—_— a — aaetmeanany , A tt a le Cy - wews ee * So tt i a Had ea a Se mareindumenanid 7 ee. jee ; ee eer - of ce titanate RE rr an ree ee eee Ne ee aa A ee r- — ry d ~ 2 * lowly - ee ee ee eT " pant hath ntl te ay tl tl tis Ac A Ae ty al oh dD - aa air gain = DEEN LI AEE + eee a Oe A eB Rey ely A Ma, le la hn am at ae ee er a a ey Ri a Rr tse ae . -_ _ oer array emma 4 anna ey beet Mone Om atl + ae ee tert ney nee Atta paint —~ heey tin oe a r ae Me eee te - ee a ° * he arb ~ - a nr oe eee Nn A : Pn ON . , © ow ane . . . nt Bt ar ee ee en ee be > eed _ -- . ‘ — at a a Pre - = - ee aetna ea OA» Bp" te wil Se aneteandone Pts eatin en ree lh Sit ge Me a ee re Sere ae i a ll : Pears - tt elt tae A Aaa Mi mi tnt Sar" t= ao Ps A ng eno ae 0a ee aa, eee ee a a > - ~ - ee a ~s ~ iw ee > “ ee ee at . — . 7 . ed tae nal ee : eee ee me we . - a ee =i cll india a ¢ © aha any “ a eo & or ’ _ - > =~ oa s ~S he e o- > : = - rs os are - * hou . = 6p * GA o-_ > - - ——e > i 2 cone a >> > — er —eh.«!” = = = bd es 7 —T te ote @ 6-4 AeA bs ty Ae 2 BREEDS, MANAGEMENT, — ~ WITH ILLUSTRATIVE ENGRAVINGS, vy AND _ BY HENRY J/ CANFIELD... > ‘ fp 434 @% as ¥ : / Wr a ae - 4 we Cp £rd \\ "PE besa tes OC, “82 eee | of wasHinee ie Mi e ‘ f m wi SALEM, COLUMBIANA COUNTY, OHIO: he auapean BY AARON HINCHMAN. : ae tt ese ae eee R some 1848, i ; PREFACE. Tus Treatise has been compiled and composed princi- ally with a view to the diseases and management of sheep. i this work, quotations have been made from the works of Messrs. Youatt, Spooner, Blacklock, McKenzie, Liv- ingston,and various other authors. In many cases they have | been quoted directly ; in other cases, for the sake of brev- ity, no marks of quotation are used. On many subjects, | it is impracticable to write much which is entirely new ; | therefore, a careful compilation of those materials which | are most useful, together with the elucidation of many | other things which have not heretofore been explained, I trust, will be satisfactory to the reader, and will need ne | apology. CanFieLp, Mahoning County, Ohio, October, A. D., 1848. ENTERED ACCORDING TO AcT oF CONGRESS, in the year 1848, by the author, in the Clerk’s office of the District Court of the United States for the District of Ohio. A a em me a ee et ie es ee ne re eee ee * TABLE OF CONTENTS. “Sze. I. Origin of the Sheep, 9 Asiatic Argali, 9 American Argali, 10 Musmon or Moufion, 11 The Domestic Sheep, 12 ss Il. Ancient Management of Sheep, 14 eo TU. AsiaTIic AND AFRICAN SHEEP. The Fat-Rumped Sheep, Ads The Broad-Tailed Sheep, 20 Sheep of Persia and Hindostan, 23 Sheep of Thibet, China, Egypt and -Ethiopia,. Sheep of Abyssinia, Madagascar, Cape of Good Hope and Angola, 26 Sheep of Guinea, and Northern Africa ot Barbary, 26 ss a hg EuroveaN SHEEP. ~~ Teeland Sheep, 27 Russian do. 28 Sheep of European Turkey and Greece, 20 Sheep of Switzerland, Hollend and Belgium, 30 Cretan or Wallachian Sheep, 30 Austrian, Hungarian and Swedish Sheep, 31 Sheep of Denmark and Prussia, S2 do. Silesia, 30 do. akon ys: 34 do. France, 40 ae ITALIAN AND SPANISH SHEEP. _ Ttalian Sheep, . 43 Spanish do. 44 Different Breeds of Merinos, 59 NT. Irisu SHEEP. The Wicklow Breed, 63 XIf. XIII. CONTENTS. The Kerry Breed, 64 The Short-Tailed Sheep, » 86 British SHEEP. Welsh Sheep, 66 Tue Forest BREEDS. The Dartmoor Breed, 67 The Exmoor, 68 Mountain BREEDS. The Black Faced Heath Breed, 68 The Cheviot Breed, 70 Up.aNnp BREEDS. The South Down, 13 The Dorset, . 77 The Ryeland, 80 Lone-Woo.tep Breeps. The Lincoln, 81 «Romney Marsh, 83 ‘ Teeswater and Bampton Nott, 84 «© Cotswold, 85 ** Olid and New Leicester, 87 Merino Sheep in England, 93 Names applied to Sheep in England, 94 Concise Description of British Sheep, by Messrs. Lawrence and Cully, 95 The importance of the size of the Head, 118 North American Sheep, 96 The Ouer Breed, eed | The Arlington long-wooled Sheep, 97 The Smith’s Island do. 98.) _ Jamaica Sheep, 99 Introduction of Merinos into the United Siates, 99 South American Sheep, 103 The Alpaca, 103 Various Breeds, and their Manage- ment, 105 | Australian Sheep, 107 | General View of the Structure of | Sheep, 111 | The Skeleton of the Sheep, 115 The bones of the Head, 117 Suc. XV. . XVI. XVII. 4 SMI ET XIX. XX. , XXL. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. \ aE XXVII. XXVIII. XXIX. XXX. XXXI. XXXII. _ XXXII. XXXIV. XXXYV. XXXVI. XXXVILI. XXXVIII. ~ CONTENTS. Vv The bones of the Body, 118 The bones of the Fore Extremites, 120 The Hind Extremities, 121 Biflex Canal, 122 Horns and Hoofs, 123 The Muscles or Flesh, 124 The Brain and Nerves, 126 Organs of Mastication, 128 Organs of Digestion, 131 The Urinary and Generative Organs, 144 The Contents of the Chest, 147 The Blood and its Circulation, 151 Respiration and its Effects, 160 The Production of Animal Heat, 164 Structure of the Skin, 165 Covering of the Primitive Sheep, 167 Wool and its Properties, 167 Yolk, 183 Influence of Soil, Food and Climate upon the Fleece, — 185 Breeding. 190 Breeding of Mutton Sheep, 191 fe ‘«‘ Fine-wooled Sheep, 197 Breeding in and in, 203 Crossing, 207 Selection of Breeds, 213 Shelters, Q17 Quantity and Qualities of Food, 221 Water, | 233 Fall Management of Sheep, 235 Winter Management, 239 Spring Management, 244 Summer Management, 251 Fattening. 261. Condiments, 266 Tue DISEASES OF SHEEP. ; Introductory Remarks, 277 Signs of Health, 278 Diseases or THe Brain anp Ner- vous SYSTEM. ‘ Apoplexy, 278 Inflammation of the Brain, 279 VI Src. €é Sre. XLII. XLUT. XLIV. XLY. XLVI. XLV II. CONTENTS. Hydrocephalus, 280 Kpilepsy, 284 ‘Tetanus, 287 Palsy, 287 Rheumatism, ; 289 DISEASES OF THE .DicEstivz Or- GANS. Obstruction of the Gullet, 290 Mechanical distension of the Rumen, 291 Hoven, 291 The Rot, 293 The Rot produced by Acids, 2978 do. do by Acorns, 306 do. do. _ by Astringent Wa- ters, 307 The Rot produced by Alum Water, 307 do. do. by Sharp-edged Grasses, 308 Braxy—produced by Acids, 310 do. do. by Sharp-edged — Grasses, ols Prevention of Braxy andthe Rot, 314 Diarrhea, alg . Prevention of Diarrhea, 318 Dysentery, 319 Jaundice, 321 Dropsy, 322 Hydrophobia, ono DisEASES OF THE CuEst AND AiR PASSAGES. Coryza, 330 Consumption of the Lungs, 331 Inflammation of the Lungs, 333 Pleurisy, 384 DisEASES OF THE URiNaRY ORGANS. Inflammation of the Bladder, 335 Calculi in the Urinary Organs, 335 Diseases oF THE Mourts. Acute Thrush, 337 Chronic Thrush, 338 DISEASES OF THE SKIN. Pelt Rot, 339 66 66 Hal hen 6 ) MV. XLVIII. XLIX. da. LI. BIT. LIV. LY. LY¥1. tiie bl CONTENTS. WIL Erysipelas, | 339 Black Muzzle, 341 Scab or lich, 341 DISEASES OF THE Foot—Foot Rot, 348 Diseases of the Eye. 354 Worms—Worms in the Trachea, 355 Fluke Worms, 356 Flies and Ticks, 358 The Gad Fly, 359 Ticks and Lice, 361° DISEASES OF PARTURITION. Abortion, c 363 Inversion of the Uterus, 364 Heaving, or Alter-Pains, 365 Garget, 366 Diseases or Youne Lamas. Coagulation of the Milk, — 367 Diarrhea, 368 INJURIES AND OPERATIONS. Wounds and their Treatment, 369 Bruises and Strains, 375 Ulcers, Abscesses and Tumors, 375 Biood-letting, 376 Castration, Docking and Marking of Lambs, © + ST Castration of Old Rams, ASTD Cutting off Horns, 380 Poisons iA hittal Poisons—V egeta- ble Poisons, 381 Mineral Poisons; 384 A list of Medicines employed in the Treatment of the Diseases of Sheep, 385 APPENDIX. Description ofa Sheep Barn and its appendages, ~ 387,388, 389 Analysis of sundry animal and veg- . etable substances, — gous ao t Analysis of Oats, by M. Fromberg, 392 Analysis of the Ashes of sundry Grasses and Grains, 393 Analysis of sundry Soils by Sprengel, 394 Remedy for the Foot Rot, 395 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. The Fat-Rumped Sheep, The Broad-Tailed Sheep, Iceland Sheep, Cretan or Wallachian Sheep, The Shepherd’s Pipes, Diagram of the different Qualities of Wool, An Escurial (or Saxon) Ram, the property of Mr. Thom- as Noble, of Massillon, Stark county, Ohio, 61 A Guadaloupe Ram, the property of the Society of Snakers, Enfield, New Hampshire, A Ewe of the Black-faced Heath Breed, A Ewe of the Cheviot Breed, The South Down Ram, The Dorset Ewe, The Romney Marsh Ewe, The Cotswold Ewe, The New Leicester Ram, Skeleton of the Sheep, The Skull of a Polled Sheep, The Incisor Teeth of the Sheep, Internal View of the Stomach, External View of the sila hye and Intestines, Microscopic View of Wool, Points of the Sheep, Ear Marks, Box for Condiments, / Section of the Intestinal Tube, The Itch Insect Magnified, A section of the Sheep’s Foot, The Fluke Worm, The Gad Fly, Entrance to a Sheep Stall, and Sheep Gates, Sheep Barn and Manger, 62 68 73 77 83 85 87 115 ar SW 128 134 142 170 190 206 276 303 344 348 358 359 387 388 70 SECTION I. ORIGIN OF THE SHEEP. Tus Suszp is classified by naturalists as belonging to the Orper Romenantia; the Trise Carripmz; and the Gunus Ovis. Of the Ovis, there are three varieties; the Ovis Am- mon, or Argati; the Ovis Musmon; and the Ovis Arius, or Domestic Surze. This last variety will form the subject of this work. [ist.] ASIATIC ARGALI. Professor Low observes that “the Asiatic Argali is some- _ what less than the size ofa stag. He has enormous horns, measuring more than a foot in circumference at the base, and from three to four feet in length, wiangularly rising from the summit of the head, so as nearly to touch at the root, ascending, stretching out laterally, and bending for- ward at the point. He has a coat of short hair, covering a coat of soft white wool. The color of the fur, externally, is brown, becoming brownish grey in winter. There is a buff colored streak along the back, and a large spot of a lighter buff color on the haunch, surrounding and including the tail. The female differs from the male, in being small- er, in having the horns more slender and straight, and in the absence of the disc on the haunch. In both sexes, the tail is very short, the eye-lashes are whitish, and the hair beneath is longer than on any other parts of the body. The Argalies inhabit the mountains and elevated plains of Asia, from the Caucasus northward and eastward to Kamschatka and the Ocean. They are very agile and strong, but very - Umid, shunning the least appearance of danger. Their mo- tion is zigzag, and they stop in their course to gaze upon their pursuer, afier the manner of the domestic sheep. They - are usually found in very small flocks, and at the rutting Beason, the males fight desperately, using their horns and forehead, in the manner of the common ram. They are 10 ORIGIN OF THE SHEEP. hunted by the people of the country for their flesh, which | is esteemed to be savory, and for their skins, which are. made into clothing. In autumn, after having pastured du- | ring summer on “the mountains and in secluded valleys, they are fat, and in high request; but as winter advances, | they are forced to descend from the mountains in search of food. They then lose their plumpness, and are sought af- ter only for their skins. When young, they are easily ta- med; but the old ones never resign their natural wildness. - Tue Arcaut or America, or, Rocky Mountain Sheep, is nearly allied to, or is identical with, the Argali of Asia.