THE BOOK OF WHEAT An Economic History and Practical Manual of the Wheat Industry ee By PETER TRACY DONDLINGER, Ph. D. Formerly Professor of Mathematics in Fairmount College ILLUSTRATED NEW YORK ORANGE JUDD COMPANY LONDON KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & Co., Limited 1908 LIBRARY of CONGRESS} Iwo Copies: Keceives AUG 13 4908 weeyrigne culby 4 / Ga 3 oasv¥4 —xXe, mu, SMUG) 1b GOPY B COPYRIGHT 1908, BY ORANGE JUDD COMPANY All Rights Reserved (ENTERED AT STATIONERS’ HALL, LONDON, ENGLAND] To WILLIAM GRAHAM SUMNER, LL.D. Pelatiah Perit Professor of Political and Social Science in Yale Universtty, THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED for his guiding instruction and the encouragement received from his friendship and sterling character link the volume with the hon- ored name of one of the greatest lights of our generation ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In addition to individual acknowledgments made throughout the volume, I wish to express my gratitude to those who have aided in the work by many kindnesses in the way of advice and suggestion, and by the furnishing of various data. My acknowl- edgments are due primarily and chiefly to Professor W. G. Sumner and Dr. J. Pease Norton—to the former for that general aid and counsel that ean be offered only after wide historical research, and for reading and criticising a large por- tion of the work; to the latter for his indefatigable kindness in giving continuous aid in obtaining material, and in giving help of a technical nature. Much assistance and encouragement was given by Mr. M. A. Carleton, Cerealist of the United States Department of Agriculture; by Mr. Wm. Saunders, Director of the Central Experimental Farm, Canada; and by Mr. W. M. Hays, Assistant Secretary of Agriculture of the United States. One of the most important of the several institutions which are now expending considerable financial resources in economic and industrial research is the Carnegie Institution of Wash- ington, from which financial aid has been received in some of the investigations necessitated by the preparation of this vol- ume. Through the kind offices of Mr. P. B. Smith, President of the Minneapolis Chamber of Commerce, material encouragement has also been received from the St. Anthony and Dakota Ele- vator Company and from the Washburn-Crosby Company. For carefully reading over the typewritten manuscript of the book and suggesting many improvements in diction and phrase- ology, I am indebted to my former pupil, Miss Elizabeth Hodg- son. She is not to be held responsible, however, for any im- perfections in language that may yet remain, inasmuch as I made all final corrections and changes.—[The Author. vi PREFACE The great industries which have been essential to the rise of state or nation have never received the attention which their importance should command, and the chronicling of their events greatly extends the meaning of economies and history proper. Industrial history has indeed received a certain amount of consideration, but in the main it has been somewhat desultory, and the field is so new that only a few of the great basic in- dustries, such as those of cotton, corn, alfalfa and coal, have even been attempted. It is my purpose in this book to add another volume to the industrial-economie literature which deals with industries in their entirety. While many important works are available that cover certain phases of the wheat in- dustry very adequately, and a few which cover a number of phases very admirably for the limited space that is devoted to them, there is, however, no general work treating the entire subject as completely and extensively as is merited by the in- dustry whieh furnishes the most staple food of the civilized world. Unquestionably the need of such a book on wheat is patent. A work of this nature is of direct or indirect interest to all consumers of bread. The historical or evolutionary aspect is of universal significance. Those directly interested in the wheat industry, whether as growers, dealers, or millers, not only should be familiar with the technicalities of the phase of the industry in which they are engaged, but they should have accessible a general knowledge of the whole industry. No ag- ricultural college or experiment station should be without a text-book on the subject. The agricultural or economie section of every library should certainly contain a general reference book on wheat. The method of treating the subject demanded by vii yiil THE BOOK OF WHEAT these needs was one that would appeal to the popular reader as well as to the student, instructor and experimenter. Treated from the American point of view, the subject demanded a less detailed consideration for foreign countries, The book is the result of fifteen years of personal experience in the wheat fields of our Northwest, and of a careful study of the works listed in the appended bibliography. Not a little additional information was obtained from several hundred let- ters written on phases of the subject with which I was not sufficiently familiar, and concerning which little material that was recent or reliable could be found in the literature. Space limited the references in footnotes to the most important ones. If more detailed information is desired on certain subjects than the limits of the book have permitted, references quite ample for all purposes will be found in the topical index of authors ineluded in the bibliography. Pato: New Haven, Conn., May 1, 1908. CHAPTER I. Wheat Grain and Plant . Il. Improvement Til. Natural Environment . IV. Cultivation VY. Harvesting —. 3 VI. Yield and Cost of Peedncuion : VII. Crop Rotation and Irrigation . VIII. Fertilizers IX. Diseases X. Insect Enemies XI. Transportation XII. Storage XII. Marketing XIV. -Prices XV. Milling XVI. Consumption ; XVII. Produetion and Meeaant : CONTENTS Classification of Wheat . Bibliography Index ILLUSTRATIONS The Bonanza Harvester . Development of Wheat Plant . Distribution of Wheat Varieties . Root System of Wheat Plant . Organs of Wheat Reproduction . Coats of a Wheat Kernel . Cross Section of Wheat Grain . A Stool of Wheat . : Opening of Wheat Flowers . Harvesting Minnesota Blue Stem aye : Crossing as a Cause of Variation . Diagram of Pedigree of Hybrid . Durum Wheat Districts . 2 Wheat Plants from Good and Poor Dae Combined Steam Plow, Harrow and Seeder Typical Farm Wheat Drill . A Modern Press and Dise Drill . Typical Force Feed Broadeast Seeder . Forms cf Early Sickles and Seythes . Early and Modern Cradles Gallie Header fee ee Wheat Header in Operation . An Early English Reaper . A Modern Self-Rake Reaper . A Modern Self-Binding Harvester . Section of a Modern Threshing Machine . Combined Harvester and Thresher . Typical Wheat Field Where Rotation is matinee. Furrow Method of Irrigation . Twenty Self-Binding Harvesters at Work z Combined Grain and Fertilizer Drill . Three Threshing Outfits at Work . x PAGE . Frontispiece ILLUSTRATIONS Sections of Smutted Wheat Straw . Stinking and Loose Smut . Aecidia on Barberry . : Two Forms of Rust Spores . Black and Red Rust . Hessian Fly Hessian Fly on “ent Chineh Bug Wheat Midge : Wheat Plant Louse . Rocky Mountain Grasshopper . Grain Aphis or Green Bug . Granary Weevil Grain Moth Flour Moth : Transportation of bee on Water . Typical Small Storage Elevators . Storage in Open on a Farm . Wheat Awaiting Shipment by River Storage at Primary Market . Mexican Hand Stone American Indian Foreign Mortar The Quern Mill Details of a Duteh Windmill - Seetion of Large Modern Flour Mill . New Buffalo Flour Mill Field of Durum Wheat . American Reaper in Russian Wheat xi PAGE 158 159 162 163 164 ~iUgAl 172 174 176 ACE 178 180 182 183 184 191 202 210 216 236 262 263 264 266 272 278 292 306 THE BOOK OF WHEAT CHAPTER I. WHEAT GRAIN AND PLANT ORIGIN. The Word Wheat can be traced back through the Middle English whete to Old English hwaete, which is allied to hwit, white. The German Weizen is related to weisz, which also means white. The French blé suggests blémir, to grow pale. Perhaps wheat was ealled white, to distinguish it from rye and other dark colored grains. Triticum, the botanical and classical name, doubtless comes from tritus, which is a participle from the Latin terere, to grind. The Italian frumento, and the similar French froment, are descended from the Latin word for corn or grain, frumentum, which originated in frux, fruit. The Spanish trigo has evolved through French and Latin from the Greek trigonon, which has for its roots tri, three, and gonia, a corner or angle. Thus the most widely used names of the wheat plant were determined by the characteristics of the seed, as color, shape, the property of having to be ground for food, and the natural relation of the seed to the plant. The Geographical Origin of wheat has never been certainly determined. Such evidence as exists seems to point to Mesopo- tamia, but this is largely a matter of opinion. While wheat has been found growing apparently wild, the doubt always seems to remain that it may have simply escaped from culti- vation. However, the belief that wheat once grew wild in the Euphrates and Tigris valleys, and spread from these to the rest of the world, has wider acceptance than any other. De Candolle’s conviction rests largely on the evidence of Berosus and Strabo, while Lippert, in addition to the former, also cites Olivier and Andre Michaux. Darwin appears to have favored the same theory. From this center wheat is sup- posed to have spread to Phenicia and Egypt. The Chinese considered it a gift from heaven. Homer and Diodorus Siculus say that it grew wild in Sicily. Humboldt denies 2 THE BOOK OF WHEAT. the claim of Hermandez that a wheat native to Chili was found. The Egyptian historian, Manetho, attributed its dis- covery to Isis. The Historical Origin of wheat is unknown. The most an- cient languages mention it, and under different names. Whether we assume that these names, with the languages in which they are found, became differentiated from a common parent, or whether we assume that wheat evolved and spread over the Old World so independently of man that its name did not accompany its progress, in either case a period of time long enough to antedate our oldest languages will be required. The fact that it has been found in the prehistoric habitations of man, notably in the earliest Swiss lake dwell- ings, is proof of its antiquity. The Swiss of the neolithic period cultivated four distinet species of wheat. Wheat seems to have been cultivated in China 3,000 years B. C., and was a chief crop in ancient Egypt and Palestine. The Bible first mentions wheat in Genesis, Chap. 30, v. 14. Biological Origin——The botanist calls wheat a grass. The evolutionist has ascended the biological stream one stage far- ther, and ealls it a degenerate and degraded lily, using these terms, of course, in an evolutionary sense. He assumes a great group of plants of a primitive type from which sprang first the brilliantly colored lilies, then the degraded rushes and sedges, and lastly the still more degenerate grasses. From these grasses man developed the cereals, and among them CLASSIFICATION OF THE GRASS FAMILY.’ : Andropogonez:: Sugar Cane-Sorghum Spikelets J Zoysieze One | Tristeginee | Maydee: Corn-Teosinte-Tribes Flowered | Panicee: Millet-Hungarian Grass Oryzeze: Indian Rice-Rice GRAMINEZ® { Phalardiee: Canary and Sweet Vernal Grass : | Agrostidee: Timothy-Red Top Spikelets | Avenee: Oats Many- Festucee: Blue Grass-Bromus-Orchard-Grass Fescues Flowered | Chloridee: Grama and Buffalo Grass Hordeew: Wheat-Barley-Rye-English R ye-Grass Bambusez: Bamboo 1 Minn. Bul. 62, p. 392. THE WHEAT GRAIN AND PLANT 3 wheat. This is the hypothesis that accounts for most of the facts involved. All of the grass family, Graminex, are easily distinguished by having only one seed leaf, and for this rea- son they are known as monocotyledons. The wild animal grasses, Aegilops, found in such abundance in southern Europe, and resembling true wheat in every point except in size of grain, are considered as the nearest kin to wheat. Efforts have been made to develop wheat from ovata, the most typical species. Fabre of Agde, France, claimed that in 1838 he began to improve this plant by selection, and that by 1846 he had obtained a very fair sample of wheat. His results have not been supported by other conclusive experi- ments, and scientists generally have not accepted them. There was doubtless cross-fertilization. The accompanying figure represents different stages in the evolution of wheat.’ DEVELOPMENT OF THE WHEAT PLANT The above sketch from a photograph shows: (1) 4#gilops ovata, a small dwarfed specimen, but one grain of wheat in each head, found in Southern Europe; (2) The same species better grown and developed; (3) Triticum spelta, the cultivated spelt of Europe; (4) Triticwm Polonicum, Polish wheat or giant rye; (5) Head of Nebraska wheat. While this is an instructive comparison, it is very questionable whether Io. 5 could be developed from No. 1in a rea- sonable number of years. 1 Minn. Bul. 62, p. 81. 4 THE BOOK OF WHEAT. The results of recent investigations have shown that improve- ment by selection is relatively a slow process DISTRIBUTION. Longitudinal.—The migration of wheat has necessarily been closely connected with the migration of peoples, and especially with those of Europe. Consequently its general direction of spreading has been westward, though it is claimed that it spread eastward to China at a very early date. In the United States, the meridian bisecting the wheat acre- age passed through eastern Ohio in 1850, and was about 81 degrees. In 1860 it was 85 degrees 24 minutes, in 1870 88 degrees, and in 1880 it had reached middle Illinois, 88 degrees 45 minutes. The center of wheat production at the time of the census in 1900 was near the east central border of Lowa, the meridian of 95 degrees. This shows that the westward march of wheat proceeded at a much more rapid pace from 1880 to 1900 than from 1860 to 1880. During the last half of the nineteenth century, the center of wheat production moved west about 680 miles and north about 99 miles. Latitudinal— As European peoples and their descendants are meeting the demands of increasing population by con- tinually subjecting to cultivation land of colder and of warmer latitudes, the domain of wheat is being extended on both sides of the temperate zones. In 1887 Sering published a map of North America in which he gave as the northern boundary of wheat growing territory a line beginning south of Lake Ontario running fully half way around it, a little north of the northern boundary of the other Great Lakes, through Lake of the Woods, through the southeast end of Winnipeg lake, northwest to the Athabasea river, following this to the Rockies, and beginning again in northeastern Washington. In 1894 the editor of the Social Economist denied that wheat could be raised in Canada or Siberia north of the 55th parallel. This widespread notion that wheat could not be raised in the far north was gradually dissipated as wheat crept closer and closer to the Arctic circle. Wheat has fre- quently been matured at Sitka, Alaska, 56 degrees north lati- tude. At the Sitka station, winter rye, spring wheat, barley, oats and buckwheat matured both in 1900 and 1901. In the THE WHEAT GRAIN AND PLANT 5) Peace river valley, extending 700 miles north of the Canada border, 58 degrees north latitude, enough wheat, barley and oats have been grown to bring about the erection of a 100- barrel roller mill at Vermilion, on the Peace river. Spring wheat of the Romanow variety matured at the Kenai station in Alaska in 1899, 60 degrees north. Experiments have shown that winter wheat will ripen here in ordinary seasons. On the Mackenzie river wheat has been grown farther north than 62 degrees. Spring wheat and winter rye have matured per- fectly 65 degrees 30 minutes north latitude at Rampart, about 200 miles from the Arctic circle, and at Dawson, equally as far north, over 1000 miles north of the United States. While wheat can be grown this far north, the chanees of failure are, of course, much greater than in a climate more temperate. Barley, oats and rye will grow farther north than wheat. Towards the equator the limits of wheat generally vary be- tween 20 and 25 degrees north and south latitude. It thrives in southern Brazil, in Cuba, and in southern Rhodesia in South Africa at these latitudes. Altitudinal— Another very important factor in determining where wheat can be raised is the altitude, which may be con- sidered as the complement of latitude. On the mountain plains of Colombia and Ecuador it grows on the equator. Thus wheat is raised in America from the equator, 10,000 feet above sea level, to Dawson and the Klondike river, 2,000 feet above sea level, and at least 65 degrees 30 minutes north latitude. In the United States the census shows that in 1880, over 80 per cent of the grain was grown at an elevation between 500 and 1,500 feet above sea level. In 1890 the altitudes at which wheat was raised varied from 100 feet below sea level to over 10,000 feet above sea level, and about 70 per cent was raised between 500 and 1,500 feet elevation. It cannot be raised successfully at great elevations in England. The plains and mountain slopes of Sicily produce wheat, the upper limit of its growth having been given in 1863 as 2,500 feet in altitude. A member of the Manitoba legislature, Mr. Burrows, has claimed that fifteen years of history show that altitudes have very much to do with summer frosts, and that 800 to 1,300 feet above sea level is the best altitude for No. 1 hard wheat in Manitoba. Perhaps the greatest elevation at which wheat a 6 THE BOOK OF WHEAT. has been raised is in Asia on the Himalaya mountains, 11,000 feet above sea level. The four counties of Kansas occupying the center of its famous wheat region have an average eleva- tion of about 1600 feet. The Colorado station has developed a type of wheat adapted to the higher altitudes of the mountain regions, those of 6,000 to 9,000 feet elevation. Historical and Geographical.—In the western half of Asia, in Europe, and in northern Africa, wheat has since time im- memorial occupied the first rank of cereals. It was one of the main crops of the Israelites in Canaan. None was grown in the New World before the sixteenth century. Humboldt says that a negro slave of Cortez found three or four grains of wheat in the rice which served to maintain the Spanish army. This was apparently sown before 1530, about the date when the Spaniards introduced wheat culture into Mexico. In 1547 wheat bread was hardly known in Cuzco, Peru. The first wheat sown in the United States was by Gosnold in 1602 on the Elizabeth Islands off the southern coast of Massachusetts. It was first cultivated in Virginia in 1611, and in New Nether- lands before 1622. By 1648 there were several hundred acres in the Virginia colony. Missionaries first introduced it into California in 1769. Cuba saw its cultivation at least as early as 1808. It must have been early introduced into Canada, at least by the close of the eighteenth century, for in 1827 Canada raised over twenty million bushels. The first wheat success- fully grown and harvested in the Red river valley was in 1820. Victoria wheat, which had been acclimated by growing 200 years in the tropics, was successfully grown in experiments on Jamaica and the Bahama Islands, 1834 to 1836. There was a prejudice against it, however, and Indian corn was grown in preference. Minnesota’s first settlements date back to about 1845. Wheat raising became a regular branch of farming in Argentina in 1882. Such were the historical beginnings of the wheat industry in the western hemisphere. It has now become a more or less important industry over practically all of America lying outside of frigid zone climates. IMPORTANCE. Quantitative—Both in the quantity produced and in its value, wheat is the world’s king of cereals. Recent statistics show, THE WHEAT GRAIN AND PLANT 7 however, that 800,000,000 persons, or 54 per cent of the in- habitants of the globe, derive their sustenance mainly from rice. The most important cereal produced in the United States, measured in bushels or dollars, is corn, and wheat stands second. From the census we find that the United States produced in 1899, including farm animals and _ their products, an aggregate value of nearly five billion dollars. Of this, animals brought 900 millions, corn 828, and wheat 370, over 7.4 per cent. In 1906 the corresponding figures for corn and wheat were 1,100 and 450. For at least several decades, corn has formed over 50 per cent of the total acreage of cereals in the United States. Wheat formed 29.8 per cent in 1880, 23.9 per cent in 1890, 28.4 per cent in 1900, and 27 per cent in 1905. In value, corn formed 55.8 per cent in 1900, and wheat 24.9 per cent. Cereals form 51 per cent of the value of all crops, which gives the value of wheat as nearly 13 per cent of that of all crops. Out of a total of over 5.5 million farms in the United States, over two million raise wheat. The world’s annual production and consumption of wheat is near- ly 3.5 billion bushels. Qualitative—Taking the civilized world as a whole, wheat forms the principal food of man. It is much more widely distributed than either its commercial rival, corn, or its rival food cereal, rice. It is-a prime necessity of civilized life. The quantity of wheat milled is larger than that of all other cereals combined. Sixty-two per cent of all cereal products milled in the United States during 1900 were from wheat. It is essentially a bread cereal. Bananas, rice, potatoes, and other soil produets will sustain a greater population on a given unit of land than wheat will, but they are not so well adapted to a high standard of living. Herein les the present and inereas- ingly great importance of wheat, for it seems to be the ten- dency of the civilized world to raise its standard of living. As the standard of living rises, wheat becomes a relatively more important part of human food. Rye and oats furnished the bread of the great body of people in Europe during the middle ages. Wheat was high-priced and not extensively grown. England early became a wheat eating nation. France and 8 THE BOOK OF WHEAT. the other Latin countries followed later. Rye is still exten- sively used in Germany, but is gradually being superseded by wheat. Even Russia is using more wheat flour than she did twenty years ago. The great intrinsic food value of wheat; its ease of eultiva- tion and preparation for use; its wide adaptation to different climates and soils; its quick and bountiful return; and the fact of its being paniferous and yielding such a vast number and variety of products are all factors that enhanee the value of the wheat grain. Its combined qualitative and quantitative importance gives to wheat a great superiority over any other cereal, and causes it to be dealt in more extensively upon the speculative markets than any other agricultural produet. As an essential part of the food of civilized man it becomes of an importance so vital as to be dominating. CLASSIFICATION. The Classification of wheat seems always to have been in a more or less chaotie state. This is especially true of the nomenclature of varieties. Nor is the fault to be laid partieu- larly at the door of science. We have seen that wheat has been continually migrating for many centuries. It is a plant that is easily influenced by environment and therefore particu- larly unstable in type. Since it has always been migrating to new environments, a complete change in type often resulted, though it was still known by the old name. This is further complicated by the fact that the modern art of breeding wheat has originated many new varieties. Add to this the fact that wheat has been shipped all over the world, not only for commercial purposes, but also for seed experiments, and it is not surprising that the nomenclature of varieties is somewhat tangled, that several varieties are known by the same name, or that one variety may have several names, and may pass for several varieties. It is among the most common wheats that the difficulty has been most perplexing. Classes and Distribution—There are several kinds of the less common wheats, such as Polish wheat, spelt and durum wheat, which have very marked characteristies, and which have perhaps not migrated so widely. In spite of some con- fusion in names, it is generally possible to determine to which THE WHEAT GRAIN AND PLANT 9 class they belong. Some of the most common and widely used classifications are those based on time of sowing, as spring and winter wheat; on firmness of structure of the grain, as hard and soft; on the products for which they are used, as bread and macaroni wheats; and on the color of the seed, as red and white. As will later be shown, wheat adapts itself to new environments so that any one of these classes may be trans- formed into any other, and as wheat is raised so widely as to embrace practically every kind of environment, these classes grade into each other so impereeptibly that even an expert can hardly determine to which class a certain wheat may belong. An approximate division has, however, been made. Mr. M. A. | a: a = a | NES | | W. SEMI-HARD SOUTHERN (OM HARD-SPRING a\ HARD-WINTER DURUM [24 ipricateo = WHITE DISTRIBUTION OF WHEAT VARIETIES IN THE UNITED STATES Carleton,’ cerealist of the United States department of agri- culture, has divided the wheat grown in the United States into eight classes, and has shown the distribution of these classes by districts in the accompanying map. On the north Atlantie coast is the soft wheat district, south of the Great Lakes the semi-hard district, and south of these two districts is the southern district. The Red river valley is 1U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Veg. Phys. & Path., Bul. 24. 