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iMued August 31, IVll.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF SOILS— CIRCULAR No. 39.
MILTON WHITNEY, Chief of Bureau.

SOILS OF THE EASTERN IffllTED STATES AND THEIR USE— XVtt

THE PORTERS LOAM AND PORTERS
BLACK LOAM.

BY

JAY A. BONSTEEL,

Scientist in Soil Survey.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,

1911.

BUREAU OF SOILS.

Milton Whitney, Chief of Bureau.
Albert G. Rice, Chief Clerk.

SCIENTIFIC STAFF. (

Frank K. Cameron, in charge of Physical and Chemical Investigations.
Curtis F. Marbut, in charge of Soil Survey.
Oswald Schreiner, in charge of Fertility Investigations.
2

SOILS OF THE EASTERN UNITED STATES AND THEIR USE-XVII.

THE PORTERS LOAM AND PORTERS BLACK LOAM.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

The Porters loam and Porters black loam are two intimately asso-
ciated types of soil which occur only at the higher elevations in the
eastern ranges of the Appalachian system from Virginia southward
through North Carolina into the extreme western portion of South
Carolina, Although of limited geographical extent, these soils pos-
sess probably the greatest range in altitude of any types occurring
east of the Rocky Mountains, since they extend from the low foot-
hills along the eastern slope of the Blue Ridge Mountains to the ex-
treme summits of the highest Appalachian peaks, covering the slopes
and even the top of Mount Mitchell, at an altitude in excess of 6,700
feet. The Porters loam has been mapped in four different soil survey
areas in the States of North Carolina and South Carolina to the total
extent of 436,160 acres, while the Porters black loam has been encoun-
tered in seven areas in Virginia and North Carolina, and a total
area of 193,550 acres has been included in these surveys.

CHARACTERISTIC OF SOIL AND SUBSOIL.

The surface soil of the Porters loam to a depth ranging from 6
to 15 inches is a dark-brown, reddish-brown, or sometimes gray loam.
The subsoil to a depth of 3 feet or more is a reddish-brown clay loam,
immediately beneath the soil, but grades down into a heavier red
clay at greater depths. Small fragments and masses of the parent
rock are numerous in the subsoil, and are frequently found in the
surface soil, although they only accumulate sufficiently to interfere
with cultivation over small local areas. The Porters loam is readily
distinguishable from all other soils of the eastern United States
through the fact that it is the characteristic soil type of the moun-
tain slopes of the western portions of both North Carolina and
South Carolina. It lies at the higher altitudes over the foothills
and flanks of the mountains and occupies even the crests of the foot-
hills and lower ridges. It is distinguished from the mountain soils

3

4 SOILS OP THE EASTERN UNITED STATES.

of all other series through the fact that it is derived from the crystal-
line rocks, chiefly granites, gneisses, and mica schists, and through
the fact of the yellowish-red or deep-red color of the subsoil. In
this latter respect it resembles the soils of the Cecil series, which
are confined to the lower, Piedmont region, lying at the eastern
foot of the mountains. It is separable from the soils of the latter
series chiefly through its more rolling and mountainous surface
features and through its occurrence at considerably higher altitudes.
The surface soil of the Porters black loam is a rich, dark loam
having an average depth of about 15 inches, but ranging in depth
from 5 or 6 inches to a maximum of 2 or 3 feet. It is not infre-
quently mixed with rounded and angular fragments of rock varying
in size from a few inches to several feet in diameter. The im-
mediate subsoil is usually a brown or reddish-brown loam which
grades downward into a heavy red clay at greater depths, as is
the case with the Porters loam. The surface soil of the Porters
black loam consists of the partly decayed organic remains of a heavy
vegetative growth mingled with the broken fragments and the finer
earth formed through the decay in place of the gneisses, granites,
and other eruptive rocks at the higher altitudes in the eastern
Appalachian ranges and particularly in the north sloping coves to
be found between the ridges in this mountainous country. It is
easily distinguishable from all other members of the Porters series
through the deep, dark-colored surface soil, rich in organic matter,
while, like the Porters loam and the other members of the same
series, it is the only mountain soil possessing a dark-red subsoil.

SURFACE FEATURES AND DRAINAGE.

