. •-' • -. EXCHANGE The University of the State of New York New York State Museum JOHN M. CLARKE, Director Memoir 12 BIRDS OF NEW YORK BY ELON HOWARD EATON Part 2 GENERAL CHAPTERS; LAND BIRDS Introductory note Bird ecology The economic value of birds The status of our bird laws - 3 5 - 46 Si Special measures for increasing bird life 52 Bird refuges - - 58 Private preserves - 59 Description of genera and species - 61 Addendum: New York bird history since 1910 - 542 Explanations of plates - - 545 Index ----- - 673 ALBANY THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OP NEW YORK 1914 EARTH KIENCES UBJWRY THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Regents of the University With years when terms expire 1917 ST CLAIR MCKELWAV M.A. LL.D. D.C.L. L.H.D. Chancellor Brooklyn 1926 PLINY T. SEXTON LL.B. LL.D. Vice Chancellor - Palmyra 1915 ALBERT VANDER VEER M.D. M.A. Ph.D. LL.D. - Albany 1922 CHESTER S. LORD M.A. LL.D. New York 1918 WILLIAM NOTTINGHAM M.A. Ph.D. LL.D. - Syracuse 1921 FRANCIS M. CARPENTER Mount Kisco 1923 ABRAM I. ELKUS LL.B. D.C.L. - New York 1924 ADELBERT MOOT - Buffalo 1925 CHARLES B. ALEXANDER M.A. LL.B. LL.D. Litt.D. Tuxedo 1919 JOHN MOORE - - Elmira 1920 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN M.A. LL.B. LL.D. New York 1916 WALTER GUEST KELLOGG B.A. - Ogdensburg President of the University and Commissioner of Education JOHN H. FINLEY M.A. LL.D. Assistant Commissioners AUGUSTUS S. DOWNING M.A. L.H.D. LL.D. For Higher Education CHARLES F. WHEELOCK B.S. LL.D. For Secondary Education THOMAS E. FINEGAN M.A. Pcl.D. LL.D. For Elementary Education Director of State Library JAMES I. WYER, JR, M.L.S. Director of Science and State Museum JOHN M. CLARKE Ph.D. D.Sc. LL.D. Chiefs of Divisions Administration, GEORGE M. WILEY M.A. Attendance, JAMES D. SULLIVAN Educational Extension, WILLIAM R. WATSON B.S. Examinations, HARLAN H. HORNER B.A. History, JAMES A. HOLDEN B.A. Inspections, FRANK H. WOOD M.A. Law, FRANK B. GILBERT B.A. Library School, FRANK K. WALTER M.A. M.L.S. Public Records, THOMAS C. QUINN , School Libraries, SHERMAN WILLIAMS Pd.D. Statistics, HIRAM C. CASE .'Visual Instruction, ALFRED W. ABRAMS Ph.B. Vocational Schools, ARTHUR D. DEAN B.Sc. INTRODUCTORY NOTE The first volume of this work was communicated for publication in 1908 and was distributed to the people of this State and to the general scientific public in 1910. It was the expectation that volume I would be immediately followed by another volume which would afford descriptive accounts, with necessary illustrations, of the land birds of New York, but this purpose has been obstructed by the regrettable illness of the author. Students of the birds interested in this work will, therefore, understand the reason for the apparent long delay in the completion of this under- taking. With the presentation of this volume 2, the entire field, as originally planned for the work, is covered, and there are excellent reasons for feeling that the unavoidable delay has, in some regards, increased the real value of the present book, as it has afforded opportunity for the preparation of chapters of a more general import, particularly bearing upon the relations of the bird life of the State to human concerns. JOHN M. CLARKE Director 333632 The University of the State of New York New York State Museum JOHN M. CLARKE, Director Memoir 12 BIRDS OF NEW YORK BY ELON HOWARD EATON PART 2 BIRD ECOLOGY It is evident that any comprehensive scheme for the protection of bird life, the increase of valuable species or the introduction of new ones, must proceed on sound principles of bird ecology, or the relationship of birds to their environment, and their ability to adapt themselves to new conditions as they arise. It is not our purpose in this short chapter to discuss the reaction to environment which resulted in the development of the bird's wing and feathers or its numberless other structures which fit the various species of birds for life in their chosen spheres, but rather to consider those general principles of ecology which show the relationship of our different species of birds, first, to their natural environment as it existed in primeval times, and second, to the changed environment which obtains throughout the greater portion of the State at the present day. It is so often thought to be merely a question of the protection of birds from boys, gunners, cats and hawks which is necessary to insure their proper abundance that a consideration of the subject of ecology seems 5 6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM absolutely necessary at the present time in order to explain the probable reasons why some birds are abundant in various sections of the State and others are fast disappearing ; and to suggest reasonable means of encouraging desirable birds to increase in our domains. FUNDAMENTAL FACTORS OF ENVIRONMENT Climatic. Of the natural factors which influence the bird life of any part of the world, those due to the climate are undoubtedly of foremost importance. Among these is light, the effect of which may be illustrated by reference to owls, goatsuckers and woodcocks, which feed mostly by night or in the twilight, and in the daytime must hide away in hollows or dark portions of the forest. To a less extent the influence of this factor is observed in those forest species such as many thrushes and wood warb- lers whose eyes are noticeably larger than those of their relatives which live in more open surroundings, and unquestionably the intensity of light affects their nervous equilibrium to such an extent that it even determines their presence or absence in a given locality, apart from all other factors. Temperature has usually been considered the most important climatic factor and is the principal one taken into account by the United States Biological Survey in mapping the distribution of animals in America. As illustrations of this factor, it is frequently evident when surveying a ravine in central New York or when approaching the outskirts of the Adirondacks, that such species as the Junco, Canada warbler and Hermit thrush will frequently be present or absent according as the average temperature varies 2 or 3 degrees during the six hottest weeks of summer. Of very great importance is the humidity, which is largely dependent upon temperature and, with it, regulates the distribution of many species. As direct examples of this factor, the author has become convinced that such birds as the Wood thrush and the Hooded warbler are usually found in a denser cover than some of their allies merely because the percentage of humidity is higher in the coverts where they are found than in other localities which, by the casual observer, might be considered equally con- BIRDS OF NEW YORK 7 genial to them, and because of the humidity, the rate of evaporation from their bodies is proportionately reduced. In the hard wood tract described on page 27, it was noticeable that as the lower thickets disappeared by growth of the taller poles, the amount of humidity within ten feet of the ground was perceptibly lower, so that it undoubtedly was not only the lack of favorable nesting sites, but the slight change in humidity acting with it, which caused the Hooded warbler and the Wood thrush to disappear. Conversely, on many bushy hillsides, if the atmosphere is comparatively dry, the Field sparrows, chewinks and thrashers will be in evidence. In damper thickets yellowthroats and Yellow-billed cuckoos will appear, undoubtedly attracted not primarily by the edaphic condition but by the humidity of the bush stratum which lies just above the ground. Another climatic factor of great import is rainfall, which affects the forest growth ; but apart from its influence upon vegetation and thus upon bird life, it is also a direct factor when flooding marshes and destroying the nests with eggs and young, or when beating down nests directly from their support, and sometimes even destroying the full-grown birds them- selves,1 and by the destruction of migrating birds, often observed, while crossing the sea or large lakes. When the rain is dense enough birds frequently lose their bearing and fly headlong into the water without realizing the direction they are taking. Ice and snow are also factors worthy of consideration as they frequently cover the food of many species during the winter season. In this way Quail are frequently winterkilled, and in the early spring meadowlarks and Savannah sparrows in western New York may often be observed in severe straits during the days of late March and early April. Many species during an extensive ice storm or snow storm are in danger of starvation. In the winter of 1895, as elsewhere noted, the Bluebird was nearly exterminated by continued ice storms in its winter home and its numbers were again decimated by the severe winter of 1911-12. During a severe 'Great numbers of sparrows killed in Providence by cold rain and sleet (Bumpus, Wood's Hole Biological Lectures 1898, p. 24). > NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM snowstorm millions of longspurs were destroyed in Minnesota (see page 56, volume i). Winds are also a climatic factor of effective influence not only in determining the humidity and the rainfall of a region, but also because of their influence upon migrating birds. As an example note the destruction of warblers, beaten into the sea by severe head winds while crossing the Gulf of Mexico, mentioned by Frazar (Henshaw, Nutt. Orn. Club Bui. 6, 1 89) . Every bird student may also recall numerous instances of nests and young birds blown down and destroyed by high winds. Other climatic factors, such as hail and electricity, might also be mentioned, and the illustrations given might be multiplied indefinitely, but we trust that those cited will serve to show that these various factors act directly upon the physiological nature of the bird and thus serve to control its abundance, or even its very presence in a given locality. Physiographic factors. The wrinkling and sculpturing of the earth's surface into great or small land masses, mountains, ravines, valleys, flood plains, marshes, streams, lakes, sounds and seas, thereby determining the slope of the land and the influence of the sun's rays upon it, all have great influence upon the avifauna of a region. It is evident that they control many of the climatic factors, especially the latitude and altitude determin- ing- the temperature and the humidity, and the latter is controlled also by the nearness to the sea and the presence of streams or underground water on the slopes of ravines and hillsides. The various statements made in the chapter on distribution in volume I , illustrate the influence of mountains or altitude upon the various zones of bird life within the State. The effect of ravines is well displayed in central and western New York where many Canadian species are often found on the south side of ravines which are not exposed so directly to the sun's rays, whereas on the north margin of the same ravine Alleghanian and Carolinian species usually predominate. The influence of streams and bodies of water is clearly illustrated by their effect on the presence of such species as kingfishers, herons, ducks and shore birds. Marshes are BIRDS OF NEW YORK 9 indispensable to the presence of rails, bitterns and numerous species which belong to their community. Rocky cliffs determine the nesting site of Duck hawks and murres. Thus it might be shown that the physi- ography of every locality attracts its own characteristic bird life. Soil factors. The character of the soil, whether it is wet or dry, must not be neglected while making a study of bird ecology; and the material of its composition, whether rock, gravel, sand, clay, loam, marl, muck or peaty ooze; also its richness in mineral ingredients such as lime, nitrates, sulphates, phosphates etc. These edaphic conditions influence bird life mainly through their control of vegetation and so affect the breeding and feeding habitats of numerous species. Some are more directly affected, such as the Bank swallows, woodcocks, and snipes which can not breed or find their food supply except in proper soil. Biotic factors. Under this heading must be considered first, plants as furnishing nesting sites, food and shelter, and also as controlling the light, heat, humidity, and through the heat and humidity the rate of evaporation which is of great importance in determining the presence of various species of animals in a given habitat. The effect of vegetation upon the nesting site is illustrated in the case of all arboreal species which decline directly in proportion to the deforestation of a region, and of the thicket community which is very quickly affected by pasturing or the clearing of hillsides and swamps. Illustrating the important effect upon various species by certain kinds of vegetation, I noticed that in 1880 the Purple finch appeared as a common breeding species in the village of Spring- ville at the same time with the growth of numerous spruce and cedar trees which were planted by residents in their dooryards. When these became of a height from ten to twenty feet they were invariably utilized by the finch as breeding sites. Everyone has noticed the influence of the American elm upon the abundance of the Baltimore oriole, which, although it breeds also in various other kinds of trees, succeeds much more often in rearing its young when it chooses the drooping branches of an elm. In driving across the country in springtime everyone must have noticed that colonies 10 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of Bronzed grackles are almost always found about dooryards and road- sides where groups of spruces or pine trees are growing. Thus, if carefully studied, a large percentage of our native birds will be found to choose a preferred site for nesting. Plants as affecting the food directly are of most importance, of course, in the case of frugivorous and granivorous species such as the Grouse, Bobwhite and Sparrow which will not be abundant in any district unless their favorite food can be found. Striking examples of the influence of food are frequently noticed; a crop of mountain ash berries attracts flocks of Cedar birds and Pine grosbeaks. Large beds of vallisneria in the central lakes, of recent years have attracted flocks of redheads and canvasbacks, sometimes hundreds and thousands, during the early winter. The Ruffed grouse is frequently observed traveling long distances in the winter to feed on the buds of birch and apple trees. Unless its coverts contain a suffi- cient admixture of such species upon which it can feed in winter it will rapidly disappear. A crop of cones in spruce or pine trees frequently attracts flocks of crossbills in winter or early spring, and a field of lettuce or dandelions will bring large numbers of goldfinches to feed on the seeds. Plants are also of great importance as shelter for birds apart from their use as nesting sites, and apart from furnishing food. They afford a refuge from enemies as well as from storms and the heat of the sun. Everyone has seen sparrows and other birds scurrying to the shrubbery when disturbed in the open field or when pursued by hawks •or cats. When grouse are frightened they seek either the dense thicket or trees as a refuge, the former when pursued by hawks and the latter when pursued by dogs or foxes. During the migration season one must look for transient birds on the leeward side of the woods during wind storms. Here they are often found feeding at leisure, while on the windy side few or none are observed. Once while seeking refuge beneath a dense maple from an approaching thunder shower, I observed a small company of goldfinches come diving into the tree and arrange themselves so that BIRDS OF NEW YORK II each was protected as by an umbrella under the overhanging leaves near the top of the twig selected for its perch. Everyone has noticed how rapidly the birds disappear during a severe storm, each seeking its proper refuge and almost without exception this refuge is some kind of vegetation. The importance of a shelter from the heat of the sun is illustrated by the actions of mother robins and other birds when the sun shines directly upon their nestlings. Then they stand on the edge of the nest and shade the birds with their outstretched wings. In a similar way the older birds themselves are affected by the extreme heat of midday. As everyone knows, the time to go birding is in the morning or in the afternoon. During the middle of the day the birds are quiet and a greater portion of them are hidden away in the shadows of the trees and shrubs. During the hottest days of midsummer one may often notice our common birds standing with drooping wings and open mouths within the shade of the foliage seeking to avoid the overheating due to the direct rays of the sun. Under biotic factors must also be classed the various animals which affect the bird as a part of its environment, either food, allies or enemies. As food it is evident that all carnivorous, piscivorous and insectivorous species will necessarily be present or absent according as their favorite food may be found. One may not seek for Belted kingfishers in the midst of a plain, nor for insectivorous birds over the middle of the lake or sea. During the winter of 1901 meadow mice were very abundant in the fields of western New York, and the Rough-legged hawk, their principal enemy, appeared in abundance. The withdrawing of water from the Erie canal left large numbers of small fish stranded in the wide waters of eastern Rochester, and immediately great numbers of Herring and Ring-billed gulls appeared and remained there until the fish were devoured. During the migration seasons of 1911 and 1912 the author noticed an unusual number of warblers of eleven species frequenting a group of beech trees on a tree-covered campus in Geneva, and on investigation discovered that this group of trees was infested with an innumerable swarm of plant lice upon which the birds were feeding. Other groups of trees which 12 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM looked equally attractive to the casual observer had no warblers among their branches. These illustrations easily indicate the relationship between food and the abundance of a species, but it must be borne in mind that similar relationships are all the while at work governing the abundance of birds when the exact cause is not manifest to the observer. As allies, some animals affect slightly the abundance of species. Undoubtedly the Kingbird assists the Yellow warbler and other birds in escaping from the depredations of hawks and crows when nesting in the same orchard, and the various little associations observed, such as the Downy woodpecker, Nuthatch, Chicadee, Creeper and Kinglet coterie, have a real cause for their existence other than the desire for mutual companionship . The most evident cause of the disappearance of birds, to the casual observer, is the enemy factor. Under the head of enemies must be classed all beasts and birds of prey, rivals and parasites. To illustrate the influence of these factors, it is often observed by bird students that a single pair of Sharp-shinned hawks will destroy nearly every song bird in the wood where they are nesting, and a cat which has discovered a brood of bob- whites will return to their range and follow the birds until every chick has been destroyed. In the same way the cat destroys the broods of numerous birds which nest in the garden and dooryard, and the parasitic Cowbird which lays her egg in the nest of a small warbler or sparrow thereby destroys the entire brood of the other bird. To illustrate the influence of rivalry, we might mention the effect of the English sparrow upon the martins and bluebirds. By continually occupying their nesting sites it is gradually forcing these birds more and more from our dooryards, and, unless the martins and bluebirds are assisted, they will finally be driven from the immediate vicinity of our homes. I have also observed that the Wren frequently picks holes in the Bluebird's eggs, and thus destroys one of her rivals in the race for food. The problem of food rivalry is. rather complex, but unquestionably is very often of a determining influence in governing the abundance . of various species. Parasites must BIRDS OF NEW YORK 13 also be regarded as enemies of the birds, especially the bird-lice which frequently destroy whole broods of phoebes and swallows, and seriously impair, thet vitality of others. Internal parasites are also a source of great harm. During one afternoon in the 'summer of 1900, the author picked up forty terns on the Weepecket islands which had died from the effect of flat-worms growing within the intestine. Thus various kinds of parasites frequently sap the vitality of birds or destroy them altogether. The various factors enumerated work together to make up the bird's environment. By a combination of favorable factors, as opposed to the unfavorable ones in any given locality, the balance may be turned to the bird's advantage, so that it may increase like the English sparrow in America. If the natural influences which are unfriendly to the presence of a bird overbalance the favorable factors, it is useless to expect the species to increase. The factors which naturally produce a favorable environment for it must be induced artificially if the species is to be encouraged. A thorough study of the ecologic status of the birds which societies or individuals wish to encourage in a given locality, should be made when any action is taken either to introduce or to encourage the species and by varying those factors which are of the greatest importance to produce a favorable environment they may finally be successfully encouraged. BIRD HABITATS For ecological purposes, birds are properly classified according to the nesting habitats which they occupy, but for various reasons these do not always agree with the places chosen for the birds' other life activities, and it is necessary, for purposes of general discussion, to recognize also the feeding habitat. This is different from the breeding habitat of all truly aerial and aquatic species, of which we have a goodly number. All our diving birds, gulls and waterfowl must necessarily make their nests on shore and are usually classified according to the habitat which they utilize for that purpose; but in many of the species, especially the diving ducks, grebes and loons, the food is almost entirely pursued and taken 14 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM in the water. In the aerial feeding habitat we notice such species as the Nighthawk, Whippoorwill, swifts and swallows; and, to a certain degree, the flycatchers, waxwings, the Red-headed woodpecker, warblers, kinglets, and even many species of sparrows. Of our land birds, likewise, many that are arboreal in nesting habits are eminently terrestrial in their feeding, such as the crows, grackles, robins, and, to a certain extent, many species which normally feed in trees or shrubbery, as they frequently alight upon the ground to capture their prey; and others like the Bluebird and Red- headed woodpecker which frequently take their food from the ground although watching for it from more elevated stations. Many species like the herons are arboreal in nesting habits but seek their food in the marshes and streams and lake shores. Some species of ducks that feed in the open water or in the marsh make their nests in hollow trees. Thus the feeding habitat must be recognized in considering the landscape which should be most advantageous to a species, as well as the breeding habitat which is necessary for its increase. Likewise, the refuge habitat is of importance in this connection, for many birds will not appear even in migration time unless their proper refuge is at hand to protect them both from their enemies and from the wind or rain or sunshine. Everyone has noticed that many species of waterfowl which feed in the shallows or marshes make their refuge habitat on the wide waters of lakes and bays, or even the ocean, and that birds like the Blackbird, Robin and Swallow, that feed in the open field and scatter widely during the nesting season, unite to seek a safe refuge for roosting purposes, often congregating in immense numbers to pass the night or to combine against their enemies. The importance of the refuge habitat is more noticeable in the case of granivorous species than others, for they necessarily seek their food largely in the fields, and yet most of them do not roost or nest in the field, and, if disturbed while feeding, will quickly seek the friendly shelter of shrubbery or dense foliage. This is particularly noticeable in the case of sparrows and j uncos during the migrating season. Scores of them may be feeding in the open field, but BIRDS OF NEW YORK 15 if any one approaches, or' if a dog runs toward them, they immediately rise and follow each other in succession to the shelter of the thickets. These shelter or refuge habitats are of particular importance in the case of game birds, as all sportsmen know, for it is in the best cover that they search for the Grouse, Pheasant and Bobwhite. The various nesting habitats are enumerated in connection with the bird communities which inhabit them. NESTING SITES OF NEW YORK BIRDS For ecological purposes it is necessary to determine the nesting habitat and exact nesting site of birds in order to classify them properly. In recording the nesting site, we might arrange our birds according to the strata or layers or stories which they occupy, as follows: Subterranean stratum. In this are included the Kingfisher, Bank swallow, Rough-winged swallow and occasionally the English sparrow when usurping the nesting holes of Bank swallows. Ground stratum. Here are found all the birds which place their nests directly upon the ground, such as the Loon, Herring gull (on rocks), Mallard, Black duck, Blue-winged teal, Woodcock, Bertramian sandpiper, Killdeer, Piping plover (sand or pebbles), Bobwhite, Ruffed grouse,. Pheasant, Mourning dove (occasionally), Duck hawk (on rocky ledges), Nighthawk, Whippoorwill, Prairie horned lark, Bobolink, Cowbird (in Song sparrow's nest, etc.), Meadowlark, Vesper sparrow, Savannah sparrow, Grasshopper sparrow, Song sparrow (usually), Field sparrow (usually), Junco, Towhee (usually), Black and white warbler, Canada warbler, Worm- eating warbler, Nashville warbler, Blue-winged warbler (occasionally), Ovenbird, Kentucky warbler, Brown thrasher (frequently), Wilson thrush, and Hermit thrush. Here also might be included those species which nest on the oozy ground or grass or moss of marshes, such as the Pied-billed grebe, Black tern, American bittern, King rail, Sora rail, Virginia rail, Florida gallinule, Coot, Wilson snipe, Marsh hawk and Short-eared owl. Also those species whose nests are usually placed in mossy banks or moss- 16 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM covered logs and in the roots of trees, like the Yellow-bellied fly-catcher, White-throated sparrow, Junco, Water thrush and Louisiana water thrush. Herb stratum. Here are included those species whose nests are usually placed in tussocks of grass or flags or among tangles of ferns and weeds. Many species which nest habitually upon the ground or in thickets are frequently found nesting in this stratum, but its most characteristic representatives are the Least bittern, Red-winged blackbird, Sharp-tailed sparrow, Seaside sparrow, Swamp sparrow, Song sparrow, Blue-winged warbler, Golden-winged warbler, Mourning warbler, Maryland yellow- throat, Short-billed marsh wren and Long-billed marsh wren. Thicket stratum. In this are included all birds which usually nest in bushes or in small saplings, usually in tangles on the borders of woods and in the undergrowth of the forest. The nests are usually placed from one to eight feet above the ground. The characteristic representatives of this story are the Yellow-billed cuckoo, Black-billed cuckoo, Alder flycatcher, Cowbird, Rusty blackbird, American goldfinch (often in trees) , Field sparrow (frequently on the ground), Song sparrow (later broods), Cardinal, Indigo bird, Migrant shrike (often in low trees), White-eyed vireo, Yellow warbler (frequently in trees), Chestnut-sided warbler, Prairie warbler, Black-throated blue warbler, Myrtle warbler and Blackpoll warbler (in low spruces), Maryland yellowthroat (occasionally on the ground), Yellow-breasted chat, Hooded warbler, Redstart (occasionally), Catbird, Brown thrasher (sometimes on ground), Olive-backed thrush. I was surprised to note how few species had been entered under this stratum, because it seemed to me it would include by far the most of all the strata enumerated, but this impression is undoubtedly due to the fact that the layer is so frequently invaded by both terrestrial and by arboreal species which belong more characteristically in the lower tree stratum. Lower tree stratum. In this are included those birds that do not require so dense a covert for the nesting site as the thicket stratum, but prefer a moisture habitat in which the rate of evaporation is lower than in the tree-top story which follows. They are characteristically the BIRDS OF NEW YORK IJ birds of the shaded or lower branches of forests and groves, placing their nests from 5 to 35 feet above the ground. Here we might include the Green heron, Mourning dove, Sharp-shinned hawk, Ruby-throated humming bird, Kingbird, Wood pewee, Green-crested flycatcher, Least flycatcher, Bluejay, Orchard oriole, Purple finch, Goldfinch, Chipping sparrow, Rose- breasted grosbeak, Scarlet tanager, Cedar waxwing, Red-eyed vireo, Blue-headed vireo, Parula warbler, Magnolia warbler, Black-throated green warbler, Redstart, Golden-crowned kinglet, Wood thrush, Robin. Higher tree stratum or tree-top story. Many species included in the former story frequently invade the higher portions of the trees, especially trees which have not reached their maximum height in the forest ; but as building more characteristically in this layer we might mention the Great blue heron, Black-crowned night heron, Cooper hawk, Goshawk, Red-tailed hawk, Red-shouldered hawk, Broad-winged hawk, Bald eagle, Fish hawk, Long-eared owl, Barred owl (occasionally), Great horned owl (frequently), Olive-sided flycatcher, Raven, Crow, Fish crow, Baltimore oriole, Purple grackle, Bronzed grackle, Crossbill, Siskin, Warbling vireo, Yellow-throated vireo, Cerulean warbler, Blackburnian warbler, Pine warbler. Birds nesting in hollow trees. These species might have been included in the last two strata enumerated, but as it is of more importance to recognize them as birds nesting in hollows or woodpecker holes, they are placed under this separate heading. In it are included the American merganser, Hooded merganser, Wood duck, Golden eye, Duck hawk (very rarely), Sparrow hawk, Long-eared owl (occasionally), Barred owl (usually), Saw- whet owl, Screech owl, Great horned owl (frequently), Chimney swift (rarely at the present day), Crested flycatcher, Bronzed grackle (occasionally), Song sparrow (rarely), Purple martin (occasionally), Tree swallow, Prothonotary warbler (built once in this State), Carolina wren, House wren, Brown creeper (behind loose bark), White-breasted nuthatch, Red-breasted nuthatch, Tufted titmouse, Chickadee, Robin (rarely), Starling, English sparrow. 1 8 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Birds that excavate their nesting holes in trees. Here belong all our nine species of woodpeckers, Chickadee (usually), White-breasted nut- hatch and Red-breasted nuthatch (partially excavate their holes). Birds that nest in boxes. Under this heading we place those species that are known to avail themselves of bird boxes: Wood duck (occasion- ally), Screech owl, Crested flycatcher (occasionally), Purple martin, Tree swallow, Carolina wren, House wren, Chickadee (occasionally), Robin (in boxes with large openings), Bluebird, Starling, English sparrow. All species which nest in hollows, included under the previous heading, might be induced by judicious treatment to nest in properly prepared boxes or hollowed limbs. Birds that nest on structures erected by man. These species, like the last, have shown some adaptation to civilized surroundings and furnish clues to methods which might be employed to increase their numbers. Under this heading we include the Mourning dove (rarely on fence posts and fence rails), Fish hawk (on wheels or platforms erected on poles), Barn owl (in belfries and outbuildings), Screech owl (in openings in gable ends etc.), Downy woodpecker, Red-headed woodpecker and Flicker (in posts and poles) , Nighthawk (on flat roofs) , Chimney swift (in unused chimneys and gable ends), Kingbird (rarely on posts), Crested flycatcher (sometimes in hollow poles), Phoebe (on beams and under eaves and bridges), Cowbird (in nests of Phoebe, Robin, Chippy etc.), Chipping sparrow (in vines on porches and sides of houses), Purple martin (under eaves etc.), Cliff swallow (under eaves of barns), Barn swallow (on beams and rafters of sheds and barns), Tree swallow (in holes of posts and tele- graph poles), Rough-winged swallow (in abutments of bridges), House wren (in posts, crannies of buildings, etc.), Chickadee (in hollow fence posts), Robin (on beams, brackets, porch posts, fence posts, window sills, etc.), Bluebird (in crannies of eaves occasionally), Starling (in eaves and crannies), English sparrow (in every available hollow, nook and cranny). BIRDS OF NEW YORK 19 BIRD COMMUNITIES After long continued consideration and sorting of the species of birds that nest within the limits of New York State, the author is convinced that the following communities might be recognized, although the obvious difficulty of confining many species of birds to one of them is no more than can be expected. Communities of the seashore and lake shore. Here we might place all those species whose nesting site is confined to the immediate vicinity of larger bodies of water. In this State there seems to be no sharp dis- tinction between lake shore and seashore communities, so this difference is not recognized. Even the Roseate tern and the Least tern undoubtedly nested at one time on the shores of the Great Lakes and the Common tern at the present time nests on the Canada-New York border among the Thousand Islands. Those species which breed on the sandy or gravelly beach are the Common tern, Roseate tern, Least tern and Piping plover. The species which nest on rocks or waste near the shore are the Loon and Herring gull. Here might also be included those that nest on trees in the immediate vicinity of the seashore such as the Osprey, Bald eagle, Golden eye, and also the Fish crow, which has not been found far from the sea or the brackish waters of the Hudson. Community of the salt marsh. A few species are not known to nest except in the salt marshes of the coast. These are the Laughing gull, Clapper rail, Sharp-tailed sparrow and Seaside sparrow. Communities of the fresh water marshes. The marshland com- munity is one of the most sharply defined on account of the peculiar edaphic and humid conditions found within the coverts of the cat-tail, reed and sedge formations. Herein are included, in the wider and deeper portions of the marsh where the water is continually standing, such species as the Pied-billed grebe, Black tern, Least bittern, Sora, Florida gallinule, Coot, Red-winged blackbird, Long-billed marsh wren. Where the ground is still moist and water may be standing, but nearer the solid ground than 2O NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM those already mentioned, may be found the American bittern, -King rail, Virginia rail, Marsh hawk, Short-eared owl, Swamp sparrow and Short-billed marsh wren ; where the wet ground is sparsely covered or about its swampy borders, the Wilson snipe ; and invading the marshland from the shore side, numerous examples of the stream margin and damp meadow communities, such as the Spotted sandpiper, Song sparrow and Maryland yellowthroat. Communities of the meadowland. These birds are related ecologically to the prairie society, to which they undoubtedly belonged in primeval time. In the damper portions of our meadowlands will be found the Bobolink and Savannah sparrow, and in the wet meadows, sometimes in bogs and weedy marshes, the Henslow sparrow. In the dryer portions of the meadowland may be found the Bartram sandpiper, Bobwhite, Meadowlark, Vesper sparrow and Grasshopper sparrow. What might be called another general division but more or less related to the meadowland communities, are those inhabiting plains, waste fields and pastures and plowed fields which have a very sparse vegetation. Here belong more properly than in the grassland the Vesper sparrow, Killdeer, Prairie horned lark and Nighthawk, the latter, however, preferring rocky fields in the wildest districts. Community of the pond and stream margins. It has often been noted that many species are practically confined to pond shores and stream courses although they are not called aquatic species, and it might be said that the presence of streams and bodies of water is unquestionably a factor which attracts nearly all species of birds to a greater or less extent, but those confined to the immediate margins of ponds or streams are the American merganser (in hollow trees), Red-breasted merganser (nesting among the grass or low shrubbery), Hooded merganser (in hollow trees), Green heron (nesting among the lower trees), Spotted sandpiper (nesting among the grass and weeds), Belted kingfisher, Bank swallow and Rough- winged swallow (nesting in banks), the Phoebe (on ledges and bridge beams), Tree swallow -(in hollow trees), the Alder flycatcher, Rusty black- bird, Lincoln sparrow and Northern yellowthroat (in bordering thickets). BIRDS OF NEW YORK 21 Community of the wooded swamp. These birds are related to the marshland and stream margin species on one side and to the forest society on the other, but characteristically seem to prefer wooded country of considerable extent covering damp or flooded land. Here are included the Black duck, Wood duck, Great blue heron, Black-crowned night heron, American woodcock, and Water thrush. Communities of the deciduous forest. Under this heading we might make several subdivisions, as, first, those preferring the mature mesophytic forest. Here might be included the Red-bellied woodpecker, Green-crested flycatcher, Crested flycatcher, Yellow-throated vireo and Cerulean warbler. In the same kind of forest, but determined by more or less dense growth of underbrush may be found the Black-throated blue warbler, Mourning warbler, Kentucky warbler, Hooded warbler, Canada warbler and Red- start; and in swampy bottomlands and wooded streamsides, the Louisiana water thrush; in the flooded bottomlands, the Prothonotary warbler. In the deciduous woodland but also showing no objection to the presence of coniferous trees and sometimes preferring the mixed woodland might be mentioned the Ruffed grouse, Cooper hawk, Red-tailed hawk (mostly on the higher ground and gully margins), Red-shouldered hawk (pre- ferring swampy forests), Broad-winged hawk, Great horned owl, Long- eared owl, Barred owl, Saw-whet owl, Hairy woodpecker, Whippoorwill, Ruby-throated humming bird, Wood pewee, Bluejay, Crow, Rose-breasted grosbeak, Scarlet tanager, Red-eyed vireo, Tufted titmouse and Chickadee. Communities of the open woodland. Here might be included the Mourning dove, Sparrow hawk, Screech owl, Downy woodpecker, Red- headed woodpecker, Northern flicker, White-breasted nuthatch. In scattered trees or bushes in fields and along the roadside nest the Kingbird, Cedar bird, Migrant shrike. Open woodlands with thick underbrush are characterized by such species as the Yellow-billed cuckoo, Black-billed cuckoo, Least flycatcher, Orchard oriole, Golden-winged warbler, Nashville warbler, Canada warbler, Yellow warbler, Catbird, Brown thrasher, Carolina wren, Wilson thrush. 22 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Communities of the thicket and forest margin. These are closely related to the open woodland communities which prefer dense underbrush, represented by such species as the White-eyed vireo, Black and White warbler, Worm-eating warbler, Golden-winged warbler, Blue-winged warbler, Yellow warbler, Chestnut-sided warbler, Prairie warbler, Mary- land yellowthroat, Yellow-breasted chat, Field sparrow, Towhee, Cardinal, Indigo bunting, Catbird, Brown thrasher. Communities of the mixed and coniferous forests. Many of our species are almost never found except in woodlands with a fair admixture of coniferous trees or with a preponderance of them. To this group belong the Sharp-shinned hawk, Goshawk, Broad-winged hawk, Long-eared owl, Saw-whet owl, Yellow-bellied sapsucker, Whippoorwill, Bluejay, Blue- headed vireo, Brown creeper, Black-throated green warbler, Chickadee and Hermit thrush. Communities of the coniferous forest. Practically confined to the pine forests, especially those of pitch and red pine, is the Pine warbler. To the spruce and balsam forests belong the Canada grouse, Arctic three- toed woodpecker, American three-toed woodpecker, Olive-sided flycatcher, Yellow-bellied flycatcher, Canada jay, Raven, American crossbill, White- winged crossbill, Pine siskin, Winter wren, Red-breasted nuthatch, Hudsonian chickadee, Golden crowned kinglet, Bicknell thrush, Olive- backed thrush, Myrtle warbler and Black-poll warbler. Practically con- fined to spruce, pine or hemlock forests are the Magnolia warbler, Black- throated green warbler and Blackburnian warbler. Communities of the culture formations. The shade tree and orchard community includes a few species which have adapted themselves so much to civilized conditions that their breeding site is more confined to these situations than to the open woodland formation to which they probably belonged at the beginning. In this are included such species as the Kingbird, Baltimore oriole, Purple grackle, Bronzed grackle, American Goldfinch, Chipping sparrow, Cedar waxwing, Warbling vireo, Robin, Bluebird. This community is often joined by other representatives from BIRDS OF NEW YORK 23 the forest, especially from the open woodland, such as the Mourning dove, Screech owl, Downy woodpecker, Flicker, Least flycatcher, Cowbird, Orchard oriole, Purple finch, White-breasted nuthatch and Chickadee. The garden and shrubbery community is represented by the Song sparrow, Chipping sparrow and Yellow warbler. This is also frequently invaded by representatives from the orchards and shade trees as well as from the open woodland and thicket, such as the Catbird, Goldfinch, and Maryland yellowthroat. The bird box and barn communities are represented by the Wren, Bluebird, Purple martin, White-breasted swallow, Barn swallow, Eaves swallow, Chimney swift and Phoebe. These species have accommodated themselves most fully to the culture conditions which prevail about towns and dooryards. SUCCESSION OF BIRD LIFE Just as a succession of plant formations may be observed in different localities as the climatic and edaphic conditions change, so different bird societies will be found in the same locality, as the plant formations and the various factors of environment vary. When the mature forest is cleared off, the thickets or underbrush which grow up will support various brushland communities; and if the thickets are destroyed by pasturing and cultivation, and grassland succeeds it, the meadow community will occupy the country. Likewise, when marshes are drained, there will usually be a grassland or meadow association succeeding the marsh com- munity which preceded it. If lakes are lowered by the deepening of their outlets, the marshes which are usually found at their heads or near their outlets, become less in area, and grassland communities invade the marsh- land country. This subject is illustrated by the paragraphs on " Potter Swamp," and a " Typical Deciduous Forest." During the last thirty years in western New York I have noticed various illustrations of the succession of bird communities besides those alluded to. When the waters of Canandaigua lake are held up in the springtime at a higher level than formerly prevailed, certain marshlands both at the foot and at the head 24 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of the lake become more extensive. As a result, the marshland com- munity has noticeably increased in numbers. In a single year at the foot of the lake I noticed that the number of pairs of Least bitterns nesting in a marsh of only a few acres in extent increased from one to seven pairs, and the Florida gallinules from two to four pairs, whereas the rails, Marsh wrens, Red-winged blackbirds and Swamp sparrows increased in like ratio, and American bitterns which had not nested near the mouth of Sucker brook for many years again returned to their old haunts at the foot of the lake and nested there as they do in the marshes near the outlet. A similar change is noticed at the head of the lake in the marsh between the Inlet and Clark's Bridge. - Here great numbers of Marsh wrens, Red- winged blackbirds, Swamp sparrows, soras and Virginia rails, likewise a goodly number of gallinules, Least bitterns and American bitterns, as well as a few Black ducks and Blue-winged teals made their summer home. On a smaller scale I have noticed an increase of marshland com- munity in a bit of land near Springville, where a small brook was bridged by the highway and its channel was dammed by the raising of the outlet beneath the bridge. As a result, the land, covering only a few acres, which had been slightly swampy before, grew up to sedges, cat-tails and rank marsh grass. In the swamp there had been found Wilson's snipe and Virginia rail nesting. In one year after the raising of the outlet the appearance of soras and the Red- winged blackbird was noted, while within two years both Least bitterns and King rails also appeared. In like manner the draining of marshes has been observed to result in the reverse condition. The swamp near the foot of Canandaigua lake, lying between the " feeder " and the old outlet, has been drained and largely converted into meadowland and cultivated fields. As a result, within five years the Short-eared owl, Marsh hawk, Bittern, Least bittern, Sora, Virginia rail, Marsh wren, Red-winged blackbird and Swamp sparrow, together with an occasional pair of Black duck and Blue-winged teal which formerly occupied it as a breeding ground, disappeared, and in their places BIRDS OF NEW YORK 25 I noticed only Spotted sandpiper, Killdeer, Savannah sparrow, Song sparrow, Vesper sparrow, Horned lark and Meadowlark. On a hillside overlooking Canandaigua lake I noticed a definite change brought about by the cutting off of woodland and the resultant growth of dense thicket six to twelve feet in height. In this woodland there had been the usual bird community of that region, especially Wood thrush, Red-eyed vireo, Scarlet tanager, Crested flycatcher, Redstart and Oven-, bird. Two years after the cutting of the taller trees the thicket was occupied by Brown thrashers, catbirds, Chestnut-sided warbler, Yellow- breasted chat, Field sparrow and Indigo bird. I am aware that most of these successions are more or less unnatural ; but all of them do occur at times in nature, though more slowly, and what we are at present concerned with is the line of succession which is likely to occur as a result of conditions now obtaining in the State. THE BIRDS OF POTTER SWAMP To give bird students a basis for future comparison as well as to illustrate the exact nature of swamp bird life in central New York, and the rapid changes brought about by clearing woodland, we could select no better bit of territory than Potter swamp which lies in Yates county, between the villages of Potter and Gorham. The upper part of this swamp has been carefully studied by Messrs Verdi Burtch and Clarence F. Stone of Branchport, N. Y., and an estimate made of the number of breeding birds of the various species inhabiting the swamp. This portion of the swamp occupies about two square miles of moist and wet woodland along the course of Flint creek. The tree growth is mostly deciduous, consisting of red and white maple, white elm and ash, interspersed with " islands " of white pine and hemlock, and thickets of Arbor vitae. In most places, especially where the larger trees have been cut down by recent lumbering operations, there is a dense growth of underbrush, consisting of sprouts and saplings of the species mentioned and various swamp shrubs like spice bush, winterberry, alder, willow and a great variety of herbs, ferns, grasses 26 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and sedges, and, in some localities along the brook, cat-tails and rushes. Numerous moss-covered logs and hummocks rise from the standing water or from the soggy earth. Around the edge of the swamp and along the wood roads there are also dense tangles and thickets of weeds 'and shrub- bery and near the southern end, an expanse of damp meadow. The altitude of the swamp is 880 feet and it is surrounded by hills rising to a height of 1000 to 1 200 feet. The estimated average summer temperature during the six hottest weeks is about 69 degrees F. The birds included in this list are from the records of Burtch and Stone, the number after each species representing its relative abundance as compared with the Song sparrow, which is held to be the most abundant bird in the swamp and is marked 100. In addition to those birds which nest within the swamp, the author has added from his own observation and consultation with Messrs Burtch and Stone the following species which nest within half a mile, but their relative abundance can not be determined: Killdeer, Belted kingfisher, Chimney swift, Prairie horned lark, Vesper sparrow. Savannah sparrow, Grasshopper sparrow, Chipping sparrow, Field sparrow, Cliff swallow, Barn swallow, House wren and Ring-necked pheasant. Birds of Potter swamp in 1908. Numbers after each species indicate relative abundance on the scale of 100. Black duck i, Wood duck 5, American bittern 2, Least bittern 2, Great blue heron 7, Green heron 5, Virginia rail 5, Sora 5, American woodcock 2, Wilson snipe I, Spotted sandpiper 5, Ruffed grouse 5, Mourning dove 15, Marsh hawk I, Sharp- shinned hawk I, Cooper hawk I, Red-tailed hawk 2, Red-shouldered hawk 2, Sparrow hawk 2, Long-eared owl 3, Barred owl 2, Screech owl 8, Great horned owl 2, Yellow-billed cuckoo 10, Black-billed cuckoo i, Hairy wood- pecker 25, Downy woodpecker 30, Yellow-bellied sapsucker 5, Red-headed woodpecker 8, Red-bellied woodpecker 15, Flicker 35, Ruby-throated humming bird 15, Kingbird 8, Crested flycatcher 40, Phoebe 15, Wood pewee 25, Alder flycatcher 10, Least flycatcher 20, Blue jay 10, Crow 30, Bobolink 15, Cowbird 40, Red-winged blackbird 50, Meadowlark 10, Baltimore oriole 30, Bronzed grackle 40, Goldfinch 30, Song sparrow 100, BIRDS OF NEW YORK 27 Swamp sparrow 20, Rose-breasted grosbeak 30, Indigo bunting 5, Scarlet tanager 25, Cedar waxwing 5, Red-eyed vireo 25, Warbling vireo 10, Yellow- throated vireo 20, Golden-winged warbler 3, Yellow warbler 35, Cerulean warbler 40, Chestnut-sided warbler I, Ovenbird 10, Water thrush 70, Louisiana water thrush 2, Mourning warbler 20, Northern yellowthroat 50, Canadian warbler 15, American redstart 75, Catbird 10, Winter wren i, Long-billed marsh wren 15, Brown creeper 20, White-breasted nuthatch 30, Black-capped chickadee 15, Wood thrush 3, Wilson thrush 90, Robin 40, Bluebird 15, English sparrow 5. In the year 1911 a single pair of White-throated sparrows nested in the swamp. During the year 1911-1912 nearly all the standing timber in the upper portion of the swamp was cut away and manufactured into barrel staves. As a result of the cutting of the timber a dense growth of weeds and shrubbery appeared in the summer of 1912. The effect upon the bird life was very manifest. No Black duck nor Wood duck were found in this portion of the swamp. The Great blue heron had no nesting trees and disappeared. Such species as the Hairy woodpecker, Crested flycatcher, Wood pewee, Blue jay, Crow, Rose-breasted grosbeak, Red-eyed vireo, Cerulean warbler and Water thrush had noticeably diminished in numbers, but the Bitterns, Rails, Marsh hawks, Indigo bunting, Golden- winged warbler and Chestnut-sided warbler had noticeably increased in number, the last to such an extent that 60 would represent its standing in 1912. The Brown creeper increased in the swamp just previous to 1908 due to the winter ice-girdling of the trees near the ground and the production of favorable nesting sites beneath the dead bark. In 1912 it had diminished to the standing of 3, the nesting sites having been destroyed. BIRDS OF A TYPICAL DECIDUOUS FOREST One and one-half miles north of the village of Springville in Erie county there is a small tract of woodland composed of a formation of sugar maple and beech with a small admixture of hop hornbeam, black cherry, white elm and cork elm; the soil is a gravelly loam, well drained, 28 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM with an intermittent brook flowing near one corner of the wood. This grove covers not more than 30 acres of land. Sometime before 1860 it was pastured by sheep and the entire growth of seedlings and small sap- lings as well as the ground cover was practically killed out, so that one passing along the highway at the edge of the wood could look the whole length of the grove beneath the branches of the trees. After 1865 the grove was again allowed to grow up and, as would naturally be expected, there arose a thick growth of maple and beech seedlings with a slight admixture of other forms. By the year 1880 there was a dense stand of saplings from 8 to 20 feet in height, and around the edge of the wood as well as in a few of the more open spots, a dense growth of red raspberry, blackberry, elderberry and sumac. The stand of trees and saplings was so dense that there was only a slight ground cover, except a continuous coating of dead leaves throughout the summertime, and fair growth of early spring flowers, such as Trillium, Sanguinaria, Dicentra, Dentaria, Erythronium and Claytonia. Beginning with the year 1879-1880, the author made a very careful study of this woodland recording minutely everything he could observe in regard to its bird life. The species found nesting in the wood at that time were the Ruffed grouse, Black- billed cuckoo, Downy woodpecker, Red-headed woodpecker, Flicker, Least flycatcher, Crested flycatcher, Crow, Cowbird, Red-eyed vireo,* Yellow warbler,* Chestnut-sided warbler, Hooded warbler, Redstart, Ovenbird,* Song sparrow,* Field sparrow,* Goldfinch, Rose-breasted grosbeak,* Indigo bird, White-breasted nuthatch, Wood thrush and Veery. The species marked with a star were found about the edge of the wood and in the raspberry thickets. Twenty years later I had an opportunity of observing the bird life in this same wood. In the interim the saplings had grown to tall poles and as one walked through the wood he could see for a considerable distance in all directions. There was no thicket within eight feet of the ground; in fact, very little foliage lower than the height of twenty feet. The stand of poles had killed off all the lower growths. I was interested to note that of the species found there BIRDS OF NEW YORK 2Q twenty years before, although the wood was, in other respects than those mentioned, in the same condition as formerly, one could find no longer any Ruffed grouse, Least flycatcher, Red-eyed vireo, Yellow warbler, Chestnut-sided warbler, Hooded warbler, Redstart, Field sparrow, Gold- finch, Rose-breasted grosbeak and Indigo bird. There were only a few Wood thrushes left, probably only one pair. Only two new species, how- ever, were observed. These were the Scarlet tanager and Yellow-throated vireo, which seemed fairly common throughout the grove, and the Ovenbird and Veery were much more common than they had been twenty years before. The student of bird life will readily account for most of the change in the avifauna noted, which is principally due to the destruc- tion of the breeding and feeding sites of the birds which had disappeared. It would seem natural enough that the Yellow-throated vireo should now be commoner than the Red-eyed vireo, but that it should have been entirely absent in 1880 and the Red-eyed entirely absent in 1900, was hard to explain. Also why the Veery was more common and the Wood thrush less common is equally difficult of solution. These cases of the vireos and thrushes may possibly be due to questions of rivalry which are not fully understood at the present time. This brief chapter in history will serve to answer more forcibly than any general argument a question which has been put to me so often by nature lovers in different portions of the State, as to why they can not have certain species of birds in their groves and wood lots, or in their orchards and gardens. It is absolutely essential that the proper nesting and feeding habitat shall be provided for those species which are not universal in their choice of environment. BIRDS OF THE CENTRAL LAKE RAVINES In the west-central part of New York State and extending like the thumb and fingers of the outstretched palm from the Lake Ontario low- land toward the highlands of eastern and southern New York, lies the chain of lakes: Oneida, Onondaga, Otisco, Skaneateles, Owasco, Cayuga, 3O NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Seneca, Keuka, Canandaigua, Canadice, Conesus and Hemlock. These lakes are all of glacial origin, being the drainage valleys of ' a preglacial river system. At the close of the ice age their outlets to the north were blocked by extensive deposits of drift dropped by the retreating glacier, causing the general line of lakes with their outlet system to assume a direction parallel with the margin of the great Ontario lobe of the ice sheet, the lake valleys running radially to the edge of the ice lobe and extending mostly in a north and south direction. With the exception of the three westernmost lakes of the chain, they drain through the Canandaigua- Seneca-Oneida-Oswego system into Lake Ontario. Thus, the country under consideration is practically the basin of the Oswego river. The lakes lie at altitudes ranging from 364 feet to over 700 feet in the case of the smaller southern and western members of the chain. The northern and eastern portions of this country average about 500 feet in elevation. About the southern ends, after Oneida and Onondaga are passed, lie the hills which mark the northern slopes of the Alleghanian plateau. Many of these hills surpass 2000 feet in elevation. This lake country is well settled, and 'extensive forests are nowhere in evidence except in the larger swamps and on the more elevated hills. Characteristic trees are the beech, maple, elm, ash, basswood, sycamore, oaks, chestnut, sassafras, hornbeams, shad tree, flowering dogwood, thorn trees, white pine, pitch pine and red cedar. Arbor vitae and tamarack swamps are of frequent occurrence. In the gullies, hemlock, yellow birch, mountain maple and striped maple are common, especially on the shaded slopes. There are numerous deep-cut ravines in the shaly rock of the Hamilton and Chemung periods, well typified by the famous Watkins glen. Their prevailing east and west direction causes the southern sides to lie mostly in shade, and at the same time percolating waters from the outcropping strata on the sides of the glen, and the tumbling waters of the glen streams, cause a high moisture content in the glen atmosphere. Consequently, there is both a lower tem- perature in the glen and a slower rate of evaporation from the surface of BIRDS OF NEW YORK 31 the plants and animals that inhabit it, which approaches the conditions found in the North Woods. This is illustrated by the admixture of Canadian flora on the cooler side of the glen, such as the mountain maple and moosewood, and by a number of Canadian birds which are found in nearly every one of the larger and deeper glens. The conditions may best be understood by enumerating the birds of a typical ravine like the Seneca glen on Canandaigua lake. Here are found on the forest slopes such breeding species as the Junco, Hermit thrush, and the Magnolia, Parula, Blackburnian, Black-throated green, and Black-throated blue warb- lers ; in tangles near the bottom of the glen or about its source, the Cana- dian and Mourning warblers are found in small numbers. In the woodland or thicket just above the edge of the glen the Black and white warbler and Redstart are fairly common, and in the thickets near the edge the Chestnut- sided warbler, and, in some seasons, the Yellow-breasted chat. In the pine grove within hearing of the glen itself, three or four pairs of Pine warblers nest. Near the stream at the bottom of the glen, three or four pairs of Louisiana water thrushes are found; on the shaly ledges near the falls, Phoebes are nesting; near the mouth of the glen, a Wood pewee; in the woods on either side are found the Wood thrush, Scarlet tanager, Crested flycatcher, Ruffed grouse, and near the head of the glen one pair of Great horned owls, and one pair each of Red-tailed and Sharp-shinned hawks. In the thickets near the northern edge of the glen, catbirds, Brown thrash- ers, chewinks, Indigo birds and Field sparrows are fairly common, and rarely the Yellow-breasted chat, while near at hand in the dry field are found the Grasshopper sparrow and Prairie horned lark; not far from these, in damper situations, the Savannah sparrow and Bobolink. At the mouth of the glen by the lake shore, the Rough-winged swallow may be seen flying back and forth to his nest in the shaly bank nearby. In addition to the species mentioned, all the common birds of the Alleghanian fauna may be found in suitable sites within the woods surrounding the glen or in near-by fields. Similar conditions to these prevail in many glens which the author has visited, both on Canandaigua, Keuka, Seneca and 32 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Cayuga lakes. It will be noticed by the student of bird distribution that here is a curious admixture within a short radius of various Caro- linian and Canadian faunal species, and a striking illustration of the effects of slope and of evaporating waters, both upon the temperature and the low rate of evaporation, which determines the presence of northern species. THE INFLUENCE OF CULTURE OPERATIONS The effect of the so-called culture conditions upon our native bird life has been referred to in volume I, pages 50 to 57. Anyone who has perused the present chapter thus far can not fail to perceive that all the various bird communities are immediately affected by the manifold changes which have occurred since the settlement of the State. Eighteen and one-half millions of acres of the State domains are no longer wooded, only twelve million acres of woodland remaining. The result of such a change within two centuries has been keenly felt by all the sylvan birds. The effect of the principal operations which have a widespread influence upon bird life may be briefly summarized. Timber cutting. The destruction of our primeval forest has often been noted as the main cause for the decrease of bird life, but this subject should be considered more carefully by the students of bird conservation. There can be no doubt that such species as the Raven, Pileated woodpecker, larger hawks and owls, and most of those species which are classed as belonging to the mature forest communities, whether deciduous or evergreen, will be discouraged by a reduc- tion of the growth of standing timber. At the same time, the effect of cutting the forest benefits all species of the open field, and nearly every kind of bird which is ordinarily classed as a forest species increases when the forest growth is less dense and the amount of underbrush increases. As an example of this, we might cite the case of the Chestnut- sided warbler. This bird was considered a rare species in the days of Wilson and Audubon. Chapman in his Warblers of North America, page 189, calls attention to the fact that it is now a common species in BIRDS OF NEW YORK 33 many sections of the country. The author's own experience at Springville, where many forests were cut off and followed in 1880-85 by dense thickets of briars and saplings, which caused this species to become as abundant as the Yellow warbler; and the experience of bird students in Potter swamp, where nearly two square miles within two years have been cleared of the tall timber, and dense thickets have sprung up all around the edge of the swamp, shows that this species has increased at least 1000 per cent. There can be no doubt that the gradual clearing of the Alleghanian and Canadian zone in the northeastern states and lower Canada has opened up vast stretches of hillside and bushy pasture as a breeding ground for the Chestnut-sided warbler since the days of Wilson and Audubon, and that these general conditions are the cause of the fact that this species is now one of our commonest migratory warblers as well as one of our commonest breeding species in many sections of the State. A similar condition has been noted in regard to the Nashville warbler in other parts of the country. Alexander Wilson secured only three speci- mens of this bird and regarded it as a rare species. According to William Brewster, Samuel Cabot found it a rare species in eastern Massachusetts up to 1836, but by the year 1842 it had become common in that section, and a similar condition has taken place over the northeastern states so that now, in nearly every portion of New York State, the Nashville warbler is recorded as common or abundant during the migration season of early May. The immense tracts of slashings and burnt lands growing up to birch and poplar throughout the North Woods region have undoubtedly helped this warbler in its race for supremacy. The author has noticed within the last ten years an unusual increase in the numbers of Cape May warblers observed in central and western New York, and reports of similar observations have come from various other sources. There can be little doubt that the gradual advance of clearings and lumbering operations in Northern Ontario and Quebec has gradually opened up tracts of country favorable as breeding sites for this species, which formerly were covered by forests so dense that they did not furnish it the conditions necessary 3 34 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM for rearing its young, but that now it is increasing as the Nashville and Chestnut-sided warblers have done before it. Furthermore, there can be little doubt that nearly all the North Woods warblers which migrate through New York in the early days of May have increased in numbers since the colonial time. The author's experience in 1905 while studying the bird life of the Mt Marcy district, illustrates these general conclusions. Within the mature forest of the Adirondack Forest Reserve we found very few warblers except the Blackburnian, Black-throated green and Ovenbird, but as soon as we visited the slashings where the Mclntyre Iron Company had cut off all the large timber, and the extensive burnt tracts in the vicinity of Elk lake, the number of breeding warblers immediately increased. This was especially noticeable in the case of such warblers as the Chestnut-sided, Mourning, Magnolia and the Redstart. The Black-poll warbler, which in this State is confined mostly to the stunted spruces on higher slopes of the mountains, and the Myrtle warbler as well, are favorably affected by the increase of low spruces which follows the cutting of the larger timber of the mountain sides. What is true of the warblers is also true of the Ruffed grouse in Canada and the North Woods. This species is always known to increase when the mature forest is cut off, and clearings and slashings spring up in various parts of the forest tract. It is thus evident that the cutting of the forest, provided the land is not entirely cleared and turned into cultivated field, is a boon to most of the species which inhabit second growth of shrubbery or open woodland, to which number must be assigned the greater portion of our song and insectivorous birds. Draining of swamps and marshes. It is impossible to hold such hopeful opinions in regard to the draining of swamps and marshes. The marshland society is so closely confined to its own special habitat and its conditions are so different from those of any other available habitat that all those birds which nest in the marsh are surely exiled in any district where the marshes are drained and turned into cultivated fields. A similar statement could be made in regard to the extensive swamp lands which BIRDS OF NEW YORK 35 are more or less covered with forest growth. The author has seen one heronry after another disappear in western New York through the draining of swamps, and the Wood duck and the Woodcock, as well as the other members of that community, must necessarily disappear as their coverts are destroyed. An examination of the health of people living along the margins of the Montezuma marsh and the Potter swamp reveals the fact that malaria is practically unknown, and the claim so often made by com- panies who wish to have the State drain such extensive marshes, that they are unhealthy in their influence, can not be sustained. The mos- quitoes bred in such places are undoubtedly annoying to visitors in these districts, but the mosquitoes certainly do not spread the malaria unless the malarial parasite is present. However, we expect to see most of the swamps and marshes disappear, but we hope that a few will be preserved, at least about the Seneca river, the Hudson, and the shores of Lake Ontario, which will be preserves for marsh birds in centuries to come. Pasturing. In many of the bird books one finds the expression that this or that species is " common on hillside pastures," and the ease with which the bird student walks over the unencumbered ground and examines the edges of the bushy tracts for favorite species has given the impression that pastures are favorable habitats for many birds. A more careful study of the situation reveals the fact that not only most of the grassland species are driven from the land by pasturing, partly because their nests are frequently trod upon by the pasturing animals, but also because the cover which protects the nesting birds is destroyed and they are obliged to seek more grassy fields outside the pasture. Furthermore, the principal harm of pasturing, to the bird life, is found in the destruction of ground cover which inevitably results in woods and thickets. This is especially noticeable in sheep pastures where all the vegetation is destroyed to a height 'of three or four feet above the ground. In such pasture land the thickets and undergrowth, which usually support an abundant bird life, are eliminated and the birds must seek other coverts. When we consider how few woodlands in the more cultivated portions of the State 36 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM are governed with any idea of protecting the ground cover and undergrowth, there is no wonder that the birds of the thicket community are becoming rarer except in certain favored localities. Pruning of orchards and shade trees. In other connections we have spoken of the disastrous effects to bluebirds, chickadees and Downy woodpeckers of cutting every dead limb from shade and fruit trees, but this practice is likely to become more uniform and the only salvation for those species which nest in hollows and dead limbs, is the erection of artificial nesting sites by State authorities and by the individual land- owners. The government officials of Germany that control the forest land are beginning to give more and more attention to the erecting of nesting sites, finding that woodland birds are necessary to hold in check the tree-destroying insects which sometimes do widespread damage to the young forest trees, and many private landowners in various parts of the world have demonstrated the utility of erecting hollow limbs and boxes for the woodpecker and bird box communities. It is a noticeable fact that those birds are usually species which are most useful in holding the pests of forest trees under proper check, and the day can not come too soon when bird protection societies as well as the State officials who have conservation questions in their hands, will erect nesting limbs and nesting boxes for all species that can be thus encouraged, to counteract the wholesale destruction of nesting sites which results from the "cleaning up "in orchards, parklands, shade trees and State forests. The spraying of trees. The necessity which is increasing year by year of holding various insect pests in check by spraying with poisons, has resulted in some destruction of bird life, although the opinion is usually held that this danger is largely exaggerated; but when we consider the fact that dead birds in any case are very rarely seen, the fact that we find so few which have been killed by spraying operations is not at all surprising. Dead birds are quickly put out of sight by cats, dogs and skunks, or buried by the sexton beetles and other scavengers. Sick birds almost always fly away to some shelter, an instinct which is universal BIRDS OF NEW YORK 37 among wild creatures, and thus the deadly effects of the spraying upon bird life are rarely observed. There can be no doubt that many birds such as cuckoos and orioles feeding continuously on poisoned caterpillars finally succumb to the cumulative effect of the arsenical poisons which are most commonly employed. There is some remedy in the fact that birds will rarely touch larvae that show evidence of sickness, and probably never touch them after they are dead. The author, however, has examined two cuckoos which evidently died from arsenical poisoning, and other instances have been reported by Brewster, Ridgway and Forbush, and by many inhabitants of New York State. We believe that the decrease of both species of cuckoos in the apple districts of western New York is partly due to their gluttonous desire for caterpillar diet. Plowing and cultivating. The author sees no satisfactory means of overcoming the disastrous effects of late plowing which are so destructive to bird communities of the open field. The Meadowlark, Vesper sparrow, Bobolink and Bart ram sandpiper have all suffered tremendously from this cause during the last fifty years. The Prairie horned lark escapes the effects to a slight extent by nesting early in the season, but a part of their broods are destroyed by the early plowing. Much good may be done, however, by the plowman if he is on the watch for nests, and plows around them. The slight loss of time and of crop space which results from such measures, will undoubtedly be repaid tenfold by the larks, sparrows, kill- deers and sandpipers that are thus preserved. They feed on the weed seeds and insects which injure the crops, and the presence of their nests in the field should be hailed with delight by the agriculturist. Mowing. In late years the practice of mowing earlier in the season than was the custom in former years, and completing all the mowing very quickly by the aid of improved machinery, whereas in former days the hand mowing prolonged the operation through several weeks, has nearly completed the destruction of the Bobolink in many localities where it was formerly one of our most familiar birds. All the meadowland species suffer from mowing operations and there is little hope of overcoming the 38 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM evil. Even where the nests are discovered and moved, or the knife is raised before it has done its fatal work, the nests become an easy prey to grackles and crows or other marauders before the young are able to leave the nest. Our only escape from this evil seems to be the adaptability of many of the grassland species which finally teaches them to nest in the edges of the field, or to nest earlier in the season, or to rear another brood as soon as the first is destroyed. This, while not a perfect remedy, has worked marvels in many cases which have come under the author's observation where meadowlarks and bobolinks have finally succeeded in inhabiting grasslands in spite of modern conditions of harvesting and hay cropping. FOOD OF BIRDS Insectivorous species. Of the thirty-two families of land birds found within the State of New York, every one feeds to some extent upon insects, and several families are almost exclusively insectivorous. Among these may be mentioned the goatsuckers, swifts, flycatchers, swallows, vireos, cuckoos, wood warblers, wrens, titmice, nuthatches and kinglets. Of the great order Passeres, which includes almost all our familiar birds, every family feeds largely upon insects during the nesting season, and the young of all are fed upon them. The families which are largely insectivorous but vary their diet to some extent on seeds or fruit are the woodpeckers, larks, blackbirds, orioles, waxwings, tanagers, thrashers and thrushes. Thus it is evident that birds act as the regulators of insect life, maintaining the balance of nature so that vegetation, which is the natural food of the insects, may increase; and it is generally conceded that if the natural enemies of insects were destroyed the result would be the rapid disappearance of all vegetation in the fields and forests We would not maintain for an instant that birds are the only enemies of foliage-feeding insects, for unquestionably among their most effective enemies are unfavorable changes in climatic conditions and the increase of parasitic species which hold them in check to a great extent; but a study of the food habits of birds, as observed in the field and by examination BIRDS OF NEW YORK 39 of their stomach contents in the laboratory, reveals the fact that they destroy incredible numbers of insects, for they have the most voracious appetities of all warm-blooded animals. When we consider that one Whippoorwill has been known to devour thirty-six good-sized moths within one hour and that a warbler has been seen to swallow five hundred seventy-six plant lice in four minutes, it is evident that an abundance of bird life in the field and forest can not fail to keep down the number of insect pests. Furthermore, the freedom with which birds move from place to place suggests the especial value of the birds' work, for, by reason of their migratory habits and their unrestricted activity, both over the ground and through the trees and in the air, they are able to discover danger centers of insect life and prevent serious outbreaks in many cases when insect parasites might be too slow in their attacks or weather con- ditions unfavorable to the pest might fail to appear. The especial value of each family of birds or of each order will be found briefly summarized in the pages of this book immediately following the family and ordinal descriptions. Carnivorous birds. Every one knows that hawks and owls feed on birds and mice. It is also a fact that nearly every species of hawk and owl feeds, especially in summer and fall, upon large quantities of insects, although this is especially true of the smaller species like the Sparrow hawk and Screech owl. Other members of this family vary their diet with fish, frogs and reptiles, as the occasion offers, so that the order Rap- tores can not be considered exclusively carnivorous, although the main food of all the larger species is composed of some kind of flesh. Besides the hawks, owls and vultures that are typically carnivorous species, many other birds at times kill smaller mammals or even other birds, as is the case with gulls, jaegers, herons, and bitterns, which occasionally capture mice or young birds; some Red-headed woodpeckers are known to feed on the young of other birds; crows, jays and grackles are especially fond of nestlings and also capture small mice in the field ; and shrikes are adapted for capturing birds, which they impale on thorns and partly devour. It 4O NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM is thus evident that only the order Raptores, of all our native birds, is characteristically carnivorous. Piscivorous species. Many families of water birds subsist largely on a diet of fish, as is the case with the loons, grebes, auks, gulls, jaegers, cormorants, pelicans, mergansers and herons, as well as fish hawks and kingfishers. In addition, some families have a few representatives which partake to some extent of a fish diet whenever they have the opportunity. Here are included many of the larger shore birds like the Yellow-legs; a few of the Accipitres, as the Bald eagle and Red-shouldered hawk; sorne of the owls, like the Snowy, Great -horned and Barred owl; and crows and grackles, both of which I have observed capturing minnows in the shallow water of ponds and streams. Granivorous species. A cursory glance at the bird kingdom will reveal the fact that the most characteristically granivorous of our native birds are the pigeons, grouse and pheasants. Of these, undoubtedly the pigeons are more granivorous than the grouse, and all these families at the same time feed to considerable extent on fruit and insects. Of our common perching birds, the larks, blackbirds, sparrows and finches are the most addicted to granivorous diet, in fact subsisting for the most part on seeds of various kinds except during the breeding season. To these families we might add a few which feed to a slight extent on seeds in addition to their other diet. Here belong many of the ducks and geese, especially the river ducks and our wild goose, which feed mostly upon grain and seeds during the fall and winter; likewise, the rails, gallinules, crows, and jays, and to a slight extent the pipits, titmice and nuthatches. Frugivorous species. As the season of ripe fruit in this State is of comparatively short duration, except for trees and shrubs which retain their fruit late into the winter, we could scarcely expect to find any families of native birds characteristically fruit eaters, but of those that seem to prefer the fruit diet while it is obtainable, we might mention the thrushes and waxwings. Other birds which partake to a considerable extent are the rails, gallinules, pigeons, grouse, pheasants, woodpeckers, BIRDS OF NEW YORK 4! some flycatchers like the kingbirds, crows, jays, blackbirds, orioles, sparrows, finches, a few of the vireos and warblers like the Myrtle warbler which feeds on the waxberry, and the thrashers and nuthatches. In addition to the main articles of diet in the birds' regimen included in this brief summary, we might mention the various species of animals like snails, spiders, millipeds and crayfish, all of which are devoured by the fish-eating and insect-eating species; the sea ducks feeding largely on aquatic mollusca; thrushes frequently attacking the land snails; grebes, kingfishers and ducks devouring the crayfish; wrens, thrashers and various other species feeding on spiders. The buds and leaves of trees are attractive to many species like the grouse and some of the finches. The sap and cambium layer is eagerly sought by one species of woodpecker, the Sapsucker. The tender shoots of many plants are also eaten by ducks, pigeons, grouse, bobwhites etc. In fact, any kind of animal or vegetable food which is tender and easily obtainable is likely to be found an article of diet of some species of bird; but the more conspicuous varieties of diet we have enumerated to suggest the benefit and the injury which it is possible for birds to accomplish. INJURY DONE BY BIRDS Destruction of grain. The Crow and the Blackbird have long been reviled as corn thieves by the inhabitants of New York and there can be no doubt that many fields which are located near the haunts of the Crow and the Grackle have suffered much from the destruction of newly planted grain, as they pull up the sprouting kernels and render the work of the planter useless. Various devices have been tried for preventing this pulling of newly planted corn, such as tarring the seed, which is more or less effective, but there is little doubt that the crow is injurious in other ways and there is little reason to preserve him although his injury to the corn fields might be overlooked. The newly introduced Ring-necked pheasant has also been destructive in some localities by digging up the newly planted corn with its beak, following the rows and destroying each hill in succession. 