unit area for study shall be continued as the permanent policy. 2. Specialists and workers generally shall be selected on the basis of training and fitness. 3. The distribution of tasks shall be by duties rather than by localities. 4. The individuals in charge of different portions of the survey shall have such measure of freedom in the choice of helpers and in the conduct of their work as is compatible with the objects sought by the Conservation Department, 5. Individuals responsible for suggesting policies shall be given access to all data bearing on their work by whatever portions of the survey gathered. 6. In the publication of results, full credit shall be given to cooperating institutions and individuals. 7. Any financial obligation incurred by special work for the Conservation Department through the use of materials or equip- ment in the laboratories of the State or other cooperating institu- tions shall be borne by the Conservation Department only on authorization. Personnel. — In the conduct of this survey the Conservation Department has had the cooperation of five educational insti- tutions in the State — Cornell and Syracuse Universities, Hobart College, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and the State Normal College — with specialists from each of these institutions actively engaged in the field investigations. With such participation there can be no doubt that there has been inaugurated a program of far Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 13 reaching" importance which to an increasing degree as it is con- tinued through the years will provide a sound program of study and form the basis of constructive administration of our fisheries resources. Stocking Lists and Maps. — 'A key map of the watershed (see appendix) affords a convenient guide in locating the particular quadrangle, county or township in which the reader is interested. It also serves to orient in the watershed the quadrangle maps (U. S. G. S. topographic maps) adapted for purposes of record in the survey. On these maps (1-7) all streams are shown with suitable indications of dry and permanent streams, the presence of springs, pollution outfalls, favorable places for fish planting and the appropriate species. Accompanying the maps are the stocking lists (App. III-XI) which set forth in tabular form the name of the streams (if not named then numbered), the mileage available for stocking and the stocking policy per mile. By reference to these tables and maps the location of the best places to plant fish and the calculation of the number per mile may be determined readily. Distribution of Fish in the Watershed. — The contributions to this aspect of the survey supply a wealth of data concerning the species inhabiting the Oswego drainage area. One hundred species of fish representing 24 families are listed. Of these 43 species are of the food and game variety. Of the 57 non-food and non-game species some have inferior value as food and are occasionally so used. Two species have become extinct. A distribution chart* pictures the whereabouts of the different species in the drainage basin. The Colored Plates of Fishes. — The twelve drawings of fish shown in color are the work of the artist, Ellen Edmonson, who has reproduced them with great fidelity to scientific detail and to the sensitively beautiful coloring as they appear on coming from the water. Aside from the enjoyment derived in the beauty of line and color the reproductions serve an important function educationally in emphasizing species of special interest and value to the fishery of the watershed. The sawbelly or alewife, a plankton feeder and a non-competitive species, is the food par excellence of the lake trout and where the balance between these two is well maintained, as in Seneca and Keuka lakes, the fishing is good. The cisco and whitefish also plankton feeders wholly or in part are in the same category and should be fostered. The lake lamprey is the " ver- min" of the waters in Cayuga, Seneca and Oneida lakes. The eel- pout or gudgeon and carp are species of ill repute. The minnows and darters are popular as bait or related in important ways organically to the lake and stream life. The sculpin is an index of brook trout waters. See page 103-104. 14 Conservation Department These valuable color drawings add to the collection begun last year with the purpose in view as the survey progresses of bring- ing them together finally in a record of permanent Avorth — an illus- trated volume of the fishes of New York. Carp Control Studies. — The intensive study of the carp con- ducted on Oneida lake this past summer represents the first at- tempt to focus attention upon the scientific aspects of the carp problem as it relates to large bodies of water in this State. The control of this species which, within a relatively short period after its introduction into this country, has become a dominant factor in our fisheries problems is not a simple matter. It is more than Habitat sketch of young carp in the advanced fry stage a seining industry "to keep the numbers down." It is an inter- pretation of the conditions which contribute to the rapid multipli- cation of the carp and an understanding of the effects of rapidly increasing numbers of this species upon the native species of food and game fish whose future needs we require under the circum- stances to anticipate. The plan and scope of the work coordinate the investigations of the scientific unit engaged upon this study with the operations of a trained and experienced carp seiner. The efforts of the summer's study have produced positive and constructive results. Over forty-five tons of carp have been seined and marketed covering a period of about five months, from May Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 15 to October, and it has been demonstrated that carp in these num- bers can be taken with minimum interference of game fish. The dominance of carp in Oneida is evidently correlated with the richness and abundance of certain food elements such as Crustacea, mollusca and insect larvae which are the main food staples of the carp in this lake. Other contributing factors are associated with the unusually favorable physical features which obtain there, such as the exten- sive shallows and the intersecting barge canal which provide agree- able environmental conditions for this species. Although much useful information has been gained by the efforts o± a single season, relief measures to be adequate, however, must be organized for permanency. In this connection the economic aspect is an important consideration. When more carp are mar- keted than are yearly produced then we may hope to cope with the carp problem in situations where game fishing is to be regarded as paramount. Conditions of Pollution in the Oswego Watershed. — An appraisal of the waters from the standpoint of the oxygen supply is shown graphically in the dissolved oxygen profile of the Seneca and Oswego rivers (Fig. 1.) These are the recipients of the mis- cellany of pollutions of all tributaries, both lakes and streams, in the watershed. Gathering up as they do the waters of the entire drainage basin they become rivers of considerable volume. The profile, therefore, is impressive as showing despite this large volume of water a successively lower and lower oxygen sag until the final entry of the waters into Lake Ontario. Other profiles of the tributary streams interpreting pollution conditions in local areas appear in the report on this subject. In the biological discussion of the subject (page 138) a useful tabulation of pollution conditions in the watershed provides data ot importance to each community in which studies have been made. The types of polluting substances which enter the river system are discussed in their relation to fish life and to the organisms asso- ciated with them in the capacity of food of fish either directly or remotely. The mileage of stream noticeably affected by the polluting wastes is estimated at about 108 miles, an approximation based upon the condition of the stream as shown both by oxygen depletion and the presence of biological indicators of pollution. In stressing the studies of pollution, three objectives stand forth. The first of these is to give information of pollution conditions in the watershed, to visualize, that is, graphically by profile or otherwise the situation as a whole in the area covered by the sur- vey. The second to focus attention upon the bad spots, the conspicuous cases of stream defilement where the normal fauna and flora are completely replaced by pollutional forms and by gas- eous or other conditions inimical to fish life, and where under such situations stocking the stream with fish is extravagant and waste- ful. And third, to emphasize the responsibility of the individual and the community. 16 Conservation Department Plankton Studies. — All fish in their young stages require a plankton diet. Some species, like the alewife or cisco, are "plankton sifters" throughout their life span. The studies, there- fore, in this field bear directly upon the problem of fish produc- tion. Plankton estimations for the period of the survey cover only the the largest of the deep lakes (Seneca and Cayuga) and the largest shallow lake, Oneida. The values for these lakes are made graphi- cally apparent in the charts (1-8, p. 144), values which represent a stupendous amount of counting of microscopic organisms. A fur- ther understanding is gained by direct comparison of plankton quantities as shown in chart 9. Associated with plankton studies, however, and requisite for any true interpretation of the productive capacity of the lakes, are various complex problems related to the abundance of the rooted vegetation, and to far reaching chemical, physical and physiological relations which play their part in the "going concern" of any lake. The Lamprey, a Pest of Lake Fishes. — In the several large lakes of the Oswego watershed the depredations of the lake lamprey occur with menacing frequency among the food and game fish. They are blood suckers, attacking fish only and their extraordi- narily rapacious habits in this respect call forth discussion of ways and means of combating them. Fortunately there is at hand in the researches of Professor S. H. Gage of Cornell University, an authority on the lamprey, such com- pleteness of knowledge of the life history of this parasite that methods of control are clearly indicated. Through the courtesy and generous cooperation of Professor Gage the survey report contains the important chapter on the lamprey including in the paper both the life history and the economics of this serious pest of our lake fishes. Papers by Specialists on the Survey.— The data collected in the several lines of inquiry are presented in full in the following sections dealing with : (1) Stocking policy for the Oswego river system. (2) The Finger lakes fish problem. (3) Carp control studies in Oneida lake. (4) Fishes of the Oswego river system. (5) Chemical investigation of the Oswego watershed. (6) Biological studies of polluted waters in the Oswego water- shed. (7) Plankton studies of Cayuga, Seneca and Oneida lakes. (8) Iiife history and economics of the lampreys of New York State. (9) A quantitative study of the fish food supply in selected areas. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 17 I. STOCKING POLICY FOR THE STREAMS, SMALLER LAKES AND PONDS OF THE OSWEGO WATERSHED By G. C. Embody Professor of Aquiculture, Cornell University The development of a stocking policy for the streams and ponds of the Oswego watershed has been based upon studies similar to those conducted during the summer of 1926 in the Genesee area. The survey of the present year covered approximately double the area represented in the Genesee drainage, and while the latter con- tained 3,400 miles of stream, the Oswego with all of its tributaries constituted a total mileage close to 7,000. In attempting to cover such a large stream mileage during a comparatively short period of three months., the time allotted to any particular stream was neces- sarily short. It was possible to economize in time in the following ways : Dry runs were passed over quickly. Badly polluted streams flowing through cities were likewise given little attention, because in the present state, fishes could not live in them and the nature and degree of pollution was to be adequately covered by another group of investigators. Likewise streams too small for bass and obviously unsuited to trout were passed over quickly. In other cases where trout were observed to occur in abundance, our chief concern had to do with the size and the evaluation of food and pool conditions — factors determining the number of fish to be planted. Finally in the case of Oneida and Tompkins, county streams which had already been covered, the former by Dr. W. A. Clemens in 1916 and the latter by the writer in 1918 and 1919, it was likewise sufficient to study them with reference only to the number of fish to be planted. It may be stated here that the stocking policy set forth in the surveys of these two counties has been adhered to in almost every case. In a few instances, however, stream conditions had evidently changed during the last eight or nine years, neces- sitating some alterations. In the present survey, field data blanks (Appendix I) slightly modified in form from the Genesee blank, have been used. The work of collecting information on them has fallen chiefly to six persons, namely: Dr. D. J. Leffingwell, Messrs, A. S. Hazzard, E. P. Hunter, R. D. Harwood, R. A. Laubengayer and V. S. L. Pate. The problem during the past summer has been to determine what streams and ponds are suitable for stocking; what species of food fishes should be planted in them, and in the case of trout streams, approximately how many should be planted per unit of length (See Appendix II-XI and maps). The factors studied with this end in view were discussed in some detail in the Report of the Genesee Survey and are referred to briefly in this paper. Water Temperature. — The maximum water temperature in a rapid, unpolluted stream suitable for brook trout we have taken as 75° Fahr. even though there is some evidence to show that Diagram illustrating the method used in designating unnamed streams. Explana- tion of diagram : — Main stream. : — Name only is used, i.e., Wood river. Principal tributaries : — (a) If they have a name that only is used, i.e., Trout brook, Rock creek. (b) If they do not have a name they receive two or more letters and a number as follows :- — 1st letter is the initial of the first named stream below (downstream) on the same side, i.e., T. (for Trout brook). 2nd letter is the initial of the main stream, i.e., W. (for Wood river). Number — indicates that it is the first, second etc., tributary above the named stream. Thus T.W.I. (Trout, Wood 1.) is the first tributary above Trout brook on that side; R.W.I. (Rock, Wood 1.) is the first tributary above Rock creek on the opposite side of the river. /Secondary & tertiary tributaries: — All receive numbers, the tributary nearest the mouth is numbered 1. Thus T.W.3. in the above diagram has 5 secondary tri- butaries and of these 1, 2, 4, each has one tertiary tributary. Lake tributaries : — Named streams are not numbered. Unnamed streams are numbered clockwise around the lake, starting from the right of the outlet, see Mud lake in above diagram. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 19 brook trout may sometimes endure slightly higher ones. In the case of brown and rainbow trout the highest suitable stream temperature is believed to be close to 80° Fahr. In assigning any one of these three species to a stream it is important to know whether the water temperature will exceed cither of these points during the summer months. Hot days were too infrequent during the past summer to permit one to secure through actual observation, maxima in more than a few streams. It was thus necessary to estimate them by means of a table. Table 1 was used throughout the greater part of the territory covered with one exception to be noted. Table 1. — Relation of Air and Water Temperatures in Trout Streams Max. air temp. deg. Fahr Max. water temp., Brook trout. . . ,„- , (Brown trout. . Max. water temp. ^ Rainbow trout 80.0 65.0 82.0 66.5 84.0 68.0 86.0 70.0 88.0 71.5 90.0 73.0 92.0 74.0 69.0 70.5 72.0 73.5 75.0 76.5 78.0 94.0 75.0 79.0 Checking up on the accuracy of this table in as many warm streams as were found to contain trout there was found but slight error in regions below 1,000 feet elevation, but in the higher forested area particularly about the headwaters of Fish creek (Lewis county) with elevations from 1,600 to 1,900 feet, the error was large, noticeably however, on the safe side. That is, the water temperatures corresponding to certain air temperatures as taken in these streams were several degrees higher than in Table 1, for brook trout. Two outstanding examples of this were the upper East Branch of Fish creek and its tributary, Alder creek. Both streams were densely populated with brook trout and showed the temperature relations in Table 2. Table 2 — Relation of Water Temperature to Air Temperature in Fish and Alder Creeks, Lewis County, N. Y. FISH CREEK section Air temperature Water temperature Atmospheric condition Hour Date Upper Lower 80 81 68 68 Bright Bright 10:30 a. m. . 4:30 p. m.. . Aug. 1 Aug. 1 A.LDER CREEK 80 80 69 Bright Bright 12:05 p.m... 12:00 p. m. . July 28 July 28 Middle 71 Comparing Tables 1 and 2, it is evident that in the latter, the water temperatures are from three to six degrees too high for the 20 Conservation Department air temperatures indicated. This relation (air 80, water 68-71) while commonly found in brown trout streams of lower altitudes and others which do not contain trout has not often been observed by the writer in brook trout streams. There is a possible explanation for the occurrence of brook trout in these two creeks, namely, that the maximum air temperatures in the Fish creek region do not run nearly so high as those in the lower altitudes. This is shown by the following temperature records furnished by the United States Weather Bureau Office at Ithaca, N. Y., for Turin and Constableville, two towns situated 3 to 4 miles east of the region in question, in comparison with those taken during the same years at Ithaca. With no recent records available from the upper region we must compare those taken from 1890 to 1895 (Table 3). Table 3. — Temperature Data for Turin, Constableville and Ithaca YEAR Summer maxima Number of days maximum 88 OR ABOVE Place June July Aug. 1890 91 87 85.9 89 89 87 3 ' 1 1 2 Turin 1891 Elevation - 1264 1892. . Av. max. 6 yrs.= 88.1 1893 1894 1895 1890 1891 88 89 85.5 88 1 1 No data 1 1 1 2 Constableville 1892 1893 . Av. max. 4 yrs.= 87.6 1890 96 92 95 93 95 95 2 5 3 4 2 6 7 3 10 4 11 4 4 1 4 4 3 2 1891 Elevation = 928. 5 1892 Av. max. 6 yrs.= 94.3 1893 1894 1895 While the altitudes of Turin and Constableville are 1,264 and 1,260 feet respectively, the elevation of upper Fish creek ranges from 1,600 to 1,900 feet with consequently colder temperatures. A comparison of the summer maxima for the various years (Table 3, column 2) and the average summer maxima for the whole period involved is significant. At Turin the absolute maximum for the six years was 91, while the average for the summer maxima was only 88.1. In the case of Ithaca these two values were 96 and 94.3, a difference of 5 and 6 degrees respectively. The possible cumulative effect of continued high air temp- eratures upon water temperatures is probably not nearly so large in the Fish creek region as at Ithaca. This is indicated by the small number of days during which the maximum reaches 88 or above (columns 3, 4 and 5) in the case of Turin compared with the large number for Ithaca indicating rather clearly that the Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 21 high water temperatures encountered at Ithaca are not possible in the Fish creek country. It is evident that Table 1 cannot be used for altitudes much above 1,000 feet in New York, and the following revision is pro- posed for such elevations with the understanding that Hs limita- tions are unknown. Table 4. — Showing Pkobable Relation of Maximum Air and Water Tem- peratures in the Upper Fish Creek Region, Lewis County, N. Y. Air temperature Temperature, Brook trout waters. 82 I 72 I With reference to the basses, sunfishes, perch, catfish and other warm water kinds, it is important to know whether the water becomes sufficiently warm to permit reproduction and normal growth during the warmer half of the year. Experience during the last two summers warrants the assumption that none of our streams or lakes in central New York become too warm for such species. Nor in fact have Ave found a single stream otherwise suited to these fishes in which the summer water temperatures run too low. It is rather a matter of size, type of bottom and current which restricts distribution. Gaseous Content of Water. — -The dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide was given attention in but three types of waters, namely, large springs and spring runs, polluted streams, and in some of the colder and deeper ponds. Rapid unpolluted streams are quite generally suitable for any species so far as the content of dissolved gases is concerned, because the water is constantly aerated through the agency of rapids and falls which tend to sat- urate with oxygen and to liberate carbon dioxide and hydro- gen sulphide when present. Many springs, however, are deficient in oxygen and at the same time contain carbon dioxide in quantities dangerous to fish. The matter is important, because, of the practice of planting young trout in spring runs very often too close to the place of origin, the spring itself. According to analyses made by Mr. F. E. Wagner, the springs examined showed any- where from a fraction of one part per million of oxygen (Price spring near Auburn) to more than nine parts (Beaver brook spring- near McLean) and carbon dioxide from 31 parts per million (York Street spring, Auburn) down to one part (Beaver brook spring). Price spring about two miles north of Auburn may be taken as an example of one forming a short run which is a tempting place in which to plant brook trout, With a flow of 300 gallons per minute more or less, it forms a brook a few hundred yards long eventually uniting with North brook (Price brook or Cold Spring). This latter is transformed from a warm troutless stream into a cold one, which in the past has been locally famous 22 Conservation Department for its fine trout fishing. The main spring issues from a crevice between limestone strata and at this point the water shows the following analysis as given in Table 5 : Oxygen — 0.1 p. p.m. C02— 20.5 p.p.m. Just before the spring run enters North brook (Price brook) the analysis shows : Oxygen — 3.95 p.p.m. C02 — 13 p.p.m. Thus the spring water in passing from source to mouth over a gravel bottom with frequent riffles, absorbed 3.8 p.p.m. of oxygen and lost about 7 p.p.m. of carbon dioxide. Brook trout commonly occur in the lower half of this run but rarely have they been observed much farther upstream. Experi- mental data indicate that they will live apparently without dis- comfort in water showing a temperature of 10° C. (50° Fahr.), oxygen content between 2.5 and 3 p.p.m., and carbon dioxide around 15 p.p.m. The run starts as an unsuitable planting place but becomes suitable at a point somewhat more than half way to its mouth. Trout should never be planted in the pools immedi- ately below the spring nor in any part of the upper one-half of the run. It is well to emphasize at this point the necessity of determining the suitability of the water in every spring run before stocking, for it may not always be possible for the trout to work down into a region where gaseous conditions are safe before asphyxiation takes place. While it is not always possible to have a chemical analysis made, any fisherman may make a simple test by placing in the water to be tested, a wire basket containing a few healthy fingerling trout and observing their behavior. Distress is indi- cated by a marked increase in respiration or a loss of equilibrium. If trout turn over on their backs within a reasonable time — say 10 minutes — it would be a pretty certain indication that the water is bad. In order to show how variable in oxygen and carbon dioxide content springs and spring runs may be, the data in the following table has been brought together from analyses made by Mr. Wagner. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 23 Table 5. — Analyses of Springs and Spring Runs The gaseous content of the Avater of two ponds was studied with reference to its suitability for trout, — one known as Lowery pond, a deep marl pond of about 30 acres situated 5.5 miles north of Geneva (Map 4A) and the other, Green lake, a very deep pond of some 62 acres situated in Onondaga county (Map 3B) about 2.5 miles northeast of Fayetteville. In the former although the temperature conditions were suitable at depths ranging from about 16 feet to the bottom (52 feet), the oxygen was found to be zero from about 30 feet down, the asphyxial point being reached at some place between the 16 and 24 foot depths (Table 6). For this and other reasons pertaining to the bottom topography, absence of inlet, etc., the pond was considered unsuitable for any species of trout. Table -Temperature and Gaseous Relations in Lowery Pond, July 18, 1927 DEPTH IN FEET Temp. C° 02p. p. m. *C02 p. p. m. pH Methyl orange alkalinity as p. p. m. calc. carb. Surface 8 25.3 21.5 13.5 9.8 9.5 9.5 8.3 11.8 3.2 0.54 0. 0. 0. 0. 8. 20. 60. 60. 8.3 8.4 7.5 7.1 7.1 7.1 128 136 16 140 24 151 30 315 52 442 * Hydrogen sulphide being present, these figures represent phenolphthalein acidity calculated as p. p. m. carbon dioxide. 24 Conservation Department hi the case of Green lake, oxygen was absent from the 65 foot level down to the bottom (185 feet). At a depth of 45 feet, oxygen was present to the extent of 8.8 p. p.m., and with a temperature of 11 °C, suitability for a limited number of trout was established over a rather large area and depth. Table 7. — Temperature and Gaseous Relations in Green Lake, August 27, 1927 DEPTH IN FEET Temp. C° O2 p. p.m. *C02 p.p. m. pH Methyl orange alkalinity as p. p. m. calc. carb. Surface 25 20.3 15.7 11. 10.5 9.4 9.8 6.9 11.9 8.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0. 8 10 55 65 80 8.1 7.6 7.5 7.1 7.1 7.1 132 183 45 65 185 305 95 327 185 388 * Ibid., page 23. Other Factors Studied.— Among the other factors to which attention was given for the purpose of determining the particular species to be planted, were size of stream, velocity, character of bottom and barriers to fish movements. Since these were dis- cussed in the Genesee report, it is sufficient here to say that the size of the water course often determines the practicability of assigning bass; the velocity and character of bottom indicates whether it shall be the large or small-mouthed bass with such associated species as yellow perch, bluegill sunfish and catfish, and finally with reference to barriers, their presence may eliminate the rainbow trout from consideration in many a stream otherwise suitable. Factors Influencing the Number of Trout to be Planted. — The more important of these are area of stream available to trout, abundance of primary food organisms, pool conditions, and the effects of angling. Area: The available foraging area was calculated from the average width and the total length of stream bed over which trout might range, the latter being greater than one might at first sup- pose. During the colder months from September to June water temperatures are low enough to permit trout to forage almost any- where barring other unsuitable conditions, But during the hot- test parts of the year in June, July and August the foraging area may be greatly curtailed by temperatures above the endurable points. It becomes necessary to assign a somewhat greater area than that based solely upon the summer ranges of trout. Primary Food Organisms: Quantitative estimates were made in essentially the same manner as reported for the Genesee Survey Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 25 and the streams were graded as to food richness, Grade I indicating the highest value.* Pool Conditions: A good fish pool is generally deeper and wider than the average for the stream, the current is appreciably slower and hiding places for fish are frequently more extensive. Pools may constitute a more favorable environment for trout by reason of the following: 1. Shelter from light and such enemies as kingfishers, herons and man. 2. Greater forage possibilities, a. Larger surface area for the reception of terrestrial food organisms. b. More ready detection of food animals falling in or float- ing on the surface. c. Collecting place for food carried down by the current. d. Collecting place for detritus which may support a rich fauna. e. Exposed pools containing watercress, mosses and other plants in great luxuriance, which may supply the com- bination of shelter and a dense population of food ani- mals. f. Pools margined by willows and certain other trees and shrubs receiving a larger contribution of food by rea- son of the special attraction of these plants for insects. Not all pools, however, are equally attractive to fish. A type frequently occurring in deep, narrow gorges is scoured out during heavy rains and has little if any food left. A shallow exposed pool without shelter or food is a detriment to any trout stream. There is not much information to guide one in evaluating pools, but in the present survey we have tried to study them with refer- ence to size, type and frequency, and have finally put streams into three classes : A, showing what seemed to represent the best pool conditions, B, average and C, poorest. Effects of Angling: With the exception of those in Lewis county, all streams in the area covered are fished too heavily in comparison with size and productiveness. This is most noticeable in the trout streams located near the cities of Syracuse, Auburn, Geneva and Canandaigua. The few that are suitable for trout are generally small, and many of them might easily be relieved of their quotas of legal sized trout early in the season, thereafter yielding a preponderance of undersized fish. It is not possible for such streams to produce fish flesh rapidly enough to meet the requirements of the ever increasing numbers of fishermen, and here the only hope lies in the planting of larger sizes of trout than has been the practice heretofore. In that part of Fish creek and tributaries located in upper Oneida and in Lewis counties, the case is much different. Here * See paper: A quantitative study of fish food supply in selected areas, by P. R. Needham, page 191. 26 Conservation Department we find streams long stretches of which exceed 30 feet in width with pool and food conditions generally of A-l grade. The numerous tributaries are nearly all permanent and entirely suit- able for brook trout. The country is in most part covered with forest and the streams in general are densely shaded with alders, especially the smaller ones which are too densely covered to permit angling. The main stream can rarely be reached except by trail, and while many local sportsmen fish it regularly, the country is sparsely populated and the stream is far from overfished in com- parison with the other localities covered. The density of trout population is easily observed to be far greater than in any other section studied, and at present natural spawning is an important factor in keeping up this population. Calculating the Number of Trout per Mile of Stream. — The method described in the Report of the Genesee Survey has been used in the present calculations. Reference is made to Table 8 reproduced herewith, showing the number of 3-inch fingerlings per, mile for streams of various widths. In order to use this table one must first determine the average width of the stream, the number of miles suitable for stocking and values for pool (A, B and C) and food (1, 2 and 3) conditions as already described. Table -Planting Table for Trout Streams : Number of 3 -inch Fingerlings per Mile WIDTH IN FEET Al A2 A3 Bl B2 B3 CI C2 C3 1 144 288 432 576 720 864 1,008 1,152 1,296 1,440 117 234 351 468 585 702 819 936 1,053 1,170 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720 810 900 117 234 351 468 585 702 819 936 1,053 1,170 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720 810 900 63 126 189 252 315 378 441 504 567 630 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720 810 900 63 126 189 252 315 378 441 504 567 630 36 2 72 3 108 4 142 5 . 180 6 216 7 252 8 . . . 284 9 324 10 . 360 As indicated the table refers to 3-inch fingerlings only. To find the number of 1, 2, 4, or 6-inch fish, multiply by one of the following factors : Size in inches 1 2 3 4 6 Factor 12 1.7 1 0.75 0.6 This is based upon an expected mortality as follows : Size 1 2 3 4 6 Mortality 95% 65% 40% 20% 0% The table covers stream widths up to 10 feet. Values for wider streams up to 16 feet, may be determined by multiplying that given for a stream 1 foot wide, by the width of the stream in question. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 27 Leger,* after studying the biogenic capacity of certain streams in France, concluded that the nutritive richness is proportionately much greater in narrow than in wider streams. In streams above 5 meters in width, the richness in food diminished one-half at a dis- tance of 2 or 2V2 meters from the banks. Although this has not yet been proved to hold for New York streams, we shall have to assume that it is true pending future quantitative determinations. With this qualification then, we may calculate the number of fish to be planted in streams more than 16 feet (roughly 5 meters) wide using the following formula: 1/2 m w + 8 m — X m = number of fish recorded in Table 8, for a stream one foot wide, w = average width of stream to be stocked. X=number of fish desired. It must be understood that the above values are merely rough estimations subject to change as more information comes to light. Miscellaneous Considerations. — Brook Trout versus Brown Trout: Which of the two species should receive priority in plant- ing? In talking with various anglers with reference to this ques- tion difference of opinion is evident. There is the feeling, prob- ably of the majority, that native brook trout should be encouraged in all fishing waters entirely suitable for them, because among other reasons, their range is gradually becoming more restricted by numerous adverse agencies. The desire to preserve this Amer- ican species in as many localities as possible in order that its con- tinued existence may be assured for coming generations, is entirely logical and commendable. Yet there is a growing tendency, pos- sibly among the minority, particularly in those regions where it is the most abundant species, to become dissatisfied with the size to which the brook trout attains and to wish to displace it with the larger brown trout. It is the general belief among fish culturists that the two species are incompatible and should not be placed in the same stream. There is some evidence to bear this out. It is well to note, how- ever, that the brook trout have not in all cases been crowded out or exterminated by the browns, but have held their own in many of the colder streams in which the most favorable conditions for the brook trout are to be found. It may be pointed out that in the entire Oswego watershed the total stream area for which brown trout have been recommended is more than two-thirds greater than that for brook trout. It would thus seem that there is a sufficient stream area to be found in the warmer streams for brown trout enthusiasts without trying to ex- tend the range of this species to the typical brook trout streams. For this reason we have consistently advised the restriction of * Leger, L. 1910. Principes de la Methode Rationnelle du Peuplement des Cours d'eau a Salmonides. Travaux du Laboratoire de Pisciculture de L'Universite de Grenoble, fascicle 1, p. 531. 28 Conservation Department brown trout to those warmer streams in which brook trout cannot hope to maintain themselves, except in a few of the larger streams where stream conditions vary widely and a marked extension of trout fishing may be obtained by planting brown trout in the warmer parts. The East Branch of Fish creek is an example in which brook trout are recommended for the upper part from tributary 32 (Pringle creek) to source, while browns have been designated from tributary 32 to mouth. In the upper section of the watershed located in Lewis county, Map 1, the brook trout stream mileage predominates in the ratio of about 135 to 27 for browns. Undoubtedly this circumstance to- gether with the larger size attained by brown trout have influenced the members of the Fish Creek Club to introduce the latter in that part of the stream controlled by them. Just how far upstream the browns will move is a question, but during the summer of 1927 a few were captured a distance of about 4 miles above the Club preserve. The conditions as studied indicate that the water of Fish creek even a short distance below the Club property is entirely suitable for brook trout. Nevertheless since the browns are now well estab- lished here, it seems unwise to continue stocking the main stream with brooks in any place below the private preserve. Nursery Streams: Those under three feet in width, without sizable fishing pools may be considered nursery streams and it is advisable to stock them with the sole idea of increasing the population in the main streams to which they are tributary. Quite often, however, we find a nursery stream entirely suitable for brook trout but flowing into a larger fishing stream suitable for brown trout only. Our policy should not change, because we are stocking it for the benefit of the larger stream. In this particular case we would recommend brown trout. If, however, the little stream hap- pened to be tributary to a larger one not suitable for any trout, it is unwise to stock it at all. It is true that a few trout if planted might grow to be 6 or 7 inches long and quite probably they would be caught by the first angler to visit the stream on the opening day. There is reason to believe also that a large proportion might Avork down into the larger stream during the colder part of the year and disappear altogether. It is much better to omit all such streams from our stocking program and to concentrate our efforts upon those of larger productiveness, stocking more heavily and perhaps with trout of larger size. Rainbow Trout: The facts concerning the rainbow trout com- monly distributed in New York State appear to be as follows : They become sexually mature at the end of the third year counting from the time the eggs are laid in April. Those kept in the spring water of the State hatcheries may spawn at varying times from December to April but wild rainbows in New York streams spawn principally during April. Young rainbows planted in the smaller streams whether cold ones suitable for brook trout or the warmer Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 29 ones containing browns generally remain there until sometime during the second year after which they migrate downstream. During the second year many of them ranging in size from 6 to 8 inches are of legal size for angling. The migrants may or may not permanently leave the stream apparently depending upon the size and summer temperature of the water to which the stream is tribu- tary and the presence or absence of barriers (water falls or serious pollution), the latter preventing their return even if it is otherwise possible. If it is possible for them to return, they do so towards the end of the third and subsequent years in March and April, and at this time may range from 15 to 24 inches long thus furnishing excellent sport. Rainbow trout from Seneca lake Among the waters in the Oswego watershed known to stop rain- bows in the downstream movement, may be mentioned the Finger lakes (Skaneateles, Owasco, Cayuga, Seneca, Keuka and Canan- daigua), Potters Falls reservoir at Ithaca and Lake Como (Cayuga county). The question for the sportsman to ponder is whether to stock any stream irrespective of barriers or the condition of the water info which it empties in the hope of catching a few 6 to 8 inches long and losing the remainder of the plant through migration, or to confine them to streams without barriers which empty into suitable 30 Conservation Department lakes, reservoirs or possibly rivers (Genesee) with, the probability of catching not only some of the small ones but many of the large sexually mature trout as they return for spawning. In the first case heavy planting will be necessary every year with the prob- ability of huge annual losses through migration. In the second more and larger fish will be available, the plantings need not be so heavy because some natural spawning will always take place, and the losses from migration will be less. Money, space and time will thus be saved in our hatcheries for the propagation of other species. Because of our belief that the second plan is the better rainbow trout are assigned to those streams only to which the adults are likely to return. The writer is aware that in some parts of the country east of the Rock}' Mountains the rainbow appears not to be migratory. This circumstance might alter the policy for such localities. What is said here applies only to the two watersheds studied, the Genesee and the Oswego. Stream Mileage Suitable for Stocking. — The total stream mileage in the Oswego watershed is roughly 7,000. Of this only about 1,688 miles are worthy of stocking. The remainder fall short in one or more particulars — either dry, badly polluted, too warm for trout, too small for bass and too rapid- for bluegills and bullheads, or posted. In the last case they may not legally be stocked with State fish. The dry streams appear to be the most numerous while those too warm for trout and too small for bass seem to rank second in numbers. Of the 1,688 miles worthy of stocking, 1,430 are suit- able for trout, 133 for large-mouthed bass and 125 for small- mouthed bass. It is well to note that one mile of bass stream represents a greater area than one of trout stream because all bass streams average more than 30 feet in width, while by far the greater number of trout streams are well under this value. The most important small-mouthed bass streams are the Oswego river (Map 3B), Oneida river, Fish creek, Clyde (Map 3A and 4A), lower Ganargua, Oneida creek, Canandaigua outlet and West river (Map 4B). The better large-mouthed streams are the Oswego river (Map 2), Caughdenoy creek from mouth to Crippen pond (Map 2), parts of Fish creek (Map 2), Seneca river including the barge canal, lower Clyde, Cowaselon and Flint creeks. The 1,427 miles of trout stream require a total annual plant of about 1,031,461 fingerling trout distributed among the three species as follows: — Brook trout 685 miles requiring 366,630 fish Brown trout 642 '-' ' " 606,248 " Rainbow trout 103 " " 58,583 " The greater stocking requirements of brown trout as compared with brook trout in view of a smaller stream mileage for the former is explained by the fact that brown trout generally range through the warmer waters lower downstream where the width is greater. Consequently a greater area is involved which must be supplied with a greater number of fish per mile. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 31 The following Table 9 shows the comparative figures for the various species in the regions represented by the several maps : Table 9. — Total Trout Steam Mileage and Planting Numbers by Maps MAP Brook Trout Brown Trout Rainbow Trout Miles Number of fish Miles Number of fish Miles Number of fish 1 135 293.4 20.0 45.0 5.2 86.0 83.5 15.1 2.0 87,638 154,933 5,414 12,321 3,205 29,259 55,006 16 , 854 2,000 27.0 158.9 9.5 103.8 33.5 116.3 114.9 75.3 3.0 30 , 565 213,581 2,095 134,125 19,298 88,473 64,007 51,104 3,000 '"8.'4 25.0 39.4 27.1 3.0 9 3A 3B 4A 1 050 4B 5 775 5 24,980 6 25 778 7 2 000 Totals 685.2 366,630 642.2 606,248 102.9 58 583 The region covered by Map 2 has the largest stream mileage but this is also the largest area. The greatest mileage in propor- tion to area is found on Map 1. This is in the upper East Branch of Fish creek which also has a much higher altitude (1,600-1,900 ft.) than any other region. Here also the brook trout stream mile- age and area are much greater than for browns (135 to 27 miles). AVe likewise find here less pollution, more timber, fewer dry streams, fewer people, fewer roads, a greater advantage for natural spawning and a much denser population of brook trout. The region stands out above others in the quality of its trout streams. The combined areas represented by Maps 3A and 4A have fewer trout streams than any one of the others except Map 7 which is too small for comparison. There is a total of 66 miles of which 25.2 are suitable for brook trout, 43 for browns and 8.4 for rain- bows. Map 3A includes principally that region lying along the route of the barge canal from Cross lake to a place just beyond the Wayne-Monroe county boundary. It covers much of the low lying country in the Montezuma marshes and along the Ganargua creek and lower Clyde river. None of the streams is above the 600 foot contour. They are mostly brown water, often turbid, fairly slug- gish, badly exposed, in a densely populated section which is in general the Avarmest part of the area covered. Here Ave find but 29.5 miles of trout stream in comparison with 38.7 for Map 4A. The ratio of brook trout to broAvn trout streams is hoAvever loAvest in Map 4A (5.2 to 33.5). The feAv trout streams in these two sec- tions are Avidely scattered and often are formed by one or more conspicuous springs. North brook near Auburn made suitable for trout solely through the influence of the Price spring is a note- Avorthy example. Tt receives pollution. As one goes to higher altitudes either east towards the region south of Oneida, (Maps (3B and 4B) or south tOAvard the headAvater tributaries of the 32 Conservation Department various Finger lakes, the trout streams become very numerous, culminating in that section near the heads of Skaneateles, Owasco and Cayuga lakes, (Map 5). Some of the More Successful Trout Streams of the Oswego Watershed Map 1. The upper East Branch of Fish creek* with its numerous tributaries is the outstanding brook trout system of the whole watershed. These streams are found within an area of about 78 square miles. Roaring brook, Sixmile, Sevenmile, North Branch and Big Alder are the more important fishing tributaries. The main stream ranges upward to a maximum width of 70 feet, is generally swift, with rubble, coarse and fine gravel bottom. Long deep pools are numerous and spawning beds are frequent. In food richness it ranks high. It is therefore capable of supporting an exceedingly large quantity of trout. On account of the high results from natural spawning, the stocking policy has been placed at the low figure of 2,200 per mile. Map 2. Here was found the greatest number of trout streams. by far the greater proportion of which were connected with the Fish creek watershed. The East Branch of Fish creek becomes a brown trout stream on this map. Rainbows, however, have also been planted in the past as follows: 1910, 4,000; 1921, 20,000; 1922, 10,000; 1924, 2,500. A few small rainbows either in the second or third years were reported during the past summer, yet it is not evident that they return to this stream to spawn nor that they mature in the stream. For this reason this species has not been included in this stocking recommendation. Point Rock creek, Fall brook and Furnace creek seem to be the most important fishing tributaries. The first two are productive brook trout waters, while Furnace creek is probably more useful for brown trout. The West Branch of Fish creek varies widely in its conditions. It appears suitable for brown trout from tributary 8 nearly to Camden. From thence to Williamstown it becomes warm and sluggish and at present abounds in large-mouthed bass. Above Williamstown it becomes cooler and more rapid and brown trout should succeed nearly to Kasoag lakes. (See stocking list, pp. 216, 217.) The most important tributaries are Little river, Cobb and Emmons brooks and Mad river. In the southwestern half of Map 2 are located many good trout streams more or less directly tributary to Oneida lake. Many of the better ones are now posted and cannot be stocked with State fish. However, public fishing is permitted in some of them, includ- ing Big Bay creek with its tributaries Dykemans creek ; Frederick * In the section just west of Michigan Mills, there would seem to be an opportunity for securing wild brook trout eggs in sufficient quantities to make the attempt worth while. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 33 creek (in part) ; Spring brook tributary to Scriba creek, and the lower 3 miles of Black creek. Further west, Potts creek tributary to Oneida river has about 4 miles of suitable brown trout water. Map 3 A. The few trout streams occurring on this map are small and not important, yet since there are so few of them, they are more highly prized than would be the case if located in certain other sections of the watershed. Marbletown creek, one of the largest and longest, is apparently suitable for brook trout. The two small tributaries, 14 and 15, should serve merely as nursery streams. Military run, Stebbins brook and to the east, Putnam brook, are also worthy of attention. Map 3B. The streams of this region are chiefly of the brown trout type in the ratio of about 103.8 miles to 45 for brook trout. Of those flowing directly into Oneida lake from the south, Black creek and tributary 11 are fair brown trout streams, while tribu- taries 9 and 12 are suitable for brook trout. Oneida creek receives two brown trout streams, Sconondoa and Mud creek. The former is larger and considerably more productive. The Cowaselon itself is not a trout stream on this map but it receives three of considerable importance, the Canaseraga, tribu- tary 5 and Clockville creek. Probably the best trout stream in this section is the Chittenango creek, a large stream averaging 35 feet in width, flowing generally over limestone bed rock and well shaded. Small springs are well distributed throughout its course from Chittenango to the source and being supplied with ample shade the temperature is well within the limits for brown trout. It is exceedingly rich in aquatic insects and should support more trout than apparently exist there now. Continued heavy stocking with the larger sizes of brown trout should make this one of the best fishing streams in central New York. The chief tributary is Butternut creek which in turn receives Limestone creek. Both streams are above average size and in the past have been successful fishing streams for brown trout. Farther to the west, Seneca river has one very successful trout stream tributary, Carpenter brook, lately opened to the public. It is exceedingly rich in food, possesses many fine pools, and in the past under private control yielded remarkable catches of good sized brook trout. It is easily accessible to fishermen of Syracuse and Auburn, hence to preserve good fishing, it will be necessary to stock with the larger sizes of trout. Map 4A. This region is similar to 3A in that it is generally low and contains very few important trout streams. North brook about two miles north of Auburn would be the best fishing stream were it not polluted. The amount of pollution at the present time does not seem to render the water in the trout section wholly un- suitable for brook trout but if in the future it is materially 34 Conservation Department increased, it will undoubtedly ruin this stream as a habitat for trout or any other game fish. Below the junction with Price spring run, the stream is a rather close succession of short rapids and long, broad, deep pools with overhanging banks often margined with dense patches of water- cress. It is one of the richest in food that has come to the writer's notice containing countless numbers of Caledonia shrimps (Gam- marus limnaeus). Near the source it receives the effluent from the disposal plant of the City of Auburn. In the past this stream has produced a good many large brook and brown trout. Although brown trout have been planted formerly with success, it would seem wise under conditions regulating pollution to preserve this solely as a brook trout stream, because it is the only sizable stream in this region known to be Avell adapted for this species. The stream is fished beyond its capacity to produce trout and conse- quently the only chance of preserving good fishing lies in stocking more intensively with larger sizes. An experimental planting of brown trout has been suggested for that part of the Clyde river lying between tributaries 29 and 37. This river showed temperatures generally too high for brown trout, yet, in the particular section mentioned, a number of spring runs enter, cooling pools in which there is a possibility that brown trout may find favorable conditions on hot days. In case this section is stocked, it should be watched by local anglers and the result reported. Map 4B. This region ranks second in the number of miles of trout streams and here as in Map 3B, brown trout waters pre- dominate. Oneida and Chittenango creeks with the latter 's tribu- tary, Butternut creek, constitute the largest area suitable for brown trout. Tributaries 8 and 37 of Limestone creek are also important brown trout streams. Onondaga creek from tributary 26 to source and Butternut from 39 to source are good fishing waters for brook trout, likewise Munger brook and tributary 47, both of the Chittenango watershed. The Butternut has an impassable dam at Apulia which prevents brown trout from reaching the brook trout section above. All of these streams are well provided with nursery runs. Going towards the southwest the inlet of Skaneateles lake is the outstanding rainbow and brown trout stream. Entering Owasco lake at Long point, there is a small brook com- ing down through a densely shaded gorge a distance of three- quarters of a mile. Though small, it has been used by rainbows for spawning during the last 30 years or more. They were first noticed by the writer in 1898 and as studied during various sum- mers up to 1915, it was possible to distinguish three different age groups, namely, young of the year up to 2 inches long, yearlings 4 to 7 inches long and two-year-olds 10 to 12 inches. The longer fish were very poorly nourished and much under weight. Also there were very few of them, not more than five having been ob- Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 35 served in any one summer. In the case of this stream at least the greater number probably migrated to the lake some time between the end of the second summer and the beginning of the third, but a few either remained in the stream through the third summer or else migrated normally and later returned early in the third year. Map 5. The Owasco inlet proper from Moravia to source is one of the most successful brown and rainbow trout streams in the Owasco watershed. A great many large brown trout are caught every year ranging upwards to 5 pounds in weight, and during April and early May adult rainbows up to 3 or 4 pounds are not unusual. It is a good sized stream with numerous fishing pools of the best type and capable of supporting heavy plants of both species. Among the sixty primary tributaries, fifteen are suitable for stocking, though the greater number are more valuable as nursery streams. Among the noteworthy fishing streams are Dresserville creek, Hemlock creek and Peg Mill brook. The most important and longest tributary of Cayuga lake, oc- curring on Map 5 is Fall creek. It varies widely in its conditions. The lower part of about 8.5 miles is too warm for trout and at pres- ent is overpopulated with small-mouthed bass. From McLean to the Groton city dam, it is worthy of heavy stocking with brown trout. Above this dam, much of the stream is too warm for brook trout ; however, there are some cold pools and since many of its tributaries offer good trout fishing, this species has been assigned to this upper section. Fall creek would be more productive of larger fish, if the small nursery feeders were not fished. Taghanic creek with its principal tributary, the Reynoldsville creek, in the past has furnished some of the best brown trout fish- ing in Tompkins county. In 1918 the trout population was so dense that immediate stocking seemed unnecessary. At the present time, it is pretty well fished out and should be heavily stocked with the larger sizes of trout. There are no tributaries of Seneca lake on this map worthy of stocking except the outlet of Keuka lake. Although trout are not known to occur in this stream the lower .3 of a mile should be suitable for adult rainbow trout migrating from Seneca lake. A liberal plant* is recommended in an attempt to establish a run. In the region around Naples there are a number of trout streams all more or less directly connected with the Canandaigua inlet. West river is the largest and except in the upper 6 miles is too warm for trout. It should be possible to establish a run of rain- bows in this section. Naples creek with its main tributaries, Grimes, Tannery and Reservoir creeks and tributary 12 are all fair fishing streams. * Director's note: Because of the conditions of pollution prevailing in the stream (see p. 92 and p. 115) dnring- the spring runs of rainbows it is sug- gested that such a planting he regarded as experimental only with a view to establishing the future policy for this stream. 36 Conservation Department Map 6. Many of the streams on this map have already been referred to under Map 5. In the eastern section Virgil creek, a stream tributary to Fall creek, was formerly a noteworthy brook trout stream, and at present there are a few pools containing indi- viduals of this species. However, for the most part the stream has become exposed and too warm for brook trout. Better fishing will doubtless follow exclusive stocking with browns. It is a good sized stream, rich in food and showing the best pool conditions. It should receive a much larger allotment of fish annually in order to fully utilize its productive capacity. The Cayuga lake inlet system is one of the largest and most im- portant in Tompkins county, furnishing a total of about 48 miles of fishable trout water. The inlet proper has no barriers to the upward migration of rainboAv trout from Cayuga lake. It is a rather large stream, rich in food and possessing large pools of the best type. It is too warm for brook trout though brown and rain- bows are known to thrive. Specimens of the latter weighing upward of 4 pounds have been taken in April. It is heavily fished and never has been stocked heavily enough to take full advantage of its productive capacity. All of the larger tributaries possess high falls and may thus be stocked independently of the main stream. The principal fishing tributaries are Sixmile, Butternut, Enfield (Fivemile) and Newfield creeks, All are of good size and pro- ductive, and are divided by dams or falls into two or more sections. It is thus possible to use both species of trout (brown and rainbow) in stocking. The upper 3.5 miles of Newfield creek is the most typical brook trout stream in the county, in which brown trout have not yet appeared. Fed at first by three fair sized springs, it flows down through a heavily wooded swamp and receives here and there other smaller springs. It is densely shaded, the water is cold and there are spawning beds near the source which contribute in no small way toward the trout population of the stream. Seneca lake inlet, known as Catherine creek, is much like the Cayuga inlet in that it is ideal for rainbow and brown trout, the former migrating from the lake. Good catches of large rainbows are reported each spring and many large browns are taken in the upper section in summer. Catlin Mills creek is the principal tribu- tary suitable for stocking. Other tributaries of Seneca lake are Sawmill creek from mouth to falls suitable for rainbow trout, and tributary 44 from Burdett to source together with its main feeder, Texas Hollow brook, suitable for brown trout. Keuka lake inlet, another stream used for spawning lake rain- bows, has an impassable dam located near tributary 5, which limits the upward movement to about 2 miles. Map 7. But two fishing waters are located on this map. Catherine creek to which reference has already been made (Map 6) and the abandoned Chemung canal. The latter is broad, sluggish and fed chiefly by small springs well distributed throughout its Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 37 course. The water is cold, temperatures ranging from 63° to 67° Fahr. when the air showed 83° and 84° Fahr. It was exceedingly rich in food but was badly choked with vegetation principally watercress. This latter condition is by no means harmful to trout but interferes seriously with the fishing. By removing about two- thirds of it much better results would be possible without sacrificing the production. Pond Areas Available for Stocking. — The total pond area ex- clusive of the Finger lakes, Oneida lake and all posted ponds, is about 6,900 acres of which 137 are suitable for brook trout, 316 for rainbrow trout, 2,334 for small-mouthed bass and 4,113 for large- mouthed bass. The folloAving table shows the extent of such waters on the sev- eral maps : Table 10. — Pond Acreage Suitable for Stocking MAP Brook trout Rainbow- trout Small- mouthed bass Large- mouthecl bass 1 64 72 72 52 192 "i',6u '"i^so 38 2 3A ''.'.'.'. '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'..'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 1,382 1,136 3B 1,064 4A 111 4B 1 420 5 6 The Larger Trout Ponds Map 1. The largest pond at Paige with an area of about 50 acres, is formed by a dam in one of the upper tributaries of East Branch of Fish creek. It is cold with silt bottom and now contains brook trout. Map 2. The Oneida reservoir of 60 acres is the largest in this region suitable for brook trout. It is formed by a dam in Florence creek at Glenmore which gives it a maximum depth of about 25 feet, This body of water is the water supply for the City of Oneida and in case of future posting, it would appear advisable to change the species to rainbow trout, because of the probability of the adults moving up into Florence creek where fishing would doubt- less be open to the public. Map 3. The upper Oneida reservoir of 10 acres and Green lake of 62 acres seem favorable for rainbow trout, The former has a maximum depth of about 25 feet and shows higher temperatures than Green lake. The gaseous conditions are much better, however, and it is believed that the area is large enough to be attractive to mature rainbow trout. 38 Conservation Department Map 5. Lake Como covering about 52 acres is well adapted to rainbow trout but now contains both rainbow and brook trout in addition to a mixed population of bass, sunfish, perch, etc. The maximum depth is about 20 feet and when examined July 19, showed a bottom temperature of 64 and a surface temperature of 76 with a maximum air temperature on this clay of 77 Fahr. Both the inlet and outlet contain brook trout. The latter in addi- tion has been stocked with browns and rainbows. Map 6. The Potters falls reservoir is the only public pond in this area suitable for trout, It is formed by a dam in Sixmile creek approximately 60 feet high just east of the city of Ithaca and covers an area of about 192 acres. At the present time the maxi- mum depth is about 47 feet and the average depth about 20 feet. The bottom is covered with mud, sand and gravel, the first pre- dominating. On July 11 at 5 P. M. the following temperatures were recorded : Air, 87 ; water at the surface, 80 ; water at a depth of 38 feet, 58° Fahr. In the past Sixmile creek has been stocked with rainbow trout which have migrated downstream, principally during the second year, into the reservoir where a good many have apparently matured. This is proved by the capture during the past two or three seasons of adults in spawning condition in various sections of Sixmile up to the first dam at Brookton. The recently constructed settling basin about one-fourth of a mile above the reservoir will hereafter act as a barrier to move- ment further upstream. However, between the basin and the res- ervoir, the stream is rapid with gravel and rubble bottom and will, it is believed, supply a sufficient spawning area for trout. The settling basin itself is a pond of several acres and may also prove to be a stopping place for rainbows. Since the stream and reservoir are apparently rich in food, they can stand a very heavy annual plant, Warm Water Ponds and Lakes There are approximately 6,447 acres of warm water ponds and lakes. The ratio of small-mouthed bass to large-mouthed bass areas is a little less than one to two. The largest bass areas are to be found in the lower regions, Maps 2, 3A, 4A and 4B. There are no warm ponds in Maps 1, 6 and 7.. Eleven of the ponds or lakes contain 160 acres or more. Only two of these, namely, Cross and Cazenovia lakes, show conditions favorable to small-mouthed bass. The others are shallow, warm, often with brown water, mud bottom and with large areas covered with vegetation both submerged and emergent types, constituting ideal conditions for large-mouthed bass, bluegills and bullheads. Cross lake is the largest of the group and shows diverse condi- tions. All types of bottom are present, the vegetation is luxuriant and the food richness is high. It has always been an exceedingly productive body of water and a popular one for fishermen. The principal food varieties are the large and small-mouthed bass, Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 39 northern pike, chain pickerel, yellow perch, pike-perch, bullheads, and a variety of sunfishes, calico bass, etc. Most of these forms are abundant and run to good size. The yellow perch, however, as is often the case in shallow, weedy lakes, run small as compared to those in some of the Finger lakes. Cazenovia lake is second in size. It is divisible into two areas. The head of the lake (north end) is narrow, shallow with mud bot- tom predominating and with extensive areas of vegetation. Margined with water lilies and cat-tails, large-mouthed bass find here congenial surroundings. Going towards the foot of the lake greater depths are encountered, culminating in a maxi- mum of about 48 feet near the south end. The water here is clear and the bottom shoreward is hard, consisting principally of mixed gravel and sand. This lower region is inhabited by small-mouthed bass and pike-perch. Formerly the lake abounded in yellow perch, but since the pike-perch have become established, the yellow perch fishing has fallen off to a marked degree. Table 11. — List of Ponds of 160 Acres or More MAP Name Area in acres Fish 2 230 320 512 320 320 250 160 1,920 250 320 1,280 Lm. B. Lm. B. Lm. B. Lm. B. Lm.B. Lm. B. Lm. B. Pp. Lm Lm. B. Lm. B. Pp., Sm. 2 2 Neatahwanta lake Duck lake Otter lake 3 A 3A 3 A 3A Stark Dond 3B 4A 4B Jamesville reservoir Cazenovia lake 4B 40 Conservation Department II. THE FINGER LAKES FISH PROBLEM By E. H. Eaton, Professor of Biology, Hobart College Our problem was to discover some means of conserving the fish supply of these beautiful Finger lakes and increasing it, if possible. A hundred and fifty years ago there was a plentiful supply of fish for the 20,000 or more Senecas and Cayugas who in- habited this region, but now that there are more than half a million of inhabitants of the counties which border on these lakes there is no reason to wonder that the supply is not adequate to the demands of sportsmen. However, when we consider that the seven lakes from Canandaigua to Otisco cover a combined area of 195.6 square miles and that their combined volume equals 1,078,606,000,000 cubic feet, with a plentiful supply of plankton and bottom fauna, there is reason to believe that they could be made to support more fish under scientific man- agement. With only three months at our disposal, it was deemed best to concentrate attention on the distribution of fish which now inhabit the lakes, the food which they utilize as revealed by exami- nation of stomach contents, the amount of the available food sup- ply, both plankton and bottom-fauna and food fishes for the larger species, together with an examination of the temperature, oxygen content and other chemical characters of the water. Data already at hand on the plankton and the character of the water as shown in the investigations of these lakes by Birge and Juday* helped in arriving at conclusions. The Fish Catch. — The object of taking fish in the various lakes was to determine what species inhabit each lake, their rela- tive abundance, their distribution as to depth, temperature and other conditions, to observe the stomach contents and so find out the food preferred by each species. Gill-nets were use:l at va- rious depths and localities, the size of meshes ranging from %" to 4". These nets were efficient in taking lake trout, whitefish, ciscoes, alewives, suckers, perch, wall-eye or pike-perch, bass, bullhead, pike and pickerel. Wall-eye and bass did not gill as readily as might be expected. In fact the bass was difficult to take by almost all of our methods. Undoubtedly the bass and whitefish could be taken more readily in nets strung with greater "take-up" in such a way that the perpendicular opening is longer than the horizontal. We found the nets much more effective if made of fine thread, that is 20/3 for the larger nets and 50/2 for the smallest. Fykes and the trap-net were effective in taking almost all of the shallow water fishes such as bass, pike, bullheads, suckers and sunfish. *Birge, E. A. and Juday, C. A. limnological study of the Finger lakes of N. Y., Bull. U. S. Bur. Fisheries, vol. 32, 1912. See also Plankton Studies of Seneca, Cayuga and Oneida lakes by W. C. Muenscher, in this report, page 140. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 41 Traps made of wire meshing were used successfully in the capture of perch, rock bass, sunfish, young bass, sculpins and sticklebacks, but were rather ineffective in taking minnows. These traps were made 5' x 3' x 2' with a deep funnel opening at one end. The size of mesh used for perch and bass traps was 1", for the small fish such as blobs and sticklebacks, %". Set lines were used at various depths baited with worms and alewives. They were the only effec- tive means we had of capturing eels and were useful in taking bull- heads,, suckers, catfish, whitensh, rainbow trout and lake trout. Seines were found by far the most effective method of taking min- nows and other small fish in shallow water. Lengths of thirty to fifty feet, made of linen thread, Yi" mesh, tied at the joints, with a bag at the center of the net were found best for this lake work. The various appliances used were tried in widely separated lo- calities so as to get a fair estimate of distribution. For example, in Seneca lake where we worked for four AA7eeks the trout nets were set only four times in situations where we expected a large catch. Tn three out of four of these sets we took 12, 18 and 38 trout respec- tively. In Keuka lake we failed to catch trout in any numbers be- cause we found it impossible to set our gill net on the trout grounds, due to the great number of line fishermen. Fishing in this way we did not take a great number of edible fish — not enough, if valued at market prices, to pay the wages of two fishermen for the period. This shows that fish cannot be caught in great numbers except in favored localities. We managed, however, to capture 56 of the 69 species of fish which have been recorded in the Finger lakes. The remaining twelve are fishes of very unusual or acci- dental occurrence in these waters. Besides several which had not been reported from the lakes we added at least three species which have not formerly been recorded from the drainage, that is : stone cat (Schilbeodes insignis) ; the sturgeon sucker (Catostomus catos- tomus) ; and the lake chub {Couesius plumbeus). 42 Conservation Department Table 1. — Finger Lakes Fishes The depth range of the taken in seines and the authority. mall fishes was from 1 to 10 feet or less, -j- = Fish number not counted. R — - Fish reported on good THE SEASON'S CATCH Lake lamprey* Alewife* Smelt Cisco* Whitefish Rainbow trout Steelhead Lake trout Common sucker Sturgeon sucker Chub sucker Carp* Lake chub Black-nosed dace Long-nosed dace Fallfish Horned dace* Notropis h. heterodon Bridled shiner . - • • • • Black-nosed shiner ( N. heterolepis) Spot-tailed minnow* Silverfin ( N. whipphi) Notropis atherinoides . . . " cornutus frontalis Golden shiner* Hybognathus nuchalis Hyborhynchus notatus Cut-lips minnow Common bullhead Yellow bullhead Noturus flavus Tadpole cat Schilbeodes insignis Mud-minnow Eastern pickerel (E. niger) Pike {E. lucius) Eel Killifish Trout-perch Yellow perch Wall-eye, pike-perch . . . Log perch, zebra darter Tesselated darter* Fan-tail darter* Small-mouthed bass Large-mouthed bass . . . Bluegill Sunfish Rock bass Crappie (P. sparoides) . Skipjack Cottus b. kumlieni " cognatus* Common stickleback. . . Nine-spine stickleback. . Burbot* 4 131 55 39 10 5 4004 89 174 20 28 4 + + 829 R + + 124 + 2 323 33 12 + 5 4 15 + + 148 R + + 12 12. n * See colored plates 1- In addition to these 56 species the following have been reported as accidental in Cayuga lake and local specimens are in the Cornell collection: Lake sturgeon; long-nosed gar; bowfin or dogfish; Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 43 gizzard shad ; black sucker ; red-horse ; black-nosed minnow ; channel cat ; sauger ; sheepsheacl. The white bass is similarly reported from both Cayuga and Seneca. The brown trout has also been rarely taken in at least four of the lakes and the landlocked salmon has been reported by the Skaneateles fishermen.* This brings the Finger lakes list to 69 species not counting those which inhabit the tributary streams. Distribution of Finger Lakes Fishes. — The lamprey was found only in Cayuga and Seneca lakes and few specimens were taken, but at least 90 per cent of the trout taken in these lakes showed scars, where they had been previously attacked by lampreys. In many cases the wounds were fresh. In Seneca lake it was very evident that the lampreys were more abundant toward the head of the lake, as was expected since they are known to breed in Catherine creek and its tributaries, but not in the other streams. Over 90 per cent of the trout taken at Lamereaux landing had from one to seven lamprey scars each, while of those taken farther down the lake near Reeder's creek only 33 per cent showed scars. The Rev. C. J. Clausen, who has been for many years a trout fisherman on Canandaigua lake, reports that he has taken several trout with lamprey scars and has seen a few lampreys there within the last thirty years. But this parasite if now present in Canandaigua lake must be very scarce. Alewives are extremely abundant in Seneca, Cayuga and Keuka * See annotated list, no. 11a. page , f A M fa L 1 f \ . i m 9 i:';pfft *r t % ma ... -1 %. .„. - «M£Migg .: . mm : ■- ■;■■■■■:. .'.'.." ' :; t^,;;-,|l:;::/;:.,. A catch of alewives, choice food of lake trout. In Seneca Lake 44 Conservation Department lakes. We believe they entered by means of the canal system which formerly extended to Keuka lake and still enters Cayuga and Seneca. I can find no record of their having been introduced intentionally and know from residents of the section that they have been present in all three lakes for at least fifty years. They are evidently not the remnant of a post-glacial invasion from the sea, nor migrants by way of the Oswego river before the dams were constructed, for they certainly should have entered Canandaigua and Owasco lakes with equal ease. Their appearance in Keuka lake is placed by residents of that section at about sixty years ago. The smelt has been introduced in recent years into Canandaigua, Owasco and Skaneateles lakes. We took them only in Canan- daigua and Owasco but we learned from fishermen that mat re specimens have been found in Skaneateles. They appeared in great numbers in Sucker creek near the foot of Owasco early last spring, evidently to spawn, and soon after the spawning season died in large numbers along the shore of the lake. They are a wide- ranging fish like the alewif e and two were taken in trout nets at the depth of 100 feet. The cisco inhabits every one of the seven lakes surveyed, but it has been planted recently in the eastern-most lakes and in Otisco, at least, we believe that all ciscoes are from stock planted by the Conservation Department. This fish, however, is certainly a native of Canandaigua, Seneca, Keuka, Cayuga and Skaneateles lakes. In Canandaigua lake there is a dwarf race, 4 to 7 inches in length, a somewhat larger one in Keuka lake and, in former years at least, a race which grew to a weight of four pounds in Seneca and Cayuga. This, like the alewif e and smelt, is a wide-ranging fish in the lakes and is taken in both deep and shallow water. Great schools of ciscoes are occasionally seen early in the season near shore swimming up or down the lake, but we did not succeed in catching them in large numbers in any of the lakes. The whitefish is most abundant in Canandaigua and apparently always has been. In Keuka, Seneca and Skaneateles there are still whitefish but in much smaller numbers than formerly, accord- ing to the local fishermen. It is mostly a bottom feeder and an inhabitant of the cool, deep water. Early in the season, before the shallows have become warm, they are taken on set lines in water fifteen to twenty feet in depth, and late in the fall they again invade the bars and shallows to spawn. Landlocked salmon have been introduced into Skaneateles lake on two or three occasions and the local sportsmen feel confident that this is the fish they are now taking in some numbers both by hand-trolling and by rod and reel. We have thus far been unable to secure a specimen of this salmon from the Finger lakes. One secured for us by Skaneateles fishermen, and supposed by them to be a salmon was a steelhead trout.* The brown trout has been successfully introduced in the inlets * Loc. cit. page 9G. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 45 Whitefish from Canandaigua lake of the Finger lakes and has been taken by fishermen in the lakes themselves on a few occasions, but it is not naturally a lake fish. Rainbow and steelhead, however, are unquestionably found in all the Finger lakes and especially in Keuka, Seneca and Skane- ateles where they have been taken repeatedly by fishermen. They range the lakes extensively in the summertime but go up the tributaries to spawn early in the spring and then return to the lakes, where they range widely in water of moderate depth. The steelhead is the predominant form in Skaneateles where it furnishes excellent sport. The lake trout is confined to cool water at depths from 30 to 300 feet in summer. Late in the fall and in the spring it invades the shallower water while the temperature remains below 50 degrees F. to seek a more plentiful food supply. When the shallower water warms it retreats to greater depths. Young trout of the first season, although we took none in the lakes, are unquestionably confined to the deeper water, where both the optimum temperature and a bountiful food supply are found. The sucker, (Catostomus commersonnii) is still common in the lakes in spite of the yearly spearing of mature fish as they are running up the influent streams to spawn, and in spite of the fact that only a minor proportion of the fry that hatch from the egg* which are deposited ever reach the lake, because of the intermittent character of so many creeks which formerly were ' ' living streams. ' ' The salvation of the sucker has been the fact that many of them 46 Conservation Department spawn on shallow bars off the stream mouths. This fish is a bottom feeder like the bullhead and when taken from our cool lake waters furnishes a palatable food. The carp is a fish of the weedy shallows although it wanders widely along the lake shore in depths of from 3 to 15 feet in search of crayfish and other food. Early in the summer it invades the flooded lands to spawn, usually at a date later than the pike and pickerel, but is more or less a competitor of these, as well as the perch, bullhead and large-mouthed bass in these situations. The golden shiner is a fish of the weedy shallows and rather warm water, and consequently is scarce except in sheltered bays and around the head or the foot of the lakes where they are more or less abundant. The bullhead is also a fish of the shallows, among the weed beds and on the muddy bottom at moderate depth, but in the summer frequently wanders widely in the open lake on calm evenings, feeding near the surface on the emerging mayflies. Pickerel and pike are distinctly fish of the weedy shallows and consequently are scarce in most of the Finger lakes except in such situations as the foot of Cayuga and the shallows of Otisco. The eel is becoming scarcer in all the Finger lakes and as far as we could ascertain has been absent from Keuka for the last twenty- five years. It is very scarce, if not entirely absent, from Canan- daigua, although it was fairly common twenty years ago. We obtained two eel "smears" (where eels had squirmed through our nets) in Owasco but got no evidence of the fish in Skaneateles. Dams and other obstructions in the outlets of all these lakes are the principal cause of the eels' disappearance. Of course it must make its way up from the sea to reach the lake, and as the fish mature they pass downstream. Their young can never return because of insuperable barriers. The history of the eel in Keuka lake is a fine demonstration that eels do not breed in fresh water and must return to the sea for this purpose. After the old Seneca and Keuka canal was abandoned, the fall of 250 feet between the lakes and the 7 or 8 dams across the stream some of which are 28 feet in height, could not be surmounted by the elvers and the last one which reached maturity, a large specimen, was captured 25 or 30 years ago. The race is now extinct in those waters. The yellow perch is the most generally distributed food fish in the Finger lakes. It is found most plentifully around the weedy shallows 5 to 25 feet in depth, wandering widely along the shore in search of food. During the latter part of June we took great numbers of perch in Seneca lake both in gill nets and traps in depths ranging from 10 to 55 feet, but in general the fish is dis- tributed in depths from three to twenty feet. It is by no means confined to the weedy bottom but prefers those situations for spawning purposes. The pike-perch, or wall-eye, is now a common fish in Canandaigna and Owasco lakes. Although millions of fry have been put in Seneca and Cavuga during the last ten years we took no wall-eyes Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 47 in either lake, but learned from reliable sources that they are present in certain localities. However they do not succeed as well as in Canandaigua and Owasco. The small-mouthed bass is confined mostly to water from five to 30 feet in depth. It prefers a hard bottom, especially a stony bottom where its favorite food of crayfish can easily be found. In the spawning' season they are found near the mouths of creeks and on gravelly bottoms of moderate depth. The large-mouthed bass is a fish of the weedy bays and shallows and consequently is found principally in such localities as Otisco lake, the foot of Cayuga, in Dresden bay, and the shallows of Keuka lake near Penn Yan and Branch/port. It first appeared in Keuka only a few years ago. We took no large specimens in any of the lakes but quantities of young ones. The sunfish also prefers the weedy bays. Although found in all the lakes this species is decidedly less common than we expected except in such localities as the foot of Cayuga. The rock bass is more generally distributed than the sunfish and is found during the summer both on weedy and stony bottoms. The burbot, ling or eel-pout, as it is called on Canandaigua lake, is mostly a fish of the deep water like the trout and whitefish. Young burbot, however, were taken in the inlet of Canandaigua as far up as the village of Naples in brook trout water. The main catch of burbot, both in winter and summer, is in water varying from 30 to 100 feet in depth. It is mostly confined to the bottom and does not range as widely as the cisco and lake trout. In winter it is taken in the Seneca river and must occur to some extent in Cayuga lake. Food of Finger Lakes Fishes. — During our operations between June 15 and September 15 about 2500 fish stomachs were examined. Of these 1736 contained food and the contents were carefully analyzed by Dr. Charles K. Sibley. In the accompanying tabula- tion data have been reduced to a percentage basis to show the food taken by each species (see Table 2). Remarks on the Food of Different Species. — Of our food fishes it will be evident that the lake trout, pickerel and pike are almost exclusively fish eaters; that the rainbow trout, whitefish, yellow perch, pike-perch, rock bass, black bass, and burbot rely to a considerable extent on a fish diet. Larval insects, besides being a very important food of young fishes, are an important item in the case of the cisco, whitefish, sucker, carp, bullhead, yellow perch, pike-perch and black bass. Flying insects which are mostly species which have dropped on the lake during their peregrinations, and emerging midges and mayflies, are to a considerable extent, in early summer at least, a food of the cisco, the whitefish, perch and all the basses. Small crustaceans or scuds are an important article of food with the sucker, carp, bullhead, yellow perch, rock bass and cisco; but plankton erustaeea were food of adult fishes only in the case of the alewife, the whitefish, the cisco and the smelt.* The * Food of two specimens only was observed. 48 Conservation Department azoo mo^og o oo OS o CNI 1 « CO ■** -* ^H • CXI ^H s ! en oo • oo CM t-i ■ ■* ■ S8^SBqooSi[0 C 1 co • sa^rai ja^i?/\\ -H© CO CM CM • lO • spasm aa^o « © o ■ ^ co CM ■© rn : t-co saSpijY o oo •* . ;° CO CO O C 1 t^ 1(3 ■ »0 t^ CN •* • ■-lONOOCSlOOCiON •© ■ CO O 00 >— I Ttl • ■— I 1 ^ sawsippeQ ** 'C o ■ o • ■ CO oo i-i ^ CM c CO ■* X5 saigABjv 03 CO CD O CO 00 CO • CM CT> • CM ^ oo 03 C35 lO CM rH BpOOtJi^SQ - CM CN CM BjaoopBjo lo CO © © • rtlO © 'C © CM ■* © 1 ^ iC - to 00 CO CM CO co co io co ci s!SA"lAI oo —i 00 -h CO K5 © Biajodo^uoj oq -* oo C5 CO iqpl^H CO CM »o Oi CO SmBUIUIBQ CO CM CO CM CM 03 o o M CM t^ ■ cs t^ "O -* • l> • snjjasy >o © «5 "5 co • O CO • K5 ■ -CC qsy^iQ j lO - — t- © ;CV • saAjBAtg CO co CM CO " S1IT3Ug 00 oo CM © -# o rt c • •o^a 'SMouiup\[ © CM co 4— ^h CO m ©oo CM oo CO CNJ CM • C • qojag © : S2 : •© © ; s jjoeqapjo^g CM © ;© co • uidpog j O OSlO lO • • ^'OW ■ o i-~ ^ rtM CO -<±l © • cc O :ic ) ■ • oos;o • © T* 02 •N-HCO saAiMajy O 03 •«5 CM CM pauiuiBxa -o|y[ 15»MCOMO:-HiHOH1500 CM ■"* CO rH —1 >0 £ • O Q ! C . c :c ? > c s £ JO 3 3 e IS 3 c o : 1 c 3 -!