Both the Porters loam and the Porters black loam are distinctively
mountain soils occurring at all elevations in the eastern ranges of the
Appalachian Mountains from an altitude of 850 or 900 feet in the
foothills to altitudes of 3,000 and 4,000 feet in the main ridges and
even attaining to an altitude of 6,700 feet above tide at the top of
Mount Mitchell in North Carolina. The country throughout which
these two types prevail is marked by extreme ruggedness. Some of
the mountain slopes are so steep as to render their cultivation un-
profitable, or in many places even impossible. On the higher plateau
portion marking the crests of the main ridges in western North Caro-
lina are superimposed many cross-chains of mountains, the most
notable of these being the Newfound Mountains and the Black Moun-
tains. In the Blue Ridge section of western Virginia the altitudes
rise nearly 4,000 feet above tidewater and the mountain country is
characterized by a smooth broad-topped ridge which is flanked on
either slope by spurs and sharp knobs which descend to the foothills,

THE POBTERS LOAM AND PORTERS BLACK LOAM. 5

bordering the Piedmont section to the east and the Great Valley
region to the west. Thus throughout the entire extent of the terri-
tory which the soils of the Porters series dominate, and where the
Porters loam and black loam have their greatest development, the
topography is that of the highest ridges and most notable mountain
peaks in the eastern portion of the United States.

The Porters loam and black loam are found at all altitudes within
this mountainous region, rising gently over the bordering foothills,
occupying the rolling floors of the intermountain valleys, and form-
ing the dominant soils of the minor valleys and the coves which are
included between the principal ranges and which are enfolded within
the minor ridges and cross ridges of the mountain system.

In general the Porters loam is most extensively developed in the
intermountain valleys and over the lower foothills, although it is
found also upon the flanks of the lower mountains and across the
crests of the smaller ridges. The Porters black loam, on the other
hand, occurs almost universally at some elevation, and is prevalent
upon the northern, northeastern, and northwestern slopes of the
higher mountains and within the more elevated coves having the same
exposure. It occupies practically all of the soil areas to be found
upon the flanks and the higher peaks of Mount Mitchell.

These two soil types occupy practically all of the territory which
may become subject to agricultural occupation in this general region,
although not nearly all of the area, even of these two types, is topo-
graphically so situated that it may be brought under cultivation.
Only other subordinate types of the Porters series with some minor
local types constitute the remainder of the farm land of this mountain
section, while vast areas are too stony for cultivation or consist of
rocky ledges and steep slopes totally unsuited to agricultural occu-
pation. Thus the Porters loam and the Porters black loam constitute
the principal agricultural soils of the south-central portion of the
more eastern Appalachian ranges.

Owing to the elevated mountainous position of the Porters
loam and the Porters black loam, drainage is excellent throughout
practically all portions of both types. The slopes are considerable and
the heavy precipitation of the higher mountain regions gives rise
to the formation of many large mountain springs and of innumerable
smaller streams which coalesce to form the larger southeastern rivers
which have their sources in the Appalachian system and flow, thence,
both to the Atlantic Ocean and to the eastern tributaries of the
Mississippi River.

The region is one of heavy to excessive rainfalls, due to its high alti-
tude and to the interception of moisture-laden air currents by the
mountain peaks and ranges. In consequence of the heavy rainfall
and the steep slopes of this section, erosion is apt to be excessive

6 SOILS OF THE EASTERN UNITED STATES.

over any portion of either type of soil which, through continued cul-
tivation, is exposed to washing. As a result many fields, particularly
of the Porters loam, which have been cleared and brought under
cultivation in the past have been so severely gullied and washed
that further cultivation has become impossible, and a considerable
proportion of the area of the type once cleared has been allowed to
revert to a forested or a brushy condition. Over other considerable
areas the persistence of at least some portion of the original forest
has prevented the excessive erosion, but the cutting of the forest
cover would undoubtedly result in the rapid bodily removal of the
surface soil and of considerable portions even of the subsoil.

In consequence of rough topography, of the remote location of con-
siderable areas of both types from transportation and from market,
and of a strong tendency toward excessive erosion, only small propor-
tions of the Porters loam and Porters black loam are now occupied
for agricultural purposes.

LIMITATIONS IN USE.

The Porters loam is well suited by its texture and other physical
characteristics to the production of the general farm crops adapted
to the climate in which it occurs. It is not particularly well suited
to any special crops, with the possible exception of Irish potatoes and
cabbages. There are many restrictions upon its possible uses which
are imposed, not by the character of the soil itself, but by the topog-
raphy of the region which it occupies and by the limitations of trans-
portation facilities. Frequently after a few years of cultivation the
organic matter content of the surface soil of the Porters loam be-
comes decidedly reduced, and if at the same time this is accompanied
by serious erosion, large areas of the surface soil are bodily removed
and the farmer finds himself dealing with the less tractable and less
productive subsoil materials.

