B I RD - LI F£

m

mm

FRANK -M: CHAPMAN

\°)00

Museum Qf ,y

1869
THE LIBRARY

Gift

$ jp Title I1C

BIRD-LIFE

Edition in Colors

PhMXB I. Page 156.

BARN SWALLOW.

CLIFF SWALLOW. TREE SWALLOW

LANK SWALLOW.

BIRD-LIFE

A GUIDE TO THE STUDY
OF OUR COMMON BIRDS

By FRANK M.lCHAPMAN

ASSISTANT CURATOR OF THE DEPARTMENT OF MAMMALOGY AND

ORNITHOLOGY IN THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY;

MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGISTS' UNION ; AUTHOR OF

HANDBOOK OF BIRDS OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA, ETC.

ILLUSTRATED BY

ERNEST SETON THOMPSON

AUTHOR OF ART ANATOMY OF ANIMALS,
THE BIRDS OF MANITOBA, ETC.

WITH SEVENTY-FIVE FULL-PAGE
PL A TES IN COLORS

NEW YORK
APPLETON AND COMPANY
1900

Copyright, 1897, 1899, 1900,
By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY.

TO

Dr. J. A. ALLEN

THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED

AS A TOKEN OF RESPECT AND AFFECTION

FROM ONE WHO

FOR NINE YEARS HAS WORKED AT HIS SIDE.

PREFACE TO THE EDITION IN COLORS.

Without question, the simplest and most certain way
in which to learn to know our birds is by examination
of the birds themselves. Not every one, however, has
access to an ornithological collection, and failing this, the
best substitute for the bird is a colored plate which will
accurately represent every shade and tint of its plumage.
The widespread demand for a work containing illustra-
tions of this nature is undoubted, but publishers have pre-
viously hesitated to expend the large sum necessary to
produce satisfactorily colored plates, or have employed
the cheap color processes with results far from successful.

The high praise which has been accorded the illustra-
tions in the uncolored edition of Bird-Life is an assur-
ance that bird lovers will therefore doubly welcome a
work in which our birds are truthfully portrayed, not
only in natural attitudes, but in natural colors as well.
Photographic bromide copies of the original drawings for
Bird-Life have been carefully colored by an expert col-
orist under the author's supervision, and are here repro-
duced by a lithographic process which insures absolute
accuracy.

F. M. C.
American Museum of Natural History,
New York city, October 1. 1897.

PKEFACE

How unusual it is to meet any one who can correctly
name a dozen of our birds ! One may live in the country
and still know only two or three of the one hundred and
fifty or more kinds of birds that may be found during
the year. Nevertheless, these gay, restless creatures,
both by voice and action, constantly invite our attention,
and they are far "too interesting and beautiful to be
ignored. No one to whom Nature appeals should be
without some knowledge of these, the most attractive of
her animate forms.

The scientific results to be derived from the study of
birds are fully realized by the naturalist. But there are
other results equally important. I would have every one
know of them : results that add to our pleasure in field
and wood, and give fresh interest to walks that before
were eventless ; that quicken both ear and eye, making
us hear and see where before we were deaf and blind.
Then, to our surprise, we shall discover that the forests
and pastures we have known all our lives are tenanted
by countless feathered inhabitants whose companionship
will prove a source of endless enjoyment.

I would enter a special plea for the study of birds in
the schools ; for the more general introduction of
ornithology in natural-history courses. Frogs and cray-
fish serve an excellent purpose, but we may not en-
counter either of them after leaving the laboratory ;
whereas birds not only offer excellent opportunities for
2 ix

x PREFACE.

study, but are always about us, and even a slight famil-
iarity with them will be of value long after school days
are over.

Popular -interest must precede the desire for purely
technical knowledge. The following pages are not ad-
dressed to past masters in ornithology, but to those who
desire a general knowledge of bird-life and some ac-
quaintance with our commoner birds. The opening
chapters of this book briefly define the bird, its place in
Nature and its relation to man, and outline the leading
facts in its life-history. The concluding chapters pre-
sent the portraits, names, and addresses of upward of one
hundred familiar birds of eastern North America, with
such information concerning their comings and goings
as will lead, I trust, to their being found at home.

After this introduction the student may be left on
the threshold, with the assurance that his entrance to the
innermost circles of bird-life depends entirely on his own
patience and enthusiasm.

Frank M. Chapman.

American Museum of Natural History,
New York city, January, 1897.

CONTENTS.

CHAP. PAGE

I. — The bird, its place in Nature and relation to man . 1
Place in Nature — Relation to man.

II.— The living bird 14

Factors of evolution — The wing, its form and uses —
The tail, its form and uses — The foot, its form and uses
— The bill, its form and uses.

III. — Colors of birds 35

Color and age — Color and season — The molt — Color and
food — Color and climate — Color and haunt and habit —
Color and sex.

IV. — The migration of birds 48

Extent of migration — Times of migration— Manner of
migration — Origin of migration.

V.— The voice of birds 62

Song — Call-notes.

VI. — The nesting season 64

Time of nesting— Mating— The nest— The eggs— The
young.

VII.— HOW TO IDENTIFY BIRDS 71

A bird's biography.

Field key to our common Land Birds . . . .75
xi

xii CONTENTS.

PAGE

TnE Water Birds 84

Diving Birds — Long-winged Swimmers — Tube-nosed Swim-
mers— Lamellirostral Swimmers — Herons, Storks, Ibises, etc.
— Cranes, Rails, etc. — Shore Birds.

TnE Land Birds 100

Gallinaceous Birds — Pigeons and Doves — Birds of Prey —
Cuckoos, Kingfishers, etc. — Woodpeckers — Goatsuckers,
Swifts, and Hummingbirds — Perching Birds.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Full-page Plates.

FACING
PAGE

I. — Barn, Cliff, Bank, and Tree Swallows Frontispiece

II.— Pied-billed Grebe 2

III.— Loon 6

IV.— Herring Gull; Petrels 10

V. — Wood Duck ; Pintails ; Mallards : Green-winged

Teal ; Blue-winged Teal ; Canada Geese . . 14
VI. — Little Green Heron; Black-crowned Night Heron;

Great Blue neron 18

VII. — American Bittern ; Sora 22

VIII.— American Coot; Clapper Rail 26

IX.— Wilson's Snipe 30

X. — Common Tern; Semipalmated Sandpiper; Semipnl-

mated Plover 34

XI. — Spotted Sandpiper ; Killdeer 38

XII.— Ruffed Grouse 42

XIII. — Mourning Dove 46

XIV.— Red-shouldered Hawk 50

XV.— Marsh Hawk 52

XVI. — Sparrow Hawk 54

XVII.— Sharp-shinned Hawk 56

XVIII. — American Osprey 58

XIX.— Short-eared Owl 60

XX.— Screech Owl 62

XX L— Barred Owl 64

XXII.— Yellow-billed Cuckoo 66

XXIII.— Belted Kingfisher 68

XXIV.— Downy Woodpecker 70

XXV.— K.Ml-headed Woodpecker 84

XXVI.— Flicker . 86

XXVII.— Nighthawk; Whip-poor-will 88

xiii

xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATION'S.

FACING

PLATE PAGE

XXVIII.— Chimney Swift 90

XXIX.— Ruby-throated Hummingbird 92

XXX.— Kingbird 94

XXXI.— Crested Flycatcher 96

XXXII.— Pha-be * 98

XXX1IL— Wood Pewee 100

XXXIV.— Horned Lark 108

XXXV.— Baltimore Oriole 104

XXXVI.— Orchard Oriole 106

XXXVII.— Purple Grackle 108

XXXVIII.— Bobolink 110

XXXIX.— Meadowlark 112

XL. — Cowbird 114

XLL— Song Sparrow 116

XLII. — Swamp Sparrow 118

XLIII.— Field Sparrow 120

XLIV. — Vesper Sparrow 122

XLV. — Chipping Sparrow 124

XLVI. — White-throated Sparrow 126

XLVII.— Fox Sparrow 138

XLVIIL— Juneo 130

XLIX.— Tree Sparrow 132

L.— Redpoll; Snowfiake 134

LI. — American Crossbill; Pine Grosbeak . . . . 136

LIL— American Goldfinch 138

LIII.— Purple Finch 140

LIV.— Rose-breasted Grosbeak 142

LV.— Towhee 144

LVI.— Dickcissel 146

LVIL— Cedar Waxwing 148

LVIII.— Northern Shrike 150

LIX. — Red-eyed Vireo : Yellow-throated Vireo . . . 152

LX.— Black and White Warbler 154

LXI.— Myrtle Warbler; Black-throated Green Warbler . 156

LXII.— Redstart 158

LXIII.— Oven-bird 160

LXIV.— Maryland Yellow-throat 162

LXV.— Yellow-breasted Chat 164

LXVL— Mockingbird 166

LXVII.— Brown Thrasher 168

LXVIIL— House Wren 170

LXIX.— Long-billed Marsh Wren 172

LXX. — Brown Creeper ; Chickadee 174

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

LXXI.— Red-breasted Nuthatch; White-breasted Nuthatch 176

LXXII. — Golden-crowned Kinglet ; Ruby-crowned Kinglet . 178

LXXIII.— Veery 180

LXXI V.— Wood Thrush 182

LXXV.— Hermit Thrush 184

Figures in the Text.

FIG. PAGE

1. Restoration of the Archasopteryx, a toothed, reptilelike bird

of the Jurassic period 3

2. End of spearlike tongue of I'ileated Woodpecker . . .14

3. Tip of tail of (a) Downy Woodpecker, (b) Brown Creeper, to

show the pointed shape in tails of creeping birds of different
families 16

4. Young Hoatzin, showing use of hooked fingers in climbing . 17

5. Short, rounded wing and large foot of Little Black Rail, a ter-

restrial bird 18

6. Long, pointed wing and small foot of Tree Swallow, an aerial

bird 18

7. Frigate-bird 19

8. Great Auk, showing relatively small wing . . . .21
'J. Wing of Woodcock, showing three outer attenuate feathers . 24

10. Jacana, showing spurred wing and elongated toes . . .24

11. Tail-feathers of Motmot {Momotus subrufescens), showing newly

grown feathers and results of self-inflicted mutilation . 26

12. Lobed foot of Coot (Fulica americana), a swimming bird of

the Rail family 27

13. Lobed foot of a Phalarope {Crymophilus fulicarius), a swim-

ming bird of the Snipe family 27

14. Flamingo, showing relative length of legs and neek in a wad-

ing bird 28

15. Foot of Fish Hawk, showing large claws and spicules on under

surface of toes 29

16. Naked toes of Ruffed Grouse in summer ; fringed toes of Ruffed

Grouse in winter 29

17. Decurved bill of Sickle-bill Hummingbird . . . .31

18. Serrate bill of Menranser, a fish-eating bird . . . .32

19. Probelike bill of Woodcock, showing extent to which upper

mandible can be moved 32

20. Recurved bill of Avocet 32

21. Bill of Spoonbill Sandpiper 33

xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIG. PAGE

22. Curved bill of female, straight bill of male Iluia-bird . . 33

23. Feathers from back of Snowflake, showing seasonal changes in

form and color due to wearing off of tips . . . .38

24. Eggs of (a) Spotted Sandpiper and (b) Catbird, to show differ-

ence in size of eggs of praecocial and altricial birds of same
size 68

25. Topography of a bird . . . . . . . . .71

BIRD-LIFE

CHAPTER I.

THE BIRD: ITS PLACE IN NATURE AND
RELATION TO MAN.

The Bird's Place in Nature.- — About thirteen
thousand species of birds are known to science. The
structure of many of these has been carefully studied,
and all have been classified, at least provisionally.
Taken as a whole, the class Aves, in which all birds are
placed, is more clearly defined than any other group of
the higher animals. That is, the most unlike birds are
more closely allied than are the extremes among mam-
mals, fishes, or reptiles, and all living birds possess the
distinctive characters of their class.

When compared with other animals, birds are found
to occnpy second place in the scale of life. They stand
between mammals and reptiles, and are more closely re-
lated to the latter than to the former. In fact, certain
extinct birds so clearly connect living birds with rep-
tiles, that these two classes are sometimes placed in one
group — the Sauropsida.

* On the structure of birds read Coues's Key to North American
Birds, Part II (Estes & Lauriat): Headier, The Structure and Life of
Bird- : Newton's Dictionary of Birds — articles, Anatomy of Birds and
Birds : Martin and Moale's Handbook of Vertebrate Dissection.
Part II. How to Dissect a Bird; Shufeldt's Myology of the Raven
(Macmillan Co.).

3 1

2 CHARACTERS OF BIRDS.

The characters that distinguish birds from mammals
on the one hand, and from reptiles on the other, are more
apparent than real. Thus flight, the most striking of a
bird's gifts, is shared by bats among mammals. Egg-lay-
ing is the habit of most reptiles and of three mammals
(the Australian duckbill and the echidnas). But incuba-
tion by one or both of the parents is peculiar to birds,
though the python is said to coil on its eggs.

Birds breathe more rapidly than either mammals or
reptiles, and their pneumaticity, or power of inflating
numerous air-sacs and even certain bones, is unique.

The temperature of birds ranges from 100° to 112°,
while in mammals it reaches 98° to 100°, and in the com-
paratively cold-blooded reptiles it averages only 40°.

The skull in mammals articulates with the last verte-
bra (atlas) by two condyles or balls ; in birds and reptiles
by only one. In mammals and birds the heart has four
chambers ; in reptiles it has but three.

Mammals and reptiles both have teeth, a character
possessed by no existing bird ; but fossil birds appar-
ently prove that early in the development of the class
all birds had teeth.

Thus we might continue the comparison, finding that
birds have no universal peculiarities of structure which
are not present in some degree in either mammals or
reptiles, until we come to their external covering. The
reptile is scaled, and so is the fish ; the mammal is haired,
and so are some insects ; but birds alone possess feathers.
They are worn by every bird — a fit clothing for a body
which is a marvelous combination of beauty, lightness,
and strength.

There is good evidence for the belief that birds have
descended from reptilian ancestors. This evidence con-
sists of the remains of fossil birds, some of which show
marked reptilian characters and, as just said, are toothed.

Platk II. Page 84.

PIED-BILLED GREBE.

Length, 13-50 inches. Summer plumage, upper parts blackish brown : throat
and spot on bill black; fore neck brownish, rest of under parts grayish
white. Winter plumage , similar, but without black on throat or bill.

ANCESTORS OF BIRDS.

It is unnecessary to discuss here the relationships of the
birdlike reptiles, but, as the most convincing argument
in support of the theory of the reptilian descent of birds,
I present a restoration of the Archa?optervx, the earliest
known progenitor of the class Aves. This restoration is

1. — Restorationof the Archfooptcryx, a toothed, reptilelike bird of the
Jurassic period. ( About "/s natural size.)

based on an examination of previous restorations in con-
nection with a study of the excellent plates which have
been published of the fossils themselves.* Two speci-
mens have been discovered ; one being now in the British
Museum, the other in the Berlin Museum. They were
both found in the lithographic slates of Solenhofen, in
Bavaria, a formation of the Jurassic period, and, together,
furnish the more important details of the structure of this
reptilelike bird.

This restoration, therefore, while doubtless inaccurate

* For recent papers on the Archteopteryx see Natural Science
(Macmillan Co.), vols, v-viii.

4 DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS.

in minor points, is still near enough to the truth to give
a correct idea of this extraordinary bird's appearance.

The Archeeopteryx was about the size of a Crow. Its
long, feathered tail is supposed to have acted as an aero-
plane, assisting in the support of the bird while it was
in the air, but its power of flight was doubtless limited.
It was arboreal and probably never descended to the
earth, but climbed about the branches of trees, using its
large, hooked fingers in passing from limb to limb.

The wanderings of this almost quadrupedal creature
must necessarily have been limited, but its winged de-
scendants of to-day are more generally distributed than
are any other animals.* They roam the earth from pole
to pole ; they are equally at home on a wave-washed
coral reef or in an arid desert, amid arctic snows or in
the shades of a tropical forest. This is due not alone to
their powers of flight but to their adaptability to vary-
ing conditions of life. Although, as I have said, birds
are more closely related among themselves than are the
members of either of the other higher groups of animals,
and all birds agree in possessing the more important
distinguishing characters of their class, yet they show a
wide range of variation in structure.

This, in most instances, is closely related to habits,

* On the distribution of animals read Allen, The Geographical
Distribution of North American Mammals, Bulletin of the American
Museum of Natural History, New York city, iv, 1892, pp. 199-244;
four maps. Allen, The Geographical Origin and Distribution of North
American Birds considered in Relation to Faunal Areas of North
America, The Auk (New York city), x, 1893, pp. 97-150 ; two maps.
Merriam, The Geographic Distribution of Life in North America, with
Special Reference to Mammalia, Proceedings of the Biological Society
of Washington, vii, 1892, pp. 1-64 ; one map. Merriam, Laws of Tem-
perature Control of the Geographic Distribution of Terrestrial Ani-
mals and Plants, National Geographic Magazine (Washington), vi,
1894, pp. 229-238 ; three maps.

RELATION OP BIRDS TO MAN. 5

which in birds are doubtless more varied than in any
of the other higher animals. Some birds, like Penguins,
are so aquatic that they are practically helpless on land.
Their wings are too small to support them in the air, but
they fly under water with great rapidity, and might be
termed feathered porpoises. Others, like the Ostrich,
are terrestrial, and can neither fly nor swim. Others
still, like the Frigate Birds, are aerial. Their small
feet are of use only in perching, and their home is in
the air.

If now we should compare specimens of Penguins,
Ostriches, and Frigate-birds with each other, and with
such widely different forms as Hummingbirds, Wood-
peckers, Parrots, and others, we would realize still more
clearly the remarkable amount of variation shown by
birds. This great difference in form is accompanied by a
corresponding variation in habit, making possible, as
before remarked, the wide distribution of birds, which,
together with their size and abundance, renders them of
incalculable importance to man. Their economic value,
however, may be more properly spoken of under

The Relation of Birds to Man. — The relation of birds
to man is threefold — the scientific, the economic, and the
aesthetic. No animals form more profitable subjects for
the scientist than birds. The embryologist, the morphol-
ogist, and the systematist, the philosophic naturalist and
the psychologist, all may find in them exhaustless mate-
rial for study. It is not my purpose, however, to speak
here of the science of ornithology. Let us learn some-
thing of the bird in its haunts before taking it to the
laboratory. The living bird can not fail to attract us ;
the dead bird — voiceless, motionless — we will leave for
future dissection.

The economic value of birds to man lies in the service
they render in preventing the undue increase of insects,

6 ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS.

in devouring small rodents, in destroying the seeds of
harmful plants, and in acting as scavengers.

Leading entomologists estimate that insects cause an
annual loss of at least two hundred million dollars to the
agricultural interests of the United States. The state-
ment seems incredible, but is based upon reliable sta-
tistics. This, of course, does not include the damage
done to ornamental shrubbery, shade and forest trees.
But if insects are the natural enemies of vegetation, birds
are the natural enemies of insects. Consider for a mo-
ment what the birds are doing for us any summer day,
when insects are so abundant that the hum of their united
voices becomes an almost inherent part of the atmosphere.

In the air Swallows and Swifts are coursing rapidly
to and fro, ever in pursuit of the insects which constitute
their sole food. When they retire, the Nighthawks and
Whip-poor-wills will take up the chase, catching moths
and other nocturnal insects which would escape day-flying
birds. The Flycatchers lie in wait, darting from ambush
at passing prey, and with a suggestive click of the bill
returning to their post. The "Warblers, light, active crea-
tures, flutter about the terminal foliage, and with almost
the skill of a Hummingbird pick insects from leaf or
blossom. The Yireos patiently explore the under sides of
leaves and odd nooks and corners to see that no skulker
escapes. The Woodpeckers, Nuthatches, and Creepers
attend to the tree trunks and limbs, examining carefully
each inch of bark for insects' eggs and larvas, or exca-
vating for the ants and borers they hear at work within.
On the ground the hunt is continued by the Thrushes,
Sparrows, and other birds, who feed upon the innumer-
able forms of terrestrial insects. Few places in which
insects exist are neglected ; even some species which pass
their earlier stages or entire lives in the water are preyed
upon by aquatic birds.

Plate ILL Page 85.

LOON.

Length, 32-00 inches. Summer plumage, upper parts and fore neck black

and white; breasl and belly white. Winter plumage, upper parts dark

grayish; under parts white.

ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS. 7

Birds digest their food so rapidly, that it is difficult to
estimate from the contents of a bird's stomach at a given
time how much it eats during the day. The stomach of a
Yellow-billed Cuckoo, shot at six o'clock in the morning,
contained the partially digested remains of forty-three
tent caterpillars, but how many it would have eaten be-
fore night no one can say.

Mr. E. H. Forbush, Ornithologist of the Board of
Agriculture of Massachusetts, states that the stomachs
of four Chickadees contained one thousand and twenty-
eight eggs of the cankerworm. The stomachs of four
other birds of the same species contained about six
hundred eggs and one hundred and five female moths
of the cankerworm. The average number of eggs
found in twenty of these moths was one hundred and
eighty-five ; and as it is estimated that a Chickadee may
eat thirty female cankerworm moths per day during
the twenty -five days which these moths crawl up trees,
it follows that in this period each Chickadee would de-
stroy one hundred and thirty-eight thousand seven hun-
dred and fifty eggs of this noxious insect.

Professor Forbes, Director of the Illinois State Lab-
oratory of Natural History, found one hundred and
seventy-five larvae of Bibio — a fly which in the larval
stage feeds on the roots of grass — in the stomach of a
single Robin, and the intestine contained probably as
many more.

Many additional cases could be cited, showing the
intimate relation of birds to insect-life, and emphasizing
the necessity of protecting and encouraging these little-
appreciated allies of the agriculturist.

The service rendered man by birds in killing the
small rodents so destructive to crops is performed by
Hawks and Owls — birds the uninformed farmer con-
siders his enemies. The truth is that, with two excep-

8 ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS.

tions, the Sharp-shinned and Cooper's Hawk, all our com-
moner Hawks and Owls are beneficial. In his exhaust-
ive study of the foods of these birds Dr. A. K. Fisher,
Assistant Ornithologist of the United States Department
of Agriculture, has found that ninety per cent of the
food of the Red-shouldered Hawk, commonly called
" Chicken Hawk " or " Hen Hawk," consists of injurious
mammals and insects, while two hundred castings of the
Barn Owl contained the skulls of four hundred and fifty-
four small mammals, no less than two hundred and twenty-
five of these being skulls of the destructive field or meadow
mouse.

Still, these birds are not only not protected, but in
some States a price is actually set upon their heads !
Dr. C. Hart Merriam, Ornithologist and Mammalogist
of the United States Department of Agriculture, has
estimated that in offering a bounty on Hawks and Owls,
which resulted in the killing of over one hundred thou-
sand of these birds, the State of Pennsylvania sustained a
loss of nearly four million dollars in one year and a half !

As destroyers of the seeds of harmful plants, the good
done by birds can not be overestimated. From late fall
to early spring, seeds form the only food of many birds,
and every keeper of cage-birds can realize how many a
bird may eat in a day. Thus, while the Chickadees, Nut-
hatches, Woodpeckers, and some other winter birds are
ridding the trees of myriads of insects' eggs and larva?,
the granivorous birds are reaping a crop of seeds which,
if left to germinate, would cause a heavy loss to our agri-
cultural interests.

As scavengers we understand that certain birds are of
value to us, and therefore we protect them. Thus the
Vultures or Buzzards of the South are protected both by
law and public sentiment, and as a result they are not
only exceedingly abundant, but remarkably tame. But

ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS. 9

we do not realize that Gulls and some other water birds
are also beneficial as scavengers in eating refuse which,
if left floating on the water, would often be cast ashore
to decay. Dr. George F. Gaumer, of Yucatan, tells me
that the killing of immense numbers of Herons and other
littoral birds in Yucatan has been followed by an increase
in human mortality among the inhabitants of the coast,
which he is assured is a direct result of the destruction of
birds that formerly assisted in keeping the beaches and
bayous free from decaying animal matter.

Lack of space forbids an adequate treatment of this
subject, but reference to the works and papers mentioned
below * will support the statement that, if we were de-
prived of the services of birds, the earth would soon
become uninhabitable.

Nevertheless, the feathered protectors of our farms
and gardens, plains and forests, require so little encour-
agement from us — indeed, ask only tolerance — that we
accept their services much as we do the air we breathe.
"VVe may be in debt to them past reckoning, and still be
unaware of their existence.

But to appreciate the beauty of form and plumage of

* Xotes on the Nature of the Food of the Birds of Nebraska, by
S. Aughey ; First Annual Report of the United States Entomological
Commission for the Year 1877, Appendix ii, pp. 13-62. The Food of
Birds, by S. A. Forbes; Bulletin No. 3, Illinois State Laboratory of
Natural History, 1880, pp. 80-148. The Regulative Action of Birds
upon Insect Oscillations, by S. A. Forbes, ibid., Bulletin No. 6, 1883,
pp. :;-32. Economic Relations of Wisconsin Birds, by F. H. King:
nsin Geological Survey, vol. i, 1882, pp. 441-610. Report on the
Birds of Pennsylvania, with Special Reference to the Food Habits,
based on over Four Thousand Stomach Examinations, by B. H. War-
ren : Hamsburg, EL K. Meyers, State Printer, large 8vo, pp. 434, plates
100. The English Sparrow in North America, especially in its Rela-
tion to Agriculture, prepared under the Direction of ('. Hnri Merriam,
by Walter B. Barrows; Bulletin No. 1. Division of Economic Orni-
thology and Mammalogy of the United States Department of Agricul-
4

10 iESTIIETIC RELATIONS OF BIRDS.

birds, their grace of motion and musical powers, we must
know them. Then, too, we will be attracted by their
high mental development, or what I have elsewhere
spoken of as " their human attributes. Man exhibits
hardly a trait which he will not find reflected in the life
of a bird. Love, hate ; courage, fear ; anger, pleasure ;
vanity, modesty ; virtue, vice ; constancy, fickleness ; gen-
erosity, selfishness; wit, curiosity, memory, reason — we
may find them all exhibited in the lives of birds. Birds
have thus become symbolic of certain human character-
istics, and the more common species are so interwoven in
our art and literature that by name at least they are
known to all of us."

The sight of a bird or the sound of its voice is at all
times an event of such significance to me, a source of
such unfailing pleasure, that when I go afield with those
to whom birds are strangers, I am deeply impressed by
the comparative barrenness of their world, for they live
in ignorance of the great store of enjoyment which might
be theirs for the asking.

I count each day memorable that brought me a new
friend among the birds. It was an event to be recorded
in detail. A creature which, up to that moment, existed

ture, 1889. The Hawks and Owls of the United States in their Rela-
tion to Agriculture, prepared under the Direction of C. Hart Mer-
riam, by A. K. Fisher; Bulletin No. 3, ibid., 1893. The Common
Crow of the United States, by Walter B. Barrows and E. A. Schwarz ;
Bulletin No. 6, ibid., 1895. Preliminary Report on the Food of
Woodpeckers, by F. E. L. Beal ; Bulletin No. 7, ibid., 1895. (See also
other papers on the food of birds in the Annual Report and Year-
book of the United States Department of Agriculture.) Birds as
Protectors of Orchards, by E. H. Forbush ; Bulletin No. 3, Massachu-
setts State Board of Agriculture, 1895, pp. 20-32. The Crow in Mas-
sachusetts, by E. H. Forbush; Bulletin No. 4, ibid., 1896. How
Birds affect the Farm and Garden, by Florence A. Merriam ; re-
printed from " Forest and Stream," 1896, 16mo, pp. 31. Price, 5
cents.

Plate IV. Pages 86, 88.

HERRING GULL.

Length, 24-00 inches. Adult, back and wings pearl-gray; end of primaries

marked with black; rest of plumage white. Young, dark grayish, primaries
and tail brownish black.

PETRELS.
Length, 7-50 inches. Black, upper tail-coverts white.

ESTHETIC RELATIONS OF BIRDS. 1]

for me only as a name, now became an inhabitant of my
woods, a part of my life. With what a new interest I
got down my books again, eagerly reading every item
concerning this new friend ; its travels, habits, and notes ;
comparing the observations of others with what were
now my own !

The study of birds is not restricted to any special sea-
son. Some species are always with us. Long after the
leaves have fallen and the fields are bare and brown,
when insect voices are hushed, and even some mammals
are sleeping their winter sleep, the cheery Juncos flit
about our doorstep, the White-throats twitter cozily from
the evergreens, Tree Sparrows chatter gayly over their
breakfast of seeds, and Crows are calling from the woods.
Birds are the only living creatures to be seen ; what a
sense of companionship their presence gives ; how deso-
late the earth would seem without them !

The ease with which we may become familiar with
these feathered neighbors of ours robs ignorance of all
excuses. Once aware of their existence, and we shall see
a bird in every bush and find the heavens their pathway.
One moment we may admire their beauty of plumage,
the next marvel at the ease and grace with which they
dash by us or circle high overhead.

But birds will appeal to us most strongly through
their songs. When your ears are attuned to the music
of birds, your world will be transformed. Birds' songs
are the most eloquent of Nature's voices : the gay carol of
the Grosbeak in the morning, the dreamy, midday call
of the Pewee, the vesper hymn of the Thrush, the clang-
ing of Geese in the springtime, the farewell of the Blue-
bird in the fall — how clearly each one expresses the senti-
ment of the hour or season !

Having learned a bird's language, you experience an
increased feeling of comradeship with it. You may even

12 AESTHETIC RELATIONS OF BIRDS.

share its emotions as you learn the significance of its
notes. No one can listen to the song of the Mockingbird
without being in some way affected ; but in how many
hearts does the tink of the night-flying Bobolink find a
response ? I never hear it without wishing the brave
little traveler Godspeed on his long journey.

As time passes you will find that the songs of birds
bring a constantly increasing pleasure. This is the result
of association. The places and people that make our
world are ever changing ; the present slips from us with
growing rapidity, but the birds are ever with us.

The Robin singing so cheerily outside my window
sings not for himself alone, but for hundreds of Kobins I
have known at other times and places. His song recalls
a March evening, warm with the promise of spring ; May
mornings, when all the world seemed to ring with the
voices of birds ; June days, when cherries were ripening ;
the winter sunlit forests of Florida, and even the snow-
capped summit of glorious Popocatepetl. And so it is
with other birds. We may, it is true, have known them
for years, but they have not changed, and their familiar
notes and appearance encourage the pleasant self-delusion
that we too are the same.

The slender saplings of earlier years now give wide-
spreading shade, the scrubby pasture lot has become a
dense woodland. Boyhood's friends are boys no longer,
and, worst of all, there has appeared another generation
of boys whose presence is discouraging proof that for us
youth has past. Then some May morning we hear the
Wood Thrush sing. Has he, too, changed ? Not one
note, and as his silvery voice rings through the -woods
we are young again. No fountain of youth could be
more potent. A hundred incidents of the long ago be-
come as real as those of yesterday. And here we have
the secret of youth in age which every venerable natural-

.ESTHETIC RELATIONS OF BIRDS. 13

ist I have ever met has convincingly illustrated. I could
name nearly a dozen, living and dead, whom it has been
my valued privilege to know. All had passed the allotted
threescore ami ten, and some "were over fourscore. The
friends and associates of their earlier days had passed
away, and one might imagine that they had no interest
in life and were simply waiting for the end.

But these veterans were old in years only. Their
hearts were young. The earth was fair; plants still
bloomed, and birds sang for them. There was no idle
waiting here ; the days were all too short. With what
boyish ardor they told of some recent discovery ; what
inspiration there was in their enthusiasm !

So I say to you, if you would reap the purest pleas-
ures of youth, manhood, and old age, go to the birds and
through them be brought within the ennobling influences
of Nature.

CHAPTER II.

THE LIVING BIRD.

Factors of Evolution. — If while in the fields we ob-
serve birds with an appreciative eye, we shall soon be
impressed with the great diversity shown in their struc-
ture and habits. The Fish Hawk plunges from the air
into the water and grasps its prey with merciless talons.
The Hummingbird daintily probes a flower. The Wood-
pecker climbs an upright trunk, props itself with its
stiff, pointed tail-feathers, while with its chisel-shaped
bill it excavates a grub and then impales it with its
spearlike tongue. These birds tell us a wonderful story

Fig. 2.— End of spearlike tongue of Pileated Woodpecker. (Much enlarged.)

of adaptation to the conditions of life, and, knowing that
they have descended from a common ancestor, we ask,
" Why do they now differ so widely from one another ? "
Biologists the world over are trying to satisfactorily
answer this question, and it is impossible for me to
even mention here all the theories which they have
advanced. However, some knowledge of the most im-
portant ones is essential if you would study the relation
between the bird and its haunts and habits. The Dar-
win-Wallace theory of Natural Selection, in more or less
14

Plate V.

1 WOOD DUCK.

2 PINTAIL.

3 MALLARD.

4 5 Page

4 GREEN-WINGED TEAL.

5 BLUE-WINGED TEAL.

6 CANADA GEESE.

EVOLUTION OF BIRDS. 15

modified forms, is accepted by most naturalists. As
originally presented, it assumed that the continued exist-
ence of any animal depended upon its adaptation to its
manner of life. Among a large number of individuals
there is much variation in size, form, and color. Some
of these variations might prove favorable, others unfa-
vorable. Those which were favorable would give to the
individual possessing them an advantage over its fellows,
and, by what is termed Natural Selection, it would be
preserved and its favorable characters transmitted to its
descendants. But the less fortunate individuals, which
lacked the favorable variation, would be handicapped in
the race for life and be less likely to survive.

Without necessarily opposing this theory, the follow-
ers of Darwin's predecessor, Lamarck, attach more im-
portance to the direct action of environment on the ani-
mal— that is, the influence of climate, food, and habit.
The effect of the first two I will speak of in treating of
color ; the last we may use to illustrate the difference in
these two theories by asking the question, " Is habit due
to structure, or is structure the result of habit ? " Has
Nature, acting through natural selection, preserved those
variations which would best fit a bird to occupy its
place in the world, and are its habits the outcome of
the characters thus acquired, or have the changes which
during the ages have occurred in a bird's home, forcing
it to alter its habits, been followed by some consequent
change in structure, the result of use or of disuse ? For
my part, I answer " Yes " to both questions, and turn to
our stiff-tailed, spear-tongued Woodpecker to explain
my reply. I can readily understand how the shape of
these tail-feathers is the result of habit, for the same or
similar structure exists among many birds having no
close relationship to one another, but all of which agree
in their peculiar use of the tail as a prop ; the Creep-

IQ EVOLUTION OF BIRDS.

ers, "Woodhewers, and Swifts, even some Finches and
the Bobolink, that use their tail to support them when
perched on swaying reeds, have the feathers more or
less pointed and stiffened. Furthermore, this is just the
result we should expect from a habit of this kind. But

Fig. 3.— Tip of tail of (a) Downy Woodpecker and of (b) Brown Creeper, to
show the pointed shape in tails of creeping birds of different families.
(Natural size.)

I do not understand how the Woodpecker's spear-tipped
tongue could have resulted from the habit of impaling
grubs, and in this case I should be inclined to regard
structure as due to a natural selection which has pre-
served favorable variations in the form of this organ.

I have not space to discuss this subject more fully,
but trust that enough has been said to so convince you
of the significance of habit, that when you see a bird in
the bush it will not seem a mere automaton, but in each
movement will give you evidence of a nice adjustment
to its surroundings. Remember, too, that evolution is a
thing of the present as well as of the past. "We may not
be able to read the earlier pages in the history of a species,
but the record of to-day is open to us if we can learn to
interpret it.

This may be made clearer, and the importance of a
study of habit be emphasized, if I briefly outline the rela-
tion between the wings, tail, feet, and bill of birds and
the manner in which they are used. We are in the field,
not in the dissecting room ; our instrument is a field glass,
not a scalpel, and in learning the functions of these four

FORM AND HABIT: THE WING.

organs we shall direct our attention to their external form
rather than their internal structure.

The Wing. — Birds' wings are primarily organs of
locomotion, but they are also used as weapons, as musical
instruments, in expressing emotion, and they are some^

Fig. 4.

-Young Iloatzin, showing use of hooked Angers in climbing. (After
Lucas. )

times the seat of sexual adornment. As an organ of loco-
motion the wing's most primitve use is doubtless for
climbing. G-allinules, for instance, have a small spur on
the wrist or "bend of the wing," and the young birds
use it to assist their progress among the reeds. A more
c-triking instance of this nature is shown by that singular
South American bird, the Iloatzin (Opistihocom/ua oris-

L8

FORM AND HABIT: TUE WING.

taiu8). The young of this bird have well-developed claws
on the thumb and first finger, and long before they can
fly they use them as aids in clambering about the bushes,
very much as we may imagine the Archreopteryx did.
In the adult these claws are wanting.

Some eminently aquatic birds, as Grebes and Pen-
guins, when on land, may use their wings as fore legs in
scrambling awkwardly along ; while some flightless birds,
for example, the Ostrich, spread their wings when run-
ning.

But let us consider the wing in its true office, that of
an organ of flight, showing its range of variation, and

finally its degradation into
a flightless organ. Among
flying birds the spread
wings measure in extent

Fig. 5.-Short,roundedTin. and large from about three inches in

foot of Little Black Rail, a tems- the smallest Hummingbird

trial bird. (s/6 natural size.) »

to twelve or fourteen feet
in the Wandering Albatross. The relation between
shape of wing and style of flight is so close that if you
show an ornithologist a bird's wing he can generally
tell you the character of its owner's flight. The ex-
tremes are shown by the short-winged ground birds,

Fig. 6.— Long, pointed wins and small foot of Tree Swallow, an aerial bird.
1 3/5 natural size.)

such as Rail, Quail, Grouse, certain Sparrows, etc., and
long-winged birds, like the Swallows and Albatrosses.
There is here a close and, for the ground-inhabiting

Plate VI.

LITTLE GREEN HERON
(Length, ij-oo inches.)

Page
BLACK-CROWNED NIGHT HERON.
(Young and Adult.)
(Length, 24-00 inches.)
GREAT BLUE HERON.
(Length, 43-00 inches.)

FORM AND HABIT: THE WING. 19

birds, important relation between form and habit.
Many terrestrial species rely on their dull, protective
covering to escape observation, taking wing only when
danger is so near that it is necessary for them to get
under way at once. Consequently, Quail, Partridges,
and Grouse, much to the amateur sportsman's discom-
fiture, spring from the ground as though thrown from
a catapult, and reach their highest speed within a few
yards of the starting point, while the Albatross is obliged
to face the wind and run some distance over the ground
or water before slowly lifting itself into the air. There,
however, it can remain for hours or even days without
once alighting.

The Frigate Bird, or Man-o'-TVar Bird, has a body
scarcely larger than that of a chicken, but its tail is one
foot and a half in length, and its wings measure seven to

Fig. 7.— Frigate Bird. (Expanse of wings, 7 to 8 feet.)

eight feet in extent. Having this enormous spread of
sail, its flight is more easy and graceful than that of any
living bird. I have seen hundreds of these birds floating
in the air, facing the wind, without apparent change of
position or the movement of a pinion, for long intervals
of time.

From this extreme development of the wing as a
flight-organ, let us turn to those birds who have not
the power of flight. The Ostrich, Rhea, Emu, and
Cassowary are familar representatives of this group. It
is generally believed that these birds have lost the power

20 FORM AND HABIT: THE WING.

of flight, and that as their wings, through disuse, became
functionless, their running powers correspondingly in-
creased. This, however, is theory, but there are birds
which have become flightless through some apparently
known cause. They may be found among such widely
separated families as Grebes, Auks, Ducks, Rails, Galli-
nules, Pigeons, and Parrots.

One of the characteristic water birds of our North
Atlantic coasts is the Razor-billed Auk. It is a strictly
aquatic species, nearly helpless on land, which, as a rule,
it visits only when nesting. Its egg is laid in the crevice
of a rocky cliff, frequently at some height from the sea.
During the winter it migrates southward as far as Long
Island. Flight is therefore a necessary faculty, and we
find the bird with well-developed wings, which it uses
effectively. We can, however, imagine conditions under
which it would not be necessary for the Razor-bill to
fly. It might become a permanent resident of isolated
islands, laying its egg on accessible beaches. Already
an expert diver, obtaining its food in the water, it would
not be obliged to rise into the air, and, as a result of dis-
use, the wings would finally become too small to support it
in aerial flight, though fully answering the purpose of oars.

Apparently this is what has happened in the case of
the Razor-billed Auk's relative, the flightless, extinct
Great Auk. The Razor-bill is sixteen inches long and
its wing measures eight inches, while the Great Auk,
with a length of thirty inches, has a wing only five and
three fourths inches in length. Aside from this differ-
ence in measurements these birds closely resemble each
other. So far as we are familiar with the Great Auk's
habits, they agreed with those of the hypothetical case I
have just mentioned, and we are warranted, I think, in
assuming that the bird lost the power of flight through
disuse of its wings.

FORM AND HABIT: THE WING. 21

In antarctic seas we find the arctic Auk6 replaced
by the Penguins, a group in which all the members are
flightless. They are possessed of remarkable aquatic

Fig. 8.— Great Auk, showing: relatively small wing. (Length of bird, 30
inches ; of wing, 5-75 inches.;

powers, and can, it is said, outswim even fish. They
nest only on isolated islands, where they are not exposed
to the attack of predaceous mammals.

Among Grebes and Ducks we have illustrations of
the way in which swimming birds may become tempo-
rarily flightless. With most land-inhabiting birds flight
is so important a faculty that any injury to the wings is
apt to result fatally. It is necessary, therefore, that
the power of flight shall not be impaired. Conse-
quently, when molting, the wing-feathers are shed
slowly and symmetrically, from the middle of the wing
both inwardly and outwardly ; the new feathers ap-
pear so quickly that at no time are there more than
two or three quills missing from either wing. But the

22 FORM AND HABIT: THE WING.

aquatic Grebes and Ducks, protected by the nature of
their haunts and habits, lose all their wing-feathers at
once, and are flightless until their new plumage has
grown.

