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7

A BOOK OF BIRDS

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SIDNEY APPLETON’S
POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY BOOKS

. BRITISH FLOWERING PLANTS
By W. F. Kirsy, F.L.S., F.E.S.
With 120 coloured Plates, and 119 Illustrations in
the text. 55. net.

2, MAMMALS OF THE WORLD
By W. F. Kirsy, F.L.S., F.E.S.
With 30 coloured Plates, and numerous text Illus-
trations. 6s. net.

3. A BOOK OF BIRDS
By W. P. Pycrart, A.L.S., F.Z.S.
With 30 coloured Plates and numerous Illustrations
in the text. 6s. net.

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By LEONARD J. SPENCER,
With 30 coloured Plates. 6s, net. Ready shortly.

i

LONDON : SIDNEY APPLETON, 25 Bedford St., W.C.

Prater |:

Fig. 1. Ostrich
(Struthio camelus).
Fig. 2.
Rhea

(Rhea americana u).

Fig. 3.
Ceram Cassowary
(Caswarius galeatus).

Apteryx ov Kiwi (Apteryx mantelli.

‘9 &:
Ors

P73
1909

“A BOOK OF BIRDS

BY

W: P. PYCRAFT, ALS., F.ZS.

Member of the British Ornithologists’ Union; Hon. Member American
Ornithologists’ Union; Vice-President of the Selborne Society
Assistant in the Zoological Department of the British
Museum; Author of “ Story of Bird
Life,” etc., etc.

WITH 30 FULL-PAGE COLOURED PLATES
AND MANY ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT

Z6q4s

LONDON
SIDNEY APPLETON
1908

Copyright 1908
All rights reserved

PREPAC E

The aim of this book has been to present the reader with a
general survey of the principal groups of modern birds, such as
are likely to be met with, for example, in Zoological Gardens or
in museums. Of necessity many of the less-known species do not
find a place here. A little reflection will show, indeed, that in no
single volume would it be possible to give anything like an
intelligible description of the 14,000 different species of birds
known to Science. To have attempted the task in a book of this
size it would have been necessary to restrict the description of
each species to four words!

In these pages, however, the reader will find a concise account
of some of the more important facts with regard to the life-
history of the birds of Great Britain and of their European
relatives, as well as of a number of the more remarkable birds of
other lands, which, for one reason or another, should interest those
who, without claiming expert knowledge, have a real and deep
love for Ornithology.

W. P. PYCRAFT.

London, January, 1908.

CONTENTS

Page

PREFACE . ; : : : : : : ‘ : : ; POA
CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION : : : : : - : : 2 ‘ I
CHAPTER II

THE OSTRICH-LIKE BIRDS. : ; : : . : 2s 26

CHAPTER III

THE CARINATE or KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS, and their chief
peculiarities . P : : y .) aa

CHAPTER IV

THE DIVING-BIRDS, PETRELS, and PENGUINS . ; ao
(Orders—PYGOPODES, TUBINARES, and IMPENNES)

CHAPTER V

THE TOTIPALMATE BIRDS, HERONS, STORKS, and
FLAMINGOES . Le Ree
(Orders STEGANOPODES, CICONIA, aa PHGENICOPTER])

CHAPTER VI

THE DUCKS, GEESE, and SWANS : : ; ‘ ‘ . §0
(Order—ANSERES)

CHAPTER VII

THE BIRDS OF PREY — SECRETARY - BIRD, EAGLES,
BUZZARDS, HAWKS, KITES, VULTURES, and FALCONS 54
(Order—ACCIPITRES)
vii

Viii CONTENTS

CHAPTER VIII

THE “GAME-BIRDS’”
(Order—GALLIFORMES)

CHAPTER IX

CRANES, RAILS, and BUSTARDS
(Order—GRUIFORMES)

CHAPTER X
PLOVERS, GULLS, and AUKS
(Order—CHARADRIIFORMES)
CHAPTER XI
THE PIGEONS
(Order— COLUMB)

CHAPTER XII

THE PARROTS and CUCKOOS
(Orders—PSITTACI and CUCULI)

CHAPTER XIII

THE ROLLERS, MOTMOTS, KINGFISHERS, BEE-EATERS,

HOOPOES, and HORNBILLS
(Order—CORACI AE)

CHAPTER XIV

THE NIGHTJARS, SWIFTS, and HUMMING-BIRDS

(Orders—CAPRIMULGI, CYPSELI)

CHAPTER XV

THE OWLS. :
(Order—STRIGES)

CHAPTER XVI

THE TROGONS, TOUCANS, and WOODPECKERS .

(Orders—TROGONES and PICI)

CHAPTER XVII

THE PASSERINE BIRDS
(Order—PASSERIFORMES)

INDEX

Page

63

69

73

86

89

93

97

102

105

IIo

135

A BOOK OF BIRDS

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTORY

THE study of Birds, or, as some prefer to call it, the study of
Ornithology, began with the dawn of man’s civilisation ; for, having
discerned that birds were good for food, a study of their habits and
movements became necessary to him, as his victims became more
and more wary. Soon however, no doubt, it was discovered that
some species, at any rate, were capable of domestication, whereby a
regular supply of food was easily and certainly secured: and with this
acquisition of ‘‘ livestock,’’ probably, the “civilisation ’’ of man com-
menced. For there was now but a step to the keeping of birds as pets, a
practice which was fraught with the profoundest results, since it is
believed that the keeping of domesticated animals, either for pleasure
or profit, proved one of the most important factors in transforming
what, till then, were but hordes of wandering savages into more or less
orderly communities, thereby laying the foundation for the complex
human societies of to-day.

But the peculiar fascination which birds have always exercised
over the mind of man has been not a little to the hurt of the birds.
They soon found a place in his religious beliefs, and at the same time
in his superstitions. Thus, while some came to be held in high
honour, others were regarded as birds of ill-omen; and to this day
many have not recovered from the infamy with which they were

I

2 A BOOK OF BIRDS

branded by the ignorant of those dark days. Among the ancient
Greeks, and still more ancient Egyptians, birds were held in no light
esteem, as may be seen in the literature of the one, and the hierogly-
phics on the Pyramids of the other ; while among later people, from
Jewish historical times onwards, we find that, in one way or another,
birds are constantly referred to. But the scientific study of birds,
nevertheless, cannot be said to have begun until centuries after these
old observers had passed away.

The foundations of this study, one cannot but feel proud to think,
were laid by two Englishmen, Francis Willughby (born 1635, died
1672) and John Ray (born 1628, died 1705). To the labours of
these two men—and especially of the former—we owe the first serious
and useful attempt to classify birds, and their success was due to the
fact that their knowledge was based on practical experience, com-
bined with an ability to weigh and analyse the facts they set them-
selves to arrange. To-day we have adopted quite other ideas as
to the relationships of birds and their classification, yet every true
ornithologist will regard Willughby and Ray as the patron saints
of ornithology. To sketch the further progress of our beloved science,
or to trace even in outline the achievements of the many illustrious
workers who have so unsparingly laboured in this field during the
last two centuries, would be a task too long and too difficult. Our
purpose, in this chapter, is rather to give a brief summary of the
state of our knowledge of birds generally to-day, which shall be at
once interesting, brief, and accurate.

Without more ado, then, let us begin with the question : What
is a bird? Briefly, a bird may be distinguished from all other living
creatures by its covering of feathers. Not by this token alone,
however, are birds to be distinguished, since they differ almost as
markedly in the matter of their skeleton. But it is not enough that
we should be able to quote the ‘“‘ hall-mark,’’ so to speak, by which
our favourites are to be recognised. At least, it is not enough for
those of us who are not content with mere facts—for facts in them-
selves are about as nourishing as rusty nails. Thus, then, we ask
instinctively, How have the birds come by these distinguishing char-
acters ? The answer to this riddle has been furnished partly by
the anatomist and partly by those who have spent their lives in reading

INTRODUCTORY 3

the riddles of the rocks. Let us take the anatomist’s evidence first.
According to him, the peculiarities which distinguish the bird have
been derived from the reptiles, and this is nowhere more evident
than in the skull. As in the reptile, it joins the neck by a single,
rounded boss of bone ; while in the mammals (the great class to which
we ourselves belong, the class distinguished by the body-covering of
hair, and the fact that the young are suckled by milk) the skull joins
the neck by two such bosses. In the form of the backbone and of
the hip-girdle, and in the structure of the legs, birds also agree with
the reptiles. To state in full, the evidence on which these conclusions
are founded would be wearisome to those who are not particularly

=—— Tibia

Ist row of ankle-bones —== ey:
Las JOint

Cc) 2nd row of ankle-bones

eu Bones of the foot

IV 1b
il

Fig. 1.—Bones of the'Foot and Ankle of a Young Fowl, showing the Separate
Elements thereof.

interested in dry bones, but we may indicate the nature of the argument
by a comparison of the hind limb of the bird and reptile. This limb
then, in both, is peculiar in that the ankle-joint is formed in such a
way that when the foot is bent the joint turns on a hinge formed
between two rows of ankle-bones, while in the mammals the joint
is formed by the hinging of the shank of the leg upon the uppermost
row of ankle-bones. But the bird’s leg, we may remark, is peculiar
in that these two rows of ankle-bones have undergone great modi-
fications, and can be seen in their originally separate condition only
by examining the chick some time before hatching, though traces
yet remain in, say, a young fowl of three months old (see fig. 1).

m A BOOK OF BIRDS

It is owing to the fact that these peculiarities are not generally known,
that most writers of books on birds inaccurately speak of the “‘ legs
and toes’’ of a bird, when by the ‘‘legs”’ they refer really only to
the long ‘‘ cannon-bones,’’ which are clad in scales and often brightly
coloured.

A reference to the accompanying diagram should make this clear.
Here we have the leg of a fowl. The first joint is formed by the
hinging of the femur, or thigh-bone, with the tibia, thus forming the
“knee-joint.’? At the end of this tibia the joint with the ankle-
bone takes place ; but in the birds, as we have said, the two rows
which these small bones make up disappear before adult life is
reached. One row, as may be seen in fig. 1, is composed, in the
half-grown bird, of a mallet-like piece, the handle of which runs up
the front of the tibia or shank, and becomes welded to the “‘ shank” ;
while the other (fig. 1), originally of several small pieces composed in
the embryo, but now forming a thin plate, becomes welded on to the
top of the bones of the foot. It is these last which are always, but
wrongly, described as the ‘“‘ leg-bones.’’ Really, they answer to the
bones of our own feet which lie between the ankle and the
toes. The tibia, and the fused row of ankle-bones, is known as the
‘‘tibio-tarsus.”’ The toes present peculiarities, which will be described
as we proceed.

The great lengthening of the foot-bones has been brought about
by the evolution of the bird from a climbing to a walking animal.
Originally they were five in number, but are now, like the toes, reduced
tofour. Of these four, three are now welded together—Nos. II. III.
IV.—to form a single ‘‘ cannon-bone,’’ answering to that of the
horse; but in the young bird their originally separate condition
can still be traced (see fig. 1). The first of these foot-bones answer-
ing to the base of the hind-toe is now reduced to a mere “ button ”
slung by ligaments on to the ‘‘cannon-bone.’’ The leg of the
old giant reptiles known as the Dinosaurs corresponds marvellously
well with that of a modern bird, only in the reptiles the foot-
bones had not become welded to form a cannon-bone. So much,
then, for the evidence from the skeleton, for the present. The arrange-
ment of the blood-vessels, the structure of the eye, ear, organ of
smell, and brain, are all on the reptile plan, and so also are the organs

INTRODUCTORY F

of reproduction. Similarly, the microscopic structure of the growing
feather in the embryo, or unhatched chick, shows that it is really an

ame «= Re rmur

Patella
or
Knee-cap

Cannon-bone

Fig. 2.—Diagram of the Leg of an Adult Bird, showing the Condition of the
Limb after the Separate Elements have become welded.
extremely elaborate reptile scale, and is formed on a plan quite different
from the hairs of mammals.
But, it may be urged, it is all very well, and it may be quite true,
to say that because the reptiles and the birds have so much in common,
therefore they must be related. But why should we assume this ?

6 A BOOK OF BIRDS

Well, one of two courses is open to us. Either we must believe
that birds were, as used to be held, specially created; or that they
have inherited these common characters from a common ancestor,
which must have been some sort of a reptile. And in support of the
reasonableness of this latter view we may appeal to the evidence
which the rocks have preserved for us in the shape of the fossil remains
of ancestral birds. In these we have still further and more striking
proof of the descent of birds from reptiles.

The earliest fossil bird yet discovered is that known as the
Archezopteryx, and this differed from all other birds in one or two
very important particulars. In
each case they serve to bridge
the gap between the reptiles
and the birds, though it must
be admitted many other links
are desirable to make the chain
absolutely complete. In the first
place, instead of the horny
sheaths which cover the beak
of living birds, we find the jaws
were provided with teeth, set in
sockets like those of the croco-
dile; while in the second, the
Fig. 3.—The First Known Bird, from a tail was of great length, being

Restoration by W. P. Pycraft. made up of a long row of bones,
asin the tail of reptiles. Each
bone supported a pair of feathers, as may be seen in our illustra-
tion, so that in this respect it was neither like that of the reptile nor
of thetypical bird. In the latter, the tail is apparently fashioned after
a very different manner ; but in examining this it must be remembered
that what is commonly called the ‘‘ tail’ is really only the outward
and visible sign of this appendage, for the feathers alone no more
make the tail than does the hair the tail of a dog.

When we come, then, to examine the arrangement of the tail-
feathers, we find that they are set fan-wise about a plate of bone,
the last of a series of the eight separate tail-bones which form the
termination of the backbone. And if we examine this bony plate

INTRODUCTORY 7

in the embryo of, say, a duck, we shall find that it is really made up
of six or seven separate vertebre, which have become, as it were,
telescoped. Now, each of these represents one of the feather-bearing
vertebra in thetail of the Archzopteryx; but by this process of “‘ tele-
scoping,’ this shrinking in length, they have brought the bases of
the feathers they supported close together in the fan-wise fashion
we have just described. Here, then, we have a lesson in the evolution
of birds—a transformation which will go far to help towards realising
how similar changes could bring about the evolution of the reptile
into the bird. Some day, without doubt, some yet older form of
bird will be discovered, and this will show yet more reptilian characters.

Birds, then, in the possession of feathers, are unique in the scheme
of nature; so that by this character alone we may distinguish them
from all the remaining backboned animals, while there can be no
sort of doubt but that they owe their descent from some reptilian
ancestor. Let us now pass on to consider one or two other pecu-
liarities of birds—peculiarities which have gone on developing and
perfecting since the time of splitting off from the reptile stock.

Surely the most important of these is to be found in the fore-
limb. This we know as the “ wing.’’ Even stripped of its feathers,
we could trace the wing of the bird from the fore-leg of any other
animal. Yet it cannot be used as an absolutely distinctive character,
since in some of the Ostrich tribe, for example, it has become de-
generate, and so reduced in size as to be hardly recognised ; while,
if we take fossil forms into consideration, we shall find that it be-
comes still more dwarfed, until, as in the Moas, it is lost altogether.

The principal features in which it differs from the fore-limb of
other animals are to be found in the bones of the wrist and hand.
In the wrist only two separate bones can be found, though in the
embryo the rudiments of several can be made out; these disappear,
however, before hatching takes place. The bones of the hand and
fingers are reduced to three in number—the thumb and first and
second fingers. The first portion of these finger-bones—which
answer to the bones that, extending between the wrist and the bases
of the fingers, make up the palms of our hands—are firmly welded
together, the base of the thumb being hardly traceable. The second
and third are welded together at each end, enclosing a space, while

8 A BOOK OF BIRDS /

the finger-joints are represented, in the second finger by two or
sometimes three bones, and the third by one bone only.

This very remarkable wrist and hand have reached this unique
stage of development as a response to the peculiar needs of the birds’
flight, the hand being drawn out into a long rod, across which the
bases of the quill-feathers are securely lashed by ligaments. The
wing, no less than the rest of the skeleton, furnishes convincing
evidence to show that the bird, as we see it to-day, has acquired this
form by a slow process of transformation. In many birds, as in the
Duck, the Water-hen, or any of the Hawks, there will be found on
the thumb and the tip of the second finger a small claw—the last
remaining vestige of a claw that was once useful. In some other
birds, as in the Barn-door Fowl, for example, similar claws will be
found only in the embryo—i.e. the developing chick before it leaves
the egg—though quite commonly the thumb-claws persist through-
out life. Examine the wing of the next fowl you come across, and
likely enough you will find it. Now, if we go back to the Arche-
opteryx, we shall find that the wing possessed a large claw on each
of its three fingers; and, more than this, in this ancient bird we
find that the second row of wrist-bones—those at the base of the
fingers—though welded together to form a half-moon-shaped bone,
yet remained distinct from the fingers. They, in fact, retained
throughout life the condition which is met with to-day only in very
young birds. When a yet more ancient bird than the Archzop-
teryx is discovered, it is safe to predict that a yet more complex series
of wrist-bones will be found. We shall, in fact, have all the links
from the reptile to the present-day bird.

In one particular the bird and the reptile are very different, in-
asmuch as while the reptiles are ‘‘ cold-blooded,” the birds are hot-
blooded creatures; indeed, in this matter they outdo the mam-
malia, the temperature ranging from 100° to 112°. The highest
figure is attained by the smaller perching birds, such as Finches ;
Hawks do not maintain a temperature above 109°, and Gulls only
a little above 104°.

This rise in the temperature of the blood, which, as we have said,
we met with first in the birds, is due to several causes, which are too
technical to be discussed here in detail. But chiefest among them

INTRODUCTORY 9

we may count the fact that the heart of the bird, like that of the
mammal, is a four-chambered heart, whereby a more perfect oxi-
dation of the blood is possible than is the case with the reptiles,
wherein the heart has but threechambers. And for this reason, when
passed through a four-chambered heart, the impure blood brought
back from the body to the right side of the heart is driven thence to
the lungs to be thoroughly purified by the air drawn in during
breathing and returned to the left side of the heart, whence it is sent
over the body without any mingling of the two streams—pure and im-
pure. In the reptile this mingling is unavoidable, and consequently
a smaller quantity of the heat-giving oxygen is brought into the
system. But, strangely enough, the blood of the reptiles and birds
agrees in this, that the little red bodies, or ‘‘ corpuscles,’’ whose duty
is to absorb the air from the lungs and the carbonic acid from the
tissues of the body, have each a central ‘kernel,’ or ‘‘ nucleus,”’
whereas the blood corpuscles of the mammal have no nucleus.

It would be wearisome to further expand this question of the
circulation of the blood, since to thoroughly understand this matter
a somewhat intimate knowledge of physiology and chemistry is re-
quired. It is, in short, a question for the physiologist and the medical
man, rather than for the ornithologist.

It may seem that this answer to our question, ‘‘ What is a bird ? ”’
has taken us rather far afield. And on this account it may be well
briefly to summarise the facts which have been gleaned on the
journey.

In a few words, then, a bird is a warm-blooded, egg-laying,
feathered biped, having the fore-limbs modified to form wings, and
the hip-girdle so adapted as to bring the hind-limbs far forward, to
balance the body in walking. These characters, there can be no
reasonable doubt, have gradually come into being by the slow trans-
formation of a long chain of creatures which, as we trace them back,
grow less and less bird-like, and more and more like reptiles.
Though many links in this chain are yet missing, some day they
will almost surely be found.

The evidence for this reptilian descent is abundant. Every bird,
in the course of its growth from the egg onwards, passes through
more or fewer of the ancestral stages ; and while some of these carry

2

10 A BOOK OF BIRDS

us back to phases of development which belong to ancient types of
birds long since extinct, others carry us yet farther, and show, in a
way that makes contradiction mere stupidity, that the birds and the
reptiles have descended from the same common stock..

Concerning Feathers.—Though feathers are so common, so
easily procured, yet but few people, even ornithologists, realise
what marvels of structural beauty, what wonders of mechanism, they
are; nor is the peculiar fashion of their distribution over the body
even now generally recognised. Those who have spent their lives in
the study of live birds, as many of my readers have doubtless done,
need not be told that the feathers of a bird are peculiar in that they
are not, as a rule, generally or evenly distributed over the body, after
the fashion of hairs on a dog, for instance, but, on the contrary, are
arranged in long and generally narrow bands, or “ tracts,’’ separated
by wide, bare, or sometimes down-clad spaces.

The fact that these bands vary greatly in shape among birds was
first realised by a German naturalist named Nitzsch, who made a
long and careful study of the feather tracts of all the birds he could
get hold of. Asa result of his patient work, he was able to show that
the variations in this arrangement followed certain definite lines,
each group of birds possessing a type peculiar to itself; and, for the
purposes of convenient description, he gave these tracts distinctive
names, which, in the main, are followed to this day.

Briefly, as a result of his work, he distinguished: (1) a head
tract, formed by the feathers clothing the head; (2) a spinal tract,
extending from the head down the back of the neck, and along the
back to the tail; (3) a ventral tract, running from the throat down
to the base of the neck, where it branches at the shoulders, to run
down over the breast and abdomen in the form of two bands, a broad
outer and a narrow inner band; (4) a pair of humeral tracts, which,
crossing the upper arm, form the feathers known as the scapulars ;
(5) the wing tract, including the quills and wing-coverts; (6) the
tail tract; (7) the femoral tracts, which run across the thighs ;
(8) the leg tracts, which cover the legs below the knee.

The most important of the variations which these tracts present
are to be found in the spinal and head tracts. Thus, in the first
named, the spinal tract in the Swifts encloses a bare space over the

INTRODUCTORY tl

middle of the back; while in the Swallows it divides into a fork in

this region, leaving the hinder portion of the tract in the form of the

usual straight band. In the Finch tribe the middle region of this

tract is diamond-shaped. The head tract, again, often encloses a

space; as, for example, in the Humming-birds and Mouse-birds

of Africa. The ventral tract similarly presents very marked differ-

ences when a number of different kinds of birds come to be examined.
Those who may be interested in this question should take, say,

a Sparrow, Starling, Thrush,

Pigeon, and Fowl, cut off the Beak Crown Ear-coverts

feathers with a pair of scissors, Lo is

close to the body, and compare ae als

the differences between them. 7703?’

i i Neck Interscapulars
Since these differences are con- re
stant, and since each group DN Ww Median

: 5 Minor at Ein bY coverts
presents a type of its own, it coverts eo Natsis mC ae.
has been found that the ‘“‘ ptery- ee Ww tts ~ anes

. - reas 4
losis,’”” as this arrangement of OS Second-
: A RSX

the feathers is called, affords Flanks SSS
a valuable aid to the classifica- ee Tail
tion of birds. For example, the Primaries ~ Beaune i"
very wide difference in the ; ‘Tail

pterylosis of the Swifts and
Swallows was the first indica- : : ’ E

tion of the fact that these birds cee imran lai phe se M ri ap
were not related, as they had Ogilvie Grant.)

always been supposed to be, and

later anatomical investigations have given further proof that these
birds belong to quite different groups.

In the Penguins and the Ostriches the bare spaces so conspicuous
in other birds are hardly traceable, the feathers covering almost
every inch of the body, at any rate in so far as the trunk is concerned.

In describing the external appearance of a bird these tracts are
commonly ignored, the body being mapped out into certain areas such
as are indicated in fig. 4.

So far we have spoken only of the feathers which form the outer
surface-covering of the bird, the ‘‘contour”’ feathers, as they are

Tarso-meta-
tarsus

12 A BOOK OF BIRDS

called, because they form the contour or outline of the body. But
besides these there are no less than three other distinct kinds of
feathers—down feathers, filo-plumes, and powder-down.

Down feathers in many birds are conspicuous by their absence,
and are developed most abundantly in water-birds, such as Ducks,
for example, growing not only between the feathers, but over the
otherwise bare spaces as weil, so as to form a thick undergrowth,
answering to the under-fur of seals, for instance.

Filo-plumes appear to be present in all birds. They are the long,
hair-like growths so conspicuous in the common fowl when plucked.
In some birds they attain such a length as to extend beyond the con-
tour feathers, forming, as in some Cormorants, long, white delicate
plumes.

The powder-down feathers are found only in a few groups, such
as the Herons and Bitterns, and some Hawks and Parrots. In the
Herons and Bitterns they form large patches, a pair on the breast,
and a patch over each thigh. Of a peculiar woolly appearance, they
are remarkable for the fact that they break up, when touched, into a
fine powder, which, when rubbed between the fingers, gives an in-
describably smooth feeling. It is the powder from these remarkable
feathers which gives the peculiar bloom to the beak of many parrots,
as well as to the plumage. As to the real purpose of the powder,
however, we know nothing.

This brief survey of feathers would not be complete without a
few words as to their structural characters. In the typical feather
(say, a quill feather), two main parts are to be distinguished—the
stem, and the broad flexible blade known as the vane, or vexillum
(fig. 5). The stem may further be divided into the quill, or calamus,
the hollow part below the vane, and the shaft or rhachis, which is
square in section and filled with a white pith. The vane runs along
on either side of the rhachis in the form of a series of tapering, flattened
rods, the ‘‘ barbs.’’ They are set so closely together that they must
be carefully sought for; and give to the vane that finely grooved
appearance, or, rather, the appearance of a series of fine lines running
obliquely outwards from the shaft. If an attempt be made to pull
these apart, it will be found that some considerable force must be
used, and this is owing to the fact that they are locked together by

INTRODUCTORY 13

a second series of flattened rods, known as the barbules, so small
as to require the microscope to reveal them. But the mechanism
by which this vane is held together is so wonderful, that I venture to
ask my readers to bear with me while I endeavour to explain it.
In the diagram of a feather (fig. 5) depicting the different parts,

you will notice on the
right side a_ small
portion shown as if
seen through a mag-
nifying-glass, thereby
roughly indicating the
appearance of barbs
and their barbules. In i
fig. 6 a portion of Vexillum —
this magnified area is
shown as it appears
when seen in a section
and still furthur mag-
nified. You will now Rhschis
see (fig. 6) that each or
barb, represented bytwo Shale
flattened rods seen in
vertical section, bears
two quite different

, Calamus
kinds of barbules, set ae,
so that while one series Quill

is cut across, the other :

: Secs Fig. 5.—The Structure of a Feather, showing a
remains uninjured. portion highly magnified, from a Drawing by
The reason for this W. P. Pycraft.

will appear presently.

The uncut series in

this diagram are those known as the anterior radii or barbules,
because all point towards the tip of the feather when in their
natural position. Each takes the form of a ribbon-like plate
set slantwise into the barb (fig. 6), and having half its length
deeply cut, as with a fretsaw, to form a number of very delicate,
almost thread-like, pieces, the upper short and bearded, the under

Vane
Magnified portion

of Vane

14 A BOOK OF BIRDS

terminating in little hooks (figs. 5b and 6) ; further, the portion bearing
these hooklets is twisted, so as to take a vertical instead of a slant-
ing position. The series of barbules which run along the other
side of the ramus, or ‘‘ barb,’’ are known as the posterior barbules,
and differ entirely in shape from those of the anterior series just
described. Like the anterior series, however, they may be described
as ribbon-shaped ; but they are curled so that the lower edge touches
the lower segment of the curve next in front of it, thus forming a
series of troughs, as in fig. 6, where they are seen in section. The
upper edge of each of these curved plates, you will notice, is turned
over scroll-fashion, and further, as in fig. 5a, it will be seen that the
plate is bent upon itself near its middle and is notched along its
lower edge.

: Fig. 5b.—A Distal Radius.
‘e, ? H. Hamuli or Hooklets.
“SS C. Cilia or Barbicels.

Fig. 5a.—Proximal Radii.
F. Folded edge.

Now, when in position, the bent ends of the posterior series are
stowed away under a sort of roof, formed by the slanting, ribbon-like,
overlapping bases of the anterior series; while the hooklets of the
anterior series are thrust down into the troughs formed by the posterior
series, and, further, so that they catch hold of the scrolled edges of
this series (fig. 6). Mark that these scrolls, or troughs, are kept
apart by a very wonderful yet simple contrivance, to wit, the series of
“‘teeth,”’ or notches, near the end of the upper edge of each bar-
bule shown in fig. 5a; but for these, the edges would rub together
and cut off the hooklets. In some birds of powerful flight a
strengthening band runs along, from the lower edge of the barb
to the lower edge of that next behind it (fig. 6, P). This serves to
keep the barbs in position during the strain of flight.

Thus, then, this marvellous interlocking is the reason why it is

INTRODUCTORY 15

so difficult to pull the barbs of a feather apart. In the vane of a
Crane’s quill, in a piece of web 15 inches long, no less than 650
of these barbs were counted, each of which bore about 600 pairs of
barbules—that is, about 800,000 for the inner web alone, and more
than a million for the whole feather: and all these are necessary to
hold the vane together.

This system of interlocking is most perfect in the wing and tail
quills. In some feathers, such as have a loose, hairy texture, as in
the body feathers of many birds, these hooklets are but feebly, if at
all, developed. The loose feathers of the Ostrich tribe also lack
them, but here they were once all perfectly developed; when the

Barbules. (After Pycraft.)
D.R. Distal Radii; P.R. Proximal Radii or Barbules.

birds ceased to fly, the feathers degenerated, and the interlocking
was lost.

What are known as semi-plumous feathers are degenerate feathers.

Down feathers differ considerably from ‘‘ contour feathers ’’ in
structure, having little or no shaft, all the barbs arising from a common
base. These barbs are, further, very long, and have only very minute
barbules. In the Ducks and some other birds these barbules take
the form of triangular nodules ; while in other birds again they are
knot-like.

The filo-plumes have a long, slender shaft with a minute vane
at the tip. They are, apparently, a degenerate form of contour
feather, judging from the fact that during the earlier part of their
development many more barbs are present than are to be found in
the fully grown filo-plume.

16 A BOOK OF BIRDS

Yet another form of feather is that which is found fringing
the mouths of birds like Flycatchers and Nightjars. Bristle-like,
there will yet be found about the bases of many a few weak
barbs ; the eyelashes of many birds, like the Ostrich, the Ground-
hornbill, and some other birds, are similarly fringed with these
peculiar bristle-like feathers.

The down which covers the nestlings of many birds, such as Fowls
and Ducks, answers to the contour feathers of the adult, but is of
a simpler structure; indeed, it differs in character among different
species of the same group. In its most completely developed form
it recalls the contour feathers, having a shaft and barbs with weak
barbules, but those last have no distinct hooklets, hence the generai
loose character of down plumage; while in its more degenerate
form the shaft is absent, as in a true down feather.

Where down is present in the adult, it will be found in the nestling
just before the feathers begin to appear. In some birds, as in the.
Hoatzin, indeed, and young Hawks, these early down-feathers, or
‘ pre-plumule,”’ attain to so large a size that they eventually play
a more prominent part than the typical nestling-down, or ‘“ pre-
penne,’’ so-called because preceding the penne, or feathers. In
young Cormorants the nestling-down is wholly made up of these pre-
plumule, which are succeeded later, not by contour feathers, but
by down feathers.

Nestling-down in its most degenerate form may be seen in young
Pigeons, and the young of most of the Song-birds ; while in others it
is altogether wanting, as in young Sparrows, and those of the Crow
tribe.

Only in the nestling-down of the Game-birds, Ducks, and the
Ostrich tribe is there found an “ after-shaft.’’? This, by the way, is
a conspicuous feature in the adult feathers of the Emeu and Cassowary
(fig. 11, p. 29), where it forms a sort of duplicate of the main-shaft,
equalling it in size ; while among the higher birds it is never very
large, except in the Game-birds (fig. 7, p. 17), but even here it is
downy in texture, and is always shorter than the main shaft.

As touching the growth of feathers, but little can be profitably
said here. The earliest traces of feathers must be sought for in the
embryo, where the first rudiments of the coming nestling-down

INTRODUCTORY 17

appear in the form of tiny bead-like bodies, which soon sink down
into a pit. Next an outer protecting sheath is developed around this
feather rudiment, and within this the mass of pulp which it contains
proceeds to form first the main axis, and next the barbs and barbules.
What will prove the tip of the feather is the first to be formed, and
as this forces its way up, the lower parts are added, till at hatching-
time the whole of the down feather is completed.

At the base of this down feather lies the germ of the contour
feather which is to fol-
low. As this grows
the down feather is
thrust out upon the tip
of the new contour
feather, and here it
may be attached for a
very considerable time,
as in the case of young
Herons, for example.
On its first appearance,
as everybody knows,
the new feather is en-
sheathed in a _ thin,
delicate blue wrapper,
the first-formed por-
tion of the vane burst-
ing its way through Bigs 7:
while the lower-most
portion of the feather is yet forming. This lower portion is filled
with a mass of jelly-like pulp, richly supplied with blood. After
the feather has completed its growth, if the barrel, or ‘‘ quill,’ of
the feather be cut with a sharp knife, the empty cases, or ‘“‘ cells,’’
which held the pulp will be found lying one above the other in the
centre of the quill.

In most birds the feathers are renewed at least once annually,
by the process known as moulting—a critical time in a bird’s
life. When there is a lack of suitable nourishment, or when
the bird is low in vigour at the moulting-season, the feathers

3

Main-shaft

‘* Downy ’’=barbs

After-shaft

18 A BOOK OF BIRDS

become curiously indented with fine grooves known as “‘ hunger-
marks.”

The annual moult takes place generally after the breeding-season ;
but some birds moult again in spring, when a new and more resplendent
livery is put on, as in the case of many of the Plover-tribe. But the
quills in such cases are not renewed. In some of the Ducks, as in the
drake of the common Wild Duck, a dull livery, resembling that of his
mate, is assumed—the so-called ‘‘ eclipse ’’ dress—during the month
of June, and this is worn for some weeks. By the middle of August
the new and characteristic ‘‘ breeding-dress ’’ is well in evidence, and
by October is completed. This ‘‘eclipse’’ dress, then, answers to the
dull dress put on after the breeding-season by the Plovers, and is
simply moulted again in a month or two instead of being worn till
the following spring. Some of the Game-birds undergo a partial
“‘eclipse’’ plumage, but this change is confined to the feathers of the
head and neck, as in the Grouse, Partridge, and Jungle-fowl.

While some birds put on a new and brightly coloured dress in
spring, others brighten up their plumage quite as conspicuously by
simply shedding the tips of the feathers assumed at the autumn moult.
No better instance of this can be found than that of the Linnet, which,
by this shedding process, gains the beautiful rich brown back, and
rose-pink breast, that make these birds so much prized. For some
as yet unexplained reason, however, captive birds, if taken in July,
before the autumn moult, develop yellow in the place of red—which
colour is never regained; if taken in the autumn, the red breast
appears in the following spring, but never again. The beautiful
plumage of the Starling is similarly attained by this method of shedding
the outer edges of the feathers, and the Chaffinch gains its blue head
in the spring by this same process.

Whether birds can gain an access of colour tothe feathers without
a moult is still a disputed point. Some hold that there can be no
doubt about the matter; while others, apparently as well qualified to
speak on the subject, deny the possibility of such a change, abso-
lutely.

That the colour of feathers can be influenced by feeding is a fact
too well known to need further comment; but it may be interesting
to remark that this fact is well known to the savage people of Brazil,

INTRODUCTORY 19

who feed a species of green Parrot on the fat of Siluroid fishes; the
feathers, as a consequence, becoming beautifully variegated with red
and yellow. Another race of South Americans change the colours
of Parrots by plucking out such feathers as they propose shall be
altered, and inoculating the spot from which the feather was taken
with the milky juice obtained from certain glands of a small toad.
The new feathers now appear of a brilliant yellow colour, and on
being plucked out, it is said, grow again of the same colour without
any fresh inoculation.

Finally, we have a few remarks to make on the covering of the
beak and feet. The jaws of a bird, as we have already remarked,
no longer bear teeth, but are ensheathed in horny cases. In many
species, as in the Petrels, for example, the beak-sheaths, instead of
being entire, one for the upper and one for the lower jaw, are made
up of a number of separate pieces; while in the Puffin, and one
of the Pelicans, ornamental plates are developed during the breeding-
season and shed immediately after. In the Pelican this plate is square
in shape, and borne on the ridge of the beak near its middle ; in the
Puffin it is triangular, and is attached to the base of the beak at each
side.

The legs, as a rule, are covered, as in the reptile, in horny scales ;
but in some birds, as in Grouse, and Sand-grouse, and the Golden
Eagle, and many Owls, the shank of the legs, and often the toes also,
are covered by long feathers not unlike long, silky hairs, and quite
different in character from the quill-like feathers on the legs of the
domesticated races of Pigeons and Fowls. In some birds a delicate
skin takes the place of scales.

The claws of birds vary greatly in shape, according to whether they
play any part or notin the capture of the food. Thus they may attain
a relatively enormous size in Birds of Prey, where the claw of the
hind-toe is especially large ; here the feet are used to hold living prey
securely. Some species, indeed, as the Goshawk, for instance, kill
their prey by means of the feet and claws. In the Jacanas, birds of
the Plover tribe, the claws attain an enormous length, forming long,
pointed rods, which with their tremendously long toes serve to enable
them to walk on the delicate floating weeds of the rivers which these
birds haunt. In some other birds, as for example in the Cassowary,

20 A BOOK OF BIRDS

the claws may be used as a weapon of offence. In this bird the inner
claw is of great size and strength, and is capable of inflicting a very
dangerous wound.

In many of the Grouse tribe the claws are shed each spring ;
though in some, as in the Black Game, the shedding is confined to
the ragged fringe along the inner side of the claws. This fringe,
by-the-bye, recalls the fact that the middle claw in many birds, as
the Barn Owl, Nightjar, and Herons, for instance, has a curious
series of little teeth running along its outer edge; but so far no one
has been able to tender any suggestion as to what purpose it may serve.

Finally we must find space for a brief reference to the formidable
weapons which many birds possess in the shape of spurs. These are
generally confined to the legs, and may be represented by a pair only,
as in the Game-cock, or by several, as in the Peacock-pheasant.
But beside these, a few birds have a similar, and equally powerful,
armature in the wings. In some, as on the ‘“‘ Screamers” (Pala-
medea and Chauna), two spurs are developed, one at each end of
the fused metacarpal bones—the bones which form the “ palm ”’ of
the hand ; in all other birds but one spur is developed, and this may
spring from one of the wrist-bones, as in the Spur-winged Goose, or
from the base of the thumb, as in the Jacanas.

Flight and its Mechanism.—While, in the possession of feathers,
birds occupy an absolutely unique position in the animal kingdom,
they are not to be so distinguished in the matter of their flight, for
many creatures far below them in the scale of life are no mean per-
formers in this most enviable form of locomotion ; while the Bats,
which belong to the man’s own class—the Mammalia—on the other
side of the scale, are also adepts in the art. In the manner of
their flight, at any rate, the birds are peculiar, though, for the matter
of that, so also, it may be urged, arethe Butterflies and Bats. But,
as we shall show, this is not altogether true.

In the study of ‘‘ the way of the bird in the air,’’ so many factors
have to be taken into consideration that it is difficult to know where
to begin, and even then, having made a beginning, it is by no means
easy to make a plain, straight-forward tale of it. Technicalities will
seem to thrust themselves in upon our argument, with many specious
promises of making things clearer ; but they shall be severely re-

INTRODUCTORY Dy

pressed! Though birds are essentially flying animals, and though
to attain this power they have become profoundly modified as to their
bodily shape, they have yet, in some respects, not gone so far as, say,
the Bats, for the latter have almost completely sacrificed the power
of terrestrial locomotion, while the birds have, with some few excep-
tions, preserved this, or, at any rate, they have preserved the hind
limbs as ‘“‘ going concerns ’’ of some kind. With this preamble, let
us come to closer terms with our subject. And this we can do better,
surely, by a study of the bony framework of the body, in its relation
to flight, than by any other way.

