Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from Boston Public Library http://www.archive.org/details/birdsofmassachus03forb ^^^t>l2U-, iSSS-JLrcA/ Z^9^9 MASSACHUSETTS DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Dr. Arthur W. Gilbert Commissioner BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND OTHER NEW ENGLAND STATES BY EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH PART III. LAND BIRDS FROM SPARROWS TO THRUSHES Illustrated with Colored Plates from Drawings by LOUIS AGASSIZ FUERTES AND ALLAN BROOKS AND Figures and Cuts from Drawings and Photographs With a Biographical Sketch of EDWARD HOWE EORBUSH BY JOHN BICHARD MAY ISSUED BY AUTHORITY OF THE LEGISLATURE 1929 Copyright, 1929, BY THE COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS Worinno'ti ^xtes S. Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE It is with a feeling of deep pride and satisfaction that we witness the completion of the three volumes of "The Birds of Massachusetts and Other New England States" but this satisfaction is tempered by our keen sense of loss in the passing of their gifted author, Edward Howe Forbush. Mr. Forbush first became associated with the State Board of Agriculture, as it was then called, in 1893. The value of his studies of economic ornithology was quickly recognized and his work increased in importance during his association of thirty-five years with this department. He accomplished a vast amount of educational work through the medium of his lectures and publications on the relation of birds to mankind. Coincident with his advance as an economic ornithologist was his interest in and work for conservation. He was a pioneer in this field and much of our progressive legislation of to-day is due to his far-sighted policy in urging greater protection for our wild life and to his efforts in stimulating public opinion in this direction. The culmination of his lifetime of study of birds is found in the three volumes of "The Birds of Massachusetts and Other New England States." At the time of his retirement as Director of the Division of Ornithology, a position which he had held since the organiza- tion of the present Department of Agriculture, Mr. Forbush was busily engaged in pre- paring the manuscript for the final volume of this great work. Ten months later, the manuscript almost completed, he laid down his pen for the last time. The passing of Edward Howe Forbush was a very distinct loss to ornithology and to conservation, but the effects of his work will live long after him. Those of us whose privilege it was to be associated with him in the Department of Agriculture will long remember his cheery presence, his quiet sense of humor, his deep and sympathetic interest in his fellow workers, and the intensity of his devotion to his chosen work. To all of us this book will be the best and most fitting monument to Edward Howe Forbush. Arthur W. Gilbert, Commissioner. PREFACE The editor of a posthumous volume is under a handicap in endeavoring to express the feelings of the author of the book to the many individuals who assisted in its preparation. Fortunately, I had come to know Mr. Forbush rather intimately during the several years immediately preceding his death, when it was my privilege to act as his assistant in pre- paring material for these volumes. Edward Howe Forbush was a man of great attainments in the fields of economic ornithology and of wild life conservation, but he was also a man of great modesty. While he was continually consulted by scientists of the highest standing as well as by the veriest tyros in bird study, he was always ready to give full credit to those who had contributed in any way to his fund of information. It was his intention to acknowledge his indebted- ness to all those who had assisted him, in the preface of the third volume of ''The Birds of Massachusetts." It is not possible for me to name all those to whom Mr. Forbush felt indebted, but all who assisted him and whose work is not herein acknowledged, will have the satisfaction of knowing that they have made a contribution to a work of real value, which has added to the knowledge and pleasure of countless individuals. First to whom Mr. Forbush tendered grateful recognition was his wife, to whom he was married in 1882 and who survives him. Throughout the long period of their life together, Mrs. Forbush not only encouraged him in his chosen work, but was of much assistance to him in many ways. Although crippled by illness in recent years, she spent many long hours in reading and revising his manuscript and in painstaking correction of the proof of "The Birds of Massachusetts," and her criticisms were always constructive and helpful. To his associates in the Massachusetts Department of Agriculture Mr. Forbush has already expressed his appreciation. Dr. Arthur W. Gilbert, Commissioner of Agriculture, aided the preparation of these volumes from their inception, appearing at legislative hearings to ask for ample appropriations, relieving Mr. Forbush as far as possible of the necessity of giving his time to the routine matters of the Division of Ornithology, and assisting in many other ways. Those others of us who have worked with Mr. Forbush in the Division of Ornithology feel, however, that our association has been a valued privilege and that the obligation is all on our side. Chief among his assistants was Mr. John A. Farley, a life-long friend of Mr. Forbush and an ornithologist of note, whose assistance in planning the scope of the work and in working out the details of the plan, was only equaled by the value of his editorial labors. His wide scientific knowledge was a store- house of facts upon which Mr. Forbush placed great reliance. For many years Mrs. Alice Vi PREFACE B. Harrington acted as Mr. Forbush's secretary and by her interest relieved him of much of the office detail. Others who aided in the preparation of the manuscript for the three volumes were Prof. James Mackaye, Mr. Maurice Broun, Miss Florence Pease, Mrs. Helen M. Ross, Mrs. Jennie M. Holmes and the present writer. In the course of his investigations into the bird-life of New England Mr. Forbush enlisted the cooperation of a very large force of volunteer workers, who reported to him at irregular intervals their observations of birds. From the great amount of material gathered by these observers, Mr. Forbush sorted out the wheat from the chaff and found it a source of much interesting and valuable data. Between eight hundred and a thou- sand names appear on the roster of these observers and it is of course impossible to ac- knowledge individually their assistance. Many of these observers' names appear in the books, however, as reporting interesting items or records, and Mr. Forbush considered their aid as of great value. Special acknowledgment is due to Dr. Harry C. Oberholser of Washington and to Mr. J. H. Fleming of Toronto, Canada, who gave freely of their time and knowledge in revising the "Ranges" of all the birds treated in the three volumes. Others, notably Dr. Charles W. Townsend of Ipswich, Massachusetts, read and corrected parts of the manuscript. Deep obligation is felt to the officials of various museums whose facilities were so freely offered, chief among these being the National Museum at Washington, the Museum of Comparative Zoology of Harvard University, the Boston Society of Natural History, the American Museum at New York, the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia and the National Memorial Museum at Ottawa, Canada. Many private collections were also placed at the disposal of the author, especially those of Col. John E. Thayer, Mr. Arthur C. Bent, Mr. Frederick H. Kennard and the late Dr. Jonathan Dwight. A special debt is owed to Mr. Laurence B. Fletcher, Mr. Charles B. Floyd and the other officers of the Federation of the Bird Clubs of New England, who were so largely responsible for ensuring the legislation which authorized the publication of these volumes, and for their constant aid and friendly cooperation in countless details. Recognition is also due to Dr. T. Gilbert Pearson and the National Association of Audubon Societies, who rendered assistance in many ways and who, upon Mr. Forbush's retirement at the age of seventy, immediately offered him a salary as their New England field agent with instructions to make the completion of this volume his first work. Permission has been given by many authors and publishing houses to quote from their publications and reference is made throughout the three volumes to the source of most if not all of the material so quoted. The illustrations, which add so much to the value of the books, are the result of willing cooperation of many people. Sixty-eight of the color plates were from the inimitable brush of Louis Agassiz ,Fuertes, whose sad passing Mr. Forbush felt as a deep personal loss. Twenty-four plates were painted by Major Allan Brooks, whose generous attitude while completing the final paintings deeply impressed Mr. Forbush. Most of the photo- PREFACE Vli graphs used for the halftone figures were contributed by the photographers, to whom credit is given under the reproduction. The line drawings and maps were the work of Mr. Forbush or of Major Brooks, Mr. W. I. Beecroft or the present writer. To the Quadri-color Company of Jamaica, New York, much credit is due for the ex- cellence of the color reproductions, in which work the manager, Mr. H. A. Obst, took the keenest personal interest. Similar interest was shown by Mr. H. E. Washburn of the Suffolk Engraving Company of Cambridge, under whose supervision the halftones and line cuts were prepared. The three volumes also reflect the excellent work of the J. S. Cushing Company of Norwood, Massachusetts, the printers, and the ever courteous cooperation of Mr. James S. Cox, treasurer of that company, who at all times gave his personal attention to the details of the printing and binding of the books. And finally, the present writer wishes to acknowledge his own indebtedness to the many friends of Mr. Forbush who have continued to send their notes to his official suc- cessor and to all those who have assisted him in any way in his attempt to carry to its conclusion the publication of this final volume of "The Birds of Massachusetts and Other New England States." John Bichard May. November, 1929. CONTENTS Edward Howe Forbush, Friend of the Birds A Biographical Sketch .... Family FRINGILLID^E. Finches, Sparrows, Grosbeaks, etc. Hesperiphona vespertina vespertina. Evening Grosbeak . Finicola enucleator leucura. Pine Grosbeak Pinicola enucleator eschatosus. Newfoundland Fine Grosbeak Carpodacus purpureus purpureus. Purple Finch Loxia curvirostra minor. Crossbill Loxia curvirostra percna. Newfoundland Crossbill Loxia leucoptera. White-winged Crossbill . Acanthis hornemanni exilipes. Hoary Redpoll Acanthis linaria linaria. Redpoll Acanthis linaria holboelli. HolboU's Redpoll Acanthis hnaria rostrata. Greater RedpoU Acanthis brewsterii. Brewster's Linnet AstragaUnus tristis tristis. Goldfinch Spinus pinus. Pine Siskin .... Carduelis spinus. European Siskin Plectrophenax nivalis nivaHs. Snow Bunting Calcarius lapponicus lapponicus. Lapland Longspur Calcarius ornatus. Chestnut-collared Longspur Rhynchophanes mccowni. McCown's Longspur Passer domesticus domesticus. House Sparrow . Pooecetes gramineus gramineus. Vesper Sparrow Passerculus princeps. Ipswich Sparrow Passerculus sandwichensis savanna. Savannah Sparrow Ammodramus savannarum austraUs. Grasshopper Sparrow Passerherbulus henslowi henslowi. Henslow's Sparrow Passerherbulus caudacutus. Sharp-tailed Sparrow Passerherbulus nelsoni nelsoni. Nelson's Sparrow Passerherbulus nelsoni subvirgatus. Acadian Sharp-tailed Spar Passerherbulus maritimus maritimus. Seaside Sparrow Chondestes grammacus grammacus. Lark Sparrow . Zonotrichia leucophrys leucophrys. White-crowned Sparrow Zonotrichia albicoUis. White-throated Sparrow . ^ Spizella monticola monticola. Tree Sparrow Spizella passerina passerina. Chipping Sparrow Spizella breweri. Brewer's Sparrow . Spizella pusiUa pusilla. Field Sparrow Junco alkeni. White-winged Junco Junco hyemahs hyemalis. Slate-colored Junco . xvii 1 2 5 9 10 14 17 17 19 21 23 24 25 25 29 32 33 36 38 39 39 45 48 53 56 59 61 64 65 65 67 70 72 76 78 81 82 85 85 CONTENTS Junco hyemalis oreganus. Oregon Junco . Junco hyemalis montanus. Montana Junco Melospiza melodia melodia. Song Sparrow Melospiza lincolni lincolni. Lincoln's Sparrow Melospiza georgiana. Swamp Sparrow Passerella iliaca iliaca. Fox Sparrow . Pipilo erjrthrophthalmus erjrthrophthalmus. Towhee Cardinalis cardinalis cardinalis. Cardinal . Hedymeles ludovicianus. Rose-breasted Grosbeak Hedymeles melanocephalus. Black-headed Grosbeak Guiraca cserulea cserulea. Blue Grosbeak . Passerina cyanea. Indigo Bunting Passerina ciris. Painted Bunting Spiza americana. Dickcissel .... Calamospiza melanocorys. Lark Bunting . Family TANGARIDiE. Tanagers .... Piranga ludoviciana. Western Tanager Piranga erythromelas. Scarlet Tanager Piranga rubra rubra. Summer Tanager Family HIRUNDINID^. Swallows .... Progne subis subis. Purple Martin Petrochehdon lunifrons lunifrons. Cliff Swallow Hirundo erythrogastra. Barn Swallow Iridoprocne bicolor. Tree Swallow . Riparia riparia. Bank Swallow .... Stelgidopteryx serripennis. Rough-winged Swallow Family BOMBYCILLIDiE. Waxwings Bombycilla garrula. Bohemian Waxwing . Bombycilla cedrorum. Cedar Waxwing Family LANIID^. Shrikes Lanius borealis. Northern Shrike Lanius ludovicianus migrans. Migrant Shrike . Family VIREONIDiE. Vireos Vireosylva olivacea. Red-eyed Vireo Vireosylva philadelphica. Philadelphia Vireo Vireosylva gilva gilva. Warbling Vireo Lanivireo flavifrons. Yellow-throated Vireo Lanivireo solitarius solitarius. Blue-headed Vireo Vireo griseus griseus. White-eyed Vireo Vireo belli belli. Bell's Vireo .... Family COMPSOTHLYPID^. Wood Warblers . Mniotilta varia. Black and White Warbler Protonotaria citrea. Prothonotary Warbler Helmitheros vermivorus. Worm-eating Warbler Vermivora pinus. Blue-winged Warbler Vermivora chrysoptera. Golden-winged Warbler Vermivora lawrencei. Lawrence's Warbler Vermivora leucobronchialis. Brewster's Warbler Vermivora ruficapilla ruficapilla. Nashville Warbler PAGE 90 91 92 98 101 104 107 110 112 115 115 118 121 121 125 127 127 129 133 136 137 143 148 153 158 161 164 165 166 172 173 177 179 179 184 186 188 190 193 195 196 197 200 203 205 207 212 214 218 CONTENTS XI PAGE Vermivora celata celata. Orange-crowned Warbler . . . . . . . .221 Vermivora peregrina. Tennessee Warbler .......... 223 Compsothlypis americana pusilla. Northern Parula Warbler 225 Dendroica tigrina. Cape May Warbler . 228 Dendroica sestiva sestiva. Yellow Warbler 230 Dendroica cserulescens cserulescens. Black-throated Blue Warbler 233 Dendroica coronata coronata. Myrtle Warbler 237 Dendroica auduboni auduboni. Audubon's Warbler . . . . . . . . 241 Dendroica magnolia. Magnoha Warbler 242 Dendroica cerulea. Cerulean Warbler .......... 246 Dendroica pennsylvaniea. Chestnut-sided Warbler . . . . . . . . 248 Dendroica castanea. Bay-breasted Warbler ......... 251 Dendroica striata. Black-poll Warbler 254 Dendroica fusca. Blackburnian Warbler .......... 256 Dendroica dominica dominica. Yellow-throated Warbler ....... 259 Dendroica dominica albilora. Sycamore Warbler . . . . . . . . 261 Dendroica nigrescens. Black-throated Gray Warbler ....... 262 Dendroica chrysoparia. Golden-cheeked Warbler 263 Dendroica virens. Black-throated Green Warbler 264 Dendroica townsendi. Townsend's Warbler ......... 267 Dendroica kirtlandi. Kirtland's Warbler .......... 267 Dendroica vigorsi. Pine Warbler ........... 267 Dendroica palmarum palmarum. Palm Warbler 270 Dendroica palmarima hypochrysea. Yellow Palm Warbler ....... 272 Dendroica discolor. Prairie Warbler . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Seiurus aurocapillus. Oven-bird 276 Seiurus noveboracensis noveboracensis. Water-Thrush ....... 280 Seiurus noveboracensis notabihs. Grinnell's Water-Thrush ...... 282 Seiurus motacilla. Louisiana Water-Thrush 284 Oporornis formosus. Kentucky Warbler 286 Oporornis agUis. Connecticut Warbler .......... 289 Oporornis Philadelphia. Mourning Warbler . . . . . . . . . 292 Geothlypis trichas trichas. Maryland Yellow-throat . 294 Icteria virens virens. Yellow-breasted Chat . . . . . . . . . 298 Wilsonia citrina. Hooded Warbler ........... 302 Wilsonia pusilla pusilla. Wilson's Warbler ......... 305 Wilsonia canadensis. Canada Warbler . . . . . . . . . . 307 Setophaga ruticUla. Redstart ............ 309 Family MOTACILLID^. Wagtails 313 Anthus rubescens. Pipit ............. 313 Family MIMID^. Thrashers, Mockingbirds, etc 316 Mimus polyglottos polyglottos. Mockingbird . . . . . . . . .316 Dumetella carolinensis. Catbird ........... 322 Toxostoma rufum. Brown Thrasher . . . . . . . . . . . 328 Family TROGLODYTIDiE. Wrens 333 Thryothorus ludovicianus ludovicianus. Carolina Wren ....... 333 Thryomanes bewicki bewicki. Bewick's Wren ......... 338 Troglodytes aedon aedon. House Wren .......... 340 Nannus hiemalis hiemaUs. Winter Wren 344 xu CONTENTS Cistothorus stellaris. Short-billed Marsh Wren . Telmatodytes palustris palustris. Long-billed Marsh Wren Family CERTHIIDiE. Creepers Certhia famiUaris americana. Brown Creeper . Family SITTID^. Nuthatches Sitta carolinensis carolinensis. White-breasted Nuthatch Sitta canadensis. Red-breasted Nuthatch . Family PARID^. Titmice Bseolophus bicolor. Tufted Titmouse Penthestes atricapillus atricapillus. Chickadee . Penthestes hudsonicus UttoraUs. Acadian Cliickadee . Penthestes hudsonicus nigricans. Labrador Chickadee Family SYLVIID^. Warblers, Kinglets, Gnatcatchers Subfamily REGULIN^. Kinglets Regulus satrapa satrapa. Golden-crowned Kinglet Regulus calendula calendula. Ruby-crowned Kinglet Subfamily POLIOPTILIN^. Gnatcatchers . Polioptila cajrulea cserulea. Blue-gray Gnatcatcher . Family TURDID^E. Thrushes, Sohtaires, Stonechats. Bluebirds, Subfamily TURDIN^. Thrushes Hylocichla musteUna. Wood Thrush .... Hylocichla fuscescens fuscescens. Veery Hylocichla fuscescens salicicola. Willow Thrush Hylocichla alicise alicise. Gray-cheeked Thrush . Hylocichla alicise bicknelli. Bicknell's Thrush . Hylocichla ustulata swainsoni. Olive-backed Thrush Hylocichla guttata pallasi. Hermit Thrush Planesticus migratorius migratorius. Robin Ixoreus nsevius nsevius. Varied Thrush (Enanthe oenanthe leucorhoa. Greenland Wheatear . Sialia sialis sialis. Bluebird ..... New England Birds Exterminated or Extirpated in Recent Times Plautus impennis. Great Auk ..... Camptorhynchus labradorius. Labrador Duck . Meleagris gallopavo silvestris. Wild Turkey Recent Additions to the Avifauna of New England Vanellus vanellus. Lapwing ..... Asyndesmus lewisi. Lewis's Woodpecker . Zonotrichia querula. Harris's Sparrow Zonotrichia coronata. Golden-crowned Sparrow Index of Scientific Names ....... Index of Common Names . etc. PAGE 348 350 352 353 356 356 361 364 365 368 373 375 375 375 376 380 383 383 386 387 387 390 393 393 395 397 400 406 416 418 418 423 423 425 427 432 433 437 440 442 445 450 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES Edward Howe Forbush Frontispiece FACES PAGE Seaside Sparrow — Sharp-tailed Sparrow — Acadian Sharp-tailed Plate 63. Pine Grosbeak — Purple Finch — Evening Grosbeak Plate 64. Crossbill — White- winged Crossbill Plate 65. HolboU's Redpoll — Redpoll — Hoary Redpoll — Greater Redpoll Plate 66. Pine Siskin — Goldfinch Plate 67. Lapland Longspur — Snow Bunting ........ Plate 68. Vesper Sparrow — Henslow's Sparrow — Grasshopper Sparrow — Ipswich Sparrow Savannah Sparrow Plate 69. Lark Sparrow Sparrow — Nelson's Sparrow ............ Plate 70. White-thi'oated Sparrow — White-crowned Sparrow .... Plate 7L Field Sparrow — Chipping Sparrow — Tree Sparrow — Slate-colored Junco Plate 72. Fox Sparrow — Song Sparrow — Lincoln's Sparrow — Swamp Sparrow . Plate 73. Rose-breasted Grosbeak — Cardinal — Towhee Plate 74. Blue Grosbeak — Indigo Bunting — Dickcissel — House Sparrow Plate 75. Summer Tanager — Western Tanager — Scarlet Tanager Plate 76. Cliff Swallow — Barn Swallow — Purple Martin Plate 77. Bank Swallow — Rough- winged Swallow — Tree Swallow Plate 78. Cedar Waxwing — Bohemian Waxwing — Northern Shrike — Migrant Shrike Plate 79. Warbling Vireo — Philadelphia Vireo — Red-eyed Vireo — Yellow-throated Vireo — Blue-headed Vireo — White-eyed Vireo Plate 80. Black and White Warbler — Northern Parula Warbler Worm-eating Warbler ......... Plate 8 L Golden- winged Warbler — Blue- winged Warbler — Lawrence's Warbler — Brewster's Warbler — Nashville Warbler — Orange-crowned Warbler — Tennessee Warbler Plate 82. YeUow Warbler — Cape May Warbler — Black-throated Blue Warbler — Myrtle Warbler — Audubon's Warbler Plate 83. Bay-breasted Warbler — Chestnut-sided Warbler — Magnolia Warbler — Cerulean Warbler Plate 84. Black-poU Warbler — Blackburnian Warbler — Yellow-throated Warbler — Black throated Gray Warbler — Black-throated Green Warbler Plate 85. Pine Warbler — Prairie Warbler — Palm Warbler — YeUow Pahn Warbler — Oven^ bird — Louisiana Water-Thrush — Water-Thrush Plate 86. Kentucky Warbler — Connecticut Warbler — Mourning Warbler — YeUow- breasted Chat — Maryland Yellow-throat .......... Plate 87. Redstart — Hooded Warbler — Canada Warbler — Wilson's Warbler . Plate 88. Mocldngbird — Catbird — Brown Thrasher — Pipit Plate 89. House Wren — Winter Wren — Carolina Wren — Short-billed Marsh Wren — Long-billed Marsh Wren 334 xiii Prothonotary Warbler 2 14 20 24 34 46 62 70 76 92 108 116 128 136 154 164 180 196 206 228 242 254 268 286 302 314 Xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FACES PAGE Plate 90. Tufted Titmouse — Chickadee — Acadian Chickadee — Red-breasted Nuthatch — • White-breasted Nuthatch — Brown Creeper 352 Plate 91. Ruby-crowned Eanglet — Golden-crowned Kinglet — Blue-gray Gnatcatcher . 376 Plate 92. Gray-cheeked Thrush — BickneU's Thrush — Olive-backed Thrush — Hermit Thrush — Wood Thrush — Veery 386 Plate 93. Bluebird — Robin 406 FIGURES Savannah Sparrow in Juvenile Plumage 54 Grasshopper Sparrow, Nest and Eggs 54 White-crowned Sparrow, Nest and Eggs 72 Young White-throated Sparrows in Nest ... 72 Nest and Eggs of Field Sparrow 82 Nest and Eggs of Towhee , 82 Nest and Eggs of Indigo Bunting .... ..... 118 Scarlet Tanager, Female, Nest and Young .118 Nesting Burrow of Rough-winged Swallow ......... 162 Nest and Eggs of Yellow-throated Vireo ......... 162 Nest and Eggs of Golden-winged Warbler ......... 208 Nest of Bay-breasted Warbler 208 Nest and Eggs of Magnolia Warbler 244 Magnolia Warblers in Juvenile Plumage ......... 244 Nest and Eggs of Louisiana Water-Thrush . . . . . . ' . . 284 Redstart, Female, Nest and Young 284 Mockingbird on Nest 316- Nest and Eggs of Catbird 316 Nest and Eggs of Carolina Wren 336 Long-billed Marsh Wren at Nest 336 Nesting Site of Winter Wren . 344 Nest of Winter Wren 344 Nesting Site of Brown Creeper 354 " Decoy " Nesting Site, Occupied by Brown Creeper 354 Nest of Chickadee, Opened to Show Eggs . . 368 Chickadees in Juvenile Plumage 368 Nest of Golden-crowned Kinglet 378 Young of Golden-crowned Kinglet 378 Olive-backed Thrush in Juvenile Plumage 398 Nest and Eggs of Hermit Thrush . 398 MAPS PAGE Summer Distribution of the Henslow's Sparrow in Massachusetts 60 Summer Distribution of the White-throated Sparrow in Massachusetts ..... 74 Summer Distribution of the Slate-colored Junco in Massachusetts ...... 87 Spring and Summer Records of the Blue Grosbeak in Massachusetts 117 Breeding Distribution of the Rough-winged Swallow in New England with Migration Records in Massachusetts ' 162 Summer Distribution of the White-eyed Vireo in Massachusetts ...... 194 Fig. 68. Fig. 69. Fig. 70. Fig. 71. Fig. 72. Fig. 73. Fig. 74. Fig. 75. Fig. 76. Fig. 77. Fig. 78. Fig. 79. Fig. 80. Fig. 81. Fig. 82. Fig. 83. Fig. 84. Fig. 85. Fig. 86. Fig. 87. Fig. 88. Fig. 89. Fig. 90. Fig. 91. Fig. 92. Fig. 93. Fig. 94. Fig. 95. Fig. 96. Fig. 97. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XV Summer Distribution of the Magnolia Warbler in Massachusetts Summer Distribution of the Water-Thrush in Massachusetts Summer Distribution of the Louisiana Water-Thrush in Massachusetts Summer Records of the Yellow-breasted Chat in Massachusetts Winter Distribution of the Mockingbird in Massachusetts . Summer Distribution of the Mockingbird in Massachusetts Summer and Winter Distribution of the Carolina Wren in Massachusetts Summer Distribution of the Winter Wren in Massachusetts Summer Distribution of the Golden-crowned Ringlet in Massachusetts Spring and Summer Records of the Blue-gray Gnatcatcher in Massachusetts Summer Distribution of the Olive-backed Thrush in Massachusetts . PAGE 244 281 285 300 318 319 335 346 377 385 399 CUTS IN THE TEXT Grasshopper Sparrow, juvenile . Seaside Sparrow, juvenile . Chipping Sparrow, juvenile Brewer's Sparrow, adult Field Sparrow, juvenile Slate-colored Junco, juvenile Song Sparrow, juvenile Lincoln's Sparrow, juvenile Towhee, juvenile .... Dickcissel, young male in second plumage Lark Bunting, male in summer . Scarlet Tanager, juvenile . . . Yellow Warbler, juvenile . Myrtle Warbler, juvenile . Canada Warbler, juvenile . Varied Thrush, adult Great Auk, adult .... Labrador Duck, adult male and female Wild Turkey, adult male . Lapwing, adult ..... Lewis's Woodpecker, adult . Harris's Sparrow, adult and immature Golden-crowned Sparrow, adult . 56 66 78 81 83 85 92 98 107 122 125 130 231 237 308 416 423 425 427 434 438 440 442 EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH, FRIEND OF THE BIRDS A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH By John Bichard May In the heart of the Taconic Mountains, at the extreme western edge of the Common- wealth of Massachusetts, a brawHng mountain stream comes rushing down a steep wooded valley. On either side the forested hills rise a thousand feet, great beeches and sugar maples, birches and hemlocks sheltering a dense undergrowth of moosewood, cornels and mountain laurel, while under these the ground is covered with ferns and wild flowers. Here in spring we find the wake robin and spring beauty, the showy orchis and pink moccasin, the snowy bloodroot and the modest wild ginger, literally carpeting the ground. From overhead we hear the lisping calls of wood warblers gleaning insects among the tender new leaves of the towering trees, in the undergrowth the Peabody-bird scratches the dead leaves or mounts a branch to whistle his sweet song, Juncos smack and trill in the hazel thickets, and from across the valley come faint but clear the silvery notes of thrushes, blending with the tinkling song of the Winter Wren and the murmur of the myriad little waterfalls along the brook. Here in fall great masses of purple joe-pye- weed and rank growths of jewel- weed conceal the now diminished stream, squirrels chatter in the oaks and beeches. Blue Jays noisily proclaim their presence, while high overhead a lone hawk circles lazily. Treading quietly among the falling leaves we may surprise a snowshoe rabbit in its form beneath a fallen tree, or see in the soft earth the tracks of a buck or doe, startled from its browsing by our approach. This is the Edward Howe Forbush Sanctuary, a tract of land set aside forever as a wild life reservation in memory of the man who has done so much to awaken an interest in and appreciation of the out-of-doors, and who was a pioneer in the movement to protect and increase the wild birds and animals of New England. It is a fitting memorial to one who loved Nature in all its phases and whose happiest moments were spent in roaming just such woodland regions, watching the unfolding of the leaves and the opening of the flowers, studying the intimate details of the lives of its feathered and furred in- habitants and noting the ever-changing procession of the seasons. Edward Howe Forbush, author of "The Birds of Massachusetts and Other New England States," came of a long line of New England forebears. His ancestry is readily followed back to about the year 1660, but there the record becomes hazy and circum- stantial evidence must be considered in attempting to link the family with its progenitors in Old England. Xviii EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH The first of the family in New England was Daniel Forbes, whose name appears in the early town records on several occasions, though under various spellings. He is beheved to have been a native of Scotland, born about 1620, and there is considerable foundation for the belief expressed by Frederick Clifton Pierce, chronicler of the Forbes and Forbush Genealogy, that he was one of the eight thousand or so Scotch soldiers who were de- ported to New England by Oliver Cromwell following the disastrous battle of Dunbar on September 3, 1650. The ancient records of the little town of Kinellar, near Aberdeen in Scotland, under date of June 15, 1655, make reference to one "Andro Forbes in Kinellar, heir to Daniel Forbes." From the wording of this record, Daniel Forbes was the uncle of Andro. Apparently he was not definitely known to be dead at that time, but was undoubtedly absent from Kinellar. Such reference might easily have been made to a soldier who, following the defeat at Dunbar, was absent from home, and whose property was very probably in danger of confiscation because of his participation in that battle. It is known that men of the name of Forbes settled, at about this time, near Kittery, Maine, where they had been sent by Cromwell's orders. The first definite record of Daniel Forbes in this country, of which we have knowledge, appears on March 26, 1660, in the archives of Cambridge, Massachusetts, to which town some of the Kittery emigres are known to have removed shortly after their arrival in America. On that date the records show that "Daniel Forbes " was married to one Rebecca Penniman. Daniel was apparently unable to write even his own name (a common condition in those days), as is evidenced by the fact that he affixed his mark to this and other later legal papers ; and the recording clerks before whom he appeared, listening to his broad Scotch burr, gener- ously added a few letters each time they wrote his name for him. Thus the name "Daniel Ffarrabas" appears on the records in 1664 and 1665 ; in 1668 we find "Daniel Fferebas" employed by one Edmund Angier, to whom, in 1671, "Daniel and Rebecca Ffarabas" conveyed certain land. On another somewhat later deed the record reads "Daniel (his X mark) Farrabas." Eventually Daniel removed from Cambridge to Marlborough, where he died in 1687, and somewhat later the marriage was recorded there of "Mrs. Daniel Farrowbush" and Alexander Stewart. From this point on the records are clear, but the confusion in spelling persisted for another generation at least. Thus we find the five sons of Daniel recorded as Daniel Furbush or Ffarbish, Thomas Forbush, Ffarbush or Forbes, Samuel Forbush, John Forbush, and Jonathan Forbush, Farbush, Forbes or Farabush. The third son, Captain Samuel Forbush, was born about 1674 and lived for some time in Marlborough, later removing to Westborough, where the family has been represented ever since under that spelling of the name. He was one of the original members of the Westborough Church, and his wife Abigail was one of the first women to be admitted to membership in the church after women were permitted that privilege. He was evidently a man of consider- able influence, holding several offices in the town government at different times and being one of its selectmen in 1723. EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH XIX The first Captain Samuel was followed in Westborough by his eldest son, the second Captain Samuel, and the name was passed on to a third Samuel, born there January 13, 1733, and a fourth, born August 25, 1771. This last Samuel Forbush became a prosper- ous farmer, shipping his meats and produce regularly to the Boston markets. He died in 1827. His son, Lowell Forbush, who was born August 16, 1801, also lived in West- borough until his death in 1880. Leander Pomeroy Forbush, son of Lowell Forbush and father of Edward Howe Forbush, was born on February 16, 1829, in Westborough, the home of five generations before him, but unlike his forebears he did not remain in that town all his life. He was educated in the public schools of his native place and then became a teacher, a profession which he followed successfully for a number of years. He was married on June 10, 1855, at Pembroke, New Hampshire, to Ruth Hudson Carr, and they had two children, Edward Howe Forbush, who was born April 24, 1858, and Elizabeth Adelaide Forbush. His first wife died in 1881 and he was married a second time to Lavina Pitman at Bartlett, New Hampshire, May 5, 1883, and a third time to Isabel Clarke at Worcester, Massachusetts, June 7, 1894. In 1858, at the time his son Edward was born, Mr. Forbush was living in that part of Quincy, Massachusetts, which is now known as Atlantic, and he was principal of the Coddington Grammar School in Quincy. Shortly after Edward's birth the family moved nearer the center of the town for a few years. In 1865 Mr. Forbush became principal of the Florence School at Roslindale and moved with his family to West Roxbury, now a part of the city of Boston. About five years later Mr. Forbush gave up teaching and removed to Worcester, Massachusetts, where he entered business, and where he died on January 19, 1902. The birthplace of Edward Howe Forbush was located not far from the shore of Quincy Bay. The sparkling waters, the broad salt marshes, the sunny beaches must have made an ineffaceable record on the child's mind, for in later years he wrote : "The song of the sea has ever called to men. Those who have once heard the call will not soon forget. Those bred on its shores and exiled from them must always long for the sound of the restless waves as they beat upon solid rock or shifting sands. Always the call is the same. The swing and swash of the old salt sea speak to us of romance and adventure, of far-off lands, of the deeds of sea rover and buccaneer. No one knows, when he essays a voyage, what adventure may befall him. " Born on the shore, I have ever heard its call. To me the sea means life, and health, but I have always preferred the boat under my own control rather than the ship com- manded by another. Let me be free to come and go, to turn this way or that. That is the life ! It makes men. If one must die, death beneath the waves is quick and merciful. If one must live, there is no richer life than one lived by sea and shore." Although his family moved away from Quincy when Edward was only seven years of age, already his taste for exploration and adventure had begun to make itself manifest. Across the wide waters of the island-dotted bay he could look off and see the towering XX EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH masts of sailing ships and the smoke of steamers, bound out of Boston for all the ports of the seven seas. With such a prospect opened before him, is it to be wondered that he early felt the urge to travel uncharted waters ? One of his earliest recollections relates to a lonely voyage of adventure which he attempted one memorable day, his boat an old abandoned sugar box, without sail or rudder and with only a bit of broken board for a paddle. In this rude craft he drifted with the falling tide down the winding channel of Quincy Town River, and if a couple of older boys had not seen him as he passed the last bridge before his narrow stream entered the open bay, waded out on a sand bar and towed him ashore, this account of his life might never have been written, for the voyage might have ended in tragedy then and there. This trip, made when he was only six years of age, Mr. Forbush, recalled with amuse- ment when he had passed the allotted three score years and ten, but there was a tradition in his family that it was not his first adventure and that a year or two earlier, on a ram- shackle raft, he had attempted to cruise about the flooded salt meadows at the mouth of the Neponset River, near his birthplace. Edward was but seven when the family moved to West Roxbury and as he said "the call of the sea was then replaced by the call of the woods." West Roxbury in 1865 was a decidedly rural community, though it is today a compactly built-up suburb. It was an almost ideal country for a small boy with the love of outdoor things in his blood. Much of the region was covered with areas of second-growth oak and beech, maple and birch, with occasional tracts of great white pines scattered here and there, and with many cut- over places grown up with bushes and small saplings, which were the favored habitats of different species of birds and beasts. Farmlands and orchards were common in the dis- trict, and on the west it was bounded by the wide fresh-water marshes of the Charles River. The entire district, except near the river, was rough and broken, and in the woods were many ledges and outcrops of the famous "Roxbury puddingstone " and of slate, which furnished abundant small caves for foxes, skunks and raccoons. Although the highest elevation was only a little more than three hundred feet above sea level, from its summit the ocean could be seen, and a wide-spreading panorama of city and town, of farmlands and verdant forests. Here the youngster's outdoor tastes and his love of adventure found a happy field for their development. Except in summer, he has said, six hours a day were required for his school work, but his lessons gave him very little difficulty and all his spare time was de- voted to exploring the woods and fields with their myriads of new and interesting things to see and hear, to taste and smell, and about which to ask questions and to form theories. All these things left their indelible impress on his plastic mind. Let me quote from an unpublished manuscript some of his recollections of this period in his development : " Every fine morning in spring I was away at daybreak through dewy fields and woods, listening to a hundred bird voices and watching the birds and squirrels. Then after about four hours spent in the woods, back to breakfast and school. Holidays were passed in EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH Xxi fishing on an old, partly submerged log on the treacherous floating brink of Muddy Pond, snaring little pickerel in the brook, catching butterflies or gathering birds' nests, minerals or wild flowers. In autumn came nutting, setting snares, and, in time, that pastime of all young savages — hunting." At first, as with most youngsters, savage or civilized, his weapons were sticks and stones. That he early developed a keen markmanship is evidenced by another anecdote of his childhood in Quincy, before his family had removed to West Roxbury. One day as Edward was quietly at play, he was suddenly set upon by two older boys, "muckers " from the town. In an outburst of indignation at the unprovoked attack, Edward picked up the nearest weapon of defense, a half a brick, and threatened the urchins, who retreated a bit, then renewed their attack. As they advanced the second time, Edward in self- defense "hove the brick" as he afterwards expressed it, with such unerring if unexpected accuracy, that he hit one of his persecutors squarely on top of the head, and the assailant, toppling over backwards, disappeared into a gaping cellar-hole and was hidden from the view of the horror-stricken Edward, who rushed wildly home and shut himself in a closet for the rest of the day, momentarily expecting the dread appearance of an officer of the law, come to arrest him for the ' ' murder ' ' of the other boy. Though the urchin recovered promptly, none the worse for the adventure, it was a long time before Edward overcame his fear and remorse, and the remembrance of that day was still painfully vivid even after a lapse of more than sixty years. After the sticks and stones, the next hunting weapons were home-made bows and arrows and slingshots. Like the born woodsman, he learned to distinguish many trees or plants by their fitness for his needs, long before he knew their scientific or even their common local names. As he roamed the woods he was ever on the watch for slender shoots of osier or viburnum for his arrows, for straight shafts of barberry or for hemlock or apple boughs for his bows, while many a garden lilac failed to bloom because its sym- metrically forked twigs supplied such excellent crotches for his sling shots. Then there followed the fun of whittling and trimming and shaping and testing the weapons. How much the boys of today miss with their easily purchased, factory-made equipment for sport ! Only those of us who have made our own armament can know the thrill which is lost in the present-day method of shopping by telephone or mail order. And though the home-made tools may be crude, greater craft is needed in stalking one's game and one must of necessity become an expert in still hunting and in woodcraft. Following the bows and arrows, came a more civilized though perhaps no more efficient weapon, an old rusty horse pistol without a hammer, which was primed with powder and touched off with a match. As he said of it "it was more dangerous indeed to the hunter than to the game, but this only added to the excitement of the sport." Next arose a desire for a more deadly and far-reaching weapon than the horse pistol. Such a tool was found in the possession of a neighbor's boy. ' ' Seventy-five cents changed hands, and now I was the proud possessor of an old Belgian muzzle-loading, smooth-bore musket, with a loosened, sawed-off barrel, a steel ramrod, and a broken lock. Boyish ingenuity was Xxii EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH brought to bear in fastening on the barrel with wire and in repairing the lock. Then for many moons that crude weapon wrought havoc among the furred and feathered denizens of the woods and fields, while under the midnight oil the collection of skins and mounted specimens grew apace." With the development of his armament, his powers of observation became more keen and many of the impressions of those early days remained vividly with him throughout his years. One of these early impressions he has described as follows. "How alluring the prospect of the verdant coppice seen from Muddy Pond (now Bellevue) Hill. Shall I ever forget my initiation into those shades and my first sight of the Ruffed Grouse, and that sound of thundering wing-beats as it first broke upon my youthful ears in the still woods? Even now there comes the recollection of the quick start and sudden heart-throb, which checked in an instant my headlong pursuit of a little gray rabbit, as from the dead leaves almost beneath my feet there sprang a great bird with loudly whirring pinions, that sped away in arrowy flight, through bending leaves and snapping twigs, disappearing in an instant in the thick of the coppice. There I stood breathless, with distended eyes, staring after this new wonder, while poor little Molly Cottontail made good her escape." About this time the boy's family moved to Worcester and another, wider world opened out before the growing boy's aroused interest. Soon every field and wood, every lake and stream about the city was explored, and under the stimulus of the local Natural History Society, he began to make collections of interesting objects. Almost every boy passes through this "collecting" stage at some time during his development, but with most of them it is only a passing fancy, to be laid aside as the dust begins to gather on the poor ' ' specimens. " But with young Edward Forbush it served to crystallize his interests and to do much toward shaping his life work. From this time on, his days, aside from his school work and helping about his home, were occupied in preparation for his life work. He developed an omnivorous appetite for all books on outdoor subjects. Stories of hunting, fishing and exploration, books on birds, animals and insects, were followed, as the limited resources of the local library became exhausted, by works on geology and on natural philosophy. Drawing animals and birds became a passion with him and this was followed by an endeavor to express himself and his love of nature by attempts at modeling and sculpture. He had already taken up taxidermy and begun to mount birds and small animals. His first attempts were characteristic of his methods of working and his independence, as described in his own words : "At the age of fourteen I took up taxidermy. One day, while we were still living in West Roxbury, a wandering Bluebird in search of a nesting place had found an opening in a rain-water conductor, which led to a full hogshead where the poor bird was found drowned. Later, stuffed by an ancient hermit, a work of nature and art combined, this specimen became the wonder and delight of the juveniles of our household. One evening some years later, however, in Worcester, little sister unwittingly placed a kerosene lamp EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH xxiii in such unfortunate juxtaposition to our treasure that its tail dissolved into fragrant ( ?) incense, and great were the lamentations thereat. The ruin of our only stuffed specimen fired me with an ambition to make a collection of mounted birds. Here was a golden opportunity for the acquirement of useful and practical knowledge. The stuffed bird and its rustic perch were carefully dissected, a book on taxidermy was obtained from the library, and the mystery of bird stuffing was solved. A Song Sparrow which had lost its life was the first specimen. Slowly divested of its little skin its stuffed presentiment ap- peared at last standing on its two legs on a bit of board with the head on one corner of the body and the tail on another. Soon a Bluebird was mounted, then a Goldfinch. At the early age of fifteen I came to believe myself a hunter-naturalist, but even at that early age the excitement of the chase was sometimes followed by reaction and remorse at the death of the lovely creatures slain, as I fondly believed, in the interest of science." In those days there were very few books on natural history which would appeal to the average boy of today. Gilbert White's "Natural History of Selborne," Audubon's and Wilson's works on American birds, and Thoreau's essays stood almost alone, although John Burroughs was beginning to become known as a writer on outdoor subjects. Per- sons interested in natural history were expected to study, principally, dead creatures in the shape of "skins," mounted specimens, skeletons, alcoholic "pickles," pinned insects, and empty shells. To name, classify and label such inanimate objects seemed to be the chief aim and end of natural science. Very little time was spent in studying the life and habits of wild creatures in the field, for fear that they might get away if one waited too long before killing and "collecting" them for specimens. To quote Mr. Forbush : " Some of the material used by students was very dead, having been so fifty years or more. Such mummies have their uses, but later I came to see that life, not death, would solve all riddles ; that an examination of the dead was merely a preliminary to the study of the living, and that it was more essential to preserve the living than the dead." Not only was he self-taught in taxidermy but in many other things. A characteristic glimpse is the following account of his first essays in swimming. "I was never taught to swim, although the family occasionally 'went in bathing' in shallow water, and clawed about on the bottom ; but at the age of twelve years I knew less about swimming than a clam. My parents would not permit me to go in with other boys, because of my ignorance of the natatorial art, so there was no chance for me to learn. Although inclined to obedience by early training, I determined that the condi- tion was intolerable, and that I would learn to swim or die in the attempt. Securing a treatise on swimming and practising the breast stroke day after day while l5dng across a chair or stool, until it became mechanical, I finally went alone to the lake. There I found a birch tree that had fallen from a steep bank into very deep water. Its trunk rested on the shore, while its top was considerably under water. My plan was to swim out and around the tree, in the hope that if the task proved too much, and the lake swallowed me up, the shore might still be reached by grasping the branches of the tree under water and crawling out upon it to the bank. With some misgivings I dove in, and swam with Xxiv EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH might and main out into forty feet of water and back around that tree. This took all my strength and breath, but from that day I was a swimmer, and could go in with the other boys. I learned to take care of myself and another in the water, and in later years had opportunities to save four lives that might have been lost but for my confidence in my own unaided skill and strength." Soon after the family moved to Worcester, Edward became a member of the Worcester Natural History Society, and he very soon became active in its meetings and classes. So outstanding was his interest in birds and his knowledge of them,' that at the age of six- teen years he was appointed as Curator of Ornithology in its, museum. He quickly found himself very fully occupied with the care of the scientific collection, with the preparation of specimens, with the organization of various classes in natural history, with lectures, and with writing for the local papers articles on the natural history of the region. Shortly before this he had left school, partly that he might help in his father's business, and partly because he had developed some original theories about educational methods which did not agree with the methods in common use at that time. In this era of progressive education, project methods, vocational guidance, and intel- ligence tests, it is rather difficult to realize that only a few years ago practically all teach- ing was by the purely academic, all-textbook method, and that the system commonly practised consisted of trying to crowd into every child's head a miscellaneous collection of dry facts, most of which were uninteresting and unrelated to anything with which the pupil had contact. With that far-seeing and straight- thinking power which characterized him throughout his life, young Edward Forbush saw the weakness of the old didactic methods, and rebelled. ' ' I came to believe, ' ' he wrote years later, ' ' that in education practical manual and agri- cultural training involving the use of the hands and the study of the living world should at least accompany that of the text book and the dead world, so that children might be- come interested in both work and study and might develop their bodies, their observa- tional faculties and their capacity for useful action while pursuing their academic studies. "Why, I asked myself, should I follow the beaten path in education? I determined to forego a college training, to earn my own living, to be independent of all assistance and to train myself by experience, observation and reading. "So, at the age of fifteen, I gave up school and except for a few months at a seminary and at evening schools never went to school again, but most of my evenings were spent in study and reading or in preparing or studying specimens, alone or with others who could teach me something. My vocations for the next seven years were those of a farmer, laborer and mechanic — my avocation the study of nature. Thus I grew up independent, self-supporting, developing body and mind, preparing myself for the work that I seemed best fitted to do." As part of his self-imposed training, he began to write out, while actually in the field, copious notes of his observations and experiences in the woods and hills and on the lakes EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH XXV and streams during his frequent excursions. Some of these early bits of descriptive ma- terial are preserved for us in a collection of newspaper clippings which he preserved, and others are to be found in old notebooks. The earliest of his writings to which we have had access, is in a clipping from the now defunct Worcester Spy, under the date of July 9, 1880, and was apparently the first of a series of articles dealing with the local birds month by month. It is entitled "Our Birds in July" and is an invitation to go to the woods and fields in search of our feathered neighbors. The last paragraph is worth quoting as show- ing that already young Edward Forbush realized the importance of birds to agriculture : "After the noise of your passage has ceased, the birds will gather around, curious to discover its cause, and the fault will be your own if you do not use your eyes as intelli- gently as they do theirs. Listen for the slightest rustle in the leaves, watch for the sway- ing of a twig, for these slight signs reveal the presence of some modest songster whose delicate beauty surpasses that of the richest fabrics and whose graceful movements charm the fortunate observer who can find and see our birds at home. The first bird to attract attention will be the chestnut-sided warbler, with his pretty yellow cap and chestnut sides ; and somewhere in these woods, you will not fail to see warbling vireos, wood pewees, blue yellow-backed warblers, redstarts, ovenbirds, and downy woodpeckers. By rare good fortune you may catch a glimpse of a rose-breasted grosbeak, or of a scarlet tanager, that brilliant king of the woods, whose bright crimson plumage instantly attracts your eye as he swings easily along through the topmost branches. Not alone in the woods but take a stroll in the meadows, with one who keeps his eyes and ears open, and learn the birds there. Meadowlarks ; bobolinks ; field, grass, yellow-winged and Savannah sparrows ; cow blackbirds ; and many others fly about you or spring up almost under your feet. Climb the stonewall and sit down under the orchard boughs and watch. Here we see orioles, kingbirds, cherry-birds, phoebes, golden-winged woodpeckers, chipping sparrows, cuckoos, bluebirds and the swift swallow, all active and full of business, hunting down and killing the caterpillar, destroying the curculios, and the new-laid eggs of the 'army worm' moth, carrying devastation into the ranks of the 'cutworm' moth, and proving themselves the best friend of the agriculturist by destroying the many insects injurious to vegetation. The birds of July are well worth our study, but they are on the wing, and several varieties are preparing to seek 'fresh fields and pastures new.' August will bring new acquaintances. A full knowledge of the birds of this month will better prepare us for their observation and study to be continued in our next." In October of the same year he contributed an article on "The Decrease of the Birds" to the Worcester Gazette in which he stated : "The sportsman is largely responsible for the diminution of the game birds, for there is still shelter and food for the partridge, quail and woodcock in the interior of the state, and for the ducks and geese on the coast. Yet with our game laws well enforced the gunners of this generation can still have excuse enough for the pleasant tramps during the short season when the law is 'off. ' " Under date of September 1, 1883, he wrote an article for the Worcester Spy entitled XXVi EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH "The English Sparrow" which is interesting in showing that at that time he was begin- ning to study seriously the economic status of our birds : "The sparrow question has gained little attention as yet in Worcester county. The birds have not become so numerous here as to carry off ' two tons ' of hay from one farm for nest-building purposes, as they are said to have done in Germany. Neither have they been known to carry off hundreds of bushels of corn or wheat as they did near Philadelphia in 1877. Yet these sturdy birds have been fast pushing their advanced guard far and wide. Now we believe there is not a village in this county where they are not to be found. In this city they have been increasing in numbers for several years, and now may be counted by thousands. It is generally known that these birds were imported by munici- pal governments and by individuals, because of their alleged destruction of the noxious insects which infest parks and orchards. Upon their introduction in some of our larger and more southern cities the beneficial effects of their presence were seen at once in the decrease of caterpillars, canker worms and other enemies of the trees and shrubbery. But soon murmurs were heard against the sparrows. In 1877 articles appeared in the leading agricultural and sporting papers, some condemning these birds, others upholding them. Since then there has been a constant * sparrow war,' and all the leading ornitholo- gists of the country have had their say for or against the Pyrgita. The culmination of the whole matter is that the defenders of the sparrows have been worsted, and laws have been enacted and amendments made allowing the destruction of the birds. "The number of the sparrows now in and about Worcester, and their rapid annual increase, suggests the possibility that they may soon become an important factor in our economy for good or for evil. We hope within the next year to accumulate evidence which shall settle the question as to whether the sparrow is needed in this section. We ask then the following questions, which cover the chief points of interest in the relations between man and the sparrow : 1. What insects are they known to destroy? 2. What fruits, vegetables and blossoms do they destroy? 3. What grains do they destroy in the field? 4. Do they attack and drive away our native birds ? "We hope all who have any interest in the matter will communicate with the custodian of museum, No. 11 Foster Street, Worcester, Mass. We wish answers which will throw more or less light on the points indicated, and on anything else in regard to the sparrow question which may be of interest. The observations of farmers may be of much value and we hope to have some help from them." Another article published in the Spy a little later, is typical of the writer in the keen- ness of observation and clearness of description which it exhibits, as well as in the humani- tarian touch at the end : "I sit here now on a moss-covered rock by Coal Mine Brook, gazing at a frog whose eyes and nose just appear above the still water of a little pool at my feet. I was looking down past the image of the trees, down and down past the fleecy clouds to the fair blue EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH xxvil sky so softly mirrored there, and listening almost unconsciously to the drumming of a partridge as it swelled and died away upon the ridge, when suddenly there was "a ripple and this great bullfrog's head bobbed up with a glare of protruding gilded eyes, and there it remains fixed in the center of the beautiful picture. . . . "Whir-r-r! What — why, the partridge! Where he came from I know not, but now right here by the wall at the foot of that big white birch that the boys have lately barked, stands a lordly old grouse, his raised ruffs with their dark metallic sheen glistening in the sunlight, as with crested head drawn back and carried high, with bright and banded tail held high and widely spread, he stands alert. He pauses, listens, now turns, throws forward his head, and steps along, raising his feet well up, moving over the inequalities of the ground with a gently undulating motion, his broad tail raised or lowered at will, his dark wild eye flashing on all around. Beautiful sight ! But he has seen a movement of my finger, perhaps, or hears the rumble of an approaching carriage on the roadway. He proudly mounts the wall with scarcely perceptible movement of the wings, cranes his neck an instant and quietly slides out of sight on the other side. "Only a partridge ! You may see dozens hung by the neck or heels in butchers' stalls next fall ; mere wrecks of things that were. But as for me, I would not exchange my one sight of that crested, full- winged bird, in all the glory of his nuptial plumage, moving alert upon his native heath, his proud spirit untamed and free, his frame instinct with vibrating electric life and undaunted vigor drawn from our rugged new England hills, for all the keen joy of the sportsman as the mangled, bleeding form falls to his deadly aim, or the delights of the epicure as he revels in the luscious tender flesh of the slaughtered birds as they lie garnished upon the groaning table." Although he had acquired considerable skill in preparing specimens before his appoint- ment as curator in the Worcester museum, he was not satisfied with his work. Mr. Charles J. Maynard was at that time one of the most active and skilful naturalists of the group of young men who made the Nuttall Ornithological Club, recently organized at Cambridge, a power in the ornithological world. To him young Edward went for further instruction and experience. On September 20, 1929, less than a month before his own passing, Mr. Maynard wrote me this letter regarding the association of more than fifty years before : " In 1875 Mr. L. P. Forbush of Worcester, brought his son, Edward H., then a lad of eighteen, to me to receive instruction in taxidermy and ornithology. At that time I had a large supply of bird skins and nests and eggs for which I was constantly receiving orders from educational institutions and private individuals. Birds and other animals were constantly being sent in to be mounted or otherwise prepared as museum specimens. Some collecting was also being done. "The young man was very enthusiastic and proved to be an apt pupil, soon becoming familiar with the material which I had in stock, and was thus very helpful in filling the orders which came in. He also learned to prepare specimens well and rapidly, not only making up bird skins after a method which I had invented, with skill and neatness, but XXViii EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH also learning to mount other animals. A snapping turtle which I still have, is an excellent example of his work. "In short, he became so proficient, that when I went south in charge of theJ^Parker Maynard Research Expedition, in the fall of 1876, 1 left him in charge of my business and he proved a very efficient manager." During the year which he spent working with Mr. Maynard, he was so unfortunate as to develop a severe rheumatic affection, from wading in deep cold water in early spring, exploring the marshes of the Charles River in search of specimens. No treatment seemed to relieve the trouble, and a friend advised a winter in the South. The opportunity came through a neighbor who was accustomed to spend his winters in Florida in search of health and who attempted to organize a camping and boating party for southern Florida. When the day for starting arrived, however, only one beside Mr. Forbush was ready for the adventure. The trip proved of great interest and value to Mr. Forbush, for Florida was an almost unsullied wilderness for the naturalist at that time. But let Mr. Forbush relate some of his experiences in his own words. "We had read Ober's ' Three Months in Florida for One Hundred Dollars' and believed that what he had done we could do. The plan was to cruise to Florida on a schooner, go up the St. Johns on a steamer, and, as there were no steamboats beyond, buy a boat and do our own sailing on Indian River and other inland waterways. "When we arrived at New York the first week in January in exceedingly cold weather, the schooner on which we had engaged passage was frozen in, and we boarded the steamer Western Texas for Jacksonville. She was built for river work and this was her second trip outside. She ran into a great storm off Hatteras, the steering gear was broken by the mighty seas, and she lay in the trough of the sea for four hours. Then, the crew having rigged some sort of steering apparatus, she was headed back for New York, but the storm abated and she made Jacksonville in five days. The less said about this experience the better. "On the voyage we made the acquaintance of two young men of abundant leisure, from New York and Baltimore, who were going to Florida for the winter, and they joined our party. When we reached Jacksonville the thermometer registered seventy degrees, which seemed like summer. "We took the first boat up the St. Johns River, and from there during the journey to southern Florida we saw what no man ever will see again. Along the upper St. Johns and the Oclawaha the Florida wilderness came down to the river banks and enroached upon and even overhung the stream. In many places on the Oclawaha the semi-tropical foliage with its drapery of Spanish moss entirely overarched the water, so that a steamboat plowing its way along the river, seemed to float in a tunnel of luxuriant verdure. Alli- gators in numbers swam in streams and ponds or rested on the shores. Uncounted swarms of waterfowl of many species inhabited the waters in innumerable multitudes. Great flocks of White Egrets and ibises, among them the lovely Roseate Spoonbills, possessed the land. Every turn in the river brought into view a new scene, to be scanned for novel EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH XXix forms of interesting life. When we arrived at Lake George, wild ducks were scattered over the lake as far as the eye could see or the glass could make them out ; and when, later, we reached Indian River Lesser Scaup Ducks or Bluebills floated upon the water in vast dense flocks, a mile or more in length. Shore birds were seen in multitudes along the coasts and lagoons. Eagles, hawks and owls were common. Wild Turkeys and deer were plentiful and the tracks of bears, panthers and wildcats could be seen on the sands. "Practically all tourists were armed with rifles, shotguns, revolvers, or all three. These armed men lined the rails of the steamboats and shot ad libitum at alligators, water- fowl or anything that made an attractive target. There were practically no restrictions on shooting, although the steamers never stopped to gather in the game, but left it to Ue where it fell. "About thirty species of fish were recognized in Indian River, and mullet were so plentiful that they not infrequently j umped into boats, rowed on the river at night. Here, then, was a hunters' and anglers' winter paradise, with a never-failing supply of firewood, where no one need starve or freeze. Southern Florida, in those days, much resembled the Florida of Audubon's time, but northerners as well as natives had settled along the rivers. Oranges were so plentiful in the groves that the people offered strangers all the ripe fruit they could find under the trees. Whenever we stopped near an orange grove we filled a mealbag with the ripe luscious fruit. "Our first introduction to the mode of life of the natives came when we left Lake George in the interior for the coast region. Early in the morning, having disembarked from the steamer, we found a place to get breakfast and there heard of a mule team which could be hired for a trip across the country. . . . The canoe and all our luggage were loaded, the colored driver clucked to his mules and we were off for a trip forty miles across the country for Port Orange and Daytona on the Halifax River. "The road ran through sand and swamp. The swamp roads were corduroy or log- built and riding on a springless wagon on such roads was unpleasant to say the least. I tramped the whole distance gun on shoulder, exploring the wilderness of swamp and forest on the way. Every mile brought some surprise, sparrows. Bluebirds, warblers, Mockingbirds, Florida Jays, Brown-headed Nuthatches, Red-bellied Woodpeckers, Logcocks and other birds occupied my attention. Squirrels, raccoons, alligators and rabbits all served to give spice and variety to the stroll. "Toward night, having made about twenty miles, we stopped at a native log cabin where a prominent citizen, a selectman of the township, resided with his family. The residence was in a clearing in the open ' piney woods.' It had but one room and a floored loft under the roof. The logs were not chinked and one could pass a finger out between them almost anywhere. There was no provision made in this cabin for a fire, but a small log cook house, where all the cooking was done, stood near by. This little shack was provided with a chimney, situated at one end, which was made of sticks laid cobhouse fashion, plastered with mud. It projected only a few feet above the ridgepole. It was expanded at the bottom to form an open fireplace. The owner of the property, an XXX EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH elderly gentleman, hospitably agreed to put us all up for the night, and in pajmaent therefor took an old cheap revolver for which we had no cartridges. "Preparations for the evening meal were begun immediately. One of the boys was sent out to a dead ' lightwood ' tree that lay on the edge of the clearing to chop off some limb- wood and splinters for the fire ; another was dispatched for yams ; the father went for some dried venison. The mother mixed an unleavened corncake which was cooked in an iron ' dutch oven ' out of doors by a girl, who built a bright fire on top and a little one underneath. The yams were boiled and our bountiful repast now being ready, we all sat down at the table. The salt deer meat was of the consistency of old boots. Such viands might encourage Fletcherism, but this appeared to have been seasoned with a mixture of sand and salt, half and half. The ' hoecake ' was good, and not very gritty, but the sweet potatoes were excellent, great, soft, sweet, luscious yams such as the younger members of our party had never tasted before. We swept the board clean. "The night was cool, even frosty, and when the meal was ended we all adjourned to the cook-house fire, our party meanwhile wondering where we were to sleep. Soon the girls disappeared, and from various subdued sounds heard later, we surmised that they had retired behind some skins hung in a corner of the cabin. Then the boys crawled through a hole in the floor leading up into the loft, and our host suggested that we four might have the bed. Think of it ! Four good-sized men and one bed ! We drew lots for places, and I drew the outside, next to the inch-wide cracks between the logs, with the north wind blowing freely in. My rest was somewhat broken by turning over to warm one side after the other against my next neighbor who, it seems, did not suffer from the cold. Our host and hostess made up a bed on the floor and the negro, wrapped in his blankets, slept on the wagon, protected by a canvas cover thrown over it to keep off dew and rain. " In the morning a white frost covered everything. We concluded to go farther south as soon as possible and after a light meal started for Port Orange, where we arrived before dark. At that time Port Orange and Daytona were two villages of a few shacks, each fronting on the Halifax River. Their only attractions seemed to be a fine sandy beach and an abundant supply of dogs and fieas. Verily since then time has worked wondrous changes. "Here we camped, and bought for a song a big old flatboat or lighter and a small skiff with sail and centerboard. When we launched the flatboat, we soon learned why it was for sale cheap as it leaked 'like a sieve' but with a little lumber, some calking, a tar pot, the help of all hands and my knowledge of wood working we soon had her 'tight as a drum,' built a large cabin on her, fitted her with two masts, sails and rigging, named her rightly Hard-tack and were ready for our venture into the unknown. . . . "The next morning at daybreak Joe took my rifle and started off to the eastward. I took my shotgun and a few buckshot cartridges, with some ordinary bird charges also, and headed northwest for the head waters of the St. Johns River. George remained with his shotgun to keep the camp. Each had matches and salt and each was independent for the day, all expecting to be in camp that night. ^ EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH XXXi "A tramp of a mile brought me out of the piney woods into a country where woods and prairies, sawgrass ponds and savannas alternated, more or less, along the way. The loud raucous notes of the great Sandhill Crane resounded here and there, and, as I had seen no deer, and had been told that the cranes were good to eat, there was a crane hunt on at once. The tall birds were keen, wary and hard to come up with. I ducked low in the prairie grass, crawled, sneaked, lay flat at times in shallow water and used all the strategisms of the hunter for more than an hour, shooting all my buckshot and bringing down only two birds. I skinned the better of the two, saving the skin for a specimen, wrapped up the carcass in a paper, placed skin and body in the pocket of my hunting coat, slung the other bird over my shoulder and kept on. Then, having fired all my buckshot, I began to start deer. They sprang from the long grass at my feet, stood and gazed or bounded away until twenty-one had been counted ; but as bird-shot would only wound them needlessly, I let the pretty creatures go unharmed. Bob-whites rose from cover here and there. Snipe jumped from the swales. A Barred Owl complained from a cabbage hammock. All these were added to our prospective larder. "Deer trails were everywhere, like cow-paths in a bush pasture, and sometimes I followed them, if they led me in the right direction. Coming to a wide wet savanna, I took off my shoes and stockings and followed a deer path through the water. Where the water was about four inches deep, something like a big fish ran from behind me between my feet, hitting both ankles with its wriggling body as it went. After it had passed I saw that it was a large, poisonous moccasin snake, and the charge from my shotgun tore it in two. Even then the serpent tried to bite and the sight of those powerful, striking fangs was one not soon forgotten. After that incident shoes and stockings were put on, and not removed during the day. Both water snakes and moccasins were plentiful in the swamps here and elsewhere, but we did not see or hear a rattlesnake. "On and on I went, through prairie, forest and marsh, until the high noon sun found me at a little stream that one could step across, which was believed to be a source of the St. Johns River. Here I rested, built a fire in a hole in the ground, in which I roasted the birds, wrapped in wet leaves or mud, as I remember it now. The Bob-white and snipe were savory and good, but I cannot from the experience of that day, recommend baked owl. "On the way back to camp I secured a fine eagle, was followed by a panther, was nearly headed off from the river by a forest fire, and finally reached camp long after dark, George shooting to guide me back. Following the sound, I reached the snug camp in the little gulch ; and ten o'clock found us warm, dry and comfortable, relating the experiences of the day beside the camp-fire. We were not destined to sleep until later that night, for two great Barred Owls had made that fire their rendezvous, and they made night hideous with hoo-hoo-hooaws and other owl endearments. Never before had we noted such a noisy pair of lovers, but as the fire died down they drifted away and after that we heard no sound until a great black Logcock beat a tattoo on a leaning pine at daybreak. Several days we hunted with more or less success but everything mundane must have an end, and so a week later we set out for the main camp. ... XXxii EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH "In those days there was a plague of fleas in Florida. The dog continually brought them into camp. Therefore I learned to 'sleep out.' My bed was made nightly on a different part of the Indian River beach, anywhere within half a mile of the camp. Here a bath in the salt water freed me from my tormentors, and a woolen blanket and two rubber blankets were my camp. What if it rained ? Well, it just rained. "Morning after morning at daybreak there were strange sights and sounds on earth and in the air. Great herons waded in the tide. Weird pelicans sailed in orderly pro- cession ; now and then a lone one, diving to catch fish, seemed to turn a complete but awkward somersault. Here the eagle chased the osprey and robbed her of her finny prey, diving out of the sky like a thunder-bolt and snatching the fish ere it struck the water. Always I slept with a loaded gun at hand, for with a fair wind the ducks drifted inshore in the night, and now and then there was an opportunity to pick up a brace or more at daybreak. "One warm morning, before sunrise, my eyes opened to behold four or five Bluebills, only a few yards away and utterly regardless of my presence. It came to my mind that in ' The Young Voyagers ' Capt. Mayne Reid told of an Indian who waded into the water, his head and shoulders covered by a stuffed swan skin, and pulled ducks under water by seizing their feet. Waiting until all the birds had dived, I slipped out of my blankets, entered the water quietly and swam under the surface to the point where the birds had disappeared. I could not see them in the water, but came up within four feet of the two nearest. Before my fingers could grasp them they stood up on their tails, their yellow eyes glaring in horror, as they backed away. They seemed a little dazed and slow for a moment, but they were too quick for me, and when once they got out of reach they never stopped going, as far as I could see. . . . "The rest of the journey was a long picnic. One night we rowed far into the night through a great swamp before we could find a camping place. Often we were obliged to drink river water so thick and discolored that one could not see the bottom of the cup ; but these were minor matters. And then one day we discovered the big 'gator.' "We all have read of great saurians whose fossil remains have been found in the earth or rocks, and have seen pictures of the monsters restored ; but George and I did not be- lieve that there were such gigantic creatures in our time until at last our eyes beheld one. The night preceding this occurrence we had camped in the great swamp on an Indian shell mound. We found another party encamped there who told about a sixteen-foot 'gator' which had been killed not far down the river. We had doubted whether there ever was so big an alligator, and were all agog to see it ; so the next day we scanned the banks carefully. "Suddenly I exclaimed, 'That must be the very fellow !' There on the high bank, fully a quarter of a mile away, lay a tremendous reptile. With a fair wind I sent the boat down toward it. George looked it over with the glass, exclaiming with amazement at its size, but was sure it was alive. One fore leg was doubled backward, which seemed to indicate death ; but George was so sure the creature was alive that he put two buckshot EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH XXxiii charges in his gun, and prepared to attack. It was arranged that he should go forward to the mast, fire when I gave the word and then drop to avoid the boom, as I was to bring the boat about and off on the other tack, to keep clear of the animal should it plunge into the river. "As we came nearer, and it became evident that the creature was asleep, its enormous size grew upon me. We had seen 'gators' nearly twelve feet in length, and measured them, but never one in the remotest degree approaching the length and girth of this one. All we had seen would look like pygmies beside it. The tail lay up back over the inequali- ties of the bank, and recalled to my mind pictures seen in boyhood of the great curving wall of China receding over the hills into the