It might then be supposed that permanently flightless
forms would be found among the Grebes and Ducks.
But these birds are generally migratory, or, if resident,
they usually inhabit bodies of fresh water where local
conditions or droughts may so affect the food supply that
change of residence would become necessary. However,
on Lake Titicaca, Peru, there actually is a Grebe which
has lived there long enough to have lost the use of its
wings as flight-organs.

Rails are such ground-lovers, and fly so little, that we
should expect to find flightless forms among them when
the surroundings were favorable for their development.
In New Zealand, that island of so many flightless birds,
the requirements are evidently fulfilled, and we have the
flightless "Wood Hens. Here, too, lives the flightless
Gallinule, Notornis, and in this family of Gallinules,
birds not unlike Coots, there are at least four flightless
species inhabiting islands — one in the Moluccas, one in
Samoa, one on Tristan d'Acunha, and one on Gough
Island. The last two islands are about fifteen hundred
miles from Cape Good Hope, and have evidently never
been connected with a continent. There seems little
reason to doubt, therefore, that the ancestors of the
Gallinules now inhabiting these islands reached them
by the use of their wings, and that these organs have
since become too small and weak to support their owners
in the air. Other cases might be cited ; for instance,
the Dodo of Mauritius among Pigeons, and the Kakapo
(Stringqps) of New Zealand among Parrots; but if the
illustrations already given have not convinced you that
disuse of the wings may result in loss of flight, let

Plate VII. Pages 93, 94.

AMEKICAN BITTERN.
Length, 28 00 inches. A black streak on neck; body brown and buff;
primaries slate-color.

SORA.
Length, 8-50 inches. Adult, upper parts olive-brown, black, and white;
throat and face black, breast slate, belly white, flanks black and white.
Young, similar, but face, throat, and breast whitewashed with brownish.

FORM AND IIABIT: TIIE WING. 23

me take you finally to the poultry yard, where in the
waddling Duck you will see an undeniable instance of
degeneration.

As the seat of sexual characters the wing is some-
times most singularly developed or adorned. The males
of the Argus Pheasant and Pennant-winged Nightjar
have certain feathers enormously lengthened ; the Stand-
ard-hearer has white plumes growing from the wing ; and
there are many other cases in which the wing presents sex-
ual characters, not alone through display, but also by
use as a musical organ. I do not refer to the whistling
sound made by the wings of flying Doves or Ducks, or
the humming of Hummingbirds, but to sounds volun-
tarily produced by birds, and evidently designed to an-
swer the purpose of song.

A simple form of this kind of " music " is shown by
the cock in clapping his wings before crowing, in the
"drumming" of Grouse, or in the " booming " of Night-
hawks, as with wings set they dive from a height earth-
ward. The male Cassique (Ostmops) of South America,
after giving voice to notes which sound like those pro-
duced by chafing trees in a gale, leans far forward,
spreads and raises his large orange and black tail, then
vigorously claps his wings together over his back, mak-
ing a noise which so resembles the cracking of branches
that one imagines the birds learned this singular per-
formance during a gale.

The birds mentioned thus far have no especial wing
structure beyond rather stiffened feathers ; but in the
Woodcock, some Paradise-birds and Flycatchers, Q-uans,
Pipras, and other tropical birds, certain wing-feathers
are singularly modified as musical instruments. Some-
tin tea the outer primaries are so narrowed that little but
the shaft or midrib is left, as in both sexes of the Wood-
cock, when the rapid wing-strokes are accompanied by a

24

FORM AND HABIT: THE WING.

high, whistling sound. In other cases the shafts of the
wing-feathers may be much enlarged and horny, when

the bird makes a sin-
gular snapping sound
in flight.

If you recall the
supplicating manner of,
a young bird as with

Fk.. 9. — Wing of Woodcock, showing three , n

outer attenuate feathers. 0/a natural gently fluttering wmgS

MZe) it begs for food, you

will recognize one of several ways in which the wings
may express emotion. Birds also threaten with their
wings, as any hen with chicks will testify, and from this

Fig, 10, — Jaeama. showing spur on wins: (natural size) and elongated toes (Vs

natural size).

gesture to the actual delivery of a blow is but a step.
Swans, Pigeons, and Chickens can deal forcible blows
with their wings. Screamers, Lapwings, and Jacanas

FOKM AND HABIT: THE TAIL. 25

have formidable spurs on their wings, which they are
supposed to use in combat.

The Tail. — Except when sexually developed, the
shape of the tail is largely governed by the character
of its owner's flight. Male Lyre-birds, Pheasants, Fowls,
Hummingbirds, and many others furnish well-marked
instances of the tail as a sexual character. Indeed, as
the least important to the bird of the four external
organs we are speaking of, the tail is more often sexually
modified than any of the other three.

The main office of the tail, however, is mechanical, to
act as a rudder in flight and a " balancer " when perch-
ing. Short-tailed birds generally fly in a straight course,
and can not make sharp turns, while long-tailed birds can
pursue a most erratic course, with marvelous ease and
grace. The Grebes are practically tailless, and their
flight is comparatively direct, but the Swallow-tailed
Kite, with a tail a foot or more in length, can dash to
right or left at the most abrupt angle.

Among tree-creeping birds, which always climb up-
ward, the tail is used as a brace or prop. This character, as
has been said, is possessed by all Woodpeckers, by the quite
different W oodhewers of South America, the Brown Creep-
ers of temperate regions, and other birds (see Figs. 3 and 4).

The two middle feathers in the tail of the Motmot,
of the American tropics, end in a racket-shaped disk, the
result of a unique habit. Similarly shaped feathers are
found in the tails of some Hummingbirds and Old World
Kingfishers, but in the Motmot this peculiar shape is due
to a self-inflicted mutilation. The newly grown feathers,
as shown in the accompanying figure, lack the terminal
disk, but as soon as they are grown, the birds begin to
pick at the barbs, and in a short time the shaft is de-
nuded, in some species for the space of an inch, in others
for as much as two inches.

26

FORM AND HABIT: THE TAIL.

This singular habit is practiced by numerous species
of Motmots, ranging from Mexico to Brazil. It is there-
fore of undoubted age, and we can only speculate upon
its use and origin. Young birds from the nest, reared

I

Fro. 11. — Central tail-feathers of Motmot (Momotus svbrufescens), showing
newly grown feathers (at the left) and results of self-inflicted mutilation.

in confinement where they were isolated from others of
their kind, trimmed their tail-feathers soon after they
were grown.*

The habit, therefore, is inherited, but the mutilation,
although it has doubtless been practiced for countless
generations, has not become inherent, unless we consider
the constriction in the vane of the feather at the place
where it is to be trimmed an indication of inheritance.

The Motmot gesticulates with its tail in a remarkable
manner, swinging it from side to side, so that it suggests
the pendulum of a clock, or sweeping it about in circles
with a movement which reminds one of a bandmaster
flourishing his baton. "We shall find in other species,
also, that the tail, more than any other organ, is used to
express emotion. Kecall its twitching and wagging ; how
it is nervously spread or "jetted," showing the white

* See Cherrie, The Auk (New York city), vol. ix, 18(J2, p.

Plate VI IF.

Pace 94.

AMERICAN COOT.
Length, L5-00 inches. Bead and neck blackish, body slate; under tail cov-
erts, tips of secondaries, and end of bill while.

CLAPPER KAIL.
Length, 14-50 inches. Upper parts pale greenish olive and gray; throat
white, breast pale cinnamon, flanks gray and white.

FORM AND HABIT: THE FEET.

27

outer feathers, as in the Meadowlark. The tail may
also be expressive of disposition. Compare the drooped
tail of a pensive Flycatcher with the uptilted member of
an inquisitive Wren.

But it is when displaying its beauties that a bird
speaks most eloquently with its tail. Can anything ex-
ceed the pompous pride of a Turkey cock strutting in
swollen glory, with tail stiffly spread ? The Peacock
erects his tail in a similar manner, but it is entirely con-
cealed by the train of gorgeous feathers which it par-
tially supports.

The Feet. — As the feet share with the wings the re-
sponsibilities of locomotion, there is often a close rela-
tion between these organs. For example, short-winged
terrestrial species like Quails, Grouse, and Kails have well-
developed feet, but such aerial creatures as Swifts and
Swallows have exceedingly small feet (see Figs. 3 and 4).
The aquatic Grebes and Divers are practically helpless on
land, but the Ostrich can outrun the horse ; while in the
perching birds the foot is so specialized that by the auto-

Fio. 12.— Lobed foot of a Coot, a
swimming bird of the Bail

family. (>/3 natural size.)

Fig. 13.— Lobed foot of a Phala-
rope, a swimming bird of the

Snipe family. (Natural size. |

matic action of certain tendons the birds are locked to
their perches while sleeping. A webbed foot implies abil-
ity to swim, and we find this character present in all the

2S

FORM AND HABIT: THE FEET.

water-loving Divers, Auks, Gulls, Cormorants, and Ducks.
In the wading Herons and marsh-inhabiting Rails and
Gallinules the web is absent, but it reappears in the form
of lobes on the toes of the aquatic Coots of the same
family.

Some shore-inhabiting Snipe have the bases of the
toes united by webs, but the Phalaropes, of two species,
have lobed toes not unlike those of the Coots, and are
true swimming Snipe living on the sea for long periods.

Length of foot is largely dependent upon length of
neck. This is illustrated by the Herons, and is particu-
larly well shown by the
long-necked Flamingo,
which has a foot twelve
inches long. Its toes
are webbed, and it can
wade in deep water and
search for food on the
bottom by immersing
its long neck and its
head.

In the tropical Ja-
canas the toes and toe-
nails are much length-
ened, enabling the bird
to pass over the water
on aquatic plants. I
have seen these birds
walking on small lily
leaves, which sank be-

Fig. 14. — Flamingo, showing relative length , , . . ,

of legs and" neck in a wading bird, neath their Weight, glV-
(Mueh reduced.) ing Qne the impression

that they were walking on the water (see Fig. 10).

Many ground-feeding birds use the feet in scratching
for food ; Chickens are familiar examples. Towhees and

FORM AND IIABIT: THE FEET.

29

Sparrows use both feet in searching for food, jumping
quickly backward and throwing the leaves behind them.

Parrots use their foot as a hand. Some Hawks carry
nesting material in it, and all birds of
prey strike their quarry with their
strongly curved claws, which are then
used to carry, or hold it while it is
being torn by the bill. The foot of
the Fish Hawk is a magnificent organ.
The nails are strong and well curved ;
the inner surface of the toes is set with
sharp, horny spikes, and the outer toe
is partly reversible, so that the bird
grasps its slippery prey from four dif-
ferent points.

As a weapon the foot is especially
effective, the use of spurs being too
well known to require comment. Os-
triches kick with their feet, and can, it is said, deliver a
blow powerful enough to fell a man.

But by far the best instance of modification in the
structure of the feet is furnished by Grouse. It is an

<

Fig. 15.— Foot of Fish
Hawk, showing large

claws, and spicules on
under surface of toes.
(Va natural size.)

Fig.

-Naked toes of Buffed Grouse in summer; fringed toes of Ruffed
Grouse in winter. (*/t natural size.)

unusual case of seasonal adaptation in form. During the
summer the toes of Grouse are bare and slender, but as

30 FORM AND HABIT: THE BILL.

these birds are largely ground-haunters, and most of them
inhabit regions where the snowfall is heavy, the toes in
winter acquire a comblike fringe on either side. Practi-
cally, therefore, Grouse don snowshoes in the fall, and
wear them until the -following spring.

The Bill. — Of the four organs we are considering,
the bill is beyond question the most important. "We
have seen that a bird may be wingless and practically
tailless, and may almost lose the use of its feet ; but
from the moment the bill breaks the eggshell and
liberates the chick, the bird's life is dependent upon its
services. The variety of offices performed by the bill,
and the correspondingly numerous forms it assumes, are,
doubtless, without parallel in the animal world.

The special modification of the fore limbs as flight-
organs deprives birds of their use for other important
services, and consequently we have a biped which, so far
as their assistance goes, is without arms or hands. As a
result, the duties which would naturally fall to these
members are performed by the bill, whose chief office,
therefore, is that of a hand.

Occasionally it is sexually adorned, as in the Puffins,
several Auks, Ducks, and the "White Pelicans, which,
during the nesting season, have some special plate, knob,
or color on the bill. "With the "Woodpeckers it is a
musical instrument — the drumstick with which they beat
a tattoo on some resounding limb. Owls and some other
birds, when angry or frightened, snap their mandibles
together like castanets. But it is as a hand that the
bill gives best evidence of adaptation to or by habit.
Among families in which the wings, tail, and feet are
essentially alike in form, the bill may present great vari-
ation— proof apparently of its response to the demands
made upon it.

All birds use it as a comb and brush with which to

Plate IX. Page 97.

WILSON'S SNIPE.

Length, 11*26 inches. Upper parts black, buff, and rusty; throat and belly

white, rest of under parts black and buff.

FORM AND HABIT: THE BILL. 31

perform their toilet, and, pressing a drop of oil from the
gland at the root of the tail, they dress their feathers
with their hill. Parrots use the bill in climbing, and
its hawklike shape in these birds is an unusual instance
of similarity in structure accompanying different habits.

Birds which do not strike with their feet may use
the bill as a weapon, but the manner in which it is em-
ployed corresponds so closely with the method by which
a bird secures its food, that as a weapon the bill pre-
sents no special modifications. In constructing the nest
the bill may be used as a trowel, an auger, a needle, a
chisel, and as several other tools.

But as a hand the bill's most important office is that
of procuring food ; and wonderful indeed are the forms
it assumes to supply the appetites of birds who may
require a drop of nectar or a tiny insect from the heart
of a flower, a snake from the marshes, a clam or mussel
from the ocean's beach, or a fish from its waters. The
bill, therefore, becomes a forceps, lever, chisel, hook,
hammer, awl, probe, spoon, spear, sieve, net, and knife —
in short, there is almost no limit to its shape and uses.

With Hummingbirds the shape of the bill is appar-
ently related to the flowers from which the bird most
frequently procures its food. It ranges in length from
a quarter of an inch in the
Small-billed Hummer ( Miero-
rhynchui) to five inches in
the Siphon-bill (Docimastes),

which lias a bill longer than _

& Fig. 17.— Decurved bill of Bickle-

ltS body, and 18 Said tO feed bill Hummingbird. (Natural

from the long-tubed trumpet

flowers. The Avocet Hummer {Avocettula) has a bill
curved Btightly upward, but in the Sickle-billed Hummer
{Eutoxeres) it is curved downward to form half a circle,
and the bird feeds on flowers having a similarly curved

32

FORM AND HABIT: THE BILL.

corolla. In the Tooth-billed Hummer {Androdon) both

being also hooked, and the bird feeds on insects which it
captures on the surface of leaves and other places.

Among the Woodhewers {Dendrocolaptida) of South
America there is fully as much variability, which reflects

equally variable feeding
habits. Some species have
short, stout, straight bills,
others exceedingly long,
slender, curved ones.
Mergansers, Gannets, An-
hingas, and other birds
them under water, have

Fig. IS. — Serrate bill of Merganser, a
eating bird. ('/a natural size.)

that catch fish by pursuing

sharply serrate mandibles
their slippery prey.

Some shore birds (Limicolce) use the bill

which aid them in holding
a probe,

Fig. 19.— Probelike bill of Woodcock, showing extent to which upper mandi-
ble can be moved. (% natural size;

when it may be six inches in length and straight, or
curved downward. It has recently been learned that

Fig. 20.— Eecurved bill of Avocet. (2/s natural size.)

several of these probing Snipe, notably the Woodcock,
have the power of moving the end of the upper mandi-

FORM AND IIABIT: TIIE BILL.

33

ble, which better enables them to grasp object? while
probing. In the Avocet the bill is curved upward, and the
bird swings it from side to side, scraping the bottom in
its search for food. The New
Zealand Wrybill has its bill
turned to the right for the ter-
minal third, and the bird uses
it as a crooked probe to push
under stones in hunting for its
prey. The Siberian Spoonbill
Sandpiper has a most singular
bill, which is much enlarged at the end, suggesting a
flat -ended forceps. The Roseate Spoonbill, an entirely
different bird, has a somewhat similarly shaped bill, a
striking instance of the occurrence of the 6ame form in
families which are not closely related.

But probably the most remarkable instance of relation

Fig. 21.— Bill of Spoonbill Sand-
piper. (Natural size.)

Fig. 22.— Curved bill of female, straight bill of male Huia-bird. (»/a natural
size.)

between the form of the bill and feeding habits is fur-
nished by the Iluia-bird of New Zealand. The male of
this species has a comparatively short, straight bill, while

7

34: FORM AND HABIT: THE BILL.

that of the female is long and curved. The birds feed
on larvae, which they find in dead wood. The male
hammers and chisels away the wood very much as Wood-
peckers do, while the female uses her bill as a probe.
We have, therefore, the singular case of two forms of
the bill arising in the same species as a result of or caus-
ing a corresponding difference in habit.

V

V

~\ J >

Ernest SetonViomhsofl

Plate X. Pages 87, 98, 99.

COMMON TERN.

{Length, 15-00 inches.)

SEMIPALMATEI) SANDPIPER. SEMTPALMATED PLOVER.

1 Length, 6- jo inches.) (Length, 6. 75 inches.)

CHAPTEK III.
COLORS OF BIRDS.*

The almost endless range of variation in the colors
and pattern of coloration of birds' plumage has attracted
the attention of many philosophic naturalists. Why, Jor
example, should birds from some regions always be
darker than those from other regions ; why should
ground-inhabiting birds generally wear a dull or neutral
tinted costume ; and why should the male, with few ex-
ceptions, be brighter than the female ?

For answer I will outline some of the leading facts
and theories in connection with this interesting subject.
In the first place, however, it will be necessary for us to
have some idea of the extent of individual change in
color, that is, the various phases of color, which a bird
may pass through during different periods of its life.f

* Consult Poulton, Colors of Animal? (D. Applcton & Co.). Gadow.
in Newton's Dictionary of Birds— articles, Color and Feathers. Bed-
dard. Animal Coloration (Macmillan Co.). Keeler. Evolution of the
Colors of North American Land Birds; occasional papers, California
Academy of Sciences (San Francisco), iii. 1893. Also Allen, reviews
of last two works, The Auk (New York city), x. 1893, pp. 189-199,
873-380. Allen, Alleged Changes of Color in the Feathers of Birds
without Molting; Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural His-
tory, New York city, viii, 1896, pp, K!-44. Chadbonrne, Individual
Dichromatism in the Screech Owl; The Auk, xiii, 1896, pp. 321-325,
and xiv. I*!)?, pp. '.i'.i-'.)\), one plate.

f The term color, as here used, means practically the plumage or
dress of birds.

35

36 COLOR AND AGE.

Color and Age. — All birds have a special nestling
plumage. "With those that run or swim at birth, such
as Grouse, Snipe, and Ducks, this is a full suit of down,
which may be worn for several weeks. With those
birds which are helpless when hatched — for instance,
Robins, Sparrows, and Orioles — this downy covering is
so scanty that they are practically naked. This birth
dress is followed by a new growth, known as the " first
plumage." Down-covered birds do not acquire this for
some time, but with those birds that are born nearly
naked it begins to grow soon after they are hatched, and
is almost complete when they leave the nest. The first
plumage is often unlike that of either parent ; for ex-
ample, the spotted plumage of the Kobin. It is worn for
several months by some species — certain Snipe and others
— but with most land birds it is soon exchanged for the
costume they will wear through the winter, usually
termed the "immature plumage." This may resemble
that of either parent respectively — that is, immature
males may be like adult males and immature females like
adult females, as with the Bob-white and Cardinal Gros-
beak ; or the immature birds of both sexes may resemble
the adult female, as with the Hummingbird and Bobolink.
Again, the immature birds of both sexes may be unlike
either of the adults, as with the Eagle and most Hawks ;
or the immature female may resemble the adult female,
while the immature male is unlike either parent, as in the
case of the Eose-breasted Grosbeak and Scarlet Tanager.
When both parents are alike, the young generally resem-
ble them, and this happens among most of our land birds ;
for example, the Flycatchers, Crows and Jays, many
Sparrows, Vireos, Wrens, and Thrushes.

Immature birds, differing from the adults, may ac-
quire the adult plumage the next spring, as with the
Bobolink, or they may then don a second or transition

in LOR AND SEASON. 37

plumage, and not assume the dress of maturity until the
second or even the third Bpring, which is the case with
the Orchard Oriole.

Color <!/<</ Season. — Quite apart from the changes in
color due to age, a bird may throughout its life change
costumes with the seasons. Thus, the male Bobolink
after the nesting season, exchanges his black, white, and
buff nuptial suit for a sparrowlike dress resembling that
of his mate. The Scarlet Tanager sheds his gay body
plumage and puts on the olive-green colors of the fe-
male, without changing, however, the color of his black
wings and tail. The following spring both birds resume
the more conspicuous coats. A more or less similar
change takes place among many birds in which the male
is brighter than the female, but, among land birds, when
the adults of both sexes are alike, there is little or no
seasonal change in color.

The Molt* — These changes in plumage, as far as they
are understood, are accomplished by the molt, frequently
followed by a wearing off of the differently colored ter-
minal fringe which is found on the new feathers of some
birds. It has been stated that birds change color without
changing their plumage, either by a chemical alteration
in the pigment of the feathers resulting in a new color,
or by the actual gain of new pigment from the body ; but
I know of no instance in which this has been proved, nor
do I believe that the latter change is possible. The whole
subject offers an excellent field for observation and ex-
periment.

There is a great and as yet but little understood
variation in the molting of birds. Not only may closely

* See Stone, The Molting of Birds, with Special Reference to the
Plumages of the Smaller Land Birds "f Eastern North America, Pro-
ceedings <>f tin- Philadelphia Academy of Natural Science, 1896, pp,

liis-ii;:, two plates.

3S

THE MOLT.

related species molt differently, but the manner and time
of molting among individuals of the same species may
vary according to their sex, age, and physical condition.

At the close of the nesting season all birds renew
their entire plumage by molting. The following spring,
before the nesting season, most birds molt their body
feathers, retaining those of the wing and tail. A few,
however, like the Bobolink, have a complete molt at
this season also. Others molt only a few of the body
feathers, while some birds are adorned at this season
with special nuptial plumes.

The beautiful aigrette plumes of the Heron consti-
tute a nuptial dress of this kind. It is for these plumes
that the birds have been slaughtered in such enormous
numbers that if the demand continues they will speedily
become extinct.

Some birds, whose fall plumage is edged with a dif-
ferently colored tip to each feather, do not molt in the
spring, but acquire their wedding dress by the slow wear-
ing off of the fringes to the feathers which have dis-

October.

January

Fig. 23. — Feathers from back of Snowffake, showing seasonal changes in form
and color due to wearing off of tips. (Natural size.)

guised them during the winter. The Snowflake, for
instance, changes from brown and brownish white to
pure black and white by losing the brown tips which
have concealed the black or white bases of his feathers.

Plate XI.

-P"TTEP SANDPIPER.
_:i. 7-50 indtea. - - - and black: under

part? white spotted with black: a white patch in wing similar, but

without black.

KILLPEER.
gth, 10-50 inches. Upper parts brownish gray, upper tail-coverts rusty:
under parts whit*-: - - wn and lores black, forehead

and nape white.

COLOR AND FOOD. 39

Much remains to be learned on this subject of the
molt, and, although confinement is known to affect its
manner and extent, I believe intelligent observation of
caged birds will lead to really valuable results.

Color <Xnd Food. — In some instances it is known that
a bird's color is affected by the nature of its food. It is
a common practice among bird fanciers to alter the color
of Canaries from yellow to orange-red by feeding them
on red pepper. This food, however, is said to have no
effect upon adult birds, but must be fed to nestlings. San-
ermann's experiments, as quoted by Beddard, show that
the red color is not caused by the capsicin or red pig-
ment in the pepper, but by a fatty substance termed
triolein. Fed to white fowls, their breasts became red,
while the rest of the plumage remained unchanged. It
is also stated that dealers alter the color of green Parrots
to yellow by feeding them on the fat of certain fishes.

Flamingoes and Scarlet Ibises when kept in captivity
lose their bright red colors and become dingy pink or
even soiled white, and some animal dealers have acquired
a reputation for restoring their natural tints by supplying
them with food the nature of which is kept a secret.

Our Purple Finch turns to yellow in captivity. An
adult male now in my possession is undergoing his second
molt since capture a year ago, and it will evidently leave
him without a single red feather. Other wild birds
when caged are known to assume more or less abnormal
plumages, due, it is supposed, to change in food. There
is, however, very little exact information on this subject,
and it offers an excellent opportunity for the patient in-
vestigator.

Color and Climate* — Color is a much more variable
character than form. There are but few instances in

* Read Allen, Bulletin of Museum of Comparative Zoology (Cam-
bridge, Mass.), vol. ii, No. 3, 1871, pp. 186-250.

40 COLOR AND CLIMATE.

which we can show the cause of a given structure ; but
color responds more quickly to the influence of sur-
roundings, and in many cases we can point to cause and
effect with some certainty.

This is best illustrated by the relation between climate
and color. Briefly, it has been found that birds are
darkest in humid regions and palest in arid regions.

This at first thought seems of small moment, but in
reality it is one of the most important facts established
by ornithologists. It is an undeniable demonstration of
" evolution by environment " — that is, the bird's color is
in part due to the conditions under which it lives.

For example, our common Song Sparrow, which in-
habits the greater part of North America, varies so
greatly in color in different parts of its range that no
less than eleven subspecies or geographical races are
known to ornithologists. The extremes are found in the
arid deserts of Arizona, where the annual rainfall aver-
ages eight inches, and on the humid Pacific coast from
Washington to Alaska, where the annual rainfall averages
about eighty inches.

The Arizona Song Sparrows are pale, sandy colored
birds, while those from Alaska are dark, sooty brown.
One would imagine them to be different species ; but
unlike as are these extremes, they, with the other nine
races in this group, are found to intergrade in those re-
gions where the climatic conditions themselves undergo
a change. That is, as we pass from an arid into a humid
region, the birds gradually get darker as the average
rainfall increases.

If now we study other birds living in these regions,
we find that many of them, especially the resident species,
are similarly affected by the prevailing climatic influ-
ences— that is, many Arizona birds are bleached and
iaded in appearance, while all the thirty odd Northwest

COLOB AND II AUNT AXD HABIT. 41

Pacific coast races are darker or more heavily streaked
or barred than any of their congeners. It is of impor-
tance to observe that these differences are shown by
young birds in fresh plumage — evidence that the charac-
ters acquired through climate have been inherited.

There are many similar cases, but some species seem
more easily affected than others, and throughout their
ranges are markedly affected by the conditions under
which they live. Thus we have nine races of Screech
Owl, eleven of Horned Lark, six of Junco, etc.

These races, or subspecies, are species in process of
formation. The extremes are still connected by inter-
mediate or natural links, but if, through any cause, these
intermediates should disappear, the extremes would then
be left as distinct species.

Color and Haunt and Habit. — The relation of a
bird's color to its haunts and habits is a complex sub-
ject. Any attempt at its explanation should be based on
so exact a knowledge of the facts in the case, that I can not
too strongly emphasize here the necessity for observations
in the field. Only a close study of the living bird will
justify us in advancing theories to account for its coloration.

Many explanations have been offered to account for
certain colors and markings of birds, but often, I fear,
without adequate knowledge of the bird's habits. I
shall speak of only four classes of colors ; they are
protective, deceptive, recognition, and sexual colors.

Protective colors render a bird inconspicuous in order
that it may escape its enemies. Deceptive colors render
it inconspicuous in order that it may more easily approach
its prey. In both cases the bird should harmonize in
color with its immediate surroundings.

A survey of the birds of the world shows that on the
whole this is true. Tims almost all ground-inhabiting
birds, such as Snipe, Plover, Quail, Grouse, Sparrows,

42 PROTECTIVE COLORATION.

are generally dull brown or gray, like the ground, leaves,
or grasses about them, while tree-haunting birds, espe-
cially those that live in the foliage or feed from blossoms,
are, as a rule, brightly colored. In this class belong
Hummingbirds, Orioles, the gayer - plumaged Finches,
Tanagers, Warblers, and many others. It is partly
owing to this fact that the erroneous idea concerning
the brilliant plumage of all tropical birds has become
established. The rich vegetation of the tropics furnishes
a home to a far greater number of brightly colored birds
than are found in temperate regions ; still, they are not
more numerous than the dull-colored species that live on
the tree trunks, in the undergrowth, or on the ground,
where, owing to the nature of both their colors and
haunts, they are likely to be overlooked.

Between these two extremes there are numerous in-
termediate groups, most of which conform to the general
law of protective coloration. There are, it is true, excep-
tions, but every close student of bird-life must be so im-
pressed with the dangers to which birds are exposed, that
he can not doubt that the chief object of color is usually
for its wearer's concealment.

The term " protective coloration " has lately received
fresh significance through the studies of Mr. Abbott H.
Thayer.* Mr. Thayer proves conclusively that protect-
ive coloration lies not so much in an animal's resem-
blance in color to its surroundings as in its gradation of
color. Thus he points to the fact that, as a rule, animals
are darker above than below — that is, those parts receiv-
ing the most light are darkest, while the parts receiving the
least light are palest. In effect it follows that the darker
upper parts are brightened, while the paler under parts are

* See his papers 'on The Law which Underlies Protective Colora-
tion, in The Auk (New York city), vol. xiii, pp. 124-129, 318-320, eleven
figures.

Plate XII. Page 101.

BUFFED GROUSE.

Length, 17-00 inches. Male, neck tufta long, black; upper parts and tail

gray or ruaty, black and buff; under pans white, black and rusty. Female,

similar, bul with neck tufta no longer than adjoining feathers.

PROTECTIVE COLORATION. 43

darkened, tlie result being a uniform color, with an ap-
parent absence of shadow, tending to render the object
invisible.

Mr. Thajer clearly demonstrates his discovery by
using several decoys about the size and shape of a Wood-
cock's body. These he places about six inches above the
ground on wire uprights, or in a row on a horizontal rod.
One of these decoys he colors uniformly, above and be-
low, to resemble the earth about it, or he may even give
it a fine coating of the earth itself. The upper half of
the other decoys is treated in exactly the same manner,
but their lower half is graded to a pure white on the me-
dian line below. At a distance of forty or fifty yards
the uniformly colored decoy can be plainly seen, but
those which are white below are entirely invisible until
one is within twenty or thirty feet of them.

After definitely locating these graded decoys the ex-
periment may be repeated ; but the result will always be
the same. As one slowly retreats from them they will, as
by magic, seem to pass out of existence, while the one which
is colored alike both above and below can be seen distinctly.

One of the best arguments for the value of a protect-
ive coloration is the fact that the birds themselves are
such thorough believers in it. Here we have the reason
why — in sportsman's parlance — game birds "lie to a dog."
"When there is sufficient cover, they trust to their protect-
ive coloring to escape detection, and take wing only as
a last resort ; but when cover is scanty, they generally
rise far out of gunshot. Some Snipe and Sparrows,
however, attempt to conceal themselves even on bare
sand or worn grass by squatting close to the earth, with
which their plumage harmonizes in color.

A sitting "Woodcock had such confidence in its own
invisibility that it permitted itself to be stroked without
leaving the nest ; but when a light snow fell, and the

44 DECEPTIVE COLORATION.

bird became a conspicuous dark object against a white
background, it took wing on the first suspicion of danger.
. I could mention many other similar instances, but the
careful observer will soon find them included in his own
experience.

Deceptive, or, as Poulton terms it, " aggressive " col-
oration is perhaps best illustrated by common Flycatchers
(Tyrannidce). Although these birds live in and about
trees, they are, as a rule, quietly attired in olive-green or
olive-gray, and are quite unlike the brilliantly clad, fruit-
eating Tanagers, Orioles, Parrots, and other birds that
may be found near them. Insects are therefore more
likely to come within snapping distance than if these
birds were conspicuously colored. In the same manner
we may explain the colors of Hawks, which are never
brightly plumaged.

It is well known that many arctic animals become
white on the approach of winter. With Ptarmigans
this is doubtless an instance of protective coloration, but
the Snowy Owl, who feeds on the Ptarmigan, may be
said to illustrate deceptive coloration.

Recognition, signaling, or directive colors have, with
more or less reason, been made to include many different
types of markings, of which I shall mention only those
that are conspicuously shown in flight or by some move-
ment. Such are the white outer tail-feathers of Juncos,
Meadowlarks, Towhees, and many other birds, and cer-
tain wing and rump patches, which are noticeable only
when the bird is on the wing. Markings of this kind are
supposed to aid birds in recognizing others of their kind,
their special use being to keep the individuals of a family
or flock together, so that when one starts the others can
readily follow. The theory is open to objections, but
these so-called recognition marks are so often found among
birds that they doubtless are of some use, though their

COLOR AND SEX.

45

exact value remains to be determined by closer obser-
vation.

Color and Sex.* — It is not possible here to discuss at
length the vexed question of sexual coloration. But, as a
means of directing observation, I present a synopsis of
the principal types of secondary sexual characters, with
some of the theories which have been advanced to ac-
count for them.

SYNOPSIS OF THE SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS
OF BIRDS.

Size.

Plumage.

Of the body.

Of the feet.
Of the bill.

Color.

I. STRUCTURAL.

Male larger than female (usual).
"/ Female larger than male (rare).

j Male brighter than female.
| Female brighter than male (rare).
Assumption of plumes, ruffs, crests, trains,
etc. : special modification of wing and tail
Form. •{ feathers.

I a. Worn by male alone.
[_ b. Worn by both sexes.
( Sole or greater development in male of brightly col-
-J ored hare tracts of skin, combs, wattles, caruncles,
( and other fleshy or horny appendages.

Sole or greater development in male of spurs.
( Male with more highly colored or larger bill than
') female.

Pursuit.

Display.

Battle.

Music.

Special
habits.

II. FUNCTIONAL.

( By male when similar to or brighter than female.
"( By female when brighter than male.

By male of accessory plumes and other appendages.

By male using spurs, wings, bill, etc.
\ Vocal, by male and, rarely, female.
\ Mechanical, by male and sometimes female.

Dances, mock fights, aerial evolutions, construction of
bowers, decoration of playgrounds, attitudinizing,
Btrutting, etc.

a. By male before the female.
[ 6. Among the males alone.

* Read Darwin. The Descent of Man ami Selection in Relation to
Sex (D. Appleton & Co.). Wallace, Darwinism (Macmillan Co.).

46 COLOR AND SEX.

In explanation of these remarkable differences of form
and habit, we have first Darwin's theory of " sexual se-
lection." This is based upon the ardor in love, the cour-
age and rivalry of the males, and also upon the powers
of perception, taste, and will of the female.

The spurs of the male, for example, are supposed
to have been developed through the battles of the males.
At first a mere knob, they were an advantage to the bird
possessing them, enabling him to defeat his rivals. The
successful male would be more likely to have offspring
who would inherit the tendency of their father to have
spurs, and thus, by selection, the unspurred cocks would
gradually be replaced by those better armed. This is
known as the " law of battle."

But the bright colors and gay plumes of the cock
have originated, under this theory, through the taste of
the female, who, it is assumed, would be more likely to
accept the attentions of a bird pleasing in her eye than
one who was less strikingly adorned. This has been
termed by Lloyd Morgan " preferential mating."

Wallace has accepted the law of battle as an effective
agent in producing certain characters, but considers it
natural, rather than sexual selection, and he denies the
existence of any important evidence proving female selec-
tion. He therefore attributes many secondary sexual
characters to a surplus of vital energy, which, because of
a bird's perfect adaptation to the conditions of its exist-
ence, can expend itself in the production of bright colors
and ornamental plumes without injur}' to their owners.
That is to say, "Wallace ascribes to the action of natural
selection any secondary sexual character which is of prac-
tical use to the male in conflicts with a rival, but denies
the female any part in the matter of pairing. Darwin,
as I have said, attributes to the female an aesthetic
taste which renders the brilliant colors or display of the

Plate XIII. Page 102-

MOURNING DOVE.

Length, 11-75 inches. Upper parts olive grayish brown, sides and back of

neck iridescent ; breast with a pinkish tinge, belly buff; outer tail-feathers

tipped with white.

COLOR AND SEX. 47

male an attractive sight, influencing her choice of a
mate.

There is thus a practical agreement in the views of
these naturalists on the origin of those sexual characters
which may he classed as weapons, and this opinion is, I
helieve, generally accepted. But the question of female
preference, and its influence on the development of bright
colors and accessory plumes, still lacks confirmation.
Here is an opportunity for every one who can watch wild
birds mating.

CHAPTEE IV.
THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS.*

To the field student the season of migration is the
most interesting of the year. The bird-life of a vast
area then passes in review before him. Though living
in a temperate region, he may see birds whose summer
home is within the Arctic Circle, whose winter haunts are
in the tropics. Who can tell what bird he may find in
the woods he has been exploring for years ?

The comparative regularity with which birds come
and go gives an added charm to the study of migration.
Their journey is not a "helter-skelter" rushing onward,
but is like the well -governed march of an army. We
feel a sense of satisfaction in knowing when we ma}7 ex-
pect to greet a given species, and a secret elation if we
succeed in detecting it several days in advance of other
observers. We study weather charts, and try to foretell
or explain those great flights or " waves " of birds which
are so closely dependent upon meteorologic conditions.

* Read Allen, Seribner's Magazine, vol. xxii, 1881, pp. 932-938,
Bulletin of Nuttall Ornithological Club (Cambridge, Mass.), vol. v,
1880, pp. 151-154. Scott, ibid., vol. vi, 1880, pp. 97-100, Brewster.
Memoirs of Nuttall Ornithological Club, No. 1, pp. 22. Cooke and
Merriam, Bird Migration in the Mississippi Valley (Washington, 1888).
Chapman, The Auk (New York city), vol. v, 1888, pp. 37-59 ; vol. xi,
1894, pp. 12-17. Loomis, ibid., vol. ix, 1892, pp. 28-39: vol. xi, 1894,
pp. 2G-39, 94-117. Stone, Birds of Eastern Pennsylvania and New
Jersey, pp. 15-28.

48

EXTENT OF MIGRATION. 49

Kxt< id of Migration. — The extent of a bird's migra-
tion is, in most cases, dependent upon the nature of its
food. Birds that are resident in one place throughout
the year generally change their fare with the season,
and apparently feed with equal relish on seeds or insects.
Those that are dependent upon fruit must migrate far
enough to find a supply of berries, while the insect-eaters
are obliged to travel even farther south.

Most of the migratory birds of our Western States
pass the winter in Mexico. Our Eastern Sparrows and
our berry-eaters, like the Robin and Bluebird, winter
from the Middle States to the Gulf coast, while the ma-
jority of our purely insectivorous species cross to Cuba
and winter in the West Indies, or continue to Central
America and even northern South America. Snipe and
Plover make the most extended migrations, some species
breeding within the Arctic Circle and wintering along
the coasts of Patagonia.

Times of Migration. — Let us suppose we are about
to observe the spring migration of birds at Englewood,
New Jersey — a few miles from New York city. Birds
arrive here about a week later than at Washington, D. C,
and a week earlier than at Boston.

During January and February, while watching for
some rare visitor from the North, we shall find that Tree
Sparrows and Juncos are everywhere common. Less
frequently we may see Shrikes, Winter Wrens, Golden-
crowned Kinglets and Brown Creepers, and rarely Snow-
flakes, Red Crossbills, and Redpolls will be observed.
These birds are winter visitants, coming to us from the
North in the fall and leaving in March and April.

Of course, in addition to these migratory birds, we
shall see most if not all of our commoner permanent
residents, or the birds which are with us throughout the
year. They are the Bob-white, Ruffed Grouse, Red-

9

50 TIMES OF MIGRATION.

shouldered and Red-tailed Hawks, Barred and Screech
Owls, Downy and Hairy Woodpeckers, Blue Jay, Crow,
Goldfinch, Song Sparrow, White-breasted Nuthatch, and
( ihickadee.

Generally speaking, the birds in the front rank of
the feathered army which soon will invade the land are
those whose winter quarters are farthest north, while
those that winter farthest south bring up the rear.

From February 20 to March 10, therefore, we may
expect to see Purple Grackles, Robins, Bluebirds, and
Red-winged Blackbirds ; birds that have wintered but a
short distance south of us — if not with us — and who
have accepted the slightest encouragement from the
weather as an order to advance. All the first comers-
will doubtless be males, this sex, as a rule, preceding the
females by several days.

About the middle of March we may look for the
Woodcock, Meadowlark, Fox Sparrow, Cowbird, and
Phoebe ; their time of arrival being largely dependent
upon the temperature — warm weather hastening, and
cold weather retarding their movements.

Toward the last of March, Wilson's Snipe, the King-
fisher, Mourning Dove, Swamp and Field Sparrows are
due.

Early in April the Purple Finch, White-throated,
Yesper, and Chipping Sparrows "will announce their re-
turn in familiar notes, and at the same time Tree Swal-
lows, Myrtle Warblers, Pipits, and Hermit Thrushes will
appear. They will soon be followed by Barn Swallows
and Ruby-crowned Kinglets.

The migration is now well under way, and we go
to the field with the assurance of meeting some lately
arrived feathered friend almost daily. Between April
20 and 30 we will doubtless note among the newcomers,
the Green Heron, Spotted Sandpiper, Whip-poor-will,

Plate XIV. Page 104.