Indirectly, of course, the whole body is moulded to bring it into
harmony with the requirements of aerial locomotion. The long
neck, passing insensibly into the body, which tapers again into the
tail; and the beautifully smooth, rounded surface, formed by the
close-fitting overlapping feathers, are very important adaptations to this
end, offering the least possible resistance to the air ; while the large
mass of the breast-muscles attached to the under surface of the body—
which during flight is, as it were, slung between the wings—contribute
towards the right ordering of that all-important matter, gravity.
In many birds special means have been adopted to secure extreme
rigidity, as may be seen by the fact that the separate vertebre of
the back have become welded together to form a stiff, unyielding
beam, though in many fliers, as the Parrots, the ‘‘ Perching-birds,”’
and Guils, for example, these vertebre retain their primitive inde-
pendence. But it is not till we come to examine the bones of the
shoulder-girdle and sternum, and of the wings that we find the really
obvious adaptations or modifications of the skeleton which flight
has brought about.

I will not weary my readers by a long and tiresome comparison
between the shoulder-girdle and sternum and fore-limbs of the Reptile
and those of the bird, by way of showing how the one became changed
into the other, because such a comparison could not possibly carry
conviction, except to those who have made a long study of the subject.
Let us rather examine the facts as they appear in the bird. By the
shoulder-girdle, we may remark, is meant those bones which make
up the shoulder-blade, or scapula, the long, straight pillars known
as “‘ coracoids,’’ and the furcula, or ‘‘ merry-thought.’’ These form

22 A BOOK OF BIRDS

a sort of cage fixed on to the front of the sternum or breast-bone.
This bears, as everybody knows, a rough resemblance to the hull
of a ship, but with an extremely deep keel. A reference to the figure
here should make this clear. The deep keel and the broad, flat
plate of the breast-bone serve for the attachment of the breast-muscles,
which in the bird are of enormous size, equalling or exceeding in
weight all other muscles of the body.

These muscles, which constitute the large mass of flesh familiar
to every one as the ‘“‘ breast-meat’’ of a bird as served up at table,
are arranged in two layers. The outermost runs forward, to be
inserted into a shelf of bone which projects from the upper surface
of the humerus, or upper arm ; while the lower runs beneath it, along
the coracoid, and finally
passing into a round ten-
don, runs through a pulley
formed by the meeting of
the coracoid, blade-bone,
and merry-thought, and into
the head of the humerus.
These two muscles play the
most important part in
raising the body and keep-

Fig. 8.—Trunk of a Bird, showing Bones ing it in motion, for these,
of Shoulder and Hip-girdles. by their contraction, bring
about the downward wing-
beat. About the other muscles which aid in this work, and
those which raise the wings at the end of the stroke, we need not
worry here. How intimately the keel is associated with flight may
be seen by an examination of birds which fly but little. In them the
keel is always shallow, while in those which have lost the power of
flight altogether it is reduced to a mere ridge of bone, as in the Owl
Parrot (Stringops), or has vanished altogether, as in the flightless
Ostrich tribe.

The wing itself is no less profoundly modified, as we pointed out
in an earlier part of this chapter. Suffice it to say here, that of the
original five fingers, but three remain. Of these the thumb and
third finger are reduced, and little more than stumps ; while the second

INTRODUCTORY 23

finger has been elongated to form a long, rigid rod, strengthened at
the base by that portion of the third finger which in ourselves con-
tributes to form the “ palm” of the hand. In the bird’s palm there
are but two bones, forming the base of the second and third fingers
respectively.

The bird’s wing folds in a peculiar manner, so as to form a more
or less Z-shaped rod, the humerus, or upper arm, forming the top of
the Z, the fore-arm the downstroke, and the hand the base of the Z.

When extended, each
of these divisions, or seg- co.
ments, will be found to :
support a series of long,
broad feathers. Those on
the hand are known as
the primaries, and those
on the fore-arm as the
secondaries, while those
on the upper arm are
sometimes described as
the tertiaries. These last
form a double series, one
attached to the upper and
one to the under surface
of the humerus, or upper
arm-bone, and their purt- Fig. 9.—Wing of a Bird, showing the Flight
pose is to close the gap Feathers and some of the Coverts.
which would otherwise be
left between the wing and the body during flight—a gap which, indeed,
would make flight well-nigh, if not quite, impossible in birds which, like
the Albatross, have a long humerus. Above the “ quill’’ or “‘ flight”
feathers—the primaries and secondaries—will be found a number
of rows of smaller feathers, which can be divided into several distinct
series. These are the ‘‘coverts,’ and are known respectively as
the major, median, minor, and marginal coverts. Of the first and
second series—the major and median coverts—there is, of each,
but a single row; while the minor and marginal coverts number
several rows each. Some of these smaller coverts have, for clearness’

24 A BOOK OF BIRDS

sake, been removed in the accompanying diagram. The row marked
t.m. is formed by the major coverts, or tectrices majores.

The manner in which the feathers of the wing overlap one another
is a matter of some importance to those who are engaged in the work
of classifying birds, and in the mechanism of flight is even more im-
portant. If the wing of any bird be examined, it will be found that the
free edges of the “‘ quill ’’ feathers and of the major coverts are turned
outwards—towards the tip of the wing; while more or fewer of
the other coverts have the free edges turned towards the body. In the
first case the overlap is said to be “‘ distal,’ in the second ‘‘ proximal.”’
The significance this overlap bears in the arrangement of the quill
feathers is easily apparent. Having a distal overlap, when the wing
is raised the wind forces its way easily between the feathers, and so
offers the least possible resistance to the upstroke; but during
the downstroke this peculiar overlap affords an unyielding surface,
and so forces the body upwards and forwards at each stroke. Com-
pared with the bat’s wing, the wing of the bird is a vastly superior
organ; and for this reason: the wing of the bat is formed by a
membrane stretched between long, slender fingers, so that any serious
injury to this membrane permanently disables the creature. The
bird’s wing, on the other hand, has its flying membrane formed of a
number of overlapping, elastic, ribbon-like structures—the quills—
which are periodically renewed, and can be replaced if injured.

Organs of Digestion andAir-sacs. With a brief survey of the
organs of digestion and the peculiar structures known as the air-
sacs, our introductory chapter may well close.

Though once upon a time birds were burdened with teeth, they
long ago solved the problem of doing without them, and thereby are
to be envied. Like the Tortoise and the Turtle among the reptiles,
the birds have replaced their teeth by horny sheaths which encase
the jaws, and these sheaths take many forms. As a rule, that of the
upper differs but little from the under jaw; but in many birds this
is not so. In the birds of prey, for example, which tear their food
in pieces, the sheath of the upper jaw is hook-shaped ; and this is
true also of the parrots. Birds which seize rapidly moving and
slippery prey, such as fish, have spear-shaped beaks, as in Herons
and Kingfishers ; and a similar weapon is developed where a rapid

INTRODUCTORY 25

succession of blows is rained upon hard, unyielding surfaces, as in
the beaks of Woodpeckers, which, moreover, have the density of the
horn immensely increased. On the other hand, these sheaths are
often of great delicacy, as in the case of the Snipe and Woodcock,
the fragile, upturned beak of the Avocet, or the long, rod-like probe
of many Humming-birds.

In the so-called soft-billed birds, the jaws serve merely as light
forceps, and, consequently, they and their sheaths offer no very
striking characters; while in Swifts, Swallows, and Nightjars the
beak has become reduced to the smallest possible limits—and this
because the jaws perform but little work in seizing the food. When
slippery victims have to be held,
such as fish, the edges of these
horny sheaths are armed with more
or fewer saw-like ‘‘teeth,’’ as in the
Mergansers among the Ducks; or
these ‘“‘teeth’’ may take the form of
needle-like spines, as in the Darters.
In the Ducks and certain Petrels,

horny plates, recalling the baleen- Fi8- 10-—Beak of a Hawk to show
¥ 2 ee 8 a : the hook-shaped beak used for
plates of Whale-bone Whales, tearing prey.

are developed, and these serve as
sieves, or strainers, allowing the water taken into the mouth with
the food to escape, leaving the solid matter behind.

This horn-encased region of the jaws forms the “‘ beak,’’ and the
shape of this is, as we have just indicated, determined by the nature
of the food it is required to manipulate.

From the mouth the food is passed down the gullet, or cesophagus,
until, in many birds, such as Pigeons and Fowls, it reaches a special
dilatation of the gullet known as the ‘“‘crop.”’ This is a thin-walled
bag, wherein the food is stored and softened, preparatory to being
passed on to the stomach. This, in birds, consists of two parts, one
lying in front of the other. The first, which is superficially hardly
distinguishable from the gullet, is known as the “ proventriculus.’’
The walls thereof are richly supplied with digestive glands. From
this first stomach the food passes into the second, which, in birds
such as Fowls and Pigeons, for example, has extremely thick and

4

26 A BOOK OF BIRDS

muscular walls, while its cavity is lined with a more or less dense
skin, thrown into a series of folds. A stomach of this kind is known
as a ‘“‘gizzard’’; but in birds which feed on animal food, such as
Hawks and Gulls, there is no “ gizzard,’’ the walls of this region of
the stomach being thin and soft. Where a true gizzard is developed,
sharp stones and sand are swallowed by the bird, and these are stored
in the gizzard to aid in the work of grinding up the grain and other
hard matter, which form the bird’s food. Even flesh-eating birds
appear to find it necessary to swallow indigestible matter with their
food, and this matter is furnished by the hair and feathers of their
victims. Digestion completed, the indigestible residue becomes welded
together into a mass, and ejected from the mouth in the form of a
“pellet.” From the second stomach the food passes on into the
intestine, and here all the nourishing portions are absorbed.

The air-sacs are found in all birds. They take the form of a
number of thin-walled chambers lying on either side of the body, and
in front of the merry-thought. During life these chambers are filled
with air drawn from the lungs. These chambers, indeed, are really
a part of the lungs; but their precise structure cannot be described
here, since this would demand a lengthy description of anatomical
details that would be out of place in these pages. At one time it was
thought these great air-chambers served the purpose of decreasing the
weight of the bird during flight; but this is now known to be an in-
correct view. They serve to assist respiration, and also, probably, to
regulate the temperature of the body.

Concerning Eggs.—Birds, like their cousins the reptiles, and
certain lowly mammals, lay eggs. In birds these are always invested
in a hard shell, which is commonly coloured, often very beautifully.
How this colouring is formed, and how deposited on the shell, we
do not yet know, or at least only very partially so.

The number of eggs laid by different species of birds varies greatly.
Thus some species lay but one egg, as the Guillemot, for example ;
some only two, as the Pigeons. Plovers lay four; while the Game-
birds lay from twelve to twenty.

When first formed the egg of a bird is extremely small, but during
its development there is added to the germ, which is to grow into the
chick, a great quantity of yolk, to serve as food for the developing

INTRODUCTORY Oe

bird, and outside this food-yolk there is deposited a quantity of
‘‘ white’ of egg, and finally, the whole mass is enclosed within the
shell.

Although certain stages of development are passed before the egg
is laid, this development soon ceases, and is only resumed as a con-
sequence of the heat generated by the body of the brooding bird.

At hatching, the young birds are in many cases extremely active,
following their parents and feeding themselves soon after leaving
the shell ; in other species, on the other hand, the young leave the
shell in a singularly helpless condition—blind and naked—and these
have to be very carefully attended by the parents until they are strong
enough to fly and fend for themselves.

CHAPTER II
THE OSTRICH-LIKE BIRDS

THE Ostrich tribe are among the most interesting of living birds.
And this because, in the first place, they are the survivors of a much
more ancient type of birds, extinct long before the advent of man
upon the earth; and in the second, because they have undergone
most profound changes in their anatomical structure.

To begin with, all, save the South American Tinamous, have abso-
lutely lost the power of flight, and this at so remote a period that
the great keel of the breast-bone, to which we have already referred,
has entirely disappeared. But, besides this, the wings have degenerated
to a degree met with in no other living birds ; and this is true also of
the feathers.

The lowliest member of the Ostrich tribe is the Emeu of Australia.
Though, after the African Ostrich, the largest of living birds, it has
nothing to recommend it in the way of beauty, being of a dull greyish
brown in colour. Its wings are extremely small, and can only be
found by diligent hunting among the feathers of the sides of the body.
But the Emeu can boast some very handsome relatives. These are
the CassowAaRIESs of the Papuan Islands—though one species occurs
on the mainland of Australia, ranging from Cape York Peninsula
to Rockingham Bay. But little is known about these birds, how-
ever, in a wild state. When first feathered they are like the Emeu,
dull-coloured ; but when fully adult life is attained they assume a
rich black dress, and shed the feathers of the head and neck, the bare
skin then assuming the most brilliant hues—combinations of blue,
green, violet, red, and yellow, according to the species. Further,

from the crown of the head there arises a large casque, or helmet,
28

THE OSTRICH-LIKE BIRDS 29

which, solid though it looks, is really a very frail structure, consisting
of a mass of delicate lace-work of bone encased in a thin sheath of

horn.

The general appearance of the Cassowary
is well seen in the figure on Plate I. fig. 3.
The curious spikes projecting from the sides
of the body are all that remain of wing-
feathers, while the wing as a whole is ex-
tremely degenerate and very small. The hand
is so reduced that it cannot be bent back at
the wrist, as in birds that fly, and the thumb
is quite lost, as inthe Emeu. The only finger
that is left is provided with a long claw, the
use of which is unknown. Cassowaries are
further remarkable for the fact that the inner
toe bears an enormous claw, which is used
in fighting—forming indeed a very formidable
weapon. Both sexes are coloured alike.
Altogether fifteen different species of Casso-
Waries are known, one of which exceeds the
Emeu in size, standing as much as six feet
high.

The Emeu and Cassowary enjoy the dis-
tinction of differing from all other birds in
that the feathers are double—that is to say,
each has two shafts—and these are of equal
length (see fig. 11).

The Ruea, or ‘‘ Nandu ”’ (Plate I. fig. 2),
of South America, though smaller than either
the Emeu or the Cassowary, is yet a very large
bird. Among other things, it is remarkable
for the relatively large size of the wings, which
are extended by the birds when running, to

Fig. 11.—Feather of a
Cassowary showing
the large after-shaft
marked A.

act as sails, though they are far too feeble to raise the body off the
ground. The loose structure of the feathers, indeed, forms another
bar to anything like flight. Both sexes are alike in colour, and there
is little difference in the plumage of the young and fully adult birds.

30 A BOOK OF BIRDS

As in the case of the species already mentioned, the males under-
take the duties of incubation and the care of the chicks. Several
hens combine and lay their eggs together in one nest, so that the male
at last is left to brood about twenty eggs. These are of a cream
colour, and deeply pitted ; thereby they stand in sharp contrast with
the eggs of the Emeu and Cassowary, which are of a beautiful green
colour.

There are three species of Rhea, the smailest being Darwin’s
Rhea, distinguished besides by the fact that the legs are feathered
much farther down than in the two remaining species.

The AFRICAN OSTRICH (Plate I. fig. 1) is the giant among living
birds, the male standing some eight feet high. In that he exceeds
the female in size, he differs from the other ostriches so far described,
wherein the females are the larger. Furthermore, the African
Ostrich differs from all his relatives in that he is conspicuously different
from his mate in coloration, having the body clothed in a livery of
glossy black, relieved by the pure white of the wing- and tail-feathers,
which are the feathers so highly prized for millinery purposes. The
head and neck are almost bare of feathers, while the massive legs
are absolutely naked.

In the possession of a tail, the African Ostrich is also peculiar
among the Ostrich tribe.

As in the Rhea, the wings are of relatively large size, and, though
useless for flight, they largely aid him when running, being made
to serve as sails. The plumage of the female is of a very sober brown
hue.

The Ostrich stands alone among birds in the structure of the foot,
which has the toes reduced to two in number, and of these one is
so small as to play but a slight part in supporting the body.

The African Ostrich differs from its relatives in that both sexes
share the work of incubation; and here the difference in plumage
plays an important part. The female, with her dull, sandy-coloured
dress, sits by day, so that she is practically invisible when seen against
the arid waste chosen for the nesting-site. The male sits by night,
when his dark plumage renders him invisible also. Like the Rhea,
the Ostrich is polygamous, and several hens lay their eggs together
in the same nest. Though four distinct species of Ostrich are

THE OSTRICH-LIKE BIRDS 31

recognised by ornithologists, these do not differ greatly in appearance
one from another.

All the Ostrich-like birds so far described agree in that the nest-
lings are striped with broad bands of white and black, or brown,
which run from head to tail. This striping is, however, not equally
well marked in all the species. It is best seen in the young of the
Emeu, and next of the Cassowary. In the young Rhea, as in the
young Cassowary, however, the neck is not striped. In the young
Ostrich the neck is striped, but the down of the body shows no stripes,
these being obscured by the fact that the tips of the down feathers
have become transformed into little horny curls, resembling dark,
narrow shavings !

Finally, we come to the ApTERYx (Plate I. fig. 4) of New Zealand.
There are several different species of Apteryx, that shown in Plate I.
fig. 4, being known as Mantell’s Apteryx. All, however, agree in
being soberly coloured.

While the Apteryx is the smallest of the flightless Ostriches—not
exceeding a large domestic fowl in size—it loses nothing in any other
way by comparison with its relatives.

Nocturnal in habits, the eyes of the Apteryx are exceedingly
small; but deficient sight is amply compensated by a wonderfully
developed sense of smell, in which it exceeds all other living birds.
But besides this, the region of the face in front of the eyes is provided
with long hair-like feathers, which probably serve the purpose of
“‘ feelers,’’ like the ‘‘ whiskers’”’ of the cat. This bird is also remark-
able for the fact that its nostrils are placed at the extreme tip of its
beak, and here again it differs from all other birds. This curious
position enables the bird to detect its prey, which consists largely of
worms. These are discovered by thrusting the beak down into the
soil, sniffing the while for traces of the whereabouts of the desired
dainties.

The wings of the Apteryx are reduced to the merest vestiges, yet,
as in the case of the other Ostriches, a large claw is retained on the
tip of the only finger that remains.

Though silent by day, the Apteryx is by no means so by night, being
able to give forth the most piercing squeals, which can be heard
for long distances. In this way, doubtless, it finds its mate.

32 A BOOK OF BIRDS

The list of the peculiarities of the Apteryx is not yet exhausted ;
for it is remarkable for the relatively enormous size of its egg, which,
in proportion to the size of the bird, exceeds all other eggs. Only
one egg is laid in any one season. Within a very few years the
Apteryx will probably be as extinct as the Dodo, and this owing to
the destruction wrought by stoats and weasels which have, most
unwisely, been introduced into New Zealand.

CHAPTER III

THE CARINATE OR KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS, AND
THEIR CHIEF PECULIARITIES

THE birds to which the rest of this volume is to be devoted all differ
from the Ostrich tribe, not only in regard to certain peculiarities
in the formation of the skull, but also in that the breast-bone bears
a deep plate, or “ keel,’? which runs down the middle of its under

‘Shoulder- blade

a

Merry=
thought

Keel

Fig. 12.—The shoulder-girdle of a carinate bird to show the keel of the
breast=bone, the large merry-thought, and separate blade=bone.

surface. In addition to this, the bones which are charged with the

support of the wings are different, not in kind, but in degree; and

this because, with the loss of the power of flight which we remarked

in the Ostrich tribe, these ‘‘ shoulder-girdle’’ bones, as they are

called, degenerated. As a consequence, the blade-bone became

immovably fixed to its supporting pillar, the ‘coracoid’’; and
33 5

34 A BOOK OF BIRDS

the ‘“ furcula,” or ‘‘ merry-thought,”’ disappeared altogether, leaving,
at most, but slight traces of its former existence in the Emeus. But
with the flying birds the blade-bone is joined to the coracoid by elastic
ligaments, and the furcula, or ‘‘ merry-thought,”’ is well. developed.

There are certain exceptions to this rule, however; and these
occur in the case of some species which have, like the Ostriches, lost
the power of flight. Herein the keel of the breast-bone has become
greatly reduced, while some birds which yet retain the power of
flight have either a very imperfect merry-thought or none at all.

Flying birds further differ from the Ostrich tribe in that their
feathers are more perfectly developed—they only, in short, possess
typical feathers. What are the distinctive characters of these have
been already described in the introductory chapter.

Birds, like all other living things, compete one with another
for food; and hence a given area of ground can support only a
limited number of birds. All above the number which can find
support in this area must either starve or seek fresh feeding-grounds,
or contrive to find other kinds of food in the congested area. And
it is this struggle to live which has brought about the marvellous
variety in the forms of birds which this book illustrates. For as
new kinds of food and new methods of feeding were adopted, so slow
changes of shape in body, beak, wings, and feet came into being.
These changes of shape came about through the process known as
selection. That is to say, birds which, by some peculiarity in their
structure, found themselves able to capture and thrive upon the
flesh of other animals, including also other birds, went on competing
among themselves for this particular kind of food, and those which
were best endowed—that is to say, those which by their longer wings
or sharper beak and claws, or by their ability to swim and occasionally
even to dive—gradually crowded out their less fortunate fellows.
As time passed, the peculiar characters and qualities which originally
gained for them the superiority over their neighbours went on in-
creasing, because the competition still continued, being rendered,
indeed, the more severe because carried on between fewer rivals—
but rivals almost equally well fitted for the struggle. And in this
way, then, in course of time, by slow degrees, the various forms of
birds have come into being.

THE CARINATE OR KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS 35

To-day, as a result, we find Diving-birds and Tree-climbers,
Hawks and Long-legged Waders, and so on.

These different kinds of birds we group together in different
assemblages, which are known as “ Orders,’’ and these are further
sub-divided into Sub-orders, Families, and Genera, till finally we
come to species. In this way we can sort out and bracket together
all birds according to their relationship one to another.

While some Orders are made up of birds which have retained a
relatively large number of archaic characters, and hence are said
to be primitive, others have changed their structure very con-
siderably, showing many signs of descent from more modified,
more changed forms, and these are accordingly to be regarded as
higher in the scale of evolution. We shall endeavour to express
these degrees of development by working upwards from the lowest,
or more primitive, types to the highest, or latest evolved forms.
The lowest of all, the Ostrich tribe, we have already surveyed. The
remaining types are now to be traced out.

CHAPTER IV
THE DIVING-BIRDS, PETRELS, AND PENGUINS
Orders—PYGOPODES, TUBINARES, AND IMPENNES

THE birds which form the subject of this chapter are all aquatic in
their habits, and feed upon fish.

THE DIVING-BIRDS

These are divided into two groups: Sea Divers, which are known
to American Naturalists as Loons, and Fresh-water Divers, or Grebes.

The largest.of the Sea Divers is the GREAT NoRTHERN DIvER,
Plate II. fig. 1. This bird, which is a winter visitant to Great Britain,
breeds in Iceland, Greenland, and the Fur Countries, as far west as
the Great Slave Lake. It lays but two eggs, and as a nest-builder is
by no means skilled.

In the British Islands the Great Northern Diver is far less common
than the Red- and Black-throated Divers, which breed annually on
many of the lochs of Scotland. In Ireland the Black-throated Diver
is rarely met with, and the Red-throated only occasionally breeds
there.

Though these birds are commonly called Sea Divers, it must be
remarked that they show a great preference for fresh water. Here
they breed, and here they pass the summer months. During the
winter, however, they retreat to the sea, and there disperse themselves
all along our coasts. This migration is probably due to the necessity
of keeping to open water, for, being entirely dependent on fish for
their subsistence, severe frosts immediately cut off their supplies of
fresh-water fishes in their chosen haunts.

36

DIVING-BIRDS, PETRELS, AND PENGUINS 37

Of the Fresh-water Divers, or Grebes, two species are figured here,
the GREAT CRESTED GREBE (Plate II. fig. 2) and the LirTLE GREBE,
or Dasp-cHick (Plate II. fig. 7). The former is a very handsome
bird, and at one time was much persecuted for the sake of its breast-
feathers, which were made up by milliners into muffs and other
ornamental articles of dress. This bird is remarkable for the wonderful
frill which surrounds the head. This frill can be raised or depressed
at the pleasure of the bird, and is of a rich, dark, chestnut colour,
shading at the edges into a very dark brown. In addition, long
‘‘horns,’”’ or tufts of feathers, of a rich, dark brown spring from the
crown of the head. Both sexes are similarly adorned, but in the
males these ornaments are more developed.

The Das-cuick, or LITTLE GREBE (Plate II. fig. 7), is a much smaller
bird, which in summer has the cheeks, throat, and sides of the neck
of a rich chestnut, but these colours give place to a silvery white in
winter. It ranges over Europe, Africa, and Asia, extending from the
Malay countries into North Australia.

While the Sea Divers have fully webbed feet, the Grebes simply
have the toes provided with broad lobes. But both Grebes and
Divers are experts at progression under water. So completely have
the Sea Divers become modified by this mode of life, that the legs
have become shifted to the extreme hinder end of the body; asa
consequence, they cannot walk when on land. The Grebes, however,
can do so.

THE PETRELS, OR TUBE-NOSED BIRDS (Plate III.).

The Petrels are strictly sea-birds, and all are peculiar in that the
nostrils open, either in the form of a pair of tubes, one on each side
of the beak, or into a cave-like cavity on the top of the beak : hence
the name, ‘“‘ tube-nosed ’’ birds.

Of the many different kinds of Petrels, three species are figured
here ; and of these by far the most interesting is the Albatross, which
is one of the largest birds that fly. The BLack-BROWED ALBATROSS
(Plate III. fig. 8) has occurred in British waters, and hence is reckoned
a British bird ; it has also occurred in California, though its real home
is in the Southern Oceans. Albatrosses commonly breed in large
colonies. In the Island of Laysan, in the Pacific Ocean, thousands

38 A BOOK OF BIRDS

and thousands can be seen, each brooding its single egg. The nest-
ling is covered with white down of extraordinary length, and is
further remarkable for the great length of time during which it re-
mains in the nest. ;

Albatrosses, when love-making, behave somewhat strangely.
Standing face to face, they start nodding and bowing vigorously,
then rub their beaks together, uttering a whistling cry. After
this they begin shaking their heads and snapping their bills with
marvellous rapidity, occasionally lifting one wing, straightening
themselves out, and blowing out their breasts; then they put the
beak under their wings or toss it in the air with a groaning scream,
walking round each other meanwhile. And these strange evolutions
sometimes last for fifteen minutes at a time !

The Manx SHEARWATER (Plate III. fig. 1) may be regarded as
a typical Petrel. Though fairly common as a British bird, it is rare
in American waters. The legs, we may remark, have been drawn
by our artist a trifle too long.

In the Hebrides this bird breeds in considerable numbers, though
in some of the islands, curiously enough, it has been ousted by the
Puffin—a much smaller bird, but very pugnacious. On Pabbay, for
instance, this Petrel was at one time very common, so much so that
the young thereof were so highly esteemed that a barrel of them
formed part of the rent paid by each crofter in Mingalay to the Mac-
neils of Barra. About a hundred years ago, however, the Puffins
began to increase very much, and drove the Shearwaters from the
holes which they occupied in the cliffs, and so completely supplanted
them that only a few pairs now breed in Pabbay.

The young of this bird remain in the nest-burrow until long after
they are fully fledged, becoming, as a consequence, enormously fat.

Perhaps the most interesting of all the Petrels is the little Storm-
petrel, a kind very closely resembling LEacu’s ForK-TAILED PETREL
(Plate III. fig. 2), which is met with quite commonly both in British
and American waters.

The so-called ‘‘ Cape Pigeon,” which always excites such interest
at sea, is a species of Petrel.

As a rule, Petrels are dark coloured above and white below ; but
one species, the beautiful Snow Petrel of the icy regions of the Antarctic,

Fig. tf. \
Great northern diven»
(Colymbus glacialis).

Fig. 2.
Great crested Grebe
(Podicipes cristatus).

Fig. 3. Puffin
(Hratercula aretica). Fig. 6. Little Penguin

(tudyptula minor).

Pi
LS)

Fig. 4%
Little Mie
(Mergulus alle).

Fig. 8. King Penguin
cS: >
(Apienodytes patagonica).

F ie. 5.
Guillemot
(Uria troile)

Fig. 7. Dabchick
(Tachybaptes fluviatilis),

: Fig. 9. Razor-bill
(Alea torda).

DIVING-BIRDS, PETRELS, AND PENGUINS 39

is pure white ; and the Great, or Giant, Petrel when it wanders to
the far south also becomes white.

Petrels were supposed by the older naturalists to be nearly related
to the Seagulls, which they closely resemble. As a matter of fact,
this resemblance is purely superficial, and is due to their similar mode
of life.

THE PENGUINS

The Penguins are surely the most remarkable of all the “‘ carinate ”’
birds, and this because they have become so completely changed
to fit them for an aquatic life. No other living bird has become so
profoundly modified. Though the bird-like shape is retained, the
wings have become transformed into paddles, recalling those of
whales; and with these paddles Penguins propel themselves through
the water after the fashion of a bird flying through the air.

These birds are absolutely confined to the southern regions of
the world, though one species, the Cape Penguin, or Black-footed
Penguin (Spheniscus demersus), ranges as far north as the Cape of
Good Hope.

In size they vary enormously, the largest species being represented
by the Kina PeNnauin (Plate II. fig. 8) and the Emperor Penguin,
standing about four feet high; while the smallest is the LITTLE
PENGUIN (Plate II. fig. 6) of New Zealand, not larger than a small
duck.

The King and the Emperor Penguins are found only in the in-
hospitable regions of the Antarctic ; they live, in short, in a region
of perpetual ice and snow. They lay but one egg during the year,
and this is most zealously guarded. To protect it from the ice, it is
placed, as soon as laid, upon the back of the feet, and covered by the
feathers of the lower part of the abdomen. Here it is carefully
brooded by each parent in turn till the young is hatched; when
this is similarly nursed. But though so similar in their nursing
habits, the young birds of the two species are very unlike. Thus
the young King Penguin is covered in long, hair-like, tawny-
coloured down, while the young Emperor, as befits him, is clad
in a pure white down, excepting only some black markings on the
head.

40 A BOOK OF BIRDS

Other species of Penguins, of which there are several, build nests
either on the open ground or under ledges of rock.

Penguins, from the curious transformation of their wings, are
quite unable to fly. They are also quite unable to breathe through
their nostrils, and this because these have become completely closed up.

The Penguins have no very near relatives among living birds, but
they stand nearest to the Diving-birds, which, however, they far
surpass, both in their ability to walk when on land, and in their
wonderful swimming and diving powers.

CHAPTER V

THE TOTIPALMATE BIRDS, HERONS, STORKS, AND
FLAMINGOES

Orders—STEGANOPODES, CICONIAL, AND
PHOENICOPTERI

Tuer birds which form the subject of this chapter comprise a number of
distinct groups which, at first sight, seem perhaps to have but little in
common, for, in the first place, while some are web-footed, others are
not. As a matter of fact, however, a study of their anatomy shows
that they are all closely related one to another.

THE TOTIPALMATE BIRDS

The birds which are known as the Totipalmate, or Steganopodous,
birds were grouped together by the
older naturalists because they differed
from all other web-footed birds in
that all the four toes are united by
a continuous web, whereas in all
other web-footed birds the hind-toe,
when present, is free. The labours
of later workers have shown that
this association was justified.

Fig. 13-—Foot of a Cormorant, to

The best known of these Toti- show the totipalmate condition
‘ —all four toes united in a com-
palmate birds are the Cormorants iene)

and Gannets.
The Common Cormorant (Plate III. fig. 4) is a bird which enjoys
a very wide distribution over the earth’s surface, being common all

ql 6

42 A BOOK OF BIRDS

over Europe, and in America occurring along the Atlantic coast from
Hudson Bay to New Jersey. It is a rather large bird, being about
three feet long, of a wonderful bottle-green colour, and having
rather evil-looking emerald-green eyes. Its plumage is still further
remarkable, in that the sides of the neck are marked by long and
peculiar hair-like feathers, white in colour; while a similar white
patch occurs on the thigh. This last, however, is worn only during
the summer months.

The nestlings of the Cormorant are very ugly, and covered with a
short black down. This is succeeded by a brown plumage, and at
this time the eyes are also brown. Not until they are adult is the
dark dress assumed.

The Cormorant is an expert diver, and lives upon fish, which it
pursues under water. The wonderful skill displayed in this pursuit
is turned to good account by the Chinese and Japanese, who keep
these birds and train them to catch fish. By the ingenious device of
placing an india-rubber ring around the neck, their masters prevent
the birds from swallowing their captures, and compel them to bring
each fish as it is caught to the raft from which the fishing is carried
on. From the time of the Stuart sovereigns until quite recently
Cormorant fishing of this kind was carried on as a sport in England.

There are several species of Cormorants, the smallest being but
22 inches long. This species is found in Central and South Europe,
North Africa, and South-west and Central Asia. The largest species,
known as Harris’s Cormorant, is nearly extinct, and is found only
on one of the Galapagos Islands, off the coast of South America. It
is much larger than the Common Cormorant, but has quite lost the
power of flight, and with it the keel of the breast-bone.

Very nearly related to the Cormorants is a remarkable bird known
as the DarTER (Plate III. fig. 9). From the Cormorants it differs
chiefly in the great length and slenderness of the neck, on which
account it is also known as the Snake-bird. The beak of the Darter
is, however, quite unlike that of the Cormorant, being very sharply
pointed, while its edges are armed with fine needle-like spines.
When fishing, the Darter spears his victim on this beak, and brings
it wriggling to the surface, when it is tossed up and swallowed.

The subject of our illustration (Plate III. fig. 9) is a native of

Beare vile

Figen Z: -
Leach’s Fork-tailed Petrel
(Oceanodroma leucorrhoa).

4 : SSS

Manx Shear-wate
(Puffinus anglorum).

=e. Tropic bird
-(Phaéthon aethereus).

Fig. 3. Gannet @ernocant
cv . ;
(Sula bassana). (Phalacrocorax carbo).

BP 2 es ttt.
Fig/6. Frigate-bird
(Fregata aquila). —— canteen
Se. 1-Wilite Pelican

-(Pelecanus vnocrotalus).

Fig. 8.
Black-browed
Albatross

wo

(Diomedea

melanophrys ).

7

]
5°

Poo ae :
- _ vs Sf a”). a
war

TOTIPALMATE BIRDS, HERONS, STORKS 43

tropical and sub-tropical America, ranging northwards to West
Mexico and South Carolina; but Darters, of different species, are met
with in other parts of the world. Like the Cormorants, Darters, in
the summer, have the neck adorned with long, white, hair-like
feathers, known as filo-plumes. The Darters are further remarkable
for the fact that the tail-feathers are curiously corrugated in a way
recalling the sheets of corrugated iron used for roofing and other
purposes.

Though Darters occur on the sea-coasts, it is more strictly a river
bird.

As in the Cormorants, the eggs of the Darter are peculiar in that
they are covered with a thin layer of chalk, which, when scraped
away, reveals a shell of a very delicate greenish-blue colour.

The Gann_ETs, though closelyrelated to the Cormorants and Darters,
differ much therefrom, not only in shape and coloration, but also in
their method of fishing, since they capture their prey, not by pursuit
under water, but by a sudden plunge from a great height in
the air.

The Common Gannet (Plate III. fig. 3), also known as the Solan
Goose, is a resident within British waters, and breeds in considerable
numbers on the Bass Rock and Ailsa Craig, islands on the east and
west coasts of Scotland. Smaller colonies are to be found off the
English and Irish coasts. From the British Islands it extends to
Iceland, and down the American Coast to Nova Scotia.

While the adult bird in both sexes is pure white—save the quills,
which are black, and a rich buff tinge over the head and neck—the
young birds are of a blackish ash colour, flecked with white. Year by
year, at each successive moult, they grow paler, until, at the sixth
year, they assume the fully adult dress.

Altogether, about nine distinct species of Gannets are known.
All are remarkable for the fact that between the skin and the body
there is found a wonderful system of air-cells, serving to break the
force of the impact with the water which occurs when the birds dive
after their food. This, as we have already remarked, they do irom a
great height.

Like the Cormorants and Darters and also the Penguins, the Gannets
have no external nostrils, but breathe only through the mouth.

44 A BOOK OF BIRDS

THE PELICANS, TROPIC BIRDS, AND FRIGATE BIRDS

The Pelicans, Tropic and Frigate birds are each in their way very
remarkable types, and all are nearly related one to another and the
Cormorants and Gannets.

The WHITE Pe ican (Plate III. fig. 7) is a native of Southern
Europe and Africa, ranging eastwards into Northern India. Altogether
nine species are known, of which three are American—the Brown,
Saw-billed, and Rough-billed Pelicans. The last named, a North
American species, is the most remarkable of all, and this because,
in the nesting-season, the upper surface of the beak bears a curious
horny plate, which late in the year drops off, to be renewed again
in the succeeding summer.

The huge pouch of skin which hangs down from the lower jaw
of the Pelicans is too well known to need description. In this recep-
tacle fish are caught. In fishing, these birds will often combine,
forming a half-circle in the water, and driving the fish before them
until they get them ‘‘ rounded up,’ as it were, against the bank of
the river or lake which is the scene of their hunting, when the pouches
are speedily filled! When not in use, the skin of this pouch is
drawn up so as to be hardly noticeable.

Pelicans not only swim well, but they can also dive, while on
the wing they have few rivals.

The FriGATE, or MAN-oF-war Birp (Plate III. fig. 6), is met with
throughout the tropical regions of the world, and has even strayed
so far north as Nova Scotia. It is a remarkable bird in many ways.
Spending the greater part of its life on the wing, it has but little use
for legs, and as a consequence it has acquired the distinction of having
the smallest feet, for its size, of any living bird. Feeding upon squids,
small crabs, flying fish, and young turtles when they come in their
way, these Frigate Birds yet derive no small part of their food by
robbing others. Their victims are chiefly Terns and Gannets, which,
returning home with full crops, are chased and made to disgorge
their captures. Before the coveted morsel has reached the sea again,
it is caught up by these unscrupulous highwaymen and promptly
swallowed !

During the nesting-season the males develop beneath the beak

TOTIPALMATE BIRDS, HERONS, STORKS 45

a great pouch of a brilliant red colour. This can be inflated, at the
will of the bird, until it rivals the rest of the body insize! ‘‘ Adozen
or more of these birds sitting in a tree,’’ says Dr. Andrews, of the
British Museum, ‘‘ with outstretched, drooping wings, and this great
scarlet bladder under their heads, is a most remarkable sight.”
‘‘When a hen bird,” he continues, ‘“‘ approaches the tree, the males
utter a peculiar cry, a sort of ‘ wow-wow-wow-wow,’ and clatter their
beaks like castanets, at the same time shaking the wings.”’

The Tropic Birp, or Boatswain Birp (Plate III. fig. 5), is a
native of the tropical portions of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans,
and measures about 40 inches in length; but this includes the long
tail, which has a length of about 26 inches.

Altogether six species are known, of which three are American.
Tropic Birds are true denizens of the ocean, often being met with
many hundreds of miles from the land. Their flight is rapid and
sweeping. Like the Gannet, they procure their prey by diving, often
from an immense height, in the air. On land, as might be expected,
they are greatly at a disadvantage, and walk with a shuffling gait.
Though the majority of the species are white, with black pencillings,
one is remarkable for the exquisite orange colour of its plumage.

THE HERON TRIBE

While the birds which we have just described are all remarkable
for the shortness of their legs, the remaining types, to the description
of which we now pass, are as conspicuous from the great length of
their legs. In the matter of the shape of the beak they also differ,
for this is spear-shaped, though in this particular the Gannets
and Darters, and to a less extent the Tropic Birds, also agree.

The difference in the length of the leg is explained by the fact that
the Herons and their near relations, which we shall consider pre-
sently, catch their prey by wading in shallow water, whereas the
birds which we have just described either procure their prey under
water, or capture it by plunging from a height.