42 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Injury to standing grain, especially corn in the ear, is often attributed to the Crow and the Blackbird. The author has examined on several occasions hundreds of acres of corn fields which have been injured while in the milk by grackles and Red-winged blackbirds, at least the upper third of nearly every ear in the field having been mutilated by the birds. Such depredations, however, are mostly confined to low-lying districts near extensive marshes inhabited by the blackbirds, and are by no means general, in fact, scarcely noticed in most sections of the country. Corn in the shock is extensively injured by crows and pheasants when it is left standing in the field through the late fall and early winter. The loca- tion of crow roosts in western New York is determined to a considerable extent by the crops of corn left unhusked in the field. It is also true that the blackbirds, English sparrows and pheasants, where numerous, do considerable damage to the wheat, barley and oat fields by attacking the grain while standing, and also in the shock or grain stack; but none of our native sparrows have been accused of doing damage to grain in New York. While ducks, geese and bobwhites take a little corn, wheat and buckwheat, near the marshes or coverts where they reside, almost all their foraging is done on waste grain which is scattered over the field and never would be brought into the granary, so they can not be called injurious from the grain which they devour. Injury to cultivated fruit. Of all the frugivorous species mentioned in a preceding paragraph, only the Robin, Cedarbird, Red-headed wood- pecker, Catbird and English sparrow have caused extensive trouble from their destruction of the smaller cultivated fruits in this State. In some sections the Crow and the Grackle have done some damage and occasionally slight complaints have been issued against thrashers, flickers, tanagers and orioles for attacks upon outlying cherry trees. The Crow and Red- headed woodpecker also attack summer apples to an annoying extent in some orchards, and in the vineyards of central and western New York, the Robin and the Pheasant, as well as the Crow, have been annoying in a few districts. Of all the damage which has been done to the fruit BIRDS OF NEW YORK 43 crop, however, very little is worthy of sober consideration except the depredations of robins and cedarbirds in the cherry orchards of the State. Some of the other small fruits have suffered, especially the berry crop, but the main damage seems to be to the cherry, and the principal offenders are the Robin and Cedarbird. It is almost hopeless to attempt frightening the birds from the trees by any device which can be erected. We believe the best safeguard is to plant a few trees bearing early fruit around the edges of the orchard or on the roadside to attract the robins and cedar- birds away from the orchard. Destruction of poultry and game. Many farmers have the idea that every hawk is an enemy to their poultry yard, although Fisher's famous work on the economic status of hawks and owls has been in print for twenty-five years; and it has been impossible for the Audubon Society or the scientists that have borne testimony before the legislative committees of New York State to change this popular misapprehension. The main obstacle in dealing with this subject before legislators undoubtedly arises from the difficulty which is apparent of recognizing in the field the different species of hawks, and so for the average citizen to distinguish the useful from the injurious species. Certain it is, however, that some of the hawks should be classed as injurious while others are useful in their habits. Birds decidedly injurious from their attacks upon poultry and game are the Goshawk, Cooper hawk, Duck hawk and Great horned owl. Other species of the large hawks and owls also do some injury, but, according to the most careful study of the subject, should not be classed as more injurious than beneficial because of their depredations. These are the Red-tailed hawk, Marsh hawk, Barred owl and Snowy owl. A comparative summary of the food and habits of the various species will be found on .page 62. Destruction of insectivorous birds. Several species of hawks seem to be extremely fond of small birds, especially of thrushes, sparrows, larks and warblers. In this number are the Cooper hawk, Sharp-shinned hawk, Duck hawk and Pigeon hawk. The Sharp-shinned and Pigeon hawks feed almost exclusively on small birds. Less destructive in this 44 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM respect, but, nevertheless, feeding to the extent of more than 15 per cent upon our smaller birds, are the Sparrow hawk, Marsh hawk, Screech owl, Barred owl and Snowy owl. Especially destructive to nestlings and eggs are the Crow, Bluejay, Bronzed grackle, Cowbird and English sparrow. Destruction of fish and frogs. It will be evident to the reader that all the fish-eating species would fall in this category. Especially injurious in this respect are the loons, larger grebes, cormorants, gannets, American and Red-breasted mergansers, herons, Fish hawk and Kingfisher. It is often urged by bird lovers that the loon, grebe, fish hawk and heron are more valuable from the picturesqueness which they lend to the lake and stream-side than the small fry which they destroy in gaining their daily livelihood, and it is undoubtedly a fact that the larger fishes — the game fishes in particular — rarely fall a prey to these piscivorous species; but the destruction of great numbers of minnows, chubs and shiners has a direct influence upon the abundance of food fishes as that is their principal sustenance. The birds mentioned also destroy a considerable number of the young of trout and white fish, as I have found by the dissection of loons, grebes and mergansers; and the Great blue heron as well as the Kingfisher are sometimes veritable scourges of brook trout preserves. I have watched a Great blue heron feeding on the edge of a trout pond strike and swallow seven fingerling trout in the course of as many minutes ; and the Kingfisher also destroys large numbers of these speckled beauties. All the fish-eating species are especially voracious. While duck shooting on the Montezunia marshes, I once noticed a small flock of Red-breasted mergansers feeding in shallow water capturing what appeared to be great numbers of fish. After they had been feeding for half an hour two of the birds were shot, and from the gullet and stomach of one I took thirteen chubs, some of them five inches in length. The Hooded merganser is not known to feed to such an extent on fish, although it destroys a considerable number. Many of the sea ducks, especially the Old squaw and Golden-eye, are partially fish-eaters. As far as direct usefulness is concerned, undoubtedly the American and Red-breasted BIRDS OF NEW YORK 45 mergansers are of no value, but their depredations are chiefly confined to larger lakes and rivers. The Great blue heron and Kingfisher are the only ones that are especially destructive to brook trout culture throughout the State. Frogs, which should be ranked as mostly beneficial animals, are destroyed in great numbers by all the heron family, and especially by the bitterns as well as to some extent by the ducks and geese and even by the shore birds, crows and grackles. The Broad-winged hawk and Red-shouldered hawk, though mainly beneficial, are especially destructive to frogs, capturing them in great numbers during the spring when the frogs are in their spawning pools. Destruction of trees and timber. There is only one New York species that can be branded as a serious destroyer of trees. This is the Yellow- bellied sapsucker. I have noticed many specimens of Scotch pines, spruces, mountain ashes and birch trees that were so girdled by this sapsucker that their life was finally destroyed, and innumerable specimens of wood that showed the scars due to holes bored by the sapsucker which had been grown over but still left knots and shaky spots in the wood. Fortunately, this woodpecker also does a great deal of good during a large portion of the year, but in parks, dooryards and nurseries where his attack is concen- trated upon valuable trees he must be considered an injurious species and not to be protected. Destruction of beneficial insects. As has been stated already, insects must be regarded as the principal food of our native birds, but it must not be supposed that all the insects destroyed are injurious species. As every one knows, the ichneumon flies are examples of a large number of parasitic hymenoptera which lay their eggs on caterpillars or other leaf-eating insects, thereby destroying them and preventing their increase. There is also a large number of ground beetles and tiger beetles which are predaceous in habits and destroy the vegetable-feeding species. There are also the lady beetles or ladybirds that feed to a great extent on scales and plant lice and many other insects beneficial in various ways, even the despised earthworm or angleworm being extremely beneficial to agricultural interests, 46 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM as shown by the investigation of Charles Darwin. These beneficial insects are destroyed as well as the injurious ones by many of our native birds, ground beetles and tiger beetles especially being destroyed by such ground feeders as the Crow, Blackbird, Robin and Bluebird; the parasitic hymen- optera by the flycatchers and to some extent by other species like the vireos, warblers and kinglets. The earthworm and ground beetles are, unfortunately, a large percentage of the food of the Robin while he is not devouring fruit of some kind. Dispersal of injurious plants. The especial harm done in this manner may be attributed to such species as the Downy woodpecker, Hairy wood- pecker, Robin, Cedarbird and to a less extent to others which feed on the fruit of the poison ivy, poison sumac, or other injurious plants and disperse their seeds broadcast over the country on the roadsides, fence rows and lake shores. THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS Destruction of insects. As intimated in various connections hereto- fore, the main value of birds is in holding tree and crop enemies in check. Modern methods of fighting injurious insects seem, in some cases, to render the aid of birds unnecessary, but the special value of the birds' work con- sists in attacking insect pests which are not reached by poison spray and at seasons of the year when spraying is not practised, thereby preventing outbreaks which otherwise would cause great destruction and expense. There can be no doubt that the hordes of migrating warblers attacking plant lice, which can not be controlled by poison, and other injurious species early in the season, thereby destroying the mother insect from which innumerable progeny would later result, are of inestimable value. In fact, insect scourges can never make great headway when the proper enemies are at hand. Next after weather, parasites and predaceous beetles, birds are the most efficient force in preventing outbreaks of insects. The almost incredible voracity of birds and the rapidity of their digestive process, caused by their high temperature, rapid circulation, activity and generally high-strung mode of life, inevitably results in the consumption of large BIRDS OF NEW YORK 47 quantities of food. This is especially true of growing birds which require one-half their own weight of food daily. As the young of our insectivorous birds are being reared while our crops are in the midst of their growth, it is evident that the resultant destruction of insects for food occurs at just the time of year to be of most service to the agriculturist. When- ever undue increase of insects begins, birds of the neighboring region invade the infected area and destroy the injurious species before they have become a consuming plague. In sections of the country, however, where nearly all the land is under cultivation and there are few breeding sites for birds, it is impossible for the few remaining birds to hold the insects in check, and thus arises the necessity of spraying on an extensive scale. During the spring of 1898 in the town of Brighton, Monroe county, the author noticed that several orchards were practically defoliated by cankerworms. On visiting orchards to which the scourge was spreading, I observed many species of birds coming from the surrounding country and feeding upon the worms. While seated in a small orchard, thirteen species of birds were noticed in the course of half an hour coming and devouring the worms as fast as they could be swallowed, or gathering mouthfuls and carrying them away to feed their young which were oftentimes at a considerable distance. Species like the Kingbird and Phoebe which rarely prefer cater- pillars as diet, and others like the Bobolink, Red-winged blackbird and Vesper sparrow which are seldom seen feeding in the orchards, were coming and carrying away the worms for their nestlings. Cuckoos, orioles, cat- birds and cedarbirds were noticed among the foliage swallowing the larvae at the rate of fifteen to forty a minute. There seemed to be little inter- ruption of this work even during midday, but in the morning and late afternoon there was a decided increase in the birds visiting the orchard for the cankerworms. There could be no doubt if the birds had been in sufficient number in the immediate vicinity where this plague of cater- pillars started they would have held them in check and prevented the destruction of crop and leaves in several orchards. It is probable that, in nature, worms of this kind rarely increase to such an extent as to defoliate 48 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the forests. The service rendered by insectivorous species in destroying centers of infection is especially to be emphasized in connection with the benefit the birds render by destroying insects; while in the case of arboreal species it is immediately evident that we are practically dependent upon the birds for preserving our forests and taller shade trees, because spraying operations in these cases are practically out of our control, and the only means of preserving us from undue increase of the defoliating insect is, besides weather conditions, the work of parasites and the voracious appetite of our insectivorous birds. Some birds are especially fond of plant lice. In this number we might include the wood warblers and kinglets, which, while loitering with us on their annual migration, attack the female plant lice which have survived the winter and are about to produce countless progeny of leaf-sucking descendants. I have watched them on many occasions and counted from fifteen to seventy-five a minute swallowed by each warbler observed. Some are even fond of hairy caterpillars. This number, unfortunately, is very small but includes the cuckoos and, to a certain extent, the orioles and waxwings. Others prefer the white ground grub. Here should be mentioned the Robin, Grackle and Crow, which do considerable damage in other respects but atone in this manner for many of their sins. Woodpeckers seek the boring larvae of various beetles and moths found beneath the bark and in winter destroy numerous cocoons which are hidden in the crevices of the bark and dead limbs. Thus, if the whole list of birds is examined, we shall find that nearly every kind of insect which is conspicuous as a destructive species will have some bird enemy which seems to prefer it as diet; and if the balance of nature had not been so ruthlessly disturbed by mankind the plagues of locusts, plant lice, army worms and elm tree beetles would be cured in the natural process of adaptation. Destruction of weed seeds. In all cultivated fields there are found many species of plants popularly known as weeds which often seem more adapted to occupying the soil successfully than the crops which the farmer wishes to raise. These weeds must be destroyed or held in check by some BIRDS OF NEW YORK 49 process such as cultivating, or by destroying the seed, if the crop reaches its maximum productiveness. Our various granivorous species of birds such as the blackbirds and sparrows feed for a large portion of the year upon the seeds of these injurious plants. Even wild ducks and wild geese destroy immense quantities of weed seeds on the grain fields that are partially flooded in fall or early spring. The author took from the crop of a single Pintail duck that had been feeding all the morning in a corn field at the foot of Canandaigua lake, one hundred and twenty-seven thousand seeds of the common purslane. There were many other ducks feeding in this field and it is evident that in six weeks a hundred and fifty ducks might do some good in this manner. From the crop of a Mourning dove coming out of a wheat field in the town of Cheshire, I took fifty- seven hundred seeds of the pigeon grass, one of the^ commonest weeds that grow in our grain fields and hinder the development of wheat, rye and oats. All through the fall, winter and spring our various native sparrows, and the winter visitants from the far north, are destroying tons upon tons of weed seed every week in the fields of New York State. From the crop of a Snowflake taken from a flock of five hundred individuals, one-half ounce of seed from the Red-rooted pigweed (Amaranthus) and thegoosefoot (Chenopodium) and the ragweed (Ambrosia) were taken. It needs only a slight arithmetical computation to convince the reader that this flock of snowflakes might do some good in the course of a few weeks if they remained in that locality. The Tree sparrow, Junco, Song sparrow, White- throated sparrow, Vesper sparrow, Savannah sparrow, Chipping sparrow and Field sparrow, as well as all our less common species of this family, are doing a similar service for several months during the year. Other birds that are especially beneficial in this respect are the ground-feeding- species of the family Icteridae including the Meadowlark, grackles, Red- winged blackbird, Bobolink, and even the Cowbird which does much good in this manner but can not, however, overcome the evil which it has done early in the season by destroying the young of insectivorous birds in whose nest it has left its egg to be hatched. The Prairie horned lark, which is 4 50 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM a common species in our fields, is another seed eater and in this category must also be placed the Bobwhite and, as already intimated, all our graniv- orous species. I would not seek to overestimate the good done in this manner, but if we consider that when these birds are not destroying the weed seeds they are usually rearing their broods of young and must feed them chiefly on insectivorous diet, it is evident that our smaller graniv- orous species are an invaluable asset to the State. Distributing fruit seed. While the inhabitants of New York State have been destroying the forests more rapidly than wise policy would dictate, especially on land which is poorly fitted for any other growth than trees, the birds have been overcoming to some extent the evil effects of excessive deforestation. As one drives across the country, the roadside and fence row bear abundant evidence to the effects of planting by the birds. The sweet cherry and the black tartarian have been scattered along every fence row, roadside, and the edges of the forests throughout the greater portion of the State. The Robin and the Cedarbird are principally respon- sible for this planting. In like manner various sections of the country have a pleasing line of junipers along the highways and fence rows planted by the selfsame birds. Likewise, throughout the forest the various dog- woods and viburnums are scattered by all the fruit-eating species mentioned in a preceding paragraph, especially by the thrushes. In western New York the panicled dogwood has been planted along roadsides and many fence rows and throughout every swamp. The seeds of the shadbush, which brightens the landscape with its showy blossoms, have been scattered 'by the thrushes and finches. The forester might object that most of those trees are of little use for timber, but there is at least one valuable timber tree which is planted extensively, especially by the Flicker and Robin, — the black cherry (Prunus serotina), and to some extent the cucumber tree (Magnolia acuminata) and sour gum (Nyssa). If the lumberman is not pleased by the fruit-planting species, the botanist certainly is, for all the fruit-bearing plants must necessarily become exterminated except for the agency of the birds in scattering their seeds throughout the fields and woodland. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 51 Destruction of meadow mice and other injurious rodents. Just as outbreaks of insect pests are held in check by birds, so a great increase of meadow mice, squirrels and rabbits is prevented by the agency of our hawks and owls. Many species like the Rough-legged hawk, feed almost exclusively on meadow mice, and most of the heavier soaring species like the Red-tail and Red-shouldered hawks are principally beneficial for the same reason. Most of the smaller owls, as would naturally be expected, feed principally upon mice, since these animals are partially nocturnal in habit like the owls themselves, and the owls are unquestionably nature's remedy for rodent pests. THE STATUS OF OUR BIRD LAWS For many years on the statute books of the State there has been a paragraph in the game laws excepting certain birds from the protection which is afforded the desirable species. There has scarcely been a year within the author's memory when this list has not been changed for some reason or other, but from the beginning hawks, with- out exception, have been included, on the theory that they are all injurious or that the injurious can not be distinguished from the beneficial by the sportsman. As a matter of fact, opinions will differ about many species; and some species of birds that are beneficial, or at least innocuous in many localities, will be found decidedly injurious in others. Further- more, in the same locality certain individuals frequently acquire habits which place them in the injurious list. Some individuals of the Red- headed woodpecker become much more cannibalistic than their fellows. The same is true of grackles, crows and other species which occasionally feed upon nestlings or eggs. Consequently, there is great difficulty in decid- ing upon a black list which shall apply to all localities of the State and be unchangeable. The general consensus of opinion, however, as a result of observation and examination of stomach contents, should certainly place the following birds on the black list: Cooper hawk, Sharp-shinned hawk, Goshawk, Gyrfalcon, Duck hawk, Pigeon hawk, Great -horned owl, Snowy 52 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM owl, Great blue heron, Kingfisher, Crow, Bluejay, Crow blackbird (Purple grackle and Bronzed grackle), Cowbird and English sparrow. Some would prefer to add to this list various of the hawks mentioned above which are injurious to a certain degree in the destruction of poultry, game and insec- tivorous birds. Others would place upon the list all birds the majority of whose food consists of fishes, and there can be little doubt that the fish- eating species mentioned above are in reality injurious, but in their case, as in the case of the Bluejay and Duck hawk, there is such a strong senti- ment in favor of the bird due to its interesting personality, that either the Audubon Society or nature lovers in general have succeeded in keeping them off the black list. As a bird lover I sympathize with this attitude, but also as a bird lover I can not endure to see all the nestlings and birds' eggs of the coverts surrounding my own home destroyed even by blue jays or cowbirds, but these species are both protected according to the current laws in New York State. I might consent to see the Bluejay remain on the protected list, but I could never willingly consent to protect the Cow- bird. In regard to such species as the Red-tailed hawk. Marsh hawk and Barred owl, circumstances should govern the attitude of the farmer. If Marsh hawks have discovered that the chickens on his premises are more attractive than meadow mice and are destroying his poultry, he certainly should be allowed in that particular instance to protect his property. If a bird lover finds the Red-tailed hawk is destroying all the grouse in the coverts which he frequents, those particular hawks should be removed from the scenes of their operations, and the same principles should govern our attitude toward all those species that are on the doubtful list. Where they are doing good in their little community they should be left undis- turbed; where they develop habits which apparently are doing injury to the best interests of the State, they should be removed. SPECIAL MEASURES FOR INCREASING BIRD LIFE Erecting artificial nesting sites. As suggested on page 18, all birds which nest in hollows or deserted woodpeckers' holes, and even the wood- BIRDS OF NEW YORK 53 peckers themselves, may be induced to make their nests in hollow limbs or boxes erected in orchards, groves and shade trees. It is necessary to provide these artificial sites if those birds which nest in hollows are to be encouraged about our homes. It seems that no better work could be sug- gested for the Boy Scouts or the country boys that wish to do some good in the world and have unbounded energies, than to provide boxes for the bluebirds and wrens. Those intended for the Bluebird should be not less than four by four inches inside measurement, and from eight to ten inches in height with a hole one and three-fourths inches in diameter near the upper part of one side of the box. Boxes of the same construction will attract the wrens, sometimes, unfortunately, to the exclusion of bluebirds and other species, but boxes erected in the garden or in a corner of the orchard near the house or even on the corner of the woodshed or under the eaves of a shed or low barn, with an opening one and one-eighth inches in diameter, will be utilized by the wren, and if a sufficient number is provided the house- holder may succeed in gaining some families of these interesting and bene- ficial birds. The wren has a habit of filling many boxes with sticks and other nesting materials, so that those which really contain no nests should be emptied occasionally to give other birds a chance. Thus, if the boxes are constructed so that one side can be removed when necessary, this work will be facilitated. I have found that the Bluebird will utilize nesting boxes placed on the tops of fence posts about the fields and gardens, but these boxes are more subject to the depredations of cats which dash up the posts and sometimes even secure the mother bird, as I have found upon several occasions. At the same time, these boxes erected on fence posts are seldom utilized by the English sparrow. Thus, if the marauding cats can be held in check, the Bluebird can be encouraged without undue rivalry with the sparrow for a nesting site. Boxes or hollow limbs should also be erected in the orchard for bluebirds, and if sparrows occupy the nests they may be destroyed by capturing them in nets thrown over the opening of the box after nightfall and then the box emptied of the bulky contents. Martin boxes should consist of four to eight or twelve com- 54 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM partments, each about eight inches square and six inches high inside, with an opening two inches wide, in this case near the bottom of each section, and a ledge or doorstep for the birds to occupy. The martins are nearly as well satisfied with a starch box which has been divided into compart- ments and covered with a roof as they are with the elaborately constructed martin boxes described in the bird magazines. Martin houses should be erected on poles in the garden or back yard at a height of from ten to fifteen feet, the box so mounted on the top of the pole that marauding cats can not disturb it and with removable front, if possible, so that the boxes may be cleaned each spring just before the martins arrive in April, and prefer- ably should be closed during the winter to keep the English sparrows from occupying them, and opened just before the time of the Martin's arrival from the South. If martin houses were erected in all our villages and cities and even about many farmyards, this interesting and extremely beneficial bird might be preserved; but we can scarcely hope that it will remain a common species in any locality without special protection from the English sparrow, and unless it is furnished with suitable houses for shelter and nesting. The progressive decline of all woodpeckers in the agricultural districts leads us to suggest that unless nesting limbs are provided for these species as well as for nuthatches, chickadees, Crested flycatchers, Tree swallows, and all those birds which nest in hollows, they will continue to decline; but if nesting limbs are provided they will undoubtedly, to a certain extent, be tided over the most difficult stage in adapting themselves to culture conditions and will finally become established among our orchards and shade trees. At least, this would certainly be the result with the Flicker, Downy woodpecker, Chickadee and Nuthatch and probably the Crested fly- catcher. Likewise, the Red-headed woodpecker and Hairy woodpecker might occasionally avail themselves of the artificial sites and so be estab- lished in localities where dead and hollow limbs have all been cut away to improve the parks and shade trees. These limbs for woodpeckers, in the author's estimation, should be at least two feet in length, and for the BIRDS OF NEW YORK 55 larger species six inches in diameter, cut diagonally at either end so that they could be nailed to the side of a large branch or the main trunk of the tree at a moderate elevation. For smaller species like the Downy wood- pecker and Nuthatch, the limbs need not be more than four inches in diameter. In the case of the Nuthatch, Crested flycatcher and Chickadee, the branches erected for their accommodation should be hollowed artificially, the size of the entrance being accommodated to the size of the bird expected as an inmate. Mr William Brewster and Mr E. H. Forbush have recom- mended nesting boxes made of the bark of birch and elm nailed at the ends to rounded boards. Branches of these trees cut in late spring or early summer may be peeled with comparative ease. They should be cut in the lengths desired, eight to ten inches for chickadees, nuthatches and bluebirds, and a hole of the proper diameter bored before the sections are peeled. The Chickadee limbs should have the entrance hole about one and one-eighth inches in diameter; nuthatches, one and one-half inches; Crested flycatcher, one and three-fourths inches. In some localities bird lovers have found that Downy woodpeckers and flickers take possession of hollowed limbs provided the entrance hole is of a proper size (see descrip- tion of the nesting holes of the various species of woodpecker which the bird fancier wishes to attract). Holes should be round or nearly so and the depth of the excavated interior correspond nearly with the holes usually constructed by these birds for their own accommodation. The experience of bird lovers in various parts of the country shows that Screech owls may also be attracted to limbs of this description, likewise the Sparrow hawk, and in rare instance, the Wood duck. We believe that hollowed limbs or even boxes, especially if covered with bark or constructed from bark- covered slabs, should be erected in the swamps frequented by the Wood duck so that the gradual disappearance of hollow trees in these localities should not force this interesting species to desert the locality from failure of suitable nesting sites. These boxes or hollow limbs for the Wood duck should have an entrance hole four or five inches in diameter and be placed at an altitude of at least fifteen to twenty feet from the ground. 56 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The author has noticed that swallows are discouraged in most of the barns which have been erected during the last fifteen years in western New York. The entrance holes for these birds are apparently becoming " out of date " and many farmers even knock down the nests of the swallows which have entered through a window or the barn door and constructed their nests on the rafters. We believe that every barn should be con- structed with an opening for swallows to enter throughout the breeding season, and even narrow ledges placed on some of the rafters to furnish the birds with suitable places to attach their nests. The slight annoyance of droppings from the nest can be overcome by stretching a piece of canvas three or four feet in diameter beneath the nest or the suspension of a small platform of half inch boards. Thus the farmyard would be tenanted by twittering swallows, not only a pleasing addition to the landscape, but a safeguard against the increase of noxious insects. The Eaves swallow has practically disappeared in many districts of central and western New York where it was a common species thirty years ago, because there is no chance beneath the eaves of the barns for these birds to attach their gourd -shaped nests. Farmers and bird fanciers might finally secure colonies of these interesting birds by erecting a very narrow ledge not more than one inch in projection beneath the eaves, running a part of the distance but interrupted over the entrance door. In this way we have seen colonies of the birds attracted. Although one may have to wait several years, finally the birds will discover the favorable site and utilize it. Baron von Berlepsch has suggested and put into practice the habit of trimming shrubs and the lower branches of trees in such a way that they will sprout out and form suitable crotches for the attachment of nests like those of our Goldfinch, Yellow warbler, Wood thrush and any species which the landowner wishes to attract. This is unnecessary in many localities, but where bird lovers have planted shrubbery and trees for the special accommodation of birds it is worth while to practise in this respect so that safe supports may be afforded these crotch-building species. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 57 Planting to attract birds. Those who wish to attract various species of birds to coverts which are reserved for their accommodation should plant species like red cedar (Juniperus virginiana), flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), red osier (Cornus stolonifera) , green osier (Cornus alterni- folia), sheep berry (Viburnum lentago), tree cranberry (Viburnum opulus), spice bush (Benzoin benzoin), blueberries of various species (Vaccinium), huckleberries (Gaylussacia) , tupelo or sour gum (Nyssa silvatica), bird cherry (Prunus pennsylvanica) , choke cherry (Prunus virginiana), shad bush (Amelanchier canadensis), barberry (Berberis vulgaris), winterberry (Ilex verticillata) , bayberry (Myrica carolinensis) , hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), white or Russian mulberry (Morus alba), red mulberry (Morus rubra), sassafras (Sassafras sassafras), the various species of Ameri- can hawthorn or thorn trees (Crataegus) , English hawthorn (Crataegus oxya- cantha), wild grapes (Vitis), Virginia creeper or woodbine (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), elder (Sambucus canadensis), red-berried elder (Sambucus pubens), dwarf wild rose (Rosa humilis), blackberries and raspberries (Rubus), smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), staghorn sumac (Rhushirta), Euro- pean mountain ash (Sorbus. aucuparia) , American mountain ash (Sorbus americana), ginseng (Aralia quinquefolia), sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis), spikenard (Aralia racemosa), wintergreen (Gaultheria), partridge berry (Mitchella repens), panicled dogwood (Cornus paniculata), maple leaf vibur- num (Viburnum acerif olium) , hobble-bush (Viburnum alnifolium), bunch berry or dwarf cornel (Cornus canadensis), fly honeysuckle (Lonicera canadensis), privet (Ligustrum), also cone-bearing and strobile-bearing trees like the spruce, hemlock, larch, alder and birch which furnish seeds for winter birds and buds for grouse. In addition to these shrubs and trees, bird fanciers would also do well to plant various herbs which retain seeds through the fall and winter, such as the sunflower and the much- despised pigweed (Amarantus) and goosefoot (Chenopodium), which remain standing through the winter and furnish welcome sustenance for Song sparrows, Tree sparrows, j uncos and others of the family when few other seeds are obtainable. The plantation of even a few acres of the sorts 58 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM named, with small clearings interspersed, planted to large- seeded grasses and the weeds mentioned, would be ideal coverts for attracting numerous species of birds. The day will undoubtedly come when bird societies will own preserves of this kind and plant them with the principal object of attracting great numbers of their feathered friends. Water supply. Birds are more numerous during the summer where there is convenient access to water for baths and drinking. When no pond or stream is close at hand, an artificial bath or drinking fountain will add to the attractiveness of the preserves from the birds' viewpoint. Where more elaborate provision is impracticable, a shallow tray filled with clear water to the depth of one to two inches, will serve the purpose. BIRD REFUGES For many years the author has had a growing belief in the efficacy of refuges or preserves, not only of trees and flowers, but for the purpose of preserving our varied and interesting bird life. The Audubon Society and the national government have demonstrated already the great impor- tance of large preserves in saving species of birds and animals from exter- mination. Several foreign governments have also accomplished the same purpose. It seems that there is especial need in this State for the establish- ment of several well-distributed preserves, in order to save to future generations such species as the Wood duck, Woodcock, Ruffed grouse and many of the woodland song birds that naturally disappear with the culti- vation of the country. One hundred fifty thousand dollars are collected annually by the State in gun taxes. Since the principal object of gun licensing is the protection of game and wild birds, it seems that one of the most rational expenditures of this sum would be in the establishment of bird and animal preserves in various parts of the State, which could be under the control of the nearest game protectors, and be dedicated to the preservation of plants and animals which are in danger of extermination, and to act as centers of dispersal for the surrounding region. By judicious control of BIRDS OF NEW YORK 59 the forest and thickets within such preserves, conditions could be made favorable to the species for which they were established, and thus, without additional expense to the State, they could be policed by the protectors who are already in existence as guardians of the law. It is absolutely certain that in many counties of the State the Ruffed grouse, Woodcock and Wood duck can never thrive except with such aid; and as these are three of the species with which the Game Commission is most concerned, it would seem that no better expenditure of the gun license money could be devised than the establishment of such preserves to be owned by the State and controlled by the State Conservation Commission. PRIVATE PRESERVES The salvation of many birds and quadrupeds in various countries of Europe has been the private preserves which have furnished them with the only habitat and protection from many of their enemies. In America the same practice is gaining ground. In New England and various other states of the Union, landowners are beginning to set aside portions of their wood- lands, thickets and fields as refuges for the animals in which they are especially interested. There can be no doubt that if this practice becomes general in our own State the protection of bits of woodland and stream- side thickets will be the final means of rescuing many of our most valued songsters from extirpation in the more thickly populated districts. The widespread interest in the means of protecting birds and inquiries as to the proper trees and shrubs to plant for their accommodation are becoming more frequent. By a study of the bird communities outlined above and of the habitats which they prefer, bird fanciers may find the information they need in planting waste land for the encouragement of their feathered friends. The species of fruit and seed-bearing trees which are so often recommended (see Forbush Use/id Birds and Their Protection, page 374; Kennard, Bird-Lore 14, 201) will undoubtedly attract the frugivorous and granivorous species, thereby encouraging many of the thrushes and sparrows, and at the same time these trees and shrubs will furnish nesting 6O NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM sites and insect food for the vireos, warblers and wrens which would not be attracted by their fruit. The main object in planting for bird refuges, besides providing food, is to furnish shelter from storm, nesting sites for the birds and vegetation upon which insects will find abundant food. Combinations of forest growth, second growth, thickets and tangles and, wherever possible, pond-side or stream-side thickets with moist land for some distance on each side of the stream will be found to furnish the character of cover most suitable to a large number of birds. From observations on the partially cleared hillsides of southwestern New York and in the groves and patches of the deciduous forest still common in the center of the State, the author is well convinced that most of our birds of the forest and thicket require a higher degree of humidity than is usually found in brush lots and pastures which are exposed to the direct rays of the sun, and that slopes furnishing less exposure to direct sunlight and kept humid by sufficient cover of vegetation, are necessary to attract most of our thrushes and warblers. Even the birds of the dryer thickets, such as the Field sparrow and Indigo bird, must have shelter of foliage to which they may retreat during the hottest portion of the day. A recent report of the Conservation Commission calls attention to the fact that there are in New York State at least four million five hundred thousand acres of land which is more fitted to produce forest growth than for agricultural purposes, but which is not at the present time covered with forest. If all this land were gradually planted to forest trees, the resulting growth to cover, which would gradually become fitted for various communities of woodland birds, would tend to increase to a perceptible degree the bird life of our domain, and if the twelve million acres of land which is already covered with forest growth were managed either by the clean-cutting system which some foresters advise or by selective cutting, the result would be that a sufficient portion of our domain would be left in the various types of woodland to attract both the forest community and the community of the open wood and thicket, so that conservation of birds might progress hand in hand with the conservation of our forests. BIRDS OF NEW YORK Order RAF>XOJRES Birds of prey Ordinal characters. Bill stout, epignathdus, hooked at the tip, cered at the base; feet strong, usually with long, curved talons; the skull des- mognathos and holorhinal; sternum broad and deeply keeled; furculum U-shaped; ambiens muscle present except in owls; the biceps slip wanting; the oil gland nude; wings aquincubital ; 2 carotids; crop large; regimen carnivorous; flight powerful; young downy but remaining long in the nest. While it is true that the so-called raptorial birds may be recognized as related in the characters stated above, it is evident that the order is rather loosely connected and many ornithologists would prefer to separate at least the owls, and some the American vultures, into independent orders. The American Ornithologists Union, however, still recognizes the order as given above. On account of their rapacious habits they are associated more in the popular mind than they are in scientific classification. They have always received much attention from the agriculturist and, with the exception of the vultures, have almost universally been considered injurious species. I have found very few communities in the State of New York where even the Rough-legged hawk is recognized as beneficial in spite of the fact that Doctor Fisher's admirable work on hawks and owls has been in print for many years. A careful study of the economic value of Raptores has been undertaken by the Biological Survey, as well as by ornithologists throughout the country, and a fairly accurate estimate of their food can be made. The following table, compiled mostly from the reports of the Biological Survey, but also from many notes made by the author and other New York ornithologists, will show the exact composition, as far as it has been determined by dissection, by the examination of the stomach balls collected under owl trees and hawk trees, and by observation of the birds in the field. The fact that two or three kinds of food are frequently found in the same stomach explains the fact that the percentage of stomachs containing each variety of food will not add up to one hundred, but it is thought more instructive to show 61 62 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the percentage of stomachs containing various kinds of food than to try to estimate the percentage of each kind of food taken by the species. Species marked g are near the border line of beneficial birds. . Food of New York hawks and owls Percentage of stomachs examined containing various kinds of food SPECIES EXAMINED POULTRY OR GAME OTHER BIRDS REPTILES (SNAKES ETC.) BATRACHIANS (FROGS ETC.) • u 9 OTHER MAMMALS INSECTS CRAYFISH AND SPIDERS EMPTY Beneficial Rough-legged hawk o o 2 81 IO 2 8 Broad-winged hawk. . . Red-shouldered hawk . Sparrow hawk O I 1/3 3 6 17 18 10 19 i9(fish 2) A, 22 5° 28 19 20 4 45 45 7.1 6 3 sp. Q IO 7 g Red-tailed hawk (g). . . Marsh hawk (g) 10 6 9 27 4 6 3 2 S° 46 24 18 8 IO sp. i/5 16 7 Barn owl •3 It 56 C4 14 22 Long-eared owl I 82 c i I C Saw- whet owl .... o A 79 e 14 Short-eared owl o 1 1 77 7 7 14 Screech owl lA 1C i 2 (fish i) 36 5 40 4(sp. 3) 17 Barred owl (g) c 12 i 4 (fish 2) 42 17 13 g(sp. 2) 18 Snowy owl (g) e 2C 48 c 33 Injurious Goshawk -16 8 40 12 32 Cooper hawk 2^ 4.0 2 i 8 2 3O Sharp-shinned hawk 66 A A •! C Duck hawk 1 1; AS c IO 2O Pigeon hawk A 80 4 1.2 O Great horned owl 2 C 7 (fish 3) 1 1 ei 8 Id Suborder SARCORHAIVIPHI Family CA.THA.RTIDAB American vultures Characters. Bill strong, elongated, hooked at the tip and blunt; nostrils large, longitudinal and perforate; head and neck rather long, bare, rough and usually bright colored; tongue thick and fleshy; eyes prominent; feet clumsy and covered with small scales; front toes long, webbed at the base; hind toe short and elevated; talons obtuse and only slightly curved; wings very ample; n primaries; tail of moderate length, even or slightly rounded, consisting of 12 or 14 rectrices; the basipterygoid process is present; BIRDS OF NEW YORK 63 the oil gland is naked; there are no coeca; no syrinx or lower larynx; the ambiens, semitendinosus and its accessories are present, as is usually the femorocaudal ; there are no after shafts on the feathers; color somber; sexes alike in size and plumage. This is a well-marked group, evidently of neotropical origin, con- sisting of 9 species. The characters in which they differ from other diurnal birds of prey are deemed sufficient by many ornithologists to place them in a separate order, the Cathartidiformes of Sharpe's Handlist. Their appearance and habits are also strongly characteristic. They are ambula- torial in gait and listless in attitude. More or less gregarious in habit, they sit about on dead trees, fences and large buildings sunning them- selves in somber companies, or soar with easy, circling flight high over the fields looking for refuse or carrion ' which is their principal food. Their feet are wholly unfitted for carrying prey, as the blunt talons and small, elevated hallux would indicate ; and thus rarely or never subsist on living animals. They regurgitate the disgusting contents of their crops for the young to feed upon. The nest is usually built on the ground, among rocks, or in a hollow stump in a secluded part of the woods. The eggs are commonly two in number. These birds have long been considered bene- ficial and are the principal scavengers of the southern fields, rendering efficient service to the community by destroying all kinds of offal. Cathartes aura septentrionalis (Wied.) Turkey Vulture Plate 43 Vultur aura septentrionalis Wied. Reise Nord-America. 1839. 1:162 Cathartes aura DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 2, fig. 12 Cathartes aura septentrionalis A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 152. No. 325 cathdrtes, Gr. /.aOapTifc a cleanser, i. e. a scavenger; aura, probably a latinized form of urubu; septentrionalis, Lat., Northern Description. Adult: Head and upper portion of neck bare, dull crimson, becoming bright red on base of bill. Plumage black, glossed with purple or greenish on the back, and the feathers of the upper parts, especially the wing-coverts and the secondaries, margined with grayish 64 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM brown. Quill shafts from light brown to yellowish white. Bill dull white. Iris grayish brown. Immature: Similar, but head dusky and covered with more or less furry down. Downy young: Cottony white, except the naked head. Length 26-32 inches; extent 72; wing 20-23; tail 11-12; bill (culmen) i; tarsus 2.23-2.30; middle toe 2.50 Distribution. The Turkey vulture, or Turkey buzzard as it is usually called in the Southern States, inhabits tropical and temperate America from Patagonia to New York, Saskatchewan and British Columbia. In our State it seems to occur only as a summer visitor, more commonly on Long Island, in the Hudson valley, and in the warmer por- tions of western New York. In these localities it appears yearly in limited numbers, usually in the months of July and August. Dozens of records are before me, the earliest being April 24, and the latest December 28. Mr F. B. Robinson of Newburgh reports a young bird killed near Gardiner, Ulster county, June i, 1904; and thinks this species breeds in that locality, but the speci- men referred to was old enough to have flown hundreds of miles, and as yet we lack definite proof of its breeding within the limits of the State. Habits. This bird is the most accomplished aeronaut among our birds of prey. When rising from the ground its initial flaps are hurried and somewhat ungainly, but when fairly under way it sweeps in wide interlocking circles, higher and higher, with scarcely Turkey vulture. Cathartes aura septentrio- nal is (Wied). Prom specimen in the State Museum. J nat. size BIRDS OF NEW YORK 6.S a motion of its long wings, except when struggling against adverse currents of air. It nests upon the ground in a secluded spot. The eggs are one to three in number, nearly plain or spotted with chocolate, 2.8 by 2 inches in size. Its food consists almost entirely of carrion, and in the South it is considered of great value as a scavenger. Catharista urubu (Vieillot) Black Vulture Vultur urubu Vieillot. Ois. Amer. Sept. 1807. i : 23. pi. 2 Catharista urubu A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 153. No. 326 catharista, Gr. y.aOapc"u> (xaOatpw) to cleanse or purify, referring to its work as a scavenger; urubu, a vulture Description. Glossy black, the under surface of the wings frosted or silvery, giving a distinctly whitish sheen to wing quills as the bird flies overhead; head and neck bare, black- ish in color. Decidedly more stumpy - in build and less graceful in flight than the Turkey vulture, the tail noticeably shorter and the wing strokes more frequent. Length 24 inches; extent 55; wing 17. Distribution. The Black vult- ure, or Carrion crow as it is some- times called, inhabits America from Kansas and Virginia southward . i/-\ 1 A • Black vulture. Catharista urubu (Vieillot). From through Mexico and Central America specimen in Am. MUS. Nat. Hist. \ nat. size and the greater part of South America, and wanders northward rarely as far as Maine, Nova Scotia, Quebec and Ohio. There are records of two or three specimens taken in New York, near Sandy Hook in the spring of 1877 (Robt. Lawrence, N. O. C. Bui. 5: 116), Coney Island beach, about 5 66 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 1881 (Le Berier, N. O. C. Bui. 6:126), Shelby Center, May 28, 1892 (Posson, Auk 16:195), Auburn, April u, 1911 (F. J. Stupp), and Steuben co., July ii, 1909, Burtch, Auk, 28:112. Mr Ottomar Reinecke reports that he and the late Charles Linden watched a bird of this species for some time as it flew about the village of West Seneca, near Buffalo, N. Y., one day in June 1884. Mr Dana C. Gillett also reports it from Tona- wanda swamp, May 1899. The Black vulture therefore must be regarded as a rare and irregular visitor to New York, not appearing regularly in any part of the State like the Turkey vulture, but straggling within our boundaries only at long intervals. Suborder FALCON ES Hawks, Falcons, Ospreys etc. Family BUTEOXIDA.E Buzzards, Eagles, True Hawks, Kites and Harriers Nostrils oval and impervious; nasal septum, however, is incomplete; the palate without a median ridge; the scapular process of the coracoid not reaching furculum; tarsus shorter than tibia, scutellate in front, partly feathered; wings ample, usually somewhat rounded in shape; tail usually of 12 rectrices; the legs well feathered, usually below the heel joint, and the "flag" well developed; the basipterygoid process is wanting, and the plumage is aftershafted ; general build heavy. Beside the subfamily Buteoninae, recognized by some authors, which is the most typical of this family and includes our common buzzards or soaring hawks and eagles, is the subfamily Circinae or harriers, represented by our Marsh hawk, which is characterized by weak beak; long tarsus, bare and equal to the tibia in length; long, narrow, pointed wings; long slender tail; the legs long and slender; the general build light and slim; and a facial disc forming an incomplete ruff; as well as ears with large external opening and a conch, and a soft, fluffy plumage, which characters link them with the owls. Among the harriers, the sexes are usually unlike. The nest is placed upon the ground, contrary to the usual practice in this family. The subfamily Milvinae, including the kites, have very weak beak BIRDS OF NEW YORK 67 and extremely short tarsus, shorter than the tibia, with reticulate scales; the wings very long, narrow and pointed; the legs unusually small; and the general build very light. They have no ruff like the harriers and the plumage is not so soft and owl-like. The subfamily Accipitrinae, or " true hawks," like our Cooper and Sharp-shinned hawks, has a stronger beak, with a prominent festoon on the cutting edge; the tarsus is slender and as long as the tibia; wings short, rounded, concavo-convex, with 3 to 5 of the quills emarginate; the tail is long; legs long and slim; and the general build light as compared with the buzzard. Difference in size of sexes is especially marked in this sub- family. The young are characteristically mottled and streaked longi- tudinally, whereas the adults are barred and heart-spotted in their marking. They are arboreal in habits, usually lie in wait for their prey and swoop upon it with a swift, dashing flight. The flight is low as compared with the buzzard, and not so free and easy as that of the Marsh hawk. Elanoides forficatus (Linnaeus) Swallow-tailed Kite Falco forficatus Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. Ed. 10. 1758. 1:89 Nauclerus furcatus DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 12, fig. 15 Elanoides forficatus A. 0. U. Check List. Ed. 3. igio. p. 153. No. 327 elanoides, from Lat. elanus, a kite; forficatus, from Lat. for/ex, a pair of shears, referring to the forked tail Description. Wings very long, thin and pointed; tail also very long and deeply forked; feet stout but very short, the tarsus feathered halfway in front; talons short, well curved, scooped out and sharp edged on the under surface; bill weak; cere small. Adult: Head, neck, rump and entire underparts white; wings, back and tail lustrous black. Young: Less lus- trous; wings and tail feathers tipped with white, the head and neck with black shaft streaks; tail shorter. Length 24 inches, more or less according to the development of the outer tail feathers; extent 50; wing 15-17.50; tail 13-14.50; tarsus 1.25. Distribution. The Swallow-tailed kite, or Snake hawk as it is often called, inhabits America from the warm portions of South America north- ward to Manitoba and Assiniboia, wintering from Florida and Texas south- 68 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ward. It is of rare or casual occurrence in New England and New York, only a few State records being before me: Raynor South L. L, 1837. Giraud, Birds of L. I. p. 13 South Shore of L. L, 1845. Le Eerier, N. O. C. Bui. 6, 126 Picrmont, Rockland co., Aug. 22, 1900. G. N. Nicholas, Auk 17, 386. In Rensselaer county, near the villages of Pittstown and West Hoosick, the male figured on this page was secured July 16, 1886 (see 5Oth Report N. Y. State Museum, p. 14; and Auk 3, 484). Relating to this specimen Mr Griffin Haight, who secured it, writes: " I live two miles west of West Hoosick in the town of Pittstown; and two miles from the Hoosick line. I keep a poultry yard and breed fancy fowls. Being troubled with hawks of late I thought I would clean out a few of them and stopped at home on the i6th of July for that purpose. I had succeeded in killing three hawks and had just fired at the fourth one, when I saw this kite rise from the woods back of my house and go perpendicularly up, as near as Swallow-tailed kite, E 1 a n o i d e s f ^n^Ta^^)" I COuld judge, OUt of sight. He WaS From specimen in State Museum. } nat. size. i • IT gone about 20 minutes when I saw him coming down again. I called my wife to the door and asked her if she would like to see a Swallow-tailed kite. She said a kite was no sight to her. I told her it was a bird by that name, and that I never saw one north of Port Royal, S. C. The bird came down and lit on a dead pine. He sat there a short time. Then he took another upward flight, going straight up out of sight. He was gone just 30 minutes this time and came BIRDS OF NEW YORK 69 down in the same place where he went up and lit on the same tree. He sat there 7 minutes this time, when up he went again straight out of sight. This time he was gone 51 minutes. I had about given him up and turned to go to the house when I saw him coming down again and another one with him. They lit on the same tree. I started for them and one started up again out of sight. He went in a flash. The other sat still. I walked on a short distance farther, when up he went and I fired at him. He folded his wings and came down. From where I stood to where the kite lay was 17 rods, 3 feet. I watched for the other one, but did not see him again that day; but I have seen him once since, yesterday, the 29th. . . . I shot the kite on the i6th of July, 10.30 o'clock, a. m. " I live near a big timber lot of about 500 acres, and about a mile from my house is a large ash swamp of as much more, with quite a body of water in the center." Under date of August 3, 1886: " I will get the mate to this bird (the mounted kite), and will send it to you gratis. I am watching him and his maneuvering and actions and learning a little something of his habits. His roosting spot is in the large swamp west of me." Under date of August 9, 1886, Mr Haight writes: " I shot this bird (a great blue heron) while hunting for the kite in the big swamp. I saw him today several times. The last time that I saw him he was dissecting a hornets' nest and sat on the top of a dead stub out in the water, so I could not get a shot at him. I am going to give him another trial tomorrow if the day is cloudy. A clear day is not a good time to hunt him. He is a third larger than the other kite I sent you, and I think there are more in the swamp. I could see some birds in the dead ashes that looked like them and moved around like a kite." Evidently, from its size, this kite was a female and was probably the mate of the male secured on July i6th. The birds seen among the ashes in the swamp may have been their young. Under date of July 17, 1891, Mr Haight writes: " We are watching the kite very closely. It seems to alight in the top of the tallest trees in the woods. It lit on the side hill a short ways from the house today, and 7O NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM seemed to be catching grasshoppers. I do not know what else he could be after by the way he ran around and would fly a few feet and light again. It was after something, whatever it was. I could not approach it as I was in plain view so I let it work and it flew into the woods after about 25 minutes of flapping and running around. I have not seen any mate as yet. Mosher [one of his sons] saw the bird yesterday [July i6th] while I was from home and he said it lit on a tall pine and sat there for a full hour and then took a sail in the air and went out of sight behind some trees. I am watching its movements and will write you again." In 1900 Mr Haight saw three more kites on June 9, and noticed one about his place until June 19. All of this evidence would seem to indicate that the Swallow-tailed kite has established a home in Rensselaer county, N. Y., but absolute evidence of its breeding in this State is still lacking. Circus hudsonius (Linnaeus) Marsh Hawk Plates 43 and 48 Falco hudsonius Linnaeus. S. N. Ed. 12. 1766. 1:128 Circus uligenosus DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 20, fig. 7 Circus hudsonius A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 155. No. 331 circus L., Gr. xfpxos, a hawk, from its circling flight; hudsonius of Hudson Bay Description. Wings and tail long, legs long and slender, face with a partial ruff, external ear large and fitted with a conch, general build light, plumage loose and owl-like in softness, sexes unlike in color, but both with •white upper tail coverts. Adult cf : Ashy or bluish gray above and on the upper breast, rest of under parts white with a few rufous streaks and mottlings on the sides and belly; tail lighter pearly gray with 5 or 6 imperfectly defined blackish bars; 5 outer primaries blackish, and all the wing feathers with the inner webs near the bases white; legs, cere and iris yellow. Adult 9 : Fuscous or umber brown above varied with rufous or yellowish brown, especially streakings on the head and neck and mottlings on the wing coverts; under parts ocherous buff or brownish yellow, streaked more or less with fuscous or umber brown; tail with 6 or 7 blackish bars, the middle feathers also with ashy bars. Young: Resemble the female but are darker above with more reddish mottlings on the wing coverts and feather edges. More rufous below with no streaks on the belly. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 71 Length d" 17.50-19 inches, 9 19-22; extent d" 40-45, 9 45-52; wing C? 13-14.50, 9 14-16.50; tail cT 9-10, 9 9.50-10.50; tarsus 2.75-3.25. Field marks. This is the easiest of our native hawks to identify. The long wings and tail, light build, low wavering or coursing flight when hawking over the marshes or meadows, distinguish the Marsh hawk at a great distance. The very light color of the old males and the dark brown- ish appearance of the females and young coupled with the conspicuous white upper tail coverts make identification doubly sure. Distribution. The Marsh hawk is one of the most abundant and generally distributed members of its family in North America, occurring from Panama to the Arctic tundras, and wintering from 4ist parallel south- ward. In New York it breeds in every portion of the State, from an altitude of 2000 to 3000 feet in the Adirondacks (Elk lake, Flowed land) to the tidal marshes of Long Island and the lower Hudson river. In the warmer portions of the State a few pass the winter, particularly along the coast and Hudson river, but they are commonest in nearly all portions of New York from March 10 to April 30, and from August i to November 10, especially in early April and in September and October, when the bulk of the migration is accomplished. Habits. Like the Sparrow hawk this species is most common in the open country, hunting its prey over meadows, marshes and waste fields. Though it sometimes watches from a low perch, it usually searches out the mice and small birds which constitute its principal food by hawking with slowly circling or wavering flight over the marshes and lowland meadows. When attracted by some movement in the grass it wheels suddenly about and shoots upward a short distance to examine the spot; at other times it turns a complete somersault or makes a half turn and drops suddenly in the grass to strike its humble and unsuspecting quarry. The prey is devoured on the spot or carried to some sheltered hummock or muskrat house and swallowed without the plucking or tearing which is the custom of falcons and true hawks, but more after the manner of the Buteos. Doctor Fisher reports that " of 124 stomachs examined, 7 contained 72 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM poultry or game birds; 34, other birds; 57, mice; 22, other mammals; 7, reptiles; 2, frogs; 14, insects; 8 were empty." My own experience shows that the food of this hawk, as is the case of other Raptores, depends much upon the individual hawk as well as the locality and the season. Most of the Marsh hawks from the Montezuma swamp which I have examined contained nothing but birds (Song sparrows, Tree sparrows, juncos, Red- winged blackbirds) and a few batrachians, while specimens from the more cultivated country were largely filled with mice and insects, mostly grass- hoppers (these latter usually in young birds). Mr Foster Parker, who lives near Montezuma, has seen Marsh hawks repeatedly attack young gallinules and finally exterminate the whole brood. In the mating season Marsh hawks indulge in extensive gyrations above their nesting sites, often somersaulting over and over from a con- siderable height and soaring upward again just before reaching the ground. Both sexes take part in nest building, incubating and rearing the young. The female sits closely and often remains on the nest until nearly trod upon, when she rises with a loud harsh cackling note uttered with a jerky intonation and resembling the syllables Cac-cac-cac-cac-cac. The male usually joins her at once and they circle excitedly about the swamp uttering intermittently their complaining screams. If the eggs are nearing the hatching period, or if the nestlings are quite young, the old birds, especially the female, will usually charge the intruder, dashing downward from a height of 200 feet or more with alarming swiftness directly at one's head but veering off and upward just before striking. I have been brushed by the wings of a female Marsh hawk when charging to protect her newly hatched young, and have had the bellows of my camera, which I had concealed in the neighboring brush in hopes of securing a snap shot of the old bird while feeding her young, torn to pieces by the sharp claws of the parent birds as they attacked the alarming object which they did not fail to discover at their first approach. The nest, unlike that of any of our other hawks, is placed upon the ground, usually in a tangle of low bushes, weeds and grasses in the midst of a swamp or bog. On several BIRDS OF NEW YORK 73 occasions I have found the nest of the Marsh hawk in small peat bogs overgrown with huckleberries, cassandra and Labrador tea, the situation being surrounded by cultivated fields and not far from the farm house. The nest is nearly the size of a crow's nest, but not quite so deep, and is composed entirely of grasses, twigs and weed stalks. The eggs, which are laid from the I5th to the 3Oth of May, are from 3 to 7 or even 9 in number, usually 5 or 6 in western New York, ovate in shape and bluish white in color, often with obscure shell markings and brownish spots, and nearly always much nest-stained. They average about 1.78 by 1.40 inches in dimensions. The period of incubation is 23 days or more, the young hatching at successive intervals for several days, the female usually beginning to sit as soon as I or 2 eggs have been laid, a habit which has probably been acquired to protect the eggs from the attacks of crows which would easily discover them, attracted by the light-colored eggs, as they fly over the exposed nest. While crossing bogs like those in Bergen swamp, Junius pond and Mendon pond I have several times picked up eggs of the Marsh hawk which had recently been sucked by crows, and have known them to treat the nests of Cooper and Red-tailed hawks in a similar manner. Marsh hawk nestlings are covered with a buffy white down, through which the wing feathers begin to show in about 10 days, and in 5 or 6 weeks they are able to fly. Nestlings which I brought up by hand required each from 2 to 5 mice or English sparrows daily to supply the cravings of hunger, so that the 5 young if left at Mendon pond would have consumed 600 mice and small birds, more or less, before they left the nest. The two old birds would consume in the 10 weeks of their sojourn near the nest about 500 more. So it is easy to see that a family of Marsh hawks on the farm makes a considerable difference in the abundance of meadow mice, song sparrows and other small inhabitants of the fields. 74 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Accipiter velox (Wilson) Sharp- shinned Hawk Plate 44 Falco velox Wilson. Am. Orn. 1812. 5:116. PI. 45, fig. i Astur fuscus DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 17, fig. 2 Accipiter velox A. 0. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 155. No. 332 accipiter, L., a hawk; velox, L., swift Description. Wings short and rounded; tail long and nearly square; tarsi and toes long and slender; the former feathered one-third of the way down in front; bill stout, sharp and festooned or sinuate on the cutting edge. Aduli cf and 9 : Above, slaty or bluish-gray, more fuscous on wings and tail; primaries and tail barred with blackish, the tail usually with 4 bars, the subterminal one, broad, and the tip whitish; under parts white more or less heavily barred with rufous except on throat and crissum, these rufous bars borne outward along each feather shaft, and the shafts, even on the throat, mostly blackish; bases of the occipital feathers downy white; scapulars and bases of primaries with concealed white spots. Young: Above fuscous or urubu brown, varied with rusty on the feather edges; below, dull white or buffy, spotted and streaked with dark brown or pale reddish brown; the wings, tail and concealed spots on occiput and scapular much as in the adults. Cere and feet yellow, often with greenish tinge; iris according to age varying from grayish yellow to yellow and in high plumage red. Length cf 10-12 inches, 9 13-14; extent cf 21-23, 9 25-27; wing cf 6-7, 9 7-8. 75; tail cf 5-7.75, 9 6-8; tarsus 2-2.15; middle toe 1.18-1.38. Field marks. The small size of this hawk, when taken with its short rounded wings and long square tail, will serve to distinguish it. Its dashing flight, consisting successively of several rapid flappings followed by a short soar, together with its general shape, it shares with the Cooper hawk, the males of which species little more than equal females of this species in size, but the Sharp-shinned hawk has the square tail while the Cooper hawk has the rounded tail and, as intimated, is really larger. From the small falcons, that is the Pigeon hawk and the Sparrow hawk, it can be distinguished easily by its short rounded wings as compared with the falcon's long and pointed ones. Distribution. The Sharp-shinned hawk is one of our commonest and BIRDS OF NEW YORK 75 most generally distributed species, breeding from Hudson bay and the lower MacKenzie to Florida and Lower California; and wintering from New England and New York southward to Central America. In our State it is very common during the migrations, March 20 to April 30 and September i to October 30, especially about April 10 and from September 20 to October 10, when several scores, or even hundreds, of these hawks may be seen in a single day, in the line of greatest migration not far from the coast and in the country near the southern shore of Lake Ontario. A few remain through the winter in the warmer portions of the State, and the species nests throughout the State, most commonly in the wooded country. Habits. This American representative of the European Sparrow hawk is often miscalled the Pigeon hawk but is quite different in appearance, as already indicated, from Falco columbarius. It is " blue," however, in the adult plumage, and is not inferior to that little falcon in fierceness, often attacking birds which are fully its equal in size, and working terrible destruction upon the small birds of the field and forest which are unfortunate enough to establish their homes near its chosen haunts. About the " killing log " or " butchering block," which is found near the nest of the Sharp-shinned hawk, one may see the feathers of thrushes, sparrows, wood warblers, flickers and young grouse scattered in profusion, telling their sad tale of the carnage which this little demon has wrought among the peaceful denizens of the wood. It is a low-flying hawk, dashing swiftly through the groves and coppice, and seizing its victims as they dash for cover or watching for them from the shade of some leafy tree and pouncing upon them as they pass by. In this respect this and the two following species, our true hawks, differ from those hawks which feed largely upon mammals, batrachians and insects, and watch for them from some con- spicuous perch. Doctor Fisher's examinations show that the food of this species consists almost entirely of birds, and the experience of all New York observers as well as my own studies of its habits and of its stomach contents point to the same result. Consequently I believe this hawk should be 76 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM destroyed wherever the more desirable song and game birds are to be preserved. The nest of the Sharp-shinned hawk in New York is almost always built in an evergreen tree near the edge of a wooded gully or beside a log- ging road in the forest. Hemlock, pine and arbor vitae seem to be its preference, and the nest is built close to the trunk of the tree at a height varying from 10 to 40 feet. Compared with the nests of other hawks it is rather large for the size of the bird, about equalling that of the crow, and is deeply hollowed to receive the eggs. It is composed of sticks, usually of the pine and hemlock, and lined with smaller twigs and strips of bark. The eggs are usually laid by the loth or 25th of May. They are 4 or 5 in number, oval or short ovate in shape, averaging 1.47 by 1.16 inches in size, and bluish white or greenish white in ground color, more or less heavily blotched and spotted with brown of different shades mingled with marblings of drab or lavender and clay color. These markings are sometimes sharp-shinned hawk's nest and eggs uniformly distributed over the surface of the egg, sometimes in a heavy wreath near the larger end, and at other times shading down from heaviest at the very tip of the smaller end. There is endless variety in the coloration of the eggs of this species, caus- ing them to be eagerly sought by egg collectors, and I will confess that cabinets filled with eggs of this bloodthirsty little pirate, as well as those of the Cooper hawk, Crow, and Cowbird, have shown me that egg-gather- Photo by Guy A. Bailey BIRDS OF NEW YORK 77 ing when indulged in by a discriminating youth may become a strong element in bird protection. Accipiter cooperi (Bonaparte) Cooper Hawk Plates 43, 44 and 46 Falco cooperii Bonaparte. Am. Orn. 1828. 2:1. PI. 10, fig. i Astur cooperi DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 18, fig. 10 Accipiter cooperi A. 0. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 156. No. 333 cooperi, in honor of William Cooper Distinctive marks. A medium sized species, larger than the Sharp- shinned hawk but of the same general shape and color, the tail more rounded, the legs shorter and stouter, and the top of the head darker slate or blackish; in high plumage the Cooper hawk is of a clearer and more uniform bluish slate on the upper parts. A large young female of this species resembles closely a young male Goshawk in size and color, but may be surely dis- tinguished by the feathering of the tarsus, which extends only one-third of the way down the front of the slender tarsus in the Cooper hawk, but one-half of the way on the stouter tarsus of the Goshawk. Length c? 15-18 inches, 9 18-20; extent c? 30, 9 36; wing cf 9-10, 9 10-11; tail d" 7-8, 9 8-9; tarsus d" 2.60, 9 2.70; middle toe d" 1.60, ? 