> J - 3 C } c ■ j » i A C [ 3 C 3 C ;'c n 3 S L 5p 1 ■ D « . - H \Z 3 i 3 0 n - : 1 j fi ; i 3 2 3 3 : ? 3 £ \\ i h ! B ; J • '5 •-t: ' c • e • c :c ;j 3 a ) = I 3 a in ( J h is <■ 3 ( 3 3 I 3 3 3 4 f. 1 a ^> c, fi il - c ji 3 " I 2P § a 5 a _ i 5^ i 1 3 C s - ™ 5c 3 3 2 5 ; : | • c • ( I" : t h 12. u 3 6 1 1 5p 1 • j.": i : 3 • 3 "23 . ; - a J 3 5= : a ; < ' "e : i 3 e : i i c HP 3.5 i 3 t S < ■(*■ 3 1 ! i h 5 l 3 J : " 13 C HP *0 s • 5 : 3 • ) • 3 • ! rr Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 49 CO '-o CO 33 2 t/2 '7: pq 3° Sd So £ 53 rf| sn a liji ^s 50 Conservation Department whitefish was not a feeder on the smaller plankton Crustacea to the extent it was hoped, most of its plankton food at this season con- sisting of mysis and others of the larger forms. The crayfish was an important food of the rock bass, black bass, eel and, to a less extent, of the bullhead, pickerel and yellow perch; mollusks of the sunfish and whitefish but to a much smaller extent that we ex- pected of other species. The mollusks taken by the whitefish were largely the small bivalves, sphaerium and pisidium. Algae and plant fragments were found in several fish but were evidently taken mostly by accident with their other food, except in the case of the carp and golden shiner. The latter is our only predomi- nantly vegetable feeder. We found that the carp* in these lakes fed more extensively on larval insects and small Crustacea than we had expected. However, I have found in previous years that carp in Canandaigua lake range the shallows along the shale bluffs at a depth of from three to ten feet in considerable numbers to feed on crayfish which are the natural food of the black bass. It is signifi- cant that the carp which inhabits the shallow water is a rival for the food supply of the perch, bass and other valuable species. The lake trout in Seneca, Keuka and Cayuga lakes feed almost exclusively on alewives. The trout in other lakes were evidently getting an insufficient food supply as rarely did we take one whose stomach was completely filled. In Owasco lake they bore conclu- sive evidence of being starved. They were scarcely in edible con- dition. Their bodies were light and narrow, their heads propor- tionately large and their stomachs contained little but mysis. Only five of the fifteen taken in Owasco had succeeded in capturing fish, and only one of these had a full stomach — one cisco. It was evi- dent that the cisco and smelt in Owasco were not sufficiently plen- tiful to furnish the trout with adequate food and in Canandaigua we feel sure that the scarcity of trout is due in large measure to the scarcity of food fish on which they can subsist. The burbot is a gormandizer and feeds largely on small fishes. One specimen contained nine fair sized perch. There can be little doubt that he gathers up a large proportion of the young trout and whitefish before or soon after they leave the spawning beds, for he is a deep water fish and must be considered a serious enemy of our better food fishes. The stomachs of burbots were almost without exception partially filled with sticks, stones and other debris which they gather by accident in rushing after their prey. A rainbow trout, taken near the surface on Seneca lake and weighing 7% pounds, was filled with an enormous quantity of land insects which it had evidently taken from the surface of the water, * See carp studies by Smallwood and Struthers, page 67. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 51 including 12 June beetles, 71 winged carpenter ants, 55 mayflies, 5 bees, an adult sialis, a stink bug, an ichneumon fly and grass- hoppers. During the early summer the cisco also feeds to a considerable extent at the surface during the early evening on emerging may- flies and midges. Specimens taken by fly fishermen early in July contained large quantities of beetles, ants, mayflies and spittle insects. Vegetation.* — It is an unfortunate fact, as far as weed beds are concerned, that the Finger lakes lie mostly in a north and south direction so that the prevailing wind from the southwest sweeps down each lake gathering in force, stirring up the lake bottom and churning the shallows at the foot of each lake to such an ex- tent that weed beds are restricted to the sunken delta at the head of each lake and the few sheltered bays which exist along its shores. Furthermore all the lakes drop off so suddenly from the shore to deep water that very few coves or shallows protected from the pre- vailing wind are to be found. Extensive beds of eel-grass or wild celery (Vallisneria), pondweeds (Potamogeton), horn wort (Cera- tophyllum), ditch-grass (Elodea) and other submerged forms are restricted mostly to the head of each lake and a few sheltered bays and occasional lagoons near the foot. The depth to which all these species grow in quiet water with a rather muddy bottom is 10 to 17 and sometimes 25 feet. They do not thrive along the surf -swept shores of these lakes. These plants, of course, furnish the ideal situation for insect larvae, snails, etc., which are the natural food of most of the shallow water fishes. The so-called musk-grass (Char a foetida), however, is universally distributed on all the lake bottoms to a depth of at least 20 or 30 feet and in favorable situ- ations thrives at a depth of from 40 to 44 feet. It covers practi- cally the whole bottom of Cayuga from the railroad bridge to Union Springs. Incidentally it may be noted that this Char a is the food which attracts the coots, redheads and other ducks where the wild celery and sago pondweed (Potamogeton pectinatus) are scarce — as they are in nearly all localities of the Finger lakes. Char a foetida, lying closer to the bottom, though frequently up- rooted by the south swell, which is so characteristic of these lakes, is the only plant except filamentous algae, desmids, diatoms, etc., of general distribution on the bottom of these lakes. Nitella and other species of Char a are often associated with the predominant form. This plant is one of the favorite foods of the golden shiner and of course it offers shelter to many snails and shallow water crustaceans which are valuable fish food. The microscopic algae which constitute a large proportion of the plankton catches must, therefore, constitute the main primary plant food of the small animal plankton which are to furnish the main food supply in these lakes. These floating algae also by fall- ing to the bottom furnish a large portion of the bottom ooze which is the food of midge larvae, small Crustacea and other animals which can be utilized as food by the young of deep water fishes. * See also page 242, Cayuga and Seneca flora. 52 Conservation Department The Bottom Fauna. — During our survey a large part of our efforts were directed to the study of the bottom fauna to discover the principal source of the primary fish food in the lake. Six hun- dred and thirty-two samples of the bottom were taken with the Ekman dredge during the three months and carefully analyzed. To supplement these studies 212 samples were taken with the scoop dredge in localities where the Ekman could not be worked satis- factorily and several hundred samples* were taken in the shal- lows near shore with a Needham dredge. We find as a result of this work that in the shallow water of all the lakes there is a fair supply of snails, bivalves, and insect larvae, principally mayflies, caddisflies and midges, ranging to a depth of 50 feet. The abundance of these forms in shallow water, however, is not sufficient to supply a preponderant fauna of shallow water Lowering Ekman dredge for a sample of lake bottom fishes. The minnows, likewise, which are mostly confined to the shallow water of the lake are not abundant except in a few favored localities. In the deeper waters we find in all the lakes a plentiful supply of the small .crustacean (Pontoporeia hoyi),oi chironomus larvae, a fair supply of small worms (OligocJiaetes) and a fair supply of bivalves. (Spliaerium) . Likewise in most of the lakes near the bottom a fairly plentiful supply of the small crustacean (Mysis). These forms are the food of young trout, whitefish, etc., and are often eaten by the larger fish when other supplies fail. In Keuka, Cayuga and Skaneateles lakes we took specimens of Pontoporeia filicornix. * The determination of the organisms captured was the work of Dr. Thomas Smyth of South Carolina University. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 53 We were unable to secure a quantitative determination of Mysis and the crayfish. Only 12 specimens of Mysis were taken during the summer in the Ekman, but 68 were taken in one haul of the scoop at 45 meters in Owasco. The abundance of Pontoporeia and Chironomus in deep water indicates a plentiful supply of food for young; lake trout and whitefish. The caddisflies were mostly Molcmna, Leptoccrus, Heliopsyche, Phryganea, Triaenodes, Mys- tacides. The mayflies were Hexagenia, Heptagenia, Ephemera, Caenis. With Chironomus are included about 1% of T any pus, Palpomyia and Protenthes. With Sphaerium is less than 1% of Pisidium. Large bivalves were poorly distributed. Snails were principally Physa, Lymnea, Amnicola, Valvata, Goniooasis and Planorbis. Hydracarina were fairly distributed in water from 1 to 75 feet, sometimes to 225 feet. Conditions Affecting Abundance of Finger Lakes Fishes. — (1) Overfishing is naturally considered the principal cause of the scarcity of game fish and there can be no question that the increased numbers of fishermen in these waters during the last fifty years has had a very serious effect on the supply of all species which are used as food. (2) Illegal fishing is talked about in the region very extensively and we took great pains to obtain the most reliable information available on this subject. There can be no hesitation in asserting that illegal fishing with nets occurs to a considerable extent in every one of the Finger lakes. Three rather recent instances of the most flagrant violations of law will serve to illustrate the danger to our fishing interests from this source. About two years ago nearly 300 trout were taken in a single haul with a large seine, late in the season when the fish were in shallow water, probably on the spawning bed. This was in a lake where the scarcity of trout is de- plored by many good sportsmen. Last winter in another lake over 200 pounds of trout were taken at one haul in a net which was let down through a long opening in the ice. In another lake where sportsmen are calling for improvement in bass fishing nearly two barrelfuls of bass were taken by fykes in three days. The people who vouch for the truth of these stories would not appear in court against the violators, but deplore the violation. In some of the lakes this fishing is carried on by "pirates" for the purpose of selling fish in the open market, but a more general practice is the fishing by farmers and other residents of the lakeside in the fall, winter or early spring to obtain fish for their own tables. It is a quite general practice in most of the lakes to use fish traps of wire netting to capture perch and other pan fish. Where spear- ing is permitted, trout, bass and other game fish are taken by many of the spearsmen when they feel it can be done without detection. It is also true that a large proportion of the rainbow trout which enter the tributary streams to spawn during the spring are taken by the sucker spearsmen, oftentimes, of course, by mistake but as we know from conclusive evidence, very often because the inhabi- tants of the countryside feel that they are entitled to an occasional 54 Conservation Department rainbow instead of saving it for the sportsmen to capture later in the season when the farmer is busy in his fields. This general feeling of the residents of the lake shore that they are entitled to some of the fish, and the fact that they cannot obtain the fish in a reasonable length of time by legal methods has led to this general practice of evading the law. If the supply of fish is to be improved or even maintained in the various lakes, the practice of illegal fishing, especially for the market, must be stopped. (3) Spawning grounds. The bowfin, bullhead and pike situa- tion in Cayuga lake is the finest demonstration one could have of the necessity of proper spawning grounds for each species of fish. The draining of the Montezuma marshes and the shutting off of Cayuga from the Seneca river by the mudlock dam have deprived these fish of the spawning grounds which formerly sup- plied the greater number of them for the foot of Cayuga lake, Now the bowfin is practically unknown and the others are declin- ing. . Although there are weedy shallows at the foot of Cayuga the temperature and other conditions there are not as suitable as those that existed in the marshes and there has been a very decided effect on the fish fauna of the shallower part of Cayuga lake. In similar ways the spawning grounds of nearly every fish in our lakes has been more or less seriously affected by changing conditions. For example, the sand and silt brought down by all the tributary streams is very abundant compared to what it was a hundred years ago when the watershed of the streams was protected by forest, and there was less cultivation and rapid drainage of the hill sides. This mud and silt entering the lake from every tributary stream covers many of the spawning beds with a layer of dirt which is unfavorable to the hatching and development of fry. The strong south swells, which are stirred up periodically by the wind, seri- ously accentuate this unfavorable condition. The waters of these lakes are often much roiled to a depth of 30 to 50 feet off-shore. This condition must be disastrous to the spawn of lake trout, white- fish and cisco, and more or less harmful to bass and perch ; for the bass is sometimes unable to keep the spawning bed clean and the partially floating spawn of the perch is filled with mud and buried. (4) Stocking methods. While our hatcheries have learned to raise trout and other kinds of fish with great success the stocking methods employed by the clubs and individuals which receive these fish from the hatcheries have not resulted in successful planting in many cases. A very careful system of planting each species, based on the best information available is certainly necessary. (5) The condition of the tributary streams referred to is also the cause of the very serious decline in the numbers of minnows, suckers and other fish which are natural food for the trout, bass, etc. Formerly they were reared in great numbers in the tributary streams and descended to the lake later in the season. Now more than 90% of the streams that flow into the lake dry up in mid- Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 55 summer so that a very small proportion of the fry of fish which run up the streams to spawn ever reach the lake successfully. (6) Obstructions in the outlets have also had an effect. An illus- tration in the case is mentioned under the distribution of the eel. When fish that were bred in the shallow lagoons of the Seneca river could run up into Cayuga lake and into other lakes of the chain from their outlets, there was a fresh invasion each spring or summer from the streams which tended to maintain a vigorous stock and restore the fish population of the lakes from the more favorable breeding grounds downstream. These obstructions in the outlets of all the lakes are now practically prohibiting migra- tion of fish such as was possible 50 or 100 years ago. (7) Destructive enemies of the fish we believe are accountable for a large part of the scarcity of lake trout in Canandaigua, Cayuga and undoubtedly in the other lakes. But in Canandaigua the burbot, which is found in the deep water, is a voracious fish and feeds on any kind of fish it can capture. It is unquestionably a scourge of the spawning grounds, devouring the fry and eggs of the trout and so preventing to a large extent the natural repro- duction of this fish. He is, of course, an equal enemy of the white- fish and the cisco. In Seneca and Cayuga lakes the lamprey is a deadly enemy of the trout and all soft scaled fishes. It even attacks carp and bow- fin successfully. However the belief that whenever a lamprey attacks a trout the trout is doomed, must be abandoned, for a large proportion of the trout which we took during the survey bore from one to seven lamprey scars which had healed over completely and the trout was in vigorous condition. The lamprey, of course, sucks the blood of the trout until he is satisfied and then drops from the fish and the wound heals if the fish is sufficiently vigorous or if the wound does not pierce the abdominal cavity. But in the case of young trout, although we cannot prove it, we believe that the attacks of the lamprey are generally fatal. We took no young trout under 18 inches in length which showed a lamprey scar. A further study of this situation is advisable. Besides the burbot and lamprey many fishes are destructive to the young or the eggs of trout and other food fish. Perch have been taken repeatedly near the spawning grounds of trout with the stomach fully distended with trout eggs. Bullheads have the same habit and, although they probably do not invade the trout grounds to any extent, are destructive of the fishes which breed in the shallows. The sculpin and the spot-tailed minnow are fre- quently called "spawn eaters." Unfortunately most of our fishes often destroy the spawn not only of other fishes but their own, as has been conclusively proved of brook trout and other fish kept in hatcheries. The softshell turtle (Amy da spinifer) which inhabits Keuka, Seneca and Cayuga is a predacious species which frequently feeds on fish. The same is true of the generally distributed snapping 56 Conservation Department .'■Ss*''';''' ,s '~- ';>i:li||!i jliill t: t':':'i': V. 11K";: .diff^jll^ if fE'|^^||pg 5", -» ;, """«■■ ■■:<■:■■■":> - ,1k ^ -■ . r* * " ^ * ■yt j^^-W^SpnT ^4^M^ CS _ H P/;ofo by C. K Sibley Soft shell turtle (Arayda spinifer), enemy of shallow water fish turtle. I have repeatedly captured water snakes (Natrix sipedon) with, fish in their jaws which they were carrying to land with the object of swallowing; the victim entire. I have taken this snake with a ten-inch brook trout in its jaws which was a fully active, healthy fish; with a burbot 8 inches in length which must have been obtained in rather deep water ; with a bullhead which weighed at least a pound ; and with numerous other small fishes. I believe the water snake should be destroyed by all sportsmen whenever they have an opportunity. We consider loon, grebes and mergan- sers also as enemies of our lake fish. I have taken nine good sized chubs from the gullet of a single red-breasted merganser and have found a dozen minnows in the gullet of a loon. The loons and grebes, however, feed mostly on minnows which are of minor im- portance and the mergansers do not get into deep enough water to be a serious menace to young trout and whitefish. They do, however, diminish the food supply of our larger fishes. (8) Competition of undesirable fish for the food supply and breeding grounds unquestionably has considerable importance. If the shallows are invaded by bowfins or carp their immediate vicin- ity is avoided by bullheads or sunfish as a breeding spot and if bur- bots exist in such larger numbers that they destroy cisco and other fish which the trout need, the trout must decline in numbers. This question of competition works in the case of all our fishes and it is desirable to discourage as far as possible the useless species so that the better varieties may flourish. (9) The condition of the water as to its temperature, oxygen Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 57 content and various other chemical conditions must be considered when determining the stocking policy for the lake. Fortunately all these Finger lakes, with the exception of Otisco, have favorable water for the growth of lake trout, cisco, whitefish and pike-perch as well as bass. In Otisco in mid-summer the deeper portions of the lake, as shown in the table,* are devoid of oxygen sufficient to support any fish. Consequently the deep water fishes should not be planted in Otisco but shallow water fishes, such as pickerel, perch, pike-perch, bass, and pike should thrive there. We have been unable to find any condition of the water which would ex- plain the scarcity of trout in Cayuga lake and believe it should be attributed not to the condition of the water but to the enemies of the fish, to illegal fishing and to mistakes in planting. (10) Food supply both for the young fish and the mature indi- viduals is the prime requisite next to the oxygen supply. There is no reason, except the burbot, and absence of alewives why Canan- daigua lake should not be nearly as good a lake for lake trout as Keuka. There is abundance of food on the bottom for young trout but the older fish have difficulty in obtaining the small fish which make up 98% of their food. The cisco is scarce, the alewife is absent, the smelt, which has been introduced there during the last few years, has not multiplied sufficiently. We believe that a good supply of alewives in Canandaigua would increase tremen- dously the abundance of trout in those waters. The same is true of Owasco lake where the cisco is too scarce to furnish food for the trout, The smelt has been introduced recently but is not yet abundant. The trout which we took from Owasco lake were almost starved because of the scarcity of proper food for mature fish. They had been feeding mostly on mysis, which is a food adapted especially to young trout, These illustrations should make clear that a proper food supply is the first consideration in waters which are to be stocked and everything possible should be done to in- crease the food supply of game fish. General Conditions in the Various Lakes. — In all the lakes examined, except Otisco, the temperature and oxygen content of the water is favorable for lake trout and whitefish. The shallows in all the lakes are fairly well adapted to the black bass and the perch. In all the lakes the tributary streams have been seriously affected by the destruction of the original forest cover and agri- cultural improvements so that they furnish small encouragement to the suckers and many species of minnows which formerly bred in them successfully. In all the lakes weed beds are poorly dis- tributed except at the head of each lake and in sheltered bays and shallows which are sometimes found along the shore but more often at the foot of the lake. Consequently there is a small acreage available for weed-inhabiting fishes as compared with the large extent of the lake. Therefore fishes which range widely in the lake and are either bottom feeders, plankton feeders or feeders on smaller fishes which feed on plankton are the best adapted for encouragement in these waters. * See pp. 117 and 131. 58 Conservation Department Lowering the water bottle to secure a sample of deep water for gaseous analysis Canandaigua lake: The trout is relatively scarce in this lake and the whiteflsh relatively abundant. Pike-perch has been suc- cessfully introduced and is an important fish. The black bass is fairly common on the rocky bottoms which are found along large sections of the lake shore. The perch and pickerel which formerly were found in considerable numbers are small and scarce compared to conditions forty years ago. The burbot is abundant in this lake and in our estimation should be removed. Of course a complete destruction of the burbot is impossible but if the use of set lines baited with worms were encouraged and the value of the burbot for salting and pickling were exploited we believe that its numbers could be materially reduced. The small ciscoes which are native to Canandaigua and the smelts which have been introduced in re- cent years are not sufficiently numerous to feed the trout and we would unhesitatingly recommend the introduction of alewives from Seneca or Keuka lake. Keuka lake: This lake is the bright and shining example of what might be accomplished in all these lakes if we could control conditions. There are no lampreys or burbots in the lake ; the alewife is abundant, Bottom food like Pontoporeia and Chironomus is abundant, There are more tributary streams which do not run dry, and furnish a favorable breeding ground for the minnows. There are weed beds near Branchport and Penn Yan which fur- nish satisfactory breeding places for the perch, bullhead and large- mouthed bass. The inlets at Hammondsport and Branchport are Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 59 both good streams for rainbow trout and from these fish descend into the lake and furnish sport for the fishermen. Ciscoes are also found in the lake which supplement the trout food. Whitefish is scarce but could be increased in numbers by proper planting. In this lake more lake trout are taken in a single week than are taken in Canandaigua, Owasco or Skaneateles in an entire season by the line fishermen. Thus it is evident that, in spite of the numbers of trout taken, the supply can be maintained by proper planting, and protection of the spawning grounds. The causes which have maintained the supply of trout in Keuka lake in spite of the abundance of fishermen are a combination of the most careful planting which has been practised in any of the lakes, the guarding of the spawning beds, which was undertaken for several years by the Seth Green Club, the greater abundance of favorable spawning beds in the lake off the mouths of the little tributaries which run down from the hills, by the absence of lampreys and burbots, and the presence of a large expanse of lake bottom lying between 50 and 175 feet in depth. Seneca lake: Here is an abundance of alewives and, unfortu- nately, also of lampreys, but no burbots. The eel is fast disap- pearing from this lake. The whitefish has become scarce, perhaps extinct. The cisco exists in reduced numbers. The pike-perch, although it has been planted in recent years, is scarce and the pickerel is practically confined to the head of the lake and Dresden Lake trout showing lamprey marks. From Seneca lake 60 Conservation Department bay where it is by no means common at present. Lake trout, small-mouthed bass and yellow perch are the predominant food fishes. On good hard bottom at a depth of 60 to 150 feet the trout is still abundant in such localities as Lamereaux, Lodi, Willard, Pontius, and Reeders. Curiously enough they do not abound . ff the west shore except at times from Long point to Glenora. They are, however, distributed, though not abundantly, over all the lake. The perch is very plentiful, judging from the catches we made both with trap and gill nets. It is found from Watkins to Geneva harbor. Many perch range from one to two pounds in weight, but curiously enough we heard very little of large catches taken with hook and line. This lake would support a much larger population of trout and with proper planting we believe this could be accomplished. The lampreys of this lake should be reduced by capturing them when they run up the inlet to spawn.* Cayuga lake: The alewife is plentiful furnishing food for the larger trout. The lamprey, however, is very abundant and is evi- dently one of the causes of the poor trout fishing. The pike-perch, in spite of recent introductions, seems to be diminishing in number. The whitefish, although formerly present, is scarce. The cisco is less abundant than formerly. The pike, pickerel, large-mouthed bass and bullhead, as well as the undesirable bowfin or dogfish, are be- coming scarcer. This we believe is largely due to the destruction of their breeding grounds by the draining of the Montezuma marshes and the erection of the dam at Mud Lock where no efficient fishway has been installed. The eel is commoner in Cayuga than in any other of the Finger lakes because access from the sea is still provided. For some reason, probably extensive netting, poor plant- ing and the presence of the lamprey, the lake trout is scarce in Cayuga. It probably was never as abundant as in Seneca but we see no reason why the stock of trout could not be increased if the lampreys were captured in the inlets as they go up to spawn and the trout fry were properly planted. We learned from many sports- men who had helped in the planting of trout in this lake that they usually are dumped either off the end of a wharf in shallow water or at the head of the lake just out beyond the lighthouse. We believe that such plantings of trout are practically all wasted. They should be placed in water that is in the vicinity of 100 feet in depth and well scattered along the lake. Owasco lake: This is naturally adapted to lake trout, rainbow trout, pike-perch and small-mouthed bass. There are no lampreys or burbots in the lake, but unfortunately a good food fish for trout is scarce. The cisco and the smelt, which has been recently intro- duced, are far too few to feed the trout after they pass beyond the stage in which they feed on the smaller organisms. Almost all the trout taken from Owasco lake during our survey were in an See paper by S. H. Gage on Economics of the Lamprey, p. 180. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 61 emaciated condition and although some of them contained smelts, ciscoes or sculpins Ave took none which had more than one or two of these fishes in the stomach and most of them had been feeding on mysis or other small organisms. The pike-perch which is a more omnivorous fish seems to find plenty of insect larvae and small fish to grow successfully. This was the only fish which the local sportsmen were taking with any degree of success, while we were on the lake. Eels still exist in Owasco but are fast disappear- ing. The carp is too abundant near the head of the lake and may interfere seriously with the spawning operations of the pike-perch, perch and bullhead. This fish should be held in check. Suckers were formerly very abundant in Owasco and are still plentiful because there are streams in which they can breed with some suc- cess. These same streams are spawning grounds for the rainbow trout which could be encouraged to become an important fish in Owasco. In this lake we took the only sturgeon suckers (Catostomus cat ost omits) which we found in the Finger lakes. Skaneateles lake: This is a cool, clear water well adapted to the lake trout, the rainbow and steelhead, the whitefish and the cisco. The black bass find favorable breeding and food grounds in the shallower waters and the perch and sucker, among the humbler species, can thrive successfully. On account of the living streams entering the lake in which the rainbow and steelhead can breed we believe these fish should be encouraged. Lake trout, whitefish and cisco should be planted in greater numbers. Possibly the land- locked salmon may yet be firmly established. Otisco lake: This is the shallowest, warmest and weediest of all the Finger lakes. The deeper water is unfit for fish habitation, at least during the summer, because of the scarcity of oxygen.* It is not a trout lake, but in it the pike-perch, perch, large- and small- mouthed bass, pickerel, sunfish, bullhead and sucker can thrive. Because of the large number of cottagers and fishermen in pro- portion to the size of the lake, however, general complaints of scarcity of fish were received. The pike-perch, yellow perch and both species of bass should be encouraged in this lake. Incidentally such fish as the bluegill, crappie and catfish could be introduced successfully. General Suggestions for Improving the Fish Situation. — Making regulations: We will cite a single example of many which occurred to us during the season's work. The open season for black bass began on July first, but in both Seneca and Keuka lakes many bass were still on their beds protecting the young fry on that date. We believe that a postponement of the season was advisable, but this could not possibly have been foreseen by last year's Legislature. The temperature in all the lakes was slow to rise to the summer level during the spring of 1927 and the spawning of many shallow water fishes was postponed accordingly. * See page 132, chemical analyses. 62 Conservation Department Law enforcement : After the laws have been wisely formed they should be strictly enforced with absolute impartiality. It is un- fortunate that the hunting' season in the State comes at just the season when the trout beds should be guarded, when the protectors are mostly in the deer or pheasant country. The spawning beds of trout must be protected or our supply of the finest fish in the lakes will continue to decline. More protectors are needed, at least during' the spawning season of lake trout. Fishways: These should be properly constructed and main- tained in many streams where they do not now exist. The one at Mud Lock near the foot of Cayuga lake will serve as an example. If this were an efficient passageway there can be no question that fishing near the foot of Cayuga lake would be considerably im- proved, although conditions could never be what they were before the marshes were drained by the Barge canal. Another example, of many, might be the lower falls in Taughan- nock glen. A fishway at the lower falls might turn this creek into a fine stream for the spawning of rainbow trout, suckers and many species of minnows which furnish food for the game fishes of the vicinity. Tributary streams: They should not only be provided when pos- sible with fishways, but pollution of the streams at all seasons of the year should be prevented. The Keuka outlet is one example which I might cite. Although there was no serious pollution in this stream during the period of our survey, the paper mills were operating early in the season during the time when rainbow trout were spawning1 and although several rainbows were captured in this stream at the beginning of the season, indicating that they were ascending to the spawning beds, no young rainbows could be taken by repeated efforts. Evidently the poison from the mills above had destroyed the eggs or fry. Elimination of the lamprey* This parasite is responsible for the death of many trout, especially the smaller trout which pre- sumably do not recover from its attacks as most of the larger ones do. The burbot : In Canandaigua lake this fish is a serious menace to better food-fish like the trout and whitefish, and any means which would reduce its numbers without serious damage to other fish should be encouraged. It is a member of the codfish family and furnishes a fairly good picketed or salted product and the fresh fish is by no means bad for the table when properly prepared. The spawning grounds of this fish should be located, if possible, and their numbers reduced by taking them during the spawning season and fishing for them through the ice in winter. Set lines throughout the year should be encouraged as far as possible. Al- though it could be caught readily with lines baited with alewives or minnows we would not recommend this bait because it would See page 158 for full discussion by Prof. S. H. Gage. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 63 be destructive to trout. Lines baited with worms would also take whitefish, but reduction of the numbers of whitefish could be re- plenished by planting". Carp control*: Although we are by no means convinced of all the evil characteristics which have been attributed to the carp, we do believe that it is an objectionable fish in these lakes, which are adapted to fish which are better than the carp. The danger of carp in the Finger lakes is due to the fact that it increases very rapidly, grows rapidly and consumes a large part of the food which should be conserved for the perch, pike-perch and bass. In search- ing for insect larvae, snails and crustaceans it roots up the weed beds and roils the lake, in this manner injuring the spawning beds of many fishes and destroying the cover in which a large por- tion of their food is grown. Development of fish food: When existing conditions are inade- quate to maintain the proper supply of fish in the lake a proper planting of fish food should be made an integral part of the con- servation program. Planting fish in a lake where there is no food for them to eat will never make good fishing. The Department has already embarked on the course of planting food for the game fish and Ave believe it should be carried forward at the same time with the development of fry and fingerlings. The alewife, in our esti- mation, is the best small fish for lake trout and other fish to feed upon. It is a plankton-feeder. It ranges widely in the lake, de- scends to the depths inhabited by trout and invades the shallows at all seasons of the year so that it is a good fish food for the perch, pike-perch and bass as well as for lake trout. We see no serious objection to the planting of ciscoes and smelt. But ciscoes do not increase in our lakes as rapidly as the alewife. They do not feed so extensively on plankton, which is the greatest source of food for small fish in the lakes, and the smelt evidently breeds in the tribu- tary streams which are already insufficient for our rainbows, suck- ers and minnows to utilize, whereas the alewife breeds in the1 open waters of the lake and its young grow very rapidly. Golden shiners are valuable as perch and bass food, and as minnows for bait. These fishes should be encouraged, but unfortunately on account of the scarcity of weed beds they could never become abundant except in the shallows, which are rather restricted in all the lakes, If means could be found of breeding crayfish in large numbers we be- lieve this should be practised as it is a most acceptable food for the black bass, which is the fish most largely sought by the fly fisher- men of the region. The shallow water scud, G-ammarus, was prac- tically absent from Canandaigua lake. It may be that the netting of Gammarus in large quantities in Seneca lake and planting it at the foot of Canandaigua and at Cottage City, Seneca Cove, Vine Valley and the head of the lake might be successful in developing an abundant food for perch in this lake. It certainly ought to be tried as perch in Canandaigua lake, though fairly numerous, are almost * See carp control studies, page 67. 64 Conservation Department universally small except a few at the head of the lake where the abundance of weeds produces the shallow water organisms which are necessary for their growth. Planting Lake Trout Fingerlings. — In order to determine facts in the much disputed problem of how to plant lake trout fin- gerlings two series of experiments were performed, one the first week in July, the other the first week in September. Fingerlings from the Caledonia hatchery were placed in an aquarium which contained a liberal mixture of plankton and bottom organisms. These fingerlings fed in about equal proportions on the larger plankton, like Diaptomus, and Chironomus larvae. At the same time fingerlings were placed in cages of wire netting at depths of 10, 30, 100 and 200 feet. Those placed at 100 or 200 feet were raised the next morning and found to be in perfect condition. They had also fed on Pontoporeia and copepods. The fish were kept in these cages for an entire week during both series of exper- iments and were found in perfect condition at the end. The fish planted at 100 to 200 feet were more vigorous than those at 10 and 30 feet. The absence of Mysis in the stomach content of the fish planted at 100 feet is undoubtedly explained by the fact that the wire meshing was too fine for the Mysis to pass. Furthermore the midge larvae did not enter because they confined their attention to the bottom ooze which was outside the trap. We believe that the trout would naturally feed on the larvae as they did in the aqua- rium if they were free in the lake, and likewise that they would feed on Mysis. This shows conclusively that young trout thrive at depths of from 100 to 200 feet and find food successfully. The temperature at that depth is that to which they have been accus- tomed and the pressure has no effect on the fish, even when rapidly lowered or raised from a depth of 200 feet. We believe, therefore, that plantings of fingerling trout should be made in water exceed- ing at least 60 feet in depth because the oxygen content is ade- quate, the temperature is much more adapted to the young fish than the temperature to be found in depths of 30 to 50 feet where at the season of planting it is decidedly above the temperature in the hatcheries to which the young trout are accustomed. Further- more we find that the waters nearer shore to a depth of 50 feet are inhabited by numbers of perch, bass and other predacious fishes which would be a serious menace to the survival of the trout. The fingerlings should also be well scattered during the planting so that each will have a better chance of finding a bountiful food supply and predacious fishes will be less likely to devour a large percentage of them. Several outstanding facts immediately engage the attention. There are great areas of the lakes which are fit for fish propaga- tion—a plentiful supply of oxygen, a low carbon dioxide content, a plentiful supply of bottom fauna in most of the lakes and an enormous supply of plankton Crustacea. The 50-foot con- tour line is the general line of division between the realms of the shallow water and deep water fishes. This is near the bot- Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 65 torn of the thermocline in most of the lakes and, in general, marks the division between warm and cool water during the summer when the feeding and general life activities are at the maximum. We believe that bass and pickerel confine their attention mostly to water shallower than 50 feet but the perch, which is the commonest and most generally distributed shallow water fish in the lakes, was taken in considerable numbers at depths from 40 to 55 feet. The 150 lake trout captured by our fishermen were taken at an average depth of 85 feet. In all the lakes excepting Otisco the supply of oxygen and the scarcity of carbon dioxide is such that they are fit for fish habita- tion to their remotest depths, so far as the gaseous content of the water is concerned. In Canandaigua, Owasco and Skaneateles the absence of the common scud (Gammarus) is associated with a comparative scarcity of large yellow perch. The presence of plankton Crustacea in the Finger lakes in quantities assumed to be adequate* furnishes the most important clue for an improvement of the fish supply. These minute Crusta- cea are utilized directly as food only by the young fry and finger- ling of our important food fishes. But the plankton sifters like the alewif e, whitefish at certain seasons and smelt utilize this boun- tiful food supply and, in turn, are devoured by the lake trout, whitefish, perch and bass. The greatest hope, therefore, for the improvement of fishing in these three lakes lies in the introduction of ale wives (sawbellies) or some equally good plankton feeders. Alewives can be taken by the thousand in Seneca lake and imme- diately transported in trucks to the other lakes. The objection to the alewife that it sometimes dies in great numbers, when it be- comes unduly abundant, seems a question of minor importance. No complaints against this fish were heard on Keuka lake where it has been common for fifty years. On Seneca lake there have been complaints early in the summer of the odor of decaying ale- wives about once in five to seven years. But some of the more intelligent cottagers have maintained that this apparent nuisance is really a blessing because when they gathered the dead alewives from the beaches and buried them in the garden, they found them to be a very valuable fertilizer even as our Puritan forefathers found them at Plymouth. During the summer of 1927 there was no mortality noticeable in the alewife population. In connection with the general problem of utilizing the plankton in these lakes, it must be borne in mind that these immense vol- umes of water, amounting to many billions and even trillions of cubic meters in some of the lakes, support a vast amount of plankton Crustacea f which can be turned into nourishment for our larger food fishes only through the agency of such plankton sifters as the alewife, smelt and cisco. * See Birge and Juclay (loc. cit. ) . t See Charts 1-8, p. 144; chart 9, p. 154. 