RED-SHOULDERED HAWK.
Length, lil-00 inches. Adult, upper parts blackish brown and rusty ; lesser
wing-coverts bright chestnut ; wings and tail black and white ; under parts
rich rusty and white. Young, less rusty on hack, wings and tail Largely
rusty ; under parts white, spotted or streaked with blackish.

TIMES OF MIGRATION. 51

Chimney Swift, Least Flycatcher, Towhee, Purple Mar-
tin. Clilf* and Bank Swallows, Black and White and
Black-throated Green Warblers, Oven-bird, House Wren,
Brown Thrasher, Catbird, and Wood Thrush. This
troop surely is not without musicians. In ringing
tones they herald the victory of Spring over Winter.

The season of cold waves has passed, and the birds
now appear with the regularity of calendar events.
From May 1 to 12 the migration reaches its height.
It is a time of intense interest to the bird student, and
happy is he who can spend unlimited time afield.
Some mornings we may find ten or more different spe-
cies that have come back to us, and each one may
be represented by many individuals. The woods are
thronged with migrants, and the scantily leaved trees
and bushes enable us to observe them far more easily
than we can when they travel southward in the fall.
During this exciting period we should see the Cuckoos,
Xighthawk, Ruby -throated Hummingbird, Crested Fly-
catcher, Kingbird, Wood Pewee, Baltimore and Orchard
Orioles, Bobolink, Indigo Bunting, Rose-breasted Gros-
beak, Scarlet Tanager, Red -eyed, Warbling, Yellow-
throated, and White-eyed Yireos, Long-billed Marsh
Wren, Wilson's Thrush, Redstart, Yellow-breasted Chat,
Maryland Yellow-throat, Yellow Warbler, and others of
its family.

Succeeding clays will bring additions to the ranks of
these species, and there will also be numerous small
Warblers to look for, but by May 12 all our more
familiar and common birds have arrived. During the
rot of the month, as the transient visitants, or species
which nest farther north, pass onward, birds gradually
decrease in nnmbers, and by June 5 we have left only
those thai will spend the summer with as.

The migration over, we can now give our whole

52 TIMES OF MIGRATION.

attention to a study of nesting habits. As a matter of
fact, the nesting season begins quite as early as the
spring migration, the Great Horned Owl laying its eggs
late in February. In March and April other birds of
prey and the earlier migrants nest. May migrants go
to housekeeping soon after they reach their old homes,
and by June 5 there are few species that have not
nests.

With birds that rear two or • three broods, the nest-
ing season may extend into August. With those that
have but one brood it may be over early in July. At
this time we begin to miss the jolly, rollicking music
of the Bobolink. Soon he will leave the meadow he has
animated for two months, and with his young join grow-
ing flocks of his kind in the wild -rice marshes. His
handsome suit of black and white and buff will be ex-
changed for the sparrowlike Keedbird dress, and in place
of the merry song he will utter only a metallic tink. This
note is characteristic of the season. Day and night we
hear it from birds high in the air as they hasten to their
rendezvous in the marshes.

July 1, Tree Swallows, who nest rarely if at all near
New York city, appear and establish their headquarters
in the Hackensack meadows — a first step on the migra-
tory journey. July is a month for wanderers. The nest-
ing season of most one-brooded birds is over ; they are
not yet ready to migrate, and pass the time roving about
the country with their families.

In August birds are molting and moping. The
careful observer will find that a few Warblers and Fly-
catchers have returned from the north and are passing
southward, but, as a rule, August is a month to test
the patience of the most enthusiastic bird student. Late
in the month migrants become more numerous, but be-
tween the " flights " or " waves " there are days when

r£..www

Plate XV. Page 1(

SiARSB HAWK
Length, 20-00 inches. Adult male, upper parts -ray; under parts white with
rasty spots ; upper tail-coverts white. Adult female and young, upper

parts black and rich rusty ; under parts rich rusty and black ; upper tail-
coverts white.

TIMES OF MIGRATION. 53

one may tramp the woods for miles without seeing . a
dozen birds.

September is the month of "Warblers. They come in
myriads during the latter half of the month, and on
favorable nights we may sometimes hear their fine-voiced
tseeps as they fly by overhead. About the 25th of the
month our winter residents, the Junco, "Winter "Wren,
Golden Kinglet, and Brown Creeper, will arrive.

The summer residents are now rapidly leaving us.
In a general way it may be said that the last birds to
arrive in the spring are the first to leave in the fall,
while the earliest spring migrants remain the longest.

October and November are the months of Sparrows.
They rise in loose flocks from every stubble or weed
field, and seek shelter in the bordering bushy growth.
Should the season prove warm, many of these hardy
seed-eaters will stay with us well into December, but at
the first really cold weather they retreat southward.

This completes the merest outline of the move-
ments of our migratory birds. It will be seen that in
reality there are but few periods during the year when
some event is not occurring in the bird world. As we
accumulate records for comparison, and learn to appre-
ciate their meaning, our interest in the study of migra-
tion will increase and be renewed with the changing

"We have found, in this brief review, that our birds
may be placed in four classes, as follows :

1. Permanent Residents. — Birds that are represented
in the same locality throughout the year.

2. Summer Residents. — Birds that come to us in the
spring, rear their young, and depart in the fall.

3. Winter Residents, — Birds that come from the north
in the fall, pass the winter with us, and return to their
more northern homes in the spring.

54 MANNER OF MIGRATION.

4. Transient Visitants. — Birds whose summer home
is north and whose winter home is south of us. In
traveling from one to the other they pass through the
intervening region as " transients."

Marnier of Migration. — The Oriole, who builds his
swinging nest in your elm tree, will winter in Central
America ; the Bobolink, who seems so care-free in your
meadows, must journey to his winter quarters in southern
Brazil. But, unless accident befalls, both birds will re-
turn to you the following spring. We are so accustomed
to these phenomena that we accept them as part of the
changing seasons without realizing how wonderful they
are. But look for a moment at a map, and try to form
a mental picture of the Bobolink's route. Over valleys,
mountains, marshes, plains, and forests, over straits and
seas hundreds of miles in width, he pursues a course
through trackless space with a regularity and certainty
which brings him to the same place at nearly the same
time year after year. How much of his knowledge of
the route he has inherited, and how much learned dur-
ing his own lifetime, is a question we may return to
later ; now we are concerned with actual methods of
migration.

Immediately after, or even during the nesting season,
many birds begin to resort nightly to roosts frequented
sometimes by immense numbers of their kinds, with
often the addition of other species. These movements
are apparently inaugurated by the old birds, and are in
a sense the beginnings of the real migratory journey.
Other birds roam the woods in loose bands or families,
their wanderings being largely controlled by the supply
of food.

During this time they may be molting, but when
their new plumage is acquired they are ready for the
start. The old birds lead the way, either alone or asso-

Plate XVI. Page 10G.

SPARROW HAWK.
Length, 11-00 Inches. Male, back reddish brown and black, wing-coverts
Blatyblue, tail reddish brown marked with black and white; under parts
washed with rusty and spotted with black. Female, back, wings, and tail
barred with reddish brown and black ; under parts white, streaked with red-
dish brown.

MANNER OF MIGRATION. 55

dated with the young. Some fly by day, some by night,
and others by both day and night. This fact was first
established by Mr. William Brewster, who, in. his admi-
rable memoir on Bird Migration, writes : " Timid, seden-
tary, or feeble-winged birds migrate by night, because
they are either afraid to venture on long, exposed jour-
neys by daylight, or unable to continue these journeys
day after day without losing much time in stopping to
search for food. By taking the nights for traveling
they can devote the days entirely to feeding and resting
in their favorite haunts. Good examples are Thrashes
(except the Robin), Wrens, Warblers, and Yireos.

" Bold, restless, strong-winged birds migrate chiefly,
or very freely, by day, because, being accustomed to seek
their food in open situations, they are indifferent to con-
cealment, and being further able to accomplish long dis-
tances rapidly and with slight fatigue, they can ordi-
narily spare sufficient time by the way for brief stops
in places where food is abundant and easily obtained.
Under certain conditions, however, as when crossing
large bodies of water or regions scantily supplied with
food, they are sometimes obliged to travel partly, or per-
haps even exclusively, by night. Excellent examples are
the Robin (Merula), Horned Lark {Otocoris\ and most
Icteridce [Bobolink, Blackbirds, and Orioles].

" Birds of easy, tireless wing, which habitually feed in
the air or over very extensive areas, migrate exclusively
by day, because, being able either to obtain their usual
supply of food as they fly, or to accomplish the longest
journeys so rapidly that they do not require to feed on
the way, they are under no necessity of changing their
usual habits. The best examples are Swallows, Swifts,
and Hawks."

While migrating, bird- follow mountain chains, coast-
lines, and particularly river valleys, all of which become

56 MANNER OF MIGRATION.

highways of migration. Through telescopic observations
it has been learned that migrating birds travel at a great
height. The exact height remains to be determined, but
it is known that many migrants are at least a mile above
the earth. From this elevation they command an ex-
tended view, and in clear weather prominent features of
the landscape are doubtless distinguishable to their pow-
erful vision at a great distance.

It is when fogs and storms obscure the view that birds
lose their way. Then they fly much lower, perhaps seek-
ing some landmark, and, should a lighthouse lie in their
path, they are often attracted to it in countless numbers.
Thousands of birds perish annually by striking these
lights during stormy fall weather. In the spring the
weather is more settled and fewer birds are killed.

Although birds are guided mainly by sight, hearing is
also of assistance to them on their migrations. Indeed, at
night, young birds, who have never made the journey be-
fore, must rely largely upon this sense to direct them. It
is difficult for us to realize that on favorable nights during
the migratory season myriads of birds are passing through
the dark and apparently deserted air above us. Often
they are so numerous as to form a continuous stream, and
if we listen we may hear their voices as they call to one
another while flying rapidly onward.

Some idea may be formed of the multitude of birds
which throng the upper air on favorable nights during
their migration by using a telescope. One having a two-
inch object glass will answer the purpose. It should be
focused on the moon, when the birds in passing are sil-
houetted against the glowing background. At the proper
focal distance they appear with startling distinctness. In
some cases each wing-beat can be detected, and with a
large glass it is even possible to occasionally recognize
the kind of bird.

Plate XVII. PAGE 107.

SHARP-SHINNED HAWK.
Length of male, 11-25 Inches; of female, 13-50 inches. Adult, upper parts
alatj graj ; under parte white and rusty brown. Young, upper parts black-
ish brown ; onder parte white, streaked with rusty brown.

MANNER OF MIGRATION. 57

Observations of this kind should be made in Septem-
ber, when the fall migration is at its height. On the
night of September 3, 1887, at Tenafly, New Jersey, a
friend and myself, using a six-and-a-half-inch equatorial
glass, saw no less than two hundred and sixty-two birds
cross the narrow angle subtended by the limbs of the
moon between the hours of eight and eleven. Observa-
tions made several years later, in September, from the
observatory of Columbia University, yielded closely simi-
lar results.

This nocturnal journey of birds may also be studied
from lighthouses. On September 26, 1891, I visited the
Bartholdi Statue of the Goddess of Liberty, in New York
Bay, for this purpose. The weather was most favorable.
The first bird was observed at eight o'clock, and for
the succeeding two hours others were constantly heard,
though comparatively few were seen. At ten o'clock it
began to rain ; and almost simultaneously there was a
marked increase in the number of birds about the light,
and within a few minutes there were hundreds where
before there was one, while the air was filled with the
calls of the passing host.

From the balcony which encircles the torch the scene
was impressive beyond description. We seemed to have
torn aside the veil which shrouds the mysteries of the
night, and with the searching light exposed the secrets
of Nature.

By far the larger number of birds hurried onward ;
others hovered before us, bike Hummingbirds before a
flower, then flew swiftly by into the darkness ; and some,
apparently blinded by the brilliant rays, struck the statue
slightly, or with sufficient force to cause them to fall dead
or dying. At daybreak a few stragglers were still wing-
ing their way southward, but before the sun rose the
flight was over.

58 ORIGIN OF MIGRATION.

Origin of Migration. — Why do birds migrate ? It
is true that in temperate and boreal regions the return
of cold weather robs them of their food, and they retreat
southward. But many, in fact most, birds begin their
southern journey long before the first fall frost. We
have seen that some species start as early as July and
August. Furthermore, there are many birds that come
to our Gulf and South Atlantic States to nest, and when
the breeding season is over they return to the tropics.
Surely, a lower temperature can not be said to compel
them to migrate. Even more remarkable than the south-
ward journey in the fall is the northward journey in the
sjDring. Our birds leave their winter homes in the tropics
in the height of the tropical spring, when insect and vege-
table food is daily increasing. They leave this land of
plenty for one from which the snows of winter have
barely disappeared, often coming so early that unseason-
able weather forces them to retreat.

I believe that the origin of this great pilgrimage of
countless millions of birds is to be found in the existence
of an annual nesting season. In my opinion, it is exactly
paralleled by the migration of shad, salmon, and other
fishes to their spawning grounds, and the regular return
of seals to their breeding rookeries.

Most animals have an instinctive desire for seclusion
during the period of reproduction, and when this season
approaches will seek some retired part of their haunts or
range in which to bring forth their young. Salmon may
travel a thousand miles or more from the ocean, and,
leaping the rapids or other barriers in their way, finally
reach the headwaters of some river where their eggs
may be deposited in safety. Seals migrate with regu-
larity to certain islands, where their young are born.
Even our domesticated Hens, Turkeys, Ducks, and Pea-
fowl, if given freedom, will travel a greater or less dis-

^^.,CTVve<i,V S*\ON \\\ofrv^i»on

Plate XVIII. Page 107.

AMKKK'AX OSPREY.
Length, 23-00 inches. Upper parts brownish black ; nape and under parts
white; breasl marked \\iih grayish brown.

ORIGIN OP MIGRATION. 59

tance in search of a place where they may conceal their
nests.

Many species of tropical sea birds resort each year to
6ome rocky islet, situated perhaps in the heart of their
range, where they may nest in safety. This is not migra-
tion as we understand the word ; but, nevertheless, the
object is the same as that which prompts a Plover to
travel to the arctic regions ; moreover, the movement is
just as regular. These sea birds pass their lives in the
tropics, their presence or absence in any part of their
range being largely dependent upon the supply of food.
But, as in the case of the Warbler which migrates from
South America to Labrador, they are annually affected
by an impulse which urges them to hasten to a certain
place. This impulse is periodic, and in a sense is com-
mon to all birds. There is a regular nesting season in
the tropics, just as there is a regular nesting season in the
arctic regions.

There is good reason, therefore, for the belief that
the necessity of securing a home in which their young
could be reared was, as it still is, the cause of migration.
It must be remembered, however, that birds have been
migrating for ages, and that the present conditions are
the result of numerous and important climatic changes.
Chief among these is doubtless the Glacial period. In-
deed, Dr. Allen has stated, and the theory has been gen-
erally accepted, that the migration of birds was the out-
come of the Glacial period. That their journeys were
greatly increased and the habit of migration extended
during the ice age is apparently undeniable, but, although
previous to the Glacial period a warm temperate climate
prevailed nearly to the northern pole, there must even
then have been sufficient difference between winter and
summer climate to render a certain amount of migration
necessary. Furthermore, there is a well-defined migra-

60 ORIGIN OP MIGRATION.

tion in the southern hemisphere, where no evidences of
glaciation have as yet been discovered.

As I have said, the existing conditions are the result
of changes which have been active for ages. No species,
therefore, has acquired its present summer range at one
step, but by gradually adding new territory to its breed-
ing ground. For example, certain of our Eastern birds
are evidently derived through Mexico, and in returning
to their winter quarters in Central America, they travel
through Texas and Mexico and are unknown in Florida
and the West Indies. Others have come to us through
Florida, and in returning to their winter quarters do not
pass through either Texas or Mexico. This is best illus-
trated by the Bobolink, an Eastern bird which, breeding
from New Jersey northward to Nova Scotia, has spread
westward until it has reached Utah and northern Mon-
tana. But — and here is the interesting point — these birds
of the far West do not follow their neighbors and migrate
southward through the Great Basin into Mexico, but,
true to their inherited habit, retrace their steps, and leave
the United States by the roundabout way of Florida,
crossing thence to Cuba, Jamaica, and Yucatan, and win-
tering south of the Amazon. The Bobolinks of Utah
did not learn this route in one generation ; they inherited
the experience of countless generations, slowly acquired
as the species extended its range westward, and in return-
ing across the continent they give us an excellent illustra-
tion of the stability of routes of migration.

They furnish, too, an instance of one of the most
important factors in migration — that is, the certainty
with which a bird returns to the region of its birth.
This is further evidenced by certain sea birds which
nest on isolated islets to which they regularly return
each year.

Of this wonderful " homing instinct," which plays so

Plate XIX. pAGE 109.

SHORT-EARED OWL.
Length, 15-50 inches. Upper parts black, buff; and rusty; under parts white
and brownish black ; eyea yellow.

ORIGIN OP MIGRATION. Q\

vital a part in the migration of birds, I have no explana-
tion to offer. We know, however, that it exists not only
in birds but in many other animals. It is this instinct,
aided by the "heredity of habit," which guides a bird
to its nesting ground. The Carrier Pigeon is taught its
lines of flight by gradually extending its journeys; a
species establishes its routes of migration by gradually
extending its range.

CHAPTER V.
THE VOICE OF BIRDS.*

Aside from the pleasure to be derived from the calls
and songs of birds, their notes are of interest to us as
their medium of expression. No one who has closely
studied birds will doubt that they have a language, limited
though its vocabulary may be.

Song. — Song is a secondary sexual character, generally
restricted to the male. With it he woos his mate and
gives voice to the joyousness of nesting time. In some
instances vocal music may be replaced by instrumental,
as in the case of the drumming wing-beat of the Grouse,
or the bill-tattoo of the Woodpeckers, both of which are
analogous to song.

The season of song corresponds more or less closely
with the mating season, though some species begin to
sing long before their courting days are near. Others
may sing to some extent throughout the year, but the
real song period is in the spring.

Many birds have a second song period immediately
after the completion of their postbreeding molt, but it
usually lasts only for a few days, and is in no sense com-
parable to the true season of song. This is heralded by
the Song Sparrow, whose sweet chant, late in February,

*See Witchell, The Evolution of Bird Song (Macmillan Co.).
Bicknell, A Study of the Singing of Our Birds; The Auk (New York
city), vol. i, 1884, pp. 60-71, 126-140, 209-218, 322-332; vol. ii, 1885,
pp." 144-154, 249-262.

Plate xx- Page 110.

8CKEECB ()WL.

LeDgth, 9-40 Inches. Upper parts gray, or brighl reddish brown, and
blach ; underparts white, gray, or brighl reddish brown, and black; eyes
yellow.

VOICE OP BIRDS. 63

is a most welcome promise of spring. Then follow the
Robins, Blackbirds, and other migrants, until, late in
May, the great springtime chorus is at its height.

The Bobolink is the first bird to desert the choir.
We do not often hear him after July 5. Soon he is fol-
lowed by the Veery, and each day now shows some fresh
vacancy in the ranks of the feathered singers, until by
August 5 we have left only the Wood Pewee, Indigo
Bunting, and Ked-eyed Vireo — tireless songsters who
fear neither midsummer nor midday heat.

Call- Notes. — The call-notes of birds are even more
worthy of our attention than are their songs. Song is
the outburst of a special emotion ; call-notes form the
language of every day. Many of us are familiar with
birds' songs, but who knows their every call-note and
who can tell us what each call means ? For they have a
meaning that close observation often makes intelligible.

Listen to the calls of the Kobin and learn how unmis-
takably he expresses suspicion, alarm, or extreme fear ;
how he signals cheerfully to his companions or gives the
word to take wing. Study the calls of the Crow or Blue
Jay, and you will find that they have an apparently ex-
haustless vocabulary.

It is supposed that birds, like men, do not inherit
their language, but acquire it. Thus there are recorded
instances of young birds who had been isolated from
others of their kind, learning to sing whatever song they
heard. On the other hand, it is said that a bird inherits
its own notes, at least to some extent, and, while it may
not sing the song of its species perfectly, its song will
still be sufficiently characteristic to be recognizable.
There are, however, very few satisfactory observations
on this subject, and keepers of cage-birds have here an
excellent opportunity for original investigation.

CHAPTEE VI.

THE NESTING SEASON.*

If you would really know birds, you must study them
during nesting time. At this season they develop habits
that you will be surprised to learn they possess. The
humble owner of some insignificant call-note now fills the
role of a skilled musician. The graceful, leisurely Marsh
Hawk gives vent to his feelings in a series of aerial som-
ersaults over the meadows ; the sedate, dignified Wood-
cock tries to express his emotions by means of spiral evo-
lutions which carry him far above his usual haunts ; the
Night-Hawk dives earthward with needless recklessness ;
in fact, birds seem inspired by the joy of the season, and
all the brightness of a May morning is reflected in their
voices and actions.

Mating over, there follow the marvels of nest-build-
ing with its combined evidences of instinct and intelli-
gence. In due time the young appear, and the bird, now
a parent, abandons the gay habits of the suitor, and de-
votes every waking moment to the care of its young.

Time of Nesting. — With most birds the nesting season
is periodic and annual. With migratory birds it coin-
cides with the season of the year when their summer
homes are habitable. But we might suppose that the

* Read In Nesting Time, Little Brothers of the Air, and other
works by Olive Thorne Miller. A-Birding on a Broncho, by Florence
A. Merriam (Houghton, Mifflin & Co.).
64

Plate XXI. Page 111.

BARRED OWL.
Length, 20-00 inches. Upper parts blackish brown and white; under
parts white and blackish brown; eyes black.

MATING. 65

permanent residents of the tropics, where seasonal changes
are less marked, could nest at any time. Nevertheless,
the breeding season in the tropics is as well defined as it
is in more northern regions, and occurs with the return
of summer, or the season of rains. It is therefore at a
time of the year when food is most abundant.

There is an obvious necessity for this regularity. Old
birds can wander over large areas in search of food, but
the young of many species must be fed in the nest, and
their food supply should be both exhaustless and con-
venient of access.

Among our birds, the Hawks and Owls, whose young
are fed on animal food, are the first birds to nest, while
those which feed their young on fruit or insects wait
until later in the year.

Muting. — Birds are ardent lovers. In their effort to
win a bride the males display their charms of song and
plumage to the utmost, and will even enter the lists to
do battle for the possession of a mate.

It is not possible to describe here the many pecul-
iar customs of birds during the season of courtship.
It may simply be said that every bird will then re-
pay the closest observation. For the scientific-minded
there is opportunity to secure evidence bearing upon
the theory of Natural Selection ; for every one there is
endless entertainment in the human traits which birds
exhibit.

The Nest. — The first step in nest-building is the selec-
tion of a site. There is almost no suitable location, from
a hole in the ground to branches in the tree-tops, in which
birds may not place their nests. Protection seems to be
the chief desideratum, and this is generally secured
through concealment. Most birds hide their nests.
Many sea birds, however, lay their eggs on the shores
or cliffs, with no attempt at concealment ; but, as a rule,
11

66 BIRDS' NESTS.

birds that nest in this manner resort to uninhabited
islets and secure protection through isolation.

Some birds nest alone, and jealously guard the vicin-
ity of their home from the approach of other birds,
generally of the same species. Others nest in colonies
brought together by temperament or community of
interests, and dwell on terms of the closest sociability.

The material used by birds in building their nests
is as varied as the nature of the sites they select. The
vegetable kingdom contributes much the largest share.
Grasses, twigs, and rootlets are the standard materials ;
but plant-down, plant-fibers, bark, leaves, lichens, clay,
spiders' webs, hair, fur, and feathers are also used, while
in some cases a gummy secretion of the salivary glands
furnishes a kind of glue.

Birds have been classified, according to the manner
in which they employ these articles, as weavers, tailors,
masons, molders, carpenters, felters, etc.

Sometimes both sexes assist in the construction of the
nest, or one bird collects the material while the other
adjusts it. Again, the female performs the task alone,
aided only by the encouraging voice of the male.

The time of construction varies from one to two
weeks to as long as three months in the case of the South
American Ovenbird, who in June begins to build the
nest it will not occupy until October. The Fish Hawk
evidently believes in the value of a stick in time, and
often repairs its nest in the fall.

Lack of space prohibits a discussion of the influences
which assist in determining the character of birds' nests.
They may be summarized as follows :

First, necessity for protection.

Second, conditions imposed by locality. These affect
both the site and material, as illustrated by Doves, who
nest in trees in wooded countries and on the ground in

Plate XXII. Page 112.

YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO.
Length, L2-25 Inches. Upper pans glossy olive-Drown; outer tail-
feathers black, tipped with white; under parts white; lower mandible
yellow.

BIRDS' NESTS. 67

treeless regions, and by birds who substitute strings,
cotton, or rags for their usual nesting materials.

Third, condition of the young at birth, whether
feathered or naked. The young of what are termed
'' prsecocial " birds are hatched with a covering of
downy feathers. Gulls, Ducks, Snipe, Chickens, Par-
tridges, and Quails are familiar members of this group.
Their young can run about soon after birth, and a well-
formed nest is not needed. But the young of " altricial "
birds are hatched practically naked and are reared in the
nest, which is therefore not only a receptacle for the eggs
during incubation, but a home. Thrushes, Sparrows, in
fact all Perching Birds, Woodpeckers, Hummingbirds,
and many others belong in this group of altricial birds.

Fourth, temperament, whether solitary or social.
Hawks, fierce and gloomy, nest alone, while the cheery,
happy Swallows nest in colonies.

Fifth, structure of the bird. The tools — that is, the
bills and feet — of some birds are more serviceable than
those of others. We should not expect a Dove to build
the woven nest of an Oriole, nor a Hummingbird to
fashion a Woodpecker's dwelling.

Sixth, feeding habit. In some few cases feeding
habit may determine the character of the nest. For
instance, Woodpeckers, in securing their food from trees,
often make large excavations, which it is quite natural
they should have learned to use as nests.

Seventh, inherited habit, or instinct. There seems no
reason to doubt that birds inherit their knowledge of nest-
building, for in several cases where birds have been taken
from the nest and reared alone, they have afterward
constructed a nest resembling that of their species. It
would therefore appear that inherited habit is a fact.
Through it we may explain not only the similarity in the
nests of the same species, but also certain habits fur

68 BIRDS' EGGS.

which we can give no satisfactory reason. Thus the
Crested Flycatcher's strange custom of using a cast
snake-skin in its nesting materials prohably originated
with the birds in the tropics, where it is still followed
by nearly related species of Crested Flycatchers. With
them there may be a reason for this habit, but with our
bird, living as it does under entirely different conditions,
it is doubtless only an inheritance, surviving even when
the necessity for it has ceased to exist.

Eighth, change of habit. Some birds are influenced
by changes in their surroundings, and alter their nesting
habits when it proves to their advantage to do so.
Chimney Swifts, who have exchanged hollow trees, in
which they were exposed to their natural enemies, for
the comparative safety of chimneys, are good examples.
But a far better one is given by that prodigy in feathers,
the House Sparrow. Is there any available site in which
this thoroughly up-to-date bird will not place its nest?
It has taken possession of even the hollow spaces about
certain kinds of electric lamps, and has been observed
repairing its nest at night by their light !

The Eggs. — Usually, little time is lost between the
completion of the nest and the laying of the eggs. The
number of eggs composing what oologists term a full
set or clutch ranges from one to as many as twenty. At
the time of laying, the ovary contains a large number of
partly formed eggs, of which, normally, only the required
number will become fully developed. But if the nest be
robbed, the stolen egg will frequently be replaced. The
long-continued laying of our domestic fowls is an instance
of this unnatural stimulation of the ovary. Doubtless the
most remarkable recorded case of egg-laying by a wild
bird is that of a High-hole or Flicker, who, on being regu-
larly robbed, laid seventy-one eggs in seventy -three days !

The eggshell is composed largely of carbonate of lime,

Plate XXIII. Paoe 1U.

BELTED KINGFISHER.

Length, 13 -00 Inches. Male, upper parts bluish gray ; under parte white,

a bluish-gray breast-band and sides. Female, similar, but breast and
sides with reddish brown.

BIRDS' EGGS. GD

which is deposited in layers. The final layer varies greatly
in appearance, and niav he a rough, chalky deposit, as in
Cormorants and others, or thin and highly polished, as in
Woodpeckers.

The colors of eggs are due to pigments, resemhling
bile pigments, deposited by ducts while the egg is in the
oviduct. One or more of the layers of shell may be pig-
mented, and variations in the tints of the same pigment
may be caused by an added layer of carbonate of lime,
producing the so-called " clouded " or " shell markings."

While the eggs of the same species more or less
closely resemble one another, there is often so great a
range of variation in color that, unless seen with the

Fig. 24.— Egg of (a) Spotted Sandpiper, (J) Catbird, to sl^v difference in
size of eggs of prrecocial and altncial birds of same size. ( Natural size.)

parent, it is frequently impossible to identify eggs with
certainty. The eggs of pracocial birds, whose young are
born with a covering of down and can run or swim at
birth, are, as a rule, proportionately larger than the eggs
of altricial birds, whose young are born in a much less
advanced condition. This is illustrated by the accom-
panying figure of the eggs of the Spotted Sandpiper and
the Catbird.

The period of incubation is apparently closely depend-
ent upon the size of the egg, and varies from ten days
in the Hummingbird to forty odd in the Ostrich and, it
is said, some fifty in the Emu.

70 YOUNG BIRDS.

Among some species both sexes share equally the task
of incubation. In others, the female is longer on the
nest, the male taking her place during a short period each
day while she is feeding. Less frequently the female is
not at all assisted by her mate, and in some cases — Os-
triches, Emus, Phalaropes, and a few others — the male
alone incubates.

The Young. — The care of the young and their men-
tal and physical development afford us unequaled oppor-
tunities for the study of bird character. We may now
become acquainted not only with the species but with
individual birds, and at a time when the greatest demands
are made upon their intelligence.

We may see the seed-eaters gathering insects and per-
haps beating them into a pulp before giving them to their
nestlings : or we may learn how the Doves, High-holes,
and Hummingbirds pump softened food from their crops
down the throats of their offspring.

The activity of the parents at this season is amazing.
Think of the day's work before a pair of Chickadees with
a family of six or eight fledglings clamoring for food
from daylight to dark !

But the young birds themselves furnish far more in-
teresting and valuable subjects for study. None of the
higher animals can be reared so easily without the aid of
a parent. We therefore can not only study their growth
of body and mind when in the nest and attended by
their parents, but we can isolate the young of praecocial
birds, such as Chickens, from other birds and study their
mental development where they have no opportunity to
learn by imitation. In this way students of instinct and
heredity have obtained most valuable results.*

* Read Lloyd Morgan's Habit and Instinct (Edward Arnold, New
York city).

Plate XXIY. Page 115.

DOWNY WOODPECKER.
Length, <>-7.r> inches. Male, upper parts black and white, nape scarlet ;
under parts white. Female, similar, but no scarlet on nape.

CHAPTER VII.

HOW TO IDENTIFY BIRDS.

The preceding outline of the events which may enter
into a bird's life-history has, I trust, given some idea of
the possibilities attending the study of birds in the field.
We come now to the practical question of identification.
How are we to find birds, and, having found them, how
are we to learn their names ?

From April to August there is probably not a min-
ute of the day when in a favorable locality one can not
see or hear birds; and there is not a day in the year
when at least some birds can not be found. In the be-
ginning, therefore, the question of finding them is simply
a matter of looking and listening. Later will come the
delightful hunts for certain rarer species whose acquaint-
ance we may make only through a knowledge of their
haunts and habits.

Having found your bird, there is one thing absolutely
necessary to its identification : you must see it definitely.
Do not describe a bird to an ornithologist as "brown,
witli white spots on its wings," and then expect him to
tell you what it is. Would you think of trying to iden-
tify flowers of which you caught only a glimpse from a
car window in passing ? You did not see them definitely,
and at best you can only carry their image in your mind
until you have opportunity to see them in detail.

So it is with birds. Do not be discouraged if the
books fail to show you the brown bird with white spots
71

72 HOW TO IDENTIFY BIRDS.

on its wings. Probably it exists only through your hasty
observation.

Arm yourself with a field- or opera-glass, therefore,
without which you will be badly handicapped, and look
your bird over with enough care to get a general idea of
its size, form — particularly the form of the bill — color,
and markings. Then — and I can not emphasize this too
strongly — put what you have seen into your note-book
at once. For, as I have elsewhere said, "not only do
our memories sometimes deceive us, but we really
see nothing with exactness until we attempt to de-
scribe it."

It is true that all the birds will not pose before your
glasses long enough for you to examine them at your
leisure, but many of them will, and in following the
others you will have all the excitement of the chase.
Who knows what rare species the stranger may prove
to be!

From your description, and what added notes on voice
and actions you may obtain, the field key and illustra-
tions on the succeeding pages should make identification
a simple matter.* You should also take into considera-
tion the season of the year when a bird is present, and
not call a summer bird by a winter bird's name. The
dates of migration given in the following pages will be of
assistance here. They refer to the vicinity of New York
city, where, in the spring, birds arrive about a week later

* The publishers' liberality has resulted in securing bird portraits
of unusual excellence. Mr. Seton Thompson is an ornithologist as
well as an artist; his subjects are personal friends. He has spared no
effort to make these pictures characteristic life sketches, and I ven-
ture to claim that, as a whole, they excel in truth and beauty any
bird-drawings ever published in this country.

A BIRD'S BIOGRAPHY. 73

than in central Illinois or at Washington, D. C, and a
week earlier than at Boston. In the fall these conditions
are reversed.

A Bird's Biography. — As a further guide to your
observation a list of the principal details which enter into
1 bird's life -history is appended :

1. Description (of size, form, color, and markings).

2. Haunts (upland, lowland, lakes, rivers, woods, fields, etc.).

3. Movements (slow or active, hops, walks, creeps, swims, tail

wagged, etc.).

4. Appearance (alert, pensive, crest erect, tail drooped, etc.).

5. Disposition (social, solitary, wary, unsuspicious, etc.).

6. Flight (slow, rapid, direct, undulating, soaring, sailing,

flapping, etc.).

7. Song (pleasing, unattractive, continuous, short, loud,

low, sung from the ground, from a perch, in
the air, etc. ; season of song).

8. Call-notes (of surprise, alarm, protest, warning, signaling,

etc.).

9. Season (spring, fall, summer, winter, with times of ar-

rival and departure, and variations in num-
bers).

10. Food (berries, insects, seeds, etc. ; how secured).

11. Mating (habits during courrship).

12. Nesting (choice of site, material, construction, eggs, incu-

bation).

13. The Young (food and care of, time in the nest, notes, actions

flight).

From observations of this kind, consisting of a simple
statement of facts, you may philosophize according to
your nature on the relation between habit and structure,
colors and haunts, and intelligent adaptation to new con-
ditions. Beware, however, lest you be led to draw faulty
conclusions from insufficient observation. Do not make
the individual stand for its species, or the species for its
family, and remember that one is warranted in theorizing
only when the facts in the case are facts indeed.

12

74

TOPOGRAPHY OF A BIRD.

CHAPTER VIII.
A FIELD KEY TO OUR COMMON LAND BIRDS.

"When you have seen a bird with sufficient definite-
ness to describe its color, form, and actions, reference to
the following key will often prove a short cut to its
identity. This key is based only on adult males, who,
because of their song, often brighter colors, and greater
activity, are far more frequently observed than the
females. But, knowing the male, you will rarely, during
the nesting season, be at loss to recognize his mate.

In order to simplify the key, the water birds, Hawks,
and Owls are omitted, in the belief that they will be
more readily identified by reference to the plates.

The use of the key may be illustrated by the follow-
ing example : Let us imagine that you see a Chipping
Sparrow (Plate XLV) feeding about your doorstep.
You note his size, chestnut cap bordered by white, black
bill, brownish, streaked back, and grayish white, un-
marked under parts. Turning now to the key, you will
see that by exclusion the bird belongs in " Section V "
of the " Third Group," and that it should be placed in
subsection " 1 " of this section, which includes birds hav-
ing the " under parts white or whitish, all one color, with-
out streaks or spots." You have now two subdivisions to
choose from — "A. Back without streaks or spots/' and
" B. Back brownish, streaked." Your bird falls under
" B," where again you have two subdivisions, "a. Crown
rufous or chestnut, without streaks," and " b. Crown not
rufous or chestnut." Your bird should be referred to
" '/," where you will at once find it described under " a1 "
as the Chipping Sparrow.

75

76 FIELD KEY TO COMMON BIRDS.

It should be borne in mind that living birds do not
look as long as they really are. The measurement of
" length " is taken with the bird's neck and tail out-
stretched in a straight line. In life the tail may be raised
or drooped, while the neck is drawn in or curved, making
the bird look shorter than measurement shows it to be.
Remember that the Robin measures ten inches, the House
Sparrow six and one-fourth inches, and the Ruby-throated
Humming-bird three and three-fourths inches in length,
and you will have a basis for comparison.

FIRST GROUP.

BIRDS THAT FEED ON THE WING FOR LONG INTERVALS OF TIME
WITHOUT PERCHING.

(Swalloivs, Swift, Nighthawh, Whip-poor-will)
I. Size large, length over 9*00 inches ; the spread wings over 15*00
inches in extent ; generally seen only late in the afternoon or at
dusk.

1. A bird of the air, flying high, often over housetops in cities: a conspicu-
ous white spot in each wing ; note, a loud, nasal peent ; sometimes dives
earthward with a booming sound ; May to Oct. . Night-hawk, page 118.

2. Haunts, near the ground, not often observed while feeding; call, given
from a rock, stump, or similar perch, whip-poor-will, vigorously repeated ;
Apl. 25 to Oct Whip-poor-will, page 11!).

II. Size smaller, length under 9-00 inches ; the spread wings less than
15-00 inches in extent; may be seen at any time of the day.

1. Plumage entirely black.

a. Length 5-50 inches; plumage sooty black; usually nests in chimneys;
Apl. 25 to Oct Chimney Swift, page 119.

b. Length 8-00 inches; glossy, bluish black; nests in gourds or houses
erected for its use ; Apl. 25 to Sept. . . . Purple Martin, page 161.

2. Plumage not entirely black ; Apl. to Oct. . Swallows, pages 159, 100.

SECOND GROUP.

CLIMBING AND CREEPING BIRDS.

{Nuthatches, Creepers, Woodpeckers.)
I. Birds without stiffly pointed tail-feathers, that climb either up or

down.
1. Length 6-00 inches; back gray, cap black, cheeks and under parts
white ; note, a nasal yank, yank; a permanent resident.

White-breasted Nuthatch, page 180.

FIELD KEY TO COMMON BIRDS. 77

2. Length 4-50 inches; back gray, cup black, a blackish streak through
the face ; under parte reddish brown; note, high and thin, like the tone
of a penny trumpet; Sept to Apl. Red-breasted Nn hatch, page 181.

3. Length 5"25 inches; upper parts atreaked black and white; note, a thin
wiry M«-8ee-866-S6i ; Apl. --3 to Oct.

Black and white Warbler, page 107.
II. Birds with stiffly pointed tail-feathors, that always climb upward.

1. Length 5-05 inches; plumage dull brown and black; size small, bill
slender; an inconspicuous bird who winds his way up the trunks search-
ing lor insects1 eggs. etc. ; note, fine and squeaky ; Sept. 25 to Apl.

Brown Creeper, page 178.

2. Plumage with more or less white, size larger, bill stouter, chisel-like,
often used in hammering.

A. Length 9-75 inches ; head red, back black ; flight showing a large
white patch in the wing . . . Red- headed Woodpecker, page 110.

B. Length 12-00 inches ; crown gray ; a red band on the nape ; flight
showing a white patch on the lower back and yellow in the wings ;
often flushed from the ground ; note, hee-yer . . Flicker, page 116.

C. Length 675 inches ; crown black ; back and wings black and white ;
note, a sharp peek Downy Woodpecker, page 115.

THIRD GROUP.

BIRDS NOT INCLUDED IN THE PRECEDING GROUPS.

(Blackbirds, Orioles, Sparrows, Vireos, Warblers, Thrushes, etc.)

Section I. With yellow or orange in the plumage.

Section II. With red in the plumage.

Section III. With blue in the plumage.

Section IV. Plumage conspicuously black, or black and white.

Section V. Birds not included in the preceding sections.

I. With yellow or orange in the plumage.

1. Throat yellow.
A. Throat and breast pure yellow, without streaks or spots.

a. Length 5-10 inches; cap, wings, and tail black; back yellow; song
canarylike, .sometimes uttered on the wing ; flight undulating, fre-
quently accompanied by the notes chlc-o-ree, per-chic-o-ree ; a per-
manent resident Am. Goldfinch, page 148.

b. Length 5*95 inches; lower belly and wing-bars white ; back olive-
green ; frequents the upper branches, generally in woodland ; actions
deliberate; song loud and musical; uttered slowly, often with pauses:
"See me? I'm here; where are you 1 " ; May to Sept.

Yellow-throated Vireo, page 165.

c. Length 5-25 inches ; cheeks and forehead hhu-U, bordered by ashy ;
upper parts olive-green ; no wing-bars; haunts thickets and under-
growth: movements nervous and active; call-note pit or chack ;
song, a vigorous, rapid wiU-h-i -»■ •-<•. witch-e-V>ie-0 ; May to Oct.

Maryland Yellow-throat, page 171.

78 FIELD KEY TO COMMON BIRDS.

d. Length 7-45 inches; upper parts olive-green; no wing-bars; a white
line before the eye; haunts thickets and undergrowth; song, a strik-
ing mixture of whistles, chuck*, and caws, sometimes uttered on the
wing; May to Sept Yellow-breasted Chat, page 172.