1-75- Distribution. The Cooper hawk breeds throughout the United States and southern Canada, and winters from southern New England and Illinois southward into Mexico and Costa Rica. In New York it is common during the migrations, March 20 to April 20 and September 15 to October 20, but may be seen at all times of the year except in the northern and more elevated portions of the State, where it is only a summer resident. In the more thickly settled districts it is much less common than formerly, the nesting birds having been killed off on account of their destructiveness to poultry and game birds. In the wilder and more wooded portions of the State it is one of the commonest breeding species but is not seen as 78 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM frequently as the Marsh, Red-shouldered and Red-tailed hawks because it remains most of the time silently under cover of the forest. Habits. This hawk resembles the Sharp-shinned hawk in habits as well as in appearance, being fully as fierce and intrepid as that little pirate and much more destructive to game birds and poultry on account of its greater size and strength. Early in April, before the migration of those individuals that are to breed farther northward has ceased, our summer residents pair and select some old crow's or hawk's nest or the forks of a tree 20 to 50 feet from the ground as the site for their home. The nest when entirely constructed by the hawks themselves is of good size, composed of sticks and twigs and nearly always lined with the outer bark of trees, such as the hemlock, cedar and yellow pine. In New York the eggs are laid from April 25 to May 20. They are 3 to 5 in number, are of a pale bluish white color, occasionally spotted lightly with brownish, resembling those of the Marsh hawk but more broadly ovate, averaging about 1.90 by 1.55 inches. The period of incubation lasts about 24 days, and the young hawks are covered with a whitish down. During the nesting season the old birds occasionally utter a loud rattling or cackling noise similar to the Sharp-shinned hawk's note but louder and also the repeated tick, tick call, besides the loud shrill scream uttered by the setting female when disturbed. At other times of the year this bird is mostly silent. Astur atricapillus atricapillus (Wilson) Goshawk Plate 45 Falco atricapillus Wilson. Am. Orn. 1812. 6:80. PL 52, fig. 3 Astur atricapillus DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 19, fig. 4 and 5 Astur atricapillus atricapillus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 156. No. 334 astur, Lat., a hawk, perhaps from aster, star, i. e. spotted; atricapillus, Lat., black- haired, i. e. the top of the head black Description. A large powerful hawk with the general shape of the Cooper hawk; but with the tarsus more robust and more extensively feathered and scutellate. Upper parts dark bluish slate, the feathers with BIRDS OF NEW YORK 79 black shaft-lines; tail with 4 or 5 broad blackish bars and tipped with whitish; wings also barred; top of head and broad auricular stripe blackish; a whitish stripe over the eyes, broadening toward the back of head where the bases of the feathers are cottony white as in other true hawks (Accipi- trinae) ; under parts white, thickly barred in fine wavy pattern or vermicu- lated with slaty brown or dusky except on throat and crissum. All the feathers, even on the throat, with blackish shaft-lines; bill dark bluish, cere and feet yellow, iris red. Young: Dark brown above, margined with rusty, and varied, especially on neck and scapulars, with whitish or buffy; wings and tail, barred with blackish and buffy; under parts tawny whitish, with oblong, club-shaped, or drop-shaped streaks; cere and feet duller yellow, iris yellow, bill brownish. Length, c? 21-22 inches, 9 22-25; extent c? 41-43, 9 44~47; wing d" 12.50-13, 9 13.50-14.50; tail cf 9.50-10.50, 9 11-13; tarsus cT 2.90-3.10, 92.95-3.17; middle toe c? 2.75, 9 1.90. Field marks. Adult hawks of this species can not be mistaken for the Cooper hawk which is our only species approaching it in size and resembling it in form. They are larger, have no rufous markings below, are more blue and gray in general color and have the decided blackish crown and ear-stripe as well as the whitish superciliary stripe. The young males of this species are only slightly larger than the young females of cooperi and resemble them in color but are more conspicuously buffy in the ground color of the under parts, and of the tail and scapulars. When the bird is in hand the feathering of the tarsus is, of course, distinctive. Distribution. The American Goshawk inhabits the boreal region of North America, breeding from central Maine and northern New York northward through the Hudsonian zone and wintering southward to about the 38th parallel. In this State it is chiefly a winter visitor, rather irregular in occurrence, but some years is fairly common, as in 1863, when many were killed on Long Island, and in 1889, 1895-96, 1898-99, and in 1906. On Long Island they usually appear between the 1 8th and 25th of December and disappear between the I5th and 27th of March; in western New York my dates range between October 21 and November 15 for arrival from the north, Mr Burtch giving one record for September 15; and March n to 20 to 28 for last seen in the spring. Mr 8O NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM George F. Guelf of Brockport has called to my attention that a considerable flight of these hawks often occurs during the third week in March not far from the southern shore of Lake Ontario, the birds moving toward the eastward and recalling the similar flights of Sharp-shinned, Cooper, Marsh and Broad-winged hawks which occur a little later in the season. Audubon, during his visit to western New York, found this hawk nesting near Niagara Falls, but since that time very few evidences of the Goshawk breeding in our State have been recorded. In June 1877, Roosevelt and Minot observed it in Franklin county; Merriam in 1881 ranked it as a rare resident of the Adirondack region; in June 1905, I observed two of these hawks near the Upper Ausable lake in Essex county; and Ralph and Bagg have given us a definite breeding record for the Adirondacks, May 9, 1898. Fortunately, however, this bird is rare as a summer resident, even in the wildest portions of the Adirondack forest. Habits. This is the most dreaded scourge of our grouse coverts and poultry yards. Fierce, daring and more powerful than the Cooper hawk, it seizes and carries off full-grown fowls with such ease, and makes its attacks so suddenly and unexpectedly that flight by the intended victim and resistance by the outraged farmer are alike useless. Both the examina- tion of the stomach contents of specimens secured and the testimony of hunters and naturalists who have observed this bird and its nesting sites, agree in establishing the Goshawk's unenviable character. Grouse, pheas- ants, poultry, hares and other larger animals are its usual food. The Goshawk's nest is usually placed in a birch, beech or poplar tree and resembles that of the Cooper hawk in construction. The eggs are from 3 to 5 in number, ovate or elliptical-ovate in shape, and white or pale bluish white in color, about 2.30 by 1.74 inches, and are laid about the ist of May. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 8l Buteo borealis borealis (Gmelin) Red-tailed Hawk Plates 43, 46 and 47 Falco borealis Gmelin. Syst. Nat. 1 788. i : 266 Buteo borealis DcKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 9, fig. 17 Buteo borealis borealis A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 157. No. 337 buteo, Lat., a buzzard; borealis, Lat., northern Description. Our typical and commonest buzzard hawk, character- ized by heavy build, long and broad wings, wide spreading tail of medium length, 4 primaries notched; a large hawk of high, soaring, circling flight and conspicuous perches, commonly but improperly called Hen hawk. Adult: Upper parts dark brown, more or less variegated with whitish and ocherous buff; tail bright rujous or brick red with a narrow subterminal band of blackish and tipped with whitish; under parts white more or less tinged with buffy and variegated with blackish, especially across the fore breast and on the flanks and abdominal zone, the throat, middle of breast, crissum, and tibiae being mostly unmarked; iris brown, bill horn color, legs yellow. Immature: Tail gray with numerous blackish bands; body colors similar to adult but lacking fulvous markings above and buffy tinge below; the dark markings below heavier forming a dark abdominal zone but leaving a large unmarked whitish area on the breast; iris yellow. Length cf 19-21 inches, 9 22-24; extent cf 46-50, 9 52-56; wing c? 13.50-16, 9 15-17.50; tail 8.50-10.50; tarsus 3-3.40; middle toe 1.60-1.85; weight 3-4 pounds. Distribution. The Red-tailed hawk inhabits eastern North America from the Gulf States to Northern Canada, being partially migratory in the northern states and only a summer resident in the boreal region. It is quite generally distributed in New York, breeding in all parts of the State and wintering sparingly in the warmer counties. During March and October large numbers pass through our State on their migrations, the movement beginning from February 20 to March 10 and ending from April i to 20, migrants often being seen in numbers, near Rochester at least, after the summer residents have eggs well advanced in incubation. In our State this hawk nests both in swampy woods and on rugged gullies and hillsides, but on the whole, in western New York, seems to prefer 6 82 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM upland or hilly country, leaving the swamps more exclusively to the Red- shouldered hawk. Habits. This species is often seen in spring and summer, and again in the fine days of autumn, sweeping in wide circles over the hills and valleys, sometimes soaring upward until, with its broad wings and tail spread, it disappears from sight in the upper air. These evolutions usually occur over its native woods and hunting fields, and in spring are quite sure to mark the neighborhood of its nesting site, when both sexes take part in the performance and wheel about for hours almost out of sight. It chooses a conspicuous perch on the dead top of a tree by the edge of the forest or isolated in broad fields, to watch for its humble prey, and may sit thus for hours apparently asleep, but really continuing a keen scrutiny of its surroundings, and when it discovers a mouse, shrew, squirrel or bird which offers a favorable chance, it swoops down and, gliding low, snatches it up in its heavy talons and bears it away. At other times it may be seen coursing back and forth over old fields and pastures searching for meadow mice and grasshoppers. This hawk, though called " Hen hawk," rarely visits the poultry yard, not more than one chicken being chargeable to this species while ten go to the Cooper hawk and the Goshawk. It captures a few cottontails and Ruffed grouse, but the majority of its food consists of small mammals. " Of 562 stomachs, 54 contained poultry, 51 other birds, 409 mice and small mammals and 47 insects." (Fisher) The nest of the Red-tail is placed in the fork of a tall tree, a maple, birch, beech, elm, basswood, hemlock or pine, 40 to 80 feet from the ground, and is occupied year after year as long as the owners are not destroyed. If one of the pair is killed, another mate is soon secured and brought back to the long established site. If the eggs are taken, a new nest is built not far from the old one, but the next spring the original nest is almost sure to be occupied again. The birds pair and begin working on the nest early in March, almost immediately after their arrival from the south. It is a bulky structure composed of sticks and lined with small twigs and strips of bark, and usually decorated with green hemlock sprays, fern leaves BIRDS OF NEW YORK 83 and other evergreens. The eggs are laid from April i to 25. They are from 2 to 4 in number, dull whitish, often tinged with bluish, and usually spotted or blotched with reddish or yellowish brown and obscurely marked with lavender, about 2.40 by 1.90 inches in dimensions. The call of the Red-tail, when soaring, is " a long drawn squealing whistle " somewhat resembling the syllables kee-aahrr-r-r, and in the nesting woods it utters a sharp scream like kerr or chirr. Buteo lineatus lineatus (Gmelin) Red-shouldered Hawk Plate 47 Falco lineatus Gmelin. Syst. Nat. 1788. 1:268 Buteo hy emails DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 10, fig. 13 Buteo lineatus lineatus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 158. No. 339 lineatus, Lat., marked with stripes or bars Description. Like the Red-tail or common " Hen hawk " of the New York farmer, but slightly smaller and lighter in build. Four outer primaries notched. Adult: Lesser wing coverts and under parts rufous, the wing coverts marked with fuscous, and the under parts barred with whitish or ocherous buff; wings and tail blackish barred with white; the white tail bars about 4 or 5, of uniform width and narrower than those of the Broad- wing, forming with the rufous under parts good identification marks as the bird flies overhead. Upper parts altogether of a more grayish appearance than those of the Red-tail, being dark grayish brown, more or less striped or edged with whitish and ocherous; throat with black shaft streaks; cere and legs yellow; iris brown. Immature: Upper parts similar to adult but more dusky; lesser wing coverts distinctly rusty but less so than in adult plumage ; bases of primaries and of outer tail feather mostly ocherous buff or yellowish red; tail grayish brown barred with blackish; under parts white or buffy white streaked and spotted with blackish; iris yellow. Length c? 17.5-19 inches, 9 19.5-21 ; extent c? 40-44, 9 44-50; wing 12-14; tail 7-5~9-5; tarsus 2.8-3; middle toe 1.60; weight 2-3 pounds. Distribution. The Red-shouldered hawk inhabits eastern North America from Manitoba and Nova Scotia southward to Oklahoma and North Carolina, moving slightly southward in winter as far as the Gulf coast. In New York it is a permanent resident in the warmer portions of the State and may be found sparingly in winter throughout central and western New York. It is common during the spring and fall migrations, 84 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM especially during March and October, and breeds commonly in all parts of the State, except the Adirondack wilderness, where it is largely replaced by the Broad-winged hawk. In the more thickly inhabited counties it is commoner than the Red-tail. Habits. This bird is probably the commonest large hawk in the southern, central and western counties of New York, where most of the original forests have been cleared away and small patches of woodland have been left standing along the streams and in swampy tracts. In such Red-shouldered hawk's nest and eggs Photo by Verdi Burtch localities it is often seen in spring, summer and early fall soaring about over its chosen haunts after the manner of the so-called "Hen hawks," uttering its shrill kee-you, kee-you, kee-you as it soars upward above the tree-tops, but becoming silent as it reaches a higher altitude, and mounting higher and higher, perhaps accompanied by its mate, almost disappears from view in the upper air. It is less powerful than the Red-tail and its quarry is of a humbler nature, consisting almost entirely of mice, frogs, snakes, insects, spiders and crayfish. This species keeps more under cover of the forest than the Red-tail and though it watches for its prey from BIRDS OF NEW YORK a lofty perch it is less often observed seated upon dead tree-tops and stubs in the open, or on the towering hillside. In the breeding season it is per- haps our noisiest hawk, its oft-repeated cry coming many times each day The nest is a bulky structure mostly from the vicinity of the nesting site, made of sticks and placed in the fork of a lofty tree, an elm, birch, maple, black cherry or beech being commonly selected, rarely an ever- green. The eggs are from 3 to 5 in number, dingy white or bluish white in color, irregularly and usu- ally rather heavily spotted and blotched with dark brown and yel- lowish brown and obscure shell markings. The nest is often built or repaired as early as the middle of March but the eggs are laid from April i to May 10 in this State. The period of incubation is about 4 weeks, and the young remain in the nest from 4 to 6 weeks. Like other hawks this species is much attached to its home, and the same nest or at least the same locality is occupied as long as either of the pair survives. & Swamson hawk. Buteo s w a i n s o n i (Bonaparte). iparte) . From specimen in Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. J nat. size Buteo swainsoni Bonaparte Swainson Hawk , Buteo swainsoni Bonaparte. Gcol. & Comp. List. 1838. 3 A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 159. No. 342 Distinctive marks. Only j outer quills emarginate; tail grayish brown, often tinged with hoary, with about 9 or 10 narrow dusky bands; variable 86 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM in color of body; iris brown; cere and feet yellow. Adult male: Above grayish brown; chest plain rufous; forehead, chin and throat white; rest of under parts buffy or whitish, usually more or less barred and spotted with brown. Female: Similar, but chest grayish brown. Dark phase: Whole plumage sooty brown, but specimens show all degrees of melanism from the normal phase to a uniform sooty color. Young: Above blackish brown, varied with buffy; head, neck and under parts buff or buffy white, more or less marked with blackish. Length cf 19-20, 9 21-22; extent d" 48-51, 9 51-57; wing cf 14.50- 16, 9 15-17.50; tail 8-10; tarsus 2.30-2.90; middle toe 1.40-1.65; weight 1.6-3.5 pounds. This species inhabits western America from Alaska to Chili, and occasionally wanders eastward as far as New England. There are at least three records from Massachusetts and two from Maine. It is an accidental visitant in our State, records of only three undoubted New York specimens being before me: Onondaga co., N. Y., Oct. 1877. Brewster. Auk, 10: 83 Brockport, N. Y., Oct. i, 1889. Short. Birds of Western N. Y. p. 10 Cornwall, N. Y., Oct. 14, 1892. Butcher. Auk, 10: 83-84 Buteo platypterus (Vieillot) Broad-winged Hawk Plate 48 Sparvius platypterus Vieillot. Tableaux Encycl. Meth. 1823. 3:1273 Buteo pennsylvanicus DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 1 1, fig. 1 1 Buteo platypterus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 159. No. 343 platypterus, Gr., signifying broad-winged Description. Our smallest buteo; tail with 2 or more rather broad bands of white; only j wing quills emarginate; upper parts dark grayish brown or slaty gray, more or less edged or marbled with grayish and buffy; under parts brownish or reddish brown, more or less spotted and barred with white, especially posteriorly, the chest being nearly solid ocherous brown; rather distinct dusky mustachios; cere and legs yellow; iris brown. Young: Upper parts dusky, more or less edged with buff and rusty; under parts BIRDS OF NEW YORK 87 buffy white, rather heavily spotted and streaked with blackish; tail grayish brcu'ii u'ith 4-8 narrow blackish bands. Length d" 13.5-16, 9 16.5-17.5; extent 33-38; wing 10-12; tail 6.5-7.3; tarsus 2.2-2.8. Distribution. The Broad-winged hawk is a fairly common summer resident of the wooded districts of New York. In the Adirondacks it is probably the commonest hawk. On Long Island and in eastern New York generally, it is a summer resident of irregular distribution, but in western and central New York it is almost unknown as a breeding species. Although it breeds from the Gulf States northward to Alberta, Quebec and New Brunswick, it is much more local in distribution than the Red-tailed and Red- shouldered hawks, inhabiting more exclusively the wooded country, either by preference or because its unsuspicious nature has brought about its extirpation in the more cultivated districts. In all parts of New York, however, it is a rather common migrant, at least in the coastal district, the Hudson valley, and in the country immediately south of Lake Ontario, where large flights often occur late in April and early in October, the migrations being accomplished between April 15 and May 25, and between August 10 and October 20. In southeastern New York the Broad -wing often remains throughout the winter as it does in the Ohio and Delaware valleys, but in western New York I have never seen a winter specimen. This species soars about in the air less than our other buteos and I have never heard it utter such loud and screaming notes. Fisher aptly compares its common note to that of the Wood pewee. It sometimes sits for hours on some high and conspicuous perch, but is more often found in the midst of the forest or silently seated in a low tree beside a stream or swamp, watching for snakes, mice, frogs or insects which constitute the principal part of its food. It shows little fear of man and when approached too closely will usually fly for only a short distance before alighting unconcernedly and continuing its scrutiny of the ground where its humble prey resides. The Broad-wing places its nest in trees, from 25 to 60 feet from the ground. It is about the size of a crow's nest and composed of sticks, bark 88 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and leaves. The eggs are 3 to 4 in number, dull buffy white in ground color, spotted and blotched with yellowish brown and cinnamon brown, about 2.12 by 1.6 inches in dimensions. Eight sets of eggs in the Smith- sonian collection from Hamilton and Herkimer counties, N. Y., were all taken between May 19 and June 15, May 25 being the usual date for northern New York. Chapman gives April 18 as the date for eggs near New York City. Archibuteo lagopus sancti-johannis (Gmelin) Rough-legged Hawk Plates 43 and 48 Falco s. johannis Gmelin. Syst. Nat. 1788. 1:273 Buteo sancti-joannis DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 7, fig. 3 Archibuteo lagopus sancti-johannis A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 161. No. 3473 Archibuteo, chief buzzard; lagopus, Gr., hare-footed; sancti-johannis, of St John Description. Legs feathered to the toes; base of tail white; body color varies from brownish gray above and white or buffy white below streaked with dusky, forming a more or less complete broad abdominal band, to a nearly uniform black; cere and toes yellow; iris brown. Light phase: Upper parts fuscous or grayish brown, margined with whitish and buffy; under parts varying from white to ocherous buff, spotted and streaked with blackish, forming a dark band in the abdominal region; inner webs of primaries and under surfaces of wing feathers white toward their bases; the tips of the wings black; under wing coverts in the carpal region form a conspicuous black patch; wing and tail feathers barred with gray and whitish. The bird gives the appearance of white and black in large patches, when flying. Dark phase: Varies from slightly darker than the normal to a uniform sooty black, except the base of tail, a portion of the bases of the wing feathers, slight marblings or bars on tail and wings, and a small frontlet of whitish. These white markings, however, do not show except when the bird is closely examined or, partly, when flying. Length 21-23; extent 52-56; wing 15-17; tail 9-10. Distribution. The Rough-legged hawk inhabits the northern portion of the boreal zone from Newfoundland and central British Columbia to the limit of trees, and wanders southward in winter over most of the United States. In New York it is a winter visitor of irregular occurrence, rather BIRDS OF NEW YORK 89 rare in the eastern and southern highland regions, but common, some winters, in the larger river valleys, the Lake Ontario lowlands, and the central lake region, and sometimes on eastern Long Island. At intervals of a few years there appear large nights of these hawks in western New York, especially in the Genesee valley and the extensive farm lands which lie south of Lake Ontario. This was the case in the winter of 1905-6, when Roughlegs were fairly abundant about Canandaigua, Geneseo, Cayuga, and many other localities. The birds begin to arrive from the north late in October, or some years not till the middle of November, and depart for their breeding grounds between March 25 and April 12, except for disabled or delayed stragglers which have been seen as late as May 30. This species prefers an open country of wide marshes, river bottoms, of rolling plains, with scattered trees from which to watch for its humble prey. When trees are too few it is often seen coursing back and forth over the fields somewhat after the manner of the Marsh hawk, but with heavier flight and, whenever he discovers a luckless mouse, pounces silently upon it. Its flight seems low and labored, even when compared to the Red-tail, although its wings are longer and more pointed. Its habit of hunting largely in the twilight is correlated with its choice of diet, which consists almost exclusively of meadow mice. I have frequently found the remains of 7 to 9 mice in the stomach of one Rough-legged hawk, and never found a beneficial animal on its bill of fare. It therefore must be regarded as the most beneficial of all our Rap tores, and the farmer should distinguish it carefully from such injurious species as the Goshawk, and protect it as one of his most valued allies. As recently as twenty years after the publication of Fisher's " Hawks and Owls," one of the most intelligent and extensive landholders in New York State was paying a hunter to rid his fields of dozens of this valuable mouser under the mis- apprehension that it was destroying his game birds. Thus there is need of spreading further the knowledge of our birds. 9O NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Aquila chrysaetos (Linnaeus) Golden Eagle Plate 49 Falco chrysaetos Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 1758. Ed. 10. 1:88 Aquila chrysaetos DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 4, fig. 14 A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 162. No. 349 dquila, Lat., eagle; chrysaetos, Gr., '«£"oq, eagle; xpuad?, golden Description. Legs feathered to toes, tarsus whitish; basal two-thirds of tail white; back of head and neck ocherous buff or "golden brown"; general plumage dark brown with purplish gloss; the flight feathers and tip of tail darker, the latter forming a conspicuous terminal zone of black; cere and feet yellow; iris brown. Immature birds are darker and have the base of tail only slightly marked with grayish, and the tarsi and under tail coverts buffy. This species is little larger than the Bald eagle and at a distance can hardly be distinguished from immature birds of that species. Length cf 30-34 inches, 9 35-41; extent c" 78-84, 9 84-92; wing cf 23~25> 9 25~27-5! tail 14-16; tarsus 3.6-4.3; weight 10 or 12 pounds. Distribution. This noble eagle inhabits the entire holarctic realm but is mostly confined to mountainous districts. It is rather rare in the eastern United States, and was never common in New York. In early colonial days it undoubtedly nested in the Highlands, Catskills and Adirondacks, but at the present time there seems to be no evidence of its nesting within our borders, although in 1877 Doctor Mearns thought it possible that it still bred in some secluded portion of the Highlands, and in 1900 Mr F. G. Pember of Granville, N. Y., thought it might breed on Pond mountain, Vermont, four miles east of Granville, where two young were taken from a nest several years before. Doctor Ralph is also authority for the state- ment that its eggs have been taken in the Adirondacks. This species must now be classed as an accidental, or a rare transient visitant. Within the last 60 years specimens have been reported from Schenectady, Putnam, Fulton, Chemung, Steuben, Orange, Westchester, Suffolk, Rensselaer, Herkimer, Columbia, Washington, Madison and Monroe counties. The latest record before me is October 25, 1900, when a golden eagle was captured alive in the city of Rochester, and placed in the local zoo (see Eaton, Birds of Western N. Y. p. 35). BIRDS OF NEW YORK 91 Haliaeetus leucocephalus leucocephalus (Linnaeus) Bald Eagle Plates 43 and 49 Falco leucocephalus Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 1766. Ed. 12. 1:124 Haliaetos leucocephalus DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 5, fig. i Haliaeetus leucocephalus leucocephalus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 162. No. 352 hali&etus, sea eagle; leucocephalus, white-headed Description. Adult: Head, neck and tail white; rest of plumage brownish black; bill and legs yellow; iris yellow. Immature: Nearly •uniform brownish black, more or less varied with white spots, mostly on the under parts and tail; bill blackish; legs yellow; iris brown; during the second and third years they show more white on the under parts and tail, but are still of a prevailing blackish color. Length cf 31-34 inches, 9 35-37; extent cf 80-85, ? 85-90; wing c? 21-23, 9 23-25; tail 11-13; bill 2.3-2.9; weight 8-12 pounds. Distribution. The Bald, eagle, or its larger northern subspecies, inhabits nearly the whole of North America north of Mexico, but prefers the sea coast and regions of lakes and rivers. In New York it is still no unusual sight to see eagles along the shores of Long Island, in the Hudson valley, in the Adirondacks, along the Great Lakes, and in the central lake country. They are commonest in spring and summer, but may be seen at any time of year, mature birds, evidently not breeders, frequenting such localities as Conesus lake, Canandaigua lake and Niagara river through- out the spring and summer months. At latest accounts Bald eagles were nesting near Sodus bay in Wayne county, Constantia in Oswego county, TvVhelby pond in Dutchess county, and Indian lake and Taylor pond in the Adirondacks. It formerly nested in many places along the shores of Long Island, along the Hudson, the Great Lakes, the central lakes, the Adiron- dack lakes and Lake Champlain, but constant persecution or the destruc- tion of the nesting site has caused the abandonment of the majority of these localities, and " the eagle tree," or the place where it stood, is gradually passing from the memory of the nearest inhabitants. 92 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Habits. The Bald eagle frequents the shores of lakes and rivers and chooses a sightly perch from which to scan the surface of the water for the dead fish which constitute its principal food in summer time. It is frequently seen also high in air soaring about in search of some dead sheep or other offal, which it seems to prefer next after fish, and I have seen it on several occasions set its wings when at a great height and descend to an ignoble repast of dead calf or other vulturine provender. Its power of sight is justly famous, but it is scarcely probable that it surpasses that of other raptores. Once I watched an eagle that was soaring at a great altitude above me when all at once he caught sight of a dead fish floating on the surface of the lake and, making a direct line for the fish, snatched it from the water and bore it off to shore. The fish I found by subsequent computation was three miles from the spot over which the eagle was soaring and I could not see the fish in the eagle's talons at the time it was picked from the water although I was using a pair of six power field glasses. It is possible, however, that even a man could have seen the fish from the eagle's station in the air as a white spot on the water. When the eagle does not find sufficient supply of dead fish it will rob the Fishhawk of its booty, as is well known by all naturalists, and will even take live fish from the water, but can not be compared with the Osprey as a fisherman, and probably does not even equal the Red-shouldered hawk or Barred owl in this accom- plishment. In the winter this eagle often attacks water fowl successfully, but can not easily capture the diving species when they are on the water. I have seen an eagle make repeated attacks upon a Canvasback duck which dove at every swoop of the eagle and finally escaped. Some have objected that the habits of this eagle scarcely entitle it to be chosen as the emblem of our native land, but its appearance, when soaring in the clouds or perched on the tip of a lofty pine tree, is truly majestic. The scream of the eagle resembles somewhat the voice of the seagull; others have likened it to the bark of a fox or of a small dog, and Doctor Ralph called attention to the difference in the notes of the sexes, the male's cry being a high BIRDS OF NEW YORK 93 clear cac-cac-cac, and the female's more harsh and broken, a note which, when heard nearby, Doctor Fisher compares to a loud maniacal laugh. The Bald eagle lays her eggs very early in the season, in February or early March, being the largest resident and earliest breeder of our diurnal birds of prey, as the Great horned owl is of our nocturnal Raptores. The eagle's nest is usually built in a lofty tree, near the top, and the tree dies after a few years leaving the huge nest of sticks a conspicious object easily seen for a long distance by all who pass by. If undisturbed a pair will occupy the same nest for many years but, although the eagles are quite Bald eagle's nest with young Photo by Guy A. Bailey harmless neighbors and a distinct addition to the picturesqueness of the landscape, and legally protected by the statutes of our State, few eagle eyries have survived the vandalism of thoughtless tourists and fishermen, or of countrymen who shoot the birds for the local taxidermist or trap them for the nearest zoo, or of summer visitors from the city who conceive it a great achievement to lie in wait with a rifle and slaughter the parents or climb to the nest and carry off the young, or of oologists who take the eggs repeatedly. The eggs are 2 or 3 in number, dull white in color, 94 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and measure about 2.85 by 2.2 inches. The period of incubation is 4 weeks or more, and the young do not leave the nest till July or the first of August. When hatched they are covered with whitish down, but before they are able to fly have acquired the brownish black plumage as described above. Haliaeetus leucocephalus alascanus C. H. Leonard Northern Bald Eagle Eagles of the species leucocephalus inhabiting the boreal zone of North America are larger than southern birds and equal or surpass the largest dimensions given (wing 25, tail 13, tarsus 4, depth of bill 1.5). Many specimens from this State exhibit these dimensions, and are to be assigned to the northern race. In deciding this question, however, it is well for the amateur to remember that immature eagles have longer wings and tails than old ones. Family KA.LCONIDA.B The Falcons Characters. Beak sharply hooked, toothed and notched, the lower mandible truncate and notched near the tip ; nostrils circular, high up in the cere, with a central tubercle; bony eye shield projecting, of a single piece; septum of the nose much ossified; palatal bone with a median keel anteriorly; scapular process of the coracoid united to the clavicle; tarsus shorter than tibia, more or less feathered above, its scales reticulate ; middle toe long; talons strong and curved; wings long, strong and pointed; tail stiff and rather short; legs stout; general build strong and muscular; the plumage af tershaf ted ; basipterygoid process wanting; eyes brown in color; flight swift and strong, the prey usually pursued and captured in the air; courage great for the size of the birds. In this family the raptorial nature reaches its highest differentiation. The muscular build, the length and strength of the wings, the curious sculpturing of the sharp cutting edges of the beak, the powerful legs and long, strong, curved talons fit the falcons admirably for their career of rapine. They choose prey which is oftentimes larger and heavier than themselves. Few birds can escape their powerful, sweeping flight. They strike down and slaughter without trouble the swiftest flying ducks, grouse and pigeons, and, with the exception of the smaller members of the family BIRDS OF NEW YORK 95 such as the Kestrel and American sparrow hawk, are usually to be classed as injurious species because of their destructiveness in the feathered king- dom, though they often evade the condemnation of mankind because of the general admiration of their dashing bravery and preeminent fitness for their avocation. In the Orient, members of this family are still employed in the practice of falconry, but in western Europe this occupa- tion has fallen into disuse in recent times. Falco islandus Briirmich Whits Gryjalcon Plate 50 Distinctive marks. White, the head and under parts almost without marks, only slightly streaked on the top and sides of head and on flanks and flags; the back, wings and tail marked with dusky broken bars and arrowheads. Young birds are somewhat more heavily marked than the old ones, and the markings are more lengthwise of the feathers than in bars, but still the predominant impression is of a white bird, especially the head, neck and under parts. Size the same as Gyrfalcon. This Arctic species has been taken in Maine and Ontario. Mr Frederic S. Webster reports one killed near Troy, N. Y., in the winter of 1874, but the specimen has not been traced. Arthur H. Helme writes that he saw a bird near Miller's Place, L. I., which he feels sure belonged to this species, but as he was unable to secure the specimen, can not prove its occurrence beyond a doubt. Mr Helme's experience as a field naturalist and familiarity with all our native birds, and Mr Webster's work as a bird student and taxi- dermist give credence to these reports, but we still lack a New York specimen of this Gyrfalcon. Falco rusticolus rusticolus (Linnaeus) Gray Gyrfalcon This bird differs from the White gyrfalcon only in coloring. The upper parts barred, arrow-pointed and spotted transversely with grayish fuscous, whitish prevailing on the head and neck, dark prevailing on the back and wings, under parts white, decidedly lighter than upper parts, streaked and spotted with dark on the sides, flanks and tinder tail- coverts. Like the preceding this Arctic species has been taken in Wisconsin, Ontario and Maine, and must visit the northern portions of New York at rare intervals, but no specimens from the State as vet have been discovered. 96 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Falco rusticolus gyrfalco (Linnaeus; Gyrfalcon Plate so Falco gyrfalco Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. Ed. 10. 1758. 1:91 Falco rusticolus gyrfalco A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 164. No. 3543 fdlco, Lat., a falcon, from falx, a sickle from the shape of the bill; rusticolus, Lat., inhabiting the country ; gyrfalco, probably=hierofalco, divine or noble falcon Description. Upper parts brownish gray or fuscous, slightly marked with buffy white, the whitish markings in the form of streaks, and edgings on the neck and head, but narrow bars on the tail coverts and tail, and the back only slightly marked. Under parts heavily streaked with fuscous and dull white. Heavy blackish " mustaches." Bill bluish horn color, nearly black at tip; legs bluish gray, claws black; iris brown. As in all species of gyrfalcons, the immature birds have a tendency to buffy white in the light markings of the upper parts, and these markings are rather in streakings than in bars. Length 23-24 inches, extent 50-55; wing 13.50-16; tail 8.5-10; tarsus 2.4, feathered one-half way down on front and sides; middle toe 2.2; weight 51/4 pounds. This Gyrfalcon breeds in the Arctic regions from Ellesmere Land east- ward to Franz- Josef Land, and wanders southward in winter to Minnesota, New York and Rhode Island. The New York records are as follows: Long Island, winter of 1856, 9 immature, mounted by John Akhurst, now in collection Long Island Historical Society, Brooklyn, N. Y. Law- rence, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. N. Y., 8280. Butcher, Auk, 10: 274; Chapman, Birds of N. Y., etc., p. 41, no. 171 ; and Braislin, Birds of L. I., p. 69, no. 182, reported as Falco islandus. Pond Quogue, L. I., 1877, cf adult, shot by William Lane, mounted by Knoess of Riverhead, N. Y., secured from John Wallace by Robert Lawrence and presented to the Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. Robert Lawrence, N. O. C. Bui., 5:117, reported as Falco sacer. Rome, N. Y., winter of 1895, 2 killed, H. L. Bowers. Auburn, N. Y., March 29, 1902, 9 immature, shot by Edwin Redman, mounted by L. O. Ashbury. Specimen now in State Museum. Canandaigua, N. Y., Dec. 25, 1905, 9 immature, shot by Duel, BIRDS OF NEW YORK 97 obtained by Ernest Watts for the author's collection, original of the painting by Fuertes, plate 50. The Gyrfalcon'is the largest, swiftest and most powerful of our falcons though, according to Saunders, inferior to the Peregrine in dash and spirit. It preys upon waterfowl, ptarmigan, grouse and hares. The Canandaigua specimen mentioned above was feasting on a large Plymouth rock hen when shot, and its gullet and stomach were filled with the breast meat of the fowl, with scarcely a trace of bone and feathers. These birds are very destructive to grouse, pheasants and rabbits but as they are so uncommon in New York, they can not become a great menace to game coverts except in rare instances. Falco rusticolus obsoletus Gmelin Black Gyrfalcon Plate 50 Falco obsoletus Gmelin. Syst. Nat. 1 788. I. i : 268 Falco rusticolus obsoletus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 164. No. 3S4b obsoletus, Lat., dusky Distinguishing marks. Uniformly dusky or slaty fuscous, without bars above except obscure broken bars on the tail and with few and incon- spicuous streaks below. Size the same as the common Gyrfalcon. This dark phase of the Gyrfalcon breeds in northern Ungava and Labrador, and spreads southward in winter as far as Ontario, New York and Rhode Island. Four New York specimens are known, the first from Flushing, L. I., fall of 1875, mounted by J. Wallace and now in the collection of George A. Boardman. See Eerier N. O. C. Bui. 6: 126 and 247. Through a misunderstanding this bird was reported as from Westchester county. See Rod and Gun, 7: 153. Westchester co., winter of 1879, Sage, Bishop & Bliss, Birds of Conn. State Geol. & Nat. Hist. Surv. bul. 20, p. 83, 1913. The third specimen from this State was killed near Lake Ontario in Monroe county, October 1890, mounted at Ward's Natural Science Establishment, and now in the State Museum at Albany. See Marshall, 7 98 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Auk, 9: 203. This specimen is a female, and measured " Length 22.5 inches; tail 9.50; wing 15.50, spread 51; cere and feet gray, not so bright a gray as in the Osprey." Another specimen is reported from Bellport, L. I., winter of 1899, by Mr W. A. Babson. Falco peregrinus anatum Bonaparte Duck Hawk Plates 43 and SI Falco anatum Bonaparte. Geog. and Comp. List. 1838. 4 DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 13, fig. 8 Falco peregrinus anatum A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 164. No. 3s6a peregrinus, Lat., wandering; anatum, Lat., of ducks Description. A large powerful falcon. Adult: d" and 9 bluish slate above becoming black on crown and sides of head; the back and wing-coverts indistinctly barred or spotted with dusky; tail with several blackish bars; under parts buffy or dull whitish, the chest sparingly streaked, and the remainder, including the under surfaces of wings and tail, uniformly barred with blackish; throat white or buffy white, bordered by conspicuous black mustachios; cere, eyelids and feet yellow; bill bluish; claws black; iris dark brown. Young: Brownish or dusky above, under parts more buffy or ocherous, quite heavily streaked with blackish. Length d* about 17 inches; 9 19; extent 40-46; wing d* 11.5-13, 9 13-15; tarsus 1.7-2.1. Distribution. This noble falcon is found throughout the United States and breeds from North Carolina and Mexico north to the Arctic coasts. It prefers the mountainous districts, occurring in New York along the Palisades, the Highlands, and the Adirondacks. Undoubtedly it is much more generally distributed than is commonly known, its seclusive habits and custom of traveling long distances on its foraging excursions often concealing the location of its home, or even the fact of its residence, from people who live in the immediate vicinity. Several pairs are known to nest in the Palisades and Highlands. I have found its eyrie on a spur of Mt Colvin overlooking the Lower Ausable lake where the guides of the Adirondack Mountain Reserve have known of its nesting for many years; also in a deep gorge near the Massachusetts line in Columbia county; BIRDS OF NEW YORK 99 and at Taughannock Falls near the shore of Cayuga lake, June 25, 1909. This nest, discovered by Miss Gertrude Yeames and identified by the author, Mr Fuertes tells me, was occupied again in 1910, and undoubtedly has been used for many years. It has been photographed and described by Allen, Knight and Bailey. See Bird Lore, Jan. 1913. This hawk possibly breeds in the Montezuma swamps in the cavities of basswoods or syca- mores as it does in the Mississippi valley, for the birds are occasionally seen there in the nesting season. Nests of the Duck hawk with eggs have been reported from the Palisades, March 30 (Chapman) ; from the Helder- berg mountains 30 miles from Albany, April 1 1, 1884 (Lintner, Auk, 1 : 391) ; from Morehouse, Hamilton county, May 16, 1896 (Bagg, Auk, 14: 226) and from Pond mountain, Vermont, 4 miles from Granville, N. Y., by F. T. Pember. As a transient this falcon is recorded regularly along the Long Island coast, September 17 to October 25 (Butcher), along the Great Lakes, April and October; and the Montezuma marshes, March 10 to April 20, and August 20 to October 30 (Foster Parker). Mr Batty reported it as a " common fall and winter resident " along the shores of Long Island (Forest & Stream, 4: 374). From the interior of the State this hawk has also been mentioned from Seneca lake and Grand island by Ottomar Rcinecke; from Lowville by James H. Miller; from Harmony, Chautauqua county, by A. E. Kibbe; from Ithaca, 1899, by Fuertes; from Yates county by James Flahive; from Orleans county by Bruce and Langille; from West River, Canandaigua lake, June 3, 1906, by Maurice Blake; and from Canan- daigua, March 15, 1903, a fine male captured by Addison P. Wilbur. But these reports do not represent its actual occurrence, as it is so rarely taken or recognized; it surely occurs regularly, though sparingly, in all parts of the State, but is most often found along the coast, lakes and marshes, where waterfowl and shore birds are common. Habits. The Duck hawk differs from the Peregrine falcon of the Eastern Hemisphere only in having the throat and upper chest unmarked ; its power, swiftness and intrepidity are the same. The Noble falcon, as it is often called, attacks any kind of game from the size of a wild duck TOO NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM to a sparrow, but usually chooses birds of medium size, such as pigeons, flickers, plover and small ducks. It pursues its chosen quarry with astonish- ing rapidity, the wing strokes resembling more the flight of a pigeon than that of our common hawks. It rarely soars except for an instant in making a turn, or after it has struck its prey in mid-air, or has made an unsuccess- ful attack and wheels to reconnoitre. I once saw a Duck hawk come like a descending rocket and snatch a gold finch in the air so suddenly that the poor finch apparently was not aware of its enemy or, if so, had no time to change its course to an appreciable degree. Mr Parker has described the actions of a falcon which came to the Montezuma marshes with the migrating shore birds in August 1908, as particularly cruel and destructive. It would pursue the flocks of sandpipers and plover, striking one after another into the mud or water, but seldom pausing to devour or carry off its plunder. Whenever the falcon appears over the marshes all the ducks within sight exhibit the greatest distress, but when an eagle, Red-tail or Marsh hawk comes over they are not at all concerned. It is not an unusual experience for this daring pirate to carry off a hunter's decoy or a wounded duck so rapidly and unexpectedly that the gun is powerless against him. The nest of this falcon is almost always placed on a ledge or opening in the rocks of some precipitous cliff, and in this State the eggs are laid from March 30 to April 20. These are 3 or 4 in number, about 2.1 by 1.7 inches in dimensions, of a color ranging from light buff to reddish brown and heavily marked with cinnamon and dark reddish brown. The young nestlings are covered with white down, but soon the brown feathers of the juvenal plumage appear on the wings, tail and scapulars, at the age of about four weeks entirely displacing or concealing the nestling down. Both sexes of the eyas or young falcon, unlike the subgenus 'Cerchneis, are similar in coloration, dark brown above and heavily streaked below, and do not show the ashy or slaty color of the adults nor the barring of the under parts till after the first complete moult. As the nestling falcon approaches the age for leaving the eyry, its restless disposition asserts itself, and it screams and hops and tries its wings about its native BIRDS OF NEW YORK IOI ledge, each day with greater freedom. Sometimes they fall from the nesting- shelf and perish on the rocks below, as was the case with a tiercel in my collection, from the Lower Ausable lake. The unhappy fall of this bird was witnessed by Messrs Achilles, Taylor and Fuller, who were helping me in the Adirondack bird survey. They had watched the eyry for 24 hours from a concealed station to observe the visits of the parent falcons. Food was brought only once in this time, and the young birds became unusually restless. Finally the male fell over the mountain side and was killed on the talus slope. I believe that the old birds in this case were trying to lure the young from the nest by bringing insufficient food to the ledge. As the young begin to fly the parent birds fly by with prey in their talons, and the young rise to snatch it from them in mid-air as they pass. Thus the weaklings are sometimes left to perish, or in their struggles to obtain the prize meet their destruction. The falcon's eyry must needs be a strenuous school to train the fiercest of all our raptores for his murderous career. Falco columbarius columbarius Linnaeus Pigeon Hawk Plate 52 Falco columbarius Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. Ed. 10. 1758. 1:90 DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 15, fig. 9 Falco columbarius columbarius A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 165. No. 357 columba'rius, Lat., pertaining to pigeons Description. A small but robust, stocky falcon. Tarsus about as long as middle toe. Male: Bluish gray above, the shafts black; the tail crossed by about 4 blackish bands; the wings dusky, bar-spotted with whitish. Under parts and neck buffy white to ocherous, streaked with blackish. Bill bluish; cere and legs yellow; iris dark brown. Female and young: Dusky brown, the tail with about 5 whitish bands; under parts similar to male's but more heavily streaked. Length. Male 10-11 inches; wing 7.40-7.85; tail 4.65-5.25; tarsus 1.30-1.40; middle toe without claw 1.10-1.25. Female 12.50-13.50; wing 8.30-8.60. This hawk may be recognized at a distance, first by having the 102 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM general build and flight of a falcon (see family Falconidae and remarks upon the identification of hawks), second, from the Sparrow hawk by its heavier build and bluish or dusky back, and from the Duck hawk by its inferior size. Distribution. The Pigeon hawk, Bullet hawk, or Little blue corporal is a fairly common migrant through New York State, arriving in spring from the ist to the I5th of April and passing northward from the i4th to the 29th of May. Occasionally it remains through the winter, as reported from Long Island and other parts of southern New York. I saw a falcon of this species chasing the pigeons from a belfry in Canandaigua in January 1906. The fall migration takes place principally between September 4 to 15 and October 15 to November 5, but fall records as early as August 10 are not rare. This species undoubtedly breeds within the boundaries of the State, but the evidence is inconclusive. Mr B. S. Bowdish saw a female and her eggs which were taken in 1891 at Phelps, and Mr Short (Birds of Western N. Y., p. n) reports it as breeding at Naples, on the authority of L. V. Case. Mr Bowdish has told me that he can not remember positively the description of the Phelps bird and her eggs, but thought surely at the time that she was a Pigeon hawk. Mr Gustavus S. Hardy also reports this hawk as breeding at Middle ville, N. Y. But still it seems strange that no eggs from New York have found their way into collections. Mr F. T. Pember reports a young bird of this species which was scarcely able to fly, from Indian lake ; and the author saw a Pigeon hawk on Skylight mountain in the Adirondacks in July 1905. It will thus be seen that this species belongs principally in the catalog of transients, although its retir- ing habits during the nesting season may explain in part the scarcity of observations upon it as a summer resident in the Canadian zone of New York. The flight of the Pigeon hawk is swift and powerful. It preys almost entirely upon birds and fearlessly attacks flickers, doves and quails, seeming to prefer a quarry of nearly its own size. Hence it is not to be regretted that this intrepid little falcon is not common in the State. It inhabits BIRDS OF NEW YORK IO3 the whole of North America, breeding chiefly north of the United States as far as Alaska and Ungava. Falco sparverius sparverius Linnaeus Sparrow Hawk Plate 52 Falco sparverius Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. Ed. 10. 1758. 90 DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 16, fig. 16 Falco sparverius sparverius A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 166. No. 360 sparve'rius, quasi-Latin, pertaining to sparrow Description. Our smallest hawk. Sexes unlike from the nest to maturity. Tail rather long and rounded. Tarsi much longer than the middle toe. Top of head bluish slate to dusky slate, usually with a rusty patch. Side of head whitish with three black vertical stripes. Back rufous or rusty barred with blackish, uniformly in the female, but sometimes the bars almost lacking in the male. Male: Wings largely bluish stale, the primaries blackish, bar-spotted on the inner webs with whitish. Outer tail feathers barred with black and whitish, middle feathers rufous, and all with a broad subterminal band of black and a whitish tip. Under parts buffy white to ocherous, marked more or less, especially on the sides and flanks, with roundish back spots. Female: Wings and tail rufous, barred with black like the back; under parts dingy white, streaked with brown. Bill bluish; cere and legs yellow; iris brown. Length 10-11.5 inches; extent 22-24.5; wing 7-7.5; tail 4.75-5; weight 4 ounces. This hawk can scarcely be mistaken for any other native species. Its falconine shape and colors distinguish it easily from the Sharp-shinned hawk and its smaller size, lighter proportions, longer tail, and colors are quite unlike the Pigeon hawk. Distribution. As a summer resident it is found in every part of New York State. Though less numerous during migrations than several other species, and in the wooded districts not so common a summer resident as the Red-tailed, Cooper and Sharp-shinned hawks, it is probable that it is more generally distributed in New York than any other of the family. From Long Island to John Brown's grave and Plattsburg, and from West- 104 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM field to Orient this little falcon breeds in nearly every community where it is allowed to remain at peace. In traveling about the State I have found it a fairly common summer resident and in winter have noticed it in many cities and villages, or on their outskirts, where it subsists mostly on ' English " sparrows and field mice. In portions of New York City, Poughkeepsie, Albany, Rochester, Buffalo, Canandaigua and Geneva where I have watched it day after day in midwinter it seemed evident that the presence of an abundant supply of sparrows was the determining factor which inhibited migration. During the migration season, March 20 to April 30 and September to October 20, the Sparrow hawk is noticeably commoner, especially near the coast, in the Hudson valley and along the Erie-Ontario lowland. It breeds from Mackenzie, Keewatin and New- foundland to Texas and Georgia; and winters from Illinois, New York and Massachusetts to Costa Rica. Habits. The Sparrow hawk frequents wide pastures and fields which have a scattered growth of trees, open groves, " slashes," and half -cleared hillsides, or bottom lands with fringes of trees along the streams. In such localities it is often seen perched on some dead branch or telegraph pole or hovering in the air watching for its humble prey of mice and grass- hoppers. Its flight is light and easy. Occasionally it gives voice to a high pitched, rapidly repeated cry resembling the words kitty, killy, kitty, kitty. This is probably an alarm note, as it is rapidly reiterated when the nest is in danger or when the young are being led away from their enemies. The nest is in the deserted hole of some large woodpecker, usually the Flicker, or in the hollow of a tree, but rarely in the deserted nest of a crow or hawk. Little, if any, nesting material is placed in the hollow. The eggs are laid from April 25 to May 30 according to locality and nature of the season. They are from 4 to 7 in number, of a white or buff or rufous ground color, variously speckled, blotched and clouded with shades of chocolate, cinnamon, buff, ocherous etc., in different pattern, sometimes confluent on the larger end, sometimes on the smaller, sometimes zoned, and sometimes uniformly covered. They measure about 1.41 by 1.12 BIRDS OF NEW YORK 1 05 inches. The food, as already intimated, consists principally of grass- hoppers and mice. Small birds are occasionally taken, but this little falcon is mostly a harmless and certainly an interesting neighbor. Family PANDIONIDAE Ospreys Character. Beak inflated except at base and much hooked, without tooth or festoon; nostrils oblique, oval, in the edge of the cere; eye shield rudimentary; scapular process of the coracoid not reaching furculum; tarsus roughly reticulate; the large and powerful feet with rough and spiny scales for holding their finny prey; all the toes free and the outer one versatile; talons extremely large, sharp and much curved; legs long and closely feathered; the tarso-metatarsus contains a bony canal for the extensor tendon of the toes; this and the versatile character of the outer toe, as well as the aftershafted plumage, the blending of the deep plantar tendons and the presence of a scapula accessoria, suggesting relationship to the owls; the plumage, however, is close, oily and imbricated, the quills and tail feathers stiff and pointed and the coeca are wanting. The ospreys or Fish hawks are birds of powerful flight, and their long, curved talons, as well as the granular-spiny palms of their feet, are admirably adapted for seizing and holding their slippery prey. Although they feed almost exclusively upon fish, it is usually considered that they do little harm, as the species which they capture are taken in shallow water and, consequently, consist of varieties least valuable for food. At any rate, they are never so abundant that their depredations are especially annoying and the picturesqueness which they and their nests lend to the landscape is ample reward for the slight toll they take from the finny tribes. This family, or suborder, as some would make it, consists of only three species and is nearly cosmopolitan in range. IO6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Pandion haliaetus carolinensis (Gmelin) Osprey; Fish Hawk Plite 43 Falco carolinensis Gmelin. Syst. Nat. 1788. 1:263 Pandion carolinensis DcKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 6, fig. 18 Pandion haliaetus carolinensis A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 168. No. 364 pandioii, Gr., Flaviftov, the father of Progne and Philomela; haliaetus, Gr., 'aXtasTOi;, sea eagle or osprey; carolinensis, of Carolina Description. Upper parts dark brown, nearly black on the flight feathers; head, neck and under parts white, but streaks on the crown and a broad stripe on side of neck blackish, and the breast more or less marked with brownish; the tail with dusky bars, its tip and bars on the inner webs whitish; bill blackish, its cere and basal portion bluish; feet bluish gray, claws black; iris red or sometimes yellow. Male: Smaller and clearer white on neck and below. Female: With more brownish on breast and tawny tinging the white areas. Young: More marked with buffy and brownish on neck and under parts, and the upper parts edged and mottled with whitish or buffy, the tail more barred. Length 20-24 inches; extent 4 1/2-5 I/2 feet; wing 17-22 inches; tail 8.5-10.5; tarsus 2.25; middle toe without claw 1.75; culmen and claws 1.30. Field marks. The uninitiated often mistakes a Fish hawk for an eagle, but its lighter build, " crooked wings," and white under parts distinguish it at a great distance from both the young and the mature eagle. In expanse of wings, however, it almost rivals the male eagle and the Turkey buzzard among our native Raptores. Distribution. The Fish hawk is a regular and not uncommon visitor on all the lakes and rivers of New York State, arriving from March 15 to April i along the sea coast, and departing from September 20 to October 15, but is occasionally seen as late as November 17. It breeds in con- siderable numbers about the eastern end of Long Island, especially on Gardiner's island, where more than 100 nests were occupied in 1910 (see Bird Lore 5, 6, 180 and Wilson Bulletin 50, 18). On Plum and Shelter islands it also nested abundantly in recent years. In the interior counties of New York the Osprey is no longer a summer resident, except in portions BIRDS OF NEW YORK IO7 of the Adirondacks, where it continues to breed but yearly becomes rarer and rarer on account of the relentless persecution of thoughtless tourists and campers. Along the Hudson, the Great Lakes, and the Central Chain its history as a breeding species has been the same as that of the Bald eagle. One by one the Fish hawk trees have disappeared until now the author knows of no breeding station in the State except as mentioned above. As a migrant, however, the Fish hawk is frequently seen over all our inland waters from March 25 to May 15 in springtime, and from August 20 to October 25 in autumn. The food of this species consists almost entirely of fish. Occasionally frogs and other aquatic animals are taken but, although I have watched this unequaled fisherman on numberless occasions, hawking, soaring or hovering over lakes and rivers and flooded marshes, and even mill ponds, and have seen him as often splash feet foremost into the water with almost unerring aim, I have never seen him rise with any prey but a fish in his powerful talons, nor have I ever taken any food but fish from the stomach of an Osprey. Like other fishermen the Osprey prefers fish of large size and, it is said, occasionally fastens its claws into prey of such size that he is unable to rise with it or to loosen his talons, and perishes as the result of his eagerness. Mr Addison P. Wilbur relates an interesting story of his boyhood experience on Barnegat bay. While returning home after a day of unusually bad fortune, just as he was passing over a rise of ground he perceived a Fish hawk coming directly toward him and struggling under a heavy load. Concealing himself behind a low bush he awaited its approach and, just as the hawk was directly overhead, he sprang into the air with a loud shout and threw his hat, when the Osprey dropped its fish in con- fusion and flew away uttering its shrill, rapidly repeated whistle of complaint. My friend, on picking up the fish, found it a fine squeteague or weakfish weighing nearly 4 pounds. The evil which the Osprey might do by destroying food fish is mini- mized by the fact that it can not take fish from deep below the surface and consequently feeds mostly on species which prefer the warmer waters IO8 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and shallows, such as carp, suckers, pike (Esox), bowfin (Amia), alewives etc., or on fish which are sickly and hence swimming near the surface. It does not, however, to my knowledge feed on dead fish. This latter is the province of the eagle. The nest of the Fish hawk is composed of sticks and rubbish, placed in a large tree, or, when in a safe locality, on a boathouse, a cartwheel on a stake, a telegraph pole, or even on the ground. When it has been occupied for many seasons it becomes a huge affair, visible for a long distance. The eggs, 2 to 4 in number, usually 3, laid from April 20 to June I, are usually of a creamy or buffy white, heavily blotched with chocolate. But they are very variable and are sometimes nearly a uniform reddish brown, sometimes a plain dull white, and average 2.48 by 1.80 inches in size. The breeding range of this species is from the limit of trees to the Gulf of Mexico, and it winters from the Southern States to South America. Suborder STRIGES Owls Bill and claws much as in Falcones, but the cere concealed by thick bristly tufts of feathers, the feet feathered, and the outer toe reversible; eyes looking forward, large, surrounded by disks of radiating feathers ; external ear remarkably large; plumage loose and soft, the outer webs of the feathers recurved ; oil gland not tufted; coeca large ; no crop developed ; basipterygoids present; sternum doubly notched on posterior margin except Aluconidae; clavicles weak, as long as sternum; palate desmognathous ; skull bones, especially the brain case and maxillo-palatines, spongy; a bony canal in the tarso-metatarsus for the extensor tendon of the toes (except in Alu- conidae) ; ambiens, semitendinosus and accessory, accessory femorocaudal, biceps slip, and expansor of secondaries, all absent; femorocaudal present; colors blended; eggs subspherical and immaculate white; nature and regimen as in Accipitres; flight buoyant but wavering. Owls are a well-marked order of birds both in external appearance and internal structure. Everyone knows an owl, an assertion which scarcely can be made of any other order of birds. Their large, forward- looking eyes, facial disks, soft blended plumage, noiseless flight, nocturnal habits and stridulous or resonant, dismal voices, have established their individuality firmly in the popular mind. There are about 315 species BIRDS OF NEW YORK 1 09 and subspecies of owls, distributed in all parts of the world, 80 of which belong to the Otus or Screech owl genus. Family AUUCOXIDA.E Barn Owls These birds have a peculiar physiognomy which has given them the name of Monkey owls. Facial disk heart-shaped or triangular instead of rounded; the inner toe is as long as the middle toe; middle claw pectinate on its inner edge; tarsus long, closely feathered, the feathers becoming thin and bristly on the toes, and recurved on the rear part of tarsus; first quill longer than third; none of the primaries sinuate or emarginate; 'no bony canal in tarso-metatarsus for extensor of toes; sternum has a manu- bri iiui, and is entire on the rear margin; fitrculum ankylosed with sternum. This family, which is related to the goatsuckers through Steatornis, is represented by the single living genus Aluco of 26 species and subspecies, distributed in all warm and temperate regions of the world. Aluco pratincola (Bonaparte) Barn Owl Plate 53 Strix pratincola Bonaparte. Geog. & Comp. List. 1838. 7 DcKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 31, fig. 28 Aluco pratincola. A. 0. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 168. No. 365 ahico, Lat., a kind of hooting owl; pratincola, Lat., inhabiting the meadow Description. Upper parts ocherous yellow, overwashed with grayish, and speckled and marbled with dusky and white; wings and tail bar-spotted with dusky; under parts vary from white to tawny, speckled with blackish; face white to tawny; iris blackish. Length 15-18 inches; extent 44; wing 12.5-14; tail 5.5-7.5; tarsus 2.25-3. Distribution. The American Barn owl, which is closely related to the European species f 1 a m m e a , inhabits the warmer portions of North America from the northern limit of the upper Austral zone southward into Mexico. The only New York breeding records before me are from Staten Island, Long Island and the Genesee valley. It has been regarded as a rare bird in this State but, as the accompanying records indicate, is well distributed in the warmer portions of New York, and probably is more no NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM common than the paucity of records would lead us to suppose. Its secretive and nocturnal habits fortunately protect it from vulgar and thoughtless interference in many localities, and it has been known to nest for years in secluded towers, belfries, barn attics and hollow trees without its presence being suspected by neighboring inhabitants. Doctor Fisher has shown, by the examination of hundreds of bone and fur pellets disgorged by these owls, that their food is made up almost entirely of mice, and hence that they should be strictly protected. Two broods are said to be reared in a season, and eggs in all stages of incubation are frequently found in the same nest. The eggs are from 5 to n in number and average 1.73 by 1.28 inches in dimensions. When disturbed, like other owls it hisses at its tormentor. Bendire mentions a querulous note, " aek, aek, somewhat like the call of the nighthawk "; and Chapman has heard it utter " a wild, startling scream, a high rapidly repeated cr-r-ree, cr-r-ree, cr-r-ree." New York records of the barn owl La Salle Ossining Near New York New York Penn Yan Flushing Bay Ridge West Hampton Cayuga Bayport Troy Heel a Works Buffalo Troy Parkville Islip Pitcher January 1873 April 13, 1878 April 5, 1878 May 30, 1883 (4 young in nest) Collection L. I. Hist. Soc. November 20, 1886 About 1886 September i, 1888 November 19, 1888 Winter 1889 f July 5, 1890 \ October 3, 1890 December 3, 1890 September 10, 1890 February 16, 1891 September 13, 1891 Fisher, J. L. Davison B. N. O. C., vol. i, p. 61 "F. & S.," vol. n, p. 482 Mearns, Auk, vol. 7, p. 90 Bicknell, B. N. 0. C., vol. 3, p. 132 Gilbert, Auburn list, p. 26 "F. & S.," vol. 7, p. 325 Dutcher, Auk, vol. 3, p. 439 Beard, Auk, vol. 19, p. 398 Dutcher, Auk, vol. 5, p. 180 Foster Parker (Hawkins) Dutcher, L. I. Notes Parke, Auk, vol. 7, p. 400 J. S. Allwood Bergtold, Auk, vol. 7, p. 400 Parke, Auk, vol. 8, p. 114 Johnson, Auk, vol. 8, p. 114 (Hawkins) Dutcher, L. I. Notes Higgins, Auk, vol. 10, p. 301 BIRDS OF NEW YORK III Hick's Beach Jamestown Auburn Bliss ville Buffalo Marcy Gardiner's Island East Marion Gardiner's Island Rochester Sennett Bellport Canandaigua Montauk Point Montauk Point Islip Gasport Montauk Point South Danby Medina Staten Island Kenyonville Canandaigua Livingston county Wayne and Livings- ton counties Ithaca East Schodack January 10, 1892 September 16, 18940? About December 13, 1895 December 1894 July 18, 1895 September 1898 September 30, 1898 October 12, 1898 March 1899 September 1899 September 23, 1900 Breeds, April 25th, 7 fresh eggs June 1 8, 1900 September 12, 1900 September 25, 1901 April 23, 1902 September 1903 February 17, 1903 December i, 1904 June 20, 1905 1905-7 Breeds October 30, 1905 April 1907 March 10, Breeds Breeds 1906-7 (Several taken) October 1907 Howell, Auk, vol. 10, p. 90 Kibbe " Oologist," vol. 23, p. 25 Fred J. Stupp, (Hendrickson) Dutcher, L. I. Notes Savage, Auk, vol. 12, p. 393 Bagg, Auk, vol. 17, p. 177 Worthington, Auk, vol. 16, p. 85 Worthington, Auk, vol. 16, p. 85 Braislin, Auk, vol. 17, p. 70 David Bruce G. C. Embody W. Arthur Babson Ernest Watts Braislin, Auk, vol. 19, p. 146 Braislin, Bds. L. I., p. 70 H. M. Burtis, Auk, vol. 20, p. 212 Garrett, "Oologist," vol. 23, p. 25 Dwight, jr, Auk, vol. 20, p. 434 (Erway) H. D. Reed Posson, " Oologist," vol. 22, p. 106 James Chapin Garrett, "Oologist," vol. 25, p. 25 Ernest Watts D. Byron Waite A. L. Thorne L. A. Fuertes (Hall) George L. Richard Family STRIGIDAE Horned Owls, etc. In this family the sternum is notched on the rear margin, there is no inanitbriiim on its front, and the furculum is more or less defective and not ankylosed with the sternum; inner toe shorter than middle; feathers on rear of tarsus not recurved; first quill shorter than third; from one to six of the primary quills emarginate or sinuate. Here are included the owls with rounded face disks and large external ears. Many have plumicorns or " horns," and those with the largest ears have flaps or lids to cover the opening. There are 290 species and sub- species, some of which are found in every region of the globe. 112 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Asio wilsonianus (Lesson) Long-eared Owl Plate S3 Otus wilsonianus Lesson. Traitd d'Orn. 1830. 1 10 Otus americanus DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 27, fig. 24 Asio wilsonianus. A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 169. No. 366 dsio, Lat., a kind of horned owl; wilsonianus, in honor of Alexander Wilson Description. Ear tufts conspicuous. Plumage finely mottled and bro- kenly waved with dusky, grayish white, and buffy, the former predominat- ing on the upper parts, and the buffy overlaid with the dusky and grayish ; wings and tail with dusky bars; obscurely defined blotches of dusky on breast and stripes combined with obscure crossbars on the belly; facial disks reddish brown; legs buffy; the whole plumage remarkably blended. Length 13-16 inches; extent 38-40; wing 11-12; tail 5.5-6.50; tarsus 1.20-1.40; whole oilmen i. Distribution. The American Long-eared owl, closely related to the Palearctic species Asio otus, inhabits the temperate portion of North America from Nova Scotia and Saskatchewan to the tablelands of Mexico. It is one of our strictly resident species, and is not very uncommon about dense wooded swamps and hillsides in most parts of the State, but is apparently uncommon in the Adirondack forests. Cedar and hemlock swamps, pine woods and alder thickets are its favorite retreats. In such localities it is frequently observed standing motionless in some evergreen with its ear tufts raised and its feathers drawn close, looking like a weather- worn stub or ragged piece of bark. At other times one is not aware of its presence, until it is startled from its perch and retreats with silent wavering flight, like a great Whippoorwill, to a remoter corner of the swamp. I am not sure that I have ever heard the note of this owl, but Nuttall describes it as a plaintive, hollow moaning, while others compare it to the barking of young dogs or the noise made by kittens. This species nests in trees, usually in the deserted home of a crow, hawk or squirrel, but rarely constructs its own nest, and lays from 3 to 7 white eggs which average about 1.62 by r.28 inches in dimensions. The time of nesting varies from March 3 1 when eggs have been found at Ossining BIRDS OF NEW YORK 113 and Branchport to April 19 and May u when its nest was found with eggs at Holland Patent. The Long-eared owl ranks close to the Barn owl and the Sawwhet owl in its services to agriculture. From an examination of 129 stomach pellets cast by this species, the author found its food to consist of mice (187) and sparrows (5) which agrees very nearly with Doctor Fisher's report from the examination of stomachs sent to the Department of Agriculture. Asio flammeus (Pontoppidan) Short-eared Owl Plate 56 Strix flammea Pontoppidan. Danske Atlas. 1763. 1:617. pi. xxv, figure Otus palustris DoKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 28, fig. 27 Asio flammeus. A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 169. No. 367 flammeus, Lat., flaming, referring to the general yellowish brown coloration Description. Ear tufts rudimentary. General ground color ocherous to buffy white, streaked with dark brown; wing and tail feathers barred with the same; region of the eyes blackish, the eyelids whitish; iris bright yellow; bill bluish black. Length 13.7-16.5 inches; extent 40-44; wing 11.7-13; tail 5.7-6.2; tarsus 1.75. This is the " yellowish brown owl " or " Marsh owl " so often seen flying over the marshes early in the evening or on dark days. Distribution. This is one of our commonest owls, at least in the low- lands and marshy districts far outnumbering all other species, and in the more cultivated portions of the State is more frequently observed than any other owl except the Screech owl. Unfortunately a large percentage is killed early in the winter each year by gunners and thoughtless sports- men, but where left undisturbed, it must be regarded a common winter visitant on all our extensive marshes and waste fields. During October and November, and again in March and April its numbers are noticeably increased, when the birds from the far north are sojourning with us on their semiannual migrations. As a resident species this owl is quite widely distributed in New York, its presence during the breeding season depending 114 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM upon available nesting sites and freedom from persecution. Mr Worthing- ton found a nest on Plum island, Suffolk county, May 7, 1891 (Auk, 10, 301) containing a young bird about half grown, which would give April i as the approximate date for eggs. The author photographed a young bird of this species on May n, 1902, which had recently been taken from a nest near the foot of Canandaigua lake. This nest contained also 8 eggs in various stages of incubation. Mr Savage reports a set of 7 eggs taken near Buffalo by Frank S. Low, April 7, 1898. According to Bruce and Short it breeds quite commonly near Brockport and Chili in Monroe county. But its commonest breeding grounds are on the marshes of the Seneca river above and below Montezuma, and on the wet lands near the eastern end of Lake Ontario. Habits. The specific names of this bird formerly in vogue — palustris, of the marsh, and accipitrinus, hawklike, were more appropriate names than Pontoppidan's name which supplants them in accordance with the rules of our Code of Nomenclature ; for this is our Marsh owl par excellence and is more hawklike both in appearance and habits than any other of our common species. While traveling about the country I have often seen it sitting on trees and fence posts in broad daylight watching for its favorite prey, or hawking back and forth over the grassy lowlands. It is easily distinguished from the Marsh hawk and other diurnal raptores by its larger head, more wavering flight and the blunter pointed, more " crooked " wings. Mice, mostly field mice, make about 80 per cent of this owl's food, while only 10 or 12 per cent consists of small birds of the open field, mostly sparrows. Its eggs measure about 1.60 by 1.26 inches, of a less shiny white than those of the Long-eared owl. The young are dark brown in color, spotted with ocherous, the face brownish black, and the lower parts dull buff marked with smoky. ' They remain for 3 or 4 weeks in the vicinity of the nest, which is a rude affair placed on the ground in the midst of the thick marsh grass. This is the most silent of our owls and even when defending itself or its nest, makes only a sharp snapping sound with its beak. The Short-eared owl is Holarctic in distribution, sharing with the Snowy BIRDS OF NEW YORK 115 owl the distinction of being our only species nonseparable, even by sub- specific rank, from the old world forms. It breeds from Alaska and Green- land southward to New Jersey and Kansas, and, in winter, is found from Massachusetts, Ohio and California southward to Cuba and Guatemala. Strix varia varia Barton Barred Owl Plate 54 Strix varius Barton. Fragm. N. H. Penn. 1799. n Ulula nebulosa DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 29, fig. 21 Strix varia varia. A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 170. No. 368 strix, Lat., Gr., ff"pY§, an owl; varia, Lat., variegated Description. No "horns"; eyes dark brownish black; upper parts umber brown barred with whitish; tail bars 6 to 8; under parts dull white barred on the breast and heavily streaked on the belly with dark brown; face gray with fine dusky concentric rings; bill yellowish. Young: More spotted above, barred below. Length 19.5-24 inches; extent 44-50; wing 13-14; tail 9-10; weight 20-32 ounces. The absence of ear tufts and the barring of the breast distinguish this species from our other large owls. When I have caught a hurried glimpse of some large owl retreating through the forest or down some ravine, the general grayish brown effect has served to distinguish this species from the more ocherous brown of the Great horned owl; while its superior size, much larger head and grayer tone are sufficiently different from the Long -eared owl, our other woodland species. Distribution. The Barred owl is found throughout New York State, and breeds wherever it finds swampy woods or forests of sufficient extent to secure it protection from its one great enemy, civilized man. It is undoubtedly the commonest owl in the Adirondacks, and is still common in all the more wooded districts of the State. Although as nearly a strictly resident species as any of our owls, it is most numerous in fall and early winter when the young of the year are scattering in search of hunting grounds, and birds from farther north are seeking a milder climate. The range of our subspecies is from Hudson bay and Newfoundland to Kansas Il6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and Georgia. In New York the nesting season varies from March 12, when fresh eggs have been taken near New York City, to April I (Branch- port) and May i (Herkimer county). Habits. This is the most vociferous of our owls. Its notes are deep- toned and dismal, usually a combination of whoos or whaas, sometimes interspersed with sounds like the laughter of demons or " like the horrified shriek of a half -strangled person." The commonest of its performances, which has gained it the name of " eight hooter " among the north woods guides, may be written as follows: Whoo-whoo, hoo-hoo; whoo-whoo, hoo- hooaw, the last syllable being prolonged and ending in a falling guttural aw sound. There can be little doubt that the stories told by pioneers of the blood-curdling shrieks of the " panther " which followed them in the woods are to be attributed to this bird. The Barred owl, in spite of its size, rarely attacks poultry or the larger game birds, but more than 60 per cent of its food consists of mice and other small mammals, and it is fond of crayfish, frogs and insects. I have known repeated instances of poultry roosting in the trees of a farmyard where these owls were hooting every night about the place without a single fowl being disturbed. About 16 per cent of their food, however, consists of birds. The nest of the Barred owl is usually in a hollow tree or in the old nest of a crow or large hawk. The eggs are 2 or 3 in number, sometimes 4, and measure about 2 by 1.66 inches. Scotiaptex nebulosa nebulosa (J. R. Forster) Great Gray Owl Plate $4 Strix nebulosa Forster. Philos. Trans. 