Erosion is probably the most serious problem which is encountered
in the agricultural occupation of the Porters loam or Porters black
loam. Torrential rainfall occurs not only during the earlier spring
months, but at all periods of the growing season. The slopes within
the areas of these two types range from a 7° or 8° slope to maximum
slopes of 30° and 35°. The latter are altogether too steep for culti-
vation and should never have been cleared. Even the lighter slopes
are so great as to give rise to rapid run-oflf of the rain water and to
the speedy removal of surface soil, unless special precautions are
taken to retain it in its place. As a result, deep gashes and gullies
have been cut through many cultivable fields, and entire farms and
even districts have been ruined for all present agricultural purposes
through the excessive erosion of the soil. A part of this damage has
been needless, since ordinary precautions would have made possible

THE PORTERS LOAM AND PORTERS BLACK LOAM. 7

the tillage of the more gently sloping areas. A part of the damage,
however, has been inevitable, particularly upon the steeper slopes,
since no agricultural methods lying within the means of the indi-
vidual farmers could prevent the erosion of tilled soils upon slopes
in excess of 20°. Forestation is the only remedy for erosion
upon these steeper slopes, and such lands should never have been
cleared of their entire forest growth in the first place. Thus the
areas of the Porters loam and Porters black loam, which may be
tilled with any profit, are decidedly limited by the slopes and the
resultant erosion effects of rapidly flowing water.

There are other tillage difficulties in connection with the cultiva-
tion of the Porters loam and black loam. In general, the individual
areas capable of cultivation are of small extent, and even in the
more gently sloping portions of such fields the use of power ma-
chinery is totally eliminated both by the small size of the field and
by the considerable slope of the surface of the land. Throughout a
considerable portion of the area where both types occur, the use of
the one-horse or one-mule plow is prevalent and the majority of
such plows have the movable moldboard which enables the operator
to plow back and forth across the field, always turning the furrow in
one direction. Similarly the majority of other tillage operations
must be carried on through the use of a single animal for motive
power and through the employment of the light-weight, small-sized
tillage instruments. Both seeding and planting must be done largely
by hand, and the grain crop must be secured through the use of hand
implements. Even the thrashing of the grain becomes a matter of
some difficulty, since only small-sized oufits can travel the moun-
tain roads to thrash out the grain. There are thus topographic
limitations upon the cropping of these soils which not only decrease
the efficiency of both types in the production of the common crops,
but also, over a considerable proportion of their extent, prevent
the introduction of special crops suited to these soils and to their
climatic environment.

Although the Porters loam and black loam occur only over a
narrow range of latitude, the great range in altitude occupied by
the types gives rise to considerable differences in the climatic sur-
roundings. At the lower altitudes in South Carolina and in North
Carolina the Porters loam is frequently planted to cotton and a fair
crop is produced. At higher altitudes and in more northern sections
this crop is totally eliminated and only the grains and the grasses
may be grown. In the higher altitudes the production of any crops,
except rye, buckwheat, potatoes, and grass, is made impossible be-
cause of climatic conditions, while at the highest altitudes, as on the
flanks of Mount Mitchell, not only are farm crops eliminated, but
the mountains themselves are bare of practically all tree growth.

8 SOILS OP THE EASTERN UNITED STATES.

Thus the range in altitude within the limits covered by the two types
gives rise to a wide climatic variation, limiting the characteristic
crops which may be grown in the different zones of this elevation.
This climatic environment, due to altitude, will be discussed more
fully in the consideration of fruit crops suited to production upon
the Porters black loam. •

IMPROVEMENT IN SOIL EFFICIENCy.

The chief improvement in the effective cultivation of both the
Porters loam and the Porters black loam should consist in the adop-
tion of methods whereby excessive erosion could be held in check. The
most effective methods for the prevention of soil erosion in mountain-
ous sections consist in the terracing of the cultivated fields, whereby
narrow, almost horizontal strips are left to grow up to grass, separat-
ing the tilled areas from each other in concentric bands and permit-
ting surface waters to flow directly down hill only for short distances
until they are checked against the grass-covered terraces. The sys-
tem of terracing must necessarily be combined with that of contour
farming. This method consists of laying out the rows of all inter-
tilled crops in a nearly horizontal alignment around the slopes of
the hills, so that the water furrows between the rows have only a
gentle gradation and no great velocity can be gained by the rain
water flowing across the surface. Upon the more gentle slopes this
method of combined terracing and contour farming is usually ade-
quate to check the gullying and the more serious erosion of the field.
It is also desirable in the tillage of the land to use cover crops which
will occupy the soil during the winter and spring months to form a
mat of surface vegetation and to assist, through the binding action
of the roots, in retaining the soils in place.

Throughout the area occupied by the Porters loam and Porters
black loam rye and winter wheat are possibly the best crops for this
purpose. Upon the Porters black loam, owing to the large amount of
organic matter present in the surface soil, some little difficulty is
experienced in the production of these two crops for grain through
the " heaving out " of the crops by freezing and thawing during the
earlier spring months. This, however, should not interfere with the
use of the crops to prevent erosion, even though the grain yield is
somewhat reduced. In the case of the Porters loam it would also
be particularly desirable to incorporate additional amounts of
organic matter in the surface soil and gradually to increase the depth
of plowing, in order that a deeper absorbing reserv^oir might be
formed for the rain water, thus preventing the bodily slipping away
of the surface soil when it is in a saturated condition and the under-
lying clay is thoroughly lubricated by the excess of moisture.