10 THE BOOK OF WHEAT. the center of hard spring wheat, Kansas of hard winter wheat and north central Texas of durum wheats. White wheat is raised on the Pacific coast. The center of red wheat, not shown in this division, is from Kansas to the Red river valley. A still more general classification by the same author divides the United States crosswise into three divisions of approxi- mately equal width, assigning the hard wheats to the northern states, the soft wheats to the states of the middle latitudes, and the durums to the southern states. About two-thirds of the wheat raised in the United States is winter wheat. Nearly 90 per cent of the wheat grown in Russia is spring wheat. In Canada, Manitoba raises spring wheat exclusively, but On- tario and Alberta raise some of the winter variety. In Ger- many, over 90 per cent of the wheat grown is of the winter variety, which is largely grown over southern Europe and on the British Isles. Spring wheat was once more generally called summer wheat, and winter wheat is often also ealled fall wheat. ~ Carleton, on a geographical basis, located groups of varieties having special qualities approximately as follows: 1. Starehy white wheats: Pacifie coast and Rocky Moun- tain states, Chile, Turkestan, Australia and India 2. Amber or reddish grained wheats, also starchy: Eastern states, western and northern Europe, India, Japan and Aus- tralia. 3. Wheats with excellence of gluten content for making bread: Northern and central states of the plains, Canada, eastern and southern Russia, Hungary, Roumania and southern Argentina. 4. Wheats resistant to orange leaf rust: Southern Russia, Mediterranean and Black Sea regions, and Australia. 5. Wheats with excellence of gluten content for making macaroni: Southern Russia, Algeria, and the Mediterranean region in general. 6. Wheats with stiff straw, which prevents lodging: Pacific coast states, Japan, Turkestan, Mediterranean region and Aus- tralia. 7. Wheats with great yielding power (at least in propor- tion to size of head): Pacifie coast states, Chile and Tur- kestan. THE WHEAT GRAIN AND PLANT 11 8. Non-shattering wheats: Pacific coast states, Chile, Tur- kestan, Germany (spelts), and East Russia (emmers). 9. Wheats of great constancy in fertility: Germany (spelts) and southern Europe. 10. Wheats of early maturity: Japan, Australia and India. 11. Wheats most resistant to drought and heat: East and South Russia, Kirghiz Steppes, Turkestan and southern Medi- terranean region. 12. Wheats most resistant to drought and cold: East Russia. Species—There are eight principal types of cultivated wheat: Einkorn (Triticwm monococcum); Polish wheat (7'r. polonicum); Emmer (Tr. sativum dicoccwm); Spelt (Tr. sat. spelta) ; Club or Square-head wheat (T7'r. sat. compactum) ; Pou- lard wheat (T7'r. sat. turgidum) ; Durum wheat (Tr. sat. durum) ; and Common wheat (Tr. sat. vulgare). Varieties.—In 1900, after five years of experimentation with about 1,000 varieties of wheat collected from the different wheat countries of the world, the United States department of agriculture decided that, tested by American conditions, there were 245 leading varieties. No one variety is best under all conditions, but climate, soil, and the purpose for which wheat is raised must in each case determine which variety is most profitable. If a variety can be secured that will yield more under the same conditions than other varieties do, then profits can be easily increased, for its production involves no additional expense, except possibly an extra outlay for seed. Prof. W. M. Hays estimates that Minnesota No. 169, a variety of wheat in- troduced by the Minnesota experiment station, has increased the yield of that state from 5 to 10 per cent. The most widely and universally grown varieties of wheat in the United States are Fultz for soft winter, Turkey Red for hard winter, Fife and Blue Stem for hard spring, and Kubanka for durum wheat. DESCRIPTION AND GROWTH. Roots.—The first root appearing is ealled tne radicle. This and the two other roots that soon appear form the whorl of three seminal or temporary roots. The crown of roots usually ROOT SYSTEM OF A WHEAT PLANT AT HEADING-OUT TIME THE WHEAT GRAIN AND PLANT 13 grows about an inch beneath the soil, irrespective of the depth to which the grain was planted. From the erown are thrown out whorls of coronal or permanent roots. Any node of the wheat stalk under or near the soil may also throw out a whorl of permanent roots, somewhat similar to those of corn. There are four or five whorls with three to five roots each. The roots from the base of the crown strike directly down- ward, while those from the later whorls run at an angle for a few inches before taking a vertical direction. Most of the main roots penetrate to a depth of over 4 feet, perhaps 5 or 6 feet, provided the water-line is not closer to the surface than that distance, for below this the roots will not enter to any ap- preciable extent. The roots of wheat have been traced to a depth of 7 feet, and it has been found that if those of one plant were placed end to end they would reach 1,704 feet. The deep roots are all fine threads of practically uniform diam- eter throughout their entire length. They braneh and re- branch freely to a depth of 18 or 20 inches, about eight branch roots occurring to an inch length of a main root. At a greater depth, branches are few or absent, and it is supposed that the deep roots are for securing moisture. The roots do not branch or feed much in the region just below that stirred by the plow, if that region is hard and gummy, as is often the ease. The upper whorls give forth roots that are larger and coarser, and which resemble the brace roots in corn. It is said that the roots extend chiefly at their extremities, while the stem elongates equally, or nearly so, in all of its contiguous parts. The root development seems to be greatest in durum wheats. Early spring and summer rains eause shallow rooting. In the absence of these rains in the far west, a deeper root system, capable of resisting superficial droughts, is developed. Poor soil causes the roots to age rapidly. Culms.-—The culms of wheat are usually hollow, but in some varieties they are quite filled with pith. The length varies greatly in different varieties, soils and seasons, a fact which results in greater variation in size and yield of straw than of grain. Common wheat averages from three to five feet in height. The liability of lodging depends greatly on the culm, the length of which is also important in harvesting. 1 Hunt, Cereals in Amer. (1904), p. 27. 14 THE BOOK OF WHEAT Leaves.—When the internodes lengthen and the spike pushes upward, the wheat is said to shoot. Previous to this, the nodes are so close together that the plant seems to consist al- most entirely of leaves. There are four principal parts to the leaf: The blade; the sheath, which clasps the stem and is split down the side opposite the blade; the ligule, also clasping the culm, and located where the blade and sheath join; and the leaf auricle, thin projections growing from the base of the blade. The first leaves of the wheat plant and the germ whorl of roots do not live through the winter in some varieties. The Flower of Wheat is constituted collectively of the or- gans of reproduction, together with the two inclosing chaffy parts. The inner of these two parts is known as a palea, while the outer and lower one is the flowering glume. The latter often bears a long appendage, _, characteristic of bearded wheat. These :, awns or beards vary greatly in length ' even in the same spike, and in some varieties are deciduous upon ripening. Their color varies from lght yellow ee tomblack Sea aera Gentile The Spikelets.—Each consists of from ma, s, just before flowering; two to five flowers encased within two B, the same at time of flow- : ering; C, flower before open- hard oval chaffy coverings called outer ing, a, anthers, f, filament, 1, lodicule; D, flower about glumes. In common wheat’ each scronen: spikelet generally matures two, and sometimes three, grains. The glumes vary greatly in form, color and size. The stem or rachis of the spike is of a zigzag form. On each of its joints or shoulders sits a single spikelet, attached by an exceedingly short rachilla. Arranged alternately on the stem, with flat sides toward the center, the spikelets usually give the head of wheat a square appearance when viewed endwise. Viewed from the side, the spike may be straight or curved; it may have uniform sides, or taper toward both ends, or only toward base or apex; or it may be clubbed at either end. The filling of the spikelets has much to do with the appearance of the spike, which varies much in different varieties. There is also great variation in compact- ness. Fifteen to twenty fertile spikelets, containing from 30 THE WHEAT GRAIN AND PLANT 15 to 50 grains, are usually formed on a spike of wheat, the aver- age length of which is between 3 and 4 inches. Humboldt said that in Mexico each spike of wheat averaged 90 grains, though some had as many as 160. Mummy wheat has been observed with ears containing nearly a dozen branches. ‘here are 150 grains in one ear, and as many as 60 ears from one seed. Wheat has the advantage of extreme diminution of the number of seeds to each flower, giving richness in starch and gluten, combined with the advantage of numerous flowers on each plant, giving many seeds. The Wheat Kernel is a dry, indehiscent, unilocular earyopsis. It is oval in shape, and has the appearance of being folded up- on itself from two sides. A ventral crease marks the coming together of the two folds. At the base of the berry opposite the crease is found the embryo, germ, or chit. At the apex is a collection of minute hairs. The entire grain fills from 20 to 30 eubie millimeters of space, of which at least thirteen-fourteenths are occupied with the starchy endosperm. The latter al- most surrounds the embryo, and its eells are very irregularly shaped. The em- bryo is composed of the absorbent organ (seutellum), and the miniature first leaves and roots. It forms about 6 per cent of the wheat kernel. ae The endosperm and embryo are com- Pac telat scmen cella & pletely enclosed by a single layer of eae sie iae wattes o aleurone or gluten cells. The weight of bran; and g, outer coats of this layer is 8 per cent of that of the Sey OSCE Suse whole grain. The next covering is a single layer of collapsed cells, known as the tegmen. This is again surrounded by a third envelope, the testa, or episperm, which contains the greater part of the coloring matter of the grain. This coloring matter is of two kinds, one a palish yellow, and the other an orange yellow, and the degree in which one or the other pre- dominates determines whether the wheat is known as white, yellow or red. The three layers just described constitute the envelope of the seed proper. They in turn are again inclosed 16 THE BOOK OF WHEAT by the pericarp, which is also composed of three layers, all colorless. The exterior of these three membranes, the cuticle, is easily removed by rubbing. Then come two layers of cellular tissue, the epicarp (from which spring the hairs above men- tioned) and the endocarp. The tegmen and testa form about 2 per cent of the weight of the grain, and the pericarp forms fully 3 per cent. Thus the bran forms at least 13 per cent of the grain. Germination.—The three conditions essential to the germin- ation of wheat are moisture, warmth and oxygen. In the ab- sence of any one of these the process will not begin, or if it has begun it will cease. Johnson de- fines the _ period of germination as lasting from the time when the rootlet becomes visible until the stores of the mother seed are exhausted and the voung plant is wholly east upon its own resourees. At 41° F., the time required for the rootlet to appear in wheat is about six days, which time corresponds to the more general idea of the period of germination. At 51° this time is shortened about one-half. The time required for the completion of germination is 40 to 45 days at 41 to 55° and 10 to 12 days at 95 to 100°. The lowest temperature at which wheat will germinate is 41°, the highest 104°, and that of most rapid germination, 84°. This is according to Johnson. Other authorities claim that wheat will germinate and grow on melting iee. It has also been said that it does not germinate sue- cessfully at a high temperature, and consequently should not be sown until cool weather in southern climates. Dissolved salts seem to aid germination under ordinary field conditions. In germinating, wheat absorbs from five to six times its THE WHEAT GRAIN AND PLANT 17 weight of water. It loses 1.5 per cent of its own weight in 24 hours, 6.7 per cent in 90 hours, and 11.8 per cent in 144 hours. Besides the loss in weight, marked chemical changes take place which greatly decrease its value for bread baking purposes, and probably also as a food for stock. Great loss may thus be occasioned by the sprouting of wheat in field, shock, stack or bin. Experiments indicate that sprouted wheat will regermi- nate and form healthy sprouts until the stem (plumule) has reached a length of 34-inch in the first germination, and an average of 80 per cent of all sprouted wheat with the length of the stem not exceeding %-ineh will again germinate.’ Stooling or Tillering—Wheat, like other cereals, has the characteristic of throwing out side shoots after the plumule has appeared above the surface. These branches or culms may form at any node covered with soil. The num- ber of such stalks from one seed varies much with conditions. There are usually at least six, but there may be from two to several dozen in extreme eases, 52 spikes having been ob- served. As a rule, the more favorable the con- ditions for plant growth, and the thinner the wheat is on the ground, the more it tillers. Cool weather during early development may re- which encourages tillering. Time of seeding y also has great influence, for late sown wheat may not have time to stool. The habit varies quite materially in different varieties. While thinner sown wheat may tiller more, a greater amount of seed per acre often increases the 4, Stool of wheat. yield, even though there are fewer stools. arsine’ Bere origi- Pliny is said to have declared that it was not ~ 3 uncommon in northern Africa and in Italy to find from 200 to 400 stalks of wheat growing from a single kernel. Humboldt put on record that in Mexico each grain of wheat produced 40 to 70 stalks. It is probable that each of these men was seeing with the eyes of an enthusiast. The Growth of a Wheat Plant is the aggregate result of the enlargement and multiplication of the cells which comprise it. SPVEDEeNe IO ssotany LOO Dp. LOR. 18 THE BOOK OF WHEAT Generally cells reach their full size in a brief time, and con- tinuous growth depends mainly upon the constant and rapid formation of new cells. The essentials to growth are light, air, moisture, heat and food. In the absence of any one of these, the plant dies, and in their disproportionate combina- tion, growth is sickly. In germination, food is furnished by the seed, and lght is not essential. Over light man has no control. He ean inerease the amount of air that has aecess to the plant by loosening the soil around its roots. An adaptive control of heat is exercised by sowing during the warm season. By selecting soils, fertilizing and changing existing foods from unavailable to available forms, food can in a great measure be regulated, and water, acting as a solvent and vehicle, can be very largely regulated as to amount by drainage and irrigation. That the growth and multiplication of cells involves a migra- tion of material within the plant has long been recognized. In wheat, as in many other plants, there is a comparatively large development of roots soon after the first leaves appear. Only some low-lying leaves are put forth while the great complex of roots is being formed. In a wheat plant only 23 days old, the roots had penetrated the soil over 1 foot in depth. When the system of roots has been formed, the stalk suddenly shoots up almost to mature stature. Perhaps the roots are completely developed by the time that the formation of grain has begun. The leaves of the wheat plant, with their chlorophyl cells, have been considered as little laboratories elaborating vege- table matter. Under the influence of light they are able to extract earbonie acid from the atmosphere. This acid is one of the raw materials of these little factories. They decompose it, eliminate the oxygen, and from the residue they manufacture sugar, cellulose, straw-gum, vasculose, and all the ternary mat- ters composed of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. A perfect sys- tem of canals penetrates every part of the plant. These canals are filled with water, which enters at the roots, for leaves do not absorb water to any appreciable extent, and is in constant motion until it is exhaled from the leaves. During one hour of insolation a leaf of wheat exhales an amount of water equal to its own weight. Upon these highways of moving water are borne raw materials destined for the little cell factories, such as nitrates, phosphoric acid, potash and THE WHEAT GRAIN AND PLAN’! 19 silica. They, too, are reduced. If there is an abundance of rain, the cells continue work long, elaborate much vegetable matter, and the plant grows. If the water supply is insufficient and the soil parsimonious, this prodigious consumption cannot be supplied, and dessication of organs takes place. This begins in the oldest leaves, and nearly always the little leaves at the base of the stem become soft, flabby, and withered. Analyses have been made which show that these leaves let escape some nitrogenized matter, phosphorie acid and potash, which they contained when living, green and turgescent. Thus the closing of one of these groups of little cell factories by the dessication of a leaf is a very important process to the plant, for less vegetable matter is elaborated than if it had continued its work. In dry years a shortening of the stems and a comparatively small amount of straw results. The dying of leaves involves not only the closing of these workshops, but the transportation of much of the finished product stored in them. Metamorphosis of the nitrogenized matter which forms the protoplasm, the living part of the cell, takes place, and it assumes an itinerant property which enables it to pass through membranous walls and migrate over the liquid highways to new leaves. With it are carried phosphoric acid and potash. Some of the elaborated material is thus continually being transported from lower to upper leaves during the entire period of vegetation. Flowering takes place when enough material has been elaborated to nourish the appearing seeds. This migration of substance can take place only when there is plenty of water, and the crop fails when it is too dry. Too much water is also injurious, for it causes a tendency to keep up growth indefinitely. The Minnesota sta- tion found that the wheat plant produced, nearly one-half its dry and three-fourths its mineral matter by the end of 50 days. This included 75 per cent of the potash, 80 per cent of the phosphorie acid, and 86 per cent of the nitrogen. At 65 days, 65 per cent of dry and 85 per cent of mineral mat- ter had been produced, as well as most of the fiber, which suf- fered a loss after 81 days.’ Compared with the processes ob- served in nitrogenized matter, phosphorus and potash, the 1 Minn. Bul. 29. pp. 152-160. 20 THE BOOK OF WHEAT formation of starch is yet quite a mystery. Its accumulation in the leaves cannot be detected in wheat as it can be in a large number of other species. Neither are reserves of sac- charine matters to be found there. It is not until the last stage of vegetation that starch is formed. Consequently cli- matic influences at the close of the growing period have a marked effect on the amount of starch produced, and cause it to vary greatly from year to year. The process of transporting elaborated material begins in the planted seed, and does not cease until the wheat is dead ripe. This is the explanation of wheat ripening after it is eut. It also explains the fact that wheat straw, as well as many other straws, is not as well liked by animals, and is not as nutritious, after it is ripe as when green, or when cut before ripe. Fertilization The one-seeded ovulary is a little greenish swelling. It is surmounted by the stigmas, two erect and ad- jacent aigrettes of plumes. There are three stamens, and the anthers are compactly arranged about the ovulary. At flower- ing the filaments to which the anthers are attached elongate: rapidly. As the anthers are pushed upward, they suddenly overturn, and the pollen falls upon the stigmas, which have VY VVUMdSA 4-40 AM 4-43 A.M. 4-45 AM. F447 AM. 4-55 AM. 5-08 A.M. S-1ISAM. 5-18 A.M THE OPENING OF THE FLOWERS OF WHEAT. (AFTER HAYS) now grow slightly divergent. These delicate operations all take place within the closed flower and generally wheat is thus essentially self-fertilized. The anthers are now pushed out- side of the glumes, and the wheat is popularly said to be in flower. As soon as the pollen comes in contact with the stigmas, it germinates by sending out a long tube (called the pollinie branch) into the ovulary. This completes fertilization and the grain is formed. If fertilization in ineomplete, the ovularies remain unfertilized, and the spikes bear sterile flowers in which no kernels are formed. It seems that the crop is thus THE WHEAT GRAIN AND PLANT 21 injured when fertilization takes place in rainy weather. The water probably finds its way within the involucre, and the pollen grains are either imperfectly retained, or their germi- nation is irregular. The process of fertilization generally oe- curs early in the morning, and may requiréless than an hour of time. After its completion the ovule (seed) grows very rapidly to maturity. The embryo develops first,\and then the endosperm. The Most Favorable Ripening of wheat requires a mild tem- perature and a slightly clouded sky. A high temperature the month before wheat is ripe diminishes the yield, and in partic- ular prevents the formation of starch. There is a real, though small, loss in wheat from the period when it is ‘‘ripe’’ to the time when it is dead ripe, and it is claimed that this loss does not result from careless handling, or from drying of the grain.’ Deherain offers the explanation that ‘‘all the organs of a plant respire by the aid of the oxygen of the air consuming some of their principles. In the seed the combustion chiefly affects the starch, and a crop which remains standing long diminishes in weight both by the loss of seeds that fall and by the slow combustion which continues as long as desiccation is not produced.’’ What is lost in quantity, however, is perhaps more than gained in quality, for the best flour can be obtained from dead ripe wheat only. Such flour has a better color, and will take more water in bread-making. If the grain is cut be- fore ripe, the most serious feature is increased acidity in the flour. This interferes with fermentation in bread-making, and is liable to make the bread sour or dark. The Rate of Multiplication of Wheat.—Paley gave 300 grains harvested from one grain sown as a moderate estimate; 400 as a possible one; and 10 to 12 as a practical one. Herodotus said that on the irrigated land of Assyria, wheat yielded from two to three hundred fold, and grew to giant size. Fifty grains of wheat, selected from one spike, were planted, and the 30 grains which grew produced 14°4 ounces of wheat. This was sown the next year, and produced 5 pecks of grain, which in turn produced 45 bushels the subsequent year. The 45 bushels produced 537 bushels in another year, enough seed 1 Kedzie, Rept. Mich. Board Agr., 1831-2, p. 337; Mich. Bul. 191, p. 160; Neb. Bul. 32, p. 97. 22 THE BOOK OF WHEAT from one spike in four years to sow about 500 aeres.’ In ten years, one grain of North Dakota wheat, now known as Minne- sota 163, without any attempt to increase it rapidly the first few years, actually produced about 300,000 bushels of wheat. One thousand acres of land south of Walla Walla in eastern Washington yielded 51,000 bushels in 1881. ‘‘This yield was made the subject of a careful measurement and reported to the Agricultural Department, where it stands today as the largest yield for a thousand-acre field ever reported.’’* The greatest wheat crop ever recorded in the world’s history as being pro- duced from unfertilized land was that of western Canada in 1901, where 63,425,000 bushels were harvested from a little over 2,500,000 acres; an average yield of over 25 bushels per acre. Physical Properties—The number of grains in a pound of wheat varies from 7,500 to 24,000; from 377 determinations the average was 12,000 grains. The number in a bushel has been given as varying from 446,580 to 971,940. The Winches- ter bushel (2150.42 eubie inches) used in the United States, has a standard and legal weight of 60 pounds. The measured bushel generally varies in weight from 54 to 65 pounds, and ereater extremes occur. The Imperial bushel (2218.192 cubie inches) used in England, has a corresponding weight of 61.89 pounds. This is the reason why English wheat appears heavier than American grain. The specific gravity of American wheat has been found to vary from 1.146 to 1.518. Lyon found high specific gravity associated with low nitrogen content. As a rule, the harder the grain, the higher is the gluten and nitrogen content, and the deeper red the color. Viability of Wheat.