1772. 62:424 Syrnium cinereum DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 26, fig. 29 Scotiaptex nebulosa nebulosa. A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. 171. No. 370 scotiaptex, Gr. cxoTi'a, darkness, and (probably) XTUY£, which Prof. D'Arcy Thompson considers equivalent to u^pi?, the Eagle owl; nebulosa, Lat., cloudy, gray Description. Very large; no ear tufts; eyes and bill yellow; upper parts dusky grayish brown, mottled with white in irregular broken bars; BIRDS OF NEW YORK 117 grayish white below with ragged stripes of dusky on the breast, and irregular bars on flanks and belly; face grayish white with narrow dusky concentric rings. This great owl bears only a superficial resemblance to the Barred owl. Though of such large dimensions, its body is smaller than that of the Great-horned owl. Length 25-30 inches; extent 54-60; wing 16-18; tail 11-12.6. Distribution. The Great gray owl, closely related to the Lapp owl of Eurasia, inhabits the Boreal forests of North America from Central Alberta and Keewatin northward to the limit of trees. In winter it wanders irregularly southward as far as New York, Ohio, Nebraska and California. In the Adirondacks it is probably more common as a winter visitor than is generally supposed, but throughout the remainder of the State is only of rare and irregular occurrence. The following records, the only ones from this State at my disposal, will indicate the frequency of its visits. Marcy, Oneida county February 1875 Ralph and Bagg Adirondacks March 1879 Lawrence, N. O. C. Bui. 5, 122 Steuben county February 10, 1887 Wood, Auk, 5, no Watson, Lewis county December 17, 1889 Miller, Auk, 7, 206 New York State 1889 Bambir, F. & S. 33, 449 White Lake, Oneida \ „ , > February 1895 Johnson, Auk, 12, 301 county i St Lawrence county 1890-95 (3 specimens) Dutcher, Auk, 12:181 Mount Sinai, Suf-1 , > (date unknown) A. H. Helme folk county J Rensselaer county F. S. Webster Seneca Castle, On-) , > January 1907 Ernest Watts tario county J Cryptoglaux funerea richardsoni (Bonaparte) Richardson Owl Plate SS Nyctale richardsoni Bonaparte. Geog. & Comp. List. 1838. 7 Cryptoglaux funerea richardsoni. A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 171. No. 371 cry'ptoglaux, Gr. xpuTTOs, hidden, and "fXau5, the little owl of Europe; funerea, Lat., funereal; richardsoni, to John Richardson Description. Similar to the next species, but larger, fully equaling the Screech owl; the white spots on head more rounded and not short streaks Il8 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM as in acadica; feet buffy, spotted with brown; under tail-coverts striped with brown; stripes on under parts usually less ruddy than in the next species. Length 9-12 inches; extent 24; wing 6.6-7.4; tail 4.2-4.7. Distribution. This boreal species breeds from northern British Columbia, Alberta and the Magdalen islands northward to the limit of trees, being the Nearctic representative of the Palearctic C. funerea f u n e r e a. In winter it has been taken occasionally as far south as New England, New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois and Nebraska. Only two definite records for New York are before me; the first a specimen taken at Hecla Works (Lowell), Oneida county, February 1893, by J. S. All- wood, and now in the State collection; and the other taken at North Elba, Essex county, about the middle of December 1896, by Ezra Cornell, jr. Cryptoglaux acadica acadica (Gmelin) Saw-whet Owl Plate ss Strix acadica Gmelin. Syst. Nat. 1788. 1:296 Ulula acadica DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 30, fig. 23 Cryptoglaux acadica acadica. A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 172. No. 372 acadica, of Acadia Description. The smallest New York owl; no ear tufts; upper parts brown, with short white streaks on front and top of head, and larger white spots on back of head, scapulars and back; the wing and tail feathers spotted with white on either web, forming interrupted bars; under parts whitish striped with reddish brown; face whitish with a blackish space around and in front of the eye, border of the disk dark brown spotted with white; feet plain buffy white; bill blackish; eyes yellow. Young: Upper parts and forward portion of lower parts plain chocolate brown; rest of under parts brownish yellow; no streaks ; face sooty brown. Length 7.25-8.5 inches; extent 17-18; wing 5.2-5.9; tail 2.7-3.2; tarsus .75. Distribution. This owl has been regarded as rare, or at least uncom- mon, in nearly all the local lists of New York birds, but its retiring habits are undoubtedly responsible for its not being rated as fairly common in many portions of the State. It is perhaps less common than the Long- BIRDS OF NEW YORK 119 eared owl in southern New York, but more common than that species in the Adirondacks. A rather decided migratory movement has been noticed by various observers. In western New York I have seen evidence of migration in the fact that this bird is often killed by sportsmen in our woodcock coverts during October and early November, and that it is frequently observed by bird enthusiasts during April and early May. Of 13 Long Island records in Mr Butcher's notes, n occur between October 23 and December 31, while the majority of all New York specimens were taken in November and December. Mr Bruce reported it as breeding near Brockport, and Mr Helme has taken 2 sets of 5 eggs at Miller's Place, L. I. Ralph and Bagg record 5 sets of 6 and 7 eggs from Oneida and Herkimer counties, the dates ranging from March 25 (1886) to April 30 (1889). I have seen specimens in nestling plumage from Fourth lake and Honnedaga, but can find no other records of nesting within the State, although Doctor Ralph considered it a fairly common breeder on the borders of the Adirondack forests. The range of the Saw-whet owl is from British Columbia, Manitoba, Quebec and Nova Scotia south to Arizona, Nebraska, Indiana and Maryland; in winter as far south as Louisiana and casually to Guatemala. Habits. The little Saw-whet or Acadian owl is an inhabitant of the forest, preferring a swampy woods, and remains concealed during the day in a hollow tree, a woodpecker's hole or among dense evergreens. During migrations it is often found in dense swampy coverts of alders and tangles of vines. It is very unsuspicious and will frequently permit itself to be stroked with the hand or captured without resistance. During the mating season its curious notes are heard in the wood which has been selected for a nesting site. " The call is a frequently repeated whistle, sometimes uttered in a high and again in a low key, and given in either a slow or a rapid cadence. Generally it is commenced slowly and gradually becomes faster and faster till it ends quite rapidly. This call, which is the only one I have ever heard them give, sounds not unlike the noise made during the operation of filing a saw and it is easily imitated " (Doctor Ralph I2O NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM in Bendire's Life Histories). It feeds almost exclusively on mice and insects, rarely attacking birds. It is itself often destroyed by the Barred owl and other carnivorous species, as is shown by the stomach exami- nations made by the Biological Survey. I have also found the feathers of this little owl on several occasions where it had been devoured by some stronger antagonist, and Mr Butcher mentions a similar occurrence in his Long Island notes. The little Saw- whet usually lays her eggs in the deserted hole of a woodpecker. Sometimes an old squirrel nest or a crow's nest is utilized, and it has been known to occupy a hollow log or box artificially constructed. The eggs vary from 4 to 7 in number, oval in shape, pure white without gloss, and measure about 1.20 by i inch. Otus asio asio (Linnaeus) Screech Owl Plate 56 Strix asio Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. Ed. 10. 1758. 1:92 Bubo asio DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 25, fig. 25 and 26 Otus asio asio. A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 172. No. 373 6tus, Lat., Gr., WTO?, an eared owl; a'sio, Lat., a kind of horned owl Description. Small; ear tufts conspicuous; coloration dichromatic. Gray phase: Upper parts brownish gray, everywhere mottled and dappled with lighter and darker shades and with fine shaft streaks of blackish : spots on scapulars form a whitish or buff y band ; wings and tail barred distinctly but not sharply with dusky and whitish; under parts grayish white with fine streaks and fine wavy crossbars of blackish; a few touches of rufous; prevailing color gray. Red phase: bright rufous or rust red where the gray phase is brownish or dusky gray, the fine shaft stripes of the feathers blackish as before. Specimens intermediate between the red and gray phases are quite common. Both red and gray owls may come from the same brood. The particular phase of coloration of each individual shows in the first plumage, but the color may be controlled somewhat by the food given in captivity. In New York my experience would show that the gray phase is at least 10 times as common as the red, and it has happened (perhaps merely happened) that the red owls which I have dissected have been feeding on crayfish. The fact that the red phase is more common in the Mississippi valley might possibly be correlated BIRDS OF NEW YORK 121 with the abundance of crayfish in that region. Nestlings: Covered with white down. Fledglings: Uniformly and finely crossbarred with dusky and grayish white. Length 7.5-10 inches; extent 22; wing 6-7.2; tail 3-3.5; weight 4-6 ounces. Distribution. The Screech owl inhabits eastern North America from Minnesota, Ontario and New Brunswick to Texas and Georgia; represented in the remainder of temperate and tropical America by closely allied forms. In New York it is generally distributed except in the spruce and balsam belt, where it is mostly absent, since it is an austral species, but reaches the northern limit of the Transi- tion zone. It is our commonest owl, averaging from i to 3 pairs for each square mile of country, and is as strictly resident as any native species. It prefers orchards, groves and shade trees to the depths of the forest and I have found it nesting within the limits of New York City, Rochester, Buffalo, Geneva and Canandaigua. Habits. The Screech owl remains concealed during the day in a hollow tree or dense evergreen. I have often discov- ered him perched within the entrance of some jagged hollow with his ear tufts raggedly elevated and his eyelids drawn obliquely together, appar- ently watching the progress of events as the day wore by. If approached too closely he seemed to melt away so gradually that no motion was evi- dent. As soon as the dusk of evening comes, he issues forth and utters his Screech owl Photo by Guy A. Bailey 122 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM tremulous, plaintive, mournful whistle. This note seems to be a hunting cry or a sociable halloo as well as a mating call, for it is heard at all times of year. I have often called them to me by imitation of their notes, and have seen them strike mice and crickets and cicadas immediately after they had called. This note sounds mournful, melancholy and dismal to those who are in a mournful state of mind, yet in fact has nothing to do with sor- row or melancholy in the bird's sensorium, but is as much the expression of a healthy, happy, vigorous and sociable personality as the chickadee's cheery note. By watching these little gnomes calling back and forth to each other and plying their helpful trade about my camp, I have come to welcome their notes and their presence as heartily as the Robin and the Phoebe. Their voices are heard not only in the evening but at day- break, and throughout the moonlight nights." Sometimes where mice and insects are scarce, the screech owls become addicted to the bird-killing habit, when the settler must use his best intelligence as judge and executioner. Like other species, the little Screech owl, when approached, instinc- tively assumes a curious appearance to escape observation. The upper figure in Mr Fuertes's painting (plate 56) is by no means an extreme illustration of this attitude. While passing through a thicket, I once came upon an old Screech owl and four young just from the nest, all seated in a dense shrub slightly above my reach. They had posed in the most fantastic shapes and resembled jagged strips of bark or torn pieces of a hornet's nest more than birds. One that was captured puffed himself up like a great cat and hissed and opened his eyes and snapped his beak in a fierce and threatening manner. The Screech owl pairs in March and April. The site chosen for incubation is a hollow tree, a deserted Flicker's hole, or a cavity erected for the owl's accommodation. The eggs are laid on the chips or rubbish in the bottom of the hollow, 4 to 7 in number, usually 4 or 5, white as with all owls, and average about 1.42 by 1.18 inches in size. In this State they are laid from the ist to the 25th of April. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 123 Bubo virginianus virginianus (Gmelin) Great Horned Owl Plate 57 Strix virginiana Gmelin. Syst. Nat. I. 1788. 1:287 Bubo virginianus DcKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 24, fig. 22 Bubo virginianus virginianus. A. 0. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 175. No. 375 bubo, Lat., the Eagle owl; virginianus, of Virginia Description. Very large, conspicuously " horned." Upper parts ocher- otis, profusely marbled and speckled with blackish; wings and tail barred with dusky; tinder parts lighter ocherous, more or less overlaid with whitish, finely barred with black; a necklace of black blotches on breast; throat patch white; bill blackish; eyes yellow, larger than those of any other native bird. The large size, great head, long ear tufts, and general yellowish brown color effect, distinguish this bird at a distance from any other species. Length 21-24 inches; extent 50-60; wing 14-16; tail 8-10; tarsus 2-2.3; weight 3-4.5 pounds. Distribution. The Great horned owl is a permanent resident through- out New York State. It is no longer common, however, except in the : wooded districts. The early settlers were too well acquainted with its disastrous raids upon the chicken roost, and it still imposes a heavy toll upon all kinds of poultry in the rural districts. Next to the Screech owl it is the best known member of the family, and the owl cages in every " zoo " are always well supplied with specimens of this feathered pirate. Late in the fall and again in February there seems to be a decided increase in its numbers and several individuals are occasionally found together in thick clusters of evergreens or even in the same tree, which fact is probably to be explained by the partial migration of the species from the northern portion of its range. Our subspecies inhabits eastern North America from Wisconsin, Quebec and Newfoundland southward to Florida and Texas. Other subspecies are found in nearly every other portion of North America and in South America. Habits. The Great horned owl is even more nocturnal in habit than the Barred owl, but in some portions of the country is said to hunt more 124 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM or less on cloudy days, especially when it has young in the nest. It cer- tainly can see well enough to fly with ease through the trees in brightest noonday when driven from its diurnal retreats. If they are occupying the old nest of a hawk or crow for breeding purposes, I have usually found that the mother bird will leave the nest quietly while danger is yet far off, and return stealthily when the intruders are past. Even when in hollow trees they will usually act in the same manner after having been driven once or twice from the nest. The home of this owl is in some extensive wooded swamp, or rugged hillside, or deep ravine, but if undis- turbed it will sometimes nest for years in groves or scattered growths of trees near farmhouses or the outskirts of villages. The accompanying photograph is of such a nest near the village of Geneseo. The growing scarcity of hollow trees suitably situated for nesting sites and the almost absolute certainty of the destruction of broods reared in open nests, every- where except in the wildest districts, has been an important factor in the gradual decline of this species in New York, and the eager warfare of sportsmen and farmers has completed the extirpation of all nesting pairs in the thickly settled districts. The general scarcity of this bird and of the Red fox in the country now occupied by the Ring-neck pheasant has undoubtedly helped materially the introduction of that species, as well as the increase of the Cotton-tail rabbit. This owl kills larger prey than any other of our common Raptores, fully equaling the Gyrfalcon in its prowess as a hunter. Many are the full-grown fowls which I have seen dead from his nightly raids, and I once lost a hen turkey that was attacked while brooding her young, and decapitated with ease. This was the work of a large female owl, as was demonstrated by the steel trap set by the carcass on the ensuing night. They also feed on mice and other small quadrupeds, though not always on small ones, for besides rabbits they are fond of muskrats, woodchucks, and especially of skunks. I have frequently examined specimens which had recently partaken of the savory flesh of Mephitis, and have seen the evidences of such feasts in the fields and woods. Mr W. E. Lauderdale has called my attention to their habit of feeding BIRDS OF NEW YORK 125 only the soft parts of mice to the very young nestlings, a habit which is probably practised by most of our birds of prey. The voice of this owl is deeper toned and more sonorous than that of the Barred owl and uttered with more even intonation though less regular in form and accent, the usual cry consisting of 6 syllables on the same key, which has gained it the name of six hooter in some parts of the State. This cry, which may be written whoo, hoo-hoo-hoo, whoo, whoo, Photo by W. E. Lauderdale, jr Great horned owl's nest and eggs in hollow tree I have frequently mistaken for the distant baying of a large dog, or even for the tooting of a freight engine in the distant valley. My early recol- lections of the " sugar bush," where I was occasionally permitted to watch the boiling sap throughout the moonlight nights of early March, are inseparably associated with the wonderful vocal performances of the Great horned owl, answered and reechoed between the hills, until they seemed at times to pervade the air completely. This owl nests early in the season, fresh eggs in this State usually 126 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM being found from February 20 to March 15. They are 2 or 3 in number, white, subspherical in shape and measure about 2.22 by 1.80 inches. As indicated above, they are commonly laid in a hollow tree on the litter at the bottom, or in an old hawk's nest, and Mr C. F. Stone reports a nest found on the shelf of a precipitous cliff. The nestlings are covered with white down, the fledglings ocherous buff, finely barred with dusky. Nyctea nyctea (Linnaeus) Snowy Owl Plate 54 Strix nyctea Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. Ed. 10. 1758. 1:93 Surnia nyctea DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 22, fig. 20 Nyctea nyctea. A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 176. No. 376 nyctea, from vu£, night Description. Large, no ear tufts, feet very thickly feathered. White, more or less barred with dusky; face, throat and upper breast without mark- ings; eyes yellow; bill black. Males are much smaller and whiter than females. I have seen a few specimens that were nearly pure white, with only a few inconspicuous dusky spots, but females and young of the year are quite regularly marked with narrow transverse bars below and spotted or brokenly barred above. Length 22-25 inches; extent 54-60; wing 16-19; tail 9-10. Distribution. The home of the Snowy owl is on the barren grounds of the Holarctic realm. In America it breeds as far south as central Ungava and Keewatin and wanders southward in winter as far as the Middle States, rarely to Carolina and Louisiana. A few specimens are taken in New York nearly every winter, but at intervals of several years there is a decided invasion, as in the winters of 1876-77, 1882-83, 1889-90, 1901-2, when dozens of specimens were collected in various parts of the State, notably on Long Island and near the shores of Lake Ontario. My earliest record of arrival is October 20, 1890, a large female captured at Shortsville; and the latest a very white male bird killed at Canandaigua April n, 1907. The majority of New York records range between November 1 1 and February 6. This species hunts by day nearly as well as in the dusk of evening, BIRDS OF NEW YORK 127 and duck hunters are sometimes surprised by its descending upon their decoys while they are concealed in their blinds. It is rarely numerous enough in this State to do much damage, but destroys some grouse, rabbits and pheasants, although field mice are its principal food while with us. As a species it should be ranked as more injurious than the Barred owl, but much less harmful than the Great horned owl. In its native haunts its food consists principally of lemmings, mice, hares, ptarmigan, water- fowl and fish. Surnia ulula caparoch (Miiller) Hawk Owl Plate 55 Strix caparoch Muller. Natursyst. Suppl. 1776. 69 Surnia funerea DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 21, fig. 19 Surnia ulula caparoch. A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 177. No. 377* stirnia, Mod. Gr., aypvtov, the European Tawny owl; ulula, Lat., a kind of owl, from ululare, to howl; caparoch, name given by natives of Hudson bay to this bird, applied by Brisson in 1760 Description. No ear tufts; tail long and rounded, feet densely feathered, size medium. Upper parts bistre brown, spotted with white; wings and tail barred with white; under parts white, regularly and narrowly barred with reddish brown; face white bordered with blackish; eyelids, loral bristles and nuchal band blackish; eyes and bill yellow. Length 15-16; extent 32-34; wing 9; tail 7. Distribution. This bird, the Nearctic subspecies of S. ulula, breeds from British Columbia, Montana and Ungava northward to the limit of trees, and winters as far south as Nebraska, Indiana and Rhode Island. In New York, especially in the northern counties, it is not rare as a winter visitant, but not so common as the Snowy owl. Of 23 New York records before me i is from Kings county (1863), I from Saratoga (1888), 3 from Onon- daga, i from Oneida (1885), 2 from Monroe (1889), 2 from Orleans, I from Ontario, i from Yates (1875), i from Niagara, 2 from Cayuga, 4 from Lewis, and 4 from St Lawrence. These are nearly all reported as " winter " or " November " specimens. Doctor Merriam records 2 defi- nitely -- Lowville, October 24, 1877, and November 16, 1877. Mr Ashbury reports 2 males, Conquest, November 27, 1902. 128 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM In habits the Hawk owl is the most diurnal of the family. It is usually seen watching for its prey from some exposed perch and, when disturbed, pitches downward and flies rapidly away over the tops of the grass or bushes, gliding abruptly upward when alighting. Its note is " a shrill cry uttered generally when the bird is on the wing " (Fisher). Speotyto cunicularia hypogaea (Bonaparte) Burrowing Owl Strix hypogaea Bonaparte. Amer. Orn. 1825. 1:72 Speotyto cunicularia hypogaea. A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 177. No. 378 speotyto, Gr., SITTACI Parrots, Macaws, Paroquets etc. Conuropsis carolinensis (Linnaeus) Carolina Paroquet Psittacus carolinensis Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. Ed. 10. 1758. 1:97 Caprimulgus carolinensis DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 33. Extralimital Conuropsis carolinensis. A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 179. No. 382 conuropsis, Gr., xwvo?, cone, oupa, tail, oij/c?, appearance; carolinensis, of Carolina 9 130 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Description. Tail long and wedge-shaped, the feathers tapering; face more completely feathered than in most parrots ; bill very stout and broadly rounded; tarsi very short; wings pointed. Color green; head and neck yellow; face orange red; bill whitish. Length 12.5-13.5; extent 21-23; wing 7-8; tail 6-7. Distribution. The Carolina paroquet formerly inhabited the eastern United States from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, westward to eastern Colorado and Texas. Now it is restricted to a few localities in Florida, the continued persecution of plumage hunters, bird catchers, fruit growers and " sportsmen " having brought it already to the verge of extermination. In New York State this bird is only of historic interest. Audubon in his Birds of America records it "as far northeast as Lake Ontario " (vol. 4, p. 309), and DeKay mentions the appearance of a flock of Paroquets in winter, 1795, about 25 miles northwest of Albany (see reference above). Order COCCYGES Cuckoos, Kingfishers etc. Family CUCULIDAK Cuckoos Zygodactylous, the fourth toe being permanently reversed; palate desmognathous, basipterygoids wanting; two carotids; two intestinal coeca; ambiens, accessory femorocaudal, semitendinosus and its accessory present; oil gland bare; feathers without af tershaf ting ; tail feathers usually 10 in number; spinal feather tract forked in the scapular region. Cuckoos are famous alike for their migratory habits, loud explosive voices and the custom of depositing their eggs in the nests of other birds. This parasitic nature, however, is strictly characteristic only of several Old World species, especially the European Cuckoo, our native Americans rarely being guilty of the practice. The family is cosmopolitan in dis- tribution, but of the 150 or more species, only 2 are found within the limits of New York State. These cuckoos are quite distinctive in appearance. Their long slim forms and soft unmarked colors, as well as the gently curved beaks and long rounded tails, furnish such an individual appearance that they at once impress even the casual observer as unusual. Our BIRDS OF NEW YORK cuckoos build nests of their own, in tangles or thick bushes near the ground, although their architecture is rather loose and straggling, and the interior of the nest only slightly hollowed, so that the eggs rest upon it as on a small platform. The eggs are usually deposited at intervals, so that young birds and fresh eggs may sometimes be found in the nest at the same time. This practice of laying at intervals might readily be conceived as the beginning of the parasitic habits of some species, and even our native cuckoos occasionally drop their eggs in the nests of other birds, as has been reported by several New York observers. Personally, I have rarely found cuckoos' eggs in other birds' nests, excepting that the eggs of the Yellow-billed species I have found in the nest of the Black-billed cuckoo. The economic value of cuckoos can not be questioned. Of all our native birds they seem the most addicted to caterpillar diet, even choosing the hairy or spiny species, such as the web worms that are shunned by many of our insectivorous birds. They undoubtedly furnish the best means of holding in check outbreaks of leaf -eating larvae in the thickets and shrubbery which border our orchards and gardens, and so prevent them from spreading to cultivated trees. It is unfortunate that these birds are not more abundant, but their numbers might be increased by offering them suitable tangles and thickets in which to make their nests at the corners of our farms and cultivated fields. An account of the food of cuckoos and their value to agriculture is found in Bulletin 9, Biological Survey, United States Department of Agriculture. Coccyzus americamis americanus (Linnaeus) Yellow-billed Cuckoo Plate 58 Cuculus americanus Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. Ed. 10. 1758. 1:111 Coccyzus americanus DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 194, fig. 30 Coccyzus americanus ame.ricanus. A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 181. No. 387 coccyzus, Gr., xoxxu^os, presumable noun corresponding with the verb xoxxuliw, to cuckoo 132 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Description. Brownish gray with bronzy luster; under parts dull white, throat and thighs tinged with pale ash ; wing feathers largely rufous, especially on the inner webs, showing well when wings are spread; tail feathers black conspicuously tipped with white, except the central pair which are the color of the back; bill blackish, except the greater portion of lower mandible which is yellow; feet dark leaden color. Length 11.5-12.7 inches; extent 15.7-17; wing 5.4-5.8; tail 6-6.25; bill about i. The slender form, long tail, soft satiny brown back and white breast of both the cuckoos at once distinguish them from our other birds. The present species differs from the Black-billed cuckoo not only in the color of the bill, but more especially in the cinnamon-rufous color of the wings and the blackish tail feathers broadly tipped with white — marks which serve to identify it conclusively at some distance, particularly when flying. Distribution. The Yellow-billed cuckoo is a fairly common summer resident of the Carolinian and Transition zones of New York State, more numerous in the southern portion of the State, but entirely absent from the Adirondacks and Catskills, except the outskirts and valleys. It arrives in the spring from the ist to the loth of May in the southern counties, and a few days later in the more northern districts, and disappears again between September 20 and October 1 5 to pass the winter in South America. Soon after its arrival its call is heard from the copses, hedgerows, orchards, swampy thickets and vine-clad hillsides which it chooses to inhabit. This call is not so distinctly enunciated as the note of the European cuckoo, so perfectly imitated by the well-known cuckoo clocks, but, never- theless, of the unmistakable cuckoo quality, consisting of a series of loud and explosive gutterals resembling the syllables kuk-kuk, kuk-kuk, repeated many times and ending with the syllables kyow, kyow, repeated from two to six times. Occasionally it utters a low, somewhat liquid coo, coo, coo, coo, resembling the note of the Least bittern. The former call may be heard for a long distance, but it is often very difficult to determine either how far away it really is or in what direction. Except for its loud call this bird is very unobtrusive in habits. One is rarely aware of its presence except by a passing shadow or the rustle BIRDS OF NEW YORK 133 of a leaf as it alights, or as a slim, soft colored shape glides noiselessly into the tangle beside one, or as it sits sedately among the foliage peering about for some luckless insect. This and the next species are our only birds that seem to be really fond of hairy caterpillars and they may often be found seated beside their tents, or quietly pursuing them among the branches and swallowing them by scores. From 3 to 4 dozens of caterpillars, whether smooth or hairy, seem to be a full meal for a cuckoo, and as they Photo by Clarence F. Stone Yellow-billed cuckoo's nest with eggs and young need at least two meals each day, it is easy to see that they render untold service to the agriculturist. The Cuckoo's nest is placed among the denser foliage of an apple tree, a small shrub, or a tangle of vines, from 2 to 10 feet from the ground. It is a rude platform of sticks, nearly flat, lined with grasses, leaves and dry catkins. The eggs, varying from 3 to 7 in number, are deposited at intervals of 2 to 4 days, beginning from May 20 to June 15, but occasionally nests with eggs are found as late as the middle of August. Rarely this 134 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Cuckoo lays her eggs in nests of the next species or of the Robin and Cat- bird, thus showing some slight approximation to the notorious habit of the European cuckoo. The eggs are elliptical in shape, pale bluish green in color, and average about 1.20 by .90 inches in size. Frequently nests are found containing at the same time young birds, partially incubated eggs and perfectly fresh ones. Coccyzus erythrophthalmus (Wilson) Black-billed Cuckoo Plate 58 Cuculus erythrophthalmus Wilson. Amer. Orn. 1811. 4:16. pi. 28, fig. 2 Coccyzus erythrophthalmus DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2. p. 195, fig- 31 A. 0. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 182. No. 388 erythrophthalmus, Gr., 'spuOpo?, red, ^Oa^o?, eye, referring to the red eyelids (the eye itself, however, is not red) Description. Upper parts soft grayish brown tinged with bronzy or greenish; under parts white, somewhat tinged with buffy on throat; tail feathers narrowly tipped with white, and with a narrow subterminal blackish space; bill black, bluish at base of lower mandible; eyelids red; iris dark brown; feet leaden bluish. This species is readily distinguished from the preceding by the color of the bill, wings and tail, both the latter being of the prevailing color of the upper parts. Length 11.5-12.7 inches; extent 16-17.5; wing 5.2-5.7; tail 6.25-7; bill .97. Distribution. The Black-billed cuckoo is a fairly common summer resident of New York, and is generally distributed except in the colder portions of the State (Canadian zone), which it does not penetrate, but is commoner than the preceding species about the borders and in the valleys of the Adirondack district. In western New York also it is slightly commoner than the Yellow-billed cuckoo, but in the Carolinian zone scarcely outnumbers that species. It arrives from the ist to the loth of May in the lower Hudson valley, and from the roth to the 20th in the BIRDS OF NEW YORK 135 colder districts. In the fall it disappears between the loth of September and the I2th of October, to pass the winter in South America. Habits. In habits it is very similar to the preceding species, but its voice is much softer, " less wooden," and its long call is introduced by a bubbling or gurgling note, and the cow or kyow notes are connected; while the short call sounds more like kuk, kuk, kuk than like the corresponding coo, coo, coo of the Yellow-bill. Around the author's camp on Canandaigua lake the call of this bird is commonly heard at night, especially when the moon is up, and Mr Gerald H. Thayer writes that near Mt Monadnock he has frequently heard it at night while the bird was flying about in the air at a great elevation. Its nest is of similar location and construction to that of the Yellow- bill, but is more compactly built and is often lined with moss and pieces of bark. The eggs are similar in number and in manner of deposition, but are smaller, more oval in shape, and of a deeper greenish blue color, measuring from .90 to 1.18 (average 1.15) by .75 to .90 (average .84) in breadth. As in the case of the Yellow-billed cuckoo, they are occasionally found in the nests of other birds. Family ALCEDIXIDA.E Kingfishers Feet small, syndactylous, the third and fourth toes coherent; inner toe short, more or less rudimentary; tarsus very short; tibia small, bare near the lower extremity ; bill long, deeply cleft; wings long; primaries 10, fifth cubital present; tail feathers 12; no ambiens muscle; notches of the sternum 4 in number; 2 carotids; tongue rudimentary; oil gland tufted; no aftershaft; no coeca. This large family, like the cuckoos, is cosmopolitan in distribution, consisting of about 200 species, mostly found in the eastern hemisphere, especially in Australia. They are largely birds of bright or conspicuous plumage, harsh voice, solitary habits, piscivorous or insectivorous diet, and nest in holes, the insectivorous species often nesting in hollow trees. The eggs are several in number, white and broadly oval in shape. The 136 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM young are bare when hatched and long cared for in the nest like those of perching birds. In economic value, kingfishers can not compare with the cuckoos, to which they are somewhat related. They destroy a few aquatic insects which are unquestionably injurious in habits, like the water tiger or larvae of the Dytiscus and the larvae of other carnivorous insects, which do injury to the young of fish and frogs; but the principal portion of the Kingfisher's diet consists of small fishes, not only the more sluggish varieties like the common minnows and chubs of our warmer waters, but even brook trout and young bass often fall victims to the skill of this unrivaled fisherman. Only one species is known in the eastern United States, although the Texas Kingfisher has been reported from the vicinity of New York City. The latter was undoubtedly an escape from captivity. Ceryle alcyon (Linnaeus) Belted Kingfisher Plate 58 Alcedo alcyon Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. Ed. 10. 1758. 1:115 DeKay. Zool. of N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 45, fig. 40 and 41 Ceryle alcyon A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 183. No. 390 cfryle, Gr., xrjp'i'Xos, kingfisher; dlcyon, dXxuuw, halcyon or kingfisher Description. Head crested, bill very long and stout, tail short and broad, wings long and pointed, tarsus very short, front toes partially united to form a fleshy sole. Upper parts and a broad band across upper breast and the sides bluish gray; rest of under parts white; a broad white collar; wing and tail feathers blackish, spotted or broken-barred with white; a white spot in front of eye ; the female has a rufous band across upper belly and along the sides. Length 12.5-14.75 inches; extent 22-23; wing 6-6.5; tail 3.6-4.2; tarsus .44; bill 2; weight 5-6 ounces. Distribution. The Belted kingfisher is a common summer resident, and breeds in every county of New York State. Both along the coast, in the Hudson valley and in western New York it is also a winter resident in localities where there is open water, though much less common than in the summer. The migratory birds arrive in different parts of the State BIRDS OF NEW YORK 137 from March 20 to April 10, and the greater number disappear from October 20 to November 20. The species winters from Massachusetts, Illinois and British Columbia southward to Northern South America; and breeds from the gulf coast northward to about the limit of trees. The haunts of the Kingfisher are the lake shore, the river, the pond and brook. Wherever there is water with finny inhabitants this solitary fisherman makes his appearance with the advent of springtime, and seldom is found far from these localities except when crossing from one stream to another or when going to and from the nesting site which is frequently in the side of some gravel pit or stone quarry half a mile or more from the fishing grounds. His favorite perch is on a dead limb, spile or boathouse overlooking some pool well stocked with minnows, whence he darts with sudden plunge after his unsuspecting prey as it approaches the surface. Frequently he hovers in the air until he sights a. favorable mark for his skill. I have examined hundreds of fishes taken by this bird, and can not find that it prefers any special species, except that the various kinds of minnows, chubs, dace, young suckers, trout and perch are taken oftener than such spiny species as sunfish and bullheads. It also feeds to some extent on aquatic insects, small frogs, crayfish and salamanders. When the Kingfisher rises from the water with his catch he utters a triumphant rattle and shaking the water from his plumage seeks his favorite stand, erects his crest, tilts his tail, proceeds to stun or beat the life out of his squirming victim against the perch, and then swallows it head first. Most of the fish captured by the Kingfisher do not exceed 3 or 4 inches in length, but on a few occasions I have seen them try to devour brook trout 6 inches long. One of the duties entrusted to me at the age of 10 to 15 years was to free my father's trout pond from the scourge of kingfishers. It was supposed that the Kingfisher had an insatiable appetite, for he was always at the pond devouring the fingerling trout or the minnows which were useful as food for the larger fish. But I soon found that, although the Kingfisher has a good appetite, it is not the appetite of the Kingfisher that is inexhaustible, but the stock of kingfishers. For, no matter how 138 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM unerringly I did my duty as public executioner, there was always a King- fisher carrying on the war against the fingerlings whenever I arose from my night's rest or returned from a day's excursion. Sometimes two kingfishers were on the pond at the same time, but they were always more or less hostile to each other except in the case of parent Kingfisher and young which often came together just after the young were out of the nest. Many a time I have been near this trout pond when a new Kingfisher arrived. They came mostly by two routes, either up the brook at a moderate elevation, Young kingfishers Photo by James H. Miller or flying overland at a height of 100 to 300 feet. When coming in from the overland journey they rushed down in a wide, sweeping course, uttering an unusually loud, shrill, rattling scream, settled on some elevated perch, erected to the utmost their long crests, repeated sotto voce the announcement of arrival or discovery, tilted the short tail to its utmost, bowed with a rather ungainly sweep at the pond, and forthwith began to consider the prospects of fishing. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 139 Soon after arrival from the south kingfishers pair and begin to excavate a burrow in the bank of some stream, sandpit, gravel pit or stone quarry. The opening is about 31/2 inches in diameter and is commonly placed well up toward the top of the bank. From the opening the hole rises slightly as it passes backward, and after penetrating the bank to a depth varying from 4 to 8 feet the end is enlarged into a roomy chamber of oval shape, about 8 or 10 inches in diameter. Here the Kingfisher forms her nest of fish bones and scales ejected from her stomach. The eggs are usually 5 to 8 in number, similar to those of a domestic pigeon in size and shape, averaging 1.34 by 1.05 inches. When the old Kingfisher has commenced to incubate the eggs, she will usually defend them against intruders, as many a small boy who has tried to unearth her treasures can testify from the wounds which her daggerlike bill has inflicted. Order F»ICI Family PICIDA.E Woodpeckers Bill chisel-shaped; tongue very long and extensible, usually barbed at the tip and the base prolonged along the hyoid bone, 2 long rope- like extensions of which reach upward and forward over the skull to near the base of the bill; tail feathers stiff and 12 in number; tarsi scutellate in front and reticulate on the sides and rear; toes scutellate on top, their basal joints short; 2 anterior toes; 2 posterior toes; the claws long, curved and sharp; scansorial in habit; flight undulating; voice usually sharp and loud; food mostly boring insects, fruits and nuts; nest excavated in trees; eggs pure white, rather broadly ovate; young bare and helpless. New York woodpeckers are so clearly distinguishable from, any birds to which they are related that everyone knows this family, although in other parts of the world they are more closely related to other picarian families. It is safe to say that more people can distinguish woodpeckers than the members of any other family unless it be the Owl. The following summary of the food of woodpeckers is collected from Bulletin 37 of the Biological Survey, United States Department of Agriculture. 140 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM f o •o I f*3^f*5Oiw « O O-O Z3Z"> £$$%$, qsiqqru PUB JfJBq jauui :uiniqiuBj ! j? o M + + . + 5 UIBI8 Jai{10 pUB 0103 ?! : : : ! ^ : O C O» d wi « w r^ r» o spaas pus ISBJ^ M f*) sjituj PIIM. jaifio N 00 ifl Oi N N O AAI uosiod puB DBUins uosiod 0 to • • ' > N O> fO tnu; iWA^nj " POOJ [BIinUB IB50X r»i/iOi*Ooo f^rfiN "• ^O O-OOoOOOOiOifO spadij[iiu puB sjapids 'sioasui Jau.^0 22 „ ~f - !!! ' 's^a^ouo 'sjaddoqssTiJQ N N . . • f*J \f) 0) PUB sa^Bos autpnpui 'sSng rf tn oo oo oo W OO f*J l« Tj- Tf M M . . . H- M f4 sjuy . ~*» |^is Suuoq -poom Xj^soiii 'saBmdjaiBj OC IO fO 00 00 «/> 00 ^- D O 00 N C C Tf *O N -i *o oo fi oo >o o punoaS 'sa[iaaq ^Bpyauiag . t^ M snounf -in Ajisotu 'saj^aaq Joq^O J_N^f3 O'fiOl'J saajoq pOO-W S3])33q JO 3BAJ«q nSalllll : Mi I i M i • h « ill : j : i ife ilji 1 illlill « fljjill 1 .Illlillli ctO'ZGTZVV^V BIRDS OF NEW YORK Dryobates villosus villosus (Linnaeus) Hairy Woodpecker Plate 59 Picus villosus Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. Ed. 12. 1766. 1:175 DcKay. Zool. of N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 186, fig. 32 Dryobates villosus villosus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 185. No. 393 dryobates, Gr. cpu?, oak or tree, and ^~i]?, treader; villosus, Lat., hairy, villous Description. Colors almost exactly like the Downy woodpecker, but the outer tail feathers plain white, without spots; larger, nearly the size of a Robin. Length 9-9.75 inches; extent 15-16; wing 4.5-5; tail 3-3.6; bill 1.2-1.35; weight 3 ounces. Distribution. The Hairy woodpecker is a resident and breeds through- out New York State. In the wooded districts it is as common, or even commoner, than the Downy woodpecker, but in the thickly settled country is uncommon through the summer months, and very rarely breeds except in woodlands. In the fall, winter and early spring this species frequently appears in the orchards and shade trees, doing efficient service against borers, beetles, cocoons and other enemies of the trees. At this season, like his smaller relative, he partakes to some extent of wild fruits and nuts. The call of this woodpecker is much louder and heavier than the Downy's, though similar in other respects; but more like the syllables " huip, huip " (Bendire). Its " whinney " or rattling call is written trriii, trriii. The drumming of this species is " shorter and louder with a greater interval between the strokes " (Brewster). Its flight is deeply undulating and strong, but rarely protracted. When he alights on a tree infested with boring larvae, the vigor with which he hammers the trunk and hitches in short hops up the trunk or sideways or downward, examining every cranny and making the chips fly with tireless energy, impresses one with his being, excepting the Pileated woodpecker, our most competent woodchopper of the family. The Hairy woodpecker begins to excavate its nesting hole early in the season, both sexes taking part in the operation. The hole is placed 142 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM rather high, usually from 30 to 60 feet, and is sometimes excavated in living trees. The opening is perfectly circular, about 2 inches in diameter, leading backward 2 or 3 inches through the solid wood, then downward for 8 to 1 6 inches, where the cavity is enlarged and a few chips left on the bottom as a bed for the eggs. These vary from 3 to 5 in number, usually 4, pure white, and average .95 by .73 inches. In this State fresh sets have been taken from April 25 to May 30. Like all our woodpeckers, this species rears only one brood in a season, but if the first set of eggs is destroyed she will lay again. Dryobates villosus leucomelas (Boddaert) Northern Hairy Woodpecker Larger and lighter colored than villosus. Length 10.3-11; wing 5-5.4; tail 3.8; bill 1.3-1.5. This subspecies breeds in the Boreal Zone ; in winter entering the northern border of the United States. Many specimens of Hairy woodpecker taken in Northern New York, especially winter birds, are on the border line between this form and typical villosus, some being well within the limits of leucomelas. Dryobates pubescens medianus (Swainson) Downy Woodpecker Plate 59 Picus (D e n d r o c o pu s) medianus Swainson. Fauna Bor. Am. 1831 (1832). 2: 308 Picus pubescens DeKay. Zool. of N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 187, fig. 35 Dryobates pubescens medianus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 187. No. 3940 pubescens, Lat., downy, pubescent; medianus, middle Description. Our smallest woodpecker. Color black and white; white stripes on side of the head and a median white band down the back; wings and wing coverts spotted with white; crown of the head plain black; outer tail feathers white slightly spotted or barred with black; under parts plain dull white; male has scarlet occipital patch. Length 6.5-7 inches; extent 12-12.4; wing 3.5-4; tail 2.2-2.9; bill •7-.8; weight 1.5 ounces. Distribution. This species is generally distributed in New York State, being a permanent resident in all counties, our commonest woodpecker, BIRDS OF NEW YORK 143 or, in some sections, perhaps, surpassed in numbers by the Flicker. In the more thickly settled portions of the State it is at least seven times more numerous than the Hairy woodpecker in summer and three times as numer- ous in fall and winter. In the Adirondacks, however, it barely equals that species in numbers. In the nesting season it is found in orchards, shade trees and fringes of trees along streams and fence rows as well as in the woods, and breeds oftentimes within the limits of our villages and cities. Habits. The little Downy is the least suspicious of our woodpeckers, coming fearlessly to the suet or bag of scraps placed on " the birds' lunch counter " or nailed to the tree or window sill for his accommodation. He can even be taught to take food from the hand. When one approaches him while at work, he merely hitches a few feet farther up the tree or edges around the trunk, occasionally stealing a glance at the intruder to satisfy himself that no harm is intended. When startled he flies away with undu- lating flight, uttering a sharp metallic peek "resembling the clink of a stonecutter's chisel." Occasionally this note is rapidly repeated in a long rattling call, suggesting the " whinney of a diminutive horse." The industrious tap, tap, or peck, peck of his bill as he searches the bark or rotten wood for grubs and beetles is heard more continuously than his vocal performances, and even in the mating season he attracts his mate and announces his supremacy over some chosen sphere of influence by drumming with his beak on some hard dry limb or resonant piece of bark rather than by trusting his fortunes to the allurements of his voice. This instrumental music of the Downy woodpecker is a long, rolling tattoo of considerable carrying power, and by the inexperienced is supposed to arise from some creature much larger than this little bird, but it is by no means so big a noise as the corresponding performance of the Hairy wood- pecker, the Sapsucker, or the Flicker. During the winter these woodpeckers do not associate with their own kind but are usually found accompanied by nuthatches, chickadees and Brown creepers. John Burroughs even relates how his nearest Downy neighbor destroyed the sleeping apartment of the companion which tried to make friends with him. This undoubtedly was due, not to Mr Downy 's 144 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM special aversion to feminine society, but to his selfish desire to keep all the food in the immediate vicinity for his own consumption — a form of rivalry which is very common among birds and is the rule, at least in the nesting season, with those species which do not travel considerable distances in search of food. This species should not be confused with the Sapsucker, for the farmer who permits its destruction is sacrificing one of his best friends. The Downy destroys immense numbers of bark-boring beetles and their larvae, the cocoons of moths, the larvae of gall insects, ants and wood borers of all kinds. On several occasions I have noted them destroying the cocoons of Cecropia and Prometheus moths. In fall and winter he varies his diet to some extent with nuts and wild fruits, but he never has been found a nuisance by the fruit grower and does not injure trees by tapping them for sap and the inner bark, as he has been accused by mistake for the Sapsucker. The nesting hole of the Downy woodpecker is excavated in a stub or a dead limb anywhere in orchards, shade trees and woodlands. I have found them at heights varying from 8 to 50 feet from the ground. The opening is about i\ inches in diameter and the excavation from 6 to 8 inches in depth. These nesting holes are begun from late in April to the middle of May in different parts of the State, and fresh sets of eggs are found from May 2 to June 10. These are 4 to 6 in number and pure shiny white in color, of a pinkish tinge when fresh owing to the contents showing through the shell, oval in shape, and measure about .78 by .60 inches. Picoides arcticus (Swainson) Arctic Three-toed Woodpecker Plate 60 Picus (Apternus) arcticus Swainson. Fauna Bor. Am. 1831(1832). 2:313 Picus arcticus DeKay. Zool. of N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 190, fig. 36 Picoides arcticus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. igio. p. 189. No. 400 picoides, Lat., picus, woodpecker, and Gr., e!3o?F likeness; arcticus, arctic Description. Upper parts black, with steel blue gloss; wing feathers bar-spotted with white; outer 2 pairs of tail feathers mostly white; white BIRDS OF NEW YORK 145 stripe from nostril down sides of head and neck; throat, breast and belly •white; sides and flanks barred with black; crown patch bright yellow; only j toes, 2 in front and I behind. Female lacks the yellow crown patch, but young males, even fledglings, have it. Length 9.5-10.2 inches; extent 14-15; wing 4.9-5.3; tail 3.4-3.6; bill 1.2-1.3. Distribution. This species is confined to the spruce and balsam belt of the Canadian zone during the breeding season and is permanently resident, , but during the late fall and winter wanders some distance from its normal habitat. It has been recorded from Tully, Syracuse, Chau- tauqua county, Sag Harbor, Ithaca, Sennett, Cattaraugus county, Orleans county, Saratoga, Bridgehampton and Poestenkill, the dates ranging from October 6 to February 22. It seems to be of commonest occurrence in November and December. The only breeding records which are sub- stantiated by actual specimens are from the Adirondack wilderness, but it has been reported also as breeding in Tioga county near Smithborough, and in the higher portions of the Catskills. Throughout the year it is fairly common in all portions of the spruce and balsam belt of the Adiron- dacks, there ranking next to the Sapsucker and Hairy woodpecker in abundance and probably much more plentiful than the American three- toed woodpecker and the Downy woodpecker. Haunts and habits. The Arctic three-toed woodpecker prefers the dark shades of the spruce forests and seldom wanders far from their coverts. Its habits resemble those of the Hairy woodpecker, but it is less sprightly and to me its voice less sharp, loud and penetrating, a shrill chirk, chirk. It seeks its food on the tamarack, spruce and balsam, devouring the larvae of the boring beetles which are found just beneath the dead bark and in the decaying wood. Of all the specimens which I have examined, none contained any vegetable food; but in the fall and winter it subsists, to a certain extent, on berries and seeds, the reports of the Biological Survey showing that less than 10 per cent of its food consists of small wild fruit. It unquestionably keeps in check the boring beetles which attack all dying timber and so, by reducing their numbers, protects the trees which are 10 146 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM still vigorous, as well as the dead timber which is still standing. This species begins to mate in April and early May. The nesting hole is excavated in tamarack, balsam or spruce about 20 to 40 feet from the ground and is completed about the loth of May. Doctor Merriam found them from 4 to 15 feet above water in the flooded swamps of the Fulton chain. From specimens in the Smithsonian Institution collected by Doctor Ralph and Egbert Bagg, it is evident that the eggs are usually laid from May 18 to June 2. They are white like those of the Hairy woodpecker and measure about .96 by .73 inches. The nests which our party found in Essex county were situated both in swampy tracts and on the summits of wooded ridges. One nest found by Messrs Achilles and Fuller on the summit of the Bartlett ridge was carefully measured. The external diameter of the hole was 2 by 1 1 inches; its greatest depth, Q| inches. The distance straight back from the entrance to the rear wall, 5f ; the diameter of the enlargement at the bottom, 4!; the opening faced north by northeast. There were three young birds in the nest and the remains of a fourth at the bottom, a curious circumstance which seemed to be true of all the nests of the three- toed woodpecker which we examined. Picoides americanus americanus Brehm Three-toed Woodpecker Plate 6 1 Picoides americanus Brehm. Handbuch Vogel Deutschl. 1831. p. 195 Picus hirsutus DeKay. Zool. of N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 191 Picoides americanus americanus Brehm. A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 189. No. 401 Description. Similar to the Black-backed three-toed woodpecker, but slightly smaller and the back barred or bar-spotted with white and the crown of the female as well as the male spotted or streaked with white, the male's crown with yellow patch as in arcticus. Length 8. 4-9 inches; extent 13-14; wing 4.4-4. 6; tail 3-3. 7; bill 1-1.25. Distribution. This species inhabits the boreal forests of North America from Maine, northern New York and northern Minnesota northward to central Ungava. In New York it is evidently confined to the Adirondack BIRDS OF NEW YORK 147 forests. I have heard of no specimen taken farther from the spruce belt than Waterville, Oneida county. It therefore shares with the Spruce grouse, the Canada jay and the Hudsonian chickadee the distinction of being one of our perfectly nonmigratory species. Within the spruce and balsam forests it is quite uniformly distributed, but is less common than the Black-backed woodpecker, evidently about one-half as common as that species. It inhabits both the spruce swamps and the mountain sides. While making the bird survey of the Mt Marcy district we found this species breeding on the slopes of Marcy just above Skylight camp, an altitude of 4000 feet, and in the swamp at the Upper Ausable lake at an altitude of 2000 feet. In our experience the birds are even less noisy than the black-backed species. We could scarcely distinguish them from that species by their call, but Turner (Bendire's Life Histories) mentions only a squealing note like the Sapsucker's. At that season of the year (July i) the old birds were either feeding the young in the nest or leading them from tree to tree. They confined their attention almost entirely to tamarack, spruce and fir trees and evidently feed principally, if not entirely, upon, the beetles and their larvae found beneath the dead bark. The nests; which we found were situated in tamaracks and spruces from 25 to 40 feet from the ground and could not be distinguished from nesting holes of the black-backed woodpeckers except that on careful measurement they were about one-fourth of an inch less in diameter. From the experience of Doctor Merriam, their nests are found in spruce, tamarack, pine, balsam and cedar in order of preference, about 6 or 7 feet above the water line. In the swamps about Sixth and Seventh lakes in Hamilton county, he found them mating on the :8th of May at Woodhull, Oneida county, but found the 2nd of June too early for eggs at Sixth lake. In the Smithsonian collection I find several sets of eggs taken at Moose river and Sixth lake from the 4th to the loth of June. Evidently this is the usual nesting time in the Adirondacks. The eggs are 4 in number, slightly smaller than those: of the black-backed woodpecker, averaging .92 by .70 inches in dimensions*. I48 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Sphyrapicus varius varius (Linnaeus) Yellow-bellied Sapsucker Plate 62 Picus varius Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. Ed. 12. 1766. 1:176 DeKay. Zool. of N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 188, fig. 38 Sphyrapicus varius varius A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 190. No. 402 Sphyrapicus, Gr. wp'Jpa, a hammer, and Lat. picus, a woodpecker; varius, Lat., variegated Description. Male: Crown and throat bright red bordered with black; a broad black crescent on the upper breast; upper parts variegated with black and yellowish white; a broad stripe of white on the wing formed by the white ends of the wing coverts; wing feath- ers black, bar-spotted with white; tail feathers black, except inner webs of middle pair; upper tail coverts mostly white ; under parts more or less heavily tinged with yellow, especially around the margin of the black breast shield, and the center of the belly; sides dingy brownish white, variegated with blackish. Female: Throat white in- stead of scarlet; crown scarlet in old females but black in young ones, even through the second summer in many specimens; otherwise like male. Young: Similar to adult, but browner, and lacking the black breast shield, and the scarlet on crown not showing till late in the first autumn. Length 8-8. 8 inches; extent 15-16; wing 5; tail 3; bill i. Yellow-ballied Photo by Jami" sapsucker Sphyrapicus varius (Linnaeus) H. Miller Distribution. The Yellow-bellied sapsucker breeds throughout the boreal life zone of eastern America from the highlands of Pennsylvania, Michigan and Minnesota northward to Quebec, Ungava and Mackenzie, BIRDS OF NEW YORK 149 and winters from southern New York and Illinois southward to the gulf coast and eastern Mexico. In New York its breeding range is chiefly confined to the Catskills and Adirondacks, but a few breed along the southern border of western New York on the highlands near the Pennsyl- vania line and in some of the swamps of central and western New York, as near Peterboro, Oneida, Potter, Auburn and Boston, but it is rarely seen during the nesting season outside the Adirondack and Catskill districts. During the migration season, from April I to May 15, this species is one of the commonest woodpeckers throughout the greater portion of the State. Its arrival from the south, near New York City, dates from April i to 15; in western New York, from April 6 to 18. At this season it is frequently seen about the shade trees of cities and villages as well as in all groves and forests, being ranked as a common transient visitant in nearly every station from which we have exhaustive reports. During the migration it is evident that the male birds arrive first, for during 15 years of continuous records which I have kept with this object in view I have found that male birds are the first to be seen each year and no females are seen for several days after the first males arrive. Then the white-throated females begin to appear and become relatively more numerous until they outnumber the males during the first two weeks of May, and, at the last of the migration season, which usually closes by the 2Oth of May, only female birds are to be found and frequently these are the black-crowned females referred to in the description above, which are evidently the young females of the preceding season. In the warmer portions of New York the sapsucker often remains throughout the winter, especially in the region immediately surrounding New York City where winter records are not infrequent. The fall migration is mostly accomplished between September 20 or October 10, and November I, the time of greatest abundance usually being the middle of October. Haunts and habits. The Sapsucker is the most abundant woodpecker throughout the Adirondack region. While camping in the North Woods it is a common experience to be awakened at daybreak by the loud drumming of this species from some neighboring birch tree. He selects a dry branch, I5O NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM or better, some hard dry strip of birch bark which has a hollow space beneath, and mounting himself securely upon it, stretches backward to his full extent and lets fly his head and neck with all the force of his con- centrated muscles, his beak flying with such rapidity as to be practically invisible. The rolling tattoo produced by this performance resounds across the lake and valley for hundreds of rods. While we were encamped on the shores of the Upper Ausable we could hear at least a dozen sap- suckers from our camping site, all drumming to hurry on the sunrise. This practice seemed to continue well on into the summer, even after the young were nearly ready to leave the nest. While the Sapsucker is migrat- ing through portions of the State which are not within its breeding range, his drumming is rarely heard but he is frequently seen about our ever- greens and shade trees, and his snarling or squealing note is often heard, especially when chasing rivals away from the trees which he has selected for sugar-making. At this season of the year he seems to care little for insect fare. He bores numerous rows of holes through the bark of our sap trees, sometimes entirely riddling the trunk and causing the sap to flow in such abundance as to destroy the vigor of the tree. One frequently finds mountain ash trees, pines, black spruces, ironwoods and birches so weakened by the boring of this species that they never recover from his attack. The object of the Sapsucker in boring these holes, as his name signifies, is to secure the resinous or sugar-laden sap and I have frequently watched a Sapsucker which had tapped at least a dozen trees in the same immediate vicinity, each one of which he visited in turn, lapping up the sap from all the holes with his brushy tongue and then passing on to the next by merely casting himself backward from the trunk and soaring with one swoop to the next tree without a stroke of his wing, working up this trunk and passing on to the next in the same way until he had completed the loop. As the spring advances and the weather becomes warm, the sap often begins to ferment. I suspect this is the reason that the Sapsucker is so frequently found stupefied by feeding on too great an abundance of the liquid. On several occasions I have seen a Sapsucker so gorged with fermented sap that he allowed himself to be picked up in the hand and I have seen one BIRDS OF NEW YORK 15! alight on the clothing of a bird student and climb up his outstretched arm without seeming to realize that he was on a man instead of a tree. It is evident they become tipsy on the sap in the same manner that thrushes frequently become stupefied by feeding upon fermented fruit. The Sap- sucker devours also the soft cambium layer which lies just beneath the bark of trees and in this way, where its rows of holes are close together, practically girdles the tree and effects its destruction. It may be said in partial defense of the Sapsucker, however, that he feeds also on the insects which are attracted to the sap that is evaporating from the hole and in this way destroys great numbers of forest pests ; but, on the whole, he must be regarded as a doubtful, if not even an injurious, species. In the late summer and fall his food consists mostly of wild fruit and nuts, but during the nesting season while he is rearing his young, his food is largely of boring larvae and beetles. The nest of the Sapsucker is usually excavated in a dead tree or stub about 25 feet from the ground. In the Adirondacks I noticed that they seemed to prefer beeches, birches and maples for nest- ing sites. The nest is almost always built under the shelter of the forest and not in clearings, as is the case with red-headed woodpeckers and flickers. The hole is 1.5 inches in diameter at the entrance, and 6 to 18 inches deep. The eggs are 4 to 5, sometimes 6, in number, pure white in color and average .88 by .67 inches in dimensions. Phloeotomus pileatus abieticola (Bangs) Northern Pileated Woodpecker Plate 63 Ceophloeus pileatus abieticola Bangs. Auk, April 1898. 15:176 Picus pileatus DeKay. Zool. of N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 184, fig. 39 Phloeotomus pileatus abieticola A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 192. No. 4osa phloeotomus, Gr., 9X0(6?, the inner bark of trees, and T^VW, to hew; piledtus, Lat., wearing a cap (the pileus, shaped like the half of an egg) Description. Very large, bill long and heavy, head crested; colors chiefly black and white; upper parts in general and all the under parts of body dull black; throat and line from bill on each side of the neck and I52 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM breast, lining of the wings and the base of the larger wing feathers, white more or less tinged with yellowish. Male: Entire upper part of the head, including the pointed occipital crest and the " mustaches," bright red. Female and young have only the rear portion of the head red, the frontlet and the mustaches being blackish. Length 18-19.5 inches; extent 29-30.5; wing 9-10; tail 7-7.5; bill 2.25-2.65. Distribution. The Northern pileated woodpecker is found throughout the forested regions of North America from northeastern British Columbia, southern Mackenzie, central Quebec and Newfoundland, southward along the mountain ranges as far as New Mexico and Carolina. In New York it was formerly rather generally distributed throughout the State, but at the present time it is almost entirely confined to the evergreen forests of the Adirondacks and Catskills. A few are still found in the highlands along the Pennsylvania border and in various localities throughout central and western New York where there are mixed forests of unusual extent. During 25 years at Springville in southern Erie county, I have met with only 4 specimens of this bird. Mr Savage and Mr Reinecke of Buffalo have had a similar experience with it in Erie, Chautauqua and Cattaraugus counties. Mr Higgins reports that it still breeds in the wilder portions of Cortland county and there seems to be some evidence that it is tending to reestablish itself in various localities where it had disappeared for many years. It is by no means common in the Adiron- dacks or the Catskills, but every day's journey of 10 to 15 miles through the Adirondack wilderness will almost surely bring one past the native haunts of one or more pairs of these birds. More than any of our native species, with the possible exception of the Spruce grouse and some of the larger hawks, this bird disappears with the destruction of the forests, and it probably will never be reestablished in the State except in the larger ever- green forests of the Canadian zone. It is a strictly resident species, no north and south migration being manifest, but, like all species of wood- peckers, it wanders about more or less in the fall and winter in search of favorable food supply. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 153, Habits. The Pileated woodpecker when undisturbed in his native haunts of the hemlock, spruce and balsam forests, is a very conspicuous bird. Almost as large as a crow, but with the usual deeply undulating flight of the woodpecker, he darts from tree to tree seeking for dead branches and dead stubs, beneath the bark of which are concealed the wood-boring larvae which constitute his principal food. A dead stub of hemlock or spruce is frequently seen which has been peeled by the heavy strokes of this giant woodpecker's bill, the strips of bark 6 to 8 inches in length, or even longer, lying scattered about the tree for several rods, and with cavities in the stub frequently dug in search of grubs 2 or 3 feet in length and several inches in depth. As a woodchopper he is unsurpassed among the members of this family. During the fall and winter he resorts to a partial diet of mast and wild fruit, but he can not be said to do the least harm to the fruitgrower or the agriculturist but, on the contrary, is beneficial by destroying immense quantities of ants as well as the larger grubs which enter the dead wood and destroy the standing timber. While flying from tree to tree he frequently gives voice to a loud cac- cac-cac, and during the mating season, like most members of the family, he is rather noisy, frequently drumming on dead limbs and uttering a variety of flickerlike notes. The nesting hole is from 3 to 3^ inches in diameter at the entrance and extends downward through the solid wood from 12 to 30 inches in depth. It is usually constructed in a dead stub from 30 to 60 feet from the ground, the height averaging greater than that of any other of our native woodpeckers. The eggs are 4 to 5 in number, pure white, and average 1.28 by .95 inches in dimensions. New York nesting dates range from May 5 to 25. It is unfortunate that the large size, loud note, conspicuous black and white coloration, and flaming scarlet crest of this bird attract the attention of all hunters that visit the forest to such an extent that its num- bers are continually diminished almost to the point of extermination. This calamity, together with the fact already stated that it disappears. 154 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM with the destruction of the forest, is gradually depriving us of one of the most interesting of our native birds. Melanerpes erythrocephalus (Linnaeus) Red-headed Woodpecker Plate 62 Picus erythrocephalus Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. Ed. 10. 1758. 1:113 DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 185, fig. 34 Melanerpes erythrocephalus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 192. No. 406 melanerpes, Gr., tiiXa?, black, and epwrj;, creeper; erythrocephalus, IpjOpd?, red, and head Description. The head and neck deep red or crimson; body, wings and tail blue-black and white in large areas, as the bird flies the white seeming to predominate, but as it clings to the trunk of a tree the back seems mostly black, but still gives the appearance of the three principal colors, red, bluish black and white; bill, bluish horn color; iris, brown; feet, bluish gray; sexes alike. Young: Grayish where the adults are black and red, during the first winter, the grayish of the head gradually replaced by the crimson, and the grayish of the back, wings and tail by the black. Length 9.3-10 inches; extent 17-18; wing 5.3-5.7; tail 3.21-3.7; bill 1.2. Distribution. The Red-headed woodpecker is found throughout the greater portion of the austral region of North America. Although it was formerly common in New England and eastern New York, it is now rare in those districts, but still locally plentiful in western New York, as it is throughout the Mississippi valley. It must be ranked primarily as a summer resident in New York, but in seasons when beech mast and chestnuts are abundant this species remains throughout the winter as was explained in 1883 by Doctor Merriam. I have noticed the same principle to obtain in western New York since the year 1878, but in ordinary seasons the Redhead disappears late in October and is not seen again until the ist to the loth of May when he arrives from the southern states whither he had withdrawn to pass the winter. Even in central and western New York this bird is not so uniformly distributed as is the BIRDS OF NEW YORK 155 Downy woodpecker and unfortunately is becoming less and less common, because there are fewer and fewer dead branches for its accommodation; but the advent of the telegraph pole has partly saved him in some dis- tricts where he otherwise would have disappeared, by furnishing him at the same time an outlook from which to pursue winged prey — a habit which is rather uncommon in this order of birds — and also a site for a nest. In general, one must conclude that this species is decidedly less numerous •even i& western New York than the Flicker or the Downy woodpecker and in eastern New York about as rare as the Hairy woodpecker. In 1905 our party found it on the outskirts of the Adirondacks and in the region of the Black river, so one might say that it is fairly distributed throughout the Alleghanian faunal area of New York with the exception of the greater portion of the coastal district and the lower Hudson valley. Haunts and habits. The Red-headed woodpecker is, more than any of our other woodpeckers except the Flicker, a bird of the open. He is frequently seen on the dead tops of stubs and trees and on fence posts and telegraph poles far from the shelter of the forest, but he is not at home upon the ground as the Flicker is and when he alights there in pursuit of grasshoppers or other prey he does not hop around like the Flicker but immediately flies up again to his station on the fence post or dead stub. The preferred home of this woodpecker is in open groves and " slashings " and " old burns " and tracts of half -dead forest where the live trees are scattered and dead stubs are in abundance. In such places as these he is sometimes quite common but never rivals the Flicker in abundance about our orchards, villages and farmyards. He is not seen chiseling away at dead wood or prying behind the bark for wood-boring insects so often as the Hairy and Downy woodpeckers, but frequently engages in this kind of foraging during the fall and winter, and at this season is also fond of nuts and dried fruits and, when they are not to be found, usually wanders to a milder climate or to a locality where they are plentiful. Next to the Robin and Cherry bird this species is the most complained of by the grower of small fruits. On many occasions I have been surprised to see 156 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the Red-headed woodpecker appear in a cherry tree when the first cherries began to turn, although I had not seen a Redhead in the neighborhood for weeks before. I never could determine whether he remembered that at this season of the year ripe cherries were to be found in that particular locality, or whether he saw them from a distance and noticed the robins going and coming from the trees; but, however that may be, he always found the first ripe cherries in the orchard and would carry them all day long to his young in the grove three-fourths of a mile away. My early harvest, sweet bough and red astrachan apples were also eagerly sought. In spite of this small thieving, and his occasional attacks upon the young of other birds, the Red-headed woodpecker must be regarded as a beneficial species. He destroys immense numbers of grasshop- pers, ants and boring beetles of all kinds which are to be found about the branches and trunks of trees, and the principal portion of his vegetable diet consists of wild nuts and fruit. Furthermore, he is one of the most enlivening objects in the landscape and furnishes an added pleasure to any stroll across the fields or drive along the country road, for he is a bird that everyone will see and recognize at a considerable distance. The nest of the Red-headed woodpecker is excavated in the dead limb of a tree or in a stub, usually at a height of from 15 to 50 feet from the ground. The opening is about 2 inches in diameter and the depth of the hole from 10 to 14 inches. The eggs are from 4 to 6 in number and deposited on the fine, clean chips at the bottom of the hole. The eggs are white like those of all woodpeckers, and measure i by .76 inches in dimensions. In the different portions of the State they are deposited from May 10 to June 15. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 157 Centurus carolinus (Linnaeus) Red-bellied Woodpecker Plate 64 Picus carolinus Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. Ed. 10. 1758. 1:113 DeKay. Zool. of N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 189, fig. 37 Centurus carolinus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 193. No. 409 centurus, Gr., xewpov, prickle or spine, and oupde, tail, referring to the bristly tail feathers, which, as Doctor Coues has remarked, are not sharper than those of other woodpeckers Description. About the size of the Red-headed woodpecker. Upper part regularly barred with black and white; top of head and neck bright scarlet in the male; in the female, only the occiput is red, the crown being ashy gray. Under parts dull grayish white, more or less tinged, espe- cially on the center of the belly, with red; tuft of bristles at the base of the bill also reddish. Length 9.3-10.5 inches; extent 17-18; wing 4.8-5.5; tail 3.5-4; bill 1-1.2. Distribution. This species inhabits the austral zone of eastern North America from Delaware, western New York and southern Minnesota southward to the gulf coast. In New York State it evidently was common on Long Island and in the lower Hudson valley fifty years ago, but now has entirely deserted that region. There are only one or two records for Long Island and the Hudson valley during the last 30 years. In western New York there are numerous records, mostly during the fall and winter, for all the counties from Oneida, Madison and Cortland, westward to Erie and Chautauqua, the species being commoner farther west in the State. It seems to be more abundant in the wintertime, a curious fact, considering that it is an austral species. I have seen numerous specimens in the taxidermists' shops of Rochester, Buffalo and Niagara Falls which were taken in winter. It is not entirely a straggler, however, for there are several breeding records for the western part of the State, especially at Springville in June 1895; near Buffalo in 1898 and in Yates county 1910-1912. I have also seen it in the vicinity of Geneva during the breed- ing season and Miss Agnes Paul of East Bloomfield reports it as a per- 158 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM manent resident near her home. It must be regarded, however, as uncommon and local in western New York and is likely to be extirpated as a breeding species unless strictly protected in the few localities where it is found. Habits. The Red-bellied woodpecker is a conspicuous bird both on account of its color, its actions, and its vociferousness. It is almost impossible for one of these birds to escape attention if it is in the same woods with a bird observer. It is seldom still for any length of time, but ascends one tree after another with a peculiar jerky motion uttering at every hitch its noisy chawh-chawh which immediately attracts attention as an unsual sound. When he has reached the higher portions of one tree he flies off to another and begins the same routine. If alarmed he gives voice to a cha-cha-cha, and frequently, when perched on a lofty limb of a tree or immediately after alighting, utters a call somewhat similar to that of the Red-headed woodpecker's " tchurr-tchurr." The food of this species is much like that of the Redhead, but it does not seem to be so fond of garden fruits. A large portion of its food in the fall consists of nuts and wild fruit. The nest is excavated in some dead or partially dead tree at a height of from 5 to 70 feet from the ground. The opening is about if inches in diameter and the excavation 12 inches in depth. The eggs, which are from 4 to 6 in number, are pure white, slightly less glossy than those of the Red-headed woodpecker, and average I inch in length by .75 in diameter. Colaptes auratus luteus Bangs Northern Flicker Plate 64 Colaptes auratus luteus Bangs. Auk, April 1898. 15:177 Picus auratus DeKay. Zool. of N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 192, fig. 33 Colaptes auratus luteus Bangs. A. O. U. Check List. Ed 3. 1910. p. 194. No. 41 2a coldptes, Gr., xoXoraTfc, chisel; auratus, Lat., golden, gilded Description. Somewhat larger than the Robin; upper parts brown, barred with black; rump white; crown of head ashy gray: bright scarlet BIRDS OF NEW YORK 159 crescent on the occiput; under surface of wings and shafts of the wing feathers bright yellow; under surface of tail and shafts of tail feathers yellow except the tip which is black ; under parts grayish white, nearly uniformly spotted with black; throat, upper breast and sides of the head and neck light Flicker at nesting hole Photo by Ralph S. Paddock vinaceous; black crescent on the breast; male with black mustachios. The undulating flight, conspicuous white patch on the rump and the yellow of the wings which shows in flight are field marks which distinguish this species at a considerable distance. l6o NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Length 12-12.8 inches; extent 19.3-21.3; wing 5.5-6.5; tail 4-4.8; bill 1.3-1.5. Distribution. The Northern flicker inhabits eastern North America from the limit of trees in Alaska, Ungava and Newfoundland southward to Texas and North Carolina. In New York it is uniformly distributed in every county of the State, being one of our dominant species. While not so common as the Robin, it is one of the dozen birds well known to every country boy. It must be considered primarily a summer resident, arriving from the South between the 2Oth of March and the loth of April and gradually disappearing again between the I5th and the 3Oth of October. Dates of earliest appearance and departure, however, are obscured by the fact that many individuals of this species remain throughout the winter in southern New York and even in the central and northern counties win- ter specimens are by no means rare. A decided migratory movement at about the dates mentioned is, however, of usual occurrence. The Flicker or " High hole," as the countryman usually calls it, is a common or abun- dant summer resident of our orchards, groves, shade trees, pastures and forests. He is much more versatile in his propensities than the other woodpeckers and is frequently seen far from groves and orchards, on the open field or lawn and along the fences and telegraph poles. He is at home in the midst of our villages and city parks as well as in the farm lands and wildernesses. He perches on the twigs of trees more commonly than any of the other woodpeckers and digs in the ground for grubs and worms and tears open the ant hills in search of his favorite food. His notes are as varied as his perching and feeding habits and three or four dozen different names have been ascribed to him in different parts of the country, mostly in imitation of his different calls or notes. In this State he is commonly spoken of as the high hole or high holder, wake-up, yarrup, yucker, clape, flicker, golden-winged woodpecker, yellow jay, yellow hammer or pigeon woodpecker. In the spring while courting or endeavoring to surpass his rivals in displaying his charms, spreading his wings and tail and bobbing around before the admiring gaze of the female, he is often BIRDS OF NEW YORK l6l heard to utter notes resembling " wake up, wake up, wake up," or " yarrup, yarrup, yarrup," or " yucker, yucker, yucker," in subdued tones. In the fall while visiting black cherry trees, poke weed and pepperidge to feed on the berries, they are generally to be found in small companies and often indulge in odd gesticulations with tails spread, bowing and bobbing about before each other and giving voice to the yarrup or flicker notes which Chapman compared to " the quick swish of a willow wand." It may be imitated by whistling sharply the syllables " kee-yer " two or three times repeated. When the nicker flies up from the ground and alights on a stub or fence post, he frequently bobs and bows to an imaginary audience and immediately thereafter jerks his head high upward giving voice to a sharp note like the syllable " clape." In the springtime one of the most familiar sounds of the field and grove is the long-drawn, rolling call which is unquestionably the mating song of the Flicker. It may be heard for more than half a mile and has been variously syllabized, usually written as " cuh-cuh-cuh-cuh-cuh-cuh-cuh-cuh-cuh-cuh-cuh-cuh." Others have writ- ten it "wick-wick-wick-wick-wick-wick-wick-wick-wick-wick-wick-wick"; and others, " yuch-yuch-yuch-yuch-yuch-yuch-yuch-yuch-yuch-yuch-yuch-yuch.1" The young imitate the parents in the matter of vociferous habits, a nestful of young flickers keeping up a continual jangling, jarring note almost throughout the whole day. The flicker, like other woodpeckers, is also a good drummer, especially in the springtime. He selects some dry limb or thin conductor pipe or old stove pipe and mounting thereon at least fifty times a day batters away with his quick-rolling tattoo to the utter despair of his nearest neighbors. When a Flicker is suddenly surprised, he usually utters a low chuckling note and then flies away; and sometimes when flying about among the trees produces a whining or winnowing note, suggesting the sound of pigeons' wings about the dovecote. I imagine that this habit as well, perhaps, as the slighter, more pigeonlike appear- ance of. its head and neck, have given him the name of pigeon woodpecker. The Flicker has a tendency to be gregarious, not only during the fruit season but all through the summer. Small, scattered companies are frequently 1 62 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM seen hopping about the pasture or playing about the shade trees. The economic value of the Flicker can not be disputed for an instant. The number of ants destroyed daily by one of these birds is almost incredible and we must not think merely of the injury which the ants would do directly but of all the plant lice to whose welfare they minister. I have taken as many as seventeen dozen ants from a flicker's stomach on many occasions and of all the flickers' stomachs which I have examined, except for a short period in the fall when wild berries were abundant, not one was without a fair quota of ants. It is a common thing to see the flicker on the ground in front of an ant hill or an ant hole, apparently motion- less, but when he is carefully observed with the aid of a glass, one will see that his tongue is darting out and in with lightninglike rapidity, each time carrying into the -flicker's ravenous gullet one or more ants which have adhered to its sticky surface. Although he is fond of wild fruits in their season, especially blackberries, poke berries, sheep berries, blue- berries and dogwood berries, I have never heard complaint of the Flicker being destructive to cherries, currants or cultivated berries, and although he is fond of wild grapes, I have never yet known of his doing any serious damage to the vineyards in central and western New York. When these facts are considered, it is evident that this bird is one of the best friends which the horticulturist can encourage. The mating time of flickers is April and early May and they usually begin to excavate their hole between the 2Oth of April and the I5th of May. Fresh eggs, in this State, are found between May 5th and June loth, although when the first set has been destroyed they will lay again and again, so that they are frequently found nesting as late as the middle of July. In fact, the Flicker is one of the most persistent layers we have among the wild birds. Instances are on record in which the old bird has laid six dozens of eggs in six dozen and three days. They usually excavate a new nesting hole each season but occasionally utilize an old nest or even natural cavity in a tree. The opening is about 2\ inches in diameter and the hole from 10 to 24 inches in depth. It is enlarged to a spacious BIRDS OF NEW YORK 163 cavity at the bottom and the eggs are laid on a layer of chips. They are 5 to 8 in number, pure white in color, slightly less glossy than those of the Red-headed woodpecker, and average i.io by .85 in dimensions. Order MACROCHIRES Goatsuckers, Swifts, Hummers etc. Suborder CAF»RIXHJLOI Family CA.F»RIMUUOIDA.E Goatsuckers Palate schizognathous ; basipterygoids small; 2 carotids; sternum two or four-notched; plumage af tershaf ted ; oil gland small and bare; 10 prima- ries; rectrices 10; bill weak, small and deeply fissured; habits more or less nocturnal; eggs 2, laid on the bare ground; young downy but not pre- cocious; wings long and pointed, the elongation being principally beyond the carpal joint and in the feathers; plumage mostly soft and owllike; colors marbled, mottled and intricately blended; tarsus very short; feet small and weak; the lateral toe very short; the 3 forward toes movable, webbed at the base; middle claw pectinate; hind toe short, elevated and partly lateral; formula of the phalanges or toe joints 2-3-4-4. The goatsuckers, or nightjars, are largely cosmopolitan in distri- bution, consisting of about 125 species, only 2 of which are natives of New York. On account of their small, weak feet they are hardly able to alight in trees, and when they do must sit lengthwise of the larger branches. They are mostly nocturnal or crepuscular, the Nighthawk, however, often going out by day. The eggs are always two as in the case of Humming birds, and are almost perfectly elliptical in shape. The Whippoorwill and Nighthawk are among our most valuable birds, feeding on flying insects, the Whippoorwill, especially, on moths which are destructive to trees and vegetation in general, the Nighthawk on all kinds of insects, particularly on ants, beetles, flies and moths. These birds should be protected and encouraged as much as possible for the valuable services they render to the Commonwealth. 164 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Antrostomus vociferus vociferus (Wilson) Whippoorwill Plate 6s Capri mulgus vociferus Wilson. Amer. Orn. 1812. 5:71. pi. 41, figs. 1-3 DeKay. Zool. of N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 32, fig. 59 Antrostomus vociferus vociferus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 196. No. 417 antrostomus, Gr.. avrpov, cave, and aifytz, mouth, referring to the tremendously capacious fissirostral gape; vociferus, Lat., vociferous, noisy Description. Bill extremely short and depressed; the gape enormous; corners of the mouth bordered with long, recurved bristles; eyes large; head broad; wings long and pointed; tail long, rounded, of 10 feathers; feet small and weak; the tarsus partly feathered; the plumage blended brownish with brownish gray, black, ocherous and buffy. Male: Outer 3 tail feathers tipped with white for half their length ; white band across the throat. Female: The tips of outer tail feathers and neckband ocherous or buffy instead of white. General impression of the Whippoorwill is of a mottled dark brown bird like the color of an old decayed log, and when resting quietly on the leaves or rotten wood in the shady forest it is practi- cally indistinguishable; but when the male bird springs up in flight, the white tips of the outer tail feathers make him very conspicuous. Length 9.5-10 inches; extent 15-16; wing 5.8-6.9; tail 4.6-5.5; bill .36. Distribution. The Whippoorwill inhabits eastern North America from Manitoba, Quebec and Nova Scotia south to Louisiana and Georgia, and winters from the Gulf States to Honduras. In New York it is found in all parts of the State, but is local in distribution, preferring the wilder swamps, gulleys and hillsides to the more settled districts. It is a summer resident, however, from Long Island to Chautauqua county and from Westchester county to the northern limits of the State. In the Adiron- dacks it is confined mostly to the edges of the wilderness and is not found in the depths of the spruce forests, but invades the river valleys and clear- ings as far as Elk lake, Keene valley, Lake Placid, Saranac and the Fulton chain. The Whippoorwill arrives from the South from April 2Oth to May loth and during the migration is frequently heard throughout the State BIRDS OF NEW YORK 165 in localities where it is not found as a summer resident; but these migratory birds have gone on to their nesting grounds by the last of May. In the fall the whippoorwills are last seen and heard from August 25th to September I5th. The Whippoorwill, though seldom seen even by nature lovers or the country people who live near its favorite haunts, is well known by its voice to all inhabitants of the State. It is one of the few birds that can be Eggs of Whippoorwill Photo by Clarence F. Stone surely recognized by its note even though the listener has never heard it before and knows it only by name. This bird comes from its retreat in the shady forest or the slopes of the glen in the early evening, is seen along the roadsides and about farmyards half a mile or more from its home in the wood, and its shrill cry is frequently heard from the ridge pole of the tent, from the peak of the barn, from the lane fence or from the road- side, as one journeys along in the dusk of evening. When passing through 1 66 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the dense coverts of the swamp or woods during the migration season, and also during the nesting season, if one is in its summer haunts, the Whippoorwill may frequently be started from its perch on the ground or from some old root or mossy log, but he seldom rises until one is within a few feet of the bird, when he springs suddenly into the air, but with absolute silence, his soft owllike plumage making his flight as noiseless as a Screech owl's. His course also is low and wavering like an owl's so that he is oft mistaken for one of that family. As Chapman remarks, the silence with which he rises in front of one's face and flies away is fully as startling as the overwhelming whirr of a grouse's wings. The food of the Whippoorwill consists entirely of night-flying insects, principally moths and beetles. I have taken 36 full-grown moths from the stomach of a single Whippoorwill which was killed early in the evening, indicating that within an hour and a half he had killed and devoured these full-grown moths, each one of which contained hundreds of eggs. Thus it is evident that this bird is of untold value to the forester. The call of the Whip- poorwill is introduced by a low duck or chuck, which is inaudible unless the listener is near the bird, but the sharp vigorous whip' -poor-will' , whip'- poor-will' which is rapidly reiterated may be heard for the distance of half a mile. This call is heard mostly during two hours after sunset and the hour before sunrise. The nest of the Whippoorwill, or rather its eggs for it makes no nest, is found beneath the dense, low-hanging foliage of the undergrowth in the forest. The eggs are 2 in number, elliptical-ovoid in shape and average 1.16 by .84 inches in dimensions, dull white in color with spots and blotches of brown, drab and lavender. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 1 67 Chordeiles virginianus virginianus (Gmelin) Nighthawk Plate 6s Caprimulgus virginianus Gmelin. Syst. Nat. 1 789. i : 1028 Chordeiles americanus DeKay. Zool. of N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 34, fig. 60 Chordeiles virginianus virginianus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. IQIO. p. 198. No. 420 chordeiles, formed from Gr., /.spoil, a stringed instrument, and BsfXit), evening Description. In shape resembling the Whippoorwill, but the tail forked instead of rounded; color of the plumage not so intricately blended as in the Whippoorwill and without the fulvous and ocherous; colors blackish and grayish, more or less barred and spotted with dusky and white. The wing feathers blackish crossed with a broad white band which appears like a hole through the wing while the bird is in flight; tail blackish with broken or wavy bars of grayish buff and with a white band near the end except on the middle pair of feathers; a broad white throat band; breast and under part barred with blackish and white. The large white spot on the wing, and white band on the tail, as well as its forked tip, are con- spicuous marks when the bird is in flight. Length 9.5-10 inches; extent 24; wing 7.3-8.3; tail 4.3-4.8; bill .25. Distribution. Breeds from southern Yukon, Keewatin and New- foundland south to the Gulf States and westward to the edge of the Great Plains, and winters in South America from Brazil to Argentina. In New York it is found in every county of the State as a summer resident, but is somewhat local in its breeding. In the wilder portions of the State it still nests on the rocks and the rugged field, but in the more thickly inhabited districts, on the flat tops of buildings. Dates of spring arrival are rather uncertain, but it is evident that the Nighthawk reaches this State from the ist to the I5th of May. In the fall it is last seen from the ist to the 20th of September. During the autumn migrations, especially in the month of August, this species is much more numerous than at any other time of the year, and is seen in all portions of the State, even where it is unknown as a summer resident, often appearing in large flocks. Various observers have reported great scattering troops of thousands and thousands of night- hawks from the vicinity of Oneida lake and from Chautauqua county during 1 68 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the month of August. These flights usually progress in a southwesterly direction. This would seem to indicate that the principal line of migra- tion extends down the Ohio- Mississippi valley. I have noticed these flights several years in Erie county passing in this same general direction. Habits. The Nighthawk is much more diurnal in habits than the Whippoorwill, and frequently is seen flying about in the bright daylight high in the air, with slow, measured wing strokes, occasion- ally darting swiftly downward; at other times with rapid flapping of the wings succeeded by a graceful soaring. The wings appear ex- tremely long and crooked. As the birds fly about seeking for beetles, flies, moths and other in- sects, they occasionally give voice to a loud nasal " peent, peent," and sometimes to a squeaky, querulous " aek-aek." In the mating season when the Nighthawk is wheeling about high in the air, he suddenly plunges headlong toward the earth Photo by GuyA.Baiiey but, just before striking the ground, Nighthawk's eggs on gravel roof suddenly glides upward again, at the same time producing a roaring sound by the air rushing through the wing feathers, which has been likened to the noise made by blowing across the mouth of an empty bottle, or the bunghole of a barrel. Although the Nighthawk is frequently seen in cloudy weather during the middle of the day, he certainly prefers to hunt in the evening and early morning, and his notes are often heard late at night as he hawks about for insects high in the air. Like the Whippoorwill, the Nighthawk BIRDS OF NEW YORK 169 when he perches on a tree, is obliged to alight on the larger branches and to sit lengthwise of the branch, on account of his small, weak feet which are unable to clasp the twigs like those of true perching birds. This species is more often found resting in this manner among forest and shade trees than is the case with the Whippoorwill, but it is evident that he prefers the ground or rocks and the flat tops of buildings. It frequently alights on the ledges of chimneys and the cornices of tall buildings to wait for the bright light of noonday to pass by. Although the Nighthawk, like the Whippoorwill, feeds largely on moths, a much greater percentage of its food consists of beetles and flies, as would be expected from its more diurnal habits, but it is, nevertheless, a very beneficial species and ought to be stringently protected in all localities. In the southern states it is called " bull-bat," and is destroyed in immense numbers by southern " sportsmen," but this habit, I am glad to say, is passing out of vogue through the influence of the Audubon Society. The Nighthawk lays her eggs on a bare rock or the waste field or an open patch of ground in the woods or on the gravel-covered roofs of buildings in our cities and villages. They are 2 in number, almost elliptical in shape, of a grayish white ground color densely spotted and blotched with blackish, grayish and lavender. They average 1.20 by .86 inches in dimensions. The young are covered with a grayish down and are practically invisible as they sit among the gravel or on the rough stones where they are hatched. The old Night- hawk protects them at the risk of her life and tries to draw the intruder away by fluttering along as if with broken wing to lure him from them. Suborder CYPSELI Family MICKOPOUIDA.B Swifts Palate aegithognathous ; bill deeply fissirostral; rectrices 10; second- aries only 7 in number; nostrils exposed; wings extremely long, pointed and thin, both the distal joints and the primaries being remarkably elongated; feet weak, small, rather skinny than scaly; tarsus usually naked; lateral and middle toes nearly of the same length; the hind toe more or IJO NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM less versatile or turned sidewise; the formula of the phalanges is usually abnormal, 2-3-3-3 ! the claws are very sharp and curved, but none of them pectinate as in the Goatsuckers; plumage compact, hard, somber colored; sternum deeply keeled, broad behind, usually with no notches; there is no ambiens, semitendinosus, accessory semitendinosus or accessory femoro- caudal; the coeca are wanting; oil gland naked; the salivary glands highly developed, furnishing an abundant secretion used in the construction of their nests; the eggs are several, white and narrowly oval in shape; the young are naked and perfectly helpless. The characteristics of this family are practically those of the suborder, and the 100 members of it are widely distributed in the temperate and tropical regions. The single representative of the family which is found in New York State belongs to the subfamily of Spine-tailed swifts, with mucronate tail feathers, helping it in clinging to upright surfaces like the interior of hollow trees, differing also from the typical swifts in having the joints of the front toes 3-4-5 in number. Swifts, like the swallows and the goatsuckers, are very beneficial as they are exclusively insectivorous in diet, feeding on flying insects which they destroy in immense numbers. Although some parasitic hymenoptera are devoured, the majority of these insects are destructive to agricultural interests as well as to the peace and comfort of humanity. The swifts have practically abandoned the hollow trees which they occupied both for roosting and nesting sites before the advent of white men in America and, on the whole, have profited by the change to the civilized conditions which prevail over the greater portion of the country; but many people nowadays cover their chimneys with screens so that the swifts can not enter, or inadvertently build fires in those occupied by the swifts and destroy the young birds late in summer. Those who wish to encourage the swifts, but can not furnish them with disused chimneys during the nesting season, can assist them by erecting dummy chimneys (even those constructed of boards will serve the purpose) 6 to 8 feet in depth, which they will appropriate and thus rear their young in comfort and furnish abundant amusement to those nature lovers who wish to observe their nesting operations. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 171 Chaetura pelagica (Linnaeus) Chimney Swift Hirundo pelagica Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. Ed. 10. 1758. 1:192 Chaetura pelasgia DeKay. Zool. of N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 35, fig. 58 Chaetura pelagica A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 200. No. 423 chaetura, Gr., y.ai'rr,, bristle, and oupse, tail; pelagica, Lat., pelagic, marine, (without evident application to this bird's habits) Description. Wings very long; tail short, square and the shafts pro- jecting some distance beyond the vanes, as little sharp spines; beak short, but the gape very extensive; feet very short and small but the claws sharp and curved; plumage dark sooty in color; wings and tail darker, throat and breast fading to a dull grayish. Length 4.8-5.6 inches; extent 12.5; wing 4.95-5.25; tail 1.9-2. The Swift or Chimney " swal- low " as it is commonly called, is never seen perching on trees or telegraph wires, but always flying through the air. It may be recog- nized by its general sooty coloration and the rapid wheeling or flickering flight alternating with occasional soaring. His appearance in the air has been aptly likened to a winged cigar or a flying spruce cone. Distribution. The Chimney swift inhabits eastern North America from Saskatchewan, Quebec and Newfoundland south to the gulf and west to the Great Plains, wintering south of the United States probably in Central America. In New York State it is uniformly distributed and breeds in every county. It is one of the dominant species which are very slightly Photo by Guy A. Bailey Chimney swift with young 1 72 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM affected by the advance of civilization, and is even positively benefited by it until people screen their chimneys to prevent the roaring caused by the entrance and exit of birds early in the morning. In the depths of the Adirondack wilderness this species is fairly common, breeding in the gable ends of old deserted lumbermen's shacks or in the settlers' chimneys and possibly, at times, in hollow trees. Habits. As already stated, the Chimney swift is never observed, as many suppose, ranged along the telegraph wires with our various species of swallows. Near the " Free Bridge," 4 miles below Cayuga, there is a large hollow tree in which swifts still roost after the primeval fashion, and another near Scottsville, within sight of the railroad station, about which thousands of swifts may be seen circling in the evening air before going to rest within the hollow trunk. Nearly every village or city can boast at least one large chimney on church or schoolhouse that harbors multitudes of swifts every night late in summer. It is an interesting sight to watch these swifts as they wheel about such an old chimney in the August and September evenings and, when the magic moment arrives, pour down its capacious mouth in a living cascade. It seems impossible for this species to perch, but it always alights on some perpendicular surface like the inside of a large hollow tree or the inner surface of a chimney or the perpendicular boards at the gable end of a barn or shed. In this position it sleeps, clinging with its sharp claws to the irregular surface and using its spiny tail as a support. The swift is seen abroad early in the morning and late in the afternoon, but in cloudy weather comes out at any time of day and evidently can see well in the bright sunlight, for it frequently hunts or seeks materials for its nest during the brightest weather. They begin to construct the nest in May or early June, the small twigs of which it is formed being broken from the dead branches of some shade tree by the bird flying directly against the tip of the twig and snapping it off. Mr Fuertes asserts that they grasp the twig with their claws as they fly against it and thus bear it away. I will confess that I have been unable to see them execute this performance although I have tried on dozens of occasions. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 173 At any rate, the twigs are carried into the chimney and are cemented to the wall and to each other by a gelatinous substance secreted by the salivary glands of the bird itself. When completed, the nest is like a little semi- circular bracket slightly hollowed downward. The eggs are placed on this framework of twigs without lining. They are 4 to 6 in number, oval- elliptical in shape, pure white in color, and average .82 by .50 inches in diameter. In food the swift is wholly insectivorous, and does an immense amount of good destroying beetles, flies and gnats, which he devours in countless multitudes. The Chimney swift, as he darts by, frequently Photo by Clarence F. Stone Chimney swift's nest and eggs utters a rapid chipper something like the syllable chip-chip-chip, rapidly repeated, and I have heard a loud cheeping in the chimney, evidently uttered by the young birds. One of the earliest impressions of my boy- hood was the curious roaring caused by the wings of parent swifts as they came and went from their nests at daybreak. This unfortunate habit of early rising has brought the Chimney swift into bad repute in many civilized communities, too great zeal in the service of the citizens while •destroying the gnats, flies and mosquitoes which annoy them, closing even IJ4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the chimneys of the village against these beneficent birds whose only offense is to make a little noise by starting too early in the morning in pursuit of our enemies. Suborder TROCHILI Family TROCHILIDA.E Hummingbirds Bill long and slender; palate schizognathous ; the sternum deeply keeled, not notched; no manubrium; ambiens, semitendinosus and its accessory are wanting; femoro-caudal present; the oil gland bare; tail with 10 rectrices; primaries 10; secondaries only 6 and very short; feet very small, the hallux incumbent; radius arched; carpus very much elongated; tongue protrusible like that of woodpeckers; the left carotid artery only is developed; nostrils linear. This family averages the smallest in size of all the aves. The coloration is usually brilliant with metallic iridescence. The sexes are unlike. Voices harsh or insectlike. Disposition pugnacious. The nest is usually a model of skill, very neatly constructed of fibers or downy substances and usually ornamented, at least in our native species, with various lichens or mosses which render it inconspicuous. The eggs in this family are 2 in number as is the case with goatsuckers, but they are pure white in color and almost elliptical in shape. The young are helpless when hatched, nearly bare, and are fed for some time in the nest by the process of regurgitation, the parent bird forcing the bill well down the youngster's throat and discharging the contents of her crop into the youngster's stomach. The family is evidently of neotropical origin, the 565 species being confined to America, only one inhabiting the eastern United States. Hummers do not subsist entirely upon nectar or the honey of flowers, as many believe, but are really insectivorous birds, devouring a considerable number of small spiders, ants and various kinds of insects that are attracted to the flowers which they visit. In this way they render a considerable service to the agriculturist and are also valuable servants in cross-pol- linating many species of flowers, sharing this important office with the BIRDS OF NEW YORK 175 bees and larger moths. They are also valuable neighbors of the helpless inhabitants of garden and orchard. Although they are so slight in size, they attack fearlessly and effectively marauding crows and hawks which approach their domains, and their brilliant and interesting presence, aside from any service they render, is ample reward for protecting them. Archilochus colubris (Linnaeus) Ruby-throated Hummingbird Plate 66 Trochilus colubris Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. Ed. 10. 1758. 1:120 DeKay. Zool. of N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 46, fig. 87 Archilochus colubris A. 0. U. Check List. £6.3. 1910. p. 202. No. 428 archilochus, perhaps named from the Greek poet; cdlubris, probably from the barbarous name colibri Description. Our smallest bird. Wings long; bill long and slender. Male: Upper parts bright metallic green; wings and tail fuscous, tinged with purplish; throat, metallic ruby red changing to black and burnished gold as the angle of reflection varies, the ruby throat-patch bordered below with whitish; the rest of under parts dusky tinged with greenish on the sides. Female has the throat whitish instead of ruby. Young resemble the female, but throat feathers spotted with dusky. Length cf 3-5 inches, 9 3.85; extent 4.6; wing cf1 1.6, 9 1.8; tail cf 1.25, 9 1.2; bill o* -55--6S, 9 .75. Distribution. The Ruby-throated hummingbird inhabits eastern North America from Saskatchewan and Quebec to the Gulf of Mexico, westward to North Dakota and Texas, and spends the winter from southern Florida and Louisiana to Mexico and Panama. In New York it is a common summer resident in all parts of the State from the more cultivated portions of southern New York to the densest forests of the Adirondack region. While surveying the country about Mt Marcy and the other elevated peaks of the Adirondacks we found this species nearly as common as in the orchards and groves of western New York and noticed several breeding pairs in the forests of the Bartlett range, Boreas pond, Mt Colvin and the slopes of Mt Marcy at an elevation of 3500 feet. The humming- bird arrives in New York from the 5th to the I2th of May in the warmer 176 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM portions of the State and a few days later in the northern counties. In the fall the last birds are usually seen from the ist to the I2th of September in the northern counties and from the 2Oth to the 3Oth of September in the warmer portions of the State. As with most species of birds, the males usually precede the females several days in the spring migration, but mated pairs are usually found by the 2Oth to the 25th of May and the building of the nest often begins as early as the 3Oth of the month. Habits. Everyone knows the Ruby-throated hummingbird, which Photo by Clarence F. Stone Ruby-throated hummingbird's nest and eggs is the only species of this family that visits the eastern United States. It conies familiarly to the cultivated flowers on the window sill, the honeysuckles which climb the trellises beside porches, and the trumpet flowers which grow beside the door of the country home. It visits every flower bed when in bloom, and almost all the blossoming trees, especially apple trees — and the red buckeye more than any other species. Frequently as many as a dozen hummingbirds may be seen about a red buckeye when it is in full bloom. In late summer the swamp thistle is a great favorite with the hummers. There is no doubt that hummingbirds visit flowers BIRDS OF NEW YORK 177 for the sake of their nectar, but they also feed upon the small insects which are attracted to the flowers by the honey, and also on the small spiders which are found on both the flowers and the foliage of the plant. Tame hummingbirds will live on sugar solution and honey, but will not thrive for any length of time without the addition of insect food. While watching a hummingbird, one is impressed with the ease and rapidity of its flight and especially with its ability to change its course at an instant's warning. When attacking larger birds to drive them away from its nest — and he is Ruby-throated hummingbird on nest Photo by James H. Miller perfectly capable of driving away the largest hawks, crows and eagles — he flies at the intruder like a bullet; but just before striking, will back off as rapidly as he advanced so as to put his enemy in absolute confusion. I have often seen a hummingbird fly directly at an object so rapidly that he almost crashed into it, and then just before reaching it back off in perfect unconcern. He is at home flying across wide expanses of open fields or across the surface of the lake. I frequently notice them crossing lakes two or more miles in width without anymore hesitation than going from flower to flower; and NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM although they seem to fly much more rapidly on account of their small size, it is perfectly evident to one who studies their flight carefully that they travel at the rate of 30 to 50 miles an hour. The hummingbird is rather pugnacious and rarely permits others of the same species, or any birds, to approach his nesting site. When chasing away intruders, he usually utters a rapid chirping note while making the attack. Many people have maintained that they have never seen a hummingbird at rest except upon its nest, but it frequently alights on dead twigs and telegraph wires and will often sit for many minutes sunning and preening itself on the lofty twigs of dead trees in the forest. The nest of this species is one of the most beauti- ful constructed by any of our native birds. It is composed of the fluffy fibers from seed gossa- mers, the downy covering of young fern leaves, and other soft cottony substances, which are bound together with spiders' webs and the whole carefully covered with green and gray Photo by clarence F. stone lichens so skilfully that it resem- Young of Ruby-throated hummingbird bles a small, mossy knot. It is usually saddled upon a branch about the size of a walking stick or on the horizontal crotch of a limb from 6 to 40 feet from the ground. The eggs are always 2 in number, pure white in color, nearly elliptical in shape, and average .50 by .36 inches in size. The young at first have com- paratively short, stubby beaks and are nearly naked, but the feathers rapidly develop and the beaks become longer and slimmer. In 10 days BIRDS OF NEW YORK 179 after hatching the young are about ready to leave the nest. They are fed from the beginning by regurgitation. The old bird, perching on the rim of the nest and directing her beak vertically downward into the young bird's gullet, proceeds to pump the contents of her crop into the greedy youngster. In the case of nearly every nest which I have watched, I became apprehensive lest some harm had overtaken the young birds because they disappeared so suddenly after 9 or 10 days; but I have become convinced that they remain in the nest only 10 days, and then follow the old birds to some secure spot where they are fed for several days longer before they forage for themselves. Order PA.SSERES Perching Birds " Oil gland nude; skull aegithognathous; atlas perforated by the odontoid process; i carotid, left; coeca present, small; muscle formula AXY; no biceps slip or expansor secondariorum " (Beddard). First toe is directed backward and is on a level with the front toe, that is, per- fectly incumbent; none of the other toes are ever changed in position; the sternum usually has a forked manubrium and a single pair of notches on the rear; the aftershaft is very weak and downy; the flexor hallucis is wholly independent of the flexor communis; the syrinx is well developed with numerous intrinsic muscles to regulate the voice; the formula of the toe joints is 2-3-4-5; primaries are 9 or 10 in number; the tail usually of 12 rectrices. In reproductive nature they are all psilopaedic and altricial in nature, the young being born weak, helpless and nearly naked, and brooded and cared for by the parents for a long time in the nest. In this order the high-strung life of bird nature reaches its highest development, the nervous system being acutely sensitive, the special senses keenly developed, at least those of sight and hearing, the circulation and respiration rapid, and the temperature the highest among animals. This is also the largest ordinal group of birds, including nearly all our familiar land birds and over one-half of the entire number of birds. The order is subdivided according to the development of the syrinx and its intrinsic muscles, as well as the condition of the tarsus. ISO NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Suborder CLA.MATORES This suborder, which is also called Mesomyodi or Clamatores, includes the so-called screamers or nonmelodious Passeres, in which the syrinx is less fully developed and has less than 4 pairs of intrinsic muscles. These muscles are inserted at the middle of the upper bronchial half rings. The tarsus is scutelliplantar; toes scutellate and not laminate; there are 10 fully developed primaries. This suborder in North America includes only the flycatchers and cotingas, the flycatchers alone being represented in New York. In general appearance, habits and voice they are easily distinguishable from the rest of the Passerine birds, although some of them actually sing as complicated songs as many representatives of the Oscines or true songbirds. Family TYRA.NXIDA.E American Flycatchers Family characters. Tarsi covered with rows of scutella forming cylindrical plates enveloping the tarsus like a segmented scroll; primaries 10, the first well developed and often the longest; tail feathers 12; wing coverts more than half the length of the secondaries; hind claw as long as the middle claw; feet small and weak; tarsus short; the front toes coherent at the base, especially the outer to the middle; bill broad and flattened, gradually tapering to a sharp point, abruptly bent downward near the tip, and notched at the beginning of the bend; bill very light, the upper mandible partly hollow; culmen smooth and transversely arched; com- missure nearly straight to the bend; nostrils near the base of the bill, small and round, sparsely concealed by bristles; gape large, reaching nearly beneath the eye, its angles furnished with flaring bristles; wing and tail ample; shoulders broad; short neck; large head; short legs; coloration of our native species mostly somber, without spots or streaks. In this family about 83 genera are described, all American, being well represented in tropical America. Of the New York species, 3 or 4 resemble each other so closely that it is almost impossible to distinguish them in the field; but they differ individually in habitat, notes, nesting site, structure of the nest, and marking of the eggs, so that these particulars are more diagnostic in field work than the appearance of these species. Our fly- BIRDS OF NEW YORK 181 catchers usually choose exposed perches from which to watch for passing insects, which they pursue and capture on the wing, usually returning to the same station from which they started. In disposition they are rather quarrelsome birds, the family character reaching its climax in the Kingbird which will not tolerate rivals within his sphere of influence, and will even drive eagles, hawks and crows far away from the vicinity of its nest. The food of our flycatchers is almost entirely composed of insects and all the species are probably beneficial. It is unfortunate that so many of the parasitic Hymenoptera are included in the food of some of the smaller species like the Wood pewee, and that bees are frequently destroyed by the Kingbird, as well as others of the larger flycatchers; but the work of the Biological Survey in investigating this subject has shown that the percentage of bees and beneficial Hymenoptera is so low that it is practi- cally a negligible quantity, and that all the flycatchers, even the Kingbird, should be regarded as beneficial. In the fall, flycatchers, especially the Kingbird, frequently resort to a diet of fruit, but this, even in the fall and winter, amounts to only a small percentage of the entire food and none of the flycatchers has been reported as destructive to the small cul- tivated fruits grown in this section. The following table will serve to show in detail, from an examination of stomach contents, exactly of what the food of these birds consists. Food of New York flycatchers1 XEW YORK SPECIES 15 'c rt "d g IT • II p Coleoptera (beetles) Hymenoptera (wasps, bees, ants) Hemiptera (buss) 0 aB 3 Orthoptera (grasshop- pers and crickets) Lepidoptera (moths and caterpillars) Miscellane- ous insects Arachnida 1 (spiders and myriapods) 1 £ M iscellane- ous vegeta- ble food | 88 .93 ii .o? 25 .35 32-39 3.77 3.19 11.83 3.18 7.70 1.52 10.71 .36 93- ?o 6.30 16.78 13.69 14.26 1 06 15.62 21.38 4.88 4.03 5.36 • 94 Phoebe 89. 23 10.77 IS -33 26.69 10.38 6.89 12.91 8.86 8.17 o 4 99 S-78 Olive-sided flycatcher 99-95 98.97 .05 1 .03 6.24 14.23 82.56 28.20 3-25 5.99 .88 29.98 1. 12 3-44 4.13 12.31 1.77 2.61 o 2.21 .04 .84 .01 .19 Yellow-bellied flycatcher. . . 97.01 97.05 2.99 2.95 16.53 13.70 46.25 39.93 4.16 6.03 14-89 8.15 0 6.38 5.68 18.87 .98 • 99 8. 52 2.94 2.51 2.68 .48 .27 96.05 3.95 17.89 41 .37 7.24 14.20 3.91 7.73 2.77 • 94 3.88 .07 97 83 21 .35 41. IO 11,12 11.34 2.59 7.27 .95 2. II 1.83 .39 'From Bulletin 44, Biological Survey, U. S. Department of Agriculture 182 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Tyrannus tyrannus (Linnaeus) Kingbird Plate 67 Lanius tyrannus Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. Ed. 10. 1758. 1:94 Tyrannus intrepidus DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 117, fig. 72 Tyrannus tyrannus A. 0. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 208. No. 444 tyrannus, Lat., a tyrant Description. Upper parts grayish slate color; the wing feathers Young kingbirds Photo by James H. Miller blackish; tail black, tipped with white; under parts white, a grayish tinge on the sides of breast; top of the head blackish concealing a brilliant orange patch which flashes into view when the bird is excited; bill blackish. Length 8.40-8.75 inches; extent 14-15; wing 4.65; tail 3.56; bill .60. The slaty upper parts of this bird, his white throat and under parts, blackish tail with sharp white tip, combined with his ordinary quivering and soaring flight low over the fields, with tail spread, make him one of the easiest of our common birds for the amateur to recognize. BIRDS OF NEW YORK I .s :; Distribution. The Kingbird breeds from British Columbia, Macken- zie, Quebec and Newfoundland south to New Mexico and Florida, and spends the winter from southern Mexico to Bolivia and British Guiana. In New York it is a common summer resident in all portions of the State except the interior of the densely forested regions, but it invades the Catskill and Adirondack districts along the clearings and river valleys to the edge of the spruce and balsam forests. In the cultivated portions it is one of the commonest of our dominant species, among the flycatchers ranking next to the Phoebe and the Wood pewee in abundance. It arrives from the south from the 25th of April to the loth of May and departs for the south from September I5th to 3Oth. Habits. The Kingbird inhabits orchards, pastures, hedgerows and roadsides. It is a common sight to see this bird seated on the top of a mullein stalk, fence post, telegraph wire or the peak of an apple tree, on the lookout for beetles, bees, grasshoppers, moths and flying insects of all kinds. Whenever he sees an attractive insect he swoops down and snaps him up with perfect precision. If a hawk or crow approaches the limits of his domain he immediately gives chase. Mounting above the intruder he darts down and striking him on the top of the head or the back drives him rapidly from the neighborhood. In this way he renders efficient service in keeping crows and hawks away from the chicken yard. On the other hand, most beekeepers denounce the Kingbird because of the great number of bees which he destroys. Examination of stomachs, however, has shown repeatedly that he prefers the drones to the worker bees, and consequently does no great damage; but unquestionably at times he becomes too destruc- tive when he makes his home in the immediate vicinity of a beehive. The nest of the Kingbird is usually constructed in an apple tree, thorn bush or shade tree of any species, at a height of from 6 to 20 feet from the ground. I have even known of its being placed on the top of an old fence post and in vines overrunning a stone wall. It is composed of straws, weeds and roots, lined with rootlets, soft bark, fine grasses, hair and wool. The eggs are usually 4 to 5 in number laid from the 25th of May to the I5th of June, 184 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM a rich creamy white in color rather coarsely spotted with reddish brown, chocolate and lavender, mostly in a wreath near the larger end. They are oval in shape and measure I by .74 inches. The notes of the Kingbird are loud, the commonest being a rapidly repeated rattling call resembling remotely the rattle of a Kingfisher. The researches of the Biological Survey have shown that their food consists principally of beetles, flies, grasshoppers and members of the bee family. Tyrannus dominicensis (Gmelin) Gray Kingbird Lanius dominicensis Gmelin. Syst. Nat. 1788. i : 302 Tyrannus dominicensis A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 208. No. 445 dominicensis, of St Domingo Description. Upper parts plumbeous gray. The adults have con- cealed orange crown patch; lower parts white; tail emarginate, without a white tip. Length 9-9.75 inches; wing 4.5-4.75; tail 3.5-4; bill large, length from nostril .8. Distribution. The Gray kingbird is an inhabitant of the southeastern United States from South Carolina to the Greater Antilles; winters in the Lesser Antilles, Mexico and Central America. In New York it is only an accidental visitant, a single specimen having been obtained at Seetauket, Long Island, in Suffolk county, 30 miles east of New York and reported in " Forest and Stream," volume 2, 1874, page 373. Specimens of this species have been obtained similarly in Maine and New Jersey, but it rarely wanders north of Carolina. Tyrannus verticalis Say Arkansas Kingbird Tyrannus verticalis Say. Long's Exped. 1823. 2: 60 (note) A. 0. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 209. No. 447 verticdlis, Lat., pertaining to vertex, the top or head, in allusion to the brilliant crown patch of the adult Description. Head, neck and back light ashy gray; wings dusky brown; tail black, the outer feathers with white outer webs; a concealed BIRDS OF NEW YORK 185 orange crown patch; belly yellow; young, duller colored, with no crown patch. Length 8.5-9.5 inches; wing d" 4-75-5-25; tail even or slightly emar- ginate 3.7-4; bill from nostril .5. Distribution. The Arkansas kingbird, a western species, has been taken accidentally in the eastern part of the United States, in Iowa, New Jersey, Maine and the District of Columbia. A single specimen from New York, taken at Riverdale October 19, 1875, an immature male, is recorded by E. P. Bicknell in the Bulletin of the Nuttall Ornithological Club, volume 4, page 60. Myiarchus crinitus (Linnaeus) Crested Flycatcher Plate 67 Turdus crinitus Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 1758. Ed. 10. 1:170 Tyrannus crinitus DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 119, fig. 70 Myiarchus crinitus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 210. No. 452 myiarchus, Gr., [Auta, fly, and apx^S, ruler; crinitus, Lat., haired or crested Description. Upper parts olive; throat and breast ash gray; belly and under tail coverts sulphur yellow; tail from below shows all the inner webs rufous, many of the wing feathers also rufous on the inner webs; head somewhat crested. Length 8.75-9.15 inches; extent 13-14; wing 3.9-4.4; tail 3.6-4.2; bill from nostril .6; tarsus .8. Distribution. The Crested flycatcher is a summer inhabitant of eastern North America from the gulf coast to New Brunswick and Ontario; winters from southern Florida to Central America. In New York State it is a common summer resident in the warmer districts and fairly common on the uplands above 1000 feet, but is practically absent from the interior of the Catskill and Adirondack forests, although it invades the valleys almost to the heart of those regions. It arrives from the 25th of April to the 1 2th of May and disappears in the fall between the 1st and the 25th of September. During some seasons this flycatcher rivals the King- bird and the Wood pewee in abundance, but, in general, is less common 1 86 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM than either the Kingbird, Phoebe, Wood pewee or Least flycatcher, though commoner and more generally distributed than the other members of the family. The Crested flycatcher is more confined to the groves and forests than the Kingbird and though often seen occupying exposed posi- tions on tops of dead trees or fence posts, is rarely observed far from the friendly shelter of abundant foliage. His loud shrill whistle which sounds like the syllable "wheep" and resembles somewhat a similar cry of the Red-headed woodpecker may be heard for one-fourth of a mile and serves inevitably to call attention to this bird wherever he has established his home. He is the brightest colored of all our flycatchers and is a bird of great courage and interesting habits. The nest is usually concealed in a hollow tree or old woodpecker's hole at a height of 15 to 50 feet from the ground, composed of grasses, rootlets, hair, pine needles and invariably the cast off skin of a snake is woven among the contents of the nest, to act as some have fancied, as a terrifier of red squirrels and Red-headed wood- peckers which might see fit to attack the eggs or young. The eggs are usually 4 in number, sometimes 5 or 6, the ground color a rich cream, profusely marked with " pen streaks " of chocolate and reddish brown. They average .92 by .68 inches in dimensions. After the mating and breeding season this flycatcher is less noisy and often escapes attention so that he is supposed to depart for the south early in August, but if one searches carefully in his haunts among the foliage and watches for his spirited sallies in quest of flying insects, it is evident that he has not deserted his favorite groves but remains with us to the date stated above. The Kingbird and Crested flycatcher are both valuable on account of their preference for the larger flying insects, especially beetles, like the June beetles and other large Coleoptera which are shunned by our smaller species. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 187 Sayornis phoebe (Latham) Phoebe Plate 67 Muscicapa phoobe Latham. Index Orn. 1790. 2:489 Muscicapa fusca DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 115, fig. 67 Sayornis phoebe A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 212. No. 456 sayornis, from the name of Thomas Say and Gr., opvt?, bird; phdebe, in imitation of its note Description. Upper parts grayish brown; the top of the head notice- ably darker, almost blackish; wings and tail fuscous; wing bars almost indistinguishable; under parts dingy white, tinged with brownish gray on the breast and sides, and washed with yellowish on the belly; bill blackish. Length 7 inches; extent 11.25; wing 3.4; tail 3.5; bill .45. The Phoebe may be distinguished from the Wood pewee by its blackish under mandible, the whitish outer vane of the outer tail feather and the fuscous crown. It is also slightly larger and more brownish, scarcely showing any olive or greenish tinge on the upper parts. Its note also, a two syllabled call of pe-wee or phoebe is clearly different from the three syllabled plaintive pee-a-wee of its smaller relative. Distribution. The Phoebe inhabits eastern America from Alberta, Keewatin, Quebec and New Brunswick to New Mexico, Mississippi and Georgia, and winters from latitude 37 southward to Vera Cruz. In New York it is probably the commonest member of the flycatcher family, being a summer resident throughout the State except in the spruce and balsam forests of the Catskills and Adirondacks. It arrives from the south from the 1 5th of March to the loth of April and departs for more southern latitudes from October I5th to 3Oth. Habits. The Phoebe bird prefers the vicinity of water. It usually constructs its nest on the timbers of a bridge, or on the shaly overhanging bank of some stream, or on the beams of the lakeside cottage or on the veranda post, or beneath the shed or eaves of the barn. In fact, nearly any position which is sheltered from the rain and storm is suitable for this bird. It has adapted itself both to civilized conditions and to the wilder- ness. Like all flycatchers, the Phoebe chooses a conspicuous lookout from 1 88 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM which it darts upon any passing insect and returns to its chosen perch, always pumping its tail decidedly as soon as it alights, and frequently while seated. The note which is often heard and has given it its common name consists of the two syllables "P hoe-be" or " pee-wec," Phoebe's nest and eggs Photo by Ralph S. Paddock which also distinguishes the bird from the Wood peewee whose note con- sists of three syllables. The Phoebe begins to construct her nest as early as the third week in April and the first sets of eggs are to be found from the 2Oth of April to the middle of May. The eggs are usually 5 in number, BIRDS OF NEW YORK I go sometimes 4 or 6; creamy white in color, rather broadly oval in shape, sometimes with a few fine reddish brown spots; average size .79 by .60 inches. Two broods are reared in a season in this State, but rarely in the same nest, for before the young are able to fly they and the whole nesting site usually become infested with innumerable small reddish lice which sometimes kill the young birds and render the nest uninhabitable for the remainder of the season. This pitiful misfortune of the Phoebe bird has made her an unwelcome neighbor about the summer camp, and many nests are destroyed each season by people who might better dust the nests and young with insect powder and thus protect themselves and the birds alike from the unwelcome parasites. Nuttallornis borealis (Swainson) Olive-sided Flycatcher Plate 67 Tyrannus borealis Swainson. Fauna Bor.-Am. 1831 (1832). 2:141, pi. 35 Tyrannus ceo peri DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 118, fig. 73 Nuttallornis borealis A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 213. No. 459 iniltallornis, formed from the surname of Thomas Nuttall and Spvt;, bird; borealis, northern Description. Upper parts brownish slate; wings and tail blackish; the indistinct wing bars and edgings of the secondaries grayish; sides brownish gray; middle line of all the under parts from throat to tail, whitish; a conspicuous tuff of silky white feathers on the flank, usually showing on the sides of the rump when the bird is at rest. Length 7.2-8 inches; wing 4-4.5; tail emarginate, 2.9-3.5; bill from nostril .54; tarsus .6. Distribution. The Olive-sided flycatcher inhabits eastern North America, breeding from Massachusetts to Minnesota, and in the Alleghanies from North Carolina northward to the Hudsonian zone; winters in tropical America. In New York State this bird is a rather uncommon transient visitant in the greater portion of the State, arriving from the I2th to the 20th of May and passing on to the north between the 24th and 3ist of the month. In the fall they make their appearance in the coastal district 1 90 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM between the I5th and 3Oth of August and specimens are last seen in southern New York between the loth and the 3Oth of September. In the Catskills and Adirondacks the Olive-sided flycatcher is a fairly common summer resident, breeding from an altitude of 1500 feet to the highest portions of the mountains. Tt inhabits the burned districts, " slashings," partially cleared valleys and mountain slopes, spruce swamps and the borders of flowed lands throughout this spruce and balsam belt. It has been reported by Mr Maxon as breeding in Madison county especially about the eastern end of Oneida lake; and one instance of its nesting not far from the city of Albany has been reported. But aside from this, it is confined as a summer resident to the Canadian zone not even occurring in the colder swamps and uplands of western New York as far as I know. This bird is a conspicuous inhabitant of the burned lands and swamps of the Adiron- dacks, his loud whistle resembling the syllables " pi-pee" being audible at a distance of half a mile. It has also a lower note like the syllable " chip," or " pip-pip-pip" which he utters when disturbed, and also a chatter somewhat similar to the Kingbird's, uttered when the nest is disturbed. Its nest is placed at a height of 25 to 40 feet, usually on the limb of a spruce tree, and composed of roots, grasses and mosses. The eggs are from 2 to 4 in number, deposited from the 2oth to the 3Oth of June. They are creamy white, spotted, especially about the larger end, with reddish brown and lilac and measure .85 by .63 inches. Myiochanes virens (Linnaeus) Wood Pewee Plate 68 Muscicapa virens Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 1766. Ed. 12. 1:327 DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 114, fig. 69 Myiochanes virens A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 213. No. 461 myiochanes, Gr., nuta, fly, and probably some form of syii), to grasp (cf. o/otvov); virens, Lat., green Description. Upper parts olive brown; the head somewhat darker; under parts whitish tinged with dull yellow; the breast and sides washed BIRDS OF NEW YORK 191 with gray. Fall specimens have the under parts more heavily tinged with yellow; under mandible light colored toward the base. Length 6-6.5 inches; extent 10-11; wing 3-3.45; tail 2.5-2.9, slightly emarginate; bill from nostril .4; tarsus .51. The Wood pewee may be distinguished from the other small flycatchers by its larger size, from the Phoebe by being smaller and less brown, more greenish on the upper parts. Its note, however, a plaintively whistled " pee-a-wee," will distinguish it at a distance better than anything else, both from the Phoebe and its smaller relatives. Distribution. This species inhabits North America from Manitoba and southern Quebec, south to Texas and central Florida, and winters from Nicarauga to Peru. In New York it is universally distributed as a summer resident and breeds commonly in every county of the State. It arrives from the south from the 3d to the I4th of May, in cold seasons Photo by Clarence F. Stone Pewee's nest and eggs sometimes not appearing in the northern portions till the 2Oth or 22d of the month. It is last seen in the fall between the 5th and the 25th of September. A few October records, however, have come to my notice. In the southern part of the State it occasionally remains until October 2d and one record of October igih comes from Long Island. 192 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Habits. The Wood pewee inhabits orchards, shade trees, groves and forests in all parts of the State. I have found it breeding in the shade trees of lawns and in apple trees in the city back yard, as well as in the midst of the Adirondack wilderness at a distance of only 4 miles from the top of Mt Marcy. It selects a humble perch, usually one of the lower limbs of a forest tree or an apple tree. Here it sits, occasionally whistling its common note and giving chase now and then to the flying insects which pass its station, returning again to the same perch after the usual habit of its family. When slightly disturbed it utters a low "chit,'" and when its nest is in danger flies about uttering a continual " chitter." The nest is usually placed on a horizontal limb or a small fork at a height of from 6 to 30 feet from the ground. The outside dimensions are 2.75 by 1.75 inches and the inside dimensions 1.75 by 1.25. It is constructed of small twigs, rootlets and grass stalks neatly matted together, and over the outside a coating of greenish and grayish lichens is invariably affixed. The center of the nest is so loosely constructed that when it is placed in the horizontal fork one may see through it from the ground. In general appearance it resembles the hummingbird's nest, but is less downy and not so deep in proportion to its size. The eggs are from 2 to 4 in number, usually 3, of a creamy white color more or less heavily spotted, usually in a wreath near the large end of the egg, with chestnut, claret brown, rufous and lavender. They average about .72 by .54 inches in dimensions. The period of incubation is usually 12 days and the young remain in the nest for 10 days or 2 weeks after hatching. This flycatcher is not commonly accused, like the Kingbird, of feeding upon the honey bees, but confines its diet largely to injurious insects, although it occasionally takes some of the beneficial Hymenoptera. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 193 Empidonax flaviventris (W. M. & S. F. Baird) Yellow-bellied Flycatcher Plate 68 Tyrannula flaviventris W. M. & S. F. Baird. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1843. 1:283 Muscicapa flaviventris DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 113 Empidonax flaviventris A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 214. No. 463 empidonax, Gr., meaning gnat king; flaviventris, Lat., yellow-bellied Description. Upper parts olive green, nearly uniform in color, but the wings with lighter bars and edgings; under parts yellow; sides of breast somewhat washed with grayish. This species is one of our four little flycatchers which can be identified unmistakably at sight, its nearly uniform yellow under parts and olive green upper parts being an infallible guide. Length 5.4-5.8 inches; extent 8.6; wing 2.45-2.75; tail emarginate 2-2.3; bill from nostril .31; width at base .26; tarsus .66. Distribution. The Yellow-bellied flycatcher inhabits eastern North America from Alberta, northern Quebec and Newfoundland to North Dakota, Michigan, New York and the mountains of Pennsylvania, and winters from southern Mexico to Panama. In New York it is a transient visitant, fairly common in most portions of the State, arriving from the 5th to the i Qth of May, usually by the loth, and passing on to the breeding grounds from May 3Oth to June loth. In the fall the southern migration begins from the 4th to the 2Oth of August and the last have passed us from the 2d to the i8th of September. Our Adirondack party found them nesting in July on the damp slopes of the Geological Cobble, Indian Head, Skylight and Mt Marcy; and after the first week of August we found them more abundant about Elk lake, Boreas pond and similar locali- ties. This flycatcher has also been reported as spending the summer at Tully, N. Y., by Mr J. A. Dakin, and at Peterboro (June isth) by Mr Gerritt S. Miller; also reported as a summer resident of Granville, Wash- ington county, by Mr F. T. Pember, and near Buffalo by Mr Ottomar Reinecke. In the Canadian zone of New York it is a fairly common summer resident, but is somewhat local in distribution inhabiting mostly the damp 13 IQ4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM shady slopes and mountains where the rocks and soil are covered with a dense mat of green mosses and the atmosphere is continually laden with moisture. Here it may be found from early in June to the first of August and here it constructs its nest hidden among the moss on some fallen log or thickly covered rock or steeply sloping bank. Its external dimensions are 4 by 4.5 inches and the internal dimensions 2 by if inches, composed of mosses, lichens and liverworts, mostly mosses of various kinds. It is almost impossible to discover the nest except when the bird is driven from it. The eggs are from 3 to 5 in number, usually 4, milky white, finely spotted with rusty or cinnamon brown, and average .67 by .51 inches in dimensions. They are laid from the I5th to the 25th of June and fresh ones are occasionally found as late as the middle of July. The Yellow- bellied flycatcher utters a low plaintive " peek-peek " or " pee-a," as some write it, or as it sounds at other times, " pee-wick "; another note might be written " ti- pee-a." After the young are able to care for them- selves they commonly descend from the mountainside and are found more about the streams, swamps and lakesides. Empidonax virescens (Vieillot) Acadian Flycatcher Plate 68 Platyrhynchos virescens Vieillot. Nouv. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. 1818. 27: 22 Empidonax virescens A. 0. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. [3.215. No. 465 virescens, Lat., greenish (lit. becoming green) Description. Upper parts olive green, but lighter in shade than that of the Yellow-bellied flycatcher; under parts white washed with pale yellowish and slightly tinged with greenish on the breast, but the throat and the center of the belly tawny white; wing bars and edgings of the secondaries tawny. Length 5.75-6.25 inches; extent 9.50; wing 2.6-3.15; tail 2.25-2.75; bill from nostril .35; width at base .30; tarsus .65. Distribution. This species inhabits eastern North America from Iowa, southern Ontario, New York and Connecticut south to Texas and northern Florida; winters in northwestern South America. In New York BIRDS OF NEW YORK 195 State it is confined to the Carolinean faunal area, common in the lower Hvidson valley as far north as the lower edge of the highlands, fairly com- mon in the western portion of Long Island, but local and uncommon in Suffolk county. In the upper Hudson valley and on the lowlands of western New York it is very irregular in occurrence and must be regarded as rare or certainly uncommon. Mr Bicknell found it breeding at River- dale from the loth to the 25th of June; Doctor Fisher called it a common summer resident at Ossining; Mr Brownell found it a fairly common summer resident at Nyack; Mr Roosevelt and Mr Howell found it fairly common in the vicinity of Oyster Bay, Northport and Wood Haven, Long Island; Mr Helm has taken two nests with eggs at Millers Place in Suffolk county. In the interior of New York the definite records are as follows: Amsterdam, June 5, 1885; Syracuse, May 29, 1887, Smithsonian Institution collection no. 162,523; Ithaca, June 4, 1899, T. L. Hankinson; Hilton, August 14, 1903, seen by Albert H. Wright. Definite breeding records for the interior are: Fairhaven, July 18, 1876, see Auburn list, page 23; Canandaigua, 1883, nest found by E. J. Durand; Niagara county, June 14, 1887, female with nest and three eggs taken by J. L. Davison; Chili, Monroe county, June 29, 1900, nest found by E. H. Short; Meridian, Cayuga county, July 4, 1891, nest with three eggs, see Bendire, Life His- tories, 2:302; Erie, Pa., June 26, 1899, see Todd, Birds of Erie, page 563; Woodlawn, Monroe county, N. Y., May 30, 1909, nest seen by the author. Besides these, reports of its breeding not confirmed by specimens are: Buffalo, O. Reinecke; Onondaga county, A. W. Perrior; Rensselaer county, Dr T. B. Heimstreet; Little Falls, J. R. Benton; Orleans county, O. Reinecke; Jamestown, Mrs R. R. Rogers; West Barry, C. D. Clarkson and G. D. Gillett. The Acadian or Green-crested flycatcher inhabits the dense wood- land, usually of second growth deciduous trees, and seems to prefer dry situations to swampy localities. Its note is usually written " wick-up," or " hick-np" often followed by a harsh, abrupt " queep-queep "; at other times its call sounds like " whoty-whoty" (Bendire). The nest is usually 196 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM built from 5 to 20 feet from the ground on the horizontal limb of a deciduous shrub or tree, made of fine roots, grass, and catkins, rather loosely constructed in flat saucer shape about 3 inches in outside diameter and 2 inches by i inch inside dimensions. The eggs are from 2 to 4 in number, usually 3, of a creamy ground color boldly spotted with dark, reddish brown; average dimensions .74 by .53 inches. They are usually laid from the 3Oth of May to the I5th or 25th of June. Empidonax trailli alnorum Brewster Alder Flycatcher Plate 68 Empidonax traillii alnorum Brewster. Auk. April 1895. 12:161 Empidonax trailli alnorum A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 216. No. 466a trailli, to Thomas S. Traill, a Scotch naturalist Description. Upper parts grayish brown tinged with olivaceous; wing bars and edgings of the wing tawny whitish; under parts yellowish white tinged on the breast with grayish; flanks and under tail coverts strongly washed with yellowish. Lower mandible light colored; tail slightly rounded instead of emarginate. Length 5.5-6 inches; extent 9; wing 2.6-3; tail 2.3-2.6; bill from nostril .34; width at base .30; tarsus .66. Distribution. This subspecies inhabits eastern North America from central Alaska, Keewatin, central Quebec and Newfoundland south to Montana, southern Ontario and northern New Jersey, and the mountains as far south as West Virginia, and winters in Central America. In New York it is a summer resident in the greater part of the State, fairly com- mon in the Catskills and Adirondacks and in the colder swamps of central and western New York. It has been found breeding at Buffalo by James Savage; Penn Yan by Verdi Burtch; Branchport by Clarence F. Stone; West Barry by Neil F. Possun; Oneida county by Egbert Bagg; Wilmurt by Doctor Ralph; Phelps by B. S. Bowdish; Nyack by L. W. Brownell; Gretna by Lispenard Horton; Cortland by H. C. Higgins; Kenwood by W. R. Maxon; Cayuta by L. A. Fuertes; Medina by Dana C. Gillette; BIRDS OF NEW YORK 197 the upper Ausable lake, Elk lake and Boreas pond by the author and his assistants in 1905. This little flycatcher has evidently extended its range within recent years in some parts of the State, for no nests and eggs of this species were collected in the years between 1860 and 1885 in many portions of western New York where it is now known to breed, although during those years the country was very thoroughly worked over by inveterate oologists. Mr Miller (Auk, 20, 68) found it breeding at Plain- field, N. J. It is thus evident that this species is not confined to the Canadian zone, but is found both in the transition and the Canadian swamps. During the migration season it occurs in nearly every portion of the State, arriving from May 8 to 15 and passing on to its breeding grounds between the 2Oth and the 3Oth. In the fall the migration is principally accomplished between the I5th and the 3Oth of August. The Alder flycatcher prefers swamps more or less thickly covered with a low growth of alders, willows, meadowsweet and other low shrubs, but is rarely found within the depths of the forest. It sometimes occupies a rather lofty perch on a dead tree or top of an alder while singing its peculiar song which is uttered with apparent difficulty with a swelling of the throat and a labored jerk of the head. Doctor Dwight who heard it in the North Woods syllabizes it " ee-zee-e-up." Mr F. H. Allen writes it " wee-zee-up," the " up " very faint. DeWitt Miller writes it " grea'- deal " or " krateel." Tom Taylor, one of my assistants in the Mt Marcy region, insisted that the birds on the Upper Ausable marshes sang " bu-te-o." It is evident that these different attempts to write the song of the Alder flycatcher could not refer to the same note, and in different parts of the country he evidently sings differently. Beside this so-called song he has a little alarm note that sounds like " pep " or "pip"; and according to Bendire one like " whuish-whuish " ; and Allen noted an emphatic " ca-weet." Like the Green-crested flycatcher this species usually keeps out of sight among the foliage. It is not found in dense woodland growths on the upland, but rather in the swampy tangles. The nest is usually concealed in a low alder or spirea or willow or swamp rose at 198 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM a height of from i\ to 4 feet from the ground, and according to my experi- ence resembles considerably the nest of the Indigo bird, usually some large leaves, grasses and straws forming a substantial foundation and the interior lined with grasses, pine needles and vegetable fibers. The outside dimensions of the nest are about 3 by 2.5 inches; inside dimensions Photo by James H. Miller Alder flycatcher's nest and eggs 2 by 1.75; the eggs are 3 or 4 in number, creamy white, sprinkled with brown, more thickly about the larger end and average .73 by .53 inches in diameter. The dates when fresh eggs have been found vary from June 1 3th to 28th and a few have been taken as late as the 25th of July. The period of incubation, as in most of the small flycatchers, is 12 days. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 199 Empidonax minimus (\V. M. & S. F. Baird) Least Flycatcher Plate 68 Tyrannula minima W. M. & S. F. Baird. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1843. 1:284 Empidonax minimus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 216. No. 467 minimus, Lat., smallest Description. This is the smallest of all our small flycatchers. Upper parts grayish brown tinged with olivaceous ; wing bars and edgings whitish ; under parts dull whitish tinged across the breast with grayish brown and washed on the flanks with light yellowish, but much whiter in general on the under part than either the Alder or the Green-crested flycatcher. Length 5-5.5 inches; extent 8; wing 2.2-2.6; tail slightly emarginate 2.1-2.4; bill from nostril .29, width at base .25; tarsus .65. Distribution. The Least flycatcher or Chebeck, as it is usually called, is a common summer resident of all portions of the State, being almost or quite as common as the Wood pewee both in settled districts and in the wooded hills of the " southern tier " and the outskirts of the Adiron- dacks. It arrives from the south from April 25th to the I2th of May, average date being May 3, and departs for the south from the 5th to the 25th of September. Its general distribution is from central Mackenzie, Quebec and Cape Breton southward to Nebraska, Indiana, Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and its winter range from northeastern Mexico to Panama and Peru. The haunts of the Least flycatcher are the garden, orchard, grove and open woodland. He is more often seen in exposed positions than either the Alder, Green-crested or Yellow-bellied flycatchers and is a rather familiar bird of orchard lands, sitting on the top of the apple tree or the telegraph wire, uttering continually his chebeck or sebic with a slight jerk of the head. At other times it seems to say " s-slick-s-slick " or " sewick." It has also a call note which resembles the syllable " whit " and is some- times seen hovering over the trees where the nest is concealed twittering a low " whit-wee-wee." The nest is a compactly felted structure, more delicate in appearance than that of any of our other small flycatchers, 20O NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and resembles somewhat a Goldfinch's nest, mostly composed of gray plant fibers and cottony down, feathers, hair and a few grasses, placed in the upright crotch of a tall bush or small tree 10 to 25 feet from the 'ground. The outside dimensions are about 3 by 2.5 inches, the inside dimensions 2 by 1.5. The eggs are 3 or 4 in number, milk white in color, the average size .65 by .50 inches. Fresh eggs are found from May 20 to 30, or in the northern counties from the 5th to the I5th of June. Suborder OSCI^ES Songbirds Syrinx with 4 or 5 pairs of intrinsic muscles. These are inserted at the ends of the 3 upper bronchial half rings, thereby producing a greater flexibility and effectiveness of the voice apparatus. The tarsus is bilami- nate, each side being covered with a horny plate meeting its mate behind in a sharp ridge. The primaries are 9 or 10, the first often short or spurious. This suborder includes the greater number of our perching birds which are characterized by the complexity of their song. They all have the bilaminate tarsus, with the exception of the larks described under Family Alaudidae, and the thrushes with their relatives, that have a "booted tarsus," the chief characteristic of these highly differentiated birds which are usually considered to represent the acme of avian evolution. Family ALAUDIDAE Larks Wings long and pointed, the inner secondaries conspicuously elongated; primaries 9 to 10 in number; tail of moderate length, rather broad and squarish; bill stout, short, subconical; nostrils covered with tufts of bristles; tarstis subcylindrical and scutellate both before and behind, a very unusual condition for the passerine foot; the hind claw long and much straightened, evidently adapted for walking in the field or snow; moult single; plumage more or less mottled and streaked. This family is holarctic in distribution, numbering about one hundred species. They resemble sparrows in feed- ing habits. Most, if not all the members of the family, however, seem to be walkers instead of hoppers, spending most of their time upon the ground. They are excellent flyers, however, progressing in long, sweeping undulations, and many of the species migrate over vast extents of country. They are musical, several species singing while on the wing, mounting BIRDS OF NEW YORK 2OI higher and higher in the air like the famous skylark of Europe. They nest upon the ground. Eggs usually 4, closely mottled with brown. The sexes are nearly alike in coloration. The larks are valuable not only for their interesting habits and song, but the destruction of weed seeds and, during the nesting season, of numerous insects on which the young are fed. Alauda arvensis Linnaeus Skylark Plate 69 Alauda arvensis Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 1758. Ed. 10. 1:165 A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 218. No. 473 alaiida, Lat., lark (from Celtic, meaning high song); arvfrisis, Lat., of the ploughed field Description. About the size of the Horned lark but lighter colored; upper parts of 3 different shades; the center of the feathers dark brown, fading to grayish white or yellowish white on the outer margin, giving a general streaky grayish appearance to the upper parts. Under parts dull whitish and yellowish white more or less spotted on the breast with grayish brown. The outer tail feathers whitish. Length 7.5 inches; extent 14.7; wing 4; tail 2.5; bill .5. Distribution. This European species has been introduced in New York State, especially on the western end of Long Island and in the southern Hudson valley. In 1887 it had evidently become established near Flatbush, Long Island, and was found breeding there July 2, 1887 (see Butcher, Auk, 5, 180). It was still breeding near Flatbush in July 1895 (see Proctor, Auk, 12, 390) and Doctor Braislin noticed them at Neck Road, Long Island, in March 1898. John Burroughs speaks of them as occurring at Esopus-on-the-Hudson (see Pepacton, pages 150-53). It is thus evident that this famous songster became definitely established in the southeastern portion of New York and retained its hold for many years. But the latest reports from western Long Island seem to indicate that the birds are not increasing in numbers or barely holding their own. So it is evident that without further introduction of new stock from Europe this bird will not become a widely dispersed species in America as the English sparrow and Starling have done. 202 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Otocoris alpestris alpestris (Linnaeus) Horned Lark Plate 69 Alauda alpestris Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 1758. Ed. 10. 1:166 Alauda cornuta DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 179, fig. 165 Otocoris alpestris alpestris A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 219. No. 474 otdcorys, Gr., earcrest, alluding to the plumicorns; alpestris, new Lat., of the Alps Description. Upper parts ocherous brown and grayish brown ; the scapulars, back and side of neck and head more or less tinged with vinaceous; tail square, mostly black; the central tail coverts almost as long as the tail feathers, colored like the back and mostly concealing the tail when it is closed; a black maxillary stripe on each side of the head from the base of bill to below the ear; black ear tufts or plumicorns above the eyes rising from the sides of the forehead and connected around the frontlet by a blackish line; a black breast plate somewhat crescent shaped in the middle of the breast ; the throat deep sulphur yellow; frontlet near the base of the bill and line over the eye also decidedly tinged with yellow. Under parts otherwise grayish white, tinged on the sides with vinaceous and brownish. Female: Smaller and less brightly colored. Length 7.75 inches; wing 4-4.25; tail 2.4-2.9; bill .38-45. Distribution. The Horned lark inhabits the boreal region from Boothia peninsula to James bay, Labrador, and Newfoundland, and winters south to the Ohio valley and the Atlantic coast to Georgia. In New York it is a common winter resident of Long Island and the coastal region of the State in general, but in the interior and western portion of the State it has not been taken in recent years to my knowledge. Thirty or 40 years ago it was considered a winter resident of the lake shore region of western New York, but for 15 years I have failed to secure any specimens on the shores of Lake Ontario or Lake Erie although it unquestionably does occur there in the winter or during the migration time in the late fall. In general, however, we must say that this species is confined princi- pally to the coastal districts, and that the Prairie horned lark is the sub- species commonly found in the western portion of the State both in sum- mer and in winter. The horned lark arrives from the north on Long Island from October 20 to November 15 and is last seen in the spring from the ist to the 2Oth of March. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 203 Otocoris alpestris praticola Henshaw Prairie Horned Lark Plate 69 Otocorys alpestris praticola Henshaw. Auk. July 1884. 1:264 Otocoris alpestris praticola A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 2ig. No. 4745 praticola, Lat., pratum, meadow, and colere, to inhabit Description. This species resembles the Horned lark in color, but is paler; throat not so deep a yellow and often white without a tinge of sul- phur; the forehead and line over the eye a dull white without any decided tinge of yellow. It is also smaller than the Horned lark. Length 7.25 inches; wing 3.75-4.2; tail 2.4-2.6; bill .38-40. Distribution. The Prairie horned lark, which is a subspecies of the preceding, inhabits the interior of North America from southern Manitoba, southern Quebec and southern New Hampshire to eastern Kansas, Ohio, West Virginia and Connecticut. It winters as far south as Texas and Georgia. In New York State the history of this species has been exceed- ingly interesting. While many of our valuable song and insectivorous birds have been diminishing in numbers, this species has gradually increased year after year, until at the present time it inhabits the greater portion of this State as a summer resident. A perusal of the records before me indicates that in 1876 this species was found breeding in central and western New York. At Canandaigua by Mr Howey (see N. O. C. Bull. 3, 40); at Rochester by Mr Jones (ibid., 3, 89); at Lowville by Doctor Merriam (ibid., 3, 53); in 1877 Mr Rathbun found it breeding at Auburn; in 1881 Mr Park found it breeding at Green Island near Troy. In 1884 it was found breeding first in Niagara county by Davison and in 1885 at Virgil (see Forest and Stream 22, 145). In 1886 a female was taken at Long Island City on July 31 (see Dutcher, Auk, 5, 181). In 1900 Mr Lispenard S. Horton found it breeding at Gretna, and in 1899 Mr Pember at Granville, Washington county. In 1905 the author found it on June 16 feeding its fledglings at Elizabethtown in Essex county. It is evident by a perusal of these records and many others, that there has been a great 204 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM increase in the abundance of this species on the grasslands of New York and also of the surrounding states, until at the present time it has invaded not only the eastern part of New York, but Connecticut, Massachusetts Vermont and other New England states. This species having originally been confined to the prairie region has now found conditions favorable to its habitation in the eastern states and has gradually been spreading year after year till now we must call it one of the common birds of the open field. It is almost a permanent resident of New York for it is found, in western New York at least, during every month of the year, although it is decidedly uncommon in most localities from the middle of December until the middle of January. We may safely say, however, that it is the earliest species of passerine birds to migrate. From the ijth to the 23d of January, provided there is fair weather, we are almost sure to see an increase in the mmiber of Prairie horned larks in the fields of western New York, and their number gradually increases until the middle of February when the mating song of the males is distinctly heard and nearly all the birds are paired by the middle of March. They frequently begin to breed, however, as early as the first of March for I have found the nest containing eggs well started in incubation on the nth of March at Rochester. Nests have also been reported from Erie county in February and early March. It is thus the earliest of our small songbirds to nest in western New York. The Prairie horned lark is a bird of decided per- sonality. He is often seen running along the road in front of the carriage or horseman; when approached too closely he erects the jet black tufts of feathers like devils' horns on the sides of the head, and if more closely pressed flies over the field at a moderate elevation with long gliding strokes of his pointed wings and alights on some stone, clod of earth or possibly on a fence post. If watched for some time the male will be seen gradually to mount in the air higher and higher with continued hovering motion of the wings, uttering his fine, threadlike whistle. He mounts higher and higher, after the manner of the famous Skylark, sometimes reaching a height of several hundred feet, all the while uttering his twittering song BIRDS OF NEW YORK 205 until finally exhausted he drops like a dart to the field to rejoin his mate. This flight song is almost sure to be heard several times a day over the field in which the nest is concealed. The Prairie horned lark walks and runs instead of hopping like our common sparrows, and his ample square- tail, which is black when extended in flight, as well as his long pointed wings and easy gliding flight, distinguish him readily from any of our other field birds. It is evident that two broods are often reared in this latitude, for after the first brood are well fledged, it is a common thing to find nests containing fresh eggs as late as the middle of May or early in June. After the young are reared, they are found about plowed fields and waste lands, in little troops consisting usually of a pair of old birds and their young. Frequently the troop consists of 5 or 6 birds; at other times of 10 or 12, which leads me to believe that the old and their young keep together during the greater part of the season. Late in the fall they gather into larger bands and in the springtime after the migra- tions are well advanced, it is not unusual to see flocks of 15 and 20 Prairie horned larks feeding together on the open fields in any part of central or western New York. The nest is concealed in the pasture or meadow beside a clod of earth, a cobblestone, or a tuft of grass, and consists simply of a few grasses lining the hole which the mother bird has scooped out in the earth, or in a depression caused by the foot of a cow or some other domestic animal, which she has rounded and lined with grasses. The eggs are almost invariably 4 in number, grayish white in ground color, very thickly spotted with light brown, resembling closely the eggs of the English sparrow but more thickly and Photo by George C. Embody Prairie horned lark's nest and eggs 206 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM evenly spotted and of a slightly different shape; average dimensions .85 by .63 inches. Frequently, as will be inferred from what is said above, the eggs are laid before the last severe snow storms of the season. Photographs by Professor Bailey and others which I have seen frequently show the nest through a round hole in the snow which is several inches deep about it. Evidently the old bird by continually sitting on the nest and raising her head keeps it open to the sky and so preserves her eggs from destruction; but frequently, if the snow is deep and the temperature severe, the first brood is destroyed. But as soon as the weather becomes pleasant again they invariably make new nests and continue until the young are successfully reared. This interesting little bird must be called a beneficial species, for its food consists through the winter months almost entirely of weed seeds. In this manner it destroys millions of noxious plants which otherwise would interfere with the proper development of the farmers' crops; and during the breeding season as well as through a large portion of the summer months, feeds to a great extent on the insects which destroy the field vegetation, especially small grasshoppers and leaf- eating beetles and the larvae of all kinds of insects. Otocoris alpestris hoyti Bishop Hoyt Horned Lark Paler than alpestris, more grayish brown; throat paler yellow, and superciliary stripe white; size of alpestris. (A.O.U. No. 474k) This subspecies breeds from the western shore of Hudson bay to the mouth of the MacKenzie and the Arctic coast; migrates southward to Utah, Kansas, Ohio, and Long Island in winter. For New York records see Oberholzer, U. S. Nat. Mus. Proc. 24, 845. Dwight, Auk, 7:143. Bishop, Auk, 13:132. It is uncommon in this State, and can be identified only by collecting specimens and comparing them with museum series. Family COR VI DAE Crows, Jays and Magpies Primaries 10; tail variable, usually rounded; 12 rectrices; bill culiri- rostal, stout; nostril covered by dense tufts of bristles; rictus also provided BIRDS OF NEW YORK with a few bristles; middle toe joined to the outer as far as the first joint; size medium to large, the family including the Raven and the Crow, our two largest passerine birds. Sexes alike in coloration and size; voice harsh and unmusical, though the syrinx is well developed; subfamilies of Crows or Corvinae, and Jays and Magpies (Garrulinae) are recognized. These birds are mostly omnivorous in diet, feeding on insects, young birds, small mammals, fish and crayfish, fruits and grains. Thus, as would be expected, they frequently develop injurious habits which are very destructive to song birds and sometimes to the farmers' crops. Undoubt- edly, in general, the Crow and the Blue jay are injurious species. A care- ful study of the food of the Crow by Prof. Walter B. Barrows will be found in Bulletin 6, Biological Survey, United States Department of Agri- culture, and of the Blue jay in the Yearbook for 1896, pages 197-206. Pica pica hudsonia (Sabine) Magpie Corvus hudsonius Sabine. Franklin, Narr. Journ. Polar Sea. 1823. 671 Pica caudata DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 131, fig. 53 Pica pica hudsonia A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 221. No. 475 pica, Lat., magpie; hudsonia, of Hudson bay Description. Tail very long, rounded, and the central feathers elongated. Head, neck, back, throat, breast and under tail covers black; secondaries, belly, sides and inner webs of primaries white; wings and tail glossy, metallic greenish blue, the whole varied with bronze and purplish. Length 17.4-22 inches; wing 7.3-8.5; tail 9.3-12; culmen 1.1-1.4. Distribution. This species is mostly confined to the western country from the Yukon, Saskatchewan and Winnipeg to New Mexico; and rarely straggles eastward as far as Illinois, Michigan, Ontario, Hudson bay and Quebec. The only record for New York State is on the authority of DeKay who reports its occurrence near Niagara, but there is, as far as I know, no specimen in existence which was taken within the limits of the State. It is not improbable that it may have occurred in the northern and north- western portion of the State, however, for it occurred at Odessa, Ontario, in March 1898 (see Clarke, Auk, 15:274). 2O8 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Cyanocitta cristata cristata (Linnaeus) Blue Jay Plate 70 Corvus cristatus Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 1758. Ed. 10. 1:106 Garrulus cristatus DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 129, fig. 54 Cyanocitta cristata cristata A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 222. No. 477 cyanocitta, Gr., xyavo?, blue, and xhTx, jay; cristata, Lat., crested Description. Head conspicuously crested; tail and wings rounded; upper parts light purplish blue; wings and tail bright cobalt blue; the secondaries and tail feathers barred with black, the longer wing coverts, secondaries and tail feathers except the central pair conspicuously tipped with white ; side of the head and throat purplish white bordered by a black collar running over the nape down the sides of the head and neck and across the forebreast; lores black; breast and sides grayish fading to clear white on the belly and under tail covert. Length 11-12.5 inches; extent 15.7-17.5; wing 5-5.7; tail 5-5.7; bill 1.25; tarsus 1.25-1.35. Distribution. The Blue jay inhabits eastern North America from central Alberta, Quebec, Nova Scotia and Newfoundland south to the gulf coast. In New York it is a resident of all portions of the State but is a common species only in the less settled districts, seeming to prefer evergreen or mixed woodlands, and in western New York is confined mostly to the larger forests, swamps and ravines. Although Blue jays may be found in nearly every county of the State at any time of the year, it is perfectly evident to a careful bird student that there is a decided migration of the species, the southward movement occurring in October from about September 20 to October 30. In the spring the northern migration is later than would be expected, migrating individuals often occurring in considerable numbers from the 25th of April to the 25th of May. I have frequently noticed as many as 20 or 30 Blue jays in small patches of wood- land near the shore of Lake Ontario and on the shores of Canandaigua and Seneca lakes at this season of the year, evidently migrating northward to their breeding grounds, for whatever specimens were taken were found not to be nearer than three weeks to the breeding period although Blue BIRDS OF NEW YORK 209 jays which nest in the localities mentioned already were incubating their eggs or had young in the nest. In southern and western New York the Blue jay makes its nest in April. It is usually placed in an evergreen, although small deciduous trees are often selected, and is composed of sticks, leaves, bark and plant fibers, and lined with dead twigs of hemlock or strips of bark and other fine materials. The eggs are com- monly deposited from the 2Oth of April to the I5th of May. They are from 3 to 6 in num- ber, pale olive greenish or buffy in ground color, spotted more or less profusely with brown. They average i . i by .82 inches in size. The Blue jay is one of the noisy birds of our wood- lands, especially when he sees a man, a hawk or any large object moving through the forest. He seems always to be shouting his high shrill ' 'jay "or " ydh-ydh-ydh ' ' ; and also imitates very suc- cessfully the scream of the Red-shouldered hawk, and has other notes resembling the tooting of a small bugle. His activity is almost incessant and his mischief never ending. Most naturalists consider the Blue jay one of the worst nest robbers we have, and there is little doubt that they are correct, for my own experience shows that he is extremely fond of birds' eggs and young birds; but he also does some Photo by L. S. Horton Blue jay's nest and •"* 2IO NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM good by destroying many injurious insects, and plants many forest trees. I have seen him carrying acorns and chestnuts near my camp on Canan- daigua lake, and hiding them at a considerable distance from the trees where he found them, evidently with the idea of picking them up later. I had heard that the Blue jay was a tree planter but I had always supposed that he planted them simply by dropping the nuts while flying from place to place in the forest ; but in this instance, he carried the acorns and placed them under the dead leaves. Going to the spot I uncovered them myself and was surprised to find that sometimes at least, like the gray squirrel, he actually plants the nuts in the ground evidently intending to store them for future use. In the fall and winter the Blue jay frequently attacks the corn standing in the shock and also visits the granaries to peck at the kernels which are exposed between the cracks of the boards. This slight destruction of grain -in the fall but more particularly his wanton destruc- tion of young birds, perhaps more than overbalances the good he does. Perisoreus canadensis canadensis (Linnaeus) Canada Jay Plate 71 Corvus canadensis Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 1766. Ed. 12. 1:158 Garrulus canadensis DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 130, fig. 55 Perisoreus canadensis canadensis A. 0. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 226. No. 484 perisoreus, derivation uncertain, perhaps from •rcsprowpsjw, to heap up around, refer- ring either to the bird's instinct to hoard food, or to the large, high-walled nest; canaden- sis, of Canada Description. Tail long and rounded; frontlet, nasal tufts, sides of the head, throat and forechest dull white; occiput and back of neck blackish; upper parts ditsky gray; tips of the wing feathers and tail feathers indis- tinctly tipped with whitish; tinder parts dull grayish. Young similar but darker, without any white about the head and throat. Length 11-12 inches; wing 5.6-5.9; tail 5.6-6.4. Distribution. The Canada jay inhabits the boreal region of eastern America from Mackenzie, Keewatin and northern Quebec to Alberta, northern Minnesota, Michigan, New York and Maine. It rarely straggles BIRDS OF NEW YORK 211 southward in the winter, but has been taken in Nebraska, Pennsylvania and Massachusetts. In New York State it is confined to the Adirondack district and is scarcely if ever, seen outside the spruce and balsam belt. In the denser portion of this Adirondack forest it is a fairly common resident, both in the spruce and tamarack swamps and on the wooded mountain slopes. While our party was camping in the Mt Marcy region these birds were found at intervals in all the forests from the Ausable lakes to Skylight camp on the slopes of Mt Marcy. This jay is known to the northern hunters also under the names of Whiskey jack, Moose bird and Camp robber as well as various other epithets referring to his fearlessness in attacking and devouring any kind of meat or fat which is accessible about the camp. In the winter season it is almost impossible to drive these birds away from the carcasses of deer or other animals which have been killed, and they will enter the camp and hop about the table devouring anything within reach, scarcely giving any attention to the human occupants who are endeavoring to drive them away. This jay is much less noisy than the Blue jay and consequently is a more agreeable attendant of the northern hunter. When following deer through the North Woods I have frequently discovered that these birds were also following me, evidently expecting that I might be suc- cessful in bringing down the quarry, but the only evidence that I had of their approach was the silent flitting of shadows behind me as the birds alighted from time to time in the branches not far above my head. The Canada jay breeds very early in the season, in the Adirondack forests evidently making its nest late in February or early in March. This is a bulky affair and is composed of twigs, rotten wood, bark, and catkins, lined with softer materials of the same kind, especially catkins and feathers from the bird itself. It is usually placed in a small conifer close to the trunk. The eggs are 3 to 5 in number, dull gray, profusely speckled with brown and purplish, the average dimensions being about 1.15 by .82 inches. The young are out of the nest and flying about foraging for themselves by the middle of June. 212 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Corvus corax principalis Ridgway Northern Raven Plate 71 Corvus corax principalis Ridgway. Manual N. A. Birds. 1887. 361 Corvus corax DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 134, fig. 51 Corvus corax principalis A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 228. No. 486a corvus, Lat., crow; cdrax, Lat., and Gr., *opoc!;, raven; principalis, Lat., chief Description. Decidedly larger than the crow; bill much heavier and the feathers of the throat long and pointed; color as in the crow. Length 22-26.5 inches; extent 46-53; bill about 3.05; wing 16.5-18; tail 9.9; tarsus 2.65. Range. The Northern raven breeds from northwestern Alaska, northern Elsmere Land and northern Greenland south to Washington, central Minnesota and the coast of New Jersey; in the mountains as far as Georgia. In the eastern states it is uncommon in the cultivated districts. In New York the species is confined to the western Adirondack region, although stragglers are sometimes taken in various parts of the State, as follows: Comae hill, Long Island, in 1836; Brooklyn, 1848; Mayville, three seen in 1861 by A. E. Kibbe; Wolcott, 1875 (see Auburn List); Lansingburgh, one seen in 1872 by F. S. Webster; Cayuga, 1880, one seen by Foster Parker; Canandaigua lake, one shot about 1885 by " Quake " Smith; Sandy Creek, about 1890, J. W. Soule; shore of Lake Ontario in Monroe county, about 1885, taken by David Bruce; border of Schoharie county, one seen by John Burroughs; Lake George, October 29, 1897, specimen in the State Museum; Granville, a rare straggler, F. T. Pember; Mt Marcy, October 23, 1875, several seen (see Colvin, seventh report Adirondack Survey, page 96); Oneida lake, October 1878, J. P. Hutchins. All these records are evidently of stragglers, usually seen in the fall or winter. At the present time a few may be seen in the western Adirondack region, especially in the northern portions of Hamilton and Herkimer counties, the southern portion of St Lawrence county and the eastern portion of Lewis county. In this part of the North Woods the Raven BIRDS OF NEW YORK 213 still breeds, but in constantly diminishing numbers. Formerly it was well distributed throughout the State, before the virgin forest was destroyed. In 1810, when Dewitt Clinton visited the western counties, he saw great numbers of ravens on the borders on Seneca lake near the village of Geneva and was told that no crows had made their appearance in that part of the country (see Clinton, Intro. Dis. before the Lit. and Phil. Soc. New York, May 4, 1814). One hundred years from this date, or in 1910, the Raven had been unknown for many years by the inhabitants of Ontario county and the common Crow had been for 50 years an abundant resident of all the surrounding country. Such is the history of the Raven and the Crow in all portions of New York. Habits. In habits the Raven is more sedate and retiring than the Crow, walks with an easy graceful air, is more deliberate and dignified. On the wing he sails more than the Crow, and the wing stroke is peculiar, at once attracting the eye as decidedly different from the flight of its commoner relative. His notes are a low, gurgling chuckle, or a hoarse rolling cr-r-r-cruck, sometimes cra-ack, cra-a-ck, varied by deep grunting koe-rr-koerr (Bendire). This description of its notes enabled me to identify the Raven at once long before it was seen, in the region of Lake Nipissing and in the Adirondack forest. The Raven's breeding site is on cliffs or trees. The nest is compact, symmetrical, made of sticks and weed stalks, lined with grasses, hair, wool and other soft materials. It is usually occupied year after year. The eggs have been found to vary from 2 to 7 in number, and resemble those of the Crow, but average 1.75 by 1.2 inches in dimensions. The food of the Raven is offal or refuse of any kind such as dead fish and other animals. In the North Woods it is a common experience to find ravens about the spot where deer have been killed and " dressed." They feed also on young birds, frogs, mice etc., but there seems to be no likelihood that ravens will ever be common enough in New York to receive economic consideration. There is rather cause to fear that this famous and picturesque bird will disappear entirely from the State domains. 214 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Corvus brachyrhynchos brachyrhynchos Brehm Crow Plate 12 Corvus brachyrhynchos Brehm. Beitr. Vogelkunde. 1822. 2:56 Corvus americanus DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 132, fig. 52 Corvus brachyrhynchos brachyrhynchos A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 228. No. 488 brachyrhynchos, Gr., shortbilled Description. With the exception of the Raven, our largest passerine bird. Plumage entirely shiny black with purplish reflections. The bristly nasal tufts reach halfway to the end of the bill. Length 17-21 inches; extent 34.5-38; wing 11.9-13.3; tail 7-8; bill 1.8-2; tarsus 2.2-2.4. Distribution. The Crow inhabits eastern North America from southern Mackenzie, central Quebec and Newfoundland to Texas and the Gulf States. In winter it withdraws from the northern limit of its range, but in New York is an abundant winter resident throughout the coastal district, the Hudson valley, and the lowlands of western New York. It breeds in every county of the State, entering the Catskills and Adirondacks along the cleared land and river valleys to the very centers of those districts. About Mt Marcy we found crows at Boreas pond, Flowed land, Keene valley, and John Brown's grave, but they do not inhabit the depths of the Adirondack forest, being replaced by the Raven in the wildest portion of the western Adirondacks. On the highlands of southwestern New York and in the northern portions of the State, the Crow makes its appearance early in March with the first warm weather, perhaps about the same time as the Robin and Blue bird, sometimes a few days earlier. In all parts of the State the mating season may be said to occur in March and in the warmer portions of the State the nests are repaired, or the construction begun, as early as the third week in March, and the eggs are frequently laid by the ist of April. But the average date would perhaps be April X5 to 30. The nest of the Crow is usually placed in the fork of a tall tree, either evergreen or deciduous, at a height varying from 10 to 80 feet from BIRDS OF NEW YORK 215 the ground, usually above 30 feet. It is a bulky affair, with a large founda- tion of sticks, twigs, cornstalks or other similar materials, and a well-formed central cup of the soft inner bark of dead trees, vegetable fibers, or grasses and cow's hair. Typical nests in western New York are lined with the bark of grapevines and Arbor vitae or the inner bark of the basswood. It is deeply hollowed, so that the bird can scarcely be seen from the ground except the tip of her tail projecting over the edge of the nest. The eggs are 3 to 5 in number, frequently as many as 7, the ground color varying from a pale bluish green to olive green, rather thickly spotted and blotched with brown and gray. They average 1.7 by 1.18 inches in dimensions. The period of incubation is about 17 or 18 days, and the young remain in the nest about 3 weeks. The habits of the Crow are too well known to require extended comment, with the possible exception of its tendency to gather in roosts during the winter months. There are situated in New York State, on Staten Island, on Long Island, in the Hudson valley and in the lowlands of western New York perhaps one dozen to two dozen large crow roosts. It has been practically impossible to obtain reliable information as to the different roosts. In the vicinity of the author's home there has been for 15 years a large roost just west of the city of Rochester, usually in the town of Gates, and also an immense roost in the vicinity of Niagara Falls, a large roost in Ontario county, and another in Tompkins county near the head of Cayuga lake. I have several times visited the Gates crow roost and as nearly as I could estimate the numbers congregated were between 20,000 and 40,000. During the day they are accustomed to spread over the country about the lower Genesee valley as far north as Scottsville and sometimes to Geneseo and along the shores of Lake Ontario and Irondequoit bay. The Ontario crow roost was formerly just north of the village of Canandaigua. It has been moved several times within the last 12 years. Eleven years ago it was at Paddlefords Station in a small patch of second growth deciduous timber. The number of crows was estimated at 20,000 (see Eaton, Auk 20, 57-59)- The fol- lowing year it moved several miles to the eastward and for 5 years at least 2l6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM has been in the Gainey swamp, \\ miles south of Phelps, where many thousands of crows — probably 30,000 to 40,000 — have been in the habit of roosting from November to March. About the last of December 1911, however, this roost broke up. A small portion, that is, the crows of west- ern Ontario county, still remained to roost to the number of 3,000 or 4,000 just northwest of Melvin hill; the remainder joined the crows of Seneca county roosting near the town of Varick, a few miles southeast of Geneva. Inquiry in different parts of the State indicates that it is customary for the crow roosts to vary both in numbers of crows assembled and in the exact location of the roost from year to year, but it is a fact that during the winter months in all portions of the State the crows congregate in great numbers to roost, whereas, during the summer months, the roosts consist of only a few crows, from 50 to 300 being the usual number of male crows and others which are not engaged about the nest, which meet together to roost at night, and as soon as the young are out of the nest the roosts become larger but rarely more than a few hundred, until the winter season begins, when large roosts are organized, and usually the country covered during the day extends from 20 to 30 miles in various directions from the roost. The food of the crows at this time of the year consists mostly of grain left in the field, especially unhusked corn, dead animals such as cattle, horses, calves, sheep etc., which are left exposed in the field, dead fish and other animals found along the shores of lakes and streams, crayfish and other aquatic animals taken from the shallow water, thorn apples and other fruits which are searched for under the dead leaves, beetles, cocoons and larvae of insects which are unearthed from rotten wood, dead leaves and sod, and occasionally frozen apples hanging on the trees, and field mice which are hunted in the swamps and meadows. During the summer the food of the Crow consists to a large extent of cutworms and other injurious larvae of insects, but they also feed to a considerable extent upon pre- daceous beetles and the eggs and young of smaller birds, as well as upon chickens and hens' eggs found at some distance from the farmhouse. They also destroy numbers of grouse and pheasant eggs as well as the young of BIRDS OF NEW YORK 2 17 these birds. On account of the destruction of eggs and young of beneficial species, I am inclined to think that the Crow in most localities is to be ranked as an injurious species, but we must remember that the injurious insects destroyed by the Crow's victims, while far outnumbering what the Crow himself would destroy of those special insects, would never equal the number of cutworms and white grubs which the Crow destroys on meadows and cultivated land. Consequently, we must take into considera- tion the fact that the Crow is the principal enemy of cutworms and white grubs, whereas most of the small birds which he destroys, though decidedly beneficial, do not reduce the numbers of cutworms to any great extent. I believe that the Crow's case must be decided independently by each intelligent agriculturist, for in some localities he may be in the main bene- ficial while in others he should be considered injurious. I am certain that the crows which live on the hillsides back of my camp are injurious from my standpoint in life, because they destroy a large percentage of the eggs and young of the small song birds which are so beneficial and such pleasant neighbors, whereas it is evident that they do very little good in destroying cutworms or other insects, except grasshoppers, in that locality. On the other hand, I have seen wide fields of lowland where cutworms had destroyed perhaps 30 per cent of the corn crop and crows were rendering efficient service in reducing the number of the pest. The Crow is such an active, intelligent and versatile character that it is practically impossible to balance his general account satisfactorily to the agriculturist. At times he appears in a highly beneficent r61e, energetically bent on the wholesale destruc- tion of grasshoppers, cutworms and "Junebugs"; at others, he is the traditional black robber of the cornfield, the orchard, the pea patch and the chicken yard; and again he is the ruthless destroyer and the cannibal, rifling the Thrush's and the Grouse's nest and slaughtering the helpless nestlings of our vireos and warblers. The farmers of New York are more or less at variance in their opinions regarding the Crow's character, accord- ing as their individual experiences have been favorable or otherwise. But bird lovers can have no two opinions in their reports if they have followed 2l8 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the Crow, early and late, through the months of May, June and July and have watched with loving care the nests of their woodland songsters. They will find the Crow among the worst enemies of the bird's nest and the fledgling. Corvus ossifragus Wilson Fish Crow Plate T2 Corvus ossifragus Wilson. Amer. Orn. 1812. 5: 27, pi. 37, fig. 2 DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. 2:135 A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 229. No. 490 ossifragus, Lat., bonebreaking, referring to its piscivorous diet Description. Distinguished from the common Crow by its smaller size. It is, however, of a more uniform black color, with bright bluish and greenish reflection on the under parts as well as on the upper parts. It may also be distinguished by its call notes which resemble those of a young Crow. Length 15-17.5 inches; wing 10-11; tail 6-7; bill 1.7; tarsus 1.7-2. Distribution. This crow inhabits the coastal districts of the eastern United States from Connecticut to Louisiana and Florida. In New York it is confined to the lower Hudson valley as far as West Point and occasionally to Poughkeepsie, very rarely farther up the river, and to the western portion of Long Island. It has been reported from Rockaway, July 1873, by Eagle; Oyster Bay, December 30, 1874, by T. Roosevelt; Riverdale, by Bicknell; West Point, by Mearns; Mt Vernon, by Eames; Sandy Hook, by Zarega; Esopus-on-the-Hudson, as a common summer resident, by Burroughs (see Bicknell, " Birds of the Catskills," page 135); Staten Island, fairly common, and Long Island, fairly common and breed- ing, by Purdy; Bellport, Long Island, common summer resident, breeding, W. A. Babson; Manhasset, Long Island, 4 specimens, by Dutcher; Park- ville, Long Island, nest and eggs taken in 1894 by H. C. Oberholzer; reported from Hudson by Will Richard and Troy by F. S. Webster; also reported as identified by size and note near Geneva, N. Y., by F. H. Hall and Otto McCreary. Although the species may occasionally be found as far inland BIRDS OF NEW YORK 219 as Troy, it is extremely rare to find it far from a tidal river and it is usually confined to the immediate vicinity of the seashore. Haunts and habits. When there is no Common crow nearby with which to compare the size of the Fish crow, it is very difficult to identify him by size alone, but his notes are very characteristic, consisting of an expressionless croak, resembling, as before said, the note of a young Crow, but a hoarser " cor," sometimes a clear " cah " or a " cahk " often repeated. The breeding site of the Fish crow is usually in cedars, about 25 feet from the ground, near the waterside. The nesting materials are sticks, bark and grasses, lined with inner strips of grapevine bark and fine grasses, the structure resembling very closely the nest of the Common crow. The eggs are from 4 to 6 in number, in color not distinguishable from those of its larger relative, but smaller, averaging 1.46 by 1.06 inches. Its food consists mostly of fishes, crabs and other small crustaceans and offal washed up on the shore. Occasionally, like its larger relative, it feeds on the young and eggs of smaller birds. It is less sociable in habits than the Common crow, but is often seen in company with that species. It is less suspicious, however, than the Common crow and more easily approached. Family STUEtNIDAB Starlings Sturnus vulgaris Linnaeus Starling Plate 74 Sturnus vulgaris Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 1758. Ed. 10. 1:167 A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 230. No. 493 sturnus, Lat., starling; vulgdris, Lat., common Description. Shaped somewhat like the Meadowlark but with a relatively longer bill and shorter tail; general color black glossed with iridescent purple and greenish, spotted with buff or brownish white; bill yellow; winter plumage with the brownish or buffy of the upper and under parts mostly obscuring the greenish and purple. Sexes almost alike. Female slightly more spotted below; young plain grayish-brown. Length 8.5 inches; wing 5.1; tail 2.6; bill i; tarsus 1.2. Distribution. The Starling is a native of western and central Europe wintering mostly in southern Europe and northern Africa, now introduced 22O NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM in the vicinity of New York City. Several attempts were unsuccessful, but the birds liberated by Mr Eugene Schieffelin in 1890 in Central Park, have spread over all the country in the vicinity of New York as far east as central Long Island and up the Connecticut valley as far as Hartford and Springfield; up the Hudson valley to Newburgh and through New Jersey to Princeton. As early as 1900 I noticed hundreds of starlings spending the winter in Morningside Park and the vicinity of Kings Bridge, and in 1905 Mr Robinson reported them as well established at Newburgh. They undoubtedly will continue to spread up the Hudson valley and throughout the State, if not throughout the country, unless their advance is artificially checked. There is scarcely reason to believe that they could ever become the pest that the English sparrow has proved itself in all parts of the country, and yet it is doubtful whether this is a desirable species to introduce in all parts of the State, for, like the sparrow, it occupies the nesting sites of all those birds which naturally breed in boxes or holes in trees, thus crowding out our martins, tree swallows, blue birds, nut- hatches and probably the woodpeckers. Besides this, they are largely frugivorous, being particularly destructive to cherries, currants, berries and other small fruits, and doubtless would become a veritable pest in the grape regions of central and western New York if they ever became abundant in those localities. The Starling, nevertheless, is an interesting bird. It feeds mostly on the ground like our Meadowlark, destroying large numbers of cutworms and grasshoppers. I have noticed it taking the berries from ampelopsis and other vines. It is more arboreal in habits, however, than the Meadowlark, often sitting and singing for hours amongst the foliage of parks and groves. His chatter is rather pleasing although he is scarcely the mimic that he is famed to be. Apparently he takes suggestion from the songs of all birds and utters a confused jargon of notes interspersed with clear whistling sounds and gutteral chortlings. The starlings are more closely gregarious than the meadowlarks, the flocks frequently appearing as dense as flocks of rice birds. In England and northern Europe the " clouds of starlings " are justly famous, some- BIRDS OF NEW YORK 221 times practically darkening the sky and appearing in the distance like great storm clouds drifting over the country. The eggs of the Starling number from 4 to 7, usually 5 or 6, of a pale greenish blue to bluish white in color and average 1.16 by .84 in dimensions. Family ICXERIDA.E Blackbirds and Orioles Nine primaries; g secondaries; tail feathers 12; bill rather stout and more or less conical, with the commissure sharply bent downward as in the sparrow; tarsus scutellate and bilaminate, most of which characteristics they share in common with the sparrows; the bill, however, is typically cultrirostral and shows a decided tendency to taper to a sharp point but in species like the Cowbird and Bobolink approaches very closely the typical sparrow type. There is considerable variability in this family, as in the sparrow family, in the shape of the tail and the wing, but they are both usually more or less rounded. The family is American, consisting of about 130 species, the Oriole branch of the family usually characterized by brilliant plumage, while the Blackbird section shows darker plumage with more or less brilliant iridescence. Many build hanging nests, and the whole family is frequently spoken of as the " hang nests." The eggs are usually 5 or 6 in number and show a tendency to pen-line markings as in our common Oriole and Blackbird. There is usually a distinct sexual differentiation in color, the females being decidedly duller and usually smaller in size. This family, like the sparrows which they resemble, is largely granivorous except the orioles which are more confined to insectivorous and frugiv- orous diet. The blackbirds and meadowlarks are among the best of the ground gleaners which we possess, feeding largely on worms, white grubs and grasshoppers. Only the Crow blackbird and Red-winged black- bird have been accused of serious depredations in the grain fields and the family in general is beneficial, excepting the Cowbird, which has developed the curious parasitic habit so destructive to our smaller songbirds, and, at times, the Crow blackbird because of its destruction of the eggs and 222 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM nestlings of our smaller birds. An account of the food of blackbirds and Crackles, determined by examination of stomach contents, by Prof. F. E. L. Beal, is found in Bulletin 13, Biological Survey, United States Department of Agriculture. Dolichonyx oryzivorus (Linnaeus) Bobolink Plate 73 Fringilla oryzivora Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 1758. Ed. 10. 1:179 Dolichonyx oryzivorus DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 144, fig. 48 A. 0. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 231. No. 494 dolichonyx, Gr., SoXi^o?, long, and ovu£, nail; oryzivorus, Lat., oryza, rice, and vorare, to devour Description. Male: Mostly black; the scapulars, rump, and upper tail coverts dull white; the back of the neck buff; except in high plumage the feathers of the back, wings and even the under parts are more or less edged with buffy whitish; the high plumage almost pure black, white and buff. Female: Upper parts olive buff streaked with blackish; under parts buffy white; a conspicuous line of buffy through the center of the crown and from the base of the bill over each eye. Winter plumage: Both sexes and young similar to female but more olivaceous above and more buffy below. In all plumages the tail feathers are sharp pointed. Length, cf 7.25-8 inches, 9 6.5-7; extent 12-12.5; wing 3.75-4; tail 2.6-2.9; bill .6; tarsus i.i. Distribution. The Bobolink breeds from southeastern British Colum- bia, Saskatchewan, central Quebec and Cape Breton to Utah, Illinois, West Virginia and New Jersey, being most abundant in the Alleghanian area; winters in South America as far as Paraguay; migrates mostly through the West Indies and the coast of Central America. In New York State the Bobolink probably breeds in every county. In the Catskills and Adirondacks, however, he only enters as far as civilization has established meadows and open, grassy fields for his accommodation. He is not especially common on Staten Island and Long Island but, nevertheless, breeds in each locality especially near the edge of the salt meadows. In the rocky and dryer portions of the plateau region of New York he is not so common as on the lowlands. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 223 Haunts and habits. The spring migration is accomplished between the 2Qth of April and the loth of May. Sometimes he is not noted before the 1 5th or 2Oth in the northern portions of the State. In the fall they disappear between the loth and the 3oth of September, but are occasionally found as late as the 5th of October; at least, they have been heard migrating at night as late as the ist and 5th of October. This species must be regarded as a common summer resident of the State in all the grasslands, but late plowing and early mowing have reduced its members considerably in recent years. All country people know the Bobolink and nearly all the American poets have celebrated him in song. There certainly is something very entertaining in the abandonment, ecstacy and irrepressible merriment of the Bobolink's melody as he sits in the blossoming apple tree or swaying on a tall spear of grass pouring forth his soul to his mate hidden in the meadow, or to the soul of summer. Frequently he is too much overcome with his feelings to remain in the apple tree and soars about over the meadows with quivering wings and gurgling roundelay. If his mate chances to appear he gives chase and pursues until she darts among the thick grasses to resume her duties of housekeeping. The bobolinks, even in the nesting season, are somewhat sociable in habits and several males are sometimes found both in the migration season and in the nesting period seated in the same tree trying to drown each other's voices in song, and sometimes several at the same time may be seen in the air circling and singing over the same meadow or swamp- land. Besides the gurgling, bubbling melody of the Bobolink he has a call note, a clear metallic " chink," which he utters in migration, evidently to tell his associates where he is flying, and over the meadows as a sign of alarm or as a call to his companions. There is something peculiarly characteristic about this clear " chink " which makes it unmistakable even when heard at night as the birds are migrating at a great distance above the ground. The nest of the Bobolink is hidden under the thick grass of meadows 224 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM or clover fields or swamplands, in a slight hollow in the ground, composed of dry leaves, weed stems and coarse grasses, lined with finer grasses. Outside dimensions, 4 by 2 inches; inside dimensions, 2^ by i|. The eggs are from 4 to 7 in number — in this State usually 5 or 6 — pale drab or pearl gray in color, sometimes pale rufous, rather thickly blotched and spotted with irregular lines and marks of chocolate, claret brown, lavender and deep purplish. They average .84 inches in length by .62 in diameter. The nest is very difficult to discover as the female rarely leaves it directly when disturbed, but almost without exception runs through the grass before taking wing. The surest way is to lie in wait and watch the locality where they disappear with nesting materials or when visiting the nest after the eggs are laid; but even then they usually alight some distance from the nest and considerable strategy is necessary in order to locate it exactly. The young are hatched in about n days and develop very rapidly so that they are able to take wing in from 10 to 14 days; but even at this rate, although the fresh sets of eggs are usually found from the 25th of May to the loth of June, the nest is often uncovered by the mowers and the young destroyed on account of the practice, which is becoming more and more prevalent, of mowing the meadows in June rather than in July, as was formerly the custom. Consequently, the Bobolink is becoming less common in most portions of New York. By the 2Oth of July the Bobolink's song has entirely ceased and only a very few males at that date may be found that are still in the black and white coat, and by the first week in August they will be found in the edge of the swamps or in the tall meadows, the males, females and young almost indistinguishable in color. They remain in this State until late in August or early September when they visit the flowed lands of the Delaware and Susquehanna and are known as Reed birds and are slaughtered by thousands for the city market; but when they reach the coast of Carolina, Georgia and Louisiana they become a scourge to the southern planters, descending on the rice fields in such myriads that it is necessary to station many men on every rice field and shoot several pounds of powder for each acre in BIRDS OF NEW YORK 225 order to preserve the crop from their depredations, at least if the grain is still in the milk. It has been estimated by the Biological Survey experts that millions of dollars damage is done every year to the rice crop of the South by the Ricebird, as he is invariably called in the southern states. The Bobolink does not remain in the rice states, but before he has left sometimes a large portion of the planters' income has been destroyed. Therefore, more than any of our native species, he has a double reputation, being perhaps our most favorite songbird in the northern states and the most dreaded of all the small birds of America in the southern states. Molothrus ater ater (Boddaert) Cowbird Plate 74 Oriolus ater Boddaert. Table PI. Enl. 1783. 37 Molothrus pecoris DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 143, fig. 45 (?) Molothrus ater ater A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 231. No. 495 molothrus, Gr., "one who enters others' habitations unbidden " (Swainson); dter, Lat., black Description. Head and neck " coffee " or " deep wood " brown with purplish iridescence. The rest of the plumage glossy black, lustrous with greenish and bluish reflections. Female: Dusky brownish gray, often with dark shaft streaks giving a slightly streaked appearance. Young in their first plumage resemble the female, but the belly is whiter, tinged with greenish buff and spotted with dusky. In August and September while changing to the adult plumage, many of the young are seen in pied coloration, large patches of black showing among the grayish or mouse- colored immature plumage. Length 7.5-8.25 inches; 9 7-7.5; extent 11.7-13.5; wing 4-4.6; tail 3-3-35; tarsus i; bill .68. Distribution. This species breeds in North America from southern Mackenzie and Keewatin, Quebec and New Brunswick to northern Cali- fornia, northern New Mexico, Texas, Louisiana and North Carolina, and winters from southern New York to the gulf coast and central Mexico. In New York it is altogether too common a summer resident in all portions of the State up to the beginning of the Canadian zone, but it also invades 15 226 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the valleys and cleared lands of the Adirondacks to the farthest edge of the Alleghanian area in that district. In the southern portion of the State it is frequently found throughout the winter. On several occasions in different cities of central and western New York I have noticed one or more cowbirds that were spending the winter in company with English sparrows, and on the Montezuma marshes, when the sedges and grasses have borne good seed, it is not an uncommon occurrence to meet with flocks of from 100 to 300 cowbirds in the severest part of the winter; but this has not been observed in recent years. Occasionally small flocks are observed during winter in the Hudson valley, and in central and western New York, but they seem to be wandering from place to place. The spring migration of the Cowbird is well started by the middle or the 2Oth of March, the bulk of birds which have migrated southward arriving before the 3Oth of March or the loth of April. In the fall the species becomes scarce or wholly disappears from the ist to the loth of November. Haunts and habits. The Cowbird is so named from its habit of following cattle in the pasture and frequently alighting on their backs in order to secure insects which infest them or which are driven from the grass as they browse along. In this way, of course, the bird accomplishes some good. It also devours immense quantities of weed seeds, not only in the spring and summer, but more particularly in the fall when it fre- quents grain fields and, as my examinations have shown, feeds not so much upon the waste grain as upon the seeds of pigeon grass, ragweed, smart- weed, pigweed and other species which grow in profusion in all cultivated lands. In this way I have reckoned that at least half an ounce of seed a day is, on the average, destroyed by each member of the flock. The flocks of cowbirds found during September in the grain fields and pastures are so large that on one occasion after discharging my gun into a flock which was passing I picked up 64 birds from the two discharges of the gun, which will indicate the density of the flock. My estimate of the flock referred to was that there were between 7000 and 10,000 birds. The usual flock in the fall, however, consists of from 50 to 200 birds. They BIRDS OF NEW YORK 22/ fly more densely at this season than the redwings and grackles. In the evening, like these species, they visit the marshes to roost near the ground in the dense reeds and sedges close to the water line. In spite of all the good the Cowbird does, however, I can not believe that it is a beneficial species to have about the gardens, lawns and orchards, for, as is well known, it parasitizes all our small song and insectivorous species, thereby destroying the whole brood of the foster parent, and in return for a brood of Yellow warblers, vireos, Song sparrows or some other interesting and beneficial species we have one Cowbird as the result of the foster parent's work. Consequently, although, as Bendire says in his Life Histories, the Cowbird is beneficial when taking into consideration its food alone, it certainly must be reckoned injurious, because the four song birds which would reasonably represent one Cowbird do much more good than the Cowbird to the agriculturist as well as the nature lover. The Cowbird begins to deposit her eggs from the ist to the I5th of May and they are often found as late as the loth or 2Oth of June. Every one of our small song birds is more or less frequently chosen as a foster parent. A list of 91 species in whose nests the eggs of the Cowbird have been found was compiled by Bendire. In this State I have noticed at least 35 species parasitized by this bird, the commonest of which in my experience are the Phoebe, Song sparrow, Towhee, Indigo bird, Red-eyed vireo, Yellow warbler, American goldfinch, Vesper sparrow, Chipping sparrow, Warbling vireo, Redstart and Chestnut-sided warbler. Fre- quently as many as 2, 3 or 4 eggs of the parasite are found in one nest, but in this case only i or 2 or possibly none of the eggs of the nest owner are found with the Cowbird's eggs. The egg, being usually larger than that of the foster parent, receives the greater amount of heat from the incubating bird and consequently hatches more quickly, usually in 10 days after being laid. The young Cowbird, also being larger than the rightful offspring, takes more of the food and so in a short time he is left as the sole occupant of the nest. Of all the hundreds of young cowbirds which I have seen being led about and fed by Indigo birds, Song sparrows, 228 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Yellow warblers and Phoebe birds, as well as many other species, not one in my experience has ever been accompanied at the same time by any of the parent's own offspring, showing that in every instance the Cowbird destroys the rightful inhabitants of the nest. Frequently the mother Cowbird herself assists in this destruction by picking holes in the eggs she finds in the nest, or by casting them out upon the ground; but this is unnecessary as the young Cowbird always will effect this result if left to himself alone. I have noticed in several instances that interesting species as, for instance, the Yellow-breasted chat and the Yellow-throated vireo, which came to the hillside near my camp on Canandaigua lake and were parasitized by the Cowbird, never returned to nest in the locality. I had become enthusiastic over the vireos and the chats that sang to me every morning as I sat by the campside and was counting on a fine brood of young ones which might return the next season and enliven our surroundings; but although I should have been wiser and discovered the nest to see that all was going well, I trusted to nature in each instance and what was my disgust when the young came from the nest to find the Yellow-throated vireos leading around one disgusting Cowbird instead of their brood of young, and the chats deserted the hillside in the middle of July. They evidently were disgusted in their season's occupation or, having been killed during their southward migration, never returned. So these instances, like others of my personal experience, are typical of numberless instances that could be noted of birds which fail to rear their young and consequently never return to the nesting site again. When we consider this influence which the Cowbird exerts on our avifauna, I can not consent to consider him otherwise than as an injurious neighbor. Cowbirds are not only parasites but polygamists and free lovers in habit. Small troops of several males and a few females are found all through the breeding season flying around together and walking about on the lawns with spritely step, pruning their glossy plumage and exulting in the freedom from family cares, the males occasionally uttering their uncouth guttural notes and the females, when startled or when seated BIRDS OF NEW YORK 22Q upon the fence or trees, uttering a shrill note resembling that of the Cedar- bird. The male, when uttering his squeaking chortle, ruffles up the feathers of the breast and extends the wings, somewhat after the manner of the Red-winged blackbird when uttering his " congaree," an attitude which is evidently more or less characteristic of the family. The eggs of the Cowbird are white in color, rather profusely and evenly speckled with various shades of brown and grayish lavender. They average .84 by .65 inches, extremes lying between .7 and i inch in length, and .61-. 66 in width. They resemble more closely the eggs of the English sparrow than those of any native species. Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus (Bonaparte) Yellow-headed Blackbird Icterus xanthocephalus Bonaparte. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1826. j: ?23 Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 232. No. 497 xanthocephalus, Gr., ;av06?, yellow, and JU^AT,, head Description. Male: Head, neck and chest yellow; primary coverts and a portion of the greater coverts white; otherwise uniform black. I' cmale: Brownish dusky, throat and chest dingy yellow; breast mixed with white; young cf similar to the female, larger, darker color. Length c? 10.6-11 inches; 9 9-10; wing 4.5-5.8; tail 3.6-4.8. Distribution. This species inhabits western North America from southern British Columbia, southern Mackenzie and northern Minnesota to southern California, Arizona and the valley of Toluca in Mexico, its eastern limit being southern Wisconsin, central Iowa, northern Indiana; winters from southern California and southwestern Louisiana to Puebla in Mexico; appears accidentally in eastern North America, in Ontario, Quebec, Pennsylvania and Florida, and once in New York State. The specimen now in the State Museum was reported as taken at Irondequoit bay near Rochester in September 1899. Its occurrence was purely acci- dental, but this species is likely at any time to appear in flocks of Red- winged blackbirds which are coming in from the Northwest. 230 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Agelaius phoeniceus phoeniceus (Linnaeus) Red-winged Blackbird Plate 7^j Oriolus phoeniceus Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 1766. Ed. 12. 1:161 Icterus phoeniceus DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 141, fig. 47 Agelaius phoeniceus phoeniceus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 233. No. 498 agelaius, Gr., gregarious; phoeniceus, Lat. and Gr., deep red, Phoenician red, referring to the male's epaulets Description. Male: Lustrous black; bend of the wing bright deep scarlet, bordered with creamy buff. Female: Considerably smaller, blackish feathers of the back with rusty and buffy edges, giving a rather streaked appearance; under parts blackish heavily streaked with dull white; the throat and bend of the wing more or less tinged with salmon or reddish. Young males at first like female; the first winter plumage resembling the male, but the red of the wing much duller and all the feathers broadly margined with rusty and buffy above and buffy or whitish below. Length d" 9-5-9-75 inches, 9 7-5-8; extent cT 15-16, 9 12.5; wing 4.7-8; tail 3.7-3.9; bill .93; tarsus 1.12; weight 2.5-3 ounces. Distribution. This species inhabits North America east of the plains from Ontario and Quebec to northern Georgia and Louisiana; winters from southern New York and Ohio to the gulf coast. In this State the Redwing is a common summer resident of all districts, even the marshes of Staten Island and Long Island and the edges of Elk lake and the Flowed land near Mt Marcy. A few spend the winter in the southern portion, but the majority are migratory, making their appear- ance in the spring from the I5th of February to the loth of March in the southern portions and from March 5 to 25 in the northern counties. In the fall they disappear from the 1st to the 2Oth of November, sometimes remaining in numbers till the ist of December. Haunts and habits. Everyone who has visited the marshes or river- side is familiar with the Red-winged blackbird and with his gorgeous epaulets and the spritely " congaree " which he continually utters when perched on the top of the cat-tails or alders or on the neighboring telegraph wire or when flying along with outspread tail over the tops of the sedges. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 231 The female is a smaller, inconspicuous bird. As far as I have observed, she never utters the clear congaree call so characteristic of the male, but frequently, as she flies up from the marsh and 'away over the field, shouts out a confused rattling sound or a single clicking call note. T^ Photo by Ralph S. Paddock Red-winged blackbird's nest and eggs These birds are gregarious both in the spring and fall, the first migrants usually coming in flocks of from 30 to 300. Frequently I have been in the marshes during the first warm spring days without seeing the expected redwings, when all at once, late in the afternoon, from the southward, 232 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM with measured wing strokes, a scattered company would come over the hill at an elevation of from 50 to 100 feet and make directly for the marsh, alighting on the alders and sedges as if they were perfectly at home. Evidently these birds migrate by day, as I have seen them come into the marshes many times in this manner, making their first appearance late in the afternoon. The habitat of the Redwing in nesting time is almost without exception in flooded land where sedges, cat-tails and bushes rise from very wet soil or from the water, preferably where the water is from i to 3 feet deep. The nests are attached on all sides to the cat-tails, sedge grass or the bushes in which they are constructed, and are usually placed only a few inches above the water, but sometimes at a height of 3 or 4 feet. They are made entirely of grass and sedges woven into a compact structure with the live grass intertwined between the outer and coarser portions of the nesting material. The inner portion is lined with fine rushes, grasses and sedges. The eggs are from 4 to 6 in number, usually 5, of a pale bluish or greenish white with pen lines of blackish and dark brown and claret brown some- times arranged in a wreath near the large end, on others irregularly and thinly scattered over the surface. The average dimensions are 1.05 by .72 inches. This species is more or less injurious to the grain fields, especially corn, when it is in the milk. I have seen hundreds of acres of corn land in the vicinity of extensive marshes which had been seriously injured by the attacks of these birds. In the early days of the country the Redwing was called the maize thief from his depredations upon the cornfield, but now when the cornfields are so numerous and the marshes of such com- paratively slight extent and, consequently, the redwings are so few in number, the damage they do is so small as scarcely to be noticeable except in a few instances. At other times of the year they are a beneficial species, feeding upon weed seeds, cutworms, grasshoppers and all kinds of insects. Scores of stomachs which I have examined in August, September and October were filled with grasshoppers. About 70 per cent of the food in autumn was weed seeds, occasionally mixed with grasshoppers and cutworms. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 233 Agelaius phoeniceus fortis Ridgway Thick-billed Red-wing Like phoeniceus but larger; bill relatively shorter and thicker, c? wing 4.9-5.2 inches; tail 3-5-4-i; bill, length .82-1.06, depth .53; 9 wing 4-4.3; tail 2.8-3.25; bill, length .68-.8i, depth .45. This subspecies breeds from MacKenzie and southern Keewatin to northern Texas ; wanders eastward during migrations. Specimens showing the dimensions of this form of Red-wing are occasionally taken in New York during the spring and fall migrations, especially in autumn. Sturnella magna magna (Linnaeus) Meadowlark Plate 75 Alauda magna Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 1758. Ed. 10. 1:167 Sturnella ludoviciana DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 138, fig 42 Sturnella magna magna A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 235. No. 501 stiimella, Lat., diminutive of sturnus, starling; magna, Lat., large Description. Prevailing color of upper parts brown streaked with black is/i, the ground color really being black, each feather edged and tipped with rufous or brown and ocherous buff ; the head with j broad stripes of huffy white; sides of the head and neck grayish white; 3 or 4 outer tail feathers mostly white; spot in front of eye, throat, breast and belly mostly bright yellow, the breast with a large black crescent; sides grayish white tinged with buff, streaked with black; wing coverts grayish ash mottled with blackish; lower belly white. At a distance the white tail feathers are conspicuous as is also the bright yellow breast when turned toward one, and the black crescent, also the brownish black head striped with buff and the general striped brown and black effect of the upper part. The female smaller, duller colored. In fall plumage the yellow and black more or less veiled with buffy or ocherous. Length a71 10.5-11 inches; 9 9-10.25; extent 14-16.50; wing 4.7-5; tail 3.16; bill 1.4; tarsus 1.70; weight 4 to 5 ounces. Distribution. The Meadowlark inhabits eastern North America from eastern Minnesota, southern Quebec and New Brunswick to northern Texas, Missouri, and North Carolina, and winters mostly from southern New York and the Ohio valley to the Gulf of Mexico. In New York it is a common summer resident of all parts of the State except the forested portions of the Catskills, Adirondacks and Allegany highland and in the 234 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM southern counties is almost always met with in small numbers throughout the winter. On the Montezuma marshes and other large swamps good sized flocks are also observed in winter when grass seed is abundant. The majority of individuals, however, are migratory. These arrive from the south from the 2d to the 2Oth of March, sometimes as late as the 3Oth, and disappear in the fall between the ist and the 3Oth of November. The Meadowlark prefers open grass country, prairies, wide meadows and pasture lands being his favorite haunts. He secures all his food upon the ground, and walks, like all the ground-feeding members of his family, preferring weed seeds and some waste grain in the fall and winter, but in the spring, summer and early fall lives mostly on grasshoppers, crickets, larvae of insects which are found in the meadows, and ground-feeding beetles. He sometimes does harm by destroying tiger beetles and black ground beetles which are predaceous in habit, but secures much less of these on account of their activity than of the species whose larvae feed upon the vegetation of the meadows. In fact, he spends most of his time upon the ground but is frequently seen perching on tree tops, fence posts and other elevated stations, apparently to watch the locality for members of his own company or to utter his clear call note. The Meadowlark's flight is strong and well-sustained. When under way it usually consists of several rapid wing strokes alternating with short periods of sailing. He rises with a buzzing of the wings which reminds one somewhat of a Quail's flight and has given him in many localities the name of " Marsh quail." He was formerly hunted for game throughout most of the north central states, but his flesh is comparatively unpalatable and his beauty, as well as beneficial habits, should place him in the list of song and insec- tivorous birds rather than among the game birds. The clear, plaintive whistle of the Meadowlark which is heard from the time he arrives in spring till almost the end of the season has been variously described by different authors. Bendire says it is often interpreted " laze-kiU-dee." I have frequently heard it interpreted " spring-most-here." At least it consists of about three syllables, a high and plaintive whistle. Beside this note he has a harsh guttural chatter uttered when flying from the BIRDS OF NEW YORK 235 grass or over the meadow, also a nasal " peent " as it is written by Chapman, as well as a call frequently uttered when alighting upon a fence post or tree and accompanied with a fluttering of the tail, which may be written " eeck-eeck." The nest of the Meadowlark is hidden among the thick grasses or underneath a tussock of sedge or clover, and consists of weed . •• » '••• . • Meadowlark's nest and eggs stems and coarse grasses, lined with finer blades of grass. It is somewhat arched over, both by the construction materials and by the grass among which it is placed so that it is almost impossible to detect its situation unless the bird is flushed from the nest. The eggs are from 4 to 6 or 7 in number, usually 5 in my experience, with a white ground color more or less thickly speckled and spotted with brown, rusty and lavender. They 236 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM are rather elongated ovate in shape, sometimes practically elliptical and measure from .85 to 1.21 inches in length by from .72 to .89 in width, the average dimension being i.i by .8 inches. The period of incubation is about 1 6 days. The young after a few days are so covered with down interspersed with brownish and buffy feathering, and remain so silent and motionless, closing their eyes when any unusual sound approaches, that it is practically impossible to distinguish them. I have frequently looked into the nest of a Meadowlark and been unable to tell whether there were 2 or 7 young, without first unraveling the tangle with my fingers. This is undoubtedly a great protection to the young birds as they would not be noticed by their enemies. Nevertheless, great numbers of the young are destroyed by early mowing which is practised so generally throughout the New York meadows. This species which in 1895 was reported by Bendire as decreasing throughout central New York due to this cause seems at present time to be maintaining its numbers by adapta- tion to the existing conditions, nesting more in waste places, or in localities which are not mowed and raked by machinery, or by nesting so early that the young are out of the way of the mowing machine. Meadowlarks like blackbirds are a sociable species, very rarely an individual being found alone. In the fall they gather into small troops, not simply one pair with their young, but apparently several families, so that from the same meadow or marshland from 30 to 50 or even 100 meadowlarks are frequently flushed and in the southern states where the principal number of the species pass the winter I have frequently seen thousands gathered in the same field. Icterus spurius (Linnaeus) Orchard Oriole Plate 75 Oriolus spurius Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 1766. Ed. 12. 