BIRDS IN KANSAS V O L U M I MAX C. THOMPSON AND CHARLES ELY ■ ■'■■ " ' ■ m ■■■■ m Gt Y^ The Library Museum of Comparative Zoology Harvard U ty 7 1 BIRDS IN KANSAS University of Kansas Museum of Natural History Public Education Series No. 1 1 Joseph T. Collins, Editor BIRDS IN KANSAS VOLUME ONE Max C. Thompson Department of Biology Southwestern College Winfield, Kansas 8c Charles Ely Department of Biology and Allied Health Fort Hays State University Hays, Kansas UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY MCZ LIBRARY SEP 2 3 1998 HARVARD UNIVERSITY The Public Education Series is intended to provide publications on natural history for the people of Kansas. This volume is the result of studies sponsored, in part, by the Museum of Natural History, Southwestern College, Fort Hays State University, the Kansas Biological Survey, the Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks, and the Kansas Ornithological Society. ©1989 by Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas All rights reserved Distributed by the University Press of Kansas Lawrence, Kansas 66049 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data Thompson, Max C. Birds in Kansas / Max C. Thompson & Charles Ely. p. cm. — (Public education series / University of Kansas, Museum of Natural History ; no. 11-) Bibliography: p. Includes index. ISBN 0-89338-028-8 (v.l) — ISBN 0-89338-027-X (pbk. : v. 1) 1. Birds — Kansas — Identification. I. Ely, Charles A. (Charles Adelbert), 1933- II. Title III. Series: Public education series : no. 11, etc. QL684.K2T47 1989 598.29781— dc20 89-5017 This publication is funded in part by the Chickadee Checkoff of the Nongame Wildlife Improvement Program of the Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks. All persons filing a Kansas income tax form have an opportunity to make a special contribution that is earmarked for conservation of nongame wildlife. Do something wild! Make your mark on the tax form for nongame wildlife. Dedicated to our colleagues who waited so patiently and continued to provide us with new data PREFACE Kansas was one of the first states west of the Mississippi River to have a book devoted entirely to the birds located within its bound- aries. This event came about when Colonel N. S. Goss wrote his first Catalogue of the Birds of Kansas in 1883, updating it in 1886 with a Revised Catalogue of the Birds of Kansas. The latter listed 335 species and races and predicted that the total could eventually reach 350. Little did Goss imagine that over a century later the total would reach 424 species plus additional races. We began thinking about writing a book on the birds of Kansas when we worked together in Hawaii in the 1960s. Two decades later, this volume represents the fruits of our labor. Because of the large numbers of bird species recorded from Kansas, the book is being produced in two volumes. Volume One will deal with the 222 species of nonsongbirds, including all birds through the woodpeckers. Vol- ume Two will include the 202 species of songbirds, beginning with the flycatchers. These volumes are not intended to be a thorough technical work, but rather are written for the enjoyment and use of both the amateur birdwatcher and the professional ornithologist. We have included in the book all known information on the distribution of birds in Kansas. Many members of the Kansas Or- nithological Society donated records to the data bank. During the accumulation of data, one of us (Ely) compiled and partially com- puterized all the literature records, while the other (Thompson) began computerizing data from all known bird specimens from Kansas in various collections. The latter information is now stored at the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History. We would like to acknowledge Marion Mengel, who was a tremendous help in computerizing this data, and the Ohio State University Computer Center, which kindly provided computer time and keypunching for some of the initial input. For data, photographs, and assistance in the field, we would like to thank Sylvia Albright, Jerry Arnold, Ron Barkley, Byron Berger, the late Amelia Betts, Walter Boles, Bessie Boso, Jan Boyd, Roger Boyd, the late Ivan Boyd, Margaret Boyd, William Brecheisen, John Brockway, Martin Brockway, Tim Broschat, Steve Burr, Ted Cable, Thomas Cannon, Stephen Capel, Joan Challans, Wallace Cham- peney, Calvin Cink, Randy Clark, Lorena Combs, Jeffrey Cox, John Davis, Charles Edwards, Effie Edwards, Guy Ernsting, Elmer Finck, Thomas Flowers, Stephen Fretwell, Jo Garrett, Robert Glazier, Bob vii viii PREFACE Gress, Charles Hall, Steve Hansen, Erma Henley, Larry Herbert, Jane Hershberger, Ken Hollings, Lloyd Hulbert, Allen Jahn, J. C. Johnson, Jr., Nanette Johnson, Kenn Kaufman, Katharine Kelley, Steve Kingswood, Robert Kruger, Dan Larson, Robert LaShelle, John LaShelle, Dan LaShelle, Patricia Latas, Bill Layher, Eugene Lewis, Eulalia Lewis, Renne Lohoefener, Paul Long, Mick McHugh, Edmund Martinez, Jim Mayhew, Lloyd Moore, Mary Louise Myers, Jay Newton, Art Nonhof, John Palmquist, James Parker, James Piland, Jean Piland, William Piper, Galen Pittman, Dwight Piatt, Barb Pratt, Martin Pressgrove, James Ptacek, Margaret Ptacek, Mrs. W. H. Quails, the late Orville Rice, James Rising, Marvin Rolfs, Stan Roth, Jr., Richard Schmidt, Steve Schmidt, the late Ed Schulenberg, Jean Schulenberg, David Seibel, Scott Seltman, Dianne Seltman, Tom Shane, Frank Shipley, Theodore Sperry, Dennis Stadel, Donald Stout, Robert Sutherland, Marie Swisher, Allen Tubbs, Don Vannoy, Byron Walker, Barbara Watkins, Michael Watkins, Roger Wells, Gerald Wiens, Celia White, Kevin Wills, Robert Wood, Eugene Young, Dennis Zehr, and John Zimmerman. We would like specially to thank Jane Church, who unselfishly gave of her time to criticize the initial manuscript. Sebastian Patti and Marvin Schwilling kindly read the manuscript and provided some additional information. A special thanks goes to Jan Ely for her understanding in all the hours her husband spent compiling data and for the delightful cuisine provided to us while we were working on the manuscript. We thank Philip S. Humphrey, who encouraged us to do the project and then gently pushed to get it finished. Lastly, we thank and dedicate this book to our colleagues, who waited patiently and constantly provided us with more data. Max C. Thompson Charles Ely 15 September 1988 CONTENTS Preface vii Introduction 1 A Brief History of Ornithology in Kansas 2 Bird Distribution and Vegetation 5 Explanation of Species Accounts 10 Species Accounts: Loons and Grebes Red-throated Loon (Gavia stellata) 13 Pacific Loon {Gavia pacifica) 14 Common Loon (Gavia immer) 15 Pied-billed Grebe (Podilymbus podiceps) 16 Horned Grebe {Podiceps auritus) 18 Red-necked Grebe (Podiceps grisegena) 19 Eared Grebe (Podiceps nigricollis) 20 Western Grebe (Aechmophorus occidentalis) 22 Clark's Grebe (Aechmophorus clarkii) 23 Pelicans American White Pelican (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos) 24 Brown Pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) 26 Cormorants and Anhingas Double-crested Cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus) 27 Olivaceous Cormorant (Phalacrocorax olivaceus) 29 Anhinga (Anhinga anhinga) 30 Frigatebirds Magnificent Frigatebird (Fregata magnificens) 31 Herons American Bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus) 33 Least Bittern (Ixobrychus exilis) 34 Great Blue Heron (Ardea herodias) 37 Great Egret (Casmerodius albus) 39 Snowy Egret (Egretta thula) 40 Little Blue Heron (Egretta caerulea) 42 Tricolored Heron (Egretta tricolor) 44 Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis) 46 Green-backed Heron (Butorides striatus virescens) 48 Black-crowned Night Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax) 50 Yellow-crowned Night Heron (Nycticorax violaceus) 52 Ibis White Ibis (Eudocimus albus) 54 White-faced Ibis (Plegadis chihi) 57 ix CONTENTS Roseate Spoonbill (Ajaia ajaja) 58 Wood Stork (Mycteria americana) 59 Flamingos Greater Flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber) 60 Whistling- Ducks Fulvous Whistling-Duck (Dendrocygna bicolor) 62 Black-bellied Whistling-Duck (Dendrocygna autumnalis) .... 63 Swans Tundra Swan (Cygnus columbianus) 64 Trumpeter Swan (Cygnus buccinator) 65 Geese Greater White-fronted Goose (Anser albifrons) 67 Snow/Blue Goose (Chen caerulescens) 69 Ross' Goose (Chen rossii) 71 Brant (Branta bernicla) 72 Canada Goose (Branta canadensis) 73 Ducks Wood Duck (Aix sponsa) 75 Green-winged Teal (Anas crecca) 77 American Black Duck (Anas rubripes) 79 Mottled Duck (Anas fulvigula) 80 Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) 82 Northern Pintail (Anas acuta) 84 Garganey (Anas querquedula) 86 Blue-winged Teal (Anas discors) 87 Cinnamon Teal (Anas cyanoptera) 89 Northern Shoveler (Anas clypeata) 91 Gadwall (Anas strepera) 93 Eurasian Wigeon (Anas penelope) 95 American Wigeon (Anas americana) 96 Canvasback (Aythya valisineria) 98 Redhead (Aythya americana) 100 Ring-necked Duck (Aythya collaris) 102 Greater Scaup (Aythya marila) 104 Lesser Scaup (Aythya affinis) 105 Common Eider (Somateria mollissima) 107 King Eider (Somateria spectabilis) 109 Oldsquaw (Clangula hyemalis) 110 Black Scoter (Melanitta nigra) Ill Surf Scoter (Melanitta perspicillata) 112 White-winged Scoter (Melanitta fusca) 113 Common Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) 114 Barrow's Goldeneye (Bucephala islandica) 115 Bufflehead (Bucephala albeola) 116 CONTENTS xi Hooded Merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus) 118 Common Merganser (Mergus merganser) 120 Red -breasted Merganser (Mergus serrator) 121 Ruddy Duck (Oxyura jamaicensis) 122 Vultures Black Vulture (Coragyps atratus) 124 Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura) 125 Ospreys Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) 127 Kites American Swallow-tailed Kite (Elanoides forficatus) 129 Mississippi Kite (Ictinia mississippiensis) 131 Hawks and Eagles Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) 133 Northern Harrier (Circus cyaneus) 136 Sharp-shinned Hawk (Accipiter striatus) 138 Cooper's Hawk (Accipiter cooperii) 140 Northern Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) 143 Harris' Hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus) 144 Red-shouldered Hawk (Buteo lineatus) 146 Broad-winged Hawk (Buteo platypterus) 148 Swainson's Hawk (Buteo swainsoni) 150 Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) 152 Ferruginous Hawk (Buteo regalis) 155 Rough-legged Hawk (Buteo lagopus) 156 Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) 158 American Kestrel (Falco sparverius) 160 Merlin (Falco columbarius) 162 Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) 164 Gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus) 166 Prairie Falcon (Falco mexicanus) 168 Pheasants Ring-necked Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) 169 Grouse and Prairie-Chickens Ruffed Grouse (Bonasa umbellus) 171 Sage Grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) 173 Greater Prairie-Chicken (Tympanuchus cupido) 174 Lesser Prairie-Chicken (Tympanuchus pallidicinctus) 176 Sharp-tailed Grouse (Tympanuchus phasianellus) 178 Turkeys Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) 180 Quail Northern Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) 182 Scaled Quail (Callipepla squamata) 185 xii CONTENTS Rails Yellow Rail {Coturnicops noveboracensis) 186 Black Rail (Later alius jamaicensis) 187 King Rail (Rallus elegans) 188 Virginia Rail (Rallus limicola) 190 Sora (Porzana Carolina) 191 Gallinules Purple Gallinule (Porphyrula martinica) 193 Common Moorhen (Gallinula chloropus) 195 American Coot (Fulica americana) 197 Cranes Sandhill Crane (Grus canadensis) 199 Whooping Crane (Grus americana) 201 Plovers Black-bellied Plover (Pluvialis squatarola) 203 Lesser Golden Plover (Pluvialis dominica) 205 Snowy Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) 207 Semipalmated Plover (Charadrius semipalmatus) 209 Piping Plover (Charadrius melodus) 211 Killdeer (Charadrius vociferus) 213 Mountain Plover (Charadrius montanus) 215 Stilts Black-necked Stilt (Himantopus mexicanus) 217 Avocets American Avocet (Recurvirostra americana) 219 Sandpipers Greater Yellowlegs (Tringa melanoleuca) 221 Lesser Yellowlegs (Tringa flavipes) 223 Solitary Sandpiper (Tringa solitaria) 225 Willet (Catoptrophorus semipalmatus) 226 Spotted Sandpiper (Actitis macularia) 228 Upland Sandpiper (Bartramia longicauda) 230 •Eskimo Curlew (Numenius borealis) 232 Whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus) 234 Long-billed Curlew (Numenius americanus) 235 Hudsonian Godwit (Limosa haemastica) 237 Marbled Godwit (Limosa fedoa) 238 Ruddy Turnstone (Arenaria interpres) 240 Red Knot (Calidris canutus) 24 1 Sanderling (Calidris alba) 242 Semipalmated Sandpiper (Calidris pusilla) 244 Western Sandpiper (Calidris mauri) 246 Least Sandpiper (Calidris minutilla) 248 White-rumped Sandpiper (Calidris fuscicollis) 251 CONTENTS xiii Baird's Sandpiper (Calidris bairdii) 252 Pectoral Sandpiper (Calidris melanotos) 254 Dunlin (Calidris alpina) . . . . 256 Curlew Sandpiper (Calidris ferruginea) 258 Stilt Sandpiper (Calidris himantopus) 259 Buff-breasted Sandpiper (Tryngites subruficollis) 261 Ruff (Philomachus pugnax) 262 Short-billed Dowitcher (Limnodromus griseus) 263 Long-billed Dowitcher (Limnodromus scolopaceus) 265 Common Snipe (Gallinago gallinago) 267 American Woodcock (Scolopax minor) 269 Phalaropes Wilson's Phalarope (Phalaropus tricolor) 271 Red-necked Phalarope (Phalaropus lobatus) 273 Red Phalarope (Phalaropus fulicaria) 275 Jaegers Pomarine Jaeger (Stercorarius pomarinus) 276 Parasitic Jaeger (Stercorarius parasiticus) 277 Long-tailed Jaeger (Stercorarius longicaudus) 278 Gulls Laughing Gull (Larus atricilla) 279 Franklin's Gull (Larus pipixcan) 280 Little Gull (Larus minutus) 282 Common Black-headed Gull (Larus ridibundus) 283 Bonaparte's Gull (Larus Philadelphia) 284 Ring-billed Gull (Larus delawarensis) 286 California Gull (Larus californicus) 288 Herring Gull (Larus argentatus) 290 Thayer's Gull (Larus thayeri) 292 Glaucous Gull (Larus hyperboreus) 293 Great Black-backed Gull (Larus marinus) 295 Black-legged Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla) 296 Sabine's Gull (Xema sabini) 298 Terns Caspian Tern (Sterna caspia) 299 Common Tern (Sterna hirundo) 300 Forster's Tern (Sterna forsteri) 302 Least Tern (Sterna antillarum) 304 Black Tern (Chlidonias niger) 306 Skimmers Black Skimmer (Rynchops niger) 308 Pigeons Rock Dove (Columba livia) 309 Band-tailed Pigeon (Columba fasciata) 311 xiv CONTENTS Doves White-winged Dove (Zenaida asiatica) 312 Mourning Dove (Zenaida macroura) 313 Passenger Pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius) 315 Inca Dove (Columbina inca) 317 Common Ground-Dove (Columbina passerina) 318 Parakeets Carolina Parakeet (Conuropsis carolinensis) 319 Cuckoos Black-billed Cuckoo (Coccyzus erythropthalmus) 320 Yellow-billed Cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus) 321 Greater Roadrunner (Geococcyx calif ornianus) 323 Groove-billed Ani (Crotophaga sulcirostris) 325 Owls Common Barn-Owl (Tyto alba) 327 Eastern Screech-Owl (Otus asio) 329 Western Screech-Owl (Otus kennicottii) 331 Great Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus) 332 Snowy Owl (Nyctea scandiaca) 334 Burrowing Owl (Athene cunicularia) 337 Barred Owl (Strix varia) 339 Long-eared Owl (Asio otus) 341 Short-eared Owl (Asio flammeus) 343 Northern Saw-whet Owl (Aegolius acadicus) 345 Goatsuckers Common Nighthawk (Chordeiles minor) 347 Common Poorwill (Phalaenoptilus nuttallii) 349 Chuck- will's-widow (Caprimulgus carolinensis) 350 Whip-poor-will (Caprimulgus vociferus) 352 Swifts Chimney Swift (Chaetura pelagica) 353 White-throated Swift (Aeronautes saxatalis) 356 Hummingbirds Magnificent Hummingbird (Eugenes fulgens) 357 Ruby-throated Hummingbird (Archilochus colubris) 359 Black-chinned Hummingbird (Archilochus alexandri) 361 Calliope Hummingbird (Stellula calliope) 362 Broad-tailed Hummingbird (Selasphorus platycercus) 363 Rufous Hummingbird (Selasphorus rufus) 364 Kingfishers Belted Kingfisher (Ceryle alcyon) 366 CONTENTS xv Woodpeckers Lewis' Woodpecker (Melanerpes lewis) 368 Red-headed Woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) .... 370 Red-bellied Woodpecker (Melanerpes carolinus) 373 Yellow-bellied Sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius) 374 Red-naped Sapsucker (Sphyrapicus nuchalis) 375 Williamson's Sapsucker (Sphyrapicus thyroideus) 377 Ladder-backed Woodpecker (Picoides scalaris) 378 Downy Woodpecker (Picoides pubescens) 381 Hairy Woodpecker (Picoides villosus) 383 Northern Flicker (Colaptes auratus) 385 Pileated Woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus) 387 Bibliography 389 Index 395 INTRODUCTION The number of bird species reliably reported for Kansas is 424. A species is admitted to the state list on the basis of a specimen, a photograph, or an observation that is verified by more than one competent observer. People who observe birds as a hobby are called birdwatchers. There are an estimated ten million birdwatchers in the United States. Professionals who study birds — ornithologists — are much fewer in number. Most of the larger universities in the United States employ at least one ornithologist in the biology de- partment. Kansas has been fortunate in having ornithologists at our univer- sities since 1866. In the early days of the state, birds were collected and deposited at the University of Kansas. Later, the Museum of Natural History was established by the Kansas Legislature to house the vertebrate collections of the state at the university. It has since become one of the leading university museums in the nation. The University of Kansas Museum of Natural History bird collection now contains nearly 90,000 specimens. Other bird collections of note include those at Southwestern College in Winfield (9,000 specimens) and at Fort Hays State University in Hays (3,500 speci- mens). The curators of these collections are happy to answer ques- tions on birds or to help you identify any birds that you may have seen. All birds in Kansas have state and federal protection except the alien European Starling, Rock Dove (= Feral Pigeon), and House Sparrow. It is illegal to possess nongame birds, their nests, or their eggs for any reason without a permit from the Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Should you find injured birds, it is best to call your local game warden for advice. Several field guides are available for the birdwatcher. Check with good bookstores or with museum gift shops to find the ones best suited to your needs. The Kansas Ornithological Society welcomes those who are interested in birds. You can obtain information on the Society and its benefits by writing to Kansas Ornithological Society Division of Ornithology Museum of Natural History The University of Kansas Lawrence, Kansas 66045 2 INTRODUCTION A BRIEF HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY IN KANSAS The history of Kansas ornithology begins with an expedition by Maj. Zebulon Pike (Pike 1810), which set out in 1805 to explore the sources of the Mississippi River. The journey began in Louisiana and headed northwest to find the head of several rivers, including the Arkansas River. Pike entered Kansas in 1806, but the only or- nithological observations made were from hunters bringing in tur- keys. Those turkeys were the first bird records for Kansas. The Lewis and Clarke (1814) expedition set forth in 1804, one year before Pike departed. However, the results of the expedition, which entered Kansas in a small area along the Missouri River, were not published until 1814. The second (and only) bird added to the Kansas list was the Whip-poor-will. Maj. Stephen H. Long led the next expedition entering Kansas, though he covered only the northeastern portion of what was to become the "Sunflower State." A member of the expedition, Thomas Say, took a detachment up the Kansas River to the Blue River and then northeastward to join the main group on the Mis- souri River. On the return trip of the main expedition, Say joined a party that traversed the entire Arkansas River through Kansas. Say (1823) had notes and descriptions of new birds attributed to Kansas but without specific localities. His list included eight new state re- cords. In 1832, Maximilian, Prince zu Wied, went up the Missouri River and made some observations in Kansas, adding 12 birds to the list (1839). A trader by the name of Josiah Gregg published a book on com- merce of the prairies in 1844. He added the Whooping Crane and the Sandhill Crane to the Kansas bird list, which then numbered 24 species. John C. Fremont twice traversed northern Kansas on his way to the Rocky Mountains. He added only that he saw a colony of Bank Swallows on the Kansas River (1845). The first notable accumulation of bird records was by J. W. Abert (Abert's Towhee was named in his honor). His expedition left Fort Leavenworth in 1846 and crossed Kansas on the Santa Fe Trail. His published findings (1848) listed 26 new species for the state. The next large compilation of species reported from Kansas was by Spencer F. Baird, John Cassin, and George N. Lawrence, in a publication based on specimens collected while surveys were being made to lay a route for the railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean. Collections listed in this report (1858) were made by INTRODUCTION 3 such noted naturalists as Kreuzfeldt, Hayden, Wood, and Cooper. Collections were also made by Lieutenant Couch and Dr. W. A. Hammond at Fort Leavenworth, and by John X. de Vesey at Fort Riley and on the Republican River. The 1858 report added 42 species, increasing the state list to 95 species of birds. In 1854, P. R. Hoy, working under the auspices of the Smithso- nian Institution, reported several species from eastern Kansas, in- cluding the first positive record for the Lark Bunting. Remarkably, this was an eastern distributional limit for the species. Elliott Coues journeyed through Kansas in 1864 and published several new state records in 1865 and in 1871. In 1866, the University of Kansas opened its doors to students. Francis Huntington Snow was employed that year as one of its first faculty members. Arriving at the university a few days early, he was told by the chancellor that nothing could be done until opening day, and was advised to "get a gun and go shooting" (Snow 1903). It was almost virgin territory, and over several years Snow added numer- ous birds to the state list. In 1 872, he published his first list of Kansas birds in the Kansas Educational Journal. This catalogue contained 239 species and subspecies. Snow was criticized by J. A. Allen of Harvard University for omitting several birds that Allen had earlier added to the Kansas list, but it detracted little from the significance of Snow's discoveries. Several editions of Snow's catalogue were published, the last being the fourth edition. Altogether, Snow listed 305 species and 9 varieties of Kansas birds. In 1878, Colonel N. S. Goss published his first paper on Kansas birds. He and Snow worked closely together, and Snow deferred any further publishing to Goss. Goss's first catalogue, appearing in 1 883, contained 320 species and varieties. Goss updated his catalogue in 1886 and eventually published his History of the Birds of Kansas in 1891. In June 1899, D. E. Lantz published a review of Kansas ornithology in the Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science. His first paper was a bibliography of Kansas birds, and his second was a historical list of Kansas birds. Lantz made some unkind remarks about Snow's work, to which Snow replied in 1903 in a point-by- point rebuttal. The rebuttal is too long to summarize here, but it is fascinating reading for anyone interested in the ornithological his- tory of the state. Various other ornithologists worked in the state after Lantz and Snow. W. S. Long published a lengthy article (1935) on western Kansas birds. He later wrote a checklist of Kansas birds, published in the Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science (1940). In 1946, Arthur L. Goodrich published Birds in Kansas, which was mainly a 4 INTRODUCTION review of previous works. In 1950, Richard and Jean Graber made a three-and-one-half-month trip to the southwestern part of the state and added many new species to the state list (1951). Another major milestone in Kansas ornithology was the forma- tion of the Kansas Ornithological Society in 1949. The first formal meeting was held at the University of Kansas, Lawrence, on 21 May 1949. The group was led by Charles G. Sibley. At the first meeting, Ivan L. Boyd was elected the first president of the society. Since those formative years, society members have played a key role in helping to better delineate bird distribution in the state. The Society has continued to grow since 1949, and it publishes the Kansas Or- nithological Society Bulletin, for scientific articles, and the Kansas Or- nithological Society Newsletter, for items of more general interest. C. G. Sibley was elected the first editor of the society, but moved to California before he could produce the first Bulletin. Arthur L. Goodrich then became the editor pro tern. Max C. Thompson, as assistant editor, produced the first Newsletter in 1963. The Newsletter was later given its own editorship, separate from that of the Bulletin. It was not until 1956 that a new authoritative checklist of Kansas birds was published, when Harrison B. Tordoff, curator of birds at the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History, published his Check-list of the Birds of Kansas. Tordoff listed those species that had been verified by a specimen examined by a qualified biologist. Any unsubstantiated records were included as hypothetical. His list con- tained 375 species. Tordoff was an active field ornithologist, who added several birds to the state list and clarified the status of others. In 1958, Richard F. Johnston became the curator of birds at the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History. He updated Tor- doffs checklist in 1960 and again in 1965. He instituted a breeding- bird survey with the help of the Kansas Ornithological Society and used the resulting data to publish the Breeding Birds of Kansas in 1964. In addition, the Kansas Ornithological Society has published a field checklist to permit its membership to keep abreast of the current species list; the list is now in its sixth edition. Although called a field checklist, it actually is a list of birds whose occurrence in the state has been documented. There are certainly other recent ornithologists who have contrib- uted much to our knowledge of Kansas birds: Robert M. Mengel, James D. Rising, David Parmelee, Marvin Schwilling, Roger Boyd, and Calvin Cink, to mention a few. Amateur birdwatchers have been especially active in recent years, as noted in the preface. But there is still so much to be learned about Kansas birds, and this book is by no means the definitive publication. New checklists will INTRODUCTION continue to be published in the future, and new books will be forthcoming. Such information is always welcome — a sign that the study of birds in Kansas in healthy and ongoing. BIRD DISTRIBUTION AND VEGETATION There have been 424 bird species recorded in Kansas. The great diversity of this avifauna is partly attributed to the early start of Kansas ornithology, which preceded the massive disturbance that resulted in the extinction of such species as the Passenger Pigeon and Carolina Parakeet, and the local loss of the Common Raven, Ruffed Grouse, and others. Of equal importance to the large species count of birds in Kansas is the state's central location, because it includes both eastern deciduous forest and the central grasslands and is on a major migratory flyway. Kansas is also a wintering area for far-northern birds, as well as a breeding area for typically south- ern species such as the Mississippi Kite and (formerly) the Black- capped Vireo. A group of species, including the Greater Roadrun- ner and Curve-billed Thrasher, enter the state from the arid south- west. Our major rivers also funnel in stragglers from the Rocky Mountains when those species experience their occasional irrup- tions. All birders should become familiar with the physiography and vegetation of Kansas in order to appreciate the diverse ecology and wildlife found in the state. Excellent general references include Self (1978), Collins (1985), and the vegetation map by Kuchler (1974). In Kansas, birds are associated with one of three major types of vege- tation— deciduous forest, grasslands, or wetlands. To the casual visitor, especially one traveling on an interstate highway, Kansas seems a treeless expanse of plain and prairie. However, a short distance on either side of these main routes, one can find a great variety of habitats. These areas, usually small and widely scattered, are concentrated habitats that are often as produc- tive or more so than larger blocks of the same habitat elsewhere. The topography of Kansas is usually gently rolling rather than flat and slopes upward from the southeast to the northwest. From about 700 feet in elevation in southeastern Kansas near Coffeyville, Montgomery County, there is a gradual rise of about 10 feet per mile to 4,025 feet on Mount Sunflower, Wallace County, in the far- western reaches of the state. Climatic conditions in Kansas are var- ied, with annual rainfall increasing from about 18 inches in the far west to more than 40 inches in the southeast. The average growing illpw !