—Experiments have shown the optimum period for germination to be the second year after harvest. Seed one year old often gives better results than fresh seed, but after the first year the viability generally diminishes rapidly from year to year. Ordinarily it is not advisable to sow wheat over two, or at the most three, years of age, at least not with- out testing its germinating powers, which have been found to 5 per cent after five years. The longest 7 vary from 15 to 1 Neb. Bul. 32, p. 84. 7 Rept. Bureau of Statistics, Washington, 1903, p. 69. THE WHEAT GRAIN AND PLANT 23 period for which conclusive modern scientific experiments have shown wheat to be viable is ten years. During six successive years Saunders found the average viability of three varieties to be respectively: 80, 82, 77, 37, 15 and 6 per cent.’ Varro, speaking of the granaries of the first century B. C., remarks that the vitality of wheat can be preserved in them for 50 years. Daubeny questioned this in 1857, and stated that wheat does not retain its vitality over 40 years. Humboldt states that for causes not well known, Mexican grain is preserved with difficulty for more than two or three years. The reported germination of wheat taken from Egyptian mummies thou- sands of years old is a modern myth originating in the im- positions of fraud and cunning upon eredulity. The highest temperature at which dry wheat seed can re- tain its vitality is also an unsettled question. Chambers’s Cyclo- pedia makes the statement that some dry seeds survive 212 ° F., and —248° F., but does not state what kind. Klippart gives —58° F. as the point at which wheat loses its vitality, and says that the germinating power is completely destroyed if the grain is steeped 15 minutes in water having a temperature of 122° F. According to the same writer, it could perhaps stand 170° F. in a dry atmosphere without serious injury. He gives this as a probable reason why wheat does not grow in the tropies, where the soil often has a temperature of 190° F. Recent ex- perience has shown that steeping wheat ten minutes in water of 132 to 133° F. to kill smut germs does not injure its via- bility. In northern Canada, —52° F. has no injurious effect upon the vitality of dry and unplanted wheat. Beyond these temperatures, no scientific experiments have been found recor 1- ed by the author. Time Required for Ripening.—The mean temperature required for the successful cultivation and ripening of wheat has been given as 65° F. for 45 to 60 days, and 55° F. for three or four months of the growing season. Of the wheat in the United States, according to the census of 1880, 67.5 per cent was grown where the mean annual temperature was between 45 and 55° F., and 62.7 per cent of it where the annual rainfall was between 35 and 50 inches. It has been claimed that the total amount of sunshine and heat units required to mature a crop 1 Rept. Can. Exp. Farms, 1903, p. 44. 24 THE BOOK OF WHEAT of wheat is the same for all latitudes, and that if these vary, the period of growth will vary in inverse proportion. In sup- port of this position Cooke* collected the statistics given below. Mean : Period of Temperature Heat Locality ‘ of growing Growth Period Units ! | Near Eoonai(indta) nse eeteeter ee 115 days 74.0 degrees} 8,510 AteAlsacel(S:wiranCe)pccstee se eee eee sll Palsi¢e OS 59.0 8,083 Near Rarisi(Ne Prance) terse orcs nese 160! == 5610) ee 8,950 Near Edinburg (Scotland).............. Rene 182) ee 47.5 LY 8,645 Cooke found the number of heat units required to be ap- proximately the same for different countries, i. e., about 8,500. Experiments conducted at Fargo, N. D., to verify this failed of their purpose, and gave approximately 6,500 heat units. The period of growth was about 100 days. Recent observations have shown that the number of heat units decreases when the erowing period shortens. In general, the growing period is shortest in the coldest climate. The Weight of Different Materials entering into an acre of the wheat crop is shown in the table given below. All weights are in pounds. The grain and straw are given as air dry ma- terial, which contains about 15 per cent of water. WEIGHT OF MATERIALS IN AN ACRE OF WHEAT. Grain Straw Average 6,600 of 6,600 | of 6 600 Wes: Mont? | Canada3 lb. lb. lb. Crop! Crop* Crop Crop Total of potash phos-| phoric acid & nitro’n $2.61 77.28 122.67 50.25 72.42 Potashterscs soctcerectes- 13.69 19.11 40.17 8.55 31.62 Phosphoric acid........ 9.49 17.64 26.85 14.10 12.75 Nitrogen............:. 29.73 40.53 55.65 27.60 28.05 Water evaporate Yale) Sy Aoroyoy i) oe (LOLOMOLOXO) IP ee ee ce Weight of grain........ 720 840 1,440 L500! tl ¥ rts, | i eee Weight of straw........ 1,500 1,680 2,200 SIO | espa Sea 1 Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr., 1894, p. 174. 2 Rept. Mont. Exp. Sta.,. 19025 p. 61: 3 Evidence of Saunders, 1900, p. 23. 4 Nebs Bul 19% py 15: * N. D. Bul. 47, p. 704. THE WHEAT GRAIN AND PLANT 25 Chemistry.—The five outer layers of the wheat grain are composed chiefly of cellulose, a woody, fibrous substance. The endosperm, the food part of the grain, contains large quantities of starch, a nitrogenous substance known as gluten, a little sugar, and the cellulose of its cell walls. The gluten content is greatest at the hard exterior of the endosperm. The softer center makes better flour, however, for it remains freer from the bran in the grinding. The germ is composed of cellulose, nitrogenous substances, and about 10 per cent of fat. The following table gives in per cents of the entire weight the comparison of different kinds and commercial grades of wheat, and of wheat straw and chaff. SOMPARISONS OF GRADES OF WHEAT, WHEAT STRAW AND CHAFF. 5 ' Nitro- rs ‘ ro- | Crude] gen Kind of Wheat Water; Ash etrcpalll ihre ler ee Oa ee extract oLO-Amer wheats, min! .........--....-0--.-:- (esl 0.8 Saf 0.4 64.8 18} 310 Amer wheats, max!.. 14.0 3.6 17.2 Sei 78.6 3.9 310 Amer wheats, aver!..... 10.5 1.8 11.9 1.8 71.9 2 Amer No. 1 hard?.............. — 1.8 17.2 2.4 76.3 2.4 Amer No 1 northern?...... _— DD, 17.9 3.4 74.0 DES Amer No 2 northern?..... —— PhP) 18.3 3.2 73.9 PDB) Amer No 3 northern?..... — 2.4 20.7 32) (alas 2.4 Mim INO 11633.........-<0-. 7.9 yD) 20.3 2e3 65.2 Pail Rysting’s Fife3......... TOs) fa) 17.3 2.5 65.3 28 Bolton’s Blue Stem4%............. 9:3 2.0 16.6 7a) 67.2 DES, Kubanka (durum wheat)3.. 16.5 222 18.9 2.5 Bias) Daf Winter wheat, grain‘........... 14.4 2.0 13.0 3.0 67.6 185 Canada common wheats... 10.9 1.4 12.8 2.0 70.4 INS Indian wheat, aver®.......... 1225 1.7 13.5 Bal 68.4 12 Emmer kernels alone’.......... 10.5 157 11322 2.6 69.4 2.8 Emmer kernels and chaff’.. 9.5 3.6 10.7 10.8 62.9 Ze Emmer chaff alone............... 6.4 10.5 2.6 37.9 41.1 1.6 7 Amer wheat straws, min!... 6.5 3.0 2.9 34.3 31.0 0.8 7 Amer wheat straws, max!.. 17.9 7.0 5.0 42.7 50.6 1.8 7 Amer wheat straws, aver!.. 9.6 4.2 3.4 38.1 43.4 1.3 Winter wheat, straw?..............csceseeeeees 14.3 SES 2.0 48.0 30.2 125 Wanteriwiheat), chatt*.......ccc.ctersccccsrsnsce 14.3 12.0 4.5 36.0 Sole 1.4 Durum wheat bran®....... Pee LOLS. S23 12.3 10.8 54.9 5.9 Darim! wheat ShoOrts®)............-..--s000s 10.4 4.1 14.4 6.1 59.2 5.9 Common wheat bran8.................ss00008 TS 5.4 16.1 8.0 54.5 4.5 Common wheat shorts8...........c00c:c008 11.8 4.6 14.9 7.4 56.8 4.5 U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Exp. Sta., Exp. Sta. Bul. 11, pp. 106-118. N. D. Bul. 8, p. 6. Average results from many analyses. A se N. D. Exp. Sta., 1903, p. 26. Data from N. D. wheat crop of 1901. * Johnson, How Crops Grow, pp. 386-387. 5 Rept. Canada Exp. Farms, 1900, p. 182. 1899 crop grown in the N. W. Terrs. ® Church, Food Grains of India, p. 95. 6 7 Seas from Dak. Stations, U. S. Dent. Agr., Farm Bul. , p. . = Rept. N. D. Exp. Sta., 1904. p. 33 1 2 oe 26 THE BOOK OF WHEAT The substanees of which wheat flour is composed may be di- vided into three classes: (1) Nitrogenous, which include main- ly gluten, fibrin, albumen, easein, cerealin, and modifications of some of these; (2) non-nitrogenous, embracing sugar and dex- trin, but chiefly starch, fat and cellulose; and (3) the minerals, for the largest part alkaline phosphates and silicates, espe- cially phosphate and sileate of potash. Warter.—Wheat ordinarily contains from 10 to 15 per cent of moisture. Changes in the moisture content of the air cause corresponding variations in wheat, and consequently in its weight. Usually such fluctuations in weight do not exceed 6 per cent, but they may be as much as 25 per cent, and an in- crease of 9 per cent in 24 hours has been observed. When wheat is shipped, especially if it is transported long distances, this may be a matter of great commercial importance. Wheat transported from the dry atmosphere of the inland of Cali- fornia to ordinary temperate regions will invariably gain from 5 to 15 per cent in weight. In a voyage from San Francisco to Liverpool, the increase in weight due to the moisture ab- sorbed en route may be sufficient to pay all expense of transpor- tation. Every portion of the wheat grain is so susceptible to influence from hydroseopie conditions that all of the products of wheat exhibit similar oscillations in weight. Two days equalized the moisture content in samples of flour varying from less than 8 to over 13 per cent.’ Asu.—Lawes and Gilbert observed the composition of the ash of wheat grown on unmanured ground during 20 years. The average results are given in the table below. Grain Straw MGiICE ORCC? scccroe Seale ales ciety oa ores ch see 0.645 0.69 NGAI: © Scevsroee ks wo on ct 3 eae tel tones he aeeel te none ee 3.175 5.075 MIA STTESIR. 0.0) c wcrc kro oxsnent a ecm ect ee 10.48 1.525 Potash <7 si52 Sood sarees eeaye sanisiet ove torenteraiens 33.345 15.300 SOG ne soe’ nach enuses voneiees 8 ole toutes tee ote ee 0.18 0.265 Phosphorie anhydride (P*°O*") ..... iene iene 50.065 Jali) Sulphurie- anhydride (SO) cc... irae 1.42 3.84 (OU oeliwengagecactorencnCGonbas+hocnone 0.05 2.13 Sil Gay gens, : o ma = B S u < ie S re % = =) s o ey Date 1904 | 1903 | 1903| 1902] 1902 |90-00] 1880, 1873 | 1601] 1250 Cost of raising per bu.| $0.52! $0.26)$0.24'/$0.37| $0.46/$0.64/$0.35) $0.92\$0.42 Preparing land: Misc.| 0.18) ........ esa lao |oaeee es AAS || ee 2a Sil ll eee OZ64) > 1200)" 2a 0.96| 0.70} 1.00} 0.31 1.74) 0.33 CO }8h Weill ercueser | eear es 0.28 ORS |e 1.45) 0.03 eval Maaseawsl| osecean 0.92 1200 | AROS ee cots | O22 OOS) ODS ee eces eee LO} COLOR IN eect) Seance SU ae Seance ERE 0.89} 0.45) 0.80) ...... 0.75} 1.00 DEAN TIS vacuwen Harvesting & Thresh.| ......J 0... (0)/240)! eRe el eG a BPRS t by eee, aes tint eter ll al oo. agli ally tence 1.36} 0.60] 1.90} 0.65] $3.60) 0.72! 0.09 Gutting and Twine..| | 2.12) | | .cseve} gevene] san eval OCHS Leah Alene MODEMS eees veeteas. 22% ITER be ES Sele ceereee ll 9 Ugen ect tae) Meeeeees fol | earl etiseeparl |e acenre: Shocking Ee ell Merl tare Mile eeereell eee ally Mess 2 He Oss ty aseeteel || era |) eae a ta STOCK A BE eee liclh Mn) Secerdll | Seeseselhy. | tesecs OO) eects Sih tee 0.01 Thresh. & Market........} ...... [hairs toe | Pegtreee ll ee (OLSO| pee O20 = Thresh. & putin bin...| 2.20) ......)_ ...... VTEC ONS Ollie toe LED il, Cea pees Bipbrreshiinipcesecs..cccsescceses || =care TEPXON ease cele moose COLO) UII ccd) “saees [Perr UV Ab oer eee hoce oeeee| fe sence || 1) wceeoce Hic sregeeel | eccee| [tenet eececeen | meee A200!) Decale eee Int. on land: (as.)...... 0.39 Ss AESOP 1 OO 195 4e40 |) a ALOO|) Hees | ee Int. on mch’ry, etc..... Ol89ie 2a! 0220) 10229") eo Wl iceeros UM etesta (Pap esate aera eee HIMLETESt mies cecssccccesnccee: |) Mareces 3560\e 2-00) DDS Perce lie tace cll ee .ce2 Detalles BcUNereC sts oee fcces «fdsesea eens ORGAN F sec8)) Sevte|| eee O25 OFS Olea) fee |e a ees flotaln COSt.cscstesso $8.29 a dee $7.31) $8.28) $6.40) $7.00/$11.60/$8.45 1 Uy S: Dept. Agr., Bu. of Sta., Bul: 27%, pp. 56-59. 2 Wastman, Rev. of Revs., 28:198. 3 Letter, H. Haynes; loc. cit., & Spokesman-Review, Wash., Oct. thy UGKO RE 4 Rept. Kan. State Bd. Agr., p. 12, 1902. 5 Eney. Brit., 10th ed., 1:217. 6 Indus. Com., 10:707. Also U. S. Dept. Agr., Bu. of Sta., Bul. 48, 1906, p. 54. 7 Atlantic Mo., 45:34-35. 8 U. S. Agr. Rept., p. 369, 1873. 9 Hartlib, Legacy of Husb.; Rogers. Hist. Agr. & Prices, Eng., 4:493. 1 Henley, Walter L., quoted in Rogers, loc. cit., 1:270. AVC WAd SHYOV % lend 2G diag BS T ALIOVdVO ‘UAHSAYHL GNV YALSTAUVH GHNIGIWOO V dO MIA AdIS 1 YIELD AND COST OF PRODUCTION 105 The variations in these accounts suggest the difficulties inci- dent to obtaining reliable figures. The cost of production varies at different times and on different farms. In most eases it is impossible to give a reliable average, for the statistics are want- ing. According to the table, Argentina can raise an acre of wheat at the same cost as that of the Red river valley in the United States. The average cost of raising an acre of wheat in Russia is about $8. There are also many accounts of the cost of raising wheat which are not itemized, and consequently still less reliable. In the United States cost varies greatly in different sections. In Washington it is from 20 to 35 cents a bushel. In Oregon 20 cents is recorded. It is not likely that this price can include interest on capital, in any section. In North Dakota 50 to 54 cents is the cost; $5.72 per acre is also given for this state, not including interest on land. The running expenses averaged $3.77 in South Dakota from 1894 to 1900 inelusive. The total expense in Minnesota is $6.40." In the early nineties the ex- pense of raising an acre of wheat was $7.50 in Arkansas, from $6.13 to $10.32 in Nebraska, and $10.38 in experiments in Wy- oming. Where wheat was the sole erop, $10 was given as a total average cost per acre in the United States on a farm of 160 acres in 1882. It is claimed that the shores of the Great Lakes could raise wheat at 15 cents per bushel before 1850, while the river counties of Illinois raised wheat for 30 cents, including hire of land and all expense. The cost of raising a bushel of wheat in England was given as $1.76 in 1821 and $1.45 in 1885. In the black-earth region of Russia the cost of producing wheat, including rent, was said to range from 35 to 73 cents per bushel during the last part of the nineteenth century. In the first quarter of that century the cost, exclusive of rent, was given as 97 cents. The average cost in Russia during the years 1899 to 1903 inclusive, not ineluding expense of rent and seed, varied from 34 to 48 cents per bushel for spring wheat.* Poggi says that the cost of a bushel of wheat in Italy is 69 cents, its production being at a loss. He eriticises others who state its cost as only 44 cents, and who say that it ean be profitably produced.“ In Hungary Indus. Com., 10:cexv. 1 2U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Sta., Bul. 42 (1906), pp. 85-6. 8 Atti del Instituto Veneto, etc., Tomo lvi, 7th s., T. ix. p. 723. \ 106 THE BOOK OF WHEAT the cost is from 52 to 63 cents per bushel, or from $10.58 to $12.79 per acre, not including land rent. In Germany the cost is 95 cents per bushel. It costs 65 cents a bushel to raise wheat in India, but according to rather extensive data col- lected by the department of agriculture of that country the cost was exactly half this amount in 1884. The average an- nual cost of cultivating an acre of land in England rose from about $17.45 in 1790 to about $34.90 in 1813." Threshing wheat by flail in that country cost about 8 cents a bushel. By the old system of horse-power machines, it cost about 5 cents, and by steam this was reduced to 2 cents. The cost of raising wheat in the United States has not been reduced so greatly in the older wheat states as in the new states of the west, where the level and extensive farms give the greatest opportunity for the use of labor-saving ma- chinery. For example, the combined harvester saves from 3.6 to 5.4 cents a bushel on the cost of harvesting with the header alone. The Profit on Raising Wheat usually is not large, and it has often been denied that there is any profit at all.* Under the most favorable average conditions the bonanza farmers of the Red river valley do not make a net profit of over $3.32 per acre, or 8 per cent on the eapital invested.” In England before the plague of 1332-1333 a lord possessing feudal rights over all the land in a manor made a profit of about 18 per cent on agricultural operations. After the plague, 1350-1351, profits were very low, at the best less than 4 per cent on the capital invested in the estate. Hartlib gives the profit on an acre of wheat in the middle of’ the seventeenth century as about $9. In order that there may be any profit in raising wheat in Argentina it is said that the yield must exceed 10 or 12 bushels per aere. Amount of Labor Required.—About 1775 in the United States it was 3 days’ work to eut 100 bushels of wheat, to bind and “‘stook’’? it took 4 days, while threshing and cleaning re- quired 5 days more. In all, it required about 15 days of hard manual labor to get 100 bushels through these processes. 1 Lowe Pres. State of Eng., p. 153. 2 Indus. Com., Vol. 10. ® Ency. Brit., 10th ed., 1:217. YIELD AND COST OF PRODUCTION 107 Thus it took about 1 hour and 45 minutes of human labor to harvest and thresh each bushel. These figures of Brewer are too small, however, as compared with those given by the de- partment of labor for 1830. According to the latter figures it required 2 hours and 32 minutes at that time for the same operations. In 1896, by the use of the combined harvester, this time had been reduced to 5.6 minutes. The cost of human labor per bushel had declined from 15 cents to 2.2 cents. The entire time of human labor necessary to produce one bushel of wheat, including sowing, reaping and threshing, fell from 3 hours and 3 minutes in 1830 to 10 minutes in 1896. In the same period of time the cost of human labor per bushel fell from 1734 cents to 3 1-3 cents. The cost of both animal and human labor fell from 20 cents to less than 10 cents. The greatest saving has been in harvesting. The human labor which does remain is quite light compared to that of 1830. This reduction in cost of production represented a saving of about $91,000,000 for the United States on the wheat crop of 1907. CHAPTER VII. CROP ROTATION AND IRRIGATION CROP ROTATION. The Effects of Continuous Cropping.—Different crops re- move from and contribute to the soil elements of different kinds or in different proportions. The availability of plant food is also influenced. Continuously raising one erop tends to exhaust the soil of the food elements available for that crop. In a rotation of crops these effects are not so manifest. Some crops also contribute to the soil elements needed by others, as, for example, leguminous plants fix nitrogen which becomes available for wheat the next year. A rotation involves differ- ent methods of cultivation, which are often very effective in eradicating certain weeds. Continuous cropping and culti- vation change the physical condition of the soil. This often results, particularly in prairie regions, in the soil blowing and drifting. Rotation of crops, especially when grass is intro- duced, will soon return the soil to its proper physical condition and prevent blowing. There is little profit in using commercial fertilizers unless rotation of crops is practiced. Comparative Utility of Crop Rotation.—As a rule the pioneer farmer in a new country never practices much rotation of crops. This is one of the factors of high and intensive farm- ing, which is never found on the frontier. The main reason for this is that land, being plentiful, is cheap, while all other forms of capital, as well as human labor, are comparatively searce and high. It is but natural for the pioneer to endeavor to diminish those elements entering into the cost of production which are most expensive by substituting others less expensive. Land is the cheapest factor, so he uses this more lavishly, not to say recklessly, and saves the labor and other capital re- quired to farm intensively, which is to cultivate more care- fully, to rotate and diversify crops, to keep stock, to fertilize, to irrigate, and to follow many other practices requiring addi- tional labor and eapital. This fundamental advantage of ex- tensive farming due to the cheapness and abundance of land 108 CROP ROTATION AND IRRIGATION 109 is augmented by the fact that the pioneer usually is farming a soil of such virgin fertility that for a number of years it will produce large crops in spite of extensive culture. Often, as has been the case in the United States from the very beginning, when the soil has lost its fertility so that it will no longer yield standard crops, the farmer leaves the solution of the problem of its further profitable culture to others than himself by re- moving away from it to settle again upon virgin soil, and to re- peat there his previous operations. While labor and all eapi- tal except land. are higher in price in a new farming country, so little capital is required that its cost is usually below the cost of that required in the older country. In 1860 the United States was a half century behind England in intensive methods of farming, yet the cost of production was much lower for the American farmers than for the most scientific farmer of Eng- land, even if the latter paid nothing for the use of his land.’ If most of the members of a community are engaged in agri- culture, the supply of agricultural products is not apt to fall below the home demand. Where such a large proportion of the people have an opportunity of producing at cost, home demand is not apt to raise the price greatly above the cost of produc- tion of older countries, and exportation is possible. Exporta- tion involves the cost of transportation. Under normal con- ditions then, prices must always be lower at home than abroad before it will be profitable to export. As long as these condi- tions obtain, it will be impossible for prices of agricultural products in a new country (generally an exporting country) to be as high as those of an older country. High farming involves more expense than extensive farming, and consequently a larger capital is essential. But as prices cannot be so high in the newer community, and as eapital is not so abundant, it follows directly and imperatively that farming cannot be of such a high and intensive grade. Unfortunately, however, as is so frequently the ease with the recklessness of plenty, the most loose and eareless methods of farming come in vogue, methods that are certain to exhaust the soil to such a degree within a limited number of years as to necessitate either im- proved methods of culture or its abandonment. While there may be extenuating circumstances in pioneer times which will 1 8th U. S. Census, Agriculture, p. viii. 110 THE BOOK OF WHEAT excuse extensive methods of farming when the future must be forgotten because of present necessities, when many of the advantages of an older society are wanting, and when the burden of public improvements perhaps falls comparatively more heavily, nevertheless such a course long pursued is not only short sighted and suicidal from the standpoint of the in- dividual, but it is also unjust to the future. When extensive methods of farming have once become cus- tomary, changes take place slowly, unless they are necessitated by the growth of population and the exhaustion of the land. These conditions continually repeat themselves in history, for the ancients were already well acquainted with intensive methods of farming. Summer Fallows.—When land does not produce the usual crops, there is a wide practice of letting it rest one year. No crop is planted, but the land is generally cultivated. This al- most invariably results in an increase of yield during succeed- ing years. It has been claimed that this gain is at the ex- pense of heavy loss in humus matter and available plant food.’ Fallowing encourages the development of nitrates. One of its greatest advantages is that it enables the soil to store up mois- ture for the wheat crop of the following year. Historical—The farmers of ancient Egypt rotated crops. The same practice was followed in the time of Virgil, as well as the fallowing of land. The three-field system was not new in England in Norman times. It consisted of wheat the first year, barley or oats the second year, and fallow the third year. According to Gibbins crop rotation was not practiced in Eng- land in the beginning of the sixteenth century, but the triennial fallow was usual in the first half of the eighteenth century. It was known as the ‘‘Virgilian’’ way of farming. Clover and lucern were introduced in the eighteenth century, and brought a new rotation of erops that saved the wasted year during which land used to lie fallow. In the middle of the nineteenth century, rotations were practiced which brought a wheat crop every fourth or fifth year, or twice in 6 years. The Japanese sowed the wheat in rows, and cultivated vegetables between the rows at the same time, in addition to raising other crops before or after the wheat crop on the same ground during the same year. 23ND: Bul.724,p. 13; CROP ROTATION AND IRRIGATION IGE Before the twentieth century, American agriculture con- sisted mainly in raising cheap crops, and little attention was given to resulting effects upon the soil. After the soil was robbed of its fertility, various devices were resorted to in order to get a paying crop. The most common of these was to seek new land, or to give the land a rest from production. Reports from thousands of correspondents show that little sys- tematie crop rotation was practiced in the United States even as recently as 1902.