1:162 Icterus spurius DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 140, fig. 46 A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 23. No. 506 icterus, Gr. and Lat. for jaundice, a yellow bird, probably the golden oriole; spurius, Lat., spurious, bastard, referring to this bird's former name of " Bastard Baltimore oriole " Description. Adult, male: Head, neck, throat and forward part of the back black; rump, under parts and lesser wing coverts chestnut; wings BIRDS OF NEW YORK 237 and tail fuscous edged with whitish. Female: Grayish olive green; wing coverts tipped with whitish; tail bright olive green; under parts dingy yellow. Male of the first year: Similar to female but browner. Male second year: Similar but with occasional patches of chestnut on the under parts. Length o* 7.25 inches, 9 6.5; extent 10.35; wing 2.9-3.25; tail 2.7-3.2; tarsus .88; bill .7. Distribution. The Orchard oriole inhabits eastern North America from North Dakota, Wisconsin, southern Ontario and coastal Massachu- setts to Texas and the gulf coast, and winters from southern Mexico to northwestern South America. In New York it is commonest in the vicinity of New York City, and in the lower Hudson valley, but is fairly common as far north as Albany and also on Long Island as far east as Bellport; also in the Delaware valley; but is decidedly uncommon in western New York although breeding records occur for several stations. On Staten Island and in the lower Hudson valley this species arrives from the 2d to the loth of May and departs again from the 1st to the I7th of September, the breeding dates ranging from May 25 to June 20. In the interior of the State records of its breeding are as follows: Holley, 1876, Possun, Auk, 16:195; Canandaigua, 1883, E. J. Durand; Granville, 1886, F. T. Pember; Hamilton, May 26, 1899,0. C. Embody; Montezuma, May 27, 1899, Burdette Wright; Saratoga, June n, 1810, A. S. Brower; Chau- tauqua county, 1902, Sarah Waite; Niagara county, Davison; Brockport, David Bruce; Orleans county, Davison; Green Island, Parks, June 2, 1880; Esopus-on-the-Hudson, Burroughs; Orleans county, June 1904, E. H. Short; Auburn, 1885, F. S. Wright. Beside these breeding records there are numerous reports of individuals taken, the northernmost among my notes being from North Creek and Port Henry, June 22, and July 5, 1905, by Will Richard. It will thus be seen that this species at least as far as its distribution in New York State would indicate, is nearly confined to the Carolinian faunal area as a breeding species, rarely going beyond this into the lower portions of the Alleghanian zone. The favorite haunts of this species are orchards, shade trees and leafy tangles on the hillside and along a stream. The nest is usually placed nearer the ground than that of the Baltimore oriole, and is not so bag-shaped, but hangs only 238 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM about 3 to 4 inches downward from the twigs on which it is suspended. The outside diameter is usually about 4-4.5 inches; the inner cup is usually about 3 inches deep by 2.5-3 inches outer diameter. The upper rim of the nest is, however, somewhat contracted, and it is almost entirely con- structed of thin, wiry grass; lined with softer substances like thistledown. The eggs are 4 to 6 in number, ovate in shape, with a paie bluish white ground color, overlaid with grayish or pearly. The markings consist of blotches, spots, scrawls and pen blots of purple, brown and pearl gray, heaviest about the larger end, forming more or less of a wreath, the darker brownish and blackish tints predominating. The average dimensions of the eggs are .82 by .57 inches. The song of the Orchard oriole is decidedly different from that of our commoner Baltimore oriole. It is a more finished effort, the voice rich and flexible with considerable expression. The song, however, is uttered in a rather hurried manner as if the bird were restless and implusive (Bendire). This bird is even more beneficial than the Baltimore oriole as it rarely, if ever, is known to feed on green peas or small fruits, so far as reported in this State, but subsists almost entirely on caterpillars and rose bugs, beetles and plant lice. Icterus galbula (Linnaeus) Baltimore Oriole Plate 75 Coracias galbula Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 1758. Ed. 10. 1:108 Icterus baltimore DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 139, fig. 43 and 44 Icterus galbula A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 238. No. 507 galbula, Lat., name of some yellow bird Description. Colors orange and black; secondaries and greater coverts edged with white, the. former producing a rather distinct wing bar, the latter, wing streaks; the head, neck, throat and forward portion of back and greater portion of wings, and the middle portion of tail, black; under parts, sides, rump, upper tail coverts, base of the tail, internal portion of all except the middle tail feathers, orange, deepest on the forebreast where it is of a decidedly reddish orange. Bill and feet leaden bluish. Female and young: Much duller, the upper parts being mostly grayish brown to grayish olive, more or less mottled on the head, sides of neck and back BIRDS OF NEW YORK 239 with blackish; under parts dingy orange. The female has more blackish about the head, especially on the throat which shows more or less blackish, wanting in the young birds of the season. Length cf 7-8.2 inches, 9 7-7.6; extent 11.75-12.3; wing 3.6; tail 2.85; bill .7; tarsus .85. Distribution. The Baltimore oriole inhabits eastern North America from Alberta, Saskatchewan, Ontario and Nova Scotia to northern Texas, Louisiana and northern Georgia; and winters from southern Mexico to northwestern South America. It is a common summer resident of all New York State with the exception of the wooded portions of the Catskills and Adirondacks, but enters the river valleys and cleared lands of the Adirondacks as far as Keene valley, Ausable chasm, Old Forge and similar locations. It is commonest in those portions of the State which lie in the Carolinian and warmer portions of the AUeghanian zone, inhabiting the orchards, shade trees and open groves. It evidently has increased considerably since the greater portion of the State was cleared and settled, and is as common in the streets and yards of our villages and cities as it is in the country districts. In several villages which I have examined, it is easy to make a census of the number of orioles which evidently inhabited the region during the preceding summer. Usually about three nest? will be found on each oriole tree, showing three years of habitation, sometimes as many as five in different stages of dilapidation, but the nest of the preceding season is almost always in fairly good condition. By inspecting these trees it will be evident to nearly any bird student that from 3 to 5 pairs of orioles must inhabit each large block of our cities and villages, where shade trees are abundant. Some seasons, however, the orioles seem much less common than in others when late snow storms in May kill large numbers or prevent them from migrating to their old haunts. The beautiful appearance and melodious notes of the Baltimore oriole are justly famous and have been praised by many poets, and every amateur bird student is enthusiastic over this bird which can always be found and heard during the ' ' birding " season. Next to the Scarlet tanager he is probably our most gorgeously colored bird, and his song ranks at 240 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM least among the first 20 for melody, but far excels the majority in familiarity, in fact, rivaling the Robin in this respect. The orioles arrive from the 27th of April to the 8th of May in the warmer portions of the State, depending upon the season, in the northern districts sometimes not appearing until the roth or even the 2Oth. They immediately pair and begin building. By the I5th or the 2Oth of May fresh eggs may be found in the southern portions of the State; or from the 25th of May to the loth of June in cases where the first nest was destroyed; and in the northern portions of the State, sometimes as late as the 2Oth of June. The period of incubation is about 12 days and the female is an ideal mother, defend- ing her young with great courage and caring for them in all kinds of weather. The young, however, are not such ideal offspring as she ought to expect, for they are, as Mrs Miller has called them, the crybabies of the bird world. From the time they begin to feather out until several days after they have left the nest, they keep up a continual complaining cry for food. In this way they are unquestionably located by many predaceous animals and thereby destroyed. The young orioles are visually out of the nest from the 2Oth of June to the 5th of July, and are very soon led away by the old birds into the woods, groves and dense hedgerows. Then we hear no more of the oriole's song until the latter days of August or the first week in September, when, after the autumn moult has been completed, the males frequently burst into melody for a few days before departing for their winter home. This departure occurs between the loth and the 22d of September. The vernal song period almost always ends by the 1 2th of July, usually several days before then. The Baltimore oriole is especially valuable to the horticulturist and forester on account of its attacks upon the caterpillars of various species which feed upon the foliage of trees. He even feeds upon the hairy caterpillars which are chosen by few birds with the exception of the cuckoo, and destroys large numbers of leaf -eating beetles or their larvae and devours also many aphids, rose bugs and other hemiptera. Occasionally the oriole destroys a few cherries and berries and frequently discovers the green peas of the garden, deftly BIRDS OF NEW YORK 24! opening the pods with his sharp bill and devouring large quantities of the tender seeds. In this way, in my experience, he does much more harm than by depredations upon the berries; but he is so much less destructive than the Robin, Cedar bird, and Red-headed woodpecker that complaints are rarely made against him and there can be no doubt that he is one of the very best friends which the gardener can have about his premises. As everyone knows, the oriole builds a pensile nest, usually suspending it from the drooping branches of an elm tree, soft maple, apple tree or in fact any tree, although his preference seems to be for the elm. I have found this oriole's nest hanging from Norway spruce, hemlock, and horsechestnut which one would naturally expect he never would select. In different villages of western New York the preference seems to be in this order: white elm, silver maple, sugar maple, and apple. The main construction materials used by the oriole are gray plant fibers, especially those from the outside of milkweed stalks, waste packing cord and horsehair; sometimes pieces of rags and paper are discovered in the nest, but it is almost without exception a grayish bag as it appears from the outside, and is lined principally with horsehairs and softer materials, making a thick felted gourd-shaped structure which swells considerably toward the bottom so that there is ample room for the 5 young birds to develop. The eggs, though usually 5, are from 4 to 6 in number. Incu- bation occupies 12 days. The eggs are ovate in shape but are rather an elongated ovate, colored grayish or bluish white, more or less heavily marked with irregular pen lines and blotches of blackish brown, purplish and pearl gray, usually thickest near the larger end of the egg. The average dimensions of the eggs are .92 by .61. The average external dimensions of the oriole's nest are 6 inches in depth by 4 inches in greatest diameter. I have seen nests which are no more than 4 inches in depth and 3^ in external diameter but I have been unable to verify the observations of those popular writers who claim that orioles build shallower nests in villages or near houses because they are less liable to be visited by predaceous birds. The height of the nest from the ground in my experience varies 16 242 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM from 7 to 60 feet, the average being about 25 to 30 feet. In spite of the skilful placing of the oriole's nest, it is frequently visited by plunderers. I have seen crows on several occasions succeed in getting young birds from the nest and the home of the Screech owl very often shows that the young orioles have been taken and fed to the owlets. Red squirrels also descend to the nest to get the eggs and young birds, and I have seen the gray squirrels do this on one or two occasions. Generally, however, the young are reared successfully and I am inclined to think that dangers in migration and severe weather are the principal checks to the increase of this species. Icterus bullocki (Swainson) Bullock Oriole Xanthornus bullockii Swainson. Philos. Mag. N. S. 1827. 1:436 Icterus bullocki A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 238. No. 508 bullocki, in honor of William Bullock of London Description. Size of the Baltimore oriole; color somewhat similar but the under parts not so reddish orange; the head and neck not black but yellowish or orange spotted on the crown and back of the neck with black; chin and center of the throat black; large patch of white on the wing caused by the white middle and longer coverts. Female considerably duller, lower parts a light olive gray and the upper parts bright yellowish olive; where the male is yellowish orange and black, more olive brownish. Distribution. This species is purely accidental in New York State. A single specimen has been reported by Mr Dakin from Onondaga county on May 17, 1875. Unfortunately, this specimen disappeared from Mr Dakin's collection and I have not been able to trace it, but Mr Dakin's carefulness as a bird student seems ample proof that the bird which he describes was a Bullock oriole and was taken in Onondaga county, although, of course, it may have been an escaped caged bird which gave no evidence of previous confinement. The normal range of this species is in western America, from southern British Columbia and southern Saskatchewan to southern Texas and Sonora; and from California eastward to South Dakota and central Nebraska. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 243 Euphagus carolinus (Muller) Rusty Blackbird Plate 73 Turdus carolinus Muller. Natursyst. Suppl. 1776. 140 Quiscalus ferruginous DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 137, fig. 50 Euphagus carolinus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 238. No. 509 euphagus Gr., a "good feeder"; carolinus, of Carolina Description. Male: Shiny black with greenish metallic iridescence. In high plumage no rusty showing on the edges of the feathers; but in the fall the upper parts are more or less extensively edged with rusty and the under parts with ocherous buff and whitish. In specimens taken late in the spring this rusty has not entirely worn off from the edges of the feathers; but in the very highest plumage the bird is entirely a lustrous black. Female: Dark slaty gray; upper parts with more or less greenish reflections, more extensively edged with rusty in the fall than is the case with the male and the under parts sometimes almost a uniform ocherous on the throat and breast. This edging of rusty and ocherous shows in the female as late as April and May in New York specimens. Iris straw-colored; feet and legs blackish. Length 9-9.6 inches; extent 13.5-14.5; wing 4.6-4.8; tail 3.52; bill .91; tarsus i. 06; weight 2-2.5 ounces. Distribution. This species inhabits eastern North America, breeding in the boreal zone from Alaska, central Keewatin and northern Ungava to central Alberta, central Ontario, northern New York and Maine, and winters from the Ohio river and the Delaware valley to the Gulf of Mexico. In New York this species is a common transient visitant in all parts of the State, arriving from the south from the ist to the 2Oth of March in the southern counties; in western New York, from March 10 to March 30, passing on to the north from April 20 to May 10. In the fall it returns from the north in western New York from the loth to the 2Oth of September; in the vicinity of New York City, from September 20 to October 10; and departs for the south in November, usually remaining the last of all our blackbirds and going only when the marshes are frozen over. The Rusty blackbird is a summer resident of the wilder portions of the Adirondacks, especially in northern Hamilton and Herkimer counties and the south- eastern portion of St Lawrence county. Its nest has been found on Raquette 244 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM river June 5, 1878, by C. J. Pennock; by Ralph and Bagg from the 7th to the 2Oth of May 1886, at Wilmurt in Herkimer county; by Merriam at Big Moose on the I5th of June; on Second lake and Moose river, June i6th. This species has been called the Thrush blackbird, I suppose on account of its flight and song which resemble somewhat those of the thrushes. The nest also is usually walled with mud or rotten wood after the manner of thrushes, but this habit is shared also by the Crow blackbird. The bill of this bird is slimmer than that of most blackbirds, and superficially shaped like that of a thrush. Its notes are also more liquid, but it seems to me a true blackbird, its guttural chortlings reminding me more of our redwings and grackles than the thrushes. Its flight, however, is more like that of the Wilson thrush, the longer wings and gliding, wavering motion suggesting the thrushes. In the spring and fall it is a pleasant sound to listen to the gurglings of these birds as they pass through the swamp from field to field and tree to tree in long scattered companies, keeping up a continual bubbling note suggestive of gushing springs and wandering waters. The Rusty blackbird is more aquatic in its habits than even the Crow blackbird, and is frequently seen wading in the water hunting for crayfish and larvae of water insects. Whole flocks of these birds are often seen over the beds of chara or rockweed, wading as long as they are able, and then flying to some partly submerged log or projecting bunch of flags and picking up the larvae of dragon flies, may flies, snails etc. from beneath the surface of the water. The nest is placed in a low alder or willow a few feet above the water, sometimes within 1 8 inches of its surface. It is constructed of leaves and straws, then a layer of mud, and lined with fine grasses; a rather bulky affair thickly lined with bright green grass. The outside dimensions according to Merriam are about 7 inches in diameter, by about 5.5 in depth, the inner cup 3.5 by 2.5. The eggs are 4 to 5 in number, ovate in shape, the ground color light bluish green blotched and spotted rather profusely, especially about the larger end with various shades of chestnut brown, chocolate and drab; but rarely exhibit the pen lines and scrawls so common in other blackbirds. They average about I inch in length by .73 in diameter. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 245 Quiscalus quiscula quiscula (Linnaeus) Purple Crackle Plate 74 Gracula quiscula Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. Ed. 10. 1 758. i : 109 Quiscalus versicolor DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 136. (part) Quiscalus quiscula quiscula A. 0. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 239. No. 511 quiscalus, quiscula, forms of the same word, of uncertain origin; perhaps from the Spanish, a worthless follow (quisquilla) ; perhaps like the common name gracklc, an onomatopoeon Description. Tail long and rounded; whole plumage appears black in the distance but on a close inspection the head, neck and upper breast a rich, purplish blue, with metallic green reflection; back, rump and a portion of the under parts rich purple with bronzy and bluish iridescence, each feather of the back showing rainbows of peacock blue, purplish and bronze; the wings and tail bluish purple with green and brassy iridescence. The female smaller and much duller, especially below, the lower breast and belly being greenish brown with purplish and bronzy reflections. Length 9 12 inches; cf 12.50-13.50; extent 17-18; wing 5.6-5.8; tail 5.2-5.4; bill 1.2-1.35; tarsus 1.45. Distribution. The Purple grackle inhabits the Atlantic coastal region from Connecticut, Long Island and the lower Hudson valley to the high- lands of Georgia and Alabama and winters in the southern states; not found west of the Alleghanies except in the south. The range of this subspecies in New York overlaps the range of the Bronzed grackle, and, as one would expect, on the border line there are many intermediate forms which can scarcely be assigned with certainty either to the Purple grackle or Bronzed grackle but must be labeled intermediate specimens. Almost all the specimens from Long Island except in migration time are typical of the Pxirple grackle, but sometimes of " phase 3 " as Chapman calls it in his review of the species. In the Hudson valley as far north as Ossining, at least, the residents are fairly typical of the subspecies; further north intermediates become more common. Phase no. 3 is sometimes found as far north as Troy but intermediates and the second or first phase of the Bronzed grackle are more common in the upper Hudson valley, the birds 246 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of Elk lake, in the northern extremit}' of the Hudson valley, showing only a slight admixture of the Purple grackle coloration, hence ranking as aeneus. A specimen taken at Waterford, Saratoga county, now in the State Museum, is evidently intermediate between the two subspecies. At Athens, Pa., Chapman found the third phase intermediate of the Purple grackle and the second phase of the Bronzed grackle. At Port Jervis he found one intermediate and one aeneus. Thus it is evident that in the Susquehanna and Delaware valleys the range of overlapping is about the southern boundary of New York. In western New York north of the Susquehanna divide I have seen nothing but typical Bronzed grackle with an occasional specimen which shows a very slight tendency toward q u i s c u 1 a . Thus we must assign the range of this subspecies as south- eastern New York below the highlands; but its intermediate forms are found as far north as Saratoga county. On Staten Island, Long Island and the immediate vicinity of New York City practically nothing but typical Pur- ple grackle in one phase or another is found during the breeding season. The Purple grackle arrives in this State from the 1 5th of February to the toth of March, and departs from the loth to the 3Oth of November. Breeding records range from April 20 to May 25. In habits and economic importance this species does not differ from the Bronzed grackle which is the more abundant subspecies in this State. In voice, however, Mr Ridgway notices a difference, the note of the Purple grackle being less loud and metallic. The nest and eggs are indistinguishable from those of the Bronzed grackle. Quiscalus quiscula aeneus Ridgway Bronzed Grackle Plate 74 Quiscalus aeneus Ridgway. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1869. 134 Quiscalus versicolor DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 136 (part) fig. 49 Quiscalus quiscula aeneus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 239. No. sub aeneus, Lat., brassy, referring to the sheen of the body plumage Description. Longer and a little larger than the Robin; tail long, rounded or wedge-shaped, frequently, especially in the nesting season, BIRDS OF NEW YORK 247 carried in a keeled shape. Head, neck and tipper breast deep purplish, steely blue or peacock blue; wings and tail purplish with metallic reflections, the outer flight feathers almost plain black. The whole body bronzy or brassy with changeable sheen. At a distance, however, the bird appears to be uniform black. Iris straiu colored; bill and feet blackish. The body feathers, especially those of the back, are without the purplish and bluish rainbows seen on the feathers of the true purple grackle. Female: Smaller and duller. Length A.E Finches, Sparrows etc. Wing variable in shape, containing only 9 primaries; tail also variable in shape, containing 12 rectrices; bill conical, the cutting edges usually plain, distinguishing them from tanagers; the commissure bent more or less abruptly down near the base, a characteristic which they share with the Icteridae; nostrils high up, bare in some species, covered with dense tufts of bristles in others; tarsus scutellate in front, plated on the side, with a sharp ridge behind like the characteristic passerine tarsus; in size they range from small to medium; plumage very variable, from almost plain to highly variegated. The family is granivorous in diet, although they all feed to a con- siderable extent on insects, especially in the summer time and when rear- ing the young. As a family they are highly melodious, including some of our finest musicians, like the grosbeaks and Purple finch. The family is almost cosmopolitan in distribution, numbering over 600 species. In this country, as in many others, it is likewise the largest of all the families of passerine birds. As would be expected from the variability of the wing and tail, as well as the details in the shape of the bill and in the coloration, several sections of the family are popularly recognized, such as the linnets, represented by our Redpoll, the grosbeaks, finches, buntings and sparrows. These groups merge into each other by such insensible degrees, however, that no division into subfamilies is recognized by the A. O. U. The economic value of our native sparrows as destroyers of insects and weed seeds is clearly shown by Sylvester D. Judd, Bulletins 15 and 17, Biological Survey, United States Department of Agriculture. 252 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Hesperiphona vespertina vespertina (W. Cooper) Evening Grosbeak Plate 79 Fringilla vespertina W. Cooper. Ann. Lye. N. H. N. Y. 1825. 1:220 Hesperiphona vespertina vespertina A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 241. No. 514 hesperiphona, Gr, k'aicspoq, at evening, 9wv^, voice; vespertina, of evening Description. Adult male: Forehead and streak over the eye, yellow; crown blackish; rest of the head, neck and back deep olivaceous changing to yellow on scapulars and rump; wings, tail and iipper tail coverts black; tertials white; the inner webs of the secondaries and inner webs of tail feathers partially white. Adult female: Top of the head brownish gray; body plumage light grayish, tinged with olive yellowish; throat bordered with dusky on each side; greater wing coverts, edgings of secondaries, and tail coverts, inner webs of tip of tail, and patch on the base of the primaries white. Young: Similar to female but duller and more brownish. Lower parts much paler. Length 7-8.5 inches; wing 4.2-4.5; tail 2.75-3.2; bill .8; depth of bill at base .55-7. Distribution. The Evening grosbeak inhabits boreal North America, breeding in western Alberta and the surrounding country; and winters from southern Saskatchewan to Missouri, Kentucky, Ohio, and irregularly to New England, New York and Pennsylvania. When I began to study the migration and distribution of New York birds, I supposed that only one visitation of the Evening grosbeak had ever occurred in New York State, namely, the great invasion of 1890, when these birds were found in almost all the northeastern states in considerable abundance; but on further investigation I find that it has occurred almost certainly on all the following dates: 1875, 1882, 1886, 1887, 1889-1890, 1896, 1899, 1900, 1904, 1906, and another large visitation in 1910-1911. Thus this bird must be considered as an occasional winter visitant in recent years, but usually in very small numbers, especially when the seed crop in the north- west has failed. Haunts and habits. With us it feeds on seeds and buds of the maple, ash, mountain ash and various fruits which are left hanging on the trees. This interesting species, which is related to the Hawfinch of Europe, is BIRDS OF NEW YORK 253 a bird of striking appearance, especially the full plumaged males, whose conspicuous coloration of bright yellow, olive, black and white, and their enormously heavy beaks, immediately attract the attention of the most cas- ual observer. The sight of a mountain ash tree full of Evening grosbeaks, feeding on the brilliant red berries is an event long to be remembered. The fruits of the sumac and the ash-leaved maple also attract them, and they sometimes remain for weeks in localities where these trees are loaded with food, as was the case reported by Mr Verdi Burtch from Branchpoint in 191 1. The following records of occurrence may be interesting to students of migration: Elizabethtown Winter 1875 (seen by Doctor Cutting) Brewer, B. N. O. C. 4, 75 New York (?) 1866, Lawrence, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. 8, 289 Marcellus July 8, 1882 (seen) Coues, B. N. O. C. 7, 250 Buffalo Winter 1886 (20 taken) Ottomar Reinecke Brant April 15, 1887, Fenton, " F. & S." vol. 28, 267 Auk 7, 210 Elmira Nov. 25, 1887 (i taken) Swift, " F. & S." 29, 383 Ithaca Dec. u, 1889, Jan. 21, Mar. 7, 1890 (Fuertes) Fisher, " F. & S." 34, 65 Ithaca Man 28, 1890, Cornell Univ. Col. Lockport Dec. 14, 1889 (7) (Davison) Fisher, "F. & S." 34- 65 Feb. 1890, J. L. Davison, MSS. Orleans county Winter 1889, Posson, Auk 16, 195 Brockport Dec. 30, 1889, Jan. 29, 1890 (Guelf) Fisher, " F. & S." 34, 65 Brockport Jan. 30, 1890, Truman R. Taylor Albion, Chili, Gaines. . 1889-1890, E. H. Short Lake George Jan. 6, 23, 25, 30 and 31, 1890, several taken (Lockhart), Fisher, " F. & S." 34, 64 Buffalo Jan. 10, n, 18, 1890 (9) (Bergtold), Fisher, " F. & S." 34, 65; Auk 7, 210 254 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Painted Post Jan. 23, Feb. i, 1890 (Wood) Fisher, " F. & S." 34, 65 Oswego Jan. 28, 1890 (10, 4 taken) (Miller) Fisher, " F. & S." 34, 65 Owego Jan. 30, 1890 (i taken) Loring " F. & S." 34, 65 Feb. i, Mar. 4, 1890, J. A. Loring MSS. Cayuga Jan. and Mar. 1890, Foster Parker collection Naples Jan. 1890 (2 taken), L. V. Case MSS. Clinton Feb. 20, 1890 (Benton), Bagg, Auk 7, 230 Wayland Feb. 1890 (2), Marshall, Auk 9, 203, State Museum Troy Mar. 29, Apr. 17, 1890 (Parke), Sampson " F. & S." 34, 247 Lowville Feb. 1896, J. H. Miller Binghamton Nov. 21, 1899, Lilian Hyde Lake George. Dec. 15, Mar. 12, 1900 (6 seen) (Lockhart), Dr A. K. Fisher MSS. Ithaca April n, 1904, Fuertes, Auk 21, 385 Ithaca Dec. 8, 1906 (Kerr), L. A. Fuertes Utica Feb. 8, 1907, Bagg, Birds Oneida Co. 1912, p. 62 Lake George Jan. 30, 1909, F. A. Lockhart, A. K. Fisher MSS. Westernville Jan. to Mar. 1911, Bagg, Birds Oneida Co. 1912, p. 62 Utica Apr. 6-9, 1911 (flock of 12), Bagg, Birds Oneida Co. 1912, p. 62 Branchport Jan. 10 to Mar. 14, 1911 (2 to 30 seen almost daily) Verdi Burtch Lyons Feb. 4, 1911 (30 seen) Elliott, Auk 28, 266 Rochester Jan. 4 to Mar. 6, 1911 (several flocks seen) Dr C. A. Dewey Port Chester Feb. 28 to Mar. 9, 1914 (flock of 8), James C. Maples BIRDS OF NEW YORK 255 Pinicola enucleator leucura (Muller) Pine Grosbeak Plate 76 Loxia leucura Muller. Natursyst. Suppl. 1776. 150 Corythus enucleator DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 181, fig. 142 Pinic'ola enucleator leucura A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 241. No. 515 pinicola, Lat., pine-inhabitor ; enucleator, Lat., a sheller-out; leucura, from Gr., light tailed or white tailed Description. Nearly the size of a Robin; like an overgrown Purple finch in general appearance; beak very heavy; tip of the upper mandible considerably curved; tail slightly forked. Adult male: Slaty gray overlaid with rosy red especially on the head, breast and rump, sometimes giving the bird almost a uniform rosy red appearance; wings and tail fuscous slightly edged with color of the back; 2 conspicuous wing bars of whitish, the inner secondaries and tertials also edged with white. Female: Slaty gray overlaid, especially on the head and rump, with olive yellow or saffron. Young males: Similar to female. Length 9-9.2; extent 13-14; wing 4.36; tail 3.68; bill .54; tarsus .88. Distribution. This species inhabits the boreal region of eastern North America, breeding mostly in the Hudsonian zone. In New York it is only a winter visitant, slightly irregular in occurrence, its abundance depending upon the crop of mountain ash berries and spruce cones in the northern forests, but a few at least are found in New York State every winter. The dates of arrival from the north vary from November 9 to December 4. They are commonest between the middle of December and the first of March, the latest dates usually from the 25th of March to the 5th of April; but a few are occasionally noted as late as April 20 or May 5. The winters of 1844, 1896 and 1903 are especially remarkable for the abundance of this bird in New York. It occurs in all parts of the State, but is usually not so plentiful on Long Island as in the interior. Haunts and habits. The Pine grosbeak is one of the largest of its family found in New York, but is of gentle, unobtrusive manner, almost entirely fearless of man's approach, and always seems to be perfectly con- 256 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM tented with its situation wherever encountered. A whole tree full of these birds may frequently be seen feeding on the seeds of mountain ash berries, apples or the buds of beeches. One may stand within a few feet of them for a long time without their taking any notice of one's presence. They are rather slow and deliberate in manner. Their flight, however, is rather rapid and aggressive, slightly undulating as is usual in this family. While on the wing they often utter a high-pitched call resembling some- what the note of the Purple finch, or two or three high whistles similar to the notes of the Yellow-leg's " tee-te, tee-tee-te." The food of the Pine grosbeak in this State includes the seeds of spruces, larches, hemlocks and pines, berries of sumac, mountain ash, cedar, Crategus or American hawthorn, and wild apple; also buds of apple, peach and birch. Like the crossbills they are more or less gregarious, but in this State the flocks nearly always consist principally of young birds and females, sometimes not more than 2 or 3 red birds being found in a flock of 20 or 30 individuals. Fringilla coelebs Linnaeus Chaffinch Description. " Forehead black; crown and nape greenish blue; back and scapulars chestnut tinged with green; rump green; breast chestnut red fading into white on the belly; wings black, with 2 white bands; coverts of the secondaries tipped with yellow; tail black, the 2 middle feathers ash gray, the 2 outer on each side black with a broad white band. Female: Head, back and scapulars ash brown tinged with olive; lower parts greenish white; the transverse wing bands less defined." Hudson Length 6.5 inches. Distribution. This bird is one of the most popular songsters of Britain and western Europe in general, a bird of the orchards and hedge- rows. It was introduced in 1890 at Central Park, New York City, by Mr Eugene Schieffelin, several pairs being released, and was still found in that vicinity as late as 1906, when Mr Chapman reported that 3 individuals at least were still in the park. In 1900 I noticed several speci- mens near the northern end of Manhattan island. It is probable, however, BIRDS OF NEW YORK 257 that unless more birds are introduced, this species will not increase as the Starling and the House sparrow have done. Ligurineus chloris Green Finch General color yellowish green, variegated with yellow and ashy gray. Length 6.5 inches. The Green finch is one of the characteristic birds of western Europe, common throughout the greater portion of the British Isles. A single specimen was obtained in Lewis county by Romeyn B. Hough and was identified by Washington ornithologists as a fine specimen of the European Green finch. It showed no evidence of having been in captivity. Of course, the occurrence of this bird in New York State was purely acci- dental and, as in the case of the European linnet recorded by Mr Thayer, it may have escaped from captivity and have led a wild existence long enough to efface all evidences of its former confinement. Passer domesticus Linnaeus House Sparrow Description. Male: Upper parts ashy gray, streaked on the back and scapulars with black and bay; broad band of deep chestnut or mahogany behind the eye, spreading on the side of the neck; lesser wing coverts chest- nut; a white wing bar formed by the white tips of the middle coverts. Under parts grayish; a conspicuous black bib on the throat and upper breast; bill blackish; sides of the head and bordering the black bib nearly white. Female and young: Brownish gray above streaked on the back with ocherous and black; wing bar obscure; under parts plain dingy brownish white. Length 6.35 inches; wing 3; tail 2.5. This bird, which is now our commonest species, is almost exactly the size of a Purple finch. The tail is slightly emarginate, the bill heavy though not so heavy as the Purple finch's, the general build stocky. Per- sons who shoot the English sparrows from their Martin houses or Bluebird boxes can not be too careful to identify the bird before shooting. I have known of Purple finches and 3 or 4 species of native sparrows being shot by accident for the suspected interloper. The House sparrow, or English sparrow as it is almost universally called in this country, as is generally known, is an importation from Europe. It was liberated in Brooklyn and New York City during the years 1860- 17 258 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 64, and soon thoroughly established itself both in New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Washington and all the larger cities of the Atlantic seaboard. It began spreading westward and soon occupied the whole country east of the Mississippi. In the year 1879 there were no English sparrows in the village of Springville, where the author's boyhood was spent. That winter he visited the city of Buffalo and was delighted to see the English sparrows about the streets and dooryards amid the deep snow in the coldest weather. Two years later the sparrows had thoroughly established themselves at Springville and before the year 1 888 had occupied practically every hamlet in the State. During the last 20 years they have been work- ing their way from the cities and villages into the country and nearly every large farmyard is thickly inhabited by these troublesome parasites. It is almost impossible for the farmer to keep them from his barns and grain stacks. Large flocks of young birds accompanied by a few older indi- viduals gather on the wheat and oat fields in late June, July and August, doing considerable damage to the standing grain and more to the grain in the shock and stack. They also attack the garden fruits, doing especial damage to berries and currants. Many garden vegetables are also pecked and rendered unfit for market. There is every reason to believe also that the San Jose scale and other injurious parasites of our fruit trees are distributed by these birds as they are continually flying from one tree to another, especially about our gardens and orchards, whole flocks filling the trees and shrubbery and continually flying from one farmyard to another so that the scales are quickly carried from infected trees to the well-sprayed orchards of the most careful horticulturist. These direct injuries done by the English sparrow to our various crops, however, are not the chief reason why it should be considered an injurious species, nor the litter of dirt which he creates about our eaves, windowblinds and porches, but the influence which he exerts upon our native bird life. As intimated in other connections, the sparrow builds so early in the season that nearly every available box and hollow limb is occupied by the time the bluebirds, chickadees and nuthatches, martins and Tree swallows begin to think BIRDS OF NEW YORK 259 of their nestbuilding, so that the scarcity of such nesting sites, which becomes greater and greater in all civilized communities, is multiplied tenfold by the occupation of all the available hollows by the indefatigable sparrow. Although the bluebirds and martins may drive the sparrows from the box which they have occupied for generations, as soon as they arrive in April, nevertheless the sparrows remain in the vicinity and as soon as the martins or bluebirds are out of the box they begin to carry in their nesting material again, in this way harassing the native birds so continually that they succeed in rearing no young. Thus the number of bluebirds and martins that nest in our dooryards or about the village is becoming smaller and smaller. The effect on the abundance of swallows is especially manifest. A farmer closes his barn to keep out the sparrows and the swallows can not enter. So it is evident that all those birds which make their nests about our buildings or in boxes prepared by men are continually crowded out of their nesting sites and driven farther and farther from our habitations. Furthermore, as the number of sparrows increases it is not only these birds that are discouraged, but even the robins, Chipping sparrows, Yellow warblers and various other species. I have noticed on many occasions the sparrows carrying off the nesting materials that the Robin was placing in the crotch of an apple tree, the poor Robin bringing materials day after day, and the sparrows, one pair after another, carrying the materials away as fast as they were brought, to fill up some yawning hollow post or some hole in the eaves of a building. Likewise, they often build their nests on top of Robins' nests and those of other birds. Being clumsy nest-builders they seem unable to start a new nest for themselves in the ordinary crotches of our shade trees, but as soon as a nest has been started by some respectable architect they immediately take possession and pile up their straw and feathers into an unsightly bunch, thus driving away even the crotch builders from our dooryards. It is not only in this direct way that they discourage the nesting of our native birds, but as they increase in numbers they destroy all the available food supply of smooth caterpillars and other palatable 260 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM insects which the wrens and warblers desire for their own young, so that by this method of food rivalry they are continually crowding out native species which would not only destroy the caterpillars which the House sparrow destroys in feeding its own young, but would not do the damage which the House sparrow creates, and at the same time would, in the author's estimation, be much more pleasant neighbors than this irritating foreigner which has established himself so permanently in our midst. As yet, no parasite has been discovered which might decimate the ranks of this sparrow pest, and no enemy has yet arisen which has made any appreciable impression upon it. It is true that Sparrow hawks and Sharp- shinned hawks frequently establish themselves in the fall and winter in the vicinity of sparrows' haunts and feed upon them throughout the colder months, and in many of the northeastern states the Northern shrike or Butcher bird has acquired the habit of entering towns or cities and pursuing the English sparrow; but none of these birds are numerous enough to affect the abundance of a bird which rears 6 to 8 young in one brood and brings up 3 or 4 broods each season. A few sparrows are frozen to death in our coldest northern winters and during severe rain storms many of the young are frequently destroyed, but they are still increasing in number. It seems to be a question of rivalry, which is referred to above. In the old world the various species of birds which compete with the sparrow for nesting sites and food have become accustomed to his ways and have gradually become able to cope with him, whereas the American species with which he comes in contact have never had to contend with such rivals and can not adapt themselves rapidly enough to meet him successfully. Of all our native species, the Robin seems to be the most successful in this contest of rivalry. The Phoebe succeeds fairly well and the Song sparrow is only slightly affected. It is probable that many of our more dominant species will survive, but undoubtedly the sparrow is another influence which must be added to all the changes mentioned in the chapter on Ecology which are affecting unfavorably the abundance of many of our more interesting birds. IHKDS OF NEW YORK 26 1 The sparrow begins its nesting operations with the first thaw of springtime. I have seen the old birds carrying building materials in December, January, February and March, but in the first warm wave of March nestbuilding begins in earnest, and the sparrows are continually fighting and pairing. The nest is usually completed by the third week in March and eggs are quite common by the first week in April. There is no question but in some of the warmer cities nesting is considerably earlier than this, but in western New York the young birds are rarely seen out of the nest until the 2Oth of April or the ist of May. The various means of destroying the House sparrow are well described in Farmers Bulletin 493 of the Biological Survey of the United States Department of Agriculture. There is no doubt that the number of this pest could be appreciably diminished by poisoning if this were practiced during the coldest, snowiest portion of the winter; but this means should not be employed except by persons who understand thoroughly the method of procedure and would practise the utmost care in protecting the poisoned grain from pigeons and other birds that might get it later in the season. In addition to this, a very effective method would be to destroy all the nests with the old birds during the breeding season. Boxes erected at a moderate elevation, as soon as they are inhabited by sparrows, could be visited after nightfall and a net thrown over the hole, to be used to secure the parent bird. In this way all the breeding birds could often be secured ; but those that nest in eaves and inaccessible places must be secured by the flobert dustshot cartridge or the shotgun, and as soon as these methods are practised, many of the neighboring citizens object. Some even pride themselves in protecting and singing the praises of the much despised English sparrow, and he has many points of interest and some points to admire. He is a character of great individuality, but in the author's experience the more he is studied the less he is admired, although we may wonder at his success. In some of the western states an organized warfare is often waged at certain seasons against the English sparrow and wagon loads of the birds are destroyed by universal hunts. 262 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM It is true that these wholesale hunts frequently destroy some beneficial birds, but if all the house owners of every district should conspire against the sparrow, each one making himself responsible for all the nesting birds and nests on his own premises, we believe that each one could be successful, and it is evident that such warfare would soon be disastrous to this pestiferous bird. Carpodacus purpureus purpureus (Gmelin) Purple. Finch Plate 76 Fringilla purpurea Gmelin. Syst. Nat. 1 789. i : 923 Erythrospiza purpurea DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 169, fig. 163 Carpodacus purpureus purpureus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 243. No. 517 carpodacus, from Gr., fruit-biting; purpureus, Lat., purple Description. Size of the English sparrow; bill stoutly conical; tail slightly forked; head slightly crested. Adult male: Head, neck, throat, breast and rump rich rose red or " wine purplish," brightest on the crest and rump, the winey purplish most pronounced on the breast; whole plumage suffused with the same color, but the feathers of the back with dusky central streaks; the wings and tail fuscous, slightly edged with the reddish color; belly and under tail coverts whitish. Female: Grayish olive brown streaked with darker; under parts white tinged on the throat and breast with buffy, conspicuously streaked with dusky; sparrowlike in appearance, but the unusually heavy bill and heavy streaking distinguish her. Young males: Until the second year, like the female. Length 5.5-6.25 inches; extent 10.2; wing 3.15-3.4; tail 2.3-2.5; bill .46; tarsus .68. Distribution. The Purple finch inhabits eastern North America, breeding from British Columbia, Alberta, northern Ontario, central Quebec and Newfoundland southward to North Dakota, Minnesota, northern Illinois, the mountains of Pennsylvania, northern New Jersey and Long Island. In New York it breeds in all sections of the State, but is a rare summer resident on Long Island and in the immediate vicinity of New York City, and on Staten Island. Throughout the Adirondack and Catskill districts it is a common summer resident, as well as in the highlands of HIKIJS OF XK\V YORK 263 western New York. On the lowlands of western New York and in the Hudson valley it is rather uncommon or erratic as a breeding specie-. In all sections of the State, however, it is common as a transient visitant, appearing from March 15 to April 10, migrating birds being common until the loth to the 2Oth of May, and disappearing in the fall between the 5th and the 2Oth of November. It also remains throughout the winter in all the southern portions of the State, some years being fairly common throughout the coldest weather, especially in the vicinity of New York City and in the lower Hudson valley. It is not a winter resident of the Adirondacks, however, but in western New York a few may always be seen throughout the winter. It is rather erratic in habits like its relatives, the crossbills and Pine grosbeak, some years appearing very early in the spring and at other times not making itself heard till the middle of April; but a definite yearly migration is perfectly evident in nearly all sections of the State as indicated by the dates given above. I found it one of the common breeding species throughout the spruce and balsam belt of the Adirondacks, and in western New York near Springville it was also a common breeder in the years between 1876 and 1885. Every spruce tree in the town of Concord from 10 to 20 feet in height could be counted upon for having a Purple finch's nest near its top. My friend, Mr William B. Burke, also noticed it as a common species in the Catskills during the spring of 1905. Thus we can regard the Purple finch as one of our characteristic summer residents in the greater portion of the State, and a permanent resident in the southern districts although rare in the summer and uncommon throughout the winter months. The haunts of the Purple finch are the evergreen forests, not the denser portions, but rather the open woods and swamps where numerous pointed firs and cedars may be seen scattered about. Here he fills the neighborhood with his gushing music throughout the latter part of April, May, and early June. It is one of the conspicuous birds of these localities. His song is delivered from the top of a spruce or balsam and consists of a rapid, easily flowing, melodious warble, resembling somewhat that of the Warbling vireo but more variant in 264 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM character. Sometimes when overcome with emotion he launches into the air with vibrating wings, rising upward and upward, a torrent of melody coming from his swelling throat, until he has reached an altitude of 200 to 300 feet, when he descends in wide circles with outstretched wings to the summit of the evergreen from which he started. Sometimes in late May or early June he may be heard to burst forth as if with unrestrained emotion so suddenly as to startle one by the gushing of his overpowering melody. I have thought sometimes that it was the most impassioned bird song that we have in our groves and woodlands. I have also seen him dancing about the female on the limbs of a tree or on the ground with his wings fully extended and quivering, his crest raised to its utmost, his tail spread and the brilliant feathers of his rump raised in the air, all the while uttering his melodious warble, sotto voce, until, apparently overcome by his emotion, he closed his wings and flew to a neighboring tree, perhaps to repeat the performance in a few minutes. Besides his song, while flying he utters a sharp " pit," and while feeding frequently a " chipp chee." Mr Bicknell has noticed the song period to begin from the fourth week of March, or sometimes as late as the 23d of April, and continue to the middle of July, varying from the 2d to the 2oth. The autumn song is weak and desultory. The immature males, which look like the females, sing almost as well as the high plumaged males, and several observers have stated that they have positively made out the fact that the females themselves sing, though not so melodiously as the male. The food of the Purple finch consists in spring largely of the buds of trees. Unfortunately, the buds of the peach, cherry and apple trees are frequently selected. In this way he often does considerable harm to the peach and cherry orchard, but serious complaints have come from only a few localities in New York. Later in the season I have often found them feeding on green cherries, one-fourth grown, on the green berries of the fly honeysuckle, viburnum and iron woods and, in the fall, on the ripened fruit of the red cedar, white ash, hemlock, and nearly any species of seed-bearing tree. They rarely feed upon the ground, but sometimes BIRDS OF NEW YORK 265 are found where seeds are plentiful, hopping about after the manner of sparrows. In the winter I have noticed that they seem to prefer the seeds of maples, ashes and mountain ash. Late in June I have found their food mostly confined to the samaras or ripened fruit of the elm tree. The species is more or less gregarious, and throughout the migration season in April and May, as well as in winter, they are often seen in loose flocks of 6 to 30. While feeding, one will usually notice a rustle of wings as they dis- lodge seeds from the branches and regain their balance. This sound has often directed me to a flock which otherwise would have escaped my attention. The nest of the Purple finch is usually constructed between the 5th and the 2Oth of May in western New York, sometimes as late as the middle of June. The fresh eggs have been found from the loth of May to the 1 5th of June, and sometimes as late as the loth of July. In this instance I think it was a second brood. The nest resembles very much that of the Chipping sparrow, consisting outwardly of small twigs, grasses and rootlets thickly lined with hairs. In dimensions, however, it is conspicuously larger than that of the Chipping sparrow and the inner nest not quite so neatly constructed. The eggs vary from 4 to 6 in number, usually 5, in my experience, greenish blue in color, spotted with blackish, brown and purplish. They average .8 by .56 inches in dimensions. Loxia curvirostra minor (Brehm) Crossbill Plate 77 Crucirostra minor Brehm. Allg. deutsche Naturhist. Zeitung. 1846. 1:53* (note) Loxia americana DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 182, fig. 144 Loxia curvirostra minor A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 245. No. 521 loxia, Gr.. AO^O?, crooked; curvirostra, Lat., curve-billed; minor, smaller (that is, than the European crossbill) Description. About the size and build of the Purple finch but some- what less streaky; mandibles crossed; tail rather short, forked. Adult 266 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM male: Dull red varying from reddish orange chrome in summer to dull vermillion in the high plumage; the color brightest on the head, breast and rump, the back showing dark brownish centers of the feathers; wings and tail fuscous, slightly edged with the color of the back; bill horn-colored, tipped with dusky; iris brown; feet dark brownish. Female and young: Grayish olive more or less overlaid with a yellowish olive or a dull saffron, especially on the head and rump. Length 6.2-6.4 inches; extent 10.75; wing 3.4; tail 2.14; bill .66; tarsus .62. Distribution. The American crossbill breeds principally in the boreal zone of America, occasionally and erratically as far south as southern New York, but commonly in the Adirondack spruce forest. In other parts of the State it is an irregular winter visitor, some years appearing in large numbers in nearly all parts of the State, in other seasons almost entirely wanting. It is perhaps more erratic than the Pine grosbeak in its occurrence and more of a wanderer, apparently following the best crop of pine, spruce and hemlock cones about the country, while at other times seeming to be led along purely by its fancy. It also occasionally appears in midsummer in various parts of the State, especially in seasons of great forest fires in the North Woods. Such occurrences are June 8 to July 28, 1888, in Niagara county (Davison) ; June 16, 1889, Ithaca, Fuertes; Ithaca, July 15, 1900, Hankinson; Hamilton county, July 13, 1903, Embody; Ontario county, July 27, 1903, Eaton; Monroe county, July 1903, Dr C. A. Dewey ; Ithaca, August 7, 1904, and June 24, 1906, Doctor Reed. On account of its wandering habits it is practically impossible to mention migration dates for the Crossbill, but we might say that these birds may be expected from November 15 to December 12, on the average, and they will be last seen in the spring from April 12 to May 14. I am aware that these migration dates do not agree with what would be expected on account of the early breeding habits of this bird, but they seem to be justified by the notes which I have taken for many years. This species has been recorded by Merriam, and by Ralph and Bagg, as a common breeder in Hamilton and Herkimer counties and eastern Lewis county. Eggs in the Smithsonian Institution collected by Doctor Ralph at Morehouse- BIRDS OF NEW YORK 267 villc were taken on March 30, 1904. Kennard (Auk, 12:304) found the bird breeding at Brandreth lake in May 1890 and 1894, an(i reports a nest in the same place May 1890, containing young birds. Mr Bicknell reports the breeding of this species at Riverdale on the Hudson, the fresh eggs being taken on April 30, 1875 (N. O. C. Bui. 5:7-9), and Mr Helme reports it breeding at Millers Place, Long Island, April 10, 1883 (Auk, 2:100). It will thus be seen that the species is also erratic in the time of breeding as well as in the locality chosen for that purpose. Habits. The nests are placed in evergreen trees, usually not very far from the ground; constructed mostly of twigs, grasses and rootlets, lined with bits of moss and hair. Mr Bicknell describes the nest he found as composed of spruce twigs in a mass, with cedar bark and a felting of finer materials, and a second coating of horsehair, rootlets, pieces of string, and 2 or 3 feathers. The eggs are usually 3 or 4 in number, pale greenish, spotted and dotted with various shades of brown and lavender, averaging •75 by .57 inches. Like the Pine grosbeak this species is gentle and approachable in disposition, exhibiting very little fear of mankind. I have frequently stood under a hemlock or a spruce for some time without realizing that 20 or 30 crossbills were scattered throughout the top of the tree, twisting the seeds from the cones, until the little wings which they had cut from the seeds came floating down and advised me of their presence. Then on examination the tree seemed to be full of crossbills. They are very dexterous in their work of extracting seeds from the cones, climbing about and hanging by their feet and bills almost as expertly as parrots. Occasionally the whole flock takes flight suddenly without any appar- ent reason, as they fly away uttering a keen " pip-pipe, pip-pip- pipe." While feeding they occasionally keep up a series of short chirping whistles that sounds like a contented chattering among the company. The flight of the Crossbill is undulating. The flock keeps more closely together than is the case with most of the members of the finch family, sometimes wheeling about almost as closely ranked as flocks of cowbirds 268 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM in the fall. The Crossbill has a beautiful song of varied and pleasing character, though not very powerful. "A series of somewhat goldfinch- like trills and whistles, seldom of any duration and in any case far less rich than that of the White- winged crossbill. It is more apt to keep up a low twittering while feeding than that species. Common call notes are a ' pip-pipe-pip-pip-pip ' somewhat like the peeping of young chickens, and the much deeper ' pup-pup ' strikingly similar to one call of the Olive- sided flycatcher. The last mentioned note is rarely or never uttered when the bird is on the wing." (Gerald Thayer) Loxia leucoptera Gmelin White-winged Crossbill Plate 77 Loxia leucoptera Gmelin. Syst. Nat. 1789. 1:844 DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 183, fig. 145 A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 245. No. 522 leucoptera, from Gr., meaning white-winged Description. Shaped like the Red crossbill but slightly smaller and the color more of a rosy red in this species, and the wings and tail black, the former -with conspicuous white bars formed by the white tips of the middle and greater wing coverts; the center of the belly nearly white. Female and young: Olive green, yellowish on the rump, gray on the under parts, mottled on the back and head with blackish. Length 6-6.2 inches; extent 10.18; wing 3.27; tail 2.4; bill .62; tarsus .61. Distribution. The range of this species coincides closely with that of the Red crossbill, but it is if anything more northerly in distribution and does not wander so far south in winter, but occurs as a fairly common winter visitant in this State, though more irregularly than the Red crossbill, and as far as my records show is never found throughout the State in the summertime. It breeds in the Adirondack forest according to Merriam, but is very much less common in the summer than the Red crossbill. In other parts of the State this species is only an erratic winter visitor, appear- ing from the 2Qth of October to the I5th of November, and disappearing BIRDS OF NEW YORK 269 in the spring from the I5th of April to the loth of May, sometimes remain- ing until late in June (in Scarboro; Gerald Thayer). It certainly is common- est between the first of December and the last of February, most of the records occurring between those dates. There were visitations of these birds in New York State in the winters of 1848, 1864, 1874, I878, 1882, 1888, 1890, 1893, 1896, 1897, 1899 and 1906. They were especially common on Long Island in the winter of 1899 and 1900, and in western New York in the winters of 1882 and 1889. When these birds find a locality where food is abundant they seem to remain in that immediate vicinity throughout the winter, as was observed by Mr Bicknell at River- dale in the winter of 1874-75, from November 3 to May 10, and by Mr Burtch at Penn Yan from February 4 to April 19, 1900, and by Mr Helme at Montauk Point from November 8, 1899, to February 20, 1900. Habits. This species is more active and uneasy than the Red cross- bill, and also more shy and suspicious, usually keeping near the tops of tall trees when feeding. The few flocks which I have been able to observe in western New York and in the Adirondacks, were in the tops of tall hemlocks and spruces, and it was with great difficulty that I was able to approach near enough to take specimens. They seemed to fly frequently from one tree to another, wheeling about in the air and keeping up a rather loud chattering cry as they flew about, the call note resembling somewhat the syllables " cheep, cheep" being uttered in succession by the different members of the flock. In the springtime they have a beautiful song, perhaps more melodious than that of the Red crossbill, a low, soft warbling, suggesting somewhat the song of the Redpoll. The nest is described as composed of twigs, strips of bark, mosses, and lined with softer moss and hair. The eggs are usually 3 or 4 in number, pale blue, spotted and streaked with reddish brown and lilac, averaging .8 by .55 inches. " The two common calls of this species are a loud, whistled ' wheet- wheet-wheet ' impossible to mistake for that of any other eastern bird, and an equally characteristic rolling twitter, which, however, is somewhat 2/O NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM similar to the corresponding note of the Redpoll. Its song, heard occasionally in the winter but much more frequently in the birds' summer home, is a remarkably loud and rich series of trills, twitters and whistles suggestive of the' song of a strong- voiced canary. It is one of the loudest and one of the most noticeable songs to be heard in the north woods." (Gerald Thayer) Acanthis hornemanni exilipes (Coues) Hoary Redpoll Aegiothus exilipes Coues. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1861. 385 Linaria borealis DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 169 Acanthis hornemanni exilipes A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. igio. p. 247. No. 52ya ac&nthis, Gr., name of the linnet; hornemanni, to J. W. Hornemann; exilipes, Lat., small-footed Description. Pattern of coloration similar to the common Redpoll, but decidedly whiter, the sides being much less heavily streaked and the upper parts more broadly edged with white; rump plain white without any streaks; the wings and tail more distinctly edged with whitish; the breast and rump tinged with pink as in the common species. For dimensions see table under rostrata. Distribution. The Hoary redpoll is found throughout the holarctic regions. In America it breeds from Ungava to western Alaska, and straggles southward in the winter as far as Maine, Massachusetts, Ontario, Michigan and Illinois. It is unfortunate that I have been unable to find any actual specimens of the Hoary redpoll from New York State, but it is ascribed to New York by Nuttall (see Chamberlain's edition, page 538) and also reported from the vicinity of Auburn in 1854 (see paper by William Hopkins read by Doctor Brewer, Proceedings Bo.ston Society Natural History, volume 5, 1856, page 13). It is also included by DeKay in " Birds of New York," but without definite statement as to specimens secured in the State. It has also been reported as seen by different observers, the last record coming from Otto McCreary of a specimen seen near Trumansburg with Common and Greater redpolls on March 24, 1912. There is little doubt that this species occurs in New York, as many speci- BIRDS OF NEW YORK 2/1 mens have been taken in Massachusetts at Swampscott, Revere, Cambridge and Nantasket (see Brewster, Auk, 4: 163); it is also reported by Ridgway and the A. O. U. from Hamilton Beach, Ontario; Chicago, 111.; and from northern Michigan. Acanthis linaria linaria (Linnaeus) Redpoll Plate 78 Fringilla linaria Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. Ed. 10. 1758. 1:182 Linaria minor DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 168, fig. 161 Acanthis linaria linaria A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 248. No. 528 lin&ria, Lat., a linnet Description. Small, shaped like a Goldfinch; streaky; tail forked; bill small and sharp-pointed, with conspicuous tufts of bristles over the nostrils. Adult male: Crown bright red; forehead, chin and upper throat blackish; upper parts grayish brown streaked with dusky and whitish, lighter on the rump; under parts whitish especially the belly and under tail coverts; sides streaked with dusky; the lower throat, breast and rump rosy pink; whitish wing bars and edgings. Female: Duller, only slightly tinged with pink on the breast and rump. Length 5.32 inches; extent 8.25-8.75; wing 2.8; tail 2.32; bill .36; tar- sus .56. Distribution. This species inhabits the northern hemisphere, in America breeding from Alaska and northern Ungava, southward to northern Alberta and the islands of the Gulf of St Lawrence; winters in the northern portion of the United States. In New York this species is an irregular winter visitant, undoubtedly occurring every winter, but frequently being very abundant. Winters of unusual abundance were those of 1876, 1878, 1882, 1886, 1889, 1898, 1899, 1906, 1908, 1910. The date of arrival varies from the gth to the 25th of November. It seems to be commonest from about the last week in November till the last of March, although they are frequently seen from the 6th to the 29th of April. Usually they disappear by the loth of April. Haunts and habits. The Redpoll is most commonly found in birch and alder swamps subsisting on the seeds which it extracts from the stro- 2J2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM biles with its sharp beak, and along the roadsides and wide fields covered with weeds, feeding on the seeds of amaranth, goosefoot and ragweed, and frequently enters the gardens in the outskirts of towns and cities to feed on the weeds projecting above the snow. In notes and habits it reminds one very much of the Goldfinch. It is unsuspicious and often allows one to approach closely, without taking wing; sometimes, however, the whole flock will rise suddenly without a moment's warning, wheeling around Greater redpoll Acanthis linaria rostratus (Coues) Holboell redpoll <3 Acanthis holboelli (Brehm) Redpoll d" Acanthis linaria linaria (Linnaeus) From New York specimens in the State Museum. J nat. size over the swamp and disappearing entirely from view. " The distinct call notes of this species are at least four in number; a long drawn, shrill ' buzz ' very similar to one note of the Pine siskin, but thinner and longer; a conversational twittering uttered when several birds are feeding together, difficult to distinguish from the corresponding note of the siskin but some- what more rolling; a ' ker-weet ' extremely similar to the long plaintive call of the American goldfinch but distinguishable, being different in tone; and lastly, a common, loud twittering or rolling call uttered when the bird BIRDS OF NEW YORK 273 is on the wing, which may be described as intermediate between the cor- responding rolling call of the White-winged crossbill and the ordinary piping call of the Red crossbill, though somewhat softer than either " (Gerald Thayer). On the 27th of March 1912, I heard the song of a full plumaged Redpoll delivered from the peak of a tamarack in a swamp near Geneva, N. Y. It resembled somewhat the ecstatic flight song of the Goldfinch, but seemed to me more melodious and finer toned, more of the quality of the " tweet " call of the Goldfinch and less of the warbling quality, but delivered in the manner of the Goldfinch's warble. The Redpoll is fully as gregarious as the Crossbill, is rarely found except in flocks of from 20 to 50, sometimes 200 or 300. When the flocks take wing they keep up a combination of twittering and chirping very characteristic of the species. In habits they are wholly beneficial, feeding only on seeds of trees or on the seeds of harmful weeds which grow in the field. Acanthis linaria holboelli (Brehm) Ilolboell Redpoll Linaria holboellii Brehm. Handbuch Vogel Deutschl. 183 1. 280 Acanthis linaria holboelli A. 0. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 248. No. 5283 holboelli, to C. Holboell Description. Like the common Redpoll in color, but larger, the bill slimmer and longer (see dimensions given under rostrata). Distribution. This subspecies of Redpoll breeds in the holarctic region, in America on the islands of the Arctic coast, especially Herschel island, and wanders southward in winter as far as Quebec, Ontario, Maine and Massachusetts. In New York it has been taken at Lake George, Warren county, January 27, 1890, A. K. Fisher collection, no. 3940; and at Kenwood, near Albany, February 15, 1907, a male taken by George Richard, New York State Museum collection, no. 1753. The dimensions of the latter specimen, which is figured in the half tone on page 272, are: wing 77 millimeters; tail 60; culmen 10.5; depth of bill 6.5; tarsus 15; 18 274 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM middle toe 9. There is little doubt that many specimens of this species could be obtained in northern New York if a large series of redpolls were collected and carefully examined; but it resembles so nearly the common subspecies that it can not possibly be distinguished at any distance in the field. Acanthis linaria rostrata (Coues) Greater Redpoll Plate 78 Aegiothus rostratus Coues. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1861. 378 Acanthis linaria rostrata A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 248. No. 5280 rostrdta, Lat., beaked Description. Much larger than the common species; general colora- tion darker and browner; stripes on the breast and sides decidedly heavier; the bill thicker and blunter in outline. Distribution. The Greater redpoll next to the Lesser redpoll is our commonest species of the genus in New York. It unquestionably occurs each season. Several specimens have been taken near Shelter island by Mr Worthington, one of which, a female, taken February 11, 1879, is in the Butcher collection, no. 1562. Specimens from the interior of the State are: Ossining, taken February 12 and 13, 1883, by Ezra Acker (see Fisher, N. O. C. Bui. 8:121); a pair taken at Lake George, Warren county, January 2 and n, by T. A. Lockhart (see Fisher, Auk, 1:156); and a specimen from Lewis county collected by Doctor Merriam, reported in the Ralph and Bagg list, page 129. The specimen figured on page 272 was taken at West Waterford, January 23, 1899, by Will Richard, and is now in New York State Museum collection, no. 1139. Its dimensions are: wing 78 millimeters; tail 60; culmen 9.6; depth of bill 7; tarsus 15.5; middle toe 10. By observing flocks of redpolls with a field glass when they are working among the weeds near one in the field, or in birch, alder, tamarack and apple trees at a distance of from 2 to 6 rods, it is possible to distinguish, in size and coloration, between this subspecies and the Lesser redpoll; and they can thus be recorded with certainty BIRDS OF NEW YORK 275 by those who are experienced in the differences between our redpolls. In this way Mr Otto McCreary has observed them on several occasions in Ontario and Seneca counties during 1909, 1910 and 1912. The home of the present subspecies is in Greenland and the adjoining country, straggling southward in winter from Ungava and Labrador to Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, Indiana, Illinois, Colorado, New York and Massachusetts. Average dimensions of Redpolls (Ridgway, Birds of North and Middle America) WING EXPOSED DEPTH OF KIDDLE MILLIMETERS CULMEN BILL AT BASE TARS"S ( male ................. exilipes < , . I female ................ male ................. llnarla (female ................ ... f male ................. holboelh (female ............... f male rostrata 75.18 57 40 7.87 6-35 14.48 7.87 71.12 56-13 7.87 6.10 14.48 7.62 74-93 54 10 8.89 6. 10 14-73 8.64 73-91 53-85 8.38 6.10 14-73 8-38 75-18 56.90 9.91 7-37 '5 24 8.89 72.90 57-15 9.91 7 .11 14.99 7.87 80.52 59-94 9.91 7.62 16.51 9-65 78.23 58-67 9-65 7.62 16.26 9.14 Acanthis cannabina European Linnet cannabina, Lat., of hemp Description. Forehead and crown crimson; rest of the head, nape and sides of the neck mottled brownish gray; mantle chestnut brown; wing feathers blackish with outer edges white, forming a conspicuous bar ; under tail coverts dark brown with whitish margin; tail feathers black narrowly edged with white on the outer and broadly on the inner webs ; chin and throat dull white striped with grayish brown; breast crimson; belly dull white; flanks fawn brown; in winter the crimson feathers concealed by wide grayish margins. Female: Duller in color and without anycrimson. Length 5.75 inches. Distribution. This old-world species, which resembles superficially the Redpoll in appearance, is not a native of our avifauna, but has been reported once from this State by Gerald Thayer (see Auk, 17 : 389). Of course, its occurrence here was wholly accidental. The specimen taken by Mr Thayer in Westchester county, at Scarboro, is now in the State Museum. Besides the one taken, he saw a flock of 5 males and females for several days about the locality. There is no question about the identity of Mr Thayer's speci- men but, of course, it is barely possible that these linnets had escaped from some zoological park or had been liberated by persons who had them in captivity, yet there is little more reason to doubt that they had wandered here, than that many specimens of American 276 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM species reported in Great Britian had wandered to that region. It is, moreover, improbable that so many individuals as the 6 seen by Mr Thayer would have crossed the ocean on board a ship, as sometimes happens to single individuals of other species. Astragalinus tristis tristis (Linnaeus) Goldfinch Plates 78 and 79 Fringilla tristis Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. Ed. 10. 1758. 1:181 Carduelis tristis DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 166, fig. 151 Astragalinus tristis tristis A. 0. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 248. No. 529 astragalinus, Gr., aarpayaMvoc, "an unknown small bird" (D'Arcy W. Thompson), " a goldfinch " (Liddell & Scott); tristis, Lat., sad, alluding to its call Description. Bill conical, sharp pointed; tail forked. Male: Bright lemon yellow, the crown, wings and tail black; wing bars and streaks on the wings and tail, white. Female: Grayish olive brown tinged with green, especially on the throat and sides of the neck; wings and tail blackish; wings barred and the secondaries and tail feathers streaked with whitish; under parts dull white tinged with yellowish. Male in winter: Plumage resembles the female, but the wings and tail blacker, the body plumage much browner, the throat and sides of the neck more tinged with yellowish green, the lesser wing coverts and the upper tail coverts bright yellow as in summer. Young resemble the female. Length 4.75-5.2 inches; extent 8.8-9.25; wing 5.82; tail 1.95; bill .4; tarsus .54. Distribution. This species inhabits eastern North America from southern Manitoba, central Quebec and Newfoundland southward to eastern Colorado, Arkansas and northern Georgia, in winter extending as far southward as the gulf coast. In New York it is a common resident, though less common in winter, fairly abundant as a breeding species in all portions of the State except the dense portion of the forested districts; found in winter throughout the State, but more commonly in the southern portion. Many bird students assume that the Goldfinch migrates like many of our sparrows and warblers because the male birds, assuming their brilliant hues about the last of April or the first week in May, seem to appear suddenly; although, if they had visited the swamps and fields, BIRDS OF NEW YORK 277 they might have found them in somber plumage throughout the winter months. It is true that the Goldfinch is much commoner and more generally distributed in the summer time than in the winter, especially in the gardens and farmyards. Haunts and habits. Its usual haunts are open fields with plenty of seeds of the dandelion and thistle. It feeds largely on the ground or among the weeds, but otherwise spends most of its time in the orchards and shade trees, in pairs or little companies, being a rather sociable species, and in fall and winter almost always travels in flocks, after the manner of the Redpoll and Siskin. I have noticed that the principal food of the Gold- finch in winter consists of seeds of the birch, alder, hemlock and all kind of weeds which grow in the open field. In summer and fall it seems especially fond of hemp seeds, thistle seeds, chickweed, dandelion and salsify. It is rarely complained of as injurious, but gardeners who are raising lettuce and salsify find it oftentimes very destructive to the seeds; in fact, a garden of lettuce which has been allowed to go to seed almost certainly attracts dozens of these gay-plumaged finches until the supply has been exhausted. When the dandelions are in full seed, it is customary to see dozens of Goldfinches scattered over the lawn, busily engaged in tearing the seeds from their gossamers and devouring them. Thus, by destroying weed seeds through the summer and winter, it does good service to the gardener and farmer. This little finch is not only one of our most beneficial and brilliantly colored birds, and one of the most familiar during the summer months, but his call notes and song are as beautiful as his plumage. He has a plaintive, canarylike " tswee-tee " uttered r/ith a rising inflection, and, when flying in deeply undulating sweep, ::.e male utters a call note resembling the syllables " per-chick-a-pee." The young birds fresh from the nest have a curious note somewhat similar to the syllables " chee-pee." The song of the Goldfinch, heard late in June and through the months of July and August, is sometimes uttered from a perch, but more usually while the bird flies around in broad circles with fluttering wings, pouring 278 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM forth a torrent of canarylike warbling which sometimes approaches in beauty the song of the Purple finch. The nest is constructed the latest of all our native birds. They rarely begin to build before the last week in June, although they may have been in residence throughout the year. Fresh eggs have been taken from the 5th to the 27th of July, sometimes as late as the loth to the igth of August, and on one occasion I found a Goldfinch's nest with eggs the first week in September. This is very unusual. The site selected is in a bush or tree from 5 to 30 feet from the ground, usually among thickly clustered limbs. The structure is composed externally of fine grasses, strips of bark, especially the epidermis of the milkweed, and mosses, lined with thistledown, a fact almost universal in this species, which has given it the name of " Thistle bird " in many portions of the State. The eggs are from 3 to 6 in number, normally 5, ovate in shape, white in color, slightly tinged with bluish, averaging .65 by .48 inches in dimensions. Only one brood is reared. The time of incubation is about 10 days. Spinus pinus (Wilson) Pine Siskin Plate 78 Fringilla pinus Wilson. Amer. Orn. 1810. 