distance. George was greatly excited, and kept turning to me and whispering 'Shall I fire?' while I kept shaking my head. I wanted to make sure of this world wonder, and knew that nothing would stop it but a shot at point blank range. The whole thing seemed like some wildly improbable dream. As the boat approached within a few feet of the bank I called to George to fire. "The blaze flashed out of both barrels, George dropped, and the boat spUn round like a top. Where those charges went we never knew, whether they hit earth or sky, but they awoke that 'gator.' It sprang up and forward until from my lower position in the boat I could see the sky under its belly. Then it turned and lunged straight for our little craft. The bow had swung just in time. Had the monster descended on it he would have crushed it under water. As it was, he came near swamping us. George gazed at me in blank amazement. I have always believed that when he shot he shut both eyes and pulled both triggers, and never touched even the scenery. We never saw the big ' gator ' again, nor have I ever anywhere seen another that could in the least compare with it for size. "So we drifted on. Spring was in the air. The Mourning Doves cooed in the clear- ings, the Mockingbird and the Cardinal were in song. The great vernal flight of birds began to come in from the gulf and swarm into the woods. At night the Screech Owl wailed and the Chuckwill's-widow called weirdly in the glades. In the swamps baby alHgators swam and crawled about, lizards ran nimbly to and fro. Egrets spread their snowy plumes in graceful postures, showing off to their waiting mates ; and, as the tide of returning life moved northward, we reached Jacksonville. The invahd had recovered. Strong, well-tanned and ruddy, we embarked for our northern homes." While the other members of his party were in Florida either for their health or in pur- suit of "sport," which in those days was almost synon3anous with "slaughter," Mr. Forbush was primarily a naturalist, and everything which he shot was either used as food or preserved as a specimen. Many of his carefully prepared skins went to the Worcester Natural History Society or to other museums, and he sold many specimens to private col- lectors. Soon after his return to Worcester he associated himself with Mr. William S. Perry of that place in organizing The Naturalists' Exchange, a sort of clearing house for all kinds of natural history specimens and for collectors' and taxidermists' supplies. A little later, however, he sold out his share of this business to Mr. C. A. Reed and became Vice XXxiv EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH President and later President, of the Worcester Natural History Society, and Curator of its collections. Under his enthusiastic leadership the society was a very active and useful organization, sponsoring many lectures, conducting classes in widely varied subjects, and adding much to the educational resources of the community. He took an active interest in enlarging and improving the collections of natural history objects, and the museum acquired high ranking among institutions of its type in this country. He became a Life Member and continued to maintain a deep interest in the work of this society until the time of his death. The next few years were rather uneventful from the point of view of the naturalist and collector, for, while he continued to make collecting trips, they were short ones and in less exciting regions than was his trip to Florida. They were important years in his personal life, however. On June 28, 1882, Mr. Forbush married Miss Etta L. Hill, of Upton, Massachusetts. Four children were the result of this union, and all, with their mother, survived Mr. Forbush. The oldest son, Erwin Hill Forbush, was for some time secretary of the Federal Land Bank in Springfield, Massachusetts, and he lives, with his wife and three children, in the nearby town of Longmeadow. The other children of Mr. and Mrs. Forbush were two daughters, Myrtice Elizabeth, now Mrs. Chauncy Allan Lyford of East Aurora, New York, and Etta Lorenda, who is the wife of Ralph W. Marshall of Hyde Park, Massachusetts, and a younger son, Lewis Edward Forbush. In 1885 the Natural History Society organized a summer camp for nature study, as part of its educational program, and a little later Mr. Forbush was made its managing director. This camp, which was located at Wigwam Point on the shores of Lake Quin- sigamond on the outskirts of Worcester, was a pioneer in the great summer camp move- ment which today is doing so much towards building up physically, mentally and morally the young people of America. This camp, which was unique in many ways, quickly established itself in popularity and it soon reached an annual enrolment of nearly two hundred boys, with an auxiliary camp of about forty girls which was located across the lake from the boys' camp. Mr. Forbush outlined the plan of the natural history camp in a short article which he wrote for Forest and Stream of May 16, 1889, as follows : "The boy's summer vacation is generally given up to comparative idleness or to purposeless, ill-directed activity. The plan and scope then of this summer camp are to place before the boy a great variety of useful occupations, physical exercises, studies and recreations, and then to direct his energies without burdening him with irritating dis- cipline or restrictions. Each boy is allowed to follow his own peculiar bent. Is he a born mechanic, there is the workshop stocked with tools and simple machines, where he can build boats, traps, camp furniture, etc., with the advantage of having skilled mechanics to assist him ; or he may spend hours in watching the boat building and other occupations. Does his youthful mind aspire to excel as a hunter, trapper or angler, then he will follow the steps of the camp hunter, watch the making and setting of traps, the building of log camps, the netting of bait and the tying of flies ; he will learn the use of the woodsman's EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH XXXV ax and the handling of boats and canoes ; he will learn the secrets of woodcraft or frequent the shooting grounds. Should he have the instincts of a naturalist, he will follow the ornithologist in his search for birds, the entomologist in his excursions after bugs, beetles and many-legged things, the botanist who gathers wildflowers, or the geologist among the rocks; he may spend hours with the taxidermist, learning the art of preparing and mounting specimens, or in the laboratory or by the shore, he may watch curious forms under the microscope. Should his taste be artistic, he will join the roaming class in out- door sketching. Should his inclinations favor the military, he will have an opportunity to exercise them by a daily drill with the cadets, and if he proves efficient he may become an officer. There are gymnastic exercises and swimming lessons. . . . Caution is taught when in and upon the water, and as every safeguard is put around both those who are experienced and those who are not, there has never been an accident. Many means of recreation are provided. Games and sports are freely encouraged. Entertainments are given in the pavilion. Illuminations or fireworks occasionally fill out the evenings, and on special occasions, gathered around the camp-fire, the veteran hunter, ornitholo- gist, woodsman, soldier and forester, will tell tales of adventure in the wilderness, on the prairie, mountain or shore, which will linger in the memory for years." That the camp was unique in many ways, and was a pioneer in educational methods and in management, was clearly shown in an article which appeared in the Boston Traveler, dated July 31, 1890. It began : "Within thirty rods of the very centre of this Commonwealth is an object of more or less curiosity. It is the Worcester Natural History Camp. The reader will naturally inquire why this, more than any other tented field, should be an attraction or of any special interest. The answer is easy enough. It is the only encampment of this kind within the broad confines of Uncle Sam's domains. "Funny, isn't it? "Well, yes, in a certain sense, but when considered in all its details, its advantages and its superiority over everything in its class, in point of combining pleasure with profit, learning in its different branches, with recreation, the camp becomes at once more of a study than might be at first supposed. . . . "The camp could hardly fail to be a popular resort in the hands of so genial and kindly a gentleman as the president, Mr. E. H. Forbush." Mr. Forbush made another collecting trip to Florida in 1886, and made numerous shorter trips in the eastern states. In October, 1887, he became an Associate Member of the American Ornithologists' Union and a few years later he was elected a Member of that organization. In 1912 his standing as an authority on economic ornithology and his work for conservation were recognized by his election as a Fellow of the Union, a distinc- tion which is granted to but few of the outstanding ornithologists of the United States and Canada. At the time of his death he was also a member of the Advisory Council of the Union. In the summer of 1888 Mr. Forbush made another extended collecting trip, this time XXXVi EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH to the Pacific coast. It was his intention to visit Alaska and the Pribilof Islands. On the trip across the continent he spent some time in Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta, and also visited Washington Territory, collecting specimens of natural history as he went. He planned to take one of the few steamers which ran from Whatcom, Washing- ton, to Alaska, but when he reached that point he found to his dismay that the steamer had already departed and that he must make other plans. Learning that a United States Coast Survey vessel was at work among the little-known islands along the coast of Washington and British Columbia, he made arrangements to use this vessel as his headquarters while collecting. Here he found conditions very different from any- thing he had encountered on the Atlantic coast, and he had several quite thrilling adventures. It was while engaged in this work that he had the interesting experience which he later described in a series of articles for Forest and Stream (1889), entitled "Five Days a Savage." He had planned to make a visit to a group of small sandstone islands in the San Juan Archipelago which were known to be rich in fossils, as well as in bird-life. He procured a small skiff with mast and spritsail, which he steered with an oar. His collect- ing materials were stored in a large water-tight zinc-lined box and included guns and ammunition, a set of taxidermist's tools, insect nets, a geologist's hammer and chisel, etc., and a rope about two hundred feet long, for use in cliff-climbing. His other equipment included a roll of blankets, a small tent, a change of clothing, rubber blankets and rubber boots. He took neither supplies nor cooking utensils, as he expected to carry sufficient cooked food to last three or four days, with such slight additions as might result from his hunting. His boat having been towed to the chosen location, he spent an arduous day in climb- ing the cliffs and chiseling out from the sandstone, specimens of fossil shell for his collec- tion. It was then time for his friends of the Coast Survey to return to their base. As they were about to weigh anchor it was discovered that the steward had neglected to pre- pare the food supplies which he had counted upon taking with him, but nothing daunted, Mr. Forbush decided to make the best of it and to "live on the country" for a few days, until the steamer returned on its next trip. He knew that there was water on some of the islands, that there were clams, mussels, ducks and shore birds, sea birds' eggs and edible roots, all of which the Indians used for food, and he was not afraid of fasting for a few days if it became necessary. Taking the remains of the noon lunch, he said good-by to his friends, and sailing to one of the islands, made his first night's camp at the head of a little bay. The next morning he shot some water-fowl for breakfast, roasting them over the embers after saving their skins for specimens, but being obliged to eat them unsalted. As the tide ebbed, he speared some great crabs with an extemporized spear and dug some clams with a pointed stick. Later that day he obtained some salt from a squaw-man's cabin, but no other food. His next morning's breakfast he describes as follows : "Having now some birds and a healthy appetite, I dug a few clams, built a driftwood EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH XXXVii fire, scraped some large mussels off the rocks, and laid all the shellfish on the coals to roast. As the shells opened I took the clams and mussels out with my knife blade, trying them at all stages, well done or rare, and was surprised to find that when the 'mantles' were removed the mussels were rather superior in flavor and quality to the clams. Already the Siwash had begun to rise in my estimation, for mussels are said to be a favorite dish with him. Mussels, crabs and bay snipe made me quite a respectable meal." That day he spent collecting on the Skipjack Islands, mere rocky ledges surrounded by racing tides. Here he found interesting colonies of water-fowl. "On near approach to this nursery of sea birds a pandemonium of sounds greeted my ears. The wild, plaintive cries of the great Glaucous-winged Gulls mingled with the loud plaint of oystercatchers, the quacking of Harlequin Ducks and grumbling or hoarse growl- ing of puffins. Gulls Iwere perched everywhere on angles and shelves of the rock, or circling about overhead. Puffins, guillemots and oystercatchers sat on the reefs, and behind the projections of the rocks a few cormorants sat erect on the very verge of the sea wall. "As the boat drew nearer, the mass of ducks rose in a body with a noise like thunder, and skimmed away to leeward, followed by a flight of puffins and other birds, while the gulls rose high in air, and crying louder and louder, circled overhead. Then the cawing of crows joined the din as they came from far and near from other islands to the feast of eggs and young exposed by the fleeing sea birds. . . . "Now the Tufted Puffins began to return by ones and twos in rapid flight. A curious sight they were, with their great red 'noses,' their creamy crests streaming, their red splay feet spread wide out on either side trailing behind, and their little wings ' working for two.' . . . "The noon hour had passed, and it was time to lunch. In the cracks of the cliff I found a few eggs of the Pigeon Guillemot. Having first drunk all the water that remained in my pail, I blew the fresh eggs into this, and building a driftwood fire, scrambled the eggs in the bottom of the pail." The next night was spent near a fisherman's cabin and breakfast was supphed by the squaw-man's wife. Seeing the dead cormorant which Mr. Forbush was skinning, she said it was " skookum " and he determined to try roast cormorant at the first opportunity, and occupied the morning hunting for birds. ' ' The dinner hour was now at hand, and it was time to try the cormorant. First some lacamos roots were dug, which somewhat resemble potatoes, and are used by the Indians for food. These were supplemented by wild onions and a sort of wild mustard that grew on top of the rock. The cormorant, which had been drawn when killed and later put to soak in salt water, was stuffed with wild onions and roasted over the coals. It seemed that more savory game had never passed my lips. The oystercatchers were excellent, and the lacamos was served as a side dish on a flat stone. With it all went the best possible sauce, hunger. Now came regrets that I had not roasted those young crows. . . . ' ' Now for the puffins' nests, which had been the chief obj ect of my return. There were XXXViii EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH numerous burrows made by these birds in the perpendicular face of the Hght soil that topped the edge of the cliff. Here I got a hitch with the rope over a projecting rock or stump, and rigged a 'boson's chair' to keep me from falling, then commenced to dig with a three-cornered scraper, brought along for this very purpose. Having followed a burrow for three or four feet, I inserted an arm to its full length, and drew out a bird, and then a white egg covered with red earth. This sort of thing continued for two or three hours. Talk about a dog digging out a woodchuck ! There is no comparison. I chopped and tore out roots, dug out stones, went in head first until covered with red earth, got my hair, mouth and shoes full of it. . . . The digging continued until, following a hole for about eight feet, I found three or four branches or ramifications, and trying to trace these, bur- rowed into an old colony. This was a perfect labyrinth of interlocking tunnels, which seemed to honeycomb the bank in all directions. These tunnels went in so far that I desisted rather than risk being buried alive. . . . "Having been strenuously engaged since three a.m., my appetite for breakfast was developing. There was some water left in the pail with which to make a bird stew, which when made was flavored with wild onion and mustard ; and this, with a small fish speared with a hand-made wooden spear, and some roasted mussels, completed the morning meal. . . . ''Here on these outer ledges were more Black Oystercatchers, and here for the first time I found their remarkable nests, which, so far as I knew, never had been described. . . . Being unable to find an oystercatcher's nest elsewhere, and seeing that the birds haunted these ledges, I determined to land on one and go over it carefully. I succeeded in landing safely and paying out line, let the boat float well clear of the rock while explor- ing it. Immediately an oyster catcher rose from the highest point of the ledge, and there in a hollow between two ridges, which were practically invisible until one was actually on the rock, was a remarkable nest. There was a round, saucer-shaped depression, more than six inches in diameter, which had been hollowed by the elements. This had been lined by the birds with small pebbles, such as become loosened from the rock by disinte- gration during the ages and roll down into the hollows. These had been laid from the center outward in almost perfect concentric circles, thus paving the saucer-shaped receptacle in which the dark, handsome eggs lay. They and the sitting bird were concealed from the passerby in part by the outline of the rock, and in part by the blending of their colors with that of the ledge. No more perfect instance of protective coloration could be found." On the fifth day, while sailing across an eight-mile stretch of open water, he was over- taken by a hard windstorm and, caught by the changing tide, nearly met disaster. Finally, however, he reached the shelter of Lummi Island where the Coast Survey party was encamped, and at two o'clock in the morning found the steamer at its mooring and turned in, none the worse for his experiences. A little later, while still collecting sea birds' eggs, he met with an adventure which few of us would care to duplicate. Let him describe it : EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH XXxix "Most of the islands that I visited on the coast of Washington and British Columbia were topped with scattering trees, and a few were wooded. In searching for birds' nests, my usual method of descending a cliff was to pass a rope around a tree trunk at the sum- mit, throw the ends over, and go down holding both lines in my hands. On attempting sheer descents, I made one end of the rope fast, and let myself down hand over hand to some shelf. "On the last island of the group, which was treeless, I could find no point of attach- ment for a line, and as there were clefts in which sea birds made their home, I determined to try a descent without a rope. To see how this might be done, I lay down at the edge, and examined that portion of the cliff which could be seen from my position. The rock sloped irregularly downward for about twenty feet, and then assumed the perpendicular. Along its visible portion there were occasional vertical fissures ; also some horizontal and diagonal seams, with narrow projecting shelves which offered a precarious footing and handhold. Where the seams intersected the vertical fissures little caves were formed, and in these the birds were nesting. Some distance to my right was a cleft larger than the others. Projecting from it and overhanging the verge was a weather-beaten stump or snag, all that remained of a lone tree, which had once grown out of this miniature chasm. There the cliff overhung its base and was inaccessible from below. " Choosing a diagonal shelf for a foothold, and descending by thrusting my fingers into such crevices as happened to be within reach, I gained the first deep, vertical cleft. In- serting my head, arms and shoulders within, I secured a set of guillemot's eggs, but could reach no more, for they were far back out of sight in the very bowels of the rock. The next shelf was hardly five inches wide. I carefully let myself down to it, and finding such handhold as presented itself, crept cautiously on. I had almost reached the large cleft when an unexpected horror happened. The surface of the rock must have been under- going disintegration, for the whole shelf gave way bodily beneath my weight. My feet shot out and down so unexpectedly, and my body followed with so sudden an impetus, that my hands were torn away from the cleft which my fingers just reached to clutch. In sliding past the place where the shelf had been, I involuntarily turned in the air, throw- ing my body toward the cleft and reaching downward for the snag on which my whole mind now centered. My hunting coat caught on the cliff and was dragged up over my .shoulders. This may have checked my fall a little, but the only noticeable effect at the time was that my field glass fell out of my pocket, and my knife dropped from its sheath. Half falling, half sliding down that steep and rugged slope toward that fearful verge, hurried toward certain destruction, I clutched at the snag in passing as a drowning man catches at a straw, reached it, and held on with a death grip. My whole soul went into that grip. The weeks of rowing, paddling, and cliff climbing that had hardened my muscles and strengthened my fingers served well their purpose. As my body, checked at arm's length, swung beneath the snag, it seemed as if the strain would tear my arms from their sockets. The snag bent and sank crackling downwards until it rested on the shelf at the bottom of the crevice. As I hung there and felt it give and splinter, the sound of rend- Xl EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH ing wood sent a poignant shock through my every nerve. Still, all the time, I felt a thrill of delight that hanging there on the brink of eternity I was able to hold on and defy death as long as the cracking wood should hold. I heard the clink of the knife as it struck far below, and the surge of the breakers on the rocks. It is said that at such moments all the events of one's life pass through the mind. No such thoughts troubled me. My whole attention was now concentrated in holding on till the last breath, or until the straining wood should part. But at last the old snag settled until it rested on the solid rock. Its roots were firmly anchored. It held ! I was now hanging over the very verge of the cliff, with my legs dangling below the overhang. There was no shelf for a foothold and it seemed that I must hang there until, strength failing, I fell into the abyss. But here my experience as a lone hunter came to my aid. There are many compensations for such a life, chief among which is the spirit of self-reliance which it implants. I cast no despairing glance over that sailless sea, nor wasted breath in useless shouts for help. My eye ran over the face of the rock, while my fingers worked nervously in the effort to raise my body nearer the cliff. A little to my right was a widening of a small crevice, which I managed to reach with my right foot by working up the snag with both hands and then raising both body and limbs. It was a nerve-wracking task, for at every movement the wood creaked and crackled, sending thrills of agonized apprehension through my being. Having gotten the toe of my right shoe well into the crevice, and my body against the rock, I hung panting for breath, hopeful, yet fearing every instant lest the splintered snag should part. Having rested, I was able to hold my body against the rock with my left hand and right foot, and, unclasping my right hand from the saving wood, reach another crevice still higher up. From my right foothold a diagonal cleft led up the sloping rock toward the summit, which I managed in time to reach by clinging tooth and nail everywhere. Here I threw myself down on the brink, bruised, strained, exhausted, but happy, feeling the joy of a man who, standing on the scaffold, is saved at the last moment by a reprieve." One other adventure, which again tested the mettle of the man, and we leave the Pacific waters. We quote again : "In August of the same year [1888] I started north from Cadbury Bay on Vancouver Island to explore the islands along the coast. . . . The canoe in which I set out on the journey, made by the Indians on Queen Charlotte Islands, was very small, being about ten feet long on the water line, with a long, high, overhanging prow, built to ride the seas. It was hollowed from a large log and made in two parts, the canoe proper and the prow, which was fastened firmly with wires and sinews to one end. It was bought from the Indians by a friend in Vancouver, who had some light, flat ribs put in to strengthen it, and also fitted it with rowlocks, as one man would have difficulty in handling it with a paddle at sea. Strong short oars, a mast and a rubber blanket that could be rigged as a spritsail by day and utilized as a shelter at night completed the propelling arrangements. . . . ' ' There was a great swell running in the channel, but the wind had died away. Taking in sail I shipped the oars and laid a course to cross the channel to an island five miles away. When half the distance had been passed the swell had increased in power and EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH xli looking away down the channel I saw that the wind was coming, and that a sail was scud- ding down the shore before it at a racing speed. This was an unwelcome sight, as it was a head wind for me, and already the sea was high. Soon the distant sail had more wind than she could handle, had dropped her peak and was running for a harbor. Looking away down the channel I saw a line of foaming seas, and heard the roaring of the gale coming out of a clear sky. It seemed that I must take it as it came, and try to ride it out, as there was no escape. So, heading the canoe into the seas, I pulled steadily on, rising and falling on the great swell. The squall struck with a rush and roar. A dash of salt spray swept over me, to which I bent my head. As the canoe gathered from the shock I drove the oars into the wave with a strong pull and her prow rode high on its foaming crest and then slid down into the dark hollow beyond. She rode them well at first, but soon the sea increased. The foaming crests began combing high in air, and between them yawned great, dark, cavernous valleys, which seemed about to engulf the little craft. Soon the white combers began to curl over the high bow, and the chill water washed over my feet. She would have weathered it had she been light, but she was too heavily loaded. This would not do ! The canoe was filling, and I could not leave the oars to bail her, as my safety depended on keeping her head on. Even this was hard to do in the face of the gale which swept the crests of the great seas. There was only one thing to be done. I must get her stern-on and run before it. Watching my chance I let her broach just as the crest of a wave passed, and in the hollow before the next I turned her by backing and pulling with might and main. As I dropped both oars in the water for my long, strong pull, the foam of the oncoming crest was curling about her stern. "Far away, miles to leeward, was a small island, the only land she could possibly live to reach. For this I headed her. Looking astern, I could see the work that was cut out for me. Far as the eye could see, the seas were rising, foaming, piling higher every minute. The wind swept down like a winged demon on their track. It was life or death then, for should one of those great seas overtake me and break over that low stern, my race would be run. No man could swim long in that cold water. I strained my eyes at the distant shore point with which I had lined her stern for steering. As every wave rose I knew that I must pull the canoe out of the grasp of that foaming giant, and as the crest lifted her again and threw her sideways, I knew that she must be brought stern on again, before the next one struck her. ' Catching a crab ' over which we made much fun when learning to row, would be fatal now. Nerved by this certainty, I exerted all the strength and skill that was in me. My muscles seemed to rend and sharp pains shot through my arms, back and shoulders at the strain. Now the sturdy oars stood me in good stead. "Still, in spite of all my efforts, great seas lifted the canoe bodily and threw her side- ways into the trough ; but I never lost my hold upon the oars, and setting my teeth I forced her to her course, though half full of water. It puts the courage of desperation into a man's heart to sit in a sinking canoe and watch a great wave tower over the stern and then rush to break and overwhelm him. Wet from my morning bath, sitting in a foundering boat with aching muscles, straining eyes and set teeth, I struggled on and on. Xlii EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH At last I heard the welcome boom of the surf beating on the rocks. The thunderous sound put new life into me, but it was off to my right. The strong spring tide was carrying me past the island, so bracing myself for one great effort, I strained on the oars until at last I floated in the smooth swell behind the kelp reefs under the lee of the island, and pushed the canoe on the beach just as she was foundering. "My precious specimens were safe in their watertight box, but everything else was soaked as I reached the shore. . . . Here I built a great fire and dried out everything, then rolled in my blankets, thankful to be once more safe and dry. . . . Next day I rowed some twenty-five or thirty miles, and camped on a point of Vancouver Island, where a searching party of worried friends found me. It was the Sabbath, and people from town were out enjoying the beautiful weather. As I passed one of these family gatherings, a little boy shaded his eyes with his hands while he gazed at my outfit, and his high thin voice was plainly audible as he called 'Oh see. Ma, there's an Injun.'" It was in September of that same year that Mr. Forbush collected, near Comox, British Columbia, several specimens of a bird which was new to science and which his friend Mr. William Brewster later described and named for its discoverer. In the Auk for January, 1889, Mr. Brewster wrote : "Lincoln's Finch has been repeatedly cited as a good example of a 'hard and fast' species, which, although of wide distribution, is not subject to geographical variation. The specimens above described, with another male taken at the same place and season, show, however, that it has not been able to resist the potent modifying influences of the Northwest Coast Region. These influences have worked in quite the usual way, deepen- ing the normal ground coloring and broadening and intensifying the normal markings. The differences are well marked and easily recognized. Indeed in a series of nearly one hundred specimens of lincolni from various parts of North America and Mexico I have found only three which approach the new form at all closely." Mr. Forbush himself has described the collecting of this new race very briefly in the Bulletin of the Essex County Ornithological Club for 1920, where, in "Notes on the Lin- coln's Sparrow," he wrote : "The only occasion on which I have ever seen more than one at a time anywhere, was a loose flock feeding in an open field at Comox, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, September 8, 1888. Their habits, notes and general appearance at that time seemed to differ much from those of our eastern bird, and a specimen taken then was used by Brewster as the type of Melospiza lincolni striata, Forbush's Sparrow. For the distinction conferred upon me I felt duly grateful and at the time fully believed that I had discovered a new bird. Since then grave doubts have assailed me, as others of my supposed discoveries have been relegated to the scrap heap. This may be as good a geographical race as some now recognized, but probably the future will see this sub- species and many others eliminated from the list of North American birds. In my opinion it would be about as well to eliminate all geographical races as to carry the craze for discovering and naming them so far as in some instances it has gone already." Upon returning to New England after this visit to the Pacific coast, Mr. Forbush EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH xliii again threw himself into the activities of the Worcester Natural History Society. He also organized the Brewster Ornithological Club, composed of active bird students of Worcester and its nearby towns, and he served as the first president of this club. In 1891 he began making plans for a collecting trip to Newfoundland, hoping to explore the seldom- visited and heavily wooded interior of that island, which has since furnished the types of a number of geographical races of birds and mammals, but he relinquished this plan upon his appointment as Director of Gypsy Moth Suppression in Massachu- setts. Some years previously the Gypsy Moth, Ocneria dispar, a European pest, had become established in the suburbs of Boston and its ravages were causing great consternation among the people of the state. Large regions of orchard, 'garden and woodland alike were being stripped bare and tremendous financial loss was threatened unless steps could be taken to suppress the destructive creature. Local measures seemed entirely unavail- ing and in 1890 Governor Brackett appointed a commission to investigate conditions and to make recommendations as to means of remedying them. In 1891 this commission was reorganized and the new commission, with the approval of Governor Russell, appointed Mr. Forbush as director of the work. The appointment was entirely unexpected and unsolicited, and indeed it was undesired, but his sense of public obligation impelled him to accept the work and to throw all his energies into it in his characteristic fashion. A plan of campaign was quickly organized and he enlisted a corps of assistants. The dis- tribution of the moth and its life history, both in this country and in Europe, were care- fully studied. An experiment station was fitted out, where the feeding habits and other details could be studied under ideal conditions. Especially pertinent were the studies of the possible means of suppression to be adopted. Parasites, native and foreign, were thoroughly tested and every conceivable enemy of the moth was investigated. Mechani- cal and chemical agents were tried, such as scraping off the egg clusters, creosoting them, burning the leaves under the trees, applying tree ink and other "tanglefoot" compounds, and spraying with various poisons. Records were made of all the birds which were seen to prey upon the moth in any of its stages, and efforts were made to increase the numbers of these beneficial birds. The work was started with enthusiasm and considerable optimism, but was doomed to failure from the start. If the director had received the support from the people that his efforts justified, results might have been very different. Mr. Forbush very quickly recognized the gravity of the situation and realized that halfway measures would not succeed. Larger appropriations were sought but the short-sighted policy and sectional jealousies of the legislators cut them down each year. Residents of the state outside of the infested areas could not be convinced of the danger in the wider spread of the pest, and they refused their cooperation in attempting to restrict it to the regions already involved. Small demonstration areas were cleared of the insect, showing clearly what might have been done on a larger scale had sufficient funds been available, but petty politics defeated the plans of the director and the commissioners. Once Mr. Forbush Xliv EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH resigned, but was induced to serve longer. In the spring of 1900, however, after he had served faithfully for nine years, the politicians rewarded his sincere efforts by cutting in half the appropriation asked by the Gypsy Moth Commission for its work, and Mr. Forbush again handed in his resignation with the demand that it be accepted at once. He left the work with the sympathy and best wishes of the Gypsy Moth Commission and of the Department of Agriculture and of all with whom he had been in contact in his difficult position. In 1896, after the work had been well started and new methods had been carried out with considerable success, Mr. Forbush prepared, with Prof. Charles H. Fernald of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, a monograph on the Gypsy Moth and its suppression, which is still recognized as a classic of its kind. In 1893, largely because of his work in studying the relations of birds to the Gypsy Moth, Mr. Forbush was appointed Ornithologist to the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture. In the beginning his work was largely that of a consultant and advisor. With the relinquishment of his connection with the Gypsy Moth Commission, more and more time was given to his studies of economic ornithology. His home in the northern suburbs of Boston had been an experiment station for some time and he later acquired a place at Wareham, near Buzzards Bay, where he could continue his researches in practical ornithology. It was at this latter place that he gathered the data which he later published under the title '' Two Years with the Birds on a Farm," and [which showed in clear and graphic manner the actual benefits which may accrue from an increased population of insect-eating and weed-destroying birds. He also spent much of his time at this period at the estate of his friend, Mr. William Brewster, in Concord, Massachusetts, where the two congenial spirits could ramble about the quiet countryside together, studying the haunts and habits of the wild creatures about them. In 1900 and again in 1905 Mr. Forbush made trips to Florida, and at one time or another visited practically all of the eastern states. Many of these trips were for lecture purposes and others were connected with the growing movement for conservation. In 1905 the State Board of Agriculture was authorized by the legislature to publish "a special report on the birds of the Commonwealth, economically considered," and Mr. Forbush's resultant volume, "Useful Birds and Their Protection," was immediately recognized as an extremely valuable and timely book. It passed through several editions after its first appearance in 1907, and is still in constant demand, being used as a textbook in many schools and consulted whenever economic ornithology is discussed. This volume contains, in clear and nontechnical language, the results of Mr. Forbush's extended studies of the food habits of birds, as well as the researches of others. An indication of the thoroughness with which his investigations were carried on, as well as of the originality of some of his methods, is shown in his study of the food of nestling Tree Swallows, Purple Martins, Bluebirds and other hole-nesting birds. Cameras were set up within a few feet of the nests occupied by young of these species, and photographs were made whenever the parents brought food to their young. Many hours were spent in this EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH xlv work and in watching the birds from the cramped confines of an " umbrella blind." The resultant photographs, enlarged, revealed the nature of much of the food brought to the young. Many of the illustrations for "Useful Birds and Their Protection " were from carefully- prepared pen-and-ink drawings by the author and this is also true of several others of his writings. In 1908 Mr. Forbush became oflacially the Massachusetts State Ornithologist, a position which he held until 1920 when, following the reorganization of the various state boards and the formation of the Massachusetts Department of Agriculture, he became the first Director of the Division of Ornithology. Long before this Mr. Forbush was widely known as an active conservationist. He was one of the founders of the Massachusetts Audubon Society and for twelve years its president. In 1907 he became field agent for New England of the National Association of Audubon Societies and from that time on his attention was given more and more to protective legislation. He saw great changes take place in the attitude of the public towards our wild life. In his youth practically no protection was given to any of our birds. Game birds were shot at all times, were snared and netted, were sold in the public markets, and their eggs were collected in great numbers. Song birds were killed by any- one who owned a gun, especially by boys, but many were also trapped and caged. Birds of bright plumage were slaughtered for millinery purposes and our native insectivorous and seed-eating species were entirely unprotected by law. Reservations for wild life were practically unknown. All this is tremendously changed today, and Mr. Forbush was in the forefront of the battle in procuring protection for our diminishing wild life. To list all the progressive legislation which he helped to secure would take too much space and it is sufficient to say that for the more than twenty years in which he was associated with the National Asso- ciation of Audubon Societies, he took an active part in every advance in bird protection, appearing at countless legislative hearings in all the New England states, giving hundreds of lectures on bird conservation in which he usually stressed the important economic status of our birds, and contributing very many articles to the newspapers and magazines which were instrumental in shaping public opinion. He personally visited many of the sea bird colonies in New England and a number of these became sanctuaries as a result of his visits and subsequent reports. At the time when the United States Department of Agriculture decided to establish an Advisory Board to assist it in handling regulations under the original Migratory Bird Treaty with Great Britain, Mr. Forbush was one of the seven men who were asked to form the original board. He continued to serve on the Advisory Board until his death and his counsels were much appreciated by the other members of this board. Mr. Forbush was also connected with numerous other organizations interested in birds or their conservation. He was the first president of the New England (now the Northeastern) Bird Banding Association and of the Federation of the Bird Clubs of New xlvi EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH England. He was for many years a corresponding member of the Nuttall Ornithological Club, and also maintained a membership in several other similar organizations. During the last twenty-five years of his life he published many pamphlets on bird pro- tection and on economic ornithology, under the auspices of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture and its official successor. Among them were papers on such sub- jects as "The Farmers' Interest in Game Protection," "Rats and Rat Riddance," "Bird Houses and Nesting Boxes," "The Enghsh Sparrow and the Means of Controlling It," "The Starhng," "Food Plants to Attract Birds and Protect Fruit," "The Domestic Cat, Bird Killer, Mouser and Destroyer of Wild Life," "The Natural Enemies of Birds," "Food, Feeding and Drinking Appliances and Nesting Material to Attract Birds," "Out- door Bird Study," "The Utility of Birds" and "Some Under-water Activities of Certain Waterfowl." He also produced a volume entitled "A History of the Game Birds, Wild-Fowl and Shore Birds of Massachusetts" which was published by the Commonwealth in 1912 and was re-printed in 1916. This book placed before the public for the first time, in clear and concise form, the actual facts regarding the decrease of many of our important birds which are hunted for food or for sport, and the value of the book was far-reaching. One of the most successful of Mr. Forbush's methods of collecting and disseminating information about birds was by means of a bulletin, "Items of Interest," issued monthly for a number of years. Mr. Forbush enlisted the cooperation of a force of several hundred volunteer observers, who reported to him the results of their observations of bird activities. From the great quantity of data thus obtained each month, he prepared a resume which was distributed among his correspondents and to various organizations interested in bird study. The results of this system in stimulating careful field observations among a widely distributed group of bird students were most excellent and an immense amount of valuable material was amassed. Had Edward Howe Forbush written nothing more than we have already mentioned, his place among scientific ornithologists would have remained secure. But every step which he had taken was leading, consciously or unconsciously, toward his great and final work, "The Birds of Massachusetts and Other New England States." The three volumes of that book are the culmination of his many years of bird study and research, the out- growth of his deep and abiding love for our feathered neighbors, the summit towards which all his earlier efforts had been urging him forward. The first volume, covering all the water birds, ducks and geese, marsh birds, and shore birds, met with the instant approval of the scientific ornithologist and the amateur bird lover as well. The edition of five thousand copies was quickly exhausted and was fol- lowed by a second and a third printing. The second volume, comprising the game birds, birds of prey and the perching birds through the grackles, was issued in 1927 in an edition of seventy-five hundred copies and like its predecessor was quickly out of print and another edition of twenty-five hundred copies was necessary. The third volume treats the song birds and a few extirpated species not described in the earlier volumes. EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH xlvii These volumes are illustrated with finely reproduced paintings by the late Louis Agassiz Fuertes and by Major Allan Brooks, and with halftones and line cuts of some of the rarer birds, as well as by numerous distribution maps prepared from data collected by Mr. Forbush. The books reflect in a multitude of ways the personality of their author, revealing as they do, so many intimate though brief glimpses of the man himself. His never-ending joy in watching even the commonest birds, his thrill when as a boy he saw his first Ruffed Grouse and which was duplicated hundreds of times in later life, his discerning interest in the feeding activities of the little Red-eyed Vireo which first led him into a consideration of the economic value of our birds, his early awakened realization of the necessity of pro- tecting and encouraging our bird population — all these are revealed in the pages of these volumes, together with a thousand other little personal touches. The manuscript of the third and final volume was rapidly nearing completion when Mr. Forbush laid down his pen for the last time. He had exhausted himself in his con- stant concentration on the work which he had laid upon his frail shoulders and a sudden cold, in his weakened condition, quickly developed into pneumonia and he passed away, at his home in Westborough, on March 7, 1929, in his seventy-first year. We honor the memory of Edward Howe Forbush for his outstanding accomplishments in economic ornithology, we praise him for his great work in wild life conservation and protection, we read again and again his charming descriptions of the intimate lives of our feathered neighbors, but it is still another side of the man himself which has endeared him to his host of friends and which renders so poignant our sense of loss in his passing. He held a most unusual place in the hearts of hundreds of persons who had never met him face to face but who knew him through the revelation of his writings. His sincerity and singleness of purpose, his patience and tactful consideration, his friendly interest in the problems of the veriest tyro in bird study, gave a personal touch to all his relations with others. Visitors found him a patient listener, always ready to draw upon his great store of knowledge for their benefit. He was modest and unassuming in his bearing, but when, as a result of thorough investigation and keen judgment, he formed an opinion, he was ready to back it against any man or group of men, and his ideas were valued accordingly. His kindliness, his saving touch of humor, his never-failing sense of justice, won friends even among those who opposed him in matters of policy in conservation, and he accom- plished his ends with a minimum of effort as, tall, spare, and almost ascetic in appearance, he moved quietly about his chosen work. There must be a tremendous satisfaction in knowing that one has made a real con- tribution to the welfare and happiness of many, many people, and this satisfaction be- longed to Mr. Forbush. Honors came to him during his life in the recognition afforded him by many scientific organizations and those devoted to conservation. A few months before his retirement from the Division of Ornithology, the Advisory Board of the Massachusetts Department of Agriculture awarded him a gold medal "For Outstanding Achievement in Economic Ornithology." The Federation of Bird Clubs of New England xlviii EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH purchased a great tract of wild land in Berkshire County and presented it to the Com- monwealth as a perpetual sanctuary, " The Edward Howe Forbush Wild Life Sanctuary." The Boston Society of Natural History published as one of its "Proceedings" a bio- graphical sketch and bibliography of Mr. Forbush, which was issued on his seventieth birthday, on which date the Associated Committees on Wild Life tendered Mr. Forbush a complimentary dinner at the University Club in Boston. On the edge of the little village of Westborough, where he had lived so many years of his long and useful life, is the quiet graveyard where his friends gathered in March, 1929, to do last homage to Edward Howe Forbush. His was a clean and upright life, dedicated to the advancement of interest in natural and simple things, and it was most appropriate that, as he was laid away to his last long rest, birds called in the near-by pines, and among the beautiful flowers which covered him, there lay a simple spray of pussy willows, "from the woods he loved so well." BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND OTHER NEW ENGLAND STATES PART III Family FRINGILLIDuSI. Finches, Sparrows, Grosbeaks, etc. Number of species in North America 92; in Massachusetts 41. This is the largest family of birds, including about 600 species distributed throughout the world. It is also the largest family in North America. In all the species the bill is hard and more or less cone-shaped — a form which combines strength for crushing hard seeds with delicacy of touch in selecting minute objects, thus fitting the Fringillidse for taking into the mouth very small seeds and insects, as well as larger ones. Usually the bill is more or less convex, but sometimes it is slightly concave ; the nostrils are placed up near the ridge or culmen, and in most cases are not covered by feathers. The upper mandible has sharp cutting edges which for the most part run nearly straight from its point to or near the base of the bill, bending down there at a sharp angle, which is followed also by the lower mandible. There are some species with small bills in which this char- acter is barely evident, as the bend or angle of the edges of the beak is very slight, but on the whole this character will separate the Fringillidx from all other American families except the Icteridse, some of which are exceedingly sparrow-hke. The wings have but nine primaries developed. The tarsus is typically Oscine, scaled in front and covered with an undivided plate on each side which is ridged behind. All grosbeaks, finches, crossbills, buntings, linnets, juncos, towhees and sparrows belong with the Fringillidse. Most of these birds sing well and some excellently. Most of the sparrows are clad in dull inconspicuous plumage that harmonizes well with the ground on which they largely feed, but the males of some arboreal finches are very brilliantly colored. Most birds of this group nest either on the ground or rather low in shrubbery or trees. 1 2 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS Economic Status. The Fringillidse are known everywhere as seed-eaters and can subsist wherever their favorite seeds are accessible, even in winter. In seasons when insects are plentiful, they feed largely on them, particularly in spring, and on account of the destruction of noxious insects and the seeds of weeds they are generally considered useful. Some species of this family attack grain in the fields, and doubtless they dis- tribute weed seeds to some extent. However, as the seeds eaten are almost all cracked and ground up in the powerful gizzard, it is probable that few are passed in condition to germinate. Hesperiphona vespertlna vespertina (W. Cooper), Evening Grosbeak. Plate 63. Description. — Bill sparrow-like, but enormous for size of bird, much larger than that of Pine Gros- beak, and nearly as wide as high at base, its lateral outUnes nearly or quite straight ; nostrils sparsely covered by short bristly nasal feathers ; wings pointed, tips folding beyond middle of tail which is shghtly forked; feet rather small; markings in both sexes variable. Adult male: Forehead, broad stripe over eye, scapulars, rump and extreme upper sides of breast, also sides, flanks and posterior under plumage yellow, becoming bright yellow on rump and paler on extreme posterior under plumage (longer under tail- coverts sometimes partly white) ; narrow line around base of upper mandible, top of head (from top of forehead), wings, upper tail-coverts and tail black or blackish (except inner flight-feathers, which are white or grayish-white, sometimes tinged or edged with yellow outwardly) ; rest of head, neck, back, breast and center of belly brownish-olive, darkest on head and neck, and changing gradually into yellow where it meets that color; wing linings black and yellow; bill "a decided greenish-yellow, a little more green on the edges, more yellow in the center" (M. J. Magee), or pale yellowish-green, occasionally with a rosy tint; iris brown; legs "reddish-gray" (Miss B. W. Moses), "deep flesh-color" (M. J. Magee). Adult female : Smoke-gray, darkening on head and paUng on rump and upper tail-coverts as well as below (longer upper tail-coverts black with whitish tips), often shghtly mottled with darker, and sometimes mixed with a httle olive or yellowish ; wings and tail largely black, varied with pale gray and whitish ; wing linings much as in male, but paler yellow; tail chiefly black but inner webs broadly hght gray toward end ; black patch in middle of upper tail-coverts, narrowing toward tail ; dusky streak along lower jaw; bill "a little duskier" (M. J. Magee). Young in first winter plumage: Much Uke adults, but immature males usually may be distinguished by blackish or dusky inner margins of tertials. Young in Juvenal plumage {sexes alike) : Resemble adult female, but more brownish, lower plumage paler and more buffy, and markings less sharply defined. Measurements. — Length 7.00 to 8.50 in.; spread 13.00 to 13.80; folded wing 4.20 to 4.55; tail 2.60 to 3.20; bill, culmen .72 to .83, depth of bill at base .55 to .70, breadth about .60; tarsus .70 to .80. Sexes nearly aUke in size, though female is usually slightly smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage acquired by complete postnatal molt of natal down, assumed as young bird is fledged; first winter plumage by partial post Juvenal molt of body feathers and wing-coverts, Juvenal fhght-feathers and tail retained, tertials may be shed in some cases ; first breeding plumage by wear, supplemented possibly in some cases by sUght spring molt about head and neck, flight-feathers and tail are worn and brown as compared with those of adults ; adult winter plumage produced by complete postnuptial molt when bird is more than a year old ; adults have complete postnuptial molt and breeding plumage is the result of wear, though some appear to molt shghtly about the head and neck. Field Marks. — Catbird size but stouter. Adult male : Great, stout, pale yellowish-green beak and striking contrast of colors (black, white and yellow) distinguish adult male at once from any other winter PLATE 63 PLATE 63 PINE GROSBEAK Immature Male Page 5 Female Adult Male PURPLE FINCH Page 10 Adult Male Female or Immature Male EVENING GROSBEAK Page 2 Adult Male Female EVENING GROSBEAK 3 bird ; large white patches in black wings of male show distinctly. Female and young : Resemble male closely in size and shape, have no streaks and little yellow, but show much pale gray or whitish on black wings ; the large pale bill is diagnostic ; flight somewhat undulating. Voice. — Calls, "a shrill 'cheepy-teet,' and a 'frog-like peep'" (F. M. Chapman) ; a short, shrill trill of alarm (Chandler Foot) ; a cross between call of hyla and "English" Sparrow (Mrs. W. H. Herrick) ; male, "a single metalUc cry Uke the note of a trumpet," female, "a loud chattering" like the Bohemian Waxwing; song, "a wandering jerky warble" (S. E. White); also a pleasing "crooning sound" when feeding (Mrs. G. E. Burbank). Breeding. — Breeding habits probably unknown. Francis J. Birtwell describes and illustrates the nest and eggs,^ but his birds probably should be assigned to the western race of the species. R. M. Marble records a nesting pair in Woodstock, Vermont, but no nest or eggs were seen, only the fledged young (see record below under "Distribution in New England"). L. Osborne Scott reports that on June 18, 1899, he found four nests of this species, with eggs, near Winnipeg, Manitoba, but gives no description of the eggs, except to say that they "are more blotched than those of the Red-breasted [Grosbeak] and not so spotted." The nests were about 12 or 15 feet from the ground in willows on the bank of the Red River, rather flat and slight, built of sticks and roots.^ Range. — Central and central-eastern North America. In summer north and west to central Alberta, southern Manitoba and western Ontario, south to northern Minnesota and northern Michigan and east to central Vermont ; winters from central Alberta, southern Saskatchewan, southern Manitoba, south- western Quebec, Nova Scotia (casually) and New England south to central Texas, central Missouri, western Kentucky, Ilhnois, Indiana, Ohio and southern Maryland. Distribution in New England. — Formerly unknown but of late years more or less common and regular winter visitor south to Rhode Island and Connecticut, where more rare and irregular ; quite com- mon in some winters ; accidental in summer in Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont. Breeding record : Vermont: Woodstock, July 13 and 14, 1926, a pair seen with four newly fledged young.^ Season in Massachusetts. — (September 3 and 9) November 5 to May 20. History. The Evening Grosbeak is a remarkable bird. It resembles the common Grosbeak or Hawfinch of Europe, but is quite distinct from it. It is a typical seed-eater with a large, powerful, fringilline bill, and was regarded until within the past fifty years as typically a bird of the far northwest. Its generic name is derived from the Greek, referring to the Hesperides, "Daughters of Night," who dwelt on the western verge of the world where the sun goes down. It was discovered in 1823 by Henry R. Schoolcraft and named in 1825 by W. Cooper from a specimen taken at Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan. It was called the Evening Grosbeak as it was then observed to sing only at evening. What- ever may have been its distribution and habits then, it is no longer a distinctively western bird nor does it sing only at sundown. The first recorded extension of its range east of the Great Lakes was at Toronto in 1854. About the beginning of the last quarter of the nineteenth century there seems to have been some increase of the species in winter in the northern tier of mid-western states. The first verified occurrence of the species in Indiana, according to Dr. A. W. Butler, was in November, 1878, although it was reported there in 1876.^ In the winter > Auk, Vol. XVIII, 1901, pp. 388-391. 2 Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. XIII, 1899, p. 196. 3 Marble, R. M. : Auk, Vol. XLIII, 1926, p. 549. * Butler, A. W. : Birda of Indiana, 22nd Report of State Geologist, 1897, pp. 912, 913. 4 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS of 1886-87 its numbers increased in Indiana, and it was noted in Ontario and also in some numbers in western Kentucky in the spring of 1887, and a few reached New York State. ^ Up to the winter of 1889-90, however, it was almost unknown in the East, and even as far west as Ohio. In that winter a great eastward migration occurred, which in January, 1890, penetrated almost to the Atlantic coast of Massachusetts. After that the species came east from time to time in winter, and in 1910-11 there was another great eastward movement. From that time onward these birds were observed in New England every year, and they gradually became uncommon to common winter visitors to New England as far south as Rhode Island and Connecticut, in which states they are less common and regular than in Massachusetts. For the last ten or twelve years they have visited Massachusetts every year in varying numbers, and have appeared in most of the towns in the state. The flocks have varied in numbers from a few birds to about 100, and one flock of about 150 was reported. In certain years few birds have been noted, in others the species has been reported from about half the towns in the state. It was first suggested by Dr. Walter Faxon, I beheve, that the movement of these birds east in winter was facilitated by the planting of the ash-leaved maple or box-elder {Negundo aceroides) in tree claims across the western plains as well as in the East. The buds and seeds of this tree seem to be preferred by these grosbeaks to those of all other trees. Recent bird-banding records quite clearly show that in migration these birds move east and west. Four birds banded by Mr. M. J. Magee at Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, have been taken, two near the city of Quebec, Canada, one in Connecticut and one in Massachusetts, and Mr. Magee himself has recently taken one which was banded in Hanover, New Hampshire.^ Haunts and Habits. That gifted writer, Dr. Elliott Coues, says of the Evening Grosbeak : "In full plumage this is a bird of distinguished appearance, whose very name suggests the far-away land of the dipping sun, and the tuneful romance which the wild bird throws around the fading light of day ; clothed in striking color-contrasts of black, white and gold, he seems to represent the allegory of diurnal transmutation ; for his sable pinions close around the brightness of his vesture, as night encompasses the golden hues of sunset, while the clear white space enfolded in these tints foretells the dawn of the morrow." Seen for the first time amid the snows of winter and against a background of darkling pines, these strange and beautiful waifs of the northland seem somehow out of place, as would some rare and singular exotic plant blossoming in a New England winter. Their presence here appears almost miraculous. They usually come without warning very late in autumn, and as suddenly disappear in spring. They are swift of flight, and when on the wing thread their way easily through the branches of the forest. Where food is plentiful, they are quiet and sedentary, gentle and unafraid, though they soon become 1 Auk, Vol. IX, 1892, pp. 240-247. 2 Magee, M. J. : Bulletin, Northeastern Bird-Banding Association, Vol. IV, 1928, p. 56 and in litt. PINE GROSBEAK 5 cautious if molested. Where people feed them and use them well, they return winter after winter, and often spend a part of each forenoon at the feeding place. Some of them at times become so tame under good treatment that they will almost eat from the hand. During their stay with us they feed almost entirely on vegetal matter and chiefly on seeds. They are fond of bathing even in winter, and visit unfrozen parts of swift streams at this season to bathe and drink, and, like several other birds, they drink the sap of maple trees wherever they find it. Mrs. H. J. Pratt has noted that in February they snap off small twigs to drink the sap that flows from the breaks. As spring approaches there is some attempt at song and courtship on the part of the most vigorous adult males, and now and then one may be seen prancing before a female with wings and tail opening and closing to exhibit his charms to the utmost, but probably the full courtship display is witnessed seldom in this latitude. Usually their favorite food at feeding stations is sunflower seeds, and where these are to be had other food seems not to interest them much, except perhaps the seeds of their favorite box-elder. They feed also on the seeds of pine, spruce and other coniferous trees, cottonwood, locust, birch, wild cherry, maple, ash and tulip trees, on the seeds of lilac and flowering dogwood, and on the buds of many deciduous trees, including the poplar, maple, walnut, elm and apple ; they feed to a limited extent on buds of coniferous trees ; also on a considerable number of winter fruits, among them apples, crabapples and hawthorn and berries of the sumac, privet, buckthorn, mountain ash, poison ivy, Virginia juniper or "red cedar" and barberry, all of which apparently are eaten chiefly for their seeds, as most of the pulp seems to be discarded. At times they take the seeds of rag- weed, burdock and other tall weeds, and even partake of seeds and grains found in horse droppings in the roads. At feeding stations they may be attracted by the seeds of sun- flower and hemp, as they are fond of both. In some places they seem to prefer the pits of the chokecherry to any other food. They eat the leaves of some trees also, and espe- cially the tender leaves of succulent plants. Some of these birds, kept in confinement, refused all insects offered them, though probably they consume insects in the breeding season and feed insects to their young. Economic Status. The Evening Grosbeak seems to be a harmless species, but not particularly useful to man. PinScola enucleator leucura (MtJLLER). Pine Grosbeak. Other names: Canadian pine grosbeak; Canadian grosbeak. Plate 63. Description. — Larger and generally darker than Evening Grosbeak ; bill shorter, smaller and more convex, upper mandible sUghtly hooked, nostrils hidden by nasal tufts which reach nearly half length of bill; wing as long relatively as in Evening Grosbeak; tail longer, slightly forked; under tail-coverts barely reaching half-way to fork of tail ; tarsus short ; feet small, but larger than in Evening Grosbeak. Adult male : Very variable ; general color dull rose-pink or rosy-red in winter, Ughter or poppy-red in summer (some males, probably immature, show much orange) ; nasal tufts and more or less of lores and 6 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS eye region dusky or blackish ; feathers generally gray toward base, the gray showing in places, especially on breast; upper back with dusky feather-centers, scapulars tending to gray; rump red; upper tail- coverts dusky, broadly margined and tipped red; wings and tail dusky, feathers of former with outer edges white, the white increasing in width on inner secondaries, widest on tertials ; ends of middle and greater wing-coverts broadly white (sometimes tinged rosy) forming two conspicuous wing-bars ; abdo- men, upper parts of sides and flanks and under tail-coverts gray, varying somewhat in shade, the latter darkest (centrally), very broadly margined and tipped whitish; only highly plumaged males are bright; others, apparently adult, resemble female more or less, while some are as female ; bill blackish or black, sometimes paler at base below ; iris dark brown ; legs and feet black. Young male in first winter plumage: Chiefly pale oUve-brown above, otherwise resembUng adult female in markings, often with reddish or yellowish tinge and rarely perhaps more like adult male. Adult female : General color brownish-gray or smoke-gray ; top of head, rump and much of upper tail-coverts bright yellowish-ohve, tawny-oUve or rusty, fore parts often more or less tinged with same ; markings of wings similar to those of male, with less white on outer edges of primaries, tail-feathers with more or less narrow, Ught grayish edges ; very varia- ble, especially in extent and shade of yellow. Young female in first winter plumage : Similar to young male, but duller. Young in juvenal plumage : Similar to adult female, but duller, browner, paler and more buffy below and markings less distinct ; wings and tail olive-brown with paler or whitish feather- edges ; bill lighter. Measurements. — Length 9.00 to 9.75 in.; spread 13.75 to 14.87; folded wing 4.36 to 5.00; tail 3.60 to 4.50; bill .55 to .62; tarsus .75 to .92. Female usually but not always somewhat smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage follows natal down by complete molt (August) ; first winter plumage ac- quired by partial molt chiefly of body feathers and some wing-coverts ; first breeding plumage the result of wear, and in the next autumnal molt (July to September) most young are beUeved to assume adult winter plumage, though highest plumage may not be assumed for a year or two more, and some may remain always in a plumage like that of female. Field Marks. — Approaches size of Robin, but more robust ; short, thick, blackish bill ; general rosi- ness of most adult males noticeable especially on head, rump and breast ; black wings and tail, with two conspicuous wing-bars, and olive-yellow of females where males are red distinguish the species from other winter birds; lacks large white or pale gray area in upper wing shown by Evening Grosbeak. FUght usually undulating and accompanied by calls. Voice. — Call, a note somewhat like that of a lost chicken; "a peculiar, querulous, whistled caree or c-r-r-r-u or ca-r-a-r" of warning ; flight call "pee-ah" ; call from perch like a warbled " pee-ah-pree-pu" (O. W. Knight) ; a low hissing squeaky sound of warning (E. O. Grant) ; usual flight call, two or some- times three notes given quickly in a descending series tee-t'yeh,.tee-tee-t'yeh, or tee-t' y&i-te ; also a loud, rich, chuckling whistle of two to four syllables (Wm. Brewster) ; song, resembles that of Purple Finch (H. D. Minot) ; ventriloquial, sweet, varied and melodious, sometimes uttered softly in midwinter; when feeding oftentimes a "low murmuring or whimpering whistle" and a "low, harsh grating cry" (Wm. Brewster). Breeding. — Nest: Not very high in coniferous tree or in bush in woods, sometimes in more open country; built largely of moss and twigs, lined with hair. Eggs: Commonly 3 or 4 ; .72 to 1.02 by .53 to .70 in. ; color variable, greenish-slate, greenish-drab or light green, spotted and blotched with pale purplish-brown and dark purple, and sometimes also with very dark brown ; "greenish-blue spotted with black and lilac" (O. W. Knight); figured by E. A. Capen in "Oology of New England," Plate VII, Fig. 13. Dates: Chiefly in May and June ; a captive bird dropped eggs in July (O. W. Knight). Incu- bation: Period probably about 14 days as in the European form ; chiefly or wholly by female. Probably but one brood yearly. Range. — Northeastern North America. Breeds from northwestern Mackenzie, southern Keewatin, northern Ontario and northern Ungava (Quebec) south to northern Alberta, northern Manitoba, northern PINE GROSBEAK 7 Ontario, central New Hampshire, southern Maine, New Brunswick and southern Nova Scotia ; winters from central Canada south to eastern Kansas, Missouri, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and (casually) southern Kentucky and District of Columbia. Other subspecies occupy the range of the spe- cies in Newfoundland and northwest to Alaska, west to the Pacific and across Eurasia. Distribution in New England. — Resident, so far as known, only in the White Mountains of New Hampshire (above 3,000 feet) and in mountains of northern Maine ; irregular winter visitor, sometimes abundant, but a few always present at that season as far south as western Massachusetts. Season in Massachusetts. — October 24 to May 9. Haunts and Habits. The robust, brilliantly colored Pine Grosbeak is an arboreal bird, living in northern forests around the world. It is seen in New England principally as a winter visitor, and although it visits Massachusetts nearly every year its numbers here are often so small that it escapes general notice. Occasionally, however, it appears in our territory in considerable numbers, and large flocks become more or less common from one end of the state to the other. The accepted belief is that they are driven south by "hard winters," but such winters can have only a secondary effect on birds so warmly clad and so well sheltered by coniferous forests, and deep snow is no hardship for birds that feed principally on buds, seeds and fruits of tall shrubs and trees. Severe winters may have a minor effect, but considerable flights of these birds arrive here occasionally in mild winters, as in the winter of 1923-24. When there is a heavy crop of beechnuts in northern Maine and the southern Canadian forests, the Pine Grosbeaks sometimes swarm in those regions and few come to Massachusetts, but a lack of wild fruit, cones and seeds in northern forests might compel these birds to seek food to the southward. Dr. C. W. Townsend says that he observed a "failure in the cone crop of the spruces and flrs in Cape Breton, Newfoundland and Labrador" in 1906 and inferred that there would be an incursion of Crossbills and Pine Grosbeaks into New England in the ensuing winter. His inference was justified.^ A dry spring and summer in the north, resulting in a scarcity of wild fruit and seeds, may be the chief cause of the greater southward flights, especially if the dearth of food comes the next season after a year of plenty with its consequent increase in the numbers of the birds. A fire sweeping through a great forested region or a great irruption of spruce-destroying insects, such as sometimes occurs, might have a similar effect. When Pine Grosbeaks come here in numbers from their northern sohtudes, some of them, especially the younger birds, having had little experience with the wiles of man, are so unsuspicious that they may be taken by a noose on the end of a pole, or even captured by hand. Sometimes they take shelter in farm buildings and Miss Lena C. Wiley tells me that when a woman in Centerville, Massachusetts, tried to drive some of them from her woodshed, she had to catch one and put it out. She placed the bird on a vine and it hopped back to her shoulder. Nevertheless when persecuted by man the Pine Grosbeak, learning by sad experience, becomes more shy. 1 Townsend, C. W. : Memoirs of the Nuttall Ornithological Club, No. V, Supplement to The Birds of Essex County, Massa- chusetts, 1920, p. 138. 8 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS Usually when these birds arrive in New England, those in the plumage of the females and young largely predominate. This may be accounted for in part by the fact that when the birds breed well the young always outnumber the adults in the autumnal migration ; also most of the young birds apparently do not get their full plumage until the postnuptial molt in their second year, or even later, and it may be possible that some of the males never acquire high adult plumage but continue to wear a dress similar to that of the adult female, with yellow and orange largely replacing the red of the normal male. Adult males kept in cages assume a similar plumage. It is possible also that some of the older males acquire in time a plumage like that of the female, and we know that a few adult females assume red tints on head and rump. The song of this bird has a ventriloquial quaUty, in that sometimes when near-by it seems to come from a distance. As bird music goes it is very fine, full of warbles and trills, and often is given very softly with many tender notes. Sometimes the males sing in winter, even when the thermometer falls well below zero, "singing of the northern summer — clear and cool like the wind among the fir trees." Thoreau refers to their song and their "dazzling beauty" and terms them "angels from the north." Pine Grosbeaks rarely appear in Massachusetts in any considerable numbers before November. During their stay with us they are seen usually in small parties, although occasional flocks of from thirty to three hundred birds have been reported. The few birds that appear early in autumn are mere stragglers. Their number increases in November somewhat, but usually no great numbers are seen until December, and often an increase occurs in January. On bright days in early February with the thermometer below the zero mark, some of the males, stirred by the approach of spring, may give forth a tender bit of song. About the tenth of February the northward movement usually begins and only stragglers are seen after March. During their stay with us they frequent pine, hemlock and deciduous woods, and orchards and also hill pastures where many red cedars grow, and when very numerous they may be seen often in villages and cities where they feed on the buds and seeds of street trees. When they come in large numbers they quickly strip from the trees the fruit and seeds left upon them and so they constantly wander from place to place seeking food. Dr. Brewer tells us that in the winter of 1835, and for several succeeding seasons. Pine Grosbeaks were "exceedingly abundant" about Boston. ^ Perhaps the greatest irruption of these birds in more recent times appeared in the winter of 1892-93 in eastern Massachusetts, as recorded by William Brewster.^ This is the best and most complete record of an invasion of these birds in this state, wherein he presents the follow- ing graphic picture of the feeding of a flock and its results : "When I first saw them they were assembling in a large white ash which overhangs the street. This tree was loaded with fruit, and with snow clinging to the fruit-clusters and to every twig. In a few minutes it also supported more than a hundred Grosbeaks 1 Baird, S. F., Brewer, T. M., and Ridgway, Robert : A History of North American Birds, Land Birds, Vol. I, 1905, p. 455. 