— It is described by Spanish writers as the sheep of Califor- nia, and is familiar to the Indians and fur traders of Canada, and is called by them the ahsata, or big-horn. I[tsurpasses — the Asiatic Argali in size, and is consequently larger than | the iargest of our domestic sheep. It is.described by Cap- tain Bonneville as follows: ‘* The dimensions of a male of ) this species are, from the nose to the base of the tail, five | feet: length of the tail, four inches: girth of the body, four | feet: height, three feet eight inches: the horn, three feet six inches long, one foot three inches in circumference at the base; and the horns are twisted lower than the muzzle. It has the head and horns of a sheep, and it is said to be de- licious mutton.”? Its horns are very large, approaching, but not touching atthe base. The horns on the female are small, and slightly curved. Their coat is hairy, and is of a reddish brown color, but becomes paler in winter; and in spring, the old rams are nearly white. The face and nose — are white, and the tail and buttocks present the buff colored .disc which distinguishes the male of the Asiatic species.— They collect in flocks under the guidance of a leader. They pasture on the steepest parts of the mountains, and on the approach of winter, descend into the plains. ‘They are wild and timid, betaking themselves, on the least alarm, to the summits of the mountains. They are pursued and killed by the Indians for their skins and flesh. ‘They have never been subjected to domestication. ‘The Argali abounds in the Rocky Mountains, from the fiftieth degree of north lat- itude, quite down to California, generally in the highest re- gions capable, of vegetation. Major Hamilton Smith re-- marks: ‘‘ If the American species be the same as the Asi- atic, which appears very probable, it can have reached the - ORIGIN OF THE SHEEP. | 11 "New World only over the ice by Behring’s Straits: And the passage may be conjectured as comparatively of a re-_ - cent date, since the Argali has not spread eastward beyond the Rocky Mountains, nor to the south farther than Cali- fornia.”’ [2d.] THE MUSMON, OR MOUFLON, Still inhabits the islands of Crete and Cyprus, and the moun- tains of Greece. It/is found in Corsica and Sardinia, where it is familiar to the mountaineers of the interior. It former- ly abounded in Spain, and even yet it is said to be seen in the mountains of Murcia. It is also abundantin the moun- tain ranges of southern Siberia, where it is subject to a cold rather than to a temperate climate. Everywhere, however, it preserves its own characters without alteration, while in its domesticated de®eendanis, the common sheep, (if such they be, and which has yet to be proved,) we see a perpetual series of variations—a multitude of breeds pre- senting diverse characters. ! Wiison, the naturalist, describes the Musmon as follows : “Tt is usually about two and a halt feet in height, and three feet and a half from the nose to the commencement of the tail. The horns never exceed two feet in length: they are curved backward, and the points are turned inwards: the roots of the horns are very thick and wrinkled: the ears are of a middle size, straight and pointed: the neck is thick: the body round: the limbs muscular, and the body short. The color is generally of a dull or brownish grey, with some white on the fore part of the face and on the legs : a tuft of long hair beneath the throat: a dark streak along the back; and the upper part of the face black, with black streaks along the cheeks. The forehead of this sheep is particularly arched. ‘The females are generally without horns, and where they do appear, they are considerably less than those of the male.” | The Musmon is smaller than the Argali, and its horns turn in at the points; whereas, those of the Argali turn out at the points. The coat of the Musmon consists of a brown- - ish grey hair of no great length, concealing a short, fine, _ grey colored wool, which is full of spirals, and which cov- ers the whole body. W.C.Spooner remarks that, ‘the Musmons resemble the Argalies in several characters $ but 12 ORIGIN OF THE SHEEP. they are less powerful and hardy, .and inhabit lower ranges of mountains. They are gregarious, assembling in large herds in the summer; but at the rutting season, fierce con- tests take place between the rams, and the herd divides in- to smaller bands, consisting of a male and several females. ~ ‘The Masmon is with difficulty domesticated, and is less do- cile and sensible to acts of kindness, shan the domestic. sheep.” [Sd.] THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. “It has been considered by some naturalists that the Musmon was the parent stock “of the domestic sheep; and in support of this opinion, it is stated that the Musmon has been known to breed with the domestic sheep, and their progeny. is fruitful, will reproduce, when copulated togeth- er. Pliny mentions such afliances as common, and states that the progeny were termed Umdri. Sheep and goats, also, when copulated together, produce a progeny, which will reproduce; ;* and the only essential differences between them are, that the skin of the sheep is of a loose texture, and in temperate climates, is generally covered with wool, with a small proportion of hair; whereas, the goat has a thick, firm skin, which, in the same climates, is most com- monly covered with hair, and has also a beard under its chin, an ornament seldom found upon the sheep. The goat of Cashmere and the Rocky Mountain goat, are exceptions to the general rule, as to the covering of the goat. These circumstances show a near relation in the charac- ters of the sheep, the goat, and the Musmon. WNeverthe- less, the domestic sheep, particularly the large, straight horned breeds, if left to themselves, so as to become wild, as they very readily wil do, are quite as capable of defend- ing and sustaining themselves, as the goat or Musmon.— And, therefore, it seems most rational to suppose that the domestic sheep has ever been a species distinct from the goat and Musmon, and such it should be considered until the contrary is proved, The sheep is subject to extraordinary changes in its strue- ture and covering, or coat, from the varied influences of soil, food, and climate ; and, therefore, it is impossible to # Blacklock. ORIGIN OF THE SHEEP. 13 trace the character of the primitive breed of sheep. ‘No animal,’? says Blacklock, ** varies more than the sheep, and none adapts itself so speedily to climate. . It would almost appear that nature, convinced of iis great utility, had be- stowed upon it a constitution so pliant, as to enable it to ac- commodate itself to any point, in a wide scale of tempera- ture. For though its natural situation as a wool bearing animal, like that of man, appears to be the wine countries, yet with him it has spread to every quarier of the globe, be- “coming impressed at every change with some peculiarity, alterabie only by a change of situation, and varying, we might affirm, with the weather. Changes, occasioned by climates, are always limited to the fleece, horns, and dispo- sal of the fat, and never extend 10 those paris on the per- manence of which the animal depends for its station in the scale of being, as the teeth, feet, and the digestive organs.”’ Under such circumstances, it cannot be expected that we ean trace the origin of the different breeds of sheep. And as to the qualities and management of any of the ancient breeds, we know only what is furnished by the Bible, and by Roman and Greek eau and so meagre are the ac- counts which they furnish of the different breeds, that any thing like a regular history of the sheep is entirely out of the question. But as the sheep has been widely dissemi- nated throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa; as its young are easily tamed, and its milk, flesh, and pelts were ex- tremely valuable to man in all ages, we may well suppose that it was one of the first quadrupeds which was domesti- eated. And as there is no animal which contributes more to the welfare and comfort of man than the sheep, so, also, ae is no one e which requires more care and attention from im. 14 ANCIENT MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. SECTION I. ANCIENT MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. Ia early ages, flocks of sheep constituted a large propor- tion of the wealth of the people. It is stated in the Scrip- tures that Job possessed 14,000 sheep, besides oxen and camels; and Solomon offered 120,000 sheep at the dedica- tion of the temple. The King of Moab rendered a yearly tribute of 200,000 sheep to the Jews, &c. ‘Travelers assert that numerous flocks are still | kept up in Western Africa.— Sir John Chardin saw flocks in the neighborhood of Alep- po, of immense numbers; and Dr. Shaw states that several Arabian tribes, who can bring no more than three or four hundred horses into the field, are possessed of more than as many thousand camels and oxen, and treble the number of sheep and goats. In Western Asia, the customs of these nomadic shep- herds have been much the same from the most remote ages; and as scriptural descriptions of the management of sheep by the Patriarchs, are very similar to those which are given by iravelers among the Arabs, as to the management of sheep, a few quotations from these writers may be interest- ing. it is recorded that, ** Abraham and Lot dwelt in tents: that Abraham pitched his tent upon a mountain; and that he often changed his place of residence.”