2:133. pi. 17, fig. i Carduelis pinus DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 167, fig. 136 Spinus pinus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 250. No. 533 spinus, Lat., thorn tree, spina, a spine or thorn; pinus, Lat., pine tree Description. Sexes similar. Shaped like the Goldfinch but slightly shorter, the bill more slender; upper parts grayish brown streaked with dusky; under parts whitish tinged with buffy, streaked with blackish; wing bars whitish; the bases of the tail feathers, except the middle pair, and bases of the wing feathers bright yellow showing in flight as yellow patches at base of tail and in the wing. Young birds have the under parts more tinged with yellowish and the wing bars ocherous instead of white. Length 5 inches; extent 8.63; wing 2.76; tail 1.9; bill .43; tarsus .47. Distribution. The Siskin or Pine finch inhabits North America from central Alaska, southern Keewatin and southern Ungava to the mountains BIRDS OF NEW YORK 279 of lower California and southern New Mexico, and to northern Michigan, Nova Scotia and in the Appalachian mountains to North Carolina, nesting also casually in Massachusetts and the lower Hudson valley. In winter it wanders over the whole United States and northern Mexico, but is erratic in its habits and distribution. Some years it appears in great numbers in various parts of the State; other seasons it is almost unknown. The years of unusual occurrence were 1882, 1886, 1891, 1898, 1901, 1909. It must not be assumed that it does not occur nearly every season, especially in the eastern and northern portions of the State, but certainly is rather uncommon except at intervals of a few years. The flocks arrive from the north from the 4th to the i6th or sometimes the 3Oth of October and wander about various localities where food is abundant, become commoner again in April and May, and are last seen from the loth to the 3Oth of May, but occasionally as late as "the 2yth of June, sometimes remaining to breed, as happened at Ossining, May 25, 1883 (Fisher, N. O. C. Bui. 8:180), and at Cornwall-on-the-Hudson, May 3-12, 1887 (Allen, Auk, 4: 284), at Remsen, April 4-9, 1889 (Ralph and Bagg list). In the higher Catskills, but more particularly in the Adirondacks, it is likely to breed each season, although in what part of the Adirondacks the principal breed- ing will occur is problematic. In the spring of 1905 immense numbers of these birds bred in Essex county in the region surrounding the higher peaks of Marcy and Skylight, and young fully fledged and feeding them- selves were found in large flocks when we visited the district on the i6th of June. Doctor Merriam speaks of them breeding abundantly in the western Adirondacks in various seasons. Some years, however, they seem to be entirely absent from all portions of the Adirondacks as a breeding species, although it is possible that, if search of the whole region were made, some would be found breeding in unexpected places. Its breeding in the southern portions of the State as recorded at Ossining and Cornwall is certainly very exceptional. Haunts and habits. The Pine siskin resembles the Goldfinch in habits, its flight being undulating, and the flocks usually proceeding over the 28O NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM fields in long, waving swoops. It is commonly found in forests of hemlock, pine and spruce, alder swamps, and open fields. The Siskin is fully as gregarious as the Redpoll, in my experience. It is no uncommon thing in the month of November and again in late April or the first half of May to see flocks of 500 or 600 Siskins sweeping over the country, sometimes remaining only for a few minutes in any given locality, and then con- tinuing their wanderings, their presence being determined largely by an abundance of their favorite food. It feeds principally on the seeds of conifers and various weeds, scarcely differing in this respect from the Goldfinch and Redpoll, but is perhaps more confined to seeds of the hem- lock and the pine than these species. Its call note is a melancholy " chee-a," and the flight call is a chippering " tit-i-tit." The Siskin also has a song suggesting that of the Goldfinch, but less melodious. The nest is usually saddled on a large limb of hemlock or other conifer 20 to 30 feet from the ground among the thick foliage. It is a bulky structure with a rough exterior, loosely built of hemlock twigs and sprigs of moss, about 6 inches in external diameter. The interior is compactly woven of thistledown, fur and hair, the innermost lining being of horse- hair and the inside dimensions given by Mearns 2.25 by 1.25 inches. The eggs are 4 to 6 in number, bluish white, slightly spotted with reddish; average dimensions .67 by .46 inches. Carduelis carduelis (Linnaeus) European Goldfinch Plate 79 carduelis, Lat., th.istlefi.nch, goldfinch Description. Size and shape of the American goldfinch ; fore face bright red, that of the crown and brow separated from that of the throat by black lores; behind the red on the sides of the head and upper throat is a margin of white, brightest on the side of the head ; crown and band behind the white on the side of the head and neck black; upper parts cinnamon brown; breast and sides tinged with the same; belly white; wings and tail black; the feathers tipped with white ; a large yellow patch in the wing. ' Length 5.5 inches; wing 3; tail 2.95; bill .5. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 28l Distribution. This old-world species was introduced at Hoboken, N. J., in 1878. The following year it appeared in Central Park, New York City, and soon spread over the northern portions of Manhattan island and the surrounding country. Locally not an uncommon resident (Adney, Auk, 3:409). The winter of 1889, Mr Hendrickson reported three specimens from Long Island City. In the winter of 1891 many were noticed flocking with the American goldfinches at Dobbs Ferry, but several were found dead in the snow, evidently the severity of the winter proving too much for this species (Dr A. K. Fisher). I am not aware that the European goldfinch has increased, or even held its own in this State since the brief records rehearsed above were published. In the spring of 1900 I noticed several pairs that were endeavoring to build their nests in Central Park, and in the country about Kings Bridge and Spuyten Duyvil, New York City; but from all reports it seems that this beautiful species is not likely to become established so easily as the obnoxious European sparrow. Plectrophenax nivalis nivalis (Linnaeus') Snow Bunting Plate 80 Emberiza nivalis Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. Ed. 10. 1758. 1:176 Plectrophanes nivalis DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 178, fig. 158 Plectrophenax nivalis nivalis A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 251. No. 534 Plectrophenax, from Gr., rXijxTpov, quill or spur, and ?sva?, a cheat, referring to the long hind claw which might be mistaken for a spur; nivdlis, snowy Description. Considerably larger than the English sparrow; tail slightly forked; hind claw longer than toe; wings long and pointed. Male in summer: Largely white; back, under portion of primaries, inner second- aries and inner tail feathers, mostly black. In winter: The top of the head, back of the neck, cheeks and the black feathers of the upper parts, largely overlaid with rusty and buffy whitish; also a touch of rusty on the side of the breast; bill yellow tipped with dusky; feet black. Female: Similar to the male, but upper parts streaked with black in summer, and the wings and tail not so blackish in winter. Length cf 7-7.35 inches, 9 6-6.5; extent 12.5-13.25; wing c? 4-2~4-5. ? 4; tail 2.7; bill .42; tarsus .83. Distribution. The Snowflake inhabits the northern hemisphere, being holarctic in distribution, in America breeding from 83 degrees north, to 282 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM northern Alaska and Ungava; winters from Alaska, southern Alberta and southern Ungava as far south as northern California, Kansas, Ohio and some- times Florida. In New York State it is a common winter visitant in nearly all localities, but is rather irregular in occurrence, sometimes appearing in great numbers for several weeks in winter, at other times seeming to be absent except for passing flocks which will be noted at intervals throughout the colder weather. They arrive from the north sometimes as early as the 28th of September on the Montezuma marshes and about the central lakes and the shores of Lake Ontario, but on Long Island and other parts of the State are rarely noticed before the 22d to the 3Oth of October, some- times not before the 26th of November, and remain until the last of Feb- ruary or the loth of March, sometimes being noticed as late as the 22d to 26th of the month. Haunts and habits. This species is fully as gregarious as the cross- bills and redpolls. Although I have frequently seen single individuals appear on the Montezuma marshes and on the lake shore, almost without exception they are noticed in companies of from 25 to 50, and sometimes several hundreds, and on a few occasions I have noticed flocks of thousands sweeping over the fields like clouds of drifting snow. Flocks of snowflakes perform various evolutions while on the wing, careening backward and forward and wheeling about, and again seeming to blow over the fields like dried leaves driven by the wind. While flying, the members of the flock keep up a tinkling whistle, a note resembling somewhat the syllable "tee" repeated at intervals by the various members of the flock; also, when disturbed, they utter a harsh " beez-beez." Their ordinary fare consists of seeds of the pigweeds (goosefoot and amaranth) and ragweed (ambrosia), and all species of grass. They feed entirely on the ground and are almost never observed to alight in trees, although such instances have been recorded. They walk and run while on the ground, never hopping as is the custom with the Song sparrow and other birds of the family. Consequently their tracks in the snow are often mistaken for those of the Horned lark. Snowflakes are wholly BIRDS OF NEW YORK 283 beneficial on account of the destruction of weed seeds. Although they were frequently shot for food in the earlier days, they are rarely slaughtered for that purpose now, and should be left to enliven the winter landscape. Calcarius lapponicus lapponicus (Linnaeus) Lapland Longspur Fringilla lapponica Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. Ed. 10. 1758. 1:180 Plectrophanes lapponicus DeKay. Zool. N.Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 177,%. 159 Calcarius lapponicus lapponicus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 251. No. 536 calcdrius, Lat., calcar, a spur, referring to the long, rather straight hind claw; lap- ponicus, of Lapland Description. Slightly smaller than the Snowflake; hind claw even more elongated; bill somewhat more slender; tail more forked; in general, darker in coloration; upper parts light brownish streaked with blackish. Male in summer: Head, throat and chest black; a buffy stripe behind the eye; sides streaked with black; belly white; hind neck chestnut. Male in fall and winter: The black and rufous more or less obscured by the brownish white tips of the feathers, but the black showing through, particularly in the region behind the eye, on the lower cheek, the sides of the throat, and on the chest. Female in summer: Like the winter male, but the black areas more broken; the hind neck streaked with blackish. Female in winter: Brownish and less sharply streaked, lower parts brownish white. Young: Above tawny buff streaked with black; beneath, pale buffy, chest and sides streaked with blackish. Length cf 6.1-6.9 inches, ? 5-5-6; wing cf 3.6-3.9, 9 3-5-3-6; tail 2.55; bill 4. Distribution. The Lapland longspur, like the Snowflake, is found throughout the northern half of the northern hemisphere, in America breeding from latitude 73 on the Arctic islands and 75 degrees in east Greenland, southward to the limit of trees in Mackenzie and northern Ungava; winters from southern Quebec and Dakota southward to the Middle States and Texas. In New York this longspur has always been regarded as a rare or uncommon species, but I have no doubt that this rating has been the result of inability to distinguish it among the flocks of snowflakes with which it associates. Though the darker plumage of 284 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the Longspur in winter will almost always distinguish it from the snow- flakes, it has been my experience that bird students who are in the habit of collecting find the Longspur more common than they had supposed before shooting extensively. During many seasons this species is fairly common on Long Island and on the plains near Lake Ontario and Lake Erie. The reports of longspurs in New York are mostly between the i8th of December and the 22d of February, the greater number having been taken in January and the first half of February; but Mr Dutcher records a specimen from Shinnecock bay August 12, 1881, which is about 3 months earlier than most of the dates before me. Another specimen he records from Long Island City October 18. A record 6 weeks later than the usual date of departure is April 18, 1885, a specimen from Hempstead Plains reported by Mr Dutcher (Auk, 3:440). Haunts and habits. The Lapland longspur resembles the Snowflake in habits, walking instead of hopping, living entirely upon the ground and traveling over the wide fields and desolate shores near the coast in straggling flocks. It has a tendency, however, to fly higher in the air than the Snowflake when disturbed in the open fields, or when migrating across the country. Calcarius ornatus (J. K. Townsend) Chestnut-collared Longspur Plectrophanes ornata Townsend. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1837. pt 2. 7:189 Calcarius ornatus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 252. No. 538 orndtus, Lat., adorned, ornamented Description. Male in summer: Top of the head, stripe behind the eye, chest, breast and belly black; the under parts sometimes edged with rufous; hind neck rich rufous; stripe over eye, chin and throat white; cheeks pale buff. In winter the black largely concealed by light brownish. Female: Upper parts light grayish buffy brown streaked with dusky; paler below. Young: Dusky, margined with brownish white; an indistinct whitish stripe over eye; cheek and throat white flaked with grayish dusky; lower parts grayish buff, streaked on the breast and sides with dusky. Size of the Lapland longspur. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 285 Distribution. The Chestnut-collared longspur inhabits the Great Plains, breeding from Montana, southern Saskatchewan and Manitoba to central Wyoming, Kansas, eastern Nebraska and western Minnesota; winters from Colorado and Iowa to Arizona and the Mexican tableland. Accidental in the Eastern States. It is purely a straggler within our borders. Two specimens have been taken on Long Island, the first at Long Island City, February 16, 1889 (see Hendrickson, Auk, 6:89); the second specimen was collected at Millers Place, September 14, 1891, and reported by A. H. Helme. Pooecetes gramineus gramineus (Gmelin) Vesper Sparrow Plate 82 Fringilla graminea Gmelin. Syst. Nat. 1789. 1:922 DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 151, fig. 140 Pooecetes gramineus gramineus A. 0. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 253. No. 540 Pooecetes, Gr., ^oa, meadow, and ot'xlTTj?, inhabitant; gramineus, Lat., grassy Description. Grayish brown streaked with dusky; under parts dull white spotted on the breast and sides with dusky; the tail fuscous except the central feathers which are like the back; outer tail feathers mostly white; les- ser wing coverts rufous; ear region usually shows dusky spot ; legs flesh colored ; general appearance of the bird is a pale grayish brown, streaked sparrow. Length 5.8-6.7 inches; extent 10-11; wing 3-3.4; tail 2.4-2.7; bill .42; tarsus .83. Distribution. The Vesper sparrow inhabits eastern North America from southern Keewatin, central Quebec and Cape Breton to eastern Nebraska, Kentucky and North Carolina; winters from the Central States to the gulf coast. In New York this sparrow is a common summer resident of all portions of the State and in the region near the sea and some of the warmer counties a few remain throughout the winter. The spring migra- tion begins from the i8th to the 3oth of March in the southern part of the State; in the northern counties from the 1st to the 6th of April. In the fall the birds disappear between the ist and I5th of November, some- times a few remaining until the last of the month. 286 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Haunts and habits. The Vesper sparrow, Bay-winged bunting or Grass finch, as this bird is called in different parts of the country, inhabits open grassy fields, being almost entirely a ground bird ; but it prefers pasture lands and fields with sparse cover of weeds and grasses to the dense meadow lands and, on the whole, enjoys a drier soil than the Savannah sparrow. It is frequently seen in plowed fields and along the dusty roadsides running along in front of the traveler and, when too closely pressed, darts away with a rather hurried, sweeping, slightly undulating flight to some distant fence post or to the shelter of the grass. The song of this species is heard mostly in the morning, late in the afternoon and in the evening as late as an hour after sundown. It consists of two long, low notes, succeeded by two higher notes, then descends in chippering trills, the whole song being somewhat longer and more deliberate than that of the Song sparrow. On clear evenings in May and early June if one walks into the country and takes one's station near some crossroad, the song of the Vesper sparrow may often be heard in a dozen different directions at the same time; first one individual from a near-by fence post takes up the refrain, followed by another farther in the field standing upon a clod of earth, another farther off on top of a small tree, still farther one from a fence rail, and so in every direction near and far at intervals from different individuals the song will be repeated, the farthermost sending only the two higher notes to the ear of the listener. Such a concert is really inspiring if one will take the trouble to stop and listen. The song is loud, clear and ringing, "sweeter and more plaintive than that of the Song sparrow " (Chapman). The nest of this species is invariably placed upon the ground, usually beside a clod of earth, partly under a clump of grass, or beside a growing weed in the open field, rather loosely constructed of coarse grass and weed stalks, lined with finer grasses, rootlets and long hair. The eggs are 4 or 5 in number, grayish white or bluish white in ground color, spotted with umber and reddish brown. Average size .83 by .61 inches. The period of incubation is about 10 days. Two broods are reared in a season BIRDS OF NEW YORK 287 in this latitude. The first nestful of fresh eggs may be found from the 28th of April to the 2Oth of May. Later sets are frequently observed from the 2Oth of June to the 25th of July. This sparrow in the summer time destroys many insects, especially young grasshoppers, leafhoppers and the larvae of insects found among the grass. In the fall, winter and early spring he feeds almost entirely upon weed seeds, thus rendering efficient service to the agriculturist. Passerculus princeps Maynard Ipswich Sparrow Plate 8 1 Passerculus princeps Maynard. Amer. Nat. 1872. 6:637 A. 0. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 254. No. 541 passerculus, Lat., diminutive of passer, sparrow; princeps, Lat., first, chief Description. In general appearance this bird resembles a large Savannah sparrow, having almost exactly the same pattern of coloration, but paler. The yellowish superciliary line is mostly confined to a spot of yellow in front of the eye or entirely wanting; the same yellow on the bend of the wing as in the Savannah sparrow, but the breast and sides are less heavily streaked. Length 6.25-6.75 inches; extent n; wing 2.9-3.2; tail 2.25-2.50; tarsus .93. Distribution. This sparrow is confined to the north Atlantic coast of America, breeds on Sable island, Nova Scotia, and winters from Sable island southward as far as Georgia. In this State it is confined to the bleak, wind-swept hillocks of the southern shores of Long Island, and the barren beaches. The earliest fall records are October 12 to October 26. The latest spring records in Mr Butcher's Long Island notes are found between the 7th of March and the 3d of April. It is evident that this bird is not so rare on the coast of Long Island as was formerly sup- posed. Mr Butcher concluded years ago that it would hereafter be relegated to the commonplace (Auk, 3:42), and his judgment has been confirmed by subsequent investigation. Haunts and habits. Anyone who is willing to scour the barren beaches 288 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and the rolling sandhills of the Long Island coast, searching carefully among the bunches of beach grass, will surely find these sparrows through- out the winter season. They rise rapidly when disturbed and, darting away with hurried flight, pitch down again to conceal themselves as soon as they are two or three shotgun ranges from the hunter. They frequently utter a faint " sip " as they fly or as they hop about searching for food. Passerculus sandwichensis savanna (Wilson) Savannah Sparrow Plate 8 1 Fringilla savanna Wilson. Amer. Orn. 1811. 3:55. pi. 22, fig. 3 Emberiza savanna DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 161, fig. 155 Passerculus sandwichensis savanna A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 254. No. S42a sandwichensis, of Sandwich island, Alutians; savdnna, a meadow (Spanish) Description. Upper parts streaked with brownish black, dull rufous and ashy, the general tone being darker and more heavily streaked than the Vesper sparrow; also smaller than that species, and the tail shorter; the crown has a median streak of whitish; pale sulphur yellow stripe over the eye. Under parts white, tinged with buffy and streaked with blackish on the breast and sides; feet flesh colored. Length 5.3-5.9 inches; extent 8.8-9.2; wing 2.65-2.9; tail 2-2.2; bill .41 ; tarsus .82. Distribution. The Savannah sparrow is confined to eastern North America, fron central Keewatin and northern Ungava to northern Iowa, Pennsylvania and Connecticut; winters from New Jersey and Indiana to northeastern Mexico and Cuba. In New York it is an uncommon summer resident in the coastal district, except, perhaps, at the eastern end of Long Island, but is a common transient visitant in this section of the State and also an occasional or fairly common winter resident. In other parts of the State it is an abundant transient visitant, and a fairly common or common summer resident throughout central and western New York and in the Adirondack district. Throughout the interior of the State it is less common as a breeding species than the Vesper sparrow, but decidedly more common and more generally distributed than the Grasshopper sparrow. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 289 It arrives from the south from the 23d to the 3Oth of March in the warmer portions of the State, from the ist to the loth of April in the northern counties. In the fall it is extremely abundant from the 2Oth of September to the middle of October, the migration ending between the 25th of October and the i,5th of November. Haunts and habits. The haunts of the Savannah sparrow are open grassy fields; but it prefers damper situations than those chosen by the Vesper sparrow and frequently is found nesting in wet meadows. Wherever such sitviations abound, this bird will be found, even in the southern portion of the State. It also nests in meadows where the grass is denser than would be attractive to the Vesper sparrow and where few other birds are at home excepting the Bobolink and Meadowlark. In the fall it is found both in the marshes and the dry upland pastures and weed fields. It lies closer than most of our native sparrows, often rising from beneath one's feet with a whirring noise suggestive almost of a diminutive Bob- white, and, darting rapidly away in wide sweeping undulations, pitches headlong again into the marsh or the dense weeds some distance from the observer. The song of this species is an insignificant note and has often been taken for that of the Grasshopper sparrow by the uninitiated. It can rarely be heard more than a few rods and consists of 3 or 4 tsips " at the beginning, ending with a reedy trill something like " tsip-tsip-tsip-se- e-e-e, r-r-r " (Chapman), or " tsip-tsip-tsip-ts-e-e-e-e-e-e-e-e-e, tsee-ee-ee-ee." Besides this song, which is heard from the first of April till late in June, sometimes as late as July, is the ordinary call note, somewhat suggestive of the Chipping sparrow, and a loud insistent chip, uttered when one approaches its nest or disturbs its coverts. The food of this species does not differ materially from that of the Vesper sparrow. It can be ranked as a wholly beneficial species, the immense numbers which are found here during the fall migra- tions destroying many tons of weed seed during their stay of several weeks. 19 2QO NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The nest of the Savannah sparrow is placed on the ground beneath a clump of sedge or among thick standing grass ; composed of dry grasses and weed stalks, lined with finer blades of grass and a few hairs. The eggs are 4 or 5 in number, bluish white in ground color, thickly spotted and washed with reddish brown and purplish shell markings; average size .70 by .50 inches. Ammodramus bairdi (Audubon) Baird Sparrow Emberiz a bairdii Audubon. Birds Amer. 1844. 7:359. pi. 500 Ammodramus bairdi A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 256. No. 545 ammodramus, Gr., owo;, sand, and Spa^slv, to run; bairdi, to Spencer F. Baird Description. Tail doubly emarginate; feathers sharply pointed; out- stretched feet reaching beyond the tail; tarsus longer than middle toe; the hind toe large, its claw as long as its digit and much curved. Head ocherous buff fading to whitish on the throat; sides of crown heavily streaked with blackish, leaving a broad median stripe of buffy; heavy black rictal and submalar streaks; outer edges and tips of tail feathers white; under parts whitish; breast and sides tinged with buff and streaked with black. Length 5.2-5.8 inches; wing 2.65-3; tail 1.85-2.12; exposed culmen .44; depth of bill .28; tarsus .82. Distribution. The Baird sparrow is an inhabitant of the Great Plains, breeding from southern Saskatchewan and southwestern Keewatin to central Montana, North Dakota and northwestern Minnesota; winters from central Texas to Sonora. A single specimen of this bird has been obtained in New York, where it is purely an accidental visitant. It was taken on Montauk point November 13, 1899, and Doctor D wight pro- nounces it "in the Juvenal plumage, passing into the first winter " (see Helme, Auk, 17:296). BIRDS OF NEW YORK 2QI Ammodramus savannarum australis Maynard Grasshopper Sparrow Plate 8 1 Ammodromus australis Maynard. Amer. Exch. and Mart. 1887. 3:33 Kmberiza passer ina DcKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 156, fig. 150 Ammodramus savannarum australis A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 256. No. 546 savannarum, quasi-Latin from Sp., savanna, meadow; austrdlis, southern Description. Smaller than the Savannah sparrow. Upper parts variegated with black, rufous brown, buff and ash, the ash appearing as edgings on the feathers and tending to form broad back stripes, the rufous brown most conspicuous as spots and streaks on the neck and back; a median crown streak of creamy buff; bend of the wing yellow; lesser wing coverts yellowish olive green; under parts buffy, without spots, fading to whitish on the belly. Young birds: Somewhat spotted on the breast and sides with blackish. Length 5-5.4 inches; extent 8.5; wing 2.4-2.6; tail 1.8-2; bill .43; tarsus .7 5-. 8. Distribution. This species inhabits eastern North America from southern Wisconsin, Ontario and New Hampshire to Louisiana, Alabama and South Carolina; wintering from southern Illinois and North Carolina to Cuba and Yucatan. In New York it is a common summer resident in various localities of the Carolinian and lower Alleghanian life zones, its known distribution at the present time being shown by a map on page 23, volume i of this work. It is rarely found in localities of greater elevation than 1000 feet, but is fairly common as a breeding species on Long Island, in the vicinity of New York City, in the Hudson valley, and through central and western New York, especially at Canandaigua, Phelps, Chili, West Barry, Maplewood, Lockport, Bushnell's Basin, Potter, Meridian and East Hamburg. In the southeastern part of the State its spring migration begins from the ist to the loth of May, sometimes as early as the 26th of April, and it disappears in the fall between the 5th and the 25th of October. These dates also agree very closely with the migrations at Rochester and Canandaigua recorded in my notebook. 292 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Haunts and habits. The Grasshopper sparrow, or Yellow-winged sparrow as it is frequently called, inhabits meadows, clover fields and weed fields, usually on dryer ground than the Henslow sparrow or the Savannah sparrow, often seeming to prefer sandy, rolling plains and upland meadows. It is frequently seen seated on a mullein stalk, fence post, or any con- venient object, singing its insectlike song, which has been written " />//- tuck, zee-e-e-e-e-e-e-e-e." This note resembles very much the performance of a meadow grasshopper, and is so high in pitch that it is inaudible to the ears of many persons unless the bird is singing within a distance of Grasshopper sparrow's nest and eggs 2 or 3 rods. Mr Gerald Thayer writes the song " sit-tit, ts-e-e-e-e-e-e-e-e-e- e-e-e." This, however, he does not regard as the true song of the bird, which sounds to him like a " long rambling twitter " uttered in a tone similar to that of the shorter note and about as loud, but lasts as much as 10 or 12 seconds. This rolling twitter is uttered when the male and female are flying together over the meadows or seated near each other. Mr Fuertes compares the song to that of the Prairie horned lark when the latter is heard at a considerable distance. It is usually uttered toward evening, and in May can sometimes be heard in the dusk as late as half BIRDS OF NEW YORK 293 past eight o'clock when the last Robin is hushed. This sparrow has also several forms of weak " tsipps " or call notes. A common alarm note is usually written " flick," almost a two-syllable exclamation. This bird is a terrestrial species, feeding on the ground as exclusively as the Savannah sparrow, fully as recluse in its habits as that species, except during the singing season when the male is constantly in evidence flying in circles about the field, or seated on some prominent weed stalk. When flushed it rises suddenly from beneath one's feet and darts hurriedly away to dive and hide among the grass. The nest is concealed in the dense meadow, loosely woven of dry grass and small weed stalks, lined with fibers, roots, fine grass and hair. The eggs are 4 or 5 in number, white in ground color, spotted and speckled with reddish brown; average size .73 by .54 inches. Passerherbulus henslowi henslowi (Audubon) Henslow Sparrow Plate 8 i Emberiza henslowii Audubon. Birds Amer. 1829. (folio) i. pi. 70 Emberiza henslowi DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 157 Passerherbulus henslowi henslowi A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. igio. p. 257. No. 547 Passerherbulus, evidently a diminutive from Lat., passer, sparrow, and herba, grass; hcnslmvi, to Prof. J. S. Henslow of Cambridge, England Description. Upper parts streaked with chestnut, black and ashy white; wings and their coverts chiefly chestnut; head and neck buffy olive, sides of the crown black, leaving a buffy olive median line; postocular, rictal and submalar streaks black; under parts white, the breast and sides tinged strongly with buff and distinctly streaked with black; tail feathers very narrow" and sharply pointed. Young: Have no spots on the breast and the head nearly plain buff; the whole plumage more suffused with buffy. Length 4.75-5.25 inches; wing 2-2.2; tail 1.75-2.1 ; exposed bill 4I-.58; depth of bill .2O-.34; tarsus .66-.73; middle toe -53-.62. Distribution. This sparrow breeds in the eastern United States from central Minnesota, Ontario, New York and southern New Hampshire to Missouri and northern Virginia; winters in the Southern States, inhabiting 294 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the dry fields of broom sedge. In New York it is of local occurrence and is rather uncommon or rare in all portions of the State; yet there can be no doubt that it is more common than is generally believed. As it is true that none but the initiated seem to detect the presence of the Grasshopper sparrow, even in localities where it is fairly common, it is doubly true that few who are inexperienced distinguish the Henslow sparrow. It has been reported as breeding in Rockland county by Giraud; in Rockland county and on Long Island by DeKay; in the vicinity of New York by Lawrence; in Monroe county by David Bruce; and in Albany and Rensselaer counties, 1908, by the late E. Seymour Woodruff. Specimens of the nest and eggs fully identified have been found near New York, May 10 (Chapman); Syracuse, June 30, 1887 (Morris M. Green) ; Stephentown, Rensselaer county, May i, 1890 (Hoag); Mount Dorr, Rockland county, May 23, 1897 (L. W. Brownell). Migration dates are scarce, but it has been reported from Binghamton, April 10, 1905, by Lilian Hyde; Potter Swamp, Yates county, August, 1909, by Otto McCreary; Ossining, October 5, 1910 (Fisher); Scarboro, November 3, 1897, Gerald Thayer; Shelter Island, November 20, 1901 (Worthington). Beside these, I notice reports from Webster, N. H., April 17, 1874, and Boscawen, N. H., April 26, 1875 (Ruthven Dean), as well as Oysterville, Mass., November 6, 1874 (Brewster). The Novem- ber dates by Brewster and by Worthington seem to indicate that this species sometimes remains very late in the fall, or possibly through the winter after the manner of the Sharp-tailed sparrow. Haunts and habits. The Henslow sparrow is a southern species and rarely goes beyond the northern limits of the Carolinian zone, but is found in rather cold localities in New Hampshire, western Massachusetts and eastern New York, which are ordinarily considered within the Alle- ghanian area. On the wet, ill-drained hillsides, upland pastures, and neglected fields overgrown with spiraea, cinquefoil and various sedges, this bird will be detected by the practised ear. The call has two characteristic syllables which sometimes sound like the word "flee-sic" or as Gerald Thayer would write it " phit-zit," suggest- BIRDS OF NEW YORK 295 ing to his ear the call of the American pipit. The full song he describes as considerably longer than this and generally delivered from the top of a low bush. It has also a characteristic sharp, thin " sipp " which is its usual alarm note. Mr Jouy writes the common call " tee-wick " and says that the real song may fairly be represented by the syllables " sis- r-r-rit, srit-srit." This song is often uttered while the bird takes a short flight upward and then drops again into the tangled weeds and grasses where it is impossible to follow it (N. O. C. Bui. 6: 57). In such surround- ings its nest is concealed upon the ground, constructed of grasses and lined with hair. The eggs are 4 or 5 in number, dull white or greenish white, thickly speckled with pale reddish brown and lilac. Passerherbulus lecontei (Audubon) Leconte Sparrow Plate 8 1 Emberiza leconteii Audubon. Birds Amer. 1844. 7:338. pi. 488 Passerherbulus lecontei A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 258. Xo. 548 lecontei, to Dr John L. LeConte of Philadelphia Description. In general resembling the Henslow sparrow, but the crown stripe as well as superciliary and malar stripes light buff; sides of the crown nearly black; hind neck chestnut streaked with light gray, edge of the wing white; breast and sides buffy streaked with blackish but the streaks on the breast faint or wanting. Young: Have the whole plumage suffused with buff except the center of the abdomen. Bill much more slender than that of the Henslow sparrow. Length 4.5-5.5 inches; wing 1.94-2.12; tail 1.82-2.06; exposed bill .34-42; depth of bill .2-.23; tarsus .6S-.75; middle toe .62. Distribution. The Leconte sparrow inhabits central North America from Great Slave lake, southern Saskatchewan and Manitoba to North Dakota and southern Minnesota; winters from Kansas to Texas, Florida and the coast of South Carolina. It is purely an accidental visitant in New York State, a single specimen having been taken at Ithaca, October 11, 1897, by Louis Agassiz Fuertes (Auk, 15:189). 296 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM This little mouselike sparrow might occasionally be found in New York if it were not so secretive in habits. When flushed, it proceeds with a weak, rail-like flight for a few feet, or a few rods, over the tops of the sedges, and drops again into the grass, whence it is almost impossible to raise it a second time. It frequents a denser cover than the Nelson and Acadian sparrows and, consequently, is more difficult to procure. Passerherbulus caudacutus (Gmelin) Sharp-tailed Sparrow Plate 8 i Oriolus caudacutus Gmelin. Syst. Nat. 1 788. i : 394 Ammodramus caudacutus DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 164, fig. 154 Passerherbulus caudacutus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 258. No. 549 caudacutus, Lat., cauda, tail, and acutus, sharp Description. Tail rounded; feathers sharp pointed; upper parts olivaceous tinged more or less, especially on the side of the neck, with grayish; the back and tertials streaked with white or buffy white; top of the head dark brown with a very indistinct grayish median stripe; super- ciliary and malar stripes rich buff, the latter broadening beneath the auricu- lars and bending upward behind them, but mostly separated from the superciliary stripe by a postocular blackish line; auriculars gray; abdomen white; breast and sides strongly tinged with buff and distinctly streaked with blackish. Length 5.40-5.85 inches; extent 7.5; wing 2.24-2.36; exposed bill 46-.5O; depth of bill .23; tail 1.9-2; tarsus .85. Distribution. This subspecies inhabits the salt marshes of the Atlantic coast from Massachusetts to Virginia; winters from New Jersey, and rarely from Massachusetts and New York, to Florida. It is common on the marshes of Staten Island and Long Island throughout the summer, arriving from April 18 to 29, sometimes as late as May 8, and the majority depart from the iyth of October to the 2d of November. A few remain each year throughout the winter on the salt marshes. This sparrow also ascends the Hudson river as far as Piermont and occasionally to Newburgh. Habits. " It runs about among the reeds and grasses with the BIRDS OF NEW YORK 297 celerity of a mouse, and is not apt to take wing unless closely pressed. In the breeding season it is usually associated with the Seaside sparrow on the salt marsh, but prefers the dryer parts and builds its nest in the tussocks on the bank of a ditch or in a drift left by the tide, rather than in the grassier sites chosen by its neighbor. From some bit of driftwood or a convenient stake its infrequent song may be heard morning and even- ing. It is short and gasping, and only less husky than the somewhat similar performance of the Seaside sparrow " (Doctor Dwight). Passerherbulus nelsoni nelsoni (Allen) Nelson Sparrow Plate 8 1 Ammodromus caudacutus var. nelsoni Allen. Proc. Bost. Soc. N. H. 1875. 17:293 Passerherbulus nelsoni nelsoni A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 258. No. 549.1 nelsoni, to E. W. Nelson, American ornithologist Description. Similar to the Sharp-tailed sparrow, but smaller and brighter; markings on the back sharper; the buff on throat, breast and sides deeper, and the chest only indistinctly streaked with dusky. Length 5.5 inches; wing 2.1-2.3; tail 1.8-2.1; exposed bill .41; depth of bill .21 ; tarsus .8; middle toe .62. Distribution. The Nelson sparrow breeds from Great Slave lake and central Alberta southward to Manitoba and northeastern South Dakota, and winters on the Atlantic and gulf coasts from North Carolina to Florida and Texas. During migration it is found from Maine to New York. In this State the Nelson sparrow is a transient visitant but chiefly, if not entirely, in the fall, not a single spring record being before me. It occurs every autumn between the 22d of September and the 2jth of October along the shore of Lake Ontario, the central chain of lakes, and the Hudson valley; Doctor Fisher's dates of migration at the mouth of the Croton river being from September 25 to October 10. Ralph and Bagg reported it October 12 at Oneida lake; and David Bruce, September 22, in Monroe county; Eaton, October 7, Canandaigua; Embody, October 8 to 17, at 298 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Hamilton; and Fuertes, September 26 to October I at Ithaca; Doctor Brais- lin, October 5, 1907, at Rockaway beach, Long Island. It is also interesting to note that the dates at Toronto lie between September 22 and October 28 (Auk, 16:277), but there is also one spring date, June 10, 1895, from Toronto. This sparrow is found on the reedy margin of the lake or river, not usually in the very dense grass and reeds far from the shore, but in the shallow water where there is only a sparse growth of flags, reeds and rushes. It rises when disturbed with a sudden bound and darts away in a deeply undulating, swooping flight to the cover of the denser grasses. Passerherbulus nelsoni subvirgatus (Dwight) Acadian Sharp-tailed Sparrow Plate 8 1 Ammodramus caudacutus subvirgatus Dwight. Auk July, 1887. 4: 233 Passerherbulus nelsoni subvirgatus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. IQIO. p. 259. No. 549. la subvirgatus, Lat., less, or slightly, striped Description. The size of caudacutus but with smaller bill, distinctly duller and more plainly colored than the two preceding species, the whitish streaks on the back being obsolete or at least not sharply contrasted. The buff on the side of the head, breast and sides is paler, and the superciliary stripe and malar stripes show a more grayish tinge like the olivaceous of the upper parts. Wing 2.14-2.32 inches; tail 1.82-2.06; bill .41; depth of bill .2I-.25; tarsus 1.83-1.87; middle toe .64-.66. Distribution. This subspecies of the Nelson sparrow inhabits the salt marshes of the Atlantic coast from southeastern Quebec, Prince Edward island and Cape Breton to Maine; and winters on the coast of South Carolina, Georgia and Florida. In this State it occurs as a migrant at the same time and in the same places with the Nelson sparrow. Its habits, so far as have been observed in this State, during migration time are exactly those of the Nelson sparrow, from which the amateur could not distinguish it without collecting the specimens in question. It has been BIRDS OF NEW YORK 299 recorded from Penn Yan, October 7, 1896 (Burtch, Auk, 14: 93); Ithaca, October i-io, 1897, October 10, 1899, September 26, 1900, October 8, 1906, by L. A. Fuertes; from Shelter Island, October 7, 1901 (Braislin " Birds of Long Island," page 83); the lower Hudson valley, September 25 to October 10 (A. K. Fisher, Auk, 2: 306). Passerherbulus maritimus maritimus (Wilson) Seaside Sparrow Plate 8 i F r i n £ i 1 1 a maritima Wilson. Amer. Orn. 181 1. 4: 68. pi. 34, fig. 2 Ammodramus maritimus DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 163, fig. 153 Passerherbulus maritimus maritimus A. 0. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 259. No. 550 maritimus, Lat., maritime, of the seaside Description. Olive grayish, more tinged with olive brown on the back and faintly streaked with grayish; crown olive on the side, grayish in the middle, producing three dimly defined broad stripes; a supraloral stripe of yellow passing to grayish white above the eye and giving way to a dim grayish olive stripe above the auriculars; auricular s and subnwhir streaks dusky; malar streak, throat and abdomen white, dimly tinged with buffy on the breast and sides (buffy absent in the breeding plumage); breast and sides indistinctly streaked with grayish; bend of the wing yellow. Length 6-6.5 inches; wing 2.5; tail 2.2; exposed culmen .52-. 58; depth of bill .29; tarsus .95. Distribution. This species inhabits the Atlantic seacoast from southern Massachusetts to Virginia, and winters from Virginia to Georgia. As a New York species it is confined to the salt and brackish marshes of Staten Island, Long Island and the lower Hudson river, as far up as Piermont. It is abundant on the salt marshes as a summer resident, arriving from April 20 to May 10, and departing from October 20 to 30. A few individuals remain through the winter with the Sharp-tailed sparrows and other species which frequent the tide- washed flats. Haunts and habits. It is rarely seen far from the cover of the rank grasses which cover its chosen habitat. Its call note is a squeaky " cheep" and it has a chippering song of no great melody, uttered from the top of 3OO NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM some reed or tall stalk just above the marsh. Its nest is concealed near the high water mark among the dense sedges, and is composed of coarse grasses and reed stalks. The eggs are 3 or 4 in number, white in ground color, spotted with purplish and brown; average size .80 by .64 inches. Chondestes grammacus grammacus (Say) Lark Sparrow Fringillg, gratnmaca Say. In Long's Exped. 1823. 1:139 (note) Chondestes grammacus grammacus A. 0. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 260. No. 552 chondestes, Or., meaning "grain-eating"; grdmmacus, evidently an incorrect form from gramma, line, intended to refer to the head stripes Description. A very sharply marked sparrow, a trifle larger than the Vesper sparrow. Crown of the head chestnut with a median stripe of huffy and superciliary stripes of buffy and white; auricular s chestnut; malar stripes buffy white like the superciliary; a black stripe through the eye; short, sharp, black rictal stripe leading back to the chestnut auricular s, and long black submalar stripes on each side of the white throat; under parts whitish; a black spot in the center of the breast; upper parts grayish brown striped on the back with blackish ; wings with two buffy white bars and a spot of the same at the base of the primaries ; central tail feathers similar to the back; all the others black conspicuously tipped with white and the outer pair with the outer web white for nearly its entire length. Length 6-6.75 inches; wing 3.5; tail 2.82; bill .45; tarsus .75. Distribution. This species inhabits the Mississippi valley east of the Great Plains from eastern Nebraska, northwestern Minnesota, central Wisconsin and Ohio to Louisiana and central Alabama; accidental in the Atlantic States during migration. In New York this species has been taken at least four times on Long Island, as follows: Sayville, August 20, 1879 (Earl, N. O. C. Bui. 6:58); Millers Place, November 27, 1899 (Helme, Auk, 17:296); Millers Place, November 1900 (Braislin, "Birds of Long Island," page 83); eastern Long Island, July 28, 1902 (Worthington, Auk, 19:403). It has also been reported from Oneida county, June 13, 1903 (Johnson, Auk, 21 :28i); and during the summer of 1911 Mr W. L. Dobbin found it breeding near his home in Monroe county. The birds were around BIRDS OF NEW YORK 301 for several weeks and he carefully identified them, though no specimens were taken. The nest and eggs were also discovered, and the young birds were successfully reared. This is the first record of its nesting in New York State, although I have expected every year to find that it had come into this region, as it already has appeared in northern and eastern Ohio and in western Pennsylvania, evidently extending its range gradually from the Mississippi valley, as the Prairie horned lark and Migrant shrike have done since the forests of western New York were cleared away. Haunts and habits. The Lark sparrow is a grassland bird, and may become established in New York, perhaps some day becoming one of our common sparrows. The nest is built on the ground, or near it in a thick bush, composed of grasses, rootlets and long hairs, very much like the nests of our other ground sparrows. The eggs are from 3 to 5, pinkish white in ground color, spotted and splashed with blackish brown; average size .80 by .60 inches. Zonotrichia leucophrys leucophrys (J. R. Forster) White-crowned Sparrow Plate 82 Embcriza 1 e u c o p h r y s Forster. Philos. Trans. 1772. 62:426 Fringilla 1 e u c o p h r y s DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt. 2, p. 153, fig. 139 Zonotrichia leucophrys leucophreys A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 261. No. 554 Zonotrichia, Gr., tiwvr], band, and "piX'a?, hairy one, alluding to the banded stripes on the head; leucophrys, Gr., white eyebrow Description. Crown with a broad central stripe of white bordered by 2 deep black stripes reaching from the base of the bill to the occiput; side of the head with a stripe of white beginning just above the eye and reaching backward, joining the central crown stripe on the occiput; black stripe passing through the eye and below the white stripe just mentioned back to the side of the neck. Thus from the eye over the crown there are 4 stripes of black and 3 of white, making the head of this bird more conspicuously black and white striped than that of any other native species. Side of the head and neck ashy gray; throat lighter, almost white; the breast light gray fading on the abdomen to white; flanks buffy brown; under tail coverts buffy; back gray streaked with chestnut-brown and grayish white; rump and upper 302 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM tail coverts light hair brown; tail a darker hair brown; wings with 2 white bars formed by the tips of the coverts; the secondaries streaked with chestnut and whitish; bill and feet pinkish brown. Voting, in the fall much more ocherous in color, the crown light chestnut rufous on the sides with a median stripe of ocherous, but not strongly contrasted with the chestnut rufous; the line backward from the eye more grayish in color but not white as in the adult; bill and legs, however, a brown, almost as pinkish as in the adult. Length 6.75-7.5 inches; extent 9.85-10.3; wing 3-3.3; tail 2.8-3.1; exposed culmen .42; tarsus .95. Distribution. This subspecies of the White-crowned sparrow breeds from central Keewatin and northern Ungava to southeastern Keewatin, central Quebec and southern Greenland, and in the mountains to southern Oregon and central California, Wyoming and New Mexico; winters from southern Kansas, the Ohio valley and the Potomac valley to Mississippi and the Mexican plateau. In New York this bird has been reported as breeding on 2 or 3 occasions in the northern part of the State but, as no breeding specimens have ever been taken and as the nest and eggs have not been positively identified by comparison with unquestioned specimens of the species, I am inclined to think that these records are based on errors. No one has been able to find the White-crowned sparrow nesting in any portion of the Adiron- dacks or of the surrounding country in recent years. It is, however, a common transient in nearly all portions of the State, arriving from the south, in the warmer districts, from the 23d to the 3Oth of April; in other parts of the State from the ist to the I2th of May, .and passes northward from the i8th to the 25th or even the 3Oth of May. In the fall the first arrivals are recorded between the 25th of September and the I2th of October, the species passing on to the south usually between the 10th and the 24th of October, although specimens are sometimes observed in the southern part of the State as late as the i7th of November; and one or two winter records of birds seen have been reported. Haunts and habits. This is one of our neatest and most elegant sparrows, usually found in more open places than the White-throat, espe- BIRDS OF NEW YORK 303 cially along old fences, hedgerows, stone piles and weed fields, retreating to a cover of sparse shrubbery when disturbed. It is even less wild and suspicious by nature than the White-throat and will frequently allow one to approach within a few feet without the slightest concern. Bird students have frequently reported to me that they have seen a White-crowned sparrow when it was only a white-throat, but one who has really seen a White-crowned sparrow can never be in doubt for a moment, its prevailing gray coloration on the upper parts being in decided contrast to the more rufous and rusty hue of the White-throat's back. This species also has much more white about the striping of the crown and no yellowish in front of the eye. The song of the White-crown is one of the finest of our sparrow melodies, resembling somewhat the latter portion of the White-throat's performance, but repeated several times. It has a peculiarly pleasing, pathetic quality, a clear soft whistle, " a peculiar sad cadence," among its near relatives ranking next to the Fox sparrow's in my estimation. Zonotrichia leucophrys gambeli (Nuttall) Gambel Sparrow Fringilla gambelii Nuttall. Manual Orn. Ed. 2. 1840. 1:556 Zonotrichia leucophrys gambel A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 262. No. 554a gdmbeli, to William Gambel of Philadelphia Description. Almost exactly like the White-crowned sparrow, but the lores entirely whitish, the white superciliary stripe continuing forward to the bill; bill yellowish; size very slightly less than the White-crowned sparrow. Distribution. The Gambel sparrow breeds from Montana and eastern Oregon north- ward to Alaska and Anderson river, passing the winter in Mexico and Lower California. This western species has been taken once in New York State, at Ithaca, April 30, 1898, a male in full plumage, by Louis A. Fuertes. The specimen is perfectly typical of the subspecies gambeli and may be regarded either as a straggler from the western states or as an aberrant form or mutant of leucophrys. In any case, its occurrence here is purely accidental. 304 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Zonotrichia albicollis (Gmelin) White-throated Sparrow Plate 82 Fringilla albicollis Gmelin. Syst. Nat. 1 789. 1:921 Fringilla pennsylvanica DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 152, fig. 141 Zonotrichia albicollis A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 262. No. 558 albicollis, Lat., white-throated Description. Adult: Slightly smaller than the White-crowned sparrow; sides of the head and neck and upper breast ashy gray; chin and throat white, edged on the sides by narrow black streaks, and sometimes along the lower margin next the ashy gray of the breast; crown with alternate stripes of blackish and white, the central stripe being a narrow white one with 2 broad black ones on either side ; white stripe also from above the eye passing to the side of the neck and a black stripe passing backward from the eye, making altogether 4 black stripes and j white ones on the upper part of the head; a yellow stripe from the nostril to just above the eye; upper parts streaked with rufous, ocherous and blackish; wings with 2 whitish bars formed by the tips of the coverts; lower back, rump and upper tail coverts plain grayish brown; tail similar in color but slightly darker; sides and flanks grayish brown; lower breast and abdomen white. Immature of both sexes in the fall or during the second year show the same pattern of coloration, but the black and white stripes of the head are almost obsolete, the yellow in front of the eye scarcely distinguishable at a distance of 10 feet, and the throat almost the color of the dingy ashy gray breast; otherwise like the adult. Young in the first plumage: The forebreast streaked with dusky and the general color of the lower parts more buffy. Females are usually duller than the males of the same age. Length 6.6-6.8 inches; extent 9.5-10; wing 2.9; tail 2.86; exposed bill .44; tarsus .9. Distribution. The breeding range of the White-throat extends from northern Mackenzie, central Keewatin and southern Ungava to Alberta, southern Montana, central Minnesota, southern Ontario and the mountains of Pennsylvania and New York. It winters from the Ohio valley and Connecticut, south to Florida and northeastern Mexico. In New York it nests in the Canadian zone of the Catskills and Adi- rondacks, and is one of the commonest birds breeding in our north woods. A few also breed in the higher forests along the Pennsylvania border of BIRDS OF NEW YORK 305 southwestern New York. During the month of June 1911, Mr C. F. Stone heard a White-throat in full song and found the nest and eggs, in Potter .s\vamp, Yates county, N. Y. It has also been found breeding two or three times in the vicinity of Peterboro (Gerrett S. Miller), and in Oswego county, and in the woods near Cooperstown, Otsego lake, but it is more boreal in distribution as a breeding species throughout central and western New York than the Junco or even than the Winter wren. In the southern part of New York a few white-throats pass the winter, but it is mainly a migratory species in the southern and central portions of the State, arriving from the south from the 26. to the i6th of April, sometimes not appearing before the 24th or 3Oth in the more northerly counties. Through- out western New York the species has passed on to its summer home, usually from the I4th to the 22d of May. Occasionally, however, migrants are noticed as late as the 3Oth of May or the 2d of June. In the fall the migration begins from the 2d to the 2Oth of September, sometimes not before the 3Oth in the southern counties. The greater number have passed farther south between the i6th and 3Oth of October, though a few are still noted through November and as late as December 8th. As mentioned above, a few in the southeastern part of the State remain throughout the winter and a very few are winter residents in western New York. Haunts and habits. During the migration season the White-throat is seen familiarly about our gardens and lawns, shrubbery and hedgerows, appearing in pairs or scattered companies usually of from 10 to 30 indi- viduals hopping about on the ground and scratching the dead leaves in search of seeds and insects, but spending a portion of its time in the shrubbery and trees. The alarm note is a sharp " chip," and a call of less concern is like the sst of the Song sparrow. Its song is heard during the migration season, at least after it has been with us for a few days, especially in the morning and late in the afternoon and on rainy days. It consists of 2 high, clear, whistled notes succeeded by a triple trill usually fading away and dropping at the last. In New England it has been likened to the words " Old Sam Peabody, Peabody, Peabody," or " Sow wheat, Peeverly, 306 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Peeverly, Peeverly "; but farther north he is supposed to say, "Oh, sweet, Canada, Canada, Canada." The song is rather plaintive and delivered in a minor key, but is one of the sweetest songs among the sparrows especially when heard along the northern trout streams or in the cool spruce forests or in the moonlight night from near one's camp in the deep woods. The White-throat breeds not only in the clearings, but more or less throughout the coniferous forest of the Adirondacks, especially near the streams and borders of swamps, or wherever the wind or fire has made small openings in the woods. The nest will be found on the ground or near it in a thick bush, composed of coarse grasses and rootlets, mosses and strips of bark, lined with finer materials. The eggs are 4 or 5 in number, bluish white speckled and blotched with pale reddish brown and obscure shell markings. They average .83 by .60 inches in dimensions. Judging from the fact that I found nests with fresh eggs as late as the 2Oth of July, I am inclined to think that two broods are usually reared in the Adirondack district. The first sets of eggs are found late in May or during the first half of June. Spizella monticola monticola (Gmelin) Tree Sparrow Plate So Fringilla monticola Gmelin. Syst. Nat. 1789. 1:912 Emberiza canadensis DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 160, fig. 164 Spizella monticola monticola A. 0. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 263. No. 559 Spizella, Lat., diminutive, from Gr., raftX finch; monticola, Lat., mountain inhabitant Description. Crown chestnut rufous; a rufous stripe backward from the eye, and a spot of the same on either side of the breast near the bend of the wing; superciliary stripe and the greater portion of the sides of the head and the neck gray; back striped with rusty brown, blackish and huffy whitish; scapulars and inner wing feathers similar to back; 2 conspicuous white wing bars; lower back and tail coverts plain grayish brown ; tail dusky grayish, the feathers edged with grayish white; under part dingy whitish tinged with grayish brown on the sides ; a blackish spot on the center of the breast; bill yellowish at the base of the lower mandible, dusky at the tip. Length 6.36 inches; extent 9.5; wing 3; tail 2.82; bill .41; tarsus .8. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 307 Distribution. The Tree sparrow is a common winter resident in this State. It makes its appearance in the fall between the 2Oth of September and the loth of October, and passes northward again in the spring between the loth and the 25th of April, occasionally being seen as late as the first week in May. Its breeding range extends from Great Bear lake and northern Ungava to Great Slave lake, northern Quebec and Newfound- land. It winters from southern Minnesota, Ontario and Nova Scotia to Arkansas and South Carolina. Haunts and habits. This sparrow is one of our commonest winter birds. It is found along the edges of woodlands and hedgerows, and is especially fond of swamps and the borders of rivers and ponds, frequenting the shrubbery for protection and making excursions into the near-by fields to feed on the weed seeds, of which it destroys immense numbers during the course of the winter months. It is rarely seen feeding on the seeds of birches or other trees which retain their fruit in winter, but almost always near the ground in patches of smartweed, ragweed, pigeon grass, amaranth and goosefoot. They are slightly gregarious in habits, little scattered companies of 20 to 30 members usually associating more or less with j uncos, Song sparrows and goldfinches in their feeding. While at work among the weeds they keep up a continual tinkling of notes which have been compared to the syllables " teel-wit," but sound to my ear merely like the jingling of tiny bells. In March and April, however, the Tree sparrow gives his contribution to the spring chorus, a beautiful strain of long drawn notes which has been compared by many writers to the song of a Canary, beginning loud and clear, far sweeter than the quality of the Canary's voice, and ending in a loud, inspiring trill. Besides the tinkling call notes, this species also has a feeble " tsip " of alarm when disturbed. The flight of the Tree sparrow is less jerky and dodging than that of the Song sparrow and more easily sustained. He is rather spritely in movements and more given to seeking exposed perches than either the Song sparrow or the Junco, and is frequently seen, after being driven from his 308 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM coverts, perching on a tree or cat-tail flirting his tail and erecting the crown feathers so that he appears to have a well-developed crest. Even when associated with the Chipping sparrow or the Field sparrow, which he resembles in general coloration, he should easily be distinguished by greater size and the single spot in the center of his breast. Spizella passerina passerina (Bechstein) Chipping Sparrow Plate 83 Fringilla passerina Bechstein. In Latham. Allg. Ueb. Vogcl. 1 798. 3 : 544. pi. 120, fig. i Emberiza socialis DcKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 159, fig. 160 Spizella passerina passerina A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 263. No. 560 passerina, Lat., of a sparrow, or like a sparrow Description. Small, slender, tail slightly forked; bill rather slender for a sparrow. Crown deep rufous chestnut or copper colored, blackening near the bill; superciliary line whitish; narrow black line through the eye; bill black; sides of the head and neck mostly gray; back and scapulars striped with rusty brown, blackish and grayish brown; rump and tail coverts ashy gray; primaries and tail feathers dusky grayish; entire under parts grayish white. Young: Lack the rufous crown and streaked with dusky on the breast. Length 5.36 inches; extent 8.75; wing 2.75; tail 2.3; bill .36; tarsus .64. Distribution. This species is a common summer resident of New York State, except the densely forested regions, usually arriving from the 27th of March to the I2th of April, but has occasionally been noted as early as the 1 7th of February in the southern counties. In the fall it disappears between the I5th of October and the loth of November, sometimes as late as the 3Oth. The breeding range of this subspecies extends from central Saskatchewan, southwestern Keewatin, central Quebec and Cape Breton to central Texas, Mississippi and central Georgia; winters in the southern states. Haunts and habits. None of our native sparrows except the Song sparrow is more familiar than the Chippy, which is found everywhere in BIRDS OF NEW YORK 309 New York about the farmyard, the garden, the orchard and in the groves and parks, but more particularly near the habitations of men, frequently placing its nest on the ampelopsis or honeysuckle which climbs on the porch, and in the shrubbery or young evergreens on the lawn or in the garden. It feeds both on the ground and among the trees and foliage, in the fall and spring mostly on the ground, subsisting on the weed and grass seeds which are scattered about, and during the summer taking its food largely from the insects of the garden, apple and shade trees. Green caterpillars and beetles are the favorite food for its young. I have counted as many as 70 green caterpillars brought by a Chipping sparrow in an hour and a quarter to feed 4 young that were being reared in a grape vine which screened our porch. Two broods are usually hatched in a season. The first sets of eggs will be found between the 2d and the 2Oth of May in the warmer portions of the State, and eggs for the second brood may be found from the 2Oth of June to the 3Oth of July. The nest is composed mostly of rootlets with a few grass stalks, and lined with horse hair, which has given this sparrow in many parts of the country the name of Hair bird. The eggs are 4 or 5 in number, a beautiful greenish blue, almost always wreathed near the larger end with blackish and reddish brown blotches and pen lines. They average .72 by .51 inches in dimensions. The song of the Chipping sparrow is a thin, monotonous trill like the syllables " chip, chip, chip, chip, chip," often uttered incessantly or with little intermission for hours during the day. It can not be called an agree- able song. Besides this, it has a call note, a slight " tsip" The song, to my ear, is more harsh and insectlike than the trill of the Savannah sparrow, which is comparatively musical, and much higher and thinner in quality than the trill of the Junco. 3IO NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Spizella pusilla pusilla (Wilson) Field Sparrow Plate 83 Fringilla pusilla Wilson. Amer. Orn. 1810. 2:121. pi. 1 6, fig. 2 Emberiza pusilla DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 158, fig. 152 Spizella pusilla pusilla A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 265. No. 56.3 pusilla, Lat., very small Description. About the size of the Chippy, but with longer tail; crown chestnut rufous, also a postocular stripe and spot on the side of the breast near the bend of the wing of the same color; the back similar to the Chipping sparrow, but more extensively rufous; rump and upper tail coverts less gray but more hair brown in color; wing bars rather incon- spicuous; under parts dingy whitish, tinged somewhat on the breast and sides with grayish buff; bill and legs pinkish brown. Young in first plumage duller colored and streaked on the breast with darker. Length 5.68 inches; extent 8.15; wing 2.5; tail 2.55; bill .36; tarsus .74. Distribution. The Field sparrow is a common summer resident of the greater portion of New York State, though absent from the higher portions of the Catskills and the Adirondack forest, and decidedly less common than the Chippy in the northern districts. The spring migration begins between the 2Oth of March and the 6th of April. In the fall the greater portion disappear between October I5th and November loth, but in the southern part of the State, especially on Long Island and in the vicinity of New York City, a few pass the winter. The breeding range of this subspecies extends from southern Minnesota, southern Quebec and southern Maine to Texas, Louisiana and northern Florida. The principal winter range is from Missouri and New Jersey to the gulf coast. Haunts and habits. The haunts of the Field sparrow are bushy hillsides and berry patches, edges of woodlands with a considerable under- growth, hedgerows and neglected gardens. Wherever the Indigo bird and Chewink find a convenient home, here the Field sparrow will be plentiful. It feeds mostly upon the ground and among the low shrubbery, like the Chipping sparrow, in the fall, winter and spring subsisting almost BIRDS OF NEW YORK 31 1 entirely on weed seeds, and during the summer largely on smooth cater- pillars, young grasshoppers, beetles and other insects. The call note of the Field sparrow is a gentle " tsip." His song is a beautiful performance delivered in a minor key, but almost endlessly varied by different individuals. It usually begins with two or three clear, high-pitched notes, followed by a rapid run of numerous shorter notes, often in a descending scale, but sometimes in a rising trill and ending in a clear sustained note. Occasionally the song seems inverted, beginning with a run and ending with the high, long tones; and frequently the per- formance is immediately repeated with slight variation of its original form, or in a wholly different key. What the Vesper sparrow is to the wide grassy fields, the Field sparrow is to the brushy hillside, pouring forth his pensive strain both in the morning and at the close of day, and inspiring the passerby to gentler and more humanizing reflections. The nesting season begins early in May, the first sets of eggs being found between the I4th and 25th of May; later sets from the 2ist of June to the 2 1st of July. The nest is usually placed on the ground or in a thick bush not far above it; composed of coarse grass stalks, weeds and rootlets, and lined with fine grasses and hair. The eggs are 3 to 5 in number, grayish white or bluish white in ground color, speckled and spotted with reddish brown and obscure shell markings thickest near the larger end of the egg. Average size .7 by .52 inches. Junco hyemalis hy emails (Linnaeus) Slate-colored Junco Plate &2 Fringilla hyemalis Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. Ed. 10. 1758. 1:183 Struthus hyemalis DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 147, fig. 138 Junco hyemalis hyemalis A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 266, %• 567 junco, derivation uncertain, Coues says, from Lat., juncus, a reed; hyemalis, Lat., of winter Description. Upper parts, and the head, neck and breast, slaty gray; under parts from the middle of the breast to the under tail coverts white, 312 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the slaty gray of the upper breast giving way abruptly to the pure white of the lower breast and abdomen ; 3 outer tail feathers largely white, showing conspicuously in flight; bill pinkish white. Fall birds, especially young and females, more or less tinged with brownish. Females: Similar to males but lighter slate gray and more dingy or brownish. Length 6.2-6.4 inches; extent 9.8; wing 3-3.25; tail 2.7-2.9; bill .41; tarsus .82. Distribution. This subspecies of the Junco breeds from northwestern Alaska, northern Mackenzie and central Ungava to southern Yukon, central Alberta, northern Minnesota, Ontario and the mountains of New York, Pennsylvania and Massachusetts. Winters throughout the eastern states from Ontario to the gulf coast. In New York this is a very abundant species, one of the commonest birds nesting throughout the Catskill and Adirondack districts, and also fairly common as a breeding species in the highlands of western New York which lie above the 1200 foot line. A few pairs are also found in many of the colder swamps and gulleys of central and western New York as summer residents. In the warmer portions of the State it is a very abundant migrant in April and October, and a common or fairly common winter resident. Throughout the low- lands of western and central New York and the Hudson valley the Junco passes northward from the 22d of April to the 5th of May. I have seen a few dull-colored migrants as late as the I2th and the 23d of May in the vicinity of Rochester, Geneva and Canandaigua. In the fall, migrants begin to appear from the nth to the 28th of September, in the southern- most parts of the State sometimes not before the 4th to the 1 2th of October. Among the members of the sparrow family, this species rivals the Song sparrow, Vesper sparrow, Savannah sparrow and Chipping sparrow for the place of greatest abundance during the spring and fall migration, probably being as abundant as the Song sparrow in most localities; while along the principal highways of migration to the North Woods, it is the most abundant member of the family. Haunts and habits. The Slate-colored junco or common snowbird, as it is frequently called, is very gentle and unsuspicious in habits, coming BIRDS OF NEW YORK 313 familiarly into the garden and dooryard to feed on waste crumbs, weed seeds and whatever insects it can pick up among the grass and shrubbery. They nearly always travel in scattered companies, sometimes as many as 40 or 50 birds being seen on the lawn at the same time, and though not strictly gregarious the little company keeps together. When one is dis- turbed it flies off with a smack of alarm which, together with its flashing white tail feathers, act as signals to warn and direct the brotherhood. When quarreling, especially when fighting on the wing, they utter a curious mellow note sounding like the whistled syllables pu-pn-pu. While feeding, the members of the company keep up a merry twittering note. The flight is rather jerky, although they do not pump their tails so decidedly as the Song sparrow in flight, but at nearly every wing stroke the white tail feathers flash, making an easy recognition mark for the species. These little sparrows do an immense amount of good by destroying countless weed seeds during the fall, winter and spring months, and also by feeding on many dormant insects which might do harm in the summer. For a summer home the Junco prefers damp woodland. The north woods of spruce and balsam, with moist moss on the ground, are most to his liking. Whatever pairs I have found nesting in western New York have been in damp gulleys, swamps and cool shaded hillsides. The nest has usually been placed on a mossy bank or among overhanging ferns and other woodland plants. The materials of the nest are stalks of grass, bits of bark, rootlets, mosses, and a lining of finer grass, leaves, bits of moss and long hair. The eggs are 4 or 5 in number, of a white or pinkish white ground color, more or less speckled and blotched with rufous brown and obscure lilac shell markings, tending to form a wreath near the larger end of the egg, rather broadly ovate in shape, and measuring about .76 by .60 inches in dimensions. Besides its various call notes and notes of alarm, the Junco has at least two distinct songs, one a simple trill which is to be compared to the song of the Chipping sparrow, though carrying much farther and, to my ear, more melodious in quality. The other song is described by Bicknell 314 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM as a whispering warble usually much broken but not without sweetness and sometimes continuing intermittently for many minutes. This is evidently the song described by Florence Merriam as " low, sweet and as unpretentious and cheery as the friendly bird himself." Junco hyemalis carolinensis Brewster Carolina Junco Junco hyemalis carolinensis Brewster. Auk. Jan. 1886. 3:108 A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 267. No. 5676 Description. Very similar to the Slate-colored junco, but the slaty gray more uniform, slightly lighter, the head not decidedly darker than the rest of the plumage; the bill light bluish horn-colored instead of pinkish white as in the common Junco. The dimensions of this subspecies very slightly exceed the average of the common Junco, especially the length of the bill, but the difference is not sufficient to decide the identity of any individual specimen. Distribution. This subspecies of the Junco breeds in the higher Alleghanies " from Maryland to northern Georgia." According to the range published by the A. O. U., third edition, the winter range is in the adjacent lowlands. It is evident that New York State lies outside the supposed range of this subspecies and many members of the American Ornithologist Union who believe in the validity of the form would not credit the occur- rence of this subspecies within the limits of New York State; but Dr Jonathan Dwight, jr, who has made a special study of juncos, after examining a long series of skins taken on Long Island and in other portions of central and southeastern New York, states that " if there is any Junco hyemalis carolinensis, many individuals in this New York series must be assigned to that subspecies." On authority of this statement I have included this subspecies as occurring in New York State, and it is evident that unless the identity of the subspecies is to be decided entirely by the locality where it was taken, rather than from its evident characteristics, this subspecies must be admitted as occurring in New York. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 315 Melospiza melodia melodia (Wilson) Song Sparrow Plate 84 Frin^'illa melodia Wilson. Amer. Orn. 1810. 2:125. pi. 16, fig. 4 DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 150, fig. 156 Melospiza melodia melodia A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 272. No. 581 melospiza, Gr., [xD-o;;, song, and