2 Auk, Vol. XII, 1895, pp. 245-256. NEWFOUNDLAND PINE GROSBEAK 9 who distributed themselves quite evenly over every part from the drooping lower, to the upright upper, branches and began shelhng out and swallowing the seeds, the rejected wings of which, floating down in showers, soon gave the surface of the snow beneath the tree a light brownish tinge. The snow clinging to the twigs and branches was also quickly dislodged by the movements of the active, heavy birds and for the first few minutes it was incessantly flashing out in puffs like steam from a dozen different points at once. The finer particles, sifting slowly down, filled the still air and enveloped the entire tree in a veil-like mist of incredible delicacy and beauty, tinted, where the sun- beams pierced it, with rose, salmon, and orange, elsewhere of a soft dead white, — truly a fitting drapery for this winter picture, — the hardy Grosbeaks at their morning meal. They worked in silence when undisturbed and so very busily that at the end of the first hour they had actually eaten or shaken off nearly haK the entire crop of seeds. Some men at work near-by afterwards told me that this tree was wholly denuded of fruit by three o'clock that afternoon when the birds descended to the ground and attacked the fallen seeds, finishing them before sunset." During the winter these birds bathe in the soft snow, standing in it, either on the ground or on the thick foliage of coniferous trees, fluttering their wings and throwing the snow-spray over their plumage in the same manner in which many birds bathe in water. The Pine Grosbeak feeds chiefly on fruit and seeds of trees as well as tender leaves. Among the fruits eaten are those of the bush or mountain cranberry, barberry, mountain ash or rowan tree, Virginia juniper or red cedar, crabapple, apple, black alder, privet, hawthorn, buckthorn, sumac, Japanese barberry and waxwork (Celastrus scandens). It seems to eat fruits largely for the seeds, though some pulp is eaten. It eats buds of apple, maple, hickory or walnut, ash, hazel, pine, spruce, larch and other trees, and seeds of most of those named above, also those of the birches. It takes also seeds of roses. It is very fond of sunflower seeds and eats those of hemp, burdock, ragweed, lamb's- quarters and other weeds. Economic Status. The Pine Grosbeak seems to be of no particular economic importance, and its only apparently harmful habit is that of feeding on apple buds. Little complaint of this habit, however, has been received. Pinicola enucleator eschatosus Oberholser. Newfoundland Pine Grosbeak. Description. — Resembling mainland Pine Grosbeak but decidedly smaller. Male "darker and duller above and below in both red and gray areas ; female darker on upper and lower parts, the yellow- ish areas more purely yellow, less tinged with orange" (H. C. Oberholser). Measurements. — Male: Folded wing 4.41 to 4.57 in. ; tail 3.46 to 3.66 ; bill (exposed ridge) .55 to .59 ; tarsus .85 to .94. Female : Folded wing 4.09 to 4.17 in. ; tail 3.31 to 3.62 ; bill .54 to .55 ; tarsus .82 to .92. Range. — Newfoundland ; south in winter to Massachusetts. Distribution in New England. — A winter visitor. Records: Massachusetts: Canton (Ponka- poag), an immature male taken January 22, 1893, by J. H. Bowles; ^ Quincy, February 6, 1899, a female taken by G. Wilson, now in the Museum of Comparative Zoology, seems to be referable to this subspecies. 1 Oberholser, H. C: Proceedings, Biological Society of Washington, Vol. XXVII, 1914, p. 52. 10 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS Note. Probably this recently separated race of the Pine Grosbeak cannot be distinguished in the field from the larger race, as it seems to resemble leucura in every way except for the difference in size and coloration and in its range, and as no difference between the haunts, habits and notes of the two sub- species is known. Probably in its migrations the Newfoundland Pine Grosbeak occurs chiefly in the coastal region, and probably also it will be found to be not excessively rare. Carpodacus purpureus purpureas (Gmelin). Purple Finch. Other names: bed linnet; linnet. Plate 63. Description. — Bill relatively about as large as that of Pine Grosbeak, short, conic ; wing longer than tail, which is slightly forked ; tarsus rather short ; crown feathers erectile. Adult male : Variable ; top of head crimson to "deep wine-purple," brightening in spring, brightest in breeding season; back and scapulars reddish-pink, reddish-brown or "wine-purplish" mixed with brownish-gray and streaked dusky; outer row of upper tail-coverts largely dusky; rump, stripe over eye, chin, throat and upper breast rose-red, or rose-pink or "pinkish- wine-purple," passing gradually into white or whitish on pos- terior lower plumage ; under tail-coverts commonly unstreaked, longer ones rarely streaked dusky cen- trally, and in some high plumaged birds more or less pink toward ends ; feathers before eye and about base of bill sometimes grayish; eye and ear regions and side of jaw usually brownish; wings and tail dusky, the feathers with pale reddish outer edges ; two rather inconspicuous light wing-bars formed by tips of middle and greater coverts; below a variable red or pink, streaked on flanks, blending into paler or whitish on lower posterior plumage ; wing linings mostly rosy when in high plumage ; bill, rosy-red in highest plumage, otherwise dark brown above, slightly paler below; iris, legs and feet brown. Young male in first breeding plumage : Similar to adult female, but Wilson says that it may be distinguished from the female by the olive-green edging of the tail-feathers. Adult female : Above olive-grayish or oUve- brownish, whiter below, conspicuously streaked dusky, except on middle of belly and under tail-coverts ; wing-feathers and tail-feathers edged lighter and two inconspicuous light wing-bars ; general coloration variable, especially on rump which may be tinged yellowish-olive, reddish-brown, mixed yellowish-olive and brown, rosy, etc. ; some show a few red feathers elsewhere. Young in first winter plumage : Like adult female, but edges of wing-feathers often more or less yellowish and buffy. Young in juvenal plumage : Similar to adult female, dark wood-brown above, white below, streaked with deep olive-brown (except about middle of belly and vent) but streaks below narrower and usually less distinct than in adult ; edges of wing-feathers as in first winter plumage ; bill and feet pinkish-buff. Measurements. — Length 5.50 to 6.35 in.; spread 9.20 to 10.40; folded wing 3.12 to 3.47; tail 2.00 to 2.50; bill .42 to .50; tarsus .45 to .50. Weight, average about 1 oz. (B. H. Warren), average 27.73 grams (C. L. Whittle), a large male 1.12 oz. Female slightly smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage acquired by postnatal molt of natal down beginning early, in the nest ; first winter plumage by molt of body feathers and wing-coverts (July to September), wing and tail quills retained ; first breeding plumage is result of wear ; at first postnuptial molt (July to September) some birds apparently become as winter adults, but some males apparently molt into a dress resembhng adult winter female, as the number of immature ( ?) birds seems unduly large, and some males may always remain in plumage like female ; bird-banders and keepers of aviaries find that most males do not acquire highest plumage until four or five years of age ; in caged birds yellowish-olive takes the place of red in adult males; adults have complete postnuptial molt.* * In reference to the plumages of the Purple Finch, see Magee, M. J. : Auk, Vol. XLI, 1924, pp. 606-610; Wilson Bulle- tin, Vol. XXXVIII, 1926, pp. 164-167; Bulletin, Northeastern Bird-Banding Association, Vol. Ill, 1927, pp. 101, 102; also Whittle, C. L. and Helen G. : Bulletin, Northeastern Bird-Banding Association, Vol. Ill, 1927, pp. 62-68. PURPLE FINCH 11 Field Marks. — Size of Song Sparrow but with much thicker bill, more robust, and tail shorter, sharply forked. Adult male : Suffused largely with rosy-red, usually brightest on top of head and con- spicuous on rump, throat and upper breast ; a wide stripe of this red over eye ; wings and tail mostly brownish or dusky, with no very prominent pale marks. Female, immature and young : Brownish-gray or grayish-brown above streaked darker, grayish below also streaked darker; large bill of female pre- vents confusion with other streaked sparrows. Voice. — Call note in flight a single sharp pit; while feeding, chip-chee (E. H. Eaton), or pe-wee (R. Hoffmann) ; also a single whistle (heard chiefly in autumn) , which recalls that of Crested Flycatcher (H. D. Minot) ; song a lovely warble somewhat like that of Warbling Vireo, but richer and more vigorous, often prolonged in flight. Breeding. — Chiefly in hill country. Nest : Commonly in dense coniferous tree, but occasionally apple or other deciduous tree, from 5 feet (in top of hedge) to 60 feet high near top of coniferous tree or on limb near the stem ; resembling that of Chipping Sparrow, but much larger and not so neatly made ; well concealed ; built of twigs and weed stalks, grasses, rootlets, bark fiber or other vegetal matter and lined chiefly with hair. Eggs: 4 or 5; .62 to .92 by .53 to .70 in. ; elliptical ovate; like those of Chip- ping Sparrow but much larger ; greenish-blue or bluish-green with dark brown or blackish spots and irreg- ular lines, mostly wreathed round large end; figured by E. A. Capen in "Oology of New England," Plate VII, Figs. 14, 15. Dates: May 10 to June 19 (September 10), Massachusetts. Incubation : Period 13 days (F. L. Burns) ; chiefly or wholly by female. One brood yearly. Range. — Central and eastern North America. Breeds in Canadian and Transition zones from cen- tral British Columbia, northeastern Alberta, northern Ontario, south-central Quebec and Newfoundland south to southern Alberta, South Dakota, southern Minnesota, southern Iowa (casually), northern Illi- nois, southern Michigan, Pennsylvania, northern Maryland, northern New Jersey and Long Island ; in winter from Nebraska, southern Minnesota, southern Ontario, southern Quebec and Nova Scotia to the Gulf coast from Texas to Florida ; recorded once in Colorado ; accidental on Resolution Island, Hudson Strait. Distribution in New England. — Common to uncommon resident, up to heights of about 3,000 feet; rather irregular in winter and rare or wanting at that season in some northern parts of Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont. Season in Massachusetts. — Permanent resident, but found in winter only where some favorite food is plentiful. Haunts and Habits. According to our color standards of the present day, the name "Purple Finch" is a misnomer. Doubtless the term was first applied by someone collecting for the first time a highly plumaged adult male. In full breeding plumage it displays some tints approaching the "royal purple" of the olden time, and to that color very likely was due the origin of its name. John Burroughs says that it appears as if a brown bird had been dipped in diluted pokeberry juice and opines that "two or three more dippings would have made the purple complete." This favorite bird is one of the most melodious of New England finches. He pours out his gushing, ecstatic warble from the top of some tree, and when performing before his mate his musical efforts transcend his ordinary notes and he launches into the air, flutter- ing about with quivering wings in lowly emulation of the Skylark, pouring forth a con- tinuous melody until, exhausted with this most remarkable vocal effort, he floats down with uplifted pinions toward the object of his affections. Mr. Harrison Lewis reports a number of males singing in concert on March 6 in southern Ontario, while still in a flock ; occasionally a hardy male may be heard singing on a bright day in January. 12 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS Naturally the Purple Finch is a forest bird, and although it adapts itself readily to civilization it prefers the neighborhood of coniferous trees, and shuns open plains. Before the advent of the "English" Sparrow in the United States, Purple Finches nested in abundance in the region about Boston, building their nests chiefly in Norway spruces and Virginia junipers. The sparrows in time apparently drove a large part of these finches out of the region and kept them out, as they never have returned in their former numbers. Another factor inimical to the finches was the extension of building operations in the country around Boston, and the cutting of many junipers. The introduced Starlings also have tended recently to drive out the finches by eating the seeds of the juniper trees, on which the latter formerly fed in winter. Once, hundreds of Purple Finches wintered in the Boston region when "cedar" berries were abundant. Those who wish to keep these birds about both summer and winter should plant coniferous trees and should feed sunflower seeds, of which these finches are very fond. Purple Finches are hardy birds and, if well fed, will live through rather severe winters. They bathe in brooks with the temperature below freezing point and some have been known to sing in the clearing weather directly after a blizzard. Nevertheless a few are overcome by starvation and cold, as occasionally one has been picked up from the snow helpless or dead. If well fed, some males may be heard singing more or less almost daily in mild seasons during the latter days of February. Purple Finches spend winter nights in dense evergreen trees or thickets, or even in some open building or under the shelter of a cupola roof. Some of the wintering young males begin to show a little red in their plumage in March. Migrants from the south continue to arrive in Massachusetts through April and early May, and by apple-blossom time, or even before, some begin their courtship. The male in his nuptial antics, clad in his brightest, rosiest plumage, dances erect before the female, facing her with quivering wings fully extended, raised at an angle and vibrat- ing so rapidly that they seem of gauzy texture, and with crown feathers erected, dis- playing his colors as he swings from side to side about her. Sometimes his excess of ardor carries him up into the air on fast-beating wings, pouring out either soft continuous twitterings or the full, loud, clear mating song, while she usually seems indifferent to his wooing. But if she is at all responsive he may drop down in front of her and they may touch bills time after time. If she grows more complaisant and flutters before him with open bill, their passion soon reaches its climax and the united pair fly away together. The wooing antics may occur on the ground, on top of a large rock, in a tree-top, or wher- ever the female happens to be. The nest is built in most cases by the female, the male sometimes assisting. When the eggs are laid the mother bird incubates, while the male watches, feeds her and sings to her. Both parents feed the young, and when the young birds can fly well the family group begins its wanderings. In September and October there is a movement of the species out of the northern part of the range, and there is a general shifting about even in winter to places where food may be. found in abundance. PURPLE FINCH 13 The feeding of a flock in the trees usually is accompanied by a continuous sound of fluttering wings. In spring and summer the Purple Finch feeds largely on insects, buds and blossoms ; * in summer on insects and wild fruit, though it takes some cherries, blackberries and raspberries ; in autumn and winter on wild fruits such as nightshade, juniper and black alder berries, on weed seeds, and also on seeds of trees (especially those of white pine and white ash), and the pulp or seeds of frosted crabapples and hawthorns. It is fond of the seeds of millet, hemp and sunflower, and has been known to eat dried currants and privet berries in winter. Professor Knight says that it seems "to relish the fruit of the dogwoods, elders and viburnums very much." ^ The stamens of the ash, red maple and elm are eaten by this bird. In spring it destroys the most succulent parts (stamens and pistils) of apple, cherry and peach blossoms, but this fruit tree pruning is not excessive, and, though sometimes viewed with alarm by the orchardist, has never been known to do material harm to the fruit crop. Mr. M. J. Magee shows a photograph of an apple tree that was frequented by many Purple Finches at blossoming time and another of the same tree in autumn so loaded with fruit that it was necessary to prop some limbs to prevent breaking.^ Economic Status. Many people become unduly alarmed at any habit of a bird which seems to promise a possible financial loss. The fruit grower has reason, however, for this attitude, as owing to the many inimical factors with which he must contend to assure success, his occupation requires constant vigilance; but he is likely to be too apprehensive of injury to his crop by the Purple Finch. The most extensive "raid" by these birds that has come to my notice occurred in New Jersey in March, 1915, when word was received that a small brown bird was "ferociously" devouring fruit buds in the large peach orchards, and that the proprietors were much agitated over the danger to the fruit crop. Mr. B. S. Bowdish, secretary of the New Jersey Audubon Society, sent me two stomachs of the depredators. Both contained sand ; one, vegetable fiber, possibly that of buds, about 25 per cent, and weed seeds about 75 per cent ; the other, vegetal fiber 10 per cent and weed seeds 70 per cent. The seeds were those of ragweed and smartweed. While the birds may have done some local damage, the New Jersey peach crop the following autumn was one of the largest and finest for years. The birds may have even helped the growers by thinning the crop somewhat so that the remaining buds produced larger fruit. From all available evidence the Purple Finch seems virtually harmless, except for its fondness for the seeds of a few garden plants, and its destruction of weed seeds and injurious insects should prejudice us in its favor, to say nothing of its song and beauty. * Dr. James B. Paige, of Amherst, Massachusetts, tells me that he saw a pair feeding on gall insects of the pin oak. 1 Knight, O. W. : The Birds of Maine, 1908, p. 375. 2 Wilson Bulletin, Vol. XXXVIII, 1926. pp. 167-169. 14 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS Loxia curvirostra minor (Brehm). Crossbill. Other names: red crossbill; American red crossbill. Plate 64. Description. — Bill fringilline, rather long for a sparrow, but quite convex, the rather elongated slender point of the upper mandible curved downward, and that of the lower curved upward, and both bent laterally so as to cross one another ; nostrils concealed by a short ruff ; form stout ; head rather large, broad and flattened on top ; wings rather long ; tail short, sharply notched or forked ; legs short, feet not large; a compact, stocky bird. Adult male: General color dull variable red, sometimes "varying from dull brownish-scarlet or almost orange-chrome in summer to a hue more or less approaching dragon's- blood-red in winter " (Ridgway) ; brightest on rump, dullest on back and scapulars, where obscured by dusky-brownish feather-centers, paling below, the under tail-coverts becoming whitish with dusky feather- centers ; three dark, dusky-brownish marks on head in profile (often ill-defined and indistinct) as follows — a spot at base of jaw, another near top and back of head, and whole upper part of eye region ; wings and tail black or blackish ; wing Unings grayish, usually with some reddish or pinkish feather-tips near edge of wing ; bill horn-color, darkening at tips ; iris brown ; legs and feet very dark dusky-brownish. Young male in first winter plumage : Variable ; often, in changing, a mottled mixture of greens, yellows and reds; some apparently resemble brightest adult females finally, and others appear much as adult winter males. Adult female : Similar in shape to male but differently colored, variable ; prevailing color grayish-olive, more or less overlaid by bright yellowish-oUve or even dull saffron ; yellowish tint shows on rump and sometimes more or less below ; more or less streaked or spotted with blackish, except on rump and part of upper tail-coverts ; wings and tail not so dark as in male, more grayish. Young female in first winter plumage : Similar to adult winter female, but many show at first some buff tips on wing-coverts. Young in juvenal plumage : Variable ; male, streaked above with oUve-brown, edges of feathers white ; wings and tail clove-brown, feathers faintly edged lighter buff y or greenish-buffy ; below dull grayish- white, thickly streaked olive-brown ; bill and feet olive-gray ; female, darker than adult female ; brown above, edges and tips of feathers gray ; rump yellowish-white tinged greenish, a few feathers with dark centers; below dull ashy, lightening on abdomen, washed greenish across breast and streaked dark brown. Measurements. — Length 5.50 to 6.40 in.; spread 10.00 to 10.75; folded wing 3.20 to 3.75; tail 1.85 to 2.17; bill .50 to .75; tarsus .58 to .70. Weight .75 oz. (C. L. Philhps). Female smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage acquired by complete postnatal molt ; first winter plumage by partial molt (June to October) including body feathers but not wings or tail, these retained until first postnuptial molt ; first breeding plumage the result of wear ; at first postnuptial molt when bird is more than one year old, adult winter plumage presumably is assumed, though some birds may wear longer a dress similar to adult female ; adults have only one (complete) postnuptial molt (July to November) ; breeding plumage results from wear; possibly several years may be required for assumption of highest plumage; when caged, adult males at their first molt assume a yellowish plumage similar to that of the female, but Mr. Outram Bangs tells me that when fed pine seed some birds again assume the red plumage. Field Marks. — Song Sparrow size, but more robust, tail shorter. The only other species with crossed bill is the White-winged Crossbill which has two conspicuous white wing-bars while the Crossbill has none. Male: A bricky-red bird with carmine rump. Female and young : Tending toward grayish- olive, streaked with dusky ; yellowish on rump and breast. Feeds mainly on coniferous trees (but some- times on weeds) with parrot-like postures and movements ; usually approachable ; presence sometimes manifested by the noise made in opening cones of pitch-pine ; flight undulating. Voice. — Call note a yiv, kip, gyp or pip, resembling in the distance the cry of a little chicken, often repeated like "kip-kip" or "kip-kip-kip" ; a peculiar trill, between call-note and song, something like the PLATE 64 Adult Male PLATE 64 Adult Male Female CROSSBILL Page 14 Immature Male WHITE-WINGED CROSSBILL Page 17 Immature Male Female CROSSBILL 15 Woodcock's song with his wing-quills (Napier Smith) ; song Uke "too-tee too-tee, too-tee, tee, tee" (R. Hoff- mann) ; also a more elaborate flight-song ; flock often indulges in a rather low chattering or twittering while feeding. Breeding. — Commonly in coniferous forests. Nest : Usually rather low in thick foKage of conifer- ous tree, but sometimes quite high and in bare deciduous tree ; built chiefly of twigs, rootlets and strips of bark, and lined with fine mosses and hair or fur, fine grasses and fine vegetal fibers, with sometimes a few feathers. Eggs : Usually 4 or 5 ; .73 to .85 by .52 to .59 in. ; ovate to long ovate ; pale greenish or greenish-blue spotted with various shades of brown and lavender, chiefly about large end; figured by E. A. Capen in "Oology of New England," Plate VIII, Figs. 1, 2. Dates: From mid-January to July, Maine. Incubation: Period probably 12 to 14 days; probably by female. May raise two broods at times, like the common Crossbill of Europe. Range. — North America. Breeds from northwestern Mackenzie and north-central Ungava (Quebec) south to western Oregon, northern Montana, central Minnesota, Michigan, Pennsylvania, cen- tral Maryland (casually) and Long Island (casually) and in Appalachian Mountains south to northern Georgia ; south in winter irregularly to Kansas, Louisiana and Florida ; casual in Bermuda Islands. Distribution in New England. — Maine and New Hampshire : Resident, irregularly abundant, occasionally scarce. Vermont: Very irregular at all seasons, breeds casually. Massachusetts : Winter visitor, occasionally common, but also occasional at all seasons. Rhode Island and Connecticut : Irregu- lar winter visitor, occasionally common, casual at other seasons in Rhode Island. Season in Massachusetts. — August to June 10, but has appeared in every month in the year, breeding casually. Haunts and Habits. It is winter in the woods of the Pine Tree State. Broad the white mantle Hes over field and farm, hill and dale. Every tuft and branch of spruce, pine and hemlock bears its fluffy burden of soft, pure snow crystals. All the air is misty with the driving snow. On distant hills the trees, no longer darkly green, stand white and ghost-like against the gray and lowering sky. The view is circumscribed by the thickening storm which shuts us into an ever-narrowing circle as daylight wanes. Despite the storm the happy, carefree Crossbills shake the snow in showers from each heavily laden tuft as they seek the cones from which they glean their sustenance — and so the twilight comes. The handsome Red Crossbill is a strange, erratic, and seemingly irresponsible bird. In fact the bird seems a little "queer." It may start nesting either in January or in midsummer, placing the nest in a dense coniferous tree or on a bare leafless limb. It may pass one winter in the forests of the frozen north, and the next it may be found in the sunny south. Having had a taste of a milder climate it may give up all idea of nesting in the far north and carelessly remain away from the country of its nativity for a whole season. In a region where its native food is scarce, it will try almost anything else that is edible. Salt, which is anathema to many birds, seems rather to please the Crossbill, as it eats almost anything that is well salted. The bird, however, may not be such a happy- go-lucky individual as it seems. The migration of the species, especially when the birds move south in large numbers in winter, probably is caused by a lack of their favorite food in their usual winter habitat, or by very deep snow which cuts off their supply of grit, which is necessary to aid digestion. Their extremely erratic breeding dates may be due to an abundance of some favorite food at these times in the region in which the birds 16 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS happen to be. If in a certain season, for example, seeds of coniferous trees and wild fruits are very abundant in the Maine woods, we may expect great numbers of Crossbills to breed there, particularly if a dearth of such food prevails farther north. The next season with opposite conditions hardly a Crossbill will be found in these woods. These contrasting conditions were found in the seasons of 1922 and 1923. In the summer of 1922 there were quantities of spruce cones in the woods of northern Maine, and vast numbers of Crossbills and White-winged Crossbills summered there as well as in other parts of northern New England where similar food was abundant. The next year with a comparative scarcity of spruce seeds, hardly a crossbill of either species could be found in the same region. Crossbills normally are absolutely unsuspicious. I have lain on the ground under a tree watching Crossbills feeding among the low branches only a few feet away, and they completely disregarded my presence. It is extremely interesting to watch their feeding habits. The peculiar bill seems a poor tool for picking out seeds, but the birds use it largely for wrenching off the scales from the cones, and then pick out the seeds with their tongues. They climb about among the twigs and sprays like little parrots, using both bills and feet. A Crossbill may hang easily by its beak, or by one foot while reaching with the other, and an individual when suddenly frightened may swing underneath a twig and hang there head downward, where, partially concealed by the foliage, he might be mistaken for a cone. If thoroughly alarmed, Crossbills may fly to a considerable distance, but if the tree from which they are frightened contains considerable food not available near-by, they will come back. When not particularly hungry and engaged in song, they like a tall tree-top. On the Pacific coast I have seen males singing on tree-tops 170 and 180 feet above the ground. Not much is known about the breeding of the Crossbill in New England. Mr. Napier Smith, writing to me from Magog, Quebec, in 1921, said that after fifteen days in the nest some young were able to fly on April 25. There is one case on record where a female, taken off her nest by a collector, came back and sat on her eggs after he had removed the nest from the tree and while he was descending and holding the nest in his hand.^ Crossbills commonly move south more or less in winter. Some may be found on Cape Cod nearly every year, but in certain seasons they are almost unknown, and in others abundant. While with us, they frequent pitch pines, many of which grow on the sandy lands of Cape Cod and the EHzabeth Islands, and so those regions are favorite resorts for Crossbills. Occasionally the birds remain very late, and summer invasions have occurred rarely. While here in winter they are always attracted to fruiting larches or spruces growing on lawns, and will frequent such trees until the cones are stripped of seeds. Crossbills, though specialized for feeding on the seeds of cones, are by no means con- fined to such food. They feed on the seeds of white pine, pitch pine, Norway and native spruces, balsam fir, larch, hemlock, ailanthus, maple and elm, beechnuts, seeds of sun- flower, dandelion, evening primrose and other weeds, the buds of a number of coniferous 1 Baird, Brewer and Ridgway: A History of North American Birds, Land Birds, Vol. I, 1905, pp. 487, 488. WHITE-WINGED CROSSBILL 17 trees, and some wild fruit, including that of the sweet gum. In late spring and summer they eat insects such as gall-insects, ants, plant-lice and caterpillars of various species, but their food has not been carefully studied. They sometimes pick up a little grain from the ground by turning the head to one side, but in New England they rarely frequent agricultural regions while grain is still standing. Years ago New Jersey peach growers were alarmed at the appearance of flocks of strange birds that were devouring the hard, young peaches. Crossbills were the culprits, but they soon passed on, having casually sampled the peach crop while on their way somewhere. Economic Status. Crossbills are of little economic importance. They have been known to eat the heads of oats in the field, but they rarely destroy any product of agricul- ture, and undoubtedly perform some service by devouring many insect enemies of forest trees. Loxia curvirostra percna Bent. Newfoundland Crossbill. Description. — Similar to Crossbill, but considerably larger, with a much larger and heavier bill, heavier and stronger legs and feet, and generally darker than any other American race of the Crossbill, "red deeper and more brilliant and greenish-yellow richer and brighter." Measurements. — Folded wing 3.37 to 3.80 in. ; tail 2.16 to 2.42; bill .64 to .75; tarsus .60 to .73. Weight one ounce, or near it (C. L. Phillips). Molts. — Probably hke those of Crossbill. Field Marks and Voice. — Difficult to distinguish from those of Crossbill. Breeding. — Unknown. Range. — Not well known. Breeds in Newfoundland ; in winter south and west to Rhode Island. Distribution in New England. — Records: Massachusetts: Chatham, November 30, 1919, two males taken, and December 16, 1919, two males and one female taken, specimens sent to Arthur C. Bent and now in his collection in Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Massachusetts ; ^ December 18, 1919, two pairs taken by B. E. Bassett, now in collection of Charles L. Phillips; ^ January 21, 1920, three males taken and sent to Arthur C. Bent ; ^ Hingham, February 19, 1920, male received from Lenora MacComisky by Boston Society of Natural History, and now in the collection of that society. Rhode Island: Westerly, November 16, 1919, two taken; Davisville, November 22, 1919, male and female taken, all by Harry S. Hathaway.* Haunts and Habits. This race of the Crossbill seems to have similar habits to those of the more common bird. In New England it frequents the same localities, and feeds on the same food. Mr. Harry S. Hathaway says that the birds of this race that he saw in Rhode Island were far more wild than the common Crossbill, and that their calls seemed much louder. They were easily alarmed in all cases, and difficult to approach. Loxia leucoptera Gmelin. WMte-winged Crossbill. Plate 64. Description. — Similar in shape and size to Red Crossbill, but a little larger and bill thinner, colors very variable. Adult male: Rose-red or light carmine, sometimes approaching crimson, occasionally nearing orange-red or even orange-yellowish, and passing into grayish or whitish on sides and flanks, the I Bent, Arthur C. : Auk, Vol. XXXVII, 1920, p. 298 and in litt. 2 Fhillips, Charles L. : in litt. 3 Bent, Arthur C. : Auk, Vol. XXXVII, 1920, p. 298 and in litt. < Hathaway, Harry S. : in litt. 18 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS latter shaded dusky ; scapulars, outer upper tail-coverts, wings and tail black or blackish, the black some- times extending more or less across back which is often streaked dusky; wings with two broad white bars, and tertials tipped white ; some touches of dusky in region of eye and ear ; nasal tufts pale grayish to nearly buffy ; under tail-coverts black, bordered white ; wing Unings chiefly dusky and whitish mixed ; bill dusky ; iris brown ; legs and feet dark or dusky-brown. Young male in first winter plumage : Resem- bling adult male, but red largely replaced by yellow, mixed with dashes of dull red ; forehead and sides of head usually more or less blackish ; top of head, back of neck, back and under plumage more or less streaked blackish ; wings and tail as in juvenal. Adult female : Above olive-greenish or grayish, streaked with dusky feather-centers, becoming olive-yellowish on top of head, and clear yellow on rump ; wings and tail much as in adult male, but duller; scapulars with dusky centers and grayish edges. Young female in first ivinter plumage : Lacks red of male and resembles adult female. Young in juvenal plum- age : Dull grayish-white, thickly streaked with clove-brown, feathers edged with buffy feather-edges and two buffy-white wing-bars ; bill and feet brown. Measurements. — Length 6.00 to 6.75 in.; spread 9.20 to 10.70; folded wing 3.05 to 3.50; tail 2.30 to 2.60 ; bill .62 to .70 ; tarsus .55 to .65. Female somewhat smaller than male. Molts. — Sequence of molts and plumages same as in Red Crossbill (see page 14). Field Marks. — Size of Song Sparrow but more robust, with shorter, forked tail. Adult male : Rose- red, with black wings and tail and two broad white wing-bars. Female and young : Wings and tail similar to those of male, but brownish, tinged in places with olive-green ; rump yellow ; distinguished from Red Crossbill and all other New England birds of same size by breadth of white wing-bars. Voice. — Call, a single cheep, peet or week, "a loud whistled wheel, wheel, wheel" ; a rolUng twitter somewhat like corresponding note of Redpoll (G. H. Thayer) ; song, a very fine loud series of whistles, trills and twitters, somewhat resembling that of American Goldfinch. Breeding. — In coniferous forests. Nest: In thick mass of foliage of coniferous tree, from 10 to 12 feet from ground, built of spruce twigs and lichens, or shreds of bark, Uned with fine grass and feathers or hair. Eggs : Usually 2 to 4 ; .77 to .86 by .56 to .61 in. ; ovate ; variable, pale bluish-green to nearly white, with spots or blotches and sometimes lines of various browns and lavenders, chiefly about large end; figured by Henry Seebohm in "A History of British Birds," 1885, Plate 19. Dates: Mid-January to August; April seems a favorite month in Labrador and the Northwest Territory. Incubation: No information. Range. — ■ Northern North America. Breeds from tree limit in northern Alaska, northern Macken- zie, southern Keewatin, northern Ungava (Quebec) and southern and eastern Greenland south to north- ern Washington, northwestern Montana, central Manitoba, northern Michigan, south-central Ontario, northern New York, central New Hampshire, southern Maine and southern Nova Scotia; in winter from the northern part of its breeding area south to Oregon, Nevada, Colorado, Kansas, Missouri, south- ern Illinois, southern Indiana, southern Ohio, southern Pennsylvania, District of Columbia and North Carolina ; accidental in England. Distribution in New England. — Maine: Uncommon to common resident, irregular and chiefly in northern part ; otherwise irregular visitor. New Hampshire : Uncommon resident at higher elevations in White Mountains ; elsewhere irregular visitor. Vermont : Casual summer resident on higher peaks ; otherwise irregular visitor. Massachusetts : Irregular winter visitor, usually rare, but more common in some seasons. Rhode Island and Connecticut : Rare irregular winter visitor. Season in Massachusetts. — October 22 to May 25 (June 4, 13). Haunts and Habits. The White-winged Crossbill, like the preceding species, is a bird of coniferous forests, leaving them only when food is scarce in its favorite regions. Its distribution is slightly more northern than that of the Red Crossbill, and it does not go far south in its irregular migrations. Therefore it is much more rare in southern HOARY REDPOLL 19 New England than the other species, although at intervals it may visit the section in very large numbers, as was the case in the winter of 1868-69. In my youth, much time was spent unsuccessfully in searching for this bird about Worcester, Massachusetts. One bright morning, however, a pair appeared, feeding on weed seeds by the roadside in front of a neighbor's house, the last place I would have looked for them. Like the Red Crossbill this species keeps mostly in flocks at all seasons of the year. The male leaves the flock to feed the female on the nest, feeding her as the young are fed, by regurgitation. Having fed her he flies in wide circles above her, pouring forth an ecstatic song. The habits of this bird are much like those of the preceding species, and it partakes of similar food, which consists largely of buds and the seeds of trees, shrubs and weeds and many berries and insects ; but it seems to prefer the seeds of the Norway spruce and hem- lock to those of the pitch pine, and is more likely to be found where these trees are grown on cultivated grounds than in the wild pitch pine lands much frequented by the Crossbill. Economic Status. In spring this bird feeds more or less on insects, but its economic status is unknown. Acanthis hornemanni exilipes (Coues). Hoary Redpoll. Other name: coues' redpoll. Plate 65. Description. — Bill small, short, conic, deep at base, its outlines nearly straight ; nasal tufts heavy, sometimes reaching half length of bill ; wings longer than tail ; tail rather long for a finch and sharply forked ; feet small and weak. Adult male in nuptial plumage : Above chiefly grayish- white with narrow dusky spots and streaks ; nasal tufts light grayish-brown ; forehead grayish, finely mottled with dusky ; top of head crimson; lower back and rump white, often tinged pinkish; upper tail-coverts white, their feathers with dusky centers ; wings and tail dusky, their feathers edged and tipped whitish, sometimes yellowish on edges of inner secondaries and first tertials, and light edges broader on tertials ; broad gray- ish or white tips of greater and middle wing-coverts forming two light wing-bars ; lores and a large spot on chin and upper throat dusky ; sides of head largely white, cheeks whiter than in common Redpoll ; below generally white, upper breast washed rose-pink (in some adult males pink entirely wanting), sides and flanks usually unmarked; wing linings mainly white with darker markings on outer edges; bill largely or wholly dusky; legs and feet black. Adult male in winter plumage: Similar, but head, neck, back and scapulars tinged pale buffy (more or less), bright edgings of wings and tail broader, and bill largely yellowish with dusky tip (and sometimes dusky edges). Adult female in nuptial plumage : Similar to adult male in same, but without pink on breast or rump, and with some tendency to streaking on sides and flanks. Adult female in winter plumage : Like adult male in winter, but tinged more with buffy about head and back, light edgings of wings and tail broader, and bill largely yellow. Young in first winter plumage: Similar to adult female. Young in juvenal plumage: Generally whitish or grayish-white (whiter below), streaked with dark grayish-brown, most heavily on top of head, back of neck, back and scapulars, cheeks and ear region ; ear region and feather-edges of back and scapulars buff or dull tawny- brown ; wing-bars and tertials edged buffy ; black shaft-streaks on front and sides of neck ; legs and feet pale to dark horn-color ; otherwise much like adult female, but no red on top of head. Measurements. — Length 4.50 to 5.50 in. ; spread about 9.00 ; folded wing 2.95 to 3.10 ; tail 2.35 to 2.85; bill .30 to .38; tarsus .54 to .70. 20 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS Molts. — Probably similar to those of Redpoll (see page 21). Field Marks. — Size of Chipping Sparrow, or slightly larger. Male : A gray and white bird nar- rowly streaked dusky, top of head red, breast pink and rump white ; at close range may be distinguished from common Redpoll by its whiter appearance, white unstriped rump and white lower plumage. Female and young: Similar but show no pink. Voice. — Said to be much sharper than that of common Redpoll. Breeding. — Similar to that of other redpolls, in coniferous forests or dwarfed trees or in shrubby lands. Nest : In tree or bush from 2 to 10 feet up, built of grass chiefly, fine twigs and moss, and Lined with plant down and occasionally a few feathers. Eggs: 4 to 6 ; about .65 to .75 by .50 to .60 in. ; elon- gate ovate to short ovate; very variable, dull "greenish-blue" to "pale nile blue" with spots, dots and scrawls of vinaceous, lavender, chocolate and dark blackish-brown (near black), all tending to form a wreath at large end, some covered with fine brown specks. Dates: Mid-June to July 20, northern Canada. Incubation : Period unknown. One brood yearly. Range. — Northern North America, Europe and Asia. Breeds from northern Alaska to northern Ungava (Quebec), and from Lapland and northern Russia to northeastern Siberia, south to western Alaska, northern Manitoba, and elsewhere to about the southern edge of the Barren Grounds ; winters from its breeding range south more or less irregularly to southern British Columbia, Montana, Colorado, southern Ilhnois, northern Michigan, southern Ontario, New York and Connecticut, and in the Eastern Hemisphere to the British Isles, eastern Prussia and northern Japan. Distribution in New England. — Rare winter visitor ; not recorded in Rhode Island. Records : Maine: Westbrook, January 26, 1896, an apparently immature female taken by Arthur H. Norton; ^ February 14, 1909, an adult male collected by Arthur H. Norton ; ^ Norway, December 25, 1913, two seen by Freeland Howe, Jr.^ New Hampshire: Hampton (?), Ned Dearborn reports a specimen in the col- lection of A. S. A. Shaw, of Hampton, date and place of capture not given.* Vermont : Wells River, a bird banded on March 6, 1926, by Wendell P. Smith. ^ Massachusetts : Howe and Allen cite ten early records ; ^ others are : Ipswich, December 29, 1910, a bird seen by Barron Brainerd and James L. Peters ; ^ RosUndale, January 1, 1917, eight birds seen by Mrs. U. C. Sherman; ^ Cohasset, January 12, 1920, two seen by Dr. John B. May.^ Connecticut: East Haven, November 24, 1906, an adult female taken by L. B. Bishop." Season in Massachusetts. — November 15 to March 20. Haunts and Habits. The Hoary Redpoll, called "Coues' Redpoll" by British ornithologists, is a bird that I never knowingly have seen alive. In haunts, habits and food it resembles the common Redpoll, and is close to it in size. Probably it is much less rare in New England in winter, however, than would appear from the few known records. A few of these birds in a flock of Redpolls would hardly attract notice, except at very close range, and under the most favorable circumstances. But if all such flocks were scanned carefully with a good glass while perched, it should not be very difficult to discover any Hoary Redpolls that might be among them, because of the whiter appearance 1 Proceedings, Portland Society of Natural History, Vol. II, 1897, p. 104. 2 Auk, Vol. XXVI, 1909, p. 308. 3 Bird-Lore, Vol. XVI, 1914, p. 27. 4 Dearborn, Ned : The Birds of Durham and Vicinity, 1903, p. 70. 6 Smith, Wendell P. : in litt. 6 Howe, R. H., Jr., and Allen, G. M. : Birds of Massachusetts, 1901, pp. 129, 130. ' Bird-Lore, Vol. XIII, 1911, p. 20. 8 Maynard, C. J. : Records of Walks and Talks with Nature, Vol. IX, p. 16. 9 May, John B. : in litt. " Sage, John H., Bishop, L. B., and Bliss, W. P. : Birds of Connecticut, 1913, p. 120. PLATE 65 PLATE 65 HOLBOLL'S REDPOLL Page 23 Adult Male HOARY REDPOLL Page 19 Adtjlt Male REDPOLL Page 21 Female Adult Male GREATER REDPOLL Page 24 Adult Male REDPOLL 21 of the latter. This is one of the birds, however, of which we get almost no sight records in New England, though Mr. George H. Boardman reported it years ago in far eastern Maine. Economic Status. See page 23. Acanthis linaria linaria (Linn^us). Redpoll. Other names: mealy redpoll; lesser redpoll. Plate 65. Description. — Near size and shape of Hoary Redpoll, but wing and tail (especially tail) averaging shorter, bill and toes proportionately longer, bill more acute ; coloring much darker, rump not white but streaked dusky, as are also under tail-coverts. Adult male in nuptial plumage : Narrowly dusky on front of forehead ; nasal feathering and lores same ; top of head bright glossy poppy-red or crimson ; rest of upper plumage chiefly dark grayish-brown, rather indistinctly streaked with darker or dusky and some grayish- white ; upper tail-coverts dark grayish-brown, rather narrowly edged much paler; wings and tail dark or dusky grayish-brown ; wings with the usual two grayish-white wing-bars often very narrow or obsolete ; fhght-f eathers and tail-feathers edged with paler or grayish- white ; from eye region down to upper breast (excepting dusky chin and upper throat) suffused with pink, sometimes more rosy (this tint is said to disappear during the breeding season, leaving the male in plumage similar to female) ; else- where below white, sides, flanks and under tail-coverts broadly streaked dusky ; wing linings mostly gray- ish-white with darker feathers near bend ; bill horn-color, darker at tip ; iris brown ; legs and feet black- ish or brownish-black. Adult male in winter plumage: Much lighter colored than in breeding plumage with more or less buffy tinge in upper plumage and more distinctly streaked ; often some pink on lower rump; the pink of fore parts paler; bill chiefly yellow, darkening at tip, also often along edges and sometimes on ridge both above and below. Young male in first winter and first nuptial plumage : Like adult female but usually browner above, more strongly tinged buffy below, with some trace of pink on rump and cheeks, and often same on breast ; as breeding season approaches much of the buff becomes lighter or whitish. Adult female {and some apparently adult males) : Similar to adult male, but red on crown not quite so intense ; pink wanting on cheeks, upper breast and (usually) on rump, the pink being replaced by pale buffy or whitish ; dusky of chin and upper throat extending farther down than in male. Young female in first winter and first nuptial plumage: Similar to young winter male, but like adult female rarely showing any pink. Young injuvenal plumage {sexes alike) : Streaked like juvenal Hoary Redpoll but a trifle less grayish ; no red cap ; white on top of head and on back and belly not so pure. ' Measurements. — Length 4.50 to 5.50 in. ; spread 8.20 to 8.80; folded wing 2.75 to 3.10 ; tail 2.20 to 2.70; bill .35 to .45 ; tarsus .55 to .60. Female smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage largely acquired in nestling by complete postnatal molt ; first winter plumage by partial postjuvenal molt (August, September) including body feathers, most of wing-coverts, and in some cases tertials, but not flight-feathers nor tail ; first nuptial plumage results from abrasion ; probably most immature birds become as adults in winter plumage after first postnuptial molt, when more than one year old ; adults acquire winter plumage by complete postnuptial molt in autumn, though some few males may never acquire the pink on rump and fore parts, it being replaced by yellowish, as in caged redpolls. Field Marks. — Size of Chifiping Sparrow. Adult male: Red cap and blackish chin ; above gray- ish-brown, darkly streaked; two Ught wing-bars; whitish below; breast and rump pink. Female and young: Similar, but Uttle or no pink. In calls, size and flight they resemble Goldfinches, but their flight caUs commonly are more rattling. See also Field Marks under Hoary Redpoll (page 20) and Greater Redpoll (page 24). 22 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS Voice. — Feeding call a peculiar chett or chett-cherrett (H. Nehrling) ; common call a rough chug or chee, somewhat like call of White- winged Crossbill; also a Goldfinch-like note dee-ar; song, a string of chugs interspersed with dee-ars and chee-chee-chees, and now and then a fine ratthng trill (Townsend and AUen) ; a long buzz resembling one note of Pine Siskin but longer and thinner. Breeding. — In birch and spruce forests, willow or alder thickets, or in bushy and grassy lands or tundra in the far north. Nest : Usually low in bush or tree, more rarely in hollow log or stump, or in a tussock of grass ; built of any available material, twigs, grass, feathers, plant down, rootlets, moss, cat- kins, etc., and warmly Uned with plant down, feathers or hair. Eggs : 4 to 7, usually 5 or 6 ; .65 to .68 by .48 to .58 in. ; probably usually indistinguishable in color (sometimes more blue) from those of Hoary Redpoll (see page 20), but average smaller; figured by Henry Seebohm in "A History of British Birds," 1885, Plate 12. Dates : Late May to August, Arctic America ; June the most prolific month. Incubation : No details. One brood yearly, possibly sometimes two. Range. — Boreal and Temperate regions of Northern Hemisphere. Breeds in Boreal zones north to and even beyond tree limit, in northwestern Alaska, northern Yukon, northern Mackenzie, southern Keewatin, northern Ungava (Quebec) and Newfoundland south to northern British Columbia, northern Alberta, northern Manitoba, north-central Quebec, islands in Gulf of St. Lawrence and southern New- foundland; winters from northern Alaska and northern Ungava south to Lassen County (California), southeastern Oregon, northern Colorado, northern Oklahoma, Missouri, northern Alabama (casually), Tennessee and central-eastern North Carolina ; in the Old World, northern Europe north to Lapland ; south in winter over the greater part of Europe and parts of central Asia. Distribution in New England. — Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont: Winter visitor of irregular abundance. Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut: Irregularly common winter visitor. Season in Massachusetts. — October 16 to April 25. Haunts and Habits. This little northern wanderer appears rather irregularly in southern New England. It drifts into northern New England every winter in con- siderable numbers, but in many winters it is rare in Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut. It appears here in companies varying from small groups to flocks of hundreds, frequenting old fields, pastures and swamps where birches or alders grow, and often feeding in patches of weeds about farms and villages. As the flocks may be found not infrequently also among pines and other coniferous trees, one who is often abroad in winter can hardly fail to see them. They come with the snowflakes out of the dun sky of November and leave as spring approaches. They are such hardy, boreal birds that probably they leave the northern wilderness in great numbers only when driven south by lack of food. As they are near the size of Goldfinches and resemble them in their undulatory flight it is difficult to dis- criminate between the two species at a distance, but on nearer approach the pink on the breasts of the males, their blackish chins and their red caps distinguish them at once from either Goldfinches or Pine Siskins. Often they flock in company with one or the other of the last two species, but when by themselves they are extremely unsuspicious of persons. Mr. E. O. Grant says that on March 23, 1926, he saw a farmer near Patten, Maine, sitting on a snow drift about fifteen feet high, surrounded by about a hundred Redpolls. Some of them at times perched on his head and shoulders, and one sat on his knee for about a minute. The farmer said that he had enjoyed the previous half -hour more than any other HOLBOLL'S REDPOLL 23 that he could remember and that any man who would kill one of those little birds ought to be sent to the "pen." The birds had been attracted by seed scattered on the snow in unloading hay. The feeding flocks may be startled by any sudden noise or violent movement. Then they rise and wheel in concert, but after going through their usual evolutions they may return to the very place from which they took flight. In winter they spend most of the brief days in searching for food and in consuming it, and at night they may retire to some dark thicket of coniferous trees to sleep. I have never heard any song from this species, but their lay is said to resemble that of the Goldfinch. The food of the Redpolls while with us consists largely of the seeds of birches and alders and those of common grasses and weeds. At feeding stations they eat greedily the seeds of sunflowers, millet and hemp, also hayseed and "rolled oats." They take seeds of pines, elms and lindens and the buds of various trees and shrubs, including those of the larch and lilac. During the brief summer in their northern homes they feed largely on insects. Dr. Jared P. Kirtland informed Dr. T. M. Brewer that a male of this species, kept in a greenhouse, was so assiduous in the pursuit of plant-lice that it was not neces- sary to fumigate the plants, and that after the bird discovered these aphids it took no other food. While the bird was confined, a female Redpoll was seen hovering over the greenhouse and she remained near-by all winter. When the male finally escaped the faithful mate rejoined him.^ Economic Status. Redpolls seem to be of little economic importance in New Eng- land. Acanthis linaria hdlboelli (Brehm). Holboll's Redpoll. Plate 65. Description. — Like common Redpoll but averaging larger, the bill especially larger and also usually relatively longer, with straight sides and slightly curved ridge (Coues). Measurements. — Length 5.00 to 5.25 in. ; folded wing 2.85 to 3.00 ; tail 2.25 to 2.50 ; bill .35 to .43. Female smaller than male. Molts. — Similar to those of common Redpoll (see page 21). Field Marks. — None to be relied upon ; cannot be distinguished from Redpoll in the field. Voice. — Similar to that of Redpoll. Breeding. — Near sea-coast. Nest and Eggs: Indistinguishable from those of common Redpoll. Range. — Northern parts of the world. Breeds on Herschel and other Arctic islands south to the Commander Islands, Kamchatka; migrates through Alaska south and east in winter to southeastern Montana, Iowa, Illinois, southern Quebec, Ontario, southern New York, Massachusetts and Maine ; in the Old World south in winter to the British Isles, Holland, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Russia, central Asia and Japan. Distribution in New England. — Records : Maine: North Bridgton, November 25, 1878, a male taken by James C. Mead;^ Gorham, February 3, 1903, female taken by Arthur H. Norton.^ Massa- 1 Baird, Brewer and Ridgway : A History of North American Birds, Land Birds, Vol. I, 1874, p. 497. 2 Maine Sportsman, April, 1897, p. 6 ; Knight, O. W. : Birds of Maine, 1908, p. 384. 3 Journal, Maine Ornithological Society, Vol. VI, 1904, p. 5 ; Knight, O. W. : Birds of Maine, 1908, p. 384. 24 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS chusetts: Swampscott, March 26, 1883, two males shot by William Brewster, now in collection of Boston Society of Natural History; ^ Lexington, March 10, 1890, a female taken by Dr. Walter Faxon. ^ Season in Massachusetts. — November 15 to March 20. Note. This subspecies, if such it really should be called, is virtually indistinguishable from the com- mon Redpoll, except by its larger bill. As it appears to breed, in part, in the same region as the former, its larger bill and average larger size may be due to individual variation. Professor Ora W. Knight con- sidered it probably an intermediate between the common Redpoll and the Greater Redpoll. It is found in company with the common species, frequents the same localities and partakes of the same food. The ordinary observer has no chance to distinguish it in the field. Economic Status. Unknown. Acanthis linaria rostrata (Coues). Greater Redpoll. Plate 65. Description. — Similar to common Redpoll except for much larger size, and to HolboU's Redpoll, except for larger size and relatively thicker, shorter, more obtuse bill ; also rather darker and browner with dusky stripes on sides and flanks usually heavier and broader. Adult male : Pink tints apparently less intense and less extensive than in. A. I. holboelli (Ridgway) . Measurements. — Length about 6.00 in. ; folded wing 2.95 to 3.30 ; tail 2.35 to 2.70 ; bill .33 to .42 ; tarsus .60 to .70. Female smaller than male. Molts. — Similar to those of Redpoll (see page 21). Field Marks. — Similar to Redpoll but so much larger (and usually darker) that when seen with Redpolls it may be readily distinguished by a careful observer. Voice. — Similar to that of Redpoll. Breeding. — In Arctic thickets. Nest: In low bushes. Eggs: Indistinguishable in color and shape from those of common Redpoll, but larger. Range. — Northern parts of North America. Breeds in Greenland where resident ; winters south through Manitoba, Ungava and Quebec to southeastern Montana, Colorado, southeastern Iowa, north- ern Illinois, northern Indiana, southern Ontario, southern New York and Connecticut ; in the Old World to Scotland and Ireland. Distribution in New England. — Irregular and erratic winter visitor ; sometimes abundant in Maine ; less common in New Hampshire ; not recorded from Vermont ; uncommon to rare in southern New England ; appears most commonly on coastal plain. Season in Massachusetts. — November 25 to March 14. Haunts and Habits. The Greater Redpoll is rather rare in New England, except along the seaboard where in certain winters it appears more or less with the common Redpoll. It visits the same localities as the latter, and its food and habits seem not to differ materially from those of its smaller companions. While it visits New England rather irregularly, it probably occurs here in greater numbers than the records indicate, as only close inspection of the winter flocks of Redpolls will enable one to discover its presence. Economic Status. See page 23. 1 Brewster, William: Auk, Vol. IV, 1887, p. 163. 2 Brewster, William : Minot's Land-Birds and Game-Birds of New England, 2nd ed., 1895, p. 472 ; Howe and Allen : Birds of Massachusetts, 1901, p. 129. PLATE 66 PLATE 66 PINE SISKIN Page 29 Adult GOLDFINCH Page 25 Male in Winter Male in Summer Female in Summer '^Ij. \ ^\ ^ GOLDFINCH 25 Note. The following quotation from Mr. William Brewster is self-explanatory. "Acanthis brewsterii (Ridgw.) . Brewster's Linnet. On the morning of November 1, 1870, as I was looking for Woodcock in the Warren Run, Waltham (about half a mile to the southwestward of the Waverly Oaks), a large number of Redpolls alighted in the top of a gray birch near at hand and began picking the fruiting catkins to pieces to obtain the seeds. After watching them for a few moments I fired into the flock, killing seven birds, six of which proved to be typical A. linaria. The seventh lacked all traces of red on the crown and of dusky on the chin. As its general coloring was not unlike that of a Pine Linnet I supposed at the time that it was merely an aberrant example of that species, but Mr. Robert Ridgway, on examining it a year or two later, pronounced it to be a variety of the Twite or Moun- tain Linnet of Europe and named it Jigiothiis {flavirostris var.) Brewsterii. In his 'Birds of North and Middle America,' where he gives it as a full species under the name Acanthis brewsterii, he says that 'possibly it is a hybrid of Acarithis linaria and Spinus pinus.' I made the same suggestion more than twenty years ago, and it has since derived added probability from the fact that the bird continues to be known only from the type specimen, which is still in my collection." ^ Astragalinus tristis tristis (Linnaeus). Goldfinch. Other names: thistle-bird; yellow-bird; wild canary. Plate 66. Description. — Bill similar to that of Greater Redpoll, shorter than that of Pine Siskin ; propor- tions of wings and tail as in redpolls. Adult male in breeding plumage : General color bright lemon-yellow ; lores, forehead and crown and greater part of wings and tail black ; tail-coverts, middle wing-coverts (and sometimes lesser wing-coverts, which are usually yellow), tips of greater coverts, and parts of edges and ends of fhght-feathers and tail-feathers, white ; inner webs of tail-feathers dusky, whitening toward tips ; feathers of tibia white ; wing linings mainly white ; bill yellow-orange or orange-yellow, its ridge blackening toward tip ; irisbro'mi; legs and feet light brown. Adult male in winter plumage : Similar to breeding female, but scapulars darker, lesser wing-coverts yellow, and wings and tail chiefly deep black and marked as in summer, but white markings broader. Young male in first breeding plumage : Similar to adult male, but lesser wing-coverts brownish or olive instead of yellow. Young male in first winter plumage: Similar to young in juvenal plumage, but not yellow below (except chin), where "pale olive- gray" darkest on throat ; sides tinged brown ; middle of belly, region about vent, and under tail-coverts white ; lesser wing-coverts brownish with a greenish tinge but not yellow. Adult female in breeding plum- age : Above mostly olive-brownish or grayish mth a tinge of yellowish, especially on scapulars and rump ; upper tail-coverts whitish or pale grayish ; no black cap ; wings and tail marked much as in male, but dusky rather than black, and lacking yellow on lesser coverts ; below dull grayish, more or less tinged with yellow, especially on throat, sides and flanks; sometimes quite yellowish except on under tail-coverts (which are white) ; belly lighter ; wing linings mostly light grayish or whitish ; bill yellowish or horn- color, darkening toward tip ; iris brown; legs and feet browTiish. Adidt female in winter plumage : Simi- lar to female in summer, but browner, less yellowish, and white markings of wings and tail broader and tinged more or less buffy and broMTiish. Young in juvenal plumage : Resemble winter adults in pattern but browner, wings and tail black in male, bro'RTier in female, and some or all of light wing and tail mark- ings usually fawn-color or ta-rniy ; forehead, sides of head and lower plumage tawny, yellow or yellowish ; "bill and feet pinkish-buff, becoming dusky with age" (J. Dmght). Note. Mr. C. L. Whittle has handed me the following original observations: "Living male Gold- finches in first winter plumage have yellowish-brown lesser coverts with a marked greenish cast. Such birds in their second winter plumage have in life the lesser coverts of bright lemon-yellow, and the median 1 Brewster, William : Memoirs of the Nuttall Ornithological Club, No. IV, Birds of the Cambridge Region, 1906, pp. 260, 261. 26 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS coverts of a 'dark mouse-gray' color, with soiled white or 'pallid mouse-gray' tips, sometimes with traces of yellow. Still older males have in the winter season bright lemon-yellow lesser coverts and also lemon- yellow tips to the median coverts, involving nearly the whole of the 'soiled white' portion of the feathers. At the same time the dark mouse-gray color of the feathers has increased in depth of color becoming ' blackish-mouse-gray.' Such old males, therefore, have a considerably larger area of lemon-yellow than those known to be in second winter plumage. If one inspects a flock of Goldfinches feeding close by, it is usually quite easy to pick out such old males since the overlapping feathers of the side of the lower neck, which generally effectively conceal the lesser coverts alone when the bird is at rest, are usually in- suflBcient to hide the larger patch of yellow. Not only so, but such old birds have, in addition to the marked yellowness of the throat and sides of the head, a generally greater yellowness (of course excluding the rectrices and flight-feathers) than younger males. "The details of the plumage changes above referred to in some detail have been worked out by collect- ing and mounting feathers from the median coverts of male birds in the three stages mentioned. The increasing blackness of the median coverts with age is easily observed, but the change from the soiled white tips of the median coverts to yellow tips appears now to be variable, since occasional males in sec- ond winter plumage have traces of yellow on the tips of the feathers. It is, however, thought probable that old males having the tips of the median coverts most uniformly yellow are in their third winter plumage, and this thought is strengthened by the rather infrequent occurrence of such birds." Measurements. — Length 4.45 to 6.00 in. ; spread 8.70 to 9.05 ; folded wing 2.60 to 3.00 ; tail 1.60 to 2.10; bill .42 to .50; tarsus .46 to .57. Weight nearly .50 oz. (B. H. Warren) ; average 14.50 grams (.51 oz.) (C. L. Whittle). Female smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage acquired by complete postnatal molt, completed after young bird leaves nest ; first winter plumage by partial molt of body feathers only (September, October) ; first breeding plumage (producing black cap in male) follows partial prenuptial molt (April, May) including all body plumage but not wings or tail ; after complete postnuptial molt (September, October) adult winter plum- age is assumed, in which male has yellow lesser wing-coverts ; adult breeding plumage is assumed the following spring by a prenuptial molt involving entire body plumage, but not wings or tail on which the white edges become narrower (b.y wear) than in winter; in some cases wings become almost entirely black ; molts are alike in both sexes ; probably young females cannot be distinguished from adults of the same sex after first winter ; adults have a double molt each year, prenuptial (late January or February to late May) and postnuptial (September to November). Field Marks. — Size, near that of Chipping Sparrow. Male in summer, the only New England bird of this size that is yellow with black wings and tail ; flies with very pronounced undulating move- ment as if bounding through the air, calling meanwhile ; female and young similar to male in everything but color, more brown than yellow, with wings and tail not so black as in male ; male in winter resembles female but with wings and tail blacker ; distinguished at once at close range from Siskins or Redpolls by solid color areas above and below, where Siskins and Redpolls are streaked. Voice. — Call in flight per-chic-o-ree (F. M. Chapman) ; call when perched chee or chee chee chee-we or pea-r-ee (0. W. Knight) ; a canary-like call wee-ee (R. Hoffmann) ; song, long and somewhat canary- like but lacking the long trill of the Canary. Breeding. — Usually in rather open country among scattered trees. Nest : In either deciduous or coniferous tree ; often in maple, in fork near ends of branch from 4 to 20 feet from ground ; neat and somewhat cup-shaped, composed of fine soft vegetal fibers and lined with thistle-down or similar soft material. Eggs : Usually 5, sometimes 4 or 6 ; .63 to .67 by .49 to .55 in. ; bluish-white, unspotted ; figured by E. A. Capen in "Oology of New England," Plate VIII, Fig. 3. Dates: July 10 to August 11, Massachusetts; July 20 to August 18 (September 5), Maine. Incubation: Period 11 days (A. H. Norton), 12 to 14 days (F. L. Burns) ; by female. One brood yearly. Range. — Eastern North America and west to the southern part of the Rocky Mountains. Breeds in Canadian, Transition, and Upper Austral zones from central-eastern Saskatchewan, southern Mani- GOLDFINCH 27 toba, central Ontario, southern Quebec and Newfoundland south to northern Texas, southern Arkansas, central Alabama, northern Georgia and South Carolina and west to eastern Montana and eastern Colo- rado; winters over most of its range from Minnesota, southern Ontario, southern Quebec and Nova Scotia to the Gulf coast from Texas to Florida ; accidental north to northern part of coast of Labrador. Distribution in New England. — Common summer resident and migrant ; less common and rather irregular winter resident ; usually common resident all the year in Connecticut. Season in Massachusetts. — Common April to October, but erratic and rather irregular and local, especially in winter. Haunts and Habits, "Panoplied in jet and gold" the merry, care-free Goldfinches in cheery companies flit in the summer sunshine. They wander happily about, singing, wooing, mating, eating, drinking and bathing until July or August without family worries. As Dr. Chapman says: "Few birds seem to enjoy life more than these happy rovers. Every month brings them a change of fare, and in pursuit of fresh dainties the nesting- time is delayed almost until summer begins to wane. . . . Their love-song is delivered with an ecstasy and abandon which carries them off their feet, and they circle over the fields sowing the air with music." This vivacious little finch is one of the most interesting and conspicuous birds of village, farm and field. Its flashing yellow, its undulating, bounding flight and its canary -like song have given it the name of Wild Canary among the country people. The Goldfinch is a brave little bird. Mrs. G. H. McGregor of Fall River, Massachu- setts, says that on May 5, 1925, eight Goldfinches and many Purple Finches were gathered under a tree eating seeds scattered there, when she saw one of the former birds, directly under the bill of a Purple Finch, eating bits that the larger bird dropped ; and several times the little bird deliberately snatched food from the bill of the larger one, notwith- standing the attempts of the Purple Finch to drive it away, and less than a foot away from the first Goldfinch another was pilfering in the same manner from another Purple Finch. Although many Goldfinches winter in New England their winter dress is rather dull in color, and except at close range it is difficult to distinguish them from other small finches, but when spring greenery tints the woods and fields, the males in their bright nuptial dress, in full song and increased in number by accessions of migrants from the south, become very conspicuous. As the season advances the attentions of the males to the females become more marked and their songs more frequent and ecstatic. Often a little company may be heard singing together. Like many other birds the Goldfinch can reduce the volume of its song until it seems far away, but it is capable of remarkable bursts of melody, sweet and long-continued. Thoreau rates the Goldfinch as a remark- able mimic, and says that he has heard it imitate the songs of the Brown Thrasher and the Purple Finch, but although some of its notes resemble some notes of the Purple Finch I have never been fortunate enough to hear it imitate the songs of other birds. The Goldfinch delays its nest-building until the seeds of weeds begin to ripen and until it can find thistle-down, with which almost universally it fines its nest. So it is 28 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS not until most other birds have young that the Goldfinch begins to fashion its pretty fabric. Often the nest is not built until July or August. Young in September are not uncommon and Dr. C. W. Townsend says that once in early October he found young Goldfinches only a few days old.^ The nest is built chiefly or wholly by the female, while the male accompanies her in her labors, caresses her and cheers her with song. When the nest is finished (it, by the way, is often so compactly built as to hold water), and the pretty eggs are laid, the mother bird sits closely while her mate supplies her with food. She quickly recognizes his voice among the notes of other Goldfinches and with anticipatory flutterings answers him from the nest. When the birdlings are hatched they are fed by both parents, sometimes chiefly by the female, though her mate continues to feed her assiduously. The young are fed largely by regurgitation and probably in some degree on partly digested vegetal food, as in such cases the feeding does not occur as often as when insect food is supplied. How- ever, there is evidence that many insects also are fed to the young. As the little ones grow the parents leave them much to themselves and never seem to manifest such fussy anxiety about them as is displayed by the Robin or the Catbird, nor are they so assiduous in cleaning the nest, which often presents a rather slovenly appearance before the young are ready to leave. They remain in the nest about fifteen or sixteen days and finally leave it with fluttering but typically undulating flight. Goldfinches love companionship. They gather the year round in companies ranging from small groups to large flocks. Even in the breeding season those birds not engaged for the time being in the actual duties of homekeeping gather with others of their kind. As soon as the young are on the wing all assemble in their usual companies, and after a few weeks spent in seeking the good things of the autumn harvest of weed seeds and other dainties, they begin to move southward. Later, others come into New England from the north to take their places, and such movements continue until the rigors of winter are here. Then when the brown earth is covered deeply with billowy drifts of newly fallen snow, the flocks of Goldfinches in their dull winter dress sweep from weed patch to weed patch, or swirl and circle about among the pasture birches, seemingly intent only on feasting. Probably the flocks return at night, like the redpolls, to some coniferous thicket where, screened from the cold wind by the dense foliage, they may sleep in comfort. Dr. C. W. Townsend relates that one night at dusk one popped into a hole about a foot deep, in the snow at the base of a stump, and when driven from this refuge it cuddled into the protected side of a foot print in the snow.^ The food of the Goldfinch consists largely of a great variety of seeds, from which it skilfully extracts all nourishment, leaving only the husk. It splits the envelope of the dandelion and extracts its contents so nicely that only by careful examination can one discover the loss of the seed. It is a great destroyer of weed seeds, and two or three birds ' Supplement, Birds of Essex County, Massachusetts, 1920, p. 140. 2 Townsend, C. W. : Memoirs of the Nuttall Ornithological Club, No. Ill, Birds of Essex County, Massachusetts, 1905, p. 252. PINE SISKIN 29 often may be seen hanging to the topmost branches of a slender weed until it bends to the ground under their weight, when they stand upon it and proceed to rob it of its fruition. It is so fond of the seeds of thistles that it is often called the Thistle-bird. Among other seeds of uncultivated plants, it takes those of the goldenrod, asters, wild sunflowers, wild clematis, mullein, evening primrose, dandelion, chicory, burdock and catnip. The fondness of the little bird for burdock seeds now and then costs one its life, when it is caught and held by the strong hooks of the plant and, unable to break away, starves to death. The bird is so small that its strength is not sufficient to disengage itself when entangled by caterpillar silk. John Burroughs tells of one which had the top of one wing securely fastened to the feathers of its rump by this clinging material and so was com- pletely crippled, and unable to fly a stroke.^ Among cultivated plants the Goldfinch eats the seeds of zinnia, coreopsis, bachelor's button, cosmos, millet, hemp, salsify, turnip, lettuce and sunflower, and some other garden plants. It takes the seeds of birch, alder, sycamore, spruce, hemlock, larch and perhaps a few other coniferous trees. Occasionally it eats a few tender buds, and now and then takes a nip from a succulent leaf of lettuce or some other garden plant, while drinking from its leaves the morning dew. In spring Goldfinches eat many insects at times, among them young grasshoppers, beetles, inch-worms and plant-lice and their eggs, and Dr. J. M. Wheaton says that they eat eggs of that imported wheat pest, the Hessian fly. Economic Status. The Goldfinch is generally regarded as a beneficial bird. Its only injurious habit seems to be the destruction of seeds of cultivated sunflowers, cosmos, lettuce etc., which is sometimes so serious to the seed grower that he is obliged to take measures to protect his crops. Spinus pinus (Wilson). Pine Siskin. Other names: pine finch; gray linnet; pine linnet. Plate 66. Description. — Similar to Goldfinch in shape, but bill longer, more slim ; head and body distinctly streaked. Adults (sexes alike or similar) : Above very light grayish-brown or brownish-gray (paling on lower back and rump and sometimes tinged yellowish there), conspicuously streaked dark olive-brown or dusky ; wings and tail mainly dusky or blackish ; middle and greater wing-coverts edged narrowly and tipped broadly whitish, forming two wing-bars, the first inconspicuous ; tertials and some inner secon- daries also edged whitish; basal parts of wing-feathers and tail-feathers light yellow (sometimes con- cealed) ; below, dull white, streaked dusky except abdomen and region about vent ; bill brownish-dusky or blackish, often bluish at base below ; iris brown ; legs and feet dark brown to dark horn-color, reddish or even dusky, very variable. Young in juvenal plumage : Variable, but similar to adults, usually more buffy or yellow above than adults, with a tinge of brownish-olive, more yellow below and wing-bars buffy ; streaked above and below with clove-brown. Measurements. — ^ Length 4.50 to 5.25 in. ; spread 8.40 to 9.10 ; folded wing 2.75 to 3.00 ; tail 1.70 to 1.95 ; bill .35 to .45 ; tarsus .47 to .60. Weight, male .43 oz. (Wm. Evans). Female smaller than male. > Burroughs, John : Signs and Seasons, 1904, p. 218. 