? D’ Arvieux, a Freach trave ler, says, **the Arabs commonly encamp on the tops of some little hills where there are no irees to hin- der them from discovering, a great way off, all that come and go, that they may not be surprised, having nothing else to fear. They se. themselves down wherever they find springs of water, or rivulets in the valleys, and pasture for the subsistence of their cattle, and then decamp as soon as that is gone, and g» and post themselves in another place, every fortnight, or, at most, every month. é They live al! the summer upon these hills, always ad- vancing ‘towards the North; and when winter begins io come on, they go by degrees to the South, as far as Cesa- rea, of Palestine, and on the outside of the mountains of Carmel. They have no other lodgings but their tents, ANCIENT MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 15 which they eall their houses. They are entirely made of black goais’ hair, which is an employment of the women. They spin and weave them. They are strong, of a close texture, and so stretched, that the longest and heaviest rains cannot penetrate through them. Their whole families, and all that they have in the world, even to their stables, are there, particularly in the winter. The tent of the Emir is of the same stuff, and differs from that of his subjects only in bigness.” Hence, the figure in the song of Solomon, (i-5,) ** black as the tents of Ke edar,”’ which is the name of an Arabian Nomade or Bedouin tribe, fi frequently mention- ed in the Old Testament. This tribe dwells in tents, with a similar covering, to the present day. The Prophet, in speaking of the Messiah, says: “He shall feed his flock like a shepherd, he shall gather the lambs with his arm, and shall carry them in his bosom, and shall gently lead those which are with young.”” The same care and humanity are manifested by the Arabs of the pres- ent day. Parsons, the traveler, in speaking of them, says: ‘It was enter taining enough to see the horde of Aves de- eainp. First went the sheep and -goats, in regular divis- ions: then followed the camels and asses, loaded with the tent, furniture, and kitchen utensils. ‘These were followed by ithe old men and women, and the boys and girls on foot. The children that could not walk, were carried on the backs of the young women, and the boys and girls, and the dmaltest of the lambs and kids were ‘carried under the © arms of the children. The procession was closed thes the chief of the tribe, mounted onthe very best horse.” Greek, Rotian: and (Giblical writers inform us, that an- ciently the milk of sheep and goats was in common use; and Homer, in his Odyssey, rbtnied that one half of the milk was first drawn from the ewe for drink, and for the purpose of making cheese, and the remainder wasilelt for the lamb. The milk of sheep and goats is used by many of Here civilized, and, to some extent, by the civilized nations of the Raster Continents, at the present day, as a beverage, and for making butter, cheese, and curds. The milk of « sheep, in appearance, is like that of the cow, but is generally thicker, and yields a pale vellowish buter, which is always soft, and soon becomes rancid. Culley 16 ANCIENT MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. remarks, “the cheese from their milk is exceedingly pun: gent, and for that reason is preferred by many to that from the cow.” In Wales, sheeps’ milk is mixed with that of the cow, and makes a tart, palatable cheese. _ The Syrian Arabs, of the present time, milk their ewes. and goats; but they manufacture principally buuer from their milk. Mr. Burckhardt gives the following account of their prae- tice: “The sheep and goats are milked during the three spring months, morning and evening. They are sent out to pasture before sunrise, while the lambs or kids remain in or near the camp. About two o’clock.the herd returns, * andthe lambs are allowed to satiate themselves; afier which, the ewes belonging to each tent, are tied to a long cord, and milked one after another. .The same process occurs at sunset. From a hundred ewes or goats, (the milk of which is always mixed together,) the Arabs expect, in common years, about eight pounds of butter per day, or about seven cwt.in the three spring months. The system of cotting was known and adopted, when ne- cessary, by the Israelites, and also by the Greeks, Romans, and Germans. In a very ancient Anglo-Saxon manuscript, (says T'urner,) a shepherd is represented as saying: * In the first part of the morning | drive my sheep to their pasture, and stand over them, in heat and in cold, with dogs, lest the wolves destroy them. I lead them back to their folds, and milk them twice a day; and I move their folds, and make cheese and butter.”-—(Turner’s Anglo-Sax., ii-540.) In olden times, as now in Spain, and in many other parts of the world, sheep-shearing was a time of feasting and re- joicing; it was the harvest of the shepherd. The shears used for shearing are a very ancient inven- tion. They were termed forfex by the Romans. In acol- lection of antique gems at Berlin, (Germany,) called the “‘ Stosch Collection,” is a gem bearing a representation of a newly shorn lamb and the shears, which are exactly sim- ilar to those now in use. é The sheep: hook was used from the most remote period, as at the present time, among the nations of Europe and Asia, to seize the sheep, by laying hold upon its legs. Music was a common amusement of the ancient shep- herds; and the instrument most commonly used, was call- ANCIENT MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. ‘17? ed the fistula, or shepherd’s pipes. It is made of seven or more pieces of reed or cane, of unequal length and thick- ness, joined together, side by side, The hollow parts of each tube, being of different sizes and depths, make sounds corresponding to the different notes. _ They are played upon by applying the mouth, and blow: _ ing into the ends of the reeds, and moving the instrument _ back and forth, from side to side, with great velocity, so as to touch the desired notes. ‘In many parts of the Alps, and even in France, (says Goldsmith,) the shepherd and. his pipes are still continued with true antique simplicity. — The flock is regularly penned every evening, to preserve them from the wolf, and the shepherd returns homeward at sunset, with his sheep following him, and seemingly pleased with the sound of his pipe, which is blown with a reed, and resembles the chanter of a bagpipe. Before | had seen them trained in this manner. I had no conception: of those descriptions in the old pastoral poets, of the shep- herd leading his flock from one country to another. As | had been used to see these harmless creatures driven be- fore their keepers, | supposed all the rest was pure inyen- tion. | | This mode of using the shepherd’s pipes is mentioned in Homer’s Iliad, (Book 18th, line 526;) and they are, doubt- ~ less, one of the most ancient of all musical instruments. 18 ASIATIC AND AFRICAN SHEEP. SECTION III. ASIATIC AND AFRICAN SHEEP. mney i FAT-RUMPED SHEEP. _ This breed of sheep is described by Dr. Anderson, the traveler, as follows: “The flocks of all the Tartar hordes resemble one another, by having a large yellow muzzle, the under jaw often projecting beyond the upper; by hav- ing long hanging ears, and by the horns of the adult ram being large, spiral, wrinkled, angular, or bent in a lunar form. They have slender legs in proportion to their bod- ies, a high chest, large hanging testicles, and tolerably fine wool mixed with hair. ‘The body of the ram, and some- times of the ewe, swells gradually with fat towards the pos- teriors, where a solid mass is formed on the rump, and falls over the anus in place of a tail, divided into two hemis- AS re AD AFRICAN SHEEP. 19 pheres, which take the form of the hips, with a little button of a tail in the middle, to be felt by the finger.” There is, also, a hornless variety of the fat-rumped sheep. The annexed cutis acorrect portrait of a hornless fat- rumped Persian ram, which belonged to the Zoological So- ciety of London. Sheep of this breed ofien weigh ; as much ae 200 pounds: and this may be considered as the largest of the unimproved breeds. The soft, oily fat, which forms on the rump, often amounts to from 20 to 40 Ibs. In the Poe nartood of nee asus and ie hve the hind quarters Se but nee it is coarse, and is pe eee with : hi. ie is only fit for inferior manufactures. They are very hardy, notwithstanding their bad forms. This breed of sheep is found, in its purest state, in ahs deserts of Great ‘Tartary—no other variety being near to contaminate its blood. It reaches far into the interior, and northern parts of Russia, and is much disseminated in Chi- na, Persia, Thibet, Hindosi:an, Asia Minor, and Eastern Af- rica. [tis found in Palestine in greater numbers than an other breed—the largest proportion of the sheep.of N orth- : ern Asia being of this description. P It is ‘supposed by some persons, and it is not impossible, that this breed may be the same which was bred by the Patriarchs inthe days of Abraham and Moses. It is said that, ‘Moses took the fat, and the rump, and all the fat which was upon the inwards, and burnt them upon the al- tar, for a burnt offering.”” And these words seem to in- dicate a similarity in the shapes of the ancient and pres- ent breeds of Western Asia. The causes of the peculiar deposition of fat upon the’tail and rump of different breeds of sheep, will probably. ever be a mysiery. © Fat is a secreted tissue which intermingles — with, and surrounds the muscular parts, and envelopes the viscera within the body. Ordinarily, itis dispersed through- out the body; but in many of the sheep of the above men- tioned countries, it accumulates principally upon the rump or tail. Professor Pallas conjectures that this character ari- 2e3, in the far-rumped sheep, from their feeding upon the 20 ASIATIC AND AFRICAN SHEEP. bitter and saline plants, found upon the borders of the Cas- pian and Black seas. And he asserts, that when they are removed from the places where these plants grow, the fatty excrescence becomes less. But, as the fat-tailed and fat- © rumped sheep are varieties which are widely dispersed, it seems more probable that they may have been produced by accident, and may also have been perpetuated by accident, design, or fancy. “ BROAD-TAILED SHEEP. “This race of sheep is more extensively diffused than any other; it is found throughout Asia and a great part of Africa, as well as through the north-eastern parts uf Eu- rope. They differ as the ordinary European race, in the nature of their covering. In Madagascar, and in some oth- er hot climates, they are hairy; at the Cape of Good Hope, they are covered with coarse, hard wool; in the Levant, © their wool is extremely fine. These sheep are generally ASIATIC AND AFRICAN SHEEP. meee _ larger than those of Europe, in which circumstance only, and he form and size of their tails, they differ from them.” | he e broad-tailed sheep are of three species : In the one species, ihe tail is not only broad, but long.” Dr. Rus- sel, in his history of Aleppo, gives the following account of _ it, as it appears in Syria: ‘The dead weight of one of * these sheep will amount to 50 or 60 lbs., of which the tail _ makes up 15 or 16 lbs.; but some of the largest, that have ~ been fattened with care, weigh 150 lbs., the tail alone com- _ posing one-third of the whole weight. This broad, flattish _ tail is mostly covered with long wool, and becoming very “small at the extremity, turns up. Animals of this extraor- ~ dinary_ size, (150 lbs.) are, however, very rare, and are “kept up in yards, so as to be in little danger of hurting their m tails from the brushes. The shepherds, in several places YG) Syria, fix a thin piece of board to the under part, which is not like the rest, covered with wool, and to this board are sometimes added small wheels.” _ This necessity of carriages for the tails of African sheep, is mentioned by Herodotus, padophays and others; and, from this circumstance, it appears that this is a very ancient Hl breed of sheep. a“ ce ‘Another species have the tail broad and flat, but not very long, covered with wool above, but smooth below, and . divided by a furrow into two lobes of flesh. These are al- so said to weigh (in some cases) above thirty pounds.” «In a third species, a small, thin tail projects from the _ centre of this fleshy excrescence.”? “he composition of _ this excrescence (of the tail), is ot to be a mixture of flesh _ with a great proportion of fat, and to be very delicate food. _ But the animal has little other fat, the tail being in him the repository of that fat which lays about the loins of other n sheep. In cold climates, the fat of the tail resembles suet ; _ but in warm ones, as at the Cane of Good Hope, Madagas- " Bonk Se. it is so soft that, when melted, it will not harden ain,” —( Livingston.) Dr. Russel! says: “ It is entirely composed of a substance | between marrow and fat, serving very often in the kitchen _ instead of butter, and cut into small pieces, makes an in- _ gredient in various dishes.” Me, Wilde, i in his. narrative, makes his following cheat ~ vations upon a variety of this breed of sheep, and their / 22 ASIATIC AND AFRICAN SHEEP. management in Palestine: ‘“ These sheep are of a peculiar, | and very handsome breed: are mostly low sized : the fore _ parts of their bodies are of a fawn color, the hinder parts white: they have long, pendent, silken ears, and sweeping tails: their faces more oval and longer than the species in| these countries, and they have altogether a more pleasing, | docile, and mild expression. | ‘Jt is almost incredible, the influence that the shepherds of Palestine ‘possess over their flocks. Many of them have no dogs, but a word is sufficient to make them understand and obey the will of their shepherd. He sleeps among | them at night, and in the morring leads them to pasture, | always walking before them, guiding them to those places | where they can enjoy the best food, and resting, when they have obtained a sufficiency ; or, during the heat of the day, , in some cool, shady place, where they all immediately lie down around him. ‘Shortly after leaving the city, we met several flocks of | sheep, preceded by their shepherds, walking towards Jeru- salem. ‘These Arabs, clad in the turbans and simple abbas | worn by their class, and carrying a wooden crock in their | hands, walked in front. After the sheep came some young | goats and lambs, and the whole procession closed with about two dozen patriarchal looking goats, which brought. up the rear. These goats have long horns, and pendent. ears, that hang almost to the ground; and their hair is, a glossy black of the finest grain. These shepherds are) often to be seen about sunset, slowly approaching the city from all sides, to seek shelter for their flocks, during the night, in some of the deep vallies with which it is surround- ed, carrying the jambs in their bosoms. He has generally two or three favorite lambs, which do not mix with the) flock, but follow close at his side, frisking and fondling, about him like dogs. Indeed, the degree of intelligence | that exists between the Arab and his flock, is truly aston- ishing. ‘* They know his voice and follow him,”’ and * he | careth for the sheep.” It was probably to such shepherds | as these, that the angel announced the glad tidings of the | Saviour’s birth. And as I met them walking towards Jeru-. salem, the full force of all the beautiful imagery, nd the | many touching similes, derived from such scenes and asso- | ciations, and so often alluded to, came vividly before me.” ASTATIC AND AFRICAN SHEEP. 93 SHEEP OF PERSIA AND HINDOSTAN, There are various races of sheep in Persia. A race of sheep exists in Persia, and to the north of it, which de- serves to be mentioned as being, perhaps, the nearest in its _eharacters to the wild race or Argali. This peculiar race is proper to the north parts of the country on the Caspian, but is greatly diffused in Persia, and extends across the In- dus over a great part of Hindostan. It is covered with a coarse, hairy wool, of a grey color; its horns are bent out- ward, in the manner of the Argali: and what is worthy of note, its head resembles the common picture of the ram, as depicted in Eastern sculptures. There is, also, ancther very remarkable race in Persia which is entirely destitute of tail, and has an accumulation of fat upon the posterior parts. This breed is frequently termed the Persian, but its principal habitation is the shores of the Red Sea, and it seems to be of African, rather than Asiatic origin. : The fat-tailed sheep also abounds in Persia and Hindos- tan. Of these two last mentioned kinds, the fat-tailed are the most numerous in those two countries. Much wool is. _ grown in those districts of Persia where a majority of the inhabitants lead a pastoral life. The most valuable is found in the province of Kerman. This is a very mountainous country, hot in summer, and intensely cold in winter.— * ~The wool of the sheep is fine in quality, and that which | grows at the roots of the hair of the goat, is nearly as fine. The latter is manufactured into various fabrics, which al- most equal the beautiful shawls of Cashmere. The fine felt carpets, for which Persia is so celebrated, are manu- factured from the wool of the sheep, either in Kerman or Koprasan. Although those districts are remotely situated from each other, the wool of the sheep nearly corresponds, and ‘‘is remarkable for being spirally curved, and of a grey or mixed black and white color. ‘The sheep are below the ordinary size, the horns of the ram curved back, and spiral at the tip, the ears pendulous, and the tail not very broad.” —(Fraser’s Travels.) ? _. And the shepherds of those countries lead a wandering life, much like that of the Arabs of Syria and Palestine. _ Some parts of Persia, and also Astracan, on the Caspian Sea, are noted for the fine furs which they produce; but 24 ASIATIC AND AFRICAN SHEEP. these furs are the skins of lambs, taken from the mothers, _ _and slaughtered before the natural birth. 4 THIBETIAN SHEEP. The sheep of Thibet are very numerous, and are chiefly a small variety of the fat-ruamped Persian and Abyssinian | breed, with black heads and necks. Some are hairy, with short wool underneath; while others bear a long, soft, and fine wool. It is from the lauer that many of the costly In- dian shawls are made. Much of this peculiar wool finds its way te Hindostan, and is there manufactured. The mutton | of these sheep is said to be peculiarly well flavored. “| CHINESE SHEEP. In China are a variety of breeds. The fat-tailed and fat- rumped varieties abound extensively in the southern parts of China; and in certain districts a small breed is found, which resembles in form the European breeds, and which - produces a fine, and very useful long wool. But one of the most singular breeds in that country, is _ the long-legged sheep, so called on account of the extraor- dinary length of their legs. ‘This breed have horns which are of a middle size, and curved: the forehead is avched: the neck short, with a collar of hair reaching from the nape of it to the shoulders: the legs, head, and mane are of a reddish brown color: the tail is long, and the wool short and coarse. EGYPT. In Egypt, both varieties of the fat-tailed sheep prevail : but those with long tails, reaching nearly or quite to the ground, are more numerous than the broad-tailed breed — They are of a large size, mostly with black heads and necks, an external coat of hair, and well-flavored flesh. ETHIOPIA, Has sheep similar to those of Egypt in most respects, with black heads and necks, and the remainder of their bodies white. Others are quite white, with tails reaching nearly tothe ground, and curved at the extremiry.—(Dapper’s Af- rica.) Here, also, appear the fat-rumped sheep, with black ASIATIC AND AFRICAN SHEEP. 