THE PORTERS LOAM AND PORTERS BLACK LOAM. 9

The adoption of these methods for the prevention of erosion would
considerably increase the extent of the area capable of cultivation in
the case of the Porters loam, and would somewhat extend it even in
•the case of the Porters black loam. In addition to these methods of
the control of soil erosion there should be added a systematic
rotation of crops, which will permit the soils to remain under grass
cover for a considerable period during each rotation. The fact that
timothy, bluegrass, and the clovers all grow to advantage upon both
types of soil renders this an easy as well as an efficient method for
the reduction of the ravages of soil-washing.

The restoration of organic matter to the surface soil in the case of
the Porters loam has been mentioned as one of the essential steps
toward the prevention of soil erosion. It is also necessary in order
to form a complete, easily tilled surface soil, which will be suffi-
ciently retentive of moisture to maintain a good gi'owth of the grain
crops, particularly of corn, during the summer season. For such
purposes the growing of cowpeas, seeded betAveen the rows of corn at
the last cultivation, should be practiced at the lower altitudes where
the type is found. Crimson clover would also be a valuable crop for
seeding with the corn under the same conditions. At the higher
altitudes the restoration of organic matter to the soil, because of
climatic conditions, must be dependent upon the growing of winter
cover crops such as rye and winter wheat, and upon the turning under
of the sod from grass, which should be grown in regular rotation
with other crops. In addition, an occasional crop of buckwheat grown
solely for this purpose might be turned under upon areas where both
the mineral matter and the organic matter of the surface soil have
been bodily removed by erosion. In general the Porters black loam is
sufficiently supplied with organic matter, so that these practices
are not essential upon that type.

LIMITATIONS UPON SPECIAL CROPS.

The chief limitation upon the production of both general and
special farm crops within the area occupied by the Porters loam and
Porters black loam, aside from those limitations of use already men-
tioned, consists in the climatic variations dependent upon the wide
differences in altitude occupied by these two types. Since the chief
special crop produced within the area is the apple crop, and since this
is largely confined to the Porters black loam, the climatic limitations
which circumscribe the growing of this crop are illustrative of the
effect of climate upon the agriculture of the region.

For successful fruit growing by far the best orchard location is
within the " frostless belt " or " thermal zone," the altitude of
which varies considerably in the different locations from Virginia
1240"— Clr. 39—11 2

10 SOILS OF THE EASTERN UNITED STATES.

southward to South Carolina. This '' thermal zone " exists only
where the orchard sites are protected from the strong winds and
the heavy storms, coming chiefly from a western direction. Thus
upon the eastern flanks of the Blue Ridge, in altitudes ranging
from 1,200 to 1,500 feet or somewhat higher in Virginia, and at
altitudes ranging from 1,400 feet to 2,000 feet above sea level in
western North Carolina and western South Carolina, there exists
a belt of territory within which unseasonable frosts rarely occur.
It is between these elevations that the best quality of fruit is pro-
duced and the Porters black loam is the dominant orchard soil of
the section. In fact, in Virginia, the adaptation of this type to the
production of a certain variety of apples has caused it to be known as
the " pippin land " of this section.

There is a further restriction placed upon the planting of apple
orchards through the direction of exposure or the aspect of the
orchard site. Thus in general it may be said that the pippins will
be of the very best quality only in the sheltered coves within the
" thermal belt " which have a northern or northeastern exposure,
while the red varieties of apples and practically all varieties of
peaches are grown to best advantage within this belt upon eastern
or southeastern exposures. In all cases the slope must be such as to
give adequate air and water drainage, thus preventing largely the
ravages of fungous diseases which would otherwise interfere with the
orcharding operations.

This climatic limitation, which is so pronounced in the case of
orchard fruits, is also noticeable in the case of practically all other
crops. It has already been noted that practically no agricultural
crops may be grown above an altitude of 3,500 or 4,000 feet in this
general section and that even the timber growth becomes stunted or
lacking at the highest altitudes. It is also a fact that from 2,500
feet to 4,000 feet above tide level the crops of northern latitudes alone
may be cultivated to advantage, and even corn is not fully successful
at the upper limit of this zone. Wheat, rye, oats, buckwheat, and
timothy are the crops best suited to the highest altitudes, while corn,
wheat, and mixed timothy and clover are suited to the intermediate
altitudes. Irish potatoes do fairly well even to the upper limits of
cultivation and seem to have a wider range in altitude than any
other special crop which may be grown upon these two types. Cot-
ton, sweet potatoes, and similar crops are, of course, successful only
at the lowest altitudes and in the more southern locations. Thus the
existence of climatic zones due to differences in altitudes is very
marked in the case of the region occupied by the Porters loam and
black loam.