30 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS Molts. — Juvenal plumage produced by complete postnatal molt ; first winter plumage by partial molt (August, September) involving body feathers only ; first breeding plumage result of wear and fading, followed by complete postnuptial molt, beginning in August and producing adult winter plumage ; adults have only one (complete postnuptial) molt yearly (August, September) ; breeding plumage acquired by wear. Field Marks. — Near size of Chipping Sparrow ; a rather pale bird streaked darkly, two light wing- bars, and some yellow often showing about bases of flight-feathers and tail ; similar to Goldfinch in flight and habits. Voice. — Notes and calls somewhat similar to those of Goldfinch but more husky (C. J. Maynard) ; note like a very peculiar pronunciation of sioe-er in a very sharp tone (T. M. Brewer) ; "a melancholy chee-a" (E. H. Eaton) ; notes like tit-i-tit, and a Goldfinch-like see-a-wee (L. N. Nichols) ; song hke that of Goldfinch, but lower and often much prolonged ; most of its notes have a peculiar buzzing or lisping quality; a throaty " watch- winding " note, zwe-e-e-e-et or zree-e-e-e-e-eet, inflection rising and intensity increasing until call ends abruptly (Grinnell and Storer) ; a singularly penetrating note zuem or zeem (W. L. Dawson). Breeding. — Chiefly in coniferous forests on high mountains or in northern latitudes. Nest : Usu- ally saddled on limb of some coniferous tree 8 to 30 feet from ground, among thick foUage ; somewhat large for the bird, and not cup-shaped like that of Goldfinch, but rather flat, built of grass or twigs, moss, lichens and bark-strips and lined warmly with rootlets, plant-down, fur, hair, feathers or moss. Eggs: 3 to 6 ; .62 to .72 by .44 to .52 in. ; rounded oval ; pale greenish-blue, spotted or speckled with brown or purplish chiefly about or on large end, and usually spotted sparsely with blackish ; figured by E. A. Capen in "Oology of New England," Plate VII, Fig. 4. Dates: March 18, New York; May 9 to 29, Massa- chusetts; very irregular, breeding variously from March to August.* Incubation: No information available on Pine Siskin; period of European Siskin said to be 12 to 14 days (H. F. Witherby) ; chiefly or wholly by female. One brood yearly ; probably two in many cases. Range. — North America. Breeds mainly in Canadian Zone from central-southern Alaska, central Yukon, southern Mackenzie, northern Manitoba, Ontario, southern Ungava (Quebec) and southern Lab- rador south chiefly in higher western mountains to southern California, southern Arizona, southern New Mexico, southern Coahuila (Mexico) and south at lower elevations to southern Nebraska, central Minne- sota, northern Michigan, northern Ohio (casually), southeastern New York, Massachusetts and south in the Alleghanies to North Carolina; winters from British Columbia, Minnesota and southern Quebec south over most of the United States to northern Mexico and from Texas to southern Florida ; casual on the Pribilof Islands, Alaska. Distribution in New England. — Maine: Common but rather irregular resident in northern counties ; elsewhere irregular, chiefly in migration and in winter. New Hampshire : Common to rare and irregular resident, breeding mainly above 3,000 feet. Vermont: Irregular transient visitor ; breeds rarely and irregularly ; most common in late autumn. Massachusetts : Irregularly common or abundant migrant and winter visitor, breeding casually. f Rhode Island and Connecticut: Irregularly common migrant and winter visitor. Season in Massachusetts. — September 19 to May 30 (summer). Haunts and Habits. The Pine Siskin is almost as erratic as the crossbills. During every month in the year small flocks wander about as if there were no such thing as a breeding season, and individuals may be seen occasionally in summer far south of their * In 1925 they bred very early in Vermont, while the ground was still covered with snow. Mr. R. M. Marble wrote to me from Woodstock that the young were ready to leave the nest March 19. t Early in May, 1859, a nest was found in Cambridge, by Frederick Ware, and recorded by T. M. Brewer (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, History of North American Birds, Land Birds, Vol. I, 1874, p. 482). On May 29, 1883, another was found by D. W. Park in Newton (Birds of the Cambridge Region, William Brewster, 1906, p. 263, and Birds of Wellesley and Vicinity, A. P. Morse, 1897, p. 30). PINE SISKIN 31 usual breeding grounds. They may breed one year in a certain region and far away the next, and in migration or in winter they may visit a locaHty in great numbers one year and pass it by the next. Apparently they migrate southward regularly in autumn and northward in spring, but probably they take long flights and pass over considerable areas without stopping. Although they are reported in Massachusetts every year, they cannot be expected in great numbers more often than from once to three times in a decade. In 1869 they were reported as common in Cambridge until the last of June and were seen "on two or three occasions" in July.^ There are numerous later reports of the bird in summer and formerly it was seen occasionally about Mount Greylock at that season, and probably bred there, but as most of the spruce woods in Massachusetts have been destroyed, the breeding of the Pine Siskin here now would be fortuitous. It has appeared recently in northern Maine in large flocks, as in former years when abundant. Along our Atlantic seaboard the greatest flight apparently takes place in autumn. With us it comes almost invariably in flocks searching for food in weedy fields and among birches and alders, like the Goldfinch and Redpoll. It is difficult to distinguish these three species one from the other at a distance, as their flocks, flight and notes are somewhat alike and they sometimes intermix. The Pine Siskin frequents pines (especially pitch pines) and spruces of various kinds. Siskins are very active birds. A large flock settles in the trees, springs up again, swirls back and forth and round about, and settles again in about the same place. When hundreds rest thus on the trees, uttering their "z-ing" calls in concert, a humming, buzzing sound fills the air. One of my correspondents says that she called her sister from the house to see an immense flock ; the sister said "that noise cannot be made by those tiny birds, there must be an automobile here somewhere with its engine running." When assured that there was no car near, she said, "then there must be some kind of farm machine running." But she was soon convinced that the sound came from the birds, when they rose, swirled about and settled again. Now and then Siskins — always hunt- ing for food in winter — find their way to a feeding station, where some of them are likely to be caught by the house cat. A friend writes that he saw one feeding near his home, but was not quite sure of its identity until, on going out, he met the cat coming in with the bird in its mouth. In time, and under kind and gentle treatment, these wild and restless birds become very tame and confiding. Mr. William Holden of Leominster, Massachusetts, wrote to me in March, 1926, that he and his neighbor, Mr. E. R. Davis, had been feeding the birds during the winter, and among others that came to be fed were about one hundred and fifty Pine Siskins. He said that Mr. Davis was not inclined to rise with the lark and that on mornings when there was no seed out for the birds the Siskins sat about on the tree-tops for awhile and then began to fly into the open window of his bedroom, and to hop on the bed near his face. If he simulated sleep and their dish of seeds was covered, some of them pulled his hair, and if he then showed no signs of animation, they seemed to 1 Allen, J. A. : American Naturalist, Vol. Ill, 1870, p. 582. 32 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS brace backward and pull harder. They have been known even to tweak his ears and nose. Finally when he opened his eyes and uncovered the food dish, they hopped upon it and began to eat. One morning Mr. Davis covered his head, leaving only a small hole through which to observe the birds. At first his feathered visitors were at a loss, but finally one discovered the peep-hole and reaching in began tapping his friend on the forehead. When Mr. Davis finally turned and reached for the food dish, one bird rode over to it on his hand, so as to be the first at the repast. The first comer to the food dish was often belhgerent, and until it had satisfied its appetite attacked and drove away the others. One morning the second visitor found that it could not frighten the first comer away. Number two then perched on the back of a chair and regarded first the food dish and then Mr. Davis as he lay in bed. Then, apparently having reflected and decided, it flew to Mr. Davis, who still lay in bed, and began pulling his hair. Mr. Davis then reached out one hand and cupped it above the feeding bird. As the hand gradually began to close, the feeding bird became uneasy and finally flew, when the other bird immediately hopped into the dish. Since the above was related to me by Mr. Holden, Mr. Davis has written quite a full account of his experiences, with photographs of the birds on his hand and on his dining table. ^ Some of these birds roosted at night on a clothesline in the kitchen. The reader should peruse this account in Bird-Lore, which gives some interesting experiments show- ing the intelligence of these birds. Pine Siskins have been attracted to feeding stations by millet seed, and by chaff from barn floors. They are extremely fond of cracked butternuts. Their ordinary food on their breeding grounds consists largely of insects and the seeds of coniferous trees. Their southward migrations in unusual numbers doubtless are caused chiefly by lack of their usual food in the North. In the summer and autumn of 1925 thousands of Pine Siskins appeared in Maine searching over farms and villages for food. They invaded gardens, stripped beets, beans and other plants of their leaves, and ate the blossoms of many flowering plants. Mr. E. 0. Grant wrote to me from Patten, Maine, that he had seen as many as a thousand of these birds on half an acre. In Massachusetts they feed on the seeds and buds of coniferous trees and the seeds of birches and alders, maples and elms ; in winter, they eat berries, such as those of the Virginia juniper and honeysuckle, and the seeds of many weeds and grasses. The seeds of northern white cedar, or Arbor vitse, are favorites with these birds, and they seem fond of the aphids that breed on willows. Economic Status. The Pine Siskin seems to be of little economic importance in New England, but it is usually harmless. Carduelis splnus (Linn^us). European Siskin. Note. Mr. William Brewster gives a record of this species as seen by him at Cambridge, Massa- chusetts, in August, 1904. He says : "There was nothing in either its appearance or behavior to suggest that it had ever been caged, but the chances are, of course, that it had originally escaped from captivity." ^ 1 Bird-Lore, Vol. XXVIII, 1926, pp. 381-388. 2 Birds of the Cambridge Region, 1906, p. 264. SNOW BUNTING 33 Plectrophenax nivalis nivalis (Linnaeus). Snow Bunting. Other names: snow-bird; white snow-bird; snow-flake; snow lark. Plate 67. Description. — Bill very small, conic, cutting edges turned inward, ridge slightly curved ; nostrils covered by short bristly feathers ; wings long, pointed ; tail very slightly forked ; hind claw about as long as its toe. Adult male in breeding -plumage: Pure white, except alula, back, scapulars, most primaries, tertials and four to six inner tail-feathers, all of which are chiefly black, as sometimes also are greater wing-coverts and rump, there is often a little black on white outer tail-feathers, and some white edging around tips of black feathers ; some birds (perhaps immature) have much of the black varied with white ; iris dark brown ; bill, legs and feet usually black. Adult male in winter plumage: Browner than in sum- mer ; white of upper plumage stained brownish, particularly on top of head, and black of body plumage and wing-coverts veiled by white or brownish tips and margins; bill straw-color with black ridge, or yellow, brownish-yellow or brown. Young male in first winter plumage : Similar to adult winter male, but lesser wing-coverts black, or black with white edges, primaries with less white at bases, feathers of nape and back sometimes with small black spots. Adult female in breeding plumage: Similar to male, but black of upper plumage tinged brownish, somewhat varied with white and extending almost to tail ; white of head and neck more or less brownish ; bill dusky. Adult f empale in winter plumage : Similar to female in summer, but stained above with rusty-bro^^ai, and black veiled by light edges as in male ; wings with much less white than in summer, which is largely replaced by brown ; much brown on head and on sides of breast ; feathers of head and nape dull brownish-black basally ; bill yellowish. Young female in first winter plumage: Like adult female, but usually with more black in secondaries. Young injuvenal plumage: Above browoiish-gray (some are mottled), streaked faintly on head and more broadly on back with blackish ; wings blackish with ashy feather-edges, bases of coverts and primaries white, secondaries largely white, tertials broadly edged brown ; central tail-feathers dark brown margined lighter, the rest white, edged with brown and streaked black ; below, largely white, turning to brownish-gray on throat, breast and sides ; flanks tinged brownish ; sides of breast sometimes faintly streaked dusky ; "bill pink- ish-flesh-color, feet dull black" (J. Dwight). Measurements. — Length 6.00 to 7.35 in.; spread 12.00 to 13.00; folded wing 4.00 to 4.50; tail 2.50 to 3.15; bill .39 to .45; tarsus .75 to .90. Female smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage acquired by complete postnatal molt ; first winter plumage by molt (August, September) of body plumage and part of wing-coverts, apparently involving neither flight- feathers nor tail ; first breeding plumage is chiefly the result of wear, with some renewal of feathers about head and neck in spring ; at first (complete) postnuptial molt immature birds become as adults ; adults have complete postnuptial molt (August, September). Field Marks. — Bluebird size ; the only New England land bird that appears white below in flight (including lower surfaces of wings, excepting dark ends) and largely brown above; white secondaries conspicuous in contrast with black primaries ; feeds chiefly on weed seeds, in open fields ; common on the coast ; flies and wheels in rather compact flocks. Voice. — A high, sweet, slightly mournful tee or tee-oo; "a. sweet rolling whistle and a sharp bzz" (R. Hoffmann) ; a tinkling whistle and a sharp beez-beez (E. H. Eaton) ; a sweet song on the breeding grounds. Breeding. — On Arctic shores and mountain sides. Nest : On ground or rocks, usually hidden under large stones, in crevices, or by tussock or grass-tuft ; largely dead grasses, plant-stalks and a Uttle moss ; lined with finer material, as hair, fur, wool and many feathers. Eggs: 4 to 8 ; .70 to .95 by .60 to .65 in. ; exceedingly variable ; white, greenish-white, bluish-white or ashy-white, with reddish-brown, yellowish- brown, dark brown or blackish-brown spots (sometimes with violet shell markings) and sometimes dark brown scratches, all variously distributed; figured by Henry Seebohm in "A History of British Birds," 34 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS 1885, Plate 15. Dates: June 9, northern Greenland; breeds in various parts of its range from May to July. Incubation: Period 14 days (H. F. Witherby) ; by female chiefly. One brood yearly. Range. — Northern Hemisphere. In America breeds in Arctic Zone from northern Alaska, northern Grant Land and northern Greenland south to central-western Alaska, northern Mackenzie, northern Keewatin, northern Ungava (Quebec) and northern Labrador ; winters from northwestern Alaska, Al- berta, Saskatchewan, northern Manitoba, and northern Labrador coast to northern CaUfornia (irregu- larly), southern Oregon, Colorado, northern New Mexico, Kansas, central Missouri, Ilhnois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania and New Jersey ; casually farther south in Kentucky, Virginia, Georgia, Florida and the Bermuda Islands. Distribution in New England. — Common migrant and winter resident, chiefly in open lands ; most common coastwise, irregularly distributed in the interior. Has been reported in summer in Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont. Audubon reports a breeding record in the White Mountains, and J. A. Allen one in Massachusetts ; but such records are evidently erroneous. Season in Massachusetts. — October 7 to April 19. Haunts and Habits. The Snow Bunting is a typical boreal bird. It hazards its fortune to the north wind. Its home is in Arctic wastes. It is one of the few small land birds that goes as far north as land extends, and it nests in numbers in northern Green- land. Captain Donald MacMillan says the Eskimos assert that some "stay at Etah all winter," but we are at liberty to doubt the evidence. When winter really comes to New England, when icy blasts sweep down from the north and snow fills the air and whitens field and pasture, these little birds ride down on wintry winds and whirl about the fields amid the driving snow. As they wheel and turn in concert, their brown backs and black-tipped wings veer and careen about amid the snowflakes until, with a sudden swing, they turn their white under sides toward us and disappear in the snow-filled air, only to reappear as the next turn brings their backs to our view. Having swung back and forth and from side to side, and viewed their land- fall from every vantage point, they glide toward the earth, alight in a patch of weeds or tall grass that projects above the snow, and running along from plant to plant, help themselves to the well-ripened seeds. While thus occupied they are always moving along over the surface of the snow, running rapidly, walking and even hopping or jumping occasionally, eagerly snatching, hulling and swallowing the winter offering of the weeds and grasses. They are not particularly shy, but any unusual sound or motion will send them all into the air at once. They feed mostly in the fields, but also in farm-yards, about manure heaps and in the roads. Formerly before the ''English" Sparrow came they even invaded the cities, where they picked up grain about the freight yards and found some food in suburban streets ; but the belligerent sparrows soon drove them out. John Burroughs says that this is the only one of our winter birds that really seems a part of winter — that seems born of the whirling snow, and happiest when storms drive thickest. Its calls, coming out of the white obscurity, are the sweetest and happiest of all winter bird notes. "It is," he says, "like the laughter of children. The fox hunter hears it on the snowy hills ; the school boy hears it as he breaks through the drifts on his way to school ; it is a voice of good cheer and contentment." PLATE 67 PL. I— ( H ^ CO g CO 03 o P O O Q 2 mi 1^ I ""^i*. X SNOW BUNTING 35 It nests on the hills and mountains of Arctic islands and gets much of its food along the shore, where also it finds sand for its little digestive mill. So when winter comes, many Snow Buntings naturally gravitate toward the seashore and gradually move southward along the coast. After early October they may be confidently looked for on the Massa- chusetts coast, while they are rarely seen in October in the interior, and often do not become at all common there until snow flies. The Snow Bunting is a harbinger of winter. It is forced southward in severe winters, for the deep snows cover much of its favorite food in the interior, and the northern beaches are buried in ice. The appearance of Snow Buntings in large numbers in New England is considered generally to signify the approach of a hard winter, and it certainly indicates heavy snow to the northward. The Scandinavians call them "hard-weather birds." The Snow Bunting is a hardy bird — well clothed against the wintry blast. Mr. C. J. Maynard wonders in his "Birds of Eastern North America" where the Snow Bunt- ings sleep, for he says that at Newton, Massachusetts, as night came on, they always started toward the coast. As Newton is only a few miles from the sea, the birds very likely slept on or near the shore. Large numbers remain near there all winter, and are only driven into the interior by severe northeasterly storms. When the snow is soft, these birds are said to dive into it (as they do sometimes when pursued by hawks), and there pass the night. When the snow is frozen hard, the flocks sleep in the open, pro- tected from the north wind only by some slight rise in the ground, by sand dunes, or by a stone wall. Once, after the flocks had gone northward, I found a lone bird in West- borough, Massachusetts, after most of the snow had disappeared. It wandered about the fields calling plaintively for its comrades, and at night it slept on a snowdrift on the south side of the old Boston Turnpike. I found it there night after night close to a bank wall. It may have sought shelter in a crevice in the wall, for each night it sprang up from the same spot when I began to move toward it, crunching the frozen snow. Snow Buntings necessarily are very light sleepers ; when caged, they are said to be always awake and moving, when approached in the night. The wild birds leave their resting place at the first hint of light in the east, and begin feeding while it is still quite dark. They have never been known to roost in trees at night, but some flocks frequently alight in them or on the roofs of buildings. I have seen an apple tree almost covered by a great flock of these birds, and they may be seen now and then on fences or stone walls, but I have never seen a Snow Bunting in the woods. Sometimes in March a soft song may be heard from some male bird, but not the loud, clear song of the nesting time, which probably is never heard in our region. As spring approaches the wear of the plumage begins to show, and sometimes birds that stay late appear in the black and white dress of summer. Most of them leave for the north in February, while still in winter dress. The Eskimos kill large numbers of these birds for food, and, formerly, thousands were killed by gunners in this country. Even as late as the early part of this century great numbers were shot here illegally and sold to epicures. Mr. William Dutcher, former president of the National Association of Audubon Societies, 36 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS reported in 1903 that "very recently" 80,000 Snow Buntings were found in a single cold storage warehouse in one "of our eastern cities." The marketing of these birds has now been practically eliminated, though some, doubtless, are still shot and eaten. Their destruction for food purposes may be one reason why we do not see such large flocks in New England as were here in the seventies of the last century, when they came in enor- mous hordes. In New England the Snow Bunting feeds mainly on the seeds of grasses and weeds. It takes small grains wherever it can find them and is fond of the seeds of millet and hemp. When deep snow covers its usual food, it sometimes feeds on the seeds of alders and birches. It eats also the seeds of a few water plants, and along the coast takes tiny crustaceans and other small forms of marine life, sometimes following the retreating waves or gleaning in pools like the sandpipers. On its breeding grounds it takes many insects, and its young are fed largely on them. Economic Status. The Snow Bunting seems to be of little economic importance, although it destroys the seeds of most common weeds. Manitoba farmers said that in early May, 1896, when Snow Buntings were still in the field, the birds pulled up the young wheat blades.^ In New England it is harmless, as the grain it takes is waste grain. Calcarius lapponicus lapponicus (Linn^us). Lapland Longspur. Plate 67. Description. — Bill small, acutely conic, ridge nearly straight, sometimes depressed toward middle; nostrils nearly naked ; wing long, secondaries emarginate ; tail fully two-thirds as long as wing, slightly forked; hind claw about as long as its toe or longer; coloration very variable. Adult male in breeding -plumage: Above, generally light brownish or buffy-yellowish, broadly streaked dusky or brownish-black ; wings blackish-brown, their coverts and tertials edged chestnut, two white wing-bars; tail blackish- brown, edges of longer quills paler, two outermost tail-feathers largely white, next with some white and with black shaft-streaks at ends; head nearly all round, and upper breast, black; broad white or pale buffy stripe over and behind eye, extending down neck from behind ear-coverts along edge of the black, and then backward along side of upper breast ; often some buffy or buffy-white on back of head, and always a broad chestnut half-collar at base of neck extending from back of neck to its sides; below, whitish, sides streaked broadly with black; wdng linings mostly whitish with brownish markings near outer edge ; bill yellow, black at tip ; iris dark brown ; legs and feet dark brown or black. Adult male in winter -plumage : Black of head confined mainly to crown (where divided by central light stripe) and lower hind border of ear region ; some black on lower part of throat and patch on upper breast, all more or less hidden or obscured by whitish or 'pale brownish feather-tips, which also veil the chestnut on hind neck ; stripe over eye much more brownish than in summer ; tail-feathers margined with rusty, the two outer partly white ; yellow of bill obscured by brownish. Young male in first breeding plumage: About as adult male in breeding plumage, but some black feathers left in throat-patch and some tiny black spots on chestnut half-collar, which finally wear off. Young male in first winter plumage : Like adult male in winter, but chestnut half-collar around back of neck with tiny black spots. Adult female in breeding plumage : Much like male in winter, but markings more sharply defined ; less black on fore parts ; hind neck streaked blackish. Adult female in winter plumage: Similar to breeding plumage, but darker; 1 Broley, C. L. : in litt. LAPLAND LONGSPUR 37 markings of head and upper breast less indistinct, chiefly dull brownish ; feathers of lower throat and upper breast often with large dusky centers ; chestnut on back of neck barely noticeable ; below whitish. Young female in first breeding plumage : As adult female in breeding plumage, but some unmolted feathers of upper breast streaked. Young female in first winter plumage : Much like adult female in winter, but with some black on feathers of sides of head and along sides of throat ; feathers of lower throat and upper breast streaked black and tawny. Young in juvenal plumage : Above bufly-yellow and brownish, streaked heavily with black ; sides of head similar, but ear-coverts slightly browner, with a little whitish behind them; lower fore plumage and flanks buffy-yellow or brownish, streaked as above; elsewhere below white ; wings and tail much as in adult. Measurements. — Length 6.00 to 7.00 in.; spread 10.50 to 11.75; folded wing 3.30 to 3.90; tail 2.30 to 2.83 ; bill .39 to .50 ; tarsus .65 to .95. Female smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage acquired by complete postnatal molt ; first winter plumage by molt of body plumage and lesser and middle wing-coverts (late July to September), rest of juvenal wings and tail retained ; first breeding plumage by partial molt of head and throat, and by wearing off of feather- tips elsewhere ; adult winter plumage by complete postnuptial molt (mostly August) ; breeding plumage follows partial molt, as in juvenal, but is largely acquired by wearing away of light feather-tips. Field Marks. — A little smaller than Snow Bunting ; often seen with or near them, or near Horned Larks, or both, but much darker than Snow Bunting and lacking yellow and black throat markings of Horned Lark ; smaller size, slender form and dark coloring should distinguish them from either of the foregoing. In flight, when seen with Snow Buntings, their dark sharp-pointed wings contrast with the white areas and black tips of wings of the Snow Buntings. Voice. — A hoarse rattling chirr, and a "sweet tyee" (R. Hoffmann) ; male has a sweet flight-song on breeding grounds. Breeding. — On barren grounds and Arctic tundra or flats, often among dwarfed trees. Nest : On ground, on tussock, or under dwarfed tree or bush; built of grasses and sometimes moss, lined with feathers, some with hair. Eggs : 5 to 7, usually 6 ; .78 to .92 by .55 to .65 in. ; pale greenish-clay-color or greenish-gray to olive-brown, spotted and blotched thickly with reddish-brown and sometimes also with darker brown and lilac ; figured by Henry Seebohm in "A History of British Birds," 1885, Plate 15. Dates : Mostly in June ; June 6, northern Alaska. Incubation : Chiefly by female. One brood yearly. Range. — Eastern and central North America. Breeds from about latitude 75° in east Greenland, latitude 73° in west Greenland, and Bafiin Island, Somerset Island and central-northern Mackenzie south over the Barren Grounds to tree limit in central-southern Mackenzie, northern Manitoba, northern Ontario, northern Ungava (Quebec) and northern Labrador ; in winter from South Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, southern Ontario and southern Quebec south to northern Texas, Oklahoma, Arkan- sas, Kentucky and South Carolina. Distribution in New England. — Rather uncommon fall migrant coastwise, rare to very rare in interior ; always rare even coastwise in spring, and usually uncommon to rare winter resident in Massa- chusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut. Season in Massachusetts. — October 5 to May 1. Haunts and Habits. The Lapland Longspur is seen rarely in the interior of New- England and is uncommon generally on the coast. At Ipswich, Massachusetts, it is most common in November and December. It usually arrives in small numbers with the early Snow Buntings and Horned Larks, and often feeds with them, flocking with them, though in flight it sometimes rises above the main flock. Most of the records in the interior of New England come from the Connecticut Valley. In Massachusetts it seems least uncommon about the region of Ipswich, though even there it is rare in spring and often in winter. It frequents sand-dunes and beaches, and occasionally salt-marshes. 38 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS In the interior it seeks stubble fields and plowed lands. In migration in the United States, this bird keeps in the interior for the most part, between the AUeghanies and the Rockies, and is rarely seen on the Atlantic seaboard of the middle and southern Atlantic coast states. It runs about with Horned Larks, but unlike them it frequently alights on the stalks of beach grass or weeds, and clinging to them feeds in that position ; also it runs along with the larger birds and feeds from the ground or snow. It is a difficult bird to find, as when approached, it is likely to squat on the ground, where, in the protective colors of its winter plumage, it seems to disappear, and a number thus concealed may be overlooked. The food of the Lapland Longspur while in the United States consists mainly of the seeds of grasses, weeds and grain. It is fond of millet seed also. Insects form a very small proportion of its food while here, according to Dr. Judd.^ Economic Status. See page 2. Calcarius ornatus (J. K. Townsend). Chestnut-collared Longspur. Description. — Similar in shape to Lapland Longspur, but colors differently distributed and very variable. Adult male in breeding plumage: Top of head, narrow stripe behind eye connecting with cres- centic spot on lower ear-coverts, breast and anterior abdomen black, sometimes touched below with reddish-brown or chestnut; hind neck deep rufous-chestnut; patch on nape, broad stripe above eye, chin and throat white; cheeks pale buff, this sometimes covering lores, ear-coverts, chin and upper throat; in some specimens (probably in highest plumage), lesser wing-coverts deep black with more or less white tips ; lower belly, sides, flanks, wing-linings and under tail-coverts chiefly white ; back, rump and scapulars brownish-gray striped with black feather-centers; wings dark brown with pale feather- edges ; tail dark brown centrally with two or three outer feathers mostly white, and all white basally ; tip of bill dusky and sometimes ridge also, rest dull yellow, in some cases bluish ; iris brown ; legs brown, feet dark brown. Adidt male in ivinter plumage: Black of head, lower plumage and chestnut on hind neck obscured or concealed by light brownish or buffy feather-tips, otherwise much as in breeding season ; in this plumage all have lesser wing-coverts black with last row white. Adult female in breeding plumage: Above light grayish-buffy-brown, streaked dusky ; below, paler tint of same or dull grayish-buffy, breast and belly sometimes streaked darker ; under tail-coverts dull buffy, whitish or white. Adult female in winter plumage: Similar to female in breeding plumage but plumage softer and colors more blended. Young: Dusky or clove-brown; feathers margined with dull whitish and pale brownish-buff; wing- coverts tipped dull whitish ; indistinct whitish-streaked line above eye ; ear-coverts streaked dusky and pale brownish ; lower jaw, chin and throat white, flecked dusky-grayish ; rest of lower plumage dull gray- ish-buff, streaked dusky, especially on breast. Measurements. — Length 5.25 to 6.50 in. ; spread 10.10 to 11.00; folded wing 3.00 to 3.50; tail 2.00 to 2.30; bill .40 to .46; tarsus .75 to .80. Female smaller than male. Molts. — Similar to those of Lapland Longspur (see page 37). Field Marks. — Size little smaller than Song Sparrow ; adult male in summer has a pale or whitish face and throat and black breast; flight undulating; may be known in flight by great amount of white on either side of tail. Voice. — "A chirp, uttered with each impulse of the wings" (Coues) ; a sweet twittering song. Breeding. — Chiefly in open, high, treeless prairies. Nest: On ground, concealed under grass-tuft ; 1 Judd, Sylvester D. : The Relation of Sparrows to Agriculture, United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Biological Survey, Bulletin No. 15, 1901, pp. 54, 55. McCOWN'S LONGSPUR 39 built mostly of grass and plant stems, sometimes lined with hair. Eggs : 3 to 6, usually 4 ; about .80 to .90 by .53 to .65 in. ; resembling those of Lapland Longspur, but usually smaller; very variable, some- times little marked. Dates: May 8 to July 10, prairie states. Incubation: No information. One brood yearly, probably two in some cases. Range. — Great Plains of North America from central-southern Canada to southern Mexico. Breeds from central Alberta, southern Saskatchewan and southern Manitoba south to central-southern Montana, southeastern Wyoming, eastern Colorado (probably) and central Kansas and east to central Nebraska and western Minnesota ; casual in migration east to Missouri and Illinois ; winters from Colo- rado, Kansas and western Iowa south to Arizona, Texas, Sonora, the southern end of the Mexican table- land in the State of Puebla ; accidental in Maine, Massachusetts, New York, Maryland, British Colum- bia and southern California. Distribution in New England. — Accidental visitor. Records: Maine: Scarboro, August 13, 1886, bird taken by Joseph L. Goodale.^ Massachusetts: Gloucester, July 28, 1876, male taken by C. W. Townsend, recorded by T. M. Brewer, and placed in collection of Boston Society of Natural History.^ Haunts and Habits. The Chestnut-collared Longspur is a prairie bird, living normally on the great plains of the West. It is a mere straggler in the East, taken but twice in New England, and in both instances near the coast. It consorts with other longspurs in autumn, and its habits and food are much the same as those of the Lapland Longspur. Evidently it is a wide-ranging species, and as it has been taken in the East in the coastal region, it may be expected to occur again on the New England coast. Its plumage is so variable that the only dependable field mark is the great amount of white in the tail — greater than that of any other bird likely to be seen with it. Rhynchophanes mccowni (Lawrence). McCown's Longspur. Note. On page 127 of "The Birds of Massachusetts" by Reginald Heber Howe, Jr. and Glover Morrill Allen, the following paragraph appears : "Mr. C. J. Maynard records one taken on January 7, 1877, by Mr. E. A. Bangs at Ipswich. This specimen we learn from Mr. O. Bangs was bought in the Boston Market by him and his brother when boys, they being told at the time that the bird came from Ipswich, but although Mr. Bangs believes the specimen to probably have been taken in the State, the evidence is so insufficient that the record is only worth this casual mention." There is little doubt that the bird was shot with Snow Buntings somewhere along the New England coast, but as it was not taken by Mr. Bangs it is too late now to establish the record. Within the past ten years two reports of this species have come to me from points on the Massachusetts coast, but as the birds were merely seen and not taken, and as there are no authentic eastern records, the species must remain for the present in the hypothetical list. Passer domesticus domesticus (Linn^us). House Sparrow. Other names: English sparrow; sparrow. Introduced Species. Plate 74. Description. — Form stouter and more robust than any native sparrow ; head and bill large and strong ; tail slightly forked. Adult male in breeding plumage : Top of head and rump ashy-gray, bright- » Auk, Vol. IV, 1887, p. 77. 2 Bulletin. Nuttall Ornithological Club, Vol. II, 1877, p. 78. 40 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS est on head and nape, forming a cap on head, bordered below on each side by a long chestnut patch, extending from eye to nape and spreading out on sides of neck ; small white spot over back part of eye ; back and scapulars broadly streaked black, chestnut or rusty-brown and buff ; upper tail-coverts tinged brown; wings and tail chiefly dusky or blackish-brown, tail-feathers edged lighter; outer surface of closed wings colored much like back, because of brown edges ; greater wing-coverts and tertials broadly edged and tipped chestnut-buff, middle coverts black or blackish with broad white tips forming wing-bar, lesser wing-coverts chestnut ; lores, stripe under eye, chin, throat and middle part of upper breast black ; ear-coverts grayish ; sides of lower jaw and sides of neck white or whitish ; rest of lower plumage mostly buffy-whitish or grayish-white, turning to gray or buffy-gray on flanks ; under tail-coverts tinged cen- trally brownish-gray ; wing linings grayish or whitish ; bill black ; iris dark brown or hazel ; legs and feet brownish. Adult male in winter plumage: Similar to male in summer but tinged more brownish above, white parts less pure and tinged with brownish, and black feathers of throat and breast partially con- cealed by whitish edges ; bill usually dark brown, paler below or growing yellowish toward base ; legs and feet brownish or pale brown. Adult female : Above chiefly brown, tinged olive; back streaked as in male, but lacking chestnut streak behind eye, and brownish-buff below it ; no black on chin or throat ; breast and flanks grayish-brown with buffy tinge ; bill colored much like that of winter male. Young in first winter plumage and first breeding plumage : Like adults, but males have black feathers of chin more veiled by white than in adults. Young in juvenal plumage : Like female, but often with obsolete dusky streaks on throat and upper breast ; throat and belly white ; young males often have decided tinge of ashy-black in middle of breast ; "bill and feet pinkish-buff, the former becoming dusky and black before spring and the latter sepia-brown" (J. Dwight). Measurements. — Length 5.50 to 6.35 in. ; spread 9.44 to 9.92 ; folded wing 2.85 to 3.00 ; tail 2.20 to 2.50 ; bill .50 to .68 ; tarsus .58 to .74. Weight averaging 1.05 oz. (W. H. Bergtold). Female smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage assumed by complete postnatal molt, completed after young bird leaves nest; first winter plumage by complete post juvenal molt (September, October), this plumage retained until first postnuptial molt ; first breeding plumage by wear, young bird becoming practically as adult when about one year old; adults have but one molt annually, postnuptial and complete (August to October) ; breeding plumage results from wear. Field Marks. — Near Song Sparrow size, but tail shorter and slightly forked, bird much stouter and head larger. Adult male: Recognized by gray or grayish cap and black throat-patch extending down middle of upper breast. Female and young: Similar in shape to male, but brown without black and gray areas. Voice. — Common call in spring chissick chissick; tchirp and the alarm tell tell are heard most often (H. F. Witherby) ; also a harsh chatter, no real song. Breeding. — Chiefly near houses or other buildings. Nest: On branch of tree near trunk, in hollow tree, woodpecker's hole, bird house or some cavity about building, sometimes in hole in wall; untidy, built of grass and straw, warmly lined with feathers, etc. ; when in branches a bulky, domed affair with an entrance at one side, but when built in small hole little lining used. Eggs : 4 to 9, usually 5 or 6 ; .84 to .90 by about .60 to .62 in. ; ovate ; dull grayish-white, spotted and speckled with reddish-brown or dark brown and gray, but coloring variable ; figured by Henry Seebohm in "A History of British Birds," 1885, Plate 13. Dates : April to August, sometimes earUer, sometimes later ; have been seen building in February in Massachusetts. Incubation: Period 13 to 14 days; chiefly by female. Two or three broods yearly, probably more in some cases. Range. — Resident in all Europe except Italy, where only casual ; east through Siberia to Irkutsk and Dauria. Introduced into New Zealand, Hawaii, South America, North America, southern Green- land and elsewhere. Now resident in North America from central British Columbia, central Alberta, central Saskatchewan, central Manitoba, northern Ontario, southeastern Quebec and Newfound- land south to northern Lower California, southern Arizona, southern New Mexico, southern Texas, HOUSE SPARROW 41 Tamaulipas, southern Louisiana, southern Alabama, Florida, Cuba, Bahama Islands and Bermuda Islands. Distribution in New England. — More or less common resident about farms, villages, towns and cities, though absent in some localities ; rare or wartting in forested regions. Season in Massachusetts. — Permanent resident. History. The European House Sparrow, or "English" Sparrow as it is commonly called, has been known in the Old World from time immemorial. For ages it has been considered typical of the sparrow tribe, and has been the most prominent of all passerine birds, because of its intimate parasitic relation to mankind. This is the "sparrow" mentioned in the Bible and other ancient literature, but now we are told by Professor Peter P. Sushkin, who has studied its habits, anatomy and osteology, that it is not a sparrow at all but a weaver-bird, which probably spread over Europe long ago from Africa.^ If we accept his conclusion, we can only surmise how artificial and erroneous much of our classification may be, based as so much of it is, not upon structural differences but on superficial characters. However, as ornithologists have always regarded this bird as a sparrow, it may as well take its place here following the so-called finches and heading the list of New England sparrows. The name "English Sparrow" is a misnomer, as the species inhabits the greater part of Europe (and is not a sparrow), but the name was derived from the fact that most of the individuals brought to this country came from England. In 1850 eight pairs were introduced at Brooklyn, New York, by Hon. Nicholas Pike and other directors of the Brooklyn Museum. The birds did not thrive, and in 1852 many more were imported, and those that survived the winter in confinement were liberated in Greenwood Cemetery. These multiplied, and they and their progeny spread over the country. In 1854 some were introduced at Portland, Maine.^ Others were liberated at Peacedale, Rhode Island, and Boston, Massachusetts, about 1858, and at New Haven, Connecticut, in 1867. The first birds to reach Boston were escapes from the Peacedale consignment which was landed there, but it was not until 1869 that the species became established at Boston. In the meantime other importations to various parts of the country occurred, and the "craze" for introducing these birds continued for several years thereafter. There are more than a hundred cases on record of the introduc- tion of this bird to places in the United States and Canada.^ Some were brought from Europe and others were transported from city to city. The birds, finding a plentiful supply of food in the undigested seeds in horse droppings, multiplied exceedingly, and spread with amazing rapidity into the farming districts, especially in grain-raising sec- tions, where, because of their attacks on ripening grain, they soon became a serious pest. Before 1875 the species is said to have reached the Pacific coast at San Francisco, and then it rapidly over-ran the inhabited regions of the United States and Canada. Its 1 Sushkin, Peter P. : Bulletin, American Museum Natural History, No. 57, 1927, pp. 1-32. 2 Forest and Stream, Vol. VIII, 1877, p. 165. ^ Barrows, W. B. : The English Sparrow in North America, United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Eco- nomic Ornithology and Mammalogy, Bulletin 1, 1889, pp. 17-21. 42 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS numbers increased so fast that the cities did not furnish a sufficient food supply, and so it spread into the country. Wherever it appeared in large numbers it speedily became a nuisance and a pest, destroying small garden crops, grain and fruit, and driving out useful indigenous birds. As the Sparrows became more numerous they mobbed and killed many native birds, and destroyed their nests, eggs and young. They drove nearly all the smaller hole-nesting birds from cities and villages, as well as many that nested among the branches of trees. Most of the House Wrens, Purple Martins and Cliff Swallows, which had been abundant in southern New England, disappeared, the Sparrows having taken their nests. For example, Mr. B. H. Newell, of City Point, Maine, wrote to me that one female Sparrow took nearly every egg out of thirty-five Cliff Swallows' nests at his place, by merely driving her bill into them and letting them drop from the nests. The interlopers tore down the nests of other birds to get material with which to build their own nests, and in their eager search for linings for their clumsy domiciles they have been known to snatch hair from the back of a live dog. By attacking in numbers the Sparrows were able to kill birds as large as the Robin or the Northern Flicker ; when only two or three Sparrows were together, they were more likely to follow a native bird about until, disgusted, it left the neighborhood. Those who introduced the Sparrow believed that it would clear the city trees of noxious insects. The caterpillars of a geometrid moth (Ennomos suhsignaria) and those of the spring cankerworm moth (Paleacrita vernata) had been stripping the shade trees of city streets and parks. It is claimed that the introduced Sparrows practically extir- pated the Ennomos caterpillar in New York, Philadelphia and some other cities, but they drove out the native birds that had fed on hairy caterpillars, and hence such larvae, particularly those of a species then known as Orgyia leucostigma, increased so fast that they were quite as destructive as had been those of Ennomos or Paleacrita. Later many attempts were made at various times and in many places to exterminate the Sparrows, but without success. Bounties were offered for the heads of the birds. In 1887 Michigan enacted a bounty law allowing one cent apiece for the birds in lots of not less than 25. This law remained on the statute books until 1901, and another was passed in 1905. Professor Walter B. Barrows, of the Michigan State Agricultural College, said that the counties of that state paid out at least $50,000 in 1898 without producing any appreciable decrease in the number of the birds. ^ Poisoning the birds in winter with strychnine has been proved to be the most successful method locally in cities, but this may endanger other birds. For about 50 years the Sparrows continued to increase and spread, until nearly every village and hamlet in the greater part of North America was occupied by them. In recent years, however, they have decreased in numbers in the cities at least, especially in the northern parts of the country, where their chief food supply in winter formerly was found in the street droppings. With the invention of the automobile and its intro- duction in place of other vehicles, horses began gradually to disappear from city life, and 1 Barrows, W. B. : Michigan Bird Life, 1912, pp. 482, 483. HOUSE SPARROW 43 as motor cars increased, Sparrows starved in winter. Ordinarily there is not much nourishment for Sparrows about a motor car, though sometimes when May-flies are abundant they accumulate on the radiators, and Sparrows have been seen to glean them from parked cars. Many Sparrows left the cities for the south or the farming districts, where they became a pest on poultry farms, subsisting largely in winter on "chicken feed." Many are said to have contracted fatal diseases from the poultry. Since the decrease of Sparrows began there has been a corresponding increase in House Wrens, which are now fairly well distributed through a large part of New England. Some other species, particularly Purple Martins and Cliff Swallows, have never reappeared in their former numbers. Haunts and Habits. The House Sparrow has been introduced into many countries, and wherever it has appeared it has been stigmatized as injurious, pernicious, disrepu- table, salacious, quarrelsome and even murderous. It has been branded as thief, wretch, feathered rat etc. etc., but whatever may be said about it, the bird certainly is important. During the cycle of its increase in the United States much ink was spilled in denouncing it. Dr. Elliott Coues in 1879 gave a list of more than two hundred titles of articles, most of which were unfavorable to the bird,^ and many were written in succeeding years. Vol- umes have been published on the subject, the most important of which is one issued by the United States Department of Agriculture in 1889, on "The English Sparrow in North America," written by Professor W. B. Barrows and containing 405 pages in which the Sparrow is shown conclusively to be a nuisance and a pest. Nevertheless the bird has many friends who feed it and believe it to be a useful species. In any case, it is here to stay and we must make the best of it. It prefers to stay in the neighborhood of human dwellings, for it gets its sustenance chiefly from the products of man's labors in agricul- ture. Therefore it is almost never seen in great forests or anywhere at any great distance from settlements. It is a sturdy, upstanding little fowl, aggressive, pugnacious and active. As spring approaches, even while snow still covers the ground, a few Sparrows may be seen carrying straws to their nesting places. Their mating is an occasion for clatter and strife. Three or four males will often attend a single female, fluttering about with spread wings and discordant shrieks, chattering and fighting, both on the ground and in the air, until finally the most vociferous and pugnacious bird secures the prize. The female often shows her regard for the accepted suitor by seizing him by one wing and pulling him about, but he is tough and hardy and seems to like rough treatment, coming from such a source. John Burroughs tells the following : "A male bird brought to his box a large, fine goose feather, which is a great find for a sparrow and much coveted. After he had deposited his prize and chattered his gratula- 1 Coues, Elliott : Department of the Interior, United States Geological and Geographical Survey, Bulletin No. 2, Vol. V, 1879-80, pp. 177-193. 44 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS tions over it, he went away in quest of his mate. His next-door neighbor, a female bird, seeing her chance, quickly slipped in and seized the feather ; and here the wit of the bird came out, for instead of carrying it into her own box she flew with it to a near tree and hid it in a fork of the branches, then went home, and when her neighbor returned with his mate was innocently employed about her own affairs. The proud male, finding his feather gone, came out of his box in a high state of excitement, and, with wrath in his manner and accusation on his tongue, rushed into the cote of the female. Not finding his goods and chattels there as he had expected, he stormed around for awhile, abusing everybody in general and his neighbor in particular, and then went away as if to repair the loss. As soon as he was out of sight, the shrewd thief went and brought the feather home and lined her own domicile with it." ^ While this so-called ''sparrow" in its wild or semi-domesticated state never utters a musical note, it has, nevertheless, the organs of a song-bird, and if taken young enough can be taught to sing in captivity. It is said, when properly trained, to sing as well as the Canary and even to imitate the song of that bird. Bechstein tells of a Paris clergy- man who had two House Sparrows which he had taught to speak and to repeat some of the shorter commandments. It was interesting to observe one of these birds pilfering food from the other, who gravely admonished him meanwhile "thou shalt not steal !" Both sexes engage in the nest building and in feeding the young. The nest, unlike those of our native sparrows, is often built in roughly globular form — a great mass of heterogeneous materials, largely grass and lined with feathers. It often presents a filthy appearance by the time the young leave it, and it naturally swarms with vermin. When the young become strong on the wing many go into the country districts, where they sub- sist largely on weed seeds, grass seeds, grain and fruit. Their injurious habits are empha- sized in summer and autumn, but they eat grain at any season of the year wherever they can find it. As winter approaches the Sparrows gather into towns, villages and cities. Some find refuge during the severest weather in barns or sheds, in which also they often hide to escape the attacks of the Northern Shrike. They usually roost in sheltered places, such as an open shed, an unoccupied building or among thick ivy vines on large buildings, and in various holes and crevices about buildings and trees. There is more or less migra- tion during the winter, but as a rule the species is rather sedentary, clinging persistently to the locality of its chosen home, and in severe winters many perish in the North from starvation and exposure. The food of the House Sparrow includes many substances, chiefly vegetal, and rang- ing from fruit and grain to garbage, and undigested grain and seeds in horse droppings. It eats greedily all the small grains and bird seeds, crumbs of bread, cake and other foods of mankind, small fruits and succulent garden plants in their tender stages. It destroys young peas, turnips, cabbage and nearly all young vegetables, and it often eats the undeveloped seeds of vegetables. When numerous it attacks apples, peaches, plums, pears, strawberries, currants and all other common small fruits. During the early part 1 Burroughs, John: Locusts and Wild Honey, 1907, p. 33. VESPER SPARROW ' 45 of the season before seeds ripen, it takes many insects, and feeds many more to its young. Its insect food includes several injurious caterpillars such as are eaten by most native birds and some destructive moths and beetles. Economic Status. The food of the House Sparrow has been investigated in several countries and the results of these investigations, so far as I am aware, are similar. The bird is declared to be one of the comparatively few injurious species of the world. Its only saving virtue from man's point of view is the destruction of a small proportion of injurious insects. At times it eats many cut-worms, including the notorious army-worm, and there are a number of instances on record where, because of its great numbers, it has much reduced invasions of certain insect pests. In ''The English Sparrow in North America" by W. B. Barrows, there is given (pp. 111-123) an account of the food materials found in a large number of stomachs of the species examined by that eminent entomolo- gist, the late Dr. C. V. Riley of the United States Department of Agriculture. He found that most of the insects taken were harmless species, and that the good done by destroying a few injurious orthoptera and lepidoptera was about counterbalanced by the number of beneficial insects destroyed. This investigation, however, was made in 1887. Since that time the House Sparrows in New England have decreased much in numbers, and apparently they now destroy more injurious insects and fewer of the products of agricul- ture per bird than they did in the days of their abundance, when much more of their preferred food in the streets was available. In their present numbers they are not so destructive to fruit or to native birds as they formerly were, but recent reports indicate that they still retain habits like those of their forbears, the undesirable reprobates that invaded this country in the nineteenth century. In city and suburban gardens they continue to consume young plants, such as corn, peas and lettuce as soon as their shoots appear above ground. Pooecetes gramineus gramineus (Gmelin). Vesper Sparrow. Other names: bay-winged bunting; grass finch; ground-bird. Plate 68. Description. — Outline of conical bill nearly straight, nostrils naked ; wings longer than tail, which is slightly forked, tertials rather long ; hind claw much shorter than its toe, as in most sparrows. Adults (sexes similar) : Grayish-brown or brownish-gray above, streaked with dusky and with brown-edged feather-centers ; narrow eye-ring (and sometimes line over eye) whitish ; dark spot below ear-coverts and dark streak below eye forming with two streaks below it a triangle ; lesser wing-coverts chestnut, rusty or cinnamon, other wing-coverts colored as back ; two inconspicuous buffy wing-bars ; flight-feath- ers and tail-feathers very dark brown, edged light brownish or bufTy, these edges broadest on tertials ; outer tail-feather entirely or mostly white, and one or two others on either side partly white ; below dull white (usually tinged buffy in streaked areas) thickly marked wdth dusky browTi-edged streaks on breast, sides and flanks ; bill dusky or brownish above, pale yello'wish to flesh-color below ; iris brown ; legs and feet flesh-color, sometimes tinted yellowish; both sexes paler in spring than in autumn. Young in first winter plumage : Virtually as adults. Young in juvenal plumage : Similar to adults, but 46 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS plumage of looser texture, chestnut and cinnamon of lesser wing-coverts streaked dusky, much more streaked below, light margins of tertials broader, and white of tail restricted; "bill and feet dusky- pinkish-buff, becoming darker" (J. Dwight). Measurements. — Length 5.50 to 6.70 in. ; spread 10.00 to 11.15; folded wing 2.80 to 3.40; tail 2.25 to 2.75 ; bill .40 to .49 ; tarsus .68 to .82. Weight about .90 to 1.00 oz. Female smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage acquired by complete postnatal molt ; first winter plumage by post- juvenal body molt (late August, September), juvenal wings and tail retained; first breeding plumage results from wear ; adult winter plumage acquired by complete postnuptial molt (August to early Octo- ber) ; adult breeding plumage by wear as in young bird. Field Marks. — Song Sparrow size ; a grajash-brown streaked sparrow ; chestnut lesser wing- coverts and white outer tail-feathers (the latter easily seen as the bird runs along the ground or flies before the intruder) are diagnostic ; no other common summer bird of this size shows such white outer tail-feathers. The Meadowlark which shows white outer tail-feathers is much larger, and the Slate-colored Junco much darker. Voice. — Alarm note a chip, not a chenk like that of our other common ground bird, the Song Spar- row ; song, two long low notes, succeeded by two higher ones, then descending in chippering trills (E. H. Eaton) ; rather louder and clearer than that of Song Sparrow. Breeding. — Usually in open uplands, such as hilly fields and pastures. Nest : Sunk in a depres- sion in dry ground, often beside a clod, tuft of grass or weed, but often without shelter, or on ground in tussock or bunch of weeds ; built of dry grass and rootlets, and lined with finer material of same. Eggs : 4 to 5 ; .76 to .88 by .58 to .65 in. ; ovate ; pale greenish-white to grayish-white, marked with dots and blotches of different shades of reddish and purplish-brown, sometimes with blotches of black, and usually with eccentric lines and scrawls of umber or blackish, most markings concentrated around large end; figured by E. A. Capen in "Oology of New England," Plate VIII, Figs. 9-12. Dates: April 15, June 10, August 11, Massachusetts; late May to June 24, late July and August, Maine. Incubation : Period 11 to 13 days (F. L. Burns) ; chiefly by female, but both have been seen on nest. Two broods yearly in many cases, probably even three sometimes. Range. — Eastern North America west to the Great Plains. Breeds in lower Canadian, Transition and Upper Austral zones from southeastern Saskatchewan, southern Manitoba, southern Ontario, south- ern Quebec and Cape Breton Island (Nova Scotia) south to eastern Kansas, central Missouri, Kentucky, eastern Tennessee and North Carolina and west to eastern North Dakota and eastern Nebraska; winters from Arkansas, southern Indiana, southern Pennsylvania, southeastern New York, southern Connecticut, Rhode Island and southeastern Massachusetts to northern Tamaulipas, central Texas, southern Louisiana and southeastern Florida ; casual in the Bermuda Islands and Yucatan. Distribution in New England. — Maine, Vermont and New Hampshire : Common migrant and summer resident in open lands, rare in forested lands and absent from highest elevations. Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut : Common migrant and summer resident in open lands ; rare winter resident in southern coastal regions. Season in Massachusetts. — March 11 to November 30 (winter). Haunts and Habits. Mid-March has passed and winter seems to have departed. Where but yesterday the eye swept the unbroken snowy mantle of the hills, the earth now lies bare and sodden, with here a faint vernal tinge and there a little patch of snow. Swollen streams rush murmuring to the sea. Robust Robins flutter among the crimson sumac berries, taking toll of the supply of fruit, dried on the stem. A Bluebird warbles his soft love song as he flutters from tree to tree in the old orchard, and far away, from the hill pasture, comes an "earth-song," a pastoral plaintive and sweet, the fine strain of the Vesper Sparrow. PLATE 68 PLATE 68 VESPER SPARROW Page 45 HENSLOW'S SPARROW Page 59 GRASSHOPPER SPARROW Page 56 IPSWICH SPARROW Page 48 SAVANNAH SPARROW Page 53 SififOh/^sr/x^WuM^e^, VESPER SPARROW 47 In "Our Birds in Their Haunts," the Rev. J. H. Langille writes as follows of the song of this little poet of the fields : ''The melody of the Bay-wing, if not so sprightly and varied, still bears quite a resemblance to that of the Song Sparrow, and is expressive of a tender pathos, which may even give it the preference. It is one of the few bird-songs which might be written upon a musical staff. Beginning with a few soft syllables on the fifth note of the musical scale, it strikes several loud and prolonged notes on the eighth above, and ends in a soft warble which seems to die out for want of breath, and may run a little down the scale. Though the song is not brilliant, and rather suggestive of humble scenes and thoughts, ' the grass, the stones, the stubble, the furrow, the quiet herds, and the warm twilight among the hills,' it is nevertheless a fine pastoral, full of the sweet content which dwells in the bosom of nature. It is heard to the best advantage when the rosy hues of sun- down are tinting the road, the rocks, and all the higher lights of the evening landscape. Then an innumerable company of these poets ' of the plain, unadorned pastures ' — some perched on the fences, some on weeds and thistles, but many more hid in the grass and stubble — swell into their finest chorus, while most other birds are gradually subsiding into silence. It has been well said that the farmer following his team from the field at dusk catches the Bay-wing's sweetest strain, and that a very proper name for it would be the Vesper Sparrow." John Burroughs describes the song as "two or three long, silver notes of rest and peace, ending in some subdued trills and quavers." Although the Vesper Sparrow is a ground bird it may be seen commonly in trees, on fences, telegraph or telephone wires, and even on roofs of buildings, especially during migration, and in the love season its rapture sometimes lifts it into the air on fluttering wings, occasionally to a considerable height, where it pours forth its sweetest music ere it drops again to earth. Its lay is most frequent in early morning and near sunset, but may be heard intermittently at any hour of the day, until the night shuts down, and even in dense darkness. The name Vesper Sparrow was, I believe, first proposed for it by Wilson Flagg, and refers to its evening song. It seemed so appropriate that it was finally adopted by the American Ornithologists' Union. Usually the bird does not become common in the greater part of southern New England until April, and it does not ordinarily build its nest until May, but nests have been found, with eggs, in April. The courtship is carried on mostly on the ground. The male walks or runs before or after the female, with wings raised, and both wings and tail widely spread, occasionally rising into the air to give his fiight-song. There is much rivalry and some strife between the males. In open pastures with short grass the nest is usually sunk in a little hollow, so that its edge is about level with the surface of the sod. Miss Lucia B. Cutter, of Jaffrey, New Hampshire, found a nest in a hole six inches deep, but this is very unusual. This nest was not protected or shaded by herbage. When a nest is built in a tussock or a clump of weeds or bushes, sometimes it is raised somewhat above the ground. Occasionally 48 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS the little domicile is built among standing grain, and now and then one is found under the shelter of a potato plant. Nest building requires from one to two weeks, as it is frequently delayed by inclement weather. When the nest is completed an egg is laid daily. The female usually sits very closely when incubating, and often does not leave the nest until almost trodden upon, when she flutters slowly along the ground in imitation of a wounded bird. When the young are hatched, the parents eat the broken egg shells ; both parents brood the young, which the female shades from the hot sun with partly spread wings, and protects from the storm with her own body. The nest is kept scrupulously clean. The young leave it in some cases in about eight days, but if not molested they are ready to fly in about twelve. Anyone walking along a country road or through an upland pasture in spring or summer may see the bird, a plain, rather dingy, striped sparrow, running on ahead, flying only when closely approached, and now and then showing its white outer tail- feathers in flight. It is a bird of the drier, upland fields, usually keeping away from houses for the most part, and rather seldom approaching swamps and watersides, but is fond of daily dust baths in country roads. When the young are on the wing, they feed about weedy fields and gardens. Although not so gregarious as blackbirds or longspurs, flocks of 20 to 50 may be seen in migration, which goes on from late September to Novem- ber in New England, after which only a few stragglers remain, some of whom winter during mild seasons along the south side of Cape Cod, on the Elizabeth Islands, on Block Island and the coast of Connecticut, and a few up the Connecticut Valley as far north as northern Hampden County, Massachusetts. * The food of the Vesper Sparrow consists of nearly one-third animal matter, chiefly in- sects, and the rest vegetal, chiefly weed seeds. It is one of the greatest insect eaters among the sparrows, and lives mainly on insects during spring and early summer, including many first-class pests such as weevils, click beetles, grasshoppers, locusts, cut-worms, army-worms and moths of destructive species. A few snails and earthworms are taken, and rather small amounts of grain, mostly waste grain. Weed seeds seem to be preferred to those of grasses. Economic Status. As the Vesper Sparrow lives in fields, pastures and cultivated lands, its useful habits tend to the advantage of the farmer. It is virtually harmless. Dr. Sylvester D. Judd, who made a rather thorough investigation of its food for the Biological Survey, says "its value to the farmer is beyond question and should secure for it the fullest protection." ^ Passerculus princeps Maynard. Ipswich Sparrow. Other names: gray bird; pallid sparrow; maynard's sparrow; sable island sparrow. Plate 68. Description. — Large, pale and robust ; bill slenderly conic, outlines nearly straight ; wings longer than tail ; tertials long, extending to near end of primaries ; tail nearly even or very slightly forked ; * Mr. Aaron C. Bagg records three birds, at Holyoke, Massachusetts, during the winter of 1920. 1 United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Biological Survey, Bulletin No. 15, 1901, p. 58. IPSWICH SPARROW 49 feet slender, hind claw shorter than its toe. Adults in breeding plumage (sexes alike) : Above pale grayish or grayish-brown ; top of head and back streaked pale brownish (feather-edges) and dark brown (feather- centers) ; a narrow, inconspicuous, median crown streak of pale buffy-gray or buff y- whitish, a still whiter stripe down lower jaw and a dark one below it, bounding throat ; a very distinct stripe over eye and narrow eye-ring, yellow ; ear-coverts grayish, tinged rusty ; wings generally blackish-brown, scapulars, coverts and secondaries broadly margined pale rusty ; broad brown margins of greater coverts often form a noticeable patch across center of wing; edge of wing white, tinged pale yellow; tail-feathers with brownish centers and light edges and tips; below white, tinged on sides and sometimes across upper breast with pale brownish-buff and streaked with brown, the streaks darkest along feather-shafts and palest at edges ; usually a clustering of streaks on the breast, forming a large spot as in Song Sparrow or Savannah Sparrow ; wing linings mostly whitish ; bill dark brown or blackish above, paler below ; iris brown ; legs and feet pale brownish or dull pinkish-straw-color. Adults in winter plumage : Grayer than in breeding plumage, owing to broad ashy feather margins, streaks more suffused and paler, the yellow stripe above eye very pale yellow or ashy-white and bird more buffy below; margins of greater wing- coverts and tertials more rusty. Young in first winter plumage : Virtually as winter adults. Young in Juvenal plumage: Similar to adults, but more rusty and buffy above, and more buffy below, lacking the yellow in pale stripe over eye; colors more suffused and edge of wing around bend white; "bill and feet pinkish-buff, the former becoming dusky, the latter slightly browner with age" (J. Dwight). Measurements. — Length 5.87 to 6.75 in.; spread 9.50 to 11.20; folded wing 2.79 to 3.30; tail 2.18 to 2.60; bill .40 to .52; tarsus .85 to 1.00. Female smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage acquired by complete postnatal molt ; first winter plumage by partial postjuvenal molt (August) involving body plumage and apparently wing-coverts but juvenal wings and tail retained; first breeding plumage by partial prenuptial molt (February, March) involving head, throat and part of breast and a few feathers elsewhere, but not wings or tail ; adult winter plumage by complete postnuptial molt (August) ; adult breeding plumage by partial molt as in young, more limited in female than in male (J. Dwight). Field Marks. — A large robust sparrow, near size of Bluebird ; colors very pale or pallid, matching very well the color of dry sand ; two pale wing-bars ; in spring a prominent yellow stripe above eye. Voice. — Alarm note a sharp, dry tsip, like that of Savannah Sparrow ; song also like that of Savan- nah Sparrow but "more polished and tuneful," "keyed a little lower and finished up with more of a trill " (J. Dwight). The song has been graphically represented as "tslp- \ tsip- \ t's \ e'- | e- | e- | e- | pr-re' -e-ah" (J. Dwight), ending much like the tee-arr of the Common Tern. Breeding. — Among sand dunes on Sable Island off the coast of Nova Scotia. Nest : On ground, in hollow in sand excavated by the birds, in grass, under bushes, or under some other shelter ; composed of weed stalks, coarse grasses and sedges, moss, dried eelgrass, etc., lined with fine dry grasses and horse or cow hair. Eggs: 4 or 5 ; .73 to .91 by .57 to .64 in., thus a little larger than those of Savannah Spar- row; ovate to long ovate; very variable, bluish or grayish-white, often so washed with brown as to appear olive-brown, usually so splashed and sprinkled with spots and blotches of different shades of umber as to conceal ground color, some less conspicuous grayish-brown and purple markings, sometimes markings are grouped as a ring around large end. Dates : May 20 to early June. Incubation : No data. Range. — Central and southern Atlantic coast of North America. Breeds so far as known only on Sable Island, Nova Scotia ; winters from Sable Island southward along the Atlantic coast to Georgia. Distribution in New England. — Maine and New Hampshire : Rare local migrant coastwise ; may winter rarely. Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut: Common to rare local migrant and rare winter resident coastwise. Casual or accidental in the interior of any New England state, but has been reported at Lake Umbagog and in the Connecticut Valley. Season in Massachusetts. — (September 10) October 4 to April 20 (May 11, 15). "Winter visitor, locally common and at times abundant in autumn and early winter, very rare in late winter, and uncommon in spring" in Essex County, Massachusetts (C. W. Townsend). 