_ L h— p-1— 8"SJ -b C/J 173 C fed a c .0 '3 rt u be hi > > c In o a _o "■*-) 03 (J _0 — r #\ i * ■ — rrj — Period of Occurrence: Although a l\* . i *• * «H •**•(• few birds winter in Kansas, the main population returns to the state in February and March and departs in October and November. Johnston (1965) lists the extreme dates as arriving 4 February and departing 29 November. Breeding: This heron breeds colonially throughout the state. Colonies are usually located near water in trees, preferably Sycamores. The large nests, 3 to 4 feet across, are made of sticks placed at the end of branches. Colonies in Kansas range from just a few nests up to 200 to 300. Bent (1926) lists four eggs as the number most commonly laid, although clutch size may range from three to seven. The eggs are usually laid in March and April. Young remain in the nest or its immediate vicinity until they fly. Nesting trees are frequently killed by the excrement from the young. Some Kansas colonies have used the same immediate locality for years, and most of the Kansas colonies are well known. Habits and Habitat: Great Blue Herons are usually found near ponds, lakes, streams, and temporary bodies of water. They stand quietly waiting for their prey or slowly stalk through the water catching the prey with a quick stab of the bill. They generally feed singly. They are the largest of the North American herons and are unmistakable. Their huge bills are dangerous weapons, and injured birds should be approached with caution, as herons, when cornered, tend to stab at a person's eyes. Herons are usually quite wary and will take wing quickly when approached. In urban areas where they are not bothered, they may become quite tame. Food: Great Blue Herons feed primarily on fishes but will also feed on frogs, crayfishes, salamanders, and tadpoles; Audubon (1840) found lizards, snakes, birds, shrews, meadow mice, and young rats in their stomachs. They are, like most herons, opportunistic and will eat practically anything that moves that they can swallow. 38 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult Great Egret (Casmerodius albus). Photograph by Ed and Jean Schulenberg. HERONS 39 Great Egret Casmerodius albus (Linnaeus) Status: The Great Egret is an uncommon migrant and rare breeder. Breeding records exist only for Cowley and Sedgwick counties. Period of Occurrence: It has been recorded from 2$ March to 9 October but is more common in late summer when southern birds augment the population. Breeding: This species should be looked for in Great Blue and Little Blue Heron colonies in Kansas. The first nesting records for Kansas were in Great Blue Heron colonies near Arkansas City in Cowley County. Apparendy this species has nested sporadically in Cowley County since 1926 (Seibel 1978). Two nests were found there in 1963 and constitute the last known nesting in that rookery. Recently, the Great Egret has nested in Sedgwick County in the rookery south of Wichita. Four nests were found there in 1983 (Gress and Schaefer 1984), 12 in 1985, and 25 in 1986. Nests were found among those of the Little Blue Heron and Cattle Egret. With the sudden increase in numbers of herons nesting in Kansas, look for this species more closely. The nest is made of sticks in which two to five pale blue eggs are laid. Habits and Habitat: Great Egrets are solitary feeders, rarely found in numbers except during the evening roosting period or in breeding rookeries. Their prime habitat is around ponds, lakes, and marshes, and they may occasionally be found along more open streams. They feed by stalking their prey and may "jump" to make the prey move so that it can be seen. This species was one of several hunted to near extinction in the United States 80 to 100 yeras ago for plumes that were used in the millinery trade. Field Marks: This egret's large size and its yellow bill make it easy to identify. Food: Great Egrets feed primarily on aquatic life such as fishes, mol- luscs, crustaceans, and aquatic insects; there are also records of mammals, small birds, turtles, and snakes being eaten. This heron is an opportunist and will eat almost anything. 40 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult Snowy Egret (Egretta thula). Photograph by David A. Rintoul. Snowy Egret Egretta thula (Molina) Status: The Snowy Egret is an uncommon migrant and rare summer resident. Period of Occurrence: This species arrives in Kansas in early April and remains until October, with extreme dates of 4 April and 3 November. Most records occur after the breeding season in July and August and are probably of young birds that wandered from their more southerly breeding sites. Breeding: The Snowy Egret has nested in Barton County at Cheyenne Bottoms Wildlife Management Area since 1965. In Finney County, two pairs nested in 1952, but that site no longer exists as the lake was drained and is now farmland. Six to eight pairs nested in Kearny County during 1955-56. Recent nesting (1983) has also occurred south of Wichita in Sedgwick County in the same rookery with the HERONS 41 Little Blue Herons, Cattle Egrets, and Great Egrets. Four birds nested in Reno County in 1982. This species should be looked for in any rookery where white herons breed. The nest is made of sticks and usually placed in the lower branches of trees, although there is nesting in reeds at Cheyenne Bottoms. The normal clutch size varies from three to five eggs, but there are occasionally six. The eggs are pale bluish green. The young leave the nest long before they can fly and scramble about in the trees. Habits and Habitat: This species was one of those hunted nearly to extinction in the United States for its plumes, which were used in the millinery trade 80 to 100 years ago. Protection has brought its num- bers back, and it continues to spread northward during the breeding season to areas formerly unoccupied by breeding colonies. The Snowy Egret occurs near marshes, streams, or lakes, where it feeds and nests. Like the Cattle Egret, it is occasionally seen in dry pastures feeding on insects around cattle. In Kansas it seems to prefer marshes or ponds, where it feeds mainly during the day and actively pursues its prey in short dashes in shallow water. The Snowy Egret frequently uses the "foot-stir" method to evict hiding prey which, when dis- lodged, is dispatched with a quick jab of the bill. Field Marks: This species can be easily confused with the immature Little Blue Heron. It can be distinguished by its black legs, yellow feet, and uniformly black bill. The Little Blue Heron has a bluish bill tipped with black, and greenish legs. The Snowy Egret's black bill can be compared to the Cattle Egret's light yellow bill. Food: Snowy Egrets feed primarily on aquatic animals such as frogs, fishes, crustaceans, and insects. It has also taken small lizards and snakes, including the venomous Cottonmouth, although this snake is not native to Kansas. 42 BIRDS IN KANSAS Mature (left) and immature Little Blue Herons (Egretta caerulea). Photograph by Ken High fill. Little Blue Heron Egretta caerulea (Linnaeus) Status: The Little Blue Heron is an uncommon transient and summer resident. Populations have been increasing rapidly since 1980. Period of Occurrence: Record dates are 2 March and 19 December, but the average dates of arrival and departure are 6 April and 5 October. This species was for- merly a postbreeding wanderer but is now a summer resident. Numbers are augmented in late summer by arrivals from farther south. Breeding: This heron has become a regular breeding bird since 1952. A large colony nests primarily in Black Willow trees on the edge of Hutchinson, Reno County. A recent colony has formed on the south edge of Wichita, Sedgwick County, and it is the largest heronry in the state. Several hundred Little Blue Herons nest there in a tree nursery. There are undoubtedly more undiscovered colonies in the state. A colony in Harper County moved after one year and has not been located again, although large numbers of birds have been seen in the area. Nests are usually placed in low shrubs, trees, and cattails. The nest is a typical heron nest made of sticks and is often destroyed by gale-force winds. The herons usually lay four to five eggs, but there HERONS 43 may be as many as six. The incubation period is 2 1 to 23 days, and the young take about 30 days to fledge. Habits and Habitat: The Little Blue Heron can be found around marshes, ponds, lakes, and streams. This heron is shy and will usually fly away, long before a person can get very close. They usually leave the rookery at daybreak and return at dusk to roost. They walk along the water's edge stalking their prey. The young are fed regurgitated food by the parents. Field Marks: Usually more subadults than adults are seen in Kansas. Birds with intermediate molts showing both blue and white feathers are frequently seen. Young birds are totally white, which makes them easy to confuse with any white egrets that also occur in the state, frequently in the same rookery. Food: Like all herons, this species is also opportunistic and takes a broad range of prey, including frogs, fishes, crayfishes, insects, snakes, lizards, and spiders, all of which are swallowed whole. 44 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult Tricolored Heron (Egretta tricolor). Photograph by Bob Gress. Tricolored Heron Egretta tricolor (Muller) Status: The Tricolored Heron is a rare summer resident at Cheyenne Bottoms Wildlife Management Area, Barton County. There are three specimen records: one each from Barton, McPherson, and Cowley counties (the latter two specimens have been lost). It has been re- corded as well in Stafford and Sumner counties. No more than one or two pairs have been seen at one time; they are difficult to find. Period of Occurrence: There are so few records that little is known of the arrival and departure times, but extreme dates are 16 April and 12 September. Breeding: The first nesting attempt at Cheyenne Bottoms in 1974 failed, but an attempt in 1976 was successful. The species has nested there most years since then, but not all nests have been successful. Look for it in breeding areas with Little Blue Herons and other egrets. The nest is a typical heron nest composed of sticks and is usually placed in low shrubs or cattails; some may be on the ground. The eggs are pale greenish blue and usually number three to four, but there may be as many as seven. HERONS 45 Habits and Habitat: Little is known about the Tricolored Heron in Kansas. Like the Mottled Duck, this species is found primarily along the Gulf Coast, but a few regularly come to Kansas to breed. Along the coastal United States, it feeds in fresh or salt water. It usually stands and waits for its prey, although at times it may stalk. Like the Snowy Egret, it has been observed to stir the water with its feet. Food: This heron is omnivorous and eats practically anything small enough to swallow, including fishes, crustaceans, amphibians, snails, worms, and insects. 46 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis). Photograph by Bob Gress. Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis (Linnaeus) Status: The Cattle Egret is an uncommon transient and summer resident. It was first reported in the state on 26 April 1964, and it first nested in the state at Cheyenne Bottoms Wildlife Management Area, Barton County, in 1973. Period of Occurrence: Occurrence is not well documented, since this bird is new in Kansas. The ear- liest arrival date known is 6 March, and the last known departure record is 2 December. However, most birds arrive in mid-April and depart by mid-October. Breeding: The first breeding records for this bird came from Cheyenne Bottoms, where nests were found on 8 July 1973. This species probably breeds in several areas in the state, but the best- HERONS 47 known site is near Wichita, Sedgwick County, where nests were re- corded in 1982. Another area that should be investigated is southeast- ern Kansas, where Rising (pers. comm.) saw hundreds flying south- west of Baxter Springs, Cherokee County. They probably belonged to a large colony in northeast Oklahoma. Many have been observed in Harper County, but no nests have been found. Habits and Habitat: This heron, a native of Asia and Africa, is the success story of the century. Apparendy a small flock found its way to southern South America and successfully bred; the species then ex- panded its range northward to the United States and Canada. It frequently feeds around cattle in pastures. During spring migration, it can also be found around ponds, lakes, and in wet meadows. In Kansas it is frequently found following tractors in open plowed fields, picking up freshly turned-over prey. It is exceedingly tame and may be approached quite closely. Several birds were observed near Cheyenne Bottoms, feeding in a roadside ditch in a mobile home park. While being photographed from a distance of ten feet, they still did not take wing. Food: Cattle Egrets appear to eat mainly insects which they obtain in grassland and wet meadows. They follow cattle and at times stand on the backs of the cattle to look for insects. They have been observed eating toads unearthed by a tractor and also take fishes, crustaceans, frogs, and other animals small enough to swallow. 48 BIRDS IN KANSAS % 1 An adult Green-backed Heron (Butorides striatus virescens). Photograph by Bob Gress. Green-backed Heron Butorides striatus virescens (Linnaeus) Status: The Green-backed Heron is a common summer resident around streams, lakes, and marshes. Period of Occurrence: The main population of this bird arrives about 27 April and remains until 9 September. Extreme dates are 29 March and 30 October (Johnston 1965). There is one re- cord for 18 December. Breeding: The Green-backed Heron breeds throughout the state. Most nests are in trees, but Bent ( 1 926) says they are also in bushes and even on the ground. Some have been found in woodland quite far from water. Although nests are usually placed singly, they are found occasionally in colonies. Tree nests are generally 10 to 12 inches in diameter and composed of sticks. Nests on the ground are normally made of reeds or cattails. Most eggs are laid in May, with a usual clutch size of four. Incubation lasts 21 to 23 days. The young remain in or near the nest until they fly. Habits and Habitat: The Green-backed Heron, usually found along wooded streams where it stalks its prey, may also be found along the edges of ponds and lakes if trees are close by. Normally a wary bird HERONS 49 that takes wing quickly when approached by humans, it has learned in urban areas to ignore people, particularly fishermen, and can be approached quite closely. Its greenish-brown coloration blends well into the shadows of the streams where it feeds, and it may not be seen until it takes wing with a loud squawk. Although it usually stands to wait for the prey to come by, several other techniques including wading slowly and, in Florida, placing food in the water to attract small fishes which it then captures have been observed. This species was formerly thought to be endemic to North America but is now considered conspecific with the other green herons and therefore cosmopolitan. Food: This heron, which feeds primarily on small fishes, insects, crustaceans, and frogs, also takes most animals small enough to eat. 50 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult Black-crowned Night Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax). Photograph by JoAnn S. Garrett. Black-crowned Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus) Status: The Black-crowned Night Heron is a common transient statewide that is often overlooked. It is a local summer resident, especially in Barton County at Cheyenne Bottoms Wildlife Management Area, and in Staf- ford County at Quivira National Wildlife Refuge. It is casual in winter. Period of Occurrence: This species is most numerous from 4 April to 17 June and from 30 July to 25 November. The extreme dates are 24 March and 2 January. Breeding: There are breeding records for only seven counties, but it undoubtedly breeds throughout the state, particularly in the eastern part. The nest, which may be in trees or on the ground, is made of twigs and sticks, and is usually lined with grasses. The clutch size varies from three to five pale blue-green eggs. The incubation period is 24 to 26 days. The young may leave the nest in three weeks but remain close by for parental feeding. The nesting habitat ranges from marshes to trees near water, and even to shelterbelts far from water in western Kansas. HERONS 51 Habits and Habitat: These herons are seldom seen due to their noctur- nal habits. They leave the rookeries at dusk, fly to the feeding area, and return in early morning. They stalk their prey. During the day, they can frequently be seen around the dike system at Cheyenne Bottoms, resting until dusk to feed. This heron is one of the few cosmopolitan species in Kansas. Field Marks: In late summer, the young may be confused with those of the Yellow-crowned Night Heron, from which they may be distin- guished by the buffy white spots on the back, longer wings, and darker brown streaking on the belly. Food: This heron is also an opportunist, eating almost anything that moves that is small enough to swallow whole. Its diet includes fishes, frogs, tadpoles, snakes, salamanders, molluscs, crustaceans, marine annelids, insects, vegetable matter, and young birds and mammals. 52 BIRDS IN KANSAS Jp. ► • %* An adult Yellow-crowned Night Heron (Nycticorax violaceus). Photograph by Bob Gress. Yellow-crowned Night Heron Nycticorax violaceus (Linnaeus) Status: The Yellow-crowned Night Heron is an uncommon transient statewide and a local summer resident, especially at Cheyenne Bot- toms Wildlife Management Area, Barton County. Period of Occurrence: This species usually arrives in Kansas in late April and stays until mid- October. The extreme dates are 3 April and 20 October. Breeding: This heron nests locally in eight counties, but the largest numbers are at Cheyenne Bottoms where it is found in cattails. It is a HERONS 53 more solitary species than the Black-crowned Night Heron and gen- erally nests alone. Outside of Kansas larger colonies occur. The nest, a well-built structure of heavy twigs with a finer lining, is placed in trees, cattails, or shrubbery; it may be in marshes or sometimes in towns away from water. There are three to four bluish-white eggs in the clutch, sometimes five; the incubation period is about 24 to 26 days. Little more is known about the species. There are recent nesting records from Sim Park, Wichita, in Sedgwick County. Habits and Habitat: The Yellow-crowned Night Heron is less gregari- ous than the Black-crowned Night Heron and usually feeds singly or with no more than one or two other birds. It is more diurnal than the latter species but sometimes feeds late in the evening. A single bird near Winfield (1984) was seen feeding during the day on a small pond every day for a month. Later in the season, it was accompanied by an immature bird. Field Marks: See the species account of the Black-crowned Night Heron for identification of the immatures of both herons. Food: This heron feeds largely on crustaceans such as crayfishes and seldom on fishes. However, like all herons, it is an opportunist and has been recorded eating frogs, molluscs, snakes, lizards, and many other things. An adult White Ibis (Eudocimus albus). Courtesy U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Ibis White Ibis Eudocimus albus (Linnaeus) Status: The White Ibis is a casual summer visitor. There are no known Kansas specimens, but several photograph records exist. A summary of records follows: Barton County, 19 May to 21 June 1971, one adult, two birds on 19 July (Ed Martinez and Marvin Kraft), photographs taken; one bird until 29July; 10 to 28 June 1974, one bird (Ed Martinez and Sebas- tian Patti); Douglas County, 16 to 17 August 1969, one immature on the sixteenth and two immatures on the seventeenth (Mrs. Bert Chewning and Mrs. J. H. Nelson); Harvey County, 26 August to 28 September 1977, one immature (Jane Hershberger); Stafford 54 IBIS 55 County, 2 to 14 May 1971, one adult photographed (Charles Darling and W. Dale); Miami County, August 1985, one unknown age (Jane Leo and Jane Lippencott). There are numerous Oklahoma records, and the species can be expected again in Kansas. 56 BIRDS IN KANSAS A juvenile White-faced Ibis (Plegadis chihi). Photograph by Ed and Jean Schulenberg. IBIS 57 White-faced Ibis Plegadis chihi (Viellot) Status: The White-faced Ibis is a rare spring and fall migrant and summer resident. It breeds regularly at Cheyenne Bottoms Wildlife Management Area and has bred recently at Quivira National ■* I Wildlife Refuge. Period of Occurrence: This ibis has been recorded from 4 April to 20 October, but more data are needed. Breeding: The White-faced Ibis has been a regular breeding bird at Cheyenne Bottoms since 1962. The only reliable breeding record prior to 1962 was of young photographed at Cheyenne Bottoms by Larry Nossaman in 1951. There are no older state breeding records, although the bird has been reported for many years. Goss (1886) reported it from Douglas County in the fall of 1879, and there are recent nesting records for Quivira Refuge, Stafford County. There seems to be a recent increase in the number of birds during the breeding season. A small flock "looked over" the Sedgwick County rookery but made no attempt to nest. The nest in Kansas is typically in cattails and is usually associated with heron species. The eggs are incubated for 2 1 days, and the young can fly at the end of six weeks. Habits and Habitat: Ibis normally inhabit wetland areas, and this species is no exception. It has been observed feeding in temporary pools near Winfield, Cowley County, but it is more likely to be found in permanent marshes such as Cheyenne Bottoms or the Quivira Refuge. If one drives on the dikes in the summer at Cheyenne Bottoms, this bird will likely appear as it feeding in the waters near the dikes. It probes with its long bill to obtain its food. Food: Very little is known about the food of the White-faced Ibis, but Palmer (1962) lists insects, newts, leeches, worms, molluscs, crusta- ceans, frogs, and fishes. 58 BIRDS IN KANSAS Roseate Spoonbill Ajaia ajaja (Linnaeus) Status: The Roseate Spoonbill is accidental, with only one record prior to 1986. That record, from Four Mile Creek near Douglas, Butler County, is the only known speci- men. The specimen was taken by Dr. R. Matthews on 20 March 1 899 and became the property of a Mr. Gerald Volk of Wichita (Snow 1903); its present where- abouts are unknown. There was another sighting in April 1977 in Chase County by Jerry Horak. The bird was on the dam of a pond. In 1986, this species showed up at Melvern Reservoir, Osage County, on 24 August. On 26 August, there were two present which remained until 23 September (Charles Hall and Don Patton). On 2 September, a spoonbill was discovered at the Mallard Gun Club just north of Cheyenne Bottoms (Wayne Hoffman et al.), and it remained until 6 September. The species normally occurs along the Gulf Coast. IBIS 59 Adult Wood Storks (Mycteria americana). Photograph by Steve Burr. Wood Stork Mycteria americana (Linnaeus) Status: The Wood Stork is a vagrant. One specimen, from 5 miles northeast of Goodland, Sherman County, was taken on 4 October 1913 by Willis Feaster and is now in the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History col- lection. There is a sight record from Ellis County, where Dr. Lewis Watson observed a Wood Stork on 26 March 1885 (Goss 1886). A purported specimen, its whereabouts now unknown, from Chetopa, Labette County, was taken about 1 877 by Albert Garrett and reported to Goss by Dr. George Lisle in 1883 (ibid.). Lisle reported seeing these birds on the flats east of Chetopa where the specimen was taken. In Barton County, Marvin Schwilling reported a bird at Cheyenne Bottoms on 22 May 1967, and in Linn County, one bird was observed at the Marais des Cygnes Wildlife Management Area from 17 to 23 July 1975 by Frank Wood, Ivan Sutton, et al. (Schwilling 1976). Adult Greater Flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber). Photograph by William J. Griffith. Flamingos Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber (Linnaeus) Status: The Greater Flamingo is an accidental visitor to Kansas. There is one mounted specimen from Little Salt Marsh, Quivira National Wildlife Refuge, Stafford County. It was taken during the autumn of 1928 and is on display at the Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks museum in Pratt. The specimen is one of two birds observed. Another record exists from Mitchell County, Lake Waconda (Glen Elder Reservoir); a photograph, taken on 1 1 November 1972 by Jerry Johnson, is on deposit at the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History. 