The Common Heron (Plate IV. fig. 4) is still to be met with in
Great Britain, on the streams and mud flats of secluded neighbour-
hoods ; but it is a very wary bird, and must be approached with great
caution. In the days of feudal England this bird was most strictly

46 A BOOK OF BIRDS

protected on account of the sport it afforded in Falconry. To-day
it is subjected to a ruthless persecution wherever trout streams abound
on account of the heavy toll it is supposed to levy on these sacred
fish ; so that the wonderful sight of a ‘‘ heronry,”’ as a nesting-colony
of these birds is called, is becoming more and more rare. But the
herons, even in trout streams, are by no means such robbers as they
are supposed to be by those who shoot them down, and trap them
by all manner of barbarous devices. For these birds subsist largely
on water-voles, frogs, and eels.

Their nests, constructed of sticks, are placed in the tops of high
trees, though when these are wanting they will build upon the ground.

The Common Heron enjoys a wide range, occurring over the
greater part of Europe and Asia below lat. 60° N., and most parts of
Africa and Madagascar. Eastwards it extends to the Malay Islands
and Australia.

In South America there occurs a bird which in general appearance
closely resembles the Common Heron. This is the Blue, or Cocoi,
Heron. But a much more remarkable species of Heron occurs in
North America. This is the Little Blue Heron. Though, as its name
implies, a much smaller bird than the Common Heron, it is peculiar
on account of the fact that it is met with under two distinct forms,
one blue and one white, both forms being not infrequently found in
the same nest.

The small birds known as ‘‘ Night Herons ”’ are near allies of the
Common Heron, and are met with in Europe and America.

Among the Heron tribe are certain species which possess, in a
remarkable degree, the “‘ fatal gift of beauty.’’ These are the “‘ Egrets.”’
The chiefest among these are the Great White Egret (Plate IV. fig. 5)
and the American Egret. The former occurs in Southern Europe,
east to Central Asia and south to Africa, the Indian Peninsular and
the Burmese countries, and is the largest of the Egrets. The American
species is a smaller bird, and burdened by the scientists with the
formidable Latin name Lecophoyx candidissima. A native of the
temperate and tropical regions of America, from the Northern United
States to Chili, this bird, like its white relatives in other parts of the
world, has for many years been made the subject of the most atrocious
persecution. And this for the sake of the wonderfully beautiful

TOTIPALMATE BIRDS, HERONS, STORKS 47

plumes which grow from the back of both males and females during
the breeding-season. These feathers form the ghastly trophies which
thoughtless women wear in their hats, and to procure which the most
abominable cruelties have been perpetrated. Though the sickening
details of the slaughter of these birds have been published broadcast,
the use of these feathers for decorative purposes unhappily still
continues, though since Her Majesty the Queen has set the seal
of her disapproval in their use the practice may slowly die out.
For every pair of adult birds killed, one pair of nestlings dies a lingering
death from starvation. Time was when these beautiful birds abounded
in the Florida Keys, to-day this region is desolate. The same course
of brutality has been followed, with scarcely less deplorable results,
with other species in other parts of the world.

From the Herons and Egrets we pass to the Bitterns. Of the
last-named group the best known perhaps is the species generally
referred to as the COMMON BITTERN (Plate IV. fig. 6). This bird is
remarkable for the curious booming noise which it makes as the
shades of evening are closing in. Like the Herons, it is a bird which
delights in desolate places—great swamps and reed-beds. There was
a time when the Bittern was to be met with commonly in Great
Britain, but drainage and that pest the ‘collector ’’ have done their
worst, so that, at most, but a few stragglers are now to be met with
in our islands, and these are always promptly shot down.

The Bittern is remarkable for the wonderful way in which its
plumage harmonises with its surroundings; and, as if aware of
this, the bird seeks safety in moments of danger, not by flight, but
by sitting close, with upstretched neck, and beak pointing skywards,
among the reeds. So closely does it then blend with the tangle
around it, that detection is well-nigh impossible. The ordinary rest-
ing attitude of this bird is that depicted in Plate IV. fig. 6. Another
unusual feature about the Bittern is the wide fringe of long feathers
which runs down the front of the neck. These are so long that they,
when extended, give this region an enormous appearance. When
depressed, they meet behind, and on this account the back of the neck
is clothed only in short down.

But the Bitterns and Herons have attained a certain amount of
notoriety from the fact that the middle claw bears along its inner

48 A BOOK OF BIRDS

edge a comb-like fringe, while the breast and thighs bear patches of
very remarkable feathers known as powder-down. These feathers
break up in the form of an exceedingly fine powder, but what pur-
pose this powder serves is unknown.

THE STORKS, SPOONBILLS, AND IBISES

Though very like the Herons in habits and general shape, the
Storks differ therefrom in many anatomical characters. The best-
known species is the WHITE Stork (Plate IV. fig. 2) of Europe ;
and this largely because of the prominent part it has played in folk-
lore, as well as from the veneration in which it is commonly held,
especially in Holland.

The Adjutant Storks, which occur in India and Africa, are the
birds which furnish the feathers known as ‘‘ Marabou’’ plumes.
The Arrican ADJUTANT STorkK (Plate IV. fig. 7) is known to the
Arabs as “‘ The Father of the Leather Bottle,’’ from the curious bag
which hangs down in front of the neck, and which can be filled and
emptied of air at the will of the bird. The American Jabiru Stork
is nearly related to the Adjutants.

The SPoonBILL (Plate IV. fig. 3) is a bird which a few centuries
ago bred commonly in marshy districts in Great Britain, but is now,
largely owing to drainage, reduced to the rank of an accidental visitor,
and the same fate is overtaking it in Holland. This bird derives its
name from the curiously spoon-like shape of the beak. The Roseate
Spoonbill of America is a closely related species, but a more brightly
coloured bird.

The Ibises, though they bear a superficial resemblance to the
birds known as Curlews, really belong to the Stork tribe, and are
most nearly related to the Spoonbills. The Sacrep Isis (Plate IV.
fig. 8) is the bird which was worshipped, and after death embalmed,
by the ancient Egyptians. The Glossy Ibis was, till comparatively
recent times, a common bird in Great Britain. Perhaps the most
beautiful of all the Ibises is the Scarlet Ibis of tropical America, a
bird which, however, soon loses its glorious hues in confinement,
though it has recently been found that, with judicious feeding, this
loss of colour can be almost, if not entirely, prevented.

RPATE Ve

\

(Ciconia alba). ‘|, *

\\ tw =

Fig. 1. Flamingo

— (Phoenicopterus roseus).

’ oe : . >,

, le f Fig. 3.
Cee ee | Spoonbill

i ees te “ (Platalea leucorodia).

os

ia
Fig. 5.

Great white Egret

(Herodias alba).

Fig. 4.

Commen
Heron

(Ardea cinerea).

if Crane -

w Oe! 6 By (Balearica |

Fig. 7. Africagieal ee 8 oS Ee Ay pavonina).

Adjutant I | oy ; : %
( Leptoptili

crumenifer

TOTIPALMATE BIRDS, HERONS, STORKS 49

THE FLAMINGOES

As to the exact relationships of the Flamingoes a great many
opinions have been expressed. Some authorities regard them as
long-legged Geese, others as Storks with geese-like beaks; and
probably the latter view is nearer the truth. In the external shape
of this beak the Flamingo is unique, the upper and lower jaws being
bent sharply downwards in the middle. But along their inner edges
is a curious fringe of horny plates, like that found in Ducks and
Geese. Hence the supposed relationship to these birds.

The Flamingoes build very wonderful nests of mud, in swamps.
And it was generally supposed, by the older naturalists, that the bird,
when sitting on its eggs, sat astride the nest—an idea which is now
quite exploded.

The EuroPpEAN Fiaminco (Plate IV. fig. 1) occasionally strays
into Great Britain. In the salt-water lagoons of the south of France
and Spain it breeds in great numbers.

About seven species of Flamingo are known, and no less than
four of these are American.

CHAPTER VI

THE DUCKS, GEESE, AND SWANS
Order—ANSERES

Tue Ducks, Geese, and Swans forma well-defined order of birds,
which appear to be related on the one hand to the Totipalmate birds
and Storks, and on the other, some believe, to the birds of prey.

All are aquatic in their habits, short-legged and web-footed,
and ail have very large, thick, fleshy tongues.

Unlike the Totipalmate birds and Storks, their nestlings leave
the egg in a very forward state, so that they can run and swim almost
immediately after hatching.

The ‘ Saw-billed’’? Ducks are remarkable for the fact that the
edges of the beak are armed with sharp, conical, horny, tooth-like
spines, admirably adapted for the capture of the slippery fish on which
these birds live.

The GoosanDER (Plate V. fig. 2) and the Smew (Plate V. fig. 5)
are two very typical samples of Ducks of this type, and both are
common British birds. In North America a Goosander is found
which differs but little from the British species.

The two next species possess a beak of more normal type, in so
far as its armature is concerned ; in its general shape, however, this
beak is peculiar. These are the Velvet Scoter and the Eider-duck.

The VELVET ScoTER (Plate V. fig. 7) is a strictly marine species,
which is not infrequently met with along the British coast in autumn
and winter. It feeds largely on shell-fish, which it obtains by diving.
In colour it is of a rich velvety black, relieved only by a white patch
on the head and wing and the brilliant orange of the beak and legs.

50

PLATE V.

Fig. 1. Eider Duck

(Somateria mollissima).

Fig. 2. Goosander
(Mergus merganser).

Fig. 3. Long-tailed Duck (Hareldu gtacialis).

Fig. 4.
Sheld-duck
(Tadorna cornuta).

RE =

Fig. 5. Smew
(Mergus albellus).

EY oe fusca). a. 8: Goiden-Eye (Clangrta glauecion),

THE DUCKS, GEESE, AND SWANS 51

In North America there is found a smaller species closely resembling
this bird.

The ErpEerR-Duck (Plate V. figs. 1 a, b) is perhaps, in name at
any rate, one of the best known of all the Duck tribe, and this on
account of the fact that its down—bleached white—is so much in
demand for domestic purposes. This down is obtained by robbing
the nest-material of the breeding birds. It is plucked by the female
from her breast to serve as a lining for the nest and a covering for
the eggs. As is the case of so many of the Ducks, the female is
much more soberly clad than her mate; which is one of the most
beautiful of all the Ducks. The American Eider-duck, though
a distinct species, differs but little in appearance from the British
species.

The LonG-TaILED Duck (Plate V. fig. 3) is a relative of the
Eider-duck, though a much less handsome bird. Nevertheless, it
has distinct claims to beauty, the white plumage of the male being
relieved by black, and washes of dark brown and buff.

This bird breeds in the northern limits of Scotland, and is also
well known in America, where it not infrequently passes under the
name of the ‘‘ South Southerly ’’ and ‘“‘ Old Squaw,” the latter name
having been bestowed on account of its noisiness when a large number
are gathered together. Apart from its peculiar coloration, the
long tail of the bird makes it easy to distinguish.

The Turtep Duck (Plate V. fig. 6) and the GoL_pEN Eye
(Plate V. fig. 8) are both well-known British birds, being especially
common during the winter months. The Golden Eye, indeed, occurs
with us at no other time; but the Tufted Duck, on the other hand,
is to be found the year round, breeding in considerable numbers in
the Midland counties.

While the Golden Eye is represented in America by a bird identical
with the British race in all except size—the British Bird being much
smaller—the Tufted Duck is unknown as an American bird.

The Golden Eye is peculiar among the Ducks, in selecting a hole
in a tree in which to lay its eggs.

While the Ducks so far described are commonly known as Divine
Ducks, the species now to be described are similarly known as
Surface-feeding or Fresh-water Ducks ; though it must be remarked

52 A BOOK OF BIRDS

that some of the Diving Ducks also show a marked preference for
inland waters.

Of the Fresh-water Ducks the best-known examples are the
MALLARD, the TEAL, the WIGEoN, and the Pinrait (Plate VI. figs. 6,
5, 7, 8).

These are all species conspicuous for their beauty, though this,
as with the Ducks already described, is confined to the males, the
females being very dull-coloured birds.

While the Mallard is met with in some numbers in America,
this is not the case with the Teal, Wigeon, and Pintail, which occur
only as stragglers. But the place of the Wigeon is taken by the
American Wigeon, and of the Teal by the American Green-winged
Teal—birds which resemble the British species fairly closely.

The SHELDRAKE, Of SHELD-DUCK (Plate V. fig. 4), is a bird which is
interesting in more ways than one. To begin with, its plumage is re-
markable for its strongly contrasted colours—pure white relieved by
broad bands of bright chestnut, and rich metallic blue-blacks and
greens ; while the beak is of a wonderful cherry-colour, the legs a
delicate pink. Then both sexes are coloured alike, though the female
is not quite so vivid in her hues. In all the other Ducks, it will
be remembered, the female wears a very dull dress; and this, for a
time, is assumed by the males also, when they are said to go into
“eclipse.”’ This ‘‘ eclipse’? plumage is worn for some six or eight
weeks, during which time the annual moult, or renewal of the quills,
is taking place. For the Ducks, at this time, shed their quills—not
in pairs, as most other birds do, and so preserve the power of flight,
but all at once. Hence they are compelled to seek safety from enemies
by hiding—a device which is eminently successful, because the
sober hues of the female dress harmonise perfectly with the birds’
surroundings.

The Sheldrakes have no “ eclipse’ dress, the female at the time
being engaged in sitting on her eggs, concealed in a burrow carved
out of some sand-bank, while her mate seeks safety at sea, or crouches
among the vegetation near his mate.

But the Sheldrakes are further remarkable in that they serve
as a connecting-link between the Ducks and the Geese.

The Common Sheldrake, or ‘‘ Burrow-duck,” is a well-known

: aPey- awe OSE

(Anser cinereus).

TARAS

napa
nie

Fig. 3. Snow Goose
(Chen hyperboreus).

Fig. 6.
2 Mallard
ommon Teal (Anas boschas).

(Netlion creeca).

oe

ia igs

ii

Fig. 7. Wigeon ( Mareca penelope). Fig. 8. Pintail ( Dajila acuta ).

A, ) ,
ve
Pie

i,
Lf
"

OT mh
Lj ae
oS

yer 4
Ai ee

THE DUCKS, GEESE, AND SWANS 53

British bird, and is no less frequently met with over a large part of
Europe, extending thence into Asia, and as far east as Japan.

We pass now to the True GEESE, wherein, as with the Sheldrake,
both sexes are coloured alike. Though as a rule not very brightly
coloured, some species are conspicuously so. What we may call
the ‘‘typical’’ Goose is represented by the ‘‘ Grey Lag’’ Goose.

The Grey Lac Goose (Plate VI. fig. 1) is a most interesting
bird, because, probably, from this species our domesticated races of
Geese have had their origin. It owes its name, ‘‘ Lag Goose,” to the
fact that it used to remain behind, or ‘“‘ lag’’ behind, to breed in the
English fens, when all its relatives had betaken themselves to more
northerly regions for this purpose.

The Brent Goose (Plate VI. fig. 2) represents the most abundant
and generally distributed of the British Geese, and is especially common
on the northern coasts. This bird also occurs throughout Arctic
America, eastward of Alaska. On the Pacific side of North America,
however, its place is taken by a closely allied species, wherein the
white patch of the neck—which distinguishes Bernicla brenta—
extends to form a complete ring.

A much handsomer Goose is the Snow Goose (Plate VI. fig. 3),
wherein the plumage is snow-white, relieved by the black quill-
feathers of the wings, while the legs and feet are bright red. It is
a very rare bird in Great Britain, its home being North America.

The Swans are represented by several species, of which the
best known in Britain is the Mure Swan (Plate VI. fig. 4), a bird
too well known to need description. Except the Australian Swan,
which is black, and the South American Black-necked Swan, all the
Swans are pure white in plumage when adult.

CHAPTER VII

THE BIRDS OF PREY—SECRETARY-BIRD, EAGLES,
BUZZARDS, HAWKS, KITES, VULTURES, AND FALCONS

Order—ACCIPITRES

Amoncac the Birds of Prey the older naturalists always included
the Owls, which they distinguished as the ‘‘ Nocturnal,’ or Night-
flying, Birds of Prey. But it is now known that the Owls, though
in many respects closely resembling the birds to be described in this
chapter, are yet members of a very different group. They are, in
short, nearly related to the Nightjars.

The purpose of classification, it must be remembered, is not so
much to bring together those birds which are externally similar, as
those which are related one to another. Unrelated birds may, and
often do, resemble one another, because they lead similar lives, and
thus have become slowly changed till they assume a common like-
ness; while birds, on the other hand, which are really closely re-
lated, come to assume very different shapes, and this because their
mode of life is different.

The relationship of birds one to another is to-day determined
rather by anatomical structure than by external form. And it is on
these grounds that anatomists have separated the Owls from the
Eagle tribe.

The hooked beaks, sharp claws, and upright carriage of the body,
which distinguish both the Owls and the Day-flying Birds of Prey,
or ‘‘ Accipitres,’’ owe their being to the same causes. That is to say,
when the ancestors of these birds began preying on their neighbours,
they did it because they were stronger, and had heavier, sharper

54

bt eg ’
Fig. 2. Kestrel (Falco

tinnunculus).

Fig 1, Wipe

i a
Sparrow-hawk 7 S Fig.
(Aceipiter nisus). Secretary-bird
(Serpentarius secretarius).

oe FES svn

Fig. 4. Gos-hawk

(Astur palumbarius).

an . ane a
Fig. 5. Hen Harrier (Corcus cyaneus ),

Fig. 7. Cammon Buzzard
(Buteo vulgaris).

ig. 6. Kite
(Milrus ictinus).

a; i
i ae -

THE BIRDS OF PREY 55

beaks, and longer, sharper claws than their victims. As time went
on, the descendants of these marauders gradually improved these
weapons, and this improvement is going on even now.

One of the most remarkable of the Accipitres is the ‘‘ SecRETARY-
BIRD ”’ (Plate VII. fig. 3), and this because of the great length of
the legs, the long tail, and the long feathers which spring from the
head. These last, from their fanciful resemblance to the quill pen
behind the ear of a secretary, have given the bird itsname. A native
of South Africa, it is held in high regard from the fact that its favourite
food is snakes, many of which are extremely poisonous, and conse-
quently dreaded by all who have to live in this region of the world.
The bird attacks and kills these reptiles by pounding them with its
feet, using its wings, when necessary, as a shield against bites. It
builds a huge nest of sticks, and in this the nestlings remain for as
long as six months.

Of the more typical birds of prey the Kite (Plate VII. fig. 6) is
certainly one of the most interesting. It was once an extremely com-
mon British bird, and nowhere more plentiful than in London, where
its numbers excited the comment of all foreigners visiting the city.
But this was several hundred years ago, when this bird was valued
as a scavenger. Poultry keepers and game preservers have since then
waged such a ruthless war on this fine bird that it is now practically
extinct as a British bird, only two or three pairs being found breeding—
under special protection—in Wales. No bird has a more beautiful
flight than the Kite, and its loss is greatly to be deplored. In olden
days it was held in high esteem by the falconer, who hunted it with
trained Falcons.

The Hen Harrier (Plate VII. fig. 5) is one of several different
species of Harrier once common in Great Britain. To-day, owing
to game preservation, it has become practically wiped out. The
Harriers are peculiar in that the feathers of the face are arranged
almost after the fashion which obtains among the Owls. The
Hen-harrier feeds upon mice, water-voles, small birds, and reptiles.
The female differs remarkably from the male in colour, being brown
above and having the tail banded with five dark bars—hence this
sex was at one time regarded as a distinct species, and known as
the Ring-tail.

56 A BOOK OF BIRDS

The Gos-Hawk (Plate VII. fig. 4), though occasionally to be
met with in Great Britain, was apparently at no time a common
bird. It is exceedingly powerful, and has the hind-toes armed with
claws remarkable for their size and strength. The grip of the
foot of this bird is terrible ; thereby it kills its prey. Falconers in
olden days held the Gos-hawk in high esteem. It was flown at
Hares and Rabbits, as well as Herons, Partridges, Ducks, and other
birds, exhibiting remarkable skill in turning swiftly by reason of its
relatively short wings and long tail.

The American Gos-hawk closely resembles the British bird,
differing chiefly in the under parts, which are freckled rather than
barred.

The SpARROW-HAWkK (Plate VII. fig. 1) is a near relative of the
Gos-hawk, but a much smaller bird. In spite of relentless perse-
cution, it may still be called one of the commonest of the British
Hawks. Haunting the woodlands, it feeds principally upon small
birds. In the days when falconry flourished, this bird was used to
take Quails and Partridges, and is still used for this purpose in India
and Japan.

While in the Hawk tribe it is usual to find the females larger
than the males, this disparity is nowhere so marked as in the Sparrow-
hawks—of which there are several species. Further, the sexes
differ greatly in colour. The bird figured on Plate VII. is an adult
male. The female is much less handsome, lacking the beautiful
chestnut colour on the breast.

In Canada and the United States the place of the British
Sparrow-hawk is taken by two quite distinct species, one being known
as the Sharp-shinned, and the other as Cooper’s Hawk ; both, however,
bear a very close resemblance to the British Sparrow-hawk. The
bird, by the way, known in Canada and the United States as the
Sparrow-hawk belongs to quite a different section of the Hawk
tribe, as will be shown presently.

We pass now to a brief description of the Buzzards and Eagles,
which blend, so to speak, the one into the other.

The Common Buzzarp (Plate VII. fig. 7) is happily still to be
met with in many parts of Great Britain, though unfortunately it is
now a misnomer to call it the ‘‘Common’’ Buzzard. Sixty years

Pirate VII.

} Fig. 1. Osprey

©) Pandion haliaétus). Fig. 2. Greenland Falcon (Fuleo cwndicans).

Fig. 3. Golden-eagle

(Aquila chrysaétus’,

SQ ye = ~ Ves - . 7 .
Fig. 4 White-tailed sea-eagle (Haliattus albicilia). Fig. 5. Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliac).

THE BIRDS OF PREY 7

ago it used to breed in Norfolk in some numbers. To-day a few may
occasionally be seen in Wales and in the centre and west of Scotland.
Game preservation has sealed its doom. The female, which is some-
what larger than her mate, measures about 23 inches in length.

In the matter of plumage this species varies greatly, at least in
so far as the nature of the markings is concerned, some birds
being very dark, others almost cream-coloured, while the markings
on the breast often form a T-shaped pattern.

The Buzzard feeds on field-mice, reptiles, frogs, grasshoppers,
and occasionally earth-worms, varying this diet now and then with
small birds.

As touching the true Eagles; the best known perhaps is the
GoLpEN Eac_e (Plate VIII. fig. 3), a bird which now breeds in
Britain only in the Highlands of Scotland. In England, Wales, and
Ireland it occurs only as a rare straggler, and is everywhere shot
down either by gamekeepers or collectors. It feeds upon hares and
smaller mammals, grouse, and other birds, and when pressed by
hunger will even eat carrion. The stories so often told of these birds
carrying away children in their claws are silly stories, invented by
the vulgar.

The eggs of the Golden Eagle, two or three in number, vary greatly
in their coloration, and are much sought after by collectors, who
thereby do their best to aid in the extermination of this fine bird,
which measures about three feet in length.

The IMPERIAL EAGLE (Plate VIII. fig. 5) is abird which can be easily
recognised by the white patch on the shoulders. It is a southern form,
occurring in South-east Europe, and ranging thence through Palestine
to India and China. While some travellers describe it as displaying
great beauty and majesty in its movements, and dauntless courage
when foraging for food—which consists of Bustards, Hares, Lizards,
and so on—others tell a very different story. Thus, another writer
assures us that it is a dull and stupid bird. ‘‘I have driven,” he
says, “‘ the female off hard-set eggs, and plundered the nest before
the eyes of the pair without either flapping a pinion even to defend
what even a little Shrike will stoop at once to save.”’

The WHITE-TAILED EaGLe (Plate VIII. fig. 4), which is known
also as the Erne and Sea Eagle, is now much more rare in Great

8

58 A BOOK OF BIRDS

Britain than formerly, when it bred in Wales, the Isle of Man, and
the Lake District of England, and in many parts of Scotland. To-day,
a few pairs still breed in the western and northern islands of Scotland,
and occasionally on the west coast of Ireland. |

Very old birds have the head and neck almost white, but the
white tail is not acquired till the bird is several years old.

Most of the reports of Golden Eagles killed in England turn out,
on examination, to be White-tailed Eagles. They may easily be
distinguished, for while in the Golden Eagle the legs are feathered
down to the toes, in the Sea-Eagle the part known as the “ tarsus ’’—
which is feathered in the Golden Eagle—is covered with small yellow
scales.

There can be no justification for the insensate persecution which
has been meted out to this bird in Great Britain, for it lives for the
most part on fish and offal cast up by the sea, and occasionally on
hares and rabbits ; when pressed by hunger it has even been known
to attack lambs.

In North America, and as far south as Mexico, the place of this
bird is taken by the “‘ Bald Eagle,’’ which differs from the British
bird just described in having a pure white head and neck.

We come now to the Osprey (Plate VIII. fig. 1). This bird was
at one time regarded as a connecting-link between the true Hawks
and Eagles, and the Owls. And this because, as in the Owls, the hind-
toe is reversible ; that is to say, it can be turned either outwards or
backwards. But this character is now known to be quite misleading ;
the Owls have no sort of relationship to the true Hawk tribe.

The Osprey lives entirely on fish, which it captures by a sudden
dive from a height, sending up a shower of spray as it plunges into
the water to seize its victim. Occasionally it will set its talons into
a fish too large to be lifted out of the water, in which case death from
drowning speedily follows. In order to hold such slippery prey the
more easily, the soles of the feet are provided with numerous rough
spines.

Though the Osprey once bred in different parts of England and
in many places in Scotland, it does so now only in the Highlands, and
even here it is rare. It seems never to have bred in Ireland. In the
very near future this beautiful bird will probably be exterminated

THE BIRDS OF PREY 59

as a breeding species in Great Britain, so ruthless is the persecution
to which it is subjected.

The Osprey enjoys a world-wide distribution. And although the
American Osprey is considered by some to be a distinct species, this
is doubtful.

Time was when the Falcons were prized above all others for the
sport of falconry, to-day they are shot as ‘‘vermin”’ !

The Falcons form a group by themselves, more or less distinct
from the rest of the birds of prey, though the characters which give
them this distinction are mainly anatomical. Of their external
characters two stand out prominently—the long, pointed form of the
extended wings, and the notch or tooth near the tip of the upper jaw.

Though in earlier times many different species of Falcons could
be met with in Great Britain, to-day their ranks are sadly thinned ;
some have become extinct, in so far as Great Britain is concerned.

The KesrreEL (Plate VII. fig. 2) is yet, happily, a fairly common
bird with us, and can be seen almost daily, in the wilder part of the
country, hovering in the air on quivering wings as it surveys the land
in search of mice, which form the chief food of this bird. As with
the Falcons generally, the Kestrel builds no nest, but uses the deserted
nurseries of Crows, Magpies, and Wood-pigeons, or deposits its eggs on
the ground in cavities of cliffs, chalk-pits, quarries, and hollow trees.

The male when fully adult is a very handsome bird; but the
female is duller in hue, and has the back and tail closely barred. The
young, as is so often the case when the sexes differ in the adult dress,
resemble the female. The eggs, as with all the Falcons, are very
richly coloured.

In America a Kestrel somewhat resembling the British species
is found, and this is known, curiously enough, as the Sparrow-hawk,
a name which is applied, in England, to a bird belonging to quite a
different section of the Hawk tribe.

The Hopsy, the MERLIN, and the PEREGRINE are other Falcons
still to be met with in Great Britain, though in steadily decreasing
numbers, owing to the ceaseless persecution to which they are sub-
jected.

The GREENLAND Fatcon (Plate VIII. fig. 2) is one of the largest
of the Falcons, and is taken occasionally in Great Britain. It is a

60 A BOOK OF BIRDS

native, as its name implies, of Greenland. In olden days, when the
sport of falconry was at its height, this bird was the most highly
prized of all the Faicons. The general tone of the plumage is pure
white, relieved by black markings. Nearly allied to this bird is the
American Labrador Falcon, but this is at once distinguishable by its
very dark colouring. The food of the Greenland Falcon consists
chiefly of Ptarmigan and Willow-grouse, varied by Lemmings and other
small mammals.

We bring this chapter to an end with a description of the Vultures,
birds which present many very interesting points for consideration.

If the strict rules of classification had been adhered to, some of
the birds now to be described would have had their turn quite early
in the chapter. But for reasons which will presently appear, this
order was not observed.

To be brief, the Vulture-like birds taken as a whole are by no
means ali closely related one to another. Divided into ‘“‘ Old’’- and
‘‘ New-world ’’ Vultures, the former constitute a very ancient family,
standing aloof, as it were, from the Hawks, Buzzards, Eagles, and Fal-
cons. If we take these last as representing so many branches of a
common stem, then the Vultures may be regarded as forming a similar
independent stem, both arising, however, from a single trunk. The
letter ‘‘ Y’’ may well represent this. The different kinds of Old-world
Vultures may be pictured as forming so many branches cut off from
the left-hand, and the Hawks, Buzzards, Eagles, and Falcons as
sO many branches cut off from the right-hand branch of the ‘ Y,”’
the stem of which indicates that both main branches with their
ramifications came from the same stock.

The “‘New-world”’ Vultures, however, form a group by themselves ;
they are the terminal branches of a separate trunk, which we may sup-
pose grew out from the very root of the ‘“‘ Y ’’-shaped tree just described.
They may at once be distinguished from al/ other birds of prey by
the fact that the nostrils are pierced quite through, whereas in the
rest of the birds of prey they are divided by a partition ; further, the
feet and claws of the New-world forms are less ‘‘ Hawk-like.”’

Oi the Old-world Vultures, three very interesting species are figured
on Plate IX.

The smallest of these is the Ecyprian VULTURE (Plate IX. fig. 2),

Prater IX.

Fig. 1. Conder
(Sarcorhamphas

gryphus }.

a i (Neophron- percnoplerna}.

Fig.
Lammergier
(Gypaétus bar-
batus).

ke SZ

~~

é ie a Be
Fig. 5. King-vulture (@ypagus papa).

THE BIRDS OF PREY 61

a bird which has twice been taken in Great Britain. It is one of the
smallest Vultures, and is found in considerable abundance in the
Mediterranean countries and Africa. Though it has the reputation
of being an exceptionally foul feeder, devouring all kinds of offal and
excrement, as well as Lizards and Snakes, it must be regarded as a
most useful bird, removing offensive matter, which in such hot climates
would soon breed pestilence.

The Griffon Vulture has occurred once in Great Britain, a specimen
having been captured so far back as the spring of 1843 near Cork
Harbour. Seeing that it is common in Southern Europe, it is strange
that it has not been more often recorded from our islands. It is a
large bird, having a length of about 3 feet 6 inches (Plate IX. fig. 3).

But the most interesting of all the Vultures is perhaps the GREAT
LAMMERGEIER, or Bearded Vulture, the ‘‘ Ossifrage’’ of Scripture
(Plate IX. fig. 4). This bird extends from Southern Europe throughout
Central Asia and the Himalayas. Though at one time frequently
met with in Switzerland, it is now almost unknown in that country.

One of the most striking things about this bird is the brilliant
vermilion-red colour of the outer coat of the eye—of the part an-
swering to the “‘ whites ”’ of human eyes ; the rest of the eye is golden
yellow, with a black pupil.

It is a magnificent flier, and traverses great distances in search
of food, which consists of small animals and carrion. Bones, how-
ever, appear to be considered a great delicacy, and to smash these the
bird will often drop them from a great height on to the rocks below.

Of the ‘‘ New-world’’ Vultures, to which we must now turn, the
most striking species are the KiNG VuLTure (Plate IX. fig. 5) and
the Condor. The first mentioned is met with from Brazil to Mexico,
Texas, and Florida, in the mountain regions ranging as high as five
thousand feet. It is a really wonderiul bird, by no means common,
and by no means well known. One of the most remarkable features
of the male is the curious fleshy wattle which surmounts the beak,
while the head, which is quite featherless, has the skin most bril-
liantly coloured with varying shades of orange, purple, and crimson.
The female is more soberly coloured, having the upper parts dark
instead of cream-coloured, and lacking the brilliant colours of the
naked parts of the head.

62 A BOOK OF BIRDS

The Conpor (Plate IX. fig. 1) is a near relative of the King
Vulture, but greatly superior in size. It enjoys the distinction, in-
deed, of being not only the largest of the birds of prey—being about
five feet in length—but one of the largest flying birds.

The head of the male is adorned with a great fleshy wattle, which
surmounts the base of the beak.

Though commonly described as living in the Andes, this bird is
met with also from the mouth of the Rio Negro on the east coast
of Patagonia, through the Straits of Magellan, and along the Cor-
dilleras. It feeds upon carrion, but shows a marked liking for fresh
meat when this can be procured, though it never apparently kills
for itself. Like other Vultures, Condors, when they come upon a
large carcase, gorge themselves, and this so completely that flight
for some hours is impossible. Darwin has described how, at such
times, the Gauchos ride them down on horse-back and take them
with the lasso.

GCRArTIER Viti

THE ‘‘GAME-BIRDS ”
Order—GALLIFORMES

THe term ‘ Game-birds’’ naturally suggests Pheasants and
Partridges, and these may indeed be regarded as typical Game-birds.
But for want of a better name we have also to include all the rela-
tives of these birds near and remote, and this relationship is deter-
mined by anatomical characters. Of these, some are apparent
externally, such as the form of the beak and of the legs, and the
general shape of the wings and body. The beak has the upper por-
tion arched, and completely overlapping the lower; while the legs
have strong toes and short, blunt claws, thus forming admirable
digging and scratching tools. As a rule these legs are covered with
scales, and are commonly armed with one or more pairs of very
powerful spurs. But some have very short legs, feather-clad, and
without spurs.

The Game-birds are divided into two great groups—one in which
the hind-toe is on the same level as the other toes, and the other in
which the hind-toe is placed at a higher level than the rest. To the
former belong the curious Mound-birds, or Megapodes, and the
equally curious Guans and Curassows—birds which space forbids us to
describe here. All the rest of the Game-birds belong to the section
which have the hind-toe at a higher level than the rest.

In both sections the young birds are clad in down, and able to run
about immediately they leave the egg.

Of this second group, or section, of the Game-birds, the most
ancient types must be described first, and among these we may reckon

63

64 A BOOK OF BIRDS

the Turkeys. The Mexican Turkey (Plate X. fig. 3) is the ancestor
of the Turkeys of our farmyards, the males of which strut so proudly
with the feathers of the back on end, the wings dropped, and the
tail spread like some great wheel. One of the most remarkable
features of the Turkey is the curious tuft of hair-like feathers which
hangs down from the breast, though the brilliantly coloured naked
skin of the head and neck is more striking. The long, finger-like,
fleshy wattle, which hangs down over the beak, can be greatly in-
creased in length at the will of the bird.

Turkeys in a wild state occur only in the southern United States,
and they are becoming more and more rare.

The GUINEA-FOWL (Plate X. fig. 2) is a native of Africa. This
bird is easily domesticated, and is a common occupant of our farm-
yards, enlivening the scene by their strange shape and curious cry,
‘‘ Come-back, come-back, come-back.’’ But besides this species,
there are numerous others known to science, of which the most
beautiful is the Vulturine Guinea-fowl.

The Pheasant tribe includes some very unpheasant-like birds,
at least to those who are not well versed in the study of Ornithology.

Our domesticated fowls, for example, are really near relations of
the Pheasants. All the different kinds of Fowls which are now known
have descended from the Jungle-fowl—the ‘‘ Bhund Moorg ’’—of
India. By careful breeding man has produced from this bird such
remarkable varieties as the Cochin-china, the Polish-fowl, the Black
Spanish, Hamburg, and a host of others. But of these domesticated
traces which man has created, some bear a rather close likeness to
the Red Jungle-fowl—such, for example, as the fowls known as
the ‘‘ Game-fowl,’’ from which “‘ fighting-cocks ’’ were bred in days
when ‘‘ cock-fighting ’’ was a common sport in England. And after
these perhaps the next nearest is the Brown LeGuHoRN fowl (Plate X.
fig. 4a), though in this breed the comb is much larger than in the
wild Jungle-fowl.

Of the true Pheasants, the familiar ‘Common PHEASANT”? (Plate
XI. fig. 3) is the best known. This is a native of Asia Minor. Once
upon a time, however, Pheasants lived wild in Europe, as is shown
by fossil remains. Thus, the Pheasants of our coverts may have
originally descended from these European birds, though it is generally

Argus-pheasant. Rie

Female. Argus-pheasant

(Argusianus args.

Fig. 3.
Mexican Turkey

ry

uinea-fow!]

"Vig. 2G

( Meleagris yalloparo).| (Numida meleagris).

Brown Leghorn Fow!
(Gallus domesticus). » 4 @

Male.

Fig. 4B.
Brown Leg-
horn Fowl. ©

Feinaiegs

THE “GAME-BIRDS” 65

supposed that they were introduced from Asia Minor by the
Romans. The ‘‘Common Pheasant ”’ is to-day a very rare bird in
Great Britain, and this because it has inter-bred with other species
which have been introduced and allowed to run wild. Of these the
commonest is a species which is distinguished by a white ring round
the neck, as well as by other differences in coloration, with which
we cannot deal here.

The GotpeEN PueasanT (Plate XI. fig. 1, a, b) is a native of
Southern and Western China. From its resplendent plumage it is
commonly kept in aviaries. The golden neck-feathers, barred with
black, are of great length, and can be spread out, at the will of the
bird, to form a wide, circular cape. Only the males wear this cape
and gaudy plumage, the female being quite soberly coioured.

The SitvER PHEASANT (Plate XI. fig. 4) is another bird com-
monly seen in aviaries. It is a native of South China, but is now
rare in a wild state, and little is known of its habits, save in con-
finement. This is the bird which is embroidered as a badge on the
dresses of mandarins.

Perhaps the most remarkable of all the Pheasant tribe are the
Arcus PueasanT (Plate X. fig. 1, a, b) and the Peacock (Plate XI.
fig. 2, a, b).

The Argus Pheasant, a native of the Indo-Malay peninsula and
Sumatra, differs from all other birds in the enormous length of the
inner quill- or flight-feathers of the wings, while the tail-feathers are
also extremely long. But it is not so much the great length as the
marvellous beauty of these quill-feathers which makes them notice-
able. Each is marked by a most wonderful and complicated pattern,
the most conspicuous feature of which is the row of eye-like blotches,
each of which is so delicately tinted as to give the appearance of a
ball lying within a dark cup. When the bird wishes to charm his
mate—who is quite soberly coloured—he spreads these wings so that
they form a great circle, displaying to the very best advantage these
extraordinary ornaments.

More familiar is the Peacock of India and Ceylon—a bird so well
known in confinement as to need no description here. It may be
well to point out, however, that the gorgeous ‘train ’’ of this bird is
not, as is so commonly supposed, a tail, but is composed of the feathers

0

66 A BOOK OF BIRDS

of the back- and tail-coverts. The true tail is not larger than that
of the hen, and is similarly coloured. And thus it is that, when the
train is erected and spread, only the head and neck are apparent
when the bird is facing the spectator. This fact is invariably lost
sight of by artists, who always draw the train as though it were a
tail.

The nearly related Javan Peacock differs from the Common Pea-
cock chiefly in having the neck-feathers of enormous size, so that
the neck has almost the appearance of being clothed in large, over-
lapping scales, thereby contrasting with the softer feathers of the
more familiar bird.

The Partridges and Quails, between which and the Pheasant tribe
there is no very sharp limit, must now be described.