50 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS History, The first Ipswich Sparrow recorded anywhere was shot by Mr. Charles J. Maynard, on December 4, 1868, at Ipswich, Massachusetts. The capture was an- nounced in the "American Naturahst" for December, 1869 (p. 554), as that of a Baird's Sparrow, because of a mistake by Professor Spencer F. Baird, who undertook to identify the bird, and it was Hsted as such in Maynard's "Naturahst's Guide," pubhshed in 1870. Later, when two more specimens had been taken, it was described by Maynard in the "American Naturahst" for October, 1872 (p. 637), and named "Passerculus princeps, the large barren ground sparrow." Many years before, however, Alexander Wilson had figured the species as the male of the Savannah Sparrow. The bird is now generally known as the Ipswich Sparrow, but its breeding place was not definitely known until May, 1894, when Dr. Jonathan Dwight, Jr., visited Sable Island, Nova Scotia, and found it breeding there. It is not known to breed elsewhere. Mr. Maynard himself thus describes his discovery of this interesting bird : "The Ipswich Sand-hills, where the specimen was procured, is a most peculiar place. I have never met with its equal anywhere. Years ago these Sand-hills, which are three miles long by three-fourths of a mile across, and contain about one thousand acres, were covered with a thick growth of pine-trees. Protected by these trees, and among them, dwelt a tribe of Indians, whose earlier presence is indicated, not only by tradition, but by numerous shell heaps scattered over the Sand-hills at irregular intervals. Indeed, even now the ashes of camp-fires may be seen, apparently fresh. Upon the advent of the white man, the usual event transpired, namely, the disappearance of the trees ; and today, with the exception of a few scattering ones at the southeasterly corner, near the house of the proprietor of the Sand-hills, Mr. George Woodbury, not a tree is to be seen. All is bleak and barren. The surface of the ground, once covered with a slight deposit of soil, has become a mass of shifting sands. . . . The Sand-hills, in places, are covered with a sparse growth of coarse grass, upon the seeds of which, as I have remarked else- where, thousands of Snow Buntings feed. There are, in some places, sinks or depressions with the level of the sea. In these sinks, which, except during the summer months, are filled with fresh water, a more luxuriant growth of grass appears. Walking, on December 4, 1868, near one of these places, in search of Lapland Longspurs, I started a sparrow from out the tall grass, which flew wildly and alighted again a few rods away. I ap- proached the spot, surprised at seeing a sparrow at this late day so far north, especially in so bleak a place. After some trouble I again started it. It flew wildly as before, when I fired, and was fortunate enough to secure it." ^ Haunts and Habits. The Ipswich Sparrow lives within sound of the breaking sea. Wherever I have seen it, my ears have been filled with the roar of pounding surf, and the bird has always been within a fourth of a mile of the outer beach. Though such has been my experience, a few reports of the bird in the interior of New England have been re- ceived. If they are authentic, it seems not improbable that during migration a few may 1 Maynard, C. J. : The Naturalist's Guide, 1870, pp. 115, 116. IPSWICH SPARROW 51 be driven inland now and then by some easterly storm. It is really at home only in treeless coastal lands, along the beaches and among the dunes. Sandy beaches backed by dunes are its favorite resorts, but it may be found also on narrow sandy beach ridges or barren beaches by the sea, where there are no real dunes. I have seen it near the edge of the woods, but never in a tree, and though it has been known to alight in one, it is usually seen, if seen at all, either in flight or on the ground. It feeds chiefly among the grasses and weeds of the dunes. When followed, its colors so blend with the sand that it easily keeps out of sight, except when startled. Then it starts up quickly and flies swiftly and rather erratically for a short distance and alights on the ground again in the concealing grasses. An observer, working cautiously and slowly, however, may now and then obtain a fair view of the bird. My best opportunity to observe it at leisure was on the long sand spit known as Duxbury Beach where there are several gunning stands or "goose blinds" as they are denominated by the natives. There on a Sunday in early January, at one of the blinds where the gunners were accustomed to feed the small birds, an Ipswich Sparrow was as tame and confiding as one could wish, and it gazed inquiringly at visitors only a few yards away. The bird had become accustomed to the sound of guns and the presence of men and as there was no Sunday shooting, the day offered an excellent chance to view the bird without disturbing the gunners or their game. Dr. Jonathan Dwight, Jr., in his interesting monograph on "The Ipswich Sparrow and Its Summer Home" (1895, pp. 34-36), writes as follows of the habits of this bird : "On Sable Island, as might be expected, they were comparatively tame, although even there not permitting a very close inspection. They watch you, especially when singing from the tops of the sand-hills or the bushes, with evident suspicion, and as there is no cover they are not easily stalked. When you approach, they become restless, repeatedly crouching down as if about to fly, bobbing up again, and, finally, either slipping quietly down the opposite side of the sand-hill, or more frequently standing their ground until you are within a few yards. Meanwhile their uncertainty of mind is voiced by occasional sharp chirps, and presently they suddenly depart with brisk, undulating flight, following the inequalities of the ground until hidden by a distant hill. If pursued from place to place, they soon become very wary and will fly until they are nearly out of sight before alighting. . . . "They most frequented the vicinity of the ponds, and abounded towards the eastern end of the island where the hills and valleys are most extensively clothed with the Crowberry and the Juniper, in the many snug nooks and pockets of which they hide away their cosy nests or find refuge at night from the penetrating, fog-laden air. . . . "I well remember the first morning on the island. The sun was feebly struggling with the drifting fog that dimly revealed the treeless, ragged sand-hillocks stretching away into the distance ; the air was chill, and all about me were strange sights and sounds. Amid the chorus of unfamiliar notes I soon detected those for which I had traveled far, and spied an Ipswich Sparrow singing away on an adjacent sand-peak, quite unconscious 52 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS of the sensation he was creating. ... It was gratif3dng to know that the bird really could sing, for it is one of the most silent of our winter visitors, its sole note being a sharp, dry tsip uttered on rare occasions. . . . This sad little chant is repeated several times in the minute, but rarely for more than a few minutes at a time, when the singer either seeks a new perch or devotes himself for an indefinite period to the quest for food. They sing at irregular intervals, the favorite hour being at dusk, when you may often hear round about you as many as five or six, each pouring forth his mournful trill which seems in perfect keeping with the somber surroundings. They are also more musically inclined in the early morning hours. They sang regardless of the fog, to which they are so well accustomed, nor did they, as is the wont of many birds, greet the sun as it now and again pushed aside the fog curtains with its long yellow rays. Bright days did not inspirit them, nor did dull ones depress them. . . . Wrapped in my coat, I have plodded along, so shut in by the cold sheets of streaming fog that I could only liken my surroundings to the sand-hills of our own coast during a winter's snowstorm, and have listened in vain for some sign of the presence of the Sparrows which I felt sure were in my vicinity. Presently one is discovered walking about on the ground in search of food, and a few minutes later he mounts a brown hummock, throws back his head, and breaks into song. Others, far and near, promptly join in chorus, and for several minutes the air fairly rings with answer- ing songs. Then ensues a period of such perfect silence, ten, fifteen, twenty minutes, that it is hard to believe there is a single bird within earshot. If, however, you will have patience, the chorus will very possibly begin again." Dr. Charles W. Townsend, who knows this species intimately through much experi- ence with it at Ipswich, Massachusetts, writes as follows regarding its habits while with us : "The best place to watch them is on the beach, where the view is unobscured by grass. The beach is one of their favorite feeding places, particularly in the sea-weed or "thatch" thrown up there. Except in the coldest weather, this attracts many insects and not only are the insects found in the stomachs, but the birds may actually be seen to catch them. I have even seen them jump into the air for an insect. Beetles and small flies are the chief kinds found. The bird is a walker and runner, rarely hopping, thus differing from the Savanna Sparrow which, although a runner, prefers to hop rather than to walk. An Ipswich Sparrow that I watched continuously for three quarters of an hour at a distance of a few yards, hopped but twice and then only when jumping from a slight elevation. In walking, it moves its head and shoulders in a dove-like manner. In running, the head is held low, so that the top of the head, back, and tail are parallel with the ground. Ipswich Sparrows may occasionally be seen to scratch, and they scratch vigorously, making the litter fly. I have thought that they did this with the two feet alternately, but so quickly as to seem to scratch with both at once like many of the other Sparrows, but of this I am not absolutely sure. Bearing out this view is the fact that I once saw an Ipswich Sparrow deliberately give one scratch with one foot only. Flirting the tail nervously is frequently indulged in. SAVANNAH SPARROW 53 "Among the dunes, Ipswich Sparrows often ahght on the seed-stalks of the beach- grass to obtain the seeds. They also, at times, alight in the bushes and even on the roofs of the few houses in the dunes. Their flight is a flickering, undulating one like that of the Savanna Sparrow, and like that bird they drop abruptly into the grass with the tail down. Like that bird, also, they frequently chase each other either in sport or anger. They often associate with the other beach- and dune-loving birds, the Horned Larks, Snow Buntings, and Lapland Longspurs. In fact, I have several times seen all four species together and that, too, at close range. Thus on January 12th, 1902, I found a flock of Longspurs, Larks and Snow Buntings with three Ipswich Sparrows feeding together in the Ipswich dunes. Again, on January 24th, 1904, in the space of some ten yards square on the beach at Ipswich, I found ten Horned Larks, four Snow Buntings, two Lapland Longspurs, and one Ipswich Sparrow — a truly notable company. The number of Ipswich Sparrows seen together in the fall sometimes almost constitutes a flock. Thus on November 21st, 1903, I saw four at Ipswich Beach within a space of a square yard, and on another part of the beach, six scattered birds within twenty yards of me. On December 6th, 1903, I noted some nine Ipswich Sparrows on the beach all within the space of a few yards." ^ The summer food of the Ipswich Sparrow, according to Professor F. E. L. Beal, consists largely of insects, as animal matter constitutes about 75 per cent of the whole. It is comprised of beetles, caterpillars, grasshoppers, ants, bugs, spiders, flies, snails, etc., with some seeds of weeds and grasses. About 57 per cent of the stomach contents in winter is vegetal (largely grass seed with some weed seed), 34.9 per cent gravel and sand, and 7.3 per cent animal.^ Economic Status. The Ipswich Sparrow appears to be a harmless "species, but of little economic importance. Passerculus sandwichensis savanna (Wilson). Savannah Sparrow. Other names : savanna sparrow ; ground-bird. Plate 68. Description. — Much like Ipswich Sparrow in form and in markings, but smaller, not so robust, darker; tail nearly even or slightly forked. Adults in breeding plumage (sexes alike) : Above, including wings and tail, dark brown or blackish, with edges of feathers (excepting those of fore crown) whitish or pale reddish-brown ; a middle line of yellowish-white on top of head, running from base of upper mandible to back of head where mixed with dark brown ; streak over eye yellow, fading to yellowish behind eye, and narrow eye-ring yellow; lores and ear-coverts more or less dusky; below, including wing Unings, white, generally streaked dusky, streaks usually clustering in a spot on upper breast as in Song Sparrow ; edge of wing yellow or yellowish ; bill brown or dusky, Ughter below at base ; iris dark brown ; legs and feet pale pink or flesh-color. Young in first winter plumage : Virtually as adults, though often with more 1 The Birds of Essex County, Massachusetts, 1905, pp. 262, 263. 2 Dwight, Jonathan, Jr. : Memoirs, Nuttall Ornithological Club, No. II, The Ipswich Sparrow and Its Summer Home, 1895, pp. 41, 42. 54 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS buffy tints. Young in juvenal plumage : Similar to adults, but lacking yellow in fore part of stripe over eye, all light parts more buffy and streaks of lower plumage less sharply defined (see Fig. 68). Measurements. — Length 5.25 to 6.27 in.; spread 7.95 to 9.60; folded wing 2.50 to 3.00; tail 1.81 to 2.25; bill .39 to .49; tarsus .70 to .87. Weight, adult male, .75 oz. (B. H. Warren). Female smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage acquired by complete postnatal molt ; first winter plumage by partial postjuvenal molt (August) of body plumage and wing-coverts only; first breeding plumage by partial molt (March, April) chiefly on head, throat and breast, but more or less on other parts of body, and including some tertials ; adult winter plumage by complete molt (August) ; adults molt as young, completely in autumn and partially in spring. Field Marks. — Size somewhat smaller than Song Sparrow, but resembling it, and often mistaken for it; usually has similar but smaller spot on center of streaked upper breast. Adult: Distinguished from Song Sparrow by the light streak over eye being yellow before eye, and shorter slightly forked tail (Song Sparrow's tail is rounded) ; legs slender and pinkish or flesh-color. The Savannah Sparrow is whiter below than most other sparrows, is darker above than the Ipswich Sparrow and smaller, has no white outer tail-feathers like the Vesper Sparrow ; other New England sparrows with streaked breasts and which might be mistaken for it, have rounded tails. Young : Juvenal birds lack the yellow above and before eye, and might be mistaken for young of some other sparrows, but general resemblance to their parents should be noted. Voice. — Alarm note "a sharp tsip" ; when two are quarreling "a harsh bss" ; song, tsip, tsip, tsip, tseeeeeeee tsee-ee-ee-ee (the ees represent trills, the first "grasshopper-like," the second more musical) (R. Hoffmann) ; occasionally a loud smacking note, and on rare occasions a soft, feeble warble takes the place of a song (C. W. Townsend). Breeding. — In the interior, on upland or lowland, in grass fields, meadows, pastures or cultivated fields ; along the coast among sand-dunes, about the edges of salt-marshes or in marsh near sea beaches. Nest: In hollow scratched out by the birds, its edges even with surface of ground or tussock, hidden by overhanging grasses; built of fine grasses, sometimes lined with hair or fine rootlets. Eggs: 4 to 6; .76 to .80 by .50 to .60 in. ; oval or ovate ; greenish-white or bluish-white, spotted and blotched, so as often to conceal ground color, with reddish-brown and often purplish-brown, very variable markings, sometimes massed as confluent ring around large end; figured by E. A. Capen in "Oology of New England," Plate VIII, Figs. 5-8. Dates: May 21 to June 29, Massachusetts; May 31 to June 18 (July), Maine; May to July, New Brunswick; July 7, James Bay, northern Ontario.* Incubation: Chiefly by female. One or two broods yearly in New England. Range. — Eastern North America. Breeds mainly in Boreal and Transition zones from northern Manitoba, northern Ontario, northern Ungava (Quebec) south to southeastern South Dakota, northern Iowa, southwestern Missouri (casually), Illinois, northern Indiana, southern Pennsylvania, northern and eastern New Jersey (rarely), southeastern New York and Marthas Vineyard (southeastern Massachu- setts) ; winters from southeastern Kansas, southern IlUnois, southern Indiana, southern Pennsylvania, eastern New Jersey, southeastern New York, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts and (casually) southern Maine to Tamaulipas, northeastern Mexico, southeastern Texas, southern Alabama, southern Florida, the Bahama Islands and Cuba; westward in migration to eastern Nebraska; casual in the Bermuda Islands. Distribution in New England. — Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont : Common migrant and summer resident, most abundant coastwise; accidental coastwise in Maine in winter. Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut : Common migrant and summer resident ; rare winter resident coastwise. Season in Massachusetts. — March 26 to November 12 ; winters more or less regularly, mostly on southerly coastline and sea islands. * According to Dr. T. M. Brewer, eggs were found by William Brewster at the foot of Mount Washington, New Hampshire, aa late as the "first of August" (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, A History of North American Birds, Land Birds, Vol. I, 1905, p. 535). Photograph hy Miss Cordelia J. Slanwood Fig. 68. — Savannah Sparrow in Juvenile Plumage Page 54 l-lidiniirti ph Oy C E. Leister i'lu tJU. — Ghassihippek Sparrow, Nest axd Eggo Page 57 SAVANNAH SPARROW 55 Haunts and Habits. The Savannah Sparrow is named in remembrance of the broad savannas of the southern seaboard, which it frequents in winter. It is seen commonly in low, moist, grassy lands or dryer lands near water, such as beaches or sand-dunes along the sea-coast. It is common about salt-marshes and river meadows, and follows river valleys into the interior, and even into the mountains, and breeds not only in the valleys but in the hills. It is most abundant, however, along the coast and in wide river valleys. It is essentially a ground bird. It feeds, nests and sings on the ground, but it is by no means entirely terrestrial. As a boy I had read that this bird never alighted in trees. Therefore I was surprised to see a small flock of migrants fly into a tree and alight as skil- fully as any other sparrow. Since then I have seen them alight on telegraph and tele- phone wires, trees and bushes, and they commonly alight on rocks and stumps near their nesting places, and from such lowly watch-towers they now and then send forth their rather insect-like songs ; occasionally one sings in flight. Most of those that breed in New England arrive from the south in April and are not often noticed by human eyes, as they search among grasses and weeds for their insect food. When flushed they fly swiftly away in undulating, zigzag flight and drop quickly into the grass. Both bird and song are so inconspicuous that most people seldom notice either. When this sparrow first arrives from the south it is songless or sings very feebly, but as the May days come it bursts into full song, though even then its musical efforts do not greatly exceed those of a grasshopper. As the courtship season arrives two males may be seen occasionally engaged in a running fight, in which there is usually much more running than fighting. Dr. Charles W. Townsend says : "In courtship the male stands on the ground and vibrates his wings rapidly above his back. He also flies slowly a short distance above the ground with head and tail up and rapidly vibrating wings." ^ Both sexes engage in building the nest, incubating the eggs and caring for the young, but the female takes upon herself the greater part of the family cares. She sits closely, but when almost trodden upon by some clumsy intruder, she seeks to lead him away from her treasures by the common artifice of fluttering along the ground, dragging a leg and wing in imitation of a disabled bird. When the young become strong on the wing, the birds gather in family groups and roam the fields and meadows. They know the art of concealment and can run rapidly close to the ground, with heads carried low, and thus they speed along for rods, keeping well under cover. When the August molt has passed, they become rather less shy and retiring, and as migration begins they may be found in upland pastures, weedy fields, orchards and gardens, where they gather the ripening seeds of weeds, as well as in meadows and marshes. In October most of them leave New England for the south, but some remain until November, and a few pass the winter along our southern coasts. The food of this sparrow consists mostly of grass seeds, weed seeds and insects. Along the coast it takes also some small forms of marine animal life that it finds among I Supplement, Birds of Essex County, Massachusetts, 1920, p. 143. 56 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS the eel-grass washed up on the beaches. Dr. Sylvester D. Judd examined the stomach contents of 119 birds of this species and found the animal food ratio to be 46 per cent and the vegetal matter 54 per cent. The animal food was almost wholly insects and the vegetal food mostly seeds of weeds and grasses and a few blueberries. No grain was found. ^ Mr. Wendell P. Smith, of Wells River, Vermont, reports that he saw one eating potato beetles. Economic Status. Dr. Judd says that judging from his examination of its food habits, the Savannah Sparrow is an exceedingly valuable bird. Mr. Arthur T. Wayne says that the species is sometimes destructive to sprouting rice in South Carolina.^ Ammodramus savannarum australis Maynard. Grasshopper Sparrow. Other name : yellow- winged sparrow. Plate 68. Description. — Bill stouter than that of Savannah Sparrow, wing and tail shorter, wing with inner secondaries and longest tertials extending to near tip ; tail double rounded, middle feathers shorter than the next, outer feathers but little shorter than the middle ones, feathers rather pointed ; feet rather large and strong. Adults in breeding 'plumage (sexes alike) : Above variegated, spotted and streaked with black or blackish, gray, buffy and rusty or chestnut- brown ; top of head streaked finely with black, with a distinct middle stripe of buff or brownish-yellow ; hind neck grayish, streaked or spotted chestnut; sides of head buffy, inconspicuously and sparsely marked dusky, a yellowish spot or stripe extending from bill over eye and a very narrow dark line behind eye, two very narrow obsolete stripes outlining jaw, sometimes ab- sent; lesser wing-coverts greenish-yellow, tips paler, basal parts blackish ; rest of wing-feathers dusky cen- trally with pale edges and tips, these markings par- ticularly prominent on tertials, which with greater coverts are tipped still paler or whitish ; edge of wing bright yellow; tail with dusky feather-centers and broad buffy or brownish-yellow margins ; outer tail-feathers largely of the lighter tint; below buffy, fading to whitish on lower breast and posterior under plumage ; iris dark brown ; "bill pale bluish, ridge dusky ; legs and feet flesh-color, claws hght brown " (N. S. Goss) . Adults in winter plumage: Similar to breeding plumage but brighter colored, less black and more chestnut above, more buffy below, and throat and upper breast sometimes faintly streaked with chestnut or cin- namon. Young in first winter plumage : Like adult in winter, but buff less obvious above and colors deeper, breast strongly tinged buffy and with obsolete darker streaks. Young in juvenal plumage : Much like adults above ; scapulars tipped with russet spots ; central tail-feathers have pecuUar fused barring along shafts ; below white, streaked on upper breast and lower throat and faintly on sides with dark brown ; "bill and feet pinkish-buff, the former becoming dusky, the latter deep brown when older" (J. Dwight). Grasshopper Sparrow, Juvenile. 1 United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Biological Survey, Bulletin No. 15, 1901, pp. 60, 61. 2 Wayne, Arthur T. : Birds of South Carolina, 1910, p. 118. GRASSHOPPER SPARROW 57 Measurements. — Length 4.80 to 5.40 in. ; spread 8.00 to 8.50 ; folded wing 2.25 to 2.60 ; tail 1.80 to 2.00 ; bill .42 to .49 ; tarsus .75 to .80. Female smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage acquired by complete postnatal molt ; first winter plumage by complete post Juvenal molt (August, September) ; first breeding plumage by partial prenuptial molt (April) chiefly about head, and by wear ; adults have one complete postnuptial molt (August, September) and a sUght prenuptial molt in spring as in young. Field Marks. — Size near that of Chipping Sparrow. Characterized by rapid, fluttering, wren- like flight close to ground. Adults : Differ from all common sparrows of the grass fields by their buffy unstreaked throats and breasts; a little yellow above and before eye. Young: Similar to adults, with streaked backs, but breasts also spotted or streaked with dusky, thus resembUng Henslow's Sparrow, which is somewhat similarly marked. Voice. — Common call, tillic; song tsick, tsick, tsurrrrrrr, like the stridulation of the green grass- hopper (Orchelium vulgare) (R. Hoffmann) ; a "couple of halting notes, preceding a long wheezy buzz" -pit tuck zee-e-e, a longer song, 'pit tuck zee-e-e-e zeedle-zee-e-e, zee-zeedle-zee-e-e-e, zee, zee-zeedle-zee-e-e-e, duration 10 seconds (S. L. Thompson) ; a longer song given in the breeding season has a rolhng trill toward the end. Breeding. — In grassy fields and pastures and occasionally on cultivated land, but not in marshes or other wet lands. Nest: On ground, usually sunken so that the edge is even with ground level, and concealed in or under a tuft of grass or some other cluster of wild or cultivated plants, such as potatoes or strawberries ; built mostly of dried grass and usually lined with hair or fine rootlets. Eggs : 3 to 5, rarely 6 ; .65 to .78 by .53 to .60 in. ; rounded oval or ovate ; pure glossy white, sometimes tinged greenish or brownish, rather sparingly spotted and blotched, usually toward large end (where often a ring of spots is formed around it), with purple or lilac and browns, both light and dark; figured by E. A. Capen in "Oology of New England," Plate VIII, Figs. 13-15. Dates: May 20 to June 1, Virginia; May 23 to August 22, Connecticut ; May 30 to June 5, Rhode Island ; July 17, Vermont. Incubation : By both sexes. Usually one brood yearly in New England ; often two in more southern states and possibly also in Connecticut. (See Fig. 69.) Range. — Southeastern Canada, eastern United States, the West Indies and eastern Mexico. Breeds in Austral and occasionally Transition zones from southern Michigan, southeastern Ontario, central New York, northern Vermont, central New Hampshire and southern Maine south to southern Alabama, Georgia and probably Florida ; winters from central Alabama and South Carolina to Yucatan and Chiapas in southeastern Mexico, Cozumel Island, Cuba and the Bahamas. Distribution in New England. — ■ Maine: Rare summer visitor along the seaboard, but not known to breed. New Hampshire : Rare summer resident on lower uplands in southern part. Vermont: Rare summer resident of southern and western valleys, recorded north to St. Johnsbury. Massachusetts : Generally uncommon local summer resident, but common in some locaHties. Rhode Island: Common local summer resident. Connecticut : Common local summer resident, most common on the seaboard and in the Connecticut Valley. Season in Massachusetts. — (April 25) May 1 to September 1 (November 22, December 6 and 10). Haunts and Habits. The Grasshopper Sparrow is a queer, somber-colored, big- headed, short-tailed, unobtrusive little bird. It did not come by its name because of its fondness for grasshoppers, though it is never averse to making a meal of them, but because of its grasshopper-like attempt at song — if song it can be called. It is so per- sistent and persevering in giving forth its attempts at melody that it not only sings and sings unnoticed during daylight hours, but even awakens in the night to sing. When the novice first hears this stridulation coming out of the grass he naturally ignores it or does not connect it with a bird. 58 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS This little sparrow is not so uncommon in Massachusetts as most people believe it to be, but its insect-like song is barely audible at one hundred yards, and if the hearer is at all tone-deaf, he will not hear it at all, even though he passes by the singing bird at a dis- tance of twenty feet. Then again the bird keeps out of sight for the most part and runs through the grass like a little mouse. Also it is very local in its habitat. It may disap- pear from one town and suddenly appear in another where it was previously unknown. It may be common in one locality and unknown in a similar region near-by. Although I began hunting for birds and collecting their eggs in the suburbs of Boston at the early age of seven years, I never found the Grasshopper Sparrow until I went to Worcester at the age of twelve, and a little later located it in Westborough, where I found its nest in a potato hill. Its white eggs with their rings of spots around the larger end are colored so like warblers', and so unlike those of other ground sparrows, that one has no difficulty in identifying them. It is a bird of the coastal plain, river valleys and the lower uplands. It is rarely found at levels much above one thousand feet. Although it often nests on rather low ground, even at the edge of salt-marshes, the nest is always on dry land. If in or near a meadow, it is on a rise of ground. It prefers dry, sandy fields and pastures, where the white daisy and the red sorrel grow, and I have never seen one in the woods. It is a ground bird ; it eats, nests, sings and sleeps on the ground, but also sings from weed- tops, tussocks, driftwood, stones and fences. Rarely it alights in trees, and sometimes sings from a low tree-top, and in migration it may be seen at times in gardens or orchards. Its habits are much like those of the Savannah Sparrow, but it may be readily dis- tinguished from that species by its unstreaked breast, the yellow at the bend of its wings, and the rapid, fluttering, wren-like flight close to the ground. It usually flies up from the grass, flutters rather low and erratically for a short distance and drops, apparently exhausted, into the grass again. It seldom arrives in numbers in interior Massachusetts until the latter haK of May, although a few may be seen early in the month. Along the coast it comes earlier, and Miss Elizabeth Dickens records arrivals at Block Island, Rhode Island, from April 2 to 8. My earliest recorded date for southern Connecticut is April 17, by Mr. Aretas A. Saunders. It builds its nests in late May and June, and I have found two with eggs in July. They are extremely hard to find, as the female almost never flies up directly from the nest and seldom flies back to it, but scurries some distance in the concealment of the tall grass. In running in and out she wears a little path, almost imperceptible, but which may be found by a close observer. If surprised upon the nest she flutters through the grass, feigning lameness. There may be a second brood occasionally in Massachusetts, but the bird comes so late and usually goes so early that such cases, if they occur, probably are rare. The nests are frequently broken up by the mowing machine, and usually a bird leaves a locality after the grass has been cut — sometimes never to return. When the young leave the nest, they follow the parents about for a while and in July HENSLOW'S SPARROW 59 or early August the southward movement begins. Birds seen after September 1 are mere stragglers. As the seeds of weeds ripen this bird feeds greedily upon them. Now and then it may be seen hovering over a tall weed regarding its fruitful seed crop, then alighting sidewise on the upright stem and reaching out, feasting "to its heart's content." It also feeds much on the ground. The food of the Grasshopper Sparrow, unlike that of some other sparrows, contains a very large percentage of insects. It seems fond of such insect pests as cut-worms, army-worms, grasshoppers and locusts. Economic Status. Dr. S. D. Judd's examination of 170 stomachs of these birds shows that it is injurious only to the extent of three per cent, neutral 24 per cent, and beneficial 73 per cent. He remarks that this species "seems to be individually the most useful species of bird whose food habits have thus far been investigated." ^ Passerherbulus henslowi henslowi (Audubon). Henslow's Sparrow. Plate 68. Description. — Somewhat like young of Grasshopper Sparrow, but bill usually heavier, tail not longer than wing and graduated, the outer feathers much shorter than the middle ones, and all very narrow and sharp-pointed. Adults {sexes alike) : Above rather buffy or brownish-yellow-olive ; hind neck and upper back tinged greenish ; top of head with a broad black-streaked stripe on either side, light middle line unmarked, blackish markings down back of neck ; back striped with blackish feather-centers, each feather tipped chestnut-brown and bordered light grayish, thus more conspicuously striped above than the Grasshopper Sparrow ; tertials, rump and tail-coverts chestnut-brown, the feathers with broad, dark brown centers, lighter brown margins and narrow gray edges; wings and tail tinged chestnut; edge of wing yellow around bend ; narrow dark brown or dusky line behind eye, ear region touched with same ; a dark streak from gape back along jaw, and another (sometimes obsolete) bordering chin and upper throat; below light brownish-yellow or buffy, paling on chin, throat and abdomen; lower throat, upper breast and sides still darker and streaked distinctly and narrowly dark brown or blackish ; bill brownish, usually darker brown or dusky above, paler below ; iris brown or dark brown ; legs and feet light brown or yellowish. Young in first winter plumage : Similar to adults. Young in juvenal plumage : "Above, clay-color, streaked on head and back with black ; wings and tail clove-brown, edged with clay-color ; secondaries and tertials edged russet, alula with white ; below faint primrose-yellow, buffy on chin and throat, unstreaked or an occasional streak at sides of throat" (J. Dwight); a peculiar fused barring along shaft-streak on central tail-feathers. Measurements. — Length 4.75 to 5.25 in. ; spread 6.90 to 7.50 ; folded wing 2.00 to 2.20 ; tail 1.75 to 2.10; bill .45 to .58; tarsus .66 to .73. Weight, male .50 oz. (B. H. Warren). Female smaller than male. Molts. Apparently similar to those of Grasshopper Sparrow (see page 57). Field Marks. — Size near that of Chipping Sparrow ; a short-tailed, large-headed bird like Grass- hopper Sparrow, but no yellow before or above eye; hind neck more greenish, back and wings tinged chestnut-brown and light stripes more conspicuous ; upper breast distinctly but narrowly streaked with blackish (young Grasshopper Sparrow, sometimes mistaken for Henslow's, has breast spotted or streaked) ; young somewhat similar to parents, but more yellowish above and below, and practically unstreaked below. Voice. — Usual note (often called the song) a rather feeble ker-chick', flee-sic', phit-zit, tee-wick, che-slick, see-wick, tse-seep, cherr-r-r-up or tililip, etc., according to the imagination or hearing of the • United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Biological Survey, Bulletin No. 15, 1901, pp. 32, 33. 60 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS listener; also a "sharp thin sipp" (E. H. Eaton) ; there is a longer song sis-r-r-rit srit srit (P. L. Jouy), or tse-tsee-tsip (W. L. Dawson). Breeding. — In small swales, meadows or other moist grassy lands, often near borders of shallow lakes or rivers, in fields of heavy timothy or clover, rarely on dry sandy banks. Nest: On ground, commonly in tuft of grass and well hidden ; built mostly of grass and hned with finer material, hair often used. Eggs: Like those of Grasshopper Sparrow and hardly distinguishable from them; figured by E. A. Capen in "Oology of New England," Plate IX, Figs. 1, 2. Dates: May 30 to June 14, Virginia; June 3, Ohio ; May 25 to August 6, southern New England. One brood yearly, probably sometimes two. Range. — Eastern United States. Breeds in Transition and Upper Austral zones from central New York, central Vermont and north-central New Hampshire south to southeastern Virginia ; winters from South Carolina and Alabama to southern Florida. Distribution in New England. — New Hampshire: Rare local summer resident from White Mountain valleys southward. Vermont: Rare local summer resident in southern half. Massachusetts: Rare migrant; rare to common local summer resident. Rhode Island: Rare migrant; rare local summer resident. Connecticut : Rather rare migrant ; rare local summer resident. Season in Massachusetts. — (April 1, 8, 26) May 6 to October 14 (November 6). Haunts and Habits. There is a great green hill east of the city of Worcester, where farmers used to pasture cattle half a century ago, and there at the hill foot, where a never- 9i W0RCE5-^R 't*. Summer Distribution of the Henslow's Sparrow IN Massachusetts. failing spring sent forth a rivulet that watered a green field, I first made the acquaintance of this little fowl. Where the rill spread out over the meadow, keeping the roots well watered so that the grass grew rank and tall, the little male, '=5jAQiycK£:T clinging to the upper grass stems, sent forth his weak but emphatic "flee-sic" hour after hour. His mate kept mostly under cover of the grass, stealing along like a tiny mouse, and so well was the nest concealed that I never found it. Rank grass in moist lowlands seems to be chosen usually by these birds as a nesting place, but Mr. Frank L. Burns records a nest that he found in New Jersey close to the beach "at the brink of a small sand-dune." ^ Usually, I have found the bird on moist 1 Auk, Vol. XII, 1895, p. 189. SHARP-TAILED SPARROW 61 land near water, but in migration or in the South in winter it often frequents dry fields or open piney woods near some sheltering thicket. Most of the Henslow's Sparrows arrive in Massachusetts in May and depart in August and September. Earlier and later birds are stragglers. There are few northern land birds whose habits are so little known. One who knows its note may find it with- out difficulty, but its activities on the ground, where it spends most of its time, are well hidden by the waving grass. If pursued it runs swiftly or squats and hides its head under leaves or other vegetation, or it may flutter along close to the ground until it reaches the shelter of some thicket of bushes where it sits motionless and concealed until it believes that all danger has passed. The male is ambitious enough at times to leave his grasses and weed-tops and mount the top of a fence post, from which he delivers that which with him passes for a song ; but I have never seen one far from the ground, though they must leave it in migration. Some of the males have the habit of singing, if singing it can be called, after dark; sometimes they sing until midnight, and in some cases nearly all night. Mr. H. C. Denslow writes to me that he timed one, and that the chirps came ''eight to the minute" almost without fail. It seems as if the bird must sing in its sleep. Henslow's Sparrow is probably more common than our information indicates. Any- one but a competent field ornithologist is likely to overlook it, but one knowing its notes, haunts and habits will have little difficulty in finding it. Undoubtedly it has been con- fused often with the Grasshopper Sparrow. I have been rather surprised to learn how widely it is distributed in Massachusetts in the breeding season. It is very local, and we have not as yet records enough to map fully its distribution, but it seems to be more common in western Massachusetts than in the eastern part. It feeds mainly on insects and seeds. It eats beetles, cut-worms, grasshoppers, bugs and some berries, but no exhaustive investigation of its food has been made. Economic Status. Henslow's Sparrow undoubtedly is a useful bird of the fields, but it is not common enough in New England to be of much economic importance. Passerherbulus caudacutus (Gmelin). Sharp-tailed Sparrow. Plate 69. Description. — Bill relatively more slender than in any of the foregoing finches and sparrows ; wing relatively the same as in last species; tail rounded, its feathers narrow and sharp-pointed; feet rather large with long toes; colors rather sharply contrasted; no bright yellow before eye. Adults in breeding plumage {sexes alike) : Top of head dark brown, streaked black, usually with an indistinct grayish middle stripe; elsewhere above, largely ohvaceous shading into umber-brown on upper back and into olive-gray on back and sides of neck; back conspicuously striped with buff, white or buffy-white; sides of head rich buff or light burnt-orange, a narrow streak of black behind eye, a dark eyebrow and a gray patch on ear region ; greater wing-coverts, tertials and secondaries dusky or blackish-brown with broad margins of rusty, often whitening at ends ; primaries brown, narrowly edged lighter, edge of wing pale 62 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS yellow ; tail-feathers dusky-brown, edged buffy ; chin, throat and all lower plumage white, except upper breast, sides and flanks, which are buffy, distinctly streaked and spotted blackish ; a narrow dark line bounds each side of throat ; bill dusky above, often lighter below ; iris dark brown ; legs and feet brown or oUve-brown. Adults in winter plumage : Darker above than in summer, somewhat resembhng Seaside Sparrow ; general color above brownish-oUve-green, Ught stripes on back gray (not white as in summer) ; top of head "sepia, faintly streaked clove-brown," with middle stripe gray ; patch on nape tinted orange ; alula edged white ; buff on sides of head and below deeper than in summer, and stripes below more or less veiled by light feather-edges. Young in first winter 'plumage : Similar to adult winter plumage, averaging not quite so bright. Young in juvenal plumage : Everywhere rich buff above and below, streaked broadly on back and narrowly on upper breast, sides and flanks with dark brown or blackish, appearing much like "miniature young, Bobolink"; tail olive-brown with clove-brown shaft-streaks; edge of wing nearly as yellow as in adult; "bill and feet pinkish-buff, the former becoming dusky, the latter sepia-brown with age" (J. Dwight). Measurements. — Length 4.80 to 5.85 in.; spread about 7.00 to 8.25; folded wing 2.17 to 2.36; tail 1.90 to 2.13; bill .47 to .59 ; tarsus .73 to .85. Female smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage acquired by complete postnatal molt ; first winter plumage by partial post juvenal molt (September, October), involving most of plumage except primaries and their coverts, and sometimes secondaries ; first breeding plumage by complete prenuptial molt (March, April) ; adult winter plimaage by complete postnuptial molt (August, September) ; adult breeding plumage by complete or nearly complete prenuptial molt as in young. The plumage of these birds is subject to excessive wear among the coarse grasses of the seaside, and adults have each year a complete postnuptial molt and a nearly complete prenuptial molt. Field Marks. — Length of Chipping Sparrow, but larger, more robust. Adult : A large-headed, short-tailed bird, olive-brown above, buffy and streaked darkly across breast and along sides, a blackish cap, light streaks on dark back, buff or burnt-orange surrounding an ashy cheek-patch ; in late autumn darker above and more buffy below ; readily distinguished from Savannah Sparrow, which, with similar habits, frequents the same haunts, by its short, pointed tail and lack of yellow before eye ; Savannah's tail is slightly forked. Young: Similar in shape but much more buffy, with dark stripes above and below, like a young Bobolink, but much smaller. Voice. — Call notes "short chips or chucks" ; song, short and gasping, followed or preceded by two ticks which can be heard only when near at hand; resembles "the plunging of hot iron into water," thus "gshshhh swik wick" (C. W. Townsend). Breeding. — About salt or fresh marshes, close by the sea, around estuaries and up river valleys above tide- water. Nest: Usually in tussock on ditch bank or among driftwood or dry seaweed, just above high water-mark of summer tides, or in grass in boggy parts of the marsh ; built coarsely of dried grass, and lined with fine grasses or similar material. Eggs: 4 or 5 ; .70 to .80 by .55 to .64 in. ; greenish, pale bluish or grayish-white, covered with fine brown dots, in some cases coarser, sometimes clustered about large end, many also have purplish or lilac spots; figured by E. A. Capen in "Oology of New England," Plate IX, Figs. 3, 4. Dates: May 15 to 24, Virginia ; May 24 to July 14, southern New Eng- land. One brood yearly. Range. — Salt-marsh regions of Atlantic coast of United States. Breeds from southwestern Maine to northeastern North CaroUna; winters coastwise from southeastern New York to Florida, casually north to southeastern Massachusetts. Distribution in New England. — Maine : Rare local summer resident coastwise in Cumberland County. New Hampshire: Rare local summer resident coastwise. Vermont: Rare migrant. Massa- chusetts : Uncommon to common migrant and local summer resident coastwise ; rare in winter. Rhode Island and Connecticut : Common migrant ; local summer resident, mostly coastwise ; rare in winter in Connecticut. Season in Massachusetts. — May 10 to November 15 (winter). PLATE 69 PLATE 69 LARK SPARROW Page 67 Adult Juvenal SEASIDE SPARROW Page 65 SHARP-TAILED SPARROW Page 61 ACADIAN SHARP-TAILED SPARROW Page 65 NELSON'S SPARROW Page 64 ■am /^ f ^' -fj^.f .^ inMi&'&fU SHARP-TAILED SPARROW 63 Haunts and Habits. The Sharp-tailed Sparrow is a species of the Httoral. It is rarely found far from tidal waters. To see it one must go where the flowing tide comes in. It frequents salt-marshes and little bogs near the sea, and is only local in distribution where such retreats are scarce. It breeds on coastal islands as well as on the mainland. During June and July while nesting and rearing young, the bird is rather shy and hard to flush, as it prefers running on the ground mouse-like and under cover, and if flushed flies low over the reeds for a short distance to the top of a plant or bush, from which it quickly descends again to its favorite cover. I have never heard of one flying high on its breeding grounds or alighting high up in a tree. Its highest flight, except in migration, seems to be a song-flight, which sometimes carries it up a rod or two into the air, when it flies along a bit, delivers its wheezy song, and then drops down again, as if it were trying to trace an inverted U or half-circle in the sunny atmosphere. Breeding birds begin to appear in Massachusetts during the latter half of May, and most of them have moved south before late October. They are so secretive and keep so much under cover that little is known about their breeding habits. Dr. C. W. Town- send, who has spent much time in following the species at Ipswich, writes as follows : "The Sharp-tailed Sparrow is one of the most interesting inhabitants of the salt- marshes, on the edges of which it builds its nest in tussocks of grass, raised a few inches to escape the unusual tides, or concealed in the dead 'thatch.' The birds appear to be distinctly social. In some localities several pairs are often found breeding together, while other localities, apparently equally favorable, are deserted. They may be found in all parts of the marshes, but they are particularly fond of the upper or black-grass region. "Sharp-tailed Sparrows are rather diflacult birds to observe, especially if they are vigorously followed, as they then lie close, and when flushed, soon drop into the grass and instantly conceal themselves. If, however, the observer keeps still, the birds often become quite tame and display their interesting habits. They run through the grass hke mice, with heads low, occasionally pausing to look around, and stretching up to almost double their running height. They occasionally ahght in bushes or small trees, and I have seen them running about a stone-wall near the marsh like mice. They fly low and alight by dropping suddenly into the grass with tails pointed down." ^ When the breeding season is over the Sharp-tailed Sparrow loses much of its caution and is not so given to skulking out of sight in its marshy cover. Fifty-one stomachs of this bird, collected from May to October, contained 81 per cent of animal food, of which 26 per cent consisted of spiders, sand-fleas and snails and the rest of insects. This is a considerable proportion of insect food for a sparrow. Among the insects eaten were grasshoppers, crickets, nocturnal moths, leaf-hoppers and many other bugs ; these insects, with the exception of some of the predacious bugs, are injurious or potentially so. Nineteen per cent of vegetal matter was found in the stomachs of these birds, consisting chiefly of the seeds of weeds and grasses. ^ 1 Birds of Essex County, Massachusetts, 1905, p. 266. 2 Judd, S. D. : United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Biological Survey, Bulletin No. 15, 1901, pp. 64, 65. 64 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS Economic Status. The Sharp-tailed Sparrow hves chiefly in salt-marshes, where probably it is of little economic importance, unless indeed it helps to hold in check insects potentially injurious, which might otherwise attack crops. Passerherbulus nelsoni nelsoni (Allen). Nelson's Sparrow. Other name : nelson's sharp-tailed sparrow. Plate 69. Description. — Adults (sexes alike) : Similar to Sharp-tailed Sparrow ; bill shorter ; colors brighter, pale streaks on back and scapulars more sharply contrasted against the rich brown or oUvaceous ground color ; chin and throat white ; upper breast, sides and flanks deeper buff, more sharply in contrast with white lower breast and belly ; upper breast, sides and flanks streaked much less distinctly, and with dusky or grayish instead of blackish. Young: Similar to young of Sharp-tailed Sparrow (see page 62). Measurements. — Length 5.15 to 5.50 in.; spread 7.26 to 7.58; folded wing 2.10 to 2.33; tail 1.80 to 2.21 ; bill .44 to .53 ; tarsus .80 to .87. Female smaller than male. Molts. — Same as in Sharp-tailed Sparrow (see page 62) . Field Marks. — Distinguishable from Sharp-tailed Sparrow only by an expert who has handled both birds and then only at close range or with excellent glasses; deeper, more clearly defined buff on breast and sides than Sharp-tailed Sparrow, and much less distinctly streaked there, where Sharp-tail has sharply defined blackish streaks. Voice. — Like that of a grasshopper (W. Paine) ; call like that of Sharp-tailed Sparrow, short chip or tweet; song a short, weak, unmusical, twittering warble (N. S. Goss). Breeding. — On low prairies. Nest : Sunk in ground, well arched over and closely hidden in thick clump of grass ; deep and well built of fine grass, compactly woven. Eggs : Probably not always distin- guishable from those of Sharp-tailed Sparrow, but should average smaller ; a set from South Dakota is grayish-white, thickly marked with specks of light brown. Range. — Fresh-water marshes of eastern United States and central and southeastern Canada, west to the Great Plains. Breeds in Canadian and Upper Transition zones from southern Mackenzie and west-central Alberta southeastward to southwestern Manitoba, northeastern South Dakota, Minne- sota, Wisconsin and northern Illinois; winters coastwise through the Atlantic and Gulf States from North Carolina to Florida and Texas; migrates through the Mississippi Valley and the middle and northern states to New York, southern Ontario, and north on the Atlantic coast to Maine ; accidental in California. Distribution in New England. — Maine: Uncommon migrant. New Hampshire and Rhode Island: No records but probably rare fall migrant. Vermont: Rare fall migrant. Massachusetts: Uncommon fall migrant ; casual in winter. Connecticut : Uncommon migrant. Season in Massachusetts. — September 25 to October 15 (winter). Haunts and Habits. Nelson's Sparrow, unlike the Sharp-tailed Sparrow, is a bird of the lower prairie region of the West, frequenting the neighborhood of fresh water, but during the fall migrations it flies southeastward to the Atlantic coast. While here, however, it seems to frequent mainly the neighborhood of beaches and salt-marshes. Its habits are much like those of the Sharp-tailed Sparrow. It is perhaps even more shy and secretive, rarely rising in flight more than a few feet above the grass, or flying more than a few yards when startled by the approach of an intruder. If the observer can keep quiet long enough, the bird's curiosity may overcome its timidity for the time being, and it may rise to some convenient perch where it may be observed at leisure. ACADIAN SHARP-TAILED SPARROW 65 Economic Status. Probably harmless but too rare to be of any importance in New England. Passerherbulus nelsoni subvirgatus (Dwight). Acadian Sharp-tailed Sparrow. Plate 69. Description. — Adults (sexes alike) : Similar in general to both Sharp-tailed and Nelson's Sparrows, but more plainly colored than either ; bill as small as that of latter, but other measurements equal to or exceeding those of former ; back and scapulars without very conspicuous light streaks, the streaks some- times obsolete ; sides of head paler buff around the gray patch, and flanks also paler buff, streaked ohve- grayish. Young: Similar to young of Sharp-tailed Sparrow (see page 62). Measurements. — Length 6.00 to 6.50 in. ; spread about 7.50 to 8.25; folded wing 2.14 to 2.32; tail 1.90 to 2.20 ; bill .43 to .51 ; tarsus .83 to .87. Female smaller than male. Molts. — Similar to those of Sharp-tailed Sparrow (see page 62). Field Marks. — Size of Sharp-tailed Sparrow, but paler or lighter and more uniform above, giving a paler, grayer effect ; buff on sides of head and on breast and flanks paler and more washed out. Voice. — Similar to that of Sharp-tailed Sparrow ; song, a low unattractive s-e-e-t-s-k (W. H. Moore). Breeding. — About brackish or fresh marshes or on low islands in lakes or rivers. Nest : On ground in grass ; built of and lined with grass. Eggs : 4 or 5 ; .71 to .80 by .58 to .60 in. ; pale greenish-blue, marked with "cinnamon-brown, umber and blue-gray." Range. — Salt-water marshes of Atlantic coast in Canada and the United States. Breeds coastwise, mainly in Canadian Zone from southeastern Quebec, the Magdalen Islands, New Brunswick, Cape Breton Island and Prince Edward Island to southern Maine; winters on Atlantic coast from South Carolina to Georgia and northern Florida. Distribution in New England. — Common migrant coastwise in the five coastal states, accidental in the interior ; no Vermont record. Season in Massachusetts. — May 20 to June 12; September 2 to November 5. Haunts and Habits. The Acadian Sharp-tailed Sparrow is almost identical in haunts and habits with the Sharp-tailed Sparrow, and feeds on similar food (largely aquatic insects and grass seeds) . So far as I know the only real difference in respect to their haunts is that the former seems rather to prefer the brackish and fresh marshes and low islands in rivers and is somewhat more northern in its breeding range, while the latter clings more closely to the salt-marsh. Both races have a flight-song in spring, both frequent the salt-marshes in migration, and one seems to be about as common as the other. The Acadian may seem less common usually in spring, but its greatest flight comes so late (near June 1) that it may be missed entirely by those who believe that the spring flight of land birds has passed or by those whose attention is directed toward the late shore-birds. Economic Status. See page 64. Passerherbulus maritimus maritimus (Wilson). Seaside Sparrow. Plate 69. Description. — Similar in form to the three foregoing members of this genus, but tail-feathers not quite so deeply pointed, larger, darker and with a larger, longer bill. Adults (sexes alike) : Above oHve- gray, rather obscurely streaked on base and top of head with both darker and lighter, light grayish stripes on the dark olive-gray back most prominent ; wings and tail dusky ; wing-coverts and inner secondaries 66 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS Seaside Sparrow, Juvenile. more or less margined brown, the colors disposed on tertials as in other members of the genus, and lighter tips of greater coverts forming an inconspicuous whitish wing-bar ; edge of wing at bend bright lemon- yellow; a triangular yellow patch or streak before eye, extending narrowly back above it from base of upper mandible, often fading to whitish near bill ; sides of head, including eye and ear region, mostly olive-grayish ; stripe down side of lower jaw, chin, throat and abdomen white or whitish ; stripe on each side of chin and throat, and rather ill-defined streaks on upper breast, sides and flanks, gray- ish; bill light slate-color; iris dark brown; legs and feet pale brown. Young in first winter plumage: As adults, and indistinguishable from them. Young in juvenal plumage : Dif- ferent from adults, more brown than gray above; back broadly and cap narrowly streaked blackish; below whitish, upper breast, sides and flanks buffy, streaked dusky. Measurements. — Length 5.25 to 6.50 in.; spread 8.15 to 8.50; folded wing 2.25 to 2.60 ; tail 2.00 to 2.50 ; bill .52 to .67 ; tarsus .83 to .97. Weight, male .90 oz. (B. H. Warren). Female smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage acquired by complete molt of natal down, completed soon after young leave nest; first winter plumage by complete postjuvenal molt (late August, September) ; first breeding plumage by wear ; adult winter plumage by complete post-nuptial molt (August, September) ; adults apparently have but one molt each year (postnuptial, complete) beginning in August. Field Marks. — Somewhat larger and much darker and grayer above than Sharp-tailed Sparrow, especially about head and neck ; light streaks on back not so conspicuous, with a yellow patch before eye, extending narrowly just above it, and a white streak on lower jaw bounded above and below by dark streaks. Young much browner, with dark streaks above. Voice. — - "Call note a squeaky cheep" (E. H. Eaton) ; song may be divided into two parts, first a "gurgling trill," second an insect-like high-pitched trill, as if the bird were breathing out and drawing in its breath (C. W. Townsend) ; song sometimes like that of Sharp-tailed Sparrow, but there is a differ- ence in general between them, "the Seaside song is louder with a strongly accented note near the begin- ning, tup tup tup tse trrrrrrr" (A. A. Saunders). Breeding. — In salt-marshes. Nest: In areas of fine marsh grass, often under patches of dead drift-grass or bushes above usual high water-mark, or in salt-marsh grass over water ; said sometimes to be built in a bush ; built of dried grasses lined with finer blades. Eggs : 4 to 6 ; .75 to .88 by .56 to .68 in. ; oval to nearly elliptical ; grayish-white, commonly coarsely spotted with reddish-brown, more heavily marked than those of Sharp-tailed Sparrow; figured by E. A. Capen in "Oology of New Eng- land," Plate IX, Figs. 5, 6. Dates: May 20 to June 7, Virginia; June 8 to July 17, southern New England. Incubation: Chiefly if not wholly by female. One brood yearly. Range. — Salt-marshes (mainly) on Atlantic coast of United States. Breeds chiefly in Upper Austral Zone from eastern Massachusetts to southeastern Virginia; winters coastwise regularly from Virginia to Florida, casually north to southeastern Massachusetts. Distribution in New England. — Maine (probably also New Hampshire) : Accidental visitor coastwise. Vermont : No records. Massachusetts : Not uncommon local summer resident on southeast- ern coast, where recorded in winter ; rare or casual summer visitor north to near New Hampshire line in Essex County. Rhode Island: Uncommon local summer resident. Connecticut: Common summer and possibly rare winter resident locally coastwise. Season in Massachusetts. — April 10 to September 21 (winter). SEASIDE SPARROW 67 Haunts and Habits. The Seaside Sparrow is well named. No land bird lives closer to the sea. It nests mostly on the ground and, like a sea-bird, just above the reach of ordinary tides. So close is its little domicile to the summer tide marks that, like those of terns and gulls, it is flooded sometimes by storm tides. The salt-marsh is its principal habitat and it frequents the inner shores of sea islands lying near the coast. Its habits are similar to those of the Sharp-tailed Sparrow, but it is most common near the water's edge, where when undisturbed it often wades like a rail or a sandpiper, and where it gets much of its food. It stays for the most part on the ground or near it, and like the other marsh sparrows runs through the concealing grass like a mouse. Often, however, the song is given from the top of some low bush, and the male indulges in a song flight, in which it emulates the Skylark, rising into the air, fluttering upward, singing the while, and finally sailing down to its perch again. Its upper plumage is so dark as to render it inconspicuous when seen against a background of dark mud. It does not seem quite so shy, however, as other marsh sparrows, and its curiosity will usually bring it to view when an observer imitates the cries of a bird in distress. Nests have been found in the grass, in or under seaweed thrown up by the tide, or even somewhat raised from the ground in bushes. In the breeding season this bird has been rather common locally for years on the coast at Westport, Massachusetts, where Mr. John A. Farley in 1896 discovered the first nest of the species recorded within the Commonwealth. It visits Marthas Vineyard and possibly breeds there and locally along the south shore of Cape Cod, but I have no authen- tic breeding records, and have only one record of its presence on Nantucket. According to Audubon, a few pairs once bred near Boston, and a nest has been reported from Saugus, but the report has not been verified. In migration or in aimless wandering, some birds of this species have been reported all along the Massachusetts coast, as far at least as Ipswich, which is not a great distance from the New Hampshire line. In autumn birds of this species sometimes join loose flocks of the Sharp-tailed Sparrow, and as the two species frequent a similar habitat and as one occasionally has been mistaken for the other, reports are not always reliable. According to Dr. S. D. Judd the food of the Seaside Sparrow is similar to that of the Sharp-tailed Sparrow, but the former eats fewer sand-fleas than the latter, and many small crabs, — these the latter is not known to take.^ Economic Status. As this bird feeds largely on insects as well as on marine inverte- brates, it may be of some economic importance, by destroying insect enemies of marsh grass. Chondestes grammacus grammacus (Say), Lark Sparrow. Other names : quail-head ; road-bird. Plate 69. Description. — Bill rather large, convex-conic ; wings long, pointed, longer than long rounded tail ; lateral toes short, tips of their claws not reaching base of middle claw. Adults in breeding plumage (sexes i United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Biological Survey, Bulletin No. 15, 1901, pp. 65, 66. 68 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS alike): Ground color grayish-brown above, streaked black, rump unstreaked ;~ white below becoming buflfy-grayish-brown on sides and flanks ; head black, white and chestnut ; top of head chestnut (black- ening on forehead) divided and bounded by white stripes ; rest of head, chin and throat white with a chestnut ear-patch, a black line rimning from near bill through eye, around ear-patch and back under it to near gape, and another slightly broken from base of lower mandible down side of chin and throat, widening somewhat as it goes ; a black spot sharply contrasted against middle of upper breast ; wings mainly dusky with light grayish-brown feather-edges and tips ; middle pair of tail-feathers Ught grayish- brown rest dark brown to black with paler edges and white tips, the white running well up the exposed part of outer web of outer feather ; bill dusky above, bluish- white below ; iris brown ; legs flesh-color, darkening on feet. Young in first winter plumage: Practically indistinguishable from adults. Young in Juvenal plumage: Top of head and ear-patch grayish-brown, former streaked with blackish; black markings of head not so firm and prominent as in adults ; whole plumage suffused usually with buffy, and breast streaked with dusky; "bill and feet pinkish-buff, the upper mandible becoming dusky, the lower and the feet dull clay-color" (J. Dwight). Measurements. — Length 5.75 to 6.75 in.; spread 10.50 to 11.10; folded wing 3.18 to 3.60; tail 2.60 to 3.00 ; bill .40 to .52 ; tarsus .72 to .82. Female smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage acquired by complete postnatal molt, beginning as usual in the nest ; first winter plumage by complete postjuvenal molt (July, August) ; according to Dr. Jonathan Dwight first breeding plumage comes by partial prenuptial molt in March, involving forward parts of head, also chin and throat, and by wear of rest of plumage ; adults, he assumes, have two molts, a complete post- nuptial (July in Kansas) and a prenuptial molt in spring like that of the young bird. Field Marks. — Song Sparrow size ; readily identified by chestnut ear-patch, black and white markings of head, plain unstreaked breast with one central black spot, and blackish, fan-shaped, white- tipped tail with much white on the outer feathers. Voice. — Song somewhat like that of Indigo Bunting, but louder, clearer and much finer; "com- posed of a series of chants, each syllable rich, loud, and clear, interspersed with emotional trills. . , . Though seemingly hurried, it is one continued gush of sprightly music ; now gay, now melodious, and then tender beyond description — the very expression of emotion" (Robert Ridgway). Breeding. — On prairies or other open lands, in the neighborhood of bushes and trees ; in grass fields, pastures and broken grassy grounds and even in gardens. Nest : On ground or in low tree or bush ; built mostly of grasses, lined with rootlets, fine grass and long hairs ; sometimes repairs and uses aban- doned nests of other birds. Eggs : 3 to 5 ; .80 to .85 by .60 to .65 in. (these measurements not extremes, size very variable) ; rounded oval ; white, pinkish-white or grajdsh-white, spotted and streaked, blotched or scrawled with dark brown or black, and often also with purplish ; figured by A. R. Dugmore in "Bird Homes" Plate B, Fig. 3. Dates: May 17, southern Minnesota. Incubation: Period about 12 days, chiefly by female. Range. — Mississippi Valley (chiefly), eastern United States and west to edge of the Great Plains. Breeds in Transition and Austral zones from southern Manitoba, northeastern North Dakota, central Minnesota, central Wisconsin, central Michigan and southeastern Ontario, south to southeastern Oklahoma, southern Louisiana and central Alabama, east to western New York, western Pennsylvania, western Maryland, West Virginia and central North Carolina and west to eastern Nebraska and eastern Kansas; winters in southern Mississippi and Florida; casual, at least in migration, in eastern Texas, Nova Scotia, Massachusetts, southeastern New York, New Jersey and District of Columbia ; accidental in Cuba. Distribution in New England. — Rare visitor. Maine: Monhegan Island, August 25, 1913, and August 16 to 29, 1917, "two or three" seen by Rev. Robert F. Cheney; ^ September 9 and 10, 1918, bird seen by Dr. John W. Dewis and Judge Charles F. Jenney ; ^ Matinicus Island, August 12, 1925, bird seen 1 Cheney, Rev. Robert F. : in lilt. s Maynard, C. J. : Records of Walks and Talks with Nature, Vol. XI, 1919, pp. 35 and 40. LARK SPARROW 69 by Dr. C. W. Townsend and Francis H. Allen. ^ Massachusetts: Howe and Allen, in their "Birds of Massachusetts," give four records prior to 1900. Ipswich, August 21, 1904, adult male taken by Dr. C. W. Townsend; ^ August 12, 1905, one seen by Dr. C. W. Townsend; ^ August 28, 1908, bird seen by Mrs. Lidian E. Bridge and Miss E. D. Boardman; * Manchester, August 23 and again on September 27, 1910, bird seen by Miss E. D. Boardman; ^ September 15, 1911, bird seen by Miss E. D. Boardman; ® Berlin, September 25, 1910, bird observed by Miss J. E. Kloseman; ^ Rockport, August 16, 1918, two seen by Miss Evelyn A. Monroe; ^ Edgartown, October 10, 1918, to February 9, 1919, bird observed at intervals by Mrs. Mona W. Worden, and on last date by Francis A. Foster.^ Connecticut: Long Ridge, June 10, 1912, bird seen "in full breeding plumage" and nest with four eggs found by P. G. Howes.^" Note. As the above records for Maine and Connecticut are "sight" records and no specimens have been taken in those states, the species must be retained on the "hypothetical" lists, but the bird is unmistakable when viewed under favorable conditions. Season in Massachusetts. — April 6 to 29; August 12 to November 25 (winter). History. Dr. J. M. Wheaton says in his "Report on the Birds of Ohio" (1879) that the Lark Sparrow was first known as an Ohio bird in 1861, and that "it has since appeared quite regularly and in increasing numbers," and Dr. A. W. Butler tells us in "The Birds of Indiana" (1897) that it made its first appearance in Ontario in 1861. He says that it is a prairie species that is gradually extending its way into the former forest area, and gives some records which indicate this. Professor E. H. Eaton, in his "BiMs of New York" (1914), says that it is evidently extending its range gradually from the Mississippi Vallej'" and that it already has appeared in northern and eastern Ohio and western Pennsylvania, and he refers to the first known nesting of the species in New York in 1911. Possibly in time it may continue to extend its breeding range into New England, as the Prairie Horned Lark has done. It seems to be less rare as a visitor to Massachusetts now than it was years ago. HAipsTTS AND Habits. The Lark Sparrow is a handsome, well-marked, unmistakable bird, and one of the finest singers of the sparrow tribe. It frequents prairies, old fields, pastures, grass fields, open woods and even cultivated lands. It is not so terrestrial as some of the other ground-sparrows, as it alights in trees, frequenting them much after the breeding season, and in some cases nests in bushes or low trees. In spring it fre- quents roadsides. Hence the name "Road-bird," which is applied to it in the West. Another vernacular name is "Quail-head" from the striped appearance of its head. During the mating season the males have frequent contests, often carrying their battles into the air. Mating and nesting are carried on mostly in the open, but after the young have been reared, all are likely to retire to the borders of open woodlands, or to bushy, partly wooded pastures until the molting season has passed, when in August the southward movement begins. 1 Auk, Vol. XLIII, 1926, p. 246. 2 Birds of Essex County, Massachusetts, 1905, p. 268. 3 Auk, Vol. XXIII, 1906, pp. 103, 104. i Auk, Vol. XXV, 1908, p. 476. 6 Supplement, Birds of Essex County, Massachusetts, 1920, p. 145. « Ibid., p. 146. ' Auk, Vol. XXVIII, 1911, p. 114. s Monroe, Miss Evelyn A. : in litt. ' Worden, Mrs. Mona W. : in litt. ; Foster, Francis A. : in litt. «> Howes, P. G. : Oologist, Vol. XXIX, September 15, 1912, pp. 348, 350. 70 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS The Lark Sparrow is a great consumer of grasshoppers and locusts, and of weed seeds ; about half its vegetal food consists of the seeds of grass and grain. Economic Status. Dr. S. D. Judd, after analyzing the stomach contents of 167 birds of this species, says that from this investigation it appears that the bird "merits a high place among the useful tenants of the farm." ^ Zonotrlchia leucophrys leucophrys (J. R. Forster). White-crowned Sparrow. Plate 70. Description. — A large sparrow with rounded wings and rather long, very slightly forked, tail ; tertials not as long relatively as in Passerherhulus ; bill nearly conic, but slightly convex above and below ; legs and feet strong ; lateral toes about equal in length. Adults (sexes alike or very similar) : Upper head chiefly white above and behind eye, striped with black as follows — the white is bounded behind eye by two narrow black stripes, one on each side, and traversed on each side of white crown by two wide black stripes which, united on forehead, divide and run backward above eyes to back of head, thus dividing the white into three broad stripes, the middle (crown) stripe widest, sometimes ashy; general body color gray, lightening posteriorly below ; back and scapulars light gray or more brownish, broadly streaked with brown ; rump and upper tail-coverts plain lighter brown ; flight-feathers and tail-feathers chiefly dark hair-brown; tertials dusky, margined whitish terminally, passing into chestnut basally; primaries with pale edges ; lesser wing-coverts brown ; middle and greater wing-coverts dusky, margined brown, passing into chestnut-brown on inner coverts, and tipped white, forming two white wing-bars; edge of wing white ; below, the gray lightens to almost whitish on chin, throat and abdomen, and passes into pale buffy-brown on sides, flanks and axillars, and into buffy on under tail-coverts, which have concealed dusky centers ; wing linings grayish ; bill bright reddish-brown, tip dusky ; iris brown ; legs and feet light to pale reddish-brown, toes sometimes darker. Young in first winter 'plumage : Similar to adults, but more brown above ; light stripes of back buffy instead of gray, much pale grayish about back and sides of neck, light markings of head buffy or brownish, dark ones and ear region brown ; bill at first pinkish-buff, turning later to reddish-brown ; legs and feet flesh-color, turning to brown. Young in Juvenal plumage : Sometimes like young in first winter, but streaks on back and scapulars blackish instead of brown ; forehead and upper lores brownish, darker stripes on head dark brown to lighter brown, streaked dusky, lighter stripes light grayish-brown ; below dull buffy- whitish or grayish-white, streaked largely with dusky or blackish on throat, upper breast, sides and flanks. Measurements. — Length 6.50 to 7.50 in.; spread 9.20 to 10.30; folded wing 2.90 to 3.30; tail 2.80 to 3.20 ; bill .43 to .50 ; tarsus .88 to .98. Female smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage acquired by complete postnatal molt ; first winter plumage by partial postjuvenal molt, involving body plumage and wing-coverts, completed (early September) before the bird leaves its breeding range ; first breeding plumage (which is virtually as adult) by partial prenuptial molt (December to April), chiefly on head; probably another year is often required to produce highest plumage ; adults have complete postnuptial molt (beginning in August) and may have some molt about head in spring, as in young. Field Marks. — Size, larger than Song Sparrow. Adults: Quite gray on fore parts and below, with browner back, rump, wings and tail and two white wing-bars ; head marked conspicuously above with three broad white crown stripes bordered by broad black stripes ; no yellow on head, white stripe on crown broadest, and black instead of yellow before eye; no clearly defined white throat-patch. Young: Similarly marked, but more brown and buffy, and head markings reddish-brown and light grayish-brown in place of black and white. I United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Biological Survey, Bulletin No. 15, 1901, p. 68. PLATE 70 O P5 P^ Maynard, C. J. : Birds of Eastern North America, 1881, p. 116. SONG SPARROW ■ 95 The Song Sparrow is fond of the home garden, and often nests in the berry patch or in the back yard shrubbery, and sometimes even in climbing vines on porch or veranda. A nest was found on the top of a post in a grape arbor sheltered by the vines ; another in a woodshed in a sheltered nook beside the door. The nest rested on a scantling and the birds found access to it through a hole in the boarding. Another was built in a hollow fence rail. When once this sparrow has chosen a home, nothing but death will keep it from the beloved spot. It dodges the dogs and cats, and can hardly be driven away. Once an inexperienced pair built a nest on the ground at the foot of a high tree in my garden. As is so common in such cases a cat got the young. Then the birds built again in a bush ; again the stealthy cat ! Twice bereaved, the mated pair grieved for a while and then fashioned a third domicile about twenty feet up in an elm tree among dense "suckers," where they escaped the notice of their feline enemy and reared their young in triumph. Song Sparrows soon learn to know their friends, and where humane people feed them, they may be taught to come for their food when called. Mrs. Daniel Vincent, of Chil- mark, Massachusetts, tells of a relative who was accustomed to feed with crumbs the trout in a brook, and tried to teach them to come at the sound of a bell. A Song Sparrow which had a nest in a bush near the feeding place, soon learned to come whenever the bell rang, to pick up crumbs thrown on the grass for her. Mr. G. W. Quincy tells me of a bird of this species that learned to come to a window and tap on it when hungry. Whenever he tapped the inmates threw out seeds for him. The Song Sparrow is known by the large spot in the middle of the striped breast, but several other sparrows show a somewhat similar spot. That on the Song Sparrow is merely a cluster of spots which does not appear in the juvenal bird, and may be absent at times in the adults. I have seen it appear and disappear from time to time as the bird moved about. It is merely an arrangement of spotted feathers. The Song Sparrow was one of my earliest bird acquaintances, and the very first on which, at the age of thirteen, I began my self-education in the gentle art of taxidermy. Daily after school for several days I labored on that mishandled bunch of feathers in an attempt to impart to it a lifelike appearance. That first "stuffed bird" stood for many a year in my collection, a cherished specimen. In memory I can see it now. It had much the appearance of many old museum birds of that period which, as Charles Waterton puts it, were "stretched, stuffed, stiffened and wired by the hand of some common clown." Since that day I have always had a peculiar affection for the Song Sparrow, and must admit that as its historian I am prejudiced in its favor. Song Sparrows are early comers. In mild seasons a few begin to work northward in extreme southern New England about the middle of February, but it is not until some bright morning in late March that the erstwhile lifeless icebound swamp becomes resonant with their cheerful songs. In the thickets along the edges they fly back and forth singing and playing about as if spring were really here. Their early arrival, however, does not 96 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS indicate very early nesting, though I remember one nest on a ditch bank, when the ground was covered with two or three inches of new-fallen snow, and when the bird left the nest at my close approach it was revealed as a httle dark hole with its complement of four brown-spotted eggs framed by the white blanket of snow. Song Sparrows spend much time in the pleasant pastime of courtship. The females seem to be modest and coy. There is considerable rivalry among the males, but their contests appear to be mainly competitions in song and flight. They chase the females and each other about through the air with fluttering wings, often sailing and singing. Their pursuit seems not to be in earnest, as, notwithstanding the rapid movement of their wings, their progress is slow. Now and then a bird pauses in his flight to sing, supported for an instant on his widespread pinions. Flight-songs also carry them up into the air. Occasionally a battle ensues between two rival males, and sometimes they even roll and tumble in the dust with locked bills and beating wings. When the pair have mated, nest building requires from five to ten days according to the weather and the industry of the birds. The male devotes himself more to song than to labor. Some males assist the female a little in incubation. Mrs. Elizabeth Burbank tells of a pair, one of which relieved the other on the nest at twelve o'clock noon ; the returning bird (probably the female) turned the eggs before settling down on them. The male stands guard much of the time until the young are hatched, when he takes over his full share of the work of defending, brooding and feeding them. The young remain in the nest from seven to fourteen days, depending on the quantity of nourishment they receive and whether they are disturbed. Like the young of all ground birds they develop quickly, when well fed, and can live in the grass before they are able to fly. Song Sparrows are brave little birds and are very devoted to their young. Should such an enemy as a snake or a turtle appear near the nest, the adults take their stand bravely before it in a position of defence, with outspread wings and depressed tails, guarding their offspring. If this bold and defiant front is not effective they may even attack the enemy, though with little hope of success. They often attack birds as large as the Hairy Woodpecker and the Catbird, when such approach the nest. One Song Sparrow was seen to drive five "English" Sparrows away from a feeding station. The usual number of eggs in a Song Sparrow's nest is from three to five, but rarely six or even seven may be found. Mr. Arthur Harrison sent me a photograph of a nest con- taining nine eggs, with the following explanation : He found two Song Sparrows building their nests about thirty feet apart on the bank of the Merrimack River, one about six feet above the ordinary summer level of the water, the other about twelve feet above it. After the nests were built he watched them and found that both females were laying in the upper nest, while the lower was deserted. Apparently the two birds took turns in incubating the eggs, as when the nest was approached time after time, the bird on the nest acted differently at one visit from the one occupying the nest at the next examination. When the young were hatching there came a deluge of rain, raising the river until the lower nest was submerged. Had there been young in it they would have been drowned. SONG SPARROW 97 As it was, the four birds continued to feed the young in the upper nest and they brought off safely eight young from the nine eggs. When the young of the first brood are able to fly, the female immediately begins to deposit eggs for the second brood, often in the same nest, leaving the male to care for the first, and he attends them usually until the young of the second brood have hatched, when he leaves them to help feed and care for the younger brood. In this way four broods are sometimes hatched in a season. But it is seldom indeed that all get away safely. If there is a brush pile near-by the male is likely to lead the young ones to it as a safe place of refuge, where he feeds them. A few Song Sparrows begin moving away from their breeding places in Massachusetts about the middle of July. Though some may remain until November, most of them have gone by the first of October. Some at least of the New England birds pass southward along the Atlantic seaboard, as one banded by Mr. Wendell P. Smith, in the Connecti- cut Valley at Wells River, Vermont, on October 13, 1925, was taken at Wadesboro, North Carolina, March 2, 1927, by Mr. J. P. Wilhamson. Song Sparrows sing more or less in autumn. Even while molting an occasional whisper song may be heard. There is more singing on warm days in October, however, than in September, and although at times the full loud spring song may be heard, most of the singing is quite different, ranging from a low connected warble to a song resembhng that of the Purple Finch, and (rarely) one like that of the Vesper Sparrow. There is a particularly low, sweet, melancholy warble uttered just before the bird departs for the south. Most of the hardy Song Sparrows that winter in New England probably come to us from the northland and for the most part they pass the winter near the sea, where the ground is clear of snow in patches for a large part of the winter. A few winter in the interior, some of them well up the valleys of the Connecticut and Merrimack Rivers. In severe winters, however, numbers succumb to cold and starvation. Mr. Wilbur M. Smith, of South Norwalk, Connecticut, told me that in the winter of 1920 Mr. Burgess Jennings saw one fall off a branch in his yard, picked it up and carried it into a warm room, where it finally recovered, and when released flew away. Other similar cases have been reported, but the bird does not always recover. Dr. S. D. Judd gives quite a full exposition of the Song Sparrow's food, and separates the different components into their percentages. But little space can be devoted to a summary here. Vegetal matter (chiefly weed seeds) forms 66 per cent of its food for the year, while animal food (mainly insects) forms 34 per cent. The insects taken are similar to those taken by the Chipping Sparrow and the Field Sparrow, and include such pests as cut-worms, gipsy-moth caterpillars, canker-worms, army-worms, cabbage-worms, locusts, grasshoppers, crickets, weevils etc.