There is another limitation even upon the most valuable special
crops which may be produced upon these two types ; it is the limita-

THE PORTERS LOAM AND PORTERS BLACK LOAM, 11

tion of transportation facilities to market. Owing to the markedly
mountainous character of the country, only the lower altitudes are
served by railroad transportation, and in many instances even the
highways and public roads are infrequent and of difficult grade over
considerable portions of the region occupied by these types. In fact,
large areas of both still remain uncleared and uncultivated, even
when their altitude and topographic features are favorable to agri-
culture because of the impossibility of bringing the produce of the
fields to market. Even within the areas tilled, the different com-
munities are, to a large-extent, thrown upon their own resources, and
considerable proportions of all crops raised are produced only for
home consumption within the limited community, while many of the
supplies used by the farm family, which in other regions constitute
the objects of commerce, are here produced in the form of domestic
manufactures at the homes of the mountain farmers. Transporta-
tion, or rather its lack, thus constitutes a very important limitation
upon the present utilization of the arable areas of both of these types.

EXTENT OF OCCUPATION.

Owing to the mountainous character of the country and to the con-
sequent limitations already outlined, only a small proportion of either
the Porters loam or Porters black loam has yet been occupied for
agricultural purposes. It is probable that, taking the entire region
under consideration, not over 15 per cent of the area of either type
is agriculturally occupied. The remaining 85 per cent consists of
forested areas at the lower and intermediate altitudes up to approxi-
mately 5,000 feet and of thinly wooded, stony areas above that
altitude. Even wathin the lower areas only the more gently slop-
ing locations and those accessible to transportation have been cleared
and occupied, and the attempt to cultivate the steeper slopes has
almost universally been followed by the enforced abandonment
of such locations through excessive erosion. In such instances the
old fields are slowly being reclothed by less valuable timber growths,
particularly the Jersey scrub pine and some of the hardwoods.

It is improbable that, except for the purpose of orcharding, any
large additional areas of either the Porters loam or Porters black
loam will be brought under agricultural dominion at an early date.
Wherever transportation is accessible, however, the properly situated
coves and lower slopes, chiefly occupied by the Porters black loam,
are being sought for the location of orchards. In Virginia many
such coves have already been planted to the Albemarle Pippin
upon the northern slopes or to the Winesap and to other red apples
and to peaches upon the eastern and southern slopes. Apple orchard-
ing has not yet gained such a predominance in the North Carolina
areas where the Porters black loam is extensively developed. This

12 SOILS OF THE EASTERN UNITED STATES.

is partially due to the lack of transportation and partially due to the
imperfect outlining of the climatic zone within which apple orchard-
ing is most successful. There remain thousands of acres in w^estern
North Carolina, consisting of coves occupied by the Porters black
loam, which are still available at a low price for the planting of apple
orchards and of peaches. The present interest in horticultural
development will undoubtedly result in the searching out of these
localities within the next few years.

CROP ADAPTATIONS. '

General farm crops. — The Porters loam is the characteristic general
farming soil of the mountain region of western South Carolina and
western North Carolina. A^Hiile general farming has not been de-
veloped to any high state of prosperity, still the principal cereal
crops and certain special crops are also produced to fair advantage.
In the lower and intermediate altitudes corn is an almost universal
crop. The yields vary greatly, dependent upon the amount of erosion
Avhich the soil has locally experienced, and upon the amount of care
which has been exerted in the maintenance of organic matter in the
surface soil. In the North Carolina areas, at altitudes ranging from
1,250 to 2,500 feet above sea level, corn is a fairly successful crop, pro-
ducing from 12 to 30 bushels per acre. It is probable that these yields
might be doubled through the proper preparation and tillage of the
Porters loam, including chiefly the restoration of organic matter to
the soil. The use of all stable and yard manures in this connection
is highly to be recommended, and, as already pointed out, green crops
should frequently be turned under in order to maintain organic mat-
ter. It is probable also that the range in altitude of corn production
could be considerably increased if the flint varieties of corn were used
at the higher altitudes, since they are capable of reaching maturity in
a shorter growing period than that required by the dent varieties,
now chiefly grown.

T^^inter wheat is also a crop generally raised in North Carolina
upon the Porters loam. The jdelds are extremely varied, ranging
from 8 to 20 bushels per acre with an average not in excess of 10 or
11 bushels. Oats are also produced, particularly at the higher alti-
tudes, giving fair yields, ranging from 20 to 30 bushels per acre, and
averaging about 25 bushels.

These constitute the chief cereal crops, although buckwheat is
sometimes raised at the higher altitudes to a limited extent, and rye
is not infrequently sown in the place of wheat.