The best known of the Partridge tribe is the Common PARTRIDGE
(Plate XII. fig. 5). This bird is also sometimes called the “ Horse-
shoe’’ Partridge, from the presence of a horse-shoe-like band of
feathers on the breast, supposed by many to be the distinctive mark
of the male ; but this is not so, since this mark appears in both sexes.
The female can always be distinguished by the buff cross-bars on the
smaller wing-coverts. The Common Partridge occurs also in Europe.
In Eastern Siberia it is replaced by the ‘‘ Bearded Partridge,’’ which
differs from the kind met with in Great Britain chiefly in the long,
beard-like feathers of the throat.

The “‘ Red-legged ’’ Partridges belong to a different group of the
Partridge tribe, and are remarkable not only for the red colour of
the legs, from which they take their name, but also for the beautiful
barring of red, black, and lilac-grey of the feathers of the flanks.

In Great Britain but one species occurs—the Common Red-
legged Partridge—which ranges over South-western and Western
Europe.

The Rock RED-LEGGED PARTRIDGE (Plate XII. fig. 7) is a native of
the mountains of Southern Europe, from the Pyrenees to the Balkans,
and differs from our British bird chiefly in the absence of white in
the barring of the flanks and of black spots on the chest.

The Quails may very well be described as miniature Partridges.
The best-known species is the Common Quait (Plate XII. fig. 4)—a
bird which occurs occasionally in Great Britain. It is found also

PLATE XI.

Fig, 1A.
é Golden Pheasant
- (Chryselophas pictus}.

Male.

spire 1B.
Agen Pheasant

VG
td, ‘ kemale.

Peacock
a ( Puvo cristatus).

Fig. 2B.
Peahen.

S—

=)

EE a

\ 7
Sm 3

THE “GAME-BIRDS” 67

in Europe and Northern Asia, migrating in vast hosts, upon which
enormous raids are made to supply our tables in the spring months
of the year. ‘‘ The numbers,’’ says Dr. Sharpe, ‘‘ which appear in
the winter quarters of the species, in Northern Africa, in Egypt, and
above all in North-western India, are sometimes incredible.”

Quails and Partridges are met with only in the Old World.

With the Grouse tribe our account of the Game-birds comes to
an end.

Of the many species which are known, the CAPERCAILZIE, or
Cock of the Woods (Plate XII. fig. 1, a, b), is the largest ; it is, indeed,
one of the largest of the Game-birds. In Great Britain it is confined
to Scotland, where it has been re-introduced. At one time it occurred
in suitable localities, throughout the British Islands. Like the
Black-cock, to be described presently, the Capercailzie has several
wives, and the most desperate fights take place in the spring, among
the males, for the possession of the coveted females. The male
Capercailzie has a strange habit of resorting to some particular spot
in the forest to sing his love-song, and during this time he becomes
so absorbed as to be unconscious of the approach of enemies. At
such times unscrupulous ‘‘ sportsmen,’ in some countries, contrive
to get near enough to shoot him. The female is smaller than her
mate, and quite dull-coloured.

The Biack Grouse (Plate XII. fig. 3) is a particularly handsome
bird, remarkable for the curious shape of the tail. Though found
in small numbers in various parts of England, the real home of this
bird, in Great Britain, is in Scotland. During the spring these birds
go through very extraordinary performances—the males alone.
And these are enacted, apparently, for the delight of the females,
which assemble in the neighbourhood to witness the display. As
with the Capercailzie, the females are of a rich brown colour, barred
with black.

The PrarmiGan (Plate XII. fig. 6) is a very near relative of the
Red Grouse, and is now confined, so far as Great Britain is concerned,
to the Highlands of Scotland, though time was when it was also to
be met with in England—at least, tradition says so. This bird is
peculiar in that in winter the richly coloured plumage worn during
the summer and autumn is exchanged for a dress of pure white,

68 A BOOK OF BIRDS

whereby the birds are enabled to conceal themselves in the snow
from their enemies. The Red Grouse, or ‘“‘ Ryper,” of the Continent
of Europe—known as the Willow Grouse—adopts a similar change ;
but this is not the case with our Red Grouse. And this because the
snow does not lie long enough, in the lowlands where they dwell,
to need a specially protective dress. The Willow Grouse, or Ryper,
we should remark, occurs also in the northern parts of the American
Continent.

The Hazev-HEN, or Gelinotte (Plate XII. fig. 2), is a native of
Europe and Northern and Central Asia, and is greatly esteemed as
an article of food, large numbers being imported into the London
market from Scandinavia and Russia.

Capercailzie
(Tetvao urogallies).

Fig. 2. Hazelhen (Tetrastes bonusiu).

Fig. 4. Quail
‘Coturnia conurwnts).

Fig. 3. Black Grouse
(Tetrao tetrix).

Fig 1B. Capercailzie.
Female.

Common
-artridge

Fig. 7. Rock. Red-legged Patridge

Fig. 6. Ptarmigan (Lagopus mains). (Caceubis saxvatilis).

in

Ae
e a re
i “oh a

CHAPTER IX

CRANES, RAILS, AND BUSTARDS
Order—GRUIFORMES

THe Cranes, Rails, and Bustards, though externally very different
in appearance, are yet really closely related. The Cranes and Rails
are fen-birds, the Bustards, on the other hand, are birds which
frequent sandy wastes. While the Cranes, at most, wade but ‘‘ knee-
deep,’’ the Rails swim and dive with ease. Both are vegetable feeders,
though this diet is varied by insects, and molluscs such as snails and
slugs, and worms. The Bustards, too, live largely on vegetable
matter, but they also eat small mammals such as mice, and reptiles.

The Crane (Plate XIII. fig. 1) was once common in Britain, but, alas!
it is now only met with in these islands on very rare occasions. It
used to breed in the fens and swamps of East Anglia, but that was
three hundred years ago. Not only is it a large and very beautiful
bird—measuring over 4 feet in length—but it is remarkable, further-
more, for the curious way in which the windpipe is disposed of. In-
stead of running straight down the neck to the lungs, it passes first
into a large chamber formed by inflating and hollowing out the
keel of the breast-bone. After forming a coil, or loop, within this
strange chamber, it emerges therefrom and passes backwards to the
lungs. By the increase in length which the windpipe thus gains,
an extremely loud and resonant voice is produced. The Crowned
Crane (Plate IV. fig.9) is an African bird remarkable for the curious
tuft of bristle-like feathers which surmounts the head.

The Rail tribe are all small birds, of shy, rather skulking habits
and feeble flight. One of the smallest is the LITTLE CRAKE (Plate XIII.

69

70 A BOOK OF BIRDS

fig. 5). This bird occurs but rarely in Great Britain, and is a native
of Africa. The SpoTTED CRAKE (Plate XIII. fig. 6), on the other
hand, was a common breeding bird in Great Britain years ago.
Since the fen- and marsh-lands, however, have become so largely
reclaimed, it has sadly decreased in numbers. It is common all over
Europe during the summer, but it returns to Africa to winter.

The CORNCRAKE, or Landrail as it is often called (Plate XIII. fig. 9),
unlike the Little Crake and Spotted Crake, which love the marshes,
is a bird which frequents dry meadows, clover-fields, and fields of
standing corn. Though but of feeble flight, it yet leaves this country
every autumn to pass the winter in Africa, returning again in the
spring. This bird makes a very remarkable “‘ creaking ”’ note during
the summer months, especially at evening time, a note which can
easily be imitated by passing the thumb-nail rapidly over the teeth
of a comb. By this means the bird may be lured to within a short
distance of the operator. It does not take wing readily, and flies
slowly, with its legs hanging down. When hard pressed, and es-
pecially if wounded, it will elude even a dog, by climbing among
tangled bushes; and when captured, will frequently contrive to
make a speedy escape by feigning death, a device followed by other
members of this family.

The WatTeEr-RAIL (Plate XIII. fig. 3) may be considered a resident
of most of the marshy land in England, and especially, perhaps, in
Norfolk. It also occurs, though less plentifully, in Scotland and
Ireland. It is never found far from water, and swims and dives
with remarkable ease. And this, too, it is to be noted, in spite of
the fact that the feet are not webbed; the toes being, on the con-
trary, of great length and slenderness. On account of its shy and
retiring habits it is a bird but rarely seen, even where it may be
described as common.

The Coot and the Water-hen are to be reckoned among the
commonest of the inland water-birds of Great Britain. Both are
admirable divers, and, like the Water-rail, do not have webbed feet,
though the toes of the Coot are provided with broad lobes of skin
along their sides.

The WaTER-HEN (Plate XIII. fig. 4) may be distinguished from
the Coot not only by its smaller size, but also by the bright vermilion-

PLate XIII.

Kigy 1, Crane

(Grus communis).

Little Bustar
(Otis: tetrax).
dence a

Fig. 3. Water-rail

(Ralius aquaticus).<

“ —s

. 8. Gréat Bustard
( Otis tarda).

CRANES, RAILS, AND BUSTARDS 71

ted shield on the forehead and the white patches beneath the tail.
Though an extremely timid bird in a wild state, it yet thrives well
in the ornamental waters of public parks; such as those of
London, for example, where it speedily becomes tame.

The Coor (Plate XIII. fig. 7) is a larger bird than the Water-hen,
and easily distinguished by the broad white shield on the forehead
and the absence of white below the tail. It is a particularly common
bird on some of the Norfolk broads.

Young Coots—while still in the nestling-down plumage—have
the head ornamented by numerous little fleshy warts of a vermilion-
red colour, while the rest of the down plumage is, as in the case of
the Rail tribe generally, jet black in colour.

The BusTarpDs were at one time believed to be closely related to
the Plover tribe, but it is now known that they are more nearly
related to the Cranes. They are birds which love dry, sandy wastes,
and as a rule fly but little.

The Litrte Bustarp (Plate XIII. fig. 2) is a bird which
occasionally visits Great Britain, favouring the eastern countries
mostly. It is common in certain parts of Europe, especially the
Spanish Peninsula; in Africa, north of the Sahara, it is abundant,
while the same may be said of it during the winter months in North-
western India.

Quite a different story is to be told of the Great BusTarp (Plate
XIII. fig. 8), since this bird was at one time commonly to be met
with in certain parts of Great Britain, especially the heaths of
Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridgeshire, the wolds of Lincolnshire,
the downs of Sussex, and Salisbury Plain. In Scotland it was to be
met with, though sparingly, in parts of Berwickshire and East
Lothian. The enclosures of waste land, the planting of trees, and
the increase of population have now, however, driven this, the largest
of our British birds, from all its strongholds, so that to-day, so far
as Great Britain is concerned, the Great Bustard is extinct. This
is greatly to be regretted, for, without question, it was one of the
most interesting of our native birds. And at no time was this so
evident as during the period when the males were courting. Then,
indeed, they performed the strangest antics, throwing up the tail over
the back, drooping the wings, and inflating the neck till it assumed

72 A BOOK OF BIRDS

huge proportions. This was done by means of a curious bag which
ran down the front of the neck, just beneath the skin, and which
was filled through an opening at the base of the tongue. During the.
time that this bag was in use the neck was drawn downwards over
the back, while the head was so bent that the beak rested upon the
wind-bag. This strange performance was apparently enacted for the
delight of the female.

The Bustards, we may remark, are birds peculiar to the Old.
World.

CHAPTER X

PLOVERS, GULLS, AND AUKS
Order—CHARADRIIFORMES

THE birds which form the subject of the present chapter represent
a very varied assemblage, yet all are closely related. They include,
besides the typical Plovers, the Pratincoles, Stilts, Curlews, Snipes,
Phalaropes, Gulls, and Terns. All are Plovers, in a wide sense.

While some frequent inland waters and marshy places, others
keep more or less entirely to the sea coast. Though the majority
are never found far from water, some have contrived to find a living
on dry, sandy wastes. All are remarkable for their great powers of
flight, some, indeed, performing prodigious journeys during migration.

The young of the more typical of the Plover tribe are all quite
active from the moment they leave the shell, and are covered in short
down more or less mottled with black; but the coloration of the
down varies greatly in different species, being very pale in such as
breed in sandy wastes, dark when the nesting-ground is in marshy
areas.

One of the most aberrant of the Plover tribe is the beautiful
PRATINCOLE (Plate XIV. fig. 6), a bird which in many ways recalls
the Swallow. Since it has occurred several times in Great Britain,
it is therefore to be reckoned a British bird ; but these visits are very
rare. It breeds, however, in many parts of Europe. Like the
Swallow, this bird takes much of its food on the wing—beetles, grass-
hoppers, and locusts forming the principal prey. On the ground
it runs nimbly.

This bird is described as an “‘ aberrant’’ Plover, because it is in

73 Io

74 A BOOK OF BIRDS

so many ways unlike the true or typical Plovers; it is to be re-
garded, indeed, as the descendant of a more ancient stock, as a
side-branch of the tree which gave rise to the typical Plovers.

Of these last we may regard the GoLDEN PLOVER (Plate XIV.
fig. 1) as a very good example. This is a fairly common British bird,
breeding in Devon and Somersetshire, parts of Wales, Scotland, and
Ireland, while their numbers are largely increased by migrants from
abroad during the winter months.

In the spring of the year this bird dons a gorgeous livery of black
and gold above, set off by a jet-black breast. In the autumn the
feathers of the under parts become replaced by white, while the upper
by the reduction of the black markings become more golden.

In America this bird is represented by a smaller race.

The RinGED PLover (Plate XIV. fig. 4) is to be reckoned among
our commonest British shore-birds, breeding among the shingle of
the beaches. No nest is built, the eggs being deposited in a slight
hollow in the sand, and from their close resemblance to the surrounding
stones are exceedingly hard to find ; and the same is true of the downy
nestlings.

The little KeEnTIsH Plover (Plate XIV. fig. 5) is a much smaller
bird, easily recognisable by the fact that the dark chest-band is incom-
plete. It arrives on the shores of England about April, and leaves
again in September. It is by no means a common bird, and is met
with most frequently in Norfolk and Suffolk, and on the shingle beaches
of Kent and Sussex.

This bird is represented in America by a species distinguished by
having a patch of white, in place of black, between the beak and the
eye.

The Lapwina (Plate XIV. fig. 2), or ‘‘ Peewit,”’ is the commonest
of the Plover tribe in Great Britain, though the lamentable practice of
eating its eggs is speedily reducing its numbers. This is greatly
to be deplored, as it is one of the most valuable of the farmers’
allies.

The eggs, four in number, vary greatly in colour, and are laid
in a slight depression in the ground, little or no preparation in the way
of a nest being made for their reception.

On the approach of winter these birds collect in large flocks, to

Fig. 1. Golden-plover |
(Charadrius pluvialis).

—~
a on
( Vanellus oul y rig. 3. ay
ey Black-winged Stilt
Hinantopus
candidus).

Fig 4. Ringed-Plover

(Atyialitis hiaticula).

Fig. 5. Kéntish Plover
(Aegralitts alexnandrina).

Ki sii.5>
linaga yallinula)

+f

4

PLOVERS, GULLS, AND AUKS mG

disperse again in the spring. Worms, slugs, and insects form their
principal food.

Of all the Plover tribe the BLACK-WINGED STILT (Plate XIV. fig. 3)
is certainly one of the most remarkable. And this because of the
enormous length of the legs. Though reckoned among our British
birds, it is but a rare visitor to these islands ; but it is met with in
abundance in the marismas of Spain, the marshes of Sicily, and of the
Black, Caspian, and Oral Seas. It alsonests freely around the lakes of
North Africa and parts of North India. When the ground is tolerably
dry, but little nest is made for the reception of the eggs ; when, however,
the ground is wetter, a more solid structure is made. The great length
of the legs is to be explained by the fact that this bird obtains most
of its food—which consists of small snails, gnats, and other flies and
beetles—by wading out into shallow water.

Another very remarkable member of the Plover tribe is the Avocet
(Plate XV. fig. 4). In this bird the beak, which is long and slender,
is produced into a very delicate point, and curved upwards.

At one time the Avocet bred in considerable numbers in Great
Britain, but drainage and the collector have combined to bring about
its extinction as a breeding species. It occurs, indeed, to-day only
fitfully. Could it, however, be efficiently protected by legislation, a
few pairs might still be induced to breed. Quite a large colony was
wiped out at Salthouse to supply the demand made for the feathers
of this bird by the “ fly-fishermen.”’

Closely allied species occur in North and South America and in
the Australian region.

We must turn now to the Snipes and Woodcocks—birds with which
most people are more or less familiar. The long, slender bills and
long legs which distinguish these birds show at once that they cannot
live long far away from water. They are indeed marsh- and swamp-
dwellers, living on worms and aquatic insects and small water-snails.
The worms are obtained by probing in the soft soil, and are apparently
detected by the tip of the beak, which is soft and very sensitive, being
supplied by a pair of large nerves.

The Common Snipe is too well known to need description, but
we might draw attention to the fact that the long, buff-coloured stripes
which run along the back of the bird play a very important part,

26 A BOOK OF BIRDS

since they serve to blend the body with the surrounding grasses when
the bird is crouching to avoid its enemies, which it always does in
preference to seeking safety by flight.

In the spring-time both the males and females spend much of their
time in making the very extraordinary sounds known as “‘ bleating.”’
This curious humming noise they produce by mounting high into the
air and then descending with tremendous rapidity, meanwhile spreading
the tail so that the two outer feathers stand apart from the rest. The
rush of the air against these outspread feathers causes the bleating
sounds which have puzzled and fascinated so many observers for the
last hundred years or so.

Though this bird breeds in Great Britain, large numbers come
over from the Continent every autumn, leaving again in the spring.

The Common Snipe has only fourteen tail-feathers, but a near re-
lative of this species, which is found in North America, is distinguished,
among other things, by having sixteen tail-feathers.

The Jacx Snipe (Plate XIV. fig. 9) is also a common British
bird, a winter visitor, leaving us in the spring to breed in Northern
Europe. Smaller than the Common Snipe, it is further distinguished
therefrom by having but twelve tail-feathers and two notches in the
hinder margin of its breast-bone.

Like the Common Snipe, it makes curious noises during the
breeding-season ; but these are apparently vocal, and not made by
the tail—they are described as resembling the noise made by a
horse when galloping on a hard road.

Yet a third species of Snipe is met with in Great Britain. This is
the GREAT, or SOLITARY, SNIPE (Plate XIV. fig. 10). An annual visitor
to the eastern and southern portions of England, it only very
rarely occurs in Ireland. The real home of this bird is found in the
marshy districts of Poland and in parts of Russia; but it is to be
met with also in Africa and in Asia. It is a larger bird than the
Common Snipe, and has relatively shorter beak and legs, and more
closely barred under parts.

Finally we come to the Woopcocx (Plate XIV. fig. 8). Larger
than any of the Snipes, this bird is further distinguished by its
beautifully barred, russet-brown plumage, and the transverse black
bar across the top of the head. The Woodcock is increasing in

‘4
aA
P-
—

in ®- ,

PraTte XV.

Fig. 1. Greenshank
( Lotunus canescens )ewe

hetes mugnazx).

sa

Fig. 3. Little Stint

r

( Tringa muita).

(Recurvirostra
avocetta).

wart!

Arne
° _ co
Fig. 7. Dunlin

Fig. 6. Curlew Sandpiper |

(Tringa subarquata’.

Tringa canitus).

Fig. 8. Kno

PLOVERS, GULLS, AND AUKS 77

numbers as a breeding species in Great Britain, largely owing to
the increase of plantations; but besides these home-bred birds,
large numbers arrive in this country from abroad in the month of
October.

Few birds are so highly esteemed by gourmets, as is shown by
the old couplet :

If the Partridge had but the Woodcock’s thigh,
’"Twould be the best bird that ever did fly.

By some strange notion these birds are supposed to live on ‘“‘ suction,”’
whatever that may mean. And, accordingly, they are cooked with
the entrails in the body, and served up on toast. If it were more
generally known that worms form a very large part of the diet of
this bird, this fashion of cooking would probably soon become obsolete.

But the Woodcock has yet another claim to our interest, and this
rests upon a curious anatomical character—to wit, in the position
of the ear-opening. This, as was first pointed out to me by my friend
Mr. C. F. Whymper, is situated in front of and beneath the level of
the eye. In the Snipes it lies underneath the eye, while in all other
birds it is found behind the eye.

A number of species must now be described which differ con-
spicuously from the Snipes and Woodcocks in that they display two
very distinct plumages during the year—a sober-coloured dress worn
during the autumn and winter months, and a more richly coloured
worn during the spring and summer, the latter being assumed just
before the nesting-season, and hence is known as the breeding-dress.

The difference between the spring and winter plumages is, however,
not very strikingly marked in the GREENSHANK (Plate XV. fig. 1).
This bird is to be met with annually, though never in very large num-
bers, throughout Great Britain, on the seashore, as well as on inland
waters. It is a rather large bird, measuring about 14 inches in length,
and readily distinguishable by having a distinctly upturned beak.
In summer the upper parts of the neck and wings are nearly black,
relieved by pale grey edgings to the feathers ; but in winter the upper
parts are greyer, and the under parts white, while in summer the
throat, breast, and flanks are flecked with ash-brown. Met with
chiefly during the spring and autumn migrations, this bird breeds in

78 A BOOK OF BIRDS

the northern parts of the mainland and the outlying islands of the
north-west of Scotland, laying four eggs of a warm stone-colour
blotched with purplish grey and spots of rich brown. The nest, such
as it is,is often placed at a distance from water, and even on dry
ground amid scattered pine-trees. On extremely rare occasions it
has been met with in North America.

In the DuNLIN (Plate XV. fig. 7) the contrast between the summer
and winter plumages is very striking. In the winter dress the upper
parts are ash-coloured, the under parts white. But towards the end
of March and the early days of April the new livery begins to make
its appearance. When complete, the upper parts are of a rich golden
brown, streaked, and blotched with black, except the wings, which
remain grey, while the breast becomes jet-black. The females are
somewhat larger, and have longer beaks than the males; but in the
length of the beak there is great variation in both sexes. The average
length of the female is about 72 inches.

The Dunlin, like the Snipe and Woodcock, and many other long
and slender-beaked waders, has the power of curving the tip of the
upper jaw upwards for a considerable distance, whereby worms may
be seized when the beak is thrust down, probe-fashion, into the mud,
which forms the feeding-ground of this species.

The Dunlin is a very common British bird, nesting in the wild
moorlands, chiefly of the north. It is also met with as a breeding
species in North America, extending as far south as California on the
Pacific, and the West Indies on the Atlantic coasts.

The LitT.Le Stinr (Plate XV. fig. 3)in its winter dress looks like
a miniature Dunlin ; but in summer it assumes the coloration of
its larger relative only in so far as the upper parts are concerned, the
under parts remaining white. This bird does not breed either in Great
Britain or in Ireland, and is met with in these islands only during the
early spring and autumn. It appears to select the north of the
European Continent for its breeding-ground. In America its place
is taken by the American Stint, or ‘‘ Least Sandpiper,’? which is
distinguished from the Little Stint chiefly in that it is smaller and
darker in colour at all seasons. On two or three occasions this tiny
wanderer has been met with in Great Britain.

Much more striking in this matter of plumage is the CuRLEW

PLOVERS, GULLS, AND AUKS 79

SANDPIPER (Plate XV. fig. 6). In winter ash-grey above and white
below, this bird, in the early spring, assumes a very richly coloured
livery, the upper parts being beautifully barred and streaked with
black and grey, on a ground-work of rich chestnut, while the under
parts are of a chestnut-red, slightly barred in the flanks with dark
brown and grey. The females, as in the Plovers generally, resemble
the males, and are slightly larger.

The Curlew Sandpiper (or Pigmy Curlew as it is often called,
because of the likeness of its beak to that of a Curlew) is an annual
visitant to Great Britain, arriving chiefly in the autumn, and for the
most part favouring our eastern shores. This autumn immigra-
tion consists chiefly of young birds; but small numbers of adults
arrive each spring in their full breeding-colours, and these birds,
which arrive in March, continue to pass northwards, along the east
coast of England, until June. They are then making their way to
their breeding-grounds within the Arctic Circle. Only on very rare
occasions does the Curlew Sandpiper visit the United States.

Like the Curlew Sandpiper, the Knot and the Sanderling have
a red breeding-plumage.

The Knot (Plate XV. fig. 8) is the largest of these three species,
measuring I0 inches in length. In winter grey above and white
below, it assumes in the spring a very handsome dress. The head
and neck are reddish brown, with dark streaks, the back-feathers
are blackish, spotted with chestnut and margined with white, while
the throat and breast are of a rich, dark chestnut.

Until a few years ago the breeding-place of the Knot was un-
known. It was, however, discovered breeding in the snow by Colonel
Fielden when on the “ Alert’’ Arctic Expedition in 1876. But on
this occasion nestlings only were found. The eggs were unknown
until the year 1901, when specimens were found in the Taimyr
Peninsula, Siberia.

In America this bird is well known along the Atlantic sea-board,
as well as on the great lakes and the Mississippi valley.

The SANDERLING (Plate XV. fig. 9) is peculiar in that, like some
others of the Plover tribe, it has lost the hind-toe. In its autumn
and winter dress this birdis grey above and white below ; but during
the summer months the feathers of the upper parts have dark brown

80 A BOOK OF BIRDS

or black centres, edged or spotted with rufous, while the face, neck,
and upper part of the breast are of a pale chestnut, spotted with dark
brown. The young birds—that is, birds in their first plumage—have
a livery which is more or less intermediate between the summer and
winter dress of the adults, in that the feathers of the upper parts are
black, spotted with white, and variegated with pale buff, traces of
which colour appear also on the sides of the neck and breast.

In many ways, without doubt, the most remarkable of the Plover
tribe is the Rurr (Plate XV. fig.2). And this because of the wonderful
frill of feathers which is displayed by the males during the courting-
season, a frill which bears a fanciful resemblance to the old Eliza-
bethan “ ruff,’’ from which the bird takes its name.

But it is not so much the existence of the “ ruff’’ which has
gained such notoriety for this bird as the coloration thereof, since
in no two individuals is this ever coloured alike. As if to still further
heighten the effect of the ornament, the head is adorned with
broad “‘ ear-like ’’ tufts, while around the beak the feathers are shed,
and replaced by brightly coloured fleshy papille. In our figure
(Plate XV.) the ruff is black, and the ear-tufts dark brown ; but ruffs
of white, buff, and chestnut also occur, and these may either be plain,
or banded, or spotted, or streaked with darker colours. The plumage
of the body at this season is no less variable; but when autumn
comes, these ornaments are discarded, and the males are distin-
guishable from the females—which are known as Reeves—only by
their larger size.

These ruffs are made to play an important part during the courting-
season, for at this time their wearers have a practice of meeting together
daily for the purpose of “ sparring ’’ one with another, and fighting
mimic battles. When a Ruff is in the presence of the ‘“‘ Reeve’’ he
behaves very strangely, thrusting his beak down to the ground, and
spreading out the ruff and ear-tufts to the fullest extent. In this
position he;j.will stand, without moving, for a minute or more, as if
to give time to the female to study and admire him; though, as
often as not, she quietly walks off, so soon as she notices that he is
too intent on his ceremonial bowing to notice whether she is looking
on or not!

At one time the Ruff was quite a common bird in the fenlands

PLOVERS, GULLS, AND AUKS 81

of Great Britain. Now, alas! it is extinct, as a breeding species.
And this is due, partly to the extensive drainage and reclamation of
land, and partly to the greed of egg collectors.

Occasionally, as a rare straggler, this bird wanders to the
American Continent, and has been obtained in the Eastern
United States.

The RepsHANK (Plate XV. fig. 5) brings us back, as it were, once
again to more normal birds. Still fairly common in the fenlands and
marshes of Great Britain and Ireland, this bird derives its name
from the orange colour of the legs. Although it has distinct summer
and winter plumages, these do not differ very conspicuously one from
another. Thus, in the summer dress, the upper parts are of a buffish
brown, streaked and barred with umber ; while the under parts are
white streaked on the neck, breast, and belly, and barred on the
flanks with ash-brown. In winter the upper parts are ash-coloured,
the under parts white, faintly streaked on the neck and breast with
ash colour. The lower part of the back is always white.

In the CurRLEw (Plate XIV. fig. 7) we bring this description of

the Plovers to a close. With a beak like an Ibis, it may always
be distinguished therefrom by its sober coloration of pale brown,
relieved by darker streaks and spots—a livery which is worn
the year round (there is no ‘‘summer’”’ plumage). And in this
uniformity of plumage it agrees, it will be remembered, with the
Snipe and Woodcock.

Known as the Curlew on account of its cry, this bird is to be
reckoned among the commonest of the wading-birds of Great
Britain, breeding in the moorlands wherever sufficiently secluded—
a love of solitude immortalised by Kingsley in the lines:

On the lonely moorlands,
Where the Curlew pipe.

It is also common in Ireland. The American representative of
this bird is larger, and has the feathers known as the “ axillary ”’
feathers—from their relation to the arm-pit—of a rufous colour.

The Whimbrel is a bird very closely resembling the Curlew, but
smaller. A few pairs breed annually in Scotland.

LE

82 A BOOK OF BIRDS

THE GULLS

At one time regarded as very near relatives of the Petrels, it is
now known that, as a matter of fact, these birds are in reality very
closely related to the Plovers ; and this is shown, curiously enough,
most strikingly in the coloration of the eggs on the one hand and
the skeleton on the other, though many other anatomical characters
afford equally positive evidence of this fact.

Like the Petrels, and unlike the Plovers, they are web-footed.
But they differ from the Petrels and resemble the Plovers in having
slit-like instead of tubular nostrils.

Such species as display a distinct summer dress have this change
confined to the coloration of the head, while many species take
several years to acquire their fully adult dress.

The HERRING-GULL (Plate XVI. fig. 1) affords a good instance
of those Gulls which take several years, three or more, to attain the
characteristic adult livery. The back of the adult in the present
species is of a delicate French-grey, the rest of the plumage being
pure white, set off by the yellow colour of the feet and beak, which
last is further decorated by a touch of bright red. The eye, too, is
of a beautiful straw-yellow colour, set in a frame of vermilion
formed by the rim of the eyelid. The sexes cannot be distinguished
externally, and there is no “‘summer’”’ and ‘‘ winter’’ dress. The
young birds are mottled with brown, and do not acquire their full
plumage until the fifth year.

The Herring-gull is a common British bird, breeding on the
precipitous ledges of cliffs or on the ground. In North America
it has taken to breeding in trees to escape the raids of fishermen.

Nearly allied to the Herring-gull is the Great Black-backed Gull,
a rather larger bird than the Herring-gull, and distinguished there-
from by having a dark, slaty-black, instead of a pale French-grey
back.

The Common GULL and the KITTIWAKE (Plate XVI. figs. 2, 3)
are to be met with in plenty around the shores of Great Britain.
They have no decisive difference of plumage, nor any seasonal changes,
except that, in the winter, like the Herring-gull, the head and upper

PLATE XVI

‘s

Vr Sie
Herring Gu
(Larus argentatus)-

Dy

Black-headed Gull
(Larus ridibundus).

Fig. 8. Common Tern
(Sterna fluviatilis).

Sandwich Tern (Sterna cantiaca).

PLOVERS, GULLS, AND AUKS 83

part of the neck become slightly flecked with grey. In the Kitti-
wake the hind-toe has become reduced to the vanishing-point.

The BLacK-HEADED GuLL (Plate XVI. fig. 4) differs from those
just described in that during the summer months the feathers of
the head develop a dark brown colour, which, when the bird is flying,
gives the head the appearance of black, hence its name. Young
birds in their first plumage may be readily distinguished by the fact
that the smaller feathers of the wings are brown in colour, while the
tail has a black bar across its tip. But the completely adult characters
are assumed on the completion of its first year, and in this it
contrasts strongly with the Herring- and Black-backed Gulls, which
require years wherein to perfect their plumage.

During the winter months the Black-headed Gull has, for some
years past, assembled in large numbers on the Thames, as far up
as Kew, and on the ornamental waters of the London parks, adding
greatly to the interest of life in London to those who, having a love
for Natural History, are perforce compelled to live in town.

The small, fork-tailed, short-legged birds known as Terns are
really very closely related to the Gulls, but they have relatively
longer wings and a more graceful flight and fashion of procuring
their food.

The species known as the Common TERN (Plate XVI. fig. 8) is
the most abundant representative of the Tern tribe in Great Britain
and Ireland, coming to us in the month of April and departing in
the autumn. It also breeds abundantly in North America, from
Labrador to Texas, though scarcely known on the Pacific Coast.

In some parts of England this bird is known as the ‘‘ Gull-teaser,”’
from its habit of chasing Gulls and compelling them to drop the fish
they have just captured. This done, by a swift plunge the ill-gotten
prize is seized before it reaches the water. But in catching prey in
a more legitimate way it displays considerable skill, feeding upon
young coal-fish and sand-eels, shrimps, and other crustaceans.

The eggs of this bird, like those of the Terns and Gulls generally,
bear a close resemblance to their surroundings, and hence are said
to be protectively coloured. And this is no less true of the downy
nestlings. When full grown the Common Tern measures about 14
inches in length, but of this some 6} inches is made up by the long

8 4. A BOOK OF BIRDS

tail, the outer feathers of which, like those of the Swallows, are much
longer than the inner. Hence the Terns are often known as
“* Sea-swallows.”’

The LirtLe TERN (Plate XVI. fig. 6) in its general appearance
resembles the Common Tern, from which, however, it may readily
be distinguished, since it does not exceed 914 inches in length, and
has the beak orange-yellow and tipped with black. In North America
the Little Tern is represented by a very closely related species, the
Antilles Tern ; the latter, however, may be distinguished by having
the rump grey, and very little black on the back.

This is the smallest of the British Terns, and makes its appear-
ance among us during the month of May, departing again in
September and October.

The SaANDWiIcH TERN (Plate XVI. fig. 5) derives its name from
the place where it was first observed—Sandwich, in Kent—so far
back as 1784. It is a regular visitor to Great Britain, arriving during
March and April. Like the two species just described, the crown
of the head in summer is black, while the beak is black, and yellow
at the tip. The back, as in the other Terns and many of the Gulls,
is of a beautiful pearl-grey, the under parts being white, but tinged
with a most wonderful salmon-pink colour, which fades rapidly
after death. The legs and feet are black; and in this it differs
again from the Terns just described.

Finally, we come to a group of very curious Gulls known as
Skuas. These differ from the typical Gulls and Terns not only ana-
tomically, and in their more sombre coloration, but also in their
peculiar habits, which may be described as semi-parasitic. And this
because these birds contrive to gain most of their food by chasing
Gulls which have recently fed, and compelling them to disgorge their
captures to avoid further buffeting. So expert a highwayman has
the Skua become, that he will catch the fish dropped by his victim
before it can reach the sea again.

Skuas also devour the eggs and young of any other birds which
may have the misfortune to be breeding in their neighbourhood.

The nestlings of the various species of Skuas differ from those
of Gulls and Terns in being dark, and whole coloured, not grey and
mottled with black as in Gulls and Terns.

PLOVERS, GULLS, AND AUKS 85

Burron’s Skua (Plate XVI. fig. 5), or the ‘‘ Long-tailed Skua,”
as it is often called, from the great length of the middle tail-feathers,
is found the whole way round the northern hemisphere, though it
does not occur in any great abundance in Great Britain. On the
east side of England, however, it is not infrequently met with. Over
the Arctic regions of America it enjoys a wide range.

Altogether four species of Skua are to be found in Great Britain ;
but of these, the largest and finest species, the Great Skua, is well-
nigh extinct, so far as these islands are concerned.

THE AUKS

The AuKs—or, in other words, the Guillemots, Razor-bills, and
Puffins—are among the most interesting of living birds ; for there
can be no doubt but that they are descended from some Plover-like
ancestor, and that their present peculiarities of shape and structure
were slowly acquired, in proportion as they became more and more
aquatic, until, to-day, they have assumed a close resemblance to
the far more ancient birds of the Order Pygopodes (p. 36). As divers,
and in the skill they display in the capture of fish, which they chase
for considerable distances under water, these birds have no rivals.
They are never met with in fresh water, but frequent rocky coasts,
where they live in enormous colonies.

The Guillemot (Plate II. fig. 5), the Razor-bill (fig. 9), the Little
Auk (fig. 4), and the Puffin (fig. 3) are all British birds, though the
Little Auk is only occasionally met with along our coasts. The
Guillemot and the Razor-bill breed on the ledges of cliffs, laying, on
the bare rock, but a single egg. The Puffin, on the other hand, chooses
a burrow, seizing, as a rule, upon one dug either by a rabbit or a
Petrel, and driving out the rightful occupants by the aid of its powerful
beak. How they have dispossessed the Manx Shearwater we have
already told on p. 38.

CHAPTER XI

THE PIGEONS
Order—_COLUMBAE

THE Pigeons, it is now generally believed, are to be regarded as
very near relations of the Plover tribe, little as these two groups
appear to have in common when judged from external characters
alone. When, however, we come to study the anatomy of the
Pigeons, we gain the true insight into their relationships.

Pigeons are, for the most part, short-legged, arboreal birds, whose
young are for a long while extremely helpless and but sparsely covered
with hair-like down. They never lay more than two eggs, and these
are always white.

For the most part they are arboreal in their habits, and hence,
probably, the peculiarly short legs. Certain forms, however, have
taken to living on the ground, and in these, as in the Crowned
Pigeons and a few others, the legs are much longer.

The extinct Dodo and the Solitaire were both gigantic Pigeons.

The Pigeons are remarkable from the fact that the inner walls
of the “‘ crop,’”’ which is of great size, are richly provided with blood-
vessels, and during the breeding-season secrete a curious curd-like
matter known as “ pigeon’s-milk,” and on this the young are fed.

The RING-DOvE, or Woop-PicEon (Plate XVII. fig. 4), is the
largest of the six species of Pigeon which are reckoned among our
British Birds, measuring about 17 inches in length. The female
is hardly distinguishable from the male, being only a very little
smaller and rather duller in colour. This species may be distin-
guished by the white patch on the neck.

86

PLaTE XVII.

The colfared Doves ES

(Turtur risorius) 3).

Ig. 2. Stock-dove ~
_ {Columba

oenas).

( Ectopistes
migratorius).

Pouter- -pigeoit sagen
(Columba livia, var.).

ry

Fig. 5. Roe ee

(Columba livia).

Fig. 8. Crowned pigeon (Goura coronata). Fig. 7. Turtle-dove (Turtwr communis).

re
4

THE PIGEONS 87

Of late years this bird has become very common in London parks,
where it shows not the slightest fear of man, though in the country
it is a very shy and wary bird.

The Stock-povE (Plate XVII. fig. 2) is a bird often confused
with the species next to be described—the Rock-dove; but it may
always be distinguished therefrom by the absence of the patch of
white above the tail.

It has somewhat increased in numbers of late years, and shows
a marked preference for districts where timber abounds.

Rabbit-burrows, holes in trees and cliffs, and matted ivy are the
places chosen as nesting-sites.

Perhaps the most interesting of our Pigeons is the RocKk-DovE
(Plate XVII. fig. 5), since it is probably the ancestor of all our
domesticated races. Readily distinguished by the double black
bar across the wings and the white patch on the lower part of the
back, this bird is to be found only in a truly wild state in places
where caves or deep fissures exist. Comparatively rare in England,
it is a common bird in Scotland, from St. Abbe’s Head northward ;
while in the Shetlands and Orkneys it is still more common, and
the same is true of this bird in Ireland, where it is met with in
abundance along the west coast, finding most suitable breeding-
places in the rugged cliffs facing the Atlantic.

Though partial to grain, this bird amply atones for depredations
on corn, since it feeds largely on the roots of the couch-grass and the
seeds of various troublesome weeds. In drinking, as with many
other pigeons, it will occasionally, like Gulls, quench its thirst while
floating down-stream !