^ Economic Status. The only harm done by this bird consists in a small amount of grain and small fruits taken by it occasionally. Dr. Judd considers that it does "much more good than harm." I United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Biological Survey, Bulletin No. 15, 1901, pp. 82-86. 98 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS Melospiza lincolni lincolni (Audubon). Lincoln's Sparrow. Plate 72. Description. — Formed much like Song Sparrow, but smaller, tail shorter, and less heavily streaked on sides of head and below ; 1st primary longer than 6th; tail-feathers narrow but not pointed. Adults (sexes alike) : Top of head rather light brown, conspicuously streaked black and divided by a center stripe of grayish ; sides of head olive-gray, streaked blackish behind eye, also on ear-coverts, thus leaving wide stripe of this color above eye; the olive-gray extends down on sides of neck; side of lower jaw usually buffy, a streak both above and below blackish ; narrow eye-ring buffy-whitish ; hind neck, back, scapulars, rump and upper tail-coverts light grayish-olive to buffy-olive or grayish-brown, streaked black, broadest streaks on back; outer surface of closed wing mainly rusty-brown on exposed surfaces, but black feather-centers show on wing-coverts and especially on tertials; tail Ught brown with lighter feather-edges and central pair or more with dusky shaft- streaks; below white, washed across upper breast usu- ally, but not always, and on sides, flanks and under tail-coverts with buff or brownish-yellow; buffy parts narrowly spotted and streaked black ; some individuals, when alive, show, like Song Sparrow, a dark spot or cluster of spots on the upper breast, but this like other marks below is smaller and less distinct than in Song Sparrow ; wing linings paler than sides ; bill dusky above, bluish below, growing yellowish toward base ; iris brown ; legs and feet light yellowish-brown. Young in first winter plumage: Virtually indistinguishable from adults, but colors not quite so bright, or more buffy and more suffused and markings not so well defined. Young in juvenal 'plu- mage: Resembling juvenal Song Sparrow, which usually has no cluster of spots on upper breast, but wings and tail a trifle darker, especially feather-edges ; top of head also darker; chin streaked; some closely resemble juvenal . . upper mandible slaty" (J. Dwight). ; spread 7.10 to 8.75 ; folded wing 2.30 to 2.65 ; tail 2.11 to 3.00 ; bill .38 to .46 ; tarsus .75 to .78. Female smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage acquired by complete postnatal molt ; first winter plumage by partial post juvenal molt (August) involving body plumage and wing-coverts; first breeding plumage by wear; adult winter plumage by complete postnuptial molt, beginning in August; adults have but one molt annually, postnuptial (August). Field Marks. — Adults : Somewhat smaller than Song Sparrow, slimmer and neater in appearance ; tail shorter; more narrowly streaked below; sides and flanks brownish-yellow or buffy, and usually a hand of same across upper breast, distinguishing it from all our sparrows except juvenal Song Sparrow and young Swamp Sparrow. Young: Often indistinguishable in the field from young Song Sparrow, unless by narrowness of dark streaks on either side of throat. Voice. — Alarm note a slight tsup (R. Hoffmann) ; a j unco-like chup (Wm. Brewster) ; qsup (A. C. Bagg) ; call a thin shrill cheak (O. W. Knight) ; a sharp chip and a low tzz similar to note of Song Sparrow (G. M. Allen) ; also a smack, probably an alarm note (Townsend and Allen) ; song fine, sweet, melodious and somewhat wren-like ; quality also sometimes resembles that of Purple Finch ; "song may be written QUEE, QUEE, QUEE (nasal and comparatively loud), see, eeeee, eedle or SEE-dle, SEE-dle, SEE-dle, SEE-dle, see- see-see, seee, eedle or eke, a loud and rather guttural strain at the start but becoming very soft, although Lincoln's Sparrow, Juvenile. Swamp Sparrow; "bill and feet pinkish-buff Measurements. — Length 5.25 to 6.00 in LINCOLN'S SPARROW 99 at the very end the soft sees change abruptly at the last note or two to the same harshness and loudness that characterize the beginning of the song" (J. A. Farley). Breeding. — In or near bushy swamps or on swampy or wet land. Nest : In a tuft of grass, and usually surrounded by water ; composed of grass and lined with finer grass. Eggs : 4 or 5 ; like those of Song Sparrow, but average smaller ; .72 to .80 by .55 to .60 in. ; rounded ovate ; white, greenish-white or pale green, sometimes speckled and spotted so heavily with browns as to almost conceal ground color. Dates: June 10, northern New York; June 6, northern Wisconsin. Range. — North America. Breeds in Hudsonian and Canadian zones from north-central Alaska, central Yukon, central-western Mackenzie, northern Saskatchewan, northern Manitoba, northern Ontario and northern Ungava (Quebec) south in the Cascade, Sierra Nevada and Rocky mountains to southern California, central Arizona, northern New Mexico, and at lower elevations to southern Alberta, central Saskatchewan, central Manitoba, northern Wisconsin, northern Michigan, northern Illinois (casually), south-central Ontario, northern New York, northern Maine, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia; winters from central California, southern Arizona (probably), northern Oklahoma, central Arkansas, northern Mississippi and northern Georgia to Guadalupe Island (Lower California), Guerrero (southern Mexico), central Guatemala and British Honduras; rare or casual east of the Alleghany Mountains and south of the District of Columbia ; casual in Panama. Distribution in New England. — Rare spring and uncommon fall migrant ; rare summer resident in parts of northern and eastern Maine. Season in Massachusetts. — May 7 to June 1 ; August 30 to October 14 (November 1). Haunts and Habits. What has a bird, as inconspicuous as Lincoln's Sparrow, done that it must hide itself so assiduously from human eyes ? It seems to dread discovery, else why should it steal so cautiously through the depths of leafy thickets, or sneak so silently along bushy stone fences. Even when singing it seems careful to keep out of sight. At least that is its usual behavior when only one or two are seen, but when half a dozen are together and singing they are not quite so cautious and may be approached with less difficulty. In New England this sparrow is a bird of the thicket, and in migration may be found in bushy places along low river shores or in other moist lands, along bushy fences, walls and roadsides, in rocky pastures where white pines or red cedars grow, or even on dry hillsides where its favorite thickets stand. Now and then one or two enter a village or suburban garden or back yard, and tarry for a time among the syringa or lilac bushes. The general belief that the bird is exceedingly rare along the Atlantic seaboard is not well founded. It is a regular, though not common, migrant there in spring and fall, but it is overlooked because of its retiring nature, the uncertain light in most of its shadowy retreats, and the rapidity of its passage. In spring most members of the species usually pass along within a week or ten days. In autumn their stay in southern New England is longer, but then they are more silent and shy. When seen they often are mistaken for Song Sparrows, as their differently colored breasts are seldom seen, and even in autumn they resemble some young Song Sparrows. Mr. Ludlow Griscom writes as follows of Lincoln's Sparrow in the region about New York City : "While uncommon it is a regular transient in our area, but will never be seen, except by a lucky 'fluke,' unless specially looked for. In spring it is particularly fond of water courses, the banks of which are grown with bushes, where it remains down 100 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS among the roots and disappears at the sHghtest noise. By going as rapidly and noisily as possible through such a tract, a trim, small, grayish-brown Song Sparrow will sometimes flash into view for a second, as it dives headlong into the bushes a few feet ahead. Mak- ing every possible effort to be quiet, the student should next make a wide detour and return to the bank ahead of where the bird was seen to enter. In this way I have had the bird come to me within six feet. If a confederate be available, and the bird can be put in between the observers, one or both can obtain an observation. Lincoln's Sparrow will occur, however, in dense shrubbery almost everywhere, and I see it every spring in Central Park. It is exceptional to see more than one or two a season, and then it will occur on the big waves only." ^ My own experience agrees with the above, and like Mr. Griscom I have found the species by itself in spring, though it may be found in company with Song Sparrows and other sparrows in autumn. If one can paddle quietly or drift with the current along a bushy river shore during a bird wave in mid-May, he may hear the song, or the bird's curiosity may cause it to expose itself. Once I saw several in this manner, two of them singing from the tops of bushes, and in plain sight. I have characterized the song above as somewhat wren-like, also having a quality resembling that of the Purple Finch, but since writing that I have found a better description by Dr. Jonathan Dwight. He says : "It is not loud and suggests the bubbling guttural notes of the House Wren combined with the sweet rippling music of the Purple Finch, and when you think the song is done, there is an unexpected aftermath." Usually an approach to a singing bird must be absolutely noiseless, or he will stop singing, but by going carefully I have been able to hear the song many times during spring migrations in Massachusetts. The bird creeps in and out about walls, fences and wood-piles, much like a wren, and sings usually, but not always, from the top of a bush. I have heard the song when the bird was concealed among bushes and close to the ground. There is every reason to believe that Lincoln's Sparrow breeds in northern New Eng- land. Pairs have been seen in several localities in Maine during the breeding season. In "The Birds of Maine," Professor 0. W. Knight speaks of a few seen at Fort Kent early in July, 1904, and Mr. F. M. Kilburn, writing to me from Machias, says that a pair remained near the State Normal School in 1920, but they were very shy, "haunting alder thickets in pastures and swales " and that he was unable to find the nest, though the male was in full song. Writing on June 26 he says, — "I have heard or seen several Lincoln's Spar- rows during the month, this morning I heard a male in full song less than a quarter of a mile from the School." On January 27, 1926, he wrote again that after seven years of observation it was his opinion that the bird should now be considered a fairly common summer resident of Washington County, Maine, and that each year there had been one or two pairs breeding in a boggy pasture near the State Normal School. He had observed in some of the larger bogs or heaths as many as ten pairs in the breeding season, had seen them carrying nesting material in June, and food in July, but they were so secretive that » Griscom, Ludlow : Birda of the New York City Region, 1923, p. 284. SWAMP SPARROW 101 he had not been able to find even one of their nests. Mrs. Wm. H. Gardner, writing from Bucksport, Maine, says that in August, 1920, she saw an adult feeding a young bird so small that it must have been just from the nest. This species should be looked for in summer among the mountains of northern New Hampshire and Maine, as it breeds in mountainous regions of the West and in the Adirondacks in New York. In the fall migration Lincoln's Sparrow appears most commonly in Massachusetts during the latter half of September. It may be found there occasionally with other sparrows in weedy gardens and potato patches or among the tall grass and bushy thickets bordering some swamp, lake or stream. It is a neat, rather slim bird of furtive mien and uneasy movement, grayer above than the Song Sparrow, but in spite of its shyness, rather inquisitive. Because of its curiosity it sometimes will come out in the open, if the observer can keep fairly well concealed. The food of this sparrow, as far as it is known, is similar to that of the Song Sparrow. Economic Status. Although apparently a useful species, Lincoln's Sparrow is not common enough in New England to have much economic importance here. Melospiza georgiana (Latham). Swamp Sparrow. Plate 72. Description. — Somewhat similar to Lincoln's Sparrow in shape and proportions, but more robust, darker and 1st yrimary shorter than 6th or 7th. Adults {sexes alike) : Forehead black divided by a central line of grayish ; top of head chestnut often streaked blackish ; back and scapulars rather light reddish- brown heavily streaked black ; rump olive-brown, passing into plain brown or rusty-brown on upper tail- coverts, where streaked black ; tail rusty-brown, outer webs brightest, two middle feathers with black or blackish shaft-streaks ; exposed surface of closed wing chiefly chestnut, coverts showing some of their black central parts, and a light line along tips of greater coverts forming an inconspicuous narrow wing- bar ; black ends of tertials and primaries conspicuous ; tertials bordered white or whitish on outer end margins ; sides of head and sides of neck chiefly gray, paler or whitish below and before eye, which has a narrow white eye-ring; ear region brownish-gray or more brownish, margined above by a dark stripe leading back from eye, and below by a narrower dark streak from gape ; another narrow dark streak or line (not always present) runs from base of lower mandible down lower side of jaw, as in several other sparrows ; chin, throat and abdomen white or grayish-white ; some birds have chin and throat sparsely spotted with black ; upper breast gray, sometimes indistinctly streaked darker ; sides and flanks tawny- brown, sometimes also streaked darker ; wing linings mostly whitish, outer edge of wing white or whitish ; bill above dark brown or dusky, edges and below pale brown to pale bluish ; iris brown or hazel ; legs and feet flesh-color to light brownish. In autumn there may be an indistinct central streak along top of head, and sides and flanks may be brown. Young in first winter plumage : Similar to adult in winter, and not always distinguishable, but usually chestnut on top of head not so bright, gray on sides of head and neck lighter or more brownish, and chin with some tinge of yellowish, and often with indistinct stripes below. Young in juvenal plumage : Similar to young Song Sparrow (see page 93) but darker especially on top of head, more buflfy and more narrowly and darkly streaked below. Note. There is much variation in the juvenal plumage of many birds, and in some species there seems to be considerable variation in the first winter plumage. Dr. E. G. Rowland informed me that he had banded a number of Swamp Sparrows that showed a yellow spot in front of the eye on the lores. He believed that some of these birds were adults, and some young in first winter plumage, but as it is difficult 102 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS or impossible in many cases to distinguish between adult winter and first winter plumage, all probably were young birds. Five of his birds, he said, had a very pronounced yellow spot and two a yellow Une over the eye besides, and wherever yellow on the head was noticeable the edge of the bend of the wing and the markings of the axillars were yellow also, "the yellow varying from pale sulphur to dull chrome." One also had a wash of sulphur-yellow across breast and chin. These birds were all taken after September 23, when they would naturally be in winter plumage. Three of his birds had a very narrow black edging around the white throat. In "A History of North American Birds," by Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, there appears a colored representation of the head of a sparrow with some yellow in front of the eye and on the throat.* This head is labelled Passerculus caboti, but has no accompanying description. Dr. ElUott Coues ex- amined the type specimen from which, presumably, this drawing was made and pronounced it a young Swamp Sparrow.^ In 1885 Mr. R. H. Bulley of Canton, Ohio, took a female Swamp Sparrow without any of the bright chestnut of the adult on the crown and with a pale but distinct lemon-yellow Une above the eye and some yellowish-brown on the throat, which he referred to Dr. Coues. It was another so- called Passerculus caboti, — merely a rather unusual plumage of the Swamp Sparrow or a variation of it.^ There is a specimen in the Museum of Comparative Zoology, at Cambridge, Massachusetts, taken by Mr. W. E. D. Scott, January 13, 1892, at Tarpon Springs, Florida, which seems fairly typical of this phase. It is a young bird, apparently in first winter plumage. Dr. Edward G. Rowland has published a part of his experience.^ He tells me that Mr. S. G. Emilio, of Danvers, Massachusetts, has brought to his attention a method of distinguishing young Swamp Sparrows from young Song Sparrows. In all young Swamp Sparrows the inside of the mouth, especially the upper part, is predominantly yellow, while in Song Sparrows the same area is pink or gray. Measurements. — Length 4.80 to 5.80 in. ; spread 7.50 to 8.00 ; wing 2.25 to 2.57 ; tail 2.45 to 2.90 ; bill .45 to .47 ; tarsus .80 to .88. Female smaller than male. Molts. — Similar to those of Chipping Sparrow (see page 78), but some birds may require another season to assume highest adult plumage ; the head molt in spring occurs in March and early April. Field Marks. — Size smaller than Song Sparrow, tail shorter, less rounded. Adults : A dark sparrow with chestnut cap, grayish sides of head and breast, and a white throat like that of White- throated Sparrow but smaller, and much less conspicuous; no conspicuous wing-bar; known from Chipping Sparrow by more robust build, larger head not conspicuously striped, and tail not forked but rounded, and from Song Sparrow by unstreaked (or very faintly streaked) breast. Young : Known in first winter plumage by close resemblance to parents, though often less bright and more brownish or buffy; in Juvenal plumage much like young Song Sparrow or Lincoln's Sparrow, usually darker, but rather difficult to distinguish from them in the field. Voice. — Call note a chink, chip or cheep, with a metallic ring ; song weet-weet-weet-weet-weet, etc., a little like that of Chipping Sparrow, but less dry, louder, a trifle more musical and more varied ; also a limited variety of twittering notes. Breeding. — In wet meadows, bogs, swamps and marshes or about low swampy shores of lakes and streams. Nest: Usually in a tussock or very low in bush ; some have grasses or sedges arched over them, others do not ; composed of grasses, etc. Eggs : 4 or 5 ; f like those of Song Sparrow and indistinguishable from them in color, being quite as variable in coloration, but averaging smaller; about .75 to .85 by .55 to .60 in. ; figured by E. A. Capen in "Oology of New England," Plate IX, Figs. 7-9. Dates : May 25 to June 7, Virginia ; May 24 to 31, Rhode Island ; May 13 to July 14, Massachusetts ; May 31 to June 3, * Land Birds, Vol. II, Plate XLVI, Fig. 9. 1 Bulletin, Nuttall Ornithological Club, Vol. VIII, 1883, p. 58. 2 Auk, Vol. Ill, 1886, p. 277. 3 Bulletin, Northeastern Bird-Banding Association, Vol. I, 1925, pp. 40^2, also Vol. IV, 1928, pp. 53-56. t Mr. Henry W. Abbott informs me that he once saw a nest of a Swamp Sparrow with 8 eggs, two however had been pushed out of the nest. SWAMP SPARROW 103 Maine. Incubation: Period 12 to 15 days (O. W. Knight); probably by female only. One or two broods yearly. Range. — Eastern North America north to borders of Hudsonian Zone and west to the Great Plains. Breeds in Canadian, Transition and Upper Austral zones from central-western Mackenzie, northern Saskatchewan, northern Manitoba, northern Ontario, central Quebec and Newfoundland south to central Alberta, central Saskatchewan, southeastern Nebraska, central Missouri, central IlUnois, northern Indiana, central Ohio, southern Pennsylvania, mountains of southern West Virginia, central New Jersey, southeastern New York (Long Island) and southern Connecticut ; winters from eastern Kansas, northern Missouri, southern Illinois, southern Indiana, central New York and Massachusetts south to southern Tamaulipas and Jalisco (Mexico) and the Gulf coast from southern Texas to southeastern Florida ; very rare or casual in Montana, Utah, Colorado and Bermuda Islands ; accidental in British Columbia and California. Distribution in New England. — Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont: Common migrant and uncommon to common local summer resident. Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut: Common migrant ; less common and more local summer resident ; rare winter resident, chiefly coastwise. Season in Massachusetts. — March 13 to November 30 (winter). Haunts and Habits. The Swamp Sparrow is not a public character. He will never be popular or notorious. He is too retiring to be much in the public eye, and too fond of the impassable bog and morass to have much human company ; and so he comes and goes unheralded and to most people unknown. He is the dark little bird that fusses about in the mud when spring floods have overflowed the wood roads, or slips through the grasses on marsh-lined shores of slow-flowing, muddy rivers. Any watery, muddy, bushy, grassy place where rank marsh grasses, sedges and reeds grow — any such bog or slough where a man will need long rubber boots to get about — is good enough for Swamp Sparrows. In such places they build their nests. But in migration they may appear almost anywhere, though seldom distinctly seen and recognized by ordinary observers, because of their retiring habits. When they are looked for, they sneak about, mostly under cover, and hardly show themselves sufficiently for identification, but if the observer apparently takes no interest in their whereabouts and sits quietly down, curiosity may overcome their suspicions and bring them into view. In the autumn migration many of these birds visit weedy gardens and fields with other sparrows, for they are great eaters of weed seeds. Their nesting habits are difficult to observe, but the male's song during the nesting season will give some idea of the location of the nest. Mr. William C. Wheeler, who watched a singing male for about an hour, found that a few times during the hour he sang two different songs alternately. First he sang one several times, and then did the same with the other. The young ordinarily remain in the nest about 12 or 13 days, if undisturbed. Swamp Sparrows nest near water so frequently that the callow young in their first attempts at flight are likely to fall into it and struggling as they do on the surface, they sometimes fall a prey to large frogs, fish or turtles. The following from one of my note books shows how one little bird bravely struggled to safety: "Concord, August 28, 1907. This morning early as I stood on the river bank, a bird flying toward me fell and struck the water about half way across the stream. Immediately it fluttered swiftly along on the 104 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS calm surface of the water for about a rod, and then, apparently exhausted and unable to raise itself from the water, it lay there for a few seconds, head under and tail a little raised. I looked to see some fish seize it, but no ! Suddenly by a vigorous struggle it raised its body clear of the water and fluttered almost ashore, alighting on the pickerel weed at the water's edge. A few minutes later, having regained its breath and courage, it flew up into the bushes, and I saw that it was one of a brood of young Swamp Sparrows in Juvenal plumage, which were flitting along the shore." The food of the Swamp Sparrow consists largely of insects and the seeds of weeds, as in the case of the Song Sparrow, but more aquatic insects are eaten. Economic Status. The value of the Swamp Sparrow as an insect eater consists mainly in the control it exercises over the increase of such marsh insects as the army- worm. When these latter insects increase unduly in the lowlands, their natural habitat, they overflow into the uplands and destroy grass and cultivated plants. The bird is not as important as the Song Sparrow, as it feeds much less about cultivated land. Passerella iliaca iliaca (Merrem). Fox Sparrow. Other name: fox-colored sparrow. Plate 72. Description. — A large, rather robust sparrow; bill conic, its outlines nearly straight; wings long and pointed, when folded reach near middle of tail, which is not long, and is nearly square; feet and claws very large and strong. Adults {sexes alike) : Above, nearly uniform chestnut, reddish-chestnut or rusty-red, brightest on wings, upper tail-coverts and tail, often more or less spotted and streaked else- where above with same color on a grayish or ashy background, but very variable, some birds are largely olive-gray above streaked with chestnut or rusty-red ; tips of middle and greater wing-coverts lighter, forming two rather inconspicuous narrow wing-bars ; below, white with broad spots and streaks of chest- nut, especially on upper breast (where they form a cluster), sides and flanks; bill brownish or dusky above, edges and below yellow or straw-color ; iris brown ; legs and feet flesh-color to clay-color. Young in first winter plumage: Like adults, but primary-coverts browner. Young in juvenal plumage: Similar to young in first winter plumage, but color above more imiform reddish-brown, not so pure white below, and texture of plumage looser. Measurements. — Length 6.75 to 7.50 in. ; spread 10.50 to 1L75; folded wing 3.30 to 3.80; tail 2.70 to 3.17 ; bill .45 to .55 ; tarsus .96 to 1.04. Weight 1.50 oz. (B. H. Warren). Female smaller than male. Molts. — Similar to those of Lincoln's Sparrow (see page 98). Field Marks. — Size larger than Bluebird ; large size and bright reddish-brown color distinguish it from other sparrows, especially its broad, bright reddish-brovm tail; might be taken for Hermit Thrush by casual observers, especially when viewed from behind, for that thrush has a somewhat similarly colored tail ; however the thrush's bill is not conic, but longer and more sUm, and it has no foxy color about head; also spots on its white breast are smaller, darker, and less reddish than in Fox Sparrow. Voice. — Alarm note a loud smack, richer than that of Junco, more like that of Brown Thrasher ; call note, a long drawn stssp (commonly heard in Massachusetts) and a short chip; song, clear, full, flute-like ; that on breeding grounds written down (but inadequately) as cher-ee, hear-her, hear-her, tellit, or to-whip, to-whee, oh-whee buzz tellit, last note short, faint, main stress on second and third bars (Town- FOX SPARROW 105 send and Allen) ; song in Massachusetts, toit-la tou-la tou-lit (Miss Agnes M. Learned). Some believe the song unequalled by any native member of the sparrow family. Breeding. — In or near northern coniferous forests, or in alder thickets. Nest: On ground, well sheltered under low branch, or in bush or tree, usually only a few feet from ground ; rather large, formed of dry grass and moss with some leaves and rootlets, often lined warmly with feathers or hair, a strong compact structure. Eggs: 4 or 5; .85 to .94 by .63 to .71 in. ; bluish-white to pale green, thickly spotted with rusty-brown, spots often conceaUng ground color. Dates : June 1 to first half of July, Labrador to Alaska. Incubation: Period probably 12 to 14 days; chiefly or wholly by female. Range. — North America. Breeds in Hudsonian and Canadian zones from tree limit in north- western Alaska, northern Yukon, northern Mackenzie, northern Manitoba, northern Ontario, Quebec and northern Labrador south to south-central Alaska, northern Alberta, central Saskatchewan, southern Manitoba, southern Quebec, the Magdalen Islands and Newfoundland ; winters from eastern Nebraska, northern Missouri, northern Illinois, southern Indiana, southern Pennsylvania, southern New York and Massachusetts south to southern California, southern Texas, Alabama and central Florida; casual in British Columbia. Distribution in New England. — Maine : Common to rare migrant ; accidental in winter near coast. New Hampshire and Vermont: Common migrant.* Massachusetts: Common migrant; rare winter resident, chiefly near coast. Rhode Island and Connecticut: Common migrant; rare winter resident. Season in Massachusetts. — (March 3) March 9 to May 2 (May 17) ; (August 20, September 5-17) October 2 to November 29 (winter). Haunts and Habits. The Fox Sparrow is a bird of the lingering snow. It arrives in New England commonly in March, while there is still much snow in the woods, and may be seen along the edges of woodlands, working often in thickets where the ground is bare, and scratching away as if for dear life. This is one of the few of our sparrows that scratches with both feet at once. It leaps into the air, and while off the ground scratches or kicks quickly with both its powerful feet, making them fly as well as everything they touch, before it lands on them again. Thus it is able to excavate rapidly, throwing leaves and dirt sometimes a yard or more. If after it arrives, a snowstorm comes on, covering the ground v/ith several inches of snow and cutting off most of the smaller birds from their chief source of food supply, this does not inconvenience the lusty Fox Sparrow. He excavates ! Jumping and scratching he makes the snow fly, and soon is at the bottom of a hole and at his usual occupation of turning over the dead leaves and searching for seeds and insects. It is a pretty and stirring sight to see a flock of Fox Sparrows all at work in this manner, and throwing little jets of snow over the white carpet. Mr, Arthur W. Phelps, of Pittsfield, Massachusetts, having watched this operation, says that on the first day of the storm while the other sparrows went supperless to bed, the Fox Sparrows not only dug down to the ground, but when each had exhausted the food supply at the bottom of his own little well, he jumped up beside it and tore down another section, thus enlarging his scope of operations from time to time. I have seen * Miss Inez Addie Howe, of St. Johnsbury, Vermont, wrote that on July 6, 1915, she saw a Fox Sparrow in full song in Danville, Vermont, and that three days later while she was with a party which included Mr. Balch, the taxidermist, a pair was found nesting in Lunenburg at high altitude on the mountain side. As both Miss Howe and Mr. Balch are now deceased, veri- fication of this record will be diflBeult. 106 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS Song Sparrows at such a time lingering about the excavations made by the larger bird, ready to snatch a morsel whenever opportunity offered. The Fox Sparrow is a wild bird, a bird of thicket and forest. It does not seek the habitations of man, unless driven to them by snow too hard and deep for it to penetrate. Then it will come about houses and cattle sheds to look for chaff. One fed under my windows at Wareham, Massachusetts, all one winter on hayseed thrown down on the snow for the birds, and I have seen a number of them feeding under some horse sheds by a church after a severe snowstorm during the latter part of March. Along the coast of southern New England many of them have passed the winter. They are hardy birds, and if any coming to feeding stations have succumbed to the wintry blasts, I have not heard of it. When startled from a roadside thicket or a wood road they usually either fly up into the trees or to a little distance, and when the intruder has passed they im- mediately go to feeding again. Along the coast they begin to sing about the first of April in damp easterly weather, which may remind them of the fog in their homes along the Labrador coast. The song, though short, is a fine clear effort, a typical song of the northern wilds. Dr. S. D. Judd says that it seems not akin to bird music, but more like the soft tinkling of tiny silver bells. Fox Sparrows have been heard to sing in Massa- chusetts in October, January, February, March, April and May. They usually are at their best when spring opens. Sometimes in late March a particularly vigorous bird will sing almost continuously for from five to ten minutes with hardly a pause between his individual efforts. Their musical efforts in migration, however, are not to be com- pared with the full song as given on their breeding grounds. This is well described by Mr. Robert T. Moore.^ Often the Fox Sparrows do not stay long in Massachusetts, but pass on rapidly, and arrive at their northern homes while the snow is still deep in the woods. These hardy, early birds are in such haste to begin their domestic life that some of them, realizing perhaps that a nest on the snowy ground would give cold comfort, build their little domiciles in trees or bushes, but most of them wait until there is bare ground enough to receive their nests, for the ground seems to be their normal nesting place. Having raised their young, they will be back again in October or November, passing through on their southward flight. The food of the Fox Sparrow while in New England consists mainly of seeds — many those of wild fruits. The seeds of weeds form a very large portion of its aliment, those of ragweed and polygonum constituting one half of all its nourishment while here. Mrs. George H. McGregor, of Fall River, Massachusetts, watched one on January 4th, feeding busily on the seeds of petunias, and she says that the bird is fond of millet seeds, but that two preferred hemp seeds. Occasionally one may be seen to feed on the catkins of the gray birch. In spring this species feeds largely on millipeds, ants and beetles. Economic Status. The Fox Sparrow is a beautiful, harmless bird and to some extent useful on the farms of the United States during the migrations and in winter. 1 Auk, Vol. XXX, 1913, pp. 177-187. TOWHEE 107 Pipilo erythrophthalmus erythrophthalmus (Linnaeus). Towhee. Other names: chewink; ground robin. Plate 73. Description. — A very large sparrow, Catbird size; bill conic, outlines, except ridge, nearly- straight; wings short; tail quite long, well-rounded; legs and feet stout and strong. Adult male: Head and neck all round, upper breast, and nearly all upper plumage black ; a long white patch on lower part of closed wing formed by white basal parts of outer webs of four or more primaries, and a white stripe on upper wing, composed of white outer webs of tertials ; a few touches of white toward ends of outer webs of primaries; outer web of outer tail- feather, terminal half of both webs and large part of terminal half of next two feathers white; sides and flanks chestnut or cinnamon-rufous ; below white from breast to tail, except under tail-coverts which are lighter chestnut; bill black in summer; iris bright red, but variable, in some quite pale ; legs and feet brown to flesh-color. Adult female : Similar to male in markings and pattern, but black replaced by brown, and chestnut much paler. Young in first winter plum- age : Similar to adults ; young males may be distin- guished by lighter wings and browner primary- coverts ; young females indistinguishable from adults of same sex. Young male in juvenal plumage : Above, and sides of head cinnamon-brown or darker, obscurely striped with deep olive-brown; wings and tail like those of adult, but black duller, and broad edges of tertials buff or olive-brown ; below dull white, strongly washed buffy on breast, sides and flanks and streaked dusky; "iris whitish" (C. J. Maynard) ; "bill and feet pinkish-buff, the former becoming dusky, the latter dusky-sepia-brown ; iris sepia-brown becoming deep red during the winter" (J. Dwight). Young female in juvenal -plumage : Much like young male in same plumage, but olive-brown replaces black in wings and tail. Measurements. —Length 7.50 to 8.75 in.; spread 10.00 to 12.25; folded wing 3.20 to 3.90; tail 3.32 to 4.10 ; bill .53 to .67; tarsus .95 to 1.12. Female smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage acquired by complete postnatal molt ; first winter plumage by partial postjuvenal molt (August, September), involving body plumage, wing-coverts, tertials and tail; first breeding plumage acquired by wear; adult winter plumage by complete postnuptial molt (August, September) ; adults have no other molt. Field Marks. — A very large sparrow, nearly as long as a Catbird and more robust. Male: Black above, and below from bill to breast, with chestnut sides and white belly, and with much white in wings and in tail, which he flirts, opens and shuts. Female and young : Similarly marked but duller, the black replaced by brown. Very young birds are streaked on breast. Voice. — Alarm notes and calls variously written as towhee', chewink', joree', wink rrrink; chuck, chuck; "whit-a whit-a-whit" (H. D. Minot) ; song, " drink-your-tea" ; dick' you, fiddle fiddle fiddle, or better yet "chuck-burr, pill-a-will-a-will-a" (E. T. Seton), most of the force expended on the chuck, Towhee, Juvenile. 108 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS the burr on a lower key and the rest uttered rapidly; also a "quavering warble difficult of description" (E. A. Samuels) ; an unusual song jung (low) dee-dee-dee-dee-dee (high) ees-ees (higher) yU-yii-yii-yii-yii (low) (F. H. Allen). Breeding. — In bushy, scrubby lands, in open woods with shrubby undergrowth or among sprouts where trees have been cut ; rarely in open fields or pastures ; common about open, swampy woodland, but nests chiefly on dry ground. Nest : On ground or near it, in low bush or brush-pile, rarely three or four feet from ground, but usually under bush or tuft of grass (rarely sunk in ground and partly roofed over like that of Oven-bird) built of leaves, bark-strips, weed stems, twigs, grass, etc., lined with fine grass, pine needles or hair, etc. Eggs: 4 to 6; .94 to 1.02 by .70 to .79 in. ; approaching oval in shape ; white, finely dotted over entire surface with reddish-brown and usually some lilac; some have much darker and heavier spots, some are less spotted; figured by E. A. Capen in "Oology of New England," Plate X, Figs. 13-15. Dates: May 8, Virginia; May 17, Pennsylvania; May 14 to June 12, Massa- chusetts; June 10 to 30, Maine. Incubation: Period 12 to 13 days (C. E. Heil) ; chiefly by female, male assists. One or two broods yearly. (See Fig. 73.) Range. — Eastern North America, north to southern Canada and west to the Great Plains. Breeds in Transition and Upper Austral zones from southeastern Saskatchewan, southern Manitoba, southern Ontario, northern New York, extreme southern Quebec, northern Vermont, northern New Hampshire and southwestern Maine (casually to New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island) south to northeastern Oklahoma, northern Arkansas, Tennessee, northern Georgia and North CaroUna; winters from south- eastern Nebraska, northern Iowa, Illinois, northern Indiana, southern Michigan, northern Ohio, southern New York and Massachusetts to southern Texas, southern Alabama and southern Florida. Distribution in New England. — Maine: Common to uncommon local summer resident in AUeghanian region of southern part. New Hampshire : Common summer resident in southern portion, becoming less common northward up to valleys of White Mountains ; accidental in winter in southern part.* Vermont: Uncommon or occasional summer resident, probably not breeding at elevations over 1,000 feet. Massachusetts: Common summer resident; very rare winter resident (winters mostly in southeastern coastal regions). Rhode Island and Connecticut: Common summer resident ; rare winter resident. Season in Massachusetts. — April 19 to October 17 (winter). Haunts and Habits. The active, strong Towhee is a bird of striking appearance. He is noisy and conspicuous whether on the ground or in the air. He rustles the dry leaves like some animal twenty times his size, scratching like a Fox Sparrow with both feet, and even his wing-strokes in flight are noisy, while his flashy tail advertises his progress. He is a ground bird — an inhabitant of bushy land. No other sparrow in New England seems to be so wedded to life in thicket and tangle. He is rarely seen high in a tree, unless drawn there by some alarm, for his curiosity is great and he follows the crowd that gathers when cries of distress are heard in the grove. He spends most of his life in thicket, "scrub" or sprout land, and so the bushy lands of Marthas Vineyard and Cape Cod are favorite resorts. He is not a dooryard bird except in winter, when necessity now and then drives one to a feeding station, but even then he spends most of his time in the shrubbery, coming out only to secure food. He may be found along bushy fences and roadsides, and often finds food or sand in country roads. The male arrives in southern New England late in April. He comes in advance of his mate, and after a short time of rest and recreation following the fatigue of the journey, * Rev. Manley W. Townsend, in a letter dated February 28, 1917, reported seeing one near Nashua early the same month. PLATE 73 PLATE 73 ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK Page 112 Adult Male in Spring Adult Female CARDINAL Page 110 Adult Male in Spring Female in Winter TOWHEE Page 107 Adult Male Adult Female Tis'. ««- -v^JH^ ^^....si^-...^ ^Mu^M'&a^'^ TOWHEE 109 he mounts to the top of some bush or small tree, and gives to the wide world all the music he has. Dr. Frank M. Chapman thus aptly characterizes this bird : "There is a vigor- ousness about the Towhee's notes and actions which suggests both a bustling, energetic disposition and a good constitution. He entirely dominates the thicket or bushy under- growth in which he makes his home. The dead leaves fly before his attack ; his white- tipped tail-feathers flash in the gloom of his haunts. He greets all passers with a brisk inquiring chewink, towhee, and if you pause to reply, with & fluff-fluff of his short, rounded wings he flies to a near-by limb to better inspect you. It is only when singing that the Towhee is fully at rest." Not long after the females arrive, the males begin their wooing, pursuing their brown inamoratas about among the thickets, with a great display of black, white and chestnut plumage. The wings and tails are opened and closed rapidly, so that the white patches of both sexes flash frequently. While the female is incubating, the male waits upon her and occasionally relieves her on the nest. As the nest is exceedingly well concealed, and the female dull colored, she can sit until almost trodden upon before she leaves the nest ; when finally driven from it she is likely to act as if disabled, thus attempting to lure the intruder away. The young usually remain in the nest ten or twelve days, if not disturbed, until their wings grow strong, but if disturbed they may leave it before they are able to fly. When the young have learned to fly, the family keeps together for a time, but seldom, even in migration, is anything like a close flock formed, for Towhees are not normally gregarious. During and after the molt in August all are rather quiet, and shy. When severe frosts come most of them disappear in the night on their southward migration. The Towhee feeds chiefly on seeds, wild fruit and insects. Its food is obtained mainly from the ground, the shrubbery, and as high up the tree trunks as it can reach or jump. While scratching and digging among the leaves in early spring it unearths many dormant insects, and disposes of them ere they have an opportunity to propagate their kind. Weed seeds, grass seeds, and a little grain are eaten. The only cultivated fruit I have known one to take was now and then a gooseberry or two that had dropped off the bush. Its insect food includes pernicious moths and hairy caterpillars, ants, wasps, flies, grasshoppers and cockroaches, beetles and their larvae, such as May beetles and their grubs, and wireworms, and in the south the boll weevil. It has been reported as an enemy of the Colorado potato beetle, and the cabbage-worm, but I have not known it to destroy either of these pests. That keen and reliable observer, Mr. Arthur T. Wayne, informs us that as soon as spring arrives in South Carolina these birds "resort to the tallest trees to feed upon the buds," but this habit has not been reported in the North. Economic Status. The Towhee evidently is a useful bird. Most of the small amount of grain it takes is waste grain. I have received credible reports from farmers to the effect that they had seen the bird pull up sprouting corn — but no corn has been found in the stomachs of birds at work in cornfields. 110 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS Cardinalis cardinalis cardinalis (Linn^us). Cardinal. Other names: cardinal grosbeak; Virginia red-bird; Kentucky cardinal. Plate 73. Description. — Bill conic, very large and stout, ridge curved near tip; head sharply crested; wings short and rounded; tail longer and rounded with broad feather-tips. Adult male: Front, face and throat black, elsewhere chiefly vermilion-red, darkening above from back of neck to tail (inclusive) ; bill red or orange-red; iris brown; legs and feet dark reddish-brown. Adult female: Similar in shape and shading, though not so full-crested, but different in color ; black of face duller or grayish, and more restricted; olive-grayish above; crest, wings and tail similar to those of male, but duller; tawny or buff y below ; bill, eyes and feet as male. Young in first winter 'plumage : Like adult, but slightly veiled by gray feather-tips; bill not so red as in adult. Young in juvenal plumage: Much like adult female, but duller, more brown; "bill and feet pinkish-buff becoming dusky" (J. Dwight). Measurements. — Length 7.50 to 9.25 in.; spread 10.25 to 12.00; folded wing 3.30 to 4.00; tail 3.50 to 4.75; bill .66 to .95; tarsus .75 to 1.00. Weight, male 2 oz. (B. H. Warren). Female smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage acquired by complete postnatal molt ; first winter plumage by complete post juvenal molt (August, September) ; first nuptial plumage by wear; adult winter plumage by com- plete postnuptial molt ; adults have but one molt yearly, complete postnuptial. Field Marks. — Catbird size. Male : A long-crested, short-winged, long-tailed red bird with a black mask, and large thick red bill. Female a,nd young: Similar in shape, but olive-grayish to more brownish above, and more buffy or brownish below ; wings and crest red or reddish. Voice. — Alarm note a sharp tsip; song whoit, whoit, whoit etc., ku-ku-ku etc. (R. Hoffmann) ; female also whistles musically — we-oo, we-oo, we-oo, we-oo, we-oo; chitikew, chitikew, he-weet, he-weet (these and six more variations given by W. L. Dawson). Breeding. — In thickets or among saplings or other small trees, either deciduous or coniferous. Nest : A loosely built structure of twigs, leaves, bark-strips, rootlets, weed stems and grasses, and lined with fine grass or hair ; from 3 to 30 feet from ground, in tree, vine or bush, but usually quite low ; some- times on top of bush-covered fence or vine-covered stump, or in brush heap. Eggs: 3 or 4; .98 to 1.10 by .69 to .82 in. ; approaching oval ; exceedingly variable, white, grayish-white, greenish-white or bluish- white, variously blotched, spotted and dotted with brownish-gray, reddish-brown, chocolate, yellow- ochre, purplish-brown or lilac ; figured by E. A. Capen in "Oology of New England," Plate X, Figs. 11, 12. Dates: April 5 to 25, Florida; April 30, Pennsylvania; May 5, New York; June 6, Massachu- setts. Incubation: Period 12 days; by female. Two or three broods yearly. Range. — Eastern United States (west to the Great Plains) and southern Ontario. Resident and breeds mainly in Austral zones from northeastern South Dakota, northern Iowa, southeastern Minnesota, southern Wisconsin, southern Michigan, southeastern Ontario, central New York and northern Massa- chusetts south to central Oklahoma, Arkansas, Alabama and northern Florida; casual in southern Quebec, Maine, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. Distribution in New England. — Rare visitor, except in New Hampshire, where not recorded ; there are now at least fifty New England records that seem to' be authentic, many of which have not been published ; some probably refer to escaped cage birds ; a wild bird and a liberated cage bird nested in Brookline, Massachusetts, in 1898.'- Season in Massachusetts. — Occasional at any season. Haunts and Habits. The Cardinal is one of the few birds of the United States that possesses brilhant plumage and unusual powers of song, and, curiously enough, the I Ives, Ella Gilbert: Bird-Lore, Vol. I, 1899, pp. 83-87. CARDINAL 111 female sings a softer song, by no means inferior in its way to that of her mate. It is one of those rare singers that break into song in every month of the year. In the past it was in great demand as a cage bird, but now the law has forbidden such confinement of native birds. Cardinals are abundant in some of the extreme southern states, but are not common in the northernmost states, and though they reside throughout the year in southern New York and southern Ontario, they do not seem to be able to maintain themselves long in New England. There are many records of the species in this region, but the birds seem to be mere chance wanderers, staying with us for only a brief period, and then disappear- ing. While here they are seen usually about cultivated lands, and they seem to like the vicinity of dwellings, and, as they are handsome and conspicuous birds, they are observed more readily than some of their plainer neighbors. The Cardinal is a resident throughout the year in the greater part of its range, and in winter when a thick carpet of snow lies on the ground, its plumage shines with unusual brilliance in the reflected light from the snow and stands out in marked contrast to the snowy background. The male is very attentive to his mate, following her while she is building the nest and singing his most melodious strains, and while she is performing the duties of incuba- tion he brings her choice morsels of food whenever she calls for nourishment. Both parents assume the care of the young, which remain in the nest for nine or ten days. When the young birds are out of the nest and able to fly about, the mother bird leaves them to the care of her mate, who guards and feeds them for three weeks or more, while the female is bringing up the second brood. According to Mr. W. L. McAtee vegetal products compose the Cardinal's chief subsistence. They constitute over 70 per cent of its food, which consists of 36.38 per cent of weed seeds and other seeds, 24.17 per cent of wild fruit, 8.73 per cent of grain, 1.73 per cent of miscellaneous vegetal substances. Animal food amounts to 28.99 per cent, mostly insects with a small quantity of spiders, small molluscs, etc. Among the important insect pests eaten are the Rocky Mountain locust, seventeen-year cicada, Colorado potato beetle, cottonworm, boll-worm, cotton cut-worm, cotton-boll weevil, coddling-moth, rose beetle, cucumber beetle, fig-eater, zebra caterpillar, plum scale and other scale insects ; other pests taken are leaf-hoppers, tree-hoppers, jumping plant-lice and ants. Mr. McAtee gives a complete exposition of its food in his excellent bulletin on the "Food Habits of the Grosbeaks." ^ It has been accused of pulling up young corn, but Mr. McAtee, having examined the contents of 498 stomachs of the species, collected during every month of the year, concludes that it does ''at least 15 times more good than harm." It is easily attracted by food in winter and will repay the farmer for protection. Economic Status. Cardinals were formerly in great demand as cage birds, and Nuttall tells us that Gemelli Careri (who wrote in 1699) said that the Spaniards of 1 McAtee, W. L. : Food Habits of the Grosbeaks, United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Biological Survey, Bulletin No. 32, 1908, pp. 7-27. 112 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS Havana in a time of public scarcity bought so many that the sum expended for them at ten dollars each reached $18,000.^ As Cardinals were caged and sold in many countries, the trapping, handling and sale of these birds was in the aggregate an important business. The only harm done by the Cardinal seems to be its consumption of grain. Mr. Arthur T. Wayne writes that the bird is very destructive to rice and millet. ^ Hedymeles ludovicianus (Linn^us). Rose-breasted Grosbeak. Other names: throat-cut; potato-bug bird. Plate 73. Description. — Form robust, bill very large and heavy, its lower mandible quite as deep as upper, ridge curved throughout its length ; wing longer than tail, which is short and nearly even or very slightly rounded; feet short and stout. Adult male in breeding plumage: General color above, and head and neck all around, black. Below (except central part of breast and wing linings), middle wing-coverts, ends of greater coverts, secondaries and tertials, basal parts of all primaries, inner webs of three outer tail- feathers, and rump, white; upper tail-coverts black and white; upper breast, center of lower breast, wing Unings and axillars carmine; bill white or grayish-white, ridge and tip usually somewhat dusky; iris brown ; legs and feet grayish-blue. Adult male in winter plumage : Wings, tail and upper tail-coverts as in breeding plumage ; head, neck, back and scapulars brown, streaked black ; a central stripe along top of head, another over eye and another on cheek, pale buffy ; the white below brownish, and sides tinged rose-pink ; sides and flanks streaked dusky. Young male in first breeding plumage : Very variable, but often like adult male, except a number of worn, brown flight-feathers and brown edgings to black feathers above ; geranium-red or pale pink patch on throat. Young male in first winter plumage: Similar to adult male in winter but black parts and upper tail-coverts grayish-brown instead of black ; no white in tail and that on wings more restricted; sides and flanks quite tawny; a pink area on throat and upper breast, veiled with buffy, and iving linings and axillars rose-pink. Adult female : Much hke young male in winter, but light markings of head whiter, and only tips of middle wing-coverts white, thus having two white wing-bars ; no pink on breast ; wing Unings and axillars yellow ; bill darker than in adult male. Young female in first winter plumage : Similar to adult female, lacking the pink throat of young male. Young in juvenal plumage (sexes nearly alike) : Similar to adult female, but the two pale wing-bars not so white, and tinged buffy; edge of wing pale rose-pink; wing linings duller with salmon tinge; "bill and feet pinkish-buff, becoming dusky" (J. Dwight). Measurements, — Length 7.00 to 8.50 in.; spread 12.00 to 13.00; folded wing 3.90 to 4.25; tail 3.10 to 3.55 ; bill .67 to .75 ; tarsus .85 to .90. Female smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage acquired by complete postnatal molt ; first winter plumage by partial post juvenal molt (beginning in August) involving body plumage and wing-coverts ; first nuptial plumage by partial prenuptial molt (late winter) involving body plumage, most wing-coverts, tertials and tail; adult winter plumage by complete postnuptial molt (August) ; adult breeding plumage by partial pre- nuptial molt, involving body plumage only ; it seems possible that some birds may not acquire highest plumage until third year or even later. Field Marks. — Size between Bluebird and Catbird. Male: A black and white bird with a great white bill and middle of breast rose-red. Female: Shaped like male but in coloration and pattern resembles female Purple Finch, though much larger ; bill large as in male Grosbeak, but much darker. 1 Chamberlain, Montague : Handbook of the Ornitliology of the United States and Canada, based on Nuttall's Manual, Land Birds, Vol. I, 1891, p. 366. 2 Birds of South Carolina, 1910, p. 131. ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK 113 Voice. — Alarm note, a sharp metallic click or ick — unlike that of any other New England bird ; song, a beautiful, sweet, mellow warble, resembhng sUghtly the Robin's song, but smoother, softer, sweeter, more melUfluous. Breeding. — Normally in thickets or woodland trees near water ; now breeding on farms and in gardens and orchards also. Nest: In tall shrub or tree from 6 to 20 feet from ground, near trunk or on fork of limb; loosely built of twigs, vegetable fibres, grass, etc., lined with finer material, rootlets or pine needles. Eggs: 3 to 5; .90 to 1.08 by .60 to .78 in.; ovate to rounded ovate; very variable, bluish- green, greenish-blue, dull greenish-gray, greenish- white, grayish- white, etc., spotted and blotched with reddish-brown, dark brown and purplish or lilac ; often resembling those of Scarlet Tanager or Summer Tanager, but usually larger than either; figured by E. A. Capen in "Oology of New England," Plate X, Figs. 9, 10. Dates: June 1 to July, New Jersey; May 23 to June 15, southern New England; June 10 to June 30, Maine. Incubation : Period 14 days (F. L. Burns) ; by both sexes. One brood yearly. Range. — Eastern North America (west to the Great Plains), Central America and northern South America. Breeds in lower Canadian and Transition zones from central-southern Mackenzie, northern Saskatchewan, southern Manitoba, central Ontario, southern Quebec, New Brunswick and Cape Breton Island south to central-eastern Kansas, southern Missouri, southern Illinois, Kentucky, southern Ohio, Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and in the mountains to northern Georgia; winters from southern Mexico and Yucatan to Colombia, Venezuela and Ecuador ; migrates through Cuba ; casual in Jamaica, the Bahamas and Bermuda Islands ; accidental in Montana, Arizona, Colorado (nesting) and California. Distribution in New England. — Maine: Common to rare migrant and summer resident, except in eastern part ; somewhat local. New Hampshire: Common migrant and summer resident, except at high elevations, but somewhat local. Vermont: Common migrant and summer resident up to about 2,500 feet. Massachusetts: Common migrant and summer resident, chiefly in northern part. Rhode Island: Common migrant and summer resident. Connecticut: Common migrant and summer resident, accidental in winter. Season in Massachusetts. — (April 26) May 2 to October 3. Haunts and Habits. Nearly sixty years ago there stood, some half a mile from my father's house, near Worcester, Massachusetts, a tract of heavy timber shading a living spring, from which ran a little brook meandering down to the lake two miles away. There one bright June day on the bank of the stream occurred my first meeting with the Rose- breasted Grosbeak. A beautiful male bird sat upon the frail nest, about ten feet from the ground in a tall shrub. When I saw that black bird with a large white bill, I hailed it as a new species, thinking it to be a female, not knowing that the male grosbeak relieved the female on the nest. Those great woods were cut off long ago, and the spring has disappeared along with the stream that flowed from it, but I still recall the very look of that bird as from the nest he regarded my approach with bright startled eyes, his head cocked on one side. Since then frequently I have seen the male bird performing his share of the duties of incubation. At Concord, Massachusetts, by the river side, there was at one time a nest in a tree that hung over the roof of the cabin, and the male bird sitting there commonly sang while on the nest. When a hawk flew overhead he continued to sing, but so reduced the volume of the song that it seemed to come from far away, raising his voice again when the hawk had passed on. Singing on the nest and ventriloquizing are common habits of the male. The Rose-breasted Grosbeak is an admirable bird. It is beautiful, tuneful and useful, which from a human standpoint is about all that could be desired. The male 114 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS assumes his full part of the family duties, and is very devoted to his partner, and their young. While the female is incubating he feeds her, and when not incubating him- self, stands guard over his mate and home, and cheers her with his wonderfully sweet song. Normally the Rose-breasted Grosbeak is a forest bird, nesting usually in thickets about swamps, lakes and streams. Deciduous or mixed woods are as one to him. He inhabits birches and alders, and the low growth near the water, but usually sings from tall trees. He may be looked for early in May in southern New England. The males usually come first, and when the modestly attired females arrive they are pursued with fierce rivalry. Sometimes from four to six males may be seen paying attentions to one female. They dart from twig to twig, pouring forth their sweetest songs, or hover about her in the air, both singing and fighting at the same time. Their battles sometimes are sanguinary as the beak of the bird is a powerful weapon. I have seen such a fracas but once, but it is well worth seeing. When the battle is won the female, though apparently indifferent during it all, accompanies her conquering hero as he leaves the scene. Having won her he seldom leaves her for long until the young are able to care for themselves. Fifty years ago the bird was far less common in New England than it has been since the twentieth century came in. Once it nested only in the woods. Now its breeding grounds have been extended to the farm and village, while it still occupies the woodland breeding grounds. Its numbers, however, fluctuate ; it may appear commonly for a few years in a section, and then suddenly become rare. According to Mr. W. L. McAtee the proportions of animal and vegetal food eaten by the Rose-breasted Grosbeak are 52 and 48 per cent respectively. Among its animal aliment we find many insect pests such as click beetles, wood-borers, leaf-beetles, cur- culios, scale insects, plant-lice, stink-bugs, hawk moths and nocturnal moths, span-worms and ants. In Massachusetts we have seen it in the act of devouring the caterpillars of the gipsy moth, and those of the common tussock moth, also the tent caterpillar, the forest tent caterpillar, the brown-tail caterpillar and the army-worm. It is an inveterate enemy of that pernicious pest, the Colorado potato beetle. Mr. M. C. Howe, of Monson, Massachusetts, wrote to me on January 14, 1918, "I had a chance to observe a pair of these birds that were in my garden two years ago ; they kept the potato patch entirely free from the Colorado potato beetle." This is now a well-recognized habit of the bird which has been known in some places as the ''Potato-bug Bird." The vegetal food consists largely of wild seeds and wild fruit. It takes many weed seeds and tree seeds, and also in spring many buds and blossoms of trees. A small quantity of grain is taken, and sometimes rather an excessive number of peas. Economic Status. The destruction of the buds of forest trees by this Grosbeak is only a form of natural pruning which ordinarily never injures the trees, and the blossoms destroyed are principally the sterile, staminate flowers which are unproductive. The bird occasionally raids garden peas, corn and sprouting wheat, but the damage done in this way is far more than compensated by the service of the bird in destroying noxious BLACK-HEADED GROSBEAK 115 insects. Mr. W. L. McAtee says ''few birds have so good a record both as to the large numbers of important pests attacked and the shght amount of damage done." ^ Hedymeles melanocephalus (Swainson). Black-headed Grosbeak/ Note. Four reports of the occurrence of this species in New England have come to my attention within the last decade. The observers had every opportunity to study the birds, which were males in each case, and probably these are authentic reports, but as I find no previous eastern record, we should wait for the capture of a specimen in New England, before giving another bird from the far west a place on our list. Guiraca caertilea caerulea (Linn^us). Blue Grosbeak. Plate 74. Description. — Bill not so convex as in Rose-breasted Grosbeak, ridge nearly straight ; wings, tail and feet shaped much as in Rose-breasted Grosbeak (see page 112), but claws relatively longer. Adult male: General color rich dark blue or greenish-blue, darkening on back, with dusky streaks ; feathers in narrow strip around bill black ; wings and tail black or blackish, latter with bluish feather-edges ; most of middle wing-coverts and edges and tips of greater coverts bright chestnut-brown; tertials margined brown ; some whitish edgings or tips on under tail-coverts ; bill dusky above, light blue or bluish below ; iris brown ; legs and feet dark brown. Adult male in winter plumage: Similar to adult male in summer, but blue much obscured by brownish or buffy feather-margins and tips ; feathers of flanks and abdomen margined and tipped with pale buff or whitish, and outer tail-feathers edged white toward tips. Imma- ture male in first breeding plumage : A mixture of plumages of adult male and female, showing more or less blue with the brown, and worn brown primary-coverts. Adult female in breeding plumage: Olive- brownish above with slight tawny tinge, more grayish on rump, upper tail-coverts and tail ; back and scapulars with more or less dark feather-centers ; wings and tail dusky-brown, former edged with light brownish and latter with dull grayish-blue ; wing-coverts and tertials margined and tipped much as in adult male ; edges of primaries also brown ; below brownish-buffy, sometimes indistinctly streaked buffy on sides of breast, sides and flanks ; some bluish about head, rump and wing-coverts ; some mature birds show some scattered blue feathers; bill brownish, paler below. Adult female in winter plumage: As adult female in summer, but colors deeper. Young in first winter plumage : Like adult female in winter, but color a little brighter and deeper ; flight-feathers more worn. Young in juvenal plumage : Similar to first winter plumage, but colors lighter ; wings and tail clove-brown, edged with lighter brown. Measurements. — Length 6.35 to 7.50 in.; spread 10.50 to 11.50; folded wing 3.30 to 3.60; tail 2.70 to 3.00 ; bill .58 to .67 ; tarsus .70 to .82. Female smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage acquired by complete postnatal molt ; first winter plumage by partial postjuvenal molt (August, September) involving body plumage and wing-coverts; first breeding plumage by partial prenuptial molt (winter) involving part of body plumage, all or part of tail, and in some cases some flight-feathers ; adult winter plumage by complete postnuptial molt ; adult breeding plumage by wear ; some birds may require three or four seasons to assume highest adult plumage ; adults have but one annual (postnuptial) molt. Field Marks. — Size of Bluebird or Cowbird, which latter it resembles somewhat at a distance, when like Cowbird it appears black ; only the Indigo Bunting can be mistaken for this bird in a good light, and the Blue Grosbeak is much larger, has a relatively larger bill, and has two brown wing-bars, the forward one being very wide and rich chestnut-brown. Female and young : Similar in shape to male, but brown with two wing-bars resembling those of male. 1 United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Biological Survey, Bulletin No. 32, 190S, p. 57. 116 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS Voice. — Said to resemble that of Indigo Bunting, especially the song which is said to be sweet, reminding one of the carol of the Purple Finch ; alarm note, a loud chuck (Wilson). Breeding. — Usually in low trees or thickets or near edges of woods, but has nested in city street tree where vehicles constantly passed just below. Nest: On low branch of tree; composed of bark strips, rootlets, grass, etc., or dry leaves, weeds and grass, lined with rootlets, sometimes with hair; usually the cast-off skin of a snake or part of one is incorporated. Eggs: 3 to 5; .60 to .66 by .84 to .98 in. ; ovate ; light blue, fading to white if exposed to Ught (very rarely spotted) ; figured in " Nature Lovers Library, Birds of America," Plate No. Five, Fig. 19. Dates: May 9 to July 11, Georgia; June 3, August 5 and 24, Virginia. Incubation : Chiefly or wholly by female. Two broods yearly. Range. — Eastern United States mainly and south to Central America. Breeds in Austral zones west to the Great Plains from eastern Kansas, Iowa (casually), Missouri, IlUnois, Maryland and Pennsyl- vania south to eastern Texas, Louisiana, southern Alabama and southern Florida; winters in Yucatan and Honduras ; casual in the northern United States from Wisconsin to Maine, and in southern Quebec, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia ; accidental in Cuba. Distribution in New England. — Very rare or casual migrant and probable local summer resi- dent; no fully authenticated breeding record. Records: Maine: South Paris, "since 1916 every sum- mer" (observed June 4, 1916, June 4, 1917, May 18, 1918, May 22, 1919), "there have been several pairs in different parts of the village" ; ^ Fryeburg, June 6, 1917, one pair arrived and stayed the rest of the summer, but "I could not find nest" ; May 25, 1918, three pairs came, two of which nested; August 23, 1919, a pair seen; June 16, 1920, three seen; July 11, 1921, one pair seen; June 20, 1923, three ar- rived and two of them (males) seen until July 22 ; July 20, 1925, a pair seen ; ^ West Baldwin, in 1918 and 1919 a pair nested ; Auburn, July 6, 1918, a male seen, also one June 27, 1922 ; ^ Bangor, August 24, 1919, bird seen by Dr. Ada O. Fogg; March 10, 1926, one seen by Miss Mary Clayton; Hampden, 1921, bird seen several times during summer by Mrs. Percy Flanders and Mrs. L. C. Stearns ; April 23, 1922, imma- ture male observed by Mrs. W. C. Bryant; May to June 18, 1922, one seen by Mrs. Percy Flanders; * Gorham, June 27, 1922, one male observed, and May 29, 1926, one seen.^ New Hampshire: East Derry, May 26, 1894, an adult male observed; ^ Jackson, 1917, a pair nested, "birds and nest were seen by the late Mrs. Frederick Abbott"; ^ Franklin, 1927, 1928, 1929, one or more birds seen each summer by Mrs. David Atwood.^ Vermont: Holden, August 10, 1925, one noted.^ Massachusetts: Greenwich, May 23, 1918, one, Miss Eva L. Powers; West Stockbridge, June, 1918, one. Miss Lottie S. Kniffen; Southampton, June 27, 1918, one. Miss Bessie M. Graves; Roslindale, May 23 and 27, 1919, one, Miss U. C. Sherman; Taunton, February 23, 1920, three, Mrs. D. A. Burt; Barre, March 29, 1920, one, F. J. Holman; Montague, May 15 and 16, 1920, one. Miss F. W. Rockwell; Brookline, May 30, 1920, one, Mrs. M. M. Kaan; Lincoln, July 30, 1920, female, A. J. Parker; Newton, August 3, 1920, young male, F. H. Kennard ; " Lancaster, July 10, 1921, one, Herbert Parker ; Danvers, September 23, 1921, one, S. G. Emilio; Springfield, May 12 and 14, 1922, one. Miss F. A. Stebbins; Lincoln, May 26, 1922, one, Kenneth Hamilton (reported by Mrs. A. B. Harrington) ; Dedham, June 9, 10 and 28, 1922, one, Mrs. M. M. Kaan and others; Sandwich, July 29, 1922, one, Mrs. George Burbank; Springfield, May 11 and 15, 1923, one, Mrs. R. G. Sherwood; May 16, 1926, eight. May 17, four. May 18, two. May 20, one, Mrs. E. M. Ingalls and others; Townsend, May 23, 1923, one, Mrs. J. J. Piper; Sunderland, May 26, 1923, one. Miss E. M. Smith; South Hadley, June 8 and 15, 1924, one, Mrs. E. M. Ingalls; Huntington, June 14, 1924, male, June 16, female, A. A. Cross; Dennis, May 19, 1925, one. Miss J. O. Crowell; Amherst, May 25, 1926, one. Miss E. M. Smith." Rhode Island: Block Island, April, 1926, one seen by Miss Eliz- abeth Dickens. ^^ Connecticut : New Britain, May 14 and 15, 1924, six males seen by Arthur G. Powers 1 Paxk, Mrs. A. D. : in litt. ' Abbott, Miss Harriet : in litt. 2 Abbott, Miss Harriet : in litt. s Campbell, Franklin C. : in litt. 3 Waterman, W. H. : in litt. 9 James, T. A. : in litt. « Brown, Miss BertKa L. : in litt. lo Auk, Vol. XLV, 1928, p. 223. 6 Lombard, Mrs. Herbert : in litt. " All in litt. 6 Berry, Miss Mabel C. : Auk, Vol. XIII, 1896, pp. 342, 343. ^ Dickens, Miss Elizabeth : in litt. PLATE 74 PLATE 74 BLUE GROSBEAK Page 115 Adult Male Female INDIGO BUNTING Page 118 Adult Male in Spring Female HOUSE SPARROW Page 39 DICKCISSEL Page 121 Adult Male Adult Male Adult Female Adult Female '>... '^■, 0/^/i /^mds. BLUE GROSBEAK 117 and others; ^ South Windsor, June 15, 1927, male seen, about August 1, female seen, and both birds seen "off and on" until September 1 — "Mr. C. W. Vibert, who saw them many times, is convinced that the pair nested." ^ Season in Massachusetts. — May 11 to September 23 (February, March). History. The Blue Grosbeak has been regarded as a southern bird which almost never appeared in New England. Peabody in his report on the birds of Massachusetts in 1839 mentions the fact that one was unquestionably seen "by a friend." ^ Howe and Allen in their "Birds of Massachusetts" (1901) refer to only one definite record — a male bird shot by Mr. Gordon Plummer, Brookline, May 29, 1880.^ Spring and Summer Records of the Blue Gros- beak IN Massachusetts. Formerly two specimens were accredited to Maine, but Professor O. W. Knight in his "Birds of Maine" (1908) shows that these were taken at Grand Manan, New Brunswick. Re- viewing the known history of the species in New England up to 1908, we find only one specimen taken. It may be that the bird was merely fortuitous here in the past, but the records of more recent observers as given above show that such is no longer the case. I have never seen the bird alive, and so far as my knowledge of the matter goes, collectors have taken but one in New England. In the past, however, no ornithologist in New England had been in communication with several hundred correspondents intensely interested in birds (most of them of mature years and experience), scattered over the six New England states, and all interested in recording rare birds. It has been my pleasure during the past ten years to receive communications regularly or periodically from this considerable number of interested observers, whose cooperation I gratefully acknowledge, and together we have learned something about the distribution of this species in New England. It is improbable that any one of these 1 Powers, Arthur G. : in litt. 2 Hunt, Miss Lucy O. : in litt. 3 Peabody, William B. O. : Report on the Ornithology of Massachusetts, 1839, p. 330. « Allen, J. A. : Bulletin, Nuttall Ornithological Club, Vol. V, 1880, p. 184. 