The Porters loam is essentially an excellent grass soil at prac-
tically all altitudes where it occurs, especially upon the more sloping
areas which have been allowed to seed naturally to bluegrass and
redtop. An excellent pasture sod is maintained, while the artificial

//

THE PORTERS LOAM AND PORTERS BLACK LOAlkT^ "^^'Vi^^ij^;^^

seeding to mixed timothy and clover is usually successful, d!^~^ir ^
yields of hay are secured. It is very desirable, owing to the pff*t{i{«f
lence of erosion over the type, that considerable areas of grass should
be seeded upon it, and timothy, redtop, alsike, and red clover, to-
gether with bluegrass, are all available for the establishment of both
mowing areas and of grazing lands. A considerable proportion of
the more sloping and rugged areas of the Porters loam is now used, in
connection with the arable areas, for the grazing of cattle and to a
limited extent for the grazing of sheep. An extension of the occupa-
tion of the type for such purposes is not only possible but desirable.
In general it may be said that the Porters loam is one of the best
soils of the region for general farming purposes, and that its best
crop adaptations for such purposes consist of corn, oats, and gra&s.

Irish potatoes and cabbages are both produced to excellent advan-
tage upon the Porters loam, and small areas of potatoes are pro-
duced upon each farm for local use. It is only in the vicinity of
transportation facilities, and particularly in the vicinity of those
points which maintain a considerable summer tourist population, that
potatoes and cabbages are grown upon the market-garden or com-
mercial scale. Upon properly cared for fields the yields of Irish
potatoes are excellent, ranging from 75 to 200 bushels per acre.
Cabbages yield from 5 to 8 tons, and both crops are decidedly profit-
able where the proper market exists. At the lower altitudes in North
Carolina and South Carolina sweet potatoes are also grown to some
extent, principally for home consumption.

The general crops raised upon the Porters black loam are prin-
cipally corn, winter wheat to a limited extent, and oats and grass.
The com yields range from 12 or 15 bushels per acre to 25 or 30
bushels. The yields of wheat are low, principall}'^ from the fact that
the loose, porous texture of the surface soil permits of excessive heav-
ing by the spring frosts, thus reducing the crop yields. Returns
of 8 to 12 bushels per acre are normal. Oats are somewhat more suc-
cessful, giving yields of 20 to 30 bushels per acre. The Porters black
loam is as well suited to grass production as the Porters loam, giving
good yields of mixed timothy and clover haj', and being capable of
maintaining an excellent growth of mixed timothy, redtop, blue-
grass, and the clovers for pasturage purposes.

Fruit crops. — The Porters black loam, however, is principally occu-
pied and is justly celebrated for the production of apples. In prac-
tically every area where it occurs in the eastern Appalachian Ranges,
especially within the " thermal zone " already described and in those
positions having the proper air and water drainage, it is the very
best apple soil which can be found. Upon no other type are apples
so successful, and upon no other type can the All^emarle Pippin be
grown to such perfection. It is in the sheltered coves upon the

14 SOILS OF THE EASTERN UNITED STATES.

northern slopes at not too great an elevation that the Pippin attains
its very highest quality — a smooth, yellow, transparent skin, solid
flesh, and that delicate flavor for which the apple is celebrated.
In other locations, particularly with eastern and southern exposures
where other conditions are favorable, the red and striped apples
of the latitude are produced to advantage. The Winesap, Yellow
Transparent, Red Limber Twig, Greensboro Late June, and the
Greensboro Striped June are all raised to advantage. In addition,
peach orchards have been planted and the varieties which have
been the most successful are the Belyeu Comet, the Elberta, and the
Crawford.

Besides apples and peaches in many localities grapes have been
grown to advantage. The Norton's Virginia Seedling, the Concord,
Ives, Catawba, and Deleware are all successful varieties.

Thus the Porters black loam constitutes one of the most important
mountain fruit soil types from the vicinity of the Potomac River
southward to western North Carolina. Undoubtedly additional
areas will be planted to orchards of all descriptions as transporta-
tion facilities become more adequate and as the more remote coves,
valleys, and slopes occupied by this type become known to horti-
culturists.

Animal husbandry. — The existence of large areas of mountain
land suitable only to forestation and pasturage would seem to
indicate that the Porters loam should be utilized for the production
of forage crops upon the tilled areas and of grasses and pasturage upon
the more sloping areas. In the States where the Porters loam occurs
the production of milk, butter, and cheese is at a minimum. Vir-
ginia, and particularly North Carolina and South Carolina, import
large quantities of all of these products for local use. It is one of the
essential requirements for the dairy industry that an adequate supply
of pure water should be available in connection with the grazing
lands. It is also essential that the dairy industry should be carried
on within the cooler climatic zones of these States. As a result, with
the exception of certain Piedmont areas, there is probably no better
region in either North or South Carolina than the lower slopes and
foothills occupied by the Porters loam for the development of the
dairy industry. The natural grass production of the type is excellent.
Many of the slopes are capable of no other occupation than that of
pasturage or forestry. The supply of pure, cold water is abundant
and the climatic conditions are favorable to the dairy industry. Im-
proved cattle and an increased knowledge of modern dairy methods
are essential to the wider development of this industry ; but the mar-
kets and the natural advantages all exist, and the Porters loam should
become the dominant type of soil devoted to dairy products in the
lower mountain regions of both North and South Carolina.