The PouTeEr-PIGEON (Plate XVII. fig. 6) represents one of the
most peculiar of all the products of the breeder. By long and careful
selection this bird has acquired an enormous crop, and this is inflated
whenever the bird is excited, as by the presence of a female. The
long feathers of the legs have also been developed by the breeders’
care in selecting those birds which had the biggest crops and legs
most inclined to produce feathers. But the number of races of domesti-
cated Pigeons are legion. The most striking of these varieties are
perhaps the Pouter, Fantail, Homing, Tumbler, Barb, Owl, and Carrier.

The TurTLE-DovE (Plate XVII. fig. 7) is to be met with in Great

88 BOOK OF BIRDS

Britain only during the summer months, when in certain parts, as
in the eastern and midland counties, it is abundant.

The CoLLaRED, or BarBary, Dove (Plate XVII. fig. 1) is a near
relative of the Turtle-dove, and is to be met with from Constantinople
to India; it is also abundant in the Holy Land. The so-called
“‘ Turtle-dove’’ which is so commonly kept in cages is really the
Collared Dove, though the domesticated birds now form a race apart
from the wild species.

In one respect the most remarkable of all the Pigeon tribe is the
PASSENGER Piceon (Plate XVII. fig. 3), and this because of the
incalculable numbers which were to be met with not a century
ago in certain parts of the United States. A flock seen by the
naturalist Wilson was estimated by him to consist of more than
2,230 millions! In the backwoods of Kentucky, Ohio, and Indiana
these birds literally swarmed. The celebrated naturalist Audubon,
in 1813, met with them crossing the barrens near Hardensburg in
enormous hosts; so thickly packed were they flying, that they
obscured the light of the sun at noonday as effectively as an eclipse !

Another naturalist, Brewster, describing the nesting-place of
these birds in Michigan so recently as 1866, says: ‘‘It began near
Petosky and extended north-east, past Crooked Lake, for twenty-eight
miles, averaging three or four miles wide. The birds arrived in
two separate bodies, the largest of which formed a compact mass of
Pigeons, at least five miles long by one mile wide. The nesting-area
extended for a distance of eight miles through hard-wood timber,
then crossed a river, . . . and thence stretched through pine-woods
about twenty miles.’’ Many trees were piled with nests, so much
so, that their boughs broke down under the weight thereof. To-day
the Passenger Pigeon is almost extinct, so great is the persecution
to which this bird has been subjected.

The largest of all living Pigeons is the Goura, or CROWNED-
PIGEON (Plate XVII. fig. 8). This bird is a native of New Guinea
and some of the neighbouring islands, and is a quite familiar bird
in Zoological Gardens. An even finer species is the Victoria Crowned-
pigeon from Jobi and Mysori. Though it has several times bred
in captivity, it does not thrive as well as could be wished, having
regard to its great beauty.

CHAPTER XII

THE PARROTS AND CUCKOOS
Orders—PSITTACI AND CUCULI

Wit the Parrots we enter upon the description of a series of
groups of birds quite distinct from those so far described, and these
groups must be regarded as representing so many branches of a
greater branch of the Avian tree of descent.

The Parrots themselves are a very ancient group, and have,
moreover, undergone such deep-seated structural changes, especially
in regard to the skull, that it is not easy to discover what their nearest
relatives may be, though the Cuckoos are generally accorded this
honour.

Among the Parrot’s many striking peculiarities the beak is the
most conspicuous. Not only is it a very powerful weapon, but it
also plays a very important part as an organ of locomotion, as every-
body who has ever seen a Parrot climb knows. From their peculiarly
arboreal habits the legs of these birds have become very short ; while
the toes are arranged in pairs, two in front and two behind, and hence
are said to be zygodactyle, or yoke-footed. The use of the foot in
holding food is not peculiar to Parrots, for some Hawks and Owls
and Gallinules also adopt a similar device.

While Parrots are among the most gaudily coloured of birds,
there are some species which are quite dull-coloured.

Though the Parrots are commonly supposed to be peculiar in that
they can raise the upper jaw, which moves on the skull by a hinge,
this is not really so; many other birds also have the upper jaw
similarly hinged. But the Parrot’s beak is peculiar in this, that

89 I2

90 A BOOK OF BIRDS

the hooked tip, on its under surface, is curiously and symmetrically
grooved by a series of very fine ridges, and these ridges form what
is known as the “‘ file.”’

The beautiful ‘‘ bloom ’”’ which covers the feathers of some Parrots
and the beak and white face of the African Grey Parrot is due to a
kind of powder formed by the breaking up of what are known as
powder-down feathers.

All Parrots breed in holes, and make no nest, except the Quaker
Parrot of South America, which builds a large nursery of fine twigs.

Though we may regard the Australian region and the Malay
countries as the headquarters of the Parrots, these birds enjoy a
very wide distribution, being found in India and Africa as well as
in America. Though no Parrot is now found in a wild state in
Europe, this was not always so, as is proved by fossil remains.

Young Parrots are at first covered with a coat of thick down, and
remain for a long while helpless in the nest.

The Grey, or AFRICAN Parrot (Plate XVIII. fig. 2), may be
taken to represent the typical Parrot. This bird, so familiar as a
cage-bird, ranges across Equatorial Africa, and has acquired the
chief place among Parrots as a linguist. |

The CaroLina ConureE (Plate XVIII. fig. 1) is a North American
species, which, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, used to
range in summer as high as the shores of Lakes Erie and Ontario ;
to-day it is almost, if not quite, extinct, having been ruthlessly
persecuted to supply ‘‘ ornaments ’”’ for women’s hats !

The gaudy Macaws represent the largest of the Parrot tribe, and
are natives of South America.

The best-known species are, perhaps, the BLUE and YELLOW
Macaw (Plate XVIII. fig. 3), ranging from Guiana in the east to
Columbia in the west, and the Rep and Biue Macaw (Plate XVIII.
fig. 4), a huge bird inhabiting Central and South America as far as
Bolivia. It is, like the former species, a common bird in captivity,
and is easily tamed.

Very little is known about the habits of Macaws in a wild state,
but they are said to possess great powers of flight, rising high in the
air and travelling long distances in search of food, which consists of
various kinds of fruits. The sexes are alike in colouring.

eb LATE XVIII.

ra hig. 1.
“Carolina
Conure
(Conurus caro-

linensis).

iy yellow Macaw
Il (Ara ararauna).

ig. Bs
-<. Grey Parrot
(Psittucus erithacus).

/Budgerigar
/ (Melopsittacus
undulatus).

ig. 4.
Red and i
blue Macaw ae
(Ara macao).

Fig. 6.
Ganga Cockatoo
(Callocephalon galeatum).

(Chrysctis cestiva).

THE PARROTS AND CUCKOOS QI

The Amazon Parrot (Plate XVIII. fig. 5) is a species not found
north of Brazil. Flying in small flocks, it feeds on oranges, plantains,
berries, and other fruit. About forty different kinds of Amazon
Parrots are known.

Australia is the home of the Cockatoos, of which the White
Cockatoos are the best-known species. The Ganca CocxarToo (Plate
XVIII. fig. 6), a bird frequently seen in confinement, is a com-
paratively sober-coloured bird.

The little BuDGERIGAR, or GRass PARAKEET (Plate XVIII. fig. 7),
is also an Australian bird, and is rather more of a ground-feeder
than most Parrots. Itis an extremely common cage-bird, breeding
readily in confinement.

THE CUCKOOS

The Cuckoos are generally regarded to-day as relatives of the
Parrots, and this on account of anatomical characters, rather than
any likeness in external form. The only point indeed wherein Parrots
and Cuckoos resemble one another, externally, is in the fact that both
have the toes arranged so that two are directed backwards and two
forwards, the backward toes being the hind-toe and the outer toe.
But many other birds belonging to quite different groups have a
similar arrangement of the toes, which is known as zygodactyle—
meaning, yoke-footed.

There are a very large number of species of Cuckoos, showing a
surprising range both in size and coloration. Some are wholly
black, some resplendent in rich metallic emerald-green and copper,
while others are clad in more sober hues of grey.

Africa and India are richest in Cuckoos; while America is the
home of some of the most remarkable members of the order. Of
these the most striking are the Chapparal-cock, or Road-runner, of
the South-western United States and Mexico; and the Ani and Guira
Cuckoos, the former extending from the Southern United States
southwards all over South America, and the latter being confined
to South America.

The Road-runner is a ground-cuckoo—that is to say, it frequents
the ground rather than trees and underwood, and consequently has
long legs, all the other Cuckoos having conspicuously short legs.

92 A BOOK OF BIRDS

But the best known of all the Cuckoos is the bird called in Great
Britain the ‘‘ Common ” Cuckoo (Plate XXIII. fig. 4), a bird which
is found also over the greater part of the Old World. This fame is
due partly to its wonderful call, ‘‘ Cuckoo, cuckoo,” so dear to all lovers
of the country, and partly to its curious parasitic habits. For this
bird, as everybody knows, thrusts the charge of its offspring upon
other birds, choosing as its dupes such species as Robins, Hedge-
sparrows, Wagtails, Thrushes, Larks, Meadowpipits, and Red-backed
Shrikes, etc. The young Cuckoo, almost as soon as hatched, ejects
the offspring of its foster-parents from the nest, and thereby secures
an abundance of food, for its appetite is insatiable.

The curious resemblance which the Common Cuckoo bears to the
Sparrow-hawk, both in flight and coloration, serves it in good stead
when seeking for victims on whom it is desired to thrust its eggs.
The male Cuckoo attracts the attention of the birds to be victimised,
and draws them away from their nest, by affecting to expose itself
to their attacks; the fond fools, in defence of their home, not hesi-
tating to buffet even the Sparrow-hawk. So soon as they have left
the neighbourhood of the nest in pursuit of what they believe to be
the fleeing marauder—the Sparrow-hawk—the female quietly steals
up and deposits her eggs with those of the absent birds; she having
first dropped it upon the ground, and then picked it up in her bill.
When the infuriated pair return, they either do not notice the additional
egg, or are so thankful to find the nursery of their treasures intact,
that they do not interfere with the egg which has thus cleverly been
foisted upon them.

CHAPTER XIIl

THE ROLLERS, MOTMOTS, KINGFISHERS, BEE-EATERS,
HOOPOES, AND HORNBILLS

Order—CORACIAZ

Tue Order Coraciz comprises a remarkable assemblage of birds,
mostly of brilliant plumage, and, in the case of the Hornbills, bizarre
in shape.

The Rollers, which look rather like gorgeously coloured members
of the Crow tribe, have representatives over all the temperate parts
of Europe, the whole of Africa, and Central and Southern Asia.
They are extremely beautiful birds, intense blue and green being
the dominant colours of their plumage.

The Common Ro.ter (Plate XIX. fig. 6) occasionally strays to
Great Britain, and hence is to be reckoned a British bird. Though
Rollers mostly hunt by day, they may frequently be seen, where they
are plentiful, hawking for insects at dusk. During the courting-
season the males practise a very curious flight, turning and twisting
in the air, the while expanding and contracting the tail. But both
sexes have a habit of “rolling,” or turning somersaults, in the air,
hence their name of “ Rollers.’ They breed in holes in walls, roofs
of houses, and tree-trunks, laying several glossy white eggs, for which
they make little or no nest—at best but a mass of roots, grass, hair,
and feathers.

The Motmots are South American birds, green in colour, and
having a peculiarly notched beak. But they are unique among
birds in that the male deliberately bites away a part of the middle
of the webs of the two central tail-feathers, leaving a long, spoon-

93

94 A BOOK OF BIRDS

shaped end to each feather. No other bird is known thus to trim its
plumage.

Among the most beautiful of living birds are the Kingfishers,
which, in the matter of size, present a wide range, the largest species,
the Australian ‘‘ Laughing Jackass,” being as large as a Jackdaw,
while the smallest are not so big as Sparrows.

In coloration they present a wonderful variety, the most sombre
being the Laughing Jackass; black and white; blue and white;
red ; and blue and red are the chief types.

One of the most familiar is the Common KINGFISHER (Plate XIX.
fig. 2). This bird is yet happily fairly common in parts of Great
Britain, in spite of the fact that it is ruthlessly shot down by people
who have charge of fish-hatcheries ; and by others who kill them in
order that they may be made up into atrocities to be worn in the
hats of thoughtless women as “‘ ornaments ”’ !

The Common Kingfisher breeds in holes in banks, generally by
the side of some stream. No nest is made, but the eggs, which are
white, and wonderfully translucent, are laid on a bed of fishbones and
the hard parts of crustacea ejected by the birds after all the flesh
therefrom has been digested. Some Kingfishers, however, feed not
on fish, but on worms, insects, and reptiles.

While the Kingfishers present some species which are dull
coloured, the Bee-eaters, their near relatives, are all brilliantly coloured
birds, green, blue, and a wonderful rose-red being the principal types,
and these colours may be relieved by patches of red or yellow. They
are confined to the temperate and tropical portions of the Old
World.

Bee-eaters breed in holes in banks, or even in tunnels bored almost
vertically into the level ground. These excavations may extend
from 3 to as many as 10 feet. The eggs are white.

The Common BEE-EATER (Plate XIX. fig. 4) occurs occasionally
in Great Britain, when it is promptly slaughtered by the reckless
“‘collector.”” Like all the members of the family, this bird is an
insect-eater, and shows a partiality for bees, and hence, in Spain,
where it is common, is rather a nuisance at times to bee-keepers.
When seen in flocks, this bird affords a surpassingly beautiful
spectacle.

Homrai Hornbill |
(Buceros bicornis) 4

Bee-eater
(Merops
aptaster).

lig. 6. Roller (Co

ractas garrulu

Z

PrAre XOX.

,

se

Fig. 2. Kingfisher (Aledo ispida),

Narina Trogon
(Hapaloderma narina)

of "a
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Sac

ROLLERS, MOTMOTS, KINGFISHERS 95

What they may lack in brilliancy of plumage the Hoopoes and
Hornbills atone for in quaintness, though even in the matter of
colour the Hoopoes may hold their own with their more gaudy relatives.

These two families, as will be shown presently, are in many ways
remarkable.

The Hoopoes are singularly graceful birds, having long curved
beaks and very beautiful plumage.

The Common Hoopok (Plate XXII. fig. 8) occurs at rare intervals
in Great Britain. But for collectors, it might be much more frequently
met with, since it has bred more than once in this country. The
most striking feature of this bird is its beautiful crest, which can be
raised or depressed at pleasure. Conspicuous though its colours
appear to be, they are really not so, for when the bird is alarmed it
has the habit of throwing itself flat upon the ground and spreading
out its wings, when it at once loses all resemblance to a bird !

Hoopoes breed in holes, and their nests—composed of sticks,
straw, and a few feathers—soon assume a most insanitary condition,
and give forth an almost overpowering smell. This is intensified by
the fact that the oil-gland of the sitting female, and of the young,
gives forth a most nauseous smell. While sitting, the hen, who
rarely leaves the nest, is fed assiduously by her mate. Their food
consists of insects and worms. The larger insects when captured are
tossed in the air and caught again before being swallowed.

Tradition has it that these birds once wore crowns of gold, and
on this account were greatly persecuted. Accordingly they went to
King Solomon and sought relief. He gave them instead a crown of
feathers ; but this seems to have afforded but an indifferent pro-
tection, for they are still shot for the sake of these crowns.

In Africa black Hoopoes, with red beaks and no crown of feathers,
occur. The black is brightened by a metallic gloss of purple and
green, relieved by a white wing-patch and white markings on the tail.

The Hornbills are to be reckoned among the most remarkable of
living birds, having bills of enormous size, and often still further
exaggerated by a huge casque which extends backwards over the top
of the head.

These birds are natives of Africa and India, and the Malay regions
to the Solomon Islands. In spite of their enormous size, their beaks

96 A BOOK OF BIRDS

are extremely light, the bone being of the delicacy of filigree work,
and covered externally by the horny sheath.

The nesting habits of the Hornbills are not less remarkable than
their beaks. After the eggs have been laid and the female begins
to sit, the male proceeds to plaster up the hole by which she
entered with mud, leaving a small aperture out of which she thrusts
her bill to receive her daily rations dutifully brought by her lord and
master. What is still more strange, this food is brought up from
his stomach enclosed in a membrane, or bag. She remains imprisoned
till the young are fledged.

The Homrar Hornpiiu (Plate XIX. fig. 1), a Malayan species,
may serve as a good example of this curious group of birds.

There is one extraordinary exception to the rule with regard to
the lightness of the structure of the beak, and this is furnished by the
Helmet Hornbill (Rhinoplax vigil) of the Malay countries. The
fore part of the great helmet which surmounts the beak of this bird
is of great thickness and exceeding hardness, so much so, that it is
greatly prized by Eastern artists, who make therefrom carved orna-
ments of various kinds, many of which are of great beauty.

Fig. 1. Eagle Owl

(Bubo ignavus).

Fig. 2.
Tawny Owl (Syrnium aluco).

Long-eared Owl

(Asio otus).

Nyctead nvvalis).

Fig. 4. Littleq@on

(Strix flammea). (Athene noctua).

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CHAPTER XIV

THE NIGHTJARS, SWIFTS, AND HUMMING-BIRDS
Orders—CAPRIMULGI, CYPSELI

THOUGH at first sight no one would suppose so, yet it is now an
established fact that the Nightjars are near relatives of the Owls.
They may be regarded, indeed, as representing the ancestral stock
from which the Owls descended.

The most striking feature of the Nightjars is the huge size of the
mouth, and the remarkably small beak, which is fringed on either
side by long, stiff bristles. These birds also have large eyes, and
extremely small feet. The former are necessary, because the food is
largely sought during the twilight hours ; while the smallness of the
feet is due to the fact that all their food is procured while on the
wing, and when not flying they remain motionless, either squatting
on the ground or along the bough of some tall tree. We say along
the bough advisedly, for these birds are peculiar in that they do not
perch like other birds, with the body across the bough, but along it.
This unusual method of perching is adopted for protective purposes.
For the plumage, which is always of some brown hue, pale or dark,
is, as it were, freckled or powdered with grey, thereby enabling the
bird so closely to harmonise with its surroundings as to become well-
nigh invisible.

The Common NIGHTJAR (Plate XXI. fig. 6) is not only a well-
known British bird, but is one dear to all lovers of country life. One
of the latest of our summer visitors, and one of the earliest to leave,
this bird adds greatly to the charm of the sultry days of summer-
time by its wondrous flight and still more wonderful ‘‘ churring ”’
note.

97 I3

98 A BOOK OF BIRDS

Two creamy white eggs, marbled and veined with brown and lilac,
are laid, and these are deposited on the bare ground of some heath.
The food of this bird consists entirely of large insects. During flight
the wings are sometimes brought sharply together over the back,
giving rise to a loud clap.

The Nightjar is even more commonly known as the “ Goat-
sucker,’’ from its supposed habit of sucking the milk of goats and
cows—a ridiculous superstition, having no foundation in fact.

Our Nightjar winters in Africa, and is also to be found in Asia
Minor, Palestine, Persia, Turkestan and Afghanistan, and North-
western India.

America is much richer in Nightjars than is Great Britain, and
of these, the North American ‘‘ Whip-poor-will,”’ and the “ Night-
hawk ” (Chordeiles virginianus) are the best known.

THE SWIFTS

The Swifts bear a close superficial resemblance to the Swallows
(see page 113), with which, indeed, they are always associated in the
popular mind. As a matter of fact, however, they are in no way
related, the Swifts being near allies of the Nightjars. They are
long-winged birds, have tremendous powers of flight, and extremely
short legs, so much so that it is only with extreme difficulty that
they can rise from level ground.

One of the best known of the group is the Common Swirt (Plate
XXI. fig. 2), a bird which occurs in abundance in Great Britain during
the summer months, adding greatly to the charm of this season
by the wild screams it utters as it races along, now near the
ground, now high in air, as if mad with the joy of living. The Swifts
come to us in April, and leave again in August or the early days of
September. Like the Nightjars, they are entirely insect-feeders,
catching their prey while on the wing.

This bird, which is known also as the “‘ Deviling,’’ occurs all over
Europe, and parts of Asia and Africa. Occasionally Great Britain
is visited by a very much larger species—the Alpine Swift.

The so-called ‘‘ Chimney-swallow ’’ of Eastern North America
is really a Swift. Ranging north in summer to Labrador and the
fur countries, it extends to the south of the United States in winter.

AWN aD O.G be

ee

Fig. 1. Waxwing q = pS Pa 3
(Ampelis garrulus). Ys eS By i, ata

(Oypselus apus).

Fig. 3. House Martin
(Chelidon urbica).

F p ia
nd-martin
otile riparia).

/,

Fig. 4. Swallow
(Hirundo rustica).

Fig. 7. Paradise Tanager
(Calliste tatao).

ie
oon r

NIGHTJARS, SWIFTS, AND HUMMING-BIRDS 99

THE HUMMING-BIRDS

That the Humming-birds and Swifts are very closely related no
one now doubts, unlike though they be in external appearance.

Confined to the American Continent, and ranging from the ex-
treme south thereof as far north as Canada, these birds are by no
means to be regarded as the jewelled darlings of the Tropics, though
it is indeed in tropical America that they are to be met with in the
greatest plenty. Numbering no less than four hundred different
species, they present a relatively great range in size, the largest
measuring some 93 inches in length, while the smallest is but little
bigger than a bumble-bee. In the matter of the shape of the beak
and tail they present hardly less variety. Thus the beak may be
short and straight, curved upwards or downwards, or drawn out into
a great probe, considerably longer than the whole body. Similarly,
the tail may be short and rounded or long and Swallow-like, and in
some species these long tail-feathers cross one another in graceful
curves, while in others these crossed feathers are drawn out into
mere threads, terminating in oval expansions.

But it is on account of the exquisite beauty of their plumage,
resplendent in the most gorgeous metallic hues, that the humming-
birds have become so famous. No other birds can vie with these
fairy-like creatures in this respect.

As we have already remarked, no less than 400 different kinds
of humming-birds are known, and of these five have been taken
at random for illustration here. With such a dazzling wealth of
numbers, choice becomes impossible. One of the most elegant,
though by no means the most gorgeous of all, is the Sun-cem Hum-
MING-BIRD (Plate XXII. fig. 1), a native of Brazil.

The Coquette HummiInG-BIrD (Plate XXII. fig. 2) is a native of
Central America. Ten different species of Coquette Humming-birds
are known, ranging from Mexico southwards. They are easily dis-
tinguished by their crested heads and the ‘“ ruff,’’ which projects
from the throat.

Perhaps the most gorgeous birds in existence in so far as the
colouring of the tail is concerned, are the ComET HUMMING-BIRDS

100 A BOOK OF BIRDS

(Plate XXII. fig. 3). Three species of large size are known. They
inhabit Peru, Bolivia, and the Argentine Republic.

The ‘‘ Kinc ’’’ HUMMING-BIRDS well deserve their name, for they
are hardly surpassed by any other members of this group in brilliancy
of plumage. They are distinguished by the two long, middle tail-
feathers, which cross one another in graceful fashion. The species
here figured (Plate XXII. fig. 4) is a native of the Rio Negro.

Not the least remarkable of the many peculiarities which dis-
tinguish the Humming-bird is the curious way in which some
develop a kind of ‘‘ powder-puff’’ around the legs. This is well
seen in the RAcCKET-TAILED HumMING-BIRD (Plate XXII. fig. 5),
of which six species are known, inhabiting South America,
from Venezuela and Columbia, through Ecuador and Peru, into
Bolivia.

As we have already remarked, these birds are by no means con-
fined to the Tropics. They have been seen flitting about the fuchsias
of Terra del Fuego in a blinding snowstorm, and they are met with
on the lofty mountains of Chimborazo as high up as 16,000 feet,
dwelling in a world of almost continuous hail, sleet, and rain !

These wonderful birds feed chiefly on insects which harbour amid
the petals of honey-bearing flowers. To procure these they have
developed a most remarkable tubular tongue of complex structure,
which is so contrived as to suck up the honey and insects at the same
time.

Beautiful as these birds appear in pictures, they are far more
beautiful when seen themselves, for no picture can possibly represent
the superb play of colour which takes place with every movement
of the body. Though stuffed specimens lose much of their beauty,
they retain sufficient of their glory to dazzle us. At times these tiny
bodies glow, as with some internal fire; at others they appear dull.
As the spectator changes his place, green turns to gold, and gold to
black, and back again to gold and green, and a dozen other inter-
mediate hues, according to the intensity and incidence of the light.
One must see humming-birds to realise their surpassing beauty ; no
brush can depict them, nor can words describe them. Yet this
beauty is to them a fatal gift, for the vanity of women has caused a
price to be set on their heads, and tens of thousands are slain every

PrAT ENON:

Pige2,
Coquette
Humming-bird
(Lophornis ornata).

Humming-bird
(Heliactinus cornutus).

j

Sc

(Sparganura
sappho).

Fig. 4. King
Humming-bird
(Topaza pella).

Fig. 6. Wal creeper

(Tichodroma muraria).

Fig. 7. Fig. 5. mf
is 5 ;
Tree Creepay Racket-tailed Humming-bird
(Certhia - re 7")
paeniliapis). (Steyanurus underwoodi).

Z " TTT

Fig. 9. Nuthatch (Sitla caesia).

Fig. 8. Hoopoe (Upupa epops).

. ea
i 7
: 2) ane v, 7
oli ©

th

NIGHTJARS, SWIFTS, AND HUMMING-BIRDS ior

year, to supply the millinery markets of Europe, whereby the
vanity of a certain section of the ‘‘gentler’’ sex may be gratified.

Somehow Humming-birds will not thrive in confinement,
though the attempt to rear them has many times been made by
those who have had great experience in keeping birds in captivity :
in no case have these fragile creatures lived more than a week
or two.

CHAPTER XV

THE OWLS
Order—STRIGES

By the older naturalists the Owls were regarded as near relatives
of the Accipitrine birds—such as Hawks and Eagles. And this
because of the similar beak and claws and methods of feeding, which
all possess in common.

We know now, however, that this resemblance is misleading,
and has been brought about by the pursuit of similar habits—preying
on other live animals. The Owls, it has been conclusively shown,
are really very closely related to the Nightjars.

Owls are remarkable for the peculiar softness of their plumage,
which gives them an absolutely noiseless flight, whereby they are
enabled, in the gloaming of the falling night, to approach their prey
without giving the alarm. This prey consists mainly of mice and
rats, varied occasionally by large beetles. Some species catch fish !

The Great EacLe Owt (Plate XX. fig. 1) is a bird occasionally
met with in Great Britain. It is a remarkably handsome species,

Fig. 14.—Foot of an Owl showing the feather-clad toes.

and has the toes feathered quite down to the claws. Most Owls,
indeed, have the feet so clothed.
The Snowy Own (Plate XX. fig. 5) also occurs as a straggler in

Great Britain, but is really a native of the Arctic regions, both of
102

THE OWLS 103

Europe and America. Unlike most of the Owls, it hunts by day,
feeding on mice and lemmings ; but in winter, when this prey fails
it, hares, grouse, and ducks are captured, and, it is said, even fish.
The Snowy Owl, like the Eagle Owl, possesses long tufts of feathers,
which can be raised like a pair of ears at the will of the bird; but
in the case of the Snowy Owl they appear to be but rarely brought
into play.

Though it occurs occasionally in a wild state, the LiIrTLE Ow L
(Plate XX. fig. 4) had never been known to breed in Great Britain.
Many attempts have been made, however, of recent years to induce
this little bird to take up citizenship with us, considerable numbers
having been turned down by Lord Lilford and others. These have
bred freely, and the race seems to be increasing with us.

In the Tawny Owt (Plate XX. fig. 2) we have a species met with
both in Great Britain and America. It is an interesting bird, inas-
much as it is often met with in two distinct phases of plumage, some
individuals being very grey, others red, in hue. This species is further
peculiar in that the apertures of the ears are not alike on the two sides
of the head, though both agree in being covered by a large flap of
skin known as the “ operculum.”

The Tawny Owl is subject to a ruthless persecution at the hands
of Game-preservers and other ignorant people, who, from lack of
intelligence or incapability of reasoning, refuse to believe those who
assure them that neither this Owl nor the Barn Owl is injurious to
Game-birds.

The LonG-EARED Owt (Plate XX. fig. 3) is another common
British Owl, and in this species the apertures of the right and left
ears are still more asymmetrical ; they are, indeed, with those of the
short-eared species, more complex than in any other Owl except
Tengmalm’s Owl.

The ‘‘Long-’’ and the ‘“‘ Short-eared ’’ Owls, it may be remarked,
though very similar in appearance, yet differ conspicuously in their
nesting-habits, inasmuch as while the first chooses to deposit its eggs
in some old squirrels’ drey, or some deserted nest of a Ring-dove,
Magpie, Crow, or Heron, the short-eared species makes its nest on
the ground. In the fens this is a mere hollow formed on the top of
a clump of sedge or in the side of a mass of mown weeds ; but on the

104 A BOOK OF BIRDS

moors the eggs are laid among the heather. Usually not more than
six in number, on occasions as many as twelve are laid. During the
great vole plague, which occurred in Scotland, for example, a few
years ago, these birds assembled in large numbers over the stricken
area, and finding an abundance of food reared broods of double the
normal numbers, and performed this feat twice during the year !

The Barn Ow (Plate XX. fig. 6) is not only an extremely hand-
some species, but forms a group by itself apart from the rest of the
Owls. In its distribution it is cosmopolitan, though in parts of its
range it has become stationary, and has accordingly assumed more
or less marked differences of coloration. Like the Tawny Owl, its
eyes are almost black, bright orange-yellow being the colour of the
iris in nearly all the Owls. This bird, from its note, is often known
as the Screech Owl.

The young Barn Owl is at first clothed in a downy coat of snowy
white, and this is replaced by a plumage indistinguishable from that
of the adult. In most, if not all, other Owls, however, the first
coat of down-feathers is replaced by a plumage exactly inter-
mediate between nestling-down and true feathers, and this is worn
till October, when it is shed and succeeded by normal feathers.

CHAPEER XVI

TROGONS, TOUCANS, AND WOODPECKERS
Orders—TROGONES AND PICI

Wuat are the precise relationships of these birds no one has yet
decided, though probably all are akin. The Toucans and Wood-
peckers are certainly more nearly related one to another than to
the Trogons, which form a rather isolated group.

The Trogons are represented by many species, some of which are
of surpassing beauty. Short-beaked, wide-mouthed, and _ short-
legged, these birds are tree-dwellers and fruit-eaters, and enjoy a
fairly wide distribution ; inasmuch as, while some are natives of
tropical America, others occur as resident species in Africa, a large
part of India, and the Malayan countries. In ancient times they
even occurred in Europe, since fossil remains have been found in
France.

The Trogons are ‘‘ yoke-footed ’’ birds, like Cuckoos and Parrots
for instance; but they differ therefrom, as well as from all other
known birds, in that it is the first and second, instead of the first and
fourth toes which are directed backwards.

The Narina Trocon (Plate XIX. fig. 5) is an African species,
ranging from North-east Africa to Cape Colony and Angola. The
female is much duller in plumage. It is a very shy bird, keeping to
the recesses of the forest, and making a curious call, which has been
likened to the noise made by ‘‘a poodle with a cold.”

The most beautiful of the Trogons is the Quetzal of South
America—from Guatemala to Veragua. Of a brilliant green and blue
above and gorgeous crimson below, this wonderful bird is still further

105 I4

106 A BOOK OF BIRDS

ornamented by long plumes from the wings, and a long and grace-
fully flowing tail. In olden times the native chiefs, and they alone,,
wore these plumes on days of high festival.

THE TOUCANS

Like the Hornbills, the Toucans have enormous beaks, and on
this account are very commonly mistaken one for another by those
who are not experts. As a matter of fact they are by no means
closely related.

There are several different species of Toucans, some of which are
sober-coloured enough; but for the most part they are rather
richly coloured, while in size they range from birds rather larger
than a large thrush up to 2 feet in length.

The great beak is really extremely light, being formed of a most
delicate filigree-work of bone, ensheathed in a very thin case of
brightly coloured horn, which is ‘‘ serrated’ along its cutting edges.
They have the curious habit of sleeping with the tail cocked upwards,
so as to lie almost flat upon the back. All are fruit-eaters ; but
this diet is varied by insects, and occasionally small birds and
mammals.

One of the largest of all the Toucans is the Toco (Plate XIX.
fig. 3). It enjoys a wide distribution in South America, and is met
with in large flocks.

THE WOODPECKERS

The Woodpeckers are an extremely interesting group of birds,
and this because they illustrate, in a remarkable degree, what is
meant by ‘‘ adaptation to environment.” That is to say, they show,
by their many singularities of structure, that they have become
changed, or ‘‘ adapted,” so as to fit them for a quite peculiar mode
of life. The beak, the tail, and the feet are the most obvious of these
changes. The first named is shaped like a pick, and has the horny
sheath of unusual density. By its means they are enabled to break
away the bark and wood of trees for the purpose of obtaining insects
sheltering therein, or for excavating holes designed for nurseries for

PATE XOX:

Common Cuckoo
(Cuculus canorus).

Fig. 5. Red-headed
Woodpecker
(Melanerpes erythro-

cephalus).

Fig. 1. Grey-headed
Green Woodpecker

(Geeinus canus).

-Woodpeck
~ (Dendrocopus
minor).

Woodpecker Fig. 8. Great me Woodpecker
(Campophilus principalia). (Picus martius).

TROGONS, TOUCANS, AND WOODPECKERS 107

their young. The toes are placed two in front and two behind, and
are furnished with long claws, which serve the purpose of grappling-
irons. Finally, the tail-feathers are of a curiously spiny character,
and serve as supports when the bird, having firmly fixed itself
by its claws, begins its work of excavation. The Woodpeckers are,
in short, essentially tree-dwellers, and after a very peculiar fashion,
for they spend most of their lives, not in perching on the boughs, but
in climbing up and down the trunk. The spiny tail-feathers are
developed in proportion to the amount of hammering which must
be performed to gain a livelihood. They afford, in short, a very
effective leverage during the time that the beak is being used as a
papick.”’

But the peculiarities of the Woodpeckers do not end with these
external characters. The tongue for example is of enormous
length, and the roots, or supports thereof, are no less excessively
developed, so much so that they curve round and over the skull,
to be finally stowed away in a channel above the beak. This tongue
is used as a trap for the capture of ants and other insects. Thickly
covered with a sticky saliva, which has been compared to bird-lime,
this wonderful and worm-like organ is suddenly thrust out amid
swarms of ants, which are borne back into the mouth, struggling
helplessly. This saliva is formed by a pair of enormous glands on
either side of the head.

In Great Britain three species of Woodpeckers are commonly
met with. Of these, the best known perhaps is the GREEN Woop-
PECKER (Plate XXIII. fig. 2), also known as the “ Yaffle.”” The
female has black upon the cheeks instead of red.

The GREY-HEADED GREEN WoopPECKER (Plate XXIII. fig. 1)
is a near relative of the species just described, and is common on the
Continent of Europe.

The Lesser Spottep WooppEcKER (Plate XXIII. fig. 7) is also
a British bird, but, owing to its small size and its partiality
for tall trees such as elms and poplars, commonly escapes notice.
It is more frequently met with in the southern parts of England,
being rather common near London and along the valley of the Thames.
In Ireland it is rare. Its near relative, the Great Spotted Woodpecker,
is a much larger bird, and is nowhere abundant in Great Britain.

108 A BOOK OF BIRDS

There have been many recorded instances of the occurrence in
Great Britain of the GREaT BLack WoopPECKER (Plate XXIII. fig. 8),
but in every case investigation has shown that some mistake has
been made. It is a relatively enormous and very handsome bird, and
has more than once been imported into this country for the purpose
of acclimatising it, but without success.

America is peculiarly rich in Woodpeckers, a large proportion
of the three hundred and odd known species occurring either in the
northern or southern portions of this great continent. Furthermore,
the American species display a marvellous diversity of plumage.
Woodpeckers, however, occur all over the world, except the Australian
region, Madagascar, and Egypt.

The Ivory-BILLED WoopPECKER is an American species, measuring
some 20 inches in length. It is met with in the Gulf States and
Lower Mississippi Valley (Plate XXIII. fig. 3).

The Rep-HEADED WoopPECKER (Plate XXIII. fig. 5) is another
American species common in Arizona. Handsome though it is, it
is surpassed, perhaps, by the Golden Woodpeckers of the genus
Colaptes.

Though in its coloration unlike the typical Woodpeckers, the
WrvyneEck, or ‘‘ Cuckoo’s-MaTE ”’ (Plate XXIII. fig. 6), nevertheless,
is of the Woodpecker tribe. In the soft mottled-grey and brown

Ea
Be

ax NAS
WV Ay
AEE thi Mt
pais ie Meta
AK = Kiera

Fig. 15.—Foot and tail of Woodpecker, and tail of Wryneck. Note the
marked difference in the shape of the two tails, and the zygodactyle foot.

colours of its plumage this bird resembles rather the Nightjars. The
tail-feathers, too, as may be seen in the annexed figure, are not stiff

TROGONS, TOUCANS, AND WOODPECKERS io9

and pointed, as in the typical Woodpeckers, and this because these
birds never use their beak, which is small and delicate, as a pick,
as do the true Woodpeckers ; hence they have no need of support
from spiny tail-feathers. But the Wryneck is undoubtedly a Wood-
pecker, in spite of these differences, as is shown, among many other
things, by the structure of the tongue, which agrees with that of all
other Woodpeckers in its great length, and in the use to which it is
put.

The Wryneck comes to us in March, or more usually April, from
Africa, where the winter is spent.

Like all the other Woodpeckers, the Wryneck lays several glossy
white eggs in the hollow of some decaying tree, making no nest, but
using for this purpose the rotten wood at the bottom of the hole.
When disturbed the sitting-bird makes a loud, hissing noise, which
induces the disturber to suppose that the hole is occupied by a snake,
and this is enough to secure freedom from further interference! On
this account, as well as from the remarkable way in which this bird
raises the feathers of the head and twists its neck, the name “‘ Snake-
bird’’ has been bestowed upon the Wryneck. When taken in the
hand, the Wryneck, like the Landrail and some other birds, feigns
death so successfully that it almost invariably, by this ruse, contrives
to escape from its captors.

CHAPTER XVII

THE PASSERINE BIRDS
Order—PASSERIFORMES

In this chapter we shall describe some of the more remarkable of
what are known as the Passerine, or Perching-birds. These, though
preserving a remarkable uniformity in so far as their anatomical
characters are concerned, present an amazing variety in their more
superficial characters, such as coloration, and the form of the beak,
so much so that nearly six thousand distinct species are known to
Science.

Though all are essentially tree-dwellers, a large number of species
have now come to pass much of their time in low scrub or in the
open country. Some possess wondrous powers of flight, others are
almost flightless.

This great series may be divided into two more or less sharply
defined groups, based partly upon the structure of the syrinx, or
voice organ, and partly upon other anatomical characters.

The first of these two large groups may be sub-divided so as
to form three smaller groups, distinguishable partly by means of
characters afforded by this same voice-organ, and partly by other
anatomical characters, all of which are so complicated as to be
beyond the scope and purpose of this little volume.

The first of the two large groups just referred to forms the—

Sub-order—CLAMATORES

The birds herein placed, though regarded as non-singing birds,
yet include a few species with melodious voices ; though none have

18 fe)

PLATE XXIV.

Fig. 4.
Wood Wren
(Phylloscopus
sibilatrix).

Fig. 2.
Black Redstart
(Ruticilla tttvs).

Fig..6. Wren f
(Troglodytes parvulus).

Lire-bird Fig. 7.
(Menura Golden-crested Wren
superba). (Regulus cristatus).