B. Under parts streaked with reddish brown ; length 5-00 inches ; gen-
eral appearance of a yellow bird ; haunts shrubbery of lawns, orchards,
second growths, and particularly willows near water ; song, rather loud,
wee, chee-ckee-chle, cher-wee, or chee-chee-chie-chee, way-o ; May to Sept.

Yellow Warblek, page 168.

C. Breast yellow, with a conspicuous black crescent ; length 10-75 inches;
haunts fields and meadows, largely terrestrial ; flight quail-like, outer
tail-feathers white, showing when on the wing ; song, a loud, musical
whistle ; a permanent resident Meadowlark, page 136.

2. Throat white.

A. With yellow on the sides.

a. Length 5-50 inches ; rump yellow ; breast streaked or spotted with
black ; tail-feathers marked with white ; note, a characteristic tchip ;
Sept. to May, usually rare or local in winter.

Myrtle Wakbler, page 168.

b. Length 5-00 inches ; no black on under parts or white in the tail ; yel-
low extending along the whole sides; back olive-green, iris white;
haunts thickets ; call, an emphatic" Who are you, eh ? " ; May to Oct.

"White-eyed Vireo, page 165.

c. Length 5-25 inches ; tail and wings banded with yellow, showing
conspicuously in flight ; haunts woodland ; movements active, much
in the air, tail frequently spread; May to Oct. Kedstart, page 169.

B. No yellow on sides.

a. Length 6-75 inches ; a yellow line from the bill to the eye ; crown
black, with a white stripe through its center ; haunts in and about
thickets and bushy woodlands ; song, a high, clear, musical whistle;
call-note, chink White-throated Sparrow, page 143.

b. Length 4-00 inches ; a yellow, or yellow and orange crown-patch, bor-
dered by black ; flits restlessly about outer limbs of trees and bushes ;
note, a fine ti-tl ; Oct. to Apl. Golden-crowned Kinglet, page. 181.

3. Throat neither yellow nor white.

A. Length 12-00 inches; white rump and yellow in wings showing con-
spicuously in flight ; a black breast-band ; note, a loud kee-yer.

Flicker, page 116.

B. Length 9-00 inches ; crested : breast ashy, belly yellow ; tail-feathers
largely pale brownish red ; haunts upper branches in woodland ; note,
a loud questioning or grating whistle ; May to Sept.

Crested Flycatcher, page 123.

C. Length 7-50 inches ; throat and head black ; breast, belly, and lower
back deep orange ; haunts fruit and shade trees ; song, a loud, ringing
whistle; May to Sept Baltimore Oriole, page 131.

D. Length 7'20 inches ; crested ; grayish brown ; a black line through
the eye ; tail tipped with yellow ; generally seen in small flocks ; note
thin and weak Cedar Waxwino, page 101.

FIELD KEY TO COMMON BIRDS. 79

II. With red in the plumage.

1. With red "ii the under parte.

A. Throat red.

a. Length 7"25 inches ; wings and tail black ; rest of plumage bright
scarlet; call-note, chip-chirr; May to Sept.

Scarlet Tanaqer, page 156.

b. Length C-20 inches ; dull, pinkish red, wings and tail brownish ; fre-
quently seen feeding on buds or blossoms; call-note, a sharp chnnk,
often uttered during flight ; song, a sweet, flowing warble.

I'uri'le Finch, page 149.

c. Length 8*20 inches ; dull red or green tinged with red ; mandibles
crossed ; generally seen in flocks ; feeds on pine cones.

Am. Crossbill, page 147.

d. Length 530 inches; a red crown-cap: back streaked black and
brown ; breast rosy ; feeds on seeds or catkins ; Nov. to Mch.

Redpoll, page 146.

B. Throat black.

a. Length 8-00 inches; breast rose-red, rest of plumage black and
white ; song loud and musical ; call-note, peek ; May to Sept.

Rose-isreasted Grosbeak, page 150.

b. Length 800 inches; a conspicuous crest; region about the base of
the bill black ; rest of the plumage and bill red ; 6ong, a elear
whistle ; resident from New York city southward.

Cardinal, page 153.

c. Length 5-40 inches ; wings and tail banded with orange-red, showing
conspicuously in flight: movements active; much in the air; tail
frequently spread ; haunts woodland ; May to Oct.

Redstart, page 169.

2. No red on the under parts.

A. Length 9-50 inches; black ; shoulders red; haunts marshes; migrates
in flocks; Mch. to Oct Red-winged Blackbird, page 182.

B. Length 525 inches : crown-cap red ; chin black ; rest of under parts
streaked with blackish; feeds on seeds and catkins; Nov. to Mch.

Redpoll (im.), page 146.

C. Length 4-00 inches; under parts whitish; back olive-green; a ruby
crown-patch ; eye-ring white; movements restless, wings flitted nerv-
ously ; call-note, auk; song remarkably loud and musical; Sept. and
Oct.; Apl. and May Buby-obowkbd Kinglet, page 182.

£H. With blue in the plumage.

A. Length 11*50 inches; r conspicuous crest; upper parts dull blue;
under parts whitish ; a Mack patch on the breast

Blue Jay, page 130.

B. Length 7*00 inches* uppeT parts bright blue; under parts cinnamon-
brown Bi.i F.iiiiu), page 186.

C. Length 5-50 inches; entire plumage indigo-blue ; May to Oct.

[ndigo I'.i vi im,, page 152.

D. Length 13-00; bluish gray; haunts Dear water; feeds on fish, which
it catches by darting on them at the surface . Kingfisher, page 114.

80 FIELD KEY TO COMMON BIRDS.

IV. Plumage conspicuously black, or black and white.

1. Black and white birds.

A. Throat black.

a. Length over 6 00 inches.

a». Entire under parts black; nape huffy; rump white; a musical
dweller of fields and meadows ; frequently sings on the wing ; May
to Sept Bobolink, page 134.

aa. Breast rose-red ; rest of the plumage black and white ; song
rapid, loud and musical ; call-note, peek; a tree dweller in rather
open woodland ; May to Sept.

Rose-breasted Grosbeak, page 150.

a*. Sides reddish hrown; rest of the plumage black and white ; call-
note, chewink or towh'ee ; inhabits the undergrowth ; often seen on
ground scratching among fallen leaves ; Apl. 25 to Oct.

Towhee, page 151.

b. Length under 6-00 inches.

b1. Crown black; cheeks white; back ashy; unstreaked; call, chick-
a-dee, or a musical, double-noted whistle; a permanent resident.

Chickadee, page 179.

B. Throat and other parts white or whitish.

a. Length 8-50 inches ; upper parts blackish slate-color ; tail tipped with
white; a bird of the air, catching its insect food on the wing, and
occasionally sallying forth from its exposed perch in pursuit of a pass-
ing Crow ; note, an unmusical, steely chatter ; May to Sept.

Kingbird, page 122.

b. Length 6-90 inches : upper parts washed with rusty ; generally seen
in flocks; terrestrial; Nov. to Mch Snowflake, page 147.

2. No white in the plumage.

A. Length 19-00 inches ; jet black Am. Crow, page 128.

B. Length 12-00 inches; black with metallic reflections ; iris yellowish;
migrates in flocks ; nests usually in colonies in coniferous trees ; voice
cracked and reedy; tail "keeled" in short flights; a walker; Mch. to
Nov Purple Grackle, page 133.

C. Length 9-50 inches ; shoulders red ; haunts marshes ; call, kong-quer-
ree ; Mch. to Oct Red-winged Blackbird, page 132.

D. Length 7'90 inches ; head and neck cofl'ee-brown ; frequently seen on
the ground near cattle ; Mch. to Nov Cowbird, page 137.

V. Birds not included in the preceding sections (that is,
plumage without either yellow, orange, red, or blue;
not conspicuously black, or black and white).

1. Under parts white or whitish, all one color, without streaks or spots.
A. Back without streaks or spots.
a. Back olive-green ; gleaners, exploring the foliage for food or flitting
about the outer branches.

a1. Length 6-25 inches; a white line over the eye bordered by a nar-
row black one ; cap gray ; iris red ; song, a rambling recitative : " You
see it — you know it— do you hear me ? " etc. ; May to Oct.

Red-eyed Vireo, page 1G4.

FIELD KEY TO COMMON BIRDS. 81

a*. Length 5*75 inches; a white line over Che eye nol bordered by
black ; prefers the upper branches of rows of elms and other shade
trees; Bong, a rich, unbroken warble with an alto undertone; May
to Sept Wabbling Vireo, page \,-,:K

a3. Length 4-00 inches; no white line over the eye; eye-ring and
wing-bars white; a tiny, unsuspicious bird; flits about the outer
branches of trees and shrubs; wings twitched nervously; note,
cufk; Bang, a remarkably loud, musical whistle; Sept. and Oct.;

Apl. and May Ruby-crowned Kinglet, page 182.

6. Back olive-green or dusky olive; flycatchers who capture their prey

on the wing by darting for it, and while perching are' quiet and erect.

b1. Length 7-00 inches; frequently found nesting under bridges or
about buildings; crown blackish; tail wagged nervously; notes,
pee, pee, and pt wU-phabi : Mch. to Oct . . . Phojbe, page 124.

b'J. Length 6-50 inches; haunts wooded growths; note, a plaintive
pee-a-wee; May to Sept Wood Pe wee, page 126.

b3. Length 5*40 inches; haunts orchards, lawns, and open woodlands;
note, chebec, chebec Least Fltcatohkb, page 125.

c. Back gray or bluish gray.

c1. Length 6-50 inches ; a gray, crested bird ; forehead black ; no white
in the tail; note, a whistled peto,peto, or hoarse de-dt -de-de\ resi-
dent from New York city southward . . Tufted Tit, page 180.

c*. Length 8-50 inches; a white band at the end of the tail; a con-
cealed orange-red crest; a bird of the air, catching its insect food
on the wing, and occasionally sallying forth from its exposed perch
in pursuit of a passing Crow; note, an unmusical, steely chatter;
May to Sept Kinqbibd, page 122.

d. Back brown.

d1. Length 5-00 inches; a nervous, restless, excitable bird; tail often
carried erect; song sweet, rapid and rippling, delivered with aban-
don ; Apl. 25 to Oct House When, page 175.

ip. Length 12-25 inches; slim, brownish birds with long tails; flight
short and noiseless ; perch in a tree, not in an exposed position ;
note, tut-tut, cluck-cluck, and cow-cow ; May to Oct.

Yellow-billed Cuckoo, Blackbilled Cuckoo, pages 112, 113.
B. Back brownish, streaked.
a. Crown rufous or chestnut without streaks.

a1. Length 5-25 inches; bill black; a whitish line over the eye; a
familiar bird of lawns and door-yards; Bong, a monotonous chippy-
eMppy-ohippy, Apl. to Nov. . . Chipping Sparrow, page 142.
a1. Length 5*70 inches; bill reddish brown, back rufous or rufous-
brown; wing-bars and eye-ring whitish ; haunts dry, bushy fields
and pastures; Bong, a musical, plaintive chsr-toee, eher-wee, cher-
wee,cheeo, dee-dee-dee-dee \ Apl. to Nov. Field Sparrow, page 140.
a*. Length 5*90 inches; forehead black; crown and wings ch

rufous; thinks pale grayish brown ; haunts marshes ; soiil.'. a rapidly
repeated Wtet-Weet-Wt • t, etc.; Mch. to Nov.

Swamt Bpabbow, page 139.
13

82 FIELD KEY TO COMMON BIRDS.

b. Crown not rufous or chestnut.

b1. Length 6-75 inches; crown blackish, with a central whitish stripe;
throat white; breast gray; a yellow spot before the eye; haunts
in and about thickets ami bushy woodlands; song, a high, clear,
musical whistle; call-note, chink.

White-throated Sparrow, page 143.
b*. Length 5-20 inches; bill slender; a white line over the eye;
tail carried erect; haunts reedy marshes; call-note scolding;
song rippling ; May to Oct.

Long-billed Marsh Wren, page 177.
2. Under parts white or whitish, streaked or jotted.

A. Back streaked.

a. Length 6*10 inches : outer tail-feathers white, showing conspicuously
when the bird flies; haunts dry fields and roadsides; song musical;
Apl. to Nov Vesper Sparrow, page 141.

b. Outer tail-feathers not white.

bl. Length 6-30 inches ; breast with numerous spots tending to form
one large spot in its center: haunts on or near the ground, generally
in the vicinity of bushes; call-note, chimp; song musical; a per-
manent resident Song Sparrow, page 138.

b*. Length 6-35 inches; breast grayish with one spot in its center;
Oct. to Apl Tree Sparrow, page 146.

B. Back not streaked ; breast spotted.

a. Length 11-40 inches; tail 5-00 inches; wing-bars white: upper parts,
wings, and tail bright cinnamon-brown ; haunts undergrowth ; sings
from an exposed and generally elevated position; song loud, striking,
and continuous ; Apl. 25 to Oct. . . Brown Thrasher, page 175.

b. Length under 9-00 inches; tail under 300 inches; no wing-bars;
back reddish or cinnamon-brown.

b1. Length 8-25 inches; breast and sides heavily marked with large,
round, black spots; head and upper back brighter than lower back
and tail ; call-note, a sharp pit or liquid quirt ; May to Oct.

Wood Thrush, page 184.

b*. Length 7'15 inches: breast witli wedge-shaped black spots; sides
unspotted, washed with brownish ashy : tail reddish brown, brighter
than back; call-note, a low chuck; Apl. 10 to May 10; Oct. and
Nov Hermit Thrush, page 185.

b*. Length 750 inches : upper breast lightly spotted with small, wedge-
shaped, brownish spots ; tail the same color as the back ; sides white ;
call-note, a clearly whistled wheeu ; May to Sept.

Wilson's Thrush, page 183.

c. Length under 9'00 inches ; tail under 3-00 inches ; no wing-bars ; back
olive-green.

cK Length 6-10 inches; center of crown pale brownish bordered by
black; haunts on or near the ground in woodland; a walker;
song, a ringing crescendo, teacher, teacher, teacher, TEACHER,
TEACHER; May to Sept Oven-bird, page 170.

FIELD KEY TO COMMON BIRDS. g3

3. Under parts not white or whitish, all one color, without streaks.

.1. Length 6*50 inches; Blate-oolor; oap and tail black; inhabits the
lower growth; call-note, nasal ; song highly musical and varied; Apl.
25 to Oct Catbird, page 173.

B. Length 7'20 inohes; grayish brown; conspicuously crested; a black
line through the eye; tail tipped with yellow; generally seen in small
flocks ; note thin and weak Cbdab Waxwiko, page 161.

C. Length 5-50 inches; under parts cream-buff; a conspicuous whitish
line over the eye ; upper parts reddish brown; movements active; tail
carried erect ; haunts lower growth ; notes loud and striking; resident
from New York city southward .... Carolina Wren, page 177.

4. Throat and upper breast black or slate-color, very different from the
white or chestnut belly.

A. Throat l>lack.

a. Belly and rump chestnut ; head, wings, and tail black; length 7'30
inches; haunts orchards and shade trees; song highly musical ; May

to Sept Orchard Oriole, page 132.

b. Belly white; sides reddish brown: tail black and white; length S'35
inches; haunts undergrowths ; call-note, chewink or towhee; Apl. 25
to Oct Towhee, page 151.

B. Throat slate-color.

a. Back and wings slate-color; outer tail-feathers and belly white;
Length 6'25 inches; haunts generally on or near the ground about
shrubbery ; Oct. to Apl Junco, page 145.

5. Throat streaked with black and white ; rest of under parts reddish brown ;
upper parts grayish slate-color; length 10-00 inches . Robin, page 186.

OUR COMMON BIRDS.
THE WATER BIRDS.

DIVING BIRDS. (ORDER PYGOPODES.)

Grebes. (Family Podicipid^e.)

The study of water birds requires special advantages
and equipments, among which are a suitable location,
much time, and a gun. Our coasts and shores are be-
coming so popular as " resorts " that many of the former
haunts of waterfowl are now thickly populated, and the
birds are comparatively rare. Furthermore, the larger
number of our water birds nest in the far North and
winter in the South, visiting the Middle States only while
on their migrations. It is evident, therefore," that if we
would become familiar with these birds, we must devote
ourselves especially to their pursuit.

There are, however, some species, notably those which
frequent bodies of fresh water and nest in this latitude,
Pied-billed Grebe which deserve to be ranked among our
Podilymbus podiceps. commoner birds. Of these, one of the
riate ii. kggf. knowEl) by name at least, is the

Pied-billed Grebe, whose aquatic powers have given it
the expressive title of Hell-diver.

Under favorable conditions this little Grebe may breed
anywhere from the Argentine Republic to British Amer-
ica, but in the Middle States it occurs chiefly as a spring
and fall migrant. When nesting, a quiet, reedy pond or
lake is chosen for a home, the nest being made on a pile
of decaying vegetation. The eggs, four to eight in num-
ber, are dull white, more or less stained by the nesting
material, which the parent bird rarely fails to place over
84

Plate XXV. pAGE 116.

RED-HEADED WOODPECKER.

Length, 9-75 inches. Adult, whole head and neck deep red, back and

tail black; upper tail-coverts, greater part <>f secondaries, and belly

white. Young, similar, but head, Lack, throat, and sides grayish black.

LOON. 85

them when leaving the nest. The young are born covered
with down and can swim at birth. The Pied-billed
Grebe is one of our most aquatic birds. "When pursued,
it prefers diving to night, and the marvelous rapidity
with which it can disappear from the surface of the
water, to reappear in a quite unexpected place, justifies
its reliance on its own natatorial powers. It can swim
under water with only its bill exposed, when it becomes
practically invisible.

When on land Grebes progress awkwardly. They
can, it is said, stand erect on their toes, but, when resting,
support themselves on the whole length of the foot or
tarsus (see Fig. 8, the Great Auk).

On the wing Grebes resemble small Ducks, but their
pointed bill and their feet stretched out behind the rudi-
mentary tail will serve to distinguish them.

Looks. (Family Urixatorid^e.)

The Loon, like its small relative the Grebe, is known

to almost every one by name, but only those who have

Loon visited its summer haunts among the

Urinator imber, ^Northern lakes and heard its wild call
Plate in. can j^ ga-cj £0 know it. Nuttall writes

of its cry as "the sad and wolfish call of the solitary
Loon, which, like a dismal echo, seems slowly to invade
the ear, and, rising as it proceeds, dies away in the air."
It " may he heard sometimes for two or three miles, when
the bird itself is invisible, or reduced almost to a speck
in the distance." The Loon is as aquatic in habits as the
Grebe, but is much stronger on the wing. It migrates
by day, and probably also by night, and we may some-
times see it passing over — a large, ducklike bird — in
March and October.

When on land, it is nearly helpless, progressing awk-

86 HERRING GULL.

wardly by the use of feet, wings, and bill. For this rea-
son it nests near the water's edge, often where it can
slide from the eggs directly into its true element. The
nest is a slight depression in the earth, in which are laid
two elliptical eggs, in color olive-brown, slightly spotted
with blackish.

LONG-WINGED SWIMMERS. (ORDER LONGIPENNES.)

Gills and Terns. (Family Larid^e.)

No birds are more widely distributed than the Gulls
and Terns. Some species are pelagic, visiting the land

_ , _ „ only at long intervals and when nest-

Herring Gull, . J &

Lotus argmtatua mg 5 others live along the coast, and
amtiksonionus. several species resort to inland waters.
About one hundred species are known,
fifty being Gulls and fifty Terns. The former are, as a
rule, larger, stouter birds than the latter, and, generally
speaking, are more maritime. The commonest of the ten
species found in the Eastern States is the Herring Gull.
It nests from Maine northward, and is found southward
along our coast from October 1 to April. This is the
Gull we see in such numbers in our bays and harbors,
flying gracefully and apparently aimlessly about, but in
reality ever keeping its bright black eyes fixed on the
water in search of some floating morsel, which it deftly
picks from the surface. It frequently follows vessels,
hanging over the stern day after day, and deserting its
post only to feed on scraps thrown overboard from the
galley. There are said to be reliable records of these
birds following the same vessel from the Irish coast to
New York Harbor.

Gulls do excellent service in devouring much refuse
that would otherwise be cast ashore to decay ; but, useful

Plate XXVI. PAGE i16.

FLICKER.
Length, 12-00 inches. Male, crown gray, oape scarlet, back brownish
and black, rump white; under surface of wings and tail yellow; sides of
throat and breast-patch black ; bellyspotted with Mack. Female, simi-
lar, but no black on sides of throat

COMMON TERN. 87

as they are as scavengers, I feel that their place in Nature
is to animate the barren wastes of the sea. How, when
at sea, the presence of a single Gull changes the whole
aspect of Nature ! The great expanse of water, which
before was oppressive in its dreary lifelessness, is trans-
formed by the white-winged Gulls into a scene of rare
beauty. Every voyager, be he naturalist or not, admires
their grace of form and motion. They seem born of the
waves, and as much a part of the ocean as the foamy
whitecaps themselves.

The beautiful Terns or Sea Swallows are even more
graceful than the Gulls. They are slenderer birds, lighter
Common Tern an<^ more active on the wing, with long,
Sterna hirundo. forked tails and pointed bills. They
Plate x. arrive from the South in May and re-

main until September, nesting in colonies.

Terns are littoral rather than pelagic, seldom being
found far from the shore. Like the Gulls, they seem so
in harmon with their surroundings that no coast view is
perfect from which the Terns are missing. They add
the requisite touch of life, and make still more impressive
the thunder of the surf dashing over rocks or curling in
long, combing waves on the beach.

During recent years these birds have been killed in
such numbers for millinery purposes that on the middle
Atlantic coast the only sun ivors exist on three or four
uninhabited islets. If one protests against the merciless
destruction of- these exquisite creatures the excuse is,
""Well, what good are they '."— an answer betraying such
an utter la<-k of appreciation of beauty that explanation
seems hopeless. But can we not learn, before it is too
late, that these birds are even more deserving of protec-
tion than the works of art we guard so zealously \

88 PETRELS.

TUBE-NOSED SWIMMERS. (ORDER TUBINARES.)

Petrels. (Family Procellariidje.)

Petrels, or " Mother Carey's Chickens," are true chil-
dren of the sea. Their home is the ocean, and they come
to land only when nesting. To the
etre *' landsman, therefore, they are strangers,

but to most people who have been to
sea they are known as the little, white-rumped swallow-
like birds who on tireless wing follow in the wake of the
ship day after day, patiently waiting for the food which
experience tells them will be thrown overboard.

Two species of Petrels are found off our coasts, "Wil-
son's and Leach's. The former has a yellow area in the
webs of the toes and a square tail, while Leach's Petrel has
the webs of the toes wholly black and a slightly forked
tail. These differences, however, would not be appre-
ciable at a distance. Wilson's Petrel nests in certain
islands of the southern hemisphere in February, and
later migrates northward, reaching our latitude in May
and spending the summer, or what in fact is its winter,
in the North Atlantic. It is, therefore, probably the
Petrel most frequently seen by transatlantic voyagers at
this season.

Leach's Petrel nests on our coasts from Maine north-
ward, arriving from the South in May. The nest is
made in a burrow in the ground or beneath a rock, and
a single white egg is laid. Generally one of the birds
spends the day on the nest while its mate is at sea, but
at night the incubating bird leaves the nest, its place being
taken probably by the one who has been feeding during
the day.

Plate XXVII. Pages 118, 119.

NIGHTHAWK.

Length, 10-00 inches. Male, above, black, white, and rusty; below,

black and white ; throat, bands in wing, and tail white. Female, similar,

but throat rusty ; no tail-band.

WHIP-POOR-WILL.
Length, 9-75 inches. Male, body black, rusty, and buff; primaries
spotted with rusty ; tips of outer tail-feathers and breast-band white.
Female, similar, but breast-band and end of tail rusty.

DUCKS. 89

LAMELLIROSTRAL SWIMMERS. (ORDER ANSERES.)
Ducks, Geese, and Swans. (Family Anatid^e.)

This family contains some two hundred species, and
is represented in all parts of the world. It includes five
subfamilies : the Mergansers {Mergmm), or Fish-eating
Ducks; the Pond or River Ducks (AnatmcB), the Bay or
Sea Ducks {FvMgvUncB) ; the Geese (Anserina) ; and
the Swans {Cygnmce).

Ducks, like all hunted birds, are exceedingly wild,
and comparatively few species will come within reach of
the student's opera-glass. The group may therefore be
reviewed briefly. The Mergansers or Shelldrakes, num-
bering three species, have narrow, serrate bills which
enable them to hold the fish they pursue and catch
under water (see Fig. 18).

The River Ducks have little or no lobe or flap on the

hind toe. In this group belong our Mallard, Widgeon,

Pintail, Blue-winged and Green-winged

Ri™a° v*8' Teals> Black Duck' Wood Duck' and
others. All but the last two nest in

the North and are found in our latitude only during

their spring and fall migrations, or, if the weather be

mild, in the winter. The Black Duck and Wood Duck

nest rarely in the Middle States.

All these birds feed in shallow water by "dabbling"
or "tipping," terms which will be readily understood by
any one who has watched domesticated Ducks feeding.

The Bay and Sea Ducks,' on the contrary, are divers,
and may descend to the bottom in water more than one
hundred and fifty feet in depth. They are to be dis-
tinguished from the River Ducks by the presence of a
flap or lobe on the hind toe. The commoner members of
14

90 DUCKS AND GEESE.

this subfamily are the Redhead, Canvasback, Scaup or
Broadbill, Whistler, Bufflehead, Old Squaw, Eider, three
species of Scoters or " Coots " and Ruddy Duck. These
are all northern-breeding birds who visit the waters of
our bays and coasts during their migrations or in the
winter.

The bill in both River and Bay Ducks has a series of
gutters on either side which serve as strainers. The
birds secure a large part of their food — of small mollusks,
crustaceans, and seeds of aquatic plants — from the bot-
tom, taking in with it a quantity of mud, which they
get rid of by closing the bill and forcing it out through
the strainers, the food being retained.

Geese are more terrestrial than Ducks, and, though
they feed under water by tipping, often visit the land to
procure grass, corn, or cereals, which they readily nip off.
The white-faced, black-necked Canada Goose is our only
common species. Its long overland journeys, while
migrating, render it familiar to many who have seen it
only in the air. It migrates northward in March and
April and returns in October and November, breeding
from the Northern States northward and wintering from
New Jersey southward.

The two Swans, Whistling and Trumpeter, found in
North America, are generally rare on the Atlantic
coast.

HERONS, STORKS, IBISES, ETC. (ORDER
HERODIONES.)

Herons and Bitterns. (Family Ardeid^.)

Of the seventy-five known members of this family
fourteen inhabit eastern North America. Most of these
are Southern in distribution, only six or seven species
regularly visiting the Northern States. Their large size

Plate XXVIII. Page 119.

CHIMNEY SWIFT.

Length, 5*40 inches. Sooty black, throal grayish.

GREAT BLUE HERON. 91

renders Herons conspicuous, and, though worthless as
food, few so-called sportsmen can resist the temptation
of shooting at them when opportunity offers. Several
of the Southern species, notably the Snowy Heron and
White Egret, are adorned during the nesting season with
the beautiful " aigrette " plumes which are apparently so
necessary a part of woman's headgear that they will go
out of fashion only when the birds go out of existence.
One can not blame the plume hunters, who are generally
poor men, for killing birds whose plumes are worth more
than their weight in gold — the blame lies in another
quarter. But I have no words with which to express
my condemnation of the man who kills one of these
birds wantonly.

The presence of a stately Great Blue Heron or
" Crane " adds an element to the landscape which no

Great Blue Heron, work of nmn can e(luaL Its Srace °f

Ardea Jurodiaa. form and motion, emphasized by its
Plate vi. large size, is a constant delight to the

eye ; it is a symbol of the wild in Nature ; one never
tires of watching it. "What punishment, then, is severe
enough for the man who robs his fellows of so pure
a source of enjoyment ? A rifle ball turns this noble
creature into a useless mass of flesh and feathers ; the
loss is irreparable. Still, we have no law to prevent it.
Herons are said to devour large numbers of small fish.
But is not the laborer worthy of his hire ? Are the fish
more valuable than this, one of the grandest of birds ?

The Great Blue Heron breeds throughout North
America, but there are now only a few localities in the
northeastern States where it may be found nesting. We
usually see it, therefore, as a migrant in April and May,
and from August to November.

The Little Green Heron is the smallest, as the Great
Blue Heron is the largest, of our Herons. Its small

92 HERONS.

size, preference for wooded regions instead of marshes,
and habit of nesting alone, not in flocks, like most Her-
Little Green Heron, ons> accounts for its being relatively
Ardea virescms. common. It arrives from the South
Plate vi. about April 20, and nests early in

May. The nest, as is usual in this family, is a rude
platform of sticks and is placed in a bush or the lower
branch of a tree, often overhanging the water. The eggs
number from three to six, and in color are pale green-
ish blue. The young, although born with a covering of
hairlike feathers, are quite helpless and are reared in
the nest. Adults have the crown and back dark, glossy
green, the neck reddish brown.

The notes of this little Heron are a clear whistle and
a harsh squawk, uttered when it is frightened. It then
seeks refuge by alighting in a distant bush or tree, and
with upstretched neck and twitching tail watches the
intruder.

The Night Heron, or Squawk, doubtless owes its

escape from the fate of most Herons to its nocturnal

habits. These birds arrive from the

Ni ht Heron South m April and remain until Oc-

flydicorax nycticorax tober. They nest in large colonies, a

namws. rookery not far from New York city

being inhabited by at least one thousand

pairs. It is in a low, wooded tract, and the nests are built

in the trees at an average height of thirty feet. The eggs

number four to six, and in color are pale bluish green.

At night, while feeding, these Herons are doubtless
distributed over a wide area. When flying, they often
utter a loud squawk, the origin of one of their common
names. It is a surprising sound when heard near by at
night, and has doubtless aroused the curiosity of many
persons who live near a line of flight followed by these
birds in going to and from their nests.

'

w

''1.1.

'

mkf^JmRL'

g

£*

Brnest oeton [hom{>SCh~

■

Tlate XXIX. Page 120.

RUBY-THROATED HUMMINGBIRD.

Length, 3 -75 inches. AduH male, upper parte metallic green ; throat

metallic ruby-red; belly grayish; Bides greenish. Adult female and

young, siiuilar, but throat white.

AMERICAN BITTERN. 93

The Bittern, or Stake Driver, is a summer resident of
our larger marshes, arriving early in April and remaining
American Bittern, until October. Though by no means
Butaunts tentiginostu. common, its notes are so loud and re-
riate vii. markable that even a single calling

bird is more likely to attract attention than many smaller
abundant species. Under favorable circumstances these
notes may be heard for at least three fourths of a mile.
They are of two kinds. One is described as the " pump-
ing " call, and is generally written piimp-er-lunk, p ump-
6 ■r-Junl\ p!i.m [>- < i'-lu dI\ while the other is deceptively like
the sound produced by driving a stake in the mud. Mr.
Bradford Torrey, one of the few ornithologists who has
observed the bird while it was uttering these singular
cries, tells us (The Auk, vi, 1889, p. 1) that they are
attended by violent, convulsive movements of the head
and neck, which suggest the contortions of a seasick
person, but that the bird's bill is neither immersed in
water nor plunged in the mud, as has been popularly
supposed.

CRANES, RAILS, ETC. (ORDER PALUDICOLiE.)
Rails and Coots. (Family Rallid^e.)

Rails are marsh-inhabiting birds, more often heard
than seen. They are very reluctant to take wing, and
when pursued seek safety by running or hiding rather
than by flying. When flushed, they go but a short dis-
tance, and with dangling legs soon drop back into the
grasses.

( )f the one hundred and eighty members of this
family, fourteen inhabit North America and eight visit
the northeastern United States. Only three or four of
these, however, are abundant, the most numerous and

94: RAILS AND COOT.

generally distributed species being our Sora or Carolina
Rail, so well known to sportsmen. This bird passes
Sora us in the spring in April and nests from

Porzana Carolina. Massachusetts northward. It returns
Plate vii. |n August and lingers in our wild-rice

marshes until October. During the nesting season it
has two calls — a whistled, ker-wee, and a high, rolling
whinny. In the fall it utters a huh or peep when dis-
turbed.

There is no sexual difference in color in this species,
but birds of the year lack the black about the base of
the bill and on the throat, and have the breast washed
with cinnamon.

Our other species of Rail are the King, Yellow, and
Little Black Rail, all of which are rare ; the Virginia Rail,
Clapper Kail which is more common, and the Clap-

Raiius crepitans. per Rail or Marsh Hen, an abundant
Plate VIII. species in some of the salt marshes

along our coasts from Long Island southward. It is a
noisy bird with a peculiar cackling call which it utters
in a way that suggests the sound produced by some auto-
matic toys.

Its nest is made of dried grasses, the surrounding
marsh grass being slightly arched over it. Eight to
twelve buffy, speckled eggs are laid, a number which,
in connection with the abundance of the bird, has led to
the persistent robbing of its nests by men who sell the
eggs for food. As a result of this practice the birds
have greatly decreased in numbers during recent years.

The Coot, Mud-hen, or Crow-duck differs from the
Rails in having lobed toes (see Fig. 12) and in being
American Coot, more aquatic. In fact, it is more like
FuHea americana. a Duck in habits than like a Rail, but
Plate viii. |tg p0inted, white-tipped bill will pre-

vent its being mistaken for one.

Plate XXX. Page 12

KINGBIKD.
Length, 8-50 Inches. Upper parts grayish black ; tip of tail and under
parts white ; an orange-red crown-patch. Young, similar, but without
orange-red in crown.

WOODCOCK. 95

It rarely breeds on the Atlantic coast, but is some-
times common on our marsh-bordered streams in the
fall.

shore birds. (order limicolie.)

Snipes and Sandpipers. (Family Scolopacid^e.)

The successful pursuit of shore birds on our coasts
requires a special knowledge of their notes and habits.
Thirty of the one hundred known species visit us annu-
ally, but of this number only two or three nest, most of
the others migrating in May to their breeding grounds in
the far North. The return migration takes place during
July, August, and September, but with some exceptions
these birds are seen only by those who hunt them sys-
tematically with decoys.

Only these exceptions and our summer resident species

will be mentioned here. Commonest among the latter

is the Woodcock, a bird so unlike other

AXToodcock

PMlohela minor Snipe in his choice of haunts that he
seems quite out of place in this family.
Nor is he, strictly speaking, a summer resident, for there
are only three months in the year when the Woodcock
is not with us. He comes in March as soon as the frost-
bound earth will permit him to probe for Jiis diet of
\\ i wins, and he remains until some December freeze
drives him southward.

Low, wet woods, where skunk cabbage and hellebore
thrive, or bush-grown, springy runs, are the Woodcock's
early haunts. In August, while molting, he often visits
cornfields in the bottom lands, and in the fall wooded
hillsides are his resorts. But, wherever he is, the Wood-
cock leaves his mark in the form of "borings" — little holes
which dot the earth in clusters, and show where the bird

96 SPOTTED SANDPIPER.

has probed for earthworms with his long, sensitive bill,
the upper mandible of which, as Mr. Gordon Trumbull
has discovered, the bird can use as a finger.

The Woodcock's nest is made of dried leaves, and the
four large, pear-shaped eggs are buff, spotted with shades
of reddish brown. The young are born covered with
rich chestnut and buff down, and can run as soon as
dry.

As a songster the Woodcock is unique among our
summer birds. Ordinarily sedate and dignified, even
pompous in his demeanor, in the spring he falls a victim
to the passion which is accountable for so many strange
customs in the bird world.

If some April evening you visit the Woodcock's
haunts at sunset, you may hear a loud, nasal note repeated
at short intervals— -peent, pemt. It resembles the call of
a Mghthawk, but is the Woodcock sounding the first
notes of his love song. He is on the ground, and as you
listen, the call ceases and the bird springs from the ground
to mount skyward on whistling wings. He may rise
three hundred feet, then, after a second's pause, one hears
a twittering whistle and the bird shoots down steep
inclines earthward. Unless disturbed, he will probably
return to near the spot from which he started and at
once resume his peenting. This, with the twittering
note, is vocal ; the whistling sound, heard as the bird rises,
is produced by the rapid passage of air through its stif-
fened primaries.

Our only other common summer resident Snipe is the
Spotted Sandpiper. It frequents the shores of lakes,

Spotted Sandpiper, Ponds> and ri™r8> aixd is also fmmd

Aetitis mamlaria. near the sea, but wherever seen may be

Plate XL known by its singular tipping, teter-

ing motion, which has given it the names of Tip-up and

Teter Snipe. It is also called Peet-weet, from its sharp

Plate XXXI. Page 123.

CHESTED FLYCATCHER.
Length, 9*00 inches. Upper parts brownish olive-green ; inner vane of
tail-feathers rusty; breast gray ; belly pale yellow.

WILSON'S SNIPE. n:

pall, rapidly repeated as it flies over the water. After
gaining headway it sails for some distance, when its wide-
Btretched wings show a white bar or band.

The Spotted Sandpiper arrives from the South late
in April and remains until Oetober. It nests in the lat-
ter half of May, laying four pear-shaped eggs, in eolor
white or buff, thiekly spotted and speekled with ehopo-
late, ehiefly at the larger end. The young, like those of
all Snipe, are born with a eovering of downy feathers,
and ean run as soon as dry. The egg is, therefore, large
in proportion to the size of the bird, and measures 1*25 by
•95 inches. (See Fig. 24«.)

Unlike the two preeeding birds, Wilson's or the
English Snipe is not a summer resident in the Middle
Wilson's Snipe States, but as a rule nests from north-
inago delicata. ern New England northward, though
Plate ix. there are reeords of its breeding as

far south as Conneetieut and Pennsylvania. It migrates
northward in March and April, and the return journey
oepurs during September and Oetober. It is not a true
shore bird, but frequents fresh-water marshes and mead-
ows, and in rainy April weather, when the lowlands be-
eome more or less flooded, it may be found in plaees where
few persons would think of looking for Snipe.

Like the Woodeopk, "Wilson's Snipe probes the mud
for food, and when on the ground among the grasses its
colors and pattern of coloration so elosely resemble its
surroundings that it is almost invisible.

When flushed, it utters a startled scaip, and darts
quickly into the air, flying at first in so erratie a manner
that it has become famous among sportsmen as a diffi-
cult mark.

Like the Nighthawk, Wilson's Snipe sometimes dives
earthward from high in the air, making as he falls a
sound which Minot pompares to that produped by throw-
15

98 SEMIPALMATED SANDPIPER.

ing a nail held crosswise in the hand, though it is louder
and more full. This performance is generally restricted
to late evening and early morning during the spring, but
is occasionally practiced in the fall.

Most of our transient visitant Snipe are true shore

birds. Many of them are classed as game birds, and have

semipalmatcd now become 80 uncommon that, as

Sandpiper, before remarked, it requires a special

Ereunetespitsiiius. knowledge of their ways in order to

find them. But there are some species

too small to be worthy the sportsman's attention, and they

are often numerous on our beaches. They are generally

known as Peeps or Ox-eyes, but in books are termed

Semipalmated Sandpipers — active little fellows, with

black, gray and rusty backs and white under parts, who

run along the shore, feeding on the small forms of life

cast up by the waves. They are sociable birds, and even

when feeding the members of a flock keep together, while

when flying they move almost as one bird.

These Sandpipers visit us in May, when journeying to
their summer homes within the Arctic Circle, and return
in July, to linger on our shores until October. Their
call-note is a cheery, peeping twitter, which probably
suggested one of their common names.

Plovers. (Family Charadriidje.)

Most Plovers differ from Snipe in possessing three
instead of four toes, and in having the scales on the tarsi
rounded, not square or transverse. Their bill is shorter
and stouter than that of Snipe, and they do not probe
for food, but pick it up from the surface.

Although several species visit dry fields and uplands,
they are ranked as shore birds or bay birds, and, as with
Snipe, the species large enough to be ranked as game

Plate XXXII. Page 124.

PHOEBE.

Length, 7-00 inches. Back dusky olive; crown blackish; under parts

while tinged with yellow; outer margin of outer tail-feathers whitish;

bill black.

PLOVERS. 99

have become comparatively rare. Of the one hundred
known species, six visit eastern North America — the
Black-breasted, Grolden, Piping, Wilson's, Semipalmated,

and' Killdeer Plovers. Only the last two of these are
common enough to deserve mention here.

Killdeer The Killdeer, with the exception of

/Effialitis vod/era. the Piping Plover, is the only bird of

Plate XI. tills family that nests with us. It is

irregularly distributed in the northeastern States, but its
noisy call, kildee, Z/AAv, and striking markings render it
a conspicuous bird even where it is uncommon. It fre-
quents uplands and lowlands, fields and shores, but prefers
the vicinity of water. Its nest of grasses is made on the
ground, and its four eggs are whitish, spotted and scrawled
with chestnut, chiefly at the larger end.

The Semipalmated or Ring-necked Plover looks like
a miniature of the Killdeer, but, in addition to other dif-

_ . , . -, _, ferences, has onlv one band on the

Semipalmated Plover, '

jtyiaMtis breast. The male has the upper parts

eemipalmata. brownish gray, the under parts, nape,
and forehead white, while the breast-
band, crown, and cheeks are black. In the female these
black areas are brownish gray. This Plover visits our
shores and beaches during its northward migration in
May and southward migration in August and September.
Thanks to its small size, it is not hunted as game, and
for this reason is almost as common as the little Peeps
or ( >x-eyes, with which it often associates. Its call is a
simple but exceedingly sweet and plaintive two-noted
whistle.

THE LAND BIRDS.
GALLINACEOUS BIRDS. (ORDER GALLING.)

Bob-whites, Grouse, etc. (Family Tetraonid^e.)