118 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS persons would mistake an Indigo Bunting for a Blue Grosbeak, except perhaps in a case of very casual and brief observation. Moreover, the Blue Grosbeak is a rather seden- tary bird, and in its migrations it stays for days in a limited neighborhood. Often when one interested observer discovers the bird, the word is passed around, and many people have an opportunity to look it over at leisure, thus insuring its identification by a number of competent observers. Where an observation is substantiated by a number of such credible witnesses, the report must be regarded as authentic. The few migrants of this species that reach New England evidently choose for the most part the Connecticut Valley as their route of migration. A very few pass up the Atlantic coast, and scattering birds are recorded between the two routes. Some of these birds evidently reach parts of southwestern Maine, but beyond that region to the north and east we have no recent reports. I suspect that the bird appears less rarely in New York State than the records indicate. Dr. Arthur A. Allen informs me that it has been reported from every county in that state. Professor E. H. Eaton says in his "Birds of New York" that it seems almost impossible that the numbers reported by different observers "could be actual occurrences," but if all such reports had been carefully investigated, the number of authenticated occurrences might have been surprising. Haunts and Habits. The Blue Grosbeak is said to be a rather tame and unsuspi- cious bird, though also said to be somewhat shy and retiring at nesting time, when it seems usually to prefer to inhabit thickets near water. In migration it may be found also on the dryer lands, and it frequently visits farms and villages. During the nesting period these birds and their young feed very largely on noxious insects, such as grass- hoppers, and also on cut-worms and other pernicious caterpillars. In both spring and autumn they take some grain. Economic Status. Evidently Mr. W. L. McAtee, the expert on the food of gros- beaks, considers this bird as serviceable to the farmer, for he says that it deserves pro- tection for its destruction of grasshoppers alone. ^ Passerina cyanea (Linn^us). Indigo Bunting. Other name : indigo-bird. Plate 74. Description. — Similar in shape to Blue Grosbeak, but bill relatively smaller, its ridge somewhat convex. Adult male in breeding plumage: Deep blue, variously described as cerulean, ultramarine and indigo, but changing in different lights ; head plain purplish-blue, rest of blue plumage showing greenish reflections; lores, wing-coverts, tail-feathers and flight-feathers dusky, the latter two edged blue (except tertials which are black broadly edged blue) ; bill dusky above, pale bluish or whitish below with a narrow central line of black ; iris brown ; legs and feet brown. Adult male in winter plumage : Somewhat similar to adult female, but plain brown above, most of the blue now concealed by brown feather-edges with blue showing on rump, edges of greater wing-coverts, primary-coverts, primaries and tail; below 1 United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Biological Survey, Bulletin No. 32, 1908, p. 85. Photograph by Harry G. Higbee Fig. 74. — Nest and Eggs of Indigo Bunting Page 119 Photograph by C. E. Leister Fig. 75. — Scaklet Tanager, Female, Nest and Young Page 130 INDIGO BUNTING 119 paler brown, sometimes becoming whitish on chin, abdomen and under tail-coverts, and showing partly veiled blue feathers, which appear like cross- wise spots. Young male in first breeding plumage : Very variable; similar to adult male, but all show worn brown primary-coverts; usually a mixture of blue and brown on wing-coverts ; often both bright and dull blue feathers are seen on rump and head. Young male in first winter plumage : Similar to female, but usually showing some blue feathers and some whitish feather-tips below. Adult female : Above oUve-brownish, darker on top of head, sometimes indistinctly striped darker on back and scapulars, but not on rump or upper tail-coverts ; wings and tail dusky, the feather-edges lighter as in male, these mostly grayish-green, but those of middle wing-coverts brownish ; below pale whitish, tinged ohve-buffy, and very indistinctly streaked dusky-grayish-brown on breast; bill, iris and feet much as in male ; the central black line on lower mandible distinguishes female from other sparrows ; old females tend toward mascuhne plumage, showing some blue feathers. Young in juvenal plumage: Similar to adult female, but plumage softer, and more streaked below; young males often show traces of blue. Measurements. — Length 5.25 to 5.75 in. ; spread 8.00 to 8.90 ; folded wing 2.60 to 3.00 ; tail 2.20 to 2.60 ; bill .37 to .41 ; tarsus .65 to .70. Female smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage acquired by complete postnatal molt ; first winter plumage by partial postjuvenal molt (late August, September) involving body plumage and wing-coverts, and sometimes some flight-feathers and tail-feathers; first breeding plumage by variable partial molt (late winter to mid-April) involving more or less of body plumage and wings and all of tail, but not primary-coverts except sometimes the first ; adult winter plumage by complete postnuptial molt ; adult breeding plumage acquired by partial prenuptial molt and by wear; adults have complete postnuptial molt (August, September) ; male becomes blue in summer by partial prenuptial molt and by wearing away of brown edges and tips of blue feathers. Field Marks. — Size, slightly larger than Chipping Sparrow. Adult male: The only adult bird of this size that is blue practically all over; bill dark above, pale bluish below; bird looks black at a distance ; in autumn brown above, but wings and tail chiefly blue. Immature male : A mixture of brown and blue with whitish feather-tips below, some quite blue with brown wing-coverts, like those of the Blue Grosbeak. Female and young : Plain brownish, indistinctly streaked ; very young similar to female but more streaked below. Voice. — Alarm note a sharp chip, resembling the sound made by striking two pebbles together, also a chuck; song she tshe tshe — tshe tshee tshee — tshe tshe tshe, or tshea tshea tshea tshreh (T. Nuttall) ; often given as sets of phrases in high key, and then repeated in sUghtly lower key, as swee-swee-swee, swee-swee (slightly lower), sweet-sweet-sweet, swee-swee (slightly lower), swee, swee, swee (R. Hoffmann) ; the song finishes diminuendo. Breeding. — In bushy lands, such as bushy pastures, scrub, briery hillsides or slash and sproutland where woods have been cut off. Nest: In bush or brier-patch, sometimes in garden shrubbery or orchard, usually very low, but rarely in old orchard tree 10 or 12 feet from ground, or in grape vine ; built of twigs, coarse grass, weeds and a few leaves, lined with fine grass and sometimes with hair or feathers. Eggs : 3 or 4, rarely more ; .70 to .81 by .50 to .60 in. ; nearly oval ; pale blue or bluish-white, sometimes with greenish tinge, rarely mottled with brown; figured by E. A. Capen in "Oology of New England," Plate X, Fig. 8. Dates: May 27 to June 12, Virginia; June 3 to 22, Massachusetts ; late June to July 15, Maine. Incubation: Period 12 days (F. L. Burns); by female chiefly, but sometimes by male also. One or two broods yearly. (See Fig. 74.) Range. — Eastern North America west to the Great Plains, north to southern borders of Canadian Zone and south to Central America. Breeds chiefly in Transition and Austral zones from southern Sas- katchewan, southwestern Manitoba (casually), central Minnesota, Wisconsin, northwestern Michigan, southern Ontario, southern Quebec and southern New Brunswick south to central Texas, southern Louisiana, southern Mississippi, central Alabama and northern Florida ; migrates south through eastern Mexico to Central America ; winters from Morelos and Yucatan, through Central America to Panama 120 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS and north to the Bahama Islands, casually to the Bermuda Islands and northern Florida ; casual in eastern Colorado, southern Saskatchewan, eastern North Dakota and Nova Scotia. Distribution in New England. — Maine: Common summer resident in southwestern portion, rather uncommon or rare and local elsewhere. Netv Hampshire : Common migrant and summer resi- dent in southern part, breeding north in valleys of White Mountains and up to elevations of 1,500 feet. Vermont: Common migrant and summer resident, occasionally reaching highest summits. Massachu- setts: Common migrant and summer resident generally, but rare in Cape Cod region. Rhode Island: Common summer resident in western and northern sections, absent or rare elsewhere. Connecticut: Common migrant and summer resident. Season in Massachusetts. — (April 17) May 8 to October 29 (December 5). Haunts and Habits. How came this brilliantly-garbed little creature to make its home in the North? Dressed in changeable, tropic blue, it nevertheless breeds as far north as Ontario, northern New England and Nova Scotia. It is the only one of the little "painted" buntings to range so far to the northward ; the others are all typically southern birds, but this one being virile and prolific may have gradually worked toward the Pole, to find more room for its increasing numbers, until it finally reached its present farthest north. Even now it has not grown hardy. We rarely see it until the May days grow warm, and most of the northern members of its race are on their southward way before the middle of September. In spring the males come several days before the females appear. Soon they start to sing, and when the females come pairing begins. Then the male follows his prospective mate hour after hour in full song. When the union has been consummated, the nest built and the eggs laid, the mated pair seem to dwell in different zones. The female quietly incubates or keeps largely to the bushes near the ground, where, modestly clad and unobtrusive, she is seldom seen ; while the brilliant male sings conspicuously, high in the tree-tops or from roof or chimney top ; nevertheless he sometimes relieves the female on the nest. His plumage is so changeable that in one position it appears blue and in another or in a different light it seems green, while at a distance it appears quite black. When as a boy I was on my way home from a morning woodland excursion, under the hot sun of a June noon, the gay Indigo Buntings were always conspicuous songsters, as they perched on the telegraph wires along the way, but I rarely saw a female unless I began exploring the bushes in the neighborhood of the nest. Then her nervous chipping apprized me of her whereabouts and soon she was joined by the male as she protested with twitching wings and tail against the rude invasion of her humble domain. The male seems to delight in singing during the hottest part of the summer days, when other birds are resting in the shade. He will sing his way from the bottom of a tree to the top, going up branch by branch until he has reached the topmost spire, and there, fully exposed to the blazing sun, he will sing and sing and sing. His song period often continues well into August or until a second brood is under way. My latest record for fresh eggs of this bird came from Mr. Adelbert Temple, of Hopkinton, Massachusetts, who found a nest three feet from the ground in a small ash tree on August 14, 1919. The eggs were pure white, which is rather unusual. DICKCISSEL 121 When two broods are reared, the same nest may be used for both, and it is sometimes repaired and occupied year after year. The young remain in the nest from 10 to 13 days. The male often seems to do httle but enjoy himself and sing to the female, while she is incubating the eggs and caring for the young in the nest, but when the little brood is ready to leave the nest, he begins to show more interest in his progeny. In late summer when the corn has "tasseled out," the Indigo Buntings seem to find some food about the corn tops and often may be found in cornfields. When the young have waxed strong and fat, and the male has donned his sober brown fall dress, they are all ready to depart, and by the time they have reached South Carolina in October they have gathered in con- siderable numbers. The food of the Indigo Bunting in New England consists largely of insects. Cater- pillars, including canker-worms and brown-tail caterpillars, many small beetles, among them click beetles (the parents of wire-worms) and curculios are eaten and very many grasshoppers. The greater part of the vegetal food consists of the seeds of grasses and weeds, most of which they consume in the South in winter, and there they occasionally pick up some grain. Economic Status. The Indigo Bunting does comparatively little damage to grain in the South, and practically none in New England, where its economic value is apparent. Occasionally it eats a few blossoms from fruit trees, but not enough to harm them. Passerina ciris (Linn^us). Painted Bunting. Note. There are several records of the occurrence of this species in New Engand, but as great numbers have been caged in the past, it has been assumed that they were all escaped cage birds. Now that the keeping of American native birds in cages is illegal, any bird of this species taken here in unworn plumage should constitute an authentic record. Spiza americana (Gmelin). Dickcissel. Other names: black-throated bunting; little meadowlark. Plate 74. Description. — Shaped somewhat like Indigo Bunting, but bill longer for its depth, wings relatively much longer and tail a trifle more forked. Adult male in breeding plumage: Top of head, hind neck, sides of neck and ear region gray, often tinted more or less ohve on forehead and crown ; narrow stripe over eye, bright yellow, sometimes passing into white behind eye ; back and scapulars light grayish-brown, streaked black ; rump paler, grayer, unstreaked ; upper tail-coverts grayish-brown with some blackish shaft-streaks; lesser and middle wing-coverts bright reddish-brown, almost chestnut; greater cov- erts, flight-feathers and tail-feathers dusky, edged bro\^^l, the edgings broadest and brownest on coverts and tertials, and narrower and graying on other flight-feathers and tail ; edge of wing around bend deep bright yellow; a touch of yellow on jaw passes posteriorly into white; chin and throat white with large black patch on throat, sometimes continued down middle of breast, and sometimes divided into two patches ; breast yellow which passes into white on abdomen or farther back ; under tail-coverts white ; sides and flanks shaded gray ; wing linings tinted yellow ; bill dusky on sides, rest bluish ; iris brown ; 122 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS legs and feet grayish-brown. Adult male in winter plumage: Colors brighter, but black throat- patch more or less veiled by pale feather-tips; gray of head and neck replaced by dark olive-brown, and under tail-coverts buff; iris brownish; feet grayish-brown; bill brownish tinged with yellow (S. Sumichrast). Young male in first winter plumage: Above, including ear region, wood-brown or sepia, narrowly and obscurely streaked on top of head and broadly on back with black ; wing-coverts almost entirely rich russet or cinnamon-rufous, as in adult; chin and abdomen pale buff; throat, sides and under tail-coverts with obscure narrow black streaks ; a black streak on each side of chin as in adult female; stripe above eye, another on jaw, and usually lower throat, dull yellow; edge of wing lemon- yellow ; lores grayish (adapted from J. Dwight). Adult female: Similar to adult male, but colors duller, head and neck plainer, top of head streaked, less tinged with yellow below, throat pale brown with Uttle or no black, a black streak on each side of chin, and some streaks on upper breast. Young in Juvenal plumage : Similar to young male in winter plumage, but lighter, more buffy above and duller below, where streaks are dusky instead of black. Measurements. — Length 5.75 to 7.00 in.; spread 9.00 to 11.00; folded wing 2.80 to 3.50; tail 2.20 to 2.90; bill .53 to .58 ; tarsus .54 to .56. Fe- male smaller than male. Juvenal plumage acquired by complete postnatal molt ; first winter plumage by partial DiCKCissEL, Young Male in Second Plumage. Molts. postjuvenal molt (late June to August) involving body plumage, wing-coverts and tertials; first breed- ing plumage by partial prenuptial molt (March, April) involving head, throat and breast, when young bird becomes as adult ; adults have complete postnuptial molt and partial prenuptial molt, as in young. Field Marks. — Somewhat smaller than Bobolink. Adult male: A hght colored sparrow with a yellow Une over eye, white throat and yellow breast, with large black patch just below throat ; seen in front view, with its yellow breast and black, often crescentic, patch helow throat, resemblance to Meadow- lark is striking ; in the west it is often called "Little Meadowlark." Female and young : Have less yellow, breast more or less streaked, and lack the black patch on throat ; they resemble female and young of BoboUnk, but fore wing near bend bright reddish-brown (nearly chestnut). Voice. — Song dick dick dickcissel, a simple clinking strain, not particularly musical, with some vari- ations, represented as " ZooA; .' look! see me here! see!" (Coues), sometimes shortened to dicfc.' dick! or dickcissel. Breeding. — In grass fields, grain fields, meadows, pastures and prairies. Nest : On ground or raised up among grass stalks, or in bush or small tree; composed of leaves, grasses, hair, etc. Eggs: 3 to 5 ; about .80 by .60 in. ; near rounded oval ; bright greenish-blue ; figured by E. A. Capen in "Oology of New England," Plate X, Fig. 7. Dates: May 18, southern Indiana; June 18, southern Michi- gan; June 9 and August 1, Massachusetts. Incubation: Period at least 10 to 11 days, possibly more (A. O. Gross) ; by female. Two broods yearly. Range. — Eastern North America west to the Rocky Mountains, Central America and northern South America. Breeds chiefly in Austral zones from northeastern Wyoming, southern Saskatchewan, southern Manitoba, central North Dakota, northwestern Minnesota, Wisconsin, southern Michigan and (formerly at least) southeastern Ontario south to southern Texas, southern Louisiana, Mississippi and central Alabama and west to central Colorado ; formerly bred on the Atlantic slope from Massachusetts DICKCISSEL 123 to South Carolina and Georgia, but now very rare or casual in that region ; migrates through Mexico and Central America ; winters from Costa Rica and Panama to Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad and French Guiana; accidental in British Columbia, Lower California, Arizona, New Mexico, New Hampshire, Maine, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia and Jamaica. Distribution in New England. — Accidental visitor, formerly uncommon summer resident along coast and in western valleys of Massachusetts and in Connecticut, and rare migrant in Rhode Island. Records : Maine : Professor 0. W. Knight gives three records in "Birds of Maine," 1908, p. 444 ; a recent record is Patten, June 9, 1922, one seen.^ New Hampshire: Concord, October 13, 1918, immature male taken by Francis B. White.^ Massachusetts: Howe and Allen in "Birds of Massachusetts," 1901, p. 117, refer to nine records; others are, Ipswich, Dr. C. W. Townsend mentions a "fine adult specimen in the collection of the late Dr. Charles Palmer, at Ipswich, probably taken in that vicinity";^ MagnoUa, August 27, 1879, one taken by Mr. W. S. Townsend, and in the collection of Dr. C. W. Townsend ; * Waban, August 12, 1899, over 30 seen by Miss Clara L. Willis, of Framingham, who writes in a letter dated Sep- tember 8, 1918, "I was naturally amazed at the sight. However I knew my birds well, followed them, studying them carefully for an hour or more" ; ^ Winthrop, July 25, 1905, pair seen, of which the male was collected by J. K. Murray; ^ Marthas Vineyard, September 6, 1918, adult male seen; '' Edgartown, September 18, 1918, male seen ^ (probably these last two records are referable to the same bird) ; Groton, November 18, 1925, a female trapped and banded by William P. Wharton.' Rhode Island: Newport, September 25, 1888, young bird taken by Lieut. Wirt Robinson; i" Block Island, June 2, 3 and 5, 1922, one seen; ^^ Pawtuxet, December 20, 1922, bird seen for several days, then trapped and banded on date given, by Henry E. Childs.^^ Connecticut : Lisbon, April 2, 1922, three seen and a fourth heard." Season in Massachusetts. — May 15 to October 3 (November 18). History. Early American ornithologists found the Dickcissel abundant in the middle Atlantic states, and Thomas Nuttall, writing in the early part of the last century, said that the bird v^as not then uncommon along the coast of Massachusetts in the fields near the salt-marshes. The bird virtually disappeared from the Atlantic slope before the beginning of the present century. Mr. E. A. Samuels (1870) considered it "an extremely rare summer visitor in New England, Massachusetts apparently being its northern limit." Dr. Witmer Stone says that "up to 1860, and locally later, the bird was of regular occurrence on the Atlantic coastal plain, but during the next twenty years it practically disappeared from this region, and now is restricted to the Mississippi Valley, except in the case of occasional stragglers." ^^ This well summarizes the case. The cause of its disappearance here must be left to conjecture, but similar disappearances of the species in other parts of the country have been followed by reappearances, and the time may come when these birds will be common again on the Atlantic coast. Haunts and Habits. In the spring of 1873, if I mistake not the date, I was roaming over a hill pasture near Worcester, Massachusetts, one bright morning, in my hands a sawed-off Belgian musket containing a small charge of powder and dust shot, when I 1 Grant, E. O. : in litt. 2 Auk, Vol. XXXVI, 1919, p. 288. 3 Birds of Essex County, Massachusetts, 1905, p. 275. < Ibid. B Willis, Miss Clara L. : in litt. 6 Murray, J. K. : in litt. ' Bicknell, E. P. : in litt. 8 Foster, Francis A. : in litt. s Auk, Vol. XLIII, 1926, pp. 246, 247. i» Auk, Vol. VI, 1889, p. 194. " Dickens, Miss Elizabeth : in litt. »2 Childs, Henry E. : in litt. " Rejmolds, William J. : in litt. " Stone, Witmer : Annual Report, New Jersey State Museum, Part II, Birds of New Jersey, 1908, p. 247. 124 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS heard a bird-song new to me. The Httle singer sat upon the top of a tall mullein stalk and sang his metallic notes for all the world to hear. Having listened to his simple lay and marked it well, I saw that he had a bright yellow breast and a black, somewhat crescentic, patch upon it, and I knew him at once for a male Dickcissel (for I had handled specimens of the bird in the museum), and, being in quest of rare specimens, thought to take him home. But the bird had other plans, and before the lumbering, clumsy piece could be brought to bear, he was off and away to the south at express speed before the wind. High he went and far before he faded from my sight and vanished in the dim and hazy distance. Many a time thereafter I lugged that old musket to that hill pasture, but I have not seen that bird since. So there is one record of the Dickcissel in Massa- chusetts that failed of substantiation. Mr. Robert Ridgway writes as follows of this bird in Illinois: "While some other birds are equally numerous, there are few that announce their presence as persistently as this species. All day long, in spring and summer, the males, sometimes to the number of a dozen or more for each meadow of considerable extent, perch upon the summits of tall weed-stalks or fence-stakes, at short intervals crying out: 'See, see, — Dick, Dick- Cissel, Cissel ; ' therefore ' Dick Cissel ' is well known to every farmer's boy as well as to all who visit the country during the season of clover-blooms and wild roses, when ' Dame Nature' is in her most joyous mood. "Perhaps the prevalent popular name of this species is 'Little Field Lark' or 'Little Meadow Lark,' a name suggested by his yellow breast and black jugular spot, which recall strongly the similar markings of the Sturnella, and also the fact that the two frequent similar localities. The name 'Black-throated Bunting' is probably never heard except from those who have learned it from the books. " The location of the nest varies much with locahty, though probably not more than in the case of many other species. At Mount Carmel, all that I found were in clover fields, and built upon or very close to the ground. In Richland county they were almost invariably built in small clumps of coarse weeds, at a height of about a foot above the ground. In Wisconsin, however, according to Dr. Brewer (Hist. N. Am. B. Vol. II, p. 68), Dr. P. R. Hoy, of Racine has never found a nest within one foot of the ground, some of them being as elevated as six feet. Of nineteen nests discovered by Dr. Hoy during one season, 'ten were built in gooseberry bushes, four on thorn bushes, three among blackberry bushes, one on a raspberry bush, and one on a wild rose.'" ^ Economic Status. The Dickcissel feeds on many important insect pests and de- stroys comparatively little grain, but many weed seeds. It is generally regarded as a useful bird. Dr. Alfred 0. Gross, who has made the most thorough study of this species yet published,^ makes a very ingenious calculation of the sum saved daily to the farmers of Illinois (where the bird is abundant) by the destruction of grasshoppers. Estimating more than a million Dickcissels as summer residents there, that about 200 grasshoppers 1 Ridgway, Robert: Ornithology of Illinois, Vol. I, 1889, pp. 303, 304. 2 Auk, Vol. XXXVIII, 1921, pp. 1-26 and 163-184. LARK BUNTING 125 are eaten daily by each Dickcissel family, and that each grasshopper eats about one and a half times its own weight daily, he arrives at the conclusion that this bird saves the farmers of that great state about $4,680.00 per day in the nesting season.* Calamospiza melanocorys Stejneger. Lark Bunting. Other names: white-winged blackbird; white-wings; prairie^bobolink. Contributed by Dr. John B. May. Description. — Bill much like Blue Grosbeak, conic, swollen, deep at base, ridges slightly curved ; wing long, pointed, tertials much elongated ; tail shorter than wing, nearly even ; legs and feet rather short and stout. Adult male in breeding plumage: Chiefly black, graying slightly on back; middle and greater wing-coverts mostly white ; edges and tips of flight-feathers, outer tail-feathers and upper and lower tail-coverts white (which mostly wears off in summer) ; all except middle tail-feathers sometimes have large white spot at end of inner web ; "bill dusky above, pale bluish- gray below" (R. Hoffmann) ; bill above and tip below bluish-horn-color; iris brown; legs and feet brown. Adult male in winter plumage: Similar to adult female in breeding plumage, but feathers below black with light tips, the black showing when plumage is disarranged ; flight-feathers black as in summer, except tertials which are brown as in female. Young male in first breeding plumage: As adult male, except flight-feathers, which are more worn and brown. Young male in first winter plumage : Usually like ^^^^^ ^ adult female in winter plumage, but some precocious birds resemble adult x T3^y„„j»jp Tvi t ^ ttv, male. Adult female in breeding plumage : Grayish-brown above, streaked Shmmfr dusky, brown wings with white patch as in male, but this patch smaller (often interrupted) and tinged buffy ; below, white or whitish, tinged brown on sides of breast, sides and flanks, and streaked dusky on all three ; flight-feathers and tail-feathers browner and duller than in male, but somewhat similarly marked, and light edges of tertials not white but brown, streaked dusky. Adult female in winter plumage: Like female in summer, but brown less grayish, and paler markings more buffy. Young in juvenal plumage : Similar to adult female, but somewhat more buffy. Measurements. — Length 5.25 to 7.50 in. ; spread 10.00 to n.50; folded wing 3.25 to 3.60; tail 2.50 to 3.35 ; bill .50 to .60 ; tarsus .90 to LOO. Female smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage acquired by complete postnatal molt, first winter plumage by partial postjuvenal molt (late July, August) involving body feathers and wing-coverts; first breeding plumage by partial prenuptial molt (April) involving body plumage, wing-coverts and tertials ; adult winter plum- age by complete postnuptial molt (July to September) ; adult breeding plumage by partial prenuptial molt involving most of body plumage as in young bird. Field Marks. — Size of White-throated Sparrow but with longer body and shorter tail. Adult male in summer, a striking black bird with large white patch on wing. Male in winter, female and young, are grayish-brown sparrow-like birds with a conspicuous white or creamy patch on wing similar to that in summer male, and with lightly streaked breasts. Voice. — Notes like those of Yellow-breasted Chat (J. A. Allen) ; a low melodious whistle; a ring- *ing chink like Bobolink (N. S. Goss) ; a soft, sweet hoo-ee, uttered with a rising inflection (G. F. Simmons) ; song weet-weet-wt-wt-wt ; a sweet song between the hurried notes of the Bobolink and those of the Sky- lark (T. Nuttall) ; "sweet notes and trills, often interspersed with harsh notes" (R. Hoffmann). Breeding. — On plains and prairies. Nest : On ground, sometimes slightly elevated but more often sunken; composed of grasses, fine roots, etc., lined with finer grasses, plant down or hair. Eggs: * For a further study of the food of this bird, see United States Department of Agricultiire, Division of Biological Survey, Bulletin No. 15, 1901. pp. 89-92, by Dr. S. D. Judd. 126 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS 4 or 5 ; .80 to .95 by .65 to .70 in. ; approaching rounded oval ; light greenish-blue, like those of Bluebird, rarely lightly sprinkled with reddish-brown spots. Dates : June 1 to July 5, Colorado. Incubation : By female. One or two broods yearly. Range. — Great Plains of central North America to northern Mexico. Breeds in Transition and Upper Sonoran zones from southern Alberta, southern Saskatchewan and southwestern Manitoba, south to northwestern New Mexico and northwestern Texas, east to central Kansas, eastern Nebraska and western Minnesota and west to the Rocky Mountains (central Colorado, western Wyoming and western Montana) ; winters from southern CaUfornia, southern Arizona and central Texas south to Lower Cah- fornia, Guanajuato and Zacatecas (central Mexico) ; occasional in migration west to British Columbia and Nevada and east to western Iowa and southeastern Minnesota ; accidental in Ontario, New York, Massachusetts and South Carohna. Distribution in New England. — Accidental visitor. Records : Massachusetts : Lynn, Decem- ber 5, 1877, a male shot by N. A. Vickary, now in collection Boston Society of Natural History; i Marshfield, June 9, 1907, adult male seen by Dr. John B. May;^ Revere, March 10, 1917, immature female seen by C. J. Maynard and others; ' Newton (Waban), January 5, 1919, one seen by Mrs. H. C. Dunham; * West Bridgewater, May 23, 1925, pair seen by Mrs. E. Louise Hathaway.* Season in Massachusetts, — January 5, March 10, May 23, June 9, December 5. Haunts and Habits. The afternoon of June 9, 1907, was a fine sunny Sabbath as my wife and I drove along the country road leading from Duxbury, Massachusetts, to the part of Marshfield known as Green Harbor. Just after we had crossed the "Dyke Meadow Bridge" and were nearing the sea-shore, my attention was attracted to an unknown bird which was feeding by the roadside with a small flock of House Sparrows. My first thought was that it was a partial albino Red-winged Blackbird or a freak Bobolink. The bird was quite tame and allowed a prolonged observation, with glasses, at the width of a country road, and we were able not only to take note of all the plumage markings but to see the shape of the bill very clearly, so that the bird was recognized as a finch of some kind. The bird was feeding avidly upon the seeds of wayside dandelions, which it procured by jumping up from the ground and nipping, with its powerful beak, through the base of the ripening flower heads, each time alighting with a beakful of white pappus. After we had watched it for some time, during which it was frequently inter- rupted by passing carriages and autos, it flew off across the grassy meadows and disap- peared behind a knoll. It was an adult male Lark Bunting in full breeding plumage. The Lark Bunting is a characteristic bird of the great western plains, a mere straggler to the Atlantic sea-coast. When the birds first arrive on their breeding grounds from their southern wintering places, the flocks of black and white males form a striking and pleasing addition to the open grassy or weed-grown stretches of prairie land. There is much twittering and cheery warbling as the birds select their mates from the dull- colored females and the courtship is soon culminated. Much of the singing is done while on the wing, the male birds rising obliquely "with a tremulous fluttering motion of the 1 Allen, J. A.: Bulletin, Nuttall Ornithological Club, Vol. Ill, 1878, p. 48. 2 Bird-Lore, Vol. XIV, 1912, p. 226. 3 Maynard, C. J. : Records of Walks and Talks with Nature, Vol. IX, 1917, p. 45. 4 Maynard, C. J. : Records of Walks and Talks with Nature, Vol. XI, 1919, p. 19. ' Hathaway, Mrs. E. Louise : in litt. TANAGERS 127 wings" from a lowly perch on a prairie weed, to perhaps fifteen feet in air, hovering a moment on rapidly beating pinions, then descending again to the ground, all the time giving utterance to a sweet and lively, modulated warbling. At the end of the mating and nesting season the male quickly becomes a quiet, sparrow-like, dull-colored imitation of his modest mate, very much as the BoboHnk changes at the same season. And like the Bobolinks, the Buntings now gather in good- sized flocks, feeding together in grassy places, weed patches or grain fields, the entire flock often rising and wheeling in unison, to alight again like a well-trained battalion. They are birds of strong flight and will often struggle against a gale which forces other birds to seek shelter. Much of the food of the Lark Bunting consists of grass seeds, grain and weed seeds. About 78 per cent of its animal food is formed of grasshoppers, and it also eats many leaf-beetles and weevils, but its food habits have not been studied very exhaustively. Economic Status. This species does some harm to growing grain in certain regions, but its destruction of grasshoppers and other injurious insects, and of seeds of weed pests like Russian thistles, pigweed and amaranth, probably outweighs this slight damage. Family TANGARID.ffi. Tanagers. Number of species in North America 4 ; in Massachusetts 3. This is a large family of brilliantly plumaged birds, confined to the two American continents, and best represented in tropical regions. There are more than 300 species. They bear a superficial resemblance to the finches, but the bill usually is slightly more elongated and rather swollen, and the upper mandible often toothed or lobed near its middle, notched and slightly hooked at its tip, and the base of the lower mandible is never abruptly bent at an angle, as in the finches. In the principal North American genus, Piranga, to which our New England Tanagers are assigned, the toothing and notching of the mandible are often not noticeable, and sometimes almost imperceptible. Piranga ludoviciana (Wilson). Western Tanager. Plate 75. Description. — Bill rather stout, shorter than head, elongated conic with curved ridge, slightly swollen, some sparse short bristles at base, and upper mandible slightly toothed near center of cutting edge ; nostrils basal, naked ; wings long and pointed, 2nd and 3rd primaries nearly equal in length ; tail shorter than wings, slightly forked; legs and feet medium in size. Adult male in breeding plumage: Back, scapulars, wings and tail black, back sometimes shows a little yellow; last row of lesser wing- coverts, middle wing-coverts, tips of outer webs of greater coverts, edges of tertials, rump, upper tail- coverts, hind neck, lower plumage of body, and wing hnings lemon to canary-yellow, usually lighter on wing linings, and paler (sometynes whitish) on tips of greater wing-coverts and tertials ; head (at least the 128 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS fore part) red all around, darkest on top of head where sometimes nearly crimson, lightest on throat ; back of neck also sometimes tinged red ; bill dull yellow ; iris brown; legs and feet bluish-gray. Adult male in winter plumage : Similar to male in breeding plumage, but head yellow or sUghtly tinged red, obscured behind with olive-greenish or dusky tips ; feathers of back usually margined more or less with yellowish-olive ; tertials broadly margined towards ends with pale yellowish or white, and tail-feathers margined white at tips. Immature male in first breeding plumage : Similar to adult male in summer, but duller ; fhght-feathers browner and more worn ; a few oUve feathers sometimes persist on sides and flanks and more rarely on back. Young male in first winter plumage: Like adult female, but brighter yellow below. Adult female : Above greenish-olive, darker and shaded grayish on back and scapulars, brighter on crown and rump ; wings and tail grayish-dusky, their feathers mostly edged greenish-olive ; middle wing-coverts broadly tipped light yellowish, and greater coverts edged and tipped yellowish or whitish, these tips forming two hght wing-bars as in male, and tertials also with pale edges and tips ; below vari- able, dull yellow, becoming clear lemon or canary-yellow on under tail-coverts. Young female in first winter plumage : Like adult female but coloration much duller ; more brownish-olive above, and similar tint obscures lower plumage ; wing-bars narrower and "pale yellowish-buff. " Young in juvenal plumage : Similar to adult female ; obscurely streaked above and streaked dusky below ; throat and upper breast pale grayish. Measurements. — Length 6.75 to 7.50 in.; spread 11.00 to 12.00; folded wing 3.50 to 4.00; tail 2.75 to 3.75; bill .60 to .68; tarsus .73 to .77. Female smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage acquired by complete postnatal molt ; first winter plumage by partial post juvenal molt (July to September) involving body plumage and wing-coverts; first breeding plumage by partial prenuptial molt (April, May) involving body plumage, wing-coverts, tertials and tail ; adult winter plumage by complete postnuptial molt (August, September) ; adults have complete postnuptial molt (August, September) and partial prenuptial molt of body feathers in spring. Field Marks. — Near Bluebird size. Adult male : Head red ; back, wings and tail black ; rest of plumage yellow ; two pale yellow or whitish wing-bars. Female and young : Resemble those of Scarlet Tanager, but distinguished by two yellowish wing-bars as in male Western Tanager. Voice. — Song resembling that of Scarlet Tanager, but alarm note quite different ; usual note plit-it (T. M. Brewer); call note a drawling c/ie/-%, chee-tik or prU'-it, frequently repeated; song a hoarse drawling cher'-wer, repeated rather rapidly from three to many times (Grinnell and Storer) . Breeding. — In open parts of forest. Nest : Usually near end of horizontal branch of pine tree, from 20 to 60 feet from ground ; a rather loose and open fabric of rootlets, pine leaves and grasses, often lined with hair in northern localities. Eggs : 3 or 4 ; about .91 to .96 by .65 to .68 in. ; closely resembling those of Scarlet Tanager (see page 130). Dates : Late May or early June, California ; June 15, Colorado ; June 25, Oregon. Incubation: By female. Range. — Western North America and Central America. Breeds in Canadian and Transition zones from southeastern Alaska, northern British Columbia, southwestern Mackenzie and southwestern South Dakota south to southern Lower California, southern Arizona, central-western Texas and casually in Wisconsin ; occasional in migration east to Kansas ; winters from southern Tamaulipas and Hidalgo (Mexico) to Guatemala ; casual in Maine, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York and Louisiana. Distribution in New England. — Accidental straggler. Records : Maine : Bangor, about Octo- ber 1, 1889, an adult male taken, identified by Manly Hardy ; collector's name not given. ^ Massachu- setts: Lynn, January 20, 1878, adult female captured alive during a violent snowstorm, according to T. M. Brewer (Howe and Allen record this specimen as taken at Salem) ; ^ Brookline, December 19, 1919, adult female found dying, specimen now in collection Boston Society of Natural History ;3 Leverett, June 12, 1921, adult male seen by Miss Ethel M. Smith ;^ Springfield, August 13, 1926, adult male 1 Knight, Ora W. : A List of the Birds of Maine, 1897, p. 104. 2 Brewer, T. M. : Forest and Stream, Vol. X, 1878, p. 95, and Howe and Allen: Birds of Massachusetts, 1901, p. 113. 3 Bangs, Outram : Auk, Vol. XXXVII, 1920, p. 301. ^ Bird-feore, Vol. XXIII, 1921, p. 199. PLATE 75 PLATE 75 SUMMER TANAGER Page 133 Male Female WESTERN TANAGER Page 127 SCARLET TANAGER Page 129 Female Male Male in Summer Male in Winter SCARLET TANAGER 129 reported by Mrs. Edna M. Ingalls;i Essex, August, 1927, young male seen by Horace Taylor (exact date not given). 2 Season in Massachusetts. — June 12 to August (winter). Haunts and Habits. The Western Tanager is a handsome, showy bird, given to singing from the tree-tops along the edge of great forests, or in rather open forest glades. It was discovered in Idaho during the memorable expedition of Lewis and Clarke in 1808. It was named the Louisiana Tanager because it was a native of that great and formerly unexplored land beyond the Mississippi then known as Louisiana, but today the name Western Tanager is much more appropriate, for it is a typical western bird. When, on first visiting the Pacific coast, I heard the song of this striking bird, it seemed almost exactly to duplicate the well-known strident, hoarse carol of the Scarlet Tanager of the eastern United States, and it has the same ventriloquial quality, so that often it is difficult to locate the direction of the singer. However, his habit of singing at the very top of tall trees gives the observer every opportunity when once the bird is located. The female is inconspicuous, and the nest so well hidden that it is seldom found. This bird feeds largely on insects, which it takes from the foliage or pursues through the air in the manner of a flycatcher. Economic Status. As a forest bird the Western Tanager is, doubtless, serviceable in the destruction of forest pests. It feeds upon destructive beetles, whose wood-boring larvae are among the greatest enemies of forest trees. But the bird is also destructive to small fruits and so has incurred the enmity of California fruit growers. Piranga erythromelas Vieillot. Scarlet Tanager. Other names: black-winged red bird; fire bird. Plate 75. Description. — Formed much like the Western Tanager, but outlines of head and bill more graceful, and entirely different in color. Adult male in breeding -plumage : Plain bright scarlet or scarlet-vermilion ; scapulars, wings and tail glossy black, some show scarlet feathers in middle wing-coverts, forming an interrupted wing-bar; wing linings white, margined black, some have the white tinged scarlet; bill bronzy-olive or yellowish-green; iris brown; legs and feet bluish-gray or grayish-blue, tinged with lavender. Adult male in winter -plumage: Above yellowish-olive-green, more yellowish on top of head; wings and tail black as in summer; below, gamboge-yellow shaded olive-green on sides and flanks. Young male in first breeding plumage : Variable ; some are red with black wing-coverts and tertials, and faded worn brown primaries and secondaries ; some have a few greenish feathers among the red ; some have some red wing-coverts ; some have orange or orange-yellow in place of scarlet. Young male in first winter plumage: Similar to adult female, but usually not so yellow, somewhat tinged reddish or orange; wing-coverts and scapulars black. Adult female : Resembles adult male in winter but duller, more gray- ish on back ; wings and tail not black but dusky-brownish-gray with some olive-greenish feather-edgings ; below dull light yellow, brightening to canary-yellow on under tail-coverts ; wing linings grayish-white (sometimes tinged pale yellow) and broadly margined outwardly with olive-greenish or grayish. Young female in first winter plumage : Similar to young male in winter, but duller and greener, and without black 1 Ingalls, Mrs. Edna M. : in litt. ^ Taylor. Horace : m litt. 130 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS wing-coverts or scapulars. Young in juvenal plumage : Ruddy or yellowish above, tinged deep brownish and faintly streaked darker ; wings deep olive-brown with greenish feather-margins ; tail olive-green or olive-yellowish ; below dull whitish, tinged yellow posteriorly, and broadly streaked on throat, breast, sides and flanks with dark olive-brown; "bill and feet pinkish-buff, becoming dusky-clay-color, the feet darker" (J. Dwight). Measurements. — Length 6.50 to 7.50 in.; spread 11.00 to 12.00; folded wing 3.50 to 4.00; tail 2.70 to 3.25 ; bill .46 to .62 ; tarsus .71 to .77. Female smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage acquired by complete molt of natal down ; first winter plumage by partial prenuptial molt (July to October) involving body plumage and wing-coverts ; first breeding plum- age by partial molt (April, May) involving body plumage, wing-coverts, tertials and tail (sometimes only part of tail) ; adult winter plumage by -■^i^-"^^ ^^iv____ complete postnuptial molt (August, Septem- ber) ; adult breeding plumage by partial pre- nuptial molt of same areas as in first prenuptial molt ; probably at least another year required to assume highest plumage ; adults have par- tial prenuptial molt in spring and complete postnuptial molt (late July to October) ; males during this molt show patches of green mixed with the red. Voice. — Alarm note, a strident call, often represented as chip-churr; a sharp chip, and there are other softer notes; song a slightly hoarse carol of somewhat similar tempo to that of the Robin ; has been written chi, ch%, chare' e- chl; some males have a longer song, as given by T. G. Gentry, chi-chi-chl-c har-ee, char-ee chi. Breeding. — In high open woods, oaks preferred, sometimes in pines, in low thick woods, or in old orchards. Nest : Placed near end of horizontal branch, 6 to 50 feet from ground, usually 20 feet or more ; a rather large, flat, thin structure of twigs, fine bark -strips or weed stems, grasses, etc., lined with fine rootlets; often so loosely built that eggs may be seen from below. Eggs: 3 to 5 ; .85 to 1.02 by .62 to .70 in. ; ovate to rounded ovate ; light or pale greenish-blue, with many spots of various shades of brown, the greater number usually clustered about large end, closely resembling those of Rose-breasted Grosbeak ; figured by E. A. Capen in "Oology of New England," Plate VI, Figs. 6, 7. Dates: May 22 to June 3, Rhode Island; June 2 to June 17, Massachusetts. Incubation: Period 13 days (F. L. Burns) ; by female. One brood yearly. (See Fig. 75.) Range. — Eastern North America north to the Canadian Zone, eastern Central America, and northern South America. Breeds chiefly in Transition and Upper Austral zones from southeastern Saskatchewan, southwestern Manitoba, northern Minnesota, Wisconsin, northern Michigan, south- central Ontario, southern Quebec, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia south to southeastern Oklahoma, central Arkansas, Tennessee and in mountains of northern Alabama, northern Georgia, northwestern South Carolina and Virginia ; winters from Colombia and Bolivia to Peru ; casual in migration in south- ern Alberta, Wyoming, Colorado, Bahamas and Lesser Antilles. Distribution in New England. — Maine : Rare migrant ; rare summer resident. New Hamp- shire: Common migrant; not uncommon summer resident up to about 2,200 feet in White Mountains and southward, more rare northward. Vermont : Common migrant ; common summer resident up to about 2,500 feet. Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut: Common migrant; common summer resident. Season in Massachusetts. — (April 18, 21, 30) May 4 to October 16. Scarlet Tanager, Juvenile. SCARLET TANAGER 131 Haunts and Habits. The Scarlet Tanager is one of the most gorgeous of New England birds. Its encrimsoned body and sable wings and tail stand out in strong relief against the greenery of tender May-time foliage. This striking bird has been the inspira- tion of many a facile pen. Mrs. Florence Merriam Bailey says of it : ''High among the tree tops of the cool green woods the Tanager sings through the summer days. Hidden by the network of leaves above us we often pass him by ; but once discovered he seems to illuminate the forest. We marvel at his color. He is like a Bird of Paradise in our northern landscape." Here is a common bird that passes most of his life in the woods, hidden by the foliage where he is seldom seen by the uninitiated, who look upon him as a rara avis, and count it a red-letter day when once they glimpse the brilliant bird. His consummate ven- triloquism adds to the difficulty of the search. The novice hears the song apparently far away, when in reality the bird may be just overhead, but concealed by dense foliage. He may be located, however, by going past the sound and then returning to it, and when the elusive singer is once discovered the sight of his scarlet vesture is well worth the trouble. This bird has the distinction of being the first among the feathered races to fix the attention of that brilliant ornithologist. Dr. Elliott Coues, who says: "I hold this bird in particular, almost superstitious, recollection, as the very first of all the feathered tribe to stir within me those emotions that have never ceased to stimulate and gratify my love for birds. ' More years have passed than I care to remember since a little child was strolling through an orchard one bright morning in June, filled with mute wonder at beauties felt, but neither questioned nor understood. A shout from an older com- panion — ' There goes a Scarlet Tanager ! ' — and the child was straining eager, wistful eyes after something that had flashed upon his senses for a moment as if from another world, it seemed so bright, so beautiful, so strange. 'What is a Scarlet Tanager?' mused the child, whose consciousness had flown with the wonderful apparition on wings of ecstasy ; but the bees hummed on, the scent of the flowers floated by, the sunbeam passed across the greensward, and there was no reply — nothing but the echo of a mute appeal to Nature, stirring the very depths with an inward thrill. That night the vision came again in dreamland, where the strangest things are truest and known the best ; the child was startled by a ball of flre, and fanned to rest again by a sable wing. The wax was soft then, and the impress grew indelible. Nor would I blur it if I could — not though the flight of years has borne sad answers to reiterated questionings — not though the wings of hope are tipped with lead and brush the very earth, instead of soaring in scented sunlight." ^ In my own earliest childhood the Scarlet Tanager was a bird of which I dreamed, but which I never saw. However, as soon as I became familiar with its note, I found it a common woodland sound. There was a wood of giant white oaks in southern Worcester County, and there during the spring migration the trees were peopled with the scarlet 1 Coues, Elliott: Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey, Miscellaneous Publications, No. 11, Birds of the Colorado Valley, Part First, 1878, p. 352. 132 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS males, all in full song. That grove became the destination of an annual spring pilgrimage. It has vanished long since with all the other big timber of the region, but every year the Tanagers appear in the coppice growth that succeeded the old trees. They prefer white oak woods, but may be found anywhere in deciduous woods, and in mixed growths, especially in a well-watered country. We see few Scarlet Tanagers in New England until the foliage develops somewhat upon deciduous trees, and most of them do not arrive until the leaves are large enough to afford them some measure of concealment. They are warm weather birds, fond of sunshine, though often somewhat oppressed by an excessively hot sultry atmosphere. June 24, 1904, was an extremely hot, humid day at Concord, Massachusetts, and as I moved along a woodland path, the more tender plants were beginning to droop with folded hanging leaves and wild strawberries were drying on the stem. Thunder clouds were rolling up in the north, and a distant rumbling warned me to hasten toward the shelter afforded by the cabin on the river. As I passed hurriedly along, a beautiful Scarlet Tanager flew up from beside the path and alighted a few feet away. His bill was wide open as he panted, almost gasping for breath. He reached forward, picked an insect off an oak twig, flew along a few feet, fluttered over an oak leaf, and took another insect from that, all the while panting violently. In hot weather the males of this species often may be seen with the wings drooping and tail cocked up, which gives them a jaunty appearance. This posture is exaggerated during courtship by dragging the wings and fluffing up the scarlet plumage, which may add to his attractiveness in the eyes of his expectant consort. The female apparently attends to the duties of nest building and incubation. But she is not lonely, for while the male does not assist her, his part of the domestic duties at this time consists of furnishing the entertainment ; so from the next tree or from some near-by tree-top, he cheers her with call and song, and always stands ready to repel an enemy. His concealment among the leaves, together with his ventriloquial powers, must serve him well, for I have seldom found remains indicating the demise of one of these male birds by the talons of a hawk. As soon as the young are hatched, the male takes an active part in their upbringing, and feeds them almost as assiduously as does the female. Apparently some males can hardly wait for their own young to appear before beginning to do their part in furnishing nourishment. Mr. Henry Hales of Ridgewood, New Jersey, tells of one that spied a nest of Chipping Sparrows, whose young hatched before his own appeared, and who began feeding them, much to the disquiet of their own parents, who, meanwhile, hovered about with food in their mouths which the httle ones were too full to take, having been very liberally fed by their foster father, who continued to feed them for several days. When his own precious brood broke the shell, however, he left the young Chippies to the care of their rightful parents, and paid as faithful attention to his own family.^ This species does not sing so often nor so regularly as the Indigo Bunting or the 1 Auk, Vol. XIII, 1896, pp. 261-263. SUMMER TANAGER 133 Red-eyed Vireo, but when one is silent and hidden it may be startled into song by a sudden shout or by a noisy vehicle coming along the road, or if it fails to sing it may give a sharp chip or chip-churr, which may betray its location. Most of the motions of the Scarlet Tanager are leisurely, except in love or war, but in case of necessity it can move very fast. Mr. A. C. Bagg says that he saw one drop a red berry from its bill and recover it before it had fallen eight inches. While not par- ticularly active as a flycatcher, it is a premier caterpillar hunter. It destroys not only hairless larvae of many species, but also such hairy ones as those of the gipsy moth and the forest tent caterpillar as well. Once my attention was called to a bush partly defoli- ated by a swarm of the latter caterpillars. Soon a Scarlet Tanager alighted there, and continued to come and go until he had taken every caterpillar from that bush. This species destroys enormous numbers of tiny newly hatched caterpillars before the little pests have any opportunity to commit their depredations upon the foliage. The late F. H. Mosher, a very careful and trustworthy assistant, spent some time under my direction in watching birds that fed on these and other caterpillars. On May 18, 1898, he saw two Scarlet Tanagers eat newly hatched caterpillars of the gipsy moth for eighteen minutes at the average rate of thirty-five a minute. Assuming his observations to be accurate, these two birds must have disposed of about 630 of the tiny creatures in those eighteen minutes. But this bird does not confine its attentions to caterpillars alone ; it eats their parents, the nocturnal moths. Even the giant polyphemus and the luna are not safe from its attacks. The larvae of these species are very destructive to trees, where arboreal birds are lacking. Among the first class pests eaten by this tanager we find the Colorado potato beetle, many wood-boring beetles, bark beetles, leaf-eating and leaf -rolling beetles, click beetles, grasshoppers and locusts ; it takes ants also, but destroys some useful ichneumon-flies and some spiders. It is said to take some wild berries and seeds, but insects seem to form its principal food while in New England. Economic Status. Though the Scarlet Tanager eats some useful insects, the injurious species greatly predominate, and the bird is believed to be one of the most desirable species of orchard and woodland. Piranga rubra rubra (Linn^us). Summer Tanager. Other names : crimson tanager ; summer red-bird. Plate 75. Description. — Formed much like Scarlet Tanager but bill a little heavier, with toothing obsolete. Adult male {summer and winter) : Plain red above and below ; above, dark, dull, poppy-red or rosy-red (variable) ; below, largely vermilion ; wings dark brownish-gray or dusky, most of their feathers edged and tipped red, but alula and primary-coverts not so tipped ; wing linings and axillars somewhat lighter than other lower plumage ; tail more red than wings ; bill dusky on ridge, mostly olive-green or light brownish ; iris brown ; legs and feet grayish-blue. Immature male in first breeding plumage : Very vari- able ; some almost entirely red except worn greenish wings ; others show more or less red amidst olive- green and yellow body plumage. Young male in first winter -plumage : Similar to adult female, but more 134 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS richly colored, some parts strongly tinged orange or reddish above and sometimes below ; eye-ring usually yellow. Young male in juvenal plumage : Above, mostly olivaceous, streaked dusky ; below, white or whitish, often more or less tinged buffy-yellowish and streaked dusky, except under tail-coverts, which are orange-buff, also streaked dusky ; a yellow wing-bar, and outer web of primaries usually tinged orange or reddish. Adult female: Above oUve-green, tinged with yellow (some are tinged with red), hghtening a little on top of head, lower rump and upper tail-coverts ; back and scapulars often tinged gray ; wings and tail dusky-brownish-gray, the feathers edged light yellowish-ohve-green ; lores and ear region touched with gray ; an inconspicuous yellow ring around eye ; below dull yellow (corn-yellow) ; under tail-coverts slightly brighter yellow ; (some have some touches of dull red, duller than in young male). Young female in juvenal plumage : Like young male in same plumage, but tail more olivaceous, and outer webs of pri- maries without reddish tinge. Measurements. — Length 7.00 to 7.80 in.; spread 11.25 to 12.12; folded wing 3.45 to 3.95; tail 2.90 to 3.10; bill .65 to .80 ; tarsus .66 to .75. Female smaller than male. Molts. — Differs from Scarlet Tanager or Western Tanager in having no spring or prenuptial molt in adult, and no great seasonal change in plumage after the first year ; probably several years are required by male to reach highest plumage, and immature males vary much in color; juvenal plumage acquired by complete postnatal molt ; first winter plumage by partial postjuvenal molt (July, August) involving body plumage and wing-coverts ; first breeding plumage by partial prenuptial molt (very variable in its extent), involving part of body plumage, wing-coverts, tertials and tail; adult winter plumage acquired by complete postnuptial molt (August) and adult breeding plumage by wear. Field Marks. — Size larger than Bluebird, smaller than Catbird. Adult male: Red practically all over, a rosy or bricky-red, unlike that of Scarlet Tanager. Immature male: Very variable, from color only a little brighter than female to a patchy red and green plumage. Female : Similar to female Scarlet Tanager, but darker and duller both above and below. Voice. — Call note, chicky-tucky-tuck (N. S. Goss) ; or pa-chip-it-tut-tut-tut (T. M. Brewer) ; a call somewhat resembling the words which-a-too (T. G. Pearson) ; song, longer, louder and clearer than that of Scarlet Tanager, with a quality resembUng that of an oriole or vireo. Breeding. — In dry, rather open, upland woods ; sometimes in villages, or thickly settled towns. Nest: Usually near end of horizontal limb, from 5 to 30 feet from ground; a thin, shallow but firm fabric of grass stems, leaves or bark-strips, etc. Eggs: 3 or 4; .85 to .95 by .68 to .75 in. ; rounded ovate to oblong ; bluish-green to bright emerald-green, spotted, blotched, marbled and mottled with purplish, brown or brownish-purple and dark brown of various shades. Dates : May 15 to June 10, Florida ; May 20 to June 12, Virginia; May 12 to June 1, South Carohna; May 28, southern Illinois. Incubation: Period 12 days (A. R. Dugmore) ; by female. One brood yearly. Range. — Eastern United States, Middle America and northern South America. Breeds in Carolin- ian and Austroriparian zones from southeastern Nebraska, southern Iowa, Illinois, southeastern Wiscon- sin, central Indiana, central Ohio (formerly southeastern Pennsylvania and New Jersey), Maryland and Delaware south to northeastern Mexico, southeastern Texas, southern Mississippi and central Florida and west to eastern Kansas and central Texas ; winters from central Mexico and Yucatan to Ecuador, Peru, northwestern Brazil, Guiana and Trinidad ; casual in the Bermuda Islands and north to Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Maine and Nova Scotia ; migrant in western Cuba ; accidental in Bahamas, California and on Guadalupe Island (Lower California). There is a western race in the southwestern United States. Distribution in New England. — Very rare or accidental visitor. Records: Maine: Wiscasset, bird taken some years previous to 1883, by Dr. S. B. Cushman, and identified by William Brewster; ^ Portland, May 18, 1905, one seen, according to Arthur H. Norton ;2 Holden, May 17, 1913, female taken, now in the possession of Mrs. Fannie H. Eckstorm ; ^ Monhegan Island, October 20 and 21, 1918, 1 Smith, Everett : Forest and Stream, Vol. XIX, 1883, p. 465, also Knight, Ora W. : Birds of Maine, 1908, p. 448. 2 Journal, Maine Ornithological Society, Vol. VIII, 1906, p. 68. 3 Eckstorm, Mrs. Fannie H. : in litt. SUMMER TAN ACER 135 a changing male seen on former date, a female on latter, both identified by Bertrand H. Wentworth.^ New Hampshire and Vermont: Doubtfully recorded. Massachusetts: Framingham, immature male taken some years prior to 1870, by A. L. Babcock;^ Lynn, April 21, 1852, two taken, according to S. Jillson, and recorded by F. W. Putnam; ^ Swampscott, June, 1866, bird taken; •* Amherst, August, 1867, bird taken ; ^ Watertown, about June 1, 1896, immature male taken by John CuUen, specimen in possession of Albert W. Perkins; " Beverly, April 23, 1916, bird appeared during a cold storm, soon died and was mounted, reported by Viola E. Crittenden.' Before and since that time there have been many reports of the species seen in the State but not taken. Rhode Island: Block Island, April 7, 1901, bird taken by Captain Edward P. Sisson, reported by Messrs. Angell and Cash ; ^ Seaconnet Point, April 27, 1901, immature male shot by a fisherman and received by Messrs. Angell and Cash, now in the collection of the Boston Society of Natural History.^ Connecticut : J. H. Linsley recorded the species from Strat- ford and New Haven; ^° Suffield, July 21, 1876, male taken by Erwin I. Shores; '^ Whitneyville, May 23, 1882, female taken by Dr. L. C. Sanford; ^^ New Haven, April 8, 1886, male taken, and in collection of L. B. Bishop; i^ Portland, April 28, 1893, male, died of exposure; " Old Saybrook, April 27, 1895, male taken by J. N. Clark. ^^ [Note. Since Mr. Forbush prepared the above material. New England has experienced a remarkable visitation of this species. On April 17, 1929, Mr. Francis A. Foster telephoned me that a male Summer Tanager was visiting his feeding station on Marthas Vineyard, accompanied by an Indigo Bunting, the latter bird being nearly a month ahead of its usual date of arrival. On April 18, Mr. Everett R. Eldredge, Jr., of Chatham, reported a male Summer Tanager picked up dead in that town the preceding day. On April 18, Mr. Allan Keniston of Marthas Vineyard sent a female Summer Tanager and a male Scarlet Tanager to the Boston Society of Natural History and on April 20 he sent them a male Summer Tanager in transition plumage and wrote that another Red-bird had been reported at Nantucket. On April 20 my thirteen year old son Richard brought me a full-plumaged male Summer Tanager which he had picked up dead near our home in Cohasset. This latter bird had been dead perhaps two days. Since then I have received reports of about a dozen more Summer Tanagers, from southern Massachusetts. At least one Summer Tanager and three Scarlet Tanagers were reported in Maine between April 17 and 24, the former near Portland. All of these birds were undoubtedly brought to New England by the great storm which reached its height here on April 16, when a wind velocity of over 60 miles per hour was reported. This storm first appeared in Texas April 13, travelled east rather slowly to South Carolina, then swung northeast along the coast, reaching its greatest intensity between New Jersey and Massachusetts on April 16. Some dates of arrival of the Summer Tanager are given by Dr. H. C. Oberholser in Bird-Lore (Vol. XX, 1918, pp. 145, 146), as Charleston, South Carohna, April 13 and Raleigh, North CaroHna, April 20, so it can be seen that migration was at its height in the southern states when this storm overtook the birds and carried them north to Massachusetts. J. B. M.] Season in Massachusetts. — April 17 to August. > Maynard, C. J. : Records of Walks and Talks with Nature, Vol. XI, 1919, p. 29. 2 Allen, J. A. : American Naturalist, Vol. Ill, 1870, p. 578. 3 Proceedings, Essex Institute, Vol. I, 1856, p. 224. * Allen, .1. A. : Bulletin, Essex Institute, Vol. X, 1878, p. 15. 6 Stearns, W. A., and Coues, Elliott : New England Bird Life, Vol. I, 1881, p. 179. s Brewster, William: Birdp of the Cambridge Region, 1906, p. 298. ' Townsend, C. W. : Supplement, Birds of Essex County, Massachusetts, 1920, p. 151. 8 Angell and Cash : in litt. 9 Allen, Glover M. : Auk, Vol. XXV, 1908, p. 235. 1" Sage, Bishop and Bliss : Birds of Connecticut, 1913, p. 138. " Merriam, C. Hart : Review of the Birds of Connecticut, 1877, p. 28. 12 Sage, Bishop and Bliss : Birds of Connecticut, 1913, p. 138. >3 Ihid. " Sage, Jno. H. : Auk, Vol. X, 1893, p. 303. 15 Auk, Vol. XII, 1895, p. 306. 136 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS Haunts and Habits. The rosy-tinted Summer Tanager is called the Summer Red-bird in the South to distinguish it from the Cardinal or Winter Red-bird. The latter winters where it breeds, but the Summer Tanager passes the winter in tropical America. This bird need never be mistaken for the Scarlet Tanager, as its wings and tail are not black, and it is not so richly colored as the scarlet beauty. So many reports have come in regarding the presence of the Summer Tanager in Massachusetts that I can no longer regard the bird as so extremely rare as the pubHshed records indicate. The bird has been reported not only on the mainland but on the islands of Nantucket and Marthas Vineyard. Nearly all of these reports are those of adult male birds seen at close range by competent observers who had every opportunity for satisfactory observa- tion. For example, Mr. Arthur J. Parker assured me on June 17, 1924, that on the previous Saturday he saw an adult male on the Fenway in Boston. He said that the bird was extremely unsuspicious and allowed a close approach, and that he looked it over at his leisure, using excellent binoculars, and even getting the colors of feet and bill, while watching the bird from every possible point of view. Apparently the bird is driven here occasionally early in spring by some severe storm which overtakes it, perhaps, while it is flying over the sea in migration. It appears here also in summer as a straggler beyond the northern limits of its breeding range. We have no autumnal records .in Massachusetts. The bird seems to be attracted by tall open woods with scrubby oak underbrush. It likes to sing in the tops of tall trees, but it usually nests rather low in the oaks. Its loud, clear notes are commonly heard before the bird is seen, for in the tree-tops it often is concealed by the foliage from an observer on the ground below. This bird is an expert flycatcher and sometimes it may be seen darting about like a Kingbird in pursuit of flying insects, such as bees, wasps and beetles. Its habit of taking bees has given it the name of Red Bee-bird in some parts of the South. No thorough investigation of the food of the Summer Tanager has been made. Its habit of catching bees is well known, but whether, like the Kingbird, it catches chiefly drones when feeding about bee-hives is not known. It takes many hymenopterous insects and may destroy many useful parasitic insects. Economic Status. Unknown. Family HIRtJNDINID.ffi. Swallows. Number of species in North America 13 ; in Massachusetts 6. Swallows constitute a marked, well-defined group, differing decidedly from other Oscine groups in several respects. They approach the goatsuckers and swifts in several ways, as follows : (1) The mouth is very wide and deeply cleft, opening to nearly beneath the eyes ; (2) the wings are acute, long-bladed, somewhat falcate, with primaries growing rapidly shorter from the first or second, and secondaries short ; (3) the feet are short, small and weak, fit only for perching ; (4) the tail is ample, usually forked, the outer feathers in some cases long as in the typical "swallow-tail." Their similarity to goat- PLATE 76 PLATE 76 CLIFF SWALLOW Page 143 Juvenal Male Adult Male BARN SWALLOW Page 148 Adult Male Juvenal Juvenal Female PURPLE MARTIN Page 137 Adult Male Adult Female SWALLOWS 137 suckers and swifts, however, is, as Coues says, one of "analogy, not of affinity," for their relationships are plainly Oscine. The tarsal envelope is scaled in front and laminate behind, the plumage is soft, smooth and blended, and usually glossy or even iridescent. There are about 100 species distributed throughout the world, all insectivorous, but some can subsist on berries or seeds in extremity. Some species nest in holes in the ground or in trees or cliffs, etc. Others build nests of mud or clay, lined with warmer material. Many small birds migrate at night, but swallows travel chiefly or wholly by day, and so far as possible avoid crossing great bodies of water. They are emphatically "fowls of the air," as a large part of their time is passed in flight, during which they capture flying insects. Economic Status. Swallows commonly flit about over grasslands, where they catch and eat many insect pests of the grass, and as the grass crop is the greatest crop in the world, swallows are regarded as very beneficial, though they destroy some useful insects. Progne subis subis (Linn^us). Purple Martin. Other names : black martin ; house martin ; martin. Plate 76. Description. — Bill very short, stout and broad at base, upper mandible distinctly hooked at tip, its ridge quite convex ; nostrils opening directly upward ; head very broad ; wings very long and pointed, extending beyond tip of rather long, not very deeplj'' forked, tail ; feet with strong, curved claws. Adult male: Dark glossy steel-blue, often with violet reflections; lesser and middle wing-coverts with dusky centers ; rest of wings, and tail dull or sooty-black. Adult female, young of both sexes in first winter and in first nuptial plumage : Steel-blue of upper plumage duller than in adult male, and broken by sooty- gray; chin, throat, breast and sides pale gray, the feathers, especially on upper breast, with darker (sooty-gray) centers ; lower breast, abdomen and under tail-coverts white or whitish, mostly with dark shaft-lines ; a narrow white patch on side under wing ; leg-feathering grayish ; iris brown ; bill, legs and feet black. Young male in juvenal plumage: Like adult female, but forehead more grayish. Young female in juvenal plumage: Like juvenal male, but whole top of head gray. Measurements. — Length 7.25 to 8.50 in.; spread 15.50 to 16.75; folded wing 5.50 to 6.20; tail 2.75 to 3.50 (forked for .70 to .90) ; bill .45 to .55; tarsus. 45 to .61. Female somewhat smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage acquired by complete postnatal molt ; first winter plumage by a prob- ably complete post juvenal molt after birds leave on their southern migration; first breeding plumage apparently by wear ; adult winter plumage by complete postnuptial molt after birds leave their northern homes; adults have but one (complete) postnuptial molt. "Field Marks. — Size, largest of our swallows. Male : A very large, dark, steel-blue swallow, with tail forked but not very deeply, appearing black at a distance. Female and young: Similar in size, but not so dark, mottled gray and whitish on chin, throat and breast ; middle of belly and under tail-coverts whitish. Voice. — Ordinary notes "deep, musical perro, perro, perro" (Wilson); also a "loud, rich chir- rupping," a "harsh squeak," and some low guttural notes; alarm note kerp, somewhat like call of Eve- ning Grosbeak ; a whistled koo-kee-koo, or when given in two syllables much like bo-peep' ; "a low-toned kroop" ; song, "several throaty notes followed by a spluttering trill" (W. M. Tyler). 138 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS Breeding. — Usually in open country, not far from water ; never in deep forest. Nest : In hole in tree or cliff, in some cavity about a building, or in bird houses, etc., put up for its convenience; loosely built of twigs, grasses, feathers, fresh leaves, etc., with sometimes a Uttle mud as a foundation. Eggs: 3 to 8, usually 4 or 5 ; .70 to 1.08 by .60 to .73 in. ; long ovate ; pure white ; figured by E. A. Capen in "Oology of New England," Plate VII, Fig. 1. Dates: May 2 to May 23, South CaroUna ; May 3 to June 15, Virginia ; May 30 to June 21 , Massachusetts ; June 5 to July 4, Maine. Incubation : Period variable ; 12 to 13 days (F. L. Burns), 12 to 15 days (J. W. Jacobs), between 13 and 20 days (Otto Widmann) ; chiefly or wholly by female. One brood yearly in New England, possibly two sometimes in some parts of the southern states. Range. — North America from lower Canadian Zone southward (except Pacific coast region), Central America and South America. Breeds chiefly in Austral zones from central Alberta, central Sas- katchewan, southern Manitoba, northwestern Ontario, southern Quebec, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia, south to the Gulf coast from Texas to southern Florida, and in Mexico to Vera Cruz, Jalisco and Nayarit, and west to Montana, Idaho and Arizona ; occurs in migration in Venezuela ; winters from British Guiana to Brazil ; casual in Newfoundland ; accidental in Bermudas and Ireland. A western race occupies the Pacific coast region. Distribution in New England. — Not uncommon migrant ; formerly common local summer resi- dent in all the states ; now uncommon, rare or wanting, or very local in most of southern New England, and local in northern New England ; most common in eastern Maine and locally in its southern counties. Season in Massachusetts. — (March 31) April 14 to September 30. History. Formerly the Purple Martin was an abundant bird in New England. It was always local, however, and probably it was never an inhabitant of the great forests that covered so large a part of the country in aboriginal times. Then it must have been confined mostly to open, grassy valleys along the lower reaches of rivers, and to shores of lakes and possibly also to the vicinity of marshes along the sea-coast, where it nested in the abandoned habitations of woodpeckers. The bird has been a favorite with mankind from time immemorial. The Indians were accustomed to trim up a few saplings about their crude dwellings and hang from the stub of each limb a gourd or calabash, hollowed for the convenience of their feathered visitors. Where saplings were not conveniently situated the Indians set up poles, fastened cross-bars to them and hung the gourds to these cross-bars. Later, the southern negroes followed their example. The Purple Martin is believed to have been originally a bird of the tropics, which because of its fecundity and great powers of flight has become disseminated widely through the North Temperate Zone. Evidently it is a tender species which cannot withstand cold and wet, as long-continued, cold rain-storms have been known to nearly extirpate it from considerable areas. An occurrence of this kind is said to have taken place many years ago in eastern Massachusetts, where the species was nearly wiped out, and, as Dr. Brewer said, "to this day their places have never been supplied." ^ About 1864 Prof. John L. Russell of Salem, Massachusetts, wrote that the bird was then very rare in that vicinity, as a long, cold rain-storm had killed them by scores, and few were seen afterward.^ I recorded a similar occurrence, which seriously affected swallows 1 Baird, Brewer and Ridgway: A History of North American Birds, Land Birds, Vol. I, 1905, p. 331. 2 United States Department of Agriculture, Annual Report, 1864, p. 354. PURPLE MARTIN 139 and other insect-eating birds, in June, 1903, destroying most of the Martins in Massa- chusetts and contiguous parts of New England.^ A similar though lesser catastrophe occurred in late June and July, 1914.2 These periodical depletions of the Martins were caused mainly by the destruction of flying insects, due to long, cold storms which swept the air clear of such insects as form the chief food of swallows and Martins. Lacking food to keep up the animal heat in their bodies and chilled by the cold, the Martins huddled together in their houses and starved, while waiting for clearing weather. When the sky cleared such of the weakened birds as were still able to fly came out, but were unable to find their accustomed food and died wherever they fell to the ground from weakness. Meantime all the young had died of starvation, as well as most of the adults, except per- haps a very few of the strongest and most resourceful survivors. In most localities where the precipitation was very heavy, there were no survivors, and only in those areas where comparatively little rain fell were there many. Since then at least two similar destructive stormy seasons have visited New England in nesting time, and although neither was so prolonged or severe as that of 1903, most of the young Martins perished. Even in the South similar occurrences have happened. Mr. Arthur T. Wayne tells us that on April 14 and 15, 1907, large numbers died during the prevalence of gales and cold.^ Nevertheless, had storms been the only destructive factor, doubtless the prolific Martins would have increased rapidly in numbers and refilled their old houses, but before that could occur, their places were taken in most cases by that interloper, the European House Sparrow. In those cases where the few surviving Martins returned in the spring to their old homes, they found the houses filled with the rubbishy nests of the Sparrows. Of fen they were able to drive out the invaders and toss out their eggs and nests. But year by year the Sparrows grew more numerous and truculent, until finally they occu- pied and held nearly all the martin boxes in the region where the Martins had suffered from cold rain-storms. The people, finding the bird houses occupied by Sparrows, often lost interest and allowed the houses to decay or took them down, and when in recent years the number of House Sparrows began to decrease, that other European invader, the Starling, drove out the Sparrows and became an even more formidable enemy to the Martins. Therefore only a few colonies of Martins now survive in those areas where storms greatly reduced their numbers. In 1927, however, Mr. F. B. Day, who has taken particular interest in reestablishing Martin colonies, reported a number of successful ones in Massachusetts. Many attempts have been made by artificial means to establish Purple Martins in regions from which they have disappeared, but so far as I am aware no conspicuous success has been recorded. Eggs taken from martin boxes have been sent long distances, and placed in the nests of such insectivorous species as Barn Swallows, Tree Swallows, 1 Destruction of Birds by the Elements in 1903-04. Fifty-first Annual Report of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, 1904, pp. 457-503. 2 Seventh Annual Report of the State Ornithologist, from the Sixty-second Annual Report of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, 1915, pp. 23-25. 3 Birds of South Carolina, 1910, p. 138. 