° At the close of the eighteenth century the deterioration of the soil became apparent, particularly in Virginia and Maryland, and as early as 1882 it was noticed that the yield of wheat was declining on account of continually erop- ping this grain on the same land. The most skilled farmers were unanimous in recommending rotation of crops. The most gener- ally advised rotation gave one wheat crop in three years. Under the stress of hard conditions a true conception of the necessity of rotating crops gained a foothold and expanded into farm practice. As would be expected, the longer the occupation, the more developed is the crop rotation. In passing from the east to the west, the degree of rotation begins to diminish in Ohio, and by the time Kansas is reached, it has practically disap- peared entirely. One-crop or two-crop production was charac- teristic of the first agriculture of the north central states. On the Dalrymple farm of North Dakota wheat was grown continuously for about eighteen years, by which time the soil had been so impoverished that a system of crop rotation and summer fallow became necessary. Generally corn and barley are sown and cut early so that the land may be plowed in July before the wheat harvest. Considerable land is also barren summer-fallowed, in which ease it is plowed twice during the summer. In Canada, experience with continuous cropping has been much the same as in the United States. Large areas in different parts of the early settled portions which once yielded fine crops of wheat have been abandoned to pasture and other purposes. Experimentation.—In experiments in North Dakota, the plots which had been rotated with corn or potatoes yielded about twice as much as the best continuous wheat plot. Good eultiva- tion alone was not sufficient to produce the best crops, and 1 Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr., 1902, p. 520. GaMOTION SI NOILYLOU dOXO AYAHM Wuvad V NO QIdId LVAHM TVOIdGAL CROP ROTATION AND IRRIGATION 18} other crops gave a poorer yield on land that had been continu- ously sown in wheat. ‘‘Land which produced three crops of wheat and one cultivated crop in a period of four years, gave almost as much wheat and more profitable returns than did the land whieh produced four crops of wheat in sucecession.’’* Ex- periments have been made in the continual culture of wheat on a certain piece of ground, there being no fertilizing of any kind, as, for example, the ‘‘experimental acre’’ in Kansas. This trial was begun in 1880, and by 1896 the yield was falling off. Permanent spots of diminished fertility had then appeared. Though they may have been due in part to surface-washing, partial exhausting was undoubtedly a factor. Historie experiments in growing wheat continuously without fertilizing have been carried on in England for over 50 years. “‘The yield has fallen to about 12 or 13 bushels to the aere, but for the past 20 years there has been little or no difference in the yield, except slight fluctuations due to seasonal condi- tions. So far as is known, the soil will produce 12 or 13 bushels to the aere annually for hundreds of years.’’* The Crop Rotations of the United States now generally practiced in some typical counties of states leading or promi- nent in their geographical divisions, are given below: Pennsylvania.—Corn, wheat two years, grass two years (York, Franklin, ete.). Corn, oats, wheat, grass three years (Chester, Westmoreland). Minnesota.—Wheat two years, oats, wheat, flax (Marshall). Corn, wheat two years, oats (Lae qui Parle). Corn, wheat two years, grass two years (Ottertail, Todd, etc.). Washington.—Wheat, rest (Adams). California,—Wheat, rest (Solano, San Joaquin, ete.). Maryland.—Corn, wheat two years, grass two years (Mont- gomery, Frederick, Talbot, ete.). The rotation on dairy and stock farms includes wheat for only one year. Oklahoma.—Wheat without rotation (Grant, Garfield, Kingfisher, etc,). Wheat, corn, (Dewey). Wheat three years, oats (Kay). No erop, nor even any one class of crops, such as the cereals, should be continuously grown on a soil that will produce a variety of crops. On ordinary soils, cereal crops should be rotated every two to four years with a leguminous erop, such as clover or alfalfa. The North Dakota experiment station finds that wheat should have a good place in the rotation be- cause it is a particular crop, and that the average yield of N. D. Bul. 48, p. 785: Bul, 39, p, 458. Kan. Bul. 59 (1896), p. 90. Indus. Com., 10:clxxxviii. whe 114 THE BOOK OF WHEAT wheat is greatest when the crop follows either corn or potatoes. After these crops, placed in the order that they merit for pre- paring the soil for wheat, come summer fallow, millet, vetch, peas, wheat and oats. The more dry and unfavorable the sea- son, the more important it was to introduce a cultivated crop into the rotation. The best rotations ineluded a perennial grass, for which purpose brome grass is well adapted to North Dakota. The rotations vary greatly in different states, and soil, climate, and economic causes must determine which ro- tations are most advantageous for any locality. Summer fal- lowing is widely practiced on the Pacific coast, largely be- cause there is practically no rotation feasible. Crop Rotations in Foreign Countries.—In Canada, summer fallowing is rapidly becoming general throughout the terri- tories, where the profitable corn crops of the United States cannot be grown on account of the latitude. The system of agriculture most prevalent in Russia is the three-field system, which is universally practiced in the center of the Russian wheat belt. The usual sequence of crops is winter rye, spring wheat and fallow. The arable land is divided into three cor- responding parts. At a given time each part is in a different stage of the system. Other crops are being introduced, and this is lessening the area of fallow land. Among the private land owners this signifies progress in agricultural methods. Among the peasants it frequently signifies a harmful overwork- ing of the land, the penalty of which is the drastie retribution of greatly reduced yields. Another’ system, still more primitive than the three-field one, is also found in Russia, especially in the steppes of the southeast, where the greatest extension of the wheat area is taking place. By this system the land is tilled until it be- comes exhausted. It is then allowed to le fallow in order to recover its fertility. This may require 10, 15, or even 30 years. In Archangel, Olonetz, Vologda, Viatka and Perm, the forest must be cleared to prepare the new land for cultivation, but in the southeastern provinees of Orenburg and Astrakhan, in New Russia, Kherson and northern Caueasia, all that is re- quired is to plow the land. As population grows, this wasteful method of farming is being replaced by the three-field system. Impoverishment of the land by continuous wheat cropping CROP ROTATION AND IRRIGATION 115 has been the custom in Argentina. Sixty per cent of the wheat is raised under the renting system. The colonist owns nothing which grim necessity does not compel him to own, and he prac- tices his ruinous methods of farming until the land is com- pletely exhausted. Then he fastens the bullocks and horses to the carts, packed with his many children and his few mis- erable pots, boxes, beds and implements, and travels until he finds new fields. Mixed farming as known in the United States is little understood or practiced in Argentina, and the farmer is generally either a wheat grower or a maize grower. There is complaint of the methods of farming in all parts of the Re- public, however, and a practice of rotating crops is already be- ginning, by alternating wheat and maize, or by planting the land with alfalfa after three or four years of wheat cropping.’ For the best crops of wheat in Egypt, it is sown every fifth year, the rotation being (1) cotton; (2) ‘‘birsen’’ (clover) or “‘full’’ (beans); (3) wheat; (4) dura (maize); (5) ‘‘birsen.’’ A commercial success has been made of growing wheat and alfalfa together on the dry uplands of North Africa. In Al- geria two rows of wheat are sown 4 inches apart. A space of 40 inches is left between the double rows, and in this space the alfalfa is sown. Wheat is sown only every other year. This is of interest, as alfalfa is now the greatest American fodder crop, especially in the arid southwest where durum wheat is being more extensively grown. Experiments with Mixed Crops have been made, chiefly in Canada and North Dakota. Results seem to be in favor of un- mixed grain, although wheat and flax have an advantage under certain conditions, as when wheat is apt to lodge, or when there is a superabundance of moisture. In the latter case flax has inereased the yield of wheat as much as 6.5 bushels per acre, in addition to giving 1.2 bushels of flax per acre. IRRIGATION. Historical.—tIrrigation is of prehistoric origin. Water, as was shown in a former chapter, is one of the greatest essen- tials of all plant growth, and it is also one of the most variable quantities involved. Since the effects of these variations upon vegetation appear quickly, they must have been noticed at an 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bu. of Statistics, Bul. 27 (1904), pp. 41-42. 116 THE BOOK OF WHEAT early date, and then it was only another step to supply arti- ficially the needed water. Irrigation was a condition that was indispensable to the settlement of large portions of western America, Australia and South Africa. In meeting these prob- lems during the nineteenth century, the Anglo-Saxon race had its first experience with extensive irrigation. Throughout all the centuries of previous history, the art of irrigation was quite exclusively the possession of Indian, Latin and Mongolian races. It was used extensively by the ancient Chinese, Egyptians, Persians and by the people of India. The Homerie Greeks used small canals in irrigating. In Italy, it was probably as old as the Etruscans. The Romans borrowed the system from the east, and brought it to their country and southern France. The ancient Peruvians also practiced it, and in Spain it dates back to the Iberian life existing under the Roman conquerors. Modern Irrigation in Foreign Countries.—Irrigation is more or less extensively practiced by all of the great nations of the globe, even in subhumid and humid regions. As a rule, how- ever, the wheat crop is not extensively irrigated, for irrigation is more profitable with other crops. The total area watered runs into millions of acres in most of the Kuropean nations. Wheat is frequently irrigated in the Po valley. In Mexico, Argentina and Australia, wheat is irrigated to some extent. Both streams and wells furnish the water. Extensive systems have been planned for Australia, and over 1,000,000 acres could be irrigated in New South Wales alone. Argentina contains large areas which are irreclaimable except by irrigation. The lower valley of the Nile with its delta comprises another great irrigation system, 6,000,000 acres being under cultivation. Egypt is so arid that dry farming is impossible. In 1902 British enterprise completed a dam across the Nile at Assuan. It is built of granite, and is 70 feet high, 23 feet wide at the top, 82 feet wide at the bottom, and 114 miles long. It is the largest irrigation dam in existence, and the reservoir has a storage capacity of over thirty billion cubie feet. The largest increase in irrigated area in recent years has been made in British India, where about 30,000,000 aeres have been re- claimed or made secure for cultivation by constructing new sup- ply works. It has been estimated that 80,000,000 acres more can be reclaimed in India. In 1892 over $150,000,000 had been CROP ROTATION AND IRRIGATION IA invested, and yielded a large profit, though it was often ob- tained indirectly. India has the largest reservoir in the world. It covers an area of 21 square miles, and it was constructed for irrigating in Rajputana. It is known as the great tank of Dhebar. Irrigation in the United States.——In America, the town-build- ing Pueblo Indian tribes practiced irrigation perhaps a thou- sand or more years ago. Their ditches and canals ean still be traced in the little valleys near the mesas of southwestern Colo- rado and adjacent portions of Utah, Arizona and New Mexico, where the cliff dwellings are found, as well as across the bor- der valleys through which are scattered numerous ruins of community dwellings. Their knowledge of engineering is evi- dent, and remarkable. Careful levels have been run over several miles of their canals. The grade was found to be fairly uniform and suited to a canal of such dimensions, as well as in accord with present day knowledge of hydraulics, safe velocities and coefficients of friction. While these well defined remains of. ancient irrigation works have long out- lived the civilization to which they belonged, there are eases where they have been utilized in modern works. The ditches at Las Cruces, New Mexico, have been used uninterruptedly for over 300 years. Some 70 years before the settlement of James- town, the Spaniards irrigated on the Rio Grande. Adventurous mission fathers pushed on to California, carrying the art of irrigation with them. The beginnings of irrigation by English-speaking people in this country were in the Salt Lake valley of Utah, in July, 1847. The Mormon pioneers, driven out from Illinois and Mis- souri, stopped from necessity on the shores of the Great Salt Lake. They diverted the waters of the little canyon streams upon the present site of Salt Lake City, so that they might raise a crop from the very last of their stock of potatoes and save the band from starvation. At about the same time water for irrigation was drawn from the ditches used for placer mining by the gold miners of California. After the stoppage of hydraulic mining by the passage of anti-débris laws, the ditches were either abandoned or used exclusively for irrigation. Many were enlarged and are still used. 118 THE BOOK OF WHEAT The Extent of Wheat Irrigation in 1899 is shown in the table below 2 Acreage Production % Irri- % Irri- Total Irrigated gated Total Irrigated gated (AI ZOMla sees .teces| 24,377 24.137 99.0 440,252 436,582 99.2 California....... | 2,683,405 161,086 6.0 36,534,407 1,649,455 4.5 Colorado........ | 294,949 | 247,644 84.0 | 5,587,770 5,309 ,350 95.0 MGANO ne secseces. 266,305 82,708 Silted 5,340 180 1,799,028 Boat Montana........ 92,132 37,710 40.9 1,899 683 843,143 44.4 Nevadat.- 18,537 18,246 98.4 450,812 448 ,802 99.6 New Mexico 37,907 36,638 96.7 603 ,303 589,185 97.7 @regon's..:.<-.-- 491,258 16,092 oI) 7,280,443 387,201 i) Witahe. wees. 189 235 108 ,630 57.4 3 413,470 2,554,248 74.8 Washington...| 1,073,827 14,204 1-3 ZOLSUTe753 328,958 1.6 Wyoming....... 19,416 14,753 76.0 348 ,890 288,180 82.6 INebrasicatec-4|| maneecrecrees APIA S| en oer | nee S543 g eee mMotaleses 5,391,348 761,848 14.1 82,716,963 14,634,132 aN fest) While considerable wheat is irrigated in some states, practi- cally all that is grown in them, yet the average per cent of irrigated wheat in all the irrigating states is relatively small, only 14 per cent. Excluding California and Washington, where much wheat is raised and little irrigated, this rises to 36.5 per cent; 17.7 per cent of the wheat produced is irrigated, com- pared to 14.1 per cent of the acreage. On this basis which, however, takes no aceount of differences in soil, rainfall and climate, the yield in these states would be increased over 25 per cent if all the wheat were irrigated. The Problems of Irrigation in our country are, and have been. along two general lines: Agricultural and engineering; and legal and social. Of these two lines, the latter has presented the greatest difficulties. Litigation and controversy have been a menace and a source of loss to many communities because no institutions existed for adequately defining, limiting and pro- tecting water rights. The claims of navigation came into conflict with those of irrigation. When streams flowed through more than one state, interstate difficulties arose. Some of these are the basis of a suit by the state of Kansas against the state of Colorado. Work at the solution of either class of problems has been immensely handicapped by a most lamentable lack of knowledge 112th U. S. Census, 6:825-870. CROP ROTATION AND IRRIGATION 119 of certain essential facts and conditions. Among these are existing water supply, quantity required to grow crops, losses from seepage and evaporation in distribution, character of the control over streams already vested, and measures of adminis- tration requisite for an equitable and effective division of water supply among a multitude of users. Such unforeseen results as alkali lands and seepage waters, formerly secondary consid- erations, are now often the most primary problems. Such irri- gation as could easily be accomplished with simple means inde- pendent of co-operative institutions has largely been effected. As the work extended, greater problems arose, claims became hopelessly conflicting and united effort under institutional ad- ministration became an imperative condition of advantageous development. Water Supply.—There are two sources of water for irriga- tion: Surface waters, such as streams and lakes, and subter- ranean waters. The former supply over 90 per cent of the irrigated land. There are three ways of obtaining underground waters: By pumping from wells; by driving tunnels into the sides of hills and mountains; and by using flowing wells. Ar- tesian areas are widely scattered, and individually they are of small size, except in the Dakotas and California. In 1889, 51,896 acres, or 1.4 per cent of the irrigated land, were irrigated from wells. In 14 irrigating states there were 8,097 wells, near- ly half of which were used in irrigation. Each well supplied on an average 13 acres, had a depth of 210 feet and discharged 54 gallons per minute; 169,644 acres were irrigated from wells in 1899. Underground waters seem to be present very gener- ally. It is claimed that there is not a farm of 160 acres upon the great plains region without the requisite moisture absolutely needed for from 10 to 30 aeres of tillable ground.” The aver- age depth of water applied to crops in 1899 was 4.35 feet, and in 1900, 4.13 feet. Application to Crops.—The two principal methods of irriga- tion are by flooding and through furrows. The former is gen- erally used in growing grain. There are two methods of flooding, the check system and by wild flooding. By the latter process a level field is completely submerged. When the ground is not level enough for this, the field is divided into compart- 1 Hinton, Rept. on Irriga., Cong. serial No. 2899, part I, p. 8. 120 THE BOOK OF WHEAT ments by ridges. The highest compartment is flooded to the top of the ridge, which is then opened on the lower side. The water thus passes into the next compartment, and this pro- cedure is continued until all the compartments are irrigated. If the land is properly prepared and irrigated before the wheat is sown, two subsequent irrigations will make a good crop. When the soil is thus used as a storage reservoir, in parts of Kansas and California no irrigation is needed between planting and harvesting. Alkali—Arid region soils are usually rich in mineral in- gredients. This is because such soils originated in the de- >= oe OS MUNG We = ac CA THE FURROW METHOD OF IRRIGATING composition of rocks in regions where the rainfall is too scanty to wash out the soluble elements as in humid regions. The soluble salts are naturally distributed throughout the soil, and are not harmful until the application of irrigation water. They are then leached out of the higher grounds and concentrated in the lower lands. Evaporation tends to bring them to the surface. Many irrigation waters also contain much salt in so- lution, which results in a further deposition of salt. The result of these factors is often ruinous to vegetation. Many thou- sands of acres have been thus rendered unfit for cultivation in the United States, and the agricultural industries of 59 vil- lages in India were wholly or partly destroyed by the rise of CROP ROTATION AND IRRIGATION 121 alkali previous to 1864. Water containing over 1,000 parts of salt in a million has been used without injury. Most of the artesian wells of Dakota have a salt content much higher than this, and the effects of irrigating three or four years with this water rendered wheat lands of the Red river valley almost wholly unsuited to raise current crops.. The most effective method of removing alkali from land is by underdrainage and flooding. The Cost of Irrigation in the United States as shown by the eleventh and twelfth census is as follows: Average values per acre 1889 1899 Hane LeU laid. = svete ieee als oe << 54 slots ASOOLDS $42.53 DVELCI ION te crcl 4 aie 'o icicle Aisle sicverew rae 0 2OW00 — ANTS TUTE) ESCO) Fak wc ee a a a aeons (EF 0.38 iiss -cost-or water rights ...25..... 85 7.80 A rise in values would be expected, instead of a fall, as good lands with water supply were searce in 1899, and those lands were first irrigated which required least labor and capital. It has been estimated that a perpetual water right in a grain country is worth from $25 to $50 per aere. The cost of irri- gation from many of the original ditches was as low as $2 to $5 per acre.” The Semi-Arid Region of the United States.—There are men still living who knew the Mississippi valley as a wilderness. For several generations a popular American slogan has been ‘‘westward the course of empire takes its way,’’ and the rapid- ity with which the fertile lands of the great river valleys were brought under cultivation has been almost ineredible. As this huge wave of immigration swept across the prairie to the great plains, it encountered the subhumid belt as a buffer between the humid and the arid regions. Gradually the settlements pro- ceeded westward from the abundantly watered Mississippi and lower Missouri valleys, and pushed into the well defined sub- humid slope which rises progressively toward the Rockies. These virgin lands, bordering upon the greatest wheat raising region of the world, and fully as fertile, since they were not washed by frequent rains, were a continual temptation to 1 Mon. U. S. Geol. Sur., 25:546-547. 2 Indus) Come, 10 sxcxexii: 122; THE BOOK OF WHEAT carry the ‘‘empire’’ yet farther west. The ‘‘Great American Desert’’ disappeared from the maps. During a series of years in whieh the rainfall was more adequate than usual, the agri- cultural areas leaped forward to the west from county to county. The first general advance was in 1883. Within five years, western Kansas and Nebraska and eastern Colorado were largely settled. To the east of the arid region is a strip of ter- ritory embracing portions of Kansas, Nebraska, the Dakotas and northwestern Texas, which has been designated as the ‘‘rain belt.’’ Its name resulted from the theory that the humid region was gradually extending itself toward the west as a consequence of the breaking of the prairie sod, the laying of railroad and telegraph, and the advent of civilization. There was supposed to be a progressive movement of the ‘‘rain belt’’ as eivilization advanced. While thorough cultivation undoubt- edly makes a material modification in the effects of a given de- gree of aridity, it has been declared that the probability of a perceptible change in climate does not merit serious discussion. The theory received a serious setback from the periodical exodus which occurred when succeeding years brought a rainfall at or below the normal. There were years when the average rainfall (10 to 20 inches) decreased by almost half; there were months without a cloud; there were days in the southwest when the winds were so dry and hot that green corn was turned into dry and rattling stalks. When crops shriveled and died on millions of acres, men lost hope and means, and they were forced to abandon the homes that represented the earnings of a lifetime. Whole counties were nearly depopulated. These vicissitudes caused the tide of migration to ebb and flow, and continually wore out its resources. The desert had been re- moved from the maps. The supplications of the devout and the dynamite of the ‘‘rainmaker,’’ a suggestion of the Indian medicine men who had held sway on the plains less than a century before, had vainly implored the heavens for the rain which alone was wanting for the produetion of profitable crops. Yet the blunt fact remained, and still remains, that many mil- lions of acres were dead, vaeant, and profitless simply because of their aridity. This land has little value now, for in many places a whole section does not yield enough to keep a fleet- footed sheep from starving. CROP ROTATION AND IRRIGATION 23 South of Yellowstone park in the Wind river mountains of Wyoming rises Mount Union in majestic grandeur. Three streams take their course from this peak—the Missouri, the Columbia and the Colorado. Embraced in the branching arms of these streams is the industrial future of a region greater in extent than any European nation save Russia. Could this vast district be reclaimed for settlement, it would be a task second to none in the realm of social economies, for here millions of people could find homes. Within this region is contained prac- tically all that remains of the public domain. The only ele- ment lacking to make the land valuable is moisture. New in- fluences are at work to remedy this, the bitter failures of 20 years ago have been largely forgotten, and a second wave of settlement is sweeping over the plains. Rather slowly and un- willingly publie attention became fixed upon irrigation. While the water supply is sufficient to irrigate only a small fraction of the arid domain, approximately three-fourths of a billion acres, several million acres are already under irrigation, and there is a good prospect that many more millions will be irri- gated in the future. At present this area forms potentially the best part of our national heritage. Although most of the land would be typical for raising wheat, and the completion of the irrigation works which the government now has under way will add millions of bushels to the annual production of wheat, the better adaptability of other crops to intensive cultivation under irrigation will doubtless soon render it unprofitable to irrigate wheat extensively. The introduction of irrigation will make possible the growing of diversified crops in some sections where wheat alone can now be profitably raised. Where the supply of water is insufficient for irrigation, the only remedy is the devel- opment of drought resistant crops for dry farming. One of the ereatest of these is durum wheat. If there is water enough to irrigate but one acre of ground on the dry farm, this will make a green oasis with shade and foliage for the farmer’s home, a pleasant contrast to the monotony of the gray and dusty sum- mer plains with their shimmering waves of heat. CHAPTER VIII. FERTILIZERS Fertilizing consists in the physical application to the soil of elements which are immediately or mediately available for plant food, or which aid in changing from unavailable to available forms of plant food any elements already existing in the soil. It is meant, of course, to exelude water, the contribution of which is irrigation, but any elements held in suspension or so- lution by irrigation waters, and falling under the conditions of the definition, are fertilizers. Historical—The Homeric Greeks were familiar with the use of manure as a fertilizer. Cato mentions irrigation, frequent tillage and manuring as means of fertilizing the soil. To these Virgil adds ashes. The ancient Peruvians were skillful in the application of manure, a practice that has existed in parts of Russia from time immemorial. The earliest records on agri- culture show that the value of fertilizing had already been taught by experience. The degree to which intensive cultivation had developed, the natural fertility of the soil, and the inciden- tal occurrence of materials that could be used as fertilizers have always been, in general, the factors determining the extent of the practice. NATURAL FERTILITY. Soil Composition and its Relation to Plant Life—From a physical point of view the soil of the field may be analyzed as follows: (1) The soil proper, consisting of various sizes and arrangements of grains made up of insoluble or imperfectly soluble minerals; (2) humus, more or less decomposed organic matter derived from the decay of former animal and plant life; (3) the soil moisture, covering the soil grains, and containing in solution a varying amount of the soluble soil constituents ; (4) the soil atmosphere, differing from air in composition to some extent, and usually saturated with water vapor; and (5) soil ferments, or bacteria, which so permeate the soil that it 124 FERTILIZERS 125 should be considered as a living mass‘and not as dead, inert matter. Indeed, the inanimate parts of the soil have their high- est significance as the environment of the bacteria which they contain, and in part nourish. To understand the effect and value of fertilizers, a knowledge of the chemical and physical composition of soils, and of the re- lation of their composition to plant growth is essential. These things must be clearly understood, because fertilizers act upon the plant indirectly through their influence upon the compo- sition of the soil. At the beginning of the nineteenth century Sir Humphrey Davy said that the substances which constitute the soil ‘‘are certain compounds of the earths, silica, lime, alumina, magnesia and of the oxides of iron and magnesium; animal and vegetable matters in a decomposing state, and saline, acid or alkaline com- binations.’’ * He also fully understood that the soil furnished nourishment for the plants, and that different plants flourish best in different soils. While he described the soil elements, often with sur- prising accuracy, and was the most expert chemist of his time, he did not adequately appreciate the plant foods contained by the soil, and his conception of the functions of the elements which he deseribed was often extremely vague. For example, he held that the silica which plants contain imparts to them their rigidity. He recognized in a general way, however, that phosphorie acid, potash and lime enter into the composition of plants, and he successfully combated many unscientific notions. The derivation of soils from rocks was also known in his time. Mineral or artificial manures were first studied systematically by Liebig, whose views found their way into the United States before the middle of the century. The publication of his work in 1840 marked a new era in agricultural chemistry. Before his time it was very generally held that organic substances were the chief food of plants. This has been ealled the humus theory. It was rejected by Liebig, who went to the opposite extreme and held that organic matter has no part in plant life. Practical knowledge of the use of manures, wood ashes, slaugh- terhouse refuse, gypsum, lime and plaster as fertilizers was widely diffused and acted upon before the time of Liebig, but 1 Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr., 1899, p. 203. 126 THE BOOK OF WHEAT it required his work to bring about a full appreciation of plant requirements and of the important office of the soil. Through the vehement discussions of his work, Boussingault, Lawes, Gilbert and others were led to a critical study of these problems. The exact needs of plants for mineral nutrients were carefully investigated by means of experiments of water-culture and sand- culture. This work was carried on by the foreign experiment stations between 1865 and 1873, and its results contributed very materially to the subsequent development of the enormous in- dustry of manufacturing and selling commercial fertilizers. With prophetie vision Liebig said: ‘‘Manufactories of ma- nure will be established in which the farmer can obtain the most efficacious manure for all varieties of soils and plants.’’* Systematie work in the chemical analysis of soils in the United States began in 1850, when D. D. Owens made an extensive chemical examination of the soils of Kentucky in connection with its geological survey. The most recent developments seem to show that the amount and proportion of the elements con- tained by the soil are of less importance than was formerly supposed. It is of far greater importance that such elements as are present should be in a form available for plant food. Just what form an element must assume to be most available seems to be in a large measure an unsolved problem yet, but evidently the texture and the structure of the soil are fully as important as the chemical condition of its elements. By texture is meant the relative sizes of soil grains, and by structure the arrangement of these grains under field conditions. After ex- haustive investigations on many types of soil, the conclusion has been reached ‘‘that on the average farm the great controlling factor in the yield of crops is not the amount of plant food in the soil, but is a physical factor, the exact nature of which is yet to be determined.’’* Most of the fertilizing which has been done has been accord- ing to the theory that the soil is a lifeless mass composed of so many elements, and that some elements were absent, or not present in sufficiently large proportions, it being the object to contribute in the form of fertilizer the elements which were needed. While the benefits of fertilizers have been unquestioned 1 Yearbook U. S. Dept, Agr., 1899. p. 340. 2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bu. of Soils, Bul. 22 (1903), p. 63. FERTILIZERS UPA for over a century, it is, nevertheless, doubtful whether quite the right path has been followed by investigations which en- deavored to determine just how those benefits arose. Air and soil are the media through which the growing plant receives its nourishment, but this is more than a mere mechanical process. In some eases at least there must be some sort of digestion or decomposition of foods before there ean be assimilation. Siliea, highly insoluble and apparently the least suited of all the min- eral constituents of the earth to enter the vital organism of the plant, however finds its way into the plant tissues. Phos- phorus, one of the most important mineral foods of plants, exists in the soil, or is applied in fertilizers, almost exclusively in the form of mineral phosphates, but appears in the plant largely in organic combination, while the mineral phosphates which do appear are not those which pre-existed in the soil, such as those of lime, iron and alumina, but chiefly those of potash. It is also found that soils of different composition, texture and structure supply different quantities of water to the plant, irre- spective of the percentage of water actually present in the soil. As water conveys the nutritive solutions to the plant, when the supply of water is inadequate, there may also be a deficiency of nutrient materials. It is probable, then, that ferti- lizers, by temporarily increasing the concentration of the so- lution, inerease the food supply. Sueh fertilizers seldom per- manently affect the nature of the solution, and the concentration with respect to the mineral plant food constituents per unit of solution is considered approximately constant. In the same and in different soils, however, the water content varies widely, and usually the greater the water content, the more diluted is the solution. In 1902 such exceedingly delicate and sensitive methods for analyzing soils in the field were devised that ‘‘the amounts of nitrates, phosphates, sulphates and the like, which may be pres- ent, as indicated by water solutions, can be determined to within four or five pounds per acre one foot deep.’’ Fertilizers applied in the spring ean be traced from the place of applica- tion down through the different depths of the soil which they invade. Much progress has been made toward determining by analysis the fertilizers needed by a particular soil. WHVd VMOI NV NO MUOM LY SYUALSHAUVH DNIGNIA-ITAS AUNAML JO AYHLLVA V FERTILIZERS 129 Humus.—Opinion as to the value of humus to plants-has, pen- dulum like, swung to extremes. According to the early alche- mists, decaying animal and vegetable substances yielded their spirits to the new plants. Many of the earlier chemists be- lieved that the larger part of the materials entering the growing crop was supphed by humus. The net result of the combined labors of DeSaussure, Boussingault, Dumas and Jiebig on this problem was to demonstrate that plants obtain most of their food from the air, and particularly that part which was sup- posed to be furnished by humus. Subsequently to this, humus was supposed to have a low value, but it is now known to per- form many functions of the greatest consequence in plant growth. peepee mnotee one ce 76,433 62 402 6.548 5.866 AV ear ted say esse eee esteem onees ese eee 73,270 71,634 4.189 5 Splal 1EXG1 oy abe) cs See nere east meee cee ree | 68,092 Uaaioi 3.005 5.295 WEN Dad secoecrebee Oe Oe Oe | 61,664 70.530 1.857 4.898 Js\rore bees recoreerre eee recess eo een ees PE OL OA 66,599 Nieto | 4.947 Mia Save cterosnssiee cclestae tusadheces besten: 49 684 54,856 1,614 | 3,917 A AUT vapor ssc aoe oa seostces ae dos ceawchiaecreeess 37,975 40 347 1,221 3,349 QUANTITY AND PERCENTAGE OF DOMESTIC WHEAT, INCLUDING FLOUR, EXPORTED FROM LEADING PORTS FOR EARS ENDING JUNE 30,1884-1904. * ANNUAL AVERAGE 1904 Customs 1884-1888 1894-1898 District Bushels |Per cent] Bushels |Per cent}; Bushels |Per cent Atlantica accesses.) | (O2e004 O00], 1676 102.780.000| 644 §7.361.000| 475 f 2.061.000 17 10.843 ,000 68 33.315 000] 27.6 | 31,865 000] 260 36.833,000| 231 22. 334,000 18.5 5,737,000 47 9,118,000 5.7 7,717,000 6.4 Total exports ....)122,420.000} 1000 {159,594,000} 100.0 120,728,000} 1000 1 Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr., 1906. 2U. S. Dept. Agr:, Bu. of Sta., Bul. 38, 1905. aQ1gId LVAHM NVISSOU V NI YAdVaN NVOINHNV NV 306 PRODUCTION AND MOVEMENT 307 A feature of the wheat industry in the United States that merits special mention is the increased production of durum wheats. ‘These wheats are now widely grown in the semi-arid regions where the annual rainfall does not exceed 10 or 12 inches. In the early years they were a product very difficult of profitable sale, but they are now assuming a strong com- mercial position. The nature of the grain was not generally understood by American millers until it had been on the mar- ket for several years. In Russia it is blended with about 25 per cent of red wheat, and the same practice has been followed with some success in the United States. Many mills are now ‘ grinding the grain. A large portion of the durum wheat grown in the United States is exported, chiefly to Marseilles and other ports of the Mediterranean sea. About 10,000,000 bushels were exported during the year ending June 30, 1906. About 2,000,000 bushels were produced in 1902, 6,000,000 in 1903, 20,000,000 in 1905, and 50,000,000 bushels in 1906. Russian Wheat Production—Viewed solely from the point of view of its natural resources and economic aspects, Russia is the United States of Europe. It has immense undeveloped areas that would form ideal wheat lands, lands very similar to those which constitute the wheat belt of the United States. European Russia may be divided into two regions distinct as to the nature of their soil by a line running from Bessarabia in the southwest to Ufa in the northeast. In the southeast is the chernozium (black soil) region, and in the northwest the non-chernozium region. Clay, sand and rocky soils are all found in the non-black soil region, which lacks fertility and is chiefly devoted to the production of rye. The black soil zone is an arable plain, vast in extent, very fertile in soil, arising through centuries from the decomposition of accumulated Steppe erasses and sheltered by outlying forests. This plain stretches across the empire to the Ural Mountains, extending completely over 15 provinces and partially over 12, and even reappearing in Siberia. It is one of the largest fertile sections of land on the globe. In European Russia, the 18 provinces which lie chiefly in the black soil region produce two-thirds of the wheat and only one-third of the rye. Of the 328,000,000 acres of arable land, 59 per cent, or 193,000,000 acres, is located in the black soil region. Of the 197,000,000 acres of cereal crops, 72 308 THE BOOK OF WHEAT per cent, or 142,000,000 acres, is found in the chernozium area. The black soil is of great uniformity in type and composition, varies in depth from a few inches to about 4 feet, and owes its dark eolor to its high proportion of organie substances (4 to 16 per cent). The Russian Steppes have fully as great a similar- ity to the Great Plains of the United States in climate as in soil, although greater extremes prevail. The similarity between Russia and the United States in the natural resources of the wheat growing regions is quite equaled by the dissimilarity in political practice, social theory and eco- nomie condition. The Slav does not possess the Anglo-Saxon’s proud institutional heritage. The Russian proletariat have no ‘“Unele Sam’’ who is rich enough to provide farms for all. There is, indeed, plenty of land, and they do have the Little Father, who is supposed to exercise a paternal care over his people. Sadly lacking in the institutions that are fundamental for progress and prosperity, however, the Russian people have found the Little Father to be far less capable and generous in aiding their material advancement than is essential to its real- ization. Consequently they have been unable to rise above their ignorance, poverty and misery. A population of exuber- ant fertility residing in a land of unlimited natural resources, the Russian peasantry have had neither means nor opportunity to attain a higher plane of life. The poor system of land owner- ship and the antiquated methods of agriculture made Russian wheat a dear wheat in spite of cheap labor and a low standard of living. The future possibilities of Russian wheat produe- tion depend upon the social, economic and educational progress of Russia. There are symptoms of improvement in this diree- tion. The extension of peasant land ownership is improving economie conditions. It seems that political and social eondi- tions are at last changing and popular education is growing. In agriculture, better machinery is being introduced, and crops are being rotated. The production of wheat inereased 122 per cent in European Russia from 1870 to 1904. From 1881 to 1904 the acreage in wheat gained 57.3 per cent, while that of rye gained only 1.7 per cent, and the ratio between wheat and rye changed from 45:100 to 70:100. The yield of wheat per acre decreases from west to east. PRODUCTION AND MOVEMENT 309 Since the construction of the Great Siberian Railway the actual and potential productive powers of Asiatic Russia, and especially of Siberia, have been an interesting subject for spec- ulation in Europe and America. In the popular conception previous to this event, Siberia was a land of polar nights and eternal snow, the monotony of whose dreary wastes was broken only by the clanking chains of Russia’s exiles—exiles who were not always criminals, but who, according to Occidental ideas, frequently represented the very flower of Russian citizenship. AREA UNDER WHEAT IN THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE’ (In round thousands ) European| \Northern West Middle wee Total Russia | Poland |Caucasia | Siberia Asia H ! Acres Acres | Acres Acres | Acres 31,894 1,170 5.808 2,994 | 767 34 848 1,198 5.589 2.905 1.329 35,606 1,210 5,589 3.021 1.206 36,008 12241 5.263 Sy eit) 1,150 38 045 1,305 5,966 3,179 1,248 39,967 1.318 6,228 3,660 1 140 41,921 1,247 6,416 5) SS3¢/ 1185 42 590 1,301 6,817 2 933 1,471 43 753 1.292 7,189 3.455 1,532 45,635 1.242 7,473 SOD2 1,484 1 | PRODUCTION OF WHEAT AND RYE IN THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE (In round thousands.) Wheat Year | Rye Total parones "! Poland |Caucasia | Siberia Middle Bushels | Bushels | Bushels | Bushels | Bushels | Bushels Bushels 413.341 292,272 17,386 67,127 29.093 7 462 801,413 412.038 | 300.423 19.477 45,148 34.160 12,830 | 789,562 340,171 238.557 17.808 29.883 42.835 11,087 TAZ LG 459,289 | 334,246 21.691 52.251 36 157 14 944 737 501 454,145 | 314,877 21,545 57.313 45 473 14.938 911,633 422,994 | 319.193 19,722 56,948 20,172 6959 920 134 427,781 319,992 14.409 67.232 16.504 9,645 754,927 607,370 | 463.259 20.349 77.069 30,796 15,897 919 019 621.459 | 454,598 19.256 77,941 48 670 20,995 911,944 666,752 519,966 21 241 81,132 31,590 12,823 | 1.008 410 636,285 568,274 20.239 96,708 AQAA ie 2 Feat evos ie) speetivcs A 506,400 | 450,900 19,000 73,000 SOLOOOM|E Satae I) ee eEe.: Re OO OM ASS 5 OO On| mercectesrein|uin eises.cecere lial Gteecercean|| > | Setcozcec, ll) Vevescwessacs 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bu. of Sta., Bul. 42, 1906, p. 16. 310 THE BOOK OF WHEAT With the completion of the railway, foreign conception under- went a great change, and Siberia suddenly became the ‘‘fu- ture granary of the world.’’ Subsequent developments have not met expectations, for the true Siberia is a mean between these conceptions. This enormous country, which is 24 times as large as the German Empire, and nearly twice as large as the United States proper, has a very rigorous climate, and perhaps only half of it is habitable, while a still smaller portion is suitable for agriculture. This still leaves an immense area, however, upon which the cultivation of wheat is not only pos- sible, but probable. Wheat is at present the most important crop of Siberia. It is exceedingly difficult to foretell the réle which the Russian Empire is destined to play in the world’s future wheat production. The possibilities are tremendous. Sinee, however, they are so largely dependent upon soeial, economie and institutional evolution, it 1s very improbable that Russia will duplicate the rapid development of wheat produe- tion which took place in the United States. While the develop- ment will be gradual, it is probable that Russian production will be one of the great permanent factors in the wheat industry.’ India’s Wheat Production.—The two factors which enabled India to become a large exporter of wheat were the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the subsequent development of the railroads. The former gave an enormous. stimulus’ to wheat eultivation. Wheat thrives best on the dry plains of the Punjab and on the plateaus of the central provinces. Agrieul- tural conditiors in different parts of India, and meteorological conditions in different parts and in different seasons, are so diverse that the annual production varies greatly and is ex- tremely difficult to predict. India wheat as a factor in the world market is made still more uncertain by the faet that domestic consumption is unusually susceptible to variations resulting from changes in the price that may be obtained in the export markets. In recent years the annual wheat area in British India has been approximately 28,000,000 acres. About one-fourth of this is planted in the United Provinces, and about one-fourth in the Punjab. Of the remaining wheat area, the Central Provinees 1 Rubinow, Russia’s Wheat Surplus, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bu. of Seely, JEOOS 2 O45 Malis ok ss PRODUCTION AND MOVEMENT eile have annually about 3,000,000 acres; Central India and Bom- bay about 2,000,000 acres each; Bengal about 1,500,000 acres; and Rajputana, Hyderabad and the Northwest Frontier Prov- ince each about 1,000,000 acres. Beror and Sind are the only other important wheat-growing provinces, and each has an annual area of about 500,000 acres. The wheat is harvested during our spring months. The wheat from the Central Prov- inces is shipped from Bombay. That of the Punjab is collected at Multan and shipped from Karachi. There has also been a large export of flour, which is ground at Bombay and other centers. AREA, PRODUCTION AND EXPORT OF WHEAT IN INDIA, AND THB GAZETTE PRICZ OF BRITISH WHEAT (In round millions) Exports in following year British Weer in bushels : eze tte: =| rice of wheat Bading Area Bushels = iiTa cet ta en Papel quarter 31 To United Total Kingdom S) D 1890 24,773 204,100 23 866 15,451 31 11 1891 26,576 229 ,200 $0,511 23,110 37 0 1892 24,482 184.500 24,955 16,543 30 3 1893 26,429 239,766 | 20,261 12.381 26 4 1894 25,778 225,700 | 11,483 8,480 22 10 1895 25,994 | 209,310—| 16 673 12,893 23 1 1896 23,242 | 183,698 | 3,185 2,510 26 2 1897 19,024 163,095 3 988 1,798 30 2 1898 22 954 222,891 32 533 17,790 | 34 0 1899 23,923 211,320 16,173 10,915 | 2'5 8 1900 17,183 162 ,323 83 11 | 26 11 1901 22,922 225 523 12,203 8,131 | 26 9 1902 23,477 202,116 17,153 14.823 28 1 1903 23,092 258 870 43,185 32,888 26 9 1904 27,773 312,916 SS 128r Se ee. See wae OOSI Val) Pectecccess 283,000 SUBSTI VB Rasceesss MOOG ts a teecees SAISEOOO | aetiscccccsesst bet 7 bxllt wbssteccsers Argentina’s Wheat Production—The wheat industry of Ar- gentina is similar to that of Russia in some of its most impor- tant phases. While the country is of much smaller extent, its land, climate and railroad extension are available potentials for an enormously expanded wheat production. As in Russia, the wheat area cannnot be definitely determined without years of experimentation and a great increase in population. Here, 312 THE BOOK OF WHEAT too, there are vast arable plains of great fertility, a fertility of which little is known to the world on account of poor methods of farming and on account of the fact that much of the land has not been under cultivation. The cattle industry was _ first developed in Argentina, and for many years it completely over- shadowed agriculture. Thousands and even hundreds of thou- sands of acres were owned by the great cattle kings who had no desire to have their land broken up, because they knew nothing of its agricultural value. Another controlling factor is the dependence of agricultural work upon immigrants and their descendants. These immigrants differ greatly in char- acter from those found upon the new lands of the United States and Canada. The great number of illiterate peddlers, laborers, cobblers, and what-not of Italy, Spain and Russia do not become intelligent farmers. They do not endeavor to become permanent additions to the population by securing own- ership of the land which they cultivate. They are chiefly Ital- ians having a very low standard of living and little efficiency as laborers. Many of them return to Italy within a year after their coming. According to the census of 1900, not one farmer in three is a renter in the United States, but in Argentina two out of every three do not own the land which they till. Two systems of renting are in vogue in the latter country, the “‘medianero,’’ or share system, and the ‘‘arrendatario,’’ or cash system. The government encourages immigration by offering free transportation from Europe and by making easy the acquisition of land. There are Jewish, Russian, Swiss, Ger- man, Austrian, Italian, Spanish and Seandinavian settlements. The number of immigrants averages about 100,000 per annum, and the number of emigrants at least half this number. Gen- erally speaking, the Argentine wheat farmer will submit to life conditions that would not be endured in North America, for he has been accustomed to hardships in Europe. He is slow in understanding what a republic means. Class distinctions be- tween rich and poor are sharply drawn. Agricultural methods and conditions are improving, however, and Argentina is certain to assume a higher rank as a producer of wheat and other cereals. Twenty-five years ago not enough wheat was produced for domestic consumption. During the PRODUCTION AND MOVEMENT 313 last decade wheat has been the principal crop, and approxi- mately 50,000,000 bushels have been exported annually. The total area of Argentina is over a million English square miles, an area equal to all of that portion of the United States which lies east of the Mississippi, with the Dakotas, Minnesota and Iowa added. Wheat growing began in the north and extended in that direction farther than was advantageous. It is esti- mated that there are at least 60,000,000 acres of land that will eventually be producing wheat. One great advantage is that WHEAT STATISTICS OF ARGENTINA’ (In round thousands) | | Exports Average | : Price in Year Eeoavetion cents per Acres | Wheat Flour SHEIS ushel in | Argéntina ee eae | | Bushels | Value| Barrels | Value | | | | | | AS SOR eeaccess tte site Wk See = Pi ee 48 $45 16 | $97 TE9O Fe soe meee Wes asze 12,048 | 9,493] 135 | 580 1892 39,319 77 eae eeecsera 175273; | 145182 212 | 988 1893 59,109 63 [oo czas 37,042 | 22,639| 427 1,272 1894 81,129 48 [Sep Aezeass 59,092 | 26,169) 458 984 1895 59,164 59 KiSsek, 37,121 | 18,790 607 1,816 1896 46,738 Stee pl Leteeceee 19,547 | 12,381 582 1,881 1897 31,594 SO. i heer 3,742 3 349 466 2,327 1898 49 423 85 7,506 2335705 | 215586 359 1,537 1899 88 ,067 58 7,826 | 62,957 ! 