60 FLAMINGOS 61 Whether these are natural arrivals or zoo escapees, no one knows. However, both birds were in good color; until recently, captive birds were often white, because zoos were unable to adjust diet to maintain the salmon-pink color. 61 Whistling-Ducks Fulvous Whistling-Duck Dendrocygna bicolor (Vieillot) Status: The Fulvous Whistling-Duck is a casual visitor to Cheyenne Bottoms between 1 May and 9 November. There is no confirmed nesting from Kansas, but it may have attempted to nest at Cheyenne Bottoms in 1965 and 1967. There are also recent re- ports from Ford, Linn, Pot- tawatomie (specimen), and Pratt counties between 10 August and 28 November and from 13 to 20 April. 62 WHISTLING-DUCKS 63 Black-bellied Whistling-Duck Dendrocygna autumnalis (Linnaeus) Status: The Black-bellied Whistling- Duck is a vagrant. There are three records. One was seen at Marais des Cygnes Wildlife Management Area, Linn County, by Marvin Schwilling on 20 September 1956. Roger and Jan Boyd saw a single bird at Quivira National Wildlife Refuge on 6 July 1980, and Ed, Jean, and Margaret Schulenberg photographed a single bird there on 8 July. On 21 May 1982, Brad Williamson noted an apparently mated pair in Butler County. Swans Tundra Swan Cygnus columbianus (Ord) Status: The Tundra Swan is a rare migrant and a casual winter visitor, chiefly found in eastern Kansas. Period of Occurrence: Modern re- cords fall between 1 November and 26 April. Habits and Habitat: Goss, in the nineteenth century, considered this bird a rare migrant in mid- March and October; 9 of 12 ex- tant specimens prior to 1900 were taken between 7 March and 26 April. More recently, these swans have been reported mainly during early and midwinter. Most recent sightings have been of family groups on large reservoirs. The winter of 1971-72 provided one of the best swan flights in recent years, with sightings from six scattered counties; these included a flock of 15 in Lyon County on 19 and 20 December. Their arrival in an area also draws unwanted attention that often results in them being illegally hunted. Field Marks: Swans are unmistakable because of their large size (they weigh 13 to 20 pounds), pure white wings, and very long necks. Immature swans are a dingier white than the adults. The Tundra Swan is best distinguished from the larger Trumpeter Swan by its head shape and posture (see next species). Food: This species eats chiefly submerged aquatic vegetation such as pond weeds, which it takes while dipping from the surface of shallow water. Some seeds, shoots of grain, and perhaps animal food are also taken. 64 SWANS 65 An adult Trumpeter Swan (Cygnus buccinator). Photograph by Ken Highfill. Trumpeter Swan Cygnus buccinator (Richardson) Status: The Trumpeter Swan was probably a former transient during the nineteenth century, but no specimens or documented sightings exist from that period. Goss (1886) reported it as "rare. Ar- rives about the middle of March." Wintering birds from a captive "restoration" flock established near Haigler, Nebraska, appar- ently visited northwestern Kan- sas during the 1980s (Harold Burgess fide Marvin Schwilling, pers. comm.). On 23 January 1985, a marked female and three immatures from a restoration flock near Minneapolis, Minnesota, arrived at South Lake, Garnett, Anderson County. Of the 29 birds of that flock (which migrated for the first time), 18 returned to Minnesota. The four Garnett birds departed on 22 February and reached Minnesota on the twenty-sixth. An immature Trumpeter Swan was also reported from Perry Reservoir on 28 February (Brecheisen and Brecheisen 1986). In fall of 1985, 1 1 of the Minnesota birds migrated, and four sightings (not necessarily from that flock) were reported in Kansas. Three (one with a yellow neck collar) were in McPherson County on 24 November (Allan Jahn); one spent over a week (around 27 November) at Cedar Bluff Reservoir, Trego County (Scott Seltman); 66 BIRDS IN KANSAS a sick bird was found near Emporia, Lyon County, on 12 December (the first Kansas specimen); and four were reported in Barber County on 1 February 1986. There are also two reports for the winter of 1986-87, one from Morris County on 18 December and one from Saline County on 20 December. These observations suggest that the Trumpeter Swan may become a regular transient and/or winter vis- itor in Kansas. Field Marks: The Trumpeter Swan, when at ease, has its neck kinked back basally, so that the neck appears to arise from its back (see Palmer 1976a). An adult Greater White- fronted Goose (Anser albifrons). Photograph by Bob Gress. Geese Greater White-fronted Goose Anser albifrons (Scopoli) Status: The Greater White-fronted Goose is a common transient statewide, is uncommon and local in winter, and is casual in summer. Period of Occurrence: Extreme dates for presumed migrants are from 19 September to 27 Nov- ember and 14 February to 22 May. Peak migrations are in mid-November and late Feb- ruary. A few flocks, notably at Cheyenne Bottoms, remain until all water is frozen. Summer stragglers are often injured or sick. Habits and Habitat: Although Greater White-fronted Geese occur in large numbers at some localities, they are less familiar than Canada Geese to most people . They typically fly high, often in a V, and can be recognized by their high-pitched, laughing call. They often mix with flocks of smaller Canada Geese. Larger concentrations occur in Ne- 67 68 BIRDS IN KANSAS braska, as evidenced by the death toll from a fowl cholera outbreak in April 1975, when 15,000 died (Palmer 1976a). Field Marks: On the ground or on water, they appear to be small, dark geese, and at close range, their speckled belly, pink bill, and white face (adults) are characteristic. Food: Greater White-fronted Geese graze on grasses, millet, sedges, young wheat, and emergent aquatic vegetation; they glean waste grain from fields and grub for submerged roots. GEESE 69 An adult Snow/Blue Goose {Chen caerulescens). Photograph by Bob Gress. Snow/Blue Goose Chen caerulescens (Linnaeus) Status: The Snow Goose is a common-to-abundant transient in the eastern third of the state and uncommon and irregular westward. Period of Occurrence: Extreme dates for presumed migrants are from 8 March to 26 May and 14 August to 28 November. Migra- tion peaks are in mid-March and mid-October. Large flocks in the northeast may remain on selected reservoirs until all open water freezes. Habits and Habitat: Snow Geese often fly in long, diagonal, wavering lines, hence their name "wavies"; in winter, they may occur in huge concentrations. The call is high pitched and, when many birds are involved, can best be described as clamorous. Birds frequently have a reddish, ferrous stain about the head. Changes in climate and agricul- tural practices, as well as the establishment of reservoirs and a refuge system, have combined to cause radical shifts in the migratory habits and wintering areas of this species. Snow Geese typically migrate along narrow corridors rather than a broad front and tend to be abundant in some areas while rare elsewhere. One such corridor crosses extreme eastern Kansas en route to the Gulf Coast in Texas 70 BIRDS IN KANSAS and Louisiana. It includes a major stopping point at nearby Squaw Creek National Wildlife Refuge in Missouri where numbers have been building since the 1960s. By 1961, some 5,000 birds were using nearby Brown County (Kansas) State Lake. Conditions there were ideal, and by 1974, over 300,000 birds were using the 62-acre lake; 200,000 overwintered. This tremendous concentration caused in- creased local crop damage, severe hunting problems, and the poten- tial threat of disease; as a result, in 1975-76 the Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks harassed the birds from the lake (Thompson 1985). Most returned to Squaw Creek National Wildlife Refuge, but some dispersed to larger water areas where conditions are more favorable for long-term management. Considerable numbers still visit northeastern Kansas each fall and winter. Other populations of Snow Geese winter in California and in the Chesapeake Bay area (Palmer 1976a). Field Marks: Both white and blue birds are color morphs of the same species. Both forms occur throughout the state, often in the same flocks; the white morph predominates, often by a large proportion. Food: Food is primarily seeds, stems and roots of grasses, sedges and aquatic plants, grains, and berries. In winter, much food is obtained by grazing the vegetation or grubbing for roots in water only a few inches deep. GEESE 71 Ross' Goose Chen rossii (Cassin) Status: Ross' Goose is a casual migrant and winter visitant that has been recorded from 18 October to 23 April, with most sightings during November. Occasional birds occur in the large concen- trations of geese at Cheyenne Bottoms and on the larger reser- voirs. A specimen was preserved from Brown County and others have been shot by hunters in Barton, Coffey, and Trego counties. Although the largest number of Ross' Geese occur with flocks of Snow Geese in eastern Kansas, most single white geese associated with small Canada Geese in the western half of the state are also of this species. Field Marks: This species is the size of a Mallard, with a stubby bill, a reduced "grinning patch," and caruncles (warty protuberances) at the base of the upper mandible. Immatures are dusky and have a well-defined gray line through the eye. Birds are less likely to have a reddish, ferrous stain about the head than are Snow Geese. 72 BIRDS IN KANSAS Adult Brants (Branta bernicla). Photograph by Galen L. Pittman. Brant Branta bernicla (Linnaeus) Status: The Brant is a casual transient and winter visitor, chiefly in the east. Occasional birds, usually singles, occur in the large concentra- tions of Canada Geese at the Cheyenne Bottoms, most often in February. Recorded dates of oc- currence are from 9 November to 14 April. A flock of 15 was reported at Elk City Reservoir, Montgomery County, in De- cember 1973. GEESE 73 An adult Canada Goose (Branta canadensis). Photograph by Suzanne L. Collins. Canada Goose Branta canadensis (Linnaeus) Status: The Canada Goose is a regular, common transient statewide, is casual in summer, and is locally common in winter. Period of Occurrence: Extreme dates for birds presumed to be migrants are 29 September and 23 May. Main populations of small geese arrive first (by early October), peak by early Nov- ember, then move south; they are replaced by large geese which remain until all water is frozen. These large geese return when there is open water in late January and depart before the arrival in late February or early March of most small geese. Breeding: Native geese, now called "maxima," formerly bred along the Missouri River but were extirpated during the nineteenth century. Resident flocks (from commercial stocks of "maxima") were estab- 74 BIRDS IN KANSAS lished at Kirwin Reservoir, Phillips County, where they first bred successfully in 1958, and at Cheyenne Bottoms where they first bred in 1962; their descendants still nest in both areas. Recent "wild" nesting has also been reported from Douglas, Linn, and Cowley counties. Nests, placed on artificial platforms or on small mounds of vegetation, are lined with down from the female. The four to six eggs are creamy white before becoming stained. The young, by two months of age, are almost indistinguishable from the adults. Habits and Habitat: Geese, which usually pair for life, remain in family or larger groups except when they are nesting. A common sight during the nesting season is of a female incubating while the male stands guard, or of a family swimming single file, one parent leading, one "tailing." This bird is one of our best-known and most popular waterfowl. Migrating flocks usually fly low enough, especially during bad weather, to attract attention. New, large reservoirs on the Missouri River in North and South Dakota now permit a high percentage of the "maxima" Canada Goose population to over-winter. Each year fewer birds migrate as far south as Kansas, as they are apparently altering their migratory habits. A project by the Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks to establish resident flocks of "maxima" at the Marais des Cygnes Wildlife Man- agement Area, Pratt Fish Hatchery, and Cedar Bluff Reservoir was undertaken in the fall of 1980 (Horak 1985). Food: Canada Geese eat primarily natural grasses or cultivated cereals such as wheat, often at some distance from their resting areas. They obtain other food by dipping in shallow water — chiefly for aquatic plants, less often for invertebrates, and rarely for small vertebrates. An adult male Wood Duck (Aix sponsa). Photograph by Bob Gress. Ducks Wood Duck Aix sponsa (Linnaeus) Status: The Wood Duck is a common transient and a locally common summer resident in the eastern third of the state. It is an uncommon transient and summer resident westward and is casual in winter in the southeast. Period of Occurrence: Extreme dates for presumed transients are from 9 March to 12 May and 28 August to 26 November. Main migration peaks are probably in early April and late October. Breeding: Although most breeding records are from the eastern half of the state (and principally the eastern third), regular breeding occurs westward to Rooks, Ellis, and Kingman counties. The nest, which is placed in a natural cavity, an enlarged woodpecker hole, or an artificial nest box, is from 3 to 50 feet above the ground. Nest sites may be along wooded streams or around lakes, in woods, or in parks 75 76 BIRDS IN KANSAS or shade trees in towns. Nesting is probably more frequent than now recorded; nesting birds are very secretive, and often the only indica- tions of their presence are morning and evening flights in the vicinity of the nest. The cavity is lined with down and may contain 10 or 14 white to buffy-white eggs. The downy young are very dark brown above, with small whitish patches on the wings and on the sides of the rump. The face and underparts are yellowish white, and a black line extends from the eye to the nape. Habits and Habitat: To see a pair of these ducks landing on tree branches while the female examines potential nest holes is an un- forgettable experience. Nests are often near human habitation, but most are not noticed until the young have hatched. The young jump from the nest unassisted when coaxed by the female and follow her to water. When this route involves crossing streets, lawns, or highways, many ducklings fall prey to children, cats, and vehicles. Adult ducks prefer wooded ponds during the nesting season but at other seasons occur in marshes and other sites. Hunting and habitat destruction nearly exterminated the Wood Duck by the end of the nineteenth century, but it has since recovered over much of its range. Field Marks: The male is very colorful and is unmistakable when in breeding plumage. At other times, he and the female may be recog- nized by the white face patch. In flight both sexes appear dark with white bellies and long square tails. Food: Adults are primarily vegetarians, preferring duckweeds and seeds of various aquatic and terrestrial plants, including acorns. The young eat only insects during their first few days, then gradually convert to a vegetable diet. Wood Ducks feed chiefly by immersing the head and neck and rarely by upending. DUCKS 77 An adult male (foreground) Green-winged Teal (Anas crecca). Photograph by Calvin L. Cink. Green-winged Teal Anas crecca (Linnaeus) Status: The Green-winged Teal is a common, locally abundant trans- ient statewide and occurs casually in summer, especially at Cheyenne Bottoms; it winters locally where open water permits. Period of Occurrence: Extreme dates for presumed migrants are from 2 February through 29 May and 14 August through 25 November. Migration peaks are mid-March and early November. A few (as many as 75 in 1968) summer at Cheyenne Bottoms, but it is casual in summer elsewhere. Breeding: Green-winged Teals nested at Cheyenne Bottoms in 1968 when three nests were found; eggs were present from 24 June to 6 August, and chicks from 10 July to 7 August. Like that of other puddle ducks, the nest is a bowl lined with vegetation and down. The 8 to 1 2 eggs range in color from cream to pale olive buff. The color of the downy young closely resembles that of Mallard young. 78 BIRDS IN KANSAS Habits and Habitat: This species is probably the least studied of the common puddle ducks. It usually occurs in flocks and in flight is recognized by the lack of color in its wing or body and its white belly. They typically fly like shorebirds, in a compact flock with much twisting, turning, rising, and descending. The flight, however rapid it appears, rarely exceeds 50 mph. This teal often feeds at night. The species is unusually mobile for a long period before migration, and family groups change their composition frequently. Unattached drakes and failed nesters of both sexes molt and migrate early. Females tend to winter farther south than males, and some pairing is delayed until the northward migration. Food: Although food is mainly seeds of aquatic vegetation, the Green-winged Teal also eats sedges and grass, waste grain, insects, molluscs, and crustaceans. DUCKS 79 An adult American Black Duck (Anas rubripes). Photograph by Bob Gress. American Black Duck Anas rubripes (Brewster) Status: The American Black Duck is a rare transient and winter resident in the east and at Cheyenne Bottoms and is casual elsewhere. Sight records are chiefly from 2 1 October to 22 March. It has summered at Cheyenne Bot- toms, where up to 50 birds oc- curred in 1963 and where. a nest with three eggs was found on 7 July 1969. The American Black Duck is very similar to the Mallard in its habits, and the two frequently interbreed. Field Marks: The sexes are similar; both resemble the female Mallard but are much darker, with silvery underwings which are conspicuous in flight. The speculum is a dark purplish blue, and the white borders are much reduced or missing. 80 BIRDS IN KANSAS Adult Mottled Ducks (Anasfulvigula). Photograph by Marvin D. Schwilling. Mottled Duck Anasfulvigula (Ridgway) Status: The Mottled Duck is a spring to fall resident at Cheyenne Bottoms and is accidental elsewhere in the state. Its status is not easy to determine at Cheyenne Bottoms because of the small numbers and the difficulty of identifica- tion. A few specimens have been taken there, and others have been handled at hunter check- stations. The only other Kansas specimen record is a female taken in Woodson County by Goss on 1 1 March 1876. There are unconfirmed sightings during summer from Pratt, Clark, and Stafford counties. At least four were banded at Cheyenne Bottoms, and an adult male, banded 5 March 1968, was shot by a hunter near Jennings, Louisiana, on 17 December 1969. Marvin Schwilling estimated the total population at about 12 pairs in 1966. Local birds are presumed to migrate to the Gulf Coast when all open water freezes. Period of Occurrence: The Mottled Duck has been reported at Cheyenne Bottoms from 1 5 February to 30 November. Breeding: The nest, hidden in a dry place in a marsh or nearby field, is a bowl lined with vegetation and down. The seven to nine eggs are DUCKS 81 creamy to greenish white. At Cheyenne Bottoms, clutches have been found from 1 1 to 27 June, and broods from 23 June to 20 August. Field Marks: This species, probably often overlooked among the large numbers of female Mallards, differs in having a green speculum that lacks the anterior white borders of the female Mallard. Food: These ducks eat chiefly seeds of grasses and smartweeds, tubers and other aquatic plants, as well as insects and their larvae, molluscs, and other invertebrates. 82 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult male Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) . Photograph by A. A. Tubbs. Mallard Anas platyrhynchos (Linnaeus) Status: The Mallard is a regular, common-to-abundant transient statewide. It nests commonly at Cheyenne Bottoms and uncom- monly but regularly elsewhere throughout the state. It is locally common in winter wherever open water occurs. Period of Occurrence: Mallards are present most of the year throughout the state. Peak migration periods are in late February to early March and in late November. Breeding: This species nests statewide in almost any wetland habitat, but it may nest in grasslands 1/2 mile or more from the nearest water source. The nest is usually near water in dense reeds or grass but may also be under dense weeds or bushes in prairie, pastures, or fields some distance from water. The nest is a hollow lined with vegetation and down. The eggs are greenish buff or pinkish white; the clutch size is usually 10 to 12. Extreme dates for 134 Kansas clutches are from 14 April to 17 July. The peak laying period seems to be in mid-May and early June. Downy young blackish brown above with yellow on the DUCKS 83 face and underparts, and spots on the back and wings have a dark line through the eye and a dark ear spot. Young birds have been reported from 23 May through July. Habits and Habitat: The Mallard, our most adaptable and widespread duck, occurs practically anyplace that has some water. This is espe- cially apparent in western Kansas where nearly every pond supports a pair in early summer. When the female starts incubation, only the male is seen, except when she joins him to feed. With luck, an observer might see the male escort the female to the vicinity of the nest, to which she suddenly veers while he returns to the pond. Later, the female and brood appear on the pond. Normally only the female incubates or cares for the young, which, when pursued, can dive proficiently and escape underwater. Food: This species eats chiefly vegetable food, particularly seeds of sedges, grasses, smartweed, and other plant parts, either skimmed from the surface of the water or obtained by dipping. It also gleans grain from stubble fields, especially in the winter, and eats insects and other invertebrates in season. 84 BIRDS IN KANSAS Adult Northern Pintails (Anas acuta). Photograph by Bob Gress. Northern Pintail Anas acuta (Linnaeus) Status: The Northern Pintail is a common-to-abundant transient statewide that nests locally and is casual elsewhere in summer. It is an uncommon, local winter resident where open water permits. Period of Occurrence: The extreme dates for presumed migrants are from 8 February to 10 May and 5 September to 19 November. Mi- gration peaks occur in early March and early November. Small numbers occur statewide in sum- mer, and it may be locally common during some winters. Breeding: Most nesting has been recorded from Cheyenne Bottoms and from western counties. The nest, the usual depression lined with fine vegetation and down, is typically near water but sometimes is found in a prairie or pasture at a considerable distance from water. The seven to nine eggs are olive-green to pale olive buff. Dates for 19 Kansas clutches range from 19 April to 3 July; the 21 brood records are from 23 May to 15 July. Downy young resemble Mallards but the brown is more earth-colored, and the buffy areas are largely replaced DUCKS 85 by white, especially underneath. There is a dark line through the eye and another from the bill to the ear. Habits and Habitat: This slim, elegant creature is one of our best- known ducks. Pintails are early migrants in both spring and fall. In the spring, flocks frequent temporary shallow pools in flooded fields. In the fall, at Cheyenne Bottoms, birds may be so numerous when either at rest or feeding in shallow water that they can cover literally several acres almost shoulder-to-shoulder. The flight is graceful and rapid, and much of their courtship takes place on the wing. The usually silent males whistle frequently in the spring. Birds generally rest in the open but become secretive when they molt. The female has a very strong maternal instinct and uses a broken-wing display to divert potential nest predators. Pintails have a large breeding range in the Northern Hemisphere, and banded birds have flown great distances. For example, birds banded in New Mexico and California have been taken in Japan and on Palmyra Island in the central Pacific. Field Marks: The adult male is unmistakable, and others can be iden- tified by the long, slim neck and gray bill. Food: The Northern Pintail eats primarily vegetation, including seeds of pondweeds, sedges, grasses, and smartweed. It also eats other plant parts, waste grains, and some animals such as molluscs, crustaceans, and insects. 86 BIRDS IN KANSAS Garganey Anas querquedula (Linnaeus) Status: The Garganey is probably accidental. It has been recorded in Kansas twice. Jay Newton saw a drake at East Lake, near New- ton, Harvey County, on 29 March 1981. Another drake, found on a sewage pond near Oxford, Sumner County, by Wal- ter Champeny on 21 April 1982, was photographed by Max Thompson on the twenty- third and remained until 1 May (Thompson et al. 1983). The recent in- crease in the number of Garganey sightings in the United States, including singles in Oklahoma in 1979 and 1982, suggests that the Kansas birds were wild rather than escapees from a zoo or aviary. DUCKS 87 An adult male Blue-winged Teal (Anas discors). Photograph by Frank S. Shipley. Blue-winged Teal Anas discors (Linnaeus) Status: The Blue-winged Teal is a common-to-abundant transient which nests commonly at Cheyenne Bottoms and uncommonly elsewhere. It is casual in winter. Period of Occurrence: Extreme dates for transients are from 23 February to 24 May and 9 August to 20 November. Peak migrations are from early to mid-April and from mid-September to mid- October. It is regular to abundant in summer at Cheyenne Bottoms and occurs in smaller numbers statewide. It is rare to casual in the winter, especially in the east, but is not recorded every winter. Breeding: The Blue -winged Teal is most numerous at Cheyenne Bot- toms, where Marvin Schwilling estimated 4,000 young were produced in 1962. Most other nesting records are from the western half of the state. The nest a bowl with a grass and down lining is usually hidden in tall grass near water that may be only a temporary pond or pool. The 9 to 13 eggs are creamy tan with a slight gloss. The downy young are similar to Mallards but are sepia brown with the buffy areas replaced by yellow. Replacement nests have been found. Egg dates for 115 recent clutches were from 11 May to 18 July, with most found in mid-June; 57 broods were reported between 31 May and 15 August. 