25 heads and necks, but of a ‘smaller size. aba the: Persian ngs Af “ABYSSINIA. | a) this country, the sheep are taller than those of Egypt, hd are all black; their heads large, and their ears re- markably short and small. They, also, like the other na- tive sheep within the tropics, have an external covering of hair. Itis in this region that the many-horned sheep is found; many having four, and some writers have asserted that individuals have been seen with six horns. MADAGASCAR. ’ Dr. Anderson states that the sheep of this Island all have broad tails, like those of Africa; that they have a close, thick coat of short’hair, very eipnash and thick, like the coat of a well-dressed horse, but the hair stiffer, and thick- er set on the skin, and the color a fine nut brown: that all the sheep on this island are of this kind. CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. ‘ * The native sheep of this region are of the broad-tailed breed. They are of every variety of color, black, brown, bay, but mostly spotted: their necks are small, their ears long and pendulous. They are covered with strong, friz- zled hair, of w hich little use is made, except for cushions and mattrasses.”,—(Barrow.) Since this colony has been ceded 10 England, Merinos have been successfully introdu- ced into it, and much good wool is now sent from thence to England. ANGOLA, Is situated on the south-western coast of Africa. It posses- ses a singular kind of sheep, which is thus described in the “ Animal Kingdom:” It is called the Zenu. Its legs are long and slender, but arms and shanks are muscular and strong, There is a slight elevation at the withers, the chest is narrow and flat, and falling in between the arms ; the false _ ribs project, and give to the carcass a strong re- semblance | tothe Zebu. The fat is most singularly dispo- sed. ‘Ati is taken from the tai} or rump, and is distributed 26 ASIATIC AND AFRICAN SHEEP. over three parts of the animal. A small portion of it is | spread over the posterior part of the loin, and the com- mencement of the haunch. A more decided accumulation is found on the poll, and precisely of the semi-fluid charac- | ter, which the fat assumes in the tail, or the rump of other Eastern sheep. This mass commences from the base of | the ears, and extends backwards, in the form of a rounded | projection, half way down the neck. Under the Jaw, ex- tending downward, and covering the larynx, is a third col- lection of soft fatty matter.’ This variety of the sheep is found in no other part of the world. GUINEA. In this country are two kinds of sheep: “One of the kinds is small, and, in some respects, resembles European sheep. Their coat is hairy, like that of the goat, with a sort of mane, like the lion, on the neck, and so on the rump, and a bunch at the end of the tail. ‘The most numerous breed in Guinea, is of a different character. ‘The male is horned, the horns generally form- ing a semi-circle, with the points forward: the females are hornless; the ears are pendulous, and black spots are dis- iributed on the sides of the head and neck, as well as body.” —(Animal Kingdom.) NORTHERN AFRICA, OR BARBARY. ‘“ Marcus Columeda, (uncle of L. J. M. Columeda, who wrote an excellent treatise on husbandry,) a rich colonist who lived at Cadiz during the reign of the Emperor Clau- dius, and made Agricalture his pleasure and pursuit, was struck with the beauty of ithe wild rams that were brought from Africa, to be*exhibited at the Roman games. He coupled those with Taventian ewes, which were celebrated for the soliness of their wool, and procured, by this means, a race whose fleeces resembled that of their dam in soft- ness, and that of their sire in the color and fineness of the wool.’? This circumstance shows that north-western Afri- ca, in those days, possessed a breed of very fine wooled sheep; and that country, at this time, possesses a superior breed of sheep, which are indigenous to it, and whose wool is glossy and nearly as soft and fine as that of the Merino; ee ASIATIC AND AFRICAN SHEEP. o7 but it is straight, that is, it wants the spiral curve; and this deficiency renders its wool less valuable than that of the Merino. , | vege f 4 A aa 7 SECTION IV. EUROPEAN SHEEP. ICELAND SHEEP. The sheep of Iceland are of two kinds: The first termed the native, or original breed, is much like the Argali. They are of small size, and their color is from dun to almost black. ‘The second kind is larger, the fleece white, and is supposed to have originated from more. southern climes. The fleece of these breeds consists of two coats; one of extremely coarse hair, which hardly merits the name of wool, and another beneath it of a softer and finer quality, but so mixed as to make it difficult to separate them. This | 28 EUROPEAN SHEEP. | fleece is very thick and impervious to cold and wet; but is of inferior value for manufacturing, and is used for horse collars, and some wool is exported to other countries for this use. These sheep have four and some of them five: horns, of considerable size, and are always spiral. They are very hardy, and are never stabled, but seek their food by following the horses, and eating the grass and moss which they uncover—their own feet being too feeble to dig inthe snow. Their shelter is the jutting rock or moun- tain’s caverns. At the approach of a storm, they run vio- lently towards the sea, and are sometimes precipitated into it by each other. If they are surprised by a snow storm before they can reach the coast, they then turn their heads towards each other, and patiently expect under their fleecy covering, the aid of their owners, who do not fail to search for and relieve them as soon as possible. They distinguish the spot on which they are buried by an exhalation which arises from their breath. If this aid is so long delayed as to subject the sheep to the danger of starving , they recipro- cally heed upon each other’s fleeces. This race is extend- ed to the Danish Islands, where it is equally neglected through the winter, and their instincts improve by this neglect. They keep each other warm by pressing closely together when the bleak winds pinch them, and those from the centre relieve in turn those ‘which, in the outer part of the circle, are exposed io the severity ie the blast. Thus, necessity ae the inventions of beasts as well as those of men.’”’——{ Livingston.) RUSSIAN SHEEP. The following not very particular account of Russian Sheep is supplied by, Mr. Youatt: ‘‘ Far more attention continues to be made to the breed - ing of sheep than of cattle, through the whole of this im- mense Empire. All the wandering tribes possess a great number of sheep. Many of the inferior boors and Cos- sacks have flocks consisting of many hundreds. ‘‘ The characters of the sheep differ materially in the va- rious districts. ‘Towards the North, they are small, short- tailed, and bear a coarse and harsh wool. About thé river Don, and still more towards the centre, and on the banks of EUROPEAN SHEEP. 29 the Dnieper, and in some districts of the Ukraine, they yield better wool ; and thence the greater part of the material for the inland cloth manufacturies is supplied. In the neigh-, borhood | of the Baltic, a still superior breed of sheep is found, and the Dago and Oesel Islands are celebrated for their wool. The half cloths that are manufactured from He. have often as fine and close a substance as that which is imported from Great Britain. ‘“‘ The finest of the Russian wools are SR, ror Odes- sa, on the Black Sea. It is the produce of all the neigh- boring provinces, but principally of the Crimea. There is no district of the Empire so fitted by nature for the pastur- age of sheep. There are three kinds of sheep in the Cri- mea, and in Taurida. The common breed is white, or blaek, or grey, with very coarse wool, and a long tail cov- 3 a with fat. They are kept in exceedingly large flocks. A rich Tartar will frequently possess 50,000 sheep. ‘The grey sheep produce the grey jamb skins, 30,000 of which are exported every year. Fifty or sixty thousand black lambs’ skins, which are also much valued, are exported from the Crimea. “The mountain sheep are smaller than those of the plains. Their wool is beautifully fine, and, even before the improvement which many of the flocks have under- gone, used to find its way to the French manufacturies.— The Crimea was scarcely in the possession of Russia, ere many attempts were made to improve the sheep, naturally so valuable. Merinos were, in process of time, introduced here, as in every part of Europe. A few haye been culti- vated as a pure flock ; more have been employed in impro- ving the native breeds; and the consequence is, that the wool exported from Odessa is increasing in quantity and value Overy sie! } | ‘EUROPEAN TURKEY AND GREECE, “The sheep of these countries do not correspond with their ancient form. They are of small size, and indifferent form. They are often of the flat-tailed variety, exhibiting, in this respect, an affinity with the sheep of Asia Minor and the adjacent countries. In the Islands of the Archipel- ago, few sheep are reared. Some of them are of the,Syri- an breed, having long flat tails. But there is a peculiar Ot Ne Se oe 30 EUROPEAN SHEEP. race existing in some of the Islands, which have several horns, and long hairy wool.’’—(W. C. Spooner.) : ‘ SWITZERLAND. | There are several varieties of the native sheep of this | country. The valley sheep are much like the English long wooled breeds. The mountain breeds have shorter | and finer wool than the valley breeds, and have been much | improved by crosses with the Merino. HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. The original breeds of these two countries are mostly | long wooled, and are very similar to the English lowland breeds. CRETAN, OR WALLACHIAN SHEEP, The Cretan sheep is said to be common in Wallachia, Hungary, Austria, and the Western parts of Asia; but along the Danube is its principal habitat. It is of the long-tail- EUROPEAN SHEEP. ey ed variety, though without any tendency to a fatty enlarge- ment of the tail. On the face, the hair is short and of a rusty black. On the body, the wool is white and long, per- fectly straight, (that is, has no spiral curve,) thick set, and wiry, and is much mixed with hair. Its horns are very large, adding greatly 1o its striking and picturesque appear- ance. The horns of the male rise almost perpendicularly from the skull, making a series of spiral curves in their as- cent, while in the female they diverge, taking a lateral di-: rection, and then ascending. But there is probably some -Jittle variation in the horns of this breed, as in those of most other breeds. This breed of sheep is vicious and unruly, and of great strength. In certain characteristics it has considerable re- semblance to one variety of the Persian sheep, and to the Black-faced Heath breed of Scotland. AUSTRIAN AND HUNGARIAN Sheep were formerly altogether coarse wooled; but in the year 1775, the Empress Maria Theresa imported Merinos from Spain, and placed them at