This is the family of the game birds — the aristocrats
of the bird world. They are protectively colored birds,
their rich brown, buff, and black plumage harmoniz-
ing with their surroundings. Relying on their incon-
spicuousness, they avoid danger by hiding rather than by
flight, taking wing only as a final resort. Then, with a
startling whir-r-r, they spring into the air, their short,
strong wings enabling them to reach their greatest speed
within a short distance of the starting point.

One of the best-known members of this distinguished
family is our familiar Bob-white, the Quail of the North
and Partridge of the South. The fact
n ,. ' . . .' is, he is neither a true Quail nor Par-

tridge, and those who claim that but
one of these names is correct may compromise on " Bob-
white."

The Bob-white inhabits the eastern United States, and
wherever found is resident throughout the year. The
sexes are much alike in color, the only important differ-
ence being in the throat and the line over the eye, which
are white in the male and buff in the female.

No bird better illustrates the peculiar potency of
bird song, and the hopelessness of attempting to express its
charm. If I should describe Bob-white's call to a person
who had never heard it, as two ringing notes, do you
suppose he would have the faintest conception of what
100

Plate XXXIII. Page 126.

WOOD PEWEE.
Length, 6*50 Inches. Upper pans dusky olive-green; under parts
whitish, washed with dusky; lower mandible yellowish.

RUFFED GROUSE. K)l

they mean to those whc love them i The promise of
Spring, its fulfillment in summer, is clearly told in Bob-
white's greeting. Then, in the autumn, when the mem-
bers of a scattered bevy are signaling each other, their
sweet tohere are you t where are you ? is equally associated
with the season.

The Bob- white nests about May 20, laying from ten
to eighteen white eggs in a nest on the ground.

The Ruffed Grouse, or Partridge of the North and
Pheasant of the South, is properly a true Grouse, and
Ruffed Grouse, can not ue correctly called either Par-
Bonasa umbellus. tridge or Pheasant. He is a more
Plate xii. northern bird than the Bob-white, be-

ing found south of Virginia only in the Alleghanies.
Requiring large tracts of woodland for his haunts, he
is less generally distributed and not so common as his
plump relative.

I always associate the Grouse with the astounding
roar of wings made by the bird as he springs from the
ground at my feet and sails away through the forest. I
watch him at first with dazed surprise, then with a keen
sense of pleasure in the meeting. One need not be a
sportsman to appreciate the gaminess of the Grouse.

To find a hen Grouse with young is a memorable
experience. "While the parent is giving us a lesson in
mother-love and bird intelligence, her downy chicks are
teaching us facts in protective coloration and heredity.
How the old one limps and flutters ! She can barely
drag herself along the ground. But while we are watch-
ing her, what has become of the ten or a dozen little
yellow balls we almost stepped on ? Not a feather do
we see, until, poking about in the leaves, we find one
little chap hiding here and another squatting there, all
perfectly still, and so like the leaves in color as to be
nearly invisible.

102 MOURNING DOVE.

The drumming of the Grouse, as described by Mr.
Thompson, begins " with the measured thump of the big
drum, then gradually changes and dies away in the rum-
ble of the kettle-drum. It may be briefly represented
thus: Thump — thump — thump — thump, thump; thump,
thump — rup rup rup rup, r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r. The sound is
produced by the male bird beating the air with his wings
as he stands firmly braced on some favorite low perch."

The Ruffed Grouse makes its leaf-lined nest usually
at the base of a tree or stump, and the eight to fourteen
buff eggs are laid early in May.

PIGEONS AND DOVES. (ORDER COLUMBiE.)

Pigeons and Doves. (Family Columbine.)

The three hundred species belonging in this order are
distributed throughout most parts of the world, but only
two of them are found in the northeastern States. One
of these, however, the Wild Pigeon, is now so rare that
its occurrence is worthy of note. Less than fifty years
ago it was exceedingly abundant, but its sociable habits
of nesting and flying in enormous flocks made it easy
prey for the market hunter, and, with that entire disre-
gard of consequences which seems to characterize man's
action when his greed is aroused, the birds were pur-
sued so relentlessly that they have been practically ex-
terminated.

The Mourning or Carolina Dove has happily been
more fortunate. Nesting in isolated pairs, and not
Mourning Dove, gathering in very large flocks, it has
Zenaidum macro ura, escaped the market hunter.

Plate xiii. Thig r>ove ig found ^,.0^0^ the

greater part of North America. In the latitude of New
York it is a summer resident, arriving in March and

Plate XXXIV. Page 12f>.

HORNED LARK.
Length, 7*75 Inches. Upper parts brownish and sandy ; front and sides
of crown, sides of throat, and breast-patch black ; forehead, Hue over eye,
and throat pale yellow ; breast dusky, belly white, tail black, outer feath-
ers margined with white.

TURKEY VULTURE. L03

remaining until November. In April we may hear its
soft, sweet call, coo-o-o, ah-coo-o-o — coo-o-o — 000-0-0, as sad

as tlic roice of the wind in the pines.

Although the bird i> as beautiful in appearance as it
is graceful in flight, it is a surprisingly poor housekeeper.
Ir> platform nest of a few twigs is about as flimsy as any-
thing worthy the name can he, and one wonders how
even two eggs are kept on it long enough to hatch. In
the West the nest is placed on the ground ; in the East,
on the lower branch of a tree.

Like all the members of their family, Doves immerse
the bill while drinking, and do not withdraw it until
the draught is finished. The young are fed on softened
food regurgitated from the parent's crop.

BIRDS OF PREY. (ORDER RAPTORES.)

American Vultures. (Family Cathartid^e.)

There are but eight Vultures in the western hemi-
sphere, and only two of these, the Black and the Turkey
Vulture, are found in the eastern United States. The
former is not often seen north of North
Turkey Vulture, Caroli but t, T k Vulture, or

Cataartei aura. ' J

Turkey Buzzard, as it is more frequent-
ly called, comes each summer as far as Princeton, N. J.,
and occasionally strays farther north.

The Turkey Buzzard is one of Nature's scavengers,
and, as such, is one of the few birds whose services to
mankind are thoroughly appreciated. There art- others
of equal or even greater value who daily earn their
right to the good will which we Btupidly and persistently
refuse to grant them ; but of the Turkey Buzzard's assist-
ance we have frequent convincing proof, and the decree has
gone forth that injury to this bird is punishable by fine.

104 RED-SHOULDERED HAWK.

No other birds are so well protected ; and as a result
Turkey Buzzards and Black Vultures walk about the streets
of some of our Southern cities with the tameness of domes-
tic fowls. If we should similarly encourage our insectivo-
rous birds, who can predict the benefits which might accrue ?

Hawks, Falcons, and Eagles. (Family Falconidje.)

To this family belong the diurnal birds of prey,
which number some three hundred and fifty species, and
are distributed throughout the world. They are birds
of strong flight, and capture their prey on the wing by
striking it with their sharp, curved claws, the most dead-
ly weapons to be found in any bird's armament. The
bill is short, stout, and hooked, and is used to tear the
prey while it is held by the feet.

The voices of Hawks are in keeping with their dis-
positions, and, while their lives typify all that is fierce
and cruel, no birds are more often wrongly accused and
falsely persecuted than our birds of prey. To kill one
is regarded as an act of special merit ; to spare one seems
to place a premium on crime. Still, these birds are among
the best friends of the farmer. There are but two of our
common species, Cooper's and the Sharp-shinned, who
habitually feed on birds and poultry. Our other com-
mon species are, without exception, invaluable aids to the
agriculturist in preventing the undue increase of the small
rodents so destructive to crops.

Any one reading Dr. Fisher's reports on this subject

can not fail to be impressed with the array of facts he

Bed-shouldered presents in proof of the value of these

Hawk, birds. For instance, the Ked-shoul-

Buteo Uneatus. dered Hawk, to which the name
Plate xiv. Chicken or Hen Hawk is often ap-

plied, has been found to live largely on small mammals,

Plate XXXV. Page 131.

BALTIMORE ORIOLE.
Length, 7-50 inches. Male, crown, upper back, and throat black ; lower
back, outer tail-feathers, breast, and belly rich orange. Female, upper
parts mixed black and yellowish, rump and tail dirty yellow; under parts
dusky yellow.

RED-SHOULDERED HAWK. L05

reptiles, batrachians, and insects. Indeed of 220 stomachs
which were examined of this so-called " Chicken." Hawk,

only 3 contained remains of poultry ! Of the rest, 12
contained birds; 1<>2, mice; 4<>, other mammals; 20,
reptiles; 39, batrachians ; 92, insects; lti, spiders; 7,
crawfish; 1, earthworms; 2, offal; 3, fish; and 14 were
empty.* The usefulness of this Hawk is therefore obvi-
ous, and in killing it we can readily see that we not only
harm ourselves but render an important service to our
enemies.

Fortunately, this valuable ally is one of our com-
monest Hawks, and is with us throughout the year. Its
loud scream, kee-you, kee-you, as it sails about, high in the
air, is a familiar summer sound. The " red " shoulder is in
reality a rich, reddish chestnut on the lesser wing-coverts,
and serves to identify the bird in both immature and
adult plumage. The Red-shoulder's nest, like that of
most of our Hawks, is constructed of sticks and twigs,
with a lining of cedar bark, moss, or some other soft
material, and is situated in a tree thirty to sixty feet
from the ground. Apparently the same pair of birds re-
turn to a locality year after year, sometimes using the
same nest, at others building a new one. The eggs are
about as large as those of a hen and in color are dull
white, more or less sprinkled, spotted, or blotched with
cinnamon-brown or chocolate. They are laid early in
April, most of the Hawks being early breeders. The
young are born covered with white down, but are help-
less, and are reared in the nest.

The Red-tailed Hawk is also known as the Ben Hawk
or Chicken Hawk, but has almost as good a record as

* See Fisher, The Hawks and Owls of the United States in their
Relation to Agriculture; Bulletin No. '■'>, Division "f Ornithology
and Mammalogy, United States Department of Agriculture, 1893.
10

106 HAWKS.

the Red-shoulder, and is equally deserving of protec-
tion. He is larger than the Red -shoulder, whom he re-
sembles in habits, and has a reddish
Bed-tailed Hawk, brown ^ aQ(j & hroken bkck band
Jyuteo borealis.

across the breast when adult. His call
is a thin, long-drawn, wheezy whistle, which reminds one
of the sound produced by escaping steam.

The Marsh Hawk courses to and fro over field and
meadow, like a Gull over the water. He Dever sails,

Marsh Hawk, however, but on firm wing flies easily
Circus hudsonius. and gracefully, ever on the watch for
Plate xv. prey m tjie grasses below. He may

sometimes mistake birds for mice, but he captures far
more of the latter than of the former, and only 1 of the
124 Marsh Hawks whose stomachs were examined by
Dr. Fisher had eaten chickens.

The Marsh Hawk is migratory, and in winter is not
often found north of southern Connecticut. He nests
later than the resident Hawks, and, unlike them, builds
his nest of grasses on the ground in the marshes, laying
from four to six dull white or bluish white eggs early
in May.

The Sparrow Hawk has a perfectly clean record,

as far as chickens go, not one of the 320 whose stomachs

Sparrow Hawk, were examined by Dr. Fisher, having

Faico sparverius. partaken of poultry, while no less than

Plate xvi. 215 had eaten insects, and 89 had cap-

tured mice. Grasshoppers are the Sparrow Hawk's chief
food, and we may often see him hovering over the fields
with rapidly moving wings. Then, dropping lightly down
on some unsuspected victim below, he returns to the bare
limb or stub he uses for a lookout station, uttering an
exultant hilly — hilly — hilly as he flies.

The Sparrow is distributed throughout the greater
part of North America, but in winter is not found north

Plate XXXVI. Page 132.

OKCHAKD ORIOLE.
Length, 7-30 inches. Adult male, crown, back, and throat black, rest of
body chestnut. Youngmale, upper parts olive-green ; throat black, rest
of under parte yellowish. Female, similar, but black on throat replaced
by yellowish.

HAWKS. In;

of southern New York. It migrates northward in Feb-
ruary au<l March, but does Dot nest until May. Unlike
our other Hawks, it chooses a hollow tree for a home,
often taking possession of a Woodpecker's deserted hole.
It lays three to seven eggs, which are finely and evenly
marked with reddish brown.

It is the Sharp-shinned and Cooper's Hawks who are
the real culprits in Hawkdom. They feed almost exclu-
Sharp-shinned Hawk, ®.velj on birds, and, haying once ac-

Accipiti r > ■ loz. quired a taste for tender young broilers,

Plate x\ 11. t]1Cy are apt f.0 make daily visits to the

hen yards. They are less often observed than the Hawks
previously mentioned, seeking less exposed perches and
soaring comparatively little; but, when seen, their slen-
der bodies and long tails should aid in distinguishing
them from the stouter, slower-flying Hawks. As a rule,
they are silent. It is difficult to explain the differences
between these and other Hawks with sufficient clearness
to prevent one's killing the wrong kind, but if the farmer
will- withhold his judgment against Hawks in general,
and shoot only those that visit his poultry yard, he will
not go far astray.

Cooper's Hawk resembles the Sharp-shinned in color,

but is about four inches longer, and its outer tail-feathers

are about half an inch shorter than the

oopers aw , mj,i(i]0 oneg m8tead of being of equal
length. With the preceding species it
may be known by its slender form, long tail, compara-
tively short wings, and long, thin tarsi or "legs."

The Chinese and Japanese train Cormorants to fish

American Osprey, f°r them> but tl,e Bervicea of these birds

Fandion haliaetue would soon he at a discount if the

earoUneims. < >8prey (.()nld l,e induced to work for a
Plate XVIII. ' • .... . . . ......

master. \\ oat an inspiring sight it is
to see one plunge from the air upon its prey ! One can

108 OWLS.

sometimes hear the splash half a mile or more, and the
bird is quite concealed by the spray. It is a magnifi-
cent performance, and when, after shaking the water from
his plumage, he rises into the air, I am always tempted to
applaud.

The Osprey, or Fish Hawk, as he is also called, adheres
closely to a finny diet ; neither flesh nor fowl appears on
his menu, and he is consequently a migratory bird, com-
ing in April when the ice has melted and remaining until
October. In favorable localities he nests in colonies, re-
turning year after year to the same nest.

One master, it is true, the Osprey has, though he

makes a most unwilling servant. The Bald-headed

Eagle is often an appreciative observer of the Osprey's

j piscatorial powers, which so far exceed

Halixetus his own that he wisely, if unjustly,

leucocephalus. ^q^ hj ^^ j^^ ^ 0&Wej,

he forces him to mount higher and higher until the poor
bird in despair drops his prize, which the Eagle captures
as it falls.

Eagles are becoming so rare in the Northern States
that their occurrence is sometimes commented on by the
local press as a matter of general interest. Nevertheless,
no opportunity to kill them is neglected, and the majestic
birds who in life arouse our keenest admiration are sac-
rificed to the wanton desire to kill.

The Owls. (Family Bubonidje.)

The Owls number about two hundred species, and
are distributed throughout the world. As a rule they
are nocturnal or crepuscular birds, passing the day in
hollow trees or dense evergreens, and appearing only
after nightfall ; but there are some diurnal species, such

, ,.-<*

*

4

left'JIiom ison

Page 133.

Plate XXXVII.

PURPLE GRACKLE.

Length, male, 12-50 inches; female, 11-00 inches. Male, head, neck,
throat, and breast bright metallic blue, purple, or green; back with
iridescent bars; belly paler; eye pale yellow. Female, much duller
than male.

OWLS. 109

as the Snowy Owl and Hawk Owl, northern birds that
visit us rarely in winter.

Because of Their nocturnal habits Owls are even more
deserving of protection than the beneficial Hawks, f or
they feed at a time when mice are abroad, and their
food consists largely of these destructive little rodents.
They capture their prey, like the Hawks, by striking it
with their powerful talons, when, if small enough, it is
swallowed entire. The indigestible portions, hair, bones,
and feathers, are formed into pellets in the stomach and
ejected at the mouth. These may always be found in
numbers beneath an Owl's roosting place, and form as
sure an indication of the Owl's presence as they do of
the nature of his food. Thus, as before mentioned, two
hundred pellets of the Barn Owl, taken from the home of
a pair of these birds in the tower of the Smithsonian In-
stitution, were found by Dr. A. K. Fisher to contain the
skulls of 151 small mammals.

( )wls are generally inhabitants of woods, but our
Short-eared Owl is an exception to this rule, and lives

short-eared Owl, in largeJ 8Ta<s.v marshes. It passes the
Asia acotfitrinus. day on the ground, but at dusk may be
Plate xix. geen flying low over the marsh in search

of the meadow mice which form a large part of its food.
Dr. Fisher found, on examination of 101 stomachs of this
Owl, that no less than 77 contained the remains of mice,
convincing proof of its usefulness. Unlike any of our
other Owls, the Short-eared makes its nest on the ground,
laving from four to seven eggs. It is somewhat irregular
in its distribution, but has been found nesting, locally,
from Virginia northwTard. It winters from New Jersey
southward, and is sometimes associated in companies at
this season.

The Long-eared Owl is about the size of the Short-
eared Owl, but its " ear-tufts " are an inch or more in

HO OWLS.

length, and its sides and belly are barred, not streaked,

with blackish. It does not frequent marshes, but lives in

swampy thickets or dense woods, and

Long-eared Owl, makeg itg negt m the abanclone(J l10me

Asm vnlaomanus. .

of a Crow, Hawk, or squirrel. It is a

permanent resident from at least Massachusetts south-
ward.

Of our four " horned " Owls, the Long-eared has rela-
tively the largest and most conspicuous " ear-tufts," the
Short-eared the smallest, while in the Great Horned Owl
and Screech Owl the ears are of about the same propor-
tionate size. The Great Horned Owl, however, is found
only in the wilder, more heavily wooded parts of the coun-
try, and is hardly to be included in a list of our common
birds. It is the largest of our resident Owls, the males
measuring twenty-two inches in length, while its "ear-
tufts " are nearly two inches long.

The Screech Owl is doubtless the commonest of our
Owls, as it is also the most familiar, nesting about and

Screech Owl even m our nouses when some favor-

Megascops a»io. able hole offers. It has little to say for
Plate xx. itself until its family of four to six

fuzzy Owlets is safely launched into the world ; then, in
July or August, we may hear its melancholy voice — not
a "screech," but a tremulous, wailing whistle. It has
several other notes difficult to describe, and when alarmed
defiantly snaps its bill.

Some Screech Owls are gray, others bright reddish
brown, and these extremes are connected by specimens
intermediate in color. This difference in color is not due
to age, sex, or season, and is termed dichromatism, or
the presence in the same species of two phases of color.
The same phenomenon is shown by other birds, notably
certain Herons, and among mammals by the gray squir-
rel, some individuals of which are black. The observa-

Plate XXXVIII. Page 134.

BOBOLINK.
Length, 7*25 inches. Male, in summer, nape buff; shoulders and rump
whitish; crown ami under parts black. Female, young, and male in
winter, sparrowlike; upper parts black, brownish, and buffy; under
parts yellowish white.

BARRED OWL. HI

done of Dr. A. P. Chadbonrne apparently show that the
Screech Owl may pasa from one phase to another without
change of plumage.*

"We do not think of Owls as heing insectivorous hirds,
but Dr. A. K. Fisher tells us that of 225 Screech Owls'
stomachs examined, 100 contained insects. As 91 of the
remaining 125 contained mice, and poultry was found
in only one stomach, the farmer may well consider the
Screech Owl a bird of good repute rather than of ill
omen.

Next to the Screech Owl the Barred Owl is doubtless
our most common representative of this family, but its

Barred Owl f ondness for deep woods prevents its

Syrnium nebulosum. being known to many who recognize the

Plate xxl Screech Owl's mournful song.

In both voice and appearance the Barred Owl seems
the most human of our Owls. Its call is a deep-voiced
questioning whbb-whbb-iohbb, whb-whbb, tb-whbb-ah,
which may be heard at a distance of half a mile. It
echoes through the woods at night with startling force,
and the stories told of its effect on persons who were
ignorant of its source are doubtless not without foun-
dation.

Other calls are a long-drawn who-o-d-d-ah, and rarely
a thrilling, weird shriek. "When two or more Owls are
together, they sometimes join in a most singular concerted
performance. One utters about ten rapid hoots, while
the other, in a slightly higher tone, hoots about half as
fast, both birds ending together with a whoo-ah. At
other times they may hoot and laugh in a most remark-
able and quite indescribable manner.

The Barred Owl feeds largely on mice, and 40 of 100
stomachs examined contained remains of these rodents.

* The Auk (New York city), xiii, 189G, p. 321 ; xiv, 1897, p. 33.

112 CUCKOOS.

It is generally resident throughout its range, and in
March makes its nest, selecting for a site a hollow tree,
or the deserted home of a Crow or Hawk. Two to four
eggs are laid, which, like the eggs of all Owls, are pure
white.

CUCKOOS, KINGFISHERS, ETC. (ORDER COCCYGES).

Cuckoos. (Family Cuculid^e.)

All Cuckoos have two toes directed forward and two
backward, but the cause or use of this character it is dif-
ficult to understand, so widely do the members of this
family differ in habit. Some are arboreal, never visiting
the earth, while others are terrestrial, running with great
swiftness, and rarely perching far above the ground.

Most Cuckoos — all our thirty-five American species —
have noticeably long tails, which they raise and droop
slowly just after alighting, or when their curiosity is
aroused.

Of the one hundred and seventy -five known species,
only two are found in the northeastern States — the Yel-

~ „ v„ i n , billed and the Black -billed Cuckoos.
Yellow-billed Cuckoo, . no

Coccyzue americanus. The former is generally the more com-
Piate xxil. mon. It is a retiring bird, and you

will doubtless be first attracted to it by its notes. It does
not perch in an exposed position, nor make long flights,
but usually flies from the shelter of one tree directly into
the protecting foliage of another. If you catch a glimpse
of it in passing, its long tail and brownish color will
suggest a Dove.

Cuckoos are mysterious birds well worth watching.
I would not imply that their deeds are evil ; on the con-
trary, they are exceedingly beneficial birds. One of
their favorite foods is the tent caterpillar which spins the

Plate XXXIX. Page 136.

MEADOWLAItK.

Length, 10-75 inches. Upper parts black, brown, and buff; under parts

yellow . a black crescent on the breast, sides streaked with black ; outer

tail-feathers white.

KIXCFISIIKKS. 113

destructive "worms' nests" in our fruit and shade trees.
Indeed, we should be very much better off if Cuckoos
were more numerous. Nevertheless, there is something

about the Cuckoo's actions which always suggests to me
thai be either has just done, or is about to do, something
he shouldn't.

The Yellow-billed Cuckoo's call begins with a series
of tut-twte or <■/->/ (■/>■«, and ends with a loud cow, cow, cow,
<-<>"\ cow, cow. These notes are so unlike those of any
other of our birds, except those of the Black-billed
Cuckoo, that they will readily be recognized.

The Black-billed Cuckoo resembles the Yellow-bill,
but has the bill wholly black, the skin about the eye red,
Black-billed Cuckoo, and tne tail-feathers with only small,
Coeeyzw inconspicuous whitish tips. It resem-

erythrophtuimus. bleg the Yellow-bill in habits, but, as
Mr. Brewster tells me, its tut and cluck notes are softer,
and the cow-cow notes are connected.

Both our Cuckoos are migratory, wintering in Cen-
tral and South America. They return to us about May
5, and remain until October. Their nests are carelessly
made platforms of sticks with a few catkins added as a
lining, and are usually placed in tangles of vine-covered
bushes, or the lower limbs of trees. The eggs, three to
five in number, are pale, greenish blue, those of the
Black-bill being slightly smaller in size and darker in
color than those of its yellow-billed cousin.

Kingfishers. (Family Alcedinid^e.)

Of the one hundred and eighty known Kingfishers,
only eight are inhabitants of the New World, the head-
quarters of the family being in the East Indies. The New
World species are mostly tropical, and but one of the eight
reaches the eastern United States. This is our common
17

1U WOODPECKEKS.

Belted Kingfisher, familiar by voice and appearance to
every one who lives near a river or pond. He comes

Belted Kingfisher, in APril> wlien tne ice no longer cov"

Ctryli aleyon. ers his hunting ground, and remains

Plate xxin. until November ; or, if the season be

exceptionally mild, he sometimes stays for the winter

fishing. His nest is built in a hole in a bank, where,

early in May, his mate lays from five to eight white

The Kingfisher is generally branded a fish thief and
accounted a fair mark for every man with a gun, and,
were it not for his discretion in judging distances and
knowing just when to fly, he would long ago have disap-
peared from the haunts of man. We might now be a
few fish richer, but would they repay us for the loss of
this genius of wooded shores ?

WOODPECKERS AND WRYNECKS. (ORDER PICI.)

Woodpeckers. (Family Picidje.)

The three hundred and fifty known species of Wood-
peckers are represented in all the wooded parts of the
world except the Australian region and Madagascar.
Nearly one half this number are found in the New
World, and of these twenty -five occur in North America.

Few birds seem better adapted to their mode of life
than Woodpeckers, the structure of their bill, tongue,
tail, and feet being admirably suited to their needs.

The notes of Woodpeckers can not be termed musical,
and their chief contribution to the springtime chorus is a
rolling tattoo which resembles the k-r-r-r-ring call of the
tree frogs. The feathered drummer selects a resonant
limb and pounds out his song with a series of strokes de-

*wiii

1

i

I

Ernest 5etoh Tfioj»|tSon.

Plate XL. Page 137>

COWBIRD.

Length, 7-90 inches. Male, head and aeck all around dark coffee-brown;

rest of plumage glossy greenish black. Female, dirty brownish gray;

throat whitish.

WOODPECKERS. 115

livered bo quickly that his bead becomes a series of mazy
heads.

Watch tlie Downy Woodpecker, our commonest
species, while be is engaged in tins surprising perform-
Downy woodpecker, ance- How he seems to enjoy it ! His
Dryobatea pubescent wbole appearance is martial and defi-
medianus. ant. It is his challenge to the Wood-
pecker world. After each roll be looks
proudly about him and perhaps utters bis call-note, a
sharp peefypeek, which suggests the sound produced by
a marble cutter's chisel. More rarely this call is pro-
longed into a connected series, when one can readily
imagine that the quarrier has dropped his tool.

The Downy is a hardy bird and is with us throughout
the year. In the winter he forms a partnership with the
Chickadee and Nuthatch, and if the good this trio does
could be expressed in figures, these neglected friends of
ours might receive some small part of the credit due
them. Who can estimate the enormous numbers of in-
sects' eggs and larvae which these patient explorers of
trunk and twig destroy ?

The Downy, as well as some other Woodpeckers, be-
lieves in the comfort of a home. He will not pass cold,
wintry nights clinging to the leeward side of a tree when
by the use of his chisel-bill he can hollow a snug chamber
in its heart. So, in the fall, we may sometimes find him
preparing bis winter quarters. His nest is constructed
in tlie same manner, and his eggs, like those of all Wood-
peckers, are glossy white.

The Hairy Woodpecker, the Downv's big cousin, is

not quite so common as his smaller
Hairy Woodpecker, re,atiye# Tte twQ birdg are near] a]ike
Dryobates nllosus. » r i

in color, and differ only in the mark-
in-- of the outer tail-feathers. In the Downy these are
white, barred \yith black ; in the Hairy, white without

116 WOODPECKERS.

black bars. The case is interesting, and shows how nearly
alike in color distinct species may be. In size, however,
the difference is more noticeable, the Hairy being nearly
three inches the longer.

In life the Hairy is a somewhat shier bird, fonder of
the forest than of the orchard. His peek note is louder
and sharper than that of the Downy, and his rattling call
suggests that of the Kingfisher.

The gayly colored Bed-headed Woodpecker is as
erratic in his goings and comings as he is striking in

_. . . . . dress. In the northeastern States he is

Red-headed in • -e

Woodpecker. l°ca% common in summer, and if well

Heianerpes supplied with beechnuts, may remain

erythrocephaius. fojfag, the winter. Some years the

Plate XXV. .° , , , i • i

grayish headed young birds are excep-
tionally abundant in the fall, but their white wing-patch-
es, which show so conspicuously when they fly, and their
loud, rolling call of ker-r-ruck, ker-r-ruck^ are unmistak-
able marks of identity.

The most interesting of our "Woodpeckers is the
Flicker, or High-hole, whose popularity is attested by

Flicker B^s ^st °^ n0 ^esS tnan tnirty 0<^d COm-

Colaptes awatus. mon names. Surely here is an instance

Plate xxvi. illustrating the necessity of one sci-
entific term by which the " Piquebois jaune " of Louisi-
ana may be recognized as the " Clape " of New York.
He is also a Yucker^ a Flicker, and a Yellow-ham-
mer ; all these names being based on his notes or plu-
mage.

The Flicker is less of a carpenter than are others of
his family, and generally selects decayed logs and stumps
as his hunting grounds. Here he hunts for his favorite
food of ants, which he also procures at their holes and
mounds. This is the reason we so often flush the Flicker
from the ground, and, if we mark the spot from which he

Page 138.

Plate XLI.

SONG SPARROW.
Length, 6-25 inches. Upper parts chestnut, gray, and black; und<
parts white, streaked with chestnut and black; outer tail-feathe
shortest.

GOATSUCKERS. H7

rises, the probabilities axe thai we Bhall find there a much-
disturbed community of auts.

Professor Beal has shown that nearly one half of the
Flicker's food consists of ants. He further tells us that
as ants aid in the increase of the plant lice so injurious
to vegetation, the birds which feed on ants are therefore
the friends of the agriculturist.

The Flicker's most prominent marks, as with a low
chuckle he bounds up before you, are his white rump
patch and his wings, which show yellow in flight. His
notes are equally characteristic. The most common is a
loud, vigorous kee-yer, apparently a signal or salute. In
the spring, and occasionally in the fall, he utters a pleas-
ing, rather dreamy cuh-cuh-cuh-cuh, many times repeated.
When two or more birds are together, and in my ex-
perience only then, they address each other with a
singular iceechew, iveecheto, weechew, a sound which can
be imitated by the swishing of a willow wand. Much
ceremony evidently prevails in the Flicker family, and
on these occasions there is more bowing and scraping
than one often sees outside of Spain.

GOATSUCKERS, SWIFTS, AND HUMMINGBIRDS.
(ORDER MACROCHIRES.)

nlghthawks and whip-poor-wills.
(Family Caprimulgidje.)

In this family the mouth of birds reaches its greatest
development, while the bill proper is correspondingly
small, bearing much the same relation to the mouth that
a clasp does to a purse. These birds feed at night upon
insects which they catch on the wing, and their enormous
gape is obviously of great assistance in this mode of feed-
ing. Often the sides of the mouth are beset with long

118 NIGHTIIAWK.

bristles, which doubtless act like the wings to a fish-net,
steering unfortunate insects down the bird's cavernous
throat.

The Nighthawk, or Bull-bat, as he is called in the
South, is familiar to most persons who have the gift of

Niehthawk seeing birds, but — in the northeastern

Chordeiles States, at least — he is usually confused

virgimanw. with the Whip-poor-will, and little is

Plate XXVII. , .c i • i i

known ol his real character.

The Night-hawk is a bird of the sky. He passes the
day perched motionless on a limb in wooded regions, on
the ground in treeless regions, or even on a house top,
when, as sometimes happens, he makes his home in a city.
Probably he will not change his perch during the day,
but as night approaches and his day begins, he will
spread his long wings and fly away heavenward to
course far above the earth in his search for insect
food.

The Nighthawk, unlike most members of its family,
has limited vocal powers, its only note being a loud, nasal
peent uttered as it flies. But it has musical talents in
another direction. Sometimes in May or June, if you
happen to be where Nighthawks are found — for they are
rather local in distribution when nesting — you may hear
a strange booming, rushing sound ; you will vainly seek
its cause until you chance to see a Nighthawk with set
wings diving earthward from the sky. It is a reckless
performance, and you may suppose the bird's object is
suicidal, but, when within a few yards of the earth, it
will turn suddenly upward. At this moment you Mill
hear the loud, humming sound, doubtless made by the
air passing through the bird's stiffened wing-quills.

Nighthawks, being insect-catchers, are of course
highly migratory. They come to us early in May, and
return to their winter quarters in South America in Oc-

Page 139.

Plate XLII.

SWAMP SPARROW.
Length, 5-90 inches. Summer plumage, crown bright chestnut ; back
black, brown, and buff; breast grayish; belly white; sides brownish.
Winter plumage, similar, but crown streaked with chestnut-brown, black.
and gray.

CHIMNEY SWIFT. H<>

toiier. During the fall migrations they often gather in
flocks of several hundred, and as they sail about you
may notice their best field -mark, a white spot in each
wing. Nighthawks lay two elliptical, mottled eggs on
the bare ground or a flat rock in open fields, and, rarely,
on a house top in the city.

We see the Nighthawk and hear the Whip-poor-will ;

one reason perhaps why the birds are so often confused.

Whip-poor-will, While the Nighthawk is darting through

Antrostomwvoriferus. the sky, the Whip-poor-will is perched

Plate xx \ ii. on a rock or fence rail below, indus-
triously whipping out a succession of rapid whip-poor-
wills interspersed with barely audible chucks. When the
call ceases, the bird is doubtless coursing low through the
wooded fields and glades in its search for insects.

During the day the Whip-poor-will usually rests on
the ground in the woods. Here also the eggs are laid,
being deposited upon the leaves. They are two in num-
ber, dull white, with delicate, obscure lilac markings and
a few distinct brownish gray spots.

Whip-poor-wills arrive from the south late in April,
and remain with us until October.

Swifts. (Family Micropodid^.)

Swifts are the most aerial of all the small land birds.

Our Chimney Swift, the only one of the seventy-five

Chimney Swift members of this family that occurs in

Ohoetura pdagica. eastern North America, is but five and

Plate XXVI II. a ]m]f mclies l011gi While its Spread

wings measure twelve and a half inches from tip to tip.
Its feet are proportionately small, and so weak that the
bird can rest only by clinging to an upright surface.
The tail is then used as a prop, its spiny-tipped feathers
being evidently a result of this habit.

120 HUMMINGBIRDS.

Swifts naturally nest in hollow trees or eaves, and it
is only in the more densely populated parts of their
range that they resort to chimneys and outbuildings.
The nest of our Chimney Swift is a bracketlike basket
of small twigs. They are gathered by the bird while
on the wing, and are fastened together and to the wall
of the tree or chimney with a glutinous saliva.

The Chimney Swift arrives from the south about
April 20, and remains until October. Few birds are
better known, and under the name of " Chimney Swal-
low" he is familiar to every one who distinguishes a
Crow from a Eobin. But, beyond similar feeding habits,
Swifts have little in common with Swallows ; in fact, are
more nearly related to Hummingbirds.

Hummingbirds. (Family Trochilid^e.)

Hummingbirds are peculiar to the New "World. About
five hundred species are known, but only one of them is

_ . .. found east of the Mississippi. This is

Ruby-throated • ^r .

Hummingbird, our Ruby -throat, the sexes ot which are
TrocMius coiubris. sometimes thought to represent differ-
piate xxix. ent Spec|es> Tne Euby -throat winters
as far south as Central America, but about May 1 we
may expect him to return to us, for he is as regular in
his migrations as though his wings measured a foot and
a half instead of an inch and a half in length. If you
would have him visit you, plant honeysuckle and trum-
pet flowers about your piazza, and wrhile they are bloom-
ing there will be few days when you may not hear the
humming of this tiny bird's rapidly vibrating wings.

The Ruby-throat feeds on insects as well as on the
juices of flowers, and when you see him probing a corolla
he is quite as likely to be after the one as the other. The
young are fed by regurgitation, the parent bird insert-

\l

1

*

\

\L

*PUj

N

35

^s§*

77 ij

1 f Wt(

^5^

K Yr

ir/f

/

|m

y^

/^ / y

^ft^^O^vM^

Plate XLIII. Page 140.

FIELD SPARROW.
Length, 5-70 inches. Upper parte bright reddish brown and black;
under parts grayish white; bill reddish brown.

FLYCATCHERS. 121

ing its bill into the mouth of its offspring and injecting
food as though from a syringe.

Sui ne tropical Hummingbirds have songs worthy the
name, but the notes of our Ruby-throat are a mere
squeak, sometimes prolonged into a twitter.

Under any circumstances a Hummingbird's nest ex-
cites admiratii >n. But it' you would appreciate its fairylike
beauty, lind one where the birds have placed it, probably
ou the horizontal limb of a birch. Doubtless it will be
occupied by the female, for it seems that the male takes
little or no part in family affairs after incubation begins.
As far as known, all Hummingbirds lay two white eggs
— frail, pearly ellipses, that after ten days' incubation
develop into a tangle of tiny dark limbs and bodies,
which no one would think of calling birds, much less
" winged gems."

PERCHING BIRDS. (ORDER PASSERES.)

Flycatchers. (Family Tyrannidje.)

Doubtless, every order of birds has had its day when,
if it was not a dominant type, it was at least sufficiently
near it to be considered modern : and as we review what
is known to us of that great series of feathered forms,
from the Ardiicopteryx to the Thrushes, we can real-
ize how varied has been the characteristic amfwma of
each succeeding epoch from the Jurassic period to the
present.

Now has come tlic day of the <>v<\ry Passeres, the
Perching Birds; lien; belong our Flycatchers, Orioles,
Jays, Sparrows and Finches, Vireos, Swallows, Warblers,
"Wrens, Thrushes, and many others. A recent authority
classifies birds in thirty-four orders, but fully one half of
18

122 KINGBIRD.

the thirteen thousand known species are included in the
single order Passeres. The North American members
of this order are so alike in more important structural
details that they are placed in but two suborders, the
suborder Clamatores, containing the so-called Songless
Perching Birds, and the suborder Oseines, containing the
Song Birds. The Flycatchers are the only members of
the suborder Clamatores in Eastern North America.
They differ from the Oseines, or true Song Birds, in
always having ten fully developed primaries, in having
the tarsus rounded behind as well as in front, and chiefly
in the anatomy of the syrinx, or voice-producing organ.
In the Oseines this possesses four or five distinct pairs of
intrinsic muscles, while in the Clamatores it has less than
four pairs of muscles, and is not so highly developed.

Flycatchers are the Hawks of the insect world. Their
position when resting is erect, and they are constantly on
the watch for their prey, which is captured on the wing,
with a dexterity Hawks may well envy. The bill is
broad and flat and the gape large, as in other fly-catching
birds. After darting for an insect, as a rule, they return
to the same perch, a habit which betrays their family
affinities, though it is occasionally practiced by some
other birds.

Among our Eastern Flycatchers the Kingbird un-
doubtedly deserves first rank. In books he is sometimes
Kingbird called the Tyrant, but the name is a

Tyrannustyrannus. libel. The Kingbird is a fighter, but
Plate xxx. kg jg not a bully, and gives battle only
in a just cause. His particular enemy is the Crow, and
during the nesting season each Kingbird evidently draws
an imaginary circle about his home within which no
Crow can venture unchallenged. From his lookout on
the topmost branch of a neighboring tree the Kingbird
darts forth at the trespasser, charging him with a spirit

E'late XLIV. PAGE 141.

VKSPER SPARROW.

Length, 6-10 inches. Upper porta grayish, black, and brown; breast

and sides Streaked With black and brown; bellj white; lesser wing-
coverts chestnut ; outer tail-feathers more or less white.

CEBSTBD FLYCATCHER. 123

and fearlessness which ao bird can withstand. It is a case
of " right makes might," added to a very dexterous use of
wings and bill. The Crow, if he be experienced, turns
tail at once and. beyond protesting squawks, makes no
attempt to defend himself. But the Kingbird is deaf to
pleas for mercy; he too has had experience, and well
kn«.\vs that only his own watchfulness has saved his eggs
or young. Far in the distance he relentlessly pursues his
foe, leaving him only when he has administered a lesson
which will not he forgotten. Then he returns to his post
and, with erest erect and quivering wings, gives voice to
cries of victory.

Bee-keepers accuse the Kingbird of a taste for honey-
bees, but the examination, made by Prof. Beal, of two
hundred and eighteen Kingbirds' stomachs shows that
the charge is unfounded. Only fourteen stomachs con-
tained remains of bees, most of which were drones, while
sixty per cent of the Kingbirds' food was found to con-
sist of injurious insects.

Kingbirds winter in Central and South America, re-
turning to us in the spring about May 1, and remaining
until September. Their nest is a compact, symmetrical
structure of weed stalks, grasses, and moss, lined with
plant down, fine grasses, and rootlets, and is usually placed
at the extremity of a limb about twenty feet from the
ground. The eggs, three to five in number, are white,
spotted with chocolate.

The Crested or Great Crested Flycatcher is, as a rule,

not so common as the Kingbird, and its habits prevent it

Crested Flycatcher, from being so easily observed. King-

Myiarehtu erinitm. birds can be seen whenever heard, but

PiateXXXL V()U may hear the Greatcrest's whistle
many times before you see the whistler. Generally he
lives in the woods high up in the trees, but he is also
found in old orchards. His call, like an exclamation,

I >2± PHCEBE.

rings out above all other birds' notes. What ! be seems
to say, and, as though hearing something which not only
surprised but amused him, follows this call with a chuck-
ling whistle.

The Greatcrest arrives from the south about May 7,
and remains until September. Nesting is begun early in
June, a hollow limb being the home usually selected. In
collecting its nesting materials, the bird displays a very
singular trait, and gives evidence of the stability of habit.
With rare exceptions it places a bit of cast snake-skin in
its nest. Various reasons have been advanced to account
for this singular habit, but none of them is satisfactory.
Recently Lieutenant Wirt Robinson has discovered that
one of the commonest and most generally distributed spe-
cies of this genus in South America places cast snake-skin
in its nest, and it is well known that the Arizona Crested
Flycatcher follows the same custom. The habit is there-
fore widespread, and is common to birds living under
greatly varying conditions. Rather than consider it of
especial significance in each species, it seems more reason-
able to believe that it is an inheritance from a common
ancestor, and has no connection with the present sur-
roundings of at least those species living so far from the
center of distribution of this tropical genus as our Myi-
wrchus c/'initus.