88 BIRDS IN KANSAS Field Marks: Breeding males are unmistakable; females and all other "dull-plumaged" birds may be recognized in flight by the light blue patch (which often appears whitish) on the forewing. In comparison with the Green-Winged Teal, the head and neck of this species are slenderer, and in flight it appears dark-bellied with a slower, more direct, less "maneuvering" flight. The breeding plumage is not as- sumed until at least November, after the birds have left Kansas. Habits and Habitat: During the breeding season, Blue-winged Teals tend to be more pugnacious than most ducks, but they are highly sociable during the nonbreeding season and may flock in large num- bers, especially along shorelines. They migrate late in the spring, early in the fall, and they winter southward through South America. One- way flights of 4,000 miles have been reported for banded birds. Like many other ducks, they have a "molt migration" before they fly to the staging areas where they start their fall migration. Blue-winged Teals appear to be more closely related to the shovelers than to Green- winged Teals. They tend to be primarily surface feeders and "tip" less than other puddle ducks. Food: The species eats chiefly vegetation, primarily the seeds of aqua- tic plants, sedges, and grasses, but also their stems and leaves. They also glean waste grain from fields. Up to 20 percent of the diet may be animal food, largely molluscs (especially snails), crustaceans, and in- sects. DUCKS 89 Adult Cinnamon Teal (Anas cyanoptera). Photograph by C. L. Cink. Cinnamon Teal Anas cyanoptera (Vieillot) Status: The Cinnamon Teal is a rare but regular transient at Cheyenne Bottoms, where it nests casually, and is irregular to vagrant elsewhere in the state. Period of Occurrence: Extreme dates for nonbreeding birds are from 2 1 February to 29 May and 22 August to 22 October. They are casual in winter. A few sum- mer at Cheyenne Bottoms, where at least seven territorial males were seen in 1962, and they probably breed there during most years. They are casual elsewhere in summer. Breeding: The only confirmed breeding record is of a brood of seven young at Cheyenne Bottoms on 13 June 1969. Territorial birds were seen regularly in the summer from 1962 through 1964. On 3 June 1885, in Meade County, Goss (1886) shot the female of a pair, record- ing that she had "several well developed eggs in ovary." Habits and Habitat: This species largely replaces the Blue-winged Teal west of the Rockies and is at best a rare bird in Kansas. The Cinnamon Teal very closely resembles the Blue-winged Teal in its habits but perhaps occurs more often in pairs or smaller flocks. 90 BIRDS IN KANSAS Field Marks: Males in the spring are unmistakable, but the females, the young, and the eclipse males are indistinguishable in the field from Blue-winged Teals, as the paucity of fall records attests. In the hand, the bill of this species is more constricted basally. Food: The Cinnamon Teal has the same diet as the Blue-winged Teal. DUCKS 91 An adult male (foreground) Northern Shoveler (Anas clypeata). Photograph by Frank S. Shipley. Northern Shoveler Anas clypeata (Linnaeus) Status: The Northern Shoveler is a common-to-abundant transient statewide, is casual in summer, and rare in winter. Period of Occurrence: Extreme dates for presumed transients are from 1 March to 5 June and 3 1 July to 8 December. Migration peaks are in mid- April and early November. Breeding has been recorded from Barton, Finney, and Seward counties, and there are numerous midsummer records elsewhere, especially in the west. Only a few birds winter. Breeding: The two dated sightings of broods in Kansas are on 1 1 and 13 July. The nest is the usual depression lined with vegetation and down and may be near or distant from water, carefully hidden or barely exposed. The 7 to 14 eggs are greenish buff. Downy chicks resemble Blue-winged Teal chicks, but the brown areas are darker, the yellow areas more dusky, and the spots less well defined. Habits and Habitat: Most food is obtained by straining the surface or by immersing the head and neck; relatively little upending occurs. 92 BIRDS IN KANSAS Northern Shovelers usually occur in small flocks during spring migration but form much larger congregations in the fall. They migrate late in the spring and early in the fall at about the same time as the Blue-winged Teal. The flight is swift, erratic, and teal-like. Females may sometimes have two mates. Field Marks: In any plumage, the shoveler is easily recognized by its large sloping head and oversized bill. The bill, edged with a row of long bristles or lamellae which give it a comblike appearance, is the most specialized of any Kansas duck. It serves as a sieve to remove edible particles from the surface layer of water and at times from the upper mud layer under shallow water. Food: About 70 percent of the diet is plant food, chiefly seeds of sedges, smartweeds, and pondweeds, and other plant parts strained from the surface of the water. The remaining 30 percent, which is high for a puddle duck, is primarily insects and their larvae, snails, and other invertebrates. DUCKS 93 An adult male Gadwall (Anas strepera). Photograph by Frank S. Shipley. Gadwall Anas strepera (Linnaeus) Status: The Gadwall is a common transient statewide, is a rare summer resident, and is rare to uncommon in winter. The breeding range is said to be decreasing in the cen- tral prairies but expanding in the north and in Kansas. Period of Occurrence: Extreme dates of presumed transients are from 5 February to 4 June and 3 August to 30 November. Migra- tion peaks are in late March to early April and in late October. Small numbers remain in winter until all water is frozen. It is casual in summer and nests locally in the western half of the state. Breeding: Nesting has been documented for Barton, Ellis, Meade, Russell, and Trego counties. The nest, a bowl lined with vegetation and down, is placed in a dry spot in a marsh or a nearby field, or in an upland pasture or "draw" near a pond; it is usually well hidden in 94 BIRDS IN KANSAS dense vegetation or under a bush. The 8 to 12 eggs are creamy white. Downy young resemble Mallards but are paler brown with creamy buff replacing the yellow and a less distinct eye line and ear spot. Habits and Habitat: Gadwalls usually occur in small flocks and are less sociable than Mallards and Northern Pintails. They are usually inconspicuous, often misidentified, and are probably more numer- ous than casual records would suggest. Gadwalls typically fly in small, compact flocks and have a direct flight. They tend to feed more in open water than most puddle ducks. Gadwalls can dive for food when necessary, but that is not their regular practice. Like Pintails, Gadwalls occasionally undertake long, overwater flights. "Molt migrations" are also characteristic. Field Marks: The Gadwall is the only species of puddle duck with a white speculum. On the water, males appear dark gray with a black rear and females resemble female Mallards. In the hand, a dense mane of feathers is conspicuous in breeding plumage on the head of males. Food: The species eats primarily vegetation, including a higher prop- ortion of underwater parts of aquatic vegetation than most puddle ducks eat. Pondweeds are a dominant food, but seeds of grasses and sedges are important. Waste grain in fields is eaten at times, especially in winter, and some animal food is consumed. DUCKS 95 Eurasian Wigeon Anas penelope (Linnaeus) Status: The Eurasian Wigeon is included on the hypothetical list on the basis of five or six sightings from Barton, Coffey, Crawford, Johnson, Riley, and Shawnee counties from 21 March to 22 April and on 1 June. On 21 March 1 98 1 , a single male on the river outlet just below the dam at John Redmond Reservoir, Cof- fey County, was watched for some time by six experienced birders. Field Marks: In the hand, this species differs from the American Wigeon by its mottled, rather than white, axillars. In the field, males in breeding plumage have a rusty brown head and pale forehead and crown, but females and males in nonbreeding plumage closely resemble the female American Wigeon, and accurate field identifi- cation is unlikely. 96 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult American Wigeon (Anas americana). Photograph by Bob Gress. American Wigeon Anas americana (Gmelin) Status: The American Wigeon is a common-to-abundant transient statewide, especially at Cheyenne Bottoms where it has bred once. It is casual elsewhere in summer and uncommon to locally common in winter, depending on water con- ditions. Period of Occurrence: Extreme dates for presumed transients ]^?fvJV are from 30 January to 6 June and 4 September to 29 November. Migration peaks are from mid- February to mid-March and from mid-October to mid-November. It may occur locally at any time. Breeding: The nests reported from Cheyenne Bottoms in 1963 were later determined to be those of Gadwalls. However, a deserted wigeon nest with three eggs was found there on 23 June 1973. The nest is the usual depression lined with vegetation and down. The 7 to 12 eggs are white to cream-colored. The downy young is dark brown above, especially on the crown and back, the face is reddish with a small dark streak behind the eye, and the underparts and spots on the back and wing are brownish yellow. DUCKS 97 Habits and Habitat: Identification on the water is easy from a distance due to the buoyant posture and contrasting markings of the species. The call of the male is a pleasing whistle. The American Wigeon prefers open water and is most common in areas with a permanent water supply. Especially in winter, it parasitizes coots and diving ducks, either by filching food secured by the former or by snatching the latter's food fragments that come to the surface. It spends much time on land and is considered the most terrestrial member of its genus. Field Marks: In flight the white patch on the leading edge of the male's wing is characteristic. Food: The species consumes almost entirely vegetation and takes the stems and foliage of aquatic plants, sedges, and grasses, and the seeds of various aquatic and marsh plants. It grazes frequently and has become a pest in some truck-farm areas. A small amount of animal material, chiefly snails and insects, is also eaten. 98 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult female Canvasback (Aythya valisineria). Photograph by David A. Rintoul. Canvasback Aythya valisineria (Wilson) Status: The Canvasback is an uncommon transient statewide. It nests occasionally at Cheyenne Bottoms and is casual in summer elsewhere. It is casual in winter. Period of Occurrence: Extreme dates of presumed transients are from 9 February to 9 May and 6 October to 22 November. Migra- tion peaks are in early to mid- March and in late October. A few winter on larger reservoirs when open water remains. Breeding: Nests with eggs have been documented at Cheyenne Bot- toms during five summers (from 17 June to 1 1 July), and it probably has nested in other years. Two large, downy young were reported at Quivira National Wildlife Refuge in 1980. The nest is a bulky, well- built structure of reeds or sedges lined with down and placed near or over water in a marsh. The seven to nine large eggs are an unusually dark grayish olive to greenish drab. The downy young differs from downy Redheads in having darker upperparts and a dark, sloping forehead. Habits and Habitat: The Canvasback usually remains in flocks of its own species. It is one of our fastest flying ducks and in flight appears DUCKS 99 longer and slenderer than other divers. Flocks are usually V-shaped, and flight is direct, powerful, and often close to the water. When it was hunted for market, "can" was considered the king of ducks for its taste and was the choice of the epicure. Its numbers were greatly reduced by drainage of the small ponds that it prefers on its breed- ing grounds, droughts, and overhunting, and even today the species remains much diminished. Field Marks: The sloping forehead and bill shape are the best iden- tification characteristics after four to five weeks of age. Males also appear much whiter above than Redheads, even in flight. Food: About 80 percent of its food is vegetation, which it obtains chiefly by diving. Where present, wild celery is considered the favo- rite item; elsewhere, roots and underwater parts of pondweeds, grasses, and sedges predominate. The animal food is chiefly molluscs (in Kansas, snails) and insects. 100 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult Redhead (Aythya americana). Photograph by Bob Gress. Redhead Aythya americana (Eyton) Status: The Redhead is a common transient statewide, is uncommon in winter, and is rare to casual in summer. Period of Occurrence: Extreme dates for transients are from 8 February to 20 May and 26 Sep- tember to 5 December. Migration peaks are in mid-March and from mid-October to mid- November. Breeding: Redheads were first recorded nesting at Cheyenne Bottoms about 1928 and since 1962 have bred there regularly; peak numbers were in 1972. Thirty recent clutches were found between 15 May and 1 1 July, and seven broods from 1 1 June to 23 July. Summering birds reported elsewhere may have been injured. The nest is placed in a marsh near or over water and is a substantial bowl of reeds lined with down. The 10 to 15 eggs are pale olive buff to creamy buff. Downy young are pale olive brown above and yellow below. The nail at the tip of the bill is broad. Habits and Habitat: Redheads are highly gregarious and often occur in huge rafts on open water, especially on the larger reservoirs. Birds DUCKS 101 may move closer to shore at night to feed. The flight is rapid with much wheeling and turning. Most feed by diving in shallow water (less than 6 feet) and feeding birds may upend in even shallower water. Some females are partially parasitic (some are completely parasitic) and lay eggs in nests of their own species or of other species, and then nest normally (Palmer 1976b). Field Marks: Both sexes are best recognized in profile by the round, abrupt forehead. Males appear dark-backed (gray) with reddish heads; females lack a distinct white facial patch or an eye ring. Food: The Redhead eats about 90 percent vegetation, chiefly bulbs, stems, and leaves of aquatic plants such as pondweeds and smartweeds, and also algae. Aquatic insects predominate among the animal food consumed. 102 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult Ring-necked Duck (Aythya collaris). Photograph by A. A. Tubbs. Ring- necked Duck Aythya collaris (Donovan) Status: The Ring-necked Duck is a common spring transient statewide, uncommon in fall, and casual in winter. Period of Occurrence: Extreme dates for transients are from 8 February to 31 May and 3 Oc- tober to 26 November. Migration peaks occur in late March and in late October to early November. Small numbers are reported dur- ing some winters. The only summer records are for Pratt and Russell counties on 15 and 19 June respectively. Habits and Habitat: The Ring-necked Duck is possibly often over- looked in fall. It is alert and lively, like the Redhead, but usually occurs in smaller flocks and tends to frequent smaller expanses of water. It is a fast, erratic flier. Birds are said to choose their favorite ponds or areas in a marsh and to return to them consistently. Field Marks: The chestnut collar ("ring") is rarely seen. Both sexes have a double white ring around the bill, which is a better field mark. DUCKS 103 In addition, males are black-backed and in spring have a crested head and a white crescent before the wing. The female has a white eye ring and often faint white near the bill. Food: About 80 percent of the diet is aquatic vegetation obtained by diving. Pondweeds, sedges, grasses, and smartweed are favorites. The remaining portion of the diet is animal, chiefly insects and snails. 104 BIRDS IN KANSAS m An adult male Greater Scaup (Aythya mania). Photograph by David A. Rintoul. Greater Scaup Aythya marila (Linnaeus) Status: The status of the Greater Scaup in Kansas is uncertain, due to its similarity to the Lesser Scaup. Sight records from 13 counties cover the periods 27 October to 16 April and 3 July to 23 September. A few specimens have been taken in Barber, Barton, Clay, and Douglas counties in August, November, and April. It is prob- ably a rare but regular transient and a winter resident. Field Marks: It is difficult and sometimes impossible to distinguish the two scaups in the field. The best field mark (when visible) for the Greater Scaup is its longer white wing stripe, which extends into the primaries. In perfect light, the greenish sheen to the head is a useful identifier. In the hand, the nail on the bill is more than 7 mm wide. DUCKS 105 An adult female Lesser Scaup (Aythya affinis). Photograph by David A. Rintoul. Lesser Scaup Aythya affinis (Eyton) Status: The Lesser Scaup species is a common transient statewide and occurs casually in winter and in summer. Period of Occurrence: Extreme dates for presumed transients are from 5 February to 29 May and 3 September to 5 December. Migration peaks are in late March and mid-October. There are scattered midsummer re- cords. Some remain locally until all open water freezes. Breeding: The Lesser Scaup was reported breeding in Cowley County about 1928, but there is no recent documentation. Some birds spent the summer of 1954 in Sedgwick County, and there are scattered midsummer records statewide. Lesser Scaup mature slowly, and few, if any, are sexually mature before they are two years old. Some of these nonbreeding birds remain south of the breeding grounds dur- ing their first summer. The nest is a hollow lined with sparse vegeta- tion and down, often some distance from water. The 9 to 1 1 eggs are greenish to olive buff. Downy young are brownish black above and on 106 BIRDS IN KANSAS the breast, with indistinct wing and rump patches. They are buffy yellow below and on the face, with dark lines through and below the eyes. Habits and Habitat: Lesser Scaup are medium to small divers that sit low in the water and fly in compact flocks with an irregular, darting flight. They usually form large rafts on the water when resting. They utilize small ponds as well as larger expanses of water and seem to prefer individuals of their own species. Scaups are very active ducks and spend a great deal of time diving, especially during the morning. Like many other divers, the female voids a malodorous liquid on the eggs and nest when flushed (Palmer 1976b). Field Marks: From the side, males in breeding plumage appear dis- tinctly bandeddark at either end and light in the middle and in good light the violet head is iridescent. Females are brown, usually with a distinct white patch at the base of the bill. The white wing patch is restricted to the secondaries, and the width of the nail on the bill is 7 mm or less. Food: About 60 percent of the diet is the seeds and other parts of pondweeds, other aquatic plants, sedges, and grasses. The remainder is animal food, chiefly amphipods, snails and other molluscs, and insects. Immatures take more animal food. In some areas, adults may feed predominantly (up to 90 percent) on invertebrates. DUCKS 107 Adult Common Eiders (Somateria mollissima). Photograph by Galen L. Pittman. Common Eider Somateria mollissima (Linnaeus) Status: The Common Eider is a vagrant, known only from a single specimen taken on the Kansas River near Lecompton, Douglas County, on 3 November 1891. 108 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult King Eider (Somateria spectabilis). Photograph by Galen L. Pittman. DUCKS 109 King Eider Somateria spectabilis (Linnaeus) Status: There is a single specimen of the King Eider, a vagrant species, which was taken on the Kansas River near Lawrence, Douglas County' on 27 November 1947. 110 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult Oldsquaw (Clangula hyemalis). Photograph by Galen L. Pittman. Oldsquaw Clangula hyemalis (Linnaeus) Status: Oldsquaws are rare transients and winter visitors. Period of Occurrence: There have been scattered sightings throughout the state from 31 October to 18 April; most sightings have been in November. Habits and Habitat: The name is derived from the garrulous call- ing within large flocks, but indi- viduals are relatively silent here. Oldsquaws winter primarily on salt water and on very large lakes. Field Marks: In flight, the Oldsquaw is our only white-headed or extensively white-bodied duck with all dark wings. Males have two distinct plumages, plus the eclipse plumage, so individuals may be quite variable. Most Kansas Oldsquaws are immature or first-year birds and usually are brownish with some white on the face, breast, and underparts. Food: Food is almost entirely animal and is obtained by diving, often to considerable depths. DUCKS 111 Black Scoter Melanitta nigra (Linnaeus) Status: The Black Scoter is a rare fall transient that has been recorded from 22 October to 27 November and on 18 March. There were only 2 documented records prior to 1956, but 15 additional records of about 23 individuals were re- ported by 1984. Sightings have been reported from 13 counties in eastern and central Kansas. Most scoter sightings have been at Cheyenne Bottoms and on the larger reservoirs. The dramatic increase in the number of sightings since the 1950s is perhaps due to the construction of large impoundments and to the increased number and proficiency of birdwatchers. Field Marks: Since most scoters seen in Kansas are immature, prob- lems of identification abound. In the hand and at close range, the shape of the bill and head and the head pattern are useful (Schwilling 1977). All scoters are dark-colored, heavy-bodied, diving ducks. This species is the most "ducklike" of the scoters, with its high forehead, rounded head, and thin bill. Males in breeding plumage are com- pletely black; in other plumages, the light, whitish cheek and foreneck and the dark crown are useful field marks. In flight, the wings show a silvery sheen from below. On the water, birds tend to rest with their bill held horizontally or tilted upward. Food: Black Scoters feed entirely on animal food (chiefly molluscs) obtained by diving. 112 BIRDS IN KANSAS Surf Scoter Melanitta perspicillata (Linnaeus) Status: The Surf Scoter, a rare fall transient, has been reported from 17 October to 29 November; it is casual in spring (19 April). There were 8 specimens and 2 sight re- cords prior to 1956 and an addi- tional 17 records of about 23 in- dividuals by 1980. The records are from 16 counties in eastern and central Kansas. Field Marks: Males in breeding plumage have a white nape and forehead. The completely dark wing, two whitish facial patches, and elongated head which slopes down to the bill are useful aids to identification. Both White-winged and Surf Scoters usually rest with the bill tilted downward. DUCKS 113 White-winged Scoter Melanitta fusca (Linnaeus) Status: The White-winged Scoter is a rare fall transient, recorded from 22 October to 22 December, which is casual both in winter (23 Feb- ruary) and in spring ( 1 5 April to 8 May). There were 9 specimens and 2 sight records prior to 1 956 and an additional 29 reports of about 36 individuals were made by 1980. This species is the most common and most widespread scoter in the state, with sightings from 18 scattered counties. Field Marks: When visible, the white wing patch is diagnostic in any plumage. Other useful field marks are the white eye patch of the male in breeding plumage, the basally wide bill, the whitish patch between the eye and the bill, and whitish ear patch. 114 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult male Common Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula). Photograph by David A. Rintoul. Common Goldeneye Bucephala clangula (Linnaeus) Status: The Common Goldeneye is an uncommon transient and winter resident. Period of Occurrence: Common Goldeneyes are usually present from mid-December to mid- March, with extreme dates of 4 November and 4 May. Some winter on the larger reservoirs while water remains open. A crippled bird spent the summer of 1921 in Pratt County. Habits and Habitat: The flight is strong and swift, and there is a characeristic whistling sound produced by the wings. It is a superb diver. Goldeneyes are most often seen in flocks on the larger bodies of water in early winter through early spring. On the breeding grounds, the goldeneye, like our Wood Duck, nests in a tree cavity. Field Marks: The male is medium-sized with a black head and back and a white body. In flight it displays more white than other divers. The round white patch between the eye and the bill and the green gloss on the head are distinctive. The female is chunky with a dark head, white collar, and a relatively gray body. Food: About 75 percent of the diet is animal food, chiefly crustaceans, insects, molluscs, and some fishes. The remainder is primarily seeds of many kinds, tubers and leaves of pondweeds, and other submerged plants. DUCKS 115 Barrow's Goldeneye Bucephala islandica (Gmelin) Status: The Barrow's Goldeneye is an accidental visitor, with three sight records from Scott, Stafford, and Trego counties during the period 4 October to February. Field Marks: Males can be iden- tified by the purple gloss on the head and the crescent-shaped white patch between the eye and the bill. Its bill is shaped differ- ently from that of the Common Goldeneye. Identification of females and nonbreeding males, unless they are associated with a male in breeding plumage, is probably impossible in the field. It may be impossible to distinguish even museum specimens of females from the Common Goldeneye. 116 BIRDS IN KANSAS Adult Buffleheads {Bucephala albeola). Photograph by Mike Blair, courtesy Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks. Bufflehead Bucephala albeola (Linnaeus) Status: The Bufflehead is a regular but uncommon transient and is casual in winter. Period of Occurrence: Extreme dates are from 19 September to 8 December and 10 February to 24 May. Main migration peaks are in mid-November and from late March to early April. A few re- main on the larger reservoirs until no open water remains. Habits and Habitat: According to Kortright (1942), it was formerly called "buffalo-headed" because of its disproportionately large head. It is an active bird with a swift flight and very rapid wingbeats, and it flies low over the water. It is a buoyant swimmer, an excellent diver, and can rise almost vertically from the water. It is a late migrant in both spring and fall. Courtship is often observed in the spring. Males are then very active and aggressive; they display in small groups on the water with much posturing, diving, and chasing. As pair forma- tion develops, intruding males are attacked when they approach. Field Marks: The Bufflehead is a small, nearly teal-sized diver, easily identified by the large white patch from ear to nape on males in DUCKS 117 breeding plumage or the white patch behind the eye on females and young males. A white wing patch is conspicuous in flight. Food: About 75 to 90 percent of the diet is animal food obtained by diving. Invertebrates (crustaceans, molluscs, and insects) predomi- nate, and some fishes are taken. Seeds and stems of aquatic plants compose the remainder of the diet. 118 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult male Hooded Merganser {Lophodytes cucullatus). Photograph by Ed and Jean Schulenberg. Hooded Merganser Lophodytes cucullatus (Linnaeus) Status: The Hooded Merganser is a transient, is rare in the west, and is uncommon in the central and eastern parts of the state. It breeds locally and is casual in winter. It was formerly more common and widespread. Period of Occurrence: The extreme dates for presumed transients are from 16 February to 14 June and 10 October to 30 November. A few occur at other seasons. Breeding: The Hooded Merganser was formerly a rare breeder in the east. It has recently bred twice at the Marais des Cygnes Wildlife Management Area, Linn County, once at the Neosho Wildlife Man- agement Area, Neosho County, and once at the Quivira National Wildlife Refuge, Stafford County. In Linn County, a clutch of 1 1 eggs found 3 April 1968 hatched 9 young on the thirtieth, and a brood of about 10 young about a week old was seen on 21 April 1985. The Neosho County sighting was a brood of 3 young, first seen on 18 May 1966. The brood at Quivira National Wildlife Refuge was seen in June 1986. The nest is typically in a tree cavity or a nesting box. The 8 to 12 eggs are pure white. Downy young are sepia with white spots on the DUCKS 119 wings and sides and a white chin, throat, and foreneck. The sides of the head below the eye are buffy brown, the upper breast is grayish brown, and the remaining underparts are white. Habits and Habitat: Like the Wood Duck, this species was seriously reduced in numbers during the late nineteenth century as a result of deforestation and overhunting. It is making a comeback today but at a slower rate than the Wood Duck. Its acceptance of artificial Wood Duck nest boxes could aid its return as a regular breeder, at least in southeastern Kansas. It prefers quiet waters usually streams, marshes, ponds, or reservoirs with nearby trees, preferably trees standing in water. It usually occurs singly or in small groups and is normally silent. It swims buoyantly and swiftly, dives well, and rises vertically from the water without pattering. The flight is rapid, often with swift changes of direction. Field Marks: The male in breeding plumage is unmistakable, especially if its fan-shaped crest is erect. Females and other males are small, dainty, thin-billed ducks with thin crests and brown backs. Food: About 96 percent of the diet is animal food, about half being small fishes, and the remainder being frogs, crustaceans, and insects all obtained by diving. Much of the plant food is probably taken incidentally. 