Mercopoil, in Hungary, where an agricultural school was established. Other im- portations of Spanish sheep were afterwards made into the Austrian dominions. Within the last thirty years, great improvements have been made in the sheep of those coun- tries, and much of their wool is nearly or quite equal to the best Saxon. SWEDISH SHEEP. The native sheep of Sweden, Denmark, Norway and Northern Russia, are an inferior race in all respects, and nearly correspond in their appearance and qualities. ‘Their head is long and thin; the neck arched; the eye small; the countenance mild; the legs and tail ihont wool ;. the wool coarse, but useful for inferior manufactures. The Swedes are stated to have been the first nation in Europe which imported Merino sheep, with a view to natu- ralize them; though the most northern part of this country is burnt up by a sun which never sets, and the whole is des- olated by a winter of six months, during which the ground’ is covered with uninterrupted snow. Notwithstanding this, es 32 EUROPEAN SHEEP. Mr. Alstroemer imported a flock of Merino sheep into Swe- den, in 1723; and being successful in the management of them, the government instituted a school of shepherds in 1739; and granted bounties to the sellers of good and fine wool; and these bounties were continued until 1792. At present, Sweden raises fine wool sufficient for its own con- sumption. : Their system of management is as follows: ‘ Both the native and imported sheep, after having been pastured du- ring the day, are usually housed at night at all seasons, on account of the great number of wolves. The peasantry and small farmers have these houses too confined.. The more at- tentive cultivators lodge their sheep in large airy buildings, the windows of which are always open. and the doors are made of hurdles. The native Swedish flocks are kept inthese buildings when the weather is unusually severe; the Meri- “nos are housed during the six winter months; but scarcely any inclemency of the weather will prevent the whole flock being driven out daily, at least a few minutes, in order to breathe the fresh air, while the sheep house is cleaned. The Merinos are seldom used for breeding until they are © two and a half years old, and are fattened for the butcher at seven.—( Messrs. Youatt & Parry.) DENMARK. The Danes first carried Merino sheep from Sweden in 1789; and in 1797, the government of Denmark imported three hundred sheep from Spain, from the celebrated breeds of Escurial, Paular, Gaudaloupe, Infantado, Mon- tarco, and Negretti. ‘They were placed at Esserum, eight leagues from Copenhagen. ‘The Danes have been success- ful in the management of these sheep, and their crosses with the native sheep, and Denmark now exports nearly a million pounds of wool, one half of which is represented to be of the finest quality of Merino. Aaiearipinssie PRUSSIA. _ The ancient breeds of this country had coarse wool, val- ued at from 10 to 15 cents per lb. The first step made to-. wards their improvement, was made by Mr. Fink, an enter- prising agricultyrist. His first effort was to obtain the na- ~ EUROPEAN SHEEP. 33 tive Silesian breed of the districts of Namslau and Oels, which-had long been celebrated for the. comparative fine- ness of their wool. Some improvement was effected ; but. ‘not being fully satisfied with those sheep, in 1768 he ob- tained Merinos from Saxony; and in 1779, he imported | three rams and twenty ewes directly from Spain. His suc- cess, and the great improvement made by crossing these é sheep. with his native flocks, attracted the attention of the Prussian government. In 1780, the King of Prussia im- ported 100 rams and 200 ewes from Spain. Afterwards he commissioned Mr. Fink to import from Spain a flock of one: thousand of the choicest Merinos; and a school was established to instruct in their management, at the head of which Mr. Fink was placed.—(Lasteyrie.) ) At the present day, many of the Prussian flocks rival in fineness the purest Saxon, and command an equal price for their fleeces; and the manner in which they are man- aged is much the same as in Saxony—the climate of the two countries being very similar. PRUSSIAN SILESIA. © The native sheep are small, with long necks and legs, and the head, belly and legs devoid of wool. In the dis- tricts of Namslau and Oels, was a superior breed, so far as the wool was concerned. Merinos were introduced into this province by the Count Von Maguis, soon after their im- portation into Prussia. The management of them in Sile- sia is very similar to that of Saxony; only that more intel- ligence and care has been bestowed upon them, and, con- sequently, many of their flocks excel those of Saxony.— Men of the greatest experience are employed, who make it ‘a business to go from farm to farm, to examine sheep, and - to select the-best animals of each sex for breeders. After about forty years of careful experiment and practice, Sile- sia has obtained a breed of sheep whose fleeces are of ex- tremely even fineness, being equally fine on the neck, back, and sides. | _ At‘a meeting of the New York Farmer’s Club, Mr, Heischman communicated much valuable information as to the management of these sheep, and exhibited six speci- mens of wool from the most celebrated flocks of Prussian Silesia, where the finest and best wool in all Europe is 3o4 : EUROPEAN SHEEP. grown, and one was from a ram that was sold for $4,000. In the fine or perfect staple, there are about 80 spiral curves to the inch, and the fleece is about one and a half inches thick. Ittook many years to obtain this fineness of wool, or the perfect staple. ‘The number of fibres of wool io a square inch of a German coarse-wooled sheep.. is 5,500; in a mixture of the Merino with this breed of the tenth generation, about 18,000 ; inthe twentieth generation, the fine wool predominates—the color is darker, and there is plenty of yolk; in this generation there are 27,000 fi- bres to the square inch; and in the thirtieth generation, from 40,000 to 48,000 fibres. Folds in the skin were found on these fine-wooled animals. To obtain this extra quality of wool, the sheep are kept at a nearly uniform temperature—60 of Fahrenheit, or be- low, and are never allowed to be much exposed to rain or dust—both of which are injurious to the fleece—nor to mid- day heat of the summer’s sun, and are regularly supplied with water and varieties of food. SAXON SHEEP. The original sheep of Saxony consisted of two varieties : one bearing a wool of some value, and the other yieldinga fleece applicable only to the coarsest manufactures. Both of these breeds have been extensively crossed with the Me- vino, and very many mixed flocks now exhibit fleeces little inferior to those of the purest Kscurial sheep. In the year 1765, Augustus Frederick, Elector of Sax- ony, introduced Merino sheep into his dominions by a grant from the King of Spain. One hundred and nineteen ewes and one hundred and ten rams were selected, principally _ from the Escurial flocks, then the King’s private property, under the care and management of the monks of the Escu- rial monastry, and which were considered to be the finest sheep inthe kingdom. These sheep were shipped at Cadiz, in the month of May, 1765, and all arrived safe in Saxony, except eight which died on their passage: They were ac- companied by two Spanish shepherds, who remained with and took care of the flock till the middle of the next year. During this time they instructed Saxon shepherds in the care-and management of sheep. eae EUROPEAN SHEEP. 3a In order to render these sheep beneficial to the country, the Elector appointed commissioners to superintend the sheep establishments which were formed at Lohmen, Ren- nersdorf, and Stolpen. . At the end of ten years they were found ,to have had all possible success—the sheep of pure blood preserving every valuable quality. In the year 1777, the Elector procured another importation of one hundred and ten Merinos from Spain, which were selected from the ‘best flocks of Leon, Escurial, Cavagnon, Negretti, Montareo, and Sorian.— These sheep exceeded the first importation in beauty of form, and quality of wool. The cost of them was forty rix dollars per head. Nevertheless, the pure Escurial Hecaaaiie kind which Mr. H. D. Grove imported from Saxony into America, in the years 1827 and 1828—are the most valued, and are the kind which are generally called Saxon sheep in the United States. The Escurial breed have longer legs, necks, and heads than some other breeds of Merinos. with rather narrow but deep chests; but they are generally well proportioned, and are good milkers. Specimens may be selected from the best flocks which rival in symmetry of form any other breed whatever. Compared with other breeds of Merinos. they are smail, and their fleeces are light. One cause of their lightness is, that they have less yolk in their wool than most other breeds of Merinos, and therefore they do not bear exposure to cold rainy weather so well as some other breeds. ‘The weight of the ewe fleeces is from 14 to 2% lbs., and on wethers and rams, from 25 to 4 lbs. The finest and purest flocks yield heavier fleeces than those which are crossed with coarse-wooled sheep.: According to. Mr. Carr, (a large sheep-owner in Germa- ny) the Intantado Merinos are also cultivated in their pu- rity in Saxony, and are described by him as having a short- er body than the other, (Escurials) and the head and neck comparatively short and broad; the nose (of the ewes) short, and somewhat turned up, and the body. round. The wool _is often matted upon the neck, back, and thighs, and grows upon the head to the eyes, and upon the legs to the. very feet. The yolk is almost pitchy, so asto render the wash-' ing difficult. The average weight of their fleeces is, on i 36 EUROPEAN SHEEP. ewes, from 24 to 34 lbs.; on rams and wethers, from 4 to 6 lbs. ; we Mr. W. C. Spooner observes: ‘‘ Many attempts have been made to amalgamate these breeds, but without suc- cess; the advantages of each one can only be retained by preserving them pure.’ This statement agrees with the experience of those in the United States, who have crossed the Escurial Saxon with other breeds of Merinos; a tender breed has generally been the result of the cross. Also some of the breeders of Merino sheep in Spain have latterly sent to Saxony for Escurial rams, and crossed with them upon their flocks, and with the same results. ‘The size of their sheep was lessened, and the constitution of their flocks was injured.