36,746 669 1,870 1900 99,075 63 6,793 | 70,903 | 46,926 576 15652 1901 74,752 75 6,045 JORDON | ZOSODe 807 2,616 1902 56,380 “eee 8,893 23,696 | 17,934 439 1,544 1903 103,759 ee Sake 75,000 | 58.000 S10") ee Aes 1904 129,672 ceR GaN oserer. 84,684 | ........ AZO Wi llieccsseace 1905 150,745 sere Ll Jescesavs LOSPSOAG | eo LOZ S |B cccsccss 1906 134,931 Sees IAL fecwececcuy INP ech Mcrae rately = cb csabawe ll Peecacczegey I] Ceteseens 1907 155/993 oe AS Sia 1! aan sty | ieeas 62 | Meeabeiaioemads Nate the land can be worked at almost any time of the year, for the climate is comparatively moderate. It is probable that the de- velopment of the wheat industry in Argentina will be more rapid than in Russia.” Canadian Wheat Production.—Canada has greater possibil- ities of an immediate and rapid increase in wheat production than any other country. It holds this position of pre-eminence 1U. S. Dept. Agr., Bu. of Sta., Bul. 27, 1904. , 2 Bicknell, Wheat Production and Farm Life in Argentina, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bu. of Sta., Bul. 27, 1904. 314 THE BOOK OF WHEAT by virtue of its large area of fertile land, land so well suited to the growing of wheat that the grain produeed is of a quality not generally equaled by other countries, and by virtue of the intelligent and industrious settlers who are rapidly taking up the unoceupied lands. Estimates vary greatly as to the actual wheat area available in Canada. The best lands are located in Manitoba, Assiniboia, Saskatchewan and Alberta. It is probable that there are at least 150,000,000 acres within these limits upon which wheat could be profitably grown, an area approximately three times as great as that annually sown in wheat in the United States. As yet there is not more than about 5 per cent of this land under cultivation, but over 100,- 000,000 bushels of wheat are annually produced. The hard wheat of the Canadian Northwest ranks with the world’s best wheat, and the Toronto papers quote it at a price about 15 cents above that of Ontario wheat. In some years over half of the crop grades No. 1 hard, and it is greatly desired by the millers for mixing with lower grade wheats for the purpose of main- taining a desirable and uniform strength of flour. The yield of wheat per acre is larger in Canada than in the United States. The average yield of spring wheat in Manitoba from 1891 to 1900 was 19 bushels. During the same period of time the yield in the Dakotas was about 11 bushels, while that for the whole of the United States was 13.5 bushels. The land of Canada seems to be more productive, the climate more favorable, and the methods of farming better. About one-fourth of the coun- try is capable of tillage. The settlement of Canadian lands is progressing rapidly. A large proportion of the immigrants and a great amount of capital come from the United States. From March to August of 1902, about 25,000 emigrants went from the United States to Canada. 12,000,000 acres of land have been settled in one year. In effeet, the homestead laws of Canada are similar to those of the United States. Transportation facilities are being rapidly developed in order to meet the demands of the increased popu- lation, and some of the largest modern grain elevators are be- ing constructed. It appears as if Canada is destined eventually to produce the bulk of North American export wheat. The cold climate is unfavorable to the production of corn and many PRODUCTION AND MOVEMENT 315 other crops, and it is very likely that the growing of wheat will be one of the great permanent industries of Canada, especially as the population is so largely agricultural.’ Wheat in the United Kingdom.—The imports of wheat by Great Britain are far greater than those of any other country and approximate two-fifths of those of the world. It is this fact which gives the United Kingdom its position of unusual importance in the wheat industry. About the time of Christ the Normans made England so productive of ‘‘eorn’’ (wheat) that a large amount of grain was exported, and England was known as ‘‘The Granary of the North.’’* At the close of the eighteenth century the average crop of Great Britain was over 60,000,000 bushels. In 1852 the wheat acreage was over 3,500,- 000 acres. With the development of wheat production in the United States and other countries having great natural advan- tages over the United Kingdom, the price of wheat declined to such a degree that it became more profitable for the latter country to grow other crops and to import the bulk of its wheat. By 1868, less than 2,500,000 acres of wheat were grown in Great Britain, and the acreage continued to decline for over a quarter of a century. Less than 2,000,000 acres of wheat are now annually grown, but the yield is over 30 bushels per acre. During the decline in wheat acreage the price fell in still greater proportion. Wheat imports to England began about 1846. Australian Wheat ProductionWheat growing has not al- ways been a profitable industry in Australia. It has been claimed that there is less return there for the farmer’s labor than in any other civilized country. Wheat thrives best on the cooler and drier lands of the southern part of Australia. Many farmers, however, have abandoned wheat raising for the cultivation of the grape vine, which is a more profitable crop in good seasons. Victoria, New South Wales and South Aus- tralia are the chief wheat growing states. The yield per acre is never large, and short crops often result from severe droughts. For this reason Australia is not a reliable exporter. The production of wheat has been inereasing, however, and 1 Saunders, Wheat Growing in Canada, 1904. 2 Warner, Landmarks Eng. Indus. Hist., pp. 8-11. 316 THE BOOK OF WHEAT now averages about 75,000,000 bushels annually. Wheat is one of the chief crops of New Zealand, and is exported. Miscellaneous Countries.—The two other South American countries besides Argentina which produce a surplus of wheat are Chile and Uruguay. Wheat is the leading agricultural prod- uet of Chile, which exported grain to California and Australia in the early years. Its export wheat now goes chiefly to Peru, Keuador and the United Kingdom. The exports of Uruguay go to Brazil and Europe. Some wheat is grown in southern Bra- zil. The production of wheat in Mexico is steadily increasing, but it is insufficient for domestic needs. The per capita produc- tion of wheat in France is large, and about one-seventh of the agricultural territory is devoted to this industry. By reason of the liberal encouragement given by the government, and on account of the conservatism of the French peasantry, the area and production of wheat in France has been practically uni- form for over a quarter of a century. Excepting Russia, France produces more wheat than any other European country. Austria-Hungary ranks next, and then come Italy and Ger- many. The latter country stands next to England in wheat imports. Roumania and the Netherlands each export over 25,- 000,000 bushels of wheat annually, and Belgium exports about half of this amount. In the time of the Pharaohs and in the time of Rome’s great- ness, Egypt was the most important commercial wheat center of the world. It is estimated that Egypt annually furnished 20,000,000 bushels of wheat to Rome. Ancient Mauritania and Numidia, the present Algeria and Tunis, were also long the eranaries of the Eternal City. Although wheat is still exported from Northern Afriea, it does not form the prineipal crop. Most of the wheat produced is of the durum varieties, and its chief commercial use is for the manufacture of macaroni. Wheat thrives well in parts of southern Africa, and several million bushels are annually produced. A The World Production and Movement of Wheat.—Ever since the time of Malthus there have been periodical predictions of a seareity of food supply for mankind. Less than a decade ago Sir William Crookes, President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, predicted that a serious shortage PRODUCTION AND MOVEMENT Siley WHEAT CROP OF COUNTRIES NAMED, 1901-1906" (In round thousands of bushels.) Country 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 United States............ 748,460} 670,063 637 ,822 552,400] 692,979 735,261 @Wanadae = ote 91,424 100,051 84,583 74,834 113,022 131,614 i 8,477 10,493 9 ,000 6,000 5 ,000 60,065 50,320 39 083 62,188 62,354 265 307 212 300 300 4,757 5,538 5,417 5,419 6,227 4.528 4,461 4,302 4,500 4,400 5,105 4,258 4,423 4,400 4,700 14,521 12,350 13,817 13,000 13,000 327,841 364,320} 298,826 338,785 324,725 DAI ees rete cccueres 136,905 133,523 128,979 95,377 83,605 154,090 OGGU Gal een cctess cere 10,000 10,400 8 ,000 6,500 5 ,000 8 ,000 Me ecceteceees cevssceseseoee: 164,587 136,210 184,451 150,664 160,000 168 ,000 Switzerland............... 4,400 4,200 4 000 4,000 4,000 4,000 (Grecmanty.ci-c.-ssevcccscte 91,817 143,315 130,626 139,803 135,947 144,754 Austria-Hungary...... 180,900} 235,022] 226,856} 204,535) 227,646) 268,574 FROUMIMNMA NMA, skees.scceccase 72,386 76,220 73,700 53,738 100,000 113,867 Bla riancccereereccerene 24,000 35,000 36,000 42,000 39 ,000 55,000 SYS AE ener eee 8,102 11,409 10 885 11,700 12,300 oT Turkey in Europe..... 22,000 25,000 26,000 23,000 20,000 22,000 Greece ri. ats 6,400 7,000 8 ,000 6,000 6,000 8,000 Russia in Europe...... 401,772) 560,755} 551,942) 622,487 568,532} 450,000 Russia in Asia........... 61,149 84,718 110,102 86,412 107 ,903 56,000 British Indias... 264,825 227,380) 2°7,601 359 936 281,263 319 586 Algeria 33,896 34,035 25,484 20 ,000 28 ,000 Sodeceweteasvesasceesaes 12,000 11,000 12 ,000 12 ,000 12,000 39,753 12,768 76,488 56,215 70,681 4,174 7,693 8,140 9,411 7,013 778,591} 732,898] 636,234) 812,001) 872,771 74,625} 119,013} 155,185| 171,445) 155,337 1.795 336) 1,831,193} 1,726,084) 1,790,693] 1,825,733 VA sesscers 382,122} 467,115} 518,589) 456,135} 444 786 i 52,023 54 313 50,003 41,500 46,813 43,927 20,461 84,628 65,626 77,694 3,126,624| 3,224,993) 3,170,723) 3,337 400} 3,423,134 in the supply of wheat would exist by 1931 on account of the increasing population. Such predictions generally over-empha- size the numerical inerease in population which is current, and fail to give due regard to the laws which control the produc- tion of the food supply and its ratio to population. nan Ne CLASSIFICATION OF WHEAT 323 3.5 Distribution: Practically the only wheat of Algeria, Spain, Greece, Mexico, and Central America; extensively raised in south and east Russia, Asia Minor, ‘Turkestan, Egypt, Tunis, Sicily, Italy, Chile, Argentina, United States, and Canada. 4.5 Varieties: India, 1.6 Gharnovka, Velvet Don, and Arnautka (Azov Sea region, Russia) United States. 2.6 Kubanka (east of Volga river, Russia), United States. 3.6 Saragolla (southeast Italy). 4.6 Goose wheat (Canada, Dakota). 5.6 Trigo candeal and Anchuelo (Argentina). 6.6 Nicaragua (Central America, Texas). 7.6 There are perhaps several dozen other varieties. S20) Uses: Macaroni; semolina; noodles; all kinds of pastries; bread; it is coming to be used for all purposes, in some regions, as ordinary wheat flour. 8.4 Triticum vulgare. 1.5 Name: This is the common bread wheat. 2.5 Characteristics: Well known; heads rather loosely formed; bearded or bald; chaff usually smooth but may be velvety; spikelets gener- ally three-grained, but may be two, and rarely four; stem usually hollow; all the characteristics vary widely (see varieties). 3.5 Distribution: Practically over the whole globe, within the already given (see varieties). 4.5 Varieties: (Carleton’s division, based not on botanical but on en mental characteristics). limits viron- 1.6 2.6 3.6 4.6 5.6 Soft winter wheats: Grain amber to white; produced by moist mild climate of even temperature; found in eastern United States, western and northern Europe, Japan, and in portioris of China India, Australia, and Argentina. Hard winter wheats: Usually red-grained; usually bearded; rela- tively high gluten content; grown on black soils in climate charac- terized by extremes of temperature and moisture. Found chiefly in Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, Missouri, and Oklahoma in the United States (the wheat of Crimean origin known as “Turkey red’’), in Argentina (the Italian wheat, Barletta), in Hungary and Rouma- nia, in southern and southwestern Russia, and to some extent in Canada, northern India, Asiatic Turkey, and Persia. Hard spring wheats: What has been said of the hard winter wheats also applies to this group, the difference being that the growing season is shorter, and the winter too severe for winter varieties. They are found in central and western Canada, the north central states of the United States (these are the fife and ‘blue-stem wheats), east Russia and western and southern Siberia. White wheats: Soft and very starchy; grains harder and much drier than those of the soft winter wheats; fall or spring sown, even in same locality; grown chiefly in the Pacific coast and Rocky Mountain states of the United States, in Australia, in Chile, in Turkestan, and the Caucasus. Early wheats: Grain soft or semi-hard, amber to red; main charac- teristic is that they ripen early. Found in Australia and India, have a slight representation in California, and include some of the dwarf wheats of Japan. 5.5 Districts in the United States (Carleton’s division). 1.6 Soft wheat. 1.7 Present average yield per acre, about 14% bushels. 2.7 Chief varieties grown. 1.8 Fultz. 5.8 Jones’ Winter Fife. 2.8 Fulcaster. 6.8 Red Wonder. 3.8 Early Red Clawson. 7.8 Gold Coin. 4.8 Longberry. 8.8 Blue Stem. 3.7 Needs of the grower. 1.8 Harder-grained, more glutinous varieties. 2.8 Hardier winter varieties for the most northern portions. 3.8 Early maturity. 4.8 Rust resistance. 3 4 THE BOOK OF WHEAT 2.6 Semi-hard winter wheat. 1.7 Present average yield per acre, about 14 bushels. 2.7. Chief varieties grown. 1.8 Fultz. 5.8 Valley. 2.8 Poole. 6.8 Nigger. 3.8 Rudy. 7.8 Dawson's Golden Chaft 4.8 Mediterranean. 8.8 Early Red Clawson. 3.7. Needs of the grower. 1.8 Hardness of grain. 2.8 Rust resistance. 3.8 Hardy winter varieties. 6 Southern wheat. 1.7. Present average yield per acre, about 9% bushels. 2.7 Chief varieties now grown. Fultz. Fulcaster. Red May. Rice. Everett’s High Grade. Boughton. Currel’s Prolific Purple Straw. Needs of the grower. ie Rust resistance. 2.8 Early maturity. 3.8 Resistance to late spring frosts. 4.8 Stiffness of straw. 4.6 Hard spring wheat. 1.7 Present average yield per acre, about 13 bushels. 2.7. Chief varieties. Saskatchewan Fife. Scotch Fife. Power's Fife. Wellman’s Fife. Hayne’s Blue Stem. Bolton’s Blue Stem. Minnesota 163. Needs of the grower. Early maturity. 2.8 Rust resistance. 3.8 Drouth resistance. 4.8 Hardy winter varieties. 5.6 Hard winter wheat. 1.7. Present average yield per acre, about 12% bushels. 2.7 Chief varieties grown. 1.8 Turkey. 2.8 Kharkov. 3.8 Big Frame. 3.7 Needs of the grower. 1.8 Drouth resistance. 2.8 Hardy winter varieties. 3.8 Early maturity. 6.6 Durum wheat. 1.7. Present average yield per acre, 114 bushels. 2.7. Chief varieties. G20 00 G0 G0 0 00 G0 Gd Ne TIAN 00 00 00 G0 G0 Go 1.8 Nicaragua. 2.8 Turkey. 3.8 Arnautka. 4.8 Kubanka. 3.7. Needs of the grower 1.8 Durum varieties. 2.8 Drouth resistance. 3.8 Rust resistance. 4.8 Early maturity. 7.6 Irrigated wheat. 1.7 Present average yield per acre, about 21 bushels. 2.7. Chief varieties. 1.8 Sonora. CLASSIFICATION OF WHEAT faya13) Taos. Little Club Defiance. 1.8 Increase of gluten content. 2.8 Early maturity. White wheat. Present average yield per acre, about 14% bushels. Chief varieties. Australian. California Club. Sonora. Oregon Red Chaff. Foise. Palouse Blue Stem. Palouse Red Chaff. White Winter. .8 Little Club. 3.7. Needs of the grower. 1.8 Early maturity. 2.8 Non-shattering varieties. 3.8 Hardy winter varieties in the colder portions. The distribution of these wheats in the United States in 1900 is shown in Map on page 9. CONIA whe 00 G0 G0 G0 00 00 Go GO CO BIBLIOGRAPHY This bibliography contains practically all of the works to whieh reference has been made in this volume. In addition it contains many other works that have been found of value. While it is not put forth as a complete list of all publications on wheat, it should, nevertheless, serve as a good foundation in all research work on this subject, for it is a fairly exhaustive list of American publications, and also contains many foreign works. An alphabetical list of all authors is first given, in- cluding periodicals containing articles of which the author is not stated, as well as miscellaneous official and unofficial publi- cations. This list gives opportunity for looking up the works of any given author. For the purpose of aid in research, cer- tain classifications of works will be found after the alphabetical list. All articles from eneyelopedias and dictionaries are grouped together. Under each bureau or division of the United States Department of Agriculture are grouped the publications of that bureau or division. The next three groups are those of the United States census, the Department of Commerce and Labor, and consular reports. Then follows an alphabetical list of the state experiment stations of the United States, with station publications listed chronologically under each state. The publications of the Canadian Department of Agriculture are also grouped together. Finally, there is given a topical in- dex of authors. In general, this index contains only those works which permit of definite classification, and it is arranged on the basis of individual works. Each work is placed under only one topie, the topie which it covers most definitely. The name of an author, however, appears as many times under dif- ferent topies as he has written works on different phases of wheat. This topical index, and, to a certain extent, the classi- fication under the United States Department of Agriculture, will facilitate a topical study of wheat, while the classification of experiment station works will aid in a geographical study. Works of special merit are designated with*. Authors the whole of whose publications are of unusual value are desig- nated witht. There are a few works that are inaccessible to the 326 BIBLIOGRAPHY BPA author, but should be contained in a bibliography of this na- ture. They are designated with §. New York is abbreviated N. Y., and London L. OUTLINE OF BIBLIOGRAPHY. Authors, p. 327. Encyclopedias and dictionaries, p. 345. United States Department of Agriculture, p. 346. United States Census, p. 350. United States Department of Commerce and Labor, p. 351. United States Consular Reports, p. 351. Experiment Station Publications, p. 351. Canada Department of Agriculture, 105 wee Topical Index of Authors, p. 354. AUTHORS. *Adams, Cyrus C. A commercial geography. N. Y., 1902. Adams, Edward F. The modern farmer in his business relations. San Fran- cisco, 1899. Albini, Giuseppi. Considerazioni sul valore nutritivo del pane integrale, in Ren- diconto dell’ accademia delle scienze fisiche e matematiche, serie 3a.-Vol. iv.-(Anno xxxvii), Naples, 1898. Aldrich, W. Future wheat farming. Social Economist, 6:224, 1894. Allen, ae pune feeding of farm animals. U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 89 Subject list and abstracts of recent work in agricultural science. U. S. Dept. Agr., Exp. Sta. Record, Vol. 14, No. 11, 1903. — Some ways in which the Department of Agriculture and the Experiment Station supplement each other. Yearbook U.S. Dept. Agr., 1905, p. 167. Allen, Grant. The pedigree of wheat. Pop. Sci. Mo., 22:662, 1883. Allgemeines Statistisches Archiv, Tuebingen, 2:153- 206, 517- 614, 1891-2; 3:217-273, 1893, Russlands Bedeutung fur den Weltgetreidemarkt. All the Year Round, L. 1:66, 1859, Farming by steam. Andrew, A. P. Influence of the crops upon business in America. Quarterly Jour. of Econ., 20:323-53, 1906. Andrews, C. C. Conditions and needs of spring wheat culture in the Northwest. S. Dept. Agr., Special Rept. 40, 1882. Andrews, Frank. Crop export movement and port facilities on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bu. of Sta., Bul. 38, 1905. Annals of Botany, 18:321, 1904. On the fertilization, alternation, and general cytology of the uredinez. *Ardrey, R. L. American agricultural implements. Chicago, 1894. Arnold, A. Mowing and reaping machines. Amer. Cycl. 12:16, 1875. Atkinson, Edw. The wheat growing capacity of the United States. Pop. Sci. Mo., 54:145, 1898. Atlantic Monthly, Boston, 45:33, 1880. The bonanza farms of the West. Atwater, Helen W. Bread and’ the principles of breadmaking. U. S. Dept Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 112, 1900. Atwater, W.O. Organization of agricultural experiment stations in the United States. U.S. Dept. Agr., Off. Exp. Sta., Bul. 1, 1889. Austin, O. P. Commercial Russia in 1904. Mo. Sum. Com. & Fin., Bebe 1904, Dp. ee . Baker, E. L. Transportation of wheat in the Argentine Republic. U.S. Cons. Rept., 49:460, 1895. Baker, R.S. The movement of wheat. McClure’s Mag., 14:124, 1899. Baker, Willis E. Transportation of wheat in the Argentine Republic. U. S. Cons. Rept., 49:460, 1895. Balz, Sylvester. Forage plants and cereals. S. D. Agr. Col. Exp. Sta., Bul. 96, 19 Barrow, D. N. Report for 1901, of North Louisiana Experiment Station. Beal, F. E. L. Birds that injure grain. Yearbook U.S. Dept. se p. 345, 1897. Food of the bobolink, blackbirds and grackles. U.S. Dept. Agr., Div. Biolog. Sur., Bul. 13, 1900. Beal, W. H. Farmyard manure. U.S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 21, 1894. 328 THE BOOK OF WHEAT —— Some practical results of experiment station work. Yearbook U.S. Dept. Agr., p. 589, 1902. Beals, Edward A. Rainfall and irrigation. Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 627, 1902. *Becker, Max. Der argentinische Weizen im Weltmarkte. Jena, 1903. 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T. Masters. 24:534, 1888, Insects injurious to wheat. A. E. Shipley. Tenth Edition, * 1:166, 1902, Agricultural machinery. F. C. Skinner. * 1:178, 1902, Agriculture: United Kingdom. W. Fream * 1:209, 1902, Agriculture: United States. C. W. Dabney Insurance Cyclopedia, 1:43, 1871; 5 :272, 461, 536, 586, 1878,Agricultural Insurance. C. Walford. International Encyclopedia, 15:465, 1893, Wheat. Johnson’s Universal Cyclopedia, 1:784, 1893, Bread 3:433, 1894, Flour. 5:416, 1894, Macaroni. . 7: 17, 1895, Reaping and Mowing Machines. I.P. Roberts. 8:731, 1895, Wheat. G.C. Watson. 346 THE BOOK OF WHEAT Knight New Mechanical Dictionary, p. 743, 1884, Reaping Machine. E. H night. New International Encyclopedia, 3:377, 1902, Bread. 7:516, 1903, Flour. 9:138, 1903, Harvest and Harvesting. 11:626, 1903, Macaroni. Reallexikon der Indogermanischen Altertumskunde, 2:947, 1901. Weizen und Spelz. O. Schrader. OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Annual Report, p. 332, 1847, Ca nee tobacco, and spelt, as cultivated on the ine. 65, 1862, The wheat plant. Lewis Bollman. 369, 1873, Wheat culture in Japan. 1, 1902, Report of the Secretary of Agriculture. James Wilson. 1555 Report of the Bureau of Soils. M. Whitney. 189, Report of acting entomologist, C. L. Marlatt. 