140 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS Phcebes, Bluebirds and Kingbirds, and while in some cases young Martins have been hatched from these eggs, they have not come to maturity. As they require more food than the young of the smaller birds, and as they remain longer in the nest, the foster parents apparently either cannot secure food enough, or tire of feeding such exacting young ones. Attempts have been made to move whole colonies of Martins in the night, by im- prisoning the birds in their homes and setting them on poles in other locahties. This method has been proved successful for short distances, but in only one case has it suc- ceeded where they were removed by rail for a long distance, and that colony persisted only for the following year. Young birds nearly fledged have been removed for consider- able distances and raised successfully by hand, but I have heard of no permanent colony established in that way. The ancient practice of erecting martin houses on tall poles is the only one that has been successful in New England. It has given us the com- paratively few colonies of Martins now in existence here. Haunts and Habits. What can add more in life, color and action to a country place than a handsome martin box with a great colony of Purple Martins? Their loud and cheerful voices, their rapid, aerial evolutions, and their swift massing for attack on an enemy of the flock, always attract attention. When domiciled in the yard of a farm home, they protect the chickens by attacking hawks and crows en masse the moment these marauders appear in the vicinity. Since their colonies have so sadly decreased in number in Massachusetts, many people eagerly inquire where the birds may be found, and go many miles to see them. Purple Martins are fond of wide river valleys, where slow streams flow, flanked by broad meadows, but they have nested on highlands, and even on the high roofs of city blocks, or in recesses and holes about the roofs of buildings on busy city streets. They may be attracted almost anywhere in open unforested country by erecting suitable nesting boxes. In a publication of the Massachusetts Department of Agriculture, entitled "Bird Houses and Nesting Boxes," I have endeavored to describe houses that will attract them. If such houses are put up on tall poles and not too near trees or occupied dwellings, the Martins are likely to find them. But no martin house should be erected (or if erected the entrance should be kept closed) until the Martins arrive, usually about the 15th to the 20th of April in eastern Massachusetts. It is well to have the pole hinged, so that the box may be readily taken down. Often Martins will merely visit the box the first sea- son, and will settle in it the second, if other birds are kept out. Mr. Arthur W. Brockway, of Hadlyme, Connecticut, wrote to me in 1920 that when the Martins arrived, he im- mediately set up the box for them, and that they were so glad to see it they could not wait until it was up. While it was going up they flew around it, singing and fluttering about it, and when it was half-way up they all alighted upon it and rode up with it. Others have told similar tales of localities where, as in this case, a colony had been established previously. Often in early spring one or two birds wiH come first, as if to inspect the tenements, and then disappear. Later more arrive. PURPLE MARTIN 141 The Purple Martin usually flies at moderate speed, but at need it can fly very fast. It easily catches fast-flying dragon-flies and butterflies that are such expert dodgers that comparatively few birds get them. It takes nearly all of its food on the wing. Neverthe- less some individuals learn in cases of emergency to go to the ground, where they walk about and pick up or catch insects. In severe weather such birds might survive by thus obtaining dead or benumbed insects from the ground. Some have been seen to flutter over rose bushes and pick off rose beetles, but such habits may be individual and excep- tional. A colony of Martins will scour the country far and near, meantime catching hosts of flying insects. In early spring a few adult males usually arrive first, choose their boxes, and im- patiently await the arrival of the females. Later arrivals include both sexes. Ordi- narily, mating occurs soon after the females arrive. Immature birds usually come later and mate later than adults. A flock of these birds, all gathering material for their nests, is a pretty sight. Nest building is shared by both sexes, and occupies several days. Most nests that I have examined have been protected in front of the entrance by a wall of mud. When the young are hatched both parents care for them and feed them, and at the end of from 24 to 28 days they are about ready to leave the nest. This feeding period is a time of great activity. I have never been so much impressed by the number of insects required by young birds as, when perched at the top of two braced ladders, I watched the parent birds feeding their young in a large martin box. Every few seconds a bird struck that box, alighting at an entrance with its gullet or its bill full of insects. Among the insects brought were some large dragon-flies ; some were brought by the wings, and the young bird leaning forward snatched the insect and swallowed it, often with difficulty, leaving the wings in the beak of the parent. Some were held by the body in the beak of the adult bird and were swallowed wings and all by the young bird, though the ends of the wings stuck out of its mouth for some time afterward. In some cases small snails and egg- shells are fed to the young along with their insect food. Excessive heat and swarming parasites in summer often cause the death of young Martins in the nest, or they are killed by falhng to the ground, in their attempts to escape from suffocation or the tormenting parasites in the nest. When a young bird falls to the ground it is soon deserted by its parents, who give up the attempt to preserve its life, and if not killed by the fall it is soon picked up by some cat or other prowler. The young sometimes remain in the nest for about six weeks. The parents have a habit of collecting many green leaves and placing them in the nest, a practice which may tend by evaporation to reduce the heat. Where large colonies are breeding they sometimes injure pear trees by stripping certain branches of their leaves. Usually when the young leave the nest they fly quite readily, but many of them return to the nest night after night for a week or ten days, especially if the weather be windy and stormy. In the meantime they learn to alight on trees and on the wires of telephone or telegraph lines. In the latter part of August or early in September the 142 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS Martins begin their southward migration. Usually old males are the first to go. They have been gradually assembling in large flocks which roost together at night, usually in trees with dense foliage. Then a day comes when at daybreak all is excitement and commotion. Soon the flock circles and rises to a great height, and off they go, commonly heading southwest. The young birds follow a little later in the season. In the South the number of Martins exceeds greatly that of the birds in the North. Mr. William Dutcher relates the following : "Martins are accustomed to gather in large flocks during the latter part of summer for the purpose of roosting in some favored grove. As they journey southward, apparently, these flocks increase in size, and the writer has on several occasions watched the birds coming to their roosts in the evening in astonishing numbers, estimated at 100,000. They seem to prefer a grove near a human habitation, for their nightly rendezvous. They create no little comment in the neighborhood because of their numbers, and by their noisy chatter and fluttering, particularly during the early part of the night. There is usually little prejudice against them, but not infrequently the people in the neighborhood make excuse that the birds are a nuisance, and shoot into the flocks when they come to roost. "At Wrightsville Beach, North Carohna, a great number of these migrating birds gathered, in the summer of 1905, and chose as their nightly roosting place the grove of a summer hotel. The proprietor, wishing to rid himself of them, invited a number of his neighbors, who, lying in wait for the birds, fired into the trees and continued to shoot until the ground was literally covered with the dead and dying birds, and for days after- ward wounded Martins could be found fluttering about the neighboring lawns and road- side. Estimates of the number of birds killed vary from 8,000 to 15,000. "On hearing of this tragic violation of the law the North Carolina Audubon Society sent out a warden to prosecute the offending parties, twelve of whom were convicted and fined in the local court. The warden, to prevent any further slaughter, arranged a number of tar-barrels to the windward of the grove and fired them in the evening, thus creating a dense smoke, which, drifting over the grove, drove the birds away, and they were not seen again. A citizen of the place said that it had been very noticeable that since the appearance of Martins there had been less mosquitos than for many years previous, and he thought that the community would never again allow these valuable birds to be slaughtered in that locahty." ^ Virtually all the food of the Purple Martin consists of insects, of which they eat a great variety, mostly in the mature or flight stage. Professor F. E. L. Beal reported on an examination, made for the Biological Survey, of the stomach contents of 205 Purple Martins. His report shows that their food consists entirely of animal matter, chiefly insects, and a few spiders. Ants, parasitic flies, a few honey-bees (all drones), a small proportion of diptera, a larger proportion of hemiptera, including such destructive bugs as the squash-bug {Anasa tristis), and other large bugs that injure fruit and plants were eaten. There were many beetles, including the cotton boll weevil, the clover-weevil, 1 Dutcher, William ; National Association of Audubon Societies, Educational Leaflet No. 13, 1920. CLIFF SWALLOW 143 the strawberry-weevil and other pests. Many butterflies and moths (the parents of destructive caterpillars) and very few orthoptera. Many dragon-flies were found, and they were evidently a favorite food. Butterflies and grasshoppers are fed to the young, but the parents appear to avoid feeding to them worker bees or any other stinging insect.^ Economic Status. The fact that the Purple Martin eats a considerable number of useful parasitic insects is set over against its beneficial habits. Adult dragon-flies are considered to be useful, as they destroy harmful smaller insects, including mosquitoes, but the young of dragon-flies are destructive to small fishes, and this habit may neutralize the beneficial habits of these insects. As Martins are said to feed heavily at times on mosquitoes, their destruction of dragon-flies may be immaterial. There is evidence to show that the presence of a colony of Martins is very beneficial to the trees and plants surrounding their home. Mr. J. Warren Jacobs, of Waynesburg, Pennsylvania, who has a very large colony of Martins, found that they were feeding large numbers of fruit-tree bark-beetles to their young. He asserts that his trees and vines are never sprayed, that their foliage is in excellent condition, and that they produce excellent crops of fine, perfect fruit, some of it exceedingly large. In proof of his assertion he prints reproductions of photographs showing his trees in fine foliage, and excellent fruit. He does not, however, credit the Martins alone with the protection of his fruit, but assigns part of the credit to other insectivorous birds, which he takes pains to attract to his estate. In some instances a great decrease of mosquitoes is said to have followed the establishment of Martin colonies, but I have had no opportunity to investigate these reports. Petrochelidon Itinifrons lunifrons (Say). Cliff Swallow. Other names : eaves swallow ; mud swallow. Plate 76. Description. — Form similar to that of Purple Martin, but bill not hooked at tip and tail relatively- shorter and nearly square or very slightly forked, barely reaching to tips of closed wings. Adults (sexes practically alike) : Forehead very light, from dull white to pale brown, sharply defined as a pale crescent against glossy blue-black of crown ; hind neck and sides of neck light brown to brownish-gray ; back and scapulars glossy bluish-black, but back streaked with whitish, rump pale reddish-brown; upper tail- coverts grayish-brown or brownish-gray with lighter margins ; wings and tail dusky grayish-brown with some paler feather-edges; lores blackish; sides of head, chin and throat chiefly rich chestnut, which sometimes extends as a narrow margin around the blue-black on back of head ; patch of glossy black on lower throat, sometimes brokenly extended down middle of upper breast, which with sides and flanks is pale grajash-brown ; rest of lower plumage white or whitish, except longer under tail-coverts which are dark grayish with whitish margins and tips ; wing linings and axillars pale grayish-brown ; bill black ; iris dark brown ; legs dark reddish-brown ; feet dark brown. Young in first winter plumage : Apparently as adults, and indistinguishable from them. Young injuvenal plumage: Unlike adults ; above, including wings and tail, chiefly dark grayish-brown or sooty, with some greenish reflections on crown ; rump (and often forehead) cinnamon ; tertials and some wing-coverts margined pale vinaceous-cinnamon ; sides of head and throat mixed grayish-brown or dusky, sometimes mixed with dull chestnut ; rest of under plum- • United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Biological Survey, Bulletin No. 619, 1918, pp. 3-6. 144 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS age as adults, but sides, flanks and under tail-coverts tinged pinkish-buff ; bill dull black ; feet dusky or sepia. Measurements. — Length 5.00 to 6.00 in.; spread 12.00 to 12.30; folded wing 4.05 to 4.85; tail 2.00 to 2.40 ; bill .29 to .38 ; tarsus .45 to .52. Sexes about equal in size. Molts. — Juvenal plumage acquired by complete postnatal molt ; first winter plumage apparently by complete postjuvenal molt, beginning about head in late August (when some show complete pale cres- cent on forehead) and completed sometime after they leave the north ; first breeding plumage probably by wear ; adults acquire winter plumage by complete postnuptial molt, and breeding plumage by wear. Field Marks. — Size near that of Barn Swallow, but with much shorter tail, nearly square. Adult: Distinguished from our other swallows by pale cream-white forehead and pale reddish-brown rump, both contrasted against dark contiguous plumage. Young: More brownish than adults, but rump light, if not pale, and two inconspicuous, narrow, light wing-bars. Voice. — A series of chattering notes and a squeaky so-called song, not very musical, but cheerful and not unpleasing. Breeding. — Wherever suitable accommodations for nesting may be found. Nest: Attached to side of cliff, hard embankment, tree trunk or building; built of mud or clay, lined with grass, leaves, feathers, wool, etc. Eggs: 4 or 5; .70 to .80 by .60 to .65 in. ; long ovate; white, creamy or pinkish- white, rather thickly marked with reddish-brown and darker browns, resembling eggs of Barn Swallow ; figured by E. A. Capen in "Oology of New England," Plate VI, Figs. 11-13. Dates: May 3, Virginia; May 26 to June 6, Rhode Island ; May 25 to July 20, Massachusetts ; May 29 to June 24, Maine. Incu- bation: Period 12 to 14 days (F. L. Burns) ; by both sexes. One brood yearly. Range. — North America, Central America, and south to southern South America. Breeds from the southern edge of the Arctic Zone to the Lower Austral Zone from northern Manitoba, northern Ontario, southern Quebec and Anticosti and Cape Breton islands south to northern Texas, northern Mississippi and Virginia, also western United States south of Montana, south to Lower California and northern New Mexico ; migrates south through the southeastern United States, probably Mexico and Central America ; winters in parts of South America south to Argentina ; accidental in Cuba. Distribution in New England. — Common migrant ; local summer resident, more common in Maine than in other New England states, formerly much more common generally. Season in Massachusetts. — April 20 to September 14 (September 30). History. The early history of the CHff Swallow is involved in obscurity. We hear of it first in an account published in "Philosophical Transactions" in 1772, where John Reinhold Forster, in an account of birds sent from "Hudson's Bay," refers to it as Hirundo No. 35, but gives it no name.^ Audubon says that he saw the bird at Henderson, Kentucky, on the Ohio River in 1815, and that he saw it again at Newport, Kentucky, in 1819 ; but it was first described and named as a new species by Thomas Say, in the account of Long's "Expedition to the Rocky Mountains," compiled by Edwin James in 1823. This type specimen was taken in 1820. It was also discovered in 1820 by the expedition of Sir John Franklin at latitude 65°, while on the journey from Cumberland House to Fort Enterprise. The belief was quite general at once time that the Chff Swallows, finding both shelter and strong points of attachment for their nests under the eaves of the rough buildings of the early settlers, gradually moved eastward from the Rocky Mountains and so settled in the northeastern states and the southeastern prov- inces. Probably, however, they were already estabhshed in this area on some of the Philosophical Transactions, Vol. LXII, 1772, Article XXIX, p. 408. CLIFF SWALLOW 145 rather infrequent cliffs of the eastern country, which they forsook later to take up their residence under the protection afforded them about the dwellings of mankind, wherever clay or mud could be found sufficiently plastic and adhesive to answer their purposes. In 1817 they were seen at Whitehall, New York, at the southern end of Lake Champlain, and about the same time at Randolph, Vermont. In 1818, according to Nuttall, they were nesting at Crawfords in the White Mountains of New Hampshire, and it is quite probable that some of the older inhabitants of Lynn, Massachusetts, were right in the belief that Cliff Swallows nested on the Nahant rocks. In 1861, Professor A. E. Verrill discovered a large colony breeding in the primitive manner on the cliffs of Anticosti Island, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Possibly they had bred there from time immemorial. As the land of New England was cleared for fields and pastures, and as barns with wide eaves were erected, we may suppose that the Cliff Swallows, finding abundant food and good shelter on the farms, deserted their inhospitable rocks for the new type of refuge afforded by buildings and, multipljdng exceedingly, spread from place to place over the land. It is not improbable also that there was an eastward movement later from the bluffs and chffs west of the Mississippi. Thus the ''Cliff" Swallows under man's protection became "Eaves" Swallows and waxed fat and numerous until the decade beginning in 1870, when the House Sparrow began to increase and spread over New England. Then the nests built by the industrious Cliff Swallows were appropriated, after a struggle, by the swarming and ubiquitous Sparrows, whose clumsy and bustling occupancy soon resulted in the destruction of their stolen domiciles. As the Sparrows increased in southern New England, they spread northward and eastward until the greater part of the Cliff Swallows had been driven into Maine. Another factor in the diminution of the Cliff Swallows was the substitution of modern, painted barns for the rough, unpainted buildings which formerly predominated in New England. Swallows' nests will not adhere long to the side of a freshly painted building, and it is only when the paint has become much weathered and worn that these birds can find safe attachment for their nests. In recent years their colonies have been few and far between in southern New England, but doubtless their numbers have increased somewhat since the recent decrease of the Sparrows. Haunts and Habits. During my childhood, double rows of Cliff Swallows' nests under the wide eaves of some great unpainted barn were commonly seen in Massachusetts. I remember well such a colony within the present city limits of Boston, and the swarm of birds that played about this barn during the nesting time. They did not arrive in spring until after some of the Purple Martins had come, but when the Cliff Swallows came their numbers about their chosen resorts were even greater than those of the Martins. The Cliff Swallow, unlike the Barn Swallow, makes "bricks without straw." Usually it does not use dried grass or hay to hold its plastic building material together. There- fore it must have clay or clayey mud for building material. If there is too much sand 146 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS in the mud the nests, when dry, will fall. So it is probable that Cliff Swallows never were abundant on sandy lands like those of Cape Cod. In such localities they have tried time after time to build their nests and in some cases have persevered, building them over and over, only to invite repeated disaster, until at last they have deserted such sections forever. As they cannot build without mud, an exceedingly dry time may delay their home-making far beyond the usual date. At such times some of their human friends assist them by making artificial puddles or by mixing up wet clay, and the alert birds are quick to take advantage of such benevolent assistance. They are so adept at gather- ing their material that they can hover over the bottom of a miry ditch that offers no secure footing, and dexterously snatch up mouthful after mouthful of viscid mud, but they prefer to stand on the edge of a puddle and work at their leisure. The first pellets are plastered on the barn where the base of each nest is to be, and the birds cling to the rough boards, bracing themselves with their tails like woodpeckers, and hold the mud in position until it has dried sufficiently to adhere and retain its form; from this foundation a base is built in the shape of a very shallow half-cup. On this the back wall is erected and then the sides are built up. The builders usually work at the nest only a few hours each day. They do not seem to be in great haste, and four or five days may be occupied in fashioning each structure. If heavy rains or cold days come, the work of construction may be still further delayed, and then the nest-building period may extend to ten, fifteen or even twenty days. Driving storms sometimes destroy many nests, but the optimistic birds persevere. Often the female is obliged to deposit eggs before the nest is finished, but still the work goes on. Dr. Coues writes entertainingly of this communal effort, as follows : "It is pleasant to watch the establishment and progress of a colony of these birds. Suddenly they appear — quite animated and enthusiastic, but undecided as yet ; an impromptu debat- ing society on the fly, with a good deal of sawing the air to accomplish, before final resolutions are passed. The plot thickens ; some Swallows are seen clinging to the slightest inequalities beneath the eaves, others are couriers to and from the nearest mud- puddle ; others again alight like feathers by the water's side, and all are in a twitter of excitement. Watching closely these curious sons and daughters of Israel at their ingen- ious trade of making bricks, we may chance to see a circle of them gathered around the margin of the pool, insecurely balanced on their tiny feet, tilting their tails and ducking their heads to pick up little 'gobs' of mud. These are rolled round in their mouths till tempered, and made like a quid into globular form, with a curious working of their jaws ; then off go the birds, and stick the pellet against the wall, as carefully as ever a sailor, about to spin a yarn, deposited his chew on the mantel-piece. The birds work inde- fatigably ; they are busy as bees, and a steady stream flows back and forth for several hours a day, with intervals for rest and refreshment, when the Swallows swarm about promiscuously a-flycatching. In an incredibly short time, the basement of the nest is laid, and the whole form becomes clearly outlined ; the mud dries quickly, and there is a standing place. This is soon occupied by one of the pair, probably the female, who now CLIFF SWALLOW 147 stays at home to welcome her mate with redoubled cries of joy and ecstatic quivering of the wings, as he brings fresh pellets, which the pair in closest consultation dispose to their entire satisfaction. In three or four days, perhaps, the deed is done ; the house is built, and nothing remains but to furnish it. The poultry-yard is visited, and laid under a contribution of feathers ; hay, leaves, rags, paper, string — Swallows are not very particular — may be added ; and then the female does the rest of the ' furnishing ' by her own particular self. Not impossibly, just at this period, a man comes with a pole, and demohshes the whole affair ; or the enfant terrible of the premises appears, and removes the eggs to enrich his sanded tray of like treasures ; or a tom-cat reaches for his supper. But more probably matters are so propitious that in due season the nest decants a full brood of Swallows — and I wish that nothing more harmful ever came out of the bottle." ^ (The word bottle is used here in reference to the primitive shape of the nests.) The Doctor goes on to say that he has seen in the West many nests of Cliff Swallows built among the outer sticks of Great Blue Herons' nests, and has even seen them attached about the cliff-built nests of the Prairie Falcon. In each case the larger birds attended to their own duties, apparently not molesting their little tenants. Some nests are built of such lasting material and are so firmly attached and so well sheltered that they are used year after year, probably by the same birds. The usual shape of a Cliff Swallow's nest when built on the exposed face of a cliff resembles that of a retort or a gourd with the stem projecting outward and slightly down-curved. But many nests built under the shelter of wide eaves or under the roof of a building lack the neck, and some are merely cup-shaped, much like those of the Barn Swallow. In such sheltered situations the protection afforded by the enclosed, vestibule type of construction is unnecessary. Occa- sionally a pair of Cliff Swallows will build a nest on and over an abandoned nest of the Barn Swallow, Robin or Phoebe. Occasionally three Swallows may be seen engaged in building one nest. Mr. E. O. Grant watched a nest at Long Lake, Allegash, Maine, which was built by three birds, and he says that they all took turns at incubating the eggs. He believed them to be two males and a female. When the young birds are fledged some of them seem loath to leave the nests, and when entreaty fails to move them the adults begin to break down the nest, thus forcing the reluctant youngsters to try their wings. In one case three of the brood were induced to leave the nest, but one failed to depart ; finally the parents flew away and left it, but about two hours later they came back with six more birds ; all darted and pecked at the nest until they tore it to pieces, and the young bird fell to the ground. It was then seen that one of its feet was attached to the clay by a hair, in a snarl of which it had become entangled. A kind lady released the fledgling, the parents took charge of it and the other swallows flew away. Miss Clara E. Reed tells of a nest, containing young, that fell ; when it struck the ground it crumbled. The young birds were placed in a strawberry basket which was 1 Coues, Elliott : Birds of the Colorado Valley, Part First, 1878, pp. 433, 434. 148 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS hung up in the old nest location. A day or two later the parent birds were seen to fill the corners of the basket with mud. Then apparently they lined the basket, and before the young birds flew, the parents had built almost an entire nest, to which they returned the following year. In many cases after the young have flown, the mother bird calls them back to the nest at night to sleep. If the family has grown too large to enter it, they sit about on or near it, and in case of a rainstorm they may seek shelter there during the day. The parents feed them whenever possible. In case of a long-continued cold storm many of them are likely to starve to death. As Cliff Swallows cannot attach their nests firmly to well painted buildings, those who wish to accommodate them on such buildings should furnish supports for their nests. They require wide eaves to shelter them, and a two by four inch scantling nailed flat upon the building, so that its upper and outer edge will be about five inches below that part of the eaves directly above it, will furnish a two inch support for their nests. This and a supply of clay or adhesive mud, a little hay and some feathers are all that they require for building. At least three different parasites infest the nests of these swallows, one of which closely resembles the notorious bed-bug, but really is a different species which never troubles mankind. Professor F. E. L. Beal made a careful study of the food of thj^s species, based on the contents of 375 stomachs, taken from March to September, and fairly representing its food materials while in the United States. With the exception of a few wild berries and a few spiders the food materials consisted entirely of insects. Among them were such nationally known pests as the boll weevil, rice weevil, alfalfa weevil and chinch-bug.^ Economic Status. Professor Beal says that the food of the Cliff Swallow "contains few elements that can be criticised from an economic point of view." Like all swallows it takes some useful parasitic and predacious insects, but also a great preponderance of harmful species. It is a bird to foster and protect. Hirundo erythrogastra Boddaert. Barn Swallow. Plate 76. Description. — Formed somewhat like Cliff Swallow, but differing from all other New England swal- lows in having a deeply forked tail with long outer feathers. Adult male: Forehead chestnut, elsewhere above glossy dark steel-blue; wings dusky or blackish and steel-blue with some slight greenish gloss; tail chiefly dusky, all but central pair of feathers with white or whitish spot near end of inner web ; below chestnut or rusty-cinnamon on chin and throat, hghtening from breast to tail; an imperfect band of steel-blue across upper breast ; iris dark brown ; bill, legs and feet black. Adult female : Similar to adult male, some almost indistinguishable, but usually duller above, paler below, and outer tail-feathers shorter. Young in first winter plumage : As adults. Young in juvenal plumage : Above, dull brownish, greenish or bluish, becoming browner on top of head ; lores and ear regions blackish ; chestnut band on forehead smaller and less distinct than in adults; wings and tail dull greenish-black or greenish-dusky; tail 1 United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Biological Survey, Bulletin No. 619, 1918, pp. 7-11. BARN SWALLOW 149 much shorter than in adult, but similarly marked ; throat much as in adult, but duller, breast-band slaty- black ; rest of lower plumage paler than in adults ; bill pinkish below. Measurements. — Length 5.75 to 7.75 in.; spread 12.50 to 13.50; folded wing 4.50 to 5.00; tail 3.00 to 4.50 ; bill .32 to .55 ; tarsus .35 to .48. Female smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage acquired by complete postnatal molt ; first winter plumage virtually as adult, probably acquired by complete postjuvenal molt after bird leaves on its southern migration; first breeding plumage probably by wear, and adult winter plumage by complete postnuptial molt after bird has departed ; adults have a single molt (complete postnuptial) in autumn and winter, and breeding plumage is the result of wear. Field Marks. — Size about that of CUff Swallow but tail longer. Adults: Our only swallow with a long, deeply forked tail; forehead and throat chestnut; no red-brown on rump. Young: Like adults, but duller or browner above, paler below and tail shorter. Voice. — A gentle twitter, or, when excited, a more emphatic kittic. Song, a succession of twittered notes; "a low chattering trill" often followed by a clear liquid note (E. P. Bicknell). Breeding. — Usually in open country about farms or villages, and not far from water. Nest : In cavern or crevice in cliff, rocky bluff or shaft of a mine, in some crevice in a steep bank, or in some giant hollow stub of an old tree, under a bridge or wharf, or in or about a building, most commonly in a barn ; composed of mud and hay or straw, lined with finer, softer material, and usually with feathers, shaped somewhat hke the half of a shallow cup, and plastered on a sheer wall or on some supporting projection. Eggs : 3 to 6 ; .68 to .94 by .50 to .62 in. ; usually ovate or elliptical ovate, but very variable in shape ; white or whitish, spotted variously with reddish-brown and darker brown, and some with purplish also ; often indistinguishable from those of CHff Swallow, but usually more elongated ; figured by E. A. Capen in "Oology of New England," Plate VI, Figs. 8, 9. Dates: May 12 to June 28, Virginia; May 18 to July 12, Massachusetts; May 28 to July 1, Maine. Incubation : Period 11 days (F. L. Burns), 13 days (Miss J. O. Crowell) ; probably chiefly by female. Two broods yearly, occasionally three. Range. — North America, Central America and south to southern South America. Breeds from northwestern Alaska, northern Mackenzie, Manitoba, northern Ontario, southern Ungava (central Quebec), southern Labrador and Newfoundland south to northern Lower California, southern Texas, southern Arkansas, northern Alabama and southern North Carolina and south in Mexico to Puebla and Michoacan ; migrates through Bahamas and West Indies ; winters from southern Florida, southern Cali- fornia and southern Mexico to Brazil, Chile and Argentina ; accidental in the Galapagos, Bermuda, south- ern Keewatin and Greenland. Distribution in New England. — Common migrant ; common summer resident in all settled country, except on higher elevations of northern Maine and northern New Hampshire. Season in Massachusetts. — (April 2 and 5) April 10 to September 30 (October 13 and 17, Novem- ber 1, 2 and 4). Haunts and Habits. No bird in North America is better known or more truly the friend and companion of man than the swift and graceful Barn Swallow. It nests within his buildings and with a flight that seems the very "poetry of motion" it follows the cattle afield or swoops about the house dog as he rushes through the tall grass, and gathers up the flying insects disturbed by his clumsy progress. When the mowing machine takes the field, there is a continual rush of flashing wings over the rattling cutter-bar just where the grass is trembling to its fall. The Barn Swallow delights to follow everybody and everything that stirs up flying insects — even the rush and roar of that modern jugger- naut, the motor car, has no terrors for it. Dr. Eleanor Mellen writes from Nantucket : "When we drive out to the Hummock Pond section, toward 6 p.m., the Barn Swallows 150 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS join us at the last farmhouse, dart about the car, over the hood, almost in at the windows, and go all the way to the shore with us (about a mile). When we stop, they fly about near us, light on the ground and wait till we start, then escort us back, indulging in the same pastime." When two stops were made, the birds settled, and they waited in each case until the car started again. The Barn Swallow is a truly admirable bird — well-beloved for its excellent disposi- tion and its altruistic behavior. It is brave, but not quarrelsome. Many nest side by side in the same building with little friction, although occasionally two pairs clash over the same nesting site, and the battle lasts until one or the other gives up the fight. It is said that as many as two hundred sometimes occupy the same barn. In my experience, however, forty nests in one building is the maximum. All join in attacking the common enemy. The appearance of a strange cat, a weasel or a Sharp-shinned Hawk, when the Swallows have young, is the signal for a concerted assault. I have even seen a lone pair of breeding birds drive both cat and weasel from the neighborhood of their helpless young. They also assist one another at need in other ways. Miss Annie F. Towne, of Topsfield, tells how a pair built a nest on the house of a neighbor, who tore the fabric down. Soon many Swallows appeared and helped to build it over again in the same place, completing it very quickly. This second nest was allowed to remain. Thoreau tells of a Concord man who said that he shot at a Swallow with a rifle and evidently touched the bird some- where, for it attempted to fly across the river, dropping lower and lower all the time, when another Swallow flew beneath it and pushed it upward, and continued to do this until both birds passed "out of sight." I have a report of a similar occurrence where an adult thus supported a young bird that had left its nest prematurely. When the first settlers came to this country, the Barn Swallows nested in caverns and crevices and under projecting shelves along our "rockbound coast" as well as on the high rocky shores of certain lakes and rivers, in great hollow trees, or in caves and recesses of mountain cliffs. They must have left the primal nesting places early to consort with mankind, for now they are not known to use such nesting places, except in the northern wilderness and on the Pacific coast. Old residents of Lynn, Massachusetts, who were still living in the latter part of the nineteenth century, could remember when Barn Swallows in numbers nested in the "Swallow Caves " at Nahant, situated on the south side of the rocky peninsula known as Little Nahant. As the country was settled they forsook their grottos in the rocks for barns, sheds, bridges, boat-houses, wharves and abandoned or unoccupied dwellings. There is no more skilful mason among the feathered tribes than this same Barn Swallow. Years ago I encamped in an abandoned house on the inner shore of Sandy Neck, Barnstable, Massachusetts, where Barn Swallows had built their nests. The walls of the room were plastered and smoothly finished, but the little feathered artisans had affixed their nests to the smooth, upright, plane surface of human masonry and had attached it so firmly and well that they could rear their young in perfect safety, for no climbing animal could scale that sheer wall. Since then lightning has riven the old house and vandals have BARN SWALLOW 151 destroyed it, leaving to me only a pleasant memory of the little colony of twittering birds. This is the only case known to me where Barn Swallows have built nests on such smooth walls without support, and there may have been a concealed supporting nail or two projecting from the wall unobservable by me. Swallows often avail themselves of such a foundation. A pair of projecting nails or a small block of wood nailed to a sheer wall may be utihzed by them in situations where, otherwise, they would not attempt to build. During the latter part of April the pioneers of the Barn Swallow host usually appear in Massachusetts. Sometimes they come too early and are met by cold and storm and so, unable to obtain food, they seek shelter in some building or huddle together behind a closed blind or window sill on the south side of a house until the sky clears and the temperature moderates. By snuggling together in their nests, some of these birds have been able to survive two or three cold days, when morning outdoor temperatures were as low as 15 to 17 degrees above zero mark, but such temperatures may be fatal, even when the birds are well protected. If, when the Swallows arrive, they find the building closed in which they are accus- tomed to breed, they sometimes approach the house and fly about it, or about any inmate who appears, twittering and calling until someone takes pity on them and opens a door or window, when they immediately enter, showing their gratification by happy excited twittering. Many farmers cut a small hole in a barn gable to accommodate the birds. The courtship of the Barn Swallow takes place largely on the wing, she flying, he pursuing, but its culmination often occurs on a building. Nest-building is an absorbing occupation. In a dry time mud may be scarce near-by, and some farmers go to the trouble of mixing some for the swallows. Where this is done the alert birds find it immediately, and some may even hover happily about while the mixing is going on. Having fashioned their mud-built habitations, they readily find dried grass or hay for lining, but feathers are always in demand. Some people put out feathers for them, and take delight in watching their aerial evolutions in pursuit of the elusive things. In a high wind the feathers are hard to catch and are frequently blown out of the Swallow's beak after she has seized them. Or if a bird holds firmly to a large feather, she may be blown to one side or even turned about when she endeavors to breast the gale. In their eagerness to receive their feathers they will almost come to the hand for one. Mrs. Herbert J. Lombard tells how a little child in a field near the house picked up a fluffy white feather and held it up among the buttercups and daisies, which were as tall as he. A Barn Swallow darting about his head finally snatched the feather from his hand to fine her nest. I believe that all swallows take white feathers in preference to dark ones of any color. As the mud nests are strengthened with straw, and usually plastered on rough boards or rafters, or on a small support, and as they are under cover, they rarely fall, as those of Cliff Swallows often do and the young are fairly safe unless a Screech Owl enters the building at night. Therefore as the birds usually rear two broods each year, they are perhaps the most numerous of our swallows. If all goes well the young birds leave the 152 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS nest in about sixteen days. They first exercise their wings within the building and then try them out of doors. When the young are able to fly well, they do not desert the old home entirely, but often spend several nights in or near the nest. Now and then they return later to the same neighborhood, and some have been known to join the parents in feeding young of the second brood. Most of the individuals of the first brood probably leave for the sea-shore in August, where they flock with other swallows in preparation for their southward journey. The male usually cares for the first brood after they are well able to fly and until they learn to catch their own food; meanwhile the female prepares for the second brood. In one case she (or the pair) built a very flat nest on a board, braced flat between two rafters, and then built a little mud wall nearly the whole length of the board (about three feet), as if to keep the young from falling off. There is considerable individuality among Barn Swallows, some being very tame and fearless. A pair built their nest close by a blacksmith's forge and reared their young, regardless of wheezing bellows, clanging hammers and showering sparks. Another pair in Falmouth, Massachusetts, built their nest in a room on a large farm, where agricultural products were daily prepared for market. They threaded their way in and out among the busy workers, industrious and fearless in their care for their growing young. A pair in Westborough, Massachusetts, took for their nesting-place a narrow shelf, in a barn, five feet above the floor, almost over a cow, where the milker could look directly into the nest. They stayed there and raised their young. Barn Swallows are children of the aerial spaces. They spend a great part of each long summer day on the wing. They eat and drink on the wing, as they drink and also bathe by dipping down to the surface of the water. Thus they are exposed to some danger from large frogs and swift fishes, which sometimes jump at them. The frog, unlike the toad, takes its prey by a sudden leap with widely distended jaws, and swallows it at once. Mr. Thornton W. Burgess sent me a report on this habit from Mrs. Chester Bancroft, of Tyngsborough, Massachusetts. There is a brook flowing through the Bancroft yard, in which lived an enormous bullfrog, which Mrs. Bancroft's daughter had been watching with interest during the summer of 1927. One day she saw the tips of a bird's wings protruding from the corners of his mouth. The frog was finally caught and relieved of what he had swallowed. It was a full-grown Barn Swallow. Barn Swallows seem to be better equipped to fight for life during long, cold storms in the breeding season than Purple Martins or Chimney Swifts. In flooded areas they fly close to the surface of the rising waters, and pick off insects that have been driven to the tops of reeds and grasses, or they go to the ground and pick up dead or benumbed insects, and they even eat berries or seeds. Thus, in the disastrous storm of June, 1903, many of them came through alive, though most of the young in the nests perished, while at the same time the Purple Martins were almost exterminated and the Chimney Swifts were sadly reduced. The Barn Swallows are very industrious birds, working many hours daily, and missing no chances. I have seen them flying along the margin of a river, where mosquitoes were TREE SWALLOW 153 abundant, until the moon rose and the bats came out, and have seen them on the same river when it was so dark that they could be recognized only by their notes. Farmers often, with some reason, predict the coming weather by the flight of these and other swallows. When the air is warm and the sky clear, many small insects rise very high with the upward currents and the swallows follow them. In cool, cloudy weather, with no upward movement of heated air from the ground, insects fly low, and the swallows then sweep close to the water or the grass tops. Before the middle of August, the different species of swallows in the interior, pre- paring for migration, gather to roost in the river marshes. They begin to collect there before dark, fluttering lightly down and alighting so gently on the tops of wild rice, sedges, reeds and bulrushes that their footing rarely gives way. Sometimes hundreds so gather to pass the night. From these roosts they start early some fine morning, hawking about low down at first, picking up their breakfasts and then, rising high, pursue their flight to the coast, where they join hundreds or thousands more, and all move gradually south- ward, feeding as they go. The normal food of the Barn Swallow is practically all animal, and nearly all insect matter, with the exception of a few snails and some spiders. Its food is similar to that of the Cliff Swallow. It takes similar injurious beetles, especially weevils, many ants and bugs, enormous numbers of flies and mosquitoes, and many bees and wasps, but practi- cally no honey bees. It takes small noctuid moths, such as the parents of the smaller cut-worms and those of arctians and crambids, also codling-moths, the parents of the apple-worm, and some of the insects destructive to cranberries. Like Martins and Cliff Swallows it seems fond of egg-shells, which it goes to the ground to get, possibly for the lime contained in them, as it has been attracted by bits of wall plaster scattered on the ground, which also contain lime. Swallows catch enormous numbers of insects. When one was shot on the wing, the gullet was found so packed with insects that when the mass was removed from its confining membranes it swelled to twice its original size. Most of the food for the young is carried thus and regurgitated as a pellet or bolus into the mouths of the eager nestlings. Economic Status. The Barn Swallow is generally and rightly regarded as a useful bird. It injures none of man's products. It destroys some useful parasitic and pre- dacious insects, but takes far greater numbers of insect pests, especially those found about farm buildings, such as house flies, horse flies and others that bother cattle, also ants and mosquitoes^ as well as many crop pests. Iridoprocne bicolor (Vieillot). Tree Swallow. Other names : white-bellied swallow ; little martin ; white-breasted swallow. Plate 77. Description. — Form somewhat similar to that of Cliff Swallow, with long wings ; tail only slightly forked and not reaching to end of closed wings. Adult male in breeding plum,age : Above and sides of head 154 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS and neck glossy greenish, steel-blue or bluish-green ; greater wing-coverts, flight-feathers and tail dusky or sooty-blackish, with faint greenish gloss; lower jaw and all lower plumage white, except axillars and wing linings, which are gray or brownish-gray, paling toward edge of wing, where there are a few dusky- brown feather-tips; bill black; iris brown or dark brown; legs and feet variable, brownish, grayish- brown or horn-color. Adult male in winter plumage: Similar to same in breeding plumage, but tertials have grayish or whitish edgings and tips. Adult female in breeding plumage: Similar to male or as male, but usually duller above, often chiefly dusky-grayish-brown, with only tips of feathers glossy blue or greenish ; upper breast frequently shaded brownish-gray. Adult female in winter plumage : Similar to adult male in same plumage. Immature in first breeding plumage : Similar to adults. Young in first winter plumage : Similar to adults in winter, but usually more green than blue above. Young in Juve- nal plumage: Above sooty-brown, the tertials slaty with faint grayish edgings and tips; below, white with faint interrupted sooty collar across lower throat ; wings shorter than in adults, not reaching tip of tail. Measurements. — Length 5.00 to 6.25 in.; spread 12.00 to 13.25; folded wing 4.50 to 5.00; tail 2.30 to 2.50; bill .30 to .35; tarsus .40 to .52. Female smaller than male. Molts. — Juvenal plumage acquired by complete postnatal molt ; first winter plumage by complete post Juvenal molt (mid- August to October) ; first breeding plumage by wear; adult winter plumage by complete postnuptial molt (August to October) ; adults have but one molt (postnuptial, late July to September) and acquire breeding plumage by wear. Field Marks. — Size of Barn Swallow, but tail shorter, very slightly forked. Adult male: A bird of two colors, as its name "bicolor" implies, being mostly steely-greenish-blue above, white below. Adult female : Similar, or greenish above, with faint dark band, usually interrupted, across upper breast at base of throat. The Bank Swallow has a complete, wide brown band across breast, and the Rough-winged Swallow has both throat and breast tinted brownish. Young: Similar to female, but more brown above. Voice. — "A shrill, lively, warbling twitter" (Nuttall) ; a low call to its mate (O. W. Knight). Breeding. — Usually on farmlands or in open woodlands about water. Nest : In some tree cavity, in hollow fence rail, a crevice in bridge or building, or in some nesting box or bird-house ; built of grass, straw etc., and warmly lined with feathers, white feathers usually predominating. Eggs: 4 to 10; usu- ally 3 to 6 ; where larger numbers are found, they may be the product of two females ; .69 to .83 by .45 to .57 in. ; ovate ; white, with rosy tinge when fresh ; figured by E. A. Capen in "Oology of New England," Plate VI, Fig. 10. Dates: April 19 to June 15, Massachusetts; May 30 to July 12, Maine. Incubation: Period about 14 days; by both sexes. One brood yearly; "two broods are often reared in a season" (W. B. Barrows). Range. — North America and Central America. Breeds chiefly in Canadian, Transition and Upper Austral zones from northwestern Alaska, central Yukon, southern and central-western Mackenzie, northeastern Manitoba, northern Ontario, northern Ungava (Quebec), Labrador and Newfoundland to southern CaUfornia, Utah, central- western Texas, Kansas, northern Arkansas, Kentucky and Virginia; winters from central California, southern Texas, southern Alabama and North Carolina, and (casually) New Jersey, Long Island (New York), Connecticut and Massachusetts south over most of Mexico to Guatemala and Cuba ; casual in Bermuda Islands ; accidental in England. Distribution in New England. — Common to abundant migrant (most numerous coastwise) ; common summer resident, though more or less local; casual in winter in southeastern Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut. Season in Massachusetts. — (March 7) March 11 to November 7 (winter). There have been several reports of flocks of swallows in January in and near Plymouth, Massachusetts, which I have not been able to verify ; many people are said to have seen them. Following is a sample : Mr. J. H. Bourne, of Marshfield, wrote me that the birds were seen four or five miles from his residence. His letter dated January 9, 1909, stated "residents living near the North River marshes report that during the warm wave early this week a considerable number of swallows were seen hovering over the marshes on several days. PLATE 77 PLATE 77 BANK SWALLOW Page 158 Male Female ROUGH-WINGED SWALLOW Page 161 Male Female TREE SWALLOW Page 153 Female Male Juvenal ^""^"^^^--^ % ^^'■■''tX/X / '■ TREE SWALLOW 155 The old residents say they do not recall ever having seen swallows in such large numbers here in the middle of winter." If these birds were swallows, they probably were Tree Swallows, and as Tree Swallows are reported casually in winter north along the coast to New Jersey and Rhode Island, it is not so remarkable that they should also appear along the shores of southeastern Massachusetts, where in mild winters, the climate is similar to the winter climate of North Carolina. Other winter records are — Sandwich, Jan- uary 27, 1924, one bird reported flying over the great marshes by John F. Carleton; Sandwich or Barn- stable, February 3, 1924, one reported on the great marsh between these two towns by Osborne Earle ; Naushon Island, January 13, 1929, one seen by Ralph E. Forbes. Haunts and Habits. The Tree Swallow is quite as common as the Barn Swallow in some localities, and numerous in others. When the country was first settled, it nested in hollow trees and abandoned holes of woodpeckers, but now probably most individuals utilize bird-houses and nesting boxes, or crevices about buildings. It is not so communal in its breeding habits as are the other species, but where numerous nesting places are available, colonies of from ten to fifty pairs may be seen. It is fond of the water and many still nest in woodpeckers' holes in the dead trees killed by water in overflowed swamps. The Tree Swallow is the first of its tribe to ai'rive in the north and the last to depart for the south. It is so constituted that it can subsist on berries, and, therefore, is not so closely confined to an insect diet as are other New England swallows. Like the other swallows it follows the coast largely in migration, where it can feed on the numerous bayberries which grow there, and where it can sustain life much earlier in spring and later in autumn than it could in the interior. Mr. John A. Farley found that at Plymouth, Massachusetts, the average date for arrival for six years was March 16, and the earliest March 7.^ Compared with a ten-year average at St. Louis of March 24, and with the earliest date at Washington, D. C, of March 28, the Plymouth dates seem remarkable. There are early dates also at Marthas Vineyard, on the Rhode Island coast and at Block Island, but the Plymouth date of March 7 is the earliest of all. The species is not recorded so early twelve to sixteen miles inland from Plymouth and it usually arrives there two or three weeks later. Even in East Carver, only seven miles inland from the Plymouth shore, as the crow flies, the arrival is much later than at Plymouth. Mr. Lester E. Pratt has given me the first arrival records there for seventeen years. The earliest is March 21, the next March 30, and for ten years the dates run from April 1 to 29, the average being about the 12th. Usually Tree Swallows do not appear in the highlands of western and northern Massachusetts much before the middle of April, though in the river valleys stragglers may be seen earlier. With rising April temperatures and balmy airs, they appear at their breeding grounds and become interested in their former nesting places. They flutter and dart happily about in pursuit of awakened insects and all is merry until a cold storm or a sudden drop in temperature occurs, when they suddenly disappear and are not seen again until the next warm wave. The question often is asked "Where do the swallows 1 Auk, Vol. XXXVI, 1919, pp. 577-579. 156 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS go?" Usually on cold days they go to sheltered places on the coast or to lakes or rivers where hills and trees give shelter from cold winds, and where the sun shines more warmly, — where they can still find some flying insects or can pick up benumbed ones from the water or the ice along the shore. After unseasonable cold snow-storms in late March or early April, some have been seen flying south toward the coast of Connecticut and west along that coast, as if returning to more southern states. During a long, cold storm in the breeding season they crowd together in some sheltered tree cavity, or in a bird-house with entrance turned away from the stormy wind, and there they stay until the storm has passed. For a swallow, this is a hardy bird. Mr. Arthur T. Wayne says he has seen this bird in winter on the South Carolina coast when the thermometer registered 8 to 10 degrees above zero.^ But in spring a sudden ''cold wave" in Massachusetts or a long cold storm after the winter berries have gone will sometimes decimate the ranks of these birds, as in June, 1903. Tree Swallows ordinarily nest in some hole or cavity, or a receptacle prepared for their accommodation, but there is at least one case on record where they excavated their own homes. Mr. C, J. Maynard tells of a colony at Lake Umbagog in Maine, the individuals of which were shaping their own domiciles in partially decayed birch stubs. The work was not performed after the manner of chickadees or nuthatches, by pecking out small bits of the decayed wood, but by breaking away pieces and removing them, which they could do as the stubs were in a punky condition. Although Tree Swallows arrive early they usually delay their nesting activities until the weather is settled and insects become plentiful. A nest with three fresh eggs that I found on April 19, 1925, on Marthas Vineyard, is my earliest record. Usually there is little nest building done by this species until the warm days of May. Both sexes aid in building the nest, and occasionally three birds, usually two males and one female, engage in preparing a nest, incubating the eggs and feeding the young. In one case two pairs were reported as using the same nest. As with mankind it seems that their conjugal affairs do not always go well. In- constancy is a failing common to birds as well as men. Miss Dorothy A. Baldwin, of Hardwick, Massachusetts, sends me an account of what seems hke dehberate fickleness on the part of a mated female. A pair of Tree Swallows had a nest in a hollow apple tree, one of a group under which Miss Baldwin, her mother and sister were in the habit of sitting. As their seat was directly opposite the nest hole, they could watch the devoted husband bringing food to his mate in the nest. To their surprise during one of his absences another Tree Swallow, apparently an immature male with a brownish back, came to the hole and began to chatter to the female inside. She came to her door and opened a conversation with her caller, who when her husband returned beat a hurried retreat. This happened again and again. If the husband returned unexpectedly and found the stranger in close communion with his mate he fell upon the interloper furiously, while the unfaithful wife chattered excitedly in her doorway. Finally one day she was 1 Birds of South Carolina, 1910, p. 140. TREE SWALLOW 157 seen to come out and fly away with the stranger, never to return. Her mate mourned for a day and then he, too, disappeared, leaving the eggs cold in the deserted nest. Like Barn Swallows, Tree Swallows seek feathers for lining their nests, and seem to prefer white ones, for they have been known to go to a distance for white feathers, when only colored ones could be found near-by. During the nesting season these birds will come for white feathers tossed in the air for them, and often one will try to carry several feathers at once, only to lose one or more at each attempt to snap up another. Where suitable white feathers are scarce, spirited combats for their possession often occur. This swallow is very pugnacious, and in the nesting season furious, long-continued battles may be seen between rival males, as well as struggles between Tree Swallows, House Sparrows, Bluebirds and Purple Martins, for the possession of nesting boxes, in which the Tree Swallow often is successful. In some cases the young are able to fly before the end of June. Most of the adults have finished rearing their broods and have left the nesting boxes by the 10th or 15th of July, having reared their single brood. But some of the less mature birds, more tardy in coming and in mating than the adults, linger until later. The young usually are strong and well able to fly when they leave the nest, and never return to it, but in cases where they leave too soon, they may come back to it with their parents for several nights. Where the young were weak in flight, the adults have been seen to fly beneath them, as if to buoy them up. Many low flying individuals, flitting about under and among the trees in orchards, are killed by flying against wire fences. Those made of chicken-wire netting are most dangerous. At first young swallows alight on some dead limb where the adults feed them. Later as they become more proficient, they are fed on the wing by the parents, but they soon learn to catch their own insects, and then they course much over water, flying very low in cool weather, so that their wings almost touch the surface, and now and then one is caught by a large pickerel, which leaps at it from the depths below. In August, thousands of Tree Swallows, with other species, arrive at the sea-shore where they roost in the marshes. They scatter about in the daytime, feeding on insects and berries. Their numbers continue to grow by accessions from the interior, until many thousands are gathered along the coast. Sometimes they alight on telegraph wires, covering them for miles, or they may light on the beaches until the sand is black with their hosts. When ready to migrate they sometimes rise to great heights, even beyond the reach of human vision and follow the coast southward, but if they encounter strong head winds they fly close to the ground or water to escape the full force of the blast. This is the only swallow that habitually winters in the United States. Great numbers spend the winter near the Gulf coast, where they roost at night in large marshes and scatter over the country during the day. One of the most remarkable sights that I have witnessed was that of a vast concourse of these birds going to roost in southern Florida. Twilight was falling when, with one companion, I approached a great marsh in lower Brevard County, not far from Indian River, in what was then an unbroken wilderness. 158 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS As we came nearer, a huge black cloud drifted rapidly in from the west, and as it came over the marsh it began to roll and gyrate as if tossed about by strong, erratic winds. Then we knew that it must be a vast flight of birds. As the mass veered about over the center of the marsh, there shot down from near its center a long black tongue, forming a column which, when it reached the reed-tops, spread out with a terrific roar of wings until the whole phenomenon resembled a great black cloud connected with a black sea by a water-spout of equal blackness, and down this spout the cloud itself discharged into the marsh. When the last of the birds were down, I waded far into the marsh until I came to the edge of the roosting flock, and found the tops of the reeds covered with Tree Swallows. The next morning I was there before daylight to see them go out, but there was nothing spectacular about their departure. They merely spread out over the ground, flying low in every direction, each bird hunting insects for himself ; hardly a chirp broke the silence of the morning, and in a few minutes the great flock was gone, but all that day, wherever we went. Tree Swallows could be seen in the air. The food of the Tree Swallow differs from that of other swallows by including more vegetal matter, mainly wild berries and seeds. The fruit of the bayberry or waxmyrtle is its chief reliance when insects are hard to find, but it takes some blueberries and a few other berries including those of the Virginia juniper or red cedar and the woodbine or Virginia creeper, with a few small weed seeds and grass seeds. It takes some of the same insect pests as does the Barn Swallow, eating probably more ants and quite as many robber flies which are destructive to bees, and it seems to take about as many useful insects as the Barn Swallow. Economic Status. It is not improbable that this bird ranks second only to the Barn Swallow in usefulness. It does no direct injury to man's products, its stay with us is longer than that of the other swallows, and probably in some places its numbers equal or exceed, at times, those of the Barn Swallow. On the other hand the Barn Swallow remains on the farm, where its utility is greatest, after the Tree Swallow has gone to the coast. The Tree Swallow is of great value about cranberry bogs and about mosquito- infested marshes. Riparia riparia (Linn^us). Bank Swallow. Other names: sand martin; sand swallow. Plate 77. Description. — Similar in form to Tree Swallow but smaller (smallest of our swallows) and duller in color; a small tuft of feathers on tarsus near base of hind toe. Adults in breeding plumage {sexes alike) : Above plain grayish-brown or mouse-brown, darkest on head, many feathers with hghter edges ; flight -feathers, primary-coverts, alula and tail darker than rest of upper plumage ; below white with a broad grayish-brown breast-band, rarely interrupted, across upper breast just below throat, which color continues along sides and sometimes down middle of breast ; wing linings and axillars grayish-brown, with white feather-margins along edge of wing ; bill black ; iris, legs and feet dark brown. Adults in winter plumage : Similar to summer plumage, but secondaries and tertials broadly tipped white. Young BANK SWALLOW 159 in first winter plumage: Similar to adults in winter, and usually indistinguishable from them. Young in Juvenal -plumage : Similar to winter adults, but light margins and tips of wing-coverts and tertials rusty or pale cinnamon, throat spotted with same, and tail feathers not barred at all but tipped grayish-white ; feet "pinkish-buff," gradually becoming darker. Measurements. — Length 4.75 to 5.50 in.; spread 10.10 to 11.10; folded wing 3.75 to 4.18; tail 1.75 to 2.35 ; bill .23 to .28 ; tarsus .42 to .50. Female smaller than male. Molts. — Apparently the same as those of Tree Swallow (see page 154), but the postnuptial molt is later, and winter plumages of both old and young are assumed after the birds leave on their southern migration, and probably after they arrive at their winter haunts. Field Marks. — Smallest of our swallows, brown above and on sides ; wings and tail darker than back ; white below with a brown band (rarely incomplete) across breast just below throat ; flight very erratic with many twists and zigzags. Voice. — Usually rather silent, except when danger threatens; call notes, more harsh and "gritty" than those of other swallows; "song," a mere twitter. Breeding. — On high shores of the sea, on precipitous islands, and the steep banks of lakes and rivers, or anywhere not too far from water where suitable banks may be found. Nest : A chamber about 5 inches in diameter, lined with grass and feathers, at the end of tunnel in bank, from 15 inches to 8 feet or more in length. Eggs: 3 to 7; .63 to .83 by .45 to .55 in. ; usually ovate ; white with a rosy or pinkish tinge when fresh; figured by E. A. Capen in "Oology of New England," Plate VI, Fig. 14. Dates: May 28 to June 17, Massachusetts; May 29 to June 24, Maine. Incubation: Period 12 or 13 days (F. L. Burns) ; probably by both sexes. One or two broods yearly. Range. — North America, Central America, South America, Europe and a great part of Asia and Africa. In North America breeds in Boreal and Austral zones from northern Alaska, central Yukon, northwestern Mackenzie, Melville Island, Franklin Island (casually), northeastern Manitoba, northern Ontario and northern Ungava (Quebec) south to southern California, Arizona, southern Texas, Louisi- ana, central Alabama and southern Virginia; in migration south through Central America and West Indies (casually) ; winters in South America from Colombia and Venezuela to Brazil and Bolivia ; in the Old World breeds from about 70° north latitude south to Tunisia, Algeria and east to Siberia, Syria and Palestine ; extreme limits of breeding range not well known ; south in winter to eastern and southern Africa and to India. Distribution in New England. — Common migrant and common local summer resident, wherever suitable banks may be found. Most common in Maine, where cut banks are more numerous than in the other states. Season in Massachusetts. — April 12 to September 8 (November 2). Haunts and Habits. The little brown Bank Swallow is not only the smallest of our swallows, it is the only one that has not learned to nest about man's buildings or other structures. It prefers to dig its own hole. Like the Tree Swallow it often arrives much earlier along the coast, especially in southeastern Massachusetts, than in the interior, but it has not been recorded along shore until after the first of April, and usually it is not found in any numbers in the interior until May. From the coast it follows up the rivers, usually arriving in their valleys before it appears on the higher lands, for the high shores of the ocean and the cut banks along river shores are its normal breeding places. When the birds arrive they retire at night to sleep in their last year's holes, or they quickly excavate new ones, far enough into the bank to give them shelter for the night. In delving into the bank they cling to it, and peck the dirt out with their bills, but when the holes are deep enough for them to enter, they use both bills and feet. 160 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS When a hole becomes too deep to throw dirt out with the feet, it is carried out in the mouth. In sandy, friable soil only a single row of holes is made near the top of the bank, and each hole runs slightly upward, so that the nest is just beneath the sod, which keeps the roof from caving in. In clayey soil, however, the bank may be honeycombed with several irregular rows of holes. When a bank is formed of stratified layers of clay, sand and gravel, the nests may appear spaced almost as regularly as the windows of a factory, as only certain strata are used by the birds. Some Bank Swallows burrow in great heaps of sawdust, left by lumbermen, but these heaps must be unsafe nesting places. The holes usually approach a circle in section and are about two inches in diameter, but some are much wider than their height, as if both the mated birds who excavated the apartment had worked side by side. Usually they work into the bank only two or three feet, but in gravelly soil they have been known to go in eight or nine feet to find a place without small stones, which might fall on the nest. When they find stones too large for them to dig around, they abandon the attempt and try again elsewhere. The Rev. F. O. Morris, who has watched the work of this species in England, says that a pair of these birds will remove about twenty ounces of sand in a day and that they can move pebbles two ounces in weight. The time occupied in making the burrows depends upon the kind of soil, the obstructions encountered and the length of the burrow, and may therefore vary from a few days to a few weeks. In favorable localities where they are undisturbed hundreds of pairs may nest in company. After the young are hatched, the parents brood and feed them frequently. In about ten days they are ready to leave the nest and they are then cared for by the male, while the female often prepares the nest for another brood. Notwithstanding the apparent inaccessibility of their nests, there are enemies that are able to enter them. Sometimes an entire colony is destroyed by a mink or a weasel which somehow succeeds in climbing to their burrows. Those foreign interlopers, the House Sparrow and the Starling, sometimes drive out the Bank Swallows and utilize the burrows for their own nests. Occasionally a river in flood undermines a bank, and the nests go down in an avalanche of sand, or when, as is frequently the case, the Swallows utihze a sand pit for their nesting place, teamsters carting out sand may destroy their home, and bird-nesting boys must be reckoned with ; then there is that danger that all swallows must face at times — the continued prevalence of cold rains in the nesting season. Many colonies have been exterminated at such times where the rains have been heaviest. The poor birds then huddle together in their holes, and being unable to find food, they perish, as many did in June, 1903. Fortunately, however, there are always areas where there is less rain and cold than in the sections of extreme precipitation, and in those areas some Swallows always survive. By August 15 both first and second broods are strong upon the wing, and migration has begun. The food of the Bank Swallow does not differ materially from that of the other swallows. It shows a similar fondness for flies and destroys many of the weevils and other pests taken by the Barn Swallow and the Tree Swallow. ROUGH-WINGED SWALLOW 161 Economic Status. This species may not be quite so useful as the three previous species, as it does not nest so habitually in the neighborhood of farms and gardens. Stelgidopteryx serripennis (Audubon). Rough- winged Swallow. Contributed by Dr. John B. May. Plate 77. Description. — Resembling Bank Swallow in color and form, but larger, more uniformly colored above, and lower fore parts tinted, but not banded ; basal joint of middle toe adherent to the outer, and outer web of 1st primary converted into a series of small hooks (these not appreciably developed in young birds) ; under tail-coverts of male longer and broader than those of female ; no tuft of feathers at base of hind toe. Adults (sexes alike) : Above mouse-brown or brownish-gray ; below lighter brown on chin and throat, darkening slightly on upper breast, sides and flanks, gradually whitening posteriorly on abdomen and under tail-coverts; bill black ; iris, legs and feet dark brown. Young in first winter plumage: Sim- ilar to adults. Young in juvenal -plumage : Similar to adults, but lighter in color ; wing-coverts broadly tipped and tertials broadly margined and tipped (except on inner webs) with fawn-color; tinged with cinnamon on throat and upper breast. Measurements. — Length 5.00 to 5.75 in. ; spread 11.50 to 12.25; folded wing 3.95 to 4.90; tail 1.95 to 2.35; bill .25 to .30 ; tarsus .40 to .42. Female smaller than male. Molts. — Similar to those of Tree Swallow (see page 154) ; molting takes place after the bird has left New England. Field Marks. — Somewhat larger than Bank Swallow ; similar in color above, but more uniform ; wings and tail nearer the color of back, where those of Bank Swallow are darker ; throat and chin brown- ish instead of white and no clearly defined brown band across upper breast as in Bank Swallow. Flight heavier or more deliberate than that of Bank Swallow ; not so erratic and with more gliding and sailing. Voice. — A twitter somewhat similar to that of Bank Swallow; "three or four weak notes, zeetle- tzeet repeated at irregular intervals" (Grinnell and Storer) ; "a call note soimding Uke 'trit,' often doubled to 'trit-trit,' or prolonged to 'tri-ri-ri-rit.'" (A. A. Saunders). Breeding. — Usually near water. Nest: In hole in bank, cliff, tree, bridge or building or even in an open drain-pipe in a stream-bank ; nest more bulky than that of Bank Swallow, otherwise similar ; lined with grasses, rootlets, bits of dead leaves, pine needles and (very rarely) feathers. Eggs : 4 to 8 ; Uke those of Bank Swallow, but averaging a little larger ; about .72 by .52 in. ; oblong ; glossy white, unmarked; figured by E. A. Capen in "Oology of New England," Plate VI, Fig. 15. Dates: May 2, Virginia; May 6 to June 9, Connecticut; May 7 to June 8, Massachusetts; May 16, Vermont. Incu- bation: No details. One brood yearly. Range. — North America from southern border of Canadian Zone southward, and Central America. Breeds in Austral and Tropical zones from southern British Columbia, Idaho, northern Montana, central North Dakota, central Minnesota, central Wisconsin, central Michigan, southeastern Ontario, central New York, central Vermont and southern New Hampshire south to Lower California, Nayarit, northern Jalisco, Puebla, Vera Cruz, southern Texas, southern Louisiana, southern Alabama and northern Florida ; winters from Sinaloa and Vera Cruz in central Mexico, south through Central America to Panama; casual in Manitoba and in northern Michigan. Distribution IN New England. — Maine: Not recorded. New Hampshire: Rare summer resi- dent in southern portion; Boscawen, July 3, 1909, nest found by F. I. Martin; ^ Winnisquam, May 14, 1913, 3 or 4 pairs breeding; ^ Ashland, June, 1917, one pair breeding; ^ Manchester, July, 1923, nest found by A. F. McGowan; * Snowville, July 17, 1925, nest found by Miss Grace M. Snow.^ Vermont: 1 Martin, Fred I. : in litt. 2 Webster, Miss Ellen S. : Bird-Lore, Vol. XVII, 1915, p. 293. 3 May, John B. : in litt. ■ « Martin, Fred I. : in litt. ^ Snow, Miss G. M. : in litt. 162 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS Rare summer resident in southern portion; Norwich, May 6, 1905, pair breeding; i Bennington, July, 1906, pair breeding ;2 St. Johnsbury, June 8, 9, 21, 1918, a pair seen by Miss Inez A. Howe.^ Massa- chusetts : Rare migrant in eastern half ; rare summer resident in western portion ; apparently increasing slowly. Rhode Island: Rare migrant and summer resident ; Westerly, June 3, 1917, three nests, Charles- town, 1929, one nest, all found by Harry S. Hathaway.* Connecticut: Fairly common local summer resi- dent along coast and in river valleys. Season in Massachusetts. — Late April to September. Haunts and Habits. The Rough-winged Swallow is the rarest of the six species of Hirundinidse found in New England. While it probably breeds in every state of the Union except Maine, it is not considered common in any of the northeastern states. Thirty years ago there was only one authentic record of this species north of Connecticut, that of a couple of pairs which Mr. Walter Faxon found breeding at North Adams in 1895. Since that time, however, either the species is increasing in numbers and extending its range to the northeast, or it is being identified more frequently because there are more good field observers studying ou;:' birds than in former years. It requires a quick eye to detect, as the birds wheel and pass in rapid flight, the slight differences which distinguish the Rough- winged Swallow from the Bank Swallow or the immature Tree Swallow. The Rough-wing may be recognized in its chosen haunts by a careful observer, as it courses rather slowly over a stream, pond, marsh or field, seeming to follow an established route over and over, its direct flight showing