—(See A. Agriculturist for 1846, pa. 15.) Nevertheless, crosses of the Escurial breed with coarse-wooled sheep of British origin, produce hardy ani- mals—hardier than the pure Escurials. Mr. Carr observes: ‘* These sheep cannot thrive in a damp climate, and it is quite necessary that they should have a wide range of dry and hilly pasture, of short and not over nutritious herbage. If allowed to feed on swampy or marshy ground, even once or twice in autumn, they are sure to die of liver complaint (2. é., the rot,) in the follow- ing spring. Ifthey are permitted to eat wet grass, or are frequently exposed to rain, they disappear by hundreds with consumption. In these countries it is found that the higher bred the sheep is, especially the Escurial, the more tender. They are always housed at night, even in summer, except in the very finest weather, when they are folded in the dis- tant fallows, but never taken to pasture till the dew is off the grass. In the winter they are kept within doors alto- gether, and are fed with a small quantity of sound hay, and every variety of straw which has notsutlered from wet, and which is varied at each feed. They pick it over carefully, eating the finer parts, and any corn which may have been left by the threshers. Abundance of good WAL and rock salt in their cribs, are indispensables.”’ Dr. Bright remarks: “ Baron Geisler was, some years since, one of the most successful breeders of Merino sheep, and for many years he has exercised unwearied assiduity by crossing and re-crossing, so that by keeping the most EUROPEAN SHEEP. 37 accurate registers of the pedigree of each sheep, he has heen enabled to proceed with a mathematical precision in the regular and progressive improvement of the whole stock. Out of seventeen thousand sheep, comprising his flock, there is not one whose whole family he cannot trace by reference to his books.” He considers purity of blood the first requisite towards perfection in the fleece. He adopts pretty nearly the same system mentioned iy Mr. Carr, and keeps the old separate from each other. And -among his regulations we find the following: “ For four- teen days before the or ak season, the rams should be daily fed with oats; and this food should be continued not only during that particular period, but for fourteen days af- terward ; and one ram will thus be sufficient for eight ewes, provided great care and ‘attention is paid to him in every other respect during the whole season. “During the lambing period, a shepherd should be con- stanuy, day and night, in the cote, in order that he may place the lamb, as soon as it is cleaned, together with its mother, in a separate pen which has Weed before prepared. The’ ewes which. have lambed, should, during a week, be driven neither to water nor to pasture; but low troughs of water, for this purpose, are to be introduced into each par- tition, in order that they may easily and atall times quench their thirst. Tt is also very useful to put a smail quantity of barley- meal into the water; for, by this means, the quality of the ewes’ milk is much increased. When the lambs are so strong ‘that they can eat, they are to be separated by de- grees : from their mothers, and fed with the best and finest oats, being suffered, at first, to go to them only three times a day—early in the morning, at mid-day, and in the even- ing, and so continue till they can travel to pasture, and ful- ly ‘satisfy themselves.” ‘The following observations af Mr. H. D. Grove, will fur- ther illustrate iheir management: “The Germans keep their sheep under coinfortable shelter during the winter— By this means, they do not require, in the first place, so much provender ; secondly, the tip ends of the wool do not get weather- beaten, which is an injury; thirdly, a great quantity of manure is saved. They hurdle their sheep du- ring aia for the purpose of manuring the land, which 38 EUROPEAN SHEEP. makes it more productive. They raise large quantities of roots, such as ruta baga, mangel wurtrel, carrots, turnips, &c., to feed out during the winter. Combined with straw, it is considered an economical mode of wintering sheep.— Moreover, they enrich their land by this course of manage- ment, which enables them to keep still more sheep and cat- tle, and raise more grain. Many farmers in that country keep their sheep from nine toten months of the year in the yard : some, only part of their flock, and others their whole flock. For this purpose, they sow red and white clover, lucerne, and esparette, which is mowed and fed to them in racks three times a day, and in weather, a foddering of straw. It follows, as a matter of course, that the stables are well littered with straw every day. It is considered that an acre thus managed, will maintain double the num- ber of sheep or cattle that it would to turn them out to pick for themselves. By this course of management, they are rsa to keep large numbers of sheep without infringing much on their grain growing, and are able to come in com- oa. with the wool-growers of other countries. As there are no fences in that. country, the sheep are attended by dogs. One shepherd, with his dog, will manage from five to eight hundred, in the summer, all in one flock.” From these statements, it is very evident that in Saxony, Merino sheep are subjected to great confinement in stalls and yards during winter. and in summer also, on many farms. And though, upon the authority of Messrs. Youatt & Las- teyrie, Merinos are generally suffered to run out in yards some part of every day in winter, except when the weather is severe, and are occasionally led into fields of grass, or oth- er green food, to obtain some portion of their sustenance, when the ground is bare or has little snow upon it; yet, as the snows in those northern climes are generally deep in the winter, it is very evident that Merinos cannot, in those countries, obtain that exercise which is natural to them, and which is necessary to form vigorous, healthy animals. Moreover, the climate of those northern cuuntries is very moist in summer, compared with that of Spain or the Uni- ted States. Such a climate has a strong tendency to pro- duce too succulent grasses, and rot in consequence. From this cause it is estimated that in Great Britain at least one EUROPEAN SHEEP. 39 million of the native sheep die annually from rot, on an av- erage, and in some seasons, more than twice that number. Hence, we may conclude, that though. the pure Escurial is a healthy breed in the dry climate of the United States, Mr. Carr’s statement as to their morbid tendency in Saxony, though rather highly colored, is very nearly correct. _ Different modes of washing sheep before shearing are used in Saxony, but always with special care that the fleeces are thoroughly cleansed. The shearing is conducted in the most skilful manner, each shearer, generally, being limited as 1o the number of fleeces he is to clip per day, in order to ensure a greater _ degree of care in his work, and thus prevent their skins from being injured by the shears. _* After the shearing season is over, the wool is bought of the small proprietors by agents of wool merchants, and transported to Hamburg, Breslau, and Leipsic, where it is sorted and re-sold for exportation. ‘The large proprietors of pure flocks effect their sales by samples, subject to sort- ing, which jis an art well understood in Germany. The fleeces of the same quality are opened and spread flat against each other, when packed, and each bale is made to contain from 400 to 500 lbs. At the annual fairs of Leipsic, millions of pounds of wool are often sold in a single day; and an immense amount of wool is exported from Germany. England receives annu- ally between twenty and thirty millions lbs., and France several millions. _“ Thus, the greatest care is taken in the management of their flocks in Saxony, and in the selection of the progeny intended for breeding, so as not only to preserve, but also to improve the quality of the wool: the improvement of the carcass is altogether a secondary matter, the fleece being the primary consideration. . So successful have been these endeavors, that the wool of Saxony stands unrivalled for the manufacture of the finest cloths. ** To such an extent have these improvements of the Es- curial breeds been carried in Saxony, that though superior rams are becoming more numerous every year, yet some distinguished rams have, within a few years past, been sold at from 100 to nearly 300 pounds sterling each.’’—-(W. C. Spooner.) lye Re ee a ee eS Se 40 EUROPEAN SHEEP. ; FRANCE. The indigenous breeds of France are varied as the face of the country, and have generally coarse and rather light fleeces. Formerly the sheep of Roussillon and Berry were most esteemed for their wool; but for mutton, those of Brittany, though extremely small, were in the highest esti- mation. ‘* At the present time, probably none surpass, form and fleece combined, those of Arles, which embraces the dis- tricts of Crau, Camarque, and Le plain du Bourg. About 250,000 sheep are kept in these districts. All these sheep are migratory, being driven from the plains of Arles, in the spring of the year, towards the Alps, which divide Prov- ence and Dauphine from haly, and are driven back in No- vember. ‘These migrations have continued from time im- memorial; and laws have been enacted, limiting the road for their passage 10 36 feet in breadth. The flocks vary in number from 10,000 to 40,000; and to every 1,000 sheep, three shepherds are allowed, each of whom has his dog.— The sheep are led by goats, which are trained for the pur- pose, and have bells round their necks. The discipline in which these animals are kept, and the intelligence which they display, is very great. They halt or proceed, at the direction of the shepherd. ‘They come to the centre, at the close of each day’s march, and there wait in the morn- ing for the proper order, when they repair to their station at the head of the troop, with the greatest regularity. If they come to a stream, they halt until the word of command is given; and then they plunge immediately into the water, and are followed by the rest of the flock. The journey usually lasts from twenty to thirty days. When thev ar- rive at the mountains, each shepherd has his appointed boundary marked out; and the proprietors of the land are usually paid about twenty sous per sheep for their pasture during the summer. The shepherds sleep with their flock in the open air, and live almost entirely upon bread and — goat’s milk.”’