241, Reveu or the Office of the Experiment Stations. . C. True. Bureau of Chemistry: Report of the United States Commissioner of Agriculture, 1884. Report of Chemistry. C. Richardson. Bul. 4, 1884, An investigation of the composition of American wheat and corn. Clifford Richardson. Report of Chemist, 1899-1902. H.W. Wiley. Bul. 99, 1905, Proceedings of the 22d annual convention of the association of official agricultural chemists. Bureau of Plant Industry: 3, 1901, Macaroni wheats. M. A. Carleton. Report of Chief, 1901-1902, B.T. Galloway. Report of Botanist, 1901. F. V. Coville. Bul. 7, 1902, Algerian durum wheats. C. S. Scofield. 20, 1902, Manufacture of semolina and macaroni. R. P. Skinner. 215% 1903, Saragolla wheat. D. G. Fairchild. 40, 1903, Injurious insects of the year in Canada. J. Fletcher. 41, 1903, The commercial grading of corn. C.S. Scofield. 47, 1903, The description of wheat varieties. C.S. Scofield. 63, 1904, Investigations of rusts. M. A. Carleton. 70, 1904, The commercial status of durum wheat. M. A. Carleton, J. S. Chamberlain. 71, 1905, Soil inocculations for legumes. G. T. Moore. 72, 1905, Cultivation of wheat in permanent alfalfa fields. David Fairchild. 78, 1905, Improving the quality of wheat. T. L. Lyon. (Bibliography in foot notes.) 79, 1905, The variability of wheat varieties in resistance of toxic salts L. L. Harter (Bibliography). §3, 1905, The vitality of buried seeds. J. W. T. Duvel. Division of Biological Survey: Bul. 11, 1898, The gcomtaphical distribution of cereals in North America. . Plum 13, 1900, Food of the bobolink, blackbirds and grackles. F. E. L. Beal. Division of Botany: Bul. 15, 1894, The Russian thistle. L. H. Dewey. Cir. 6, 1896, Standards of the purity and vitality of agricultural seeds. G. H. Hicks. Bul. 17, 1896, Legislation against weeds. L. H. Dewey. 23% 1900, Sua cereals adapted for cultivation in the United States. A. Carleton. 24, 1900, The germination of seeds as affected by certain chemical fer- tilizers. G.H. Hicks. Division of Entomology: Bul. 17, 1888, The chinch bug. L.O. Howard ~ 25, 1891, Destructive locusts. C. V. Riley. § 28, 1893, ie more destructive locusts of America north of Mexico. Bruner. BIBLIOGRAPHY 347 13, 1898, Recent laws against injurious insects in North America. L. O. Howard. 15, 1898, The chinch bug. F. M. Webster. 16, 1898, The Hessian fly in the United States. H. Osborn. Report of Acting Entomologist, 1902. C.L. Marlatt. Bul. 40, 1903, The distribution of the chinch bug in Minnesota. F. L. Washburn. Injurious insects of the year in Canada. J. Fletcher. 46, 1904, Proceedings of the 16th annual meeting of the Association of Economic Entomologists. §2, 1905, Proceedings of the 17th annual meeting of the Association of Economic Entomologists. 60, 1906, Proceedings of the 18th annual meeting of the Association of Economic Entomologists. Cir. 66, 1905, The joint worm. F.M. Webster. 70, 1906, The Hessian fly. F. M. Webster. 85, 1907, The spring grain-aphis. F. M. Webster. Division of Publications. Rev. ed., Bul. 3, 1898. Historical sketch of the United States Department of Agriculture. C. H Greathouse. Division of Soils: Bul. 4, 1896, Methods of the mechanical analysis of soils and the determi- nation of the amount of moisture in soils in the field. 5, 1896, Texture of some important soil formations. 6, 1897, An electrical method of determining the moisture content of arable soils. M. Whitney, F. D. Gardner, etc. 7, 1897, An electrical method of determining the temperature of soils. . Whitney, L. J. Briggs. 8, 1897, An electrical method of determining the soluble soil content of soils. M. Whitney, T. H. Means. 10, 1897, The mechanics of soil moisture. L. J. Briggs. 12, 1898, The electrical method of moisture determination in soils. F. D. Gardner. Report No. 64, 1899, Field operations of the Division of Soils. M. Whitney, T. H. Means, etc. Bul. 15, 1899, Electrical instruments for determining the moisture, temper- ature and soluble salt content of soils. L. J. Briggs. Report of Chief of Bureau, 1902. M. Whitney. Bul. 22, 1903, The chemistry of the soil as related to crop production. M. Whitney, F. K. Cameron. Division of Statistics, Misc. series: Bul. 12, 1896, Freight charges for ocean transportation of the products of agriculture. 13, 1898, The fertilizer industry. J. Hyde. 18, 1901, The course of prices of farm implements and machinery G. K. Holmes. 20, 1901, Wheat growing and general agricultural conditions in the Pacific coast region of the United States. E.S. Holmes, Jr. Division of Statistics: Crop Cir. 1898-1899. The Crop Reporter, Vols. 1-10, 1899-1908. Bul. 27, 1904, Wheat production and farm life in Argentina. F. W. Bicknell. 38, 1905, Crop export movement and port facilities on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. Frank Andrews. 42, 1906, Russia’s wheat surplus. I. M. Rubinow. Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology: Bul. 16, 1899, Cereal rust of the United States. M.A. Carleton. 24, 1900, The basis of the improvement of American wheats. M.A. Carleton. 29, 1901, Plant breeding. W.M. Hays. Report of Chief, 1900. B. T. Galloway. Farmers’ Bulletins: No. 5, 1892, Treatment of smuts of oats and wheat. W. T. Swingle. 10, 1893, The Russian thistle. L. H. Dewey. 21, 1894, Barnyard manure. W. H. Beal. 22, 1895, The feeding of farm animals. E. W. Allen. 44, 1896, Commercial fertilizers. E.B. Voorhees. 45, 1897, Some insects injurious to stored grain. F. H. Chittenden. 348 THE BOOK OF WHEAT 46, 1896, Irrigation in humid climates. F. H. King. 56, 1897, Experiment station work, I. 75, 1898, The grain smuts. W. T. Swingle. 79, 1898, Experiment station work, VI. 105, 1899, Experiment station work, XII. 112, 1900, Bread and the principles of bread-making. Helen W. Atwater. 132, 1901, The principal insect enemies of growing wheat. C. L. Marlatt. 186, 1904, Experiment station work, XXIII. 219, 1905, Losses from the grain rust epidemic of 1904. M. A. Carleton. 233, 1905, Experiment station work, XX XI. 237, 1905, Experiment station work, XXXII. 249, 1906, Cereal breakfast foods. C.D. Woods, H. Snyder. 250, 1906, The prevention of stinking smut of wheat and loose smut of oats. W. T. Swingle. 251, 1906, Experiment station work, XXXIV. Office of Expermient Stations: Bul. 1, 1889, Organization of agricultural experiment stations in the United States. 11, 1892. 67, 1899, Studies on bread and bread making. H. Snyder and L. A. Voorhees. 73, 1899, Irrigation in the Rocky Mountain states. J.C. Ulrich. 86, 1899, The use of water in irrigation. E. Mead, C. T. Johnson, etc. 81, 1900, The use of water in irrigation in Wyoming. B.C. Buffum. 85, 1900, The digestibility and nutritive value of bread. C.D. Woods, L. H. Merrill. 96, 1901, Irrigation laws of the Northwest Territories of Canada and of Wyoming. J. S. Dennis, Fred Bond, etc. 101, 1900, Studies on bread and bread making. H. Snyder. Report, 1901, including ‘‘The scope and purpose of irrigation investigations of the Office of Experiment Stations,’’ by E. Mead. Bul. 103, 1902, The evolution of reaping machines. F. M. Miller. 112, 1902, Agricultural Experiment Stations in foreign countries. A.C. True, D. J. Crosby. Report of the Director, 1902. A.C. True. Annual Report, 1902. A.C. True, D. J. Crosby, E. Mead. Experiment Station Record, Vol. II., No. 12; Vol. XIV., No. 11, 1903. Bul. 158, 1905, Irrigation, and drainage investigations, 1904. J. J. Vernon, Harvey Culbertson, C. E. Tait. Bul. 164, 1906, Proceedings of the 19th annual convention of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations. *Senate Executive Documents, 1st Session, 52d Congress, 1891-92: Vol. 4, Irrigation, Parts 1-4, serial No. 2899. Part I, Report on Irrigation. J. R. Hinton, Facts and conditions relating to irrigation in various countries Deol. «jks Hinton: II, Artesian and underflow investigation. E.S. Nettleton. III, Final geological reports of the artesian and underflow investigation between the 97th meridian of longitude and the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. R. Hay. Report of the mid-plains division. J. W. Gregory, F. F. B. Coffin. Special Reports: No. 40, 1882, Conditions and needs of spring wheat culture in the North- west. C.C. Andrews. Miscellaneous, No. 2, 1883, What science can teach about wheat. C. Rich- ardson. Yearbook United States Department of Agriculture: 1894, Report of the Secretary of Agriculture. J.S. Morton, p. 9. Education and research in argiculture in the United States. A. C. True, p. 81. Soils in their relation to crop production. M. Whitney, p. 129. Water as a factor in the growth of plants. B. T. Galloway, A. F. Woods, p. 165. Mineral phosphates as fertilizers. H.W. Wiley, p. 177. The most important insects injurious to stored grain. F.H.Chitten- den, p. 277. The grain smuts: Their causes and prevention. W.T.Swingle, p. 409. 1895, 1896, 1897, 1898, 1899, 1900, 1901, BIBLIOGRAPHY 349 Report of the Secretary of Agriculture. J. S. Morton, p. 9. Soil ferments important in agriculture. H.W. Wiley, p. 69. Reasons for cultivating the soil. M. Whitney, p. 123. Humus in its relation to soil fertility. H. Snyder, p. 131. Report of the Secretary of Agriculture. J. S. Morton, p. 9. Potash and its function in agriculture. H.W. Wiley, p. 107. Irrigation on the Great Plains. F.H. Newell, p. 167. Migration of weeds. L. H. Dewey, p. 263. The superior value of large, heavy seed. G. H. Hicks, J. C. Dabney, Dp. ; Agricultural education and research in Belgium. A.C. True, p. 361. Improvement in wheat culture. M. A. Carleton, p. 489. fat ideal department of agriculture and industries. E. Tisserand, p. 543. Report of the Secretary of Agriculture. J. Wilson, p. 9. Division of Chemistry. H. W. Wiley, p. 76. Division of Botany. F.G. Coville, p. 90. Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology. B. T. Galloway, p. 99, Division of Soils. M. Whitney, p, 122. Division of Statistics. J. Hyde, p. 258. Popular education for the farmer in the United States. A.C. True, 195 40h), Every farm an experiment station. E. E. Ewell, p. 291. Birds that injure grain. F. E. L. Beal, p. 345. Hybrids and their utilization in plant breeding. W. T. Swingle, H. J. Webber, p. 383. Danger of importing insect pests. L.O. Howard, p. 529. Report of the Secretary of Agriculture. J. Wilson, p. 9. Birds as weed destroyers. S. D. Judd, p. 221. = Work in Vegetable Physiology and Pathology. A. F. Woods, p. 261. Improvement of plants by selection. H. J. Webber, p. 355. The movement and retention of waterin the soils. L. J. Briggs, p. 399. The soluble mineral matter of soils. T. H. Means, p. 495. Report of the Secretary of Agriculture. J. Wilson, p. 9. Work of the meteorologist for the benefit of agricultural commerce and navigation. F. H. Bigelow, p. 71 Progress 2 economic entomology in the United States. L. O. How- ard, p. 135. Agricultural education in the United States. A.C. True, p. 157. Progress in the treatment of plant diseases in the United States. B.T. Galloway, p. 191. ae Grlation of chemistry to the progress of agriculture. H.W. Wiley, p. 201. Progress of agriculture in the United States. G.K. Holmes, p. 307. Soil investigations in the United States. M. Whitney, p. 335. Progress of plant breeding in the United States. H. J. Webber, E. A Bessey, p. 465. Development of agricultural libraries. C. H. Greathouse, p. 491. Renculeur experiment stations in the United States. A. C. True, Daoss Seed selling, seed growing and seed testing. A. J. Pieters, p. 549. Rise and future of irrigation in the United States. E. Mead, p. 591. Report of the Secretary of Agriculture. J. Wilson, p. 9. Agricultural education in France. C. B. Smith, p. 115. Commercial plant introduction. J.G. Smith, p. 131. Influence of rye on the price of wheat. E. T. Peters, p. 167. Hot waves: Conditions which produce them and their effect on agri- culture. A. T. Burrows, p. 325. Objects and methods of investigation of certain physical properties of soils. L. J. Briggs, p. 397. Practical irrigation. C.7T. Johnston, etc., p. 491. Successful wheat growing in semi-arid districts. M.A. Carleton, p.529. Report of the Secretary of Agriculture. J. Wilson, p. 9. Progress in plant and animal breeding. W.M. Hays, p. 217. Aenieultural seeds—where grown and how handled. A. J. Pieters, Deaooe Influence of environment on the chemical composition of plants. 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, THE BOOK OF WHEAT H. W. Wiley, p. 299. ane typical reservoirs in the Rocky Mountain states. E. Mead, p. 415. Experimental work with fungous diseases of grasshoppers. L. O. Howard, p. 459. Wheat ports on the Pacific coast. E.S. Holmes, Jr., p. 567. 1902, Report of the Secretary of Agriculture. J. Wilson, p. 9. Industrial progress in plant work. B. T. Galloway, p. 219. Some engineering features of drainage. C.G. Elliott, p. 231. Analysis of waters and interpretation of results. J. K. Haywood, p. 283. Bacteria and the nitrogen problem. G.T. Moore, p. 333. Systems of farm management in the United States. W. J. Spillman, p. 343. Progress in secondary education in agriculture. A.C. True, p. 481. Practices in crop rotation. G. K. Holmes, p. 519. Crops used in the reclamation of alkali lands in Egypt. T. H. Kear- ney, T. H. Means, p. 573. Some practical results of experiment station work. W. H. Beal, p.589. Rainfall and irrigation. E. A. Beals, p. 627. 1903, Report of the Secretary of Agriculture. J. Wlson, p. 9. The farmers’ institutes. John Hamilton, p. 109. Some results of investigations in soilmanagement. F.H. King, p. 159. Preparing land for irrigation. R. P. Teele, p. 239. Macaroni wheat J. H. Shepard, p. 329. Wheat for bre. .. Harry Snyder, C. D. Wood, p. 347. Some soil problems for practical farmers. E. C. Chilcott, p. 441. 1904, Report of the Secretary of Agriculture, p. 9. The relation of plant physiology to the development of agriculture. A. F. Woods, p. 119. Agricultural development in Argentina. F. W. Bicknell, p. 271. The annual loss occasioned by destructive insects in the United States. C. L. Marlatt, p. 461. State publications on agriculture. C.H. Greathouse, p. 521. 1905, Report of the Secretary of Agriculture, p. 9. Some ways in which the Department of Agriculture and the Experi- ment Station supplement each other. E. W. Allen, p. 167. The use of illustrative material in teaching agriculture in rural schools. Dy jaCrosby, p. 2517- The business of seed and plant introduction. A. J. Pieters, p. 291 The effect of inbreeding in plants. A.D. Shamel, p. 377. Tllustrations of the influence of experiment station work on culture of field crops. J. 1. Schulte, p. 407. The relation of irrigation to dry farming. Elwood Mead, p. 423. Farm practice in the control of field-crop insects. F. M. Webster, p. 465. Formaldehyde: Its composition and uses. B.H. Smith, p. 477. 1906, Report of the Secretary of Agriculture, p. 9. The present status of the nitrogen problem, p. 125. The use of soil surveys, p. 181. The effect of climatic conditions on the composition of durum wheat, p. 199. UNITED STATES CENSUS 1860, Agriculture. 1870, Vol. 3. 1880, 2, Statistics of manufacturers. Manufactures in interchangeable mechanism; VII, Agricultural implements. C.H. Fitch. 3, Remarks on the statistics of agriculture. F. A. Walker. General statistics—tabular statements. Cereal production. W. H. Brewer. Flour milling. K. Neftel. 1890, Part 1, Fire insurance. T. A. Jenny. Manufacturing industries in the United States. Statistics of agriculture. J. Hvde. Agriculture by irrigation. F.H. Newell. BIBLIOGRAPHY 351 12th 1900, Vol. 6, Part 2, Crops and irrigation. Le Grand Powers. 9, 3, Flouring and gristmill products. H.W. Wiley. 10, 4, Agricultural implements J.D. Lewis. Patent growth of the industrial art. S.B. Ladd. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE AND LABOR Bureau of Manufactures, Tariff Series No. 2, 1907. UNITED STATES CONSULAR REPORTS 49:460, 1895, Transportation of wheat in the Argentine Republic. W. E. Baker. Daily Reports: 1903, Agricultural implements in foreign countries. Nos. 1743, 1745, 1747, 1750,1752, 1753, 1754, 1757, 1763, 1764, 1768, 1782. Macaroni wheat in foreign countries. Nos. 1796, 1808, 1820, 1838. 64:438-444, 1900, ee of the German law against speculation in grain. F.H. ason. EXPERIMENT STATION PUBLICATIONS Experiment Stations: Alaska: Annual Report, 1904. C. C. Georgeson. Arizona: Timely hints for farmers, No. 20, 1900. Annual report, 1901, 1905. Irrigation at the station farms, 1898, 1901, 1902. Arkansas: Bul. 29, 1894, Wheat experiments. R. L. Bennett. 42, 1896, Concerning wheat and its mill products. G.L. Teller. 53, 1898, BEOBEESS of investigation in chemistry of wheat. G. L eller. 62, 1900, Wheat experiments. C. L. Newman. California: Bul. 133, 1901, Tolerance of alkali by various cultures. R.H. Lough- ridge. Circular 16, 1905. Colorado: Bul. 77, 1903 Unirrigated lands of eastern Colorado. J. E. Payne. Illinois: Bul. 88, 1903. Soil treatment for wheat in rotations, ete. C.G. Hopkins. Circular 97, 1905, Soil treatment for wheat on the poorer lands of the Illinois wheat belt. C. G. Hopkins. Indiana: Bul. 26, 1889, Wheat rust. H. L. Bolley. 41, 1892, Field experiments with wheat. W. C. Latta. Forms of nitrogen for wheat. H. A. Huston. 114, 1906, Winter wheat. Kansas: Bul. 20, 1891, Experiments with wheat. C.C.Georgeson. 33, 1892, Experiments with wheat. C.C. Georgeson. 40, 1893, Experiments with wheat. C.C. Georgeson. 59, 1896, Experiments with wheat. C.C.Georgeson. 38, 1893, Preliminary Report on rusts of grain. A. S. Hitchcock. M. A. Carleton. 99, 1900, Prevention of grain smuts. ... -.. see Commercial and geographical dis- tribution. Juraschek, v Matson, C. H Mo. Summary Com. & Finance IMiaallers Tes peaa eric acento eee N. Y. Produce Exchange...... Payne, Wes Be. poieiao ne ek eee PlumbyiCuSse coor eae Rein vapeuee s ctousisteets sie ree Saturday Rleview...........4. Schumachers Ease eee Sering: Moi Wee ascavseeeme iWiedenteld Sika eee eee Cost of production. Bittums aac eee eee Hunt’s Merchants’ Magazine... Poggi ese ee ee Crop, influence on business. Amdrew. HAN Pic cc acne Crop rotation. Chilcottebhe Cr. eee eee Cole piiGea ako Pee ALO mess Gok See oie ieee Mawes piles: < cre chyna cio sieontete Cultivation. lshbtigkbooly Joi Opoaugubooous oe 66.0 DalrymplesWer ser cceeeer cee Fairchild; D...... Fairchild, W. H Spillman iWon cee Culture. Breeding: BesseyacH: Ast Sacco eee Carleton Mee AG. ee eee Darwin Cin. es ee DelViniesHupote. eee Gauss Rao cn eee lalzenyicoroioly Nin hase eo Asan - see, Wiissnacscecossacu Shychatolerds (Os Iisa sone nuococc Saunders, Wimnsse. secs eee Shamiel (As T0S5) aeecie cee Swingle Win Lenore se ere 3 Webber! SHE ]s: circa chs ene LavatzZ Geen eee General: Carleton) MapAt yneyelsetrerets BIBLIOGRAPHY Spubmrelcy \iiGoooudama soaps Seed, Change of: loose als pps ooeannac Carleton= MEgAe eo Shepperdi blo. eee ee Smarthes |p Gremererm sccm Ten Eyck, A. M........ iIWiaters PEL natrs cic ieiet seis General : Dtavele Nt Wie Dictese.< cere tonens Hicks, G (GasEleepper once Pieters, A. Fon Set oe ee Selection: Clark, V. A. Lyon, T. L.. ts hi emteniaias Webber, H. se a Santa aoe Spring wheat: Amdrewsii Gamers ficiocs sss one Winter wheat: DN ea Keyser, A.. tasers Lyon. T. ib aie ee ORR RPE RE 3 Williams, C. G.. we Diseases. General: IE TIKSSON Wace ie reo Re lds hols Do Wikegoouesnun Gallowayalbe eos Sel byayAc wD renee trac cera srs showmnsende©.1Oh a. cy chaie ests MMIDEUES ee cha tieinte e toeene \iVCorora eit 7 ASE es ee aig, ees eitiete Rust: Annals of Botany. ...-...-- Bemmect rence Winsicte aierars ore aie Bolle yale eae arate cers elsea-snewece Halsted tii ocr shee sme , atchcocks As Ssce cei eset Marqiuissy Ge sa cuumeseince. SmitheeweiG:as..mie tects eevetats Smut: Bolleya vee Wises aoe aces cure Fatcheack Anon eer cone iDeyeksle Dsl esa ouboo Scientific American... Sosa, 135 lal Baan e Shrmbaedkes Motane gouge cases : Wihtecler Wikio eineinte seme Dry farming. See semi-arid regions.......... Durum wheat. Carleton > ME WA Sis eco cre eters Chamberlainy JiS-cccren ier rer Chilcott hniGs eh oe lee ee Bradstreet’s. Mews British Almanac Companion. Be Cain esis eraicraebeiee eyes Rénappentedya Vise eee ene Mp pentsi Green tines Se Badschie He. pee) eee eee Elevators. BohmMiOkh, sss sees See Cunningham Bie. ee eee Minn. R.R. & Warehouse Com. Emmer. Carleton CMs Ans seis stuns Evolution. MESSE WRES Streeter creas cesreessvor ene Exports. Andie ws iby taniaiceiss ci oeruse BoveriCaC mercer ie doris Fertilizers. IBealWreskicesrecne so eee Hall: PARED RNR) ere Sta eee Hyde, " PRP hee eres cose tee act Schweitzer yee oe oe ase Street ele tes wet autarae cicie ote phortien Caprese cusie nicesis cers Moorheess becca eas Witlevawele Wilt. cusses cree aie ce eaenne Food, animal. INTE EE Wincchtasteoe sor chevee are Cottrell, 1G Se otcacrorke cho Food, eae Bread: Jinan els WWisccoacanap aot Current Piteratures.. s+ 52-0 Douslas aOr eee errr Johnson’s Univer. Cy....... Wilecenbtlbvel- cacdcacanupe suc Wikemoll WA Sls aoocoumeas pine New Internat. Ency........- Paton Jes .ctelern scious meats Scientific American........- Shepard selimel.cporwa wero Snyder: Hee setae soe Voorhees, L. A... WiGodss: Ca Ditters victiaieteien: General: Wimericanil Gye cj irene Dalton, J. C... Hassall, ACE Sailor asians caoomeladn otc Macaroni: AImeniGanl Cyrene sickoiencaens seis Chamber’ Sp nCYacieieae be Johnson’s Univer. Cy.. New Internat. Ency.. he Scaramel lap became ries Skinner Ree sae cteteiaisisictete 306 THE BOOK OF WHEAT Nutritive values: Howard whe iO sere eee /s\ilorhobied © Meet tec toasts Hoc Riley 'G2Vie..6 Ain coe General. Spring grain-aphis: Bdgars WinGonts. cine seein Websters FiiM<. cs. ccaerae eer Gilberts Hee oc 5 seose cs ee Insect enemies, stored grain. artlibiiSeaceer ase aren ere Chittenden))h). shee ee eee 1eGbhalhe, MBS Webs Oe, Ab inene eietolcicic Inspection and grading. Industrial Commission. ....... ngland sone teeter Kiipparts Je Hinos 5s sce ee = Iofsntolen I Oe onogorsoooe ee Wawesvr jis i \acmisaeksen crete sine von ie dass sie. wit sees oarenz. Cz cis2 ic aserterstevsis shtietecesne Montgomery, E.G) o.%.002.5- ZTta UL ee avorsuclenersneusicnetehere ecenetore Scofield! (CiSi5.. asec acieteieees *EMISSET Das tciavcvene teerclete uananettneke Institutional. Geography. Experiment Stations: SeeiGommerciala.s nee ee Atwater, Wi Or, 102 Germination. Beal, W. H... Seevcrowithes. pacck senior Colman, JING ees ntoneooreee Grading. CrosbywDs Jiesinnd eats Seennspechion aes aor ieeene Schulte, gi Uiic csc cere Growth. rue, As (Gis atcacc’n wae cee General: General: Gallowayabs leer Allen} Es. Wee sastec oer {folsratoits Sb M"oesoocenocuac Tri-State Grain Growers’ Livingston, B. E.. Associations. os.).c.26. sete Scientific American......... rue; Ay Cis acs eee Woods At Ease elem cee Institutes: Germination: Hamilton? Jia... 2.10 sees Rang: Ranks ie Hen a eeleverertetet U.S. Dept. Agr.: Ripening: Greathouse(Cs He. anette KedziewRoACra noses cs smrsicers SmithiGSBe. oe eee Roots: Tisserand, ss. aeieete Shepperd eae ieermemcres ert Insurance. ‘en Biyck, Am Meese eerie Emminghaus, ——............ Stooling: Insurance Mimes... «1 cere leheuinbhon, 13), Cees ococoamaccos Minn. Ins. Commission........ Harvesting. Walford, 'CiciscAicsyactetncruetaenae Marcosson, I. F.. Sat Irrigation. New Internat. Ency. Sec CREE Beals; Be Avoca: cre sooo aero Implements. Bond | Bs ne vase eee Seemnachinerys scien eel Biafiiim Bs (Crs cele cucictonseeieete Insect enemies, growing grain. Code*Wa He a. Aeeitteee eee Chinch bug: Coffin; Bo ENIBe. se e oeeneeeee Howard scsi @ken amie Culbertson, HS eee Wiashburntehey lise a nierereror Dennis, J. S SN Site c oie ane eeuareeate Webster: Ha Missa. cree tie oni Elliott,..Ci1G samc ae eee ae General: Gregory, A oa erence ec. GooleycR Ava. faccertorete Hays Rasicteictove tole bier ehoonenenete Rletcher py itereecs co tsrter sets cerohensie HintonsiR)s Jessie svacdershelonnetens GarmanteHeee (or ieee Trying. Hes sancnicrese cores Howard LilOs... ses sso Johnson, GC. Ds. chs.2 sire) rome Marlatt, C. L... Kets TS Ai es iocitis Oo ors oe Pettit olsen ieee ee Mead: By. Ss acc.cc.ce opie Popenoe, E. A.. Nettleton: BiaSecccictsic ices Saunders, D. jain eta Newell. Be Blscc.c.. see patentee Shipleys PAS Ha c ciisle ce ces erste Powers, aGinecincs eee Maylom iGreen nee a Rioss Ds Wane. cocci Washburn} Has... sae. Shepard *])gEl se .0s sts 0 eens Webster bes Miesincn sats enencnre Stannard, Jes. cher-renreeeers Hessian fly: Tatty Ci Bas aii tae Johnson Gresieese rele rele Teele Re vP este ee once Hojo ielanoccennesaaeues Winich JiPiCe a crac. co ete aes Stedman, J. M... Wiphamier Wie octets ceemenetere Webster, F. M... Vernon, J. J.. Joint worm: iWalsoms Je eMe-t.. .).8.-2)-eneteetets leloV sels Wa (Ob Grouncbadseénc Macaroni Webster, Ba Ma oece orctaeretevers See foodie oe + csi wi clei eneiaterstate Locusts: Macaroni wheat. Brunervle..csce neers See durum wheat ..<.:...0.- . BIBLIOGRAPHY Machinery. McClure se Wist Beercn . ys cae oe WATER Lae. aie cicrejeieuvetstete sree Peterson. Weis aos ene Arnoldi Are sc oe cena acihavel eles Quarterly) Review. 2205 on ole British Mfg. Industries....... SMO ele Dee VEEN ote ees de Casson, Herbert N. Thompson, CAWies sae eee Chase, Leon Wilson VA Ge SET Gately eh Srl rence Slik a Davidson, J. Brownlee Wiedenfeld, Ree ee ebaorsd heats Farm Machinery Daily........ Williams, i je eetie L sabe Nee BI EGIe Crt tye eet charac tiaratarets Wirminghaus, UNO AS etal Raat Rowlen sub: 5 Minors ots celerersteteterere Wrartehitsom ais vsonerecnt cries Holmes; (Gri sars etree nasi Ripening. RG Ge Bet ayaa sueparcvePanenchatotetens Saeed id dlbeats Grainne Mie tiem nes WVACIGES WE Kecstevtnctioverets orohontersier 0 Russia. Miascwielll Geis ce ejscieeieicie evecare Allgemeines statis. Archiv..... Miler Mia rare Serre ene hare Avistine jO me awa Shc). clone Minn. Bu. of Labor Statis..... Barely Mie ee eens onchcconteete Nat. Ass’n Agr. Impl. Mfgrs.... Iskovingaan Nis cabo bu eon aus Perelseub ss ia ea omen cision Joules sa a es eh bias Pusey, P..... reeset arrainie ins Mertens. Oe. Sigg tran carne thors Retrospective exhibit, etc Rabin owele Mee gence Roberts is Petar iG eel: AD oT UO IA Wares ane pyre Steet re VOSGES. Vic aioe OR ee 242 Delivenya moni once te eee 244-245 Mame sof css cc.oBecec. she ecsustereneneeene 244 Demands. asin acces deere 234-235 Description of wheat.... 11-24, 321-325 Deterioration of wheat .......... 57 Development of wheat.......... 3 Dibbling -Peasec sono eee 65-66 Differential sina teeern steele aerate 192,193 DISCOVERY aces Sis ere eee 2 Discrimination, Railway....... 218-219 Diseases.) 2% 2.2/5 sate cece Sones 148-169 Classifications... 4.45 oS ieee 148 Droughtst nce ah perenne 148 Excessive moisture.......... 149-150 GOS cota ste cee etverom eee 148 Pungous’ sen o0cc oe ase 155-169 Alls ool Ac) ese weilleisioveusahee enero eee 148 Plant, influences: -..++. cneeee 150-154 Remedies 5-2 2 chs ese eheronenenenee Storms 2. ss ate) eee 148 Unfavorable soil.) 22... eset 150 Weather influences.... ..... 148-150 Distance seaport to primary mar- MOG i ocd) < Save, aneuey spovexe eters 193-194 Distribution ese. oe eee 7, 8-11 INGA) a ooped goods bo DCCC 5 iWevattected byesollsassce creer 47-48 Costiofin a. tie nc an ae eee 213 Historical and geographical.... 6 atitudinealleppaiets ciel pace eens 4-5 Moneitudinal= aero cerereeeioe 4 WMSuibveStatess ec ser eae 304 INDEX 361 Page Page Diversified farming............. S0SmeeE xpontations Costiofe. eee seeeaee 213 Dockage, Elevator........ 154, 224-225 Exports: Momesticationscnacte cc ers chee 36 ATEN tINas Aerie ee nan LO, Dreier ee neato Sinle cies dinrevare 67,68 Argentine Hour...)o2)s seals soe 313 DISC TESSii sa ste sis sche =) see sieael 67 Arpentine wheats...) cance eens OCT ieit cisvargerstercyor as aie chetans ts 68 Atlantic coasters 4- pe eso = 195) IPTeSSWerecvd Vegan ees ee earees 67, 68 Atlaniticgpontsyecc pete eee 305 SHOE srrcienal sichis ote dia es suevene et suoker 68 Auistraliaae enc: hcnoeiotre @ berate 315 Typical farm Megsta aia a nates oe 64 Bel orusmse aya ay sean ee ees 316 lOKethb avers om neem mecca Cee Rae 65-66 Chile pee cs eiacin ute creas 316 WRGUSI Ges cote Wen crore rotolaverss a evare-s tele 148 Mari ty sein een ree eee sen eee 196 Diintimiywneatnnei ee eielte acl e 8, 10, 11 AE RAVsDibie ne we oestrone ae seers 316 WDIStmMCHSNOLa sere sisters Ghewe.clsticlicnsys Factors increasing. ........... 196 EO ts Olen cere ciiay hoe ares 307 Gulia eee eae tee 189-193 Field in North Dakota........ 292 Gulfeportsh sae, sooner 305 Mittin Gi Oferctesjrchore ciety siarenstets,s 307 in CrEASE MOL May herein ce eee 196 POCIehiOM Olen em ewercicierere a ocers 307 I GaUG BIE We Auch Gamera, bea ke ROBT Sill. Sil) Root development............ 13 Weadine portsas soe ee eee ee 305 Rist resistancessyayers ewer eee 169 INetherlands# cence ene 316 OUSHOR ie corietaetstaters ete: e) 6 eisinte 48 INonthern’ Attricasey ee ee 316 WirnattediStates. siisees eicew oles oie 307 Oriental We Maen ence): chee 197 IVIATICHIES Si crcicc ce cieloiee «sve sieeve 56 Pacey coastacn eerie 194, 196-197 MuscaCollectOr. sc oes sce eens 275 Statistics United States....... 305 Roumania.. LP eOLO E. United States. . 304-305 Early Genesee Giant............ 44 (Oiruigitay core teres isan dale 316 Barly eripenin Py. erakeve)< el lelstelsteiae i 45 Wiesteen United States........ 304 Economic position of wheat grow- Wiorldic yi teetn octet oe 318 (IES oS CLO CR nT TOO 33 ldyrallorans 5 Aon GEOR OD aCe Crees 11 F. Elevator certificates...... DAS DAG meas) | Marmilanimals= cereierecetece cele 7 Ble Vvaronserytacc: cies ten re etn fel aue 203-204) \Parmers) institutes). ..00 000. 0.5 32 Baltimore a ree ee 2 Oem MV ATIN IN Ore pec ccetoe es iene een neon 383 HBOSTOMe re oietcveisiere sua oie aia. «© wfolel See 209 Diversification Ole. eee ee oe 303 BtittalOS pena cis arco tise Oe feces 206-207 Jebidaet eae Aare tac cached © pic 109 Gamat Ole ete oscuel ore) oh erers 205, 208-209 Intensive and extensive...... 108-110 (Cae OM pete arene shacokaleins erncehe.'s ALY, MAAS, Weta do wasoneobondsec 7 Consolidationiofinc. «2 h.2% «s+ - 207 Redelinaye sees Sete ee 296 DEAL Gms rae ete ot aver ar alia. chasis se-afieneevs 204 Feeding of wheat............. 301-302 WOCKAPES tH taleieis suchtgesece 154, 224-225 Fertility, Constancy of.......... 11 DD) Cite ratory cheyspere1ois1e-s) a s'e.s wets s 206s" -Hertilization® 5. ce ciemacs = scenes 20-21 IRATITIOLS oo. cteis steici nic isieis: ster) she oe 204 eRertilizersy.- 000s eno ee 142-148 IT OB GING Werte clare «os Scho siene asa sues 208 ATIGIEMtSjanld seeps seis er eee 124 Ea GHLOM OLaverererahe akevs ouch slic thot 203 Applicationiotese..4- oe eee 134-135 GaAlVeStOnesacitesccere oyeranslevsices seers 209 Benefitstotis-1vcs aves acorn ae 126-127 iilitstration wot ~, acerca eer 202, 236 Commiercial ei. ee tere 134-136 Keansasi Citys ccs 5 cise eens eo nies 206 Drillingrolsere secs ee One 135 Legislation concerning........ 209 BtectsiOler.-1s- se erste 142-145 WME SOLE cictessiatchora shes. tus oases 204 IF berityO LallSeeisreie eesisrs eeiceetne 124 Miannea polish. sc craic sid esieacscteess 206 Germination andts.-- 4. 4h 142 IN GWAMOTIE Ao. acerernanc sora s veer 208 irrnigationiands- een aes 141-142 IPacwiccoast ic eitesicie tes 204-205, 209 RATT AS} Obs vers 0 vtec cetrerensnels eon 135-141 Philadelphiaiss 2c...) eee > 208-209 WawSheccake Sr ean 145 alirGadsiamc es). -ier-ve ciera cies 207 Miscellaneous. Poa en hs eRe one 140 Seaboard.. Seno oe ee 208-209 INGE to fre eee ccoricet noeeonn tee 134 be ZO li Siescickere ol cccne onc cetehenesunees 206 Plant nee Eno a eae een tte Pe cee 143-145 phenrmainals Ayeisiots, acces eer 205 IP TICES OLAM ee rosie ce aooncene hewn 146 PIVDESi Oli ctckaciors reheat csisvesiorso ot ote 204 Statistics spe ese rae 146 LD yeadoyeat(O) yetcte Mie eee oe 6 DD aioe 15, 21 PEPHeOnies HOLsewel aceite 125-127 ISrank ales ale ky SNE ROR OOO Dieta ere anc 11, 56 iWasted by rivers..........:.% 148 EMCOSPErIMeyetsoncas seh oe ASR o 25 Wael dan divs ae, nk scseorvsy arene 143-145 IBMemreseiom ter ele rcter test eushenene ois 150-169 Fertilizing: Quattor series es aap oes 5 By sewage waters........... 141-142 ESVGlUtlON |. .cm caste oe Aen oe 2-3, 35-36 COSHOI etna na-aeo steno ia ete 146 WiScontmzO9USy sets sees eects 35 WehinitioniGhyasws sees were 124 lsttohen'y 40) tetas Lae ions dic HOON E 35 WValueclotianimals.....0. a0. seo O Experiment stations............ 32 Field of durum wheat .......... 292 362 THE Page Field of wheat, Illustration of 112 uferwheatan cist ogele siesta vor cuonccoes 11 Piney ag arco ca ete ya meee a eke sane 148 Hixation iofaualitiesaee qeniierer: 43 Blaxs Selectionvolana. mieten 39 Flour.. Pel ivspe BALE cinitetlss clerere 21 Acidity Oba Rn aos hy Gar 21 Adulterationsots «se an neue 301 Bleaching offasae2s- +m: 274-275, 285 Brands! ofitereare act civiateyeu tock. 285-286 Jebus (6 nis Aiton icons 286-287 Commercial grades..........285-286 Comparative values of......... 285 Compositioniofe.-. 5.0636 ee. 26, 299 DD urimewneatec cerca e eietele ice 284 Entire wheate o...2.2-ens5 4: 284-285 Gradesiofte Seca ce aeeeias 275 Gratlamisnccm ace misemiieee 284 Hard-wheat Batis 283 IRAStRY pee Ce A ee 284 IPALETIt eee so oe ee ene nee 270.205 Self-raising: gota sche seer eee 285 Sottawheatee a. arcce setae 283-284 Riounsbeetlesiye;-ers eee ae cee: 184 BJ OUI Ot eee caer eee 183-184 Flours, Different uses of......... 283 Flouriyield of wheat... ... 1)... 277 BRiawering th ae ye nasil 20-21 Plowers'of wheat. ...0...0. 000.6 14 Hoodtoiiplants sumac seceacmci er 126-127 Food of plants, Fertilizers and. . 143-145 Food supply, Scarcity of........ 316 Food taken from soil by plants... 147 RoodsiWiheatiashe a. 2.0 st siete 7, 8, 286 OSHS 2 Wott renee a eae 149 ] Dicbhooktenremen Gath O omhba ho ceoi ern bc 283 Bult ze Pe oe a hag eh Peete 11 Fungous enemies......... 155-169 G. Gambling soccer oa cts coin 255 Garlichat tacoma eee eer 153 Germination...... 16-17,18, 22-23, 142 Germination and Fertilizers...... 142 Germiofiwheates sierra cia bemrete 1525 Gltme=spotee ee cae seer cee os 155 Ghmiest ees ae ace sree hee ones 14 Gluteneeee ec erie Die. Dise23s Gluten"contenta... .. 1c cleee 10, 48-49 Grades: Commercialiys esses siete 223-224 Composition and. 28 Contractiassciee eee 900" HDD 3t 224 Contract, Gresham’s law ...... 225 Uniformity OLS ASS occu oan 223 Grades! ot flotnaandn ces tercn ieee 275 Gradingien heer ae Onan 221-222 Grainaphis: ep. is sles <1e)etete le ates ce 180-181 Graimbeetles\tsantte cere reenaices 184 Grain dealers 4) a0 0 aeneia elena 242 Independent. 42s. scien => 217-218 Grain dealers’ associations: Local. ie ae entre es be Rules and ‘prac ‘tices Of........ 218 Grain ANN come chon cacy skOo 6 182-183 BOOK OF WHEAT Page Grain railways. ieee eter 189 Grains in bushel3, 3s eee 22 Grainsanispikes. aoe eee 15 Grain trade: Developmentiof pense 214 Importanceiot.)....74-ee eee 214-215 Grain vessels, Nationality of..... 197 Graminee oon eee 2 @ranaryaweevale ss... aoe 182 Grape-Niutsaee cern 298, 300 Grass: Classification: = eee eee 2-3 Ram tliyiobee. sacs eee 2-3 Oxriginkotye. 2 Sacn woe eee 2-3 Grasshoppers (See Locust) ....176-179 Green bugs s,s 5.505 coe Coe 180-181 Greshamysilaw/.....04-4 eee 225 Growersofswheats. see 29-31, 33 Growth: Heatumuits and: » s.ecmeeee 11-24, 127 Periodioftaeck cite eee 23-24 IPrOCeSSeSiOfi...» «ate oe 127 Raintallandss... soe eee 23-24 Temperatureand............. 23-24 Guano ees eee oe i Si-138 Gulfttexportsoce. enero 189-193 Gypsumisine. wade. oo 139-140 106 Hail eicivencSetinan ateiee doe 148 Handstonestass cc cece cee 262 Hardnessioiwheat. . ss. Sil Hardispring wheat... 0: /<.- sien 53 Hard wanter'wheat.... 7.0.02 seen 10 Iplevorenailen SoocouscuubuLoCUUGS 70-71 Objectstole-tiramacie «rare 70 Harrows: Anciente ose 6 sisjc s,s oiese e See 70-71 DISCS esate cicse es os oeras ot 71 Modernicsacncisticccuss) eee 276 M. Wanter wheat. ; {2-1 sie eee 269 Macaroniterocsncdents aeccrcrn 293-296 Milling industry.............. 279-282 Compositioniofi. 4.050015 296 Argentina’... 0...8 0g. « ns ee 282 Boodivalucioto.. a. cniasoc 5 293 Australiaviot cnc eee 282 Processes of manufacture... .295-296 Canada 2 2a... avons eee 282 Wiheatswused... cece nee 293-294 Census United States.......... 280 Macaroni industry... 0 cers. - 294-295 Foreign countries........... 280-282 Foreign countries...........:. 294 Geographical location U. S.. .279-280 WinitediStatesecn. crn cate wuctencutte 294 Great Britains ne.2 see 281 Macaroni wheat: lakthavee vies canen so oe Go o5 6 ... 280-281 Pela! Ofiaxnreicye. so tects ss eeerer 292 Leading states U. S......... 279-280 Machinery: Minneapolis: ...., a-ciie errr 279 Distribiutionvohe. coc ets elect 99 Mannesota:.; sj. ---cenoe ere ere 279 larvestingescmnices a oerias crn iono- Netherlands: 4:3. seco nae 282 Manutacture: Ole serene irt 99 INew Zealand's... tise eee 282 Mamuren): sinc ce cued co eisie stsets 136-137 Orient B55 enous essere eee 282 Deterioration;Olaacssch. ee: oe 137 Rtissia’. io. 6 lace cee ene 281-282 Map of wheat in United States... 9 Winiteds States ss... eee 279-280 MarpinSi ten sicttackcuencrsicneaereas 244,260 Milling products.............. 275, 283 Market Mills: Wocaliepee acter etic sictekeneto mori 240 ANIGCIONE is ois.c se isre 3 Suetorenets tee 263 Primary coi tt terrace 188, 219 Capacityorse-. ee 276-277 Speculative cctes ecm cesests ets cisvers 241 Cattleiinc fs is ocus «sata enone 265 IWiOTIGM eine ict icicine Ge oreutne 241 Early United States......... 266-267 Marketingepyia teeter croicn 214-233 Ilandstonesss. ooo eee 262 IAT PeNibINa ss ce aca ie Seretnecs note 231-233 Largeimodernnt se eeeee 272,278 Canddanys-rincwer votes. 232-233 arge ty picalesmssce eee we 20 O=20h Foreign countries. 2. .2.5 26 228-233 Mortar and pestle........... 262-264 Tri dias Seer oa te teycte een aonre 230-231 Quernhy je aidsens ee-osske ee 264 Method's¥ofiaci. cress aieveletc 5 PS Saddleistones sn.cise scien 263 [POISE ins ae oolod Cadi ce OO e 228-230 Slaves ee cee erie oe ee 265 Markets eeeee oe oem. cena 240-241 id Baty oY =o) appre erent ee rere ffuuriecn 6 262 MIATA Sev recimicaccets corer ue eietencvetars 139 ater. . 265-266 Material in acre crop............ 24 Wind.. . 265-266 Maturity, earliest csierercce|+ stn 11. Minnesota No. 169 wheat........ 11 Meal¥snout=mothise ascii str 184 Minnesota 163 wheat. . 22 Meal wormsene ose case sie sysustater= 184) Maxingin ys se crreciews 205" 226, VI22213 Measurement of wheat.......... 22 Moisttre contentjiei..- 52 see 26, 50 Mediterranean flour moth. . .183-184 Moisture effects... ........... : 50 Meridian bisecting acreage. ...... 4 Moisture, Excessive........... 149-150 Within GAs aco ooodosd aeocoDO 214. Mortariand pestle. 5 335... oe 263 Middlings:purifier: .-. see ee e- 274 “DY POOLS 3. erorsok ae 262-264 (Mitre fe etre ciers sicvenelonscsucier ste 175-176 Moths: Migration lofwheateqceseneunene 1-2, 4 Angoumois grain ........... 182-183 Mildeweemeamcn i crise: © tects. 169 Imdiansmeals.°. .s2-a2 ate 184 Malling Ss eeioce etciaisieisic ss cicnoiens 262-282 Mealisnout.!.. 24) comet 184 Bleachingvof flour. =. < 3a... 274-275 Mediterranean flour.......... 183-184 IBN Mhnea cs herd nis on oedbe ond . 267 Motor power.. Sew bine Geer 59-61 Cleaning of TWHiGa bc ne eee 273 Amimial ssc cievsnesrcnslers Soopers tone ent 59,61 Dusticollector. 5... 2+ Micmac ent A/S) Blectricity acme cir irene 61 Early inventions...... Bile anes i AO Jahbhoot-hoW Magn emo Ate a d.coc oC 59 Early United States....... . 267-268 Steam. sists) scons heehee : 61 Fundamental processes ... .273-274 Movement of wheat....-.e see 303-319 Gradual reduction process... .270-271 IRasterniners. 2h 20s 189-192 AT ever eele race ofoteltomteisnexekcker: 268-269 Export. United States........ 304-305 pone EK Sogo coocHe ROMO b SG 271 RinancierinesOlee seein 227-228 DARA Aa ine RIC Oe At oe 268 Internal United States. . . . 304-305 Middlings Taal Mle NeR ea A ty OC 269 Southenn® aeeenens 49 Sea level wheat 5 Seasonallefiectsn. jo. 0. ee seen 51 Section of wheat grain........... 16 SCG oie aieave exays eco sate aa er eRe 51-69 Advantages of exchange....... 54-55 Amount, of, per acres... a4 69 Bed foricsste cin.~ + sihstae aes 65 Wealerssin's).5:5 1c 21ajs0s cos) sle eter 53 Deterioration.o£.. 2-1. eee 54-55 Effects of good and poor...... 52 Evils of exchange of.....i22.. 55 Importance Of: 2.2.2.2. eee $1 Importations:.)... «cose cieene 56 Purchaseot.. cso seen Bl S33 Wheat for? . 22 a2. ck Coe 51-56 Seeders ci. ois is.s-8 6 cess: s eee 66-69 ANGIENG LS. i evel verse claus Seen 68 arly, Emelish!.jse ache cueieenenene 66-67 Rorcefeed\s<.is:ca0> Se eee 67, 68 Patents OM. 2,.).540 50 scene 67 Wagons.c ced iidaes 5 Sone 67 Widthtof..c.ic.ccke os Coe 68 Seeding 6 ackee sus sfashera seen 17, 65-66 Biy nature siterec cts cieieie eee 69 IDEPEHCOES ois cietacese Sa oko 70 MMV OL, ieverela: cose sacs hk 69-70 Selections. jee. .o. oie velo steeh- cree 3, 36-40 Artificial ~. i210. ccapeuhe econ 36 Characteristicsinfluenced by 39-40 arly iccts, c, 5016-6 0 oan eee 37 Heavy seed ¢.... 0 fc apes teens 39 Imecidencesiof.. saacee alaeeeeere 36 Tight Sed ls... syne cus.cke cake Neen 38 Minnesota, Station... .oaeriene 37 Na'turtial’s, cscs. os rcte.s severe ene 36, 40 Reesultsiot wotarchkcontents sense ieee 48-49 Copperisulphatelss sak 1.0. oe OOM Starchwyawheatecemeenc se cee 10 Corrosive sublimate........... 1600 States; Productionvine +.) lee. 304 Ilorimialiniah arse yer ascaies cas ate vlerehe 160; Steam in agriculture:........... 61 Hot water treatment........., 160 Steam planting, Illustration of... 60 Jensen treatment............. 160) "Steam plowingeen. eel. e eee 63 Smutted straw, Cross sections of, 158 Stem, Growth of................ 13 DOL MEDS craea sear rel hak sh ouerd fo ese ian Adve OS tIGMIAN eke condone ols ciatonsl scenes 14, 20, 40 Sousifor Wachee remion nd seteiels oe ASm iO tinicangesmiuitas cece lela c lee 158-159 WOLbewheat distrctes sve ore.. ore 9 Stocksin farmers’ hands....... 304, 318 Soilibacteriayrn. actions cies saws 2 S{O)~Aksyet 4 fSymerolbbaver Se 6 Se soe Gude cose obode 17 Soil mitrogen. sesescc es. ls ASS 0-13455 iStoragess ss ae ene oe 201-213 OU Sa rrcyclos caaetaie tors iehe es atave lira. wlle 144 Farm.. BES Ait OO BL Amount of plant food stored by, 144 Localtmmarketes! Steen. 4.1 203-205 AnalysestOh. v2 s.aeortes se sion a 124-125 IPacificicoastecmsaere oom) oe ete 204-205 @limatesandias se ue ose eee 50-51 Primaryemarket... 22 2255. 205-208 Climatic-effects'on's 365 2.2 2. 58 RIGS 1a cae bey Role onepepetexe csvaiareua 229 Composition: jaf). ans accents 144 Seaboard terest cep rckenes 208-209 Composition and plant life...124-127 Storage capacity: IBYTECtSiobiwod icin cee vse 44 Baltimore ssa seee ice cece eacen 209 He litasra ttf a eiccees, och osc eyes enecens 129-130 IB OStOnMe hectic Cavern: ene ee 209 Improvement of........ ... 143-144 1ehonat= Koes sesete ciara clreeesere coming © 206-207 HritlivenGe:.Ofet) fis clam Leys ce tiene 47 Ghicavore ciceeno ns te eee 00) imoculationvand:s..s.a.4..- 132-134 Galwestone 5 cece cee eee: 209 Method of analysis............ 127 Kansas Citvenscpeee ence ee 206 IMMOISEUBER ATIC. 3,5 ous ac 2 Ohne seenene 130 Mainneapolisa ese niece 206 Physical condition of.......... 59 INGwaViorki etree: ener rere 208 Preparation for sowing........ 65 Bhiladelphiatee. ser eee cern 208-209 Preparation: Ola ovale see denice 58 Portland’ @rezoue ese) eee eee 209 FRISSIATI GY eo bsoh iain Sk Tereleterese see 307-308 StcRowisw act a. os ace Peete 206 SEFUGEUTE Oli. cro cneectelaue) oficial 126 Storage, Charges of............ 209-213 MEXture Ole s osa02 saciesssie sities 126 Atlanticicoaste. soe sa aces ce 211-212 Bay MES Ole tA cise fionte Scher 47-48 Uinbariclinc £7. aeseeacte ere teene 209, 211 Wintaviora bles sce ese ss ee 150 Pacihicieoastac= a -teeeeae 212 Bonorawwheatic ce actacrscces a wcie 53) Seaboard)... ce cia se eee one Southern grown seed............ AO” Storage) Horeigni.. sober 201 Southern wheat district.......... 9 Storage, Illustration of: SOM yaieis eo ak a ore a tte a Bisacbs: alawd 65-66 Pacthic coasteanm:. ae. 210 IB YeMaAtUTe. sects) esca, Slae e Sc nana s re 69 Pacificicoast rivers se ako 216 Methodstots toa. sets: ore 65-66 Primanyemearketee om ec eit 236 BLM EKO Paya fc rver ie cho cee mie wvenveweo 69-70 Smalliclevatorss.3)..42 2) een eee 202 SPECIES | Sioie.3 sie eiced stat sveratnras wnersiione dO NStornis..s re poe caterer 148 SyoaHS oe NieiNaa ga couweou mace oan 22) Strawiratenjws coos mies. atiaae ces 10, 20 Speculation: Compositiomobecms- eles 25 Gare eno iha, cog abe ane wlio ewnaneee: cre 243 Rertilizer’ valuesoteece: saci 140 UP ay ro oaks catensereas cram acer 242-243 Modder: .5. ace eeetensiane tee outnsneete 302 Decreasing importance of... .260-261 Miscellaneous uses of.......... 302 Bi VilSIOLe Sick: ehwndt ede Reuse 249-258 Per ‘aGres 3 a).s case ous tele heater 24 Roreign countries. .22......- 2OB-W598 eS tra WOLMS. 2-1) selec antatee 181 Bunctions Of. 5 2.5. 1-6 wise es 246-247 Sub-humid region in U.S...... 121-123 Mecislation anc. a acees te elena 258) SSUDSOM a tunis Foe io 0e ice Sodus 13 Machinery Obs « tes 1. cre cae sn. 242-244)~ (Sub=soing.... oes... nee 65 Manipulations and.......:.<.: 258 Sugar beets: Price fluctuations and...... 260 Seede oes sheen oto ae ere 57 RVESINES OFS > tor Aldine sess: Sete 259-261 Selectioniof acc chee eee 39-40 368 Page Simmer MallowSess -lerisiele cieieterete 110 Supplysissc dese ae Oot eee 234-235 Catisesiof variation... ee 234 BALM nice acrals cue eit aoe 2 304318 Shortage Olayscs ese eens 185, 316-317 Statisticsy- -imecieis ce ae 304-305, 318 IWaSIDLE Sve cine sic a hatte ee 305 Sweatingiof wheat... ..s. 6 ence 97 Le mheory.oLr mutations... 426 se. 35 ahistiesmicussiances a paeseieteyere s 151-152 Siiis tl esa/e ene ie uN anes Pane 153-154 Three-field system.............. 114 WWebteelshennccosucoas bbanoodods 94-99 Amiimalipowercyscreie crelereicieiels 94-95 Completeouthite sec -1ee es rere 98,99 Dehnitionlofaseeines see etree 94 Farly;methodsiofa. ~. 64s ae) = 94 1 DLN Eee ptioenrers ceoetcnseacinaaeeey ac 94,95 Threshing machines: arlypAmericanmaceicse emcees 96-97 Barlyshuropeans «2.2 assess 96 arlyesCouChemt citer racine 95 Byvolutioniofac. acactuacmecate 95-97 LiustrationtOtaenmenieetiesee « 98, 156 Moderneitemciasen stacks cea lane cies 97,98 Paillering Pea cree cute) aeietae cas eee 17 AO) Reeds cence CN Ora 277,279 Mradeunktwheat, World: 2 -cr. cies 6 318 Transactions, Vitae Olas sass 248-249 Transportation. . . 188-200 Argentinaac nari s tics ecleeeke 232 Canadavasin anionic ere 314 CanalWenec ae econ oleae 191 Competitionwinigg.s ee arise cee 189-192 Distance seaport to primary AMATKE Ce rgeisiort asker eicvoreie 193-194 Farm to local market......... 188 Walkeoeiat cto lars Sie tee ee 191,194 Local to primary market... .188-189 Outioficountyeres. cst ae ... 304 Pacific. . Vea tne pee Os Pacific coast vessels........... 197 Primary market to seaboard. .189-194 Rade Statistics ys. 6.2 seta a sist 194-195 River Liclel tos eke LOM 19S RAUSS1a shcreaed a ine sae sk ste eae 228-229 Seaboard to foreign market. .196-197 Shortage of canst acct on GS Stapesiotes wewoeycn sae . 188 IWiGtEDS tne ore eae sosnee eoae 189 Water, Illustration of......... 191 Transportation Chargesi is. cei 197-200 Atlantic ports to Europe...... 199 Chicago to Liverpool......... 199 Chicago to New York......... 198 MiscriminationSececee ecw 200 Farm’ ‘to ‘Chicago. .2--6 «4 198-199 Producer to consumer......... 198 Triticum: Monococcumiss saree citer 11 Polonicum).@.cee esa oer Sey alal Sativum compactum .......... 11 Sativaim (dicoccumi eee cs eee 11 SAtivitmGurtimaceseriee ete 11 Sativumispeltay emesis cles oles 3,11 THE BOOK OF WHEAT Page Triticum, Sativum turgidum...... 11 Sativunl viulgares-- eee eee isl Murkey red wheat.) oo eee Sl Turkey Eee Evolution of...... 40 ‘EwinesiUiseotar jee ston ees 89 United States Department of Agricultures.. a emeeenee 31-32 \Wo iVialueiofiwheatacacme cee eee 7 Argentina’...cc aan ee oe sere SM) UnitediStatess 2. cire-ses erste 304 Watiation sc. snttonnscasiee Oo 35-36 Characteristics subject to..... 35-36 Inducement/oOf-. soc. e eer 35 Plantiand'!soile aa... orien 58-59 ProcessesiOfce n 153 Australian, «smc ocean ae 100, 315 Waldinistarciasureie year cke et 153 Canada sane tore erccne one 314 AWaAldkwWiheat. carecicecters ss shatoteis 1 Barlyistatisticss:.4- nee ae eee 102 WaAniterawiheatymmmieteienl.-cccetesnch-ts 5 Factors decreasing............ 100 Winter wheatllard!s:. occ 11 Ractorsmnereasing eee 100 Wantern wheat yoottiasire scien 11 Bentilizers and) ss... 20... 42-045 World's consumption............ 7 Branceleets les tym miacton ieee 101 World’s famine of wheat. 185 316-317 GreatyBiritainne. 60. micecaiaerrs 315 World's) production)... .- «2 ss. 7 Most favorable weather for.... 103 Statisticstotiyse cae. nee 101 Y Volunteericropis. 1. > 44.442 103 PViCAS Giatarercicpeioreyorcrereieeselei oe wyrceatatans 287 Wnitedmkonedomy). 444. soe 102 Meast platitueueriierkiec «a 287, 290-291 WinitediStatesser sae sc serie 102 preastisubstitwtesiacieis-creelecis ol 291 haeldingapowenrss-anoe acme ceeine 10 Yello Wi DELEVarcmc tae foro = sevsieyeveieis 155 Waeldiotslounteteecre. se ccrie coi 277 a | ore TSig re ee STANDARD BOOKS PUBLISHED BY ORANGE JUDD COMPANY NEW YORK CHICAGO 439-441 Lafayette Street Marquette Building OOKS sent to all parts of the world for catalog price Discounts for large quantities on appli- catis . Correspondence invited. Brief descriptive catalog free. Large illustrated catalog, six cents. Soils By Cuartes WittiAmM Burkett, Director Kansas Agri- cultural Experiment Station. The most complete and popular work of the kind ever published. As a rule, a book of this sort is dry and uninteresting, but in this case it reads like a novel. The author has put into it his individuality. The story of the properties of the soils, their improvement and manage- ment, as well as a discussion of the problems of crop growing and crop feeding, make this book equally valuable to the farmer, student and teacher. There are many illustrations of a practical character, each one suggesting some fundamental principle in soil manage ment. 303 pages. 5% x 8 inches. Cloth.. .. . $1.25 Insects Injurious to Vegetables By Dr. F. H. Cuirrenpen, of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture. A complete, practical work giving descriptions of the more important insects attacking vegetables of all kinds with simple and inexpensive remedies to check and destroy them, together with timely suggestions to prevent their recurrence. A ready reference book for truckers, market- gardeners, farmers as well as others who grow vegetables in a small way for home use; a valuable guide for college and ex- periment station workers, school-teachers and others interested in entomology of nature study. Profusely illustrated. 51% x 8 inches. oso0 pages, Cloth: «= = 2-5 « (< « “SiS The Cereals in America By Tuomas F. Hunt, M.S., D.Agri., Professor of Agron- omy, Cornell University. If you raise five acres of any kind of grain you cannot afford to be without this book. It is in every way the best book on the subject that has ever been written. It treats of the cultivation and improvement of every grain crop raised in America in a thoroughly practical and accurate manner. 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