66 Conservation Department Stocking policy. — We advise the planting of the following fishes in the Finger lakes : Lake trout in all the lakes except Otisco. Whitefish in all the lakes except Otisco. Cisco in all the lakes but sparingly in Otisco. Rainbow or steelhead trout in the affluents of all the lakes wher- ever suitable. These fish descend into the lakes in the summer and furnish fine sport as well as food. Yellow perch will take care of themselves where shallow water organisms are abundant. But new stock could be advantageously planted occasionally in Canandaigua and Otisco. Pike-perch or wall-eye should be planted in all the lakes except Keuka and Skaneateles, where rainbows or steelheads are preferred in the affluents. Large-mouthed bass might be planted in Otisco and the foot of Cayuga, but we should prefer the small-mouthed bass, even in these lakes, as it succeeds well and is a better fish. We would suggest continuing the experiment of planting smelts in Owasco and Skaneateles for a few years, and the planting of alewives in Canandaigua where the sportsmen's clubs have made this request. Then, at the end of five years, there would be a better basis for judgment of the relative merits of these two fish as plank- ton feeders and as food for lake trout and other fish. By way of variety such fish as the crappie or calico bass, the bluegill and the channel cat could be planted in warmer waters like Otisco and the foot of Cayuga. Where desired by the local fishermen's clubs, pike or pickerel could also be planted in such locations. The golden shiner might also be planted with profit in all these lakes to furnish food for bass and bait for the fishermen. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 67 III. CARP CONTROL STUDIES IN ONEIDA LAKE By W. M. Smaixwood Professor of Zoology, Syracuse University, and P. H. Struthers, Assistant Professor of Zoology, Syracuse University It was in 1905 that Cole's* paper on the German carp in the United States was published. Little of importance on carp fisheries has appeared since that date. It is greatly to the credit of the Conservation Department that attention is again focused on this species which has become so numerous among our fresh water fish. Every one who has attempted to work out with accuracy the habits and life history of any animal has recognized that the numerous difficulties are greatly magnified when the object of study lives in a large body of water. Most Natural History studies and the more modern ecological investigations cover a period of years when the object of investigation is a terrestrial form. Years have been given to a study of plant relations in such a habitat. So when we undertook to obtain accurate information concerning the food, daily life and spawning habits of the adult carp, and the development and food of the young carp in a lake containing about eighty square miles with a shore line of nearly sixty-five miles, we recognized that the first summer would be mostly in the nature of reconnaissance and the trying out of methods. It is generally agreed that the carp have become very numerous in many of the lakes of New York State; and it is equally agreed that sportsmen regard them as a distinct menace to the develop- * Cole, L. J. The German Carp in the United States. Rept. U. S. Com- missioner of Fisheries. Washington, 1905 (1904). Channel in the Montezuma marsh, a place where carp spawn 68 Conservation Department ment and catching of game fish. They are certain that they feed on the spawn of game fish and that they destroy the vegetation that is in the last analysis the source of the food of game fish as well as of some of the wild ducks. These and numerous other ques- tions have been submitted to us during our study this past summer. Some of the questions can be answered even from this brief survey, others will require more time. This preliminary report on carp control studies is submitted under the following: 1. Methods of seining. 2. Statistical evidence. 3. The habits of the adult carp. 4. The food of the adult carp. 5. The habits of the young carp. 6. The food of the young carp. 7. General considerations. Methods of Seining. — To make statistical studies of the carp a large number of individuals is necessary. To obtain this material, without encroaching upon the time of the scientific staff, the services of Mr. Howard, a trained carp seiner from Bayport, Michigan, were procured. He furnished his own equipment con- sisting of a flat-bottomed power boat, scows and row boats, a winch engine mounted in the stern of the power boat and two half mile seines, one six feet and the other twelve feet wide. These seines were one an a half inch mesh and each was fitted with a bag or pound forty feet deep. The nets were heavily leaded and Bag or pocket of net approaching back stop Biological Survey.— Oswego Watershed 69 at forty foot intervals brails were attached to prevent rolling of the seine, especially on grounds with a heavy vegetation. Three men were regularly employed to handle the equipment, but as the work progressed it was found necessary, especially when the bottom was rough, for the game protector detailed to this unit to assist in the hauling of the seine. A preliminary survey of the carp feeding grounds on Oneida lake showed the advisability of confining the major seining opera- tions to a few stations. It was found that large schools of carp fed in Fisher's bay, at Lakeport, and in the vicinity of Oneida creek. The bottom of the lake in these regions was well suited for seining, possessing large areas of shallow water comparatively free from obstacles such as tree stumps, rock piles or dense vegetation. The north side of the lake would have several excellent seining grounds if the bottom Avere free from obstacles. Seining was carried on continuously at Fisher's bay from May to the middle of October with occasional hauls being made at other stations on the lake. It was customary for Mr. Howard to make a scouting trip in his small boat early in the morning or late in the afternoon in order to locate schools of carp. If the fish were feeding their presence could be seen by the roily condition of the water, at other times they were located by fish jumping, while again the carp might be seen lying in shallow water. On locating fish the large seine, was laid out around the school, the power boat was anchored inshore from the net and the seine then drawn in by the aid of the winch engine. During the operation the net was watched constantly to guard against its catching on snags or rolling up. In most cases the catch was landed on the shore. Occasionally this was impractical due to the absence of a beach and at such times the bag was drawn up to a back stop, made from a part of the seine, and the catch removed to a scow. The feeding grounds for the carp on Oneida lake are for the most part in shallow water which makes it unnecessary to use a deep water seine or a back stop. Fisher's bay is such a good carp feeding ground, with an abundance of food, protection against wind and its proximity to deep water, that the use of bait such as corn or potatoes does not produce a marked increase in the number of fish. It does however cause the fish of one or more schools to congregate in one place and thus increase the size of a single haul. Because of this two bushels of corn were scattered each week over an area about equal to the space which the seine would encompass. The seining operations of the scientific staff were confined to the taking of small numbers of carp and game fish inhabiting the seventy-two carp stations made on the lake. Most of the carp were caught in a. two hundred and fifty foot gill net (three- inch stretch) laid out loosely around a school of carp. The fish were then driven into the net and seized before they could work themselves free. The gill nets were also used for catching game fish for population studies and to show the movement of fishes. 70 Conservation Department !1BS| 1 ill - ^^- fiS ***»* . •«£ t ^i * \wM ^kW3L; ■ i;',-v. --"'.. "' m f ■('■ -, . .,.■'. A boat load of carp, part of a catch weighing one and a half tons Four such nets, each of a different sized mesh, were placed in a zigzag formation beginning with the fine mesh near shore and grading into the larger sizes offshore, Trap nets were used more successfully for taking fish other than carp. They were used singly or in groups of two or more. By joining the wing of one net with the leader of another a complete barrier was produced. Both trap and gill nets were set for one day a week throughout the summer in Three Mile bay, where an intensive study of a carp ground was made. The twenty-five and sixty foot minnow seines were found very valuable in collecting young carp and small fish inhabiting carp grounds. Either size of net could be operated by two men, and, except for regions covered with dense flora, they worked perfectly. A rigid trawl, made of fine mesh hardware cloth and shaped somewhat like a Petersen trawl, furnished an excellent means of catching small fishes living in thick vegetation. This trawl was also used for deep water dredging and had an added advantage of being available for a trap when not otherwise in use. Statistical Evidence. — From May 25 to September 21 more than 45 tons of carp were seined. This represents some 8,000 fish. The exact number cannot be given as accurate records were not made during the first month and in the larger hauls where as many as a thousand fish were successfully taken, some degree of error is to be expected. Those who have not worked at carp seining can hardly appreciate the difficulties. In the taking of this large number of fish, three thousand one hundred and eight other fish Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 71 were temporarily held in the seine. Just as soon as possible these fish were released and returned to the lake. All sportsmen and protectionists are anxious to have the detailed facts in regard to the effect of carp seining on the other fish. Fish other than carp taken in the seines from May 25 to Sep- tember 22 were : Catfish 1,216 Bullheads 505 Silver bass 401 Pike 322 Large-mouthed bass 260 Sunfish • 248 Rock bass 67 Suckers 38 Pickerel 29 Small-mouthed bass 20 Ling 1 Strawberry bass 1 3,108 From this list one would judge that not more than 1,000 game fish were caught during this entire period, all of which were re- turned unless injured by becoming enmeshed in the seine. Beginning June 18 and continuing from time to time until August 19 we made accurate measurements of 1,643 adult carp. Each fish was weighed and the length from snout to notch in caudal fin taken in inches. Scales from the side of the body dorsal to the lateral line and below the dorsal fin were removed and placed in an envelope. On the envelope was recorded the weight and length. The average weight of these 1,643 adult carp taken with no selection was 8% pounds. The length of these same fish was 22.12 inches. Scales were taken of the first 25 weighed or the first 50 or the entire lot. Three hundred and thirty-one sets of scales were examined with the microscope. The lines of growth are best seen when the scale is covered with water. The average age of the six sample lots was 5.89 years. The age of those taken as shown by the study of the lines of growth on the scales ranged from 2 to 13 years with the larger number of specimens four or five years old. But relatively few specimens were taken less than four, actually 13 ; while the num- bers above these dominant age groups gradually decreased. It might be inferred that carp after they became nine years old, either died or ceased to travel in schools. Practically no dead carp were found by us during the summer. What becomes of the older members and what their habits are remain problems still to be worked out. The habits of the young carp of one, two and three years, especially of the one-year-old carp are mostly unknown. The very few taken during the summer indicate either that they escaped through the meshes of the seine or that they live somewhat apart 72 Conservation Department from the adults which move about in larger schools. This is clearly an important aspect of the carp problem that should be solved. Cole quotes the English ichthyologist Goode,* in regard to the relation of weight to length. One cannot judge of the variation from this table of Goode. The following summary of our observa- tions is in close agreement indicating that the carp grows rapidly but irregularly. Selecting 62 specimens that were five years old the range of weight was from 4 to 11 pounds and the range in length was from 16 to 26 inches. No. of specimens Pounds each No. of specimens Len< 1 4 2 16 inct 6 5 3 . . . 17 ' 12 6 2 . . . 18 ' 15 7 8.........: . . . 19 ' 20. . 8 9 8 ... 20 ' 5 15.. . . . 21 ' 1 10 9 . . . 22 ' 2 11 13 . . . 23 ' 2 . . . 24 ' - 1 . . . 25 ' 1 . . . 26 ' This variation in the most numerous age taken indicates a larger variation in growth and explains why there is not much significance in the table by Goode. The following table indicates the range of weight for the same length in fish taken from Oneida lake. Number of . specimens Length in inches Weight in pounds , 1. 7.5.... 11 ounces 1. 11.5.... . 1.25 1. 12 . 1.4 1 13 1 5 1. 14 . 2 2. 15 . 2,6 3. . 16 . 4, 5, 6 4. . 17 . 8, 5, 6, 5 5. . 18 . 5, 3, 4, 4, 3 6 . 19 . 5, 4, 5, 5, 4, 5 6 . 20 . 6, 7, 5, 5, 5, 6 12 . 21 . 6, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 6, 6, 8, 5 5 . 22 . 8, 7, 8, 10, 7 9 . 23 . 24 . 13, 8, 8, 9, 11, 9, 9, 8, 8 5 . 10, 9, 10, 8, 9 5 . 25...... . 10, 12, 10, 8, 9 5 . 26 . 13, 12, 10, 12, 10 5 . 27 . 14, 16, 18, 12, 11 3 . 28 . 12, 14, 14 4. . 29 . 15, 15, 15, 20 2. . 30 . 20, 18 4 . 31 . 18, 20, 24, 20 3 . 32 . 21, 20, 23 2 . 33 . 20, 20 1 . 34 . 21.5 1 . 35 . 24.75 1. . 39 . 29 1. B. 40... American Fishes. New York, . 32 * Goode, G 1888. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 73 The Habits of the Adult Carp.— The limited space at our disposal makes it necessary to consider only those elements in the behavior of this fish, which seem to be directly associated with the problem of carp control. The habits of the carp in Oneida lake agree in general with the description set down by Cole.* Certain habits of breeding and migration seem to be modified to suit the local conditions. Carp habitats.- — An examination of the shores of the lake and islands reveals seventy-two regions inhabited more or less fre- quently by carp. These stations fall into three distinct types : (1) Rocky shoals typically covered with growths of water-willow (Diamthera americana), American bulrush (Scirpus americanns) or scattered beds of pickerel-weed (Pontederia cordata). Such shoals lying near the feeding grounds as well as deep water afford a place where carp can rest in water made tepid by the summer sun. (2) Protected bays with a bottom of sand, clay or mud which have a wide stretch of shallows separating them from deep water. This type of habitat is rarely visited by large schools of carp although single individuals or small schools seem to live in such places continuously throughout the summer. (3) Protected bays similar to the preceding but close to deep water. Such regions furnish the ideal feeding grounds for the adult carp. Being easily • accessible to deep water the fish need travel but a short distance in search of food or escape in case of molestation. During July and the first part of August the shallow parts of such bays supporting growths of cat-tails or bulrush offer excel- lent places for the carp to rest in the warm water. The most dominant forms of plants identified in the second and third types of habitat are as follows : Narrow-leaved Cat-tail Floating Pondweed Clasping-leaf Pondweed Sago Pondweed Narrow-leaved Arrow-head Broad-leaved Arrow-head Wild celery, Eel-grass American Bulrush Lake Bulrush Duckweed Duckweed Pickerel-weed Cow Lily Sweet-scented Water-lily Swamp Loosestrife Water-milfoil Water-willow Typha angustifolia Potamogeton natans Potamogeton perfoliatus Potamogeton pectinatus Sagittaria arifolia Sagittaria latifolia Vallisneria spiralis Scirpus americanus Scirjms occidentalis Lemna trisulca Spirodela polyrhiza Pontederia cordata Nymphoea advena Castalia odorata Decodon verticillatus Myriophyllum verticil hi I n m Dianthera americana When the seventy-two stations are grouped according to the types of habitat there are fourteen in type one; fifteen in type two ; and forty-four in type three. This last named group, which represents good feeding grounds for carp, is distributed evenly Loc. Cit. 74 Conservation Department between the north and south sides of the lake. At the same time it should be pointed out that the stations along the south shore are generally larger and therefore capable of supporting a greater carp population. Breeding habits. — The carp spawn principally in May.* This somewhat earlier date than that reported by Cole for the Great * For other observations in the watershed, see p. 92. Young stages of carp. The two smallest from Oneida lake, July 21, 1927; young leather carp from Cassadaga creek, July 14, 1925 ; largest specimen from Oneida lake, Sept. 15, 1927 Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 75 Lakes may be influenced by the fact that the shallowness of Oneida lake causes the temperature of the water to rise more rapidly in the spring. More information is necessary before it will be pos- sible to state what percentage of the carp spawn in the streams flowing into the lake or the canal. From observations "made dur- ing the last half of May it is certain that some carp breed in the bulrushes growing in sheltered bays and on the south side of Frenchman's island. Judging from the relatively small number of young carp caught in the lake it seems likely that the majority of the carp may breed in the streams. This idea is further sub- stantiated by the statement of fishermen who say that they find many young carp in the small streams when they are catching minnows for bait. Our observations began June 15 so that we were not able to verify these reports nor to observe personally the spawning habits. Further investigations should be started early enough to permit work on this phase of the breeding habits. Migration. — In April and May there is a general tendency for the carp to move up the creeks and the canal. In the large creeks such as Chittenango they migrate ten or fifteen miles, often leaving the creek proper to scatter over tillable land inundated by spring freshets. It is not known whether this migration is primarily for breeding or simply foraging for food. By June first the carp have returned to the lake, are very thin and languid and do not move far from the feeding grounds. At this season of the year the carp are gregarious, living in schools of five hundred or more individuals, which migrate from deep water to feed or rest in the shallows. By the middle of July the carp have regained their normal vigor together with a greater feeding range. In October when the water begins to grow cold the large schools are broken up and the carp become sluggish and migrate but little. Food habits. — Carp are considered bottom feeders, rooting up their food from the bases of pondweed and other aquatic flora. This agitates the sand and mud producing the characteristic carp roil. Contrary to an existing belief that carp eat everything that comes in their way, our observations show that they exercise a preference. As it feeds the fish will every so often eject a mouth- ful of undesirable material and then continue its feeding. Close observation shows that they also nose along the stems and leaves of plants sucking in a large number of crustaceans and insect larvae. On one occasion carp were seen scooping along the surface of the water in quest of mayflies. Carp have been accused of driving game fish away from their feeding grounds. In contradiction of this belief we found that catfish, pike and pickerel were frequently taken in the same haul with carp indicating that these game fishes were occupving the feeding grounds together with the carp. In Three Mile bay small- mouthed bass were observed feeding among the bulrushes witli carp, neither species seeming to take any notice of the other. Sunrise and sunset seem to be the preferred hours for feeding. Carp taken during the middle of the day showed their stomachs 76 Conservation Department to be empty. They do not feed every day for they will not venture into shallow water when the lake is rough and even when it is calm the feeding grounds are often deserted. Even while feeding carp are ever on the alert for danger. The creaking of an oar lock or a sudden movement may cause them to rush for deep water not to return again until the following day. If however there is a good cover of vegetation the fish is more likely to lie perfectly still relying on its power of concealment for protection rather than flight. The Food of the Adult Carp. — There is probably more mis- conception about the food of the adult carp than about any other phase of its life. This is largely due to the lack of information in regard to their daily activities. Cole comments on the difficulty of studying carp in their natural environment and the even greater difficulty of taking carp at a selected time of day. While Ave have taken adult carp at all times of the day, in practically every in- stance the stomach has been empty and the intestinal contents partly digested. Before any very definite conclusions can be formulated in regard to the significance of their diet in Oneida lake additional studies will have to be made. However some facts of importance were gathered as the following, selected from our data, illustrate. These have been taken to show the scope of the feeding habits of the adults: June 18. Length, 22 inches; weight, 5 lbs. Station 53, Lake- port. Food : small fragments of muscle of fish, fragments of in- sects and crayfish, copepods, 1700 ; algae, abundant ; bits of leaves and roots of higher plants. June 10. Length, 15 inches; weight, 2 lbs. Station 60, Sylvan beach. Food : stomach empty and contents of intestines mostly digested; Spirogyra, Vallisneria and insect fragments. July 12. Length, 20 inches; weight, 8 lbs; age, 5 years. Sta- tion 8, Three Mile bay. Food : two small snails ; small clam • parts of two young minnows, probably golden shiners ; ostracods, cope- pods, phyllopods and insect fragments ; remains of algae and Potamogeton. July 14. Five carp were taken in Station 17, Poddygut bay, at 4:30 p. m. and the intestinal tract removed and preserved at 6 :00 p. m. Carp are found in this habitat during the entire day. Theoretically the food conditions are ideal, but the intestinal tract was practically empty in each one except for sand and a few plant fragments. August 19. Twenty carp vvere secured in Station 46, in Fisher's bay and preserved at once. These were taken in the seine which had been placed around an area where corn had been scattered. Three had the stomach full of corn, nine had the stomach empty and three the intestine as well as the stomach empty. In this habi- tat where the carp were being fed it is interesting to examine the detailed intestinal contents of the following three : First speci- men. Length, 27 inches; weight, 12 lbs; age, 12 years; male; stomach contained mostly partially digested corn, a few Crustacea Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 77 and fragments of water plants. Intestine (in order of frequency of occurrence ) ; small snail shells and fragments ; caddis worm cases ; midge larvae ; amphipods ; copepods ; ostracods ; legs and antennae of various Crustacea; filamentous algae; small mollusca; cladocera. Second specimen. Length, 21 inches; weight, 6 lbs; age, 5 years ; stomach empty ; intestine : snail shells and fragments ; midge larvae ; caddis worm cases ; plant fragments ; ostracods ; clad- ocera; amphipods; small clams. Third specimen. Length, 21 inches ; weight, 8 lbs ; male ; contents of stomach : caddis worm cases ; snail shells ; midge larvae ; plant fragments and stalk frag- ments; ostracods; 3 fish scales; w^ter mites; plant leaf; minute algae ; crustacean legs. To test out the report that carp destroyed plants, a cage was constructed at Three Mile bay. Three adult carp were confined for two months in this wire screened cage covering an area of about 25 square feet. At the close of the experiment a few plants of eel-grass had been uprooted but there remained a large num- ber of these plants and others which carp are reported to root up in feeding. The cage was located in a place where carp had been found to congregate and after the cage was constructed carp were repeatedly seen in the weeds close to the cage. The conditions then, were as near ideal for testing out this question as possible, and the result indicates that the damage done to vegetation was insignificant; but on the other hand the detailed studies on the food of adult carp in Oneida lake clearly indicate their preference for animal food. Cole states that the food is largely vegetable. Tracy1 reporting on Rhode Island fisheries says that the carp eat principally vege- table matter; and Forbes and Richardson2 emphasize vegetable food as the main constitutent. It is hardly to be expected that there would be such a marked difference in the food habits of the Oneida lake carp. The explanation may be in the fact that our material was preserved very soon after the fish were caught, The studies of this summer indicate that animal food predominates and that there is some selection in the animals eaten. The finding of muscle fragments and fish scales is rare and probably means that they were taken in with the debris that is so characteristic of the intestinal contents. The Habits of the Young Carp. — Up to the present time prac- tically nothing has been known about the habits of young carp. This is probably due in part to their hiding in vegetation when disturbed rather than exposing themselves in an attempt to escape. Moreover they do not live in schools as do many of the young game fishes, a characteristic which causes them to escape the notice of a casual observer. It is easy to distinguish carp fry from the young of other fishes for they are a replica of the adult in form "Tracy, H. C. Annotated list of fishes known to inhabit the waters of Rhode Island. Com. Inland Fisheries, R. I., 1910. 2Forbes, S. A. and Richardson, R. E. The Fishes of Illinois. 111. State Lab. Nat. Hist., vol. 3, 1908. 78 Conservation Department and arrangement of the fins. The back is much lighter in color than that of the adult, being a light mouse gray. At the base of the tail there is a vertically placed black bar, while the abdomen has a distinct yellowish tinge. When young carp are caught in a dip net this yellowish color and the deep body distinguish them from many other species of fish. It is very difficult to identify young carp in the water when looking down on them from above, but a triangular area somewhat lighter than the back can be seen in good light lying just back of the head. All the small carp found during the past summer were confined to a very characteristic environment. In general this consisted of a region protected against waves by the presence of a sand bar from the open lake. At Lakeport a wide stretch of cat-tails and bulrushes served to break the force of the waves. The bottom of these carp grounds was invariably sandy or a combination of sand and mud, the latter being usually found near shore and therefore associated with the very young carp. In all the habitats observed the water was free from sediment, decaying vegetable matter or contamination from creeks. The temperature of the water in these protected regions ran about ten degrees warmer than that of deep lake water. The( shores bordering these carp habitats consisted of low land covered with a growth of meadow grass or bulrushes with here and there small bayous extending shoreward. Each of these set-backs was carpeted with tender grass, Elodea, Chara, or Myriophyllum among which the young carp lived. As the carp increased in size they moved lakeward into deeper water. By September first the young carp were living in one or two feet of water close by scattered beds of Pondweed (Potamogeton pectin- atus) or of Hornwort. The rapid rate of growth of young carp is remarkable. This is shown in the following table which gives the dates the fish were caught, the ranges in size and the locality. July 12 10 mm. long (about % inch) Lakeport July 21 12 mm. — 26 mm Damon's point July 27 14 mm. — 30 mm dough's bay July 29 12 mm. — 40 mm Lakeport Aug. 12 38 mm. — 42 mm Frenchman's island Aug. 20 41 mm. — 78 mm Damon's point Sept. 5 80 mm. — 112 mm Frenchman's island Sept. 7 72 mm. — 106 mm Damon's point Nov. 25 50 mm. — 110 mm Damon's point The carp caught on July 12 at Lakeport were very young for the yolk-sacs were still present. They were living close to the shore in not over one inch of water. The fish taken in Clough's bay on July 27 were living in the short meadow grass in about four inches of water. The carp taken during August inhabited water six inches to one foot in depth, while those taken the first week of September were living in water from one to two feet deep. Further observations are necessary to determine when the young carp go Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 79 into deep water. The yearling carp were found in schools similar to the adult carp but not associating with the more mature fish. Young carp are found scattered over a favorable habitat, each individual conducting itself independently of other young carp. In seining it was never possible to catch more than two or three of them in any one haul. On July 21 at Damon's point twenty little carp were taken from one of the shallow set-backs, covering an area of not over thirty square feet. A similar catch was made at Clough's bay July 27, in a growth of short grass. In each of these instances the cover was excellent and this fact probably ac- counts for the large number in a small area, On September 7 at Damon's point a strip of shore three hundred feet long and extend- ing fifty feet into the lake Avas systematically seined. The territory had several beds of Potamogeton pectinatus, Elodea and Chara, each an excellent cover for young carp. Only ten fish were caught in this area. Such data show how widely the young carp of 70 mm. to 100 mm. are distributed over a favorable habitat. Invariably a little carp will hide rather than seek safety in flight if molested. It is this characteristic which makes them so difficult to find. When catching them with a hand-net it is possible to work over a whole bed of Chara or Elodea without driving the fish away. Not until they reach a length of about 100 mm. do they seem to appreciate the possibility of fleeing from an intruder. On September 15, several carp over 100 mm. in length were seen to dart out from small patches of Potamogeton (P. pectinatus). Their movements were very rapid and directed toward deep water. Even the youngest carp observed were fast swimmers, comparing favorably with young darters which are frequently found living in the same habitat. Several pens of young carp were kept in Clough 's bay for purposes of study. Here we found they spent a consider- able amount of time completely buried in the mud and sand. This habit is undoubtedly valuable for very young fish living in shallow water, as a means of protection, especially against predacious birds and sudden changes in the temperature. Small carp are very sensitive to temperature changes and also to impurities in the water. To test these reactions, young carp were placed in aquaria with young sunfish, bullheads and common perch. A sudden change of temperature invariably affected the carp first, Any pronounced change in the hydrogen-ion concentra- tion, due to the presence of decaying matter, was fatal to the carp although not to the other young fishes living with them. In their natural habitat young carp were seldom found in the vicinity of green algae such as Spirogyra or Cladophora, decaying vegetable matter, or quagmires. The feeding habits of young carp are very interesting. On July 21 some carp fry 12-26 mm. long were observed feeding, about noon, in a bed of Chara at Damon's point, Twenty individuals were scattered over an area of some thirty square feet. The fish would start in at the base of the stalk, work up the stem and then down the other side, then go to another plant and repeat the operation. At times they would work out onto the leaves, but 80 Conservation Department never come to the surface of the water. Sometimes two fishes would be working on one plant, each apparently unconscious of the other's presence. At intervals a fish would remain motionless, except for the slowly waving fins, and then suddenly dart off to a new clump of Chara, More detailed observations of the feeding habits of the little carp were obtained from fish living in aquaria and the artificial pens at Clough's bay. The bottom of the aquarium was covered with fine sand and clay rich in organic Flooded land along old channel of Seneca river, habitat of spawning carp material. Within a few days the surface showed numerous small pits. These were made by the young carp which often take a position forming an angle of about 90° with the bottom and with the tip of the snout in the sand. Next a cloud of sand is seen passing out of the opercular opening. Sometimes this is all that happens and the fish proceeds to swim about in the aquarium ; but at other times the fish takes a position horizontal to the bottom and works the jaws repeatedly as if chewing, the jaws opening and closing from 12 to 18 times according to some of our records. After this chewing, the fish swims around. There is still another feeding habit of the young carp in aquaria that has been interest- Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 81 ing to watch. They suck up a mouthful of the debris from the bottom, eject this from the mouth, then dart forward and gobble up bits of desirable food. This preferential type of feeding has not before been attributed to carp. The young fish living in aquaria frequently resort to top feeding, working here and there with their mouths just below the surface of the water sucking up bits of floating matter. This is probably an unusual type of feed- ing for young carp in their natural haunts, for the fish lives near the bottom. Observations made on the stomachs of little carp taken at different hours during the day, indicate that they have rapacious appetites which keep them busy foraging for food at all hours of the day. Young carp are very active, strong swimmers and their inquisi- tive natures keep them continually exploring the domain in which they live. But being more timid than our common game fish it is difficult to observe them. Their tendency to live in dense growths of flora and to bury themselves in the mud indicates that the young fish may be to some extent negatively phototrophic, in which case their behavior differs from the adult, which shows no aversion to light. The instincts seem to be poorly developed in the young carp, for our observations show no indications of pugnacity or on the other hand of a tendency to be gregarious. A characteristic occa- sional darting about aimlessly through the water might be at- tributed to play. The Food of the Young Carp. — Pearse* reports on the food of 42 young carp, ranging from 15 mm. to 460 mm. These were taken between the dates of July 12 and September 14, with one specimen secured April 22. The collections extended over two summers. The summary of the food in percentages of these 42 is as follows : Food : insect larvae, 39.7 ; insect pupae, 6.8 ; adult insects, 3.5 ; mites, 1.8; amphipods, 6.9; cntomostracans, 20.9; snails, 6,9; oligochaetes, 2.8; rotifiers, 1.1; protozoans, -f- ; algae, 0.8; plant re- mains, 4.9 ; silt and debris, 1.5. While several hundred young carp were taken during the sum- mer the study of food contents was made on only 87. The collec- tions were from both the south and north shores and Frenchman's island. Fish taken from such widely separated regions should show variations in their food, if the fish were merely taking what was available or were omniverous, but we find a great similarity in the stomach contents of the young fish taken from these widely sepa- rated localities. Animal food dominates throughout the period with the ostracocls, copepods, snails, and chironomid larvae per- sisting as the most important food. It is interesting to discover that the same conditions obtained in these young as are found in the adults, for many had the stomach empty and some the en- tire intestinal tract. Such conditions cannot be due to the scarcity of food for there was a continued abundance of these food or- ganisms throughout the summer. The following individual studies introduce the summary in * Pearse, A. S. The Food of the Shore Fishes of Certain Wisconsin Lakes. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fisheries, vol. 35, 1918. 82 Conservation Department percentages of the food table of young carp and reveal the selec- tive nature of their food. I. Length, 16 mm. Stomach empty. Food in the intestine: Cladocera, 10; copepods, 20; ostracods, 00; unidentifiable debris, 10. II. Length, 16 mm. Food: Planorbis, 75; ostracods, 7; copepods, 4; mites, 3; algae debris, 1; eggs of snail, 10. III. Length, 18.5 mm. Food: Chironomid larvae, 20; ostracods, 10; cope- pods, 30; cladocera, 10; debris, 15; eggs of snail, 15. IV. Length, 23, mm. Stomach filled: Ostracods, 25; copepods, 25; cladocera, 5 ; debris containing planorbis, 40. V. Length. 2(5 mm. Stomach filled: Parasitized by 5 nematodes in the alimentary tract. Food: Ostracods, 80; copepods, 8; misc.: Arcella mites; insect; cladocera, 12. VI. Length, 12 mm. Stomach empty. Copepods, 80; ostracods, 15 cladocera, 5. VII. Length, 40 mm. Stomach empty. Planorbis, 25; chironomid larvae, 35 ostracods, 10; copepods, 5; insects, 6; Arcella, 1; cladocera, 3; water mites, 5; debris, including Planorbis shell fragments, ostracods, plant fragments, diatoms, Pediastrum, filamentous algae, Eremosphera, sand, 10. VIII. Lenth, 82mm. Weight, 9.5 gm. Stomach empty. Snail shells, 10 copepods, 10; seed pods, 15; ostracods, 15; midge larvae, 10 cladocera, 10; insect larvae, 5; plant leaf and stem fragments, 5 insects, 5; amphipods, 3; fish spine and caudal fin, 3; fish scales, 2 ; debris, including shell fragments, 5 ; algae, 2. Summary of the food of the eighty-seven young carp ranging from 11 mm. to 112 mm. No. of individ- uals containing food in the ali- mentary tract {stomach and Food Item intestine) Crustacea fragments 70 Ostracods 65 Copepods 61 Cladocera 39 Insect larvae 69 Algae 46 Snails 31 Debris 29 Shell fragments 27 Worms (Nematode) 16 Plants (plant leaf fragments) 16 Mites • 15 Eggs Snail 4 Insect 5 Copepod 3 Rotifers • • • 3 Clams . 2 Eleven had the intestinal tract empty. Thus 70 per cent of the 76 containing food had eaten some form of Crustacea. The individual studies and this table indicate that their food is similar to those found in Casadaga creek* ; and that they com- pete with perch, bass, pumpkinseecls, suckers, bullheads, darters and minnows. General Considerations of Carp Control. — The studies on carp control which have been carried on during the past summer furnish new and valuable data upon the life of the carp in a Genesee Survey, p. 56, 1926. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 83 large body of water. These studies have shown us the wide scope of this carp problem, which presents many phases as yet unstudied or in which the investigation is not complete, and whose solution is necessary before it will be possible to formulate regulations that should be adopted for the control of carp. It is very much to be doubted if any regulations other than the natural consumption of carp will be successful in keeping their numbers down. To just what extent the carp are really detrimental to the development of game fish in large bodies of water, still remains a problem. When the carp come in in large numbers where fishermen are casting for bass, the bass usually cease to take the fly. In this sense they may be characterized as detrimental to the catching of one of our popular game fish. They are exceedingly shy and remarkably swift in their movements, so that any detailed study of their habits in a large body of water presents numerous difficulties. But it is in large bodies of water in the State that they have come to live in vast numbers, so that it is important that their adapta- tions and habits be closely scrutinized. In this one summer it has been shown that the food of carp is selected in part, chosen from animal sources. Their breed- ing habits in the spring should be one of the first problems taken up and this will necessitate beginning observations early in May. We have been able to check up on many of the stories of the fishermen and found most of them to be unreliable but of course we were unable to make observations on the activities of the carp during the early spring when they are said to be present in great numbers in the over-flooded regions in the swamps of Three Mile bay, Chittenango creek and elsewhere. We are, at the close of the summer not able to give a consistent account of the one-year old carp. Where do they live and upon what do they feed and are they associated with the large schools of adults? Also, when do the young leave their characteristic shallow water habitat and enter the deeper water? Do they con- tinue to select their food and is it almost entirely of an animal nature as it is during the first summer? These and similar prob- lems must be studied before anything like the complete story of the carp in a large lake can be told. Some one should take up the whole problem of marketing carp for we feel that just as soon as a constant demand can be created for carp as food, that the simplest and most reasonable method of their control will have been adopted. Associated with the selling of carp there will de- velop a rather perplexing problem for the Conservation Depart- ment, in giving its endorsement to some means of seining these fish, for they cannot be taken to commercial advantage in any other way. Before it is wise to issue permits for seining, it will be necessary, we believe, to train men in this work, for while carp are abundant, it does not follow by any means that they can be taken regularly so as to meet a continuous demand. The casual and superficial methods of local fishermen if utilized will surely result in financial failure. The man who undertakes to catch carp to supply a market demand must know the detailed habits of carp and he must be equipped with an understanding of seining. 