Icterine \

Warbler WY an
(Hypolais “

icterina)s

ce sor *,
ha ne a
on

b Od Pd ie
a ae

THE PASSERINE BIRDS III

a song comparable to that of such musicians as the Nightingale
or the Thrush or the Mocking-bird. But it is not, we may repeat,
the quality of the song so much as the number of the song muscles
and their arrangement that is regarded in this connection.

The lowliest of the Clamatores are the birds known as the Broad-
bills, or Eurylemi, some of which are very beautiful. Very nearly
allied to these are the Cotingas ; and of these the most gorgeous is
perhaps the Cock-oF-THE-ROCcK (Plate XXI. fig. 8). This bird, a
native of Guiana and Amazonia, is as remarkable in its love-making
as in its coloration. When courting, some twenty or so, males and
females, gather together, when the males immediately commence a
weird kind of dance, during which they droop their wings, wave
their crests from side to side, and hop along with most peculiar stens;

Nearly allied to the Cock-of-the-rock are the Bell-birds, also of
South America. Of the four species known, all areremarkable. One
species, pure white in colour, has a long, fleshy wattle, hanging from
the base of the beak like the wattle of a turkey. When the bird
is excited, it becomes turgid, and stands straight up in the air! But
beside this it also possesses a remarkable voice, a gift, however, which
it shares with its relatives. The Naxep-THROATED BELL-BIRD
(Plate XXV. fig. 3) may serve as an example of this. The home of
this bird is in Brazil, the gloomy forests of which are made to resound
with its wonderful notes. These resemble the sounds made by some
clear ringing bell, or, according to some travellers, the sound produced
by a blacksmith when he strikes a piece of steel on an anvil. The
song is heard at all hours of the day, and when, as often happens,
several of these birds are in the same neighbourhood, and begin
singing against, and answering, one another, a most wonderful
concert is the result.

The American ‘‘Wood-hewers,’’ Oven-birds, Tyrant-birds, and a
number of other related forms belong to this group, but space forbids
a more lengthy reference here.

Sub-order—OSCINES

We pass now to the second of our two great groups of Passerine
birds. This group, which is divisible into two sections, is made up

Gif A BOOK OF BIRDS

of what are known as the Oscinine Passeres, or Oscines, which are
distinguished by having the voice-muscles inserted into the ends of
the half-rings at the end of the windpipe. Strange to say, though
all the birds included in the second section are apparently well
equipped, and should prove fine songsters, only a few are really
good performers. Crows, for example, are certainly deficient as
singing birds ; yet they have the same voice-organ as the Nightin-
gale. But then the same is true of the human race—the voice-
muscles of the most tuneless among us do not differ essentially from
those of the most divine singers !

The curiously aberrant type known as the LyreE-Birp (Plate
XXIV. fig. 5) represents the first of the two sections just referred to.
According to most authorities this bird is placed apart from the
true Oscinines, and made to form a sub-group, or section, because
its voice-muscles, though resembling those of the ‘“‘ true Oscinines,”’
are not the same in number—three instead of from five to seven
pairs; but for our purpose this may be ignored. The Lyre-bird is
a native of Australia. More correctly we should speak of Lyre-birds,
for three species are known. That which forms the subject of our
illustration is found in New South Wales and South Queensland.

These birds are remarkable for the peculiar form of the tail, the
two outer feathers of which are of great length, and so curved as to
form a general resemblance in outline to the old-fashioned and now
obsolete musical instrument known as the Lyre—hence the name of
the bird. The inner tail-feathers have a quite peculiar structure,
lending the whole a strangely soft and filmy appearance.

‘These birds inhabit precipitous sandy gullies in thick forests
with tangled undergrowth,’”’ says Mr. A. H. Evans, and continues :
“Each cock has a walk, or playground, and scrapes little hillocks, or
hollows, for dancing-places, where he struts or pirouettes with erect
tail and drooping wings, scratching, pecking, and singing at intervals.
The normal cry is a loud, liquid, gurgling sound ; but the ‘ Pheasants,’
as the colonists call them, are clever mockers, imitating a cock’s crow,
a hen’s cackle, a dog’s bark or howl, the Laughing Jackass’s note,
or even the setting of a saw.’’

They lay but one egg, in a bulky nest of sticks, grass, and so on,
lined with moss and feathers, and placed either in the fork of a tree

THE PASSERINE BIRDS 113

or on the ground. The nestling is remarkable for the fact that it is
thickly covered in long and woolly down—a feature shared by no
other Passerine birds.

THE TRUE OSCINES

All the birds now left for our consideration belong to the second
section to which we have just referred, and are commonly described
as the true Oscines, having from five to seven pairs of singing-
muscles.

In describing these we shall take them in order, as nearly as
possible, according to their grade of evolution, so far as this can be
determined. That is, we shall begin with those species which are
apparently lowliest, or least specialised, least modified, and proceed
to those which are highest or, rather, most modified.

FAMILY HIRUNDINID4E (Swallows)

By this plan we commence with the Swallow tribe ; three species
of which are common during the summer months in Great Britain.

Next to the Cuckoo, the SwaLLow (Plate XXI. fig. 4) is the bird
whose appearance in the spring is most eagerly looked for. The
Swallow lends a certain indefinable charm to the life of the country
during the summer months, and it is certainly a most useful bird.
Like its relative the House-martin, the Swallow builds a nest of mud,
which is always placed on some rafter in outhouses, sheds, and similar
places. And here two broods are reared before the summer is
passed and they leave us again, at the approach of winter, for the more
congenial climate of Africa. There was an old superstition to the
effect that Swallows passed the winter in this country in a state
of torpor, choosing horse-ponds and similar places in which to
hybernate at the bottom of the water !

The HousE-marTIN (Plate XXI. fig. 3) may easily be distinguished
from the Swallow, having a large patch of white on the lower part
of the back, and white under parts. Further, the legs and toes of the
Martin are completely covered with short, downy feathers.

The mud nests of the Martin are familiar objects enough during
the summer months, being fastened to the overhanging eaves of

15

114 A BOOK OF BIRDS

houses. Unfortunately, however, after all their labour, the poor
birds are frequently dispossessed by the impudent Sparrow, a bird
which always has been, and still is, a pest.

The SaNnpD-MarRTIN (Plate XXI. fig. 5) is the smallest of our
Swallows, wearing a modest livery, brown above and white below.
Unlike the Swallow and Martin, it nests in holes in sandbanks, labori-
ously tunnelling long chambers which terminate in a spacious nursery.
And all this is done with the feeblest of beaks and feet !

PAMILY MUSICAPIDZ: (Flycatchers)

The Flycatchers are the nearest relatives of the Swallows, and
two species are regularly met with in Great Britain—the Pied and
Spotted Flycatchers.

The SpoTTED FLYCATCHER (Plate XXV. fig. 9) is a quite common
bird during the summer. Unobtrusive in appearance, he is yet a
most interesting bird to watch, for it is his custom to obtain the insects
which form his food by sudden sallies in the air from the spray
which is chosen as a look-out. The capture made, he returns again,
and in a moment is off on another chase, and so on, while daylight
lasts.

FAMILY LANIIDZé (Shrikes)

The Flycatchers are a feeble, harmless folk; but some near
relatives of theirs have developed much more formidable and forbidding
natures. These are the Shrikes, or ‘‘ Butcher-birds.’’ Larger in size
than the Flycatchers, they are to be distinguished by the almost
hawk-like beak, which has been developed for a similar purpose—
tearing up living prey, such as small birds, mice, and so on.

Two species of Shrike are to be met with in Great Britain.

The ReEpD-BACKED SHRIKE (Plate XXV. fig. 1) and the GREAT
Grey SHRIKE (Plate XXV. fig. 2). The first named breeds in these
islands, the second does not.

These birds have a curious habit of impaling beetles and small
birds and mice on the thorns of the hawthorn, apparently for future
use. And it is on this account they have received the name ‘‘ Butcher-
birds,’’ and the equivalent thereof, ‘‘ Flesher.”’

te

PLATE XXV.

Shrike

(Lanius

Fig. 2. Great Grey Shrik

Ha Ne
ig. 4.
Tree-pipit
\(Anthus tri-
ik vialis).

Chasmorhynchus
nuadicollis).

F

at
ig, 6. re
Golden Oriole R fs,
(Oriolus galbula). ee
Ae *
wes!

Fig. 5. Dipper

(Cinclus aquaticus).

Fig. 7.
Grey Wagtail

(Motacilla melanope).

eal:

Fig. 8. White Wagtatucilla alba).

(Muscicapa grisola).

Coe at Bio
TER

ee, e

ee

THE PASSERINE BIRDS BYS

FAMILY PARID4® (Titmice)

Whether the Titmice are related to the Shrikes or not is a moot
point, and need not concern us here. They are all small birds,
and of rather a pugnacious disposition.

Of the several species which are to be met with in Great Britain,
the little BLur Tit (Plate XXVI. fig. 9) is the most familiar, visiting
even London gardens, where it may be easily induced to become a
frequent visitor by a small piece of fattiedtoastring. Itis a courage-
ous little bird, especially during the time that it is sitting on its eggs.
Selecting a hole in some tree-trunk or wall, intruding fingers of would-
be egg-stealers are often hastily withdrawn in consequence of an
ominous hissing noise, mistaken, as it was intended to be, for the
warning note of a snake! This bird may readily be bribed to take
up a residence in any desired spot by means of nesting-boxes hung
in convenient situations.

The Great Tir (Plate XXVI. fig. 10) is a larger bird than the
Blue Tit, but similar in appearance. It may readily be distinguished,
however, by the broad black stripe which runs down the middle of
the breast. This bird attacks smaller birds, beating out their brains
with its powerful beak.

The Coat-tir and the CresTeEp TiT (Plate XXVI. figs. 7, 8) re-
quire to be carefully sought, being of a shy and retiring disposition.
While the Coal-tit may be met with in the less populated districts
throughout Great Britain, the same is not true of the Crested Tit,
which is rarely met with save in Scotland.

The Titmice are mainly insect-feeders, though ripe pears and
apples prove an irresistible attraction for the Blue Tit, which is,
therefore, much disliked by fruit-growers. In spite of these depreda-
tions, however, it is a most useful bird.

The Lonc-TAILEpD Tit (Plate XXVI. fig. 6) is the smallest of the
Titmice, and is really a very handsome little bird. In the art of
nest-building it is one of the most skilful, the outside thereof being
cunningly decorated with small pieces of lichen; and this covering
harmonises so perfectly with the surroundings of the nest as to tax the
skill of the most expert nest-hunter to find. Oval in shape, it is entered
by a small hole near the top, while inside it is lined with feathers.

116 A BOOK OF BIRDS

When sitting the long tail is disposed of by turning it over the back,
so that beak and tail often poke out through the doorway at the same
time! The capacity of this nursery is as wonderful as its structure,
since no less than sixteen youngsters have been found cuddled together
inside, though from seven to ten is the more usual number.

FAMILY SITTID4: (Nuthatches)

A near relative of the Titmice is the Nutuatcu (Plate XXII.
fig. 9). This is a tolerably common bird in the south-east and centre
of England, wherever old timber abounds ; but in Scotland it is rare,
and in Ireland unknown.

Like the Woodpeckers, it passes its whole life on tree-trunks,
running up and down with marvellous ease. As a nesting-place it
prefers some hole in tree-trunks, or branch, and at the bottom of the
cavity a bed of dry leaves is made, on which the eggs are laid. When
the entrance to the nursery is too large, the bird reduces it to the
desired size—a hole through which it can only just wriggle—by means
of mud. In autumn the Nuthatch feeds largely on hazel-nuts, which
it fixes in some crevice, and then proceeds to hammer with its bill till
the shell is broken ; hard seeds of many kinds are also eaten, while,
during a large part of the year, insects form a considerable portion
of its diet.

FAMILY CERTHIIDA: (Tree-creepers)

The little TREE-cREEPER (Plate XXII. fig. 7) is another tree-
dweller. Like the Nuthatch, it climbs about over the trunks of large
trees, but in one point it differs conspicuously, and this is in the
form of its tail. In the Nuthatch this is short and soft ; in the Tree-
creeper, on the other hand, it is long, and composed of stiff-pointed
feathers like those of the Woodpecker. Since the Nuthatch uses its
beak as a hammer, after the fashion of a Woodpecker, and the Tree-
creeper does not, this curious difference is not easy to understand,
for the Woodpecker’s tail is supposed to have developed as a support
to give weight and force to the hammering of the beak, a device which,
from what obtains in the Nuthatch, seems to be unnecessary. The

aay
“a

“At
ce ae

PLATE XXVI.

Fig.
Wood Lark

(Alauda arborea).

Fig. 4. Haw-fineh’

(Coccothraustes vulgaris).

ig. 6. a?
Long-tailed? Jf
Tit
(Acredula | a 7
gaudata). “Loe Sy s >° at
we Viapland Bunting

(Calcarius lapponicus).

rested Tit
™(Parus cristatusp

Fig. 10. Great Ti

( Parus major).

THE PASSERINE BIRDS 117

Tree-creeper’s beak, indeed, could never be used hammer-fashion, for
it is slender and curved, and is used for the capture of insects.

Though tolerably common throughout Great Britain, it is not often
seen, and this owing to its small size, sober colours, and the skill
with which it contrives always to keep the trunk of the tree between
itself and inquisitive human visitors. The beautiful Wall-creeper
(Plate XXII. fig. 6) has occurred in Britain only three times.

FAMILY TROGLODYTID4A: (Wrens)

The Wren family includes a number of small birds spread over
the greater part of the globe, and especially abundant in the Americas
—North and South; but they are absent in the Australian and
African regions. They all build domed nests. The Common WreEN
of Great Britain (Plate XXIV. fig. 6)—commonly known as “ Jenny
Wren ’’—serves as a good example of this family, which is generally
distinguished by the sober colours of its members, the short, rounded
wings and short tail, which is carried in a vertical position.

FAMILY AMPELID4® (Waxwings)

A very remarkable family is that which comprises the “‘ Wax-
wings’’ of North America and North Europe and Asia. Numbering
but few species, and of uncertain lineage, the birds of this family
have acquired a certain notoriety on account of the fact that the
inner wing-quills and tail-feathers are tipped with horny plates,
having the appearance of small drops of red sealing-wax.

One species of this family, known as the Waxwina, or BOHEMIAN
CHATTERER (Plate XXI. fig. 1), has visited Great Britain periodically
for upwards of two centuries, sometimes in great numbers. It is
an inhabitant of the Arctic regions, and extends across into North
America. In temperate North America the place of this species is
taken by the ‘“‘ Cedar-bird ’’—a smaller bird, and having neither the
white nor the yellow markings in the wings that distinguish the
British species. The British bird feeds on insects in the summer
and berries in the winter.

118 A BOOK OF BIRDS

FAMILY ORIOLIDZA: (Orioles)

As to the exact relationship of the beautiful GoLDEN ORIOLE
(Plate XXV. fig. 6) but little that is profitable can here be set down.
Suffice it to say, that it may as well be described here as anywhere
else.

This bird is one of the most beautiful of birds, and, but for the
greed of the senseless ‘‘ collector,’’ might possibly be induced to
breed in Great Britain—it has already done so on more than one
occasion. It is an annual visitor during the spring to Cornwall and
the Scilly Islands, where as many as forty have been seen in a single
April. Our southern and eastern counties are also visited. The
female is a rather soberly coloured bird, being of a dull green colour
above, while the under parts are streaked with grey.

The nest of the Golden Oriole is a very beautiful structure made
of bark, wool, and grass-stems cunningly woven together and sus-
pended beneath the fork of some small branch of a tree. It feeds
chiefly on insects, but fruit is also eaten.

FAMILY STURNIDZ: (Starlings)

The Common STar.inea (Plate XXX. fig. 4) belongs to a family
which is peculiar to the Old World, and it will probably be found,
on further research, to be a relative of the Golden Oriole. This bird
is plentifully distributed over the British Islands, and when fully
adult and in summer dress is an extremely beautiful species, the
feathers having a wonderful metallic gloss. The new feathers,
assumed after the autumn moult, are tipped with white, and it is
by the loss of these tips that the summer livery is gained. The young
birds are of an ash-brown colour, and totally unlike their parents.

Starlings lay their eggs in holes or the hollow trunks of trees,
making but little pretence at nest-building.

FAMILY CINCLIDZ: (Dippers)

Among the more remarkable of our British Birds the DIPPER
(Plate XXV. fig. 5) holds a conspicuous position. In shape looking

THE PASSERINE BIRDS 119

rather like an overgrown Wren, this bird enjoys the unique dis-
tinction among perching birds of being able not only to swim, but
also to run along the bed of swift streams, whence much of its
food is derived. It is an insect-feeder, though, through ignorance,
it has been described as causing great havoc in trout streams, the
eggs of trout being supposed to form no small part of its diet when
these dainty morsels are to be had. So far, however, the case has
not only not been proved against them, but it has no foundation
in fact.

FAMILY TURDIDZ: (Thrushes)

We pass now to the Thrush family and its near relations.

The Thrushes contain some superb songsters, and among these
the Common Thrush and the Blackbird enjoy pride of place.

The MisTLE-THRUSH (Plate XXIX. fig. 2), known also as the
‘*‘ Storm-cock,’’ is the largest of our British Thrushes, and is to be
met with all the year round. Measuring about ro} inches in length,
it may further be distinguished by the fact that the spots on the
breast are kidney-shaped, while in the Common Thrush they
have rather the shape of a peg-top. Even when on the wing this
bird may readily be distinguished, since the outer tail-feathers have
white tips.

Though not really more common, the BLAcKBIRD (Plate XXIX.
fig. 1) is probably a much better-known bird than the Mistle-thrush,
for he is more in evidence, even deigning to take up a residence
near and in large towns. In the London parks, for example, Black-
birds may be seen all the year round. Though the sable livery and
golden bill give the Blackbird some claim to beauty, it is more as a
songster that he is esteemed, the note of this bird being peculiarly
flute-like and beautiful. The female is a quite sombrely clad
individual, her plumage being of a dull brown. Fruit gardeners
wage a relentless war on the Blackbird, which is only partly
justified.

It is interesting to note that the nest of the Blackbird, like that
of the Mistle-thrush, is lined with dry grasses, while that of the com-
mon thrush has a water-tight lining of rotten wood and cow-dung.

120 A BOOK OF BIRDS

Nearly related to, and more striking in appearance than, the
Blackbird, is the Ring-ousel (Plate XXIX. fig. 3), and this because
of the pure white crescent which crosses the upper part of the breast.
As a songster, however, it is far inferior to the Blackbird. The
Ring-ousel is a fairly common bird on our moorlands during the
spring and summer, but in autumn it forsakes us to spend the
winter in more congenial climes.

By far the most beautiful of our British Thrushes is the rare
Rock-THRUSH (Plate XXIX. fig. 4). This bird has, it is true, but
slender claim to be regarded as a British bird, since it has only been
met with in this country about two or three times. This is certainly
curious, as it is a common bird in Germany and other parts of Europe
at no great distance from our shores.

Among British birds there are few perhaps which the naturalist
regards with such kindly feelings as the WHEATEAR (Plate XXIX.
fig. 7), for it is one of the fore-runners of spring, one of the very
first to come back to us after the dull and dreary days of winter.

The female is a much duller bird, having the upper parts brown,
instead of the delicate pearl-grey of her mate. After the autumn
moult, however, the male appears almost to assume the female dress,
but this is because the feathers at this time have long brown fringes.
As these wear off, the hue of the spring garment appears. The
young birds resemble the female, but are slightly spotted above and
below with buff.

The name ‘ Wheatear’’ comes from an old Saxon word.
“Wheat ”’ is a corruption of White, and ‘‘ ear’’ has come from the
old Saxon word ‘“‘aers,’’ meaning rump, in allusion to the white
patch above the tail.

Those who have the good fortune to live near heaths and commons,
and especially near extensive pastures in England and Wales, have,
if they wish it, plenty of opportunities of studying the habits of an
extremely lively and very pretty member of the Thrush tribe. This
is the WuincHaT (Plate XXIX. fig. 8). It is an insect-eater, and
builds a nest of grass and moss on the ground, or in the stems of
some bush but a few inches from the ground.

_ A near relative of the Whinchat is the Redstart, of which two
species occur in Great Britain. These are the Common REDSTART

THE PASSERINE BIRDS 121

and the Brack RepsTarT (Plate XXIV. figs. 3, 2). Both are
extremely handsome little birds, and both are tolerably common in
Great Britain during the summer months, though locally distributed.
In Ireland and Scotland these birds are increasing in numbers, and
extending their range. They are insect-eaters, and leave our shores
in autumn, though occasionally a few stragglers remain behind,
only probably to die, before the advent of spring, from inability to
procure a sufficiency of suitable food. Curiously enough the eggs
of these two species differ conspicuously, those of the Black Redstart
being of a pure, shining white, while those of its relative are of a
beautiful pale blue. They build nests of fine grass and moss, hidden
away in holes and buildings, under an inverted flower-pot, or in clefts
of rocks.

A no less beautiful bird is the BLUE-THROAT (Plate XXIX.
fig. 10). This bird was only a few years ago regarded as a
great rarity in Great Britain. It is now known to occur, how-
ever, with some frequency, every autumn. In Scotland it is still
rare, and so far it has not been met with in Ireland.

There are two forms of Blue-throat, perhapsthree. The first has
a red spot in the middle of the blue throat, the second, a white
spot, and the third no spot at all. The red-spotted form is a bird of
high northern latitudes, where its song enlivens the nightless Arctic
summer, rivalling that of the Nightingale in richness. The white-
spotted bird breeds south of the Baltic. The unspotted form may
probably be but a variety of the white-spotted.

Of all the long roll of British Birds the REDBREAST (Plate XXIX.
fig. 9) probably holds the chief place, and this on account of its
confiding ways and plaintive song. More generally this bird is
known as the ‘ Robin,’’ or ‘‘ Robin Redbreast.’”?’ Even in great
cities it is no stranger, at any rate wherever there are parks or large
gardens. Concerning so general a favourite we need say but little ;
but it would be well to point out here that the males and females
cannot be distinguished, externally, from one another. What are
so generally supposed to be females are really the young birds in their
first plumage—a dull dress of brown, showing no trace of the beautiful
orange-red throat, so conspicuous in the adults.

Though it is not true to say that no brightly coloured birds sing

16

122 A BOOK OF BIRDS

well, it is a notorious fact that some of the most dowdily clad are
among the sweetest of all songsters. And this is peculiarly true of
the NIGHTINGALE (Plate XXIX. fig. 6), a bird which, by common
consent, has been regarded as the Prince of singers. The wonderful
music of this bird has formed the theme of some of the finest poetry,
both ancient and modern, and this by eastern as well as western
bards. Curiously enough, the western counties of England, Wales,
and Ireland are rarely or never visited by this bird, nor is Scotland
more favoured.

Even the most enthusiastic admirers of the Nightingale admit
that the BLacxk-cap (Plate XXIV. fig. 10), in some respects, is almost
as skilled a performer. Gilbert White described the Black-cap as a
delicate songster, and declared that the notes of this bird always
brought to his mind Shakespeare’s lines :

And tune his merry note
Unto the wild bird’s throat.

It is, moreover, more widely distributed than the Nightingale,
Ireland and Scotland, as well as England and Wales, enjoying the
privilege of sheltering this bird during the summer months. The
female Black-cap has the crown of the head a dull chestnut, and so
also have the young in their first plumage.

Another sweet singer, but far inferior to the Nightingale and the
Blackcap, is the WuITE-THROAT (Plate XXIV. fig. 9). One of the
commonest of our summer visitants, there must be few dwellers in
the country who do not know and cherish an affection for this
modest little bird. The male displays great courage where the
safety of his home and young is concerned. Human intruders on
his domain are followed along the hedgerow wherein his treasures
lie snugly concealed with every demonstration of agitation and con-
cern. He flits from branch to branch, with every feather of his
throat and crest on end, and tail widely spread, while every now and
then he shoots up into the air and descends again almost vertically.
And this scolding, vigorous, remonstrance he keeps up till danger is
past.

The Thrush family is a fairly large one. Not only does it in-
clude the true Thrushes, such as we have already described, but

THE PASSERINE BIRDS Wa

it embraces all the other species which we have referred to since we
left the Thrushes. The last of the family are now to be briefly men-
tioned. These are the small birds, more or less green, or brown,
above, and yellow or buff below, which are known as the ‘“‘ Warblers.”’

Four fairly typical species are selected for mention here. There
are the Golden-crested Wren, the Icterine and Marsh Warblers, and
the Wood-wren.

The GoLDEN-CRESTED Wren (Plate XXIV. fig. 7) holds the
unique distinction of being the smallest of our British birds, not
exceeding 31 inches in length. It is further remarkable as an archi-
tect, for it builds a most wonderful nest of moss, felted together by
spider-webs and sheep’s wool. Outside little bits of lichen are fastened,
so as to secure escape from the eyes of prowling enemies ; while
within it is lined with feathers. Almost spherical in shape, this
exquisite little nursery is actually swung at the end of long boughs,
generally of a yew, or other evergreen, instead of being placed on
the bough, as is the general rule with birds. Herein from five to eight,
or even ten, tiny, buff-white eggs, faintly freckled with red, are laid,
and these are most jealously brooded by the female. The female is
duller than the male, and the young birds are duller than either,
lacking the beautiful golden crest.

The Woopv-wreEN (Plate XXIV. fig. 4) and MarsH-waRBLER (Plate
XXIV. fig. 1) are annual summer visitors to our shores, and breed
with us, just as do their relations the Sedge- and Reed-warblers and
the Chiff-chaff. The IcTzERINE WARBLER (Plate XXIV. fig. 8) is,
however, only an occasional visitor, and on this list are to be placed
a number of other Warblers for which we have no space here. The
Reed-warbler, by the way, builds a most wonderful nest. This takes
the form of a deep cup, fixed by its sides to the tall stems of reeds,
which have thus the appearance of growing up through the sides of
the nest. So skilfully is this nursery built, that when the reeds bend
low over the water, the eggs or young, as the case may be, rest snugly
at the bottom of the nest.

Though many of the Warblers, such as the Sedge-, Reed-, and
Marsh-warblers, show a preference for swamps and inland sheets of
water, a great number of species, on the other hand, show no such
preference, and occur in the driest of localities. Between the Reed-

124 A BOOK OF BIRDS

and Marsh-warblers, by the way, there is so great a resemblance
that only an expert can distinguish them.

It is a moot point as to whether the homely little HzEpGE-spaRrRow
(Plate XXIX. fig. 5) should be reckoned as nearly related to the
Thrush family or not. Here, at any rate, will be the best place to
mention it; and in doing so we would particularly emphasise the
fact that it is in no way related to the House-sparrow, as the suffix
“‘Sparrow’’ seems to imply. In their habits, even more than in their
appearance, no two birds could be more unlike, for the House-sparrow
is a veritable gamin, insolent and mischievous, while the Hedge-
sparrow is to be reckoned among the most modest and retiring of
birds. Generally distributed throughout the British Islands, a resi-
dent throughout the year, there can be few bird-lovers who are not
familiar with this species. It is an insect-eater, and is frequently
made the dupe of the Cuckoo, performing the work of foster-parent
with great zeal. The nest of this bird, seldom placed far from the
ground, is made of roots and moss, and lined with hair and wool.
Herein from four to six beautifully turquoise-blue eggs are laid.

FAMILY MOTACILLID4 (Wagtails and Pipits)

That the Wagtails and Pipits are closely related there can be no
question, though, in so far as their general coloration is concerned,
the two groups differ rather conspicuously ; for while the Wagtails
have a beautifully harmonious, but rather brightly coloured livery,
the Pipits, as a rule, wear but a dress of sober brown, relieved by
streaks of darker brown. But in both groups the legs are relatively
long, while the inner quill-feathers of the wing, or inner secondaries,
are of considerable length, so much so as to reach to the end of the
primaries when the wing is closed. These feathers are sometimes,
but quite wrongly, described as “‘ tertials.’’

Among British Wagtails, perhaps the two most conspicuously
beautiful species are the Grey Wacralt (Plate XXV. fig. 7) and
the WHITE WacrTalL (Plate XXV. fig. 8). The Grey Wagtail is
a singularly handsome bird, as may be seen in our illustration,
and is remarkable for the great length of the tail, and this
among a tribe conspicuous for long tails. The black throat is

THE PASSERINE BIRDS TAG

worn by the male only during the breeding-season, though the
female sometimes develops a few black feathers in this region.
White replaces the black in the winter dress. It is a lover of
mountain streams rather than of those which run through flat
country, and is an insect-feeder. A perfect male may attain a length
of 71 inches in length.

The White Wagtail in its summer dress may readily be dis-
tinguished from its far more common relative the Pied Wagtail
by the greater amount of white on the side of the neck, and in that
the upper parts are of a beautiful pearl-grey instead of black. The
White Wagtail is not so common as the Pied, which in winter dress
it resembles rather closely. The Yellow Wagtail, by the way, is
an extremely common bird in parts of England and Ireland, and is
by no means uncommon in Scotland and Wales. It is a species
which revels in wet meadows, and finds the company of cattle
exceedingly attractive, chiefly for the sake of the flies which con-
gregate about them.

Of the Pipits, we may remark that while seven species are reckoned
as British birds, only three are commonly to be met with. In some
respects the Pipits recall the Larks, but they are, nevertheless, not
very closely related thereto.

The Pipit which is chosen for illustration here is the TREE-PIPIT
(Plate XXV. fig. 4). Though fairly distributed throughout the
British Islands during the summer months, this bird is yet not one
that attracts much attention, though with bird-lovers it is always in
good favour, and this on account of its neat appearance and pleasing,
though limited, little song. The Meadow-pipit, or Tit-lark, is the
Pipit which is most commonly met with in Great Britain. Smallest
of the Pipits, it may further be distinguished by the longer and more
curved hind-toe.

FAMILY ALAUDID4Z: (The Larks)

There is a very general notion among those who do not pretend
to expert knowledge in the matter of the classification of birds, that
the Larks are related to the Pipits and Wagtails. Whether this
belief is well founded remains to be discovered At the same time

126 A BOOK OF BIRDS

they seem to show some relationship towards the Finches to be
discussed presently.

The Larks are chiefly natives of the Old World, though North
America is not without representatives of the group, these being
found in the ‘“‘ Horned Larks.’’ This family is distinguished, among
other things, by the fact that the back of the scale-covered portion
of the leg is covered by small scutes, and in this the Larks differ from
all other true Passeres.

Of the several species of Larks which occur in Great Britain, the
SKYLARK (Plate XXVI. fig. 1) is by far the best known. After the
Nightingale, no bird has so stirred the finer feelings of the poets.
There are few birds which sing while on the wing, and of such
performers the Skylark is easily first. One of the most pitiful
sights possible is, perhaps, that of a caged Skylark trying to sing ;
but the callousness of their gaolers is even more pitiful.

During migration these birds suffer appalling losses to their ranks.
On the island of Heligoland, which is on the line of their route to this
country during the annual autumn influx, as many as 15,000 have
been caught in a single night ; while immense numbers break their
necks by dashing themselves, bewildered, against the beacons of the
lighthouse, or stunned, fall into the sea and are drowned.

The Woop.ark (Plate XXVI. fig. 2) is but a locally distributed
species throughout Great Britain. Resembling the Skylark in
appearance, it may always be distinguished therefrom by its smaller
size, shorter tail, more pronounced crest, and the broad, pale stripe
over the eye. The song is sweet and flute-like, and uttered on the
wing, the bird hovering in the air and descending spirally with half-
closed wings. It does not mount like the Skylark, however, nor
is its song so powerful.

The Crestep Larx (Plate XXVI. fig. 3) though tolerably com-
mon just across the Channel, is rare in England. Rather more
bulky than the Skylark, it may further be distinguished by the long,
drooping crest, which depends from the back of the head, and the
absence of white from the tail.

FAMILY FRINGILLIDZ: (The Finches)

The Finch family includes an enormous number of species, many

PLATE XXVII.

Corn-bunting
(Hmberiza

M ‘ militaria).
Yellow-ammer

(Emberiza citrinella).

( Emberiza
hortulana).

Fig. 5. Snow-bunting

‘Pieetrophanes nivalis).

Fig. 6.
Greenfinch
(Coccothraustes chlorw).

Fig. 4.
Reed-bunting
( Emberiza

schoeniclus).

&
ae

Fig. 8. Bullfinch
(Pyrrhula pyrrhula).

Pine-grosbea
(Pyrrhula enu-

Fig. 10-"House-sparrow"Pem@en=domehicus).

Fig. 9. Tree-sparrow (Passer montanus).

THE PASSERINE BIRDS 127

remarkable for the beauty of their plumage. They may be generally
described as birds having a short, pointed, conical beak, and nine
primary quill-feathers. All are seed-eaters, save during the breeding-
season, when they destroy great quantities of insects, these being
captured to feed their young.

We shall describe here, in the first place, some of the more in-
teresting of those which are to be met with in Great Britain.

The GREENFINCH (Plate XXVII. fig. 6) is one of the commonest
of our Finches, and, it is to be noted, differs from most of the Finches
in that there is but little difference between the plumage of the male
and female. in confinement this bird does well, and shows a capacity
for learning the songs of other birds, though it is by no means a
brilliant performer.

The Hawrincu (Plate XXVI. fig. 4) is but a locally distributed
species, and even where common, contrives to escape observation in
a remarkable way. It is a handsome bird, though the colours of its
plumage are by no means striking. One of its most conspicuous
characters is the great size of its beak, which is furthermore remark-
able in that when this is opened there will be found a curious arrange-
ment of crushing-pads for opening the hard-shelled stones of the
hawthorn and other fruits, of which it is very fone.

Quite the most beautiful of the British Finches is the GoLDFINCH
(Plate XXVIII. fig. 4). As with the Greenfinch, the male and females
are hardly to be distinguished. The young, however, wear a different
livery, inasmuch as they lack, among other things, the beautiful
markings on the head, and hence are known as “ Grey-pates’”’ and
“ Bald-pates.”’ The Goldfinch is, unhappily, a favourite cage-bird.
On this account it has for years suffered a merciless persecution at
the hands of bird-catchers and fanciers, and as the Goldfinch is by
no means easy to keep in confinement, an enormous mortality is
the result. So great have been the raids on their ranks, that in many
parts of the country they have been practically exterminated.

The Siskin (Plate XXVIII. fig. 8), or Aberdevine, is a winter visitor
to England, and here it occasionally remains to nest. In Scotland
and in parts of Ireland it is far more common, and breeds freely.
The female is rather duller than the male, and the young birds are
duller than the female.

128 A BOOK OF BIRDS

The SERIN (Plate XXVIII. fig. 9), though reckoned among our

British birds, is but a casual visitor to our shores, only eight examples
having been recorded. It is a very beautiful bird, and on this account,
probably, has been introduced into the United States. The home of
the Serin may be considered as the southern part of Europe and Asia
Minor. .
But this Finch should have for us a quite peculiar interest,
inasmuch as the Serin, which is found in the Canaries, Madeira,
and the Azores, is the ancestor of that most popular of cage-birds,
the Canary (Plate XXVIII. fig. 11). According to some authorities
this bird, which is known as the Wild Canary, is only a sub-
species of the Serin which occasionally occurs in Great Britain ;
while, according to others, it is a quite distinct species, though, of
course very closely related.

Of the House-sPparrRow (Plate XXVII. fig. 10) little, surely, need
be said here, for wherever a house-roof is to be found, there will the
Sparrow be found also. It would be well indeed if he were not so
common, since, possessing an inordinate greed for corn, he robs the
farmer unmercifully ; while, being of a most pugnacious disposition,
he displaces more handsome and more useful species. In England
he is driving away the Swallows and Martins and many other useful
birds, and in the United States, where he was introduced under
the mistaken impression that he would remove a plague of caterpillars,
he has proved no less of a nuisance.

The TREE-sPARROW (Plate XXVII. fig. 9) is a relatively rare
bird compared with the House-sparrow, and is locally distributed,
being more abundant in Cambridgeshire and the eastern counties
of England than elsewhere in these islands. In Scotland it is more
abundant along the eastern side; in Ireland it was unknown until
1852, but near Dublin it seems to be increasing.

Closely resembling the House-sparrow, it may be distinguished
therefrom by having the crown of the head chestnut instead of grey,
and two white bars across the closed wing. Further, while in the
House-sparrow the sexes are quite dissimilar, in the Tree-sparrow
they are hardly to be distinguished.

The CHAFFINCH (Plate XXVIII. fig. 3) is one of the commonest
of our Finches, especially in the north of England. Few birds are

PPACE SOxCVilll:

2.A Wat tJ
(Sporeginthis

ig. 5. Java Sparrow
(Munia orysivora).

(Linota canna-™%

bina).

4
‘

Cardinal (Cardinalis virginianus).

Serir

(Serinus
hortulanus),

THE PASSERINE BIRDS 129

more esteemed as cage-birds, especially by the poorer classes, by whom
they are treated as a rule with great brutality, inasmuch as they are
generally confined in cages so small that they can barely turn round
therein. That such things should be is a blot on what we are pleased
to call our “‘ civilisation ’’! Not only in England, but on the Continent,
it was a common custom to sear the eyes of these birds with a hot
iron in order to make them sing better! To-day, in public-houses
of the lowest class, singing competitions, wherein renowned performers
are matched one against another, are quite common, and to attain
this perfection the wretched birds are made to pass most of their time
in the dark.

The BRAMBLING, or “‘ MounTaIN Fincu ”’ (Plate XXVIII. fig. 10),
is a near relative of the Chaffinch, and occurs in some numbers in
Great Britain during the winter months, being remarkably abundant
in some years—whenever, in short, hard winters prevail on the Con-
tinent. The wonderful black head and neck are assumed just prior
to the breeding-season, and this, not by a change of feathers, but by
the wearing away of the brown tips of the feathers assumed at the
autumn moult.

The LInNET (Plate XXVIII. fig. 6), like the Chaffinch, is a common
British bird, and also in great demand as a cage-bird. The horrors
of captivity bear no less heavily on the Linnet than on the Chaffinch.
It is a curious fact, but the wonderful rose-red breast which distin-
guishes the cock Linnet is never regained by captive birds after their
first moult, yellow replacing the red.

The BuLiFincH, or ‘‘ BLoop OxLpH”’ (Plate XXVII. fig. 8), is a
bird which is generally distributed throughout England and the more
wooded districts of Ireland, but in Scotland it is less frequently met
with, though by no means arare bird. The sexes differ conspicuously
in colour, the females lacking completely the wonderful red and pearl-
grey colours which distinguish the males. The young birds resemble
the female, but lack the black cap.

The Bullfinch, like the Chaffinch, builds a remarkable nest, though
the workmanship of the two differs in a very striking way. The first
named makes a wonderful nursery of fine moss, wool, and lichen
cunningly felted together ; while the Bullfinch makes a platform
of fine twigs of birch, beech, fir, etc., surmounted by fine roots and

17

130 A BOOK OF BIRDS

a little hair fashioned into a shallow cup, in which the eggs are
laid.

The PINE-GROSBEAK (Plate XXVII. fig. 7) and the CrossBILL
(Plate XXVI. fig. 5) are two closely allied birds of peculiar interest.
The first named is a very rare visitor to Great Britain, and must
be sought in the far north—in the region near the Arctic circle wherever
fir-trees abound. Here it contrives to flourish, feeding on buds,
birch catkins, seeds, and berries, varied by such insects as come
within its reach.

The CrossBILL, on the other hand, is a resident species in Great
Britain, though extremely local in its distribution. During the autumn
and spring it may be met with in small flocks, in pine-woods in the
southern and eastern countries of England ; but it is more abundant
in the north, especially in Scotland, where it breeds annually. In
Ireland it is also a breeding species.