120 BIRDS IN KANSAS Common Merganser Mergus merganser (Linnaeus) Status: The Common Merganser is a common transient and winter visitor, especially on larger bodies of water. Period of Occurrence: Most mig- rants arrive in early November, remain until all open water freezes, and then move south- ward. They return when there is open water and depart north- ward by late March. Extreme dates, including those of stragglers, are 22 August and 8 June. Habits and Habitat: Mergansers can be recognized by their long, slim, loonlike appearance, and especially their long, thin bill, head, and neck. Flying birds appear even longer and slimmer. The Common Merganser prefers fresh water and is the merganser regularly seen in Kansas, where it prefers the larger, deeper bodies of clear water. It usually dives from the surface after a short jump forward but can sink slowly beneath the surface like a grebe. Most of its time is spent on open water, often in large rafts. It typically needs a long run for take-off, but, once airborne, the flight is swift, strong, and direct. It frequently scans for prey with its bill and face beneath the surface of the water. Field Marks: Males in breeding plumage can be distinguished from a distance by the white breast and the considerable amount of white in the overall plumage, which are especially visible in flight. The sharply defined white throat patch, sharp demarcation between foreneck and breast, and the gray mantle are useful field marks for the female. (Also see next species.) Food: The diet consists almost entirely of whatever animal food is most available locally. Fishes, usually small rough fishes sometimes up to a foot or more in length, predominate with molluscs and crustaceans eaten less frequently. Any plant food is probably taken incidentally. DUCKS 121 ::!«„ «'" !(»* ' An adult Red-breasted Merganser (Mergus serrator). Photograph by Steve Burr. Red-breasted Merganser Mergus serrator (Linnaeus) Status: The Red-breasted Merganser is apparently a rare spring and fall transient that is often confused with the Common Merganser. Period of Occurrence: Extreme dates for sight records are from 3 March to 1 5 May and 29 October to 25 November. There is one midsummer record, 22 June in Osage County. Johnston (1965) reported the species to 8 De- cember. Habits and Habitat: This merganser is essentially a marine and coastal species, but a few birds probably occur in Kansas each year. Although sightings have been statewide, most were at Cheyenne Bottoms or on the larger reservoirs. Field Marks: The male in breeding plumage is easily identified by its dark breast; females and males in other plumages have a poorly defined white throat, little contrast between the neck and the breast, and a browner mantle, giving them an overall dingier appearance. In the hand, the nostril is near the base of the bill, and the feathering at the base of the upper mandible extends farther forward than on the lower mandible. Food: The diet is almost entirely animal, chiefly fishes, obtained by diving. 122 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult female Ruddy Duck (Oxyura jamaicensis). Photograph by David A. Rintoul. Ruddy Duck Oxyura jamaicensis (Gmelin) Status: Ruddy Ducks are regular but uncommon transients statewide. They breed locally but are casual elsewhere in summer and in winter. Period of Occurrence: The extreme dates for birds presumed to be transient are from 25 February to 21 June and 31 August to 8 De- cember. Migration peaks occur from late March to late April and in early November. This species breeds regularly at Cheyenne Bottoms and has bred in Ellis (prior to 1888), Grant, Sedgwick, and Stafford counties. There are scattered midsummer records elsewhere. A few remain in some winters until all open water is frozen. Breeding: Nests were found at Cheyenne Bottoms in 1929 and occa- sionally since 1962, but Ruddy Ducks probably breed there every year. Twenty-two clutches were observed between 30 May and 30 July (most in mid- and late June), and 10 broods were seen between 1 1 June and 18 August. The nest, a platform of vegetation lined with down, is placed in thick cover over shallow water. The 5 to 10 eggs are dull white and are very large in proportion to the small female. Ruddy DUCKS 123 Ducks are occasionally parasitic. The male does not incubate but remains with the female and helps to care for the brood. Downy young are sooty brown tinged with gray, are grayer on the face, and have a dark streak across the cheek. Patches on the lower breast, belly, and back are pale gray. Habits and Habitat: The Ruddy Duck is a short, squat duck with a thick neck; the male's neck has an inflatable tracheal pouch and is especially thick. Courtship is spectacular with much male posturing; during display, males cock the long, stiff tail up over the back. This duck is grebelike, with short, narrow wings and large legs placed far back on the body. When approached, it frequently dives or sinks slowly be- neath the water rather than flying. The flight is swift and "buzzy" with very rapid wingbeats. On land, adults walk with difficulty, and even the downy young scoot along on their bellies. Field Marks: The male in breeding plumage is unmistakable, with its brilliant rust pattern, white cheek, and bright blue bill. In other plumages the light cheek patch (the female's is crossed by a dark streak) and the general shapes of the body and bill are diagnostic. Food: About 75 percent of the diet is vegetable, chiefly seeds of aquatic plants strained underwater from the mud bottom. Some food is also skimmed from the surface. Animal food consists chiefly of insect larvae with some molluscs and crustaceans. Vultures Black Vulture Coragyps atratus (Bechstein) Status: The Black Vulture was possibly a former local resident but is now a vagrant. According to George Lisle, it was quite common and bred at Chetopa, Labette County, 15 to 20 years prior to 1883; he saw three there in the fall of 1 882 and a nest with two eggs in 1858 (Goss 1891). A specimen, since lost, was taken at Ellis, Ellis County, on 27 March 1885. There are several unconfirmed recent sight records from Elk, Cow- ley, and Chautauqua counties from July or August to September. Field Marks: Look for it in southeastern Kansas. It can be distinguished from the Turkey Vulture by its short, square tail and its broad, short wings with white patches. In flight it flaps its horizontal wings fre- quently and then resumes gliding or soaring. 124 VULTURES 125 An adult Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura). Photograph by Bob Gress. Turkey Vulture Cathartes aura (Linnaeus) Status: The Turkey Vulture, a common transient and summer resi- dent especially in the east, also occurs occasionally in winter. Period of Occurrence: Birds usually reach east and south Kansas in mid-March and the west and north up to a month later. Most birds depart by 15 October with stragglers remaining into November. Extreme dates for nonwintering birds are 29 February and 21 November. There are scattered records from 8 December to 22 January. Breeding: Although this vulture is widespread throughout the state during summer, only twenty counties have documented breeding records. Eggs have been reported from 7 to 3 1 May and young from 6 June to 14 August. Johnston (1964) reported nesting by 21 April. Eggs are laid without benefit of a nest in a cave, hollow stump, 126 BIRDS IN KANSAS abandoned building, fruit cellar, or similar place. The one to three (usually two) eggs are dull white with brown blotches and spots. At hatching, the young are helpless and covered (except for the black face) with long white down. They remain in the "nest" for 8 to 10 weeks. Adults carry food in the crop and feed the young by regurgita- tion. The young also reach into the gullet of the adult to obtain food. Young birds often disgorge their stomach contents when they are disturbed. Habits and Habitat: Vultures may occur over any habitat but tend to concentrate where ridges or rock outcrops provide updrafts and perches, as at Scott County Lake and Cedar Bluff Reservoir, Trego County. They are clumsy on land but graceful in the air, soaring with a characteristic slight dihedral of the wings and a slight teetering or rocking motion. The wingbeats are deep, slow, and deliberate. When they are not nesting, vultures frequently congregate at favorite roost- ing sites, which are often dead trees, and in early mornings can be observed spreading their wings toward the sun. Vultures are silent except for hissing, a low grunt, and a snapping of the beak, the last made especially by the unfledged young. Vultures were more com- mon (or at least more visible) during the nineteenth century, when they concentrated at slaughterhouses and open garbage pits. The loss of this abundant food supply has been partially offset by animals killed by vehicles on roadways. Some recent studies have shown that vultures locate carrion by means of smell. Food: The usual food is carrion, either freshly killed or badly decom- posed. Other reports (Bent 1937) mention them eating tadpoles in a drying pond, taking living young herons in a colony, and once, when hard-pressed for food, even eating pumpkins! An adult Osprey (Pandion haliaetus). Photograph by David A. Rintoul. OSPREYS Osprey Pandion haliaetus (Linnaeus) Status: The Osprey is a rare-to-uncommon transient, chiefly around large bodies of water and rivers. It is reported occasionally in winter where open water persists. Period of Occurrence: The Osprey is most common from early April through mid-May and from mid-September through Oc- tober. Extreme dates are from 1 March to 6 June and 1 September 127 128 BIRDS IN KANSAS to 19 November. It is an occasional visitor in summer and during winter. Habits and Habitat: The well-known "fish hawk" has one of the widest global distributions of any bird. In Kansas, it is most regular at the larger reservoirs and rivers, but individuals appear also at farm ponds and along small, open streams. Its flight is powerful and sustained, and it commonly soars. The wings, which are usually par- tially flexed at the wrist, present a distinctive flight profile. It hunts by flying or hovering 30 to 100 feet above the water. When it sights a fish near the surface, the Osprey drops downward with half-closed wings, extends its feet, and enters the water with a great splash. It then labors upward and shakes its plumage, which is waterproof. After a success- ful dive, it carries the fish, head foremost, to a convenient perch for a leisurely meal. The long, curved claws, sharp projections on the soles of the feet and toes, and a "reversible" outer toe which allows an X-shaped grip are specializations for handing slippery prey. The Osprey was once common along the Atlantic coast and in some places nested in colonies. The adverse effects of civilization, especially the use of organic pesticides that resulted in eggshells too thin to support the weight of an incubating bird, made the Osprey a rare bird in most areas. However, recent restrictions on the use of DDT and related compounds have resulted in greatly improved nesting success. In some areas, Ospreys now utilize man-made platforms on poles erected for their use. Where Bald Eagles and Ospreys occur together, the eagles frequently harass the Ospreys to obtain the fishes that the latter have captured. Food: Under most conditions, food is entirely fishes, chiefly various species of slow-moving "rough fishes." Game species are also taken, especially at concentrations such as fish hatcheries. There are rare reports of Ospreys taking turtles, snakes, frogs, and even young ducks. An adult American Swallow-tailed Kite (Elanoides forficatus). Photograph by Marvin D. Schwilling, courtesy Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks. Kites American Swallow-tailed Kite Elanoides forficatus (Linnaeus) Status: The American Swallow-tailed Kite, formerly "an irregular summer resident in east, some seasons common, others rare" (Goss 1891), was extirpated and is now a vagrant. It has been recorded west to Riley and Greenwood counties. Period of Occurrence: The four specimens and few available sight records from the nineteenth cen- tury span the period January to 1 September. The recent sighting was 6 September 1972. According to Goss, birds arrived in late April or early May, and few remained until fall. 129 130 BIRDS IN KANSAS Breeding: The only published breeding record is of a nest near Neosho Falls, Woodson County, 27 April-July 1876 (Goss 1891). Several pairs were seen near Topeka, Shawnee County, in May 1871 by Allen (1872). The nest near Neosho Falls, in the top of a huge hickory, was two-thirds completed on 18 May. Nests are of sticks, twigs, and strips of inner bark and are placed high in a treetop, usually 75 to 200 feet above ground. The two to three eggs are creamy white with irregular, bold markings of brown and lavender. Both sexes build and defend the nest, incubate the eggs, and care for the young. In the summer of 1982, the Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks, using the ("Chic- kadee Checkoff) tax refund donations, sponsored a reintroduction program by fostering chicks in Mississippi Kite nests. One of two chicks fledged successfully. Habits and Habitat: This spectacular species once nested north to Minnesota and Wisconsin but is now confined to the southeastern United States. Individuals do wander, however, and one was seen near Topeka on 6 September 1972. The flight is swallowlike and is unmatched by that of any other North American raptor in its grace and elegance. The species hunts and devours much of its prey while on the wing. It drinks and bathes by skimming the water. Unfortu- nately, very little information was recorded concerning the Kansas population. Field Marks: This kite is unmistakable, due to its white head, body, and underwings, black back, long pointed wings, and deeply forked tail. Food: The food is chiefly large flying insects, frogs, snakes, and lizards. KITES 131 An adult Mississippi Kite (Ictinia mississippiensis). Photograph by Galen L. Pittman. Mississippi Kite Ictinia mississippiensis (Wilson) Status: The Mississippi Kite is a common summer resident in south- western and south-central Kansas. It occurs casually and occasionally breeds north and east to Phillips and Wyandotte counties. Period of Occurrence: The species is usually present from early or mid- April to late September with extreme dates of 14 March and 29 October. The few winter re- cords are doubtful and need confirmation. Breeding: The Mississippi Kite breeds chiefly in those counties border- ing on, or south of, the Arkansas River and casually or locally north to Ellis County, where it has been regular since the 1960s, and Douglas 132 BIRDS IN KANSAS County, where it nested in 1906. Kites are gregarious and may nest in loose colonies in hedgerows, windbreaks, or riparian areas. In Kansas, increasing numbers of birds are nesting in towns. Nest building, incubation, and care of the young are shared by both sexes. The nest, a flimsy structure of coarse twigs lined with finer twigs bearing fresh leaves, is placed in a crotch of a tree from 10 to 30 feet above the ground; its material is usually taken from live trees. The usual clutch is two plain bluish-white eggs. The peak of egg laying is probably in late May. The young, which are covered with white down when they hatch, fledge in about five weeks. Often only one young is raised, but Parker (1979) notes that more are raised under optimal conditions. The same nest may be refurbished and used for several years. Year- old birds may nest while retaining the barred tail feathers of their juvenal plumage, and nonbreeding immatures may visit active nests. Habits and Habitat: Kites are named for their ability to hang motionless in the air and to drift back and forth as if suspended on a string. Their flight is buoyant and very maneuverable, and they capture and eat much of their food on the wing. Some individuals become so tame that they snatch food tossed to them by observers on the ground. Birds nesting in towns prefer parks, golf courses, and residential areas. The birds are sometimes killed in populated areas because their aggressive behavior is not understood as nest defense. Nevertheless, kite num- bers seem to be increasing. After breeding, many birds disperse northward, and flocks of up to 120 birds have been seen returning southward over Hays in early September. Birds in juvenal plumage are heavily streaked below and are sometimes mistaken for Sharp- shinned Hawks. Food: These kites eat chiefly cicadas and grasshoppers taken either on the wing or snatched from vegetation. They also eat frogs, snakes, an occasional bird or small rodent, and even road-killed box turtles (Parker 1979). An adult Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) . Photograph by Mike Blair, courtesy Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks. Hawks and Eagles Bald Eagle Haliaeetus leucocephalus (Linnaeus) Status: The Bald Eagle is an uncommon transient and winter visitor, chiefly near open water. 133 134 BIRDS IN KANSAS Period of Occurrence: Most sight- ings are between mid-October and mid-March, with extreme dates of 5 September and 8 May. Summer records need verifica- tion. Breeding: The Bald Eagle builds a huge nest of sticks and weeds lined with dried grass. It is typically in a large tree 50 or more feet above ground. It usually lays two eggs (one to three), which are pure white, are often stained by the nest lining, and are small for such a large bird. Both sexes share the incubation period of about 35 days. Young leave the nest in about three months. Bent (1937) described the "great nest" near Vermil- ion, Ohio, which was occupied for at least 35 years before being blown down by a storm in 1925. It measured 12 feet in depth and 8 xh feet across at the top. The nest was placed 81 feet above ground in a shagbark hickory tree. There are vague unverified references to Bald Eagle nestings during pioneer days but no recent reports of successful ones. How- ever, Bald Eagles occasionally build nests in Kansas, and their recent nesting in east-central Oklahoma suggested that they might be suc- cessful here soon. From 1957 to 1962, H. A. Stephens (1966) checked eagle nests at 12 Kansas localities and saw Bald Eagles associated with several; he saw one carrying a stick. The nests were apparently built during late winter, but no eggs were ever seen. Another was built in flooded timber at the Neosho Wildlife Man- agement Area, Neosho County, during the winter of 1965-66. In late March or early April 1989 a nesting attempt was reported by John Burghart and sons, who found a nest attended by adults on the Deer Creek arm of Clinton Reservoir in Douglas County. State and federal officials confirmed the nesting (photos by Mike Blair) and cordoned off the nest to prevent disturbance of the nesting pair. At this writing the nest contents have not been determined, but dozens of visitors have observed the birds from an observation point several hundred yards distant. Even if this attempt proves to be a "practice run" by a young pair, as some suggest, it bodes well for future nesting in Kansas. Habits and Habitat: Bald Eagles are seen regularly over most of the state with winter concentrations of 30 or more birds at the larger impoundments, particularly at Glen Elder Reservoir, Mitchell County; there they find large concentrations of waterfowl and a plentiful supply of fishes. Wintering eagles have either become HAWKS AND EAGLES 135 more common in Kansas recently or their concentrations at reser- voirs are more visible. Winter roosts require, in addition to food, large trees to perch on, a sheltered roost site, and minimum human disturbance. The midwinter Bald Eagle inventory, taken annually in early January by the Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks and volunteers, has averaged over 300 individual birds since 1980. In western and central Kansas both eagle species use the same roosts, but Bald Eagles tend to concentrate most of their hunting activities along waterways, and Golden Eagles search for prey in open prairie land. Field Marks: Although white-headed Bald Eagle adults are unmis- takable, immatures are often confused with immature Golden Eagles and sometimes even with the larger hawks and Turkey Vul- tures. The large, thick bill ("Roman nose") and flat flight profile aid in identification. Food: In Kansas, they feed primarily on dead or injured waterfowl, dead or dying fishes, and carrion. Bald Eagles concentrate both at fish kills and at dead livestock. 136 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult Northern Harrier (Circus cyaneus). Photograph by Mike Blair, courtesy Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks. Northern Harrier Circus cyaneus (Linnaeus) Status: The Northern Harrier is a common transient and winter resident and an uncommon and local summer resident. Period of Occurrence: This mainly migratory species occurs year- round locally but is most numer- ous and widespread from early September to late April. It is probably declining in numbers as a breeding species in Kansas. Breeding: The nest, found on the ground in a field, in grassland, or in a marsh, is composed of sucks, weeds, and grass. In dry areas it may be only a shallow depression, but in wet areas it is built up to as much as 18 inches above ground level. In Kansas, many nests in alfalfa or HAWKS AND EAGLES 137 wheat fields are destroyed when the harvest may either expose the nests or kill the young. The usual four to six (but up to nine) eggs are dull white or pale bluish white and are usually unmarked. Incubation is largely by the female, may begin with the laying of the first egg, and lasts about 24 days. The male brings food to the female and the exchange often takes place in the air near the nest. The young have pure white down, tinged with buff above at hatching, and fledge at four to five weeks. Both parents are aggressive in nest defense and dive close to intruders. Courtship includes a spectacular aerial display, involving a rapid, irregular flight by the male who dives on, then rises over, the female and sometimes performs complete loops or a tumbl- ing display. He usually calls while displaying. Habits and Habitat: Long-called the "Marsh Hawk," this species is one of the better-known Kansas raptors. It is an open-country bird which systematically patrols fields, fence lines, roadsides, and draws, seeking prey which it captures during a short pursuit or a sudden pounce from above. It rarely perches more than a few feet above ground. During migration, however, individuals fly much higher, with steady wingbeats, and may even soar high overhead. It is the only hawk in Kansas with an owl-like facial disk. Food: Diet varies with locality and circumstance. Small rodents, espe- cially voles and cotton rats, young rabbits, and ground-nesting birds usually predominate as food. Frogs, snakes, lizards, and large insects, especially grasshoppers, are important food as well. 138 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult Sharp-shinned Hawk (Accipiter striatus). Photograph by Galen L. Pittman. Sharp-shinned Hawk Accipiter striatus ( Vieillot) Status: The Sharp-shinned Hawk is an uncommon transient and winter resident that is casual in summer. It has bred in northeastern Kansas. Period of Occurrence: Sharp- shinned Hawks are most com- mon during April and October. Extreme dates for nonbreeding birds are 1 August and 9 June, but there are a number of mid- summer records throughout the state. HAWKS AND EAGLES 139 Breeding: These hawks have bred here on several occasions. One nest in Pottawatomie County was observed from 30 April to June 1954, but its contents could not be seen. Johnston (1960) reported nesting in Cloud County in 1938. The main breeding range is in the northern United States and Canada, especially in coniferous forests. The nest is the usual structure of sticks, often placed on a branch near the trunk, from 20 to 60 feet above ground. The three to five eggs are white or bluish white, handsomely marked with rich brown. Incubation lasts 21 to 24 days and is undertaken primarily by the female. Habits and Habitat: The Sharp-shinned Hawk is our most regularly seen and common accipiter. It may occur wherever there are trees and small birds, from isolated farmyards to city parks to extensive woodlands. In its habits, it is a smaller version of the Cooper's Hawk and, like it, is a bold and efficient predator. Individual hawks may learn that bird-banding stations and feeders are easy hunting grounds and may haunt them until physically removed. Sudden silence in an area, with the local sparrows hiding in the midst of the densest shrubbery, usually indicates the presence of a Sharp-shinned Hawk perched nearby. It captures prey by a quick strike from a hidden perch or by extended pursuit, even throwing itself against bushes in an attempt to capture or flush birds hiding within. On one occasion, Ely watched a Sharp-shinned Hawk repeatedly dash itself against a hawthorn thicket, from which a bloody but still defiant flicker was screaming incessantly. Others have reported this species bounding along the ground in pursuit of small birds. Sometimes Sharp-shinned Hawks are killed when, while pursuing prey, they hit plate-glass windows. Prey is typically plucked before it is eaten. The Sharp-shinned Hawk was once abundant but its numbers have declined drastically throughout the eastern part of its range. Large concentrations can still be seen during fall migration as they funnel through such favored points as Point Pelee, Ontario, Hawk Moun- tain, Pennsylvania, and Cape May, New Jersey. Food: The diet consists almost entirely of small birds. 