The Phoebe is domestic ; he prefers the haunts, or, at

least, handiwork of man, and when not nesting on a beam

Phoebe m a barn, shed, or piazza, selects the

Sayomis phcebe. shelter of a bridge for a home. Here

Plate xxxii. ke piaces i^s nest of moss and mud ; a
structure of generous proportions, for the Phoebe's family
may number five or six.

Flycatchers, because of the nature of their food, usu-
ally make extended migrations. For the same reason
they arrive late in the spring and depart early in the

Plate XLV. Page 142.

CHIPPJNG SPARROW.

Length, 6-35 Inches. Summer plumage, forehead black; crown brighl

chestnut : back black, brown, ;ui<1 gray; under parts grayish white; Mil

black. Winter plumage, similar, hut crown like bach : bill brownish,

LEAST FLYCATCHER. 125

fall: bnt the Phoebe ifl an exception to this rule. Not
only does he winter north of the frost line, but lie comes
to os as early aa March 20 and remains until October.

The Phoebe owea his name to his mng oi jwwit-jphaibe,
j; wit-phoabe, a humble lay uttered between vigorous
wags of the tail. This tail-wagging is a characteristic
motion, and also accompanies the I'lnebe's call-note,
pee, pee, which it utters at intervals.

The Least Flycatcher shares the Phoebe's preference

for the vicinity of houses and is most often found nesting

in our shade or fruit trees. The nest,

Least Flycatcher, ^.^ j phoeWs is composed of

tax mi in m us. ' r

plant-down, filters, and rootlets, and is
placed in the crutch of a tree. The eggs resemble the
Phoebe's in being white.

It is difficult to describe our smaller Flycatchers so
that even when in the hand they may be satisfactorily
identified, and it is quite impossible to describe them so
that from color alone they may he recognized in the field.
Fortunately, the calls of our commoner species" are so
unlike that, when learned, there will be no difficulty in
naming their authors.

To say that the Least Flycatcher is five and a half
inches long, olive-green above and grayish white below,
does not aid one in distinguishing it from several of its
cousins; hut when I add that its call is a snappy chebec,
chebec, the bird will be known the first time it is heard.
It is this call which has given the bird its common
name.

The Chebec comes to us in the spring, about April 25,
and remains until September.

You will rarely find two members of the same family
with more different dispositions than those of the King-
bird and Wood Pewee. Their natures might symbolize
war and peace, bo combative is the Kingbird, so gentle the

126 WOOD PEWEE.

Pewee. As so often happens among birds, their voices
are in keeping with their temperaments. The soft,
Wood Pewee dreamy pee-a-wee or pee-a-wee 2>eer of
Contopus wrens. the Pewee is as well suited to its char-
Plate xxxiii. acter as the harsh, chattering cries of
victory are to the Kingbird's.

The Pewee is the last of our more common Fly-
catchers to come from the South, arriving about May 10,
and, like the Chebec, remaining until October. It is less
social than either the Chebec or the Phoebe. Forests
are its chosen haunts, but occasionally it is found on well-
shaded lawns and roadsides.

The Pewee's nest rivals the Hummingbird's in beauty.
It is a coarser structure, composed of fine grasses, rootlets,
and moss, but externally is thickly covered with lichens.
Usually it is saddled on a limb from twenty to forty feet
above the ground. The eggs, three or four in number,
are white, with a wreath of dark brown spots around the
larger end.

Larks. (Family Alaudid^e.)

This family contains the true Larks, birds with long
hind toe nails, and a generally brown or sandy colored
plumage, the Skylark being a typical species. There are
some one hundred species of Larks, but of these only the
Horned Lark and its geographical varieties are found
in this country.

The variation in color shown by the Horned Lark
throughout its range is remarkable. From the Mexican

Homed Lark tableland northward to Labrador and

• otocoris tdpestris. Alaska no less than eleven different

riate xxxiv. geographical races are known, each one

reflecting the influence of the conditions under which it

lives, and all intergrading one with another. Only two of

Plate XLVI. Page 143>

WHITE-THROATED SPARROW.
Length, 6-75 Inches. Adult, Lores and bend of wing yellow; crown
Mark and white; bach chestnut-brown, black, and buff; throal white;
breast and sides grayish ; belly white. Young, similar, bul crown more
like back; yellow markings duller.

HOENBD LARK. iL>7

these races are found in the eastern United States, the
Horned Lark and the Prairie Horned Lark. The former
visits us in the winter; the latter occurs at all seasons,
l»ut during the summer is found only in certain regions.
At this season it inhabits the upper Mississippi Valley,
whence it extends eastward through northwestern Penn-
sylvania and central New Fork to western Massachu-
setts. From Oetoher to April it may be found with the
Homed Lark as far south as South Carolina. The two
birds differ in size and color. The Horned Lark's wing
averages 4-:i7 inches in length, the Prairie Lark's wing-
averages but 4-08 inches in length ; the formers forehead
and eve-line are yellow, the tatter's white.

Horned Larks are eminently terrestrial, rarely if
ever choosing a higher perch than a fence. "When on
the ground they do not hop, but walk or run. When
flushed they take wing with a sharp, whistled note, but
often return to the place from which they started. When
nesting, they may be found in fields, pastures, and plains
in scattered pairs, but during the winter they are asso-
ciated in flocks, which resort to the vicinity of the sea-
coast or large open tracts in the interior. The nest is,
of course, built on the ground. The eggs, three or four
in number, are pale bluish or greenish white, minutely
and evenly speckled with grayish brown.

The Horned Lark, like its famous relative and many
other terrestrial species, sings while on the wing, soaring
high above the earth, and often repeating its song many
times before alighting. The effort is worthy of better
results, for the bird's song is simple and unmusical.

12S CROWS AND JAYS.

Crows, Jays, etc. (Family Corvid^e.)

There are system atists who think that the members
of this family should hold the place usually assigned the
Thrushes, at the head of the class Aves. Leaving out of
the case anatomical details whose value is disputed, we
might object to a family of songless birds being given first
rank in a group whose leading character is power of
song. But while Crows and Jays may, from a musical
standpoint, be considered songless, no one can deny their
great vocal powers. Song, after all, does not imply high
rank in bird-life, and some of the sweetest singers (among
others, some Snipe, and the Tinamous and Wood Quail
of South America) are not members of the suborder of
Song Birds.

If, however, the relative intelligence of the two fam-
ilies be taken into account, there can be no doubt that
Corvidce fully deserve to be considered the most highly
developed of birds. How many tales are told of the
human actions of the Raven, Rook, Jackdaw, Magpie,
Jay, and Crow !

Of the two hundred members of this family, six in-
habit eastern North America, by far the most common
being the Crow. No one of our birds
American Crow, ^ better kn and gtm how ignorant

Lure us americarius. ' ' °

we are of his ways ! I am not sure
that he does not know more about ours. "We have not
even recorded his notes, for, in spite of the current opin-
ion that the Crow's calls are restricted to caw, he has an
extended vocabulary. I am not aware that he ever
ascends to the height of a love song, but that he can
converse fluently no one who has listened to him will
question. Of the variants of caw, each with its own
significance, there seems no end ; but if you would be

Plate XLVII. Page 144.

FOX SPARROW.

Length, 7-25 inches. Upper parts, wings, and tail bright reddish brown ;

back and head mixed with a browner color ; under parts white and bright

reddish brown.

AMERICAN (ROW. 129

impressed with the Crow's eloquence you must hear him
wlu'ii, in the fancied privacy of his own flock or family,
he disGDflses the affairs of the day. His notes then are
low, and so varied in tone that one can not doubt their
conversational character.

During the winter Crows assemble in large flocks
containing many thousand individuals, who nightly re-
turn to some roost, which perhaps has been frequented
for years. In March they begin to pair and the nest is
constructed early in April. It is a bulky affair of
sticks, lined chiefly -with grapevine bark, and is placed in
a tree, usually about thirty feet from the ground. The
four to six eggs are bluish green, thickly marked with
shades of brown.

Crows share with Hawks the reputation of being
harmful birds. That they do much damage in the corn-
field is undeniable, but, after the examination of nine
hundred Crows' stomachs, Dr. Merriam, of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, states that the amount of good
done by the Crow in destroying grasshoppers, May
beetles, cutworms, and other injurious insects, exceeds
the loss caused by the destruction of corn. Moreover, if
the corn be tarred before planting, the Crows will not
touch either the kernel or young sprout. The corn
should first be soaked in water overnight, and then
placed in a vessel containing enough soft tar to coat each
kernel. It should then be rolled in plaster of Paris or
wood ashes, so that it can be more easily handled.*

The Blue Jay, in his uniform of blue and white, is so
brightly colored, so large (he is nearly twelve inches in
length), and often so noisy, that every one knows him.

♦See Barrows and Schwarz, The Common Crow, Bulletin No. 6,
United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Ornithology
and Mammalogy.
19

130 BLUE JAY.

Like the Crow, lie is with us throughout the year. Dur-
ing the summer he is not very common, and is remark-
ably quiet, but in September and Octo-
Blue Jay, ^er mjp-rantg arrive from the North, and

Cyanocittu cristata. ■,,.-, , .

the birds are then abundant in bands.
These bands roam about the country like a lot of school-
boys out chestnutting, pausing wherever they find acorns
and chestnuts abundant, or leaving their feast to worry
some poor Owl whose hiding place they have discovered.

The Blue Jay's best friend could not conscientiously
call him a songster, but as a conversationalist he rivals
the Crow. I have yet to discover a limit to his vocab-
ulary, and, although on principle one may ascribe al-
most any strange call to the Blue Jay, it is well to with-
hold judgment until his loud, harsh jay ! jay ! betrays
the caller's identity. Not content with a language of
his own, he borrows from other birds, mimicking their
calls so closely that the birds themselves are deceived.
The Red-shouldered, Red-tail, and Sparrow Hawks are
the species whose notes he imitates most often.

The Blue Jay nests in the latter part of May, build-
ing a compact nest of rootlets in a tree ten to twenty
feet from the ground. The eggs are pale olive-green
or brownish ashy, rather thickly marked with varying
shades of cinnamon-brown.

Orioles, Blackbirds, etc. (Family Icteridje.)

The popular names of many of our birds were given
them by the early colonists because of their fancied re-
semblance to some Old World species. The fact that
some of these names are incorrect and misleading has
been pointed out scores of times, but they are now as
firmly fixed as the signs of the zodiac.

Plate XLVIII. Page 145.

JUNCO.

Length, 6-25 inches. Male, upper parts, throat, and breast slate-color;
belly and outer tail-feathers white. Female, similar, but plumage more
or less washed with brownish.

BALTIMORE ORIOLE. 131

Thus the Robin is not a Robin but a true Thrush,
the Meadowlark ia not a Lark but a Starling, and the
Orioles are not Orioles at all, but members of a distinc-
tively American family having no representatives in the
Old World. This family contains one hundred and fifty
species, of which nearly one third belong in the genus
Li, rus. The prevailing colors of the birds of this genus
are orange and black, hence their resemblance to the true
Orioles (genus Oriolus) of the Old World.

Our Baltimore Oriole is a worthy representative of a

group remarkable for its bright colors. It is to these

Baltimore Oriole, same c°l°rs tnat the bird owes not only

leterw galbula. its generic but its specific designation,

Plate xxxv. orange and black being the livery of
Lord Baltimore, after whom the bird was named.

The Baltimore Oriole, or, as it is also called, Firebird,
Golden Robin, or ITangnest, winters in Central America,
and in the spring reaches the latitude of Xew York city
about May 1. I always look for it when the cherry trees
burst into blossom, and at no other time does its beauti-
ful plumage appear to better advantage than when seen
against a background of white flowers. To the charm of
beauty it adds the attraction of song, a rich, ringing
whistle, which can be more or less successfully imitated,
when the bird immediately responds, challenging the
supposed trespasser on his domain.

The Baltimore's nest is a bag about five inches deep
and three inches in diameter, woven of plant-filters,
thread, etc., and suspended from the terminal portion of
a limb, generally of an elm tree. The four to six eggs
are white, singularly scrawled with fine black lines, and
with a few spots or blotches.

The Orchard Oriole is neither so common nor so
gayly dressed as his brilliantly colored relative, and, being
fonder of orchards than lawns and elm-shaded highways,

132 ORCHARD ORIOLE.

is not so well known. The female is especially easy to
overlook, her suit of plain olive-green closely harmoniz-

Orchard Oriole, ing with the leaves in color- Young
Icterus spurius. males at first exactly resemble her, but
Plate xxxvi. ^e following spring return, wearing
their father's black cravat. In this plumage they might
readily be taken for another species, so little do they re-
semble their parents in appearance. The adult chestnut
and black plumage is not fully acquired until the sec-
ond, or perhaps even the third spring.

The Orchard Oriole winters in Central America, and
in the summer is found throughout the eastern United
States from the Gulf of Mexico to Massachusetts. It
arrives from the South about May 1, and is one of the
first birds to leave in the fall, rarely being seen after
September 1. Nesting is begun late in May. The nest
is pensile, but not so deep as that of the Baltimore Oriole,
having more the proportions of a Yireo's nest. It is
composed entirely of freshly dried greenish grasses, and
is suspended from near the extremity of a branch at a
height of fifteen to twenty feet. The three to five eggs
are bluish white, spotted, blotched, and scrawled with
black.

The song of the Orchard Oriole resembles that of his
orange-and-black cousin, but is far richer in tone and
more finished in character.

The male Redwing, with his black uniform and scar-
let epaulets, is a familiar inhabitant of our marshes, but
many who know him are not acquainted
e -winge ac it , ^^ ^-g very differently attired mate.

Agetaius pkoaiiiceus. -1 J

She wears a costume which above is
black streaked with buff and rust-color, and below is
striped dingy black and white, and is much more retiring
than her conspicuous husband. Her place is low in the
bushes or among the reeds near the nest with its pale

£tnfSt Sefun Th<ynf,$

Plate XLIX. Page 146.

TKEE SPARROW.

Length, 6*35 inches. Crown brighl chestnut ; back Mack, reddish brown,

and liufTy; under parts grayish; sides washed with brownish; a
blackish spot in the center of the breast.

PURPLE GRACKLR. 133

blue BggB, BO singularly scrawled with Mack. He perches
on the topmost branch of a neighboring tree, and doubt*
less supposes he is guarding his home below, when in
truth he is advertising his treasure to every passer-by.

The Redwing's liquid Jumg-qubwee is pleasantly
suggestive of marshy places, but it is his early spring
music for which we should chiefly value him. The first
Robins or Bluebirds are somewhat unreliable signs of
6pring. They are such hardy birds that it requires very
little encouragement from a February sun to send a few
skirmishers northward. We can not be sure whether
they represent the advance guard or are individuals who
have had the courage to winter with us. But when early
in March the Redwings come, then we know that the tide
of the year has turned. With perennial faith in the sea-
son they come in flocks of hundreds, singing their spring-
time chorus with a spirit that March winds can not sub-
due.

About the time the Redwings come, late in February
or early in March, we may expect the Purple Grackles

Purple Grackie, or Clw Blackbirds. They migrate in
Quiscaius quiscula. large flocks, and their chorus singing

Plate xxxvii. js qUite as inspiring as the springtime
concerts of the Redwing. There are two kinds of Crow
Blackbirds, known as the Purple Grackie and the Bronzed
Grackie. The former has iridescent bars on the back
and in the Northern States is found only east of the
Alleghanies and south of Massachusetts; the latter has
the back shining, brassy, bronze, without iridescence, and
in the nesting season inhabits the country west of the
Alleghanies and north of Connecticut. The females of
both species are smaller and duller than the males.

Grackles are among the few of our land birds who
live in flocks all the year. They pass the winter and mi-
grate in larger companies, but when nesting are in smaller

134 BOBOLINK.

bands or colonies. They generally select a pine grove,
often choosing one in a cemetery, park, or other locality
where they will not be disturbed. This may result in a
scarcity of food when the young are born, but, rather
than abandon a locality which experience has proved to
be safe, they make long journeys in search of food for
their nestlings. By watching the old birds one may then
easily learn where they live. Their flight is direct and
somewhat labored, and when going only a short distance
they " keel " their tail-feathers, folding them upward
from the middle, an action which renders Grackles con-
spicuous and easily identifiable when on the wing. On the
ground they strut about with a peculiar walk, which, in
connection with their yellowish white eye, adds to the
singularity of their appearance.

The Grackle's nest is a bulky, compact structure of
mud and grasses. It is usually placed in trees, twenty to
thirty feet from the ground, but the bird may sometimes
nest in bushes or even in a Woodpecker's deserted hole.
The three to six eggs are generally pale bluish green,
strikingly spotted, blotched, or scrawled with brown and
black. But one brood is raised, and when the young
leave the nest they roam about the country in small
bands, which later join together, forming the enormous
flocks of these birds we see in the fall.

The Bobolink's extended journeys and quite differ-
ent costumes have given him many aliases. Throughout
his breeding range, from New Jersey to Nova Scotia,

«,.,., and westward to Utah, he is known

Bobolink, . , ' , .. . T

DoUchoruyx while nesting as the Bobolink. In

oryzimnis. July and August he loses his black,

Plate xxxviii. h^ and white wecidmg dress, and

gains a new suit of feathers resembling in color those
worn by his mate, though somewhat yellower. This is
the Keedbird dress, and in it he journeys nearly four

ELmest S"etoa Ihcn-ijxiorv.

Plate L. Pages 146, 147.

REDPOLL.

Length, 5*30 Inches. Adult male, crown brighl red ; back brownish black

and grayish; fchroal black; under parts while, streaked with black;

breasl pink. Adult female and young, Bimilar, but n<> pink on breast.

SNOWFLAKE.
Length, 6*90 inches. Upper parts brown and black ; wings and tail black
and white; under parts white; breasl and -ides brownish.

BOBOLINK. 135

thousand miles to his winter quarters south of the Ama-
zon.

The start is made in July, when he joins flocks of
his kind in the northern wild-rice [ZAzania aquatica)
marshes, hate in August he visits the cultivated rice
fields of South Carolina and Georgia, and it is at this sea-
son we so often hear the metallic timk of passing migrants.
The rice is now in the milk, and the Iticebirds, or Orto-
lans, as they are called in the South, are so destructive to
the crop that it is estimated they directly or indirectly
cause an annual loss of $3,000,000. Some birds linger
as far north as New York until October 1, but by this
time the leaders of the south-bound host have reached
Cuba, where they are called Chwrribergo. From Cuba
they pass to the coast of Yucatan, and thence southward
through Central America or to the island of Jamaica,
where, because of their extreme fatness, they are known
as Butterbirds. From Jamaica they go to the mainland,
either of Central America, or by one continuous flight of
four hundred miles to northern South America, thence
traveling southward to their winter home. *

The northward journey is begun in March or April,
and about the 25th of the latter month the vanguard
reaches Florida. It is composed only of males, now
called Maybirds, all in full song. Let any one who
knows the Bobolink's song imagine, if he can, the effect
produced by three hundred birds singing together!

About May 1 Bobolinks reach the vicinity of New
Fork city. The females soon follow the males, and
early in June the birds are nesting. This is the glad
season of the Bobolink's year. For ten months he has
been an exile, but at last he is at homo again, and he
gives voice to his joy in the jolliest tinkling, rippling,
rollicking song that ever issued from bird's throat.

In the fields made merry by the mu.-ic of Bobolinks one

136 MEADOWLARK.

is almost sure to find Meadowlarks. They are strong-
legged walkers, and spend all their time while feeding
Meadowlark on the ground. Like all terrestrial,

Stumellamagna. protectively colored birds, they often
Plate xxxix. ^ ^Q escape observation by hiding in
the grasses rather than by flying. When perched in a
tree or other exposed position, they are among the shyest
of our smaller birds, rarely permitting a near approach ;
but when they fancy themselves concealed on the ground
they sometimes " lie as close " as Bob-whites. When
flushed they fly rapidly, alternately flapping and sailing,
showing as they fly the white feathers on either side of
their tail. These feathers are the Meadowlark's best field
character. They are very conspicuous when he is on the
wing, and, when perching, if he is alarmed or excited, he
exposes them by nervously flitting or twitching his tail.
This movement is generally accompanied by a single
nasal call-note, which changes to a rolling twitter as the
bird takes wing. Neither of these notes give any indi-
cation of the sweetness of the bird's song, a high musical
whistle, clear as the note of a fife, sweet as the tone of a
flute. It is subject to much variation both individual
and local, but the song I oftenest hear in northern New
Jersey may be written :

i

^_r=^=_#-

g==t=^:=E=g5EzF=:

When singing, the birds usually perch in an exposed po-
sition, generally choosing the topmost branches of a tree
or a dead limb.

The Meadowlark's nest is placed upon the ground, as
a rule, in a tuft of grasses which is arranged to form a
dome over it. The eggs, four to six in number, are laid
about May 15, and in color are white, spotted or speckled
with cinnamon or reddish brown.

PliATE LI.

AMERICAN CROSSBILL.

Pages 147, 148.

Length, 6-20 inches. Adult male, dull red ; back brownish ; wings and
tail blackish. Adult female and young, greenish ; back more or less
mottled with browniah ; the under parts grayish.

PINE GROSBEAK.
Length, 010 inches. Adult male, rose-pink; back brownish; lower
bt'lly gray; Wing8 and tail brownish black. Adult female and young,
gray ; crown, upper tail-coverts, and breast washed with doep yellow.

COWBTRD. 137

Occasionally Cowbirds are seen during the winter
near New Fork city J but, as a rule, they retire farther

Cowbird, BOUth at tliis season, and arc first ob-

Moloiknu attr. served there in the spring about March

Plate xl. go. They do not come in large flocks,

but singly or in small bands. The male may now be
seen perched in an exposed position on a treetop, calling
his long-drawn-out, glassy Muck, tee-e-e. Later, when
wooing the female, he utters a curious, gurgling note,
resembling the sound made by pouring water rapidly
from a bottle, and accompanying it by motions which
suggest extreme nausea. "We often see these birds feed-
ing near cattle in the pastures, always in small flocks, for
they do not pair nor even construct a nest, the female lay-
ing her egg in the nest of another and generally smaller
species. Few birds seem aware of the imposture, and
not only do they incubate the egg but they may attend
to the demands of the young Cowbird at the expense of
their own offspring, who sometimes die of starvation.
Even after leaving the nest the young parasite continues
its call for food, and when seeing a Maryland Yellow-
throat, or some other small bird feeding a clumsy fledg-
ling twice its size, one wonders it does not detect the de-
ception. The better Ave know birds the more strongly
are we impressed with their individuality. To one who
has no friends in feathers it seems pure fancy to endow
some insignificant "Chippy" with human attributes; but
in reality there are as clearly defined characters among
birds as among men. To be convinced of the truth of
this statement we have only to compare the Cowbird, a
thoroughly contemptible creature, lacking in every moral
and maternal instinct, with the bird who constructs a well-
made nest, faithfully broods her eggs, and cares for her
young with a devotion of which mother love alone is

capable.

20

138 SONG SPARROW.

Sparrows, Finches, etc. (Family Fringillidje.)

This, the largest family of birds, contains between five
hundred and fifty and six hundred species, and is repre-
sented in all parts of the world except the Australian re-
gion. Sparrows are the evergreens among birds. When
the leaves have fallen from the chestnut, oak, and maple,
the hemlock, pine, and cedar are doubly dear. So, when
the Flycatchers, Warblers, and Thrushes have left us, the
hardy Sparrows are more than usually welcome. Feed-
ing largely on seeds, which their strong, stout bills are
especially fitted to crush, they are not affected by the
changes in temperature which govern the movements of
strictly insectivorous birds.

Some species are with us throughout the year, some
come from the South in early spring and remain until
snow falls, others come from the far North to pass the
winter ; so that at no season of the year are we without
numbers of these cheery birds. Fortunately, some of our
best songsters are members of this family. Their music
is less emotional than that of the Thrushes, but it has
a happier ring — the music for every day:

It is the Song Sparrow who in February opens the

Song Sparrow, season of song, and it is the Song

Melospisa/aseieOa. Sparrow who in November sings its

Plate xli. closing notes ; nor, except during a part

of August, has his voice once been missing from the choir.

His modest chant always suggests good cheer and
contentment, but heard in silent February it seems the
divinest bird lay to which mortal ' ever listened. The
magic of his voice bridges the cold months of early
spring ; as we listen to him the brown fields seem green,
flowers bloom, and the bare branches become clad with
softly rustling leaves.

Plate LII. Page 148.

AMERICAN GOLDFINCH.
Length, 5-10 inches. Adult male in summer, crown black ; rest of body
yellow ; wings and tail black and white. Adult female and males in winter,
upper parts grayish brown; crown yellowish; under parts soiled
whitish ; throat yellow.

SWAMP SPARROW. 139

You can not go far afield without meeting this singer.
He is not only our commonest Sparrow, but one of our
commonest birds. Generally you will find him on or
near the ground at the border of some undergrowth,
and if there be water near by, preferably a meadow-
brook, his presence is assured. When flushed he will
doubtless make for the nearest thicket, "pumping" his
tail, as Thompson expressively says, in describing his
somewhat jerky flight. Now he questions you with a
mildly impatient chimp or trlnl; a call-note not to be
mistaken for that of any other species, when once you
have learned it, Equally diagnostic is the bird's spotted
breast with one larger spot in its center.

The Song Sparrow's nest is usually placed on the
ground, but sometimes a bush may be chosen for a mat-
ing site. The eggs, four or five in number, are bluish
white, thickly marked with reddish brown. The Song
Sparrow rears three broods each year, the nesting season
lasting from May to August.

The Swamp Sparrow, a well-named cousin of the

Song Sparrow, resembles his relative in his fondness for

Swamp Sparrow, *ne vicinity of water and habit of tak-

Meloq ing refuge in low cover. lie is a true

Plate xi. 11. marsh or swamp bird, and is particu-

larly abundant in large marshes. His call is an insig-
nificant cheep, while his song is a simple, sweet, but rather
monotonous tir,<t-f meet-tweet, repeated many times and
occasionally running into a trill.

The Swamp Sparrow nests from northern Illinois
and Pennsylvania northward to Labrador. Its nest and
eggs resemble those of the Song Sparrow. It is migra-
tory in the northern part of the range, and is rare in win-
ter north of southern New Jersey.

Both the Song and Swamp Sparrow arc, as we have

140 FIELD SPARROW.

its higher ground, but the two Sparrows now to be men-
tioned are birds of the uplands, rarely if ever living in
low, wet places.

An old hillside pasture, dotted with young cedars or
clumps of bushes, in which he may place his nest, is the

Field Sparrow, favorite home of the Field Sparrow.

Spizeiia pusiiia. Here you may look for him early in

Plate XLIII. April He ig a rather ghy birdj wh(>

will fly some distance when alarmed, and then alight on
a bare twig near or at the top of some bush or sapling.
Very different this from the Song Sparrow's way of div-
ing into a bush.

From his exposed position he watches you and gives
you an equally good chance to watch him. Note the
whitish, unstreaked breast, the reddish brown or sorrel
crown, the gray face and whitish ring about the eye, and
especially the pale brownish or flesh-colored bill. These
are all good marks, and if now you can hear him sing his
identity will be settled without question. His song is one
of the most pleasing I know. It is very simple but very
expressive, a sweet, plaintive cher-wee, cher-wee, cher-wee,
cheeo dee-e-e-e-e, which goes straight to one's heart. It is
sung most freely after sunset, and is in keeping with the
peacefulness of the evening hour. At this time, too, the ■
bird seems inspired to more than usual effort, and its or-
dinary song is often so elaborated and prolonged as to be
scarcely recognizable.

The song season ends in the latter part of August,
and, although the birds are with us until November, I
have rarely heard them sing in the fall.

The Yesper Sparrow, Grass Finch, or Bay-winged
Bunting — for he bears all three names — prefers more
open grounds than the Field Sparrow selects. There is
something free and spirited about this bird and its song
which demands space for its proper development. No

Plate LIIL Page 149.

PUKPLE FINCH.

Length, 6-20 inches. Adult male, rose-pink; back brownish; lowerbelly

white ; no white in wings. Adult female and young, upper parts streaked

brownish and grayish; under parte white, streaked with brownish;

bill rounded on top ; a tuft of bristly feathers over the nostrils.

VKSPER SPARROW. 141

swamp or thicket will do for him, but in great broad fields
he is at home. If a roadway leads through his haunts,

Vesper Sparrow, JoU ma.Y often see uim on the ground
. ahead of you, and when he Hies the

Plate XLIV. white feathers shown on either side of

his tail will give you an excellent clew to his identity.
Probably he will fly on ahead a little way and alight
again in the road, or a longer flight may lead him to a
neighboring fence or the upper branches of a more dis-
tant tree. It is from positions of this kind that he most
often sings. With him song is evidently a matter of im-
portance. He can not, like many birds, sing between the
mouthf uls of a meal, but ascending to his perch he gives
perhaps half an hour entirely to music, resting motionless
between the intervals of each song.

It is impossible to satisfactorily describe this song.
It resembles that of the Song Sparrow, but is finer and
wilder. It opens with one low note, followed by two
higher ones, while the Song Sparrow begins with three
notes, all of the same kind.

The Vesper Sparrow is migratory, coming to us with
the Field Sparrow early in April and remaining until
November. Its nest is placed on the ground, and the
bluish or pinkish white speckled eggs are laid early in
May.

It is strange, La it not, that the only bird we all detest

should also be the only one who insists on sharing our

homes with us. The House or English

ouse parrow, Sparrow, is a product of the times; a
remarkably keen-witted bird, who, like
a noxious weed, thrives and increases where a less hardy
species could not exist.

This harsh-voiced little gem/in soon detects and avoids
anything like a systematic attempt to entrap him, and,
being productive past all belief, seems likely to completely

142 CHIPPING SPARROW.

overrun the land. He was introduced into this country
in 1851, and in 1870 was found only in the cities of the
Atlantic States. Now he has spread over the greater
part of the United States and Canada.

If he were restricted to the cities we should have only
his never-ceasing, maddening chatter and our soiled walls
to complain of ; but he has invaded not only the towns
and villages and the neighboring houses, but visits also
our grain fields and fruit orchards, our woods and marshes.
No effective method for his extermination has been de-
vised, and I fear we must accept the Sparrow as a penalty
for the shortsightedness and ignorance which permitted
us to meddle with the laws of Nature.

If we except this ever-present nuisance the Chippy
is the most domestic of our Sparrows. He seems thor-

CMpping Sparrow, oug% at nome about our doorsteps | a
Spizeiia sociaUs. contented, modest little bird who ap-
riate xlv. parently tries hard to believe in the

goodness of human nature, even though he meets with
but little encouragement. One wonders why he has not
long ago given up the attempt to make friends with us,
so rarely do we show any appreciation of his advances.
The house cat is Chippy's chief enemy. Crouching and
crawling, waiting and watching, she misses no opportunity
to pounce on an unsuspecting bird. It is surprising that
any escape. But each spring, about April 10, the Chippy
comes back to us after a winter in the cotton, corn, and
broom-sedge fields of the South, and soon we hear his
unpretentious, monotonous cKvppy-ckvppy-cM/ppy^ many
times repeated, and occasionally running into a grasshop-
perlike trill.

About a month later we may find further evidence of
his too often misplaced trust in a neat, hair-lined nest
built in the vines on the veranda or a neighboring tree.
The eggs are unexpectedly pretty, a bright blue or bluish

Page 150.

Plate LIV.

ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK.
Length, 8-10 inches. Adult male, crown and back black; rump white;
throat black ; breast rose-red ; belly white. Adult female, upper parts
dark brown and buff; a white line over eye; under parts huffy, streaked
with brownish ; under wing-coverts orange.

\Y 1 1 IT i: THROATED SPARROW. 143

green, spotted, chiefly at the larger end, with cinnamon-
brown or blackish markings.

Up to this time the ( hippy has given ns a good oppor-
tunity to see hie chestnut cap and black forehead, but
when tin' noting season is over he will change these for
a cap to match his coat, and with others of his kind gather
in old, weedy fields, remaining there until cold weather
drives him southward.

About the time of the first frost a new Sparrow will

appear in the hedgerows and thickets and the under.

WMt thr d growth of the woods. The white patch

Sparrow, <m his throat may aid in his identitica-

TSonotrieUa albieollie. tion as the White-throated Sparrow, a

Piute xlm. Northern bird who in the summer
nests from northern Xew England northward, and in
winter is found from southern Xew England to the Gulf
of Mexico.

He is disposed to be rather quiet for several days
after his arrival, and, beyond a few low notes addressed
to his companions, has little to say ; but if you whistle
to him even a poor imitation of his song, nearly every
bird in the company will hop up from the tangle of
branches and, perching on the outer twigs, look for the
friends who called. Perhaps some may essay a tremulous
res] se, but for a week or more they will make few at-
tempts to sing. Later, you will hear the sweet, plaintive
notes that give to this bird the name Peabody-bird.

The White-throat's call-notes are a low Ueep and a
very characteristic sharp clunk, which has been well
likened by Mr. Bicknell to the sound of a marble cut-
ter's chisel. Ar this >eason the "White-throats roost to-
gether in flocks of varying size, and if you chance to be
near their home at bedtime you will hear this chink note
given as a "qnarriers' chorus." Finally, as the gloom
deepens, it will cease, and from the dark depths of the

144 FOX SPARROW.

thicket will come only the cozy, contented twitterings of
the birds wishing one another good night.

The interest with which one examines a flock of White-
throated Sparrows is intensified by the probability of
White-crowned finding their distinguished relative the

Sparrow, White-crown. In the Mississippi Val-
Zonotrichia ley he is often common, but in the

'ucopuys. At;iailtic States he is sufficiently rare
to be a character of importance.

The White-crown differs from the White-throat in
having no white on the throat, which, like the breast, is
gray, and in having the space before the eye black in-
stead of yellow or white. In the fall his crown is brown,
with a paler line through its center.

Near New York city I look for the White-crown
in September and October, and again about May 15.
Thompson describes its song as " like the latter half of
the White -thro at1 s familiar refrain, repeated a number
of times with a peculiar sad cadence and in a clear, soft
whistle."

Some fine day about the middle of March you may
hear a song so unlike any you have ever heard, that be-

Fox Sparrow ^ore tne 8mger ceases you will know
Passereiia iUaca. you are on the verge of a discovery.

Plate xl vii. -j^ gQng -g ]ou^ exceedingly sweet,
and varied. Its richness of tone seems to accentuate the
bleakness of the bird's surroundings. It is a song for
summer, not for leafless spring ; but heard at this sea-
son it seems all the more attractive, and with pleasurable
excitement you hasten toward the second growth, near
the border of which the bird is perched. His large size
and bright reddish brown upper parts readily distinguish
him from other Sparrows, and, in connection with his
spotted breast, give him a general resemblance to a Hermit
Thrush, for which bird he is sometimes mistaken : but a

JUNCO. L45

glance at his short, -tour bill at once shows his family rela-
tionships, and von should have no difficulty in identifying
him as the Fox Sparrow.

A month later he will leave us for his rammer home
in the far North, but in October and November his
ringing notes may again be heard as he pauses a day or
two on his journey southward.

After the Fox Sparrows go, our bird-life is reduced to

its winter elements— that is, permanent residents and win-

Junco ter yisitants. Of the latter the Junco

Junco hyemaUs. or Slate-colored Snowbird is the com-

piateXLViii. monest and most generally distributed.
Although we call this bird a winter visitant, he is with
us nearly eight months in the year, arriving late in Sep-
tember and remaining until early May.

The Junco is one of the birds whose acquaintance can
be easily made. His suit of slaty gray, with its low-cut
vest of white, is not w< >rn 1 >y any other of our birds ; and
while some species show white outer tail-feathers in flight,
the Junco's seem to be more than usually conspicuous.

Except when nesting, Juncos associate in loose flocks
of from ten to fifty. Generally you will find them feed-
ing on the ground near evergreens, into which, when dis-
turbed, they will fly with a twittering note. If they are
excited by your appearance you will hear a sharp, kissing
call; but if unalarmed they will utter a rapidly repeated
chew-chew-eheio, expressive of the utmost contentment.
In March and April, before leaving for their summer
home in northern New England or the crests of the
ALLeghanies and Catskills, the Juncos sing a simple trill
or low, twittering warble. Modest in manner and attire,
there is nothing of especial interest in the Junco's habits,
and only bird-lovers can understand what a difference his
presence makes in a winter landscape. It brings a sense
of companionship ; it is a link between us and Nature.
21

146 TREE SPARROW AND REDPOLL.

The bird's cheery twitter is as welcome as a ray of sun-
light on a cloudy day.

"With the Juncos we may often find a company of
Tree Sparrows or Winter Chippies. They resemble our

Tree Sparrow, familiar Chipping Sparrow, but the
Spizetta montkoia. blackish dot in the center of their

riate xlix. breasts is a good distinguishing mark.
Then, too, the true Chippies all leave for the South in
November, while the Winter Chippies come in October
and remain until April.

Tree Sparrows are sociable birds, with apparently the
best of dispositions. They are usually found in small
companies, each member of which seems to have some-
thing to say. Watch them feeding on an old weed stalk
left uncovered by the snow. It bends beneath the weight
of half a dozen birds, but, far from attempting to rob one
another, they keep up a conversational chatter bespeaking
the utmost good fellowship. Too-ld-it, too-ld-it, each one
calls, and I have only to remember this note to bring
clearly to mind a bright winter morning with the fresh
snow crystals sparkling in the sunshine, and in the dis-
tance a tinkling chorus of Tree Sparrows at breakfast.

Another winter associate of the Junco's, and an inti-
mate friend of the Tree Sparrow's, is the Redpoll, Red-
Eedpoll P°H Linnet, or, as he is sometimes

Acanthis linaria. called, Red-capped Chippy. The Red-
PiateL. po]j negts m tjie far ;N-orth} and the

extent of his southern journeys depends very much upon
the supply of food he finds in his winter wanderings.
When there are seeds in abundance north of the United
States, we do not see many of these birds, but if the
larder fails they may come into New England in great
numbers, and a few may venture as far south as Virginia.
One can not tell, therefore, when to expect them, but it
is well to be on the lookout from November to March.

Plate LVI. Page 155.

DICKCISSEL.
Length,6*00 inches. Adult male, back black, chestnut, and grayish ; Lesser
wing-coverts brighl chestnut; ehin white; throat black; breast yellow;
belly white. Adult female, upper parts streaked black and grayish;
throat white; breast yellowish, with black streaks; belly white.

SNOWLAKE AXD CROSSBILL. 147

With the Tree Sparrows and Jtmcos, Redpolls feed on
the seeds of plants left uncovered by the snow, and they
also include birch bnds in their fare.

None of our winter birds better illustrate the flock-
ing habit than the Snowflakes, Snow Buntings, or, as they

Snowflake, are a^so called, White Snowbirds. With

Pkc&rophmax nivalis, a uniformity of movement which would
riate l. pUt to s]iame the evolutions of the best-

drilled troops, they whirl over the snow-clad fields, wheel-
ing to right or left, as though governed by a single
impulse. Suddenly they swing downward into a weedy
field, alighting on the snow or ground, where they run —
not hop about — like little beach birds. Sometimes, it is
said, they sing on the wing while with us, but their usual
note is a low chirp. They are terrestrial birds, and, al-
though they may often perch on fences or buildings, are
rarely seen in trees.

Snowflakes nest within the Arctic Circle, and, like
other of our winter birds that come from the far North,
are irregular in their movements. As a rule they do not
wander much south of Long Island and northern Illinois,
but occasionally they go as far as Virginia and Kansas,
and are thus among the possibilities which add so much
to the pleasure of winter days in the field.

The Crossbill is a possibility at any season. None of

our birds is more erratic in its migrations. As a rule, it

_ . .„ is found in the Middle States only be-

Amencan Crossbill, ^

Loxia vurviroetra tween November and March, but 1
minor. liave geen it in Central Park, New

Plate LI. York dt.^ ag kte ag May> In the

higher parts of the Alleghanies and in northern New
England it is resident throughout the year. Crossbills
usually wander as tar south each winter as Connecticut,
but beyond this are of irregular occurrence.

They feed almost entirely upon the seeds of pines, and

148 Pl^E GROSBEAK.

are not often seen far from coniferous trees. Their sin-
gular bill might, at first glance, be considered misshapen,
but if you will watch a Crossbill push his crossed mandi-
bles beneath the scale of a pine cone, and with a quick
twist force it off and secure the seed at its base, you will
readily admit that for the bird's purposes his bill could
not be easily improved.

In hunting for Crossbills it is a good plan to look
through the woods for falling scales of pine cones, and
when you see a shower of them whirling softly down-
ward it behooves you to learn the cause of their descent.
The birds often follow them to the ground, to secure the
seeds which have dropped there.

Crossbills fly in compact flocks, and often utter a
sharp, clicking note while on the wing. Their song is
sweet and varied but not loud.

Pine Grosbeaks are among our rarer winter visit-
ants. They come as far south as Massachusetts in vary-

Pine Grosbeak, ing numbers, and occasionally reach
Pinicola enucleator. Connecticut, but south of this point
Plate li. are 0f very infrequent occurrence. At

irregular intervals Pine Grosbeaks become abundant dur-
ing the winter in New England, when, because of _ their
size, they attract general attention. They usually resort
to coniferous trees, upon the seeds of which they feed,
but they also eat berries and buds, and are said to be espe-
cially fond of the fruit of the staghorn sumach.

No one seeing the Goldfinch or Yellowbird in his

summer costume of gold and black would imagine that so

Goldfinch dainty a creature could brave the storms

Spinus tristis, of winter; but late in the season, when
Plate lii. jjjg j10me ijfe }s ended, he changes the

gay wedding dress for a plainer suit, and joins the ranks
of winter birds.