84 Conservation Department IV. FISHES OF THE OSWEGO WATERSHED By J. R. Greeley, Instructor in Zoology, Cornell University. The entire Oswego drainage has never before been investigated with the purpose of listing the fishes found within its waters, al- though the fish fauna of subdivisions of the watershed, the Cayuga and Oneida lake basins, have received much careful study.1' 2> 3- During the summer of 1927 the Conservation Department car- ried on as a part of its program, an investigation of the fishes of the entire Oswego watershed. Extensive collecting in the creeks, rivers and ponds of the region was done by one collecting party made up of the writer and Mr. Carl Van Dieman and by another similar unit comprised of Messrs. Myron Gordon and W. M. Reynolds. A survey party under Dr. E. H. Eaton collected in the Finger lakes in connection with work toward the development of a stocking policy for those bodies of water and under Dr. William Smallwood in connection with carp control studies. The work of labeling and cataloguing the collections was done by Mrs. J. R. Greeley, who served as curator. These collections include over 1,500 lots of specimens. Repre- sentative series of all species will be placed on record in the New York State Museum at Albany. As far as possible complete data regarding type of bottom, current and water temperature has been kept for all specimens. Methods of collecting. — The greater part of the stream collect- ing was done by means of seines. These ranged in size from a length of 6 feet and a mesh of 1/6 inch to a length of 200 feet and a mesh of 1 inch. Set lines and fyke nets were used in several of the rivers. In the lakes the collecting methods included the use of gill nets, seines, fyke and trap nets, set lines and dredges. General Nature of the Region. — The Oswego river drains an area lying within the region of glaciation. Toward the southern headwaters of this watershed, especially in the country drained by tributaries of the Finger lakes, there are numerous high hills. From these run many precipitous streams and here, as in Wat- kins and Enfield glens, waterfalls are frequently encountered. i Meek, S. E. Notes on the Fishes of Cayuga Lake Basin. Annals of N. Y. Acad, of Science, IV, March, 1889. 2 Reed, H. D. and Wright, A. H. The Vertebrates of the Cayuga Lake Basin New York. Proceedings Am. Philos, Soc. Vol. XLVII no. 193, 1909. s Adams, C. C. and Hankinson, T. L. Notes on Oneida Lake Fish and Fisheries. Trans. American Fisheries Society, Vol. XLV no. 3, June, 1916. Acknowledgements are due Prof. T. L. Hankinson who contributed infor- mation on the Oneida lake fishes; Prof. A. H. Wright for valuable sugges- tions ; Prof. C. L. Hubbs who made several determinations of fishes ; and many sportsmen and game protectors of the region. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 85 Toward the north however, the country becomes more flat, and is drained largely by less rapid streams. Although a high plateau is to be found north of Oneida lake, even here the descent is gener- ally more gradual than it is in the region of the Finger lakes. There are many lakes and ponds throughout the Oswego water- shed. These tend to prevent floods in the streams which they sup- ply by acting as temporary storage basins. Because of this fact the Oswego river is much less subject to excessive high water, as is emphasized by G. W. Rafter in his work on the Hydrology of New York State (p. 110). This author gives much important data about the Oswego water- shed which may be summarized, in part, as follows: Total catch- ment area 5,002 square miles; total area of water surface approxi- mately 310 square miles; total area of water surface, flats and marsh, 530 square miles (10.6 per cent of total catchment area) ; mean annual rainfall 30 to 40 inches; evaporation approximately 28 inches; annual runoff, calculated from a mean annual rainfall of 36 to 37 inches, not more than approximately 9 or 10 inches; highest waters (Fish creek region) about 1,800 feet above tide level; lowest waters (at Oswego) about 400 feet above tide level. Distribution of Fish in the Watershed. — The problem of the distribution of the various species of fishes throughout this large area is not capable of being entirely solved. There are too many factors to be taken into consideration. Not only would we need to understand perfectly the geologic history of the area but also must we consider the many changes brought about by mankind in clearing the forests, polluting the streams, building canals and otherwise disturbing the natural fish fauna. However it may be of interest to note a few facts that are apparent in regard to the question of distribution. (1) There are generally more species of fish in the lowland where there are more gradual watercourses, than in the highland where there are more precipitous ones. The tributaries of the Finger lakes are poorer in number of species than are their outlets and conversely, the northern area of the watershed is, as a whole, richer in this respect than is the southern. (2) The headwaters of some streams of the Oswego drainage have their sources very near others of either the Susquehanna, Mohawk, Lake Ontario or Genesee watersheds and in certain cases have acquired species of fish from the neighboring drainages. This has occurred either by means of a former, natural, direct connection or by a recent artificial one. The first case is illustrated by upper Buttermilk creek (Cayuga lake drainage), which has its headwaters in close proximity to those of Danby creek (Susquehanna drainage) and, judging by the similarity of the fish fauna of the two streams, was once connected with this creek. An example of the second case is shown in Catherine, creek (Seneca lake drainage), which was joined with the Susquehanna stream system by an artificial canal, which allowed certain fishes 86 Conservation Department notably Notropis procne, Clinostomus elongatus and Nocomts mi- cropogon to enter Catherine creek. In at least one instance a Susquehanna stream has been arti- ficially diverted into the Oswego drainage. A branch of Tiough- nioga creek was made to flow into DeRuyter reservoir by the con- struction of a dam. This causes its waters to flow into Limestone creek of the Oneida lake basin. (3) The Barge canal which connects the Oswego watershed di- rectly with the Genesee and Mohawk rivers. For the purpose of treating the distribution of the various fishes the Oswego drainage has been subdivided into smaller divis- ions, which are as follows: 1. Canandaigua lake. 2. Canandaigua lake inlets. 3. Kueka lake. 4. Keuka lake inlets. 5. Seneca lake. - 6. Seneca lake inlets. 7. Cayuga lake. 8. Cayuga lake inlets. 9. Owasco lake. 10. Owasco lake inlets. 11. Skaneateles lake. 12. Skaneateles lake inlets. 13. Otisco lake. 14. Otisco lake inlets. 15. Onondaga lake. 16. Onondaga lake inlets. 17. Oneida lake. 18. Oneida lake inlets. 19. Oswego river. 20. Oswego river tributaries (exclusive of Seneca and Oneida river), 21. Oneida river. 22. Oneida river tributaries. 23. Seneca river. 24. Seneca river tributaries. 25. Clyde river. 26. Clyde river tributaries. This chart of fish distribution (p. 103), shows the known distri bution of the numerous species of fish throughout the watershed. Classification of Fish. — In the annotated list (page 95) 100 species of fish representing 24 families are listed from the Oswego drainage. From an economic standpoint these may be divided into food and game fish (those commonly taken for sport or for use as food) and non-food, non-game fish (those not taken for these purposes). Food and Game Fish. — Tinder this heading 43 species may be listed. For the entire drainage area, it would be impossible to list Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 87 these according to their exact rank in importance, partly because of the lack of a statistical basis upon which to consider their import- ance. Even if the exact number of each taken by fishermen were known, there might yet be some doubt as to the relative value of the various species. Considered from the angler's viewpoint a much sought game fish like a trout might be more important than a less desired species such as the perch, irrespective of the numbers taken. Statistics regarding the commercial fisheries of the larger lakes and rivers of the region are given by Cobb.* Due to the decrease in this type of fishing such figures cannot be applied at the present time. Since angling is now more important than commercial fishing in our region, the game fish may be considered the more important ones. The principal species are : The brook, brown, rainbow and lake trouts ; the small-mouthed and large-mouthed black basses ; the pike-perch ; the northern pike ; and chain pickerel ; the bullhead and spotted catfish ; the yellow perch, the rock bass, common sun- fish and calico bass ; the common sucker, three species of red-horse suckers (Moxostoma) and the eel. Other species of food and game fish which are of less importance, due to restricted occurrence or rarity are : steelhead trout, common whitefish, white bass, sheeps- head, yellow bullhead, blue pike, sauger, long-eared sunfish, green sunfish, lake sturgeon, eel-pout and smelt. A group of food fishes that are seldom taken by angling are : cisco, tullibee, fine-scaled sucker and the carp. Of the latter, however, a considerable num- ber are speared and used for food. The carp has great possibilities as a commercial fish within the Oswego watershed. Several species of fishes having inferior value as food are never- theless occasionally so used. Among these are : hog sucker, chub sucker, fall fish, horned dace, little pickerel and bowfin. As only the larger individuals of most of the species are ever used for food the group perhaps more properly belongs under the next subdivis- ion, that of non-food, non-game species. Non=food, Non=game Species. — Here we may list 57 species. This group is composed of the smaller fish such as the minnows (Cyprinidae) along with a few of the larger varieties which are not of use as food such as the gar-fishes (Lepisosteus) and in- cludes the following: the lampreys (2 species), long-nosed gar, bowfin, sawbelly, gizzard shad, nearly all members of the minnow family (29 species), stonecats (4 species), mud minnow, barred killifish, trout perch, darters (6 species), skipjack, sculpins (4 species) and sticklebacks (3 species). Bait Fish. — The use of small fish as bait for larger ones such as pickerels and basses, is a very common practice among anglers. Judging by the number of persons engaged in selling live bait * Cobb, Jolm N. The commercial fisheries of the interior lakes and rivers of New York and Vermont; Kept. U. S. Com. of Fish and Fisheries 1903 (1905). 88 Conservation Department near the lakes, it is here that this style of angling- is most common. However along the Oswego and other rivers as well as along the waters of ponds and the larger creeks, live bait fishermen are often seen. The numbers of minnows and other small fish thus destroyed are doubtless great. The majority of these are taken from the streams for it is gen- erally easier to obtain larger and more suitable minnows here than in the lakes. Certain creeks are netted very thoroughly for this purpose and, due to this cause, some of these creeks are doubtless injured in their productivity of game fish owing to the consequent decrease in the food of the latter. However the actual harm done in this way is difficult to estimate because of other factors operating toward a decrease in the number of food fish. In the few streams not containing game fish, and not directly tributary to other streams containing such, the damage done by taking minnows may be negligible. The commercial bait fisherman and in many cases the angler taking bait for personal use only, often destroy an unnecessarily large number of small fish. This is mainly due to the fact that there is often a considerable loss from fungus disease when num- bers of fish are kept crowded together for several days. This is especially true in summer. Anglers prefer to use the more silvery varieties of minnows, although they may often use whatever they are able to obtain. For the black basses and pickerels large baits are used. To take perch, calico bass and other smaller game fish, fishermen use minnows of a smaller size. In general the fish used in angling are not those species which are of value as food or game but, un- fortunately, such varieties as sunfish and yellow perch are some- times used for northern pike and other pickerels. The more common bait fishes in our region are : common shiner (both subspecies), golden shiner, silvery minnow, blunt-nosed min- now, and barred killifish. Numerous other species may be occasionally used not excluding several food species such as the two just mentioned. Sawbellies and ciscoes are used, when obtain- able, as lake trout bait. Habitat Preferences. — Fish seem to have decided preferences in the matter of environment although some species are quite versatile in this respect, occurring in many types of waters. Par- ticular factors must be met, however, for the various species. Among these factors are size of stream, current, type of bottom, temperature, chemical and gaseous content of the water, type and abundance of food, shelter and spawning grounds (Greeley*). In the case of a particular species of fish, the requirements as to one condition of environment may be more rigid than that re- srarding: another. Brook trout seem not to be limited to any one * Greeley, J. R. A Biological Survey of the Genesee River System. Part IV. Fishes of the Genesee Region with Annotated List, N. Y. State Con- servation Dept. 1920 Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 89 type of bottom for they occur where the bottom is muck, gravel, rubble, clay and so forth. However they are limited to cold waters. Fan-tailed darters occur in both cold and warm waters. Yet they, unlike the trout, are restricted to shallow riffles where the bottom is hard, usually rubble. In the annotated list, notes are included for nearly all species as to the environment in which the fish has been taken. For the sake of clearness, the designations there used may be explained. Rivers: the Oswego, Seneca, Oneida and Clyde. Large streams: tributaries of approximately 15 feet in width such as Canandaigua outlet. Small streams: tributaries of less than approximately 15 feet in width. Lakes: the major lakes of the region ranging in size from Oneida lake to Neatahwanta. Ponds: small bodies of water ranging in size from Duck lake to Mud pond (near McLean). Types of bottom are characterized as follows: Bare rock: bed rock. Harclpan: glacial clay. Gravel: small pebbles. Rubble: large pebbles and loose rocks. Sand: fine rock particles. Silt: coarse "soil" particles. Mud: fine "soil" particles. Muck: black swamp deposits formed of decayed plant remains. Types of currents are characterized as follows: Torrential; as in the swiftest "white water" riffles. Rapid; as in average riffles, Moderate; as in the deeper pools of a stream. Sluggish; as in deep, comparatively slowly moving waters such as the Oswego river. Stagnant; no appreciable current. Fish Association. — -As has been noted in the works of Forbes* and of other certain species of fish are often found associated to- gether. Doubtless the main reason for this is that the environmen- tal requirements are similar for certain groups. When enough data on these requirements are obtained, facts regarding the presence or absence of certain species may be useful as indicating the suit- ability of waters for certain others. In this respect we know that the sculpin (Cottus cognatus, Plate No. 7) may be regarded as an indicator of brook trout water. We have never taken this fish except in cold spring brooks where trout were present or could have been established. Although temperature is not the only factor influencing the asso- ciation of fish, it does play an important part and fish may be classed according to their temperature requirements. From the standpoint of fish culture, fish are often separated into warm water and cold water groups. The first of these groups includes fish such as the black basses which will thrive in water of com- paratively high temperature but will not do well in cold waters. The second grouping includes trout and other fish which will not live in warm waters. The limits between "warm water" and "cold water" fishes are not fixed. There is a gradual differentiation between the extremes * Forbes, S. A. Fresh water fish and their Ecology. 111. State Lab. Nat. Hist., 1914. 90 Conservation Department on the one hand to those on the other. Within each group there are degrees of adaptations. For example brook trout are better adapted to very low temperatures than are brown and rainbow trout. At the fish hatchery at Bath, New York, where the water is very cold, young brook trout grow much faster than do the young of the other two species. In the Oswego watershed there are streams ranging from a summer maximum temperature of less than 50 degrees Fahr. to a summer maximum of more than 85 degrees Fahr. The coldest streams were found to be limited to two species of fish, the brook trout and the sculpin (Cottus cognatus). These fish were found in the headwaters of Lake Como inlet in water as cold as 45 degrees Fahr. Generally, the warmer the stream, the more species of fish present. This is illustrated in the case of a stream such as Fall creek. Certain very cold headwaters near McLean, New York, contain only brook trout and sculpins (Cottus coqnatus). As the water gradually warms, more species appear and throughout the shaded area of Beaver brook (a large tributary of Fall creek) black-nosed dace, horned dace, common suckers, and common shiners begin to appear along with the trout and sculpins. At the point where Beaver brook joins Fall creek the water, being ex- posed to the sun, has become too warm for trout and sculpins, but the minnows and suckers are very common. Below this point the small-mouthed black bass and pickerel are added to the fish fauna, the bass at least becoming more common downstream, where the water warms considerably. Unfortunately the maximum tem- peratures of this stream at various points have not been obtained. The warmest streams contained very many species of fish but were entirely avoided by the trouts, the sculpin (Cottus cognatus) and perhaps by certain minnows (Margariscus and Clinostomus) . The abundant fish fauna of a stream of this type is illustrated by Ganargua creek (Mud creek) near Fairville, a shallow wide stream which doubtless reaches a very high summer temperature. Here 15 species of fish were collected : small-mouthed black bass, rock bass, zebra darter, tesselated darter, fan-tailed darter, black- sided darter, green-sided darter, common shiner (Notropis cornutus chrysocephalus) , satin fin minnow, spot-tailed minnow, blunt- nosed minnow, northern pike, stonecat (Noturus), common sucker, red-fin sucker (M. anisurum). Yellow pike (pike-perch) are also known to be present here. It may be mentioned that not all warm water streams have as many species as this one. The fauna is, however, rather a typical one for the warm streams of the north- ern part of the drainage. Trout Stream Associations. — The temperature of approxi- mately 70 degrees Fahr. is considered as the dividing point be- tween "cold" and "warm" waters in regard to stocking streams with trout. Fishes which were found associated with brook, brown or rainbow trout in streams of the Oswego watershed are as fol- lows : Black-nosed dace, horned dace, common shiner (Notropis Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 91 cornutus frontalis), seulpins {Coitus cognatus and less often Coitus bairdii bairdii) , common sucker, fan-tailed darter, pearl minnow (both subspecies), fallfish, red-sided dace, cut-lips min- now, hog sucker, brook stickleback, tesselated darter, black -nosed shiner, long-nosed dace, black-sided darter, and chain pickerel. In no one individual stream were all of these species found. Vermin Fishes. — Certain fish are themselves of little value as food and are known to eat the more useful kinds. Examples of this type are the gar and dogfish. These fish are usually de- stroyed by fishermen when they are taken, much as hawks and crows are often destroyed by hunters. Although a certain amount of control of the destructive species may be desirable, it is not wise to wholly condemn any species without exact knowledge. There is much inter-dependence as well as much conflict among aquatic life. We do not well understand the full role played by the various participant species. I have seen golden shiners in the stomachs of large-mouthed black bass and yet seen this same species of minnow eating bass eggs on a temporarily deserted nest. Many of the small fish will eat fish spawn yet if we were to declare them enemies of game fish and destroy them we would curtail one of their chief supplies. At the same time it is quite possible that an overabundance of certain of these small fishes might be greatly detrimental to those game fish whose spawn they might destroy. In such a case it is entirely possible that predacious forms such as the gar and dogfish might perform a useful function by keeping down the numbers of small ones. Fishes in Regard to Pollution. — Efforts were made to corre- late data on the occurrence of fishes with the pollution studies made by Messrs. Wagner, Claassen and Cutler and to this effect seining was done in many polluted streams, Although it was impossible to collect thoroughly in all contaminated waters, con- siderable attention was given to typical instances. In certain seriously polluted waters fish were found to be entirely lacking. This condition is illustrated by Skaneateles outlet from Skaneateles to Jordan. The main reason for the absence of fish is probably the low oxygen content of the water at certain times (see Mr. Wagner's report, p. 114). Several streams of the region, polluted to a less degree, were found to contain fish in considerable numbers. In these in- stances, however, it was interesting to note that the fish fauna was distinctly different from that of unpolluted streams nearby or even from that of the same stream in its clean parts. Canan- daigua outlet furnishes an illustration of such an upsetting of the natural fish population caused by pollution. This stream receives treated sewage and some manufacturing wastes from the city of Canandaigua. At no place was the oxygen found to be danger- ously low, but at a point a few miles below the city, organisms indicative of pollution were common, namely, tubifex worms, various snails and leeches. The normal clean-water types of in- sects and other invertebrate life were absent. Here a collection 92 Conservation Department of fish was made, consisting* of only three species : German carp, blunt-nosed minnow and common sucker. No other varieties were collected or reported by persons familiar with the stream at this point. The same body of water near Phelps, 14-miles below, had com- pletely recovered from the pollution as judged by the clean character of the water and the presence of clean water insect life. Collecting here with a seine yielded 10 species of fish: small- mouthed black bass, rock bass, fallfish, hornyhead, cut-lips minnow, Johnny darter, fan-tailed darter, common sucker and hog- sucker. We might say that Canandaigua outlet illustrates the injury done by a comparatively slight pollution in upsetting the natural conditions in a stream. This has resulted in destroying the food supply of certain species of fish, as in this case, the small- mouthed black bass, while not seriously interfering with that of others, such as the common sucker. Minnow Tests. — The generally accepted test of the injurious effect of pollution is the minnow test. This consists in placing a number of small fishes in such container that they are in direct contact with the water. During the summer several experiments of this character were made in polluted streams, and these waters were also carefully studied in regard to their fish fauna. It was found that the minnows in the test were not usually killed by the contaminated water even though the entire absence of fish as well as the general condition of the stream clearly indicated that it was unfit to support fish life. On August 25, 1927, a minnow test was made in a seriously polluted stream, Skaneateles outlet near Skaneateles Junction, at a point where all native fishes were absent, In spite of the very bad pollution the minnows in this experiment were not killed but lived for several hours without apparent ill effects. The oxygen test, made by Mr. Wagner, at this time was 3.3 parts per million, low but evidently not low enough to kill. On a very hot day a short time before, the oxygen test was 1.4 parts per million un- doubtedly below the requirement of fishes. Had a test been made at this date the minnows would have lived only a short time. So that, if judged by the one experiment made, this stream would give a misleading impression. Similar tests made in other polluted areas (Keuka outlet and Owasco outlet) merely indicated that small fish could live for at least several hours in waters certainly unfit to maintain them, as judged by their complete absence. It may be concluded from these experiments that a minnow test does not form a wholly adequate criterion for judging the capability of a stream to support fish life. Special Problems The Spawning Behavior of Carp in Relation to Other Fish. — During their breeding season, in the spring, carp con- gregate in schools. The eggs are shed and fertilized, the process being accompanied by vigorous agitation and splashing. There Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 93 is reason to suspect that, at this time of the year, the disturbance caused by carp might be destructive to the eggs of other species. Five days (May 8, 15, 22, 29, and June 5) were spent in study- ing this question. On all but one of the days of this investiga- tion, I was assisted by Mr. Myron Gordon. The areas under observation included parts of the old and new channels of the Seneca river (near Montezuma) and the marshes at the north end of Cayuga lake (especially Canoga marsh). Actual spawning grounds included cat-tail marshes, flooded bottom lands, and weed beds. The notes made may be summarized as follows: (1) Spawning is influenced, to a great extent, by temperature. Due to this fact, the process commences in the shallow, quickly warmed water as in open cat-tail marshes. As the season advanced, carp were seen spawning in deeper water, among weeds (Poiamo- geton). Carp were rarely observed to spawn where the water temperature was below 60 degrees F. On days of considerable breeding activity (May 8, 29) water temperatures where the fish were splashing were respectively, 68 and 65 degrees F. It was noted that a drop to 58 degrees F. (May 15) was accompanied by a virtual cessation of spawning. (2) Carp extended their breeding season over a considerable interval. During the season of 1927 they were observed to spawn from May 8 to June 27. Examinations of the reproductive organs showed that not all of the eggs of a single female ripen at the same time. Furthermore, individual fishes (male as well as female) showed a wide difference in the period at which they become ready to reproduce. Ripe males, females who had spawned, and unripe females were taken on the same date (June 22) in the Seneca river. (3) Observations did not show interference of the carp with the eggs of other fish. Although the carp were spawning, in moderate numbers, near the nests of large-mouthed black bass and common sunfish in the Canoga marsh (May 22) they did not seek to molest these. The disturbances caused by their splashing, in the instances noted, produced only extremely local, temporary roiling of the water. The eggs of pickerel and pike (Esox) have doubtless hatched before the carp spawn. Yellow perch eggs are also laid earlier than those of the carp, and although perch eggs were taken May 15 near the Canoga marsh, they were found in much deeper water than that in which carp were then spawning. It should be stated that the weather conditions during the spring of 1927 were such as to prevent very great concentration of spawn- ing carp at any one time. This may not be the case in other years. Fishways. — At Mud Lock, near Cayuga, New York, there is a fishway which was erected for the purpose of allowing fish from the Seneca river to reach Cayuga lake. Since many sportsmen are of the opinion that numerous fish pass out of Cayuga lake 94 Conservation Department when the canal locks at this point are operated, the fishway was installed to allow these to return. From all evidence secured it seems probable that few if any fish use this fish ladder. Many observers spoke of the great numbers of pike, carp, suckers and others, which congregate in the pool below the dam, apparently wishing to ascend but not knowing how to use this structure. Evidently it is not of a type suitable for many of the species found here. Doubtless it was designed after the manner of a fishway for salmon but does not seem adequate for most other types. If fish- ways are to fulfill their function in our inland waters, much time and thought should be given to the construction of ways suitable for the species concerned. Some Factors Contributing to the Decline of Fishes. — ■ Throughout the Oswego drainage complaints are often made by anglers that the fishing is poor. Several old residents, when inter- viewed, said that the fishing was not as good at the present time as -it was some years ago. The full causes for the scarcity of fish are not easy to understand but certain factors which have con- tributed to this scarcity may be listed : (1) Angling: The number of anglers has increased in recent years. (2) Pollution: This has certainly caused a scarcity in certain waters. (3) Canalization : The construction of the Barge canal resulted in the draining of the Montezuma marshes and other spawning and feeding grounds of fishes. This has changed the character of the Seneca and other rivers to the detriment of angling. A new stream bed made by dredging could not be expected to produce fish food in abundance. The violent agitation of the shores caused by canal boats must also be destructive to fish spawn. (4) Netting: Formerly there was much netting of fish in the region. Professor Embody x cites this factor as a cause for the scarcity of bullheads in Cayuga lake. (5) Natural enemies: Some losses of food fishes are caused by lampreys, watersnakes and fish-eating birds. However as natural enemies have always existed, even when fish were known to be abundant, they can hardly receive blame for the genera] scarcity now. (6) Unwise stocking of waters: There is a common belief that there has been a decrease in the native fishes of certain waters due to the planting of these waters with carp or other non-native species. Doubtless this belief is well founded. As Kendall 2 points out, the artificial introduction of fishes into Sunapee lake, New York, was followed by a decline of some of the native species. i Embody, G. C. A Study of the Fish Producing Waters of Tompkins County, New York. Conservation Commission 1922. 2 Kendall, W. C. The Status of Fish Culture in Our Inland Public Waters, and the Role of Investigation in the Maintenance of Fish Resources. Roosevelt Wild Life Bull., Vol. 2, no. 3, March, 1924. m l> ^H m c$ fl fl h3 oo = bJO J = 0 £ e s 02 0) $ T o £ s ^ £ S5 c (M i« <» - a) 5 H3 ti S Ph a o «. as> §^ C CD « o liHJ I* . o 3 of a p c »-3 Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 95 Annotated List of Fishes Occurring in the Oswego River Drainage* Petromyzonidae Lampreys 1. Petromyzon marinus Linnaeus. — Lake lamprey. Rather common. Lakes and rivers, ascending the streams to spawn. Its distribution, habitats and economics are discussed in detail by Prof. S. H. Gage (see p. 158). 2. Entosphenus appendix (DeKay). — Brook lamprey. Pare. Has been found in the inlets of Cayuga and Seneca lakes. Acipenseridae Sturgeons 3. Acipeivser fulvescens Rafinesque. — Lake sturgeon. Rare. There are specimen records from Cayuga lake and from the Seneca and Cayuga canal near Montezuma (Reed and Wright 1916). Sturgeon sometimes ascend the lower part of the Oswego river according to Mr. Earl Brown of Oswego. Lepisosteidae Garpikes 4. Lepisosteus 'ossevs Linnaeus. — Long-nosed gar, billnsh. Uncommon. Lakes and rivers. Specimens were taken in the Seneca and Oswego rivers. Seems to have declined in numbers along with the bowfin for it was said to have been very common in Cayuga lake and the Seneca river many years ago. Amiidae Bow fins 5: Amia calva Linnaeus. — Bowfin, dogfish. Uncommon. Lakes and rivers. Occurs in the Seneca river, Cayuga. Neahtawanta and Oneida lakes and other large bodies of water. Formerly it was very common in Cayuga lake and the Seneca river but now nearly exterminated, probably due to the draining of the marsh areas where it spawned. It is used for food to some extent now though during the time of its abundance, it was generally regarded as worth- less. It is sometimes called ling by fishermen on the Seneca river but elsewhere this name is more often used for the eel-pout. Cltjpeidae Herrings 6. Pomolobus pseudo-liar en gus (Wilson). — Sawbelly, alewife. Common. Deep lakes and rivers. Occurs in the Finger lakes. Specimens were taken in the Oswego river at Three Rivers point. 7. Dorosoma cepedianum (LeSueur). — 'Gizzard shad. Rare. Lakes and rivers. A series of about 20 specimens was seined November 11, 1916 from Cayuga lake near Ithaca by Dr. A. A. Allen, (No. 7224 Cornell Univ. Mus.). Mr. Tver T. Johnson of Seneca Falls, who is employed at the canal locks at Mays point, says that a great number of fishes which, according to his description, must have been of this species, came through the canal one winter, a few years ago, many dying under the ice. Osmeridae Smelts 8. Osmerus mordax (Mitchell). — Rare. Deep lakes. Successfully intro- duced into Owasco and Canandaigua lakes. Specimens were taken in both places by Dr. Eaton's party. Coregonidae Whitefishes 9. Leucichthys artedi (LeSueur). — Cisco, smelt. Moderately common Deep lakes. Dr. Eaton's party collected ciscoes in all of the Finger lakes. Some of them, at least, are referable to this species, although it is probable that some others are not. * The nomenclature followed is in general that given by Hubbs and Greene (Hubbs, C. L. and Greene, C. W. Further notes on the fishes of the Great Lakes and tributary waters. Manuscript, 1927). For the members of. the family Esocidae the names used by Weed are followed (Weed, A. C. Pike, pickerel and muskalonge. Field Museum Nat. Hist. Zool. Leaflet 9. 1927). 96 Conservation Department 9-a.. Leucichthys artedi tullibee (Richardson). — Tullibee, Onondaga lake whitefish, Oneida lake whitefish. Rare. Lakes. Recorded from Oneida lake (Adams and Hankinson 1916) and formerly occurred in Onondaga lake where it is now extinct. 10. Coregonus clupeaformis (Mitchell). — Common whitefish. Restricted to the Finger lakes. Common in Canandaigua lake. 11-a. Salmo salar Linnaeus. — Common Atlantic Salmon. Extinct. There are old records of the occurrence of salmon in the Oswego and Seneca rivers and Oneida, Cayuga and Seneca lakes. DeWitt Clinton (as quoted by Richard- son*) states "They pass Oswego at the entrance of this river in April, and are then in fine order, and spread all over the western waters in that direc- tion, returning to Lake Ontario in October, much reduced in size and fatness". 11-b. Salmo sp. — "Landlocked salmon" of Skaneateles lakes. Said to be not infrequently taken in Skaneateles lake. Members of the sportsmen's association of that city are reported to have obtained eggs of the land- locked salmon from Maine and to have stocked the lake about ten years ago. A specimen approximately one foot in length was taken by Professor Eaton's party. This fish does not agree entirely with the description of the land- locked salmon (Salmo salar sebago) . Its determination as a steelhead trout is also rather doubtful. Larger specimens are desired. Salmonidae Salmons 12. Salmo fario Linnaeus. — Brown trout. Common. Cool streams, large or small. Has been widely distributed) throughout the region by planting. Often occurs in association with native trout but is often the only species of trout in waters too warm for the latter. 13-a. Salmo irideus Gibbons. — Rainbow trout. Moderately common. Deep lakes and cool streams. Although rainbows have been planted in numerous streams of the region the only good fishing for them now is in the vicinity of the Finger lakes, where they are usually taken in the spring of the year when they ascend the streams to spawn. Most of the large fish stay in the lakes except at this time. 13-b. Salmo irideus irideus Gibbons. — Steelhead trout. Uncommon.. One specimen t was taken in Skaneateles lake by Prof. Eaton's party. This silvery species is apparently the one called "landlocked" salmon" in this lake. The steelhead is less common -than the rainbow (subspecies shasta) . Specimens, in scale count intermediate between the two^ subspecies, are some- times taken and are especially common in Skaneateles inlet. Rainbow trout have been found in the following streams: — Canandaigua lake drainage, Naples creek; Keuka lake drainage, Branchport inlet, Ham- mondsport inlet; Seneca lake drainage, Catherine creek, Wilson creek, Reeder creek (reported on good authority) ; Cayuga lake drainage, Cayuga inlet ( including Fall creek and Sixmile creek ) , Cascadilla creek ( reported on good authority), Taghanic creek, Salmon creek; Owaseo lake drainage, Owasco inlet, creek at Long point (reported on good authority) ; Skaneateles lake drainage, Skaneateles inlet; Seneca river drainage, Kendig creek (reported on good authority) ; Canandaigua outlet drainage, Fall brook (near Clifton Springs) ; Oneida lake dramage, Fish creek (reported to occur occasionally). It should be understood, however, that not all of the above mentioned are good fishing streams for rainbows. 14. Cristivomer namaycush (Walbaum). — Lake trout. Common. Restricted to the deep Finger lakes. In several of these it is very important as a game market fish. 15. Salvelinus fontinalis (Mitchell). — Brook trout. Common. Inhabits the coldest streams and certain cold ponds of the region. It may be found over a bottom of muck, mud, gravel, or rubble and is equally versatile in regard to current preferences provided tbe water is cold. * Richardson, John. Fauna Boreali-Americana or The Zoology of the Northern Parts of British America. Part III, The Fish. London 1836. t Identified by Prof. ('. L. Hubbs. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 97 Catostomidae Suckers 16. Catostomus commersonndi commersonnii (Lacepede). — Common sucker, brook sucker, black sucker. Abundant. Warm or cold waters, nearly all types of bottom and current. The most widespread fish of the watershed, occurring in all of the lakes, and nearly all ponds and streams. The commonest of the suckers found in trout streams. The most important member of this family as food, due to its abundance. 17. Catostomus catostomus (Foster). — Fine-scaled sucker, sturgeon sucker. Rare. Specimens were taken in deep water of Owasco lake. 18. Hypentelium nigricans (LeSueur). — Hog sucker, stone roller sucker. Common. Shallow streams, warm or cold. Sometimes found in trout waters. Seems to prefer strong to rapid current and hard bottom. Unimportant as a food fish. 19. Erimyzon sucetta oblongus (Mitchell). — Chub sucker. Common. Shal- low weedy areas of lakes, rivers, ponds and warm streams, where the current is moderate to stagnant and the bottom usually soft. Too small to be im- portant as food, weighing usually less than % pound. 20. Moxostoma aureolum (LeSueur). — Red-horse sucker, red-fin sucker. Un- common. Adams and Hankinson (1916) cite records from Oneida lake. Small specimens were taken from Canandaigua outlet. 21. Moxostoma anisurum Rafinesque. — Red-horse sucker, red-fin sucker. Moderately common. Rivers and large warm streams where the current is strong to sluggish and the bottom gravel, silt or mud. Reaches a large size, probably 7 to 8 pounds, and ranks among the best of the suckers as food. 22. Moxostoma lesueurii. (Richardson). — Short-headed . red-horse, red-fin sucker. Moderately common. Rivers and lakes where the bottom is mud and silt and the current sluggish or stagnant. One of the best of the suckers for food. Cypeinidae Minnows 23. Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus. — German carp. Common. Lakes, rivers and sluggish streams. Often found in weedy situations. Carp were seen spawn- ing from May 8 to June 17 at Canoga marsh. This species is not popular with sportsmen but has excellent possibilities in this region as a commercial fish. 24. Couesius plumbeus (Agassiz). — Lake chub. Rare. Dr. Eaton's party took specimens from Owasco and Skaneateles lakes in the shallow waters. 25. Nocomis biguttatus Kirtland. — Horneyhead. Common. Sluggish to moderate current in warm streams of the northern part of the drainage, often among vegetation. 26. Nocomis micropogon (Cope). — Crested chub. Rare. A single record came from Catherine creek near Montour falls, July 8. Doubtless an im- migrant species, having entered from the Susquehanna system through an old canal which once connected with this drainage. 27. Rhinidhthys atronasus (Mitchell). — Black-nosed dace. Abundant. Small, shallow creeks of warm or cold water. Prefers strong to rapid current and gravel or rubble bottom. Often found associated with brook trout. 28. Rhinichthys cataractae (Cuvier and Valenciennes). — Long-nosed dace. Common. Shallow streams. Warm or cool water. A fish of the rapids, being found in rapid to torrential current where the bottom is rubble. 29. Leucosomus corporalis (Mitchell). — Fallfish, silver chub. Large warm or cool streams, occasionally in lakes. Usually found in moderate to strong current and mud or gravel bottom. The largest native minnow of the region. Will rise to artificial fly. The flesh is bony and rather soft. In Owasco out- let this fish was formerly taken by anglers as "whitefish." 30. Semotilus atromaculatus) (Mitchell). — Horned dace, chub. Abundant. Warm or cold streams, occasionally in lakes. Inhabits most trout streams. Found usually in moderate to rapid current over bottoms ranging from muck to rubble. 31-a. Margariscus margarita margarita (Cope). — Pearl minnow. Rare. Found only near headwaters of certain streams toward the southern limit of the drainage. Probably has reached our watershed by means of former con- 98 Conservation Department nections with the Susquehanna stream system. Found in moderate to strong current, mud to rubble bottom. 31-b. Hargariscus margarita nachtriebi (Cox). — Nachtriebs minnow. Rather rare. Inhabits a few streams of the northern part of the watershed. Warm or cold waters in much the same type of current and bottom as the preceding. 32. Clinostomus elongatus (Kirtland),. — .Red-sided dace. Rare. Small warm or cold streams. Specimens were taken in Catherine creek and in several streams in the northern part of the drainage. In several Oneida lake tributaries it was found in brook trout waters. 33. Notropis procne (Cope). — Swallow-tailed minnow. Rare. Two specimens were obtained in Catherine creek near Montour falls. This fish is not known elsewhere from Lake Ontario drainage. It has doubtless entered Catherine creek by means of a former canal connection with the Susquehanna system. 