140 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult Cooper's Hawk (Accipiter cooperii). Photograph by David A. Rintoul. Cooper's Hawk Accipiter cooperii (Bonaparte) Status: The Cooper's Hawk is an uncommon transient and winter resident statewide. Small numbers nest, chiefly in the east. Period of Occurrence: The extreme dates for nonbreeding birds are 5 August and 21 May. It is a local summer resident. Breeding: Johnston (1964) gives the modal date of egg laying as 25 : rt April. Clutches have been re- ported between 26 April and 1 1 June, and recently fledged young have been reported as late as 17 June. The nest is in a tree crotch HAWKS AND EAGLES 141 usually 15 or more feet from the ground; it is built of sticks and lined with bark. The clutch is usually four (three to six) bluish-white eggs which are sometimes lightly marked with buff. Both sexes line the nest and incubate. Most nests in Kansas are in deciduous trees in riparian areas. The young are covered with white down and typically fledge in five to six weeks. Adults are usually wary near the nest, at least until the young are partially grown. Habits and Habitat: Most bird books describe the Cooper's Hawk as a "bloodthirsty villain" or use similar terms to describe its efficiency as a predator. It feeds largely on birds up the size of meadowlarks and robins and is probably the raptor most appropriately called a "chicken hawk." It is a woodland bird and thus was probably never common in Kansas. Its status even today is difficult to determine, because it is so easily confused with the female Sharp-shinned Hawk in the field. Both species are secretive, and one usually gets only a brief view of a bird as it darts among trees or across a clearing. It captures prey either after a stealthy approach and sudden pounce or after active pursuit in which every twist and turn of its flying prey is duplicated. The short, rounded wings and long tail are well adapted for fast, intricate man- euvering through thick vegetation. Its flight is typically four to five quick wingbeats alternating with a short sail, and it is rarely seen in the open except during migration. The breaking up of dense stands of forest during the nineteenth century briefly caused a population increase, but subsequent shoot- ing, pesticides, and habitat loss resulted in a drastic decline. Food: About 85 percent of the diet is small and medium-sized birds. The balance is chiefly small mammals (squirrels, rabbits, and rodents) with occasional snakes, lizards, frogs, and, rarely, large insects. 142 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult Northern Goshawk {Accipiter gentilis). Photograph by Steve Burr. HAWKS AND EAGLES 143 Northern Goshawk Accipiter gentilis (Linnaeus) Status: There are scattered records for the Northern Goshawk throughout the state, especially in the northeast, making it a rare, irregular winter visitor. Period of Occurrence: Specimens and confirmed sight records are from 3 October to 24 February. Extreme dates for unconfirmed sight records are 7 September and 23 April. Habits and Habitat: This species is primarily a bird of boreal forest, but occasionally it irrupts into the Great Plains during winter. A major invasion reached Kansas during 1916-17, when 10 specimens were taken in Douglas and Shawnee counties. In 1973-74, there were five documented sightings, and in 1982-83, there were many. The Northern Goshawk prefers wooded areas where it hunts below treetop level, surprising its prey and capturing it after quick pursuit. It also rests quietly in thick growth and awaits its prey. It is a very powerful species which feeds on various vertebrates as large as grouse, ducks, and rabbits. It has long been a favorite of falconers. It is also noted for its fierce defense of its nest. Food: In the far north, the Goshawk's major foods include ptarmi- gan, grouse, lemmings, and hares. In Kansas, it probably feeds mainly on squirrels, cottontail rabbits, rodents, and medium-sized birds such as crows, ducks, and at times, domestic poultry. Snakes and terrestrial invertebrates are uncommon food items. 144 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult Harris' Hawk {Parabuteo unicinctw). Photograph by David A. Rintoul. Harris' Hawk Parabuteo unicinctus (Temminck) Status: The Harris' Hawk is normally a winter straggler (there are five records), and one nest was found in 1963. The additional Kansas records are of specimens from Douglas and Sedgwick counties in December 1918, of one found dead in Mitchell County on 7 January 1963, and of one seen regularly from 1 1 December 1972 through 7 January 1973 at Cheyenne Bottoms, Barton County. Period of Occurrence: Nonbreeding birds have been reported between 1 1 December and 7 January , and the breeding birds to at least 28 May. HAWKS AND EAGLES 145 Breeding: The only recorded breeding for Kansas (Parmelee and Stephens 1964) was at Meade State Park, Meade County. During the first week of January 1962, an adult female was trapped near the pheasant-rearing pens; that fall, a second bird was trapped and re- leased unharmed. Parmelee and Stephens saw three birds there on 21 December 1962 and two on 8 February 1963. Copulation was ob- served on 29 and 30 March and on 13 April. The nest, with an incubating female, was found in the top of a cottonwood; it contained three eggs on 21 April, a downy chick on 28 May, and was destroyed by a storm on 6 June. The species has not been reported breeding in Kansas since. The usual breeding range is from the southwestern United States and central Texas, south into South America. The nest, typically a small, compact structure of sticks lined with finer materials, is built from 5 to 30 feet above ground in a low tree or cactus. The three to four eggs are white, sometimes faintly marked with brown. Habits and Habitat: The species normally inhabits semi-open grass- land, desert, chaparral, and water courses. It resembles the Red-tailed Hawk in many respects, often soaring and resting on conspicuous perches. However, it spends more time on the ground and is a more aggressive hunter. The fast, powerful flight through vegetation has been likened to that of an accipiter. The species is apparently migrat- ory, since large flocks congregate in the fall. Food: The Harris' Hawk eats primarily small mammals, including ground squirrels and rabbits, snakes, lizards, and, rarely, birds. 146 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult Red-shouldered Hawk (Buteo lineatus). Photograph by Bob Gress. Red-shouldered Hawk Buteo lineatus (Gmelin) Status: The Red-shouldered Hawk is a local, uncommon summer resident and transient in the eastern quarter of the state. It is rare in winter and casual westward. Most sightings in the western two- thirds of the state need confirma- tion. Period of Occurrence: The species is most common from early April to mid-October. The extreme HAWKS AND EAGLES 147 dates for transients are 1 1 February and 16 November, and there are a few winter records. Breeding: At present, most breed in riparian forest in southeastern Kansas; smaller numbers breed in the northeast. The nest, a well-built structure of sticks that is lined with bark and usually decorated with sprigs of fresh leaves, is placed in a tree crotch 20 to 50 feet above ground. The nest is usually in lowland woods and may be used several years in succession. The three to four eggs are white marked with brown and are laid in late March or early April. Both parents incu- bate. The young, which are covered with white down, fledge in five to six weeks. There may be renesting if eggs are destroyed during the early stages of incubation, but only a single brood is raised each season. Habits and Habitat: This species is infrequently seen in Kansas due to its restricted breeding habitat and usually secretive nature. Its most favored places are the Marais des Cygnes Wildlife Management Area in Linn County, where it nests regularly, and along wooded streams in Cherokee County. Population numbers are declining nationally. This is a noisy hawk during its courtship period in March and early April. The "kee-you" call given by Blue Jays throughout Kansas is thought to be an imitation of the Red-shouldered Hawk's call. The hawk frequently soars above the forest canopy, sometimes probably hunting in this manner. At other times, it hunts by sitting quietly on a favorite, often secluded, perch and pouncing on nearby prey. In general, its habits are similar to those of the more common Red-tailed Hawk. Food: Up to 65 percent of its food is small rodents, and it also eats frogs, snakes, and smaller numbers of birds. Large insects and other invertebrates may be important comestibles locally. 148 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult Broad-winged Hawk (Buteo platypterus). Photograph by Galen L. Pittman. Broad-winged Hawk Buteo platypterus (Vieillot) Status: The Broad-winged Hawk is a regular transient statewide, uncommon in the east to rare in the west. It is a local and rare summer resident in the northeast. Period of Occurrence: Most migrate during April and May, with a peak in late April, and during September and October, with a peak in late September. Extreme dates are 6 April and 14 October. HAWKS AND EAGLES 149 Breeding: Johnston (1964) reported four nesting records for eastern Kansas in swampy woodland; a few birds probably nest during most years. The nest, of sticks lined with bark and usually ornamented with sprigs of green leaves, is placed in a crotch from 20 to 40 feet above ground. The two to three eggs are white or bluish white, with varying amounts of brown and lavender markings. Incubation lasts from 2 1 to 25 days, and the newly hatched young are covered with buffy-white down. The young fledge in five to six weeks. Habits and Habitat: In Kansas, most Broad-winged Hawks are seen during migration when they are silent and unsuspicious. With the possible exception of some young Swainson's Hawks, this species is our tamest hawk. Bent (1937) relates two instances in which incubat- ing birds were lifted from their nests without protest. In western Kansas, where migrating individuals often rest in the shade trees of parks and along residential streets, birds can sometimes be ap- proached to within a few meters. The species is widespread across Kansas, but does not form the huge flocks, or "kettles," of migrating birds that pass favored concentration points in the eastern United States (e.g., at Hawk Mountain, Pennsylvania) and in Central America. It hunts primarily while perched quietly or while flying below the forest canopy. Field Marks: When they soar, adults are easily identified by the com- pact silhouette and the broad white bands on the tail. Food: During late summer and fall, the major food of the species is large insects, such as cicadas, grasshoppers, and large caterpillars. A few small mammals, small birds, reptiles, and amphibians are also eaten. 150 BIRDS IN KANSAS An immature Swainson's Hawk (Buteo swainsoni). Photograph by Roger Boyd. Swainson's Hawk Buteo swainsoni (Bonaparte) Status: Swainson's Hawk is a common transient and summer resident in the west that becomes less common eastward. Period of Occurrence: Swainson's Hawk is most abundant from early April through September. Johnston (1965) gives median ar- rival and departure dates of 12 April and 12 October, respec- tively. Extreme dates are 2 March (doubtful) through 2 November. Midwinter sight records are of doubtful credibility. Breeding: Nest building begins within a few days of the spring arrival and proceeds rapidly. The peak of laying is in late April. Most nests are built 15 to 40 feet above ground in trees along roadsides, in open prairie, or in farmyards, often near houses; nests are less commonly built on rock outcrops and on the ground. They are constructed of sticks and large weed stems and may be quite loose and bulky. The two HAWKS AND EAGLES 1 5 1 to three eggs are dull white with scattered brown markings. Smaller birds frequently nest near Swainson's Hawk nests, and at least six different species have nested within the sides of nests themselves. Habits and Habitat: In Kansas, this species largely replaces the Red- tailed Hawk in open country with scattered trees. Except when molested, individuals are usually tame and unsuspicious and often allow a close approach while perched along a roadside. Immature birds may sometimes be approached to within a few meters. The species frequents cultivated areas as well as rangeland; small flocks are regularly attracted to fields being prepared for planting, where they capture rodents, large insects, and other prey disturbed by the machinery. It has the most extensive migration of any hawk and regularly winters in Argentina. In earlier times, but no longer, huge spiraling flocks or "kettles" were a common sight during migration. A concentration of "thousands" seen in Wabaunsee County in October 1957 was one of the few reported since the 1930s. As the hawks move southward they congregate, and the entire population funnels through Central America in a few huge flocks. In 1947 and 1949, huge flocks alighted overnight in southern Mexico, causing near panic among rural residents (Alvarez del Toro 1971). Such flocks seldom feed while migrating. Food: The major foods are small mammals (chiefly mice and ground squirrels), large insects (mainly grasshoppers), lizards, and frogs. One hawk's stomach contained 106 grasshoppers. Several observers (Bent 1937) have seen them taking and eating insects while in flight, but more often they hop around on the ground, which reminded one observer of a flock of Turkeys. 152 BIRDS IN KANSAS Red-tailed Hawk Buteo jamaicensis (Gmelin) Status: The Red-tailed Hawk is most common in eastern Kansas and becomes progressively less common to the west, where it is largely restricted to watercourses. Its numbers are greatly augmented during migration and in winter by individuals from farther north and west. Period of Occurrence: In most areas, the species is present all year. Breeding: Red-tailed Hawks are early nesters, and many nests are occupied by mid- or late February. Johnston (1964) gives 5 March as the modal date for egg laying. The nest is a large structure of sticks lined with strips of bark. It is usually placed in the crotch of a large tree from 20 to 50 feet above ground. Red-tailed Hawks may also nest on rock ledges and cliff faces. A nest may be used more than once. The two to three eggs are white, or bluish white, with sparse brownish spotting. Most incubation is by the female, but the male brings her food and shares the care of the young. The incubation period is about 28 days, and the young fledge in four to five weeks. Habits and Habitat: This species is the most common and widespread large hawk throughout the eastern half of the state. Its habit of using utility poles along highways and roads as hunting perches increases its visibility and apparent abundance. Such birds usually feed on the small mammals and reptiles which occur along roadsides, but various road-killed vertebrates are also scavenged. Early in the nesting season, the birds are very noisy and spend much time soaring lazily in circles. Field Marks: From below, soaring adults are easily identified by wing shape, their light underparts, and their red-brown tail. During winter, the numerous hawks migrating from more northern localities present major identification problems. Some melanistic individuals appear jet black from a distance, while others (of the race krideri) are so pale that they appear almost white. Many hawks, especially immatures, are intermediate in color. These "nontypical" individuals occur chiefly in the western half of the state and are good examples of polymorphism. The color pattern is determined genetically, and the proportions of each color type vary among different populations. However, whether melanistic or pale, individuals retain their original color morph after HAWKS AND EAGLES 153 ■MEV V9Hk«Mt in i ii ■ An immature Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo jamaicensis). Photograph by Mark A. Chappell. each molt. The plumage colors of one population — which for years was considered a distinct species, the "Harlan's Hawk" — range from very light to very dark. Food: Red-tailed Hawks utilize a wide variety of vertebrate prey, depending on local availability, and individuals are said to develop preferences for particular prey species. Small mammals, including various mice, rats, ground squirrels, and rabbits, predominate in the diet. This hawk regularly eats reptiles, especially snakes, birds, and even large invertebrates. 154 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult Ferruginous Hawk (Buteo regalis). Photograph by Galen L. Pittman. HAWKS AND EAGLES 155 Ferruginous Hawk Buteo regalis (Gray) Status: The Ferruginous Hawk occurs all year and breeds locally in the west. During migration and in winter, it occurs eastward in progres- sively reduced numbers. Vag- rants are widespread, especially in late summer. Period of Occurrence: The species is resident all year in the west and *"j^t^ is present eastward chiefly from Lj^iJ^ \ # ; late September to mid-April. Ex- treme dates outside of the normal breeding area are 5 September and 18 April. Breeding: The Ferruginous Hawk nests primarily in the steeply eroded canyons along the Smoky Hill River from Gove County west- ward. In 1979, Stan Roth located 52 active nests; 6 were in cottonwood and locust trees, and the remainder on rock faces, bluffs, and pinna- cles. The nest is a large, bulky mass of sticks and weed stalks lined with finer materials. A pair frequently has several nests within a small area and may alternate among them in successive years. The three to four eggs are creamy white to bluish white with variable amounts of light brown to rich brown spotting. Incubation, which lasts 28 days, begins before the laying of the last egg, so that the young hatch at intervals of several days. The young fledge in about two months; individuals from nests near canyons may wander along the slopes for some distance before they fledge. Habits and Habitat: These hawks spend much of their time sitting on the ground or on low perches, or soaring high overhead. They hunt from the air or a perch, or by waiting near burrows of prairie dogs or ground squirrels. In winter, birds disperse eastward to farmlands, marshes, and other open areas where small rodents are numerous. Field Marks: The Ferruginous Hawk is our largest Buteo, and dark- phase birds are frequently confused with eagles. Both dark- and light-phase birds usually may be identified by the white patch on the wings, which is best seen on the down stroke; the white, or light, unbarred tail; and the tarsi, which are feathered to the toes. Food: The species eats chiefly small mammals, especially prairie dogs, gophers, and ground squirrels. They also eat snakes, large insects, and occasionally small birds. 156 BIRDS IN KANSAS ^^^ f^: An adult Rough-legged Hawk (Buteo lagopus). Photograph by David A. Rintoul. Rough-legged Hawk Buteo lagopus (Pontoppidan) Status: The Rough-legged Hawk is a common transient and winter resident, mainly in the western half of the state. HAWKS AND EAGLES 157 Period of Occurrence: The species is most common between early October and late April, with ex- treme dates for confirmed sight- ings of 20 September and 1 1 May. Any sightings outside of these extremes need verification. Habits and Habitat: This hawk breeds in central and northern Canada and visits Kansas in winter. Its arrival time and the number of birds vary with the southern limit of snow cover. It is an open-country bird that is most frequently seen sitting on an exposed perch, soaring overhead, or coursing slowly back and forth over a field in search of prey. It hovers more, often into a stiff wind or with rapidly beating wings, than other Buteo and tends to be more crepuscular than other hawks. When prey is abundant, as on irrigated cropland, birds may flock loosely. Individuals may return to the same general area in successive years. A wintering bird banded at Stockton, Rooks County, was .killed at Great Bend, Barton County, six years later (Kennard 1975). Field Marks: The name "rough-legged" refers to the feathers which extend down the legs to the toes. There is great variation in plumage from the typical "light" birds (with a light head and a dark abdominal band) to others that appear nearly black at a distance; there is also a bewildering range of intermediates. In any plumage, there is usually a whitish patch at the base of the tail. Food: The diet consists almost entirely of small rodents, chiefly mice. 158 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos). Photograph by Mike Blair, courtesy Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks. Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos (Linnaeus) Status: The Golden Eagle is an uncommon transient and winter visitor, chiefly in the west. There is one early report of breeding and recent nesting in four far- western counties. Period of Occurrence: The species is most common from early Oc- tober through early April. Ex- treme dates for nonbreeding birds are 2 September and 8 May. Midsummer vagrants occur occasionally in the east. HAWKS AND EAGLES 159 Breeding: Courtship involves spectacular aerial maneuvers, and pairs are said to mate for life. Recent nests in Kansas were built in isolated trees in native grassland or on the steep sides of deeply eroded gullies. Nests may be rebuilt and used in successive years, or a pair may alternate among several nests in the same area. The two or three eggs are white with light brown spotting. Eggs are laid in early March, and the young fledge from early to mid-July. Incubation is largely by the female, but the male shares brooding of the young. When a nest is approached, adults typically depart and observe from a distance. Habits and Habitat: The Golden Eagle is not closely related to the Bald Eagle, and more nearly resembles a large Buteo in its habits. It occurs most regularly over open grasslands in western Kansas but in winter occurs sporadically eastward. Birds are usually shy and difficult to approach, and most nesting sites are fairly isolated. Each pair occupies a large home range of up to 35 square miles. Most hunt either from a perch or by a steep dive from a considerable height; pairs frequently hunt together. Ely once watched a speck high overhead develop into a plunging Golden Eagle, which made an unsuccessful dive at a nearby jackrabbit that Ely had not seen. The jackrabbit escaped by zigzagging through a barbed wire fence as the eagle bounced along the ground in hot pursuit. Although eagles are very powerful birds, the size of their usual prey is greatly exaggerated, as is their ability to carry off large prey — although Thompson found the legs of a young pronghorn beneath a nest site in Montana. An eagle weighs 8 to 12 pounds, and it would be difficult, if not impossible, for a bird to carry prey of equal weight. Food: Within its extensive range, which covers most of the North Temperate Zone, eagles feed on a great variety of vertebrates, with jackrabbits, cottontails, rodents, and snakes predominating; they also take larger prey occasionally. However, studies show that their preda- tion on healthy domestic livestock has been greatly exaggerated (Wiley and Bolen 1971). A considerable amount of carrion may be eaten in winter. 160 BIRDS IN KANSAS American Kestrel Falco sparverius (Linnaeus) Status: The American Kestrel is present all year but is rare in western Kansas in winter. It breeds throughout the state. Period of Occurrence: The kestrel is r- — r-~ ^ most abundant during migra- tions from March through April and from September through October. Breeding: Courtship involves much aerial display and calling, and birds are then very conspicuous. The male brings food to the female and continues to feed her during incubation. Kestrels nest in cavities in trees, martin houses, crevices in stone buildings, and nooks and crannies in buildings and bridges. Nest height varies from 10 to 30 feet above ground. Most egg laying is in mid- April, and the three to five eggs are white or light buff with fine brownish spots. Incubation lasts about 30 days, and the young remain in the nest for a month before fledging. The family remains together for an extended time thereafter while the young perfect their flying and hunting skills. Habits and Habitat: The present name is preferable to the old "Spar- row Hawk," because it indicates their closer relationship to the Old World kestrels than to the sparrowhawks, which are similar to our Sharp-shinned Hawks and Cooper's Hawks. Kestrels prefer open areas with scattered trees and frequently nest in parks, towns, and along rivers. They hunt primarily from an exposed perch such as an overhead line but also hover frequently; while facing into the wind they remain stationary or beat their wings very rapidly, providing the basis for the name "windhover." Most individuals migrate, but a few winter, often near deserted buildings which provide roosting cover and food in the form of sparrows or small mammals. Kestrels migrate during the day and frequently congregate along roadsides or field borders where perches and food are abundant. The call note is the often-repeated, very familiar "killy-killy-killy" or "kle-kle-kle." Some individuals become fairly tame and nest in the cramped quarters of a backyard martin house. Food: The species eats chiefly large insects such as grasshoppers, but also, especially in winter, small mammals such as mice and small birds. HAWKS AND EAGLES 161 : An immature female American Kestrel (Falco sparverius). Photograph by David A. Rintoul. They also eat lizards and small snakes. Ely once saw a male laboriously carrying a small cottontail which it soon dropped. The retrieved bunny (alert and active) weighed 63.2 grams, probably over half the weight of the kestrel. 