THE PORTERS LOAM AND PORTERS BLACK LOAM. 15

In this connection the production of both sheep and swine should
be added to the animal industry of the section, particularly for the
production of the meat supplies, which are now largely imported into
the southern manufacturing and commercial cities.

Farm equipment. — As has been noted, the rough topography and
the steep slopes of both the Porters loam and Porters black loam prac-
tically preclude the use of heavy draft animals and the more elaborate
farm tools used in other sections. Upon the steeper slopes a large
proportion of the tillage is done by hand, including the seeding
and reaping of the grain and the planting of the corn. Even the
plowing and the harrowing are done by one horse, one mule, or even
a single ox, with the simplest and lightest draft farm implements.
Many of the mountain farmers perform practically all of the hauling
of the grain and fodder crops upon sleds, while in the more gently
rolling foothill sections light wagons and the one or two horse
hitch are most common. No elaborate machinery can be recommended
for these regions, although upon the gentler slopes the disk plow and
the disk harrow have both been used successfully in the tillage of the
Porters loam. Even in the developed orchard sections a considerable
proportion of the tillage is carried on with light equipment, and the
spraying of the trees is a matter of some difficulty because of the
steep slopes which prevent the use of power sprayers. In no section
is the equipment of farm buildings equal to the average for the United
States, and in many instances the barns are mere sheds or log struc-
tures, strongly reminiscent of pioneer days and indicative of the
pioneer conditions which still prevail over a considerable proportion
of the territory occupied by these two types. Considerable improve-
ment is shown, however, in the vicinity of transportation facilities,
and particularly near the centers occupied by the summer colonies in
the mountain sections.

Forestation. — In the case of both the Porters loam and the Porters
black loam, the remoteness from transportation and the topographic
difficulties render large areas unsuitable for any agricultural occupa-
tion in the commonly accepted sense of the w^ord. Since the forest
is, now, to be considered as a farm crop, a considerable proportion
of both types should be occupied by private or public forest reserves
for the production of various timber crops. In considering the dif-
ferent areas where the Porters loam has been found it becomes evident
that in all of the higher altitudes the deciduous forests have occupied
by far the greater proportion of the type, and over a vast extent of
territory forestation is the only possible form of profitable occupa-
tion for these soils.

At the lower altitudes and in the more southern locations, both the
shortleaf and loblolly pine have their natural habitat upon the
Porters loam, while at higher altitudes and in more northern locations

16 SOILS OF THE EASTERN UNITED STATES.

from South Carolina to Virginia, inclusive, the forest growth con-
sists chiefly of the hardwoods, principally white oak, chestnut oak,
red oak, post oak, and scarlet oak, with some black oak and
shingle oak. In addition, hickory is generally present, while upon
many of the steeper slopes there is a strong stand of chestnut.
Within the sheltered valleys and coves, where deep, moist soil exists,
the poplar and maple are prominent at the lower altitudes, while
there is some white pine and a considerable amount of hemlock
in the cool and moist valleys and gorges at the greatest altitudes.
Throughout the general extent of the type there is also a rank under-
growth of the mountain laurel, rhododendron, azalias, and chin-
quapin, while beneath this minor growth is a heavy carpet of mosses
and of ferns.

AMiile a considerable proportion of both the Porters loam and
Porters black loam, accessible to transportation, has already been cut
over, there are still extensive tracts in the more remote regions which
remain practically untouched so far as lumbering operations are con-
cerned. Even in the more accessible sections where lumbering opera-
tions have been carried on for the longest period of time, there is
usually a rapid reoccupation of the cut-over lands, principally by
the hardwood growths.

There thus exists within the territory covered by the Porters loam
and the Porters black loam a considerable area which through all of
its characteristics of altitude, climate, and soil is peculiarly and
preeminently fitted for forest occupation, and which, because of steep
slope and of inaccessibility, is of little value for general agricultural
purposes. In addition, practically all of the principal streams of the
southeastern seaboard States have their headwaters and the head-
waters of their principal tributaries in the same partially forested
section. It is again apparent that forestation is extremely desirable,
not only from the standpoint of the production of timber for future
use, but also from the standpoint of the protection of the sources of
the domestic water suppl}' and of water power for the adjoining Pied-
mont and Coastal Plain sections.