34. Notropis heterodon (Cope). — Rare. Reed and Wright (1909) record this species from Cayuga lake and from Beaver brook, a tributary of Fall creek near McLean. In Cayuga lake it is usually taken near weed beds. 35. Notropis ano genus Forbes. — Black-chinned minnow. Recorded from the old canal near Montezuma by S. E. Meek (1889) and from the mouth of Fall creek and lower course of Sixmile creek at Ithaca (Reed and Wright 1909). No specimens are now on record. 36. Notropis bifrenatus Cope. — Bridled minnow, Cayuga minnow. Common. Lakes, ponds and warm streams. Usually taken where the bottom is mud or muck among aquatic plants. 37. Notropis heterolepis Eigenmann and Eigenmann. — Black-nosed minnow Fairly common. Northern part of the drainage and Cayuga lake. Lakes, warm or cool streams, usually in sluggish current and over mud or muck bottom. 38. Notropis volucellus volucellus (Cope). — Fairly common. Rivers, quite often in weedy situations. Taken sometimes in deep sluggish water over mud bottom. 39. Notropis dor salts (Agassiz), (gilberti, Jordan and Meek). — Gilbert's minnow. Rare. Professor T. L. Hankinson informed me that he and Mr. Dence seined some small minnows identified as this species, from Oneida lake (1927). 40. Notropis hudsonius (Clinton). — Spot-tailed minnow. Common. Lakes, rivers and large, warm streams. Stagnant, sluggish or moderate current, usually over a mud bottom. 41. Notropis wJiipplii whipplii (Girard). — Satin-finned minnow. Moderately common. Lakes, rivers and larger, warm streams of the region. Strong to stagnant current, over various types of bottom. 42. Notropis atherinoides Rafmesque. — Emerald minnow, slender minnow. Uncommon except in Oneida lake where it is abundant. Rivers or lakes, stagnant or sluggish current. 43. Notropis rubrifrons (Cope). — Rosy-faced minnow. Common but re- stricted to the northern part of the drainage. Warm shallow creeks especially in strong to rapid current where the bottom is rubble. 44-a. Notropis cornutus crysocephalus ( Rafinesque ) . — Common shiner, red- fin shiner. Very common. Found in lowland creeks and rivers of the northern part of the drainage. In strong to sluggish current and over bot- toms ranging from mud to rubble, often taken among weeds. Specimens intermediate between the two subspecies (this and frontalis) were often found. 44-b. Notropis cornutus frontalis (Agassiz). — Common shiner, red-fin shiner. Abundant. Shallow streams, warm or cold, often found in trout streams. This form of Notropis cornutus, characterized by small scales in the dorsal region, is the commonest shiner of the upland creeks. It occurs in various situations, usually in moderate to sluggish current. 45. Notropis umbratilis (Girard). — Blood-tailed minnow. Meek records a specimen (as Notropis lythrurus) "from a small stream near Montezuma Dry Dock," (Meek 1889). The specimen is apparently lost. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 99 46. Exoglossum maxillingua, (LeSueur). — Cut-lips minnow. Common. Shal- low warm streams usually in strong to moderate current over a hard hottom. Males were seen building' nests of stones on June 30 in Cayuga inlet. Some nests contained eggs at this date. 47. Notemigonus crysoleucqs (Mitchell). — Golden shiner. Abundant. Oc- curs in lakes, ponds and sluggish warm streams. Often found in weed beds. Seems to prefer bottom of mud or muck. 48. Hybognathus regius Girard. — Silvery minnow. Common. Lakes, rivers and some of the larger streams usually over a- mud bottom. Taken in moderate to stagnant current. 49. Chrosomns erythrog aster Rafinesque. — Red-bellied dace. Rare. Limited to several sluggish swamp streams in a few of which it was found to be the most common fish. 50. Hyborhynchus notatus (Rafinesque). — Blunt-nosed minnow. Abundant. Lakes, ponds and warm streams usually over a mud bottom and in moderate, sluggish or stagnant current. 51. Pimephales promelas promelas Rafinesque. — Fat-head minnow, black- ha.ifl minnow. Uncommon. Found in certain of the smaller creeks and ponds, especially in swamp situations where the bottom was muck and the current sluggish or stagnant. 52. Cam-post om.a avomaliim (Rafinesque). — Stone roller minnow. Rare. Re- stricted to the western part of the drainage where it occurs in warm shallow creeks over a rubble, gravel or mud bottom in a strong to moderate current. Ameiurtdae Catfishes 43. Tctalurus punctatus (Rafinesque). — Channel cat, spotted cat. Common in the rivers, Cross and Oneida lakes. Two specimens have been recorded from Cayuga inlet near Ithaca (Reed and Wright 1909) but it is possible that these were escapes from the Cornell University Fish Hatchery. The spotted cat is an important food ifish in parts of our drainage, and seems to be highly esteemed. Probably spawns rather late. Female specimens were taken from the Seneca river August 4 containing ripe eggs. Others taken then had apparently spawned. 54. Ictalurus sp. — A large very black catfish was taken on a set line August 4 from the Seneca river near Weedsport. It weighed 11 pounds and was 30 inches in length. In characters it is close to Ictalurus an gu ilia but does not entirely agree with this species in all respects. It is probably distinct from Ictalurus punctatus, being much wider across the head. More specimens of this fish are greatly to be desired. 55. Ameiurus nebulosus (LeSueur). — Common bullhead, hornpout. Abund- ant throughout the region, in lakes, ponds and warm sluggish streams. An important food fish. Specimens of eggs of this fish, in the Cornell collection, were taken June 16, 1909 from Cayuga lake. 56. Ameiurus natalis (LeSueur). — Yellow cat, pollywog bullhead. Un- common. Seneca river, Cayuga and Oneida lakes and certain warm sluggish weedy streams of the northern part of the drainage. In certain swamp streams very black specimens were taken. The yellow bullhead is; a good food fish but much less common than the ordinary bullhead. 57. Noturus flavus Rafinesque. — Stonecat. Rare. Only three specimens have been obtained from this drainage, two from Skaneateles lake. The other specimen 2i| inches in length was taken from: Ganargua creek near Fair- ville September 9, the prey of a watersnake 24 inches in length! 58. Schilbeodes gyrinus (Mitchell). — Tadpole stonecat. Common in the northern part of the drainage and is also present in Cayuga lake. Found among weed beds usually in shallow water, where there is little or no current. 59. Schilbeodes insignis (Richardson). — Margined stonecat, mad-tom. Rare. A specimen was taken in Keuka lake, and one was obtained in Canada creek (near Lee Center). The species was found to be common under stones at the headwaters of Tioughnioga creek (middle branch), a Susquehanna stream that has been diverted artificiallv into the Oswego drainage. 100 Conservation Department 60. Schilbeodes miurns (Jordan). — Bridled stonecat. Rare. Recorded from the Oneida lake drainage (Adams and Hankinson 1910). Umbridae Mud minnows 01. Umbra limi (Kirtland). — Mud minnow. Common in the northern part of the drainage, especially in small weedy streams; not rare throughout the rivers and in Oneida lake. Flourishes where many other fish cannot, in the small stagnant pools of creeks where there is much vegetation. Esocidae Pickerels 02. Esox niger LeSueur. — Chain pickerel. Common in the southern part of the drainage. In lakes, ponds and sluggish weedy streams. Occurs in Oneida lake and in the Seneca and Oswego rivers. Less important than the northern pike due to its smaller size and fewer numbers. Sometimes occurs in lower parts of trout streams. 03. Esox lucius Linnaeus. — Pickerel, northern pike. Common in the lakes, rivers and some of the larger streams (Ganargua creek). Usually taken in weedy situations having a sluggish or stagnant current. A fish of importance to anglers especially in Cayuga lake and the Seneca and Oswego rivers. Spawns in Cayuga lake during March. 04. Esox americanus Gmelin (vermiculatus LeSueur). — Little pickerel. Not uncommon, but limited to the northern part of the drainage, occurring in sluggish, weedy creeks and ponds and Cross lake. Unimportant as a food or game fish due to its small size; doubtless! those caught by anglers are returned with the idea that they are undersized chain pickerel or northern pike. 65. Esox ohioensis Kirtland. — Chautauqua muskalonge. Otisco lake has been stocked with this species but there are no authentic records of its capture there. Anguillidae Eels 00. Anguilla rostrata (LeSueur). — Eel. Moderately common throughout the Clyde, Seneca, Oneida and Oswego rivers and Cayuga lake. Is not greatly prized by most anglers but is a good food fish. According to Adams and Hankinson (1910) this fish was at that time rated the most important one in the commercial fisheries of the Oneida lake region. Cyprinodontidae Killifishes 07. Fundulus diaphanus menona Jordan and Oopeland. — Barred killifish, grayback minnow. Common in lakes, many ponds and rivers. Taken in very shallow water during the warm months. Prefers sluggish to stagnant cur- rent and gravel, sand or mud bottom. Females ready to spawn were taken July 18 in Vandermark pond near Junius. Percopsidae Trout perdhes 08. Percopsis omisco-maycus (Walbaum). — Trout perch. Not uncommon. Occurs in Cayuga and Oneida lakes, and specimens were taken in the Clyde river in deep water where the current was sluggish and the bottom muddy. Serranidae Sea basses 09. Lepibema chrysops (Rafinesque) . — White bass. Not uncommon in the rivers and a few of the lakes. Two specimens have been taken in Cayuga lake and Cayuga inlet (Reed and Wright 1909) near Ithaca. Generally found in sluggish and rather deep water. This, though not abundant, is an excellent food and game fish. White bass weighing up to several pounds, are said to be taken at certain times, in the Clyde river at May's point. This fish is not at present protected by law at any season, but it may prove advisable to en- courage its numbers by adequate protection during the spawning season. Percidae Perches 70. Perca flavescens Mitchell. — Yellow perch. Abundant. Occurs in all the lakes and rivers, many ponds and also in sluggish warm streams. Does not Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 101 inhabit waters with strong current. Eggs were taken in Cayuga lake near Seneca Falls. 71. Stizostedion canadense griseum (DeKay). — 'Sauger. Rare. There is a specimen (No. 1587) in the Cornell University collection from Cayuga lake. Probably occurs along the Seneca river but there are no specimen records. 72. Stizostedion vitreum (Mitchell). — Yellow pike, wall-eyed pike, pike- perch. Common in certain lakes and all rivers of the region. 73. Stizostedion sp. — Silver pike, blue pike of Lake Ontario. Not uncommon in the Oswego river near its mouth; apparently does not occur above the first dam at Oswego. As a food fish of less importance than the yellow pike, because of its smaller size and softer flesh. 74. Hadropterus maculatus (Girard). — Black-sided darter. Not uncommon in the northern part of the drainage, in shallow, rapid streams, warm or cool, usually over a hard bottom. Was taken, at least once, in a brown trout stream. 75. Percina caprodes zebra (Agassiz). — Log perch, zebra darter. Not un- common throughout the drainage and very common in Oneida lake. Inhabits shallow waters of lakes and large warm streams, usually in moderate to strong current. 76. Boleosma nigrum olmstedi (Storer). — Tesselated darter, Johnny darter, abundant. Occurs in nearly all lakes and streams of the region, except in very cold waters. Found in various situations from rapid current among stones to sluggish waters with muddy bottom or among weeds. Usually found in shallow water. 77. Poecilichthys escilis (Girard). — Iowa darter. Common in several ponds of the northern part of the drainage. Specimens were taken from Vander- mark pond (near Junius), Duck lake, South pond (near Constantia) and Mud pond ( near Marcellus ) . Apparently prefers swampy ponds with a muddy bottom and much vegetation. 78. Catonotus flabellaris (Rafinesque). — Fan-tailed darter. Common. Oc- curs in warm or cool streams usually in rapid parts where the bottom is rubble. A few specimens were taken in shallow areas of the Finger lakes near stream mouths. 79. Etheostoma olennioides Rafinesque. — Green-sided darter. Not uncommon. Inhabits several large warm streams of the northwestern part of the drainage occurring in rapid or strong current where the bottom is rubble. Centrarchidae Sunfishes 80 Micropterus dolomieu Lacepede. — Small-mouthed black bass. Common. Lakes and large warm •streams, often inhabiting waters of strong current. A male was found guarding a nest and eggs on July 1, 1927 in Cayuga lake inlet near Ithaca, and at the same time bass about y2 inch long were common. The young of this species are usually found under shelter of stones, etc., and sometimes in weed beds. 81 Aplites salmoides (Lacepede.) — Large-mouthed black bass, Oswego bass. Common in shallow, weedy lakes and ponds and large sluggish streams. Does not occur in as strong a current as the preceding species. Males were seen guarding nests of eggs, May 22, in Canoga marsh on Cayuga lake. The young up to several inches, were frequently taken in weed beds throughout the summer. 82 Apomotis oyanellus (Rafinesque). — Green sunfish. Rare. S. E. Meek (1889) took a few specimens near Montezuma. Hankinson and Adams (1916) record a specimen from the mouth of Big Bay creek in the Oneida lake drainage. 83 Helioperca incisor (Cuvier and Valenciennes). — Bluegill sunfish, porgy sunfish. Not uncommon. Large, sluggish, warm streams, ponds and weedy lakes. Specimens were taken in the Seneca river, Cross, Cayuga and Neahta- wanta lakes and in Junius ponds. This is the largest and best of the sun- fishes of the region, from the anglers' viewpoint, and could well be used to stock small bodies of water. However, it is not at present raised in the State hatcheries. 84 Xenotis megalotis (Rafinesque). — Long-eared sunfish. A few specimens 102 Conservation Department were obtained in Oneida lake drainage by Professor T. L. Hankinson. The species probably occurs sparingly in the rivers but none are recorded. 85 Eupomotis gibbosus (Linnaeus). — Common sunfish, pumpkinseed. Abun- dant throughout the drainage in ponds, lakes and sluggish streams. Occurs in sluggish to stagnant current over mud or muck bottom, often among weeds. Males were seen guarding nests, eggs and young, June 16, in Canoga marsh, Cayuga lake. 86. Ambloplites rupestris (Rafinesque) . — Rock bass. Common throughout the region in lakes, rivers, ponds and warm streams. Often occurs in sluggish current over a mud bottom. Young are usually found in patches of weeds or under other shelter. 87 Pomooeis sparoides (Lacepede). — Crappie, calico bass. Not uncommon. Ranges throughout the Clyde, Seneca and Oswego rivers and is sometimes taken in Cayuga lake. Common in Cross and Neahtawanta lakes. One of the important fishes of the pan-fish type, many being taken by angling. A fish of shallow ponds, lakes and large sluggish streams. The young are often found in weed beds. Atherinidae Silversides 88 Labidesthes sicculus Cope. — -Brook silversides. Uncommon, Specimens were secured in Cayuga lake, the Seneca and Clyde rivers, usually near weed beds. Apparently prefers sluggish or stagnant current and mud bottoms. Sciaenidae Drums 89 Aplodinotus grunniens Rafinesque. — Sheepshead. Uncommon. A speci- men was collected in the Clyde river at May's point, July 25. They are some- times caught by fishermen in the Barge canal, Clyde, Seneca and Oswego rivers, usually in sluggish waters. This is considered a good food fish in the region although comparatively few are taken. COTTIDAE SculpitlS 90a. Cottus bairdii bairdii Girard. — Sculpin, millers thumb. Moderately common. Ranges throughout the southern and eastern part of the drainage, occurring in rocky streams and in Oneida lake. Found in cool to warm streams, often near the headwaters. Frequently taken in rapid current among stones although it is not restricted to this habitat. 90b Cottus bairdii Icumlieni (Hoy). — Lake sculpin, millers thumb. Rare. Moderately common in Cayuga, Seneca, Keuka and Canandaigua lakes. It is not taken elsewhere in the drainage. Ranges from deep waters to rocky shallows in creek mouths usually not in strong current. 91 Cottus cognatus Richardson. — Sculpin, millers thumb. Rare. Seems to he limited to southeastern headwaters and certain Oneida lake tributaries. This is a fish of cold waters and is found in brooks at the headwaters of trout streams, in strong or rapid current. It also occurs in the Finger lakes. Gasterosteidae Sticklebacks 92i Eucalia inconstans (Kirtland). — Brook stickleback. Common through- out most of the drainage, inhabiting weedy streams, ponds and lakes in shallow and deep waters. Not infrequently found in trout streams. Does not seem to like strong current. 93. Pungitius pungitius (Linnaeus). — Nine-spined stickleback. Rare. Two specimens were taken in Canandaigua lake in deep water, by Dr. Eaton's party. 94 Gasterosteus aculeatus Linnaeus. — Two-spined stickleback. Common at the mouth of the Oswego river but has not been found above the first dam at Oswego. It was found in weed beds and shallow rock bottom pools where the current was moderate. Gadidae Codfishes 95. Lota maculosa (LeSueur). — Eel-pout, lawyer, ling. Common in Canan- daigua lake, occasional throughout the Seneca river and in Oneida lake. Al- though its flesh is good there seems to be some prejudice against this fish and it is not popular even though it can be caught with hook and line. It is generally found in rather deep water but young specimens were obtained in a stream (Naples creek) several miles from Canandaigua lake. 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CHEMICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE OSWEGO WATERSHED By Frederick E. Wagner, Fellow, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute In this, the second survey of a watershed area taken as a whole, the chemical policy has been necessarily adjusted to meet the requirements of varied conditions. The waters about which particular interest centered may be classified into three groups, lakes, springs, and streams, included in the last named are those rivers which have entirely or in part been incorporated into the State barge canal system. In regard to the first class, it was desired to determine variation in gaseous and related characteristics between the surface and lower depths of the more important lakes, and to study possible changes in these dur- ing the summer season. The importance of the springs lies in their possibilities as sources of cold clear water adaptable for those fish species demanding1 such conditions. As in the first survey, of paramount importance in stream studies was the investigation of pollutional factors, and determination of their importance both in regard to intensity and length of stream affected. Types of Pollution. — The industries with which the Oswego watershed abounds, especially that section containing the outlets of the smaller lakes east of Cayuga continuing down to Oswego on Lake Ontario, and which supply the greatest pollution problems, are the woolen and paper industries. These are pressed closely in prominence by pollution from municipal sewage. Canning fac- tories dot the landscape at sundry places, but in general the summer of 1927 was a slack one for canneries, and numerous cases must be classed as potential sources of pollution which under other circumstances might have been found more serious. It might be well at this point to call attention to an erroneous impression entertained by certain cannery officials. Several have advised that at considerable expense they have installed screening devices with the understanding that such would completely solve their waste disposal problems, and that the effluents therefrom might safely be passed directly into a convenient stream. The fallacy of such a conclusion is not obscure. Screening out the coarse material such as faulty peas, beans, cherry stones, etc. greatly improves the condition of the wastes for which disposal is sought. But what of that material which passes through the finest of screens, (they are not always fine) and which varies in size of particles from true solutions up to more or less finely divided solid pieces ? Obviously that material in a fine state of division is in the most favorable condition for ready decomposition, with consequent threat to the aquatic life upon wrhich it may be thrust, so the Dissolved Oxygen - % of Sat. ?S /CO (2£_ 110 Conservation Department screening while a big" aid is not sufficient in itself to render a waste effluent harmless. Milk product factories and condensaries were relatively un- important from the standpoint of numbers, but in at least one case, to be discussed later, the pollution made up in severity for the absence of a greater number of instances. Other sources of pollution encountered were gas and tar works, varnish and enamel- ware factories, insulator works, Solvay works, rope, shade, shoe, carpet and button factories, typewriter works, foundries, machine shops and feed mills. Methods Employed and Effects of Pollution. — For a dis- cussion of the effects of pollution the reader is referred to "A Biological Survey of the Genesee River System," supplemental to sixteenth annual Conservation report, 1926. Analytical methods employed were substantially the same, being those outlined in "Standard Methods of Water Analysis," 6th edition, 1925, Ameri- can Public Health Association. The values for dissolved oxygen listed in the accompanying tables and represented graphically in several instances have been calculated to percentage of saturation based upon Whipple's values, and the barometric pressures of the regions have been taken into consideration. The heavy horizontal lines across the graphs represent 100 per cent saturation. The values for carbon dioxide refer to free carbon dioxide in all cases unless otherwise indicated. It is noteworthy that waters which have assimilated quantities of organic and nitrogenous matter and have consequently become abundantly supplied with plant food often support luxurious oxygen producing growths, and give values for dissolved oxygen far in excess of those required for 100 per cent saturation, which figures, as pointed out in the past, refer to water in equilibrium with the atmosphere, about one-fifth of which is oxygen. Excellent examples of such are offered by Canandaigua outlet as shown by the tabulated data in Series I, and by Owasco outlet, data of Series I and Fig. 2. The Canals. — The State barge canal system forces itself so fre- quently upon the attention of an investigator that some considera- tion had to be given it, though a study of such an extensive system offers a weighty problem in itself. Hence where closely linked up with other waters studied the canals have been to some extent in- cluded in the investigation. The effect of wash from passing boats in keeping the water roiled and turbid can only be referred to in passing, as can the consider- able quantities of oil which escape or are discharged at times upon the waters. A fairly continuous canal section is that starting with Seneca lake as a westerly terminus and extending eastward and northward for a stream length of about ninety miles to Lake Ontario at Oswego, joined en route by the Cayuga lake section from the south, the Clyde river section from the west, and Oneida river section so Dissolved Oxygen - % of Sat. 75 /OQ~ IZ5 112 Conservation Department from the east. At accessible points the canal water was sampled, and since an average depth of ten to fourteen feet was found to exist, samples were taken just below the surface and at the bottom. Results are listed in the tabulation of Series I ; and Fig. 1 repre- sents a profile of the dissolved oxygen content. For the prepara- tion of this, values found at the bottom and surface were averaged. These figures have been plotted and connected directly with straight lines, no attempt having been made to smooth the curves. The excellent condition of the clear, plant containing water leav- ing Seneca lake is shown, and effects of Waterloo and Seneca Falls upon the first few miles of its course evident. Proceeding further the inpouring of Skaneateles outlet with its load of unassimilated material is marked, and grossly polluted Onondaga outlet clearly indicated. To contributions of sewage, paper and woolen mill wastes from Phoenix and Fulton must be attributed the continued depression of the profile as it is traced to its end at the lake. Stream Studies. — The greater part of the story is recorded in Series I of the tabulated data, and at this point any discussion must necessarily be of a supplementary nature and supplied in the hope that it will enable the reader to picture more easily and clearly conditions as found at the time of investigation. Owasco outlet is a large rapidly flowing stream, dropping approximately three hundred and twenty -five feet in its seventeen and one-half mile passage to the Seneca river. It has been highly industrialized by the city of Auburn through which it flows, no less than nine dams taking advantage of its one hundred and fifty foot drop through the city. Sewage from about two-thirds of the population enters the stream in a raw state. In spite of this the dissolved oxygen content was found reduced only to a minimum of 76 per cent where conditions were at their worst.* The oxygen supply was found to have recovered rapidly, and the stream but a short distance from the city was filled with an exuberant growth of water plants, thriving on the abundance of food, and contribut- ing in well known manner to the reoxygenation of the stream. (Fig. 2). This pollution like all other cases varies in intensity, and in addition, the flow of water is not constant, being controlled at a State dam to meet industrial demand. Effects of dyes and other substances possibry directly poisonous to fish were not studied. Wood creek is deserving of special mention because it has the questionable distinction of being the worst case of pollution ever encountered. This comparatively small stream receives the raw sewage from the city of Rome, which converts it into a veritable open sewer, absolutely foul, with blackened unsightly shores, and uninhabitable to fish life for miles. The first spot analyzed below sewage entrance, nearly one and one-half miles below in fact, showed an oxygen content of one-half of one part per million. At * See minnow tests on Owasco outlet, p. 92. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 113 the point where the stream enters the barge canal, about nine miles below the entrance of pollution, the dissolved oxygen had recovered only to the extent of sixty-six per cent of saturation, though the creek's volume had been augmented by such sizable streams as Canada and Stony creeks. Fig. 3 represents an attempt to portray Fig. 3 PROFILE SHOWING EFFECT OF ROME SEWAGE UPON WOOD GREEK Distance in Miles the situation graphically. The broken line bridges that section between the two solid parts and represents the probable change through that part of the stream where no samples were taken. This creek flows through a relatively level section of country east of Oneida lake, and has not the opportunity for aeration afforded by the rapid and tumultuous flow of many streams farther west, 114 Conservation Department and the importance of which has been remarked in the Genesee report. Skaneateles outlet occupies a well deserved second place among the worst cases, offering as it does the severest example of indus- trial pollution. This stream was passed over rather briefly, having been already intensively studied at an earlier date.1 This summer's work has indicated that conditions have grown worse since the earlier investigation; heavier consumption of lake water by Syracuse may be partly responsible. Where conditions were at their worst the oxygen was reduced to seventeen per cent of Fig. 4 T -— a Distance in Miles from Skaneateles Lake saturation, and below Jordan, about two miles from the confluence of the stream with the canalized Seneca river, the oxygen had recovered only to seventy-two per cent of saturation. (Fig. 4) 1 Unpublished report of Emmeline Moore to Conservation Commission. Nov. 28, 1921. Biological Survey — - Oswego Watershed 115 This is the more pertinent when the character of the stream flow is taken into consideration. The total difference in elevation between the lake and river is about four hundred and seventy-five feet, over a stream length of about thirteen miles, and the flow from Elbridge to Jordan tumultuous. The contrast between the inlet and outlet of Skaneateles lake is extreme. One would travel far to find a more beautiful stream than the inlet, clear, riffly, and abounding with trout. The outlet, which under more favorable circumstances might make an equally fine appearance, now presents pools clogged with filthy, gas evolving sludge, and varying in color from beet red to gray and black. The last stream of particular note is Pott's creek, which flows southward to the canalized Oneida river, a few miles to the east of Fulton. This stream is an example of the brown or so-called "peaty" water, colored by the vegetation through which it flows. The contour of the land as in the case of Wood creek is conducive to sluggish flow. At Pennellville a milk products factory was found to be discharging its wastes into the stream, and for a considerable distance the dissolved oxygen content found to be almost negligible, about six per cent of saturation as compared with ninety-six per cent above the town. At entrance to the river the oxygen had risen to a value of eighty-three per cent. Pollution to Virgil creek at Dryden, and to Fall creek at Mc- Lean must be classed as potential only, since inappreciable at the time of investigation. Injury to Owasco inlet at Groton was felt to be greater than the data Avould indicate, since high water at the time of investigation doubtless conduced to a better than normal appearance. Cayuga inlet, spring fed and rapid throughout the fourteen miles prior to reaching Ithaca was found un-noteworthy, but in the deeper and quieter portions through Ithaca the effect of sew- age was very apparent, though fish life of a tolerant nature prob- ably not endangered. A great volume of water passes swiftly through Keuka outlet, and the stream has been highly industrialized throughout its upper length. At least six dams take advantage of some portion of the stream's two hundred and sixty-five foot drop to Seneca lake. Pollution enters from Perm Yan in the shape of sewage and can- nery wastes, and from paper mills a few miles below the town, but the volume of water is so great and opportunity for aeration so satisfactory that at no point was it found in very bad condition. The several reed bordered mill ponds act as settling basins for solid material carried in suspension. Effects of entering pollu- tion directly poisonous to fish life is problematical.* The outflow from Canandaigua lake leaves by two channels, which unite after travelling separately a couple of miles. One contains by far the greater volume of water and receives the effluent from a partial sewage disposal plant, gas works and varnish fac- * See page 92 for minnow test; page 62 on Keuka outlet; page 119 on chemical condition. 116 Conservation Department tory. These waters are in poor condition for about a quarter mile below their confluence, though richly supplied with aquatic plants and not devoid of such fish as sucker and carp. Farther on the stream continues to improve, and aided by oxygen forming plants attains an oxygen content far beyond its normal saturation limit. Great brook, tributary No. 43 of Ganargua, was found badly pol- luted by wastes from insulator works and cannery at Victor. Naples creek, the scene of serious cannery pollution in past years was found free of such when visited on two separate occasions. Wastes in the cannery ditch were found highly putrescent, but there had been this season insufficient volume to reach the stream. West river was found to be in very poor condition as the result of cannery wastes at Rushville. Burrell creek has received attention in the past because of pol- lution from kraut wastes at Halls Corners. This stream con- sisted only of isolated pools when investigated during the sum- mer. Analysis during the fall cabbage season showed oxygen content of only 1.6 per cent of saturation, though the stream flow was slight.1 It would appear that the greatest cause for concern here lies in the possibility of heavy accumulation of decomposable waste being swept by rains or flood waters into valuable fishing waters below, where especially during the spawning season serious consequences might result. Ninemile creek (Otisco outlet) serves woolen and paper factories, which at time of investigation were operating at but a fraction of capacity, and though pollution was very evident it was not of alarming proportions. Free carbon dioxide in appreciable quan- tities further indicated that the possibilities for far more serious conditions are imminent. Chittenango creek was found polluted by cheese factory wastes at Nelson. Appearances indicated that the effect of such were far more serious at times, when the plant was operated more nearly to its capacity, and good fishing possibilities seriously endangered. Effect of sewage from Cazenovia was appreciable, but the volume of water sufficient to assimilate such without serious result. Condi- tions apparent below Chittenango Falls, a few miles downstream, indicate that the stream has been enriched in a not very appealing manner. Dairy wastes entering Sconondoa creek at Vernon were found to have been rendered partially inactive by factory disposal efforts. Myriads of small fish just above the sewage entrance indicated that here they had found a source of sustenance. Oneida creek carries off the effluent from Oneida 's partial sewage disposal plant. Oxygen content was reduced about 30 per cent. Wastes from gas works were found to have coated the bed of the stream with tarry sludge. Spring Studies. — Numerous springs are found at various points throughout the Oswego watershed, and certain ones of prominence i Observations by N, L, Cutler, See table of pollution studies, p. 138. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 117 were investigated. The manner in which springs occur is regu- lated by geological structure, so that as a result there exist many varieties. Some issue in greater or lesser volume from several spots indicating that the downward seepage of surface water has been interrupted by some impervious stratum, and the flow de- flected in accordance with the dip or inclination of such. These springs have been referred to in the tables as surface springs, An important fact in connection with these is that the water seeping through the upper soils and sub-soils has opportunity for correcting any great deficiency in oxygen, which of course is necessary if the issuing waters are to be suitable directly for fish life. Contrasted to these are the deeper seated springs whose issue depends upon the alternations of permeable and impermeable strata, and which may be the outlets of underground streams hav- ing in some cases fairly defined channels. Geological fault fissures or joints afford facilities often-times for the escape of such waters, especially where they bring steeply inclined porous strata against impervious ones. The important fact about these is that the water is rushed to the surface, and its condition depends upon the chemi- cal changes which its constituents have undergone, and the nature of the strata such as limestone with whi^h it has come in contact since it fell as rain at some time and place. Hence as in the case of the Price spring,1 such waters may be practically devoid of oxygen and highly charged with carbon dioxide, under which con- ditions fish could not exist. Lake Studies.2 — Chemical characteristics of the more important lakes of the watershed were studied. Results are tabulated in Series III. No remarkable seasonal change wras found, and at those sta- tions where periodic examinations were made, determinations at one period did not differ greatly from those at another. It is interesting to note that at the comparatively shallow depth of nineteen meters Otisco lake was found to be only about 3 per cent saturated with dissolved oxygen. i See p. 120. 2 Data supplied by W. L. Tressler, S. S. Britten, and R. Vingee. 118 Conservation Department 1— 1 o m d) J/J 4> 3 <5 w H OLi 83.2 n 2 So* ft^ 6^3 a s S-rG a OOOO hhlON lO lO 00000000 0000 coco 00 00 OO I i-h rH co CO CO fH os |> coco 00 00 00 00 00 00 l> t^ t^t-i a a a a c a 00 00 CO >-G Tt* iO i-0 •* ©COOO CSG5 iC c ^o Tfl IO t— t- icco oooo CNOSCDlO COOS CD Q) CD CD CD CD g g g g c g 3333 3 3 •— 3 >— S 1— Sl— a l-sl-3 eg o3 «4H O 3 &CD CD r^ « 3 .3 0<*-"« xPmoo oo rHLO * OS O 5 G «£" ."-3 S bJCl- -2 £33 S « ass-is > CD CD - )» -^OG I CC 03 \3 ^ • CD CD 3 3 3 3 H5H3 OS OS OS OS O". 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M 3- OOhhOO oo oo oo oo oo b- <-l i-l i-l CM rH SUSP -d t» iO rH O OS CO CM <-i 00 X X O m o 'O m c-i ' 32 3 3 = 3 o :::::« i-l CO CO C5 O) »o H Q M O Q !zi o m « o a a M h < a d d IC O OS lH Tt< O i-i CM r-J CN CM* CO i o a d a lO CM CO OS r2 ohh'h q co co co co co co w 2 3 a a oooo-*-^ CM CO CO CO CO *# 03 cs Q Sep. 7 Jun. 29 " 29 " 29 " 29 Sep. 7 I ■ <^ a a lOioomcoco coiocoodoo r-l i-l i-l r-( CM CM s a & t>l> CT) CM CO 03 03 Q Jun. 29 Jul. 13 Aug. 10 Jul. 13 13 Jul. 27 w 2 a a ft ft GOcOt>COCOt^ O CM CO CO O i-i t— < CM CM CM CO CO 03 Q Aug. 24 " 24 " 24 " 24 Sep. 7 Aug. 24 W PS H H H g w H Ph a Q 1 3 ;;;;;; 132 Conservation Department Series III— (Concluded) Chemical Analyses — Lakes of the Oswego Watershed Dissolved Tempera- oxygen Methyl Free carbon dioxide Depth ture orange REMARKS in meters of water, degrees Parts Per cent of satura- tion alkalinity p. p. m. pH Cent. per million calc. carb. p. p. m. Keuka lake 1 21.3 9.3 107 8.4 July 7. 15 16.0 9.9 102 1.2 7.9 30 9.2 10.7 95 2.1 7.7 55 6.5 10.5 87 3.5 7.6 1 20.4 8.4 95 123 — .44 8.3 July 28. 10 20.2 8.9 100 122 — .97 8.3 20 12.4 10.0 96 126 1.6 8.2 30 8.0 10.0 86 125 3.5 7.9 62 5.2 8.8 71 133 1.7 7.9 Owasco lake 1 21.8 9.1 105 105 —2.9 8.4 August 4. 15 14.9 8.9 90 114 .94 8.1 50 7.8 8.3 72 107 2.8 7.8 1 19.8 8.9 99 102 3.7 7 6 August 9. 20 15.7 10.4 107 98 —1.1 8.4 78 6.0 9.0 74 54 1.1 7.9 1 10 21.4 21.0 8.8 8.1 101 92 118 120 —2.2 —1.8 8.4 August 11. 8.4 14 15.2 5.1 52 132 2.9 7.8 19 13.1 0.3 2.9 140 8.0 7.6 1 16.9 9.3 97 118 0.84 8.3 1 mile S. of Lodi landing. 20 11.1 8.5 78 106 0,73 8.0 July 15. 70 5.0 8.8 70 108 0.94 8.0 100 4.4 11.3 88 111 0.53 8.0 182 4.0 9.2 72 109 0.53 8.0 As above, September 9 . . . . 1 19.0 4.7 51 98 —2.1 8.4 27 11.4 6.8 63 105 0.41 8.0 70 4.8 7.8 61 109 0.63 8.0 110 4.2 6.5 51 108 0.84 7.9 180 4.1 7.5 58 110 1.6 7.7 Cavuga lake 0 19.5 9.6 105 106 —1.7 8.5 (off Frontenac point) 5 19.1 9.7 105 102 —1.8 8.4 August 10. 10 19.1 9.3 100 99 —1.2 8.4 15 18.5 8.9 95 101 —1.2 8.4 18 17.8 20 14.9 10.2 102 103 — .44 8.3 23 12.7 25 10.3 10.2 91 104 1.0 8.2 30 8.9 11.0 95 105 1.0 8.0 40 6.3 10.7 87 104 1.4 8.0 50 5.7 11.0 89 106 1.3 8.0 75 5.0 12.3 97 104 1.3 .8.0 100 4.6 10.0 78 105 1.3 8.0 120 4.5 10.1 78 104 1.7 8.0 Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 133 VI. BIOLOGICAL STUDIES OF POLLUTED WATERS IN THE OSWEGO WATERSHED By P. W. Ci.aassen, Professor of Biology, Cornell University and N. L. Cutler, Biologist and Sanitarian, N. Y. State Conservation Department The object of this investigation was to determine the types of pollution present in the Oswego watershed ; the exact location or source of each case of pollution ; a study of the plants and animals which are found in polluted water and a study of the extent of pollution present with a view of determining what effect the var- ious types of wastes have upon fish and other fresh water organ- isms which normally inhabit clean waters. Unlike the conditions which exist in the Genesee river system where the pollution centers are almost uniformly distributed over the entire watershed we find that in the Oswego watershed the head waters are remarkably free from pollution. Here the pollution areas are largely restricted to the industrial centers and the larger cities and villages along the outlets of the Finger lakes and along the streams below the lakes. Economic changes during the last ten years have brought about these conditions, for we find in the headwaters of the Oswego watershed a great number of old creameries and milk plants which have ceased to operate. Most of these plants were located in small fresh water streams and constituted one of the chief sources of pollution to the small fishing streams. The milk from these com- munities is now largely hauled by trucks to the cities where it is bottled or turned into various manufactured products. This, to- gether with a natural increase in the size of cities and villages and the establishment of more industrial plants, has increased the pollution problem in these centralized areas. The only redeeming feature which can here be mentioned is the fact that these indus- trial centers are nearly all located on large streams or lakes where the large volume of water is able to absorb much of the polluting substances. The types of pollution found in the Oswego watershed may be grouped as follows: domestic sewage, paper mill wastes, woolen mill wastes, milk wastes, cannery wastes, oil, sulphur and various industrial wastes. Sewage. — Sewage forms one of the chief sources of pollution in this watershed. The effect of the entrance of raw sewage into a stream is to produce first what is known as a * * zone of recent pollu- tion. ' ' Here the dissolved oxygen supply of the stream is lowered perhaps 20-50 per cent and fresh water organisms, such as green algae, mayfly and stoneny nymphs give way to more tolerant, and even pollutional forms, such as blue-green algae (Oscillatoria), sewage fungus (Sphaerotilus and Leptothrix) and sludge worms 134 Conservation Department (Tubifex). The water is turbid and practically devoid of fish life. The lower end of this zone merges into the second, "the septic zone." The establishment of this zone is hastened in the quiet still waters of ponds. The dissolved oxygen may practically disappear. The stream bed is blackened with sludge and foul-smelling gases rise up through the murky water. Green plants are absent. The larvae of the sewage fly and the rat-tail maggot may be found here. The third zone is the "zone of recovery." Green plants such as Potamogetons and eel-grass reappear, thriving on the excessive amounts of organic matter and giving off oxygen to the water. The fresh water organisms find conditions once more to their lik- ing and fish life may thrive again. Twelve streams, not including the canalized Seneca river, re- ceive sewage pollution of a serious nature at one or more points throughout their course. Most of these, in addition, receive in- dustrial wastes of various kinds. Two outstanding examples of the flagrant misuse of streams in this watershed are shown by the cities of Rome and Auburn which turn Wood creek and Owasco outlet respectively into what arc virtually open sewers. The condition of Wood creek is very aptly summarized by Mr. Wagner in the introduction to his chemical studies of this survey and need not be further discussed here. It might, however, be pointed out that the "zone of recent pollution" and the "septic zone" coincide in this case. Biologically, it offers little, even the ordinary, visible foul water organisms finding conditions untenable for some distance. The population of Auburn, according to the 1925 census is 35,- 677, of these over 25,000 are not connected with either of the 2 small sewage disposal plants. Their sewage enters the Owasco out- let in a raw state through 25 sewer outfalls distributed through the heart of the city, causing what might be characterized as a "zone of recent pollution." Even under conditions of normal flow, 73.8- 93.5 cu. ft. per sec* on week days, the stream is turbid and loaded with the effluent from the sewer outfalls. How much more inten- sified are they then on Sundays and at night, when, due to the water regulation at the State dam, the flow may be as low as 19- 36 cu. ft. per sec. ! *. By means of the many dams and because of the swiftly flowing nature of the stream the dissolved oxygen is being constantly re- plenished as it is being used by the decomposing organic matter and, as will be seen by reference to the chemical report, the oxygen never gets lower than 76.0 per cent saturation. Thus a "septic zone" does not get time to become established. Nevertheless many desirable kinds of fish cannot possibly live in a stream that serves as an open sewer, whether it becomes septic or not, and that is just what we find — a few members of the very tolerant species, such as bullheads, here and there until we get well down into the * Rep. on Sewage Conditions at Auburn, N. Y., by Theodore Horton, Apr, 25, 1917, (letter on file in City Engineer's Office, Auburn, N. Y.). Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 135 "zone of recovery" below Throopsville. One further case of stream contamination caused by Auburn sewage is the pollution of Coldspring brook (North brook) for 4% miles by the partially treated effluent of the sewage disposal plant located there. Thus Auburn sewage pollutes approximately 21% miles of the stream, the greater part of which would be suitable for fishing streams. The city of Canandaigua is responsible for the pollution of Canandaigua outlet for some considerable distance as may be seen by reference to the appended tables. No small part of this is due to the partially untreated effluent from the sewage disposal plant. It seems regrettable that where provision is made for the dis- posal of sewage and the rendering innocuous of the effluent, that often those facilities are not utilized to their utmost. Instead, either through ignorance or carelessness, partially treated effluents are allowed to run into, and grossly pollute, desirable fishing streams. Because of the fact that many polluting substances, other than domestic sewage are mixed with sewage it is difficult to state just how many miles of streams are thus polluted but approxi- mately 41 miles are directly affected by sewage pollution, of which 32 would be fishing streams. Milk Pollution. — It is rather surprising that in so large an area as that covered by the Oswego watershed there should be such a small amount of milk pollution. Apparently not more than a total of 17 miles of streams have become polluted from milk wastes. Most of the milk plants have adopted means whereby the by- products are utilized or else treated before they are allowed to enter fresh water streams. There is however one case of pollution which is so extremely bad that it deserves mention here. The milk plant at Pennellville, which manufactures casein, sugar and albu- men, empties its wastes untreated into Potts creek and pollutes the stream to the extent of killing all fish and fresh water life. The entire stream for a distance of about 4 miles has become unsightly and foul and presents a distinct nuisance. Blood worms, sludge worms and tolerant snails are the only animal forms present and blue-greens, tolerant Potamogetons, and sewage fungus the only plants. This stream, if free from pollution, would support fish life. Paper Mill and Woolen Mill Wastes. — These factories are centered largely along the outlets of Keuka lake, Otisco lake, Skaneateles lake and along the Seneca river. The wastes from these plants consist largely of waste fibers, dyes and the various glues and chemicals used in the process of manufacture. The dyes apparently do not produce any very deleterious effects upon fish life but due to the fact that a small amount of dye stuff will color a large volume of water there is a popular belief that this is very harmful to fish life. Our observations indicate that the dye itself does not materially affect the stream except when it is introduced in very large quantities. 136 Conservation Department The wastes from paper mills however do considerable harm to fresh water life and along Keuka outlet and Skaneateles outlet they have very decidedly harmed fish life. These wastes encourage a rich growth of blue-green algae (Oscillatoria and Phormidium) and the development of sewage fungus and sludge worms all of which are indicators of polluted waters. Skaneateles outlet has been badly polluted for many years and received an extensive biological and chemical investigation in 1921. * Consequently but a brief survey was made on this occasion. Biologically the condition of the stream had not improved but apparently has steadily grown worse in that time. Referring in part to the above mentioned report: The stream may be divided into 3 zones. First the "zone of initial pollution," caused by the sewage from the town of Skaneateles. Second the "zone of oxygen sag." where the presence of 2 paper mills and 2 woolen mills con- tribute a great deal of waste material. The stream in this section is brown and turbid with its great accumulation of debris. Third the ' ' lower section ' ' — the zone of recovery. Together with other types of pollution the paper mills and woolen mills pollute approximately 33 miles. Oil Pollution. — Oil undoubtedly has a very deleterious influence on fish life. By reference to the chemical data for the oil pollution in Great brook it will be seen that oil causes a certain drop in the amount of dissolved oxygen. Fresh water food organisms such as caddisfly, stonefly and mayfly nymphs are suffocated by the heavy coating of oil that settles to the bottom and covers the stones, etc. The eventual result is to cause desirable fish species to migrate to a more favorable environment. Industrial plants of various kinds, such as gas plants, machine- shops, automobile garages, etc., are guilty of this form of stream contamination. Witness the black oily drains from garages along SixmiJe creek through Ithaca or along Owasco outlet through the city of Auburn. One further aggravating feature of this type of pollution is that the waste is usually "dumped" at one time, thus bringing about an extremely high concentration of impurities. Oil in combination with other wastes pollutes about 12 miles of stream. Cannery Wastes. — Cannery wastes, being high in organic con- tents, constitute a very serious menace to fish life when allowed to enter fresh water streams in large quantities. Although there are many canneries in this watershed there were but two cases of seri- ous stream pollution. This is in part due to the slack canning season. The cannery at Rushville pollutes West river and that at Victor pollutes Great brook. Both of these plants have screening devices, but as pointed out by Mr. Wagner in his chemical report, these are never, in themselves, sufficiently adequate. * State of New York, Conservation Department, Stream Pollution Studies No. 2, Pollution of Skaneateles Outlet by Sewage and Industrial Wastes. Unpublished report by Emmeline Moore. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 137 Sulphur Pollution. — Tributary 44 of Canandaigua outlet at Clifton Springs shows a unique form of pollution caused by the sulphur springs in the vicinity. This, together with a certain amount of sanitary wastes causes the stream bed to be absolutely covered with a thick mat of sewage fungus intermingled with ex- cessive growths of pollution algae of the blue-green type. It would be hard to conceive of a more luxuriant growth of these foul water plants. They produce a most unsightly and unsanitary con- dition. Normally this would be a feeder for Canandaigua outlet. Conclusion. — Certain forms of fresh water plant and animal life are constantly associated with a favorable environment for fish life. This is readily understood when one considers that their living conditions must be the same as those that favor fish life, i. e., fresh, clean, well-aerated water. When we find instead an association of foul water plants and animals, i. e., certain blue- green algae, sludge worms, etc., we know that fish cannot thrive under the conditions found there. The more outstanding cases of pollution in this watershed are the ones that have been discussed in the preceding pages. For a com- plete survey covering all cases of actual or potential pollution the reader is referred to the tabulation. Particular attention should be given to "effect on stream and fish life" in the table below. It must be emphasized, in this regard, that to get an accurate picture of the effect of pollution from any one source, or sources, upon a stream, both the tables and graphs for the biological and chemical data should be studied in conjunction with one another. A total of 108 miles of stream were found to be polluted. Of this total 60 would be suitable for fishing streams. It is a significant fact that the outlets of the five Finger lakes, Canandaigua, Keuka, Owasco, Skaneateles and Otisco are all seri- ously polluted, totalling about 45 miles of polluted stream. Of this amount 20 would be suitable for the propagation of fish were there no contamination present. The reader is referred to page 92 of Mr. Greeley's report for a discussion of the fish life in these outlets. 138 Conservation Department Tabulation of Pollution Studies in the Oswego Watershed Miles TYPE OF POLLUTION Quadrangle Township or post office Stream Effect on stream and fish life of stream af fected Ithaca Ithaca Cascadilla creek Moderate, tolerant fish present V2 Sewage Ithaca Ithaca Cayuga inlet . High C02 — a few tol- erant fish present 1 Sewage Penn Yan . . Penn Yan . . Keuka lake outlet Slight, large volume of water Auburn .... Auburn .... Coldspring brook Kills fresh water forms above Price spring 4^ Skaneateles. Skaneateles . Skaneateles outlet Kills all fresh water forms 1 Slight 1 Cowaselon creek Sewage Oriskany . . . Rome Wood creek. . Stream absolutely foul . . 9 Fulton Kasoag Fulton Camden. . . . Oswego river West Branch Fish creek Raw sewage evident .... 1 Clyde Canandaigua Lyons Canandaigua Sewage and indus- Canandaigua Fresh water forms rare. 2 trial waste outlet a few tolerant fish present Fresh water forms absent Sewage and indus- Phelps Shortsville . . Canandaigua 5K trial waste outlet Sewage and indus- Auburn.... Auburn .... Owasco out- Kills most fish and fresh 12 H trial waste let water life Sewage and indus- Oneida Oneida Oneida creek Badly polluted, no fresh 12 trial waste water life for 3-4 miles Industrial waste . . Syracuse. . . Syracuse. . . Onondaga outlet Slight, many fresh water forms present Oneida Sherrill Mud creek.. . Potential Industrial waste . . Fulton Fulton Oswego river Slight, large volume water Paper mill waste. . Ithaca Ithaca Fall creek . . . Large stream, slight effect Paper mill waste. . Penn Yan . . Penn Yan . . Keuka lake outlet Discolors water, raises temperature, no fish life 6 Paper mill waste. . Syracuse. . . Fayetteville Limestone creek Most fresh water forms absent Yi Paper and woolen Skaneateles . Willow Glen Skaneateles Extremely bad, no fresh 12 mills to Skan- eateles Falls outlet water forms present Paper and woolen Skaneateles . Marcellus Ninemile Stream in poor condition, 11 mills and Mar- cellusFalls creek very little fish food Paper and woolen Baldwins- Phoenix. . . . Seneca river. Large volume saves 3 mills ville greater damage to fish Kraut factory .... Phelps Gorham .... Flint creek, Trib. 40, Canandaigua Reduces O2, CO2 present, spoils fishing stream 2 Kraut factory .... Phelps Phelps Flint creek, Trib. 40, Canandaigua Kills fresh water forms to some extent m Kraut factory .... Phelps Hall Burrell creek, (Wilson) Great brook,. Trib. 43, Stream goes dry Canandaigua Victor Low O2, high CO2, fresh water forms absent v/2 Ganargua Oneida Oneida Stacy Basin . Vernon Drum creek.. Trib. 5, Stony cr. Sulphur and sani- Phelps Clifton Trib. 40, Badly polluted, normally 2 tary wastes Springs Canandaigua a " feeder stream " Carbon bisulphide Penn Yan . . Penn Yan . . Keuka lake outlet Potential, not operating during summer Milk Dryden .... Geneva. . . . Dryden .... McDougall . Virgil creek. . Trib. 8, Kendig cr. Potential Milk Small stream 2 Milk Auburn .... Moravia Union Springs Locke Cayuga lake . Owasco outlet Potential Milk Slight, fresh water forms present Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 139 Tabulation op Pollution Studies in the Oswego Watershed — Concluded TYPE OF POLLUTION Milk Milk Milk Milk Milk Milk Milk Milk Milk Milk Milk Milk Milk Milk Milk Milk Milk and cheese . . Milk and cheese . . Milk and cheese . . Milk and cheese . . Milk and butter . . Milk and casein, etc. Pea cannery Pea cannery Pea cannery Pea cannery Oil, garage Oil, garage Oil, garage Oil, insulator works Oil Quadrangle Moravia Moravia Skaneateles, Clyde Weedsport . . Weedsport . . Cazenovia. . Morrisville. . Morrisville.. Oneida Oneida Oneida Kasoag Taberg Taberg Taberg Clyde Weedsport.. Syracuse . . . Cazenovia . . Weedsport. . Fulton Naples Phelps Penn Yan . . Palmyra Ithaca Auburn .... Syracuse. . . Canandaigua Geneva .... Township or post office Groton McLean. . . . Amber South Butler Meridian. . . Conquest . . . Delphi Peterboro.. . Munnsville. Oneida Community Oneida Castle Vernon Williams- town Thomson Corners Blossvale. . . Lee Center. Savannah.. . Cato Cicero Nelson Port Byron. Pennellville . Naples creek Rushville . . Penn Yan . Alloway. . . Ithaca .... Auburn . . . Cicero Victor Seneca Fall Stream Owasco outlet Fall creek . . . Otisco lake.. . Butler creek . Trib. 12, Muskrat creek Trib. 2 of M. S. 7 Trib. 34, Limestone creek Oneida creek Oneida creek Oneida creek Mud creek. . . Trib. 5, Stony cr. Pond, West Branch, Fish cr. Trib. 7, Cobb brook Trib. 17, Fish creek Canada creek Trib. 1, Crusoe cr. Trib. 12, Muskrat creek Mud creek. . . Chittenango . Owasco outlet Potts creek. . Naples creek. West river. . . Keuka lake outlet Canandaigua outlet Sixmile creek Owasco outlet Mud creek. . . Great brook. . Seneca river. Effect on stream and fish life Oxygen reduced, normal fish food lacking Potential Potential Potential Lost in swamp Bad, volume small, goes dry Potential Potential. Slight Potential. Potential. Potential. Pond easily absorbs waste at present Potential Potential. Potential, clears up ditch Potential, clears before reaching Crusoe creek Stream volume small. . . Potential Fish and other fresh water life killed Slight Extremely bad, kills all fresh water life Potential, insufficient waste to reach stream Low Oo, high CO2, fresh water forms absent Little effect on large vol ume of water Reduces oxygen, also available fish food Fresh water forms killed Fresh water forms killed Prevents development of fish food Reduces O2, kills fresh water forms Eliminates some fish food, lowers O2 Miles of stream af fected General indicators of above: Organic wastes, such as sewage, milk, cheese, kraut factory wastes, canning factory wastes: Black foul-smelling sludge, sludge worms (Tubifex), fungi, blue-green algae (Oscillatoria, etc.), blood worms (Chironomus) . Inorganic wastes. Machine shops, garages, etc. — Oil on surface and bottom, Melosira (Diatom), blue-green algae. Paper mill. — Yellow incrustations on stones, fibres, blue-green algae, fungi. Woolen mill. — Dyes, alkalies, acids (acetic), etc., scrubbings. 140 Conservation Department VII. PLANKTON STUDIES OF CAYUGA, SENECA AND ONEIDA LAKES By W. C. Mukxscher, Assistant Professor of Botany, Cornell University In a biological survey of a body of water for the purpose of determining the factors and conditions which contribute to the production of fish, the source of fish food is of prime importance. In this connection the plankton organisms, those small free- swimming or suspended organisms occurring in the water, furnish, directly or indirectly, one of the chief sources of food for fish and other animals that are eaten by the fish.1 The following members of the survey staff assisted in this undertaking: Dr. Gertrude E. Douglas, Albany State Teachers' College, Mr. Paul R. Burk- holder, Cornell University, Mr. Willis L. Tressler, University of Wisconsin, Mr. Sidney Britten, Syracuse University, Mr. F. E. Wagner, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. This work was greatly facilitated through the co-opera- tion of Cornell University: the Department of Botany made available a lab- oratory which served as general headquarters from June 15 to September 15, 1927; the Laboratory of Plant Physiology granted the use of equipment and apparatus necessary for certain chemical work and gravimetric determinations of plankton ; the Department of Zoology granted the use of the University boat house on Cayuga lake for the storage of boats and other equipment. The most important lakes of the Oswego watershed are the Finger lakes and Oneida lake. The limnological studies reported by Birge and Juday, 2, 3 already furnished a general preliminary survey of the plankton life of the Finger lakes though not of Oneida lake. The amount of time and the facilities available for plankton studies precluded the possibility of making very extended studies on all the lakes in the Oswego river watershed. It seemed that, under the circumstances, the most worth while results could be obtained by concentrating the plankton work on a few lakes. Plankton studies were therefore conducted on three lakes ; Cayuga and Seneca, the largest of the deep lakes and Oneida, the only large shallow lake in the Oswego watershed. The aim of this study was to make available more information concerning the abundance, vertical and horizontal distribution, and periodicity of the various kinds of plankton organisms in each lake. An attempt was also made to gain some idea of the condition of the environment under which the plankton organisms occur by measuring some of the factors such as temperature, transparency, dissolved gases, and reaction of the water. By limiting the work to three lakes it was possible to make the observations and take samples approximately every two weeks in Oneida and Cayuga lakes, and once a month in Seneca lake, from i For discussion of the larger vegetation sec Appendix XII. 2 Birge, E. A., and Judav, C. A. linnologica] study of the Finger L.\kes of New York. U. S. Bull, of the Bur. of Fisheries. 32: 525-009. 1912. :: — Further limnological observations on the Finger lakes of New York. Ibid. 37: 211-252. 1919-20. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 141 June to September, 1927. In Cayuga and Seneca lakes samples were taken at two stations,1 one near the south end and one to- wards the north end at the following' depths: 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 50 meters and bottom. In Oneida lake samples were taken in only one station2 at three meter intervals from the surface to the bottom, 15 meter depth. The following determinations were made at each of the five stations : 1. Temperature of the water. 2. Transparency of the water. 3. Dissolved oxygen. 4. Free carbon dioxide. 5. Total alkalinity of the Avater. 6. Quantitative determinations of the various kinds of plankton organisms. 7. Total dry matter, organic matter and ash in the lake water. Temperature of the Water. — A series of temperature readings3 was taken each time when plankton samples were taken or when water samples were taken for gas determination. The records taken over a period of about six months in Cayuga lake show a rise in the surface temperature from 3.18° 4 Centigrade on April 16 to 19.3° C. on August 26. The temperature at the 50 meter depth rose from 3.15° C. on April 16 to 7.9° C. on Sep- tember 14. Near the surface and at the lower depths the decrease in temperature per meter increase in depth was but slight. When a definite thermocline occurred (during August and September) the most rapid drop in temperature was not always at the same depth, although usually this occurred between the 20 and 25 meter depths. The temperature at the surface of Seneca lake increased from about 12.0° C. to 20.1° C. between June 24 and September 7. 1 The locations of the stations: Cayuga lake. "South station"— near the middle of the lake two miles from the south end. "North station"=about one-half mile off the east shore just south of Stony point about 15 miles from the north end. fleneca lake. "South station"=about one-sixth mile off east shore south of Hector falls, two miles from the south end. "North station"=about one mile off the east shore opposite the mouth of Reeder creek, six miles from the north end. The samples could not be taken in exactly the same spot each time, but all of the samples were taken within a radius of about 100 meters of a com- mon point represented by the "station." This is why the depth of the bottom varied from about 50 to 80 meters. 2 Oneidu lake. "Station"=:approxiniately one mile off the north shore op- posite the village of Cleveland. Depth, approximately 15 meters. 3 All temperatures recorded in the tallies of chemical analysis, Series 111, p. 128 were taken with a Negretti-Zambra deep sea thermometer and re- corded without correction for variations due to difference in the temperature of the mercury column. In the few cases where we made these corrections we found the difference to be very small, usually less than 0.1 of a degree. * To change degrees Centrigrade to degrees Fahrenheit multiply bv 9/5 and then add 32} eg. (3,18x9/5) +32^37.7 (degrees Fahr.). 142 Conservation Department At the. 50 meter depth the increase in temperature between June and September was less than 3° C. In Seneca lake, as in Cayuga lake, the decrease in temperature with increase in depth was very slight near the top and the bottom of the lake. The most rapid drop in temperature occurred between the 20 and 25 meter, or between the 15 and 25 meter depths. Temperature records show that the water of Oneida lake be- comes relatively warm rather early in the summer. The lake is too shallow to show any vertical stratification. At no time was the bottom temperature more than 4° C. colder than at the surface; in four out of six series of readings the bottom temperature was only about 0.5° C. lower than at the surface. Cayuga and Seneca, both deep lakes, are similar in that they warm up very slowly and show a considerable drop in temperature between the upper and lower water. On the other hand Oneida lake, which is very shallow, warms up much earlier in the summer. Transparency of the water. — The transparency of the water was determined in each lake each time when plankton samples were taken. A Secchi disc having a diameter of twenty centi- meters was used for this purpose. The observations were made at noon or as near noon as possible. The depth was determined at which the disc disappeared when lowered in the water and also when it reappeared when raised. The figures in Table 1 repre- sent the averages of these two values recorded in meters. While it must be admitted that this is a crude method for measuring the transparency of the water, the results obtained thereby are sufficient to make possible a rough comparison of the transparency of the water in the three lakes. As shown in the table the water of Seneca lake is much clearer than that of Oneida lake and some- what more so than that of Cayuga lake. Table 1. Transparency of the Water of Cayuga, Seneca and Oneida Lakes (1927). Cayuga lake — south Cayuga lake — north Date Trans- parency in meters Date Trans- parency in meters 4.5 5.5 7 7 5 4 4 June 21 . . 5.5 June 30 July 9 7 July 13 July 25 7 July 29 Aug. 17 5 Aug. 12 Aug. 31 4 Aug. 26 . Sept. 12 3 Sept. 14 Seneca lake — south Seneca lake — north June 24 . . . 1 9.5 11 June 22 7 July 16 . . . July 17 8 Aug. 20 . . . Aug. 19 12 Sept. 8... Sept. 7 10 Oneida lake June 29 2.9 3 4.1 4 1 Juln 12 July 26 Aug. 23 . . Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 143 Water Analyses. — Determinations were made of the amount of dissolved oxygen and free carbon dioxide, the total alkalinity and the reaction of the water each time when plankton samples were obtained. The water samples for all these determinations were obtained with a closing water sampler of one liter capacity. In general, the results of the analyses* for the four months, June to September, indicate that in Cayuga and Seneca lakes there was no free carbon dioxide in the upper 20-25 meters of water after the last of June. Below this depth about 1-2 parts per million of free carbon dioxide were found in the water during the early part of the summer, but late in August and September this was reduced to about 0.5 p. p.m. Oneida lake showed a greater variation in free carbon dioxide in the water between the surface and the bottom, increasing gradually from 1.5 to 3.7 p. p.m. on June 29, from 1.3 to 2.7 p.p.m. on August 10, and from 2 to 4.4 p. p.m. on September 7. On July 13 there was no free carbon diox- ide in the upper 3 meters of water, but it increased from 0.3 to 1.9 p.p.m. between 6 and 15 meters. The dissolved oxygen in the water of Cayuga and Seneca lakes varied between 6.8 and 12.2 parts per million, the variation in Seneca lake being slightly less than in Cayuga lake. In general, the dissolved oxygen was somewhat less from the surface to about 20-25 meters than between the 25 meter depth and the bottom. The dissolved oxygen in Oneida lake was lower, in most cases between 6.5 and 8 p.p.m. However, on September 7 the oxygen between 0 and 3 meters was as low as 5.3 to 5.9 p.p.m. The total alkalinity of the water varied from 100 to 107 p.p.m. in Cayuga lake, the water being somewhat less alkaline in the latter part of the summer. No striking or constant difference in alkalinity of the water was noted at the various depths or between the two stations. In Seneca lake the alkalinity ranged between 84.3 and 100 p.p.m. ; the lowest was found in June at the south station. Determinations of the water of Oneida lake indicated that the total alkalinity gradually increased between June and September. On June 29 the alkalinity gradually increased from 9.7 to 15.6 p.p.m. between the surface and bottom, on September 7 from 17.8 to about 30 p.p.m. between the surface and bottom. Quantitative Determinations of Plankton Organisms. — In Cayuga lake, samples of net plankton and nannoplankton were taken at the north and south stations approximately every two weeks between June 15 and September 15, 1927 ; in Seneca lake samples were taken at the north and south stations once a month from June to September ; in Oneida lake, at intervals of two weeks between June 28 and September 6. From these data the accom- panying charts (1-8) were prepared. Charts 1-5 give a summary of the abundance, and vertical and seasonal distributions of the Crustacea, rotifera, protozoa, algae and diatoms obtained in the net plankton of Cayuga, Seneca and * See tables of chemical analysis, Series 111, p. 128. 144 Conservation Department CUUGA SENECA ONE IDA Mft *■ a 3 3! 3 i- ?! t» o a. to o to 1 i - 3 am \ CD t <* ■*: -> ~3 1 •J-i l)t«f "5 -3 3 <* ^c u. Ui HM U ■ IK a to ■ • » l -7 s: tH" ? Stt o .. #, ,# .. t ■_ Hd_ t CVJ CO o n • • • • • • r o t <\l , CO £: -3- n g t ## • • en S* ■ ; *T : !r> SOUTH STATION NORTH STATION SOUTH STATION NORTH STATION Chart 1. Crustacea in net plankton of Cayuga, Seneca and Oneida Scale (number of organisms per liter of water). 1 space = 25; . = less than 1; ..=1-10; depth = meters. Genera observed: Cladocera; daphnia, Leptodora, Bosmina -CS, Polyphemus dosida -SO, Cerodaphnia -C, Sida -0. Copepoda; Cyclops, Diaptomus, Nauplii. lakes. -CS, Pseu- CA V UCA SENECA ONEIDA DAT I \ o Z -3 3; 3- •3: tvj 3 Q. 1X1 2? "3 =3 O t-3 CO 1 "3 to Q =3 ~i CO 2> ~3 £ DATE DEPTH 3 -3 -3 -a | "J E • • •• • • 3 m* o c o o »» 5: • • -J • *• • 5: ♦ • • « • • o m o • • • • • « • • • • 03 •• 5 o o • • • • • »• • » • • • » Z o Sedgwick-Kafter cell. The counts were made by enumerating under a com- pound microscope, the organisms present in ten squares taken at random from the cell. For the enumeration of the larger organisms, such as Crustacea and rotifers, a two cc. portion of the sample was placed in a Watch glass and all the organisms therein counted. The results were reduced to the number of organisms per liter of water. For this purpose the net was considered 80 per cent efficient, that is, it was assumed that it strained the organisms from 80 per cent of the water through which it was drawn. A check on the efficiency of the net was made by determining the organisms in a sample obtained by straining a known volume of water and also in a similar sample obtained by drawing the net slowly through a certain vertical distance of water. The results were approximately equal, indicating that the efficiency of the net approximates 80 per cent. The samples of nannoplankton were obtained by taking water samples at various depths with a water sampler. The water was strained through the plankton net and one liter samples were centrifuged with a "Foerst number 14 centrifuge" and reduced to a small volume which was placed in a vial and enough distilled water and formaldehyde added to make 10 cc. of suspension in 4 per cent formalin. In a few cases when the water samples could not be centrifuged on the same day that they were collected, liter quantities of water were measured and enough formalin added to preserve them for a day or two when the whole sample was centrifuged and made up in the usual manner. The enumerations of nannoplankton were also reduced to the number of or- ganisms per liter of lake water. 146 Conservation Department C A Y (J C A SE^fCA ONEIDA DFPrh 1 -3 0 a. CO *3 cr. >- =3 3 -3 rs O a. e ^ ■> i 3 a. CO -3 TO CA DEPft 00 -> 3 j CD =5 to J • •• • • • < o o • J • • • • • to 0 2: 0 0 • • • • • « • • • * • • •• • • • • •• • j: ID n • • a* 0 0 •• • • • • i • • • 0 10 • • • a • • 0 0 E • • • • • • £ • • • a •• socr/y STATION NORTH STATION 500 TH STATION NORTH STATION Chart 3. Protozoa in net plankton of Cayuga, Seneca and Oneida lakes. Scale (number of organisms per liter of water). 1 space = 1000; . = less than 100; . . = 100-500. Genera observed: Ceratium, Dinobryon, Vorticella, Difflugia, Mallomonas -CO. CAYUGA SE N ECA ONEIDA bun \ DfPTH 0 3 => 3 S «£ u v- 3 a O N ft. 1 3> 0 a. -a CD 3 CO a. to me \ DfPTH as ^ -1 =1 ^ 3 • » Or 0 • • a s: s: 0 M • • «a a s: • • 0 a a a. • a a 5: 0 »* • » • • « s: 0 : • • • • * 2 SOUTH STATION NORTH STATION SOUTH STATION NORTH STATION Chart 6. Protozoa in nannoplankton of Cayuga, Seneca and Oneida lakes. Scale (number of organisms per liter of water). 1 space = 5000; . = less than 100; ..=100-1000. Forms observed: Difflugia, Dinobryon, Peridineae -CS, unidentified forms. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 147 Genera of Plankton Organisms in Net Plankton and Nanno- plankton Cayuga Lake. — The great bulk of the organisms occurred in the upper 10 to 15 meters of water. Except for diatoms, the organisms occurring below 15 meters were relatively scarce. There was a striking similarity in the plankton life in the north and south sta- tions. All of the dominant genera were about equally well repre- sented in both localities. Most of the plankton organisms, except diatoms, were found in greatest numbers during July and August. Net plankton. Cladocera. — Bosmina was the only common mem- ber of this group. It occurred in greatest numbers between 0-10 meters during July and August. Polyphemus was found near the surface in both stations during the middle of August. Cerodaphnia was found only once, 0-5 meters, at the north station. Traces of Daphnia and Leptodom were found in a few samples from each station. Copepoda. — Diaptomus and Cyclops were observed each time samples were taken but at no time did they become abundant except in the upper samples taken in September. Nauplii were fairly abundant in all samples taken between 0-30 meters. Rotifera. — Pleosoma was the most common rotifer. It was not found in June. It became most abundant between 0-15 meters during July and August. Conochilus especially during July and Anura&a throughout the season were abundant at the north sta- tion but much less common at the south station. Polyarthra, Asplanchna, Notholca and Triarthra were frequently found at various depths at both stations. Synchaeta was found (39 per per liter, 5-10 meters, and fewer at greater depths) at the south station on June 30, but not seen later. At the north station it appeared in only one sample, July 9. Protozoa. — Ceratium was practically absent in June but showed a steady increase until the latter part of August after which it began to decrease. It was most common between 0-15 meters, only traces being found below this depth. Ceratium was much more common at the south station than at the north station. Only traces of Dinobryon were found before July. It increased very rapidly until the middle of August and two weeks later it had disappeared entirely. Dinooryon was very much more abundant at the south station than at the north station. Only small num- bers of Vorticella, mostly attached to colonies of Anabaena, and Difflugia were observed, mostly between 0-15 meters and in the latter part of the season. Mallomonas was found only at the north station, 0-10 meters, on August 17. Phytoplankton. Cyanophyceae. — Anabaena was found in both station from the latter part of July to the end of August, between the 7-10 meter depth. Traces of Microcystis were found at the' south station in 0-5 meter depth. Chlorophyceae. — Small numbers of Pediastrum and Staurds- trum occurred in two samples from near the surface at the north station. Aside from a few undetermined unicellular green algae these were the only Chlorophyceae found. 148 Conservation Department Heterokontae. — Botryococcus appeared in traees near the sur- face at the south station on August 26. This plant was not seen in any other locality on the lake during the entire summer. In 1921 Botryococcus formed a very conspicuous "bloom" on the surface along- the east shore of Cayuga lake. Bacillariae. — The great bulk of the phytoplankton consisted of diatoms represented by three genera, Asterionella, Fragilaria, and Tabellaria. All three of these diatoms were most abundant in the upper 5-10 meters and relatively scarce below the 25 meter depth. Asterionella was most abundant in the spring and early summer and decreased in numbers so that by September it occurred only in traces. In plankton samples taken at the south station in early spring, Asterionella was the most dominant form observed. The following figures, from the 0-5 meter depth, give an indication of the rapid decline of Asterionella in numbers per liter of water: April 16, 3,765; May 14, 1,913; June 16, 987; June 30, 339; July 14, 216. This indicates the necessity of extending the observations over a considerable period of time in order to obtain some idea of the importance of any one form occurring in the plankton. Fragilaria was relatively rare early in the season when Asterionella was most " abundant, but became very abundant in August and early September. Tabellaria occurred at all times. It showed some decline but no striking change in numbers in the period during which samples were taken. Nannoplankton. Cyanophyceae. — The most common blue-green algae in the nannoplankton was Coelosphaerium rather abundant during August. Oscillatoria appeared at both stations early in the season, but was not seen after the middle of July. Qloeocapsa and Aphanocapsa appeared rather irregularly. Merismopedia was found in only two samples from near the surface at the south station. Chlorophyceae. — No members of this group at any time formed any dominant part of the nannoplankton. Scenedesmus seemed to appear most frequently. It was found between 0-20 meters. Characium, Crucigenia, Cosmarium, Bictyosphaermm, Eudorina, Gloeotaenium, Lagerheimia, Oocystis, Pediastrum, Quadrigula, Sphaerocystis, Staurastrum, Tetraedon and Volvox were found one or more times but never appeared very abundantly. Bacillariae. — The most abundant diatom was a small Cyclotella which was present in nearly all samples. It was abundant from the surface to the 50 meter depth. Synedra appeared at all depths. It was more abundant early in the season than later. Melosira appeared at all depths early in the season but later was more common in the lower samples. Stephanodiscus appeared in only two samples at the north station. In addition to the above diatoms, fragments of Asterionella, Fragilaria and Tdbellaria were often found in the nannoplankton in considerable numbers. Protozoa. — Small numbers of Difflugia were found in several samples from various depths. Fragments of Binobryon colonies small enough to pass through the net were very numerous during Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 149 C A Y U C A SENECA ONEIDA [W G o «0 fMTF \ i- b => o_ => ^ => a. -z. > - ^ C3 ^ \ 2 2) ^ S 3 a %PTH ~5 nj fc \Jtrih "3 t -j "3 ^ "3 CO Lj 1 - .» • ,. .« >• .. . .. _JH - *• L_l r O - .. . , bb^H s: 0 ■H r t\J B '-o . ?; o * n . . . .. .,,. °" Z r o t . . . , , , - £ r o ^ - • • • • • , . • • „ SOUTH STATION NO/fTM STAT,' OAf SOUTH STATION NORTH STATVA, Chart. 7. Algae in nannoplankton of Cayuga, Seneca and Oneida lakes. Scale (number of organisms per liter of water). 1 space = 20,000; . = less than 1000; . . = 1000 2000. Genera observed: Cyanophyceae; Aphanocapsa, Coelosphaerium, Microcystis, Merismo- pedia -CS, Gloeocapsa -CS, Gloeothece -S, Chroococcus 0. Chlorophyceae; Characium, Cosmariuiri, Crucigenia, Dictyosphaerium -OC, Eudorina, Gloeotaenium -CS, Oocystis, Pandorina -O, Pediastrum -CS, Quadrigula, Scenedesmus, Sphaerocystis -0, Staurastrum -CS, Tetraedon -CS. 150 Conservation Department July. One of the Peridineae was common, especially near the surface during the latter part of the season. The figures for Protozoa probably are very incomplete. The more delicate forms were probably lost when the samples had to be preserved for later examination. Observations show that Seneca lake, like Cayuga lake, was relatively poor in plankton organisms. The samples taken in June contained very few organisms except AsterioneUa. Seneca Lake. — Observations show that Seneca lake, like Cayuga lake, was relatively poor in plankton organisms. The samples taken in June contained very few organisms except AsterioneUa. Net plankton. Cladocera. — These organisms were never abund- ant in Seneca lake. At the south station Pseudosida, Daphnia and Bosmina occurred in very small numbers at various depths in August and September but were absent in June and July. At the north station a few Bosmina and Daphnia were found in July and August and traces of Leptodora and Polyphemus were found in 'the latter part of the season. Copepoda. — Diaptomus and Cyclops were found in nearly all samples but appeared in largest numbers during July and August in the upper 15 meters. Nanplii were fairly abundant at all times in the upper 15 meters. Kotifera. — No rotifers were found in the June samples and only small numbers appeared later. Anuraea and Polyarthra were found in small numbers at various depths at both stations. Asplanchna appeared in traces near the surface. Conochilus and Notholea were found at the north station on July 18. Triarthra was found once, 40-50 meters, at the south station July 16, and Pleosoma was found in three samples, 0-10 meters at the south station September 6. Protozoa. — Ceratium was absent in June, appeared only in traces in July, and became rather abundant between 0-15 meters during August, Dinooryon was found much more irregularly than in Cayuga lake. Small numbers of Vorticella, attached to Anaoaena, and Difflugia were found near the surface in the latter part of the season. Phytoplankton. Cyanophyceae. — Anabaena appeared near the surface at the north station on August 20 and between 0-20 meters at both stations on September 6, but at no time was it very common. Microcystis appeared in all but the deepest samples on August 20, but only traces were left by September. Chlorophyceae. — Members of this group were very rare. Only a few traces of Actinastrum, Sphaerocystis and Staurastrum were found. Bacillariae. — The most common diatom was AsterioneUa which was most abundant near the surface early in the season. Fragilaria was found in the latter part of the season. Tabellaria was found in traces in only a few samples from near the surface. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 151 Nannoplankton. Cyanophyceae. — Gloeothece and Gompho- sphaeria were the two most abundant blue-green algae in Seneca lake. They were both found in large numbers, especially between 0-25 meters, during August and September. Microcystis was fairly common at the north station in August but occurred in only a few samples at the south station. Gloeocapsa, Aphanocapsa and Meris- mopedia were found in only a few samples at the north station, but the latter two were found in large numbers at the south station. Chlorophyceae. — Scenedesmus and Oocystis were the most abundant green algae. Scenedesmus occurred only in traces in June but during the other three months it was rather common. Oocystis occurred in July and August. Other genera observed in some of the samples were Characmm, Coelastrum, Crucigenia, Gloetaenium, Pediastrnm, Quadrigula, Elactothrix, Cosmarium, Closterium, Eudorina, Staurastrum and Tetraedon. The last six of these genera were found in only one station. Oneida Lake. — The waters of Oneida lake were very rich in plankton organisms during the entire period covered by the ob- servations. Net plankton. Cladocera. — Daphnia was the most common genus, occurring in greatest abundance from 0-3 meter depth, in late June and September. Traces of Leptodora were found each time, at 9-12 meters. Sida and Pseudosida were found in small numbers on July 26 and later. Copepoda. — Diaptomus, most abundant from 0-3 meters, and Cyclops, less common but more or less uniformly distributed be- tween 0-6 meters, together with Nauplii were the only Copepoda observed. There seemed to be a striking decline in the number of Copepoda duing July. Kotifera. — Polyarthra was found in nearly every sample al- though it was most abundant near the surface in June and again in late August. Early in the season Anuraea occurred only near the surface but later it was found at all depths, reaching its greatest abundance on August 22. Notholca and Pleosoma were found several times at various depths. Triarthra was found only once, August 9, at 12-15 meters, and Asplanchna occurred from 0-12 meters on Sept. 6. Protozoa. — Ceratium was absent on June 28, appeared in traces on July 12, and reached a maximum abundance, nearly 6000 per liter, on August 23. By September 6, it had decreased in numbers. It occurred at all depths later in the season but it was most abund- ant between 0-6 meters. Dinooryon, which was very abundant from 0-6 meters and less so in deeper water, showed a consistent increase in numbers up to early August and then began to decline. Mallomonas, found at all depths, was most abundant during late July and August. Vorticella, mostly attached to colonies of Ana- oaena, occurred near the surface early in the season, and during late July and early August also appeared at the 3-9 meter depth. Difflugia was found throughout the season, but, except for small traces, only near the surface. 