162 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult Merlin (Falco columbarius) . Photograph by C. L. Cink. Merlin Falco columbarius (Linnaeus) Status: The Merlin is an uncommon transient and rare winter It is now less common than formerly but apparently still regularly. Period of Occurrence: Dates of specimens range from 14 August to 10 June. Recent sightings are chiefly between early October and late March, with extreme dates of 14 August and 15 May. Summer sight records need confirmation. visitor, occurs HAWKS AND EAGLES 163 Habits and Habitat: The Merlin was formerly called the "Pigeon Hawk," either because of a presumed resemblance to a pigeon in flight or because it preyed on pigeons! In appearance and actions, however, it is a typical falcon. It feeds primarily on small birds caught during active pursuit. Goss (1891) reported that it captured birds as large as a Passenger Pigeon. Using old nests of other species or merely nesting on the ground, the species nests primarily in Canadian boreal forests; a few nest as far south as northwestern Nebraska. Most birds winter south of the United States. In Kansas, birds are seen most often perched on exposed tree limbs or on overhead wires, often in parks, cemeteries, or at the edges of towns. Field Marks: The Merlin lacks the American Kestrel's head markings and reddish brown coloration above. Some immatures passing through western Kansas are very pale and almost sandy brown. Food: The species eats primarily small birds (up to flicker-size) and also large insects such as dragonflies, which it captures on the wing. One Merlin's stomach held 34 dragonflies. It occasionally feeds on small mammals such as mice. 164 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus). Photograph by Tom Mosher. Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus (Tunstall) Status: The Peregrine Falcon formerly bred in Woodson and Ellis counties and was a regular transient statewide. It is now a rare trans- ient and occasional winter visitor across the state, especially near mudflats and open water. Period of Occurrence: Recent re- cords are from 5 September to 3 1 May, with one record in Barton County on 25 July. Midsummer sightings and winter records some distance from open water need confirmation. Breeding: The very small Kansas breeding population disappeared about 1 880 as a result of human settlement. A single eyrie had been found on the Saline River in Ellis County, and a few pairs nested along the Neosho River in Woodson County in cavities in huge sycamores. That was unusual, as most Peregrine Falcons nest on tall, steep cliffs, preferably with grassy ledges and overlooking a broad hunting territory. The three to four eggs, creamy white to pinkish and variably HAWKS AND EAGLES 165 marked with brown, are laid in a bare scrape; the Kansas population laid in early March. Peregrine Falcons here are usually silent, but they are very noisy during courtship and often when defending the eyrie. Courtship includes very spectacular dives, swoops, and other aerial maneuvers. Habits and Habitat: The Peregrine Falcon, or "Duck Hawk," once had a nearly worldwide distribution, but the population of the eastern United States was wiped out. The beautiful eggs were prized by collectors, and the birds themselves were and still are a favorite of falconers. These factors, in addition to hunting and continued distur- bance of the eyries, caused a decline in numbers by the early twentieth century. Widespread use of pesticides, which Peregrine Falcons ac- cumulate in their bodies from their prey, was the final blow. The pesticides caused thin eggshells; young in the eggs were crushed or the eggs were infertile, which made extinction inevitable. Favored eyries often had been occupied for many consecutive years — one in Europe for over 350 years! Birds from artificial breeding programs are now being reintroduced successfully throughout the former range. At present, the nearest breeding populations are in Colorado and the Black Hills of North Dakota. The Peregrine Falcon is a magnificent bird that Sprunt (1955) considered "the ultimate of the avian kingdom" and "supreme" among birds. In Kansas, most individuals are seen during migration, usually in open areas such as mudflats where shorebirds and water- fowl concentrate. It hunts in flight, often while soaring high over the prey. It attacks with a steep power dive, or "stoop," from above, and the prey is either snatched from the air or killed by a blow from the clenched foot. A speed of up to 175 MPH has been reported, but that has not yet been confirmed. Its stoop is an awesome sight, whether it is after prey or defending its eyrie. Food: The diet is almost entirely birds — chiefly shorebirds, waterfowl, and, in the Arctic, large numbers of ptarmigan and colonial seabirds. Occasionally it takes small mammals and large insects. 166 BIRDS IN KANSAS fm m Nestling Gyrfalcons (Falco rusticolus). Photograph by Max C. Thompson. Gyrfalcon Falco rusticolus (Linnaeus) Status: There is only one Kansas specimen of the vagrant Gyrfalcon. Goss (1886) reported that the specimen was "captured near Manhat- tan, December 1, 1880 by A. L. Runyan" and presented to C. P. Blachley. His statement was re- peated by all writers until Johnston (1960) gave the locality as "Ashland, Clark County." The specimen was one of several mounted birds transferred from Kansas State University to the Uni- versity of Kansas. In 1963, Thompson remade the mount into a study skin and discovered the Ashland, Clark County, label on the bottom of the stand bearing the mount. Riley County is more logical. This species, our largest true falcon, has been reported during the winter with increasing frequency in nearby states and should be looked for in Kansas. Some individuals are white with dark flecks; others are slaty gray or brownish gray, more uniform in color than the Peregrine Falcon and without the inconspicuous facial pattern. HAWKS AND EAGLES 167 Prairie Falcon Falco mexicanus (Schlegel) Status: The Prairie Falcon is an uncommon winter resident in the west and is rare in the east. It is casual in summer in the west, where local nesting is suspected but not yet documented. Period of Occurrence: This falcon is a regular resident in the west from early September to late March and occurs casually in summer. It occurs eastward in decreasing numbers, chiefly from mid-November to mid-March. Breeding: The species may nest, at least occasionally, in the badlands of western Kansas. Most individuals reported during the summer are probably wandering subadults or postbreeding birds, but a pair did summer in Scott County in 1952. A mummified falcon chick found in Gove County may have been one of this species. Elsewhere, nests are on steep bluffs and escarpments. The eggs are laid in a bare scrape, usually in a pocket beneath an overhanging ledge. Old nests of hawks, ravens, or eagles are sometimes used. Habits and Habitat: This falcon's flight is direct and swift, with short, powerful beats of the pointed wings; it often flies close to the ground. It is usually an open-country species and spends much of its time on exposed perches such as utility poles. It hunts either by direct pursuit or by a rapid dive or stoop from above. Small prey is snatched in flight; larger prey is killed by a blow from the clenched foot. Such behavior is spectacular, and the prey rarely escapes. The falcon has also been seen hopping on the ground after grasshoppers. It is very similar to the Peregrine Falcon in many of its habits, but many falcon- ers consider it irascible and difficult to train. Several observers have commented on its habit of harassing larger birds such as herons, both when they approach the nest and merely in "play." The pair (espe- cially the female) defends the nest by screaming and diving and at such times may attack and kill other birds in the neighborhood. Food: Prairie Falcons eat primarily birds, as large as Rock Doves, and small mammals, especially young prairie dogs and ground squirrels. They take lizards and large insects infrequently. The percentage of birds in the diet increases in winter. 168 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult Prairie Falcon (Falco mexicanus). Photograph by Mike Blair. Pheasants Ring-necked Pheasant Phasianus colchicus (Linnaeus) Status: The Ring-necked Pheasant is an introduced common resident in the center and northwest that becomes progressively less common in the east and south. Period of Occurrence: The species is an introduced resident. Breeding: The Ring-necked Pheasant nests commonly in the northwest and central part of the state; from the center eastward, breeding becomes sporadic, and in some years, this bird may be absent from the southeastern corner. It has become more common in south-central Kansas since 1980. Nests are located primarily in fence rows adjacent to cropland, ditches, shelterbelts, and hayfields. The number of eggs in the clutch varies but averages from 9 to 10; incubation takes about 23 days. Most breeding starts in April and extends into August. They have only one brood but may renest if the first nest is destroyed early in the season. The cocks establish ter- ritories in the spring, and their crowing can be heard up to a mile away. After breeding, the female tends the nest and young, which are precocial and leave the nest within hours to follow the adult. The young grow rapidly and are capable of limited flight within a week of hatching; they are independent within eight weeks. Habits and Habitat: Ring-necked Pheasants frequent the same general habitat as their breeding habitat. During the nonbreeding season, they occur in small groups or as solitary adults. Wintering birds use milo fields to obtain an adequate food supply. They may leave their feeding areas to rest in pastures. The pheasants prefer the drier areas of the state and are quite rare in the extreme east along the Missouri border. This pheasant, originally introduced from China in the early 1900s for hunting, occupies a niche that seems to be filled by no other game bird, at least in the western portion of the state. It is a popular game bird, and many out-of-state hunters flock to Kansas for the November opening of the season. In 1986, a total of 723,288 cocks were harvested. Food: The diet is varied but consists mainly of seeds and grains, with a mixture of insects and other vegetable matter. 169 170 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult Ring-necked Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus). Photograph by Mike Blair. An adult Ruffed Grouse {Bonasa umbellus). Photograph by Gene Brehm, courtesy Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks. Grouse and Prairie-Chickens Ruffed Grouse Bonasa umbellus (Linnaeus) Status: The Ruffed Grouse was a former resident of eastern Kansas but was extirpated. Since 1983, it has been reintroduced in the following counties: Atchison, Bourbon, Douglas, Jefferson, Johnson, Linn, and Miami. Prior to its reintroduction, it had not been reported since the early 1900s. Goss (1886) stated, "A re- sident in the eastern portion of the state prior to its settlement; but, being a bird of the woods, its 171 172 BIRDS IN KANSAS range was confined to the timber skirting the streams, and, upon the settlement of the same, they quickly disappeared, as the tramping and browsing of the cattle during the winters destroyed the under- growth, their favorite resorts, and left them no longer a hiding place or natural home." Since Goss's time, the eastern Kansas habitat has changed radically, and more woodland is probably present now than in his day. We hope that reintroduction will return this fine game bird to the state. The only early specimen was taken in "Southeastern Kansas" between 1885 and 1910 and was collected and mounted by A.J. C. Roese. It is at the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History. GROUSE AND PRAIRIE-CHICKENS 173 An adult Sage Grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) . Photograph by David A. Rintoul. Sage Grouse Centrocercus urophasianus (Bonaparte) Status: The Sage Grouse, a hypothetical species, is included here on the basis of Goss (1886): "Included as an occasional resident of west- ern Kansas on the authority of Mr. Will. T. Cavanaugh, Assis- tant Secretary of State, who in- forms me that while hunting buf- falo during 1871, 1872, 1873 and 1874, he occasionally met with and shot the birds in the sage brush near the southwest corner of the State." The Sage Grouse probably occurred in limited numbers, since it was recorded in nearby Cimarron County, Oklahoma, as recently as July 1920 (Sutton 1967). 174 BIRDS IN KANSAS I • ■ An adult male Greater Prairie-Chicken (Tympanuchus cupido). Photograph by David A. Rintoul. Greater Prairie-Chicken Tympanuchus cupido (Linnaeus) Status: The Greater Prairie-Chicken is a locally common resident in the eastern third of the state. It is most common in the Flint Hills, uncommon and local in the north-central part of the state, and rare in the northwest. It seems to be expanding into its former range in the northwest. Period of Occurrence: The species is a resident. Breeding: Prairie-chickens gather at breeding areas called "booming grounds," or leks. Both the Greater and Lesser Prairie-Chickens have inflatable pouches on the side of the neck which fill with air and produce a booming sound when released. These grouse breed throughout their range, although, due to their secretive nature, few of their nests have been found. Johnston (1965) lists an average clutch size of 12 eggs, with laying dates from 1 May to 10 June and the average laying date on 5 May. Males begin to gather on the booming grounds in large numbers in February, but limited activity occurs GROUSE AND PRAIRIE-CHICKENS 175 there throughout the year. Booming grounds in Kansas may have as many as 100 males, but usually only one male is dominant and copulates with most of the females. Females normally do not return to the booming grounds after copulation unless their nest is destroyed. The nest is usually placed in grassland, and one egg a day is laid. Incubation takes 23 to 26 days, and the young stay with the female from six to eight weeks (Johnsgard 1973). Habits and Habitat: Thanks to the extensive grasslands in the Flint Hills, Kansas has the largest known populations of this grouse. There are estimates of as many as 750,000. Fairly large areas of grassland are necessary for their survival, although they also feed in nearby grain fields. Hunting them for market in the late 1800s and the early 1900s nearly caused the prairie-chicken to become extinct, but strict protec- tion by the state has brought them back to their former abundance in the east. They are also repopulating northwestern Kansas in suitable habitat. Until recently, Kansas was the only state that allowed hunting of the Greater Prairie-Chicken. There were 64,169 harvested in 1986. During November, hunters from all over the United States come to the Flint Hills for this species, whose rapid, erratic flight makes it a difficult target. Field Marks: The pouches in the Greater Prairie-Chicken are orange, while the pouches in the Lesser species are a reddish purple. There is a noticeable difference in the "booming" call of the two species. Food: The Greater Prairie-Chicken subsists primarily on seeds and cultivated grains, but in the warmer parts of the year it also eats insects — primarily grasshoppers and crickets (Bent 1932). If the weather remains warm into November, its diet may keep it out of grain fields during the opening of the hunting season. 176 BIRDS IN KANSAS ^* An adult Lesser Prairie-Chicken (Tympanuchus pallidicinctus). Photograph by Gerald J. Wiens. Lesser Prairie-Chicken Tympanuchus pallidicinctus (Ridgway) Status: The Lesser Prairie-Chicken, a local resident in the southwest- ern part of the state south of the Arkansas River, now occurs in the sand-sage prairie as far east as Pratt County. It formerly was found east to at least Neosho County in winter (Goss 1891). A specimen taken in Logan County on 1 January 1921 is the north- ernmost state record. Period of Occurrence: The species is a permanent resident. Breeding: The Lesser Prairie-Chicken, like the Greater, forms leks where the males meet and try to entice a female to copulate. Little is known about clutch size, but on 28 May 1920, Colvin found a nest near Liberal that contained 12 eggs; a nearby nest also contained 12 eggs on 2 June 1920, and a third contained 13 eggs (Bent 1932). The nest is a scrape in the sand lined with grasses (ibid.). The incubation GROUSE AND PRAIRIE-CHICKENS 177 and details of raising the young are approximately the same as that of the Greater Prairie-Chicken and are described in that account. Habits and Habitat: Lesser Prairie-Chickens are more restricted in the state due to their limited habitat, which is being further diminished as the sand-sage prairie is plowed and irrigated. They can be observed at the Pratt Wildlife Area and on the Cimarron National Grasslands in Morton County. The U.S. Forest Service in Elkhart erects an observa- tion blind each year, which is open to the public. Apparently Lesser Prairie-Chickens were abundant at the turn of this century. Colvin states that in 1904, his brother observed 15,000 to 20,000 chickens around one grain field in the sandhills just inside the Kansas line in Seward County (Bent 1932). The dust bowl days of the 1930s helped to decimate these large populations, which have not reached their former abundance since. Today's estimates of the Les- ser Prairie-Chicken population in Kansas are from 10,000 to 15,000 birds. This species is currently hunted in Kansas, but due to their small numbers and the difficulty of hunting them, only 1,494 were har- vested in 1 986. The biggest threat to the Lesser Prairie-Chicken is the continued conversion of the sand-sage prairie to farmland. Such land is marginally arable and is worthless without irrigation. When future groundwater supplies diminish, will the area revert to sand-sage prairie in a form usable by prairie-chickens? Food: The species eats seeds and cultivated grains, along with insects, mainly grasshoppers (Colvin 1914). 178 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult Sharp-tailed Grouse (Tympanuchus phasianellus) . Photograph by Randy Ro- gers, courtesy Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks. Sharp-tailed Grouse Tympanuchus phasianellus (Linnaeus) Status: The Sharp-Tailed Grouse formerly occurred in western Kan- sas, with definite records from Ellis County (Allen 1872) and a mounted specimen taken in Cheyenne County on 24 October 1886. Goss (1891) reported it to be a common resident in the western part of the state. There are some recent reports from the northwest of birds that may be wandering in from Nebraska. Recently, the Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks reintroduced this grouse into Rawlins County. Randy Rogers of the Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks found nonbanded birds at a "dancing ground" in Rawlins County, indicating that the species may have reestablished itself. Breeding: This species presumably bred in the 1800s and probably now breeds in the northwestern part of the state, at least in Rawlins County. Habits and Habitat: The Sharp-tailed Grouse's requirements are very much like those of the other prairie-chickens primarily grasslands, GROUSE AND PRAIRIE-CHICKENS 179 although it is also found in shortgrass prairie. The males form "boom- ing grounds" and dance and inflate their neck pouches to attract females. Hybridization between the Greater Prairie-Chicken and the Sharp-tailed Grouse occurs. Food: The major part of the Sharp-tailed Grouse's diet is weed seeds and cultivated grains; insects are taken in smaller amounts (Bent 1932). An adult male wild Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo). Photograph by Mike Blair. Turkeys Turkey Meleagris gallopavo (Linnaeus) Status: The Turkey was formerly an abundant resident but was extir- pated in the early 1900s. It reappeared about 1958 in Cowley and Barber counties, coming from native and introduced stock in Oklahoma. Recently, the Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks successfully reintroduced birds into other areas that they once populated. 180 TURKEYS 181 Period of Occurrence: The Turkey is a permanent resident. Breeding: Little is known about its breeding prior to the middle of the century, when nesting again occurred in Cowley County in south- central Kansas. Since then, it has become a common breeding bird in the southern tier of counties and has been introduced to many other counties to the north, where its range continues to expand. The gobbler struts and displays to the females. Although several cocks may use the same strutting area, the dominant male generally consum- mates. The female begins egg laying in late April or early May. The clutch size ranges from 8 to 15 eggs and the young hatch in about 28 days (Johnsgard 1979). The young are able to fly within two weeks and roost in trees as soon as they can. Six to seven months after they hatch, young males break away from the family unit and form their own flocks. Numbers of Turkeys in Kansas flocks may exceed 100. Habits and Habitat: Turkeys occur in areas of riparian woodland where cover is available. During the nonbreeding season, they are silent, and it may be difficult to find them, despite their large size. During the breeding season, males can be heard for a considerable distance as they strut and gobble to attract females. One gobbler came to within 50 feet of Thompson, gobbling and strutting and seemingly oblivious to his presence. Wild turkeys are generally wary and run or take flight when frightened. However, if unmolested, they may become quite tame and come into barnyards to feed. When frightened, Turkeys take to the air without hesitation, providing a memorable sight. Food: Turkeys feed primarily on seeds and secondarily on insects. In eastern Kansas, they feed on acorns when available, as well as weed seeds and cultivated cereal grains. In western Kansas, cereal grains and weed seeds make up the bulk of the diet. An adult Northern Bobwhite (Cotinus virginianus). Photograph by Mike Blair, cour- tesy Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks. Quail Northern Bobwhite Colinus virginianus (Linnaeus) Status: The Northern Bobwhite has been recorded in all 105 counties. Apparently the eastern race, C. v. virginianus, moved westward with the settlement of Kansas, and the . • r • , • • • [ • ■ • [ 7T»T»"IV5 race taylori moved eastward from the western part of the state (Goss 1891). 1 • • • . • • • • • : • • • • • • . • • • • • • • : . • • • • • : * .... • • • • • • • • • • « • • • • • Period of Occurrence: This quail is a permanent resident. Breeding: The Northern Bob- white breeds throughout the state but is more abundant in the eastern half than in the western portion. Laying begins in early to mid- April, with an average clutch size of about 12 to 14 eggs. Females that are unsuccessful in the first nesting attempt may renest, but then they have smaller clutches. This renesting results in the apparently "late" broods, which are frequently seen in September. There appears to be no second nesting when the first is successful. Stoddard (1931) found 182 QUAIL 183 that about 25 percent of the males assist in incubation. A check of hunters' bags indicates that the fall population of young birds may be as high as 85 percent. (Johnsgard 1973). This corresponds closely with the annual mortality rate and indicates that most breed only once during their lifetime. Habits and Habitat: The Northern Bobwhite is a bird of timber and prairie-forest ecotones. It is most plentiful in the eastern half where it finds an abundance of habitat to its liking. In the western half, the bobwhite is found mainly along streams with sufficient cover. During feeding hours, it may be found in grain fields but it is usually never far from dense cover. This species is the prime bird hunted for sport in Kansas, with a harvest of 1,924,939 in 1986. Kansas ranks second only to Texas in the number bagged each year. Bobwhite numbers fluctuate from year to year, depending greatly upon the severity of winter. They seem unable to survive when snow depths exceed a few inches for any length of time. Bobwhites may become quite tame when unmolested and then feed around houses. They have been seen feeding, seemingly oblivious to the bustle around them, in the middle of residential areas in fairly large towns. Food: The Northern Bobwhite feeds primarily on weed seeds, cereal grains, and insects. 184 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult Scaled Quail (Callipepla squamata). Photograph by Gene Brehm, courtesy Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks. QUAIL 185 Scaled Quail Callipepla squamata (Vigors) Status: The Scaled Quail is a locally common resident south of the Arkansas River and west of Meade County. Period of Occurrence: The species is a permanent resident. Breeding: This bird should breed wherever it occurs. However, there are few breeding records for the state and confirmed breeding only in Hamilton, Kearny, Finney, Stanton, Morton, Stevens, and Clark counties (Tor- doff 1956). Its Kansas breeding requirements are not recorded, but they are assumed to be in sand-sage prairie habitat. It lays 9 to 16 eggs with an average of 12 to 14 (Bent 1932). Habits and Habitat: This quail inhabits shortgrass prairie interspersed with yucca and sagebrush. In Kansas, it is frequently found around homesteads, particularly those that have woodpiles, old machinery, or other forms of protection from the rigors of winter. When it is disturbed, it typically chooses to run rather than fly; this characteristic makes it difficult for the hunter to spot it. The Scaled Quail is fre- quently called "blue quail." Like the Northern Bobwhite, it forms coveys which may contain 75 to 100 birds. These two species are known to hybridize occasionally in the wild. Food: The species feeds mainly on weed seeds but also on insects and cultivated grains. Cultivated grains apparently do not form a major part of the diet (Johnsgard 1973). Rails Yellow Rail Coturnicops noveboracensis (Gmelin) Status: The Yellow Rail is a rare and possibly overlooked migrant that occurs in the eastern part of the state at least as far west as Barton County. There were only five known specimens prior to 1986, all taken in April, September, and October. In the fall of 1986, more than 30 birds struck the WIBW-TV tower near Topeka. These specimens are in the Museum of Natural History at the University of Kansas. Although Goss (1891) considered it a summer resident, there seems to be no evidence of breeding. Period of Occurrence: Spring records date from 18 April to 28 May, and fall records from 13 September to 21 October. Breeding: There is no evidence, other than Goss's statement, that the bird breeds in Kansas. The nearest known breeding area is in North Dakota. Habits and Habitat: Very little is known about the habits of this species in Kansas, because it is so secretive that few birdwatchers have seen it. Two specimens were caught by L. L. Dyche's dog in Douglas County. It probably occurs during migration in marshy areas, such as Cheyenne Bottoms Wildlife Management Area in Barton County and Quivira National Wildlife Refuge in Stafford County. Ivan Boyd observed a Yellow Rail in 1974 at Haskell Bottoms in Douglas County; look for it in this area. This rail feeds in the late evening, and the best ways to try to find it would be to play a tape recording of its call or to use a hunting dog to sniff it out. Food: The Yellow Rail forages on snails and other small invertebrates in the drier parts of large grass and sedge growing in freshwater marshes (Ripley 1977). 