In addition the majority of the slopes within the areas occupied by
the Porters black loam and the Porters loam are all so steep that
even if agricultural occupation were otherwise desirable, the tendency
toward excessive erosion is so great that entire fields are rapidly de-
stroyed after they are cleared and devoted to farm purposes, bring-
ing about not only the destruction of the local soil areas but also
endangering the rich bottom lands through which these streams flow
and deposit their burden of sand and silt in the lower lying Pied-
mont section.

Thus, from every standpoint, the maintenance of extensive areas of
these two soil types, in the eastern Appalachian region, in a forested
condition is desirable.

THE PORTERS LOAM AND PORTERS BLACK LOAM. 17

SUMMARY.

The Porters loam is the mast extensive soil type in the central por-
tion of the eastern ranges and upon the eastern peaks of the Appa-
lachian Mountains.

It occupies all of the altitudes from the lower foothills at about
1,000 feet above sea level to altitudes of 4,000 or 5,000 feet. In
general the surface is rolling to mountainous and the drainage is
adequate to excessive.

Among the general farm crops there is a considerable range in the
different localities where the Porters loam is found, since cotton may
be grown at the lower elevations in South Carolina and in North
Carolina, w^hile corn, winter wheat, oats, and grass occupy the inter-
mediate altitudes, and potatoes, rye, buckwheat, and grass are grown
even at the highest altitudes.

Irish potatoes and cabbages are the most important special crops
grown upon this type.

Certain varieties of the red apples are produced to advantage
within the " thermal belt " upon the Porters loam. In general, how-
ever, little attention has thus far been paid to apple orcharding upon
the type.

In addition to the crop production at present dominant over the
Porters loam, it is desirable that the dairy industry should be estab-
lished to utilize the crops now grown, and particularly to utilize
extensive areas of natural pasturage upon the steeper slopes. In this
connection the grazing of sheep and swine is also desirable.

The steeper slopes are all subject to destructive erosion at times of
heavy rainfall. Many such slopes should be reforested and some of
them should never have been occupied for agricultural purposes.

The Porters black loam is an important soil type of less extent than
the Porters loam, which is found principally in Virginia and North
Carolina in the coves and upon the slopes of the Blue Ridge and
upon the higher slopes of the Black Mountains, the Newfound Moun-
tain, and the other high ridges of western North Carolina.

The surface of the type is always sloping and frequently steep to
rugged or mountainous. It is only within the coves or upon the more
gentle slopes that agricultural occupation has gained any foothold.
The higher altitudes are principally occupied by heavy deciduous
forest.

The Porters black loam is essentially a special-crop soil, being the
type upon which the Albemarle Pippin reaches its highest develop-
ment and gives its most profitable returns. For the proper produc-
tion of the Albemarle Pippin the sheltered coves and northward
slopes within the " thermal zone " are best suited. Upon eastern and
southern slopes the red varieties of apples and certain varieties of
peaches and grapes are also successfully produced.

18 SOILS OF THE EASTERN UNITED STATES.

General farm crops are not extensively grown upon the Porters
black loam, although oats and grasses are successfully produced.

There are extensive areas of the Porters black loam suitable for
apple orcharding which, because of lack of transportation or remote-
ness from market, have not yet been occupied. In consequence, there
still remain excellent opportunities for bringing into cultivation con-
siderable areas of the Porters black loam when transportation facili-
ties are provided, and when the peculiar adaptation of this type to
apple orcharding is understood in the more southern locations where
it occurs.

These two types of soil constitute the most extensive soils of the
higher mountain regions of the eastern Appalachians, and they pos-
sess the gi'eatest range in altitude and the most rugged topography
of any of the soil types occupied for agricultural purposes east of
the Rocky Mountains.

Approved :

James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

Washington, D. C, June 26, 1911.

APPENDIX.

The following table shows the extent of the Porters loam and the Porters
black loam in the areas surveyed at this time.

In the first column is stated the particular soil survey in which the soil was
encountered ; in the second column its extent of development in acres ; and in
the third column the volume of the Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils in
which the report upon the area may be found. Those desiring a detailed
description of the soil and of the general conditions which surround it in any
particular area may consult these volumes in almost any public library.

Areas of Porters loam and Porters black loam encountered in the soil survey.

PORTERS LOAM.

Survey.

Area of
soil.

Year of
publica-
tion,
Field
Opera-
tions.

North Carolina:

Asheville area

Henderson County

Transylvania County

South Carolina: Oconee County

Acres.
180, 416

70,656
151, 424

33,664

1903
1907
1906
1907

PORTERS BLACK LOAM.

North Carolina:

Asheville area j 24, 064

Henderson County 320

Hickory area [ 512

Mount Mitchell area i 87, 808

Transylvania County 3, 840

Virginia:

Albemarle area 68, 736

Bedford area 8, 270

1902
1901

19

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