I wish that every one knew the Goldfinch. His gen-

Plate LVII. Pa(Ji: 1,;1-

CEDAR WAXWING.

Length, 7-20 inch.-*. Grayish brown; upper tail-coverts gray; lower

belly yellowish ; end of tail yellow; secondaries sometimes with red,

sealing-wax-like tips ; stripe through face black.

GOLDFINCH. 149

tie ways and sweet disposition are never-failing antidotes
for discontent. One can not be long near a flock of
these birds without being impressed by the refinement
which seems to mark their every note and action. They
show, too, a spirit of contentment from which we may
draw more than a passing lesson. Hear me, hear me,
dea/rie, they call as they feed among the weeds or on the
birch buds, and, no matter how poor the fare, they seem
thankful for it. The seeds of the dandelion, thistle, and
sunflower are among their favorites ; and if you would
attract Goldfinches as well as some other birds, devote a
corner of your garden to sunflowers.

The meal finished, the birds launch into the air, and to
the tune of a cheery jper-cluc-o-ree, jper-cKic-o-ree, go
swinging through space in long, bounding undulations.

In April the males regain their bright colors, but they
are evidently believers in prolonged courtship, and, al-
though the nuptial dress is acquired so early, housekeep-
ing is apparently not thought of until June. Then a neat
home of bark and fine grasses, thickly lined with plant
down, is placed in a bush or tree, five to thirty feet from
the ground, and in it are laid three to six pale, bluish-
white eggs.

Now the song season has reached its height, Chorus
singing has been abandoned. Each bird has become an
inspired soloist, who, perched near his home or flying in
broad circles about it, pours forth a flood of melody. It
is an exceedingly attractive song, sweet and varied and
suggesting a Canary's, but still is no more like it than a
hothouse is like a tropical forest.

Creak, creak, the notes are clear but faint, and may

Purple Finch, come from any place beyond arm's reach.
Oorpodacuajmrpwevt. They are the Purple Finch's flight-
Plate LIU. calls; one might think his wing joints
needed oiling. Alighting on the topmost twig of a

150 PURPLE FINCH.

forest tree, lie utters a low, wild, questioning whistle.
With crown-feathers slightly erect he seems alert and
restless, and before we can fairly see him is off again to
parts unknown.

Purple Finches, in small companies, may often be
seen feeding near the ground with Goldfinches, but if
alarmed they soon return to the tree tops. The old males
may be known by their pinkish red -color, which is bright-
est on the head and breast, and fades to brownish on the
lower back and tail and white on the belly. The young
males and females are Sparrowlike in appearance, the
upper parts being dark grayish brown, the under parts
white, streaked with dusky. A whitish line passing over
the eye is a characteristic mark.

During the winter Purple Finches are irregularly dis-
tributed throughout most of the Eastern States, but in
summer they are not found south of northern New Jer-
sey. They now become more social and may nest in our
gardens. Generally a coniferous tree is selected, and the
nest of twigs, grasses, and rootlets is placed at a height of
about twenty feet. The eggs, four to six in number, are
blue, spotted with dusky about the larger end.

Count yourself fortunate if a Purple Finch makes his
home near yours. He may appropriate a few buds and
blossoms, but he will repay you with music and leave you
his debtor. His song is a sweet, flowing warble ; music
as natural as the rippling of a mountain brook.

Some morning early in May you may meet the Bose-

breasted Grosbeak, just returned from a winter's sojourn

in South America. Perhaps his fame

Bose-breasted^^ wm have preceded him, when you will

Zamelodia ' in a measure be prepared for his charms

ludoviciana. 0f song and plumage, and so miss the

keener pleasure of surprise ; but to me

he appeared as a revelation, and after fifteen years I still

Plate LVIII. Page 162.

NORTHERN SHRIKE.

Length, 10*30 Inches. Adult, upper parts gray; tail black and white;

under pints white, with blackish bars : Lores grayish ; ear-coverts black.

Young, similar, but plutnage washed with brownish.

TOWHEE.

151

find it difficult to believe that, unknown to me, this beau-
tiful creature could long have been an inhabitant of my
woods.

The Grosbeak prefers young second growths, with a
liberal proportion of oaks. In one of these trees he will
doubtless build his nest, a structure so lightly made that
one can almost see the blue, spotted eggs from below.
The male is not only an ardent lover but an admirable
husband, and, unlike most brightly attired birds, shares
with his mate the task of incubation, and, it is said,
sings while on the nest. His mate is so unlike him in
color that few would suspect their relationship. She
suggests an overgrown female Purple Finch, with the
eye-stripe especially prominent ; but if you should chance
to see the under surface of her wings, you would find
that they were lined with gold. However, the call-notes
of both sexes are alike — a sharp, characteristic peek, which
you will have no difficulty in recognizing after you have
learned it.

The Grosbeak's song will remind you of a Robin's,
but it is in truth a much higher type of bird music.
It is a joyous carol, expressive of a happy disposition
and a clear conscience.

The Towhee, or Chewink, is an important member of
any bird community. He comes early — April 20 may

Towhee ^n^ mm W^L lls — an<^ ne staJs ^ate»

Rpilo sometimes remaining until November 1.

erythropUhalmus. During this period there is not an hour
of the day when you can not find a
Chewink if you know how to look for him. At midday
you will perhaps have to summon him by a whistled to-
whee from the depths of his bushy home on the border of
a wood or thicket ; but he will soon respond, and with a
fiuff~fluffl of his short, rounded wings, fiy jerkily up to
inquire what's wanted.

152 INDIGO BUNTING.

Some birds, such as the Red-eyed Vireo, can sing just
as well while hunting food as at any other time ; in fact,
I do not remember ever seeing a Red-eye pause long
in its search for insects — song and search go on together.
But with the Chewink singing is a serious matter, not to
be associated with the material question of food ; so, when
singing, he abandons the dead leaves he has been tossing
about so vigorously, and, mounting a perch, becomes an
inspired if not gifted musician. Sweet bird, sing, a friend
writes it, the " sing " being higher, sustained, and vibrant.
To this there is often a refrain which suggests an an-
swering, tremulous I'll try.

Matins or vespers over, the Chewink returns to
the ground and resumes his occupation of scratching
among the leaves for breakfast or supper, as the case
may be.

The Chewink's nest is placed on the ground, often in
dried grass, beneath a tangle of running wild blackberry.
The eggs, four or five in number, are white, finely and
evenly speckled with reddish brown.

There are three birds who sing not only through the

heat of midsummer but are undaunted by the warmth of

a midday sun. They are the Wood

n igo un ing, pewee ^he Red-eved Yireo, and the In-

I'assertina cyauea. J

digo-bird or Bunting. The Pewee and
Vireo, singing dreamily from the shady depths of a tree,
carry the air to the hummed accompaniment of insects ;
but the Bunting, mounting to an upper branch, gives
voice to a tinkling warble, more in keeping with the
freshness of early morning than the languor of noon.
July, July, summer '-summer }s here • morning, noontide,
evening, list to me, he sings so rapidly that human tongue
can scarce enumerate the words fast enough to keep pace
with him. The Indigo-bird is in song when he comes to
us from the South early in May, but it is not until other

Plate LV. pAGE 151.

TOWHEE.
Length, s-'!~> inches. Adult male, upper parte, throat, and breasl black;
belly white ; sides reddieh brown. Adult female, Bimilar, bul black re-
placed by brownish.

Plate LIX- Packs 164, 165.

REP-EYED VIREO.
Length, 6-25 inches. Crown gray, bordered by black and white; hack,
wings, and tail olive-green ; under parts white.

YELLOW-THROATED VIREO.
Length, 5-95 inches. Crown and hack greenish yellow; rump gray;
breast bright yellow; belly white; wing-bars white.

CARDINAL. [53

singers have dropped from the chorus that his voice be-
comes conspicuous.

Not far away his mate is doubtless sitting on her blu-
ish white eggs in a nest low down in the crotch of a bush.
lie in his deep indigo costume may be easily identified,
but she is a dull brownish bird, about the size of a Ca-
nary, sparrowlike in appearance, though with unstreaked
plumage, and a difficult bird to name, even when you
have a specimen in your hand, while in the bush, if silent,
she is a puzzle. But she is far too good a mother not to
protest if you venture too near her home, and her sharp
pit <>r peet usually calls her mate, whom you will recog-
nize at once.

The Cardinal is about the size of a Towhee, with
plumage which, except for a black throat, is almost
wholly rosy red. Seeing a mounted
Cardi^^dinaUB. Cardinal, one might imagine that he
was a conspicuous bird in life and easy
to ol >serve ; but the truth is that, in spite of his bright
colors, the Cardinal is a surprisingly difficult bird to see.
You may often hear his sharp, insignificant tsip without
catching a glimpse of the caller, so well can he conceal
himself. His olive-brown mate is, of course, even more
difficult to find, and when you do see her you would
hardly suspect the relationship were it not for her actions
and the striking crest worn by both sexes.

The Cardinal's song is a rich, sympathetic whistle.
Hi- mate also sings at times, and I carry in my memory
a musical courting I once observed, in which a pair of
these beautiful birds were the actors. The song begins
with whee-you, whee-you, long-drawn notes, which are
followed by a more rapid hurry^ hurry, hurry } <jni<-l\
quick, quick, and other notes difficult of description.
The Cardinal is a bird of the Southern rather than of
the Northern States, and is rarely seen north of New

154 LARK FINCH.

York city. It is, however, a permanent resident through-
out its range, and to one who associates it with magnolias
and yellow jessamine it seems strangely out of place amid
snowy surroundings.

The Cardinal builds its nest about four feet from the
ground in thickets, laying three or four eggs, which are
white or bluish white, speckled and spotted with grayish
or reddish brown.

In the Mississippi Valley and westward there are sev-
eral members of this family who are rarely found east

Lark Finch °f *ne Alleghanies. Prominent among

Chondestes them is the Lark Finch, a handsome

grammacm. j^ ^^ ^ ^ & quarter ^j^g

long, with ear-coverts and sides of the crown chestnut,
the back grayish brown streaked with black, the outer
tail-feathers tipped with white, and the under parts
white, with a single black spot in the center of the
breast.

This is a migratory bird, arriving in southern Illinois
about the middle of April and remaining until September
or October. Mr. Bidgway, in his Birds of Illinois, says
that its favorite resorts are " fertile prairies and meadows
adjoining strips or groves of timber. In Illinois it evinces
a special fondness for cornfields, in which it builds its
nest at the foot of the stalks, while the male sings from
the fence or the top of a small tree by the roadside."

Its song, the same writer continues, is " composed of
a series of chants, each syllable rich, loud, and clear, in-
terspersed with emotional trills. At the beginning the
song reminds one somewhat of that of the Indigo-bird
{Passerinii ci/anea), but the notes are louder and more
metallic, and their delivery more vigorous. Though
seemingly hurried, it is one continuous gush of sprightly
music ; now gay, now melodious, and then tender beyond
description — the very expression of emotion."

Plate LX.

Page 167.

BLACK AND WHITE WARBLER.
Length, 5*25 inches. Adult male, upper parts, breast, and sides black and
white; belly white. Adult female, similar, but with Less black on under

pails.

DICKCISSEL. 155

Borne thirty or forty years ago the Diekcissel, or
Black-throated Bunting, was a locally common bird in

Diekcissel, tne Middle Atlantic States. Now it is

Spina amarioana. rarely found east of the Alleghanies,

piateLVL amj even m t]ie Mississippi Valley its
range is becoming restricted, and it is of irregular distri-
bution.

It migrates in large flocks, the males in the spring
being Beveral days in advance of the females. About
May 1 it reaches the latitude of Chicago, and by the mid-
dle of the month is mated. The nest is placed on the
ground, or in low trees or bushes ; the eggs, four or five
in number, are pale blue.

In the work previously quoted from, Mr. Ridgway
writes of this species : " While some other birds are
equally numerous, there are few that announce their
presence as persistently as this species. All day long,
in spring and summer, the males, sometimes to the num-
ber of a dozen or more for each meadow of considerable
extent, perch upon the summits of tall weed stalks or
fence-stakes, at short intervals, crying out : See, see —
Dick, Dick Cissel, Cissel ; therefore 'Dick Cissel ' is well
known to every farmer's boy as well as to all who visit
the country during the season of clover blossoms and wild
roses, when ' Dame Nature ' is in her most joyous mood."

Tanagers. (Family Taxagrid^e.)

The Tanagers, numbering some three hundred and
fifty species, are found only in America. Their home
is in the tropics, where they are among the most abun-
dant of birds. But two species reach the eastern United
States, the Summer Redbird of the South and our Scar-
let Tanager, both worthy representatives of a group
of birds which in brilliancy of color rival even the Hum-

156 SCARLET TANAGER.

mingbirds. The male Scarlet Tanager, with fire-red body
and jet-black wings and tail, is the most brightly plum-
aged of our birds. Seen against a

Scarlet Tanager j , background lig]lt seemg to radi.
Piranya erythromelas. J 5s .

ate from his glowing feathers. But
the female, clad in dull olive-green, is so in harmony
with the color of her surroundings that she is not easily
discovered. The young male at first resembles his mother,
but has blackish wings and tail, and does not acquire the
full scarlet and black plumage until the following spring.
After the nesting season is over the male exchanges the
nuptial dress, which has rendered him so conspicuous, for
a costume similar to that worn by the young male.

The Scarlet Tanager spends the winter in Central and
South America with his numerous relatives, and in the
spring reaches the latitude of New York city about May
5, remaining until October. It frequents both high and
low woods, but prefers rather open growths of white oak.
Its nest is usually placed on the horizontal branch of an
oak limb. The three or four eggs are pale greenish blue,
with numerous reddish brown markings.

The Tanager's call-note is a characteristic clwp-eKurr ;
his song is not unlike the Robin's, but is not so free and
ringing. Mounting to the topmost branch, often of a
dead or partially dead tree, he sings, Look-up, way -up,
look-at-me, tree-top^, and with frequent pauses repeats the
invitation.

Swallows. (Family Hirundinid^e.)

Primarily, Swallows are remarkable for their power
of flight. Their long, bladelike wings show how well they
are fitted for life in the air; their small feet, on the
other hand, are of little service except in perching, and
give evidence of the effect of disuse (see Fig. 6).

Plate LXI. Page 168.

MYRTLE WARBLER.
Length, 5*65 Inches. Winter plumage, crown-patch, rump, and Bides of
breast yellow; back brown and black; under parts black and white.
Summer plumage, Bimilar, but upper pails gray and black; more black
on under parts.

BLACK-THROATED GREEN WARBLER.
Length, 5-10 inches. Upper parts yellowish green; face brighter;
breast black; belly white.

SWALLOWS. I:,7

The aerial ability of Swallows accounts for their wide
distribution, the eighty known species being represented
in all parts of the world. ( )nly six of them inhabit the
northeastern States, but they are so active and so easily
observed, that they rank among our most abundant and
best-known birds.

Swallows are eminently insectivorous. The Tree Swal-
low is known to feed on bayberries when its usual fare is
wanting, but, with this exception, it is doubtful if any
but insect food passes a Swallow's bill from one year's
end to another. Kecalling now the activity of Swallows,
which both necessitates a large supply of food and pro-
cures it, and we must realize that these birds are incal-
culably beneficial.

Both the feeding habits and powers of flight of Swal-
lows are such as their structure would lead us to expect,
but when we examine their nests we are amazed at the
architectural skill of builders so poorly provided with
tools. The large mud pocket of the Barn Swallow, the
clay retort of the Cliff Swallow, and the long burrow
which the Bank Swallow excavates, are surely not the
kind of homes we should expect these small-billed, weak-
footed, dainty creatures to construct. We will note, too,
that these feathered architects are quick to perceive and
take advantage of the new and favorable conditions for
nest-building found about the home of man.

The Bank, Rough-winged, and Tree Swallows, and
the Purple Martin, lay white eggs ; the eggs of the Barn
and Cliff Swallows are speckled with cinnamon, olive, and
reddish brown.

It is when nesting that Swallows best show one of
their strong characteristics — their sociability. Many birds
live in flocks during part of the year, but separate in pairs
when nesting; but most Swallows live on terms of such
intimacy that their nests seem to be merely apartments in

158 SWALLOWS.

one great dwelling. A photograph of part of a colony
of Cliff Swallows in Montana shows one hundred and
forty nests, nearly all of which adjoin one another.

The songs of Swallows are humble efforts, but are so
expressive of the happy dispositions of the birds, and so
associated with scenes with which they are inseparably
connected, that the merry twitterings of these birds are
as dear to us as the voices of friends.

The sociability of Swallows does not end with the
nesting season, as it does with many birds that are then
brought into communities by force of circumstances.
When the young take wing, Swallows begin to collect
in flocks, which gradually unite, and in August and Sep-
tember form assemblages containing millions of individ-
uals. They generally make their headquarters in some
large marsh, where they roost in the reeds and grasses,
but they also resort to trees. Early in the morning they
scatter over the country in small bands, flying at a con-
siderable height, and during the day we may often see
them feeding over fields and ponds or resting on wayside
telegraph wires. Late in the afternoon they begin to re-
turn to their roosts. At first they fly slowly and circle
about to feed, but as the light fails they fly with increas-
ing swiftness, and the last comers shoot through the dusk
with incredible rapidity.

These remarks apply with equal truth to all our Swal-
lows ; it remains now to briefly mention the characters
by which they may be distinguished specifically. The
four common species are figured in the frontispiece,
which clearly shows most of their diagnostic marks,
which are : Tail forked, Barn Swallow ; forehead whit-
ish, rump rusty, Cliff Swallow ; a band across the breast,
plumage without metallic colors, Bank Swallow ; breast
pure white, Tree Swallow.

Plate LXII. Page 1i

EED8TAET.
Length, 5-40 Inches. Adult male, band in wings; base of tail and sides
of breast deep salmon; belly white; rest of plumage black. Adult
female and young, similar, but salmon replaced by yellow; upper parts
grayish brown ; under parts white ; breast yellowish.

SWALLOWS. 159

The Barn Swallow is the most generally distributed
of our Swallows, its habits of nesting in outbuildings

Bam Swallow making it at home wherever they offer
ChMdon it a suitable nesting place. It is about

seven inches long; the upper parts and
sides of the breast are steel-blue, the
forehead and throat chestnut, the rest of the under parts
paler; the tail deeply forked and marked with white. Its
long tail is a most efficient rudder, permitting the abrupt
turns which make its flight more erratic than that of any
other of our Swallows. It skims low over the fields, or
darts through the village streets with a rapidity and indi-
rectness which I never witness without astonishment.

The Barn Swallow arrives from its winter home in
the tropics about April 15 and remains until late in
September. Its nest is generally placed on a beam in
a barn or other outbuilding, and is composed of mud
and grasses lined with feathers.

The Cliff or Eave Swallow is less generally distributed
than the Barn Swallow. It nests in colonies, placing its

Cl"ffs alio rows of mud tenements under cliffs in

BsbrocheUdon the West and beneath the eaves of barns

luni/rons. in the East. It becomes much attached

(Frontispiece.) tQ ^ fo^]^ ;md when 11i1di.stllH >e< 1

returns to it year after year, arriving from the South
about May 1, and remaining until late September. It is
six inches long; the forehead is whitish, the crown and
back steel-blue, the rump rusty ; the throat chestnut with
a blackish area; the belly white.

Like the Cliff Swallow, the Bank Swallow nests in
colonies, and is very local during the breeding season. A

Bank Swallow sandbank facing a stream or pond is
ioola Hparia. often chosen for a home. Into it a

(Frontispiece.) tunnel two or three feet in length is
bored, and at its end a nest of grasses and feathers is built.

160 TREE SWALLOW.

The Bank Swallow winters in the tropics and reaches
us in the spring about April 20, remaining until late Sep-
tember. It is the smallest of our Swallows, measuring
only five inches in length, and is the only one, except the
Rough-winged Swallow, which has no metallic coloring
in its plumage, the back being plain brownish gray, the
under parts white, with a clearly defined brownish gray
band across the breast. The Rough-wing is a more south-
ern bird, being rare north of southern Connecticut. It
resembles the Bank Swallow, but differs chiefly in having
the whole breast brownish gray. It nests in holes in
banks, and also about stone bridges, trestles, and similar
structures.

Though A'ery generally distributed, there are large

areas within the breeding range of the Tree Swallow

Tree Swallow where it is known only as a migrant.

Tactycineta bicolor. In the wilder part of its range it nests

(Frontispiece.) in jj0uow trees ; in the more settled
portions it uses bird-boxes. During recent years, as Mr.
Brewster has remarked, the always-present House Spar-
row has pre-empted the former abodes of the Tree Swal-
low, so that it no longer nests about our homes ; but as
a migrant its numbers are undiminished, and it is prob-
ably our most abundant Swallow.

Being the only Swallow to winter in the eastern
United States, the Tree Swallow is the first to arrive in
the spring, coming to us from Florida early in April. It
is also the last of its family to leave us in the fall, often
remaining near JSew York city until October 20.

Immature birds have the upper parts brownish gray
instead of shining steel-blue, as in the adult, but in either
plumage the bird may be known by its pure white under
parts, which have given to it the name of White-bellied
Swallow.

In the northern United States Martins are very local.

Plate LXIII. Page 170.

OVEN-BIRD.

Length, 6-15 inches. Crown reddish brown, bordered by black; back,

wings, and tail olive-green; under parts black and whit.'.

CEDAB WAXWING. 161

They have long since abandoned their habit of building in

hollow trees, and now nest only abont houses or in lawns

where gourds or boxes are erected for

! in' their occupation. To these they return

year after year, arriving in the spring

about April 25 and remaining until September. The

male is uniform steel-blue, and appears black in the air ;

the female is grayish, tinged with steel-blue above; the

breast is gray, the belly white. This is the largest of

our Swallows, measuring eight inches in length.

Waxwim.s. (Family Amf&ISDJE.)

One of the two species of AYaxwing is a bird of the far
North; the other, our Cedar Waxwing, is found through-
Cedar Waxwing out North America. "Waxwings pos-
Am, - in an unusual degree two charac-

PlateLVlL teri>tics which are not supposed to be

associated — sociability and silence. Xone of our birds is
more companionable, none more quiet. In their fondness
for one another's society they seem to delay the pairing
season, and long after other birds have gone to house-
keeping they are still roving about in flocks. Finally,
late in June, they settle down and build a nest of generous
proportions, often in some fruit tree, about ten feet from
the ground. The three to five eggs are pale bluish gray
or putty-color, spotted with black or brownish black.

Waxwings fly in close rank and alight as near each
other a- the nature of their perch will allow. They -it
very still, like little Parrots or Doves, but often raise and
lower their crests, and perhaps whisper a fine lisping note,
which is prolonged into a louder call — a string of beady
note. BS they take wing.

Their fare varies with the season — cedar berries, ^raw-
berries, cherries, both cultivated and wild, the berries
23

102 NORTHERN SHRIKE.

of the woodbine, sour gum, and others being taken in
turn.

In August the Waxwing shows no mean gifts as a
flycatcher, while as a destroyer of the cankerworm he is
especially beneficial, repaying us with interest for the
fruit he may have approjjriated earlier in the season.

The "Waxwing's wide range and ability to withstand
great extremes in temperature are doubtless due to the
ease with which it adapts itself to a change in fare. It
nests from Virginia to Labrador, and winters from Massa-
chusetts to Costa Rica.

Shrikes. (Family Laniid^e.)

The marked difference in the temperament of birds is

emphasized by finding among the song birds, who feed

Northern Shrike on frnitj seeds, and insects, a bird who

Laniw boreaUs. in his position and choice of food is

Plate lviii. tni]y hawklike. Shrikes are solitary,
never assembling in flocks or associating with other birds.
Their days are days of waiting, varied by a pounce upon
some unfortunate field mouse or dash into a flock of un-
suspecting Sparrows. But, while they resemble the Hawks
in these respects, their manner of capturing their prey dif-
fers from that of their larger prototypes. The Shrike
has a Hawk's bill but a Sparrow's foot, and, lacking the
powerful talons which make so deadly a weapon, he cap-
tures his prey with his strong mandibles. Possibly it may
be due to his comparatively weak feet that he pursues the
singular custom of impaling his prey on some thorn or
hanging it from a crotch where he can better dissect it.

The Shrike, or Butcher-bird, as he is also called, be-
longs to a large family, but, with the exception of his
smaller cousin the Loggerhead, he is the only one of the
two hundred known species found in America. He nests

I^H

Plate LXIV. Page 171.

MARYLAND YELLOW-THROAT.

Length, 5*30 Inches. Adult male, face black, bordered by ashy; back

olive-grccn; breast yellow; belly paler. Adult female, similar, bul no

black on face; under parts paler.

VIKHOS. 1,;;;

within the Arctic Circle, and in October journeys south-
ward, rarely as far as Virginia, and remains in the United
States until April or May.

The Loggerhead Shrike is common in the Southern
States and MiHfliflfrippi Valley, whence it has apparently
extended eastward through central New York to Ver-
mont and Maine. It nests in these States, but southward
to Maryland is known only as a rare migrant — a unique
case in distribution. It differs from the Northern Shrike
in being an inch and a quarter .-mailer, in the absence of the
wavy bars on the breast, which is pure white, and in hav-
ing jet-black lores and a narrow black line across the fore-
head at the base of the bill. Its song is creaky and un-
musical, hut the song of the Northern Shrike, as de-
scribed by Mr. Brewster, is " really pleasing," and " not
unlike that of the Thrasher, but more disconnected and
less loud and varied."

Vireos. (Family Vireonid^e.)

Vireos are gleaners, and are to be distinguished from
other tree-inhabiting, greenish birds of the same size by
their habit of carefully exploring the under surface of
leaves and various nooks and corners in the bark and
foliage, while the more active Warblers are Hitting about
the terminal twigs and the Flycatchers are swinging out
in aerial loops at passing insects.

They are highly musical little birds, having songs and
call -notes which may be quickly recognized once they
are known. The nests and eggs of our four summer-
resident species are so much alike that they are to be
known only when accompanied by their owners. The
White-eyed Vireo inhabits thickets and, as a rule, builds
nearer the ground than the arboreal Red-eyed, Yellow-
throated, and Warbling Vireos. The aests are small,

164 RED-EYED VIREO.

pouchlike affairs of strips of pliable bark, bits of dead
wood, plant-fibers, tendrils, fine grasses, etc., firmly inter-
woven and suspended from the arms of a forked twig.
The eggs are white, with a few black or brownish black
spots, chiefly about the larger end.

The Vireos are an exclusively American family, and

number some fifty species, of which seven reach the

Eed-eyed Vireo northeastern States. Of these, by far

Vireo oUvcuxus. the most common is the Red-eyed
Plate lix. Vireo. There are few favorable locali-

ties in eastern North America where, in the summer,
one may not hear the cheerful song of this bird. Still,
it is so well protected by the foliage, with which its
plumage agrees in color, that to those whose ear is not
attuned to the music of birds it is unknown. But listen
near some grove of elms or maples, and you will not fail
to hear its song — a somewhat broken, rambling recitative,
which no one has described so well as Wilson Flagg, who
calls this bird the Preacher, and interprets its notes as
" You see it — you know it — do you hear me ? — do you be-
lieve it ? " The Red-eye evidently has an inquiring mind,
for he never tires of asking these questions. He not
only sings all day, but seems unaffected by the heat of
summer, and at midday is often the only bird to be heard.
One would imagine that few birds had a more even tem-
perament than this calm-voiced singer, but when annoyed
he utters a complaining whang — a sound which is a good
indication that something is wrong in the bird world.

The Red-eye winters in the tropics, and reaches us in
the spring about May 1, remaining until October 15.

A near relative of the Red-eye's is the Warbling
Yireo — a somewhat smaller bird, with a brown, in place
of red eye, and without the black margin above the white
eye-line which can be so easily seen in the Red-eye. The
Warbling Yireo is the less common of the two, and is

Plate LXV.

YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT.
Length, 745 Inches. Opper parts olive-green; breasl yellow
white; lores black, bordered by w hit «•.

Page 172.

VIKKOS. L65

more local, showing a marked fondness for rows of elms

— a taste which makes it a dweller in towns and villages.

It- song hears no resemblance to that

War ng ireo, ^ tj Red-eye, being a continuous,

Vireogilvw. . .

flowing warble, with an alto under-
tone, suggestive of the song of the Purple Finch.

The Warbling A'ireo arrives from its winter home in
the tropics ahout May 5, and remains until late in Sep-
temher.

Although the Yellow-throated Vireo is least like the
Red-eye in color, it resemhles it the most closely in choice
Y liow-throated °^ naimts an(l in song. Still, the Yellow-

Vireo, throat's song is sung more deliberately
Vireo flavifrona. and with longer pauses between the
parts, while in tone it is deeper and
richer. To my mind he says : "See me; I'm here; where
are you?" repeating the question in varying forms.
Rarely he utters a beautiful, mellow trill which suggests
the song of the Ruby-crowned Kinglet, and he has also
a caching, scolding note like that of the White-eye.
The Yellow-throat's nest is often a more elaborate struc-
ture than those of our other Vireos, being thickly cov-
ered with lichens, which add greatly to its beauty.

Like the two preceding species, the Yellow-throat
winters in the tropics, and reaches the latitude of New
York city about May 1. It does not, however, remain
as long as its relatives, leaving us about September 15.

The White-eyed Vireo is the genius of his family.

What the Chat is among Warblers the White-eye is

among Vireos — a peculiar, eccentric

white-eyed vireo, bird of Bt character, who regards

( vreo novtfooraa ruts. ° .-n

mankind with disapproval, and will

have none of us. Excellent reasons these why we

should court his acquaintance.

Unlike our other Vireos, the White-eye lives in the

100 WARBLERS.

lower growth ; thickets of cat-brier are his favorite
haunts. Pie is therefore nearer our level, and seems to
address us more directly than do the birds that call from
the tree tops. If you linger near his home he will inquire
your business with a vigorous " I say, who are you, eh ? "
and if you do not take this hint to move on he will
doubtless follow it with a scolding whose intent is unmis-
takable. He has a variety of exclamatory calls, and
sometimes may be heard softly singing a song composed
largely of imitations of the notes of other birds.

The White-eye can easily be known from the Red-eye
and Warbling Yireos by the narrow white bands across
the tips of its wing-coverts. In this respect it resembles
the Yellow-throat, from which it is to be distinguished
by its smaller size (length 5*25 inches), white iris, and
white breast, only the sides of the breast being tinged
with yellow. It winters from Florida southward, and
reaches us in the spring about May 1, to remain until
October.

Warblers. (Family Mniotiltidje.)

Warblers may be described as among our most abun-
dant, most beautiful, and least-known birds. Of the
thirty-five species regularly found in the northeastern
States, only three or four are familiar to the casual ob-
server. The presence of the others is unsuspected, and
when some chance brings one of these exquisite little
creatures into our lives, the event is attended by all the
excitement of an actual discovery. We never forget our
first Warbler.

It is because we do not see Warblers unless we look
for them that they are strangers to so many persons who
go to the woods. They are, with some exceptions, small
birds of limited vocal powers. They live in the tree tops,

]'i.\ 1 1 LXVI. Page 174.

MOCKINGBIBD.
I, agth, 10-50 inches. Upper parts ashy gray; wings and tail brownish
black and white; under parts white.

BLACK AND WHITE WABBLER. L67

and their lisping notes blend with other woodland voices
without attracting OUT attention.

May and September are the months for Warblers,
Some species arrive in April, but they arc most numer-
ous between May ."> and L5, when the woods are
thronged with their flitting forms. Less than half of our
thirty-five species remain to breed ; the others go to their
summer homes in the coniferous forests of the North.
These northern birds return in the latter part of August
and abound in September. Many of the Warblers seen
at this season are immature birds wearing plumages so
different from those of the adult birds seen in the spring,
that their identity is not suspected, and, in effect, they
are new birds to us.

To the field ornithologist Warblers are therefore the
most difficult as well as the most fascinating birds to
study. Long after the Sparrows, Flycatchers, and Vireos
have been mastered, there will be unsolved problems
among the Warblers. Some rare species wall be left to
look for — it may be a member of the band flitting about
actively in the branches above us — and in the hope of
finding it we eagerly examine bird after bird until our
enthusiasm yields to an aching neck.

Acquaintance with more familiar birds will d nbtless

arouse the enthusiasm necessary to a successful pursuit of

Black and White Garbles, but in the meanwhile I will

Warbler, mention only those species that can be

Mhiotilta varia. most easily observed. Among them is

plateLX- the Black and White Warbler, whose

habit of creeping or climbing over trunk and limb aids
in his identification. lie isa summer resident, and about
April 20 we may expect to hear the thin, wiry see-see-
see-see notes which form his song. A mouth later we
may find bis nest, placed on the ground at the base of
a stump or stone and containing four or live white

168 WARBLERS.

eggs speckled with reddish brown, chiefly at the larger
end.

The Yellow Warbler is also a summer resident, arriv-
ing in the spring about April 30 and remaining, with

the Black-and-white Warbler, until late
Yellow Warbler, £ g tember> It hag ^ ^

Venaroica cesfava. x or

pearance of being an entirely yellow

bird, and is sometimes called " Wild Canary," but it has
a much more slender bill than the Canary, and its breast
is spotted with reddish brown. Most Warblers are wood-
inhabiting birds, but the Yellow Warbler, unlike its rela-
tives, prefers lawns, parks, and orchards to woodlands.
Its nest, of fine grasses, fibers, and a large amount of cot-
tony plant-down, is placed in shrubbery or shade trees.
Its eggs are bluish white, thickly marked with cinnamon
and olive-brown.

The Black-throated Green Warbler nests in pine for-
ests from southern New England northward, arriving

_, , .. . . from the South about May 1 and re-

Black-throated . J

Green Warbler maining until October. Its nest is
Dendroica virens. usually placed in pine trees ; its eggs
Plate lxi. are white, spotted and speckled with

dark brown.

The songs of many Warblers are possessed of so little
character that the best description conveys no idea of
them, but the quaint see-see, see-ee, see of the Black-
throated Green, which Mr. Burroughs writes v — ,

will be readily recognized.

The Myrtle or Yellow-rumped Warbler nests from
northern New England northward, and in winter is the
Myrtle Warbler 011bT Warbler to remain in the Korth-
Dendroica coronata. em States, being often found as far
Plate lxi. north as New York city, when its

favorite food of bay berries can be procured. At this
season there is little or no black on the breast and the

Plate LXVIL

BROWN THEASHEE.
Length, 11-40 inches. Upper parts bright reddish b
white and black ; eyea yellow.

Page it.">.

REDSTART. (.69

"hack is grayish brown, but this Warbler may always be
known by its four patches of yellow and Ltfl characteristic
call-note of tohip.

The Redstart belongs to the group of fly-catching
Warblers, and, as an indication of its maimer of feeding,

Bedstart n^s m" *s ,nu<'n broader and flatter than

\ga ruticiUa. IS usual in this family. The Redstart is

Plate i.xn. llot g0 patient and methodic a flycatcher
as the birds to whom this name rightly belongs. They
sit quietly until some insect comes within reach, and then
with unerring aim launch out at it, returning to their
perch to devour it at leisure. But the Redstart darts
here and there, falls and rises and spins about, catching
an insect at every turn and at the same time displaying
his bright colors to such advantage that he seems the
most beautiful as he is the most animated bird of the
woods. As he pirouettes from limb to limb, with drooped
wings and spread tail, he sings ser-wee swee, swee-ee, a
simple but merry little jingle.

The Redstart's bright colors, like some mark of
special distinction, are not acquired at once. The young
male must pass through a period of probation before he
is worthy to wear the orange-red and black. In the
meantime he appears first in the costume of the female,
and by successive changes reaches the full dignity of
Redstart estate at the age of three years. He nests,
however, the first year, when his plumage closely re-
sembles that of his mate. The nest, of fine strips of
bark, plant-down, and other materials, is built in the
crotch of a sapling ten to twenty feet from the ground.
The eggs are grayish white or bluish white, spotted and
blotched, chiefly at the larger end, with cinnamon and
olive-brown. They are laid about May 28 — four weeks
after the bird's arrival from the South.

All the Warblers thus far mentioned are tree-inhabit-
24

170 OVEN-BIRD.

ing birds, but tbe species now to be spoken of pass most
of their time in the undergrowth or on the ground. The

Oven-bird Oven-bird chooses the latter locality.

Seiurua aurocapillus. He has been well compared by Mr.

Plato lxiii. Burroughs to a little Partridge, and if
you have enough perseverance to find the author of the
sharp cheep with which this somewhat suspicious bird
will greet you, you will see a modestly attired little
walker daintily picking his way over the leaves and fallen
branches, with crest slightly erect, and head nodding at
each step.

Probably, however, your first acquaintance with the
Oven-bird will be made through the medium of his song.
There are few bits of woodland where in May and June
you can not hear numbers of these birds singing. It is a
loud, ringing, crescendo chant, to which Mr. Burroughs's
description of " teacher, teacher, teacher, TEACHEK,
TEACHER " is so applicable that no one would think of
describing it in any other way. The bird seems to exert
himself to the utmost, and no one hearing this far from
musical performance would imagine that he could im-
prove upon it. But if some evening during the height
of the mating season you will visit the Oven-bird's
haunts, you may hear a song whose wildness is startling.
It is the flight-song of the Oven-bird, transforming the
humble chanter into an inspired musician. Soaring high
above the trees, he gives utterance to a rapid, ecstatic
warbling so unlike his ordinary song that it is difficult to
believe one bird is the author of them both.

As an architect the Oven-bird is also distinguished.
His unique nest is built on the ground of coarse grasses,
weed stalks, leaves, and rootlets, and is roofed over, the
entrance being at one side. It thus resembles an old-
fashioned Dutch oven, and its shape is the origin of its
builder's name. The Oven-bird arrives from the South

Plate LXVIII. Page 175.

HOUSE WREN.
Length, 5-00 inches. Upper parts brown, marked with Mack and
grayish; under parts grayish while.

MARYLAND YELLOW-THROAT. 171

about May 1, and its eggs are laid about the 20th of the
month. They are white, speckled or Bpotted with cinna-
mon and reddish brown.

The Maryland Yellow-throat is an abundant inhabit-
ant of thickets and bushy undergrowths, readily iden-
M land titled by his black mask and yellow

Yellow-throat, breast, nervous activity, and character-
'ypiatriehaa. istic notes. Some birds must be ap-
' proached with caution, but nothing save
an actual attack upon his home will cause the Yellow-
throat to leave its shelter. Hopping from limb to limb,
he advances to the border of the thicket, then retreats to
its depths, all the time uttering an impatient chock, chit,
or pit, and, if forced to fly, he goes only to the next clump
of bushes.

The Yellow-throat's somewhat explosive song is so
easily set to words and so variable that there are many
versions of it. It is described as whitititee, whitititee,
whitititee / rapity, rapity, rapity, rap, or witch-e-icee-o,
witeh-e-wee-o, witch-e-wee-o. Mr. Burroughs says he has
heard birds whose notes sounded like the words " AYhich
way, sir ? " and I have heard some who seemed to say
"Wait a minute."

To this the Yellow-throat sometimes adds a flight
song, which is a miniature of the Oven-bird's aerial sere-
nade. It is generally added to his usual song, and is
most often heard late in the season at evening, wheo
the bird may be seen springing into the air above his
bushy retreat.

The Yellow-throat arrives from the South about May
1, and remains until the middle of October. Late in
May a bulky nest of grasses, strips of bark, and dead
leaves, lined with finer material.-, is built on or near the
ground. The three to five eggs are white, rather thinly
speckled with reddish brown. Often an egg of the Cow-

L72 YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT.

bird will be found in the nest, Yellow-throats being one
of the birds most frequently chosen by the Cowbird as
foster-parents.

The Chat is the largest of the Warblers, and so unlike
them, or any other birds, in disposition that if classifica-

Yellow-breastedChat, timi were based on C^cter, the Chat
Ltcria vh-ens. would surely be placed in a family by
Plate lxv. itself ^lG that's peculiarities are
numerous, but are most evident in his song. Many
times I have sat, note-book and pencil in hand, trying to
express in words the song of a Chat singing in a neigh-
boring thicket, but I have never succeeded in putting on
paper anything which would convey an adequate idea of
the bird's remarkable vocal performances. Of others
who have attempted the same task, I think Mr. Bur-
roughs comes nearest to interpreting the bird's strange
medley. He says : " Now he barks like a puppy, then
quacks like a Duck, then rattles like a Kingfisher, then
squalls like a fox, then caws like a Crow, then mews like
a cat. . . . C-r-r-r-r-r — whrr — that's it — chee — quack,
cluck, yit-yit-ylt — now hit it — tr-r-r-r — ivhen — caw — daw
— cut, cut — tea-boy — who, who — mew, mew? You may
be pardoned for doubting that a bird can produce so
strange a series of noises, but if you will go to the Chat's
haunts in thickety openings in the woods, or other bushy
places, and let him speak for himself, you will admit that
our alphabet can not do him justice. To hear the Chat is
one thing, to see him quite another. But he will repay
study, and if you will conceal yourself near his home you
may see him deliver part of his repertoire while on the
wing, with legs dangling, wings and tail flapping, and his
whole appearance suggesting that of a bird who has had
an unfortunate encounter with a charge of shot.

But if the Chat's song is surprising when heard dur-
ing the day, imagine the effect it creates at night when

Plate LXIX. Pagi: 177.

LONG-BILLED MARSH WREN.
Length, 5-20 inches. Upper parte brown, Mark, and white, a white
line over eye; under parts white, sides brownish.

CATBIRD. 173

he lias tin1 stage to himself, for he is one of our few birds
who sing regularly and freely during the night, moonlit

nights being most often selected.