Among birds the Crossbill holds a unique place, and this because
the upper and lower jaws cross one another at their tips—hence the
name ‘‘Crossbill.’”’ By this peculiarity they are enabled to wrench
apart the pine cones, and abstract therefrom the seeds which form
the bulk of their food. Before the beautiful red plumage, which
distinguishes the male, is assumed, a livery of orange-yellow is worn.

The Finch tribe are greatly sought after as cage-birds, and this
because, being seed-eaters, they are more easily fed. But besides
our native birds, a number of exotic species are also kept. Of these
the most familiar are perhaps the ParapisE WyDAH-BIRD (Plate
XXVIII. fig. 1), the Avapuvat (Plate XXVIII. fig. 2), the Java
Sparrow (Plate XXVIII. fig. 5), and the CarpinaL (Plate XXVIII.
fig. 7). The two first named are ‘‘ Weaver-birds,’’ which,
according to some authorities, should be reckoned as forming a dis-
tinct family—the Ploceidze—though these admit that this family
is ‘“‘ hardly’ to be distinguished from the Fringillide.

The ParapisE WyDAH-BIRD is a South African species, found
on swampy ground where reeds and long grasses flourish. Kaffir
children take them in numbers with limed twigs, and they also
commonly capture them by running them down, the poor birds
being hampered by their long tails. During the season of courtship
these birds perform most wonderful evolutions in the air.

PLATE XXIX.

7 a
Figy 2. ’
Mistle ‘Thrush

(Turdus viscivorus).

F

Fig. 5: Pe os
Hedge-sparrow .
Accentor modularis). oo

Fig.6. ¥
Nightingale

Fig. 10. Whit&-spotted Blue-throat
(Cyanecula suecia).

Fig. 8. Whinchat Pie Ae

THE PASSERINE BIRDS r7e

The Java Sparrow, as its name implies, is a native of Java,
where, like our Common Sparrow, it is a pest, committing great
ravages on the rice-fields. It has, unfortunately, been introduced
into Africa and parts of India. During latter years it has become
much sought after as a cage-bird, and breeds readily in confinement.
From these domesticated birds a white race has been raised, which is
highly prized.

Though popularly called a ‘‘ Sparrow,” it must be remembered
that this bird is not really very closely related to the true Sparrows—
such as the House- and Tree-sparrows.

A scarcely less popular cage-bird is the AvapuvatT (Plate XXVIII.
_ fig. 2), known also as the Amaduvade Waxbill and the Tiger-finch.
This bird is a native of India, Cochin China, Siam, Java, and other
Malayan Islands, whence it is imported into European markets in
enormous numbers.

The male in its breeding-dress is very beautiful, and possesses the
further charm of a brief but sweet song, which is said to resemble
a bugle-call. The female is less brilliant than her mate, being brown
above—though having a light patch of red on the rump—and buff-
coloured below.

This bird moults twice in the year, and the male, after the breeding-
season, assumes the dress of the female.

The males of this species are pugnacious little birds, and fight with
spirit, on which account they are kept by the natives in India to afford
them sport, much as cock-fighting was practised in England.

As touching the Cardinal, we may remark that this is an American
species, known also as the ‘‘ Virginian Nightingale.”’ This species
ranges from North America southwards into Mexico and British
Honduras, and is one of the Finches. Inhabiting thickets and under-
growth, this bird contrives, in spite of its brilliant coloration, to shun
observation, even when, from its rich rolling notes, its near presence
is assured.

FAMILY TANAGRIDZE (The Tanagers)

This family contains a large number of species of surpassing beauty,
many of them indeed being among the most gorgeously coloured of

132 A BOOK OF BIRDS

all birds. They are a New World group, closely allied to the true
Finches. Indeed it is difficult to find characters whereby the Family
Tanagridz can be separated from the Family Fringillide.

The little CaLListE (Plate XXI. fig. 7) is shown here as a good
example of the vividness which the Tanagers commonly display in
their plumage, though some species are quite soberly clad. The
species here figured is a well-known cage-bird.

FAMILY EMBERIZIDZ: (The Buntings)

The Buntings are obviously nearly related to the Finches, but
they may be distinguished therefrom, among other things, by the
small knob which is found in the centre of the inner surface of the
upper jaw, the strongly marked angle of the lower jaw, and the fact
that there is a gap between the cutting edges of the beak when the
mouth is closed.

Many of the Buntings are brightly coloured. Some species, on
the other hand, have a quite sombre livery. Such, for example, is
the case with the Corn BunrTinG (Plate XXVII. fig. 2), known also
as the Common Bunting. It is a relatively large bird, measuring
7 inches in length, and is furthermore noteworthy in that it bears a
really striking resemblance to a Skylark, from which, however, it may
easily be distinguished by its beak and the absence of a conspicuously
long claw to the hind-toe. This bird, though common in some parts
of England, is comparatively rare in others.

The YELLow AmmMe_ERrR (Plate XXVII. fig. 1), or Yellow Bunting,
is a far more common species than the last named. It is also known
as the “‘ Writing-lark,’’ and this because of the curious “ scribblings ”’
as of a pen which cover its eggs; though this character, it should
be mentioned, is also shared by the eggs of the Buntings in general.

Perhaps the most celebrated of all the Buntings is the ORTOLAN
(Plate XXVII. fig. 3), and this because of the fame which it has
unfortunately acquired as a table delicacy. Common throughout the
greater part of Europe, this bird, as soon as the breeding-season is
over, returns southwards, collecting along the shores of the Mediter-
ranean in vast flocks. On both of its migratory journeys, to and from
Europe, it is beset by bird-catchers, who make enormous hauls,
fattening their victims for the table. Its natural food consists of

THE PASSERINE BIRDS 133

insects and seeds in about equal amounts. As a songster it is a poor
performer, wherein it resembles its relative the Yellow Bunting.
As a British bird the Ortolan is but seldom met with.

Wherever sluggish streams and osier- and reed-beds abound,
there, throughout Great Britain, the REED-BUNTING (Plate XXVII.
fig. 4) may be looked for. It is a rather handsome species when
seen in spring ; but in autumn, just after its new feathers have been
assumed, the black hood is obscured by reason of the long brown
tips which the feathers of this region bear when first developed.
As the winter proceeds, these tips gradually wear off and reveal the
black portion.

Though presenting a general superficial appearance to the Reed-
bunting, the LapLAND BuntTiNG (Plate XXVI. fig. 11) may yet be
readily distinguished, and this more especially by the long claw of the
hind-toe, which has gained for this bird the name of ‘‘ Long-spur.”’

Until some fifteen years ago the Lapland Bunting was accounted
a rare bird in Great Britain, and it was quite unknown in these islands
in 1826. Between the date of its discovery (1907) and 1892
only forty examples had been recorded, and these all in England.
But in 1892 the eastern counties of England were invaded by large
numbers, and yet larger hosts followed in 1893, Flamborough and
Lincolnshire being especially favoured. Only a very few have ever
been taken in Scotland, while in Ireland only a single female has
been recorded.

The home of this bird is inthe far north ; it is indeed a circumpolar
species, frequenting swampy moorlands beyond the limit of forest
growth.

The curious process of colour change which we described in the
Reed-bunting is still more strikingly marked in the case of the
SNOW-BUNTING (Plate XXVII. fig. 5). Black and white, in strong
contrast, forms the livery of the male of this bird when seen in spring ;
but these hues are overlaid by chestnut-brown, when, in the autumn,
the annual ‘‘ new clothes’’ are donned. The female resembles the
male, but is duller in plumage.

The Snow-bunting is a winter visitor to Great Britain. A few
pairs remain to breed in the north of Scotland, but the majority
retreat to the Arctic regions to fulfil their parental duties.

134 A BOOK OF BIRDS

FAMILY CORVIDA: (The Crows)

With the Crows we come to the highest of all the Passerine birds.
This position they hold by virtue of the fact that in both sexes, and
in all stages of development, the plumage is practically the same,
though after the first moult of the young birds extra brilliancy is
gained. The Crows are also remarkably intelligent birds, and though
not one of them can, by any pretence, be called a songster, yet the
voice-muscles are extremely well developed.

The largest and most famous of all the Crows is the Raven
(Plate XXX. fig. 5), a bird which is growing increasingly rare in
Great Britain, though in the wilder parts of these islands it may
continue to hold its own for a long while yet. As a pet the Raven
has few rivals.

The Rook (Plate XXX. fig. 7) is peculiar among the Crows in the
matter of its curious bare face. Young Rooks, like all the other
Crows, have the face feathered and the nostrils protected by curiously
stiff feathers, whose tips are pointed forwards along the beak. After
the first moult these, together with the rest of the feathers of the
face, are shed, and henceforth an area of bare white skin, having the
appearance of being covered with powder, becomes the distinguishing
badge of this bird. Why these feathers should thus be shed is a
mystery, though many have attempted to solve it. The Rook is too
familiar a bird to need further description.

The Jay, the Jackpaw, and the Macpige (Plate XXX. figs. 3, 1,
2) are all, in spite of ruthless persecution at the hands of game-
keepers and game-preservers, fairly common birds. One cannot
but regret that this war of extermination should be so persistently
waged, for the harm these birds do is grossly exaggerated.

The Nutcracker (Plate XXX. fig. 6) is only an accidental visitor
to Great Britain, having occurred in these islands about thirty times.
The seeds of fir-cones appear to be its favourite food ; but hazel-nuts
are also eagerly sought for, and these are said to be stowed away in
bulk in a sort of pouch under the tongue.

PLATE XXX.

~ Starling
(Sturnus
vulgaris).

Fig. 5. Raven (Corvus toras).

Fig. 6. Nutcracker

(Nucifraga caryocatactes),

Fig. 7. Rook (Corvus frugilegus).

ai a i :
r ve"
4 s zi

¢ ran ij Me)

Pao

wP) . _
. Pe ” 5

ao:
Poy
dil

~
oe Oa
as
az ue

GENERAL INDEX

The Latin names of species are in italics, and those of genera, families, orders, etc.,

in capitals.
placed first.

Aberdevine or Siskin
spinus), 127, pl. 28, f. 8
Accentor modularis (Hedge-sparrow),
124, pl. 29, f. 5

Accipiter nisus (Sparrow-hawk), 56,
Dl, 7. foi

ACCIPITRES, 54, 55

Acredula caudata (Long-tailed Tit),
DES pl. 26, £:.6

Acrocephalus palustris (March War-
Plen) E23) pl. 24; £.°1

Adaptation to environment, 106

Adjutant Stork, African (Leptoptilus
crumenifer), 48, pl. 4, f. 7

—— Storks, 48

A gialitis alexandrina(Kentish Plover),
74, pl. 14, f. 5

— hiaticula (Ringed Plover), 74, pl.
14, f. 4

African Adjutant Stork (Leptoptilus
erumenifer), 48, pl. 4, f. 7

— Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus),
go} pl. 18, f. 2

— Ostrich (Struthio camelus), 30, 7,
BE iS, 10, 25,.31, 33-5, pl. 1, £1

After-shaft, 16

Air-sacs, 24, 26

Alauda arborea (Woodlark), 126, pl.
20, f.°2

— arvensis (Skylark), 126, pl. 26,
5A

— cristata (Crested Lark), 126, pl.
20t. 3

ALAUDIDZEA, 125

(Carduelis

If the same name is referred to more than once, the most important page is

Albatross, 37, 38, 23

— Black-browed (Diomedea melan-
ophrys), 37, pl. 3, f. 8

Alcea torda (Razor-bill), 85, pl. 2, f. 9

Alcedo ispida (Kingfisher), 94, pl. 19,
a2

Alpine Swift, 98

Amaduvade Waxbill (Sporeginthus
amandaua), 131, pl. 28, f. 2

Amazon Parrot (Chrysotis cestiva), 91,
pl.-28.1.75

American Egret, 46

—— Eider-duck, 51

— Gos-hawk, 56

— Green-winged Teal, 52

—— Osprey, 59

—— Stint, 78

—— Wigeon, 52

AMPELID/A, 117

Ampelis garrulus (Waxwing), 117, pl.
Dea wt

Anas boschas (Mallard), 52, pl. 6.
Laid

Ancestral birds, 6

Ani Cuckoo, g1

Ankle of fowl, 3

Ankle-bones, 3, 4

Anser cinerea ;(Grey-lag Goose), 53,
ple Gy tt

ANSERES, 50

Anterior radii, 12

Anthus trivialis (Tree Pipit), 125, pl.
a5, f. 4

Antilles Tern, 84

135

136

Aptenodytes patagonica (King Pen-
guin), 39, pl. 2, f. 8

Apteryx or Kiwi, 31, 32

Apteryx mantelli (Mantell’s Apteryx),
S15 pleut, read.

Aquila chysaetus (Golden Eagle), 57,
pl..s, £. 3

—— heliaca (Imperial Eagle), 57, pl.
Oy fe 5

Ara ararauna (Blue and Yellow
Macaw), 90, pl. 18, f. 3

— macao (Red and Blue Macaw),
go, pl. 18, f. 4

ARCHAZOPTERYX, 6, f. 3

Ardea cinerea (Common Heron), 45,
103, pl. 4, f. 4

Argus Pheasant (Argusianus argus),
65; (pl. 10, 1. 1,.a;.D

Argusianus argus (Argus Pheasant),
655 pls 20, f.11;./a, D

Asio otus (Long-eared Owl), 103, pl.
20,153

Astur palumbarius (Gos-hawk), 56, ro,
pl. 7, f. 4

Athene noctua (Little Owl), 103, pl.
20, f. 4

Auk, Little (Wergulus alle), 85, pl. 2,
f. 4

Auks, 73, 85

Australian Swan, 53

Avaduvat (Sporeginthus amandava),
130,.13%, pl; 25, f. 2

Avocet (Recurvirostra avocetta), 75,
oA 0) a ns Ey |

Backbone, 3, 6

Bald Eagle, 58

Baldpate Gol dfinches,127

Balearica pavonina (Crowned Crane),
69, pl. 4, f. 9

Barb Pigeon, 87

Barbary or Collared Dove (/urtur
risorius), 88, pl. 17, f. 1

Barbicels of feather, 14

Barbs of feather, 12-17

Barbules of feather, 12-17

GENERAL INDEX

Barn Owl (Strix flammea), 104, 20,
103, pl. 20, f. 6

Barn-door Fowl, 8

Bats, 20, 21, 24

Beak, 6, 11, 19,'25

Beak-sheaths, 19

Bearded Partridge, 66

—— Vulture or Lammergeier(@ypae-
tus barbatus), 61, pl. 9, f. 4

Bee-eater (Merops apiaster), 94, 93, pl.
19, f. 4

Beetles as food for birds, 63, 75, 102,
II4

Beli-bird, Naked-throated (Chasmo-
rhynchus nudicollis), 111, pl. 2, f.
35

Bell-birds, 111

Bernicla branta (Brent Goose), 3, pl.
Gh

Bhund Moorg Fowl, 64

Birds—as pets—study of—super-
stitions relating to, 1

—— of prey, 54, 19, 24, 50, 55

Bittern (Botaurus ste/laris), 47, pl. 4,
£10

Bitterns, 47, 12

Black Game, 20

—— Grouse (Jetrao tetrix), 67, pl.
Ib Be)

— Hoopoe, 95

— Redstart (Ruticilla titys), 121,
pl. 245 £2

—— Spanish Fowl, 64

—— Swan, 53

Black-backed Gull, 83

Blackbird (Turdus merula), 119, 120,
pli2o; 1b 1

Black-browed Albatross (Diomedea
melanophrys), 37, Pl. 3, f. 8

Blackcap (Sy/uia atricapilla), 122, pl.
24, f. 10

Black-cock, 67

Black-footed Pigeon, 39

Black-headed Gull (Larus ridibundus),
83, pl. 16, f. 4

Black-necked Swan, 53

GENERAL INDEX

Black-throated Diver, 31

Black-winged Stilt (Himantopus can-
didus), 75, pl. 14, f. 3

Blade-bone, 22, 33, 34

Blood, circulation of, 9

temperature of, 8

Blood Olph or Bullfinch (Pyrrhula
pyrrhula), 129, pl. 27, f. 8

Blood-corpuscles, 9

Blood-vessels, 4

Blue and Yellow Macaw
araraunda), 90, pl. 18, f. 3

Blue Heron, 46

—— Tit (Parus cceruleus), 115, pl. 26,
f. 9

Blue-throat, 121

—— White-spotted (Cyaneculasuecia),
Tan, pl. 29, f.. ro

Boatswain Bird, or Tropic Bird
(Phaéthoneethereus), 45, pl. 3, f. 5

Bohemian Chatterer, or Waxwing
(Ampelis garrulus), 117, pl. 21, f. 1

Bones, 3

Botaurus stellaris (Bittern), 47, pl. 4, f.6

Brain, 4

Brambling (Fringilla montifringilla),
729, pl. 28, f. 10

Breast, I1

bone, 22; 28; 33, 34

muscles, 22

Breeding-dress, 18

Breeding-season, 19

Brent Goose (Bernic/a branta), 53, pl.
6, f. 2

Broadbills, r11

Brown Leghorn Fowl (Gallus domes-
ticus var.), 64, pl. 10, f. 4, a, b

—— Pelican, 44

Bubo ignavus (Great Eagle Owl), 102,
fog... pl..20, £.) 1

Buceros bicornis (Homrai Hornbill),
gG,,pl. 10, f.2

Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus),
Or pl. 15, £..7

Buffon’s Skua (Stercorarius parasiti-
cus), 85, pl. 16, f. 5

(Ara

137

Bullfinch (Pyrrhula pyrrhula), 129, pl.
27 tad

Bunting, Corn (Emberiza miliaria),
E32,\Dla 279 1-12

Lapland (C@alearius lapponicus),
133, pls. 207 fr

—— Reed (Emberiza scheniclus), 133,
pli27, faa

— Snow (Plectrophanes
133, pl. 27, f. 5

Buntings, 132, 133

Burrow-duck or Sheldrake, 52

Bustard, Great (Otis tarda), 71, pl. 13,
£. 8

—— Little (Otis tetrax), 71, pl. 13,
i272

Bustards, 69, 57, 71, 72

Butcher-birds, 114

Buteo vulgaris (Common Buzzard),
56, 57, pl. 7, £. 7

Butterflies, flight of, 20

Buzzard, Common (8uteo vulgaris),
56, 57, pl. 7, £. 7

Buzzards, 55, 56, 60

nivalis),

Caceabis saxatilis (Rock Red-legged
Partridge), 66, pl. 12, f. 7

Calamus or Quill, 12, 13

Calcarius lapponicus (Lapland Bunt-
INS), £33, pl. 207 fekt

Calidris arenaria (Sanderling), 79, pl.
15, f. 9

Calliste tatao (Paradise Tanager),
E32 pla 215. t:77

Callocephalum galeatum (Ganga Cocka-
too); G8, pl218, f. 6

Campephilus principalis (Ivory-billed
Woodpecker), 108, pl. 23, f. 3

Canary (Fringilla canaria), 128, pl. 28,
foie

Cannon-bone, 4, 5

Cape Penguin, 39

—— Pigeon, 38

Capercailzie (Tetrao urogallus), 67, pl.
E271. 1) 24D

CAPRIMULGI, 97

18

138

Caprimulgus europeus (Common
Nightjar), 97, 98, pl. 21, f. 6

Cardinal (Cardinalis virginianus), 130,
T32) pl. 28; 2:17

Cardinalis virginianus (Cardinal), 130,
141, plei28, £:°7

Carduelis elegans (Goldfinch), 127, pl.
28, f. 4

—— spinus (Siskin), 127, pl. 28,

Carinate Birds, 33

Carolina Conure(Conurus carolinensis),
go, pl. 18, f. x

Carrier Pigeon, 87

Carrion as food for birds, 57, 62

Cassowary, 28-30, 16, 19

— Ceram (Casuarius galeatus), 29,
plea, 4.3

Casuarius galeatus (Ceram Casso-
waty), (20, pl, £13

Cat, whiskers of, 31

Cedar-bird, 117

Ceram Cassowary (Casuarius galea-
tus) 209, pl.i2, 1.13

Certhia familiaris (Tree-creeper), 116,
ELZ ple 22. i517

CERTHIIDZA, 116

Chaffinch (Fringilla ecelebs), 128, 129,
18, pl. 28, f. 3

Chapparal-cock, g1

CHARADRIIFORMES, 73

Charadrius pluvialis (Golden Plover),
TAO Venta i. 01

Chasmorhynehus nudicollis (Naked-
throated Bell-bird), 111, pl. 25,
£3

CHAUNA, 20

Chelidon urbica (House-martin), 113,
pla 2n; 1.3

Chen hyperboreus (Snow Goose), 53,
pl. 6; £3

Chick, 3, 5, 8

Chiff-chaff, 123

Chimney-swallow, 98

Chordeiles virginianus (Night-hawk),
98

GENERAL INDEX

Chrysolophus pictus (Golden Phea-
Sant), 65, pl. 11, f.'1;'a, b

Chrysotis cestiva (Amazon Parrot), gr,,
pl 1658.5

Ciconia alba (White Stork), 48, pl. 4,,
ie

CICONIA, qr

Cilia, 14

CINCLIDA, 118

Cinelus aquaticus (Dipper), 118, pl. 25,
reas

Circus eyaneus (Hen Harrier), 55, pl.
pees

CLAMATORES, 110, 111

Clangula glaucion (Golden Eye), 51,
ples; 1.8

Classification of birds, 11

Claws, 8, I9, 20

Coal-tit (Parus ater), 115, pl. 26, f. 7

Coccothraustes chloris (Greenfinch),
127, pl.27, 1.6

—— vulgaris (Hawfinch), 127, pl. 26,
f. 4

| Cochin-china fowls, 64

Cock, r11

—— of the Rock (Rupicola crocea),
Li, pli ai ts

—— of the Woods, or Capercailzie
(Tetrao urogallus), 67, pl. 12, f. 1,
a,b

Cock-fighting, 64, 131

Cockatoo, Ganga (@allocephalon
galeatum), 91, pl. 18, f. 6

Cockatoos, gI

Cocoi Heron, 46

COLAPTES, 108

Collared Dove (Jurtur risorius), 88, pl.
TG tone

Columba livia and var. (Rock-dove and
Pouter-pigeon), 87, pl. 17, f. 5, 6

— nas (Stock-dove), 87, pl. 17, f. 2

—— palumbus (Wood-pigeon), 86, 59,
pl. 175.4

COLUMBZ&, 86

Colymbus glacialis (Great Northern
Diver), 36; pli 2,.a.)2

GENERAL INDEX

Comet Humming-bird (Sparganura
sappho), 99, pl. 22, f. 3

Common Bee-eater (Merops apiaster),
94, pl. 19, f. 4

— Buzzard (Buteo vulgaris), 56, 57,
pl. 7, £.7

= Or Corn Bunting
miliaria), 132, pl. 27, f. 2

— Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus), 92, 124,
pl/23,/1- 4

— Gull (Larus canus), 82, pl. 16, f. 2

— Heron (Ardea cinerea), 45, 103, pl.
4, f. 4

— Hoopoe (Upupa epops), 95, P!. 22,
£. 8

—— Kingfisher (A/cedo ispida), 94, pl.
1g, 1.2

Nightjar (Caprimulgus europeeus),
O72 9S pl. 21, f. 6

—— Partridge (Perdix cinerea), 66,
TRE 7 7 ple l2, t.5

— Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus),
64105, pl. 11, f. 3

— Quail (Coturnix communis), 66, pl.
W231. 4

Redstart (Ruticilla phcnicurus),

mo. pl. 24,.1.3

Roller (Coracias garrula), 93, pl.
19, f. 6

—— Snipe, 75, 76

—— Swift (Cypselus apus), 98, pl. 21,
ha 2

— Teal (Nettion crecca), 52, pl. 6,
f. 5

—— Tern (Sterna fluviatilis), 83, 84,
pl. 5G; f..8

——— Lhrush, rr9

Condor (Sarcorhamphus gryphus), 61,
62. pl. o, f. 1

Contour feathers, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17

Conure, Carolina (Conurus carolinen-
SIS) 90;.pl. 16, fT

Conurus carolinensis (Carolina Conure),
gow pl..x8,f. 1

Cooper’s Hawk, 56

Coot (Fulica atra), 70, 71, pl. 13, f. 7

(Emberiza

139

Coquette Humming-bird (Lophornis
ornata), 99, pl. 22, f. 2

CORACIZA, 93

Coracias garrula (Common Roller), 93,
pl: 19; 8..6

Coracoid bone, 22, 33, 34

Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo), 42,
43, pl. 3, f. 4

Cormorants, I2, 16

Corn Bunting (Emberiza miliaria), 132,
pli27, 22

Corncrake (Crex pratensis), 70, pl. 13,
f. 9

CORVID-, 134

Corvus corax (Raven), 134, pl. 30, f. 5

—— frugilegus (Rook), 134, pl. 30, f. 7

—— monedula (Jackdaw), 134, 94, pl.
30) f.5

Cotile riparia (Sand-martin), 114, pl.
20 iis

COTINGAS, III

Coturnix communis (Common Quail),
66, pl. 12, f. 4

Coverts, II, 23, 24

Crake, Corn (@rex pratensis), 70, pl.
13; 1.9

—— Little (Porzana parva), 69, 70, pl.
Ents

—— Spotted (Porzana maruetta), 69,
70, pl. 13, f. 6

Crakes, 69, 70

Crane (Grus communis), 69, 15, pl. 13,
ter

Crowned (Balearica pavonina), 69,
Pia LG

Cranes, 69, 72

Creeper, Tree (Certhia familiaris), 116,
Li7,, pls 225/17

Wall (Tichodroma muraria), 117,
Dla F230

Crested Lark (A/auda cristata), 126,
ply 20;;t. 3

—— Tit (Parus cristatus), 115, pl. 26,
£. 8

Grex pratensis (Corncrake), 70, pl. 13,
f. 9

140

Crocodile, teeth of, 6

Crop, 25, 86

Crossbill (Loxia curvirostra), 130, pl.
26, f. 5

Crown of head, 11

Crowned Crane (Balearica pavonina),
69, pl. 4, f. 9

— Pigeon (Goura coronata), 88, pl.
1711.38

—— Pigeons, 86

Crows, 134, 16, 59, 93, 103, I12

Crustacea as food for Kingfishers, 94

Cuckoo, Common (Cuculus canorus),
92, 113, 124, pl. 23; f..4

Cuckoo’s Mate, or Wryneck (Jynx
torquilla), 108, 109, pl. 23, f. 6

Cuckoos, 89, 91, 92, 105

CUCULI, 89

Cuculus canorus (Common Cuckoo),
92,113; eas pl. 29 (ha

Curassows, 63

Curlew (Numenius arquatus), 79, 81,
DL las.

— Sandpiper (Jringa subarquata),
755.70, pl..15, £..0

Curlews, 73, 48

Cyanecula suecia(White-spotted Blue-
throat), 121, pl. 29, f. 10

Cygnus olor (Mute Swan), 53, pl. 6, f.4

CYPSELI, 97

Cypselus apus (Common Swift), 98,
leeks he

Dabchick (Tachybaptes fluviatilis), 37,
pli; 1.7

Dafila acuta (Pintail), 52, pl. 6, f. 8

Darter (Plotus anhinga), 42, 43, pl. 3,
f. 9

Darters, 25

Darwin’s Rhea, 30

Daulias luscinia (Nightingale),
20; TUL, 122, pl. 20; 1.10

Day-flying birds of prey, 54

Dendrocopus minor (Lesser Spotted
Woodpecker), 107, pl. 23, f. 7

122,

GENERAL INDEX

Deviling, 98

Digestion, organs of, 24

Dinosaurs, 4

Diomedea melanophrys (Black-browed
Albatross), 37, pl. 3, f. 8

Dipper (Cinclus aquaticus), 118, pl. 25,
f. 5

Distal radius, 14, f. 5, b. 15

Diver, Great Northern (Co/ymbus
glacialis), 36, pl. 2, f. 1
Divers, 36
Diving Birds, 35, 36, 40
Ducks, 51, 52
Dodo, 32, 86

Dog, tail of, 6

Dove, Collared (7urtur risorius), 88,
je ie dy py Bee

— Rock (Columba livia), 87, pl. 17,
£5

—— Stock (Columba cenas), 87, pl. 17,
f.12

—— Turtle (Turtur communis), 87, 88,
jo) Ey ay |

Down, 16

feathers, 12, 15-17

Driving-barbs, 17

Duck, Eider (Somateria mollissima),
50, 51, pl.'5, f. 1a, b

— Long-tailed (Harelda glacialis),
51, pl. 5, f. 3

—— Tufted (Fuligula cristata), 51, pl.

5, f. 6
Ducks, 7, 8, 12, 15, 16, 18, 25, 48, 50-
52, 56, 103

Dunlin (Pelidna alpina), 78, pl. 15, f. 7

Eagle Owl (Bubo ignauus), 102, 103,
pl. 20,2.

Eagles, 52, 57, 58, 60, 102

Ear, 4

coverts, II

Earth-worms food for Buzzard, 57

Eclipse dress, 18, 52

Ectopistes migratorius (Passenger
Pigeon), 88, pl. 17, f. 3
Eggs, 26

GENERAL INDEX

Egret, Great White (Herodias alba),
46, pl. 4, f. 5

Egrets, 46, 47

Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnop-
terus), 60, pl. 9, f. 2

Eider-duck (Somateria mollissima), 50,
By pl. 5, ft. 1,a, b

Emberiza citrinella (Yellow-ammer),
maple 27, f. x

—— hortulana (Ortolan), 132, 123, pl.
dy es

— miliaria (Corn Bunting), 132, pl.
Dek. 2

— scheniclus (Reed Bunting), 133,
Dra 275 t-4

EMBERIZIDA, 132

Embryo, 5, 7, 8

Emeu, 28-31, 16

Emperor Penguin, 39

Erithacus rubecula (Robin Redbreast),
E2L Dl'2G; f= 9

Erne, or White-tailed Sea Eagle
(Haliaétus albicilla), 57, 58, pl. 8,
Wee!

Eudyptula minor (Little Penguin), 39,
Plz t. 0

EURYLAMYI, 111

Evolution of birds, 7

Eye, 4

Faleo candicans (Greenland Falcon),
5Q,00, pl: 8, f. 2

— tinnunculus (Kestrel), 59, pl. 7,
nw)

Falcon, Greeniand (Falco candicans),
RG. 00, pl. 6. f. 2

—— Labrador, 60

Falconry, 46, 56, 59

Falcons, 54, 55, 59, 60

Fantail Pigeon, 87

Feather-tracts, 10

Heathers,, 2,6, 7; 10, 12, 13 (f. 5), 14-
17, 20, 34

Feet, 19

Femur, 4, 5

Fibule, 5

I4I

Field-mice eaten by Buzzard, 57

Fighting Cocks, 54

Filo-plumes, 12, 15, 43

Finches, 126-32, 8, 11

Fingers, 7, 8, 22, 23

Fish as food for birds, 42, 44, 50, 58,
83, 84

Flamingo (Pheenicopterus roseus), 49,
plea; fo 2

Flamingoes, 41, 49

Flanks, 11

Flesher, or Butcher-bird, 114

Flies as food for birds, 75, 125

Flight, 20

—— feathers, 23

Fly-catcher, Spotted
grisola), 114, pl. 25, f. 9

Fly-catchers, 114, 16

Flying birds, 34

Foot, 4

—— bones, 4

—— of fowl, 3

Fore-arm, 23

Fore-limb, 7, 9

Fore-limbs, 21 .

Bowl, 3S; 114,125, 165,10; 25

—— Foot and ankle of, 3

—— Leg of, 4

Fowls, 64

Fratercula arctica (Puffin), 19, 38, pl.
20123

Fregata aquila (Frigate Bird), 44, pl.
3,8. 6

Fresh-water Divers, 36, 37

Ducks, 51

Frigate Bird (Fregata aquila), 44, pl.
3.8.6

Fringilla canaria (Canary), 128, pl. 28,
fet

— celebs (Chaffinch), 128, 129, 18,
ph 28) f..3

—— montifringilla (Brambling), 129,
plii28,f 10

FRINGILLIDA, 126, 130, 132

Frogs eaten by Buzzard, 57

Fulica atra (Coot), 70, 71, pl. 13, f. 7

(Muscicapa

142

Fuligula cristata (Tufted Duck), 51, pl.
5, 2-10
Furcula, 21, 34

GALLIFORMES, 63

Gallinago gallinula (Jack Snipe), 76,
Di r4, 1.9

—— major (Great or Solitary Snipe),
70, pl. 14, £..10

Gallinula chloropus (Water-hen), 70,
7 Git oe 9) res Yan Bae |

Gallus domesticus var. (Brown Leg-
horn Fowl), 64, pl. 10, f. 4, a, b

Game Birds, 63, 67, 16, 18, 26

—— Cock, 20

— Fowl, 64

Ganga Cockatoo (@allocephalon gale-
atum), 91, pl. 18, f. 6

Gannet or Solan Goose (Su/a bassana),
43, 45, pl. 3, f. 3

Gannets, 41, 43-5

Garrulus glandarius (Jay), 134, pl. 30,
33

Gecinus canus (Grey-headed Green
Woodpecker), 107, pl. 23, f. x

—— viridis (Green Woodpecker), 107,
Dis 23.. 4.12

Geese, 49, 50, 52, 53

Gelinotte or Hazel-hen (Jetrastes
bonasia), 68, pl. 12, f. 2

Genneeus nycthemerus (Silver Phea-
sant), 65, pl. 11, f. 4

Giant Petrel, 39

Gizzard, 26

Glareola pratincola (Pratincole), 73,
pli, £.:6

Glossy Ibis, 48

Gnats eaten by Stilt, 75

Goat-sucker or Nightjar (Caprimulgus
europceus), 97, 98, pl. 21, f. 6

Golden-crested Wren (Regulus cris-
tatus), 123, pl. 24, f..7

Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetus), 57,
56,19, pl. 6; f.-3

—— Eye (Clangula glaucion), 51, pl.
5, 4.8

GENERAL INDEX

Golden Oriole (Oriolus galbula), 118,
pl 250k

—— Pheasant (Chrysolophus pictus),
05, pl. 11,.f..2, a,b

—— Plover (Charadrius pluuvialis), 74,
Ply tA ear

Goldfinch (@arduelis elegans), 127, pl.
28,4

Goosander (Mergus merganser), 50, pl.
eka

Goose, Brent (Bernicla branta), 53, pl.
Ota

Grey-lag (Anser cinerea), 53, pl.

Ofer

Snow (Chen hyperboreus), 53, pl. 6,
f3

—— Solan or Gannet (Su/a bassana),
43, 45, Pl, 3, f. 3

Gos-hawk (Astur palumbarius), 56, 19,
pl. 7, f. 4

Goura coronata (Crowned Pigeon), 88,
PLGE7 5115.0

Grass Parakeet or Budgerigar (Melop-
sittacus undulatus), 91, pl. 18, f. 7

Grasshoppers as food for birds, 57, 63

Great Black-backed Gull, 82, 83

Black Woodpecker (Picus mar-
tius), 108, pl. 23, f. &

— Bustard (Otis tarda), 71, pl. 13,
f£. 8

—— Crested Grebe (Podicipes cris-
tatus), (37, pl-.2.%.2

—— Grey Shrike (Lanius excubitor),
TIA, pl, 255 1-12

—— Lammergeier(Gypaetusbarbatus),
61, pl. o, f. 4

— Northern Diver (Colymbus gla-
cialis), 36, pl. 2, f. x

— Petrel, 39

— Skua, 85

or Solitary Snipe
major), 76, pl. 14, f. 10

—— Spotted Woodpecker, 107

—— Tit (Parus major), 115, pl. 26, f. 10

—— White Egret (Herodias alba), 46,
pl. 4, f. 5

(Gallinago

GENERAL INDEX

Grebe, Great Crested (Podiceps cris-
LACUS); 375, Pls 2; 24 2

Grebes, 36, 37

Green Woodpecker (Gecinus viridis),
TOP pls 23550, 2

—— Grey-headed (Gecinus canus),
107, pl. 23, f. x

Greenfinch (Coccothraustes chloris),
ha ep. 27, it. 6

Greenland Falcon (Falco candicans),
59, 60, pl. 8, f. 2

Greenshank (Jotanus canescens), 77,
ple is, 1. 5

Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus), 90,
pla 1s, f. 2

Grey Wagtail (Motacilla melanope),
meg pl. 25, f.. 7

Grey-headed Green Woodpecker
(Gecinus canus), 107, pl. 23, f. 1

Grey-lag Goose (Anser cinerea), 53,
pl. 6, f. 1

“ Greypate’’ Goldfinches, 127

Griffon Vulture (Vu/tur fulvus), 61, pl.
9, f. 3

Grosbeak, Pine (Pyrrhula enucleator),
130, pl:.27; 1. 7

Ground Hornbill, 16

Grouse, 18-20, 57, 67, 103

—— Black (Jetrao tetrix), 67, pl. 12,
Voge

GRUIFORMES, 69

Grus communis (Crane), 69, 15, pl. 13,
fay

Guans, 63

Guillemot (Uria troile), 26, 85, pl. 2, f. 5

Guinea-fowl (Numida meleagris), 64,
pla 1o0y.f. 2

—— Vulturine, 64

Guira Cuckoo, g1

Gull, Black-headed (Larus ridibundus),
83, pl. 16, f. 4

— Common (Larus canus), 82, pl. 16,
P12

— Great Black-backed, 82, 83

—— Herring (Larus argentatus), 82,
Sa..pl. 16; f.:1

143

Gullet, 25

Gull-teaser or Common Tern (Sterna
fluviatilis), 83, 84, pl. 16, f. 8

Gulls, 8, 26, 73, 82-4, 87

Gypaetus barbatus (Great Lammer-
geier), 61, pl. 9, f..4

Gypagus papa (King Vulture), 61, 62,
pl.g, f. 5

Haliaétus albicilla (White-tailed Sea.
Eagle), 57, 58, pl. 8, f. 4

Hamburg Fowls, 64

Hamuli, 14

Hand, 20, 23

Hapaloderma narina (Narina Trogon},
105, pl. 19, f. 5

Harelda glacialis (Long-tailed Duck),
51, pl. 5, f. 3

Hares as food for birds, 56-8

Harriers, 55

Harris’s Cormorant, 42

Hawfinch (Coccothraustes vulgaris),
E27, pl. 20,52 4

Hawks, 7, 8, 12, 16, 25, 35, 54, 560, 58-
60, 89, 102

Hazel-hen. or Gelinotte (Tetrastes
bonasia), 68, pl. 12, f. 2

Heart, 9

Hedge-sparrow (Accentor modularis),
E24; pl. 20; f..5

Hedge-sparrows, 92

Heliactinus cornutus (Sun-gem Hum-
ming-bird), gg, pl. 22, f. x

Helmet Hornbill (Rhinoplax vigil), 96

Hen, 112

— Harrier (Circus cyaneus), 55, pl.
7, £5

Herodias alba (Great White Egret),
46, pl. 4, f.5

Heron, Common (Ardea cinerea), 45,
103, pl. 4, f. 4

Herons, 12, 17, 20, 24, 41, 45-7, 50

Herring Gull (Larus argentatus), 82,
83; pl. 10, 775)5

Himantopus candidus (Black-winged
Stilt): 75, pla 14; 1.5

144

Hind Limbs, g

Toe, 4

Hip-girdle, 3, 9, 22

HIRUNDINIDZEA, 113

Hirundo rustica (Swallow), 113, 114,
73, 126;) pl. 21, 5.94

Hoatzin, 16

Hobby, 59

Homing Pigeon, 87

Homrai Hornbill (Buceros bicornis),
96, pl 10, f°

Hooklets, 14, 16

Hoopoe, Common (Upupa epops), 95;
Pler225/ 0.75

Hoopoes, 93, 95

Hornbill, Helmet (Rhinoplax vigil), 96

Homrai (Buceros bicornis), 96,
pl. 19, f. 1

Hornbills, 93, 95, 96, 106

Horned Larks, 126

Horse, Cannon-bone of, 4

Horseshoe or Common Partridge
(Perdix cinerea), 66, 18, 77, pl. 12,
f.