152 Conservation Department CAYUGA SEA/EC/1 ONEIDA \ o Z * > o ■M to % S i~ t\l a s 5 E v, WTi \ ki X "^ 3 S to a. '■;.", [_ 'T i JU7H ~s Uj 'ii C7 • • .. .. .. K r o b O •• ,# , Q ,. t S~ o M i Q • • g^HH »• to • • • j: 5: to 01 o . , • . • « , . • • • • , - • • • • • SOUTH STAT/O/V NORTH STATION SOUW STKTIOH NORTH STAT/ OH Chart 5. Diatoms in net plankton of Cayuga, Seneca and Oneida lakes. Scale (number of organisms per liter of water). 1 space = 500; . = less than 100; . . =100-200. Scale for Oneida lake: 1 space = 5000; . = less than 1000; . . = 1000-2000. Genera observed: Asterionella, Fragilaria, Tabellaria, Stephanodiscus - 0. C A Y U C A S ENECA ONEIDA JMTE DEPTH o 1 -> 3 >- t; m> to 1 "3 -5 ~5 Q «J •o |"~ O Uj " S § ^ i; <* 5 3 a -^ -3 t: k ft. Uj ^ H uj "3 l 1 ■'I Uj O ■a: Cfc :=> CO o 1 H^ML_ BMLnl II 5: to g ■ H P ^ PI §■ "■■■ H ■ ■"■■^Pl —t 05 s: !■■■ PIH P^TT" if/) rION SOUTH STAT ON 1 \10RTH ST/ HON s: ; Chart 8. Diatoms in nannoplankton of Cayuga, Seneca and Oneida lakes. Scale (number of organisms per liter of water). 1 space = 5000. Genera observed: Cyclotella, Melosira, Stephanodiscus, Synedra -CS, Asterionella, Fragilaria, Tabellaria. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 153 Phytoplankton. Cyanophyceae. — The blue-green algae were well represented in the net plankton by two common genera Anabaena and Microcystis. Anabaena was found at all times and was especi- ally abundant from 0-6 meters deep. It reached its greatest num- bers during July and August. Three species, Anabaena circinalis, A. flos-aquae, and A. Lemmermanni were observed but no attempt was made to count the species separately. Microcystis was found at all depths every time samples were taken; it seemed to be most abundant, however, at or near the surface. Traces of Gloeotrichia were found near the surface in August, and Oscillatoria was found only once, near the surface, on July 12. Chlorophyceae. — Members of the green algae at no time formed any dominant part of the phytoplankton. Staurastrum was the most abundant genus ; in addition very small numbers of Actina- strum, Dictyosphaerium and Pediastrum were found. Bacillariae. — Diatoms formed the greater part of the phyto- plankton at all depths, especially during August and September. Asterionella and Stephanodiscus were present at all times, the former being the most common. It reached it maximum numbers in August and then declined. Fragilaria and Tab ell aria were practi- cally absent in June and early July but during August formed the predominating organisms of the plankton. Melosira occurred only sparingly in the net plankton during the latter part of the season. Nannoplankton. Cyanophyceae. — Microcystis was found in every sample, becoming very abundant at all depths during July and, after a decline, increasing again in September. Coclosphaer- ium was found in large numbers (about 1000 to 6000 per liter) in nearly all samples. No constant variation was noted due to depth or season. Aphanocapsa and Chroococcus were found in smaller numbers in seATeral samples taken at various depths and at different times. Chlorophyceae. — Eudorina Oocystis and Characium were the most common green algae found. These were found mostly in the earlier samples, being practically absent from the later samples. Other genera which were found only occasionally or in small num- bers include Dictyosphaerium, Cosmarinm, Crucigenia, Pandor- ina, Quadrigula, Sphaerocystis and Scenedesmus. Bacillariae. — Cyclotella was the only diatom found in the nannoplankton that was not found in the net' plankton. It ap- peared at all depths in the earlier samples. The figures given for Asterionella, Fragilaria, Tabellaria and Melosira are probably too high because the counts represent not whole colonies but frag- ments of colonies which were broken during the process of centri- fuging. These samples were strained through the plankton net after centrifuging. Since the nannoplankton samples could not be examined at the time they were taken, it was necessary to preserve them. ■ It is probable that some of the more delicate organisms, especially smaller protozoa, may have been destroyed beyond recognition and were therefore not observed when the counts were made. 154 Conservation Department Estimation of Quantities of Dry Matter, Organic Matter and Ash in the Lake Water x In order to make possible a more direct comparison of the plank- ton quantities than can be drawn from the numerical data ob- tained, samples of lake water were collected from two to four times at each plankton station and from these samples the total dry matter, organic matter and ash residue were estimated for the water of Cayuga, Seneca and Oneida lakes (Chart 9). Seneca Oneida. Cayuga. Chart 9. Showing weights of dry matter and organic matter, estimated in pounds contained in an acre of water to a depth of 10 meters (32.8 feet), in Cayuga, Seneca and Oneida lakes. Method: The water samples were taken in duplicate from five depths ranging from the surface to 50 meters for each station in Cayuga and Seneca lakes and from the surface to 15 meters in Oneida lake. From each sample of water one liter was measured in a volumetric flask. This liter sample was then reduced to about 5 cc. with a Foerst centrifuge number 14, on the same day that it was collected or else formalin was added to preserve it until the next day when it could be centrifuged. This reduced volume was carefully transferred to a porcelain crucible and dried to constant weight in a Freas oven at a temperature of 98° C. for 24 hours, cooled in a dessicator, weighed, and then the dried residue ashed in an electric muffle furnace. The crucibles were heated to a dull i The analytical work upon which these estimations are based was done by Mr. P. R. Burkholder in the Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Cornell Uni- versity. The water samples from Oneida lake were transferred to the Cornell laboratory where they were dried and ashed. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 155 red heat for 20 minutes and then kept at a cherry red heat for 45 minutes. It is obvious that this method gives but a rough approximation of the actual weights of dry matter, organic matter and ash in the water of each lake. The data are based upon the solid matter (living organisms, remains of organisms and suspended inorganic particles) that were removed by the centrifuge. Some of the very fine particles as well as inorganic matter and salts in solution, would not be removed from the water by the centrifuge so that the figures for dry weight represent the weight of all solid particles that were so removed. The weight of organic matter represents materials lost upon ignition after the water was removed. The ash represents the residue after the dry matter was ignited. One source of error is the small quantities of water samples employed. However, duplicate samples were analyzed in most cases, and these usually checked closely. The final data in chart 9 represents the averages of analyses of 16 or 24 separate samples of water from each lake and illustrates graphically the differences in the three lakes in quantities of dry matter and organic matter. The data in Table 2 from which chart 9 is derived show that the organic matter in Cayuga and Seneca lakes in general is greatest between the surface and 20 meter depths and in Oneida lake be- tween the surface and 3 meter depths, The total dry weights show no striking or consistent differences with vertical distribution in any of the three lakes. This is apparently due to the relatively greater ash content in the deeper water. In Cayuga and Seneca lakes the water samples taken in late June and July contain a rather uniformly lower amount of organic matter and usually also less dry matter than the water samples taken later in the season (August). One of the factors responsible for the increase in or- ganic matter appears to be the rise in the temperature, especially in the surface water of these deep lakes. Oneida lake, which is shallow, warms up much earlier in the summer, shows but very little difference in temperature between the surface and the bottom water.* No striking seasonal variation in organic matter was ob- tained between June and August. The weights of dry matter and organic matter were computed for each lake by taking the average of the weights obtained from duplicate samples, taken at two depths, surface and ten meters, at two different times at two different stations located near the north and the south end of Cayuga and Seneca lakes. The values for Oneida lake were derived by taking the average weights for dupli- cate samples taken at five depths, surface to 12 meters, taken four different times. The weights of organic matter and dry matter were computed in pounds per acre of lake water for the upper 10 meters in order to allow a direct comparison of the three lakes. Chart 9 shows that Cayuga and Seneca lakes are relatively low in organic matter, 107 pounds and 124 pounds per acre respectively, See tables of chemical analyses, Series 111, p. 128. 156 Conservation Department Q * i o o £ fc-a OIO) 0) —i Oi 0( iO0 C<1 "O 3.-I.-IOO C0"#Ci.-ltO r-i^HOr-HO t-I tDHCl ^ ,2 NNC 04 CO io o i-i t- OS OOHHO oqoqoqo5oq CICIOIHHH 01 01 Ol 0)010} -t< CO CO CO CO CO 0105 05 --HOO -tf "O TjH Tt< CO Tt« j CO tO O Ol iO looocooooq --H ^ H O ^H oi o oi cm 'O >3 CM04 0} Ol O CO O 00 ,-Ir-irHr-id cq oq oi oq ply (posted) Small, warm or dry . . Lm. B. None. 400 R. T.+ None. Lm. B., Pp. 1,500 B. T. (trial planting), Sm. B. None. None. None (Lm. B.) None (Lm. B., Bg.rS.) None (Lm. B., Bg.[S.) Lm. B., Bg. S. None. 720 B. T.+ 190 B. T.+ 120 B. T.+ 18 B. T. None. 180 B. T. None. None. Lm. B., Bg. S. 180 B. T. 300 B. T.+ 300 B. T.+ 300 B. T. 300 B. T. None. None. None. Lm. B. None. Pp. Stocking not desired. None. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed Appendix VII — Continued 227 Stream and tributary number Mileage available for stocking Stocking policy per mile Clyde river — (Cont'd) 41 1 mile . . . 300 S. T. 1 2 Dry 0.1 mile None. 200 S. T.+ 42-58 and tributaries Small, warm, dry and polluted None. Canandaigua lake West river 5 miles, lower Remainder, dry or small Lm. B., Pp. None. (1-14, 31-48 and tributaries of West river) Dry, small or warm . . 3 miles Small None. Back Channel (Seneca river) 1 and pond Lm. B.; Pp. None. Black lake As Seneca river Warm and small .... Small, warm or dry . . 7 acres Lm. B., Pp. None. None. Lm. B., Bg. S. 1-2 and tributaries Clyde S. 1-5 and tributary streams Gem lake 228 Conservation Department Appendix VIII Stocking List to Accompany Map 4B Skaneateles, TuIIy, Cazenovia, Morrisville and Sangerfield quadrangles Stream and tributary number Mileage available for stocking Stocking policy per mile Oneida creek 10 miles 1,000 B.T.+ 315 B. T.+ 6 (Sconondoa creek) 3 miles 15 0.5 mile 190 B. T.+ 18 1 mile 180 B. T.+ 20 (Knoxboro brook) 0.5 mile 50 B. T.+ 25 1 mile 50 B. T.+ 1 1.5 miles 50 B. T.+ , 2 Small None. 14, 16, 17, 19, 21-24, 26. 27 and tributaries 23 . Dry, small or warm . . 1.5 miles None. 100 S. T.+ 24-28 and tributaries , Small None. 29 . . 0.5 mile 125 B. T.+ 30 0.75 mile 125 B. T.+ 31-34... . Dry, small or warm . . 4.5 miles None. 35. . 250 B. T.+ 1. . . . 3 miles 150 S. T.+ 3 0.75 mile . . 75 S. T.+ 1,2, 4-6 and tributaries. . . . 36-39 and tributaries Small, warm or dry . . Small, dry or warm. . 2.5 miles None. None. 360 S. T.+ Canaseraga creek Small None. 0.5 mile 180 S. T.+ Small None. 26-27 Dry None. 19 miles 1,500 B. T.+ 6 (Butternut creek) No. 14 to Apulia dam, 13 miles . 1,500 B. T.+ None. 360 S. T.+ 2.000 B. T.+ Apulia dam to No. 39 and pond, polluted . No. 39 to source, 2 miles 18 miles 8 4 miles 800 B. T.+ 8 4.5 miles 140 B. T.+ 1 1 mile 70 B. T.+ 2-6 and tributaries .... 1-7, 9-14, and tributaries. 9-33 34. . Small or dry Dry, small or warm . . Dry, small or warm . . Mouth to Delphi, pol- luted None. None. None. None. Delphi to source, 1.5 miles 90 S. T.+ 5 0.5 mile . . 70 S. T.+ l-4; 6, 7, and tributaries . 37 Small, dry or warm . . 4 miles None. 1,500 B. T.+ 1 2 miles 150 B. T.+ 41 0.5 mile 130 B. T.-f- 35, 36, 38-40, 42-44 and Dry, small and warm. None. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 229 Appendix VIII — Continued Stream and tributary number Mileage available for stocking Stocking policy per mile Chittenango creek — (Cont'd) 6 Butternut creek — (Cont'd) 14 0.5 mile 125 B. T.+ 1 Small None. 15 Lower 2 miles 1 mile 250 B. T.+ 1 270 B. T.+ 1 Small . . . None. 2 Lower 0.4 mile Small 250 B. T.-r- 1 None. 3-4 Small None. Jamesville reservoir 0.52 square miles .... Drv ...... Lm. B., Bg. S. None. 16-18 19 1 mile . . 180 B. T.+ 20 Dry None. 21 2 miles. . 360 B. T.+ 1 1 mile 180 B. T.+ 1 Small None. 2 Small . None. 22 ■.. Small . None. 23 1 mile 270 B. T.+ 24 and tributaries Warm . None. 25 Lower 0.4 mile small or warm 0.5 mile 720 B. T.+ 26-28 and tributaries 29 None. 125 B. T.+ None. 1 Small . . . 30-34 and tributaries 35 Dry or small 1 mile None. 180 B. T.+ 1 Small None. 36 1.5 miles ... . 360 B. T.+ 1-2 Small . . None. 37-38 Dry or small Polluted.. Pond None. 39 90 S. T.+ None. 40 Small 41 0.3 mile 90 S. T.+ 25-28 Drv • None. 29 (Munger brook) 3 miles 500 S. T.+ 1 and tributary Dry. . None. 2 190 S. T.+ None. 1-2 Small . . 3 0.5 mile . 90 S. T.+ 4 0.5 mile. . 235 S. T.+ 5 Small . . None. 3 0.2 mile 120 S. T.+ None. 30 and tributary Small . . . 31 2 miles 270 S. T.+ 1-3 Small . . None. 32-33 Dry or small 1 mile 34 180 B. T.+ 1-2 Small 35 Warm None. Cazenovia lake 2 square miles Dry or small Sm. B., Pp., Y. P. None. 270 S. T. 1-9 and tributaries 36 1 0.5 mile 180 S. T.+ 37-46 and tributaries Dry, small or warm . . None 230 Conservation Department Appendix VIII — Continued Stream and tributary number Mileage available for stocking Stocking policy per mile Chittenango creek — (Cont'd) 47 2.5 miles 1,300 S. T.+ 1 Small None. 2 . 2 miles 450 S. T.-f 1-3 and tributary 3 Small or dry Small None. None. 4 0.5 mile 235 S. T.+ 1. Small None. 5 (Spring run) 0.5 mile 290 S. T.+ 48 and tributary Dry None. 49 0.6 mile 180 B. T.+ 50 . . 0.5 mile 235 B. T.+ ,51 . 3 miles 360 B. T.+ 1 1 mile 126 B. T.+ 1 Small None. 2 and tributary Small None. 3 0.5 mile 65 B. T. 4 5 Dry or small Small None. 52 53 and tributary None. 54 1 mile 125 B. T.+ 1-2 Small None. 55 1 mile 235 B. T.+ 56 Small None. No. 8 to No. 26 15 miles 600 B. T.+ No. 26 to source, 5 miles 320 S. T.-f Small or warm 5 miles None. 9 216 B. T.+ 1 0.5 mile 90 B. T.+ 2-3 and tributary Dry or small ........ 0.3 mile None. 4 65 B. T.+ 5-7 Small None. 8 0.4 mile 90 B. T.+ 10 Dry None. 8 miles 380 S. T.+ 3 0.5 mile 125 S. T.+ Pond 1 acre 300 S. T.+ 6 1 mile 100 S. T.+ Dry None. 3 0.5 mile 190 S. T.+ 1 Small None. 4 0.5 mile 75 S. T.+ 1 1 mile 235 S. T.+ 2 Small None. 5-8 Dry or small Lower 0.5 mile Small Dry, small or warm . . Dry None. 8 142 S. T.+ 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10 and tribu- None. None. 12-13 None. 14 Lower 1 mile Dry or small Lower 1 mile Small Dry or warm 450 B. T.+ 15-17 None. 18 450 B. T.+ 1. . . . None. 19-24 None. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed Appendix VIII — Continued 231 Stream and tributary number Mileage available for stocking Stocking policy per mile Chittenango creek — (Cont'd) Onondaga creek — (Cont'd) 11 (West branch) — (Cont'd) 25 1 mile 180 B. T.+ 1 Small None. 26 0.7 mile 180 S. T.+ 27 Small 0.6 mile None. 28 110 S. T.+ 1 Small Xone. 29-30 Drv. . None. 31 0.3 mile . 75 S. T.+ 32 Dry None. 33 0.6 mile 180 S. T.+ Ninemile creek Warm None. 2 Small None. Mud pond About 3 acres. ...... Small and warm 7 acres Dry, small or warm . . Tributary No. 3 Otisco, 80 acres. . . . Mouth to dam. 1.5 miles Dam to source, 2 miles Lm. B., Bg. S. 6-15 None. Mud pond Lm. B.. Bg. S., Y. P. 16-27 None. Otisco lake Pond 4 Lm. B.. Bg. S. 400 R. T.+ 450 S. T.+ 1-3 and tributaries. . . . Small None. 6 0.5 mile . 180 R. T.+ 14 Mouth to dam, 0.5 mile Dam to source, 1.5 miles 270 R. T.-f . 180 S. T.+ 1 Spafford creek 6 miles 400 S. T.+. 300 R. T.-f- 1 0.3 mile 75 S. T.+ 1-2 and tributaries . . Small None. 5 1 mile 65 S. T.+ 8 0.6 mile . 235 S. T.-f- 9 65 S T + 2-4, 6, 7 and tribu- taries Small Dry, small 2 miles. . . . or warm . . 1-3, 5, 7-13, 15-44 and tributaries 1 (tributary to Carpenter brook) 360 S. T.+ Skaneateles outlet Polluted... Small and i 0.5 mile . ivarm None. 3-5 and tributaries None. Skaneateles lake 14 180 R, T.+ Skaneateles inlet 2 miles . 250 B. T. + ,200R. T -f- None. 1 Small . . 11 0.5 mile 180 B T + 1-13, 15-54, 55-71 and tribu- taries of 14 Drv. small "1 sr warm. J None. 232 Conservation Department Appendix VIII — Continued Stream and tributary number Mileage available for stocking Stocking policy per mile Skaneateles Outlet — (Cont'd) Skaneateles Lake — (Cont'd) Bear Swamp creek 11 13 1-10, 12, 14 72-91 Putnam brook and tributaries .... 9 (tributary to No. 10 of North brook) Owasco lake Dutch Hollow brook 1-28 4 1, 2, 3, 5-26 and tributaries. . Owasco inlet 1-2 and tributaries 1 (Decker brook, tribu- tary to No. 17) 1 1-3 2 1 2 6 3-5,7-10 1, 2, 3, 5-26, 27, 28 and tribu- taries Mouth to New Hope, precipitous New Hope to source, 4.5 miles 0.3 mile 0.6 mile Dry Dry Small Small or warm Mouth to No. 27, 9 miles 1 mile above No. 27. . Dry or small 1 mile Dry or small Warm and sluggish . . Dry 3 miles 2 miles Small 1.5 miles 1.5 miles Small 0.4 mile Small, warm or dry . . Dry, small or warm . . None. 1,500 S. T.+ 300 S. T.+ 300 S. T.+ None. None. None. None. R. T. — natural spawning adequate. 200 B. T.+ None. R. T. — natural spawning adequate. None. None. None. 820 S. 720 B. None. 350 S. 180 S. None. 120 S. None. None. T.+ T.+ T.+ T.+ T.+ Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 233 Appendix IX Stocking List to Accompany Map 5 Naples, Penn Yan, Ovid, Genoa, Moravia and Cortland quadrangles Stream and tributary number Skaneateles inlet Spring run (2-10) Bear Swamp creek . . . Owasco inlet 3-16 17 (Dresserville creek) 1 (Decker brook) 1 Spring run 2 2-10 11 (Butler brook) 1 . . . 1 12 1-2 13 14 15-18 Pond on 18 18-28 29 (Hemlock creek) .... 2 (Hollow brook) . . 1-6 (1, 3-10 and tributaries) 30-42 43 (Sears brook) 44 (Peg Mill) 1 (Cogshall brook) . . . 2 (North brook) 3 (Middle brook) 4 (Lane brook) Mileage available for stocking 4.5 miles 0.3 mile Dry or small 1 mile 19 miles Dry 1.5 miles (mouth to Montville) 3 miles (Montville to Dresserville) 3 miles, middle (posted) Dresserville to source, warm 1.5 miles (mouth to No. 1 ) 1.5 miles (No. 1 to 0.5 mile above No. 2) 1.5 miles 0.3 mile 2 miles Dry or small 1.3 miles (below dam) 1 mile (above dam) . . 0.5 mile (lower and middle) , posted .... 0.5 mile Small 0.5 mile, lower (posted) 1 mile (above posting) Small 0.5 mile 0.3 mile (lower) Dry or small 4 acres Dry or small 5 miles 4.5 miles Dry, warm or small . . Dry, warm or small . . Dry or small 0.5 mile 3 miles 1 mile 2 miles 2 miles 1.5 miles Stocking policy per mile 200 B. T.+,350R. T.+ 90 R. T.+ None. 1,000 S. T.+ 1,000 B. T.+, 1,500 R. T.+ None. 900 B.T.+, 1,000 R.T.+ 1,200 B. T.+ None. None. 2,000 B. T.+ 1,000 S. T.+ 450 B. T.+ 300 S. T.+ 350 S. T.+ None. 1,300 B. T.+ 350 S. T.+ None. 235 S. T.+ None. None. 350 B. None. 235 B. 120 B. None. Lm. B. None. 1,200 S. T.+ 900 S. T.+ None. None. None. 125 B 540 S. 180 S. 360 S. 360 S. T.+ 270 S. T.+ T.+ T.+ T.+ Bg.S. T.+ T.+ T.+ T.+ 234 Conservation Department Appendix IX — Continued Stream and tributary number (5~and tributaries of 1, 2, 4) 45 (Weaver brook) .... 1 46 47 (Booth brook) 48 (Bosard brook) .... 49 50 (Hart brook) 1 2-3 51-52 53 (Carey brook) 54 (Dick brook) 55 (Stoddard brook) . . 56 (Peruville creek) . . . 4 "..... (1,2,3,5,6,7) 57 58 59 (Spring brook) 60 and tributary Cayuga lake 22-51 and tributaries. . . . Salmon creek 1-7 8 (Gulph creek) 1-11 9-23 24 1 1 25-38 52-57 Fall creek 16 (Virgil creek) 15 ; 1 2 (2, 4, 11, 13, 16-20 and tributaries) Spring run 17-18 and tributaries 19 (Mud creek) 1-4 and tributaries 20-21 and tributaries. ........ Mileage available for stocking Small. . . 1 mile . . . Small . . . Small . . . 1 mile . . . 0.5 mile . Small.... 2 miles. . 1 mile . . . Small . . . Small... 1 mile . . . 1 mile . . . 1.5 miles. 6 miles . . 1 mile . . . Small . . . 0.6 mile . 0.5 mile . 1.5 miles. Small . . . Dry or small 17 miles Dry or small 4 miles Dry or small Dry or small 2 miles 1.5 miles. Small Dry, warm or small Dry or small 8.5 miles (No. 15 to McLean) 5 miles (McLean to Groton City pond). 6 miles (Groton City pond to source) .... Small 2.5 miles 0.5 mile (lower) Upper, dry 1.5 miles Dry Dry 0.3 mile Dry or warm 2 miles Dry or small Drv Stocking policy per mile None. 270 B. T.+ None. None. 125 B. T.+ 70 B. T.+ None. 350 B. T.+ 235 B. T.+ None. None. 270 S. T.+ 125 B. T.+ 90 B. T.+ 540 B. T.+ 90 B. T.+ None. 90 B. T.+ 90 B. T.+ 470 S. T.+ None. None. 300 B. T.+, 200 R. T.+ None. 200 B. T. + , 100R. T.+ None. None. 180 B. T.+ 90 B. T.+ None. None. None. Natural spawning of Sm. B. adequate. 2,000 B.T.+ 1,500 S.T.+ None. 1,300 B.T.+ 270 B. T.+ None. 180 B. T.+ None. None. 180 B. T.+ None. 585 S. T.+ None. None. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed Appendix IX — Continued 235 Stream and tributary number Mileage available for stocking Stocking policy per mile Fall creek (Cont'd) 22 3.5 miles 1,400 S. T.+ 180 S. T.+ 1 1 mile 2 0.5 mile 117 S. T.+ 3 0.5 mile 360 S. T.+ 4 1 mile 90 S. T.+ 5 1.5 miles 270 S. T.+ 1 0.5 mile 90 S. T.+ 23 Small None. 24 (Hart brook) 1 mile 350 B. T.+ 25 0.4 mile 470 B. T.+ 26 (Jones brook) 1 1.5 miles 350 B. T.+ Small . . . None. 27 (Blanchard brook) 1 0.5 mile 432 B. T.+ Small None. 28 Small . . None. 29 1 mile 575 B. T.+ 1 0.3 mile 150 B. T.+ 30 (Webster brook) 2 miles (lower) Upper, warm 1.5 miles Dry or small 900 B. T.+ 1 (Wilson's brook) 2-7 None. 190 B. T.+ None. 31 . .' ; 235 B. T.+ None. 1 Small 32 0.6 mile . 290 S T + 33 and tributaries Warm Spring run 0.3 mile . 235 S. T.+ 34 0.3 mile . 575 S. T.+ 35 Small 36 1.5 miles. . 575 S. T.-h 37-38 Dry or small 5 miles None. 39 935 S. T.+ 1 2 miles 235 S. T.-f 1 Small None. 2-8 Dry or small 0.3 mile . . 9 ;. 120 S. T.+ 10 Small 40-41 Dry None. Lake Como .... 0.12 square miles. . . . Dry or small 0.8 mile (mouth to falls) 20,000 R. T.+, Sm. B. 73-82 Taghanic creek 1,000 R.T.+ 6 (Reynoldsville creek) 6 miles (falls to No. 3) 1.5 miles 800 B. T.+ 1,200 B. T.+ (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7 and tributaries of 6) 83-121 and tributaries Dry, small or warm . . Dry. small or warm . . Dry or small 0.3 mile (mouth to Cascade Falls) .... Cascade Falls to source, polluted . . . Dry or small None. Seneca lake (6-33, 77-94, Big Stream and all tributaries) Keuka lake outlet 1-14 :. 3,000 R. T.+ None. None. 236 Conservation Department Appendix IX — Continued Stream and tributary number Mileage available for stocking Stocking policy per mile Keuka lake outlet — (Cont'd) Keuka lake 61 9 miles 200 S. T.+, 300 R. T.+ (1-25, 43-60, 62-68 and tribu- taries of 61) Dry, small or warm. . Dry None. 95-106 None. Kashong creek and tributaries. . Dry None. Flint creek (tributary of Canan- daigua outlet) 12 miles (Potter to source) 600 B. T.+ 26 (Nettle Valley creek) 38. . . 5 miles (14 to Potter) 5 miles Lm. B., Pp. 270 B. T.+ 1 mile 125 B. T.+ 39 . . 3 miles . 315 B. T.+ 40. . 0.25 mile . . 180 B. T.+ (13-25, 27-37 and tributaries of 26 and 39) Dry, small or warm . . Dry or small 4 miles (lower) 6 miles (upper) Drv None. Canandaigua lake 15-31 None. Sm. B., Pp. 1 190 R. T.+ None. 2 (Naples creek) 4 miles flower) 5 miles, upper (Eelpot creek) 1,000 B. T.+, 1,000 R. T.+ 450 S. T.+ 1-2 Dry None. 3 2 miles 180 B. T.+ 4-7 Dry None. 8 (Grimes creek) 1 2 miles (below falls) . . 6 miles (above falls) . . Small 800 B. T.+ 500 S. T.+ None. 2 2 miles (lower 0.5 mile posted) Small 350 B. T.+ None. 3 Dry None. 4 1.25 miles 270 S. T.+ 5 and tributaries Warm None. 6 1 mile 125 S. T.+ 7-10 Dry or small 1 mile (below dam) . . 4 miles (above dam) . . Dry or small 1 mile (below dam) . . . 2.5 miles (above res- ervoir) None. 9 (Tannery creek) 1-5 600 B. T.+ 500 S. T.+ None. 10 (Reservoir creek) 360 B. T.+ 360 S. T.+ 1 Small None. 2 2 miles 360 B. T.-f 3 2 miles 500 R. T.+ 1—4 and tributaries. . Small None. 11 Small None. 12 1.5 miles 360 B. T + 1-4 Small None. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 237 Appendix IX — Continued Stream and tributary number Mileage available for stocking Stocking policy per mile West river — (Cont'd) 2 (Naples creek) — (Cont'd) 13 and tributaries 14 Small and dry. ...... 1.5 miles None. 270 S. T.+ 15 1 mile 235 S. T.+ 16 Small None. 17 0.5 mile 180 S. T.+ 18 1 mile 125 S. T.+ 19 1 mile 125 S. T.+ Mud creek (and tributaries 77-80) Dry, small or warm . . None. 238 Conservation Department Appendix X Stocking List to Accompany Map 6 Bath, Hammondsport, Watkins, Ithaca, Dryden and Harford quadrangles Stream and tributary number Mileage available for stocking Stocking policy per mile Cavuga lake 57-64 Fall creek , 1-15 16 (Virgil creek) 1-4 5 6-7 and tributaries 8 9 '.. 10.... 11 and tributary. . . 12 13 14 1 1 Cayuga inlet , 1-2 3 (Cascadilla creek) 1-7 8 1-2 Spring runs between 8-9. . 9 10 (Ringwood brook) 1 Tributaries and 11-13 4 5 (Sixmile creek) 1-38 and tributaries. Dry 10 miles Dry, small or warm. . 8 miles Dry Sulphurous Dry or warm 0.5 mile Dry 0.3 mile Dry 0.4 mile Dry 1 mile, lower 1 mile, warm (upper). 0.6 mile 0.2 mile Mouth to Fair Grounds, polluted. Fair Grounds to Nina, 6 miles Nina to Stratton, 2 miles Small Mouth to 7, warm . . . 7 to source, 2.5 miles. Dry 0.5 mile, lower Small Small (posted) Dry 2 miles 0.3 mile Small or dry Dry Mouth to Potters Falls dam, 1 mile. . Potters Falls dam to 37, 7.5 miles 37 to falls at 49, 5.5 miles 49 to source, 2 miles. . Drv warm or small . . None. Natural spawning of Sm. B. adequate. None. 1,350 B. T.+ None. None. None. Natural spawning of S. T. adequate. None. 200 B. T.+ None. 300 S. T.+ None. 180 B. T.+ None. 100 B. T.+ 200 B. T.+ None. 600 B. T. + , 600R. T.-h 720 R. T.+ None. None. 720 B. T.+ None. 250 B. T.+ None. None. None. 270 B. T.+ 150 B. T.+ None. None. 1,000R. T.-f- ^OOOR. T.+.800B. T.+ 1.600 B. T.+ 1,200 S.T.+ None. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 239 Appendix X — Continued Stream and tributary number Mileage available for stocking Stocking policy per mile Cayuga lake — (Cont'd) Cayuga inlet — (Cont'd) 5 (Sixmile creek) — (Cont'd) Potters Falls reservoir 39 (Mulks brook) Tributaries and 40-41 . . . 42 (Bull brook) . 1 2 Bull pond 43-44 45 (Trout brook) Tributaries and 46-47 . . . 48 (Dusenbury brook) Tributaries and 49-59 . . . 6-7 and tributaries Burrts Spring run 8-9 and tributaries 10 (Buttermilk creek) and | 11-15 * Jennings pond 16 (Butternut creek) 1-3 4 (Enfield creek or Five- mile) 1-19 and tributaries. 5-17 and tributaries 18-24 25 (Newfield brook) and 1-5 and tributaries 6 7-10 and tributaries 11-13 26 27 1-2 28 (Robinsons Spring brook) . Tributaries and 29-30 31 (Stratton brook) Tributaries and 32-48 and tributaries Williams brook — 73 81 Taghanic creek 5 192 acres. . . . 2 miles Dry 1 mile 0.5 mile 0.4 mile (Posted) Small or dry . 1 mile Small or dry . 2.5 miles Small or dry . Dry or small 0.2 mile Dry or small 50,000 R. T.+ 180 B. T.+ None. 200 B. T.+ 100 B. T.+ 70 B. T.+ None. None. 300 S. T.+ None. 1,200 S.T.+ None. None. 300 B. T.+ None. None. Dry, small or warm . 28 acres Lm.B., Bg. S Mouth to falls, 2 miles Falls to 15, 2 miles 15 to source, dry. . Drv Co. 3 miles, lower Upper, dry Dry, small or warm. . Dry, small or warm . . Mouth to falls, 0.8 mile Falls t o Newfield dam, 1 mile Dam to source, 3.5 miles Dry, small or warm . 0.8 mile Dry, small or warm. 0.3 mile each Dry.. 1.5 miles Dry or small 1.5 miles Small or dry 1.3 miles Dry, warm or small . . Drv, small or warm. . Small 7 to 15, 7 miles 15 to source, Small. . . Dry 800 R. T. + ,800B. T.+ 700 B. T.+ None. None. 1,000 B. T.+ None. None. None. 1,200 R.T.+ 1,000 B. T.+ 1,000 S. T.+ None. 180 S. T.+ None. 275 S. T.+ None. 180 B. T.+ None. 180 B. T.+ None. 360 B. T.+ None. None. None. 700 B. T.+ None. None. 240 Conservation Department Appendix X — Continued Stream and tributary number Mileage available for stocking Stocking policy per mile Cayuga lake — (Cont'd) Tagbanic creek — (Cont'd) 6 (Reynoldsville creek) . . 3 (Allen brook) Tributaries and 4-15. 7-14 15 Tributaries and 16-19. . Seneca lake Sawmill creek 34-43 and tributaries. 44 1-3 4 (Texas Hollow brook) 1 2 3-4 5-7 11 45 — Excelsior Glen brook Catharine creek 1-4 and tributaries 5 (Catlin Mills creek) . . . 2 (Cranberry creek) 1 4-11 and tributaries. 6 (Havana Glen brook) 3 to Reynoldsville, 4 miles Reynoldsville to source, dry or small. 1 mile, lower Small, dry or warm. . Dry, small or warm . . 1.5 miles Small Tributaries and 7- tributaries and 9. Tributaries and 10-22 and tributaries Watkins Glen creek 46-75 and tributaries Big Stream creek and tributaries Mouth to falls, 0.3 mile Falls to source, small . . Dry or small Mouth to Burdett, precipitous Burdett to source, 5 miles Dry or small 3 miles Dry 0.5 mile Small Small 0.5 mile Small Dry 10 miles Dry or small Mouth to falls, 0.8 mile Odessa to 4, 2 miles. . 4 to source, small. . . Dry. 3 miles Small 0.5 mile Dry or small Below falls, 0.5 mile . Above falls, warm . . Dry or small Below falls, 0.5 mile . Above falls, small. . . Dry or small Small Dry, small or warm . Dry, small or warm . 700 B. T.+ None. 500 B. T.+ None. None. 75 B. T.+ None. 450 R. T.+ None. None. None. 700 B. T.+ None. 450 B. T.+ None. 120 B. T.+ None. None. 270 B. T.+ None. None. 1,000 R.T.+ None. 1,000 R. T.+ 120 B. T.+ None. None. 125 B. T.+ None. 180 B. T.+ None. 1,000 R.T.+ None. None. 180 R. None. None. None. None. None. T.+ Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 241 Appendix X — Continued Stream and tributary number Mileage available for stocking Stocking policy per mile Keuka lake 26-35 .... DrjT, small or warm. . None. Keuka inlet . Mouth to dam at 5, 2 miles .1 2,0n<> H ! 5 to State Hatchery, 1.5 miles. Hatchery to source. 0.5 mile 1 and tributaries Dry 2 1 mile, lower 235 R. T.+ Upper, small None. Drv None. 0.2*mile 200 R. T. Dry or small None. Drv or small None. 1,000 B.T.+ 300 B. T. None. Spring run 3-8 and tributaries 37-42 242 Conservation Department Appendix XI Stocking List to Accompany Map 7 Elmira quadrangle Stream and tributary number Mileage available for stocking Stocking policy per mile Catharine creek 3 miles Small, dry or warm . . 3 miles Drv .... 1,000 R. T.+, 1,000 B 23-26 27 (Chemung canal) T.+ None. 1,000 S.-T.+ 1 None. 2 1-2 0.5 mile, lower. . Small or dry 200 S. T.+ None. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 243 Appendix XII Vegetation of Cayuga and Seneca Lakes W. C. MUENSCHEE The plant life of a lake is limited to that part of the water which is penetrated by the sunlight. Aquatic vegetation consists of two general types of plants: (1). The attached plants consisting of the larger "pondweeds" which often form extensive weed beds. (2). The microscopic free-floating plants (phytoplankton) usually unobserved unless they are present in enormous numbers when they produce the so-called "water bloom." The attached plants occur in shallow lakes or in the shoal waters of deeper lakes often forming extensive weed beds. The most common kind of weed beds in Cayuga and Seneca lakes consist of large submerged plants that are rooted on the bottom, such as "pondweed, " Potamogetons sp. and eel-grass, Vallisneria sp. etc. Among these larger plants smaller plants are often so abundant that the weed bed consists of a very dense tangled mass of vege- tation which may or may not reach the surface of the water. Attached to the stems and leaves of these larger* plants are in- numerable smaller plants, algae and diatoms, many of which are seasonal. Sometimes they completely cover the larger plants. In Cayuga and Seneca lakes these weed beds are practically limited to the water which is between 5-15 feet in depth. Another type of weed bed common in Cayuga and Seneca lakes consists of stoneworts or "grass," species of Chara and Nitella, covering sometimes extensive areas of almost pure stands. In the shallow water these plants usually have numerous diatoms and small algae, or even larger filamentous algae, attached to them. The beds of Chara occur in water from a few feet deep to a depth of about 20 feet. Nitella was observed only rarely in water less than 10 feet deep but more commonly in water from 15 to 25 feet deep. In a few places, notably at the north end of Cayuga lake, at Canoga marshes, and to a less extent at the south end of Cayuga lake and Seneca lake cat-tail marshes occur in which the predom- inating species is Typha angustifolia, Along the outer margin of the cat-tail marshes other emersed plants such as rushes. Scirpus a cuius and 8. americanus, may extend over considerable areas of shallow water. The attached plants, and the smaller plants such as diatoms and algae growing among them, form one of the principal primary sources of food for fish and other animals living in a lake. Some of the larger plants may furnish food or shelter for certain fish or other animals that are eaten by fish. Some of the algae are eaten directly by fish and other animals. Most of the larger plants act as supports on which myriads of smaller plants, algae and diatoms, and also many smaller animals may grow to furnish food for other organisms. When the weeds die they decompose and add to the organic matter in the water or the ooze on the 244 Conservation Department bottom. Some of the products of this decomposition, at least to some extent, are used as a source of food by other organisms. Cayuga and Seneca lakes are both long narrow deep lakes with very steep sides except at a few points where streams enter. The areas of these lakes that are shallow enough for attached plants are therefore very limited except in the shoal water at or near their ends. The shallow area, and therefore the area covered by weed beds, is much greater in Cayuga lake than in Seneca lake. A list of the principal weed beds in Cayuga and Seneca lakes together with the approximate areas covered by them is given at the end of this chapter. A list of all the species of larger plants observed in the two lakes, indicating the predominating species, is also included. Because the time available for the study of the attached plants of Cayuga and Seneca lakes was limited, only very general statements can be made regarding the distribution, abundance and relative importance of the various species of plants. Much more intensive work is needed to determine the role played by the several species in contributing either directly or indirectly to the food supply of fish. Probably of greater importance than the larger weeds themselves are the algae that grow attached to them, among them, or on the rocks along the shores. It is generally assumed that each kind of "pondweed" produces a single crop. More information is desirable regarding the rate of growth and the conditions under which growth takes place before very accurate quantitative estimates can be made regarding the productivity of a given species. On the other hand it is known that several attached algae will produce a crop, disappear, and produce another crop. This may be repeated three or four times in one year. In some cases differ- ent species may be concerned. It is evident that it is not possible to estimate the amount of food contributed by a given species unless it is known how rapidly or under what conditions it con- tinues to grow or reproduce or how many crops are produced in a season or year. The significant fact is not the amount of plant material that is present, in a given area or lake, at a given time, but how much can be produced in one season or one year and what the most important conditions are affecting this production. To obtain such information it will be necessary to make an intensive study of each species and the conditions under which it thrives. The principal weed beds in Cayuga lake. — The largest weed beds in Cayuga lake occur near its north end. From Union Springs to the north end the bottom is mostly less than 25 feet deep. Probably about one-half of this area of approximately 10 square miles is covered with weed beds. In some places even where the water is less than 15 feet deep rather extensive barren areas occur. The most prolific beds of larger weeds occur from the railroad trestle at Cayuga village to the north end, and north of Cayuga Park and about Canoga marshes on the west shore. These beds consist largely of species of pondweeds, Potamogeton Richardsonii, Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 245 P. pectinatus, P. Bobbinsonii, P. compressus and P. amplifolius, eel-grass, Vallisneria americana, hornwort, Ceratophyllum demer- sum, Najas flexilis, Elodea canadensis, mud plantain, Heteran- thera dubia, water marigold, Bidens Beckii, and a number of less common species. Buppia maritima and Najas marina, two brackish water plants, were found only at the north end of Cayuga lake. Both were rather common at Cayuga Park and the latter was also found at Canoga marshes. From Canoga northward, weed beds were observed almost to the middle of the lake in several places. The vegetation in the deeper water sometimes consisted entirely of Chara or Nitella or both growing together. Potamogeton gramineus var. graminif alius was frequently found associated with Chara. The bottom at the south end of the lake is rather shallow and sandy near the shore, but somewhat muddy near the 15-25 foot depth which marks the limits of rooted aquatics. Except for some barren sandy places near the southeast corner and the deeper bottom near the middle of the lake, most of the bottom of the area between the south end of the lake and a point one-half mile to the north is covered by rather dense weed beds. The total area occupied by these weed beds is probably less than one square mile. The densest of these beds are located between the lighthouse and the west shore and off the east shore, extending for some distance in each direction from the Kemington Salt Works. The predominat- ing species in the southwest corner were Potamogeton pectinatus, P. Bichardsonii, P. crispus, Elodea canadensis, Najas flexilis, and in deeper water, Zannichellia palustris and Nitella were abundant. Along the east shore Potamogeton Bichardsonii and P. Friesii were the predominating species. Along the east shore small areas of weed beds occur in the little bays to the north and south of Myers point, in Aurora bay and to the north and south of Farley's point. At the first two places the predominating species were Potamogeton Bichardsonii and P. pectinatus and in deeper water also P. gramineus var. gramini- folius. At Farley's point the vegetation was very dense and con- sisted of representatives of most of the species found in Cayuga lake. Along the rest of the shore only scattered and very narrow weed beds occur. These beds are usually less than 100 feet in width and seldom extend for more than 100 yards from shore except on each side of the larger points. Weed beds in Seneca lake. — There are but two localities in Seneca lake where extensive weed beds occur. The largest and most productive weed beds are at the north end, especially in the northwest corner, covering a total area of probably less than one square mile. In the shallow water near the shore the vegetation was very dense and consisted of numerous species among which Potamogetons predominated. In deeper water Chara and Nitella were the predominating plants, usually alone or sometimes asso- ciated with Potamogeton gramineus var. graminif 'alius. The only 246 Conservation Department other weed beds of any extent occur between Dresden and Long point on the west shore of the lake. Here occurred several fairly dense beds of Potamogeton with minor species intermingled, but they are mostly near the shore and only in a few places extend more than 300 yards from shore. The total area of these beds is probably less than one-half square mile. Only a very few small weed beds were noted at the south end of Seneca lake. These occur near the inlet in the southeast corner. In Seneca lake, as in Cayuga lake, only occasional narrow scattered weed beds were found along the east and west shores. A rough estimate of the areas covered by weed beds would be about six square miles in Cayuga lake and about two square miles in Seneca lake. A List of the Larger Plants in Cayuga and Seneca Lakes1 C = observed in Cayuga lake. S = observed in Seneca lake. * = predominating species. Algae The following genera of the larger algae were represented by one or more species which were abundant in at least one or more localities in both lakes: * Chara, Chaetophora, * Cladophora, Drapernaldia, Hydrodictyon, * Mougeotia, * Nitella, Oedogonium, Oscillatoria, Phormidium, Rivularia, Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Vaucheria, Zygnema. Marsileaceae C Marsilea quadrifolia L. Water clover, Pepperwort. Equisetaceae C Equisetum limosum L. (Piper) Typhaceae C S Typha angustifolia L. Narrow-leaved Cat-tail. C S Typha angustifolia L. var. elongata (Dudley) Wiegand. Sparganiaceae C S Sparganium eurycarpum Engelm. Giant Bur-reed. C S Sparganium americanum Nutt. Bur-reed. Najadaceae C S Potamogeton natans L. Pondweeds C S Potamogeton amplifolius Tuckerm. C S Potamogeton americanus C. & S. var. novaeboracensis (Morong) Benn. C S *Potamogeton gramineus L. var. graminifolius Fries. C S Potamogeton angustifolius Birch & Presl. 1 Note: Specimens of nearly all of these plants are preserved in the herbarium of Cornell University. Biological Survey — Oswego Watershed 247 C S Potamogeton lucens L. C S *Potamogeton Richarclsonii (Benn.) Rydb. C S Potamogeton bupleuroides Fernald. C S Potamogeton crispus L. C Potamogeton epihydrus Raf. var. cayugensis (Wiegand) Benn. C S Potamogeton compressus L. C S *Potamogeton Friesii Rupr. C S Potamogeton pusillus L. C S Potamogeton vaginatus Turcz. C S Potamogeton filiformis Pers. var. borealis. C S ^Potamogeton pectinatus L. C Potamogeton Robbinsii Oakes. C Ruppia maritima L. var. longipes Hags. Sea- or Ditch-grass. C S *Zannichellia palustris L. var. major (Boen.) Koch. Horned Pondweed. C Najas marina L. Large Naiad. C S *Najas flexilis (Willd.) Rostk. & Schmidt. Naiad. Alismaceae CS Sagitt aria latifolia Willd. Arrow-head. C S Sagittaria heterophylla Pursh. Arrow-head. Hydro charitaceae C S *Elodea canadensis Michx. Water-weed. C S *Vallisneria americana Michx. Eel-grass. Cyperaceae C S Scirpus americanus Pers. Rush. C S Scirpus validus Vahl. Bulrush. C S Scirpus acutus Muhl. Bulrush. Araceae C S Peltandra virginica (L.) Kunth. Arrow Arum. Lemnaceae C S Spirodela polyrhiza (L.) Schleid. Duckweed. C S Lemna trisulca L. Duckweed. C S Lemna minor L. Duckweed. C Wolffia columbiana Karst. Pontederiaceae C S Pontederia cor data L. Pickerel weed. C S Heteranthera dubia (Jacq.) MacM. Mud plantain. Ceratophyllaceae C S *Ceratophyllum demersum L. Hornwort. Nymphaeaceae C S Nymphozanthus ad vena (Ait.) Fernald. Yellow water-lily. C Nymphaea odorata Ait. Sweet white water-lily. C S Nymphaea tuberosa Paine. White water-lily. C Nelumbo lutea (Willd.) Pers. Yellow nelumbo or lotus. 248 Conservation Department Ranunculaceae C S Ranunculus longirostris Godr. White water buttercup. C Rannunculus aquatilis L. var. capillaceus D. C. White water buttercup. Haloragidaceae C S *Myriophyllum exalbescens Fernald. Water milfoil. Lentibulariaceae C Utricularia vulgaris L. var. americana Gray. Great bladder- wort. ACANTHACEAE C Dianthera americana L. Water willow. COMPOSITAE C S Bidens Beckii Torr. Water marigold. Key map of Oswego watershed showing the principal is. Outlines in red indicate the boundaries of the U. S. G. S. quadrangles Map 1. Highmarket and Port Leyden quadrangles '! I 1 M.,f, :.. n.1,.1.--. i'.iu. v.i.., tui.i, i;.-n,m, Map I.. Iiiilli. II.iii. in. .1 Ml-|.,ir. W.ilkin-. Ill Hr>.ln. .....I 1I...I....I ,|u.iilr.iii|ilr ■ r \ V K ' v Map 7. — Elmira quadrangle 835tt 27 University of Connecticut Libraries