The Chat is a rather southern bird in its distribution,
being found north of Connecticut only locally and rarely.
It winters in the tropics, coming to us about May 1 and
departing early in September. Its well-made nest of
grasses, leaves, and strips of bark is generally placed in
the crotch of a sapling within three feet of the ground.
Its three to five eggs are white, rather evenly speckled
and spotted with reddish brown.

Thrashers, Wrens, etc. (Family Troglodytid.e.)

The Eastern representatives of this family are appar-
ently too unlike to be classed in the same group, but when
all the two hundred members of the family are studied, it
is evident that the extremes are connected by intermedi-
ate species possessing in a degree the characters of both
Wrens and Thrashers.

The Catbird belongs to the subfamily MimmCB, which
contains also the Mockingbirds and Thrashers, number-
Catbird, ing some fi% species, all being re-
Gahoscojjtts stricted to North America.

The Catbird is one of the most
familiar feathered inhabitants of the denser shrubbery
about our lawns and gardens. The sexes are alike in
color, both being slaty gray, with a black cap and tail,
and brick-red under tail-coverts. They arrive from the
South about April 29, and remain until October. Their
nest is usually placed in thickets, shrubbery, or heavily
foliaged trees, and the deep greenish blue eggs are laid
the fourth week in May.

It is unfortunate that the Catbird's name should have
originated in his call -note rather than in his song. The

1 74 MOCKINGBIRD.

former is a petulant, whining, nasal tehay, to me one of
the most disagreeable sounds in Nature, and so unlike
the bird's song that he seems possessed of a dual person-
ality. The Catbird's song, from a musical standpoint, is
excelled by that of few of our birds. His voice is full
and rich, his execution and phrasing are faultless ; but
the effect of his song, sweet and varied as it is, is marred
by the singer's too evident consciousness.

The Catbird's relative, the Mockingbird, is an abun-
dant inhabitant of the southern United States from Yir-

Mockingbird, ginia to California, and ranges south-
Mimm polyglottos. ward into Mexico. In the Eastern

Plate LXVI. States it is not common north of south-
ern Illinois and Virginia, but in summer it is found in
small numbers as far north as Ma chusetts, where a few
pairs breed each season. It is exceedingly domestic in
its habits, and in the South there are few suitable gar-
dens, either in the town or country, which are not inhab-
ited by a pair of Mockingbirds.

The power of mimicry for which this bird is cele-
brated has, I think, been unduly exaggerated, and the
fact that its usual song contains several notes resembling
those of other species doubtless in part accounts for its
much overrated ability as a mimic. It is unnecessary,
however, for the Mockingbird to borrow the notes of other
birds, for his own song places him in the front rank of
our songsters. It is delivered with a spirit and animation
which add greatly to its attractiveness. The Mocking-
bird does not sing between mouthfuls, as do the Vireos,
or quietly from a perch, like the Towhee or Thrasher ;
he frequently changes his position, hopping from place
to place, making short nights, bounding into the air, and
displaying the white markings of his wings and tail, as
though it were impossible for him to give expression to
his emotion through the medium of voice alone. During

Plate LXX. Paoes 178 179

CHICKADEE.
Length, 5-25 inches. Crown and throal black; cheeks white; back gray;
belly white, washed with brownish.

BROWN CREEPER.
Length, 5-65 inches. Upper parts brown, rusty, and while; under
parts white.

BROWN THRASHER. 175

moonlight nights of the nesting season, Mockingbirds

sing all night. They are then less active, and, mounting
to some favorite perch, often a chimney top, flood the
still air with entrancing melody.

Like the Catbird and Mocker, the Brown Thrasher or

Brown "Thrush" inhabits thickets and undergrowth.

Brown Thrasher ^e *s> however, a much less domestic

Harporhynchut rufua. bird, and prefers brushy pasture lots and

Plate lx\ II. wayside hedges to lawns or gardens.
He arrives from the South the latter part of April, and
often remains until late in October. The nest is built
about May 15, and is placed on the ground or several feet
above it. The eggs are bluish or grayish white, thickly,
evenly, and minutely speckled with cinnamon or reddish
brown.

As a songster I should rank the Thrasher between
the Mocker and the Catbird. His song is less varied and
animated than the Mocker's, and while his technique may
not excel that of the Catbird, his song, to my mind, is
much more effective than the performance of that accom-
plished musician. Mounting to the topmost limb of a
tree, he sings uninterruptedly for several minutes. The
notes can be heard for at least a third of a mile, ringing-
out clear and well defined above the medley of voices
that form the chorus of a May morning.

The intense vitality which characterizes the life of
birds finds its highest expression in the Wrens. Perpet-

House Wren lia^ m°tion alone describes the activity
Troglodytes aidon. of these nervous, excitable little crea-

PlateLXVIII. tures. Repose seems out of the ques-
tion; as well expect to catch a weasel asleep as to find a
Wren at rest.

In his movements, song, and nesting habits our Eouse
Wren exhibits the characteristic traits of his family. Ee
is ever hopping, flitting, bobbing, or bowing, pausing

L76 HOUSE WREN.

only long enough to give voice to his feelings in fidgetty,
scolding notes, or an effervescing, musical trill, with the
force of which his small body trembles. It is a wonder-
ful outburst of song, and the diminutive singer's enthu-
siasm and endurance are even more remarkable. The
song occupies about three seconds, and I have heard a
Wren, in response to a rival, sing at the rate of ten songs
a minute for two hours at a time.

The House Wren nests in almost any kind of suitable
hole or cavity, and will frequently take possession of a
bird box, if the House Sparrows have not already set up
a claim to the same property. To prevent intrusion from
the Sparrows, the entrance to the house should be made
not larger than a quarter of a dollar. Whatever be
the site the Wrens select, their surplus energy is em-
ployed in completely filling it with twigs, half a bushelf ul
being sometimes brought with endless pains. The nest
proper is composed of dried grasses, and is placed in the
center of this mass. Even in egg -laying the exhaustless
vitality of Wrens is shown, as many as six or eight eggs
being deposited. In color they are uniformly and mi-
nutely speckled with pinkish brown.

The House Wren arrives from the South late in April

and remains until October. Shortly before its departure

in the fall a Wren comes from the
Winter Wren -^^ fchat regembles the Houge Wren

Troglodyte* hit-malis.

in appearance, but is smaller and has
the under parts pale brown, the breast and belly being
finely barred with a darker shade of the same color.
This is the Winter Wren, a bird that nests from north-
ern New England northward and southward along the
crests of the Alleghanies to North Carolina. It remains
with us in small numbers throughout the winter, return-
ing to its summer home in April. Mr. Burroughs writes
of the Winter Wren's song as a " wild, sweet, rhythmical

Plate LXXI.

RED-BEEASTED NUTHATCH.
Length, 1*60 inches. .1/ le, crown ;in<l line through eye
gray; nuclei- parts rusty. Female, similar, bul black repla(

WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH.
Length, 6*05 inches. Male, crown black ; back gray; fac
pails white. Female, similar, bul crown slaty.

Pagh a

L80,

L81

black

•,■,1 by

^

k

e and

iiihIi

r

WRENS. 177

cadence that holds yon entranced," but while with us the
bird's only note is an impatient chimp, chimp, suggest-
ing the Song Sparrow's call-note.

The Carolina Wren is a more southern bird than the
House Wren. It is of only local distribution north of
Carolina Wren, southern New Jersey, and is rarely
Thryothorw found north of the vicinity of New

ludovirianus. y0rk city, where it appears to be in-
creasing in numbers and is found throughout the year.
This Wren is half an inch longer and decidedly heavier
than the House Wren ; its upper parts are bright cinna-
mon, its under parts washed with the same color, and
a conspicuous white line passes from the bill over the
eye.

The Carolina Wren is an exceedingly musical bird,
and its loud whistled calls are among the most character-
istic bird notes in the South. They are numerous and
varied, the most common resembling the syllables whee-
udel, whee-udel, whee-udel, and tea-kdtle, tea-kettle, tea-
kettle.

The haunts of most marsh -inhabiting birds are as
sharply defined as the limits of their ranges. The Long-
billed Marsh Wren is not known in
Marsh Wren the East north of Massachusetts, but I
(Hstothorus palustris. would as soon expect to find one of

Plate lxix. these birds in Greenland as out of a
marsh. They arrive from the South early in May and
remain until October, living in marshes where cat-tails
grow, to which they may attach their bulky, globular
nests of reeds and grasses. With the superabundant
vigor of Wrens they build more nests than they can
possibly occupy, and many will be examined before the
five to six dark brown eggs are found.

The Marsh Wren is quite as active and irrepressible
as the other members of his family. His call is the cus-

178 BROWN CREEPER.

tomary scolding each; his song, a bubbling, trickling
tinkle that can not be called musical, but to my mind is
indescribably attractive. It is often sting in the air, and
in marshes where Wrens are abundant bird after bird
may be seen springing a few feet above the reeds, sing-
ing his song, and then dropping back again.

Creepers. (Family Certhiidje.)

Of the twelve known members of this family, the

Brown Creeper is the only one inhabiting the New

"World. It is a northern bird, breed-
Brown Creeper, '

Certhiafamiliaris ing at sea level only from Maine north-
americana. ward, but extending southward in the

Plate lxx. Alleghanies to North Carolina. Sev-
eral western races are found in the Rocky Mountain
region and Sierra Madres. Our eastern bird migrates
southward late in September, and from that date until
April it may be found from Massachusetts to Florida.

The Creeper, like a Woodpecker, never climbs head
downward, but, using his stiff, pointed tail-feathers (see
Fig. 3 b) as a prop, winds rapidly up the trunks of trees
in his apparently never-ending search for insects' eggs
and larvae hidden in crevices in the bark. If the Wrens
are the most active birds, the Creeper is the most dili-
gent. Except when it was stopping to secure some tid-
bit, I can not remember seeing a Creeper resting. He
usually begins at the base of a tree and climbs in a seri-
ous, intent way for a certain distance, and then, without
a moment's pause, drops down to the bottom of the next
tree and continues his search.

The Creeper's only notes while with us are a thin,
fine squeak ; but Mr. Brewster tells us that during the
nesting season he has an exquisitely tender song of four
notes.

Plate LXXII. Pages 181, 182.

GOLDEN-CROWNED KINGLET.
Length, 4-05 inches. Male, crown orange, yellow, and black; back olive-
green; under pails whitish. Female, similar, hut crown without orange.

RUBY-CROWNED KINGLET.

Length, 4-40 inches. Adult male, crown-patch ruby; back olive-green;
under parts whitish. Adult female and young, similar, but no crown- patch.

CHICKADEE. 179

Titmice and Nuthatches. (Family Paridje.)

Comparing the Titmice with the Nuthatches, the
former may be described as short-billed birds with long
tails who do not creep, the latter as long-billed birds
with short tails who do creep. The two groups are, in
fact, quite distinct, and by some systematists are placed
in separate families.

The Titmice number some seventy-five species, four

of which are found in eastern North America. The

Chickadee, commonest and most generally distrib-

Pbrtu atricapilhu. uted is the Black-capped Chickadee,

Plate lxx. which is found from Labrador to Mary-
land and in the Alleghanies southward to North Carolina.
Farther south it is replaced by the closely allied Carolina
Chickadee.

Throughout the greater part of its range the Chickadee
is found at all seasons, but it is less common in the middle
and southern New England States in summer than in win-
ter, and is most numerous during its migration in October.

It is with winter that these merry little black and
white midgets are generally associated. Their tameness,
quaint notes, and friendly ways make them unusually com-
panionable birds; one need not lack for society when
Chickadees are to be found. Many of their notes are
especially conversational in character, and in addition to
the familiar chickadee call, they have a high, sweet,
plaintive two- or three-noted whistle.

The Chickadee nests about the middle of May, select-
ing some suitable cavity or making one for himself in a
decayed trunk or limb and lining it with moss, plant-
down, and feathers. The eggs, five to eight in number,
are white, spotted and speckled, chiefly at the larger end,
with cinnamon or reddish brown.

130 WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH.

The Tufted Titmouse is a more southern bird than

the Chickadee and is rarely found north of northern New

Jersey, where, however, it remains

Tufted Titmouse, throughout the year. It ifl gix ^ches

in length, gray above, whitish below,
with a black forehead, reddish brown sides, and a con-
spicuous crest. Its usual call is a whistled peto, peto
peto, which it will utter for hours at a time. It has also
a de-de-de-de call, suggesting the Chickadee's well-known
notes, but louder and more nasal.

With no especial structure other than slightly enlarged
toe nails, the Nuthatches still differ markedly from other

White-breasted birds in the eaSe with which theJ mn

Nuthatch, UP <>r down tree trunks. The tail is

suta caroiimnsis. short and square and is not used in

Plate LXXI. cijmbing. The bill is rather slender,
but proves an effective instrument in removing insects'
eggs and larvae from crevices in the bark and even in
excavating a nesting hole in some decayed limb. Several
species also use it to crack or " hatch " nuts after they
have wedged them in a convenient crevice.

Of the three species of Nuthatches found in eastern
North America the White-breasted is the most common
and generally distributed, being a permanent resident from
Florida to northern New England. Like many resident
birds, it nests early, the five to eight eggs being depos-
ited about April 20. They are white, thickly and
evenly spotted and speckled with reddish brown and
lavender.

This Nuthatch's usual call-note is a loud yank,
yank, while its song is a singular, tenor hah-hah-hah-
hah-hah.

The Red -breasted Nuthatch is a more northern bird
than its larger, white-breasted cousin. At sea level it
nests from Maine northward, but in the higher parts of

Plate LXXIII. Page 183.

VEERY.
Length, 7-50 inches. Upper parts, wings, and tail uniform light cinna-
mon; breast buffy, light marked with cinnamon; belly white; sides
grayish.

GOLDEN-CROWN K I > KINGLET. 181

the Allegbanies it breeds as far southward as North Caro-
lina. It comes to us from the north early in Septem-

.. • , ber, and in the winter may be found in

Bed-breasted ' . J

Nuthatch varying numbers from Massachusetts to

8%tta ecmadt rmc the Gulf States. Its call-note is

Plate lxxi. higher, thinner, and more drawled

than the vigorous yank, yank of the White- breasted

Nuthatch, and suggests the sound produced by a penny

trumpet.

Kinglets, Gnatcatchers, etc. (Family Sylviid^e.)

Of the three subfamilies included in this family
we have representatives in eastern North America of
only two — the two Kinglets of the subfamily Eegu-
lince and the Blue-gray Gnatcatcher of the subfamily
Polioptilince. The Gnatcatcher is a southern bird, oc-
curring only locally or as a straggler north of Maryland.
The Kinglets are both more northern in their distri-
bution.

The Golden-crowned Kinglet nests from the north-
ern tier of States northward and southward along the
crests of the Alleghanies to North Car-

Golden-crowned » ...

Kinglet, olina. In its autumnal migration it

Beguius satmpa. reaches the vicinity of New York city

Plate lxxii. about September 20, and during the

winter may be found in varying numbers from Maine to

Florida.

The Golden-crown flits about the terminal twigs in its
search for insect food and reminds one somewhat of the
smaller, tree-inhabiting Warblers in habits. Its call is a
fine ti, ti, one of the highest and least noticeable notes
uttered by birds. Its song, which is rarely heard except
in its nesting range, is descri bed by Mr. Brewster as begin-
ning with a succession of five or six fine shrill, high-pitched,

182 RUBY-CROWNED KINGLET.

somewhat faltering notes, and ending with a short, rapid,
rather explosive warble.

The Ruby-crowned Kinglet is a more northern bird
in summer and a more southern bird in winter than the
Golden-crown, rarely being found at the latter season north
of South Carolina. Throughout the Middle States it oc-

_ . curs as an abundant spring and fall mi-

Euby-crowned . r J5

Kinglet, gi'ant, passing northward from April 10
Reguius calendula, to May 10 and southward between Sep-
Piate Lxxn. tember 20 and October 20. The Ruby-
crown resembles the Golden -crown in habits, but is more
active. Females and young males lack the ruby crown-
patch, but their white eye-ring, impatient, wrenlike little
note, and manner of nervously twitching their wings are
characteristic.

Taking the small size of the bird into consideration,
the Ruby-crown's song is one of the most marvelous vo-
cal performances among birds. As Dr. Coues remarks,
the sound -producing organ is not larger than a pinhead,
and the muscles that move it are almost microscopic
shreds of flesh ; still, the bird's song is not only surpass-
ingly sweet, varied, and sustained, but is possessed of suf-
ficient volume to be heard at a distance of two hundred
yards. Fortunately, the Ruby-crown sings both on its
spring and fall migrations.

Thrushes, Bluebirds, etc. (Family Turdid.e.)

On the basis of certain details of structure Thrushes
are generally assigned highest rank in the class Aves.
Without pausing to discuss the value of the characters on
which this classification is made, there can be no question
that from an aesthetic standpoint the Thrushes possess in
a greater degree than any other birds those qualifications
which make the ideal bird. There are many birds with

PLATE LXXIV.

Page 184.

WOOD THKUSH.

Length, 8-30 inches. Upper parts bright, rusty cinnamon, brightest on
back and crown ; under parts white everywhere, except center of belly,
with large, rounded black spots.

VEEBY. Is:;

brighter plumage, more striking voices, and more inter-
esting habits, but there are none whose bearing is more dis-
tinguished, whose songs are more spiritual. The brilliant
Hummingbirds and Tanagers excite onr admiration, bnt

the gentle, retiring Thrushes appeal to our higher emo-
tions; their music gives voice to our nohlest aspirations.

Five of the true Thrushes of the genus Twdus are
found in eastern North America. Three of them may
he mentioned here — the Veery, Wood Thrush, and Her-
mit Thrush — a peerless trio of songsters. The Yeery's
mysterious voice vibrates through the air in pulsating
circles of song, like the strains of an JEolian harp. The
Wood Thrush's notes are ringing and bell-like; he sounds
the matin and vesper chimes of day, while the Hermit's
hymn echoes through the woods like the swelling tout's
of an organ in some vast cathedral.

But it is impossible to so describe these songs that
their charm will be understood. Fortunately, all three
birds are abundant, and a brief account of their haunts
and habits will enable any one to find them.

The Yeery, or Wilson's Thrush, winters in Central

America, and nests from northern Illinois and northern

Ve New Jersey northward to Manitoba and

Turdun/uxcescens. Newfoundland and southward along the

Plate lxxiii. Alleghanies to North Carolina. It comes
to us in the spring, about May 1, and remains until Sep-
tember 15. Near the middle of May it begins to build its
nest, placing it on or near the ground. Its eggs are
greenish blue, and resemble in color those of the AVood
Thrush, but are slightly smaller.

The Yeery's favorite haunts are low, damp woods
with an abundant undergrowth. It is a more retiring
bird than the Wood Thrush, and is rarely seen far from
tracts of woodland. It is to be distinguished from our
other Thrushes by the uniform cinnamon color of its

18i WOOD TIIRUSH.

upper parts, faintly spotted breast, and particularly by
its notes.

The Veery's characteristic calls are a clearly whistled
whee-o or ivhee-you, the first note the higher, and a some-
what softer too-whee or teioeu, in which the first note is
the lower. Its song is one of the most mysterious and
thrilling sounds to be heard in the woods. Elsewhere I
have described it as "a weird, ringing monotone of
blended alto and soprano tones. ... It has neither
break nor pause, and seems to emanate from no one
place. If you can imagine the syllables vee-r-r-hu [or
vee-ry] repeated eight or nine times around a series of
intertwining circles, the description may enable you to
recognize the Veery's song."

The Wood Thrush is a more southern bird than the
Veery, breeding from as far south as Florida, north-
Wood Thrush ward to southern Vermont and Minne-
Turdnta mwsteHmis. sota. It winters in Central America
Plate lxxi\ . an(j reacnes I1S {n the spring, about April
30, and remains until October 1. Its nest is built about
the middle of May, and is generally placed in a sapling
some eight feet from the ground. The eggs are greenish
blue.

The Wood Thrush is not such a recluse as the Veery.
He is, it is true, a wood lover, and shares with the Veery
his secluded haunts, but he seems equally at home in
maples and elms about our houses, or even in the more
quiet village streets. He is therefore more often heard
than his mysterious relative, and, as a voice, is familiar to
many who do not know the singer's name.

The call -notes of the Wood Thrush are a liquid quirt
and sharp pit-pit. The latter is an alarm note, which,
when the bird fears for the safety of its young, is uttered
with much increased force and rapidity. It can be closely
imitated by striking two large pebbles together.

Plate LXXV.

Paob 185.

HEEMIT THKUSH.

Length, 7*15 inches. Upper parts and wings dark cinnamon-brown ;
tail bright reddish brown ; under parts white ; breast spotted with
black ; sides washed with brownish ; belly white.

HERMIT THRUSH. 185

The song of the Wood Thrush is wholly unlike
that of the Yeery. It opens with the flutelike notes,
and is sung disconnectedly, being broken
by pauses and by low notes, audible only

Come to me, when one is near the singer.

The Hermit Thrush is a more northern bird than

either the Yeery or the Wood Thrush. It rarely uests al

E rmit Thrush sea *eve^ S0lltn °^ Vermont or northern

Turdm aonalaschka Michigan, hut in the higher portions of
pallasii. Massachusetts and on the crests of the

Catskills and AUeghanies in Pennsyl-
vania, it is also found breeding. It winters from south-
ern Illinois and New Jersey southward to the Gulf, it
being the only member of its genus to inhabit the east-
ern United States at that season. Its spring migrations
occur between April 5 and May 10, and in the fall we
see it from October 15 to November 25, while occasion-
ally it may winter.

During its migrations the Hermit Thrush usually fre-
quents woodlands, where it may often be seen or or Dear
the ground. Like the Yeery. it is a ground-nester, and
its eggs, though slightly lighter in color, resemble those
of the Veery and "Wood Thrush in being plain, bluish
green. When alighting, the Hermit has a characteristic
habit of gently raising and lowering its tail, and at the
same time uttering a low chuck. Sometimes it sings
during the winter, in Florida, and also while migrating:
but if you would hear this inspired songster at his hot.
you must visit him in his summer home. The Hermit's
song resembles that of the Wood Thrush in form, but
it is more tender and serene. O spheral, spheral! 0
holy, holy! Mr. Burroughs writes the it- opening uotes,

and there is something about the words which Beems to

express the spirit of heavenly peace with which the bird's

song is imbued.
20

186 ROBIN.

It seems a long step from these gentle, refined
Thrushes to their comparatively prosaic cousin, the famil-
iar Robin. But the Robin has his

Meru^'rutoria. PlaCe> &nd " Mai>cl1 Ws dieel7 *™g ™

quite as effective as the Hermit's
hymn in June.

During the summer Robins are distributed through-
out North America from the Gulf States and southern
end of the Mexican tableland, northward to Labrador and
Alaska. In the winter they may be found in numbers
from Virginia southward, small flocks and single birds
being occasionally met with as far north as Massachu-
setts. Robins are among our earliest migrants, appear-
ing in the vicinity of New York city between February
20 and March 1. Nesting is begun about April 15, the
mud-lined nest and greenish blue eggs being too well
known to require description. Two, or even three broods
may be raised. In June, the young of the first brood
with some adult males resort each night to a chosen
roost, often frequented by many thousands of birds.

The fall migration begins in September, but the birds
are with ns in roving bands until December.

About the time that we first hear the Robin's ringing
welcome to spring we may listen for the Bluebird's more
gentle greeting. Doubtless the bird
B1,uebird/. has been with "us all winter, for Blue-

birds winter in small numbers as far
north as southern Connecticut, often living near groves
of cedars, which offer them both food and shelter. In
the Southern States they are far more abundant at this
season, gathering in flocks containing hundreds of indi-
viduals.

The Bluebird is the first of our smaller birds to begin
housekeeping, and early in April it may be seen pro-
specting about the site of last year's nest in a bird box or

BLUEBIRD. Is;

hollow tree, and the bluish white eggs will probably 1"'
laid before the middle of the month.

No bird's song La more associated with the return of
Bpring than tli.' Bluebird's; nor is there a bird'a note
more expressive of the passing season than the Bluebird's
autumn call of fdr'Oway: far-away.

INDEX.

Acanthis linaria, 148.
Accipiter cooperi, 107.

velox, 107.
Actitis macularia, 96.
JSgialitis semipalcuata, 99.

vocifera, 109.
Agelaius phceniceus, 132.
Aggressive coloration, 44.
Aigrette plumes, 88.
Alaudida?, 120.
Albatross, 18, 19.
Alecdinidse, 113.
AmpelidsB, 161.
Ampelis cedrorum, 161.
Anatidae, 89.
Androdon, 32.
Anhingas. 32.
An-, res, 89.

Antrostomus vociferus, 119.
Arehaiopteryx, 3, 4, 18.
Ardea herodias, 91.

virescens, 92.
Ardeidee, 90.
Asio accipitrinus, 109.

wilsonianus, 110.
Auk, Great, 20.

Razor-billed, 20.
Auks. 20, 21,28,30.

88, 33.
Avocettula, 31.

Bill, the, as a hand, 30.
as a musical instrument,
as a weapon. 31.
sexual adornment of, 30.
uses of, 30.

Bin Is, altricial, 69.

ancestors of, 2.

beauty of, 9.

bill of, 30.

biography of, 73.

characters of, 2.

colors of, 35.

distribution of, 4.

economic value of, 5.

eggs of, 68.

evolution of, 14.

feet of, 27.

field key to, 7 5.

flightless, 19.

grace of, 10.

how to identify, 71.

mating of, 65,

mental development of, 10.

migration of, 48.

musical powers of, 10.

nests of, 65.

number of species of, 1.

place in Mature of, 1.
':il, 09.

relation to man of, 5.

scientific value of, 5.
. - of, 11, 02.

tail of, 25.

topography of, 74.

voice of, 68.

wings of. 17.

young of, 70.
Bittern. American. 93.
Blackbird, Crow. 133.

Redwinged, 188.
Blackbirds, 55, 130.

ISO

190

INDEX.

Bluebird, 49, 186.

Bobolink, 16, 36, 37, 38, 54, 55,

134.
Bob-white, 36, 100.
Bonasa umbellus, 101.
Botaurus lentiginosus, 93.
Bubonidae, 108.
Bull-bat, 118.
Bunting, Bay-winged, 140.

Black-throated, 155.

Indigo, 63, 152.

Snow, 147.
Butcher-bird, 162.
Buteo borealis, 106.

lineatus, 104.
Butter-bird, 135.
Buzzard, Turkey, 104.
Buzzards, 8.

Call-notes, significance of, 63.

Canaries, 39.

Caprimulgidse, 117.

Cardinal, 153.

Cardinalis cardinalis, 153.

Carpodacus purpureus, 149.

Cassique, 23.

Cassowary, 19.

Catbird, 69, 173.

Cathartes aura, 103.

Cathartidse, 103.

Certhia familiaris americana, M

Certhiidoe, 178.

Ceryle alcyon, 114.

Chaetura pelagica, 119.

Chambergo, 135.

Charadriidae, 98.

Chat, Yellow-breasted, 172.

Chebec, 125.

Chelidon erythrogaster, 159

Chewink, 151.

Chickadee, 7, 8, 70, 179.

Carolina, 179.
Chippy, 142.

Bed-capped, 146.

Winter, 146.
Chondestes grammacus, 154.
Chordeiles virginianus, 118.
Circus hudsonius, 106.

Cistothorus palustris, 177.
Clamatores, 122.
Clape, 116.
Clivicola riparia, 159.
Coccyges, 112.
Coccyzus amcricnnus, 112.

erythrophthalmus, 113.
Colaptcs auratus, 116.
Colinus virginianus, 100.
Color and age, 36.

and climate, 39.

and food, 39.

and haunt and habit, 41.

and sex, 45.
Colors of birds, 35.
Columbae, 102.
Columbidse, 102.
Contopus virens, 126.
Coot, 27, 28, 94.
Cormorants, 69.
Corvidffl, 128.
Corvus americanus, 128.
Cow bird, 137.

Creeper, Brown, 16, 25, 178.
Creepers, 6, 15, 16, 178.
Crossbill, American, 147.
Crow, American, 128.
Crow-duck, 94.
Cuckoo, Black-billed, 113.

Yellow-billed, 7, 112.
Cuculidse, 112.
Cyanocitta cristata, 130.

Deceptive coloration, 44.
Dendrocolaptidffi, 32.
Dendroica aBstiva, 168.

coronata, 168.

virens, 1-6S.
Diekeissel, 155.
Directive colors, 44.
Diving Birds, 84.
Docimastes, 31.
Doliehonyx oryzivorus, 134.
Dove, Carolina, 102.

Mourning, 102.
Dryobates pubescens medianus, 115.

villosus, 115.
Duck, Black, 89.

INDKX.

191

Dusk, Broadbill, 90.
Bofflehead, 90.

Canvasback, 90.
Eider, 90.
Old Squaw, 90.
Bedhead, 9a

Ruddy, 90.
Scaup, 90.
Wood, 89.
Ducks, 20, 21, 22, 23, 28, 30, 36, 67.

Eagle, Bald, 108.
El';.'* of birds, 68.
Egret, White, 91.
Empidonax minimus, 125.
Emu, 19, 69, 70.
Ereunetea pusillus, 98.
Eutoxeres, 31.

Falco sparverius, 106.

Falconidae, 104.

Feet, the, as hands, 29.

as weapons, 29.

effects of use and disuse of, 27.

seasonal change in structure of, 29.

uses of, 27.
Field-glass, 72.
Finch, Grass, 140.

Lark, 154.

Purple, 39, 149.
Finches, 42, 133.
Firebird, 131.
Fisli Hawk, 66.
Flamingo, 28, 39.
Flicker, 68, 116.
Flycatcher, Arizona Crested, 124.

Crested, 68,123.

Great Crested, 123.

Least, 125.
Flycatchers, 6, 27, 44, 121.
Frigate Birds, 5, 19.
Fringillidse, 139.
Fulica americana, 94.

Galeoscoptes caroliuensis, 173.
Gallinee, 100.

Gallinapo delienta. '.'7.
Gallinules, 17, 20, 22.

Gannets, 81
Geothlypis trichas, 171.
Glacial period,
Gnatcateher, l'>lue-gray, 181.
Goldfinch, 148.
Goose, Canada, 94.
Graokle, Bronzed, 133.

Purple, 133.
Grebe, Pied-billed, 84.
Grebes, 18, 20, 21, 22, 25, 27, 84.
Grosbeak, Cardinal, 36.

Pine, 148.

Eose-breasted, 36, 150.
Grouse, Rutted, 29, 101.
Grouse, 18, 19, 23, 27, 29, 36, 41, 62.
Gull, Herring, 86.
Gulls, 9, 67.

Haliaeetus leucocephalus, 108.
Hangnest, 131.
Harporhynohus rufus, 175.
Hawk, Chicken, 104, 105.

Cooper's, 8, 104, 107.

Fish, 14, 29, 107.

Hen, 104.

Marsh, 64,106.

KtM-shouldered, 104.

Bed-tailed, 106.

Sharp-shinned, 8, 104, 107.

Sparrow, 106.
Hawks, 7, 8, 29, 36, 44, 55, 65.
Hell-diver, 84.
Herodiones, 90.
Heron, Black-crowned Night, '.'2.

Great Blue, 91.

Little Green, 92.

Snowy, 91.
Herons, 28.

High-hole, ,68, 70, 116.
Hirundinidte, 156.
Hoatzin, 17.
Huia-bird, 33.
Humming-bird, Avocet, 31

Buby-throated, 120.

Biokle-billed, 81.

Siphon-billed, 31.

Small-billed, 31.
Tooth-billed, 32.

192

INDEX.

Hummingbirds, 5, 6, 14, 18, 23, 25, 81,

42, G7, 69, 70, 120.

[biB, Scarlet, 89.

Icteria virens, 172.
[ctcridffi, 130.
Icterus galbula, 131.
Bpurius, 132.

Jacana, 24, 28.
Jay, Blue, 129.
Juneo, 145.
Juneo hyemalis, 145.
Juncos, 41, 44.

Key to common birds, 75.
Killdeer, 99.
Kingbird, 122.
Kingfisher, Belted, 114.
Kinglet, Golden-orowned, 181.
Kuby-erowned, 182.

Laniida?, 162.
Lanius boreal is, 162.
Lark, Horned, 41. 55, 126.

Prairie Homed, 127.
Laridse, 86.

Larus argentatus smith sonianus, 86.
Lighthouses, 56, 57.
Limicolse,
Longipennes, S6.
Loon, 85.
Loxia curvirostra minor, 147.

Macroehires, 117.
Mallard. 89.
Man-o'-war Bird, 19.
Marsh Hen, 94.
Martin, Purple, 157, 101.
Mating cif birds, 65.
Meadowlark, 27, 44, 136.
Megascope asio, 110.
Melanerpes erythrocephalus, 116.
Melospiza fasciata, 138.

georgiana, 139.
Mergansers, 82, 89.
Merula migratoria, 186.
Micropodida?, 119.

Mierorhynchus, 31.
Migration of birds, L8.

oause of, 59.

effects of changes of clituate on, 59.

extent of, 49.

highways, 55, 60.

manner of, 54.

nocturnal, 55, 56, 57.

origin of, 58.

times of, 49.
Miniiis polyglottos, 174.
Mniotilta varia, 167.
Mniotiltidse, 166.
Mockingbird. 174.
Molothrus ater, 137.
Molt, the, 37.

Momotus subrufescens, 25.
Motmot, 25.
Mud-hen, 04.
Myiarchus crinitus, 123.

Natural selection, 14, 15, 65.

Nesting season, 04.

Nest of birds, 65.

Nighthawk, 6, 23, 118.

Notornis, 22.

Nuthatch, Eed-breasted, 180.

White-breasted, 181.
Nuthatches. <;. B.
Nycticorax nycticorax osevius, 92.

Opera-glass, 72.
Opisthocomus cristatiis, 17.

Oriole, Baltimore, 131.

i ►rchard, 37. 131, 132.
< (rioles, 4-2. 44. 55, 130.
Ortolan. 135.
Oscines, 122.
Osprey, American, 107.
I >>t in- .})S, 20.

Ostrich. 5, 18, 19, 27, 29,69,70.
Otocoris alpestris, 126.
Oven-bird, 170.
Owl. Barn, 8.

Barred, 111.

Great Horned. 110.

Long-eared, 110.

Screech, 41, 110.

INDEX.

193

Owl. Short-eared, 109.
Snowy, 44.

owls. 7*8, 30, 65, 108.
Ox-eye, 98.

Paludicolse, 93.

Pandion haliaetus carolinensis, 107.

Paridee, 179.

Parrots, 5, 20,29,31,39,40.

Partridge, 19, 67, 100, 101.

Paras atricapillas, 179.

bicolor, 180.
Passer domestious, 141.
Passerella iliaca, 144.
Passeres, 121.
Passerina cyanea, 152.
Peabody-bird, 143.
Peacock, 27.
Penguins, 5, 18, 21.
Peeps, 98.

Permanent residents, denned, 53.
Petrel, Leach's. B8.

Wilson's, 88.
Petrochelidon luniirons, 159.
Pewee, Wood, 63. lu>;.
Phalarope, 27, 28, 70.
Pheasant, 101.
Philohela minor, 95.
Phoebe, 124.
Pici, 114.
Picidse, 114.
Pigeon, Carrier, 61.

Wild, 102.
Pigeons, 20.

Pinicola enucleator, 148.
Pintail, 89.

Pipilo orythrophthalmus, 151.
Piquebois jaune, 116.
Piranga erythromelas, i •">;.
Plectrophenax nivalis, 147.
Plover, Black-breasted, 99.

Golden, 99.

Killdecr. 99.

Piping, 99.

Wilson's, 99.

Ring-necked, 99.

Semipalmated, 99.
Plovers, 41, 49, 98.
27

PodilymbuB podioeps, 84.
Podioipidn, 94
Poooatee gramineuB, 141.
Porzana Carolina, 94.
I'rocelluriidse, 88.
Progne subis, 161.
Protective coloration, 42.

colors, 41.
Ptarmigans, 44.
Pygopodes, 84.

Quail, 100.

Quails, 18,19, 27,41,67.

Quiscalus quiscula, 133.

Rail, Clapper, 94.

King, 94.

Little Black, 94.

Yellow, 94.

Virginia, 94.
■Rails, 18, 20, 22, 27, 93.
Rallidae, 93.
Rallus crepitans, 94.
Raptores, 114.
Recognition colors, 44.
Redpoll, 146.
Redstart, 169.
Beedbird, 134.
Regulus calendula, 182.

Batrapa, 181.
Rhea, 19.
Ricebird, 135.
Robin, 7, 12, 36, 49, 55, 63, 186.

Golden, 131.

Salmon, 58.

Sandpiper, Semipalmated, 98.

Spoonbill, 33.

Spotted, 69, '."'..
Sauropsida, l.
Sayornis phoebe, 124,
Soolopaoids, 95.
Scoters; 90.
Seals, 58.

Seiurus aurooapillus, 170.
Betophaga rutioilla, 169.
Sexual characters, secondary, 45.

selection. 16.

194

INDEX.

Shelldrakes, 89.
Shrike, Loggerhead, 162.

Northern, 162.
Sialia sialis, 186.
Signaling colors, 44.
Sitta canadensis, 181.

earolinensis, 180.
Snipe, Wilson's. 97.
Snipes, 28, 36, 41, 43, 49, 67.
Snowbird, Slate-colored, 145.

White 147.
Snowfiake, 38, 147.
Songs of birds, 62.
Sora, 94.
Sparrow, Chipping, 142.

English, 141.

Field, 140.

Fox, 144.

House, 141.

Song, 40, 138

Swamp, 139.

Tree, 146.

Vesper, 141.

White-crowned, 144.

White-throated, 143.
Sparrows. 6, 18, 41, 43, 49, 67, 138.
Spinus tristis, 148.
Spiza americana, 155.
Spizella pusilla, 140.
. monticola, 146.

socialis, 14-2.
Spoonbill, Roseate, 33.
Squawk. 92.
Stake Driver, 93.
Sterna hirundo, 87.
Sturnella magna, 136.
Summer residents, defined, 53.
Sylviidas, 181.
Syrnium nebulosum, 111.
Swallow, Bank, 157, 159.

Barn, 157, 158, 159.

Cliff, 157, 158, 159.

Eave, 159.

Kough- winged, 160.

Tree, 157, 15*. 160.
Swallows, 6, 27, 55, 156.
Swan, Trumpeter, 90.

Whistling, 90.

Swift, Chimney, 119.
Swifts, 6, 15, 27, 55, 117.

Tachycineta bicolor, 160.
Tail, the, expression of emotion with
26.

relation between form of, ar.d flight,
25.

sexual characters in, 25.

uses of, 25.
Tanager, Scarlet, 36, 37, 156.
Tanagera, 42, 44, 155.
Tanagridaa, 155.
Teal, Blue-winged, 89.

Green-winged, 89.
Telescope, 56, 57.
Tern, Common, 87.
Tetraonidae, 100.
Thrasher, Brown, 175.
Thrush, Brown, 175.

Hermit, 185.

Wilson's, 183.

Wood, 12, 184.
Thrushes, 6, 55, 67, 182.
Thryothorus ludovicianus, 177.
Titmouse, Tufted, 180.
Towhee, 44, 151.
Transient visitants, defined, 54.
Trochilidse, 119.
Trochilus colubris, 120.
Troglodytes aedon, 175.

hiemalis, 176.
Troglodytidae, 173.
Tubinares, 88.
Turdida?, 182.
Turdus aonolaschkse pallasii, 185.

fuscescens, 183.

mustelinus, 184.
Turkey, 27.
Tyrannidae, 121.
Tyrannus tyrannus, 122.

Urinator imber, 85.
Urinatoridae, 85.

Veery, 63, 183.
V.ireo flavifrons, 165.
gilvus, 165.

1NDKX.

I!).",

Vim noveboraconsia, 165.

olivaoeus, 164
Vireo, Red-eyed, 184.

Warbling, 165.

White-eyed, 105.

Yellow-throated, 1G5.
Vireos, 6, 55, 163.
Vireonidae, 163.
Vulture, Black, 103.

Turkey, 103.
Vulture.-, 3.

Warbler, Black and White, 167.

Black-throated Green, 168.

Myrtle. 168.

Yellow, 168.
Warblers, 0, 42, 55, 166.
Waxwing, Cedar, 161.
Whip-poor-will, 0, lly.
Widgeon, 89.

Wing, tlie, a> a musical instrument,
23.

as a weapon, 24.

effects of use and disuse of, 18, 20

expression of emotion with, 24.

molt of feathers of, 21.

sexual characters in, 23.

Wing, usee of, 17.
Winter residents, defined, 53.
Woodcock, 28, 82, 4:;, 96.
Woodhewers, 15, 25, 82.

Woodpecker, Down}, 16, 115.
Hairy. L15.
Pileated, 14.

Red-headed, 116.

W (peckers, ">, 6, 8, 14, 15, 16, 25, 30,

'•■4, 67, 69, ill.
Wren, Carolina, 177.

Ih>use, 175.

Long-billed Marsh, 177.

Winter, 176.
w rens, 55, 173.
Wrybill, 33.

Yellowbird, 148.
Yellow-hammer, 116.

Yellow-throat. Maryland, 171.
Young binl>. 70.
Yucker, 116.

Zamelodia ludoviciana, 150.
Zenaidura macroura, 102.
Zonotrichia albicollis, 143.
Zonotrichia leucophrys, 144,

to a

— 1 +

C

o

^

r*

\ Q. "O

c

* 1

3

oc

1— ' Qj

\ M

3

■"h ■•

.

% X

r.

1
"1

A

-^

J I

, 1

^-j£

vC

QL 6d I .C44 1 900
Chapman, Frank M,
Bird-life.