House-martin (Chelidon urbica), 113,
25, °pl..25,4.°3

House-sparrow (Passer domesticus),
125, i 124 113i, pl.27.4. 20

Humerus, 22, 23

Humming-bird, Comet (Sparganura
sappho), 99. pl. 22, f. 3

—— Coquette (Lophornis ornata), 99,
Plee22 ite

—— King (Topaza pella), 100, pl. 22,
f. 4

—— Racket-tailed (Steganurus under-
woodii), 100, pl. 22, f. 5

— Sun-gem (Heliactinus cornutus),
gg, pl. 22, f.

Humming-birds, 99, 25, 97, 100

Hunger-marks, 18

Hypolais icterina (Icterine Warbler),
123; pl.24, 4. 8

Ibis, 81
Glossy, 48

GENERAL INDEX

Ibis, Sacred (/bis cethiopica), 48, pl. 4,
£. 8

— Scarlet, 48

/bis cethiopica (Sacred Ibis), 48, pl. 4,
foo

Ibises, 48

Icterine Warbler (Hypolais icterina),
223, pl. 24; £.'8

IMPENNES, 36

Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca), 57,
pls; t..5

Insects as food for birds, 69, 94, 95,
100, 106, 117-21, 124, 127, 130, 133

Interlocking of feathers, 14, 15

Interscapulars, 11

Intestine, 26

Ivory-billed Woodpecker (Cam-
pephilus principalis), 108, pl. 23, f. 3

Jabiru Stork, 48

Jacanas, 19, 20

Jack Snipe (Gallinago gallinula), 76,
pl. 14, f.9

Jackdaw (Corvus monedula), 134, 94;
pl. i390, 1.x

Java Sparrow (Munia oryzivora), 130,
131, pl. 28, 1.5

Javan Peacock, 66

Jaws, 6, 19, 24, 25

Jay (Garrulus glandarius), 134, pl. 30,
i-n3

Jenny Wren, 117

Joints, 3, 4

Jungle-fowl, 64, 18

Jynx torquilla (Wryneck), 108, 109, pl.
23. 4.°0

Keel, 33, 34

Keel-breasted birds, 33

Kentish Plover(Agialitisalexandrina),
74, pl. 14, £.5

Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus), 59, pl. 7;
f. 92

King Humming-bird (Topaza pella),
TOO; pl.i22; f..4

GENERAL INDEX

King Penguin (Aptenodytes pata-
gonica), 39, pl. 2, f. 8

—— Vulture (Gypagus papa), 61, 62,
pl. 9, f. 5

Kingfisher (A/cedo ispida), 94, pl. 19,f.2

Kingfishers, 93, 94, 24

Kite (Milvus ictinus), 55, pl. 7, f. 6

Kites, 54, 55

Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla), 82, 83, pl.
16,1. 3

Kiwi or Apteryx (Apteryx mantelli),
3132, pl. x, f. 4

Knee-cap, 5

Knee-joint, 4

Knot (7ringa canutus), 79, pl. 15, f. 8

Labrador Falcon, 60

Lagopus mutus (Ptarmigan), 67, 60,
pli 12, f..6

Lambs attacked by Eagles, 58

Lammergeier, Great (Gypaetus bar-
batus), 61, pl. 9, f. 4

Landrail or Corncrake (Crex pra-
tensis), 70, 109, pl. 13, f. 9

LANIIDA, 114

Lanius collurio (Red-backed Shrike),
ELA,O2> pl. 25, f. 1

—excubitor (Great Grey Shrike),
EEA) pli25, 5. 2

Lapland Bunting (Calcarius lap-
ponicus), 133, pl. 26, f. 11

Lapwing or Peewit (Vanellus vul-
garis), 74, pl. 14, f. 2

Lark, Crested (A/auda cristata), 126,
pl26, £3

— Sky (Alauda arvensis), 126, 132,
D)..26, f.. i

—— Wood (A/auda arborea), 126, pl.
26,\f..2

Larks, 92, 125, 126

Larus argentatus (Herring Gull), 82,
83, pl. 16, f. 1

— canus (Common Gull), 82, pl. 16,
par

—— ridibundus (Black-headed Gull),
83, pl. 16, f. 4

145

Laughing Jackass, 94, 112

Leach’s Fork-tailed Petrel (Oceano-
droma leucorhoa), 38, pl. 3, f. 2

Least Sandpiper, 78

Lecophoyx candidissima (American
Egret), 46

Leg-bones, 4

Leghorn Fowl, Brown (Gallus domes-
ticus var.), 64, pl. 10, f. 4, a, b

Legs, 35

Lemmings eaten by Falcon, 60

Leptoptilus ecrumenifer (African Ad-
jutant Stork), 48, pl. 4, f. 7

Lesser Spotted Woodpecker (Den-
drocopus minor), 107, pl. 23, f. 7

Linnet (Linota ecannabina), 129, 18, pl.
281..0

Linota cannabina (Linnet), 129, 18, pl.
28. f. 6

Little Auk (Mergulus alle), 85, pl. 2, f. 4

—— Blue Heron, 46

—— Bustard (Otis tetrax), 71, pl. 13,
2

—— Crake (Porzana parva), 69, 70,
pl. 13, f. 5

—— Grebe or Dab-chick (Tachybaptes
fluviatilis), 37, pl. 2, f. 7

—— Owl (Athene noctua),
20 ted

— Penguin (Fudyptula minor), 39,
ply 2, £0

—— Stint (Jringa minuta), 78, pl. 15,
f3

—— Tern (Sterna minuta), 84, pl. 16,
f. 6

Lizards as food for birds, 57, 61

Long-eared Owl (Asio otus), 103, pl.
207:1..3

Long-legged Waders, 35

Long-spur Bunting (Calcarius lap-
ponicus), 133, pl. 26, f. 11

Long-tailed Duck (Harelda glacialis),
5I, pl. 5» f. 3

—— Skua, 85

—— Tit (Acredula caudata), 115, pl.
26, f. 6

103, pl.

19

146

Loons, 36

Lophornis ornata (Coquette Humming-
bird),'99, pl.'22, f. 2

Loxia curvirostra (Crossbill), 130, pl.
26, f. 5

Lungs, 26

Lyre-bird (Menura superba), 112, pl.
24, f.5

Macaw, Blue and Yellow (Ara ara-
rauna), 90, pl. 18, f. 3

— Red and Blue (Ara macao), 90,
pli 18, f..4

Macaws, 90

Machetes pugnax (Ruff), 80, pl. 15, f. 2

Magpie (Pica caudata), 134, 59, 103,
piso, 1.2

Major coverts, II

Mallard (Anas boschas), 52, pl. 6, f. 6

Mammals, 3, 5, 8, 9, 20, 26

— as food for birds, 57, 60, 609,
106

Man-of-war Bird or Frigate Bird
(Fregata aquila), 44, pl. 3, f. 6

Mantell’s Apteryx (Apteryx mantelli),
Siok tet

Manx Shearwater (Puffinus anglorum),
BSH Seo pl.ig; te it

Marabou plumes, 48

Mareca penelope (Wigeon), 52, pl. 6,
77,

Marsh Warbler (Acrocephalus palus-
tris), 123, 124, pl. 24, f. 1

Martin, House (Chelidon urbica), 113,
126.) pl. 27, 0.93

— Sand (@otile riparia), 114, pl. 21,
ft:

Meco ws Pipit, 125;:92

Mechanism of flight, 20

Median coverts, II

MEGAPODES, 63

Melanerpes _erythrocephalus’ (Red-
head Woodpecker), 108, pl. 23,
oe

Meleagris gallopavo (Mexican Turkey),
64, pl./r0;.f. s

GENERAL INDEX

Melopsittaeus undulatus (Budgerigar
or Grass Parakeet), g1, pl. 18, f. 7
Menura superba (Lyre-bird), 112, pl.
2A. f.5

Mergansers, 25

Mergulus alle (Little Auk), 85, pl. 2, f. 4

Mergus albellus (Smew), 50, pl. 5, f. 5

—— merganser (Goosander), 50, pl. 5,
i712

Merops apiaster (Common Bee-eater),
94, 93, pl. 19, f. 4

Merry-thought, 21, 22, 26, 33, 34

Metacarpal bones, 20

Mexican Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo),
64, pl.10, f 3

Mice as food for birds, 55, 57, 69,
102, I14

Milvus ictinus (Kite), 55, pl. 7, f. 6

Minor coverts, Ir

Mistle-thrush or Storm-cock (Turdus
viscivorus) 119, pl. 29, f. 2

Moas, 7

Mocking-bird, 111

Molluscs as food for birds, 69

Monticola saxatilis (Rock-thrush), 120,
pl. 29, f. 4

Motacilla alba (White Wagtail), 124,
125, pl. 25;5..8

—melanope (Grey Wagtail), 124,
plies, tf. 7

MOTACILLID/&, 124

Motmots, 93

Moulting, 17, 18

Mound-birds, 63

Mountain Finch or Brambling (Frin-
gilla montifringilla), 129, pl. 28, f. 10

Mouse-birds, 11

Mouth, 25

Munia oryzivora (Java Sparrow), 130,
Tol Apl.26,00-15

Muscicapa grisola (Spotted Fly-
catcher), 114, pl. 25, f. 9

MUSCICAPIDE, 114

Muscles, 22

Mute Swan (Cygnus olor), 53, pl. 6,

f.4

GENERAL INDEX

Naked-throated Bell-bird (Chasmo-
rhynchus nudicollis), 111, pl. 25, f. 3
Nandu or Rhea (Rhea americana), 29,
Dla YT, t..2

Nape, I1

Narina Trogon (Hapaloderma narina),
105, pl. 19, f. 5

Neck,::3, 11

Neophron perenopterus (Egyptian Vul-
ture), 60, pl. 9, f. 2

Nestling, 16

Nestling-down, 16, 104

Nettion crecca (Common Teal), 52, pl.
6, f. 5

Night Herons, 46

Night-hawk (Chordeiles virginianus),
98

Nightingale (Daulias /uscinia),
PAGeuEL. 142, pl. 25, f:6

Nightjar, Common, or Goat-sucker
(Caprimulgus europceus), 97, 98, pl.
20.6

Nightjars, 97, 98, 16, 20, 25, 54, 102,
108

Nitzsch on feather-tracts, Io

Nocturnal birds of prey, 54

Nucifraga caryocatactes (Nutcracker),
34, pl. 30, f. 6

Numerius arquatus (Curlew), 79, 81,
ple tAs {27

Numida meleagris (Guinea-fowl), 64,
Dra tO, f..2

Nutcracker (Nucifraga caryocatactes),
1345, pl. 30;.f. 6

Nuthatch (Sitta cesia),
£9

Nyctea nivalis (Snowy Owl), 102, 103,
ipl. 20, f..5

I22,

PIG? plz. 22;

Oceanodroma leucorhoa (Leach’s Fork-
faned Petrel), 38, pl.3, f.,2

Edemia fusca (Velvet Scoter), 50, pl.
5, £.7

CEsophagus, 25

Old Squaw Duck or Long-tailed
Duck (Harelda g/acialis), 51, pl. 5, f. 3

147

Operculum in Owls, 103 7

Oriole, Golden (Oriolus qulbulay 118,
ple 25 f46

Orioles, 118

ORIOLIDZ, 118

Oriolus galbula (Golden Oriole), 118,
polle eis oe (5

Ornithology, 1

Ortolan (Emberiza hortulana), 132, 123,
pleat

OSCINES, 111, 113

Oscinine Passeres, I12

Osprey (Pandion haliaetus), 58, 59, pl.
pos ap

Ossifrage or Lammergeier (Gypaétus
barbatus), 61, pl. 9, f. 4

Ostrich, African (Struthio camelus),
30,.7,, 11; 15, 16,28, 3%, 33-5, Dp). 0. tot

Otis tarda (Great Bustard), 71, pl. 13,
f. 8

— tetrax (Little Bustard), 71, pl. 13,
se:

Ousel, Ring (Jurdus torquatus), 120,
pl:.29; 1.3

Oven Birds, 111

Owl, Barn (Strix flammea), 104, 20,
103, pl. 20, f. 6

— Eagle (Bubo ignavus), 102, 103, pl.
20 ho E

—— Little (Athene noctua), 103, pl. 20,
{4

—— Long-eared (Asio otus),
20, 1.3

—— Pigeon, 87

—— Snowy (MWyctea nivalis), 102, 103,
pl-20; f.5

—— Tawny (Syrnium aluco), 103, 104,
pls 20; 'f. 2

Owls, 19, 54, 55, 58, 89, 102-4

103, pl.

PALAMEDEA, 20

Palm of hand, 20, 23

Pandion haliaétus (Osprey), 58, 59, pl.
a a

Paradise Tanager (Calliste tatao), 132,
pl. 2%, 12.7

148

Paradise Wydah-bird (Vidua para-
disea), 130, pl. 28, f. x

Parakeet, Grass, or Budgerigar (Mel-
opsittacus undulatus), 91, pl. 18, f. 7

PARID&, 115

Parrot, Amazon (Chrysotis estiva), 91,
Piecns. fi55

—— Grey (Psittacus erithacus), 90, pl.
18; f,..2

Parrots, 89-91, 12, 19, 21, 24, 105

Partridge, Bearded, 66

—— Common or Horseshoe (Perdix
cinerea), 66, 18, 77, pl. 12, f. 5

— Rock Red-legged (Caccabis
saxatilis), 66, pl. 12, f. 7

Partridges, 66, 56, 63, 67

Parus ater (Coal-tit), 115, pl. 26, f. 7

=—— ceruleus (Blue Tit), 115; pl. 26,
f. 9

—— cristatus (Crested Tit), 115, pl.
20088

—— major (Great Tit), 115, pl. 26, f. 10

Passenger Pigeon (Fctopistes migra-
torius), 88, pl. 17, f. 3

Passer domesticus (House-sparrow),
£26, 160, 124, 131, ‘pl. 27, f. 10

——montanus (Tree-sparrow), 128,
131, pl. 27, £.'9

PASSERES, 112, 126

PASSERIFORMES, 110

Passerine Birds, I10, 113, 134

Patella, 5

Pavo cristatus (Common Peacock and
Peahen); 65, 60, pl. 113't. 2, a; ‘b

Peacock, Common (Pavo cristatus),
65; 60; pl. x1,'f.'2; a

—— Javan, 66

—— Pheasant, 20

Peahen, Common (Pavo cristatus), 65,
66;pl. 115 f.2;b

Peewit or Lapwing (Vanellus vulgaris),
TAs Ns LAs te

Pelecanus onocrotalus (White Pelican),
44, pl. 3, f. 7

Pelican, White (Pelecanus onocra-
talus), 44, pl. 3, f. 7

GENERAL INDEX

Pelicans, 44, 19

Pelidna alpina (Dunlin), 78, pl. 15,
£07,

Pellets, 26

Penguin, King (Aptenodytes pata-
gonica), 39, pl. 2, f. 8

—— Little (Eudyptula minor), 39, pl. 2,
£16

Penguins, 39, I1, 36, 40, 43

Penne, 16

Perching Birds, 110, 8, 21

Perdix cinerea (Common or Horseshoe
Partridge), 66, 18, 77, pl. 12, £. 5

Petrel, Leach’s Fork-tailed (Oceano-
droma leucorhoa), 38, pl. 3, f. 2

Petrels, 37, 19, 25, 36, 38, 82

Phaéthon cethereus (Tropic Bird), 45,
pl. 3, f. 5

Phalacrocorax carbo (Cormorant), 42,
43, pl. 3, f. 4

PHALAROPES, 73

Phasianus colehicus (Common Phea-
sant), 64, 65, pl. 11, f. 34

Pheasant, Argus (Argusianus argus),
65, pl. 10, f.1,,a; Db

—— Common (Phasianus colchicus),
64, 65, p. 11, f. 34

—— Golden (Chrysolophus pictus), 65,
ples irae

— Peacock, 20

—— Silver (Genneeus nycthemerus), 65,
ple ir f. 4

Pheasants, 63-6, 112

PHCENICOPTERI, q1

Pheenicopterus roseus (Flamingo), 49,
Dias eed

Phylloscopus sibilatrix (Wood-wren),
126. pli 24, 1.4

Pica caudata (Magpie), 134, 59, 103,
plo 30;h 2

PICI, 105

Pieus martius (Great Black Wood-
pecker), 108, pl. 23) 1.8

Pied Wagtail, 125

Pigeon, II, 16,

Crop of, 86

GENERAL INDEX

Pigeon, Crowned (Goura coronata), 88,
plier7, tS

— Passenger (Fctopistes
torius), 88, pl. 17, f. 3

—— Pouter (Columba livia var.), 87,
pls17. 1. 6

— Wood (Columba palumbus), 86, 59,
FOS, pl: 17, f. 4

Pigeon’s milk, 86

Pigeons, 86-8, 19, 25, 26

Pigmy Curlew, 79

Pine Grosbeak (Pyrrhula enucleator),
130; pl. 27, f. 7

Pintail (Dafila acuta), 52, pl. 6, f. 8

Pipit, Tree (Anthus trivialis), 125, pl.
25,4

Pipits, 124, 125

Platalea leucorodia (Spoonbill), 48, pl.
4, f. 3

Plectrophanes nivalis (Snow Bunting),
133, pl. 27, f. 5

PLOCEID&:,, 130

Plotus anhinga (Darter or Snake-bird),
42, 43, pl. 3, f. 9

Plover, Golden (Charadrius pluvialis),
TA pls EA, f. I

—— Kentish (Agialitis alexandrina),
74, pl. 14, f. 5

—— Ringed (Agjialitis hiaticula), 74,
pl. 14, f. 4

Plovers, 73, 15, 19, 26, 71, 74, 75, 79-
82, 86

Podicipes cristatus (Great Crested
Grebe), 37, pl: 2, f. 2

-Polish Fowls, 64

Porzana maruetta (Spotted Crake),
69g, 70, pl. 13, f. 6

—— parva (Little Crake), 69, 70, pl.
T3,f..5

Pouter Pigeon (Columba livia var.),
S7apie L751. 0

Powder-down, 12, 48, go

Pratineola rubetra (Whinchat), 120, pl.
29, f. 8

Pratincole (G/areo/a pratincola), 73, pl.
TA ty. 6

migra-

149

Pre-pennez, 16

Pre-plumule, 16

Primaries, II, 23, 124

Proventriculus, 25

Proximal radii, 14 (f. 5, a), 15

PSITTACI, 89

Psittacus erithacus (Grey Parrot), go,
joleter 3%:

Ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus), 67, 60,
plsk2,f76

Pterylosis, I1

Puffin (Fratercula arctica), 85, 19, 38,
ple23ts3

Puffinus anglorum (Manx Shearwater),
35,05, plas tak

PYGOPODES, 36, 85

Pyrrhula enucleator (Pine Grosbeak),
$30; \pli275)f.07

—— pyrrhula (Bullfinch), 129, pl. 27,
f. 8

Quail, Common (Coturnix communis),
66;.plit12,f24

Quails, 66, 67, 56

Quaker Parrot, go

Quetzal, 105

Quills and quill-feathers, 8, 10, 12,

13, 17-19, 23, 24

Rabbit-burrows, Stock-dove nesting
in, 87

Rabbits as food for birds, 56, 58

Racket-tailed Humming-bird (Staga-
nurus underwoodii), 100, pl. 22, f. 5

Radii, 13-15

Rail, Water (Ra//us aquaticus), 70, pl.
Ignis

Rails, 69

Rallus aquaticus (Water-rail), 70, pl.
3, h3

Ramus, 14

Rats eaten by Owls, 102

Raven (Corvus corax), 134, pl. 30, f. 5

Ray, 2

Razor-bill (A/ca torda), 85, pl. 2, f. 9

150

Recurvirostra avocetta (Avocet), 75,
25, pl. its; f. 4

Red and Blue Macaw (Ara macao),
90, pl. 18, f. 4

Red Grouse, 67, 68

Jungle-fowl, 64

Red-backed Shrike (Lanius collurio),
Li O25) Dl.2c,(f. :r

Redbreast or Robin (Frithacus rube-
cula), 121, 92, pl. 29, f. 9

Red-headed Woodpecker (Melanerpes
erythrocephalus), 108, pl. 23, f. 5

Red-legged Partridge, Common, 66

— — Rock (Caccabis saxatilis), 66,
Dl ce. ta7

Redshank (Jotanus calidris), 81, pl.
15, f. 5

Redstart, Black (Ruticilla titys), 121,
ple2a, £2

— Common (futicilla phoenicurus),
120,'pl. 24, 1,3

Red-throated Diver, 36

Reed-bunting (Emberiza scheeniclus),
133, pl. 27, f. 4

Reed-warbler, 123

Reeve, 80

Regulus _cristatus (Golden-crested
Wren), 123, pl. 24) f..7

Reptiles, 3-10, 19, 21, 26

—— as food for birds, 55, 57, 69, 94

Rhachis, 12, 13

Rhamphastus toco (Toco Toucan), 106,
Pl. 195 4..3

Rhea americana (Rhea or Nandu), 29,
B00 pink, t..2

Rhea or Nandu (Rhea americana), 29,
30. pli. f2

— Darwin’s, 30

Rhinoplax vigil (Helmet Hornbill), 96

Ring-dove or Wood-pigeon (Columba
palumbus), 86, 59, 103, pl. 17, f. 4

Ring-ousel (7Turdus torquatus), 120,
jelly wie ey)

Ring-tail (Hen Harrier, female), 55

Ringed Plover (A£gialitis hiaticula), 74,
pl. 14, f. 4

GENERAL INDEX

Rissa tridactyla (Kittiwake), 82, 83, pl.
16, f. 3

Road-runner, g1

Robin Redbreast (Frithacus rubecula),
{21,'92, pl. 29, 1.9

Rock-dove (Co/umba livia), 87, pl. 17,
f. 5

Rock Red-legged Partridge (Caccabis
saxatilis), 66, pl. 12, f. 7

—— Thrush (Monticola saxatilis), 120,
pl.i20, f. 7A

Roller, Common (C@oracias garrula),
93, pl. 19, f. 6

Rollers, 93

Rook (Corvus frugilegus), 134, pl. 30,
Bu]

Roseate Spoonbill, 48

Rough-billed Pelican, 44

Ruff (Machetes pugnax), 80, pl. 15, f. 2

Rupicola crocea (Cock of the Rock),
TTI ply an, L6G

Ruticilla phoenicurus (Common Red-
Start); 120, pli24; f.3

—— titys (Black Redstart), 121, pl.
DAW. 2

Ryper or Red Grouse, 68

Sacred Ibis (/bis cthiopica), 48, pl. 4,
f. 8

Sand-grouse, I9

Sand-martin (@oti/e riparia), 114, pl.
29 Gh is

Sanderling (C@alidris arenaria), 79, pl.
15, 1.9

Sandpiper, Curlew (Jringa_ subar-
quata), 78, 79, pl. 15, f. 6

Sandwich Tern (Sterna ecantiaca), 84,
pl 16, 2.97

Sareorhamphus gryphus (Condor), 61,
G2, Dig, ie

Saw-billed Ducks, 50

—— Pelican, 41

Saxicola cenanthe (Wheatear), 120, pl.
29, f. 7

Scapula, 21

Scapulars, I1

GENERAL INDEX

Scarlet Ibis, 48

Scolopax rusticola (Woodcock), 75-8,
25, pls t4, f. 8

Scoter, Velvet (Edemia fusca), 50, pl.
51.7

Screamers, 20

Screech Owl or Barn Owl (Strix
wlanmimed), 1oq, (20, 103, pl: 20,
£6

Sea Divers, 36, 37

Eagle, White-tailed (Haliaétus
albicilla), 57, 58, pl. 8, f. 4

Sea-swallows (Terns), 84

Seagulls, 39

Seals, under-fur of, 12

Secondaries, II, 23, 124

Secretary-bird (Serpentarius secre-
tarius), 55, pl. 7, f. 3

Sedge-warbler, 123

Selection of characters, 34

Semi-plumous feathers, 15

Serin (Serinus hortulanus), 128, pl. 28,
f. 9

Serinus hortulanus (Serin), 128, pl. 28,
f.9

Serpentarius secretarius (Secretary-
Drea )55, pl. 7, £3

Shaft of feather, 12, 13, 16, 17

Shank of leg, 3-5, 19

Sharp-shinned Sparrow-hawk, 56

Shearwater, Manx (Puffinus anglorum),
as, 55. pl. 3, f. 1

Sheldrake (Tadorna cornuta), 52

Sheld-duck (Tadorna cornuta), 52, pl.
5, f. 4

Short-eared Owls, 113

Shoulder, 22

—— blade, 21, 33

girdle, 21, 33

Shrike, Great Grey (Lanius excubitor),
UA Plc 25 i h.. 2

—— Red-backed (Lanius collurio), 114,
g25 pl. 25, f. x

Shrikes, 114, 115, 57

Silver Pheasant (Gennceus nycthe-

* merus), 65, pl. 11, f. 4

151

Siskin (Carduelis spinus), 127, pl. 28,
fac

Sitta cceesia (Nuthatch), 116, pl. 22, f.9

SITTIDAS, 116

Skeleton, 2, 8, 21

Skua, Buffon’s, or Long-tailed (Ster-
corarius parasiticus), 85, pl. 16, f. 5

Skuas, 84, 85

Skull, 3, 33

Skylark (A/auda arvensis), 126, 132, pl.
26. f.-1

Slugs as food for birds, 69

Smell, 4

Smew (Mergus albellus), 50, pl. 5, f. 5

Snails as food for birds, 69, 75

Snake-bird or Darter (Plotus anhinga),
42. 10g, pl. 3,:1..9

Snakes as food for birds, 55, 61

Snipe, Great or Solitary (Gallinago
major), 76, pl. 14, f. 10

—— Jack (Gallinago gallinula), 76,
plo 314; f.29

Snipes, 75-8, 25, 81

Snow Bunting (Plectrophanes nivalis),
133, Pl. 27, f. 5

— Goose (Chen hyperboreus), 53,
pl. 6;f4

—— Petrel, 38

Snowy Owl (Nyctea nivalis), 102, 103,
pl 2zo;ies

Soft-billed birds, 25

Solan Goose or Gannet (Sula bassana),
43, 45, pl. 3, f. 3

Solitaire, 86

Solitary or Great Snipe (Gallinago
major), 76, pl. 14, f. 10

Somateria mollissima (Eider-duck), 50,
Bly Oli c./f.,1, ay. D

Song-birds, 16

—— muscles, III

South Southerly or Long-tailed Duck
(Harelda glacialis), 51, pl. 5, f. 3

Sparganura sappho (Comet Humming-
bird), 99; pl. 22,f. 3

Sparrow, Hedge (Accentor modul/aris),
124,5pls 205) £515

£52

Sparrow, House (Passer domesticus),
728, 11, 124, 131, pl. 27, f. ro

—— Java (Munia oryzivora), 130, 131,
pl265 5.5

—— Tree (Passer montanus), 128, 131,
pl. 27, f. i9

Sparrow-hawk (Accipiter nisus), 56,
59, 92, pl. 7, f. 1

Sparrows, 128, 16, 94, 131

Spheniscus demersus (Cape Penguin),

39

Spoonbill (Platalea /leucorodia), 48, pl.
4, f.3

Spoonbills, 48

Sporceeginthus amandava (Avaduvat),
£30,231, pl. 28; £. 2

Spotted Crake (Porzana maruetta),
70, Dl. 13; ft. 6

—— Fly-catcher (Muscicapa grisola),
Lig. pl.25/f.9

Spur-winged Goose, 20

Spurs, 20

Squirrels and Owls, 103

Starling (Sturnus vulgaris), 118, 11, 18,
108, pl. 30, f. 4

STEGANOPODES, q1

Steganurus underwoodii (Racket-tailed
Humming-bird), roo, pl. 22, f. 5

Stem of feather, 12

Stercorarius parasiticus
Skua), 85, pl. 16, f. 5

Sterna cantiaca (Sandwich Tern), 84,
plix6, 1.7

—— fluviatilis (Common Tern or
Gull-teaser), 83, pl. 16, f. 8

—— minuta (Little Tern), 84, pl. 16, f.6

Sternum, 21, 22

Stilt, Black-winged
candidus), 75, pl. 14, f. 3

Stint, Little (7ringa minuta), 78, pl.
U5, hat

Stock-dove (Columba cenas), 87, pl.
7 hs 2

Stomach, 25, 26

Stork, African Adjutant (Leptoptilus
crumenifer), 48, pl. 4, f. 7

(Buffon’s

(Himantopus

GENERAL INDEX

Stork, White (Ciconia alba), 48, pl. 4,.
ie

Storks, 48-50, 41

Storm-cock or Mistle-thrush (Turdus
viscivorus), 19, pl. 29, f. 2

Storm-petrel, 38 |

STRIGES, 102

Strix flammea (Barn Owl or Screech
Owl), 104, 20, 103, pl. 20, f. 6

Struthio camelus (African Ostrich), 30,
7, 12, 15, £6, 28, 31, 33-5, pl Lt =

Study of birds, 1

STURNIDA, 118

Sturnus vulgaris (Starling),
£8, 108, pl. 30, f..4

Sula bassana (Gannet or Solan Goose),
43, 45, pl. 3, f. 3

Sun-gem Humming-bird (Heliactinus
cornutus), 99, pl. 22, f. 1

Superstitions relating to birds, 1

Surface Ducks, 51

Swallow (Hirundo rustica), 113, 114,
732,26. ple 21, 4.4

Swallows, 113, 11, 25, 84, 98

— Sea (Terns), 84

Swan, Mute (Cygnus olor), 53, pl. 6,
£4

Swans, 50, 53

Swift, Common (Cypselus apus), 98,
pl 21,)h92

Swifts, 97-9, 10, II, 25

Sylvia atricapilla (Blackcap), 122, pl.
24, f. Io

-— cinerea (White-throat), 122, pl.
24, f.9

Syrinx, or Voice Organ, IIo

Syrnium aluco): (Tawny Owl), 103,
LOA; ipi20, if. 12

TIS, Wi;

Tachybaptes fluviatilis (Dabchick), 37,
Plow eny,

Tadorna cornuta (Sheld-drake . and
Sheld-duck), 52, pl. 5, f. 4

Tails6; 11

—— bones, 6

—— coverts, II

GENERAL INDEX

Tail feathers, 6

Tanager, Paradise (Calliste tatao),
132, pl. 21, f..7

Tanagers, 131, 132

TANAGRIDA, 131, 132

Tarso-metatarsus, II

Tawny Owl (Syrnium aluco), 103,
Tose pls 20; f.. 2

Teal, American Green-winged, 52

— Common (Wettion crecca), 52, pl.
6, f. 5

Tectrices majores, 24

Teeth, 6, 19, 24

Tengmalm’s Owl, 103

Tern, Common, or Gull-teaser (Sterna
fluviatilis), 83, pl. 16, f. 8

—— Little (Sterna minuta), 84, pl. 16,
f. 6

— Sandwich (Sterna cantiaca), 84,
plet6;, {2.7

Terns, 83, 84, 44, 73

Tertials, 124

Tertiaries, 23, 24

Tetrao tetrix (Black Grouse), 67, pl.
r22f.-3

— urogallus (Capercailzie), 67, pl.
mowfs Ta, D

Tetrastes bonasia (Hazel-hen or Gelli-
notte), 68, pl. 12, f. 2

Thigh-bone, 4

Throat, I1

Thrush, Mistle, or Storm-cock (Turdus
viscivorus), 119, pl. 29, f. 2

—— Rock (Monticola saxatilis), 120,
plezg; £4

Thrushes, I1g, II, 92, III, 122-4

Thumb, 7, 8, 20, 22

Tibia, 3-5

Tibio-tarsus, 4

Tichodroma muraria (Wall-creeper),
EL7) pl. 22..f.'6

Tiger-finch or Avaduvat (Spore-
ginthus amandaua), 130, 131, pl. 28, f.2

Tinamous, 28

Tit, Blue (Parus ceruleus), 115, pl. 26,
f. 9

153

Tit, Coal (Parus ater), 115, pl. 26, f. 7

—— Crested (Parus cristatus), 115, pl.
26, f. 8

—— Great (Parus major), 115, pl. 26,
i/o

—— Long-tailed (Acredula caudata),
115, pl. 26, f. 6

Titlark or Meadow Pipit, 125

Titmice, 115, 116

Toco Toucan (Rhamphastus toco), 106,
pl. 1g;.f.. 3

Toes, 4, 19

Topaza pella (King Humming-bird),
TOO; pl. 22, f.4

Tortoise, 24

Totanus calidris (Redshank), 81, pl. 15,
i275

— canescens (Greenshank), 77, pl.
Toyo, &

Totipalmate birds, 41, 50

Toucan, Toco (Rhamphastus toco),
106, pl. 19, f. 3

Toucans, 105, 106

Train of Peacock, 65, 66

Tree-climbers, 35

Tree-creeper (Certhia familiaris), 116,
IT7, pl. 22, f.7

Tree Pipit (Anthus trivialis), 125, pl.
25, f. 4

—— Sparrow (Passer montanus), 128,
EST pl 275 15.9

Tringa canutus (Knot), 79, pl. 15, f. 8

—— minuta (Little Stint), 78, pl. 15,
f, 3

— subarquata (Curlew Sandpiper),
78, 79, pl. 15, f. 6

Troglodytes parvulus (Common Wren),
117, 119, pl. 24, f. 6

TROGLODYTIDA, 117

Trogon, Narina (Hapaloderma narina),
105, pl. 19, f. 5

TROGONES, 105

Trogons, 105

Tropic-bird (Phaéthon cethereus), 45,
pl. 3, f. 5

Trout-streams and Dipper, I19

20

154

Tube-nosed birds, 37

Tubinares, 36

Tufted Duck (Fuligula cristata), 51,
pls; f.0

Tumbler Pigeon, 87

TURDIDA, 119

Turdus merula (Blackbird), 119, 120,
plsi20./t.91

—— torquatus (Ring-ousel), 120, pl.
29, f. 3

—uiscivorus (Mistle-thrush or
Storm-cock), 119, pl. 29, f. 2

Turkey, Mexican (Meleagris gallo-
pavo), 64, pl. 10, f. 3

Turtle, 24

Dove (Turtur communis), 87, 88,
plia7. £7

Turtur communis (Turtle Dove), 87,
OSs l nh 7s 2.7

— risorius (Collared Dove), 88, pl.
vi fs es

Tyrant Birds, 111

Upper arm, 23

Upupa epops (Common Hoopoe), 95,
pl. 22, f. 38

Uria troile (Guillemot), 85, 26, pl. 2, f. 5

Vane of feathers, 12, 13, 17

Vanellus vulgaris (Lapwing or Peewit),
74, pl. 14, f. 2

Velvet Scoter (Oedemia fusca), 50, pl.
5, 1.7

Vermin, 59

Vertebrz, 7, 21

Vexillum, 12, 13

Victoria Crowned Pigeon, 88

Vidua paradisea (Paradise Wydah-
bird); 130, pl.'28, f. x

Virginian Nightingale (Cardinalis vir-
ginianus), 131, pl. 28, f. 7

Voice muscles, II?

—— organ, III

Voles as food for birds, 55, 114

Vultur fuluus (Griffon Vulture), 61, pl.
9, f. 3

GENERAL INDEX

Vulture, Bearded, or Great Lammer-
geier, OF, "pl: o,f. 4

— Egyptian (Neophron percnop-
terus), 60, pl. 9, f. 2

— Griffon (Vultur fulvus), 61, pl. 9,
f3

—— King (Gypagus papa), 61, 62, pl. 9,
f5

Vultures, 60-62, 54

Vulturine Guinea-fowl, 64

Waders, 35

Wagtail, Grey (Motacilla melanope),
£24) pl eo. ke 7,

—— White (Motacilla alba), 124, 125,
pl. 25; 1..6

—— Yellow, 125

Wagtails, 124, 125, 92

Wall-creeper (Jichodroma muraria),
T17 pls 22rite 10

Warbler, Icterine (Hypolais icterina),
123, pl. 24, f..8

— Marsh (Acrocephalus palustris),
123, pl. 2451.01

Warbiers, 123

Water-hen (Gallinula chloropus), 70,
71,6, ple land. A

Water-rail (Rallus aquaticus), 70, pl.
13, f. 3

Water-voles eaten by Hen Harrier,
55

Waxwing (Ampelis garrulus), 117, pl.
He Bast

Waxwings, II7

Weaver-birds, 130

Whales, 25

Wheatear (Saxicola cenanthe), 120, pl.
29, f. 7

Whimbrel, 81

Whinchat (Pratincola rubetra), 120, pl.
29, f. 8

Whip-poor-will, 98

Whiskers of Cat, 31

White Cockatoos, 91

—— Pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus),
44, pl. 3, f. 7

GENERAL INDEX

White Stork (Ciconia alba), 48, pl. 4, f. 2

—_— Wagtail (Motacilla alba), 124, 125,
pin25, 18

White-spotted Blue-throat (Cyane-
cula suecia), 121, pl. 29, f. 10

White-tailed Sea Eagle (Haliaétus
albicilla), 57, 58, pl. 8, f. 4

White-throat (Sy/uia cinerea), 122, pl.
24, f. 9

Wigeon (Mareca penelope), 52; pl. 6, f.7

Wild Duck, 18

Willow-grouse, 60, 68

Willughby, 2

Wing, 7-10, 21-3

=== coverts, 10, If

Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola), 75-8,
25, pl. 14, f. 8

Wood-hewers, III

Woodlark (Alauda arborea), 126, pl.
26.1.2

Woodpecker, Great Black (Picus
martius), 108, pl. 23, f. 8

—— Green (Gecinus viridis), 107, pl.
2a fh 2

—— Grey-headed Green
canus), 107, pl. 23, fiz

—— Ivory-billed (Campephilus princi-
palis), 108, pl. 23, f. 3

——Lesser Spotted
minor), 107, pl. 23, £7

__ Red-headed (Melanerpes erythro-
cephalus), 108, pl. 23, f.5

Woodpeckers, 105-9, 25, 116

(Gecinus

(Dendrocopus

155

Wood-pigeon or Ring-dove (Co/umba
palumbus), 86, 59, 103, pl. 17, f. 4
Wood-wren (Phyl/loscopus sibilatrix),
123, pl. 24, f. 4

Worms as food for birds, 57, 69, 77;
94, 95

Wren,Common(Trog/odytes parvulus),
T17, 110, pl. 24, 1.6

Golden-crested (Regulus
tatus), 123, pl. 24, f. 7

—— Wood (Phylloscopus _ sibilatrix),
£29, ple 24,1. 4

Wrens, I17, 123

Wrist, 7, 8

Wrist-bones, 8, 20

Writing-lark or Yellow Ammer
(Emberiza citrinella), 132, pl. 27; fey

Wryneck (Jynx torquilla), 108, 109, pl.
23,140

Wydah-bird, Paradise (Vidua para-
disea), 130, pl. 28, f. 1

cris-

Yaffle, or Green Woodpecker (Gecinus
viridis), 107, pl. 23, f. 2

Yellow Ammer (Emberiza citrinella),
E32 plsc27y fet

——. Bunting (Emberiza
132, 133, pl. 27; f.. 2

—— Wagtail, 125

Yoke-footed birds, 89, 91, 195

Young birds, 27

citrinella),

Zygodactyle birds, 89, 91, 108

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