186 RAILS 187 Black Rail Laterallus jamaicensis (Gmelin) Status: The Black Rail is a rare local summer resident which, because it is shy and not easily seen, is probably more common than records indicate. Period of Occurrence: There are few data on when the Black Rail occurs in Kansas. Johnston (1965) records the extreme dates as from March 18 to September 26. Breeding: The first breeding record was from Manhattan, Riley County, where Dr. C. P. Blachley collected a set of eight eggs in June 1 880. Nests or specimens taken during the breeding season have since been recorded from Finney, Barton, Franklin, Kingman, and Meade counties. The Black Rail prefers to nest in marshy areas or in meadows. Its nest is made of grass or sedges, and the clutch size is from 6 to 10 eggs. Habits and Habitat: The Black Rail is usually found in wet meadows or meadows near marshes, such as Cheyenne Bottoms Wildlife Man- agement Area and Quivira National Wildlife Refuge. It is secretive, but when a tape recording of its call is played late at night in its territory, the Black Rail may approach the recorder. There are re- ports of this species being picked up by hand as it tried to locate its "adversary." Apparently this bird does not require large areas of marshland or wet meadows, because several Kansas records are from areas with only a few suitable acres. Food: Black Rails consume insects and some seeds of water plants (Ripley 1977). 188 BIRDS IN KANSAS An adult King Rail (Rallus elegans). Photograph by Roger Boyd. King Rail Rallus elegans (Audubon) Status: The King Rail is an uncommon summer resident in suitable habitat throughout the state. Period of Occurrence: The King Rail has been recorded 1 1 months out of the year from 10 February through 28 December; both extreme dates are from Bar- ton County. Although it has not been recorded in January, it may -* — , • :' ♦ i — c^. RAILS 189 remain throughout the year if there is some open water. Spring migration begins 12 April, and the last date of fall departure is 14 October. Breeding: The King Rail probably nests regularly only in Barton and Stafford counties and at the Slate Creek Marsh in Sumner County. There are known breeding records for 10 counties. Although regular at the large, central Kansas marshes, the King Rail is able to adapt to small areas as well. A brood was discovered in Cowley County in a wetland area of a little over one acre. A road-kill in Sumner County was near a roadside ditch, where water remained year-round and where cattails were growing. The normal clutch size is 6 to 14 eggs, with an incubation period of about 20 days. The male assists in incubation. When the young hatch, they immediately leave the nest. Habits and Habitat: Like other rails, the King Rail is a bird of the marshes. It occurs regularly at Cheyenne Bottoms Wildlife Manage- ment Area and at Quivira National Wildlife Refuge. It occurs irregu- larly in other areas, depending on the amount of rainfall; areas that are wet one year after high rainfall will be used but abandoned the next year when the area dries. This bird is secretive but may be seen feeding along the edges of marshes in the early morning or late evening. It is vocal and may be attracted to a tape recording of its call. When disturbed, it usually runs swiftly through the marsh but may fly with its legs dangling and seemingly under poor control. The King Rail is the largest rail in Kansas. Food: This species subsists mainly on animal matter, with crayfishes making up a large portion of its diet. It also eats small frogs, fishes, snails, and insects. Vegetable matter including seeds and tubers has also been recorded. 190 BIRDS IN KANSAS Virginia Rail Rallus limicola (Vieillot) Status: The Virginia Rail is an uncommon summer resident in marshes throughout Kansas and a casual winter resident in suitable habitat. Period of Occurrence: The Virginia Rail arrives in migration about mid-April and departs by mid- October. It has been recorded in every month except February. Breeding: The only breeding re- cords are from Barton, Ottawa, and Morton counties, but it undoubt- edly breeds regularly also at Quivira National Wildlife Refuge. Clutch size is from 6 to 13 eggs (Ripley 1977), and incubation takes 18 to 20 days with both the male and female incubating. The young leave the nest immediately after they hatch and are quite adept both at scurry- ing through the marsh grass or at swimming, if necessary. This species may have two broods in one season (ibid.). Habits and Habitat: This "miniature King Rail" prefers the same type of habitat, namely marshes composed of cattails, sedges, and grasses. It is vocal during the breeding season and can be called readily with a tape recording of its vocalizations. Use of this technique frequently causes Virginia Rails to seem common where previously none had been heard. Often it can be seen in early morning at sunrise or in the late evening just at sunset, when it comes out to feed along the edge of the marsh. When it is frightened into flight, it flies awkwardly with its legs dangling, like other rails. Although it is on the game bird list, it is not regularly hunted in Kansas. Food: The Virginia Rail eats slugs, snails, small fishes, insect larvae, and earthworms (Ripley 1977). RAILS 191 A juvenile Sora (Porzana Carolina). Photograph by Marvin D. Schwilling. Sora Porzana Carolina (Linnaeus) Status: The Sora is a common transient throughout the state in suita- ble habitat and a summer resident in marshes and wet grasslands. Period of Occurrence: Although it is most abundant during spring and fall migration, it may be a winter resident in suitable habitat. The usual date of spring arrival is 6 April, and that of fall departure is 22 October. How- • • • •1 • • ' - S'a ■ • ■ i * ever, there are records for every month except January. Breeding: This little rail is an irregular summer resident with nesting records from only Barton, Finney, and Miami counties. It probably nests regularly in Barton and Stafford counties. The nest is placed in cattails, rushes, or sedges, usually near open water above flood level, sometimes on the ground and at other times attached to reeds. The number of eggs varies from 6 to 18, but the usual number is 10 to 12 192 BIRDS IN KANSAS (Ripley 1977). The incubation period is 18 to 20 days, and the young are precocial. Habits and Habitat: This bird of the marsh and wet grassy meadows is, like other rails, difficult to observe except in early morning or evening when it comes out to feed along the edges. A tape recording of its call is the easiest way to lure the species or even to determine its abun- dance in an area. When startled, the Sora takes wing and makes a haphazard flight with its legs dangling. Rails migrate at night and are frequently found dead at the foot of television transmitter towers, which they seem to hit surprisingly often. Thompson found one dead in a field after a violent thunderstorm, the apparent victim of either heavy rain or hail. Although the Sora is listed as a game bird in Kansas, it probably receives little hunting pressure. It was considered to be a delicacy by the Indians and our forefathers in the East (Ripley 1977). Food: The principal foods are insects, crustaceans, seeds, and vegeta- ble matter (Ripley 1977). An adult Purple Gallinule (Porphyrula martinica). Photograph by Galen L. Pittman. Gallinules Purple Gallinule Porphyrula martinica (Linnaeus) Status: The Purple Gallinule is an occasional summer visitant to the eastern half of Kansas. There are specimen records for Sedgwick, Riley, and Douglas counties; all others are sight records. The first state record was in Douglas County on 26 April 1896. Period of Occurrence: The few dates on record are all from early spring and early summer; the earliest is 4 April, and the latest is 17 June. Breeding: The Purple Gallinule is not known to breed in Kansas but does breed in southeastern Oklahoma. 193 194 BIRDS IN KANSAS Habits and Habitat: There are no data for Kansas, but look for it in marshy or swampy areas with emergent vegetation. It frequently walks on lily pads or lotus. Food: The Purple Gallinule usually eats aquatic insects, spiders, small frogs, and vegetable matter (Ripley 1977). GALLINULES 195 An adult Common Moorhen {Gallinula chloropus). Photograph by David A. Rintoul. Common Moorhen Gallinula chloropus (Linnaeus) Status: The Common Moorhen is a rare summer resident in the central and eastern part of Kansas and was first recorded in 1878 in Gove County. It is now a regular low-density breeder at Cheyenne Bottoms Wildlife Management Area. Period of Occurrence: The Com- mon Moorhen (formerly called the "Common Gallinule") has been recorded from 26 March through 27 October (Jefferson County). Breeding: This rare gallinule may breed throughout the state in suita- ble habitat. Most breeding records are from Cheyenne Bottoms in Barton County, and there are others (or specimens taken during the breeding season) from Coffey, Stafford, Kingman, Shawnee, and Douglas counties. Look for the nest in marshy areas. It is usually built of dead reeds, cattails, sedges, or other vegetation and may be placed 196 BIRDS IN KANSAS on land, in the water near emergent vegetation, in bushes, or, occa- sionally, in trees (Ripley 1977). The number of eggs varies, but Johnston (1965) lists the mean for Kansas as 10. The incubation period is about 20 days, and the young are precocial. After three to four weeks, the female abandons the chicks and may start another brood. Habits and Habitat: Common Moorhens have many habits of the American Coot. They live in marshy areas and are frequently seen with coots, from which they can be distinguished by their bright red bill (the coot's is almost all white). At Cheyenne Bottoms, they are usually seen feeding on vegetation around the dikes. When frightened, they quickly melt away into the vegetation. Although they seem to prefer marshes and marsh edges, they can swim quite well. Food: This gallinule is primarily a vegetarian but also eats insects and molluscs. GALLINULES 197 Adult American Coots (Fulica americana). Photograph by Frank S. Shipley. American Coot Fulica americana (Gmelin) Status: The American Coot is a common, sometimes abundant, trans- ient throughout the state and is a local summer resident. It has been recorded in every county. Period of Occurrence: The species has been recorded throughout the year but is most common from 23 February to 28 Nov- ember. It is rare in winter. Breeding: Breeding records in Kansas are not numerous, with most from Cheyenne Bottoms Wildlife Management Area in Barton County and from the Quivira National Wildlife Refuge in Stafford County. The coots are numer- ous in both areas in summer and are assumed to be fairly common breeders. There are also nesting records from Harvey, Finney, Sedgwick, Rooks, and Morton counties, but they probably breed regularly in other counties that have appropriate habitat. The coot's nest is placed on a mound of old reeds and is usually anchored to new growth. Sometimes the coot makes little effort to conceal the nest and even places it in the open. The number of eggs varies from six to fifteen, but averages about 10. The young leave the nest soon after they hatch; they are distinctive, as they are basically black with scarlet, hairlike down. Habits and Habitat: This rail is a bird of marshes, rivers, ponds, and lakes. During migration, large rafts of several hundred birds can be seen around large impoundments or marshes, such as Cheyenne Bottoms and the Quivira Refuge. It is not as shy as other rails and may 198 BIRDS IN KANSAS become quite tame when unmolested. It is frequently seen on the dikes of Cheyenne Bottoms, grazing on grasses or just lounging. When startled on water, the American Coot starts running on the water, flapping its wings rapidly until it can gain enough momentum to become airborne. Once aloft, it flies strongly, unlike other rails. It is on the game bird list but is not actively hunted because it is not much of a target and its flesh is said to be less than palatable. This is the "mudhen" described by most hunters. Food: The American Coot is primarily a vegetarian but may eat some animal matter, such as insects and molluscs. Adult Sandhill Cranes (Grus canadensis). Photograph by Mike Blair, courtesy Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks. Cranes Sandhill Crane Grits canadensis (Linnaeus) Status: The Sandhill Crane is a common transient in the western part of the state and is rare in the east. Most records come from west of the Flint Hills, and it gradually be- comes more common westward. It occurs casually in summer and in winter. Period of Occurrence: The main migration begins in March, with 10 March the average arrival date; the earliest record is 4 February. Spring migration is usually over by 26 April but may continue until 13 May. The main fall migration begins on 8 October and runs through 23 November; the earliest record is 27 August. Summer occurrences are rare. Winter records should be verified, because the Sandhill Crane is frequently confused with the Great Blue Heron. Habits and Habitat: The Sandhill Crane, unlike its relative the Whoop- ing Crane, frequently feeds in old grain fields or in new wheat fields in the spring. A flock of over a thousand was observed in a sorghum field near Udall, Sumner County, in 1982; the flock remained for three days. Migratory Sandhill Cranes are regularly observed at Cheyenne 199 200 BIRDS IN KANSAS Bottoms Wildlife Management Area and Quivira National Wildlife Refuge. These cranes are wary and take wing when approached; the flock near Udall became nervous when an observer moved closer than half a mile. The calls of the Sandhill Cranes as they fly overhead are an unforgettable sound. The birds are generally heard before they are seen. Field Marks: These cranes typically fly in groups, making a bugling call as they pass overhead, whereas Great Blue Herons are generally seen singly and are usually quiet during flight. Sandhill Cranes fly with the neck extended; Great Blue Herons fly with the neck pulled back into an S-shaped curve. Food: These cranes are omnivorous and feed on anything that moves, including frogs, snakes, small rodents, insects, and invertebrates. They also eat vegetable matter such as grain and weed seeds. CRANES 201 Whooping Cranes {Grits americana). Photograph by Gene Brehm, courtsey Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks. Whooping Crane Grus americana (Linnaeus) Status: The Whooping Crane is a rare spring and fall migrant through the state. Central Kansas seems to be the principal flyway, with most records from Cheyenne Bottoms Wildlife Management Area and Quivira National Wildlife Re- fuge. Period of Occurrence: The species has been recorded from 10 Feb- ruary through 28 April in the spring, and in the fall from 5 October through 16 November. The immature bird that appeared with Sandhill Cranes at Quivira Refuge on 10 February 1987 had wintered in Oklahoma. During a cold spell, it retreated back to Oklahoma until 18 March. Habits and Habitat: The Whooping Crane is primarily a bird of the prairie marshes in Kansas. Most records come from three areas: Cheyenne Bottoms in Barton County, Quivira Refuge in Stafford County, and Kirwin National Wildlife Refuge in Phillips County. These areas are either marshes or large bodies of water with suitable places for the cranes to rest. Whooping Cranes are occasionally seen near farm ponds. Several have been radio-tagged and followed on their migration routes by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service airplanes. One tagged group spent the night near Eureka in Greenwood County, and another flock overflew the state. Population numbers are on the rise, and the chances of seeing a Whooping Crane are increas- ing. The population reached a low of 20 birds in 1941 and increased 202 BIRDS IN KANSAS to a high of 177 in the spring of 1987. There are 27 birds in the Gray Lake flock in Idaho, 110 birds in the Wood Buffalo National Park in Canada, and 40 birds in captivity. Many hazards confront migrating cranes. Two of the three young cranes radio-tagged in 1981 died when they hit power lines. One of the Gray Lake flock was killed in a barbed wire fence. Unfortunately, unless the weather is inclement, Whooping Cranes do not linger in the state. They generally spend one night and are off on their way early the next morning. Unless immediate word gets out when they land and the birdwatcher travels during the night to see them before they depart the next morning, the chances of observing them are slim. Food: Whooping Cranes consume mostly animal matter, such as frogs, snakes, and, probably, insects. Undoubtedly, they also eat some vege- table matter. On their wintering grounds, they eat many marine animals. An adult Black-bellied Plover (Pluvialis squatarola) in winter plumage. Photograph by David A. Rintoul. Plovers Black-bellied Plover Pluvialis squatarola (Linnaeus) Status: The Black-bellied Plover is an uncommon transient through- out the state and is more common in the spring than in the fall. Period of Occurrence: This shore- bird migrates late, with most re- cords in late April. The earliest spring record is 9 April, and stragglers remain until 19 June. The southward migration be- gins about 8 August (the earliest record is 1 July), and migration is generally finished by 21 November. Fall transients have been seen as late as 2 December. Habits and Habitat: The Black-bellied Plover frequents marshy areas, occasionally sandbars on large rivers, and, less frequently, low-mowed meadows and plowed fields. Although large flocks are reported from 203 204 BIRDS IN KANSAS outside Kansas, within our state it is most often seen singly. It typically associates with sandpipers. Field Marks: It is easily identified in flight in all plumages by the black feathers under the wing next to the body. Food: This plover feeds primarily on invertebrates around marshes. In open fields and grassland, it feeds on insects. PLOVERS 205 An adult Lesser Golden Plover (Pluvialis dominica). Photograph courtesy Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks. Lesser Golden Plover Pluvialis dominica (Miiller) Status: The Lesser Golden Plover is an uncommon transient in the east and in central parts of the state and is rare in the west. Period of Occurrence: The spring migration begins in late March, with 2 1 March the earliest date; it usually lasts until late May, but there is an 18 June record. The fall migration starts in early Sep- tember, with early birds recorded on 20 July. Most have departed by 3 1 October, but vagrants have been seen in November, January, and February. 206 BIRDS IN KANSAS Habits and Habitat: The Lesser Golden Plover is a bird of various habitats in its passage through Kansas. While it does not seem to congregate in large flocks in marshes and wet meadows, it is seen in the Flint Hills, often in areas of pasture that have recently been burned. In such areas, flocks of 50 to several hundred birds are often observed during spring migration. They apparently feed on insects that have survived the ravages of the prairie fire. Most of the birds passing through Kansas have not yet attained full breeding plumage. Although they sometimes are abundant in spring in burned areas in the Flint Hills, the fall passage is far less spectacular. Most of the Lesser Golden Plovers that nest in the far north of the North Ameri- can continent move eastward in the fall and fly over the Atlantic Ocean to South America. Comparatively few use the central flyway in the fall. This plover was a famous game bird in days gone by. Audubon (1840) writes of a hunt near New Orleans in which parties of 20 to 50 hunters stationed themselves at different places in the vicinity of Lake St. John. He calculated that approximately 48,000 golden plovers were shot that day. Such wholesale slaughter was commonplace. Food: In Kansas, the principal food is probably insects. It eats berries and other vegetable matter on the breeding grounds. PLOVERS 207 ' V*^F* ^Msr An adult Snowy Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) with hatchlings. Photograph by Ed and Jean Schulenberg. Snowy Plover Charadrius alexandrinus (Linnaeus) Status: The Snowy Plover, a summer resident of central and south- western Kansas around salt flats, always occurs in small numbers. Period of Occurrence: The earliest spring arrival date for the Snowy Plover is 24 March; the average is 8 April. The average departure date is 1 September, and 10 Oc- tober the latest. Breeding: This species breeds on white saline flats where its cryptic coloration makes it difficult to spot. There are nesting records from Comanche, Barton, Stafford, Clark, 208 BIRDS IN KANSAS Russell, Meade, Finney, and Rooks counties, and it may nest around the Slate Creek Marsh in Sumner County where it is present every year. At present, Quivira National Wildlife Refuge seems to be its main breeding area, with Cheyenne Bottoms Wildlife Management Area used in the years when the salt flats are exposed. The nest is a depression on the salt flat where usually three eggs are placed. The average egg-laying date is 10 June. The incubation period is 24 to 28 days. The young are precocial and fledge in 28 days (Boyd 1972). Habits and Habitat: Snowy Plovers are nearly invisible on the white salt flats, which are their haunts in Kansas. Their light grayish backs and white bellies blend with the white background so well that observers frequently do not see them unless the plovers move. They are usually found singly or in pairs while in Kansas, but they flock on their wintering grounds. Field Marks: This plover may be confused with two others, the Semipalmated and Piping Plovers, which also occur in Kansas. The Snowy Plover's incomplete neck ring and light coloration readily separate it from the Semipalmated, and its blackish legs, from the Piping Plovers. Neither the Piping nor the Semipalmated Plover nests in Kansas. Food: This species feeds on insects and aquatic invertebrates along the mudflats which it frequents. PLOVERS 209 A juvenile Semipalmated Plover (Charadrins semipalmatus). Photograph by Marvin D. Schwilling. Semipalmated Plover Charadrius semipalmatus (Bonaparte) Status: The Semipalmated Plover is an uncommon transient through- out the state. Period of Occurrence: The species has been recorded from 22 March through 8 June and is most common from 7 April to 21 May. Its fall arrival is around 20 July, and it remains until 13 Oc- tober. Most fall migrants do not arrive until around 12 August. Habits and Habitat: This plover occupies marshes, sandy riverbanks, and temporary water pools. It migrates alone or with only one or two 210 BIRDS IN KANSAS others. The Semipalmated Plover is the commonest of the three small plovers that occur in Kansas and is usually easy to find during migra- tion at Cheyenne Bottoms Wildlife Management Area, Quivira Na- tional Wildlife Refuge, and Slate Creek Marsh in Sumner County. Field Marks: This "miniature Killdeer" has only one collar instead of the Killdeer's two and is the much smaller of the two species. Food: In Kansas, this species feeds mainly on aquatic invertebrates and some dryland insects. PLOVERS 211 An adult Piping Plover (Charadrius melodies). Photograph by Marvin D. Schwilling, courtesy Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks. Piping Plover Charadrius melodus (Ord) Status: The Piping Plover is a rare transient throughout the state. Period of Occurrence: There are spring records for the Piping Plover as early as 2 1 March and as late as 2 1 May. Fall migration records begin 7 July and run through 12 September, but it probably oc- curs later. Breeding: There are no records of this bird breeding in Kansas, but search for it in western Kansas, because it breeds directly to the north along the Platte River in Nebraska, and to the west in Washington County, Colorado; Roger Boyd observed it breeding in Oklahoma at Optima Reservoir, about 60 miles south of Liberal. It breeds in areas 212 BIRDS IN KANSAS of salt-encrusted gravel, sand, or pebbly mud around the sparsely vegetated shorelines of shallow lakes and impoundments (Johnsgard 1979). Habits and Habitat: The Piping Plover occurs mostly in central Kansas at Cheyenne Bottoms Wildlife Management Area and Quivira Na- tional Wildlife Refuge. While it is rare in other parts of the state, it might be seen in these marshes, with a little diligence, in April and early May. This plover occupies sandy areas bordering vegetation and open saline flats. Like its close relative the Snowy Plover, the Piping Plover is nearly invisible against the dirty white salt flats. However, its rapid movements and sudden stops expose its presence. The Piping Plover is becoming increasingly rare due to destruction of its breeding habitat. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has recently added it to the Threatened Species list. Several projects are under way to see if its decline can be halted. Food: The Piping Plover eats aquatic invertebrates and dryland in- sects. PLOVERS 213 ■ *r - • *• "' — An adult Killdeer {Charadrius vociferus) on nest. Photograph by C. L. Cink. Killdeer Charadrius vociferus (Linnaeus) Status: The Killdeer is a common summer resident throughout the state but occurs rarely in winter around open water. Period of Occurrence: The Killdeer is a year-round resident in some areas, but most individuals are migratory. The spring migration starts in late February and early March. Killdeers usually depart Kansas by mid-November but may remain quite common until December. If rivers and other bodies of water freeze early, they leave earlier. Breeding: This species breeds throughout Kansas. The eggs are laid from 10 March to 10 July, with a usual clutch of four. The nest is placed in a depression, sometimes a great distance from water. Plowed fields, barnyards, roads, and gardens are favorite nesting sites, albeit sometimes hazardous. There are few rural Kansans who 214 BIRDS IN KANSAS have not observed the broken-wing act put on by the distraught parents of young Killdeer, and many a farmer has stopped his tractor to search for the carefully camouflaged nest so as not to crush the eggs. Killdeers may have two broods. Thompson observed a pair fledge young in a field; a few weeks later, apparently the same pair brought off another group on the same acre. Both parents incubate and rear the young. Incubation takes approximately 21 days. The young are precocious; when they leave the nest soon after hatching, they seem to be more legs than body. Habits and Habitat: The Killdeers' Latin name vociferus is aptly applied to these noisy birds, whose habit of flying up at every disturbance and crying "killdeer" has saved many from would-be predators. They can be quite obnoxious to a hunter trying to stalk game or a birdwatcher trying to get a better look at a rare bird. When unmolested, they may be quite tame and locate close to human habitation. Thompson had one breeding pair with young in the yard about 50 feet from the back door; they became tolerant of humans and allowed people to ap- proach to within 30 feet or so before taking wing. Killdeers form large flocks during migration, particularly in the fall, when groups of 30 to 40 birds are not uncommon. Food: Killdeers eat primarily insects, including grasshoppers, caterpil- lars, weevils, and many other insect pests. Aquatic invertebrates are also in the diet. PLOVERS 215 -*