-—(Annals of French Agriculture.) Spanish sheep were imported into France at an early period. But the first person who paid any systematic at- tention to the improvement of the wools of France, by means of Merino sheep and their crosses, was M. Dauben- ton, who, in 1776, obtained part of 200 Merinos, which EUROPEAN SHEEP. 41 were imported by Mons. Trudain, intendant of finances. In 1786, 376 Merino sheep were presented by the King of Spain to Louis XVI. Sixty of them died on their pas- sage to France. ‘The remainder were placed at Ranbouil- let, in the neighborhood of Paris, where was an agricultur- al establishment expressly devoted to the improvement of domesticated animals. “This royal present having been chosen for their supe- rior form and fleece, from various Spanish flocks, differed much in size and shape; but these characteristic differen- _ces have been melted into each other by crossing them, and a race has been produced which differs from any of the ori- ginal breeds, but is equal to the best of them in form and fineness of their wool, and superior in weight of carcass and fleece, and with less jar (or hair) than the original breeds.”’ In order to perfect the undertaking, a publication was drawn up by M. Gilbert, under the patronage of Govern- ment. = = <5 i Sella, fy SIEM Ie e 7 ¥ GAH) SAD Dy c, 3 A PN AE SARL 7 zl : Appts i VEEN 7 tA Ei ‘i Z ip MAG 5 X —— Ait RNS So Sie TURAN EEE AD! GUADALOUPE BREED. ‘‘ The Guadaloupe flock is rather larger in the bone than the Escurial and Montarco breeds, about the same height, but not quite so handsomely formed; their wool was thick and crimped, their skins loose and doubling, their faces and legs not materially different from the Escurial and Montarcos, but, in general, they were more gummed than either of the other (five) flocks.” “ The Escurials, the Montarcos, and the Guadaloupes, were not, in general, so heavy-hormned as the other three flocks, and about one in six of the bucks were without horns.”’ : ‘“‘1n point of fineness, there was very little difference be- tween these six flocks: and as | have been told by well in- formed persons, there is very little difference in this respect’ among the Leonesa Transhumantes in general.””—(W. Jar- vis.) , sa M. Lasteyrie says: ‘‘The Gaudaloupe have the most perfect form, and are likewise celebrated for the quantity and quality of their wool. The Paulars have much wool EUROPEAN SHEEP. 63 of a fine quality; but they have a more évident enlarge- t behind the ears, and a greater degree of throatiness.” The Guadaloupe is a large breed ‘of Merinos. Their yolk is white, and their lambs, when first topper, have a coe at of coarse wool, resembling hair. SECTION VI. ' IRISH SHEEP. “The sheep of Ireland, like those of England, are of two distinct kinds—those. Wi the mountains, a pod those of the vallies. The vale sheep are large, long-wooled ani- mals, resembling those which existed in the midland coun- ties of England. before the extensive improvements by means of the Dishley breed, were effected. A large share of these long-wooled sheep have been improved by crosses with the Dishley breed, so as to be nearly or sae equal to them in every respect. ” «There are, in Ireland, several breeds of mountain sheep, the principal of which are, the Wicklow and Kerry.”’ “The Wicklow, the more wallisviie of the two, though less numerous, are mostly confined to the Wicklow moun- tains, on the east coast of Ireland, an elevated locality, but _ possessing a humid atmosphere. ‘I’hese sheep resemble, in many respects, those of the Welsh mountains. They | are little wild animals, without horns, and with white faces and legs, though there is a tendency to become Ddlack, which is shown by the number of black lambs which are dropped. “ They are larger towards the base of the mountain, where the pasturage is better, and the wool is tolerably fine and rather long, though mixed with hair. Towards the summit of the mountain, the ground being boggy, and the pasturage scanty, the sheep are smaller, the wool is coarser, and more mixed with hair, which appears in ridges along _ the spine and back, which thus causes the rain to shoot off their backs. And this provision against the evils of their 64 EUROPEAN SHEEP, locality, is still further secured by the lambs having a sort of hairy covering on those parts which come in contact with the damp ground. a ‘‘ Their fleeces weigh from two to three pounds, and the fibre is about two inches in length.” “The proximity of Dublin occasions a great demand for early lambs, and these sheep are made available for this purpose, to a great extent. The mountain sheep are pur- chased by the farmers of better and lower situations, and the rams being put to the ewes in June, the lambs are drop- ped in November and December. They are generally brought up in pens, being separated from the dams in the coarse of a fortnight, and are forced by suckling those ewes whose lambs have died or have been killed, as well as their own dams. ‘To this is added cow’s milk, so that they are fit for market in the course of six weeks. *“‘ The disposition to take the ram so early, the quality of - the mutton, and the fact of the ewes being good nurses, stamp intrinsic value on this breed. They are preserved pure only in few places.” “The Kerry Breed may be regarded as the type of the various mountain breeds which are found principally in the west of Ireland. Somewhat larger than the sheep of the Wicklow and Welsh mountains, they are, nevertheless, a hardy, though an unthrifty race, feeding slowly, and arri- ving slowly at maturity. Their fat, when accumulated, is found on the inside, and they never exhibit externally any rotundity of shape. ‘They have coarse hairy wool on the back and haunches, but it is soft and fine on the ribs. They have small, crooked horns, which are sometimes wanting in the female. Their habits restless and active, they re- semble, in their general appearance, the antelope races.— They pick up their subsistence amidst the bogs and peats, occasionally stealing provender from the neighboring farms. The only good quality which they possess, is the — lence of their mutton.”’—[W. C. Spooner.] BRITISH SHEEP. 65. ‘ SECTION VII. te THE SHORT-TAILED SHEEP. piticiat The short-tailed sheep are little wild animals, located in, ‘the Orkney, Shetland, and Hebrides Islands, where they probably came from the coast of Norway. - Somewhat similar to the goat in their appearance, they ‘resemble this animal in their habits, their activity, their hardihood, and their partiality for mountainous regions.— ‘Their fleece consists of wool and hair: the former not in- creasing in length from year to year, as in some other sheep if not sheared, but coming off as the summer approaches, leaving the hair alone at this period of the year. The fleece, ; therefore, i is not sheared; the wool is plucked with the hand, and then readily separated from the hair.”’”— Their wool is very fine; and their fleeces seldom exceeds two pounds in weight. The purest breeds are found in Zetland; those of Ork- ney being more frequently mixed with the Dutch, by which admixture it is rendered less fine. “The pure breeds are of various colors, black, brown, grey, aon. white, and often spotted : both sexes fees horns, but more frequently they are absent in the female. The horns are short and upright, resembling the goat. _ “ Exposed to every vicissitude of the weather, which, in these remote and sterile Islands, is of the most rigorous kind, neglected by their owners, deriving their subsistence” from the heaths, the marine plants, or what little vegeta- tion can. be obtained in these barren spots, their size jis stunted, and the wethers, when fat, do. not exceed six or seven pounds to the quarter. They exceed, perhaps, all. other kinds in their power of enduring the rigor of. the: peantnony ath scantiness of oes aie: wild even subsist.on - chieiedaes can be we These little niin are ren- dered wilder by the neglect of their owners, and vast num- bers of them are thereby lost. When asheep is wanted, it. is-common to hunt it: ‘down: with dogs; for which: animal: they therefore have a great dread. ‘The rams are pugna-. cious, and will often attack and destroy the ewes: so that,’ 66 BRITISH SHEEP. fe circumstances combined, little profit comes to the own- —(W. C. Spooner.) The reader will bear in mind that this breed of sheep has been neglected and suffered to run wild in the manner above mentioned, for centuries, and yet they do not change into an Argali or Musmon; a very convincing circumstance to show that the sheep has ever been a species distinct from the Argali or Musmon. SECTION VIII. BRITISH SHEEP. WELSH SHEEP. ‘In the vallies and fertile pastures of Wales, there are found many of the improved breeds of English sheep, the Leicester and South Down. But the mountains of this principality possess two distinct varieties, which are natu- ralized to the soil. Professor Low distinguishes one kind as the Sheep of the higher Mountains, and the other as the soft-wooled Sheep.” The Sheep of the higher Mountains are very sei, sel- dom exceeding five pounds to the quarter, with horns in both sexes resembling the goat, whose habits it otherwise resembles. The tailis of the usual length of British sheep ; and there is a ridge of hair on the back, throat, and dew- lap: the fleece is of various colors, black, brown, and grey. ‘These sheep are extremely wild and active, and prefer the highest spots, and the aromatic plete there found, to the richer herbage. Like the sheep of Orkney and Zetland, the rams often: attack the ewes when in lamb, and thereby diminish their number, as‘if for the purpose of repressing their too great increase. ‘They have black hair on the face and legs, a character which attaches itself even in their improved state, as in the Radnor,.a superior variety of the same race, en- larged by better pasturage. The png io fatten 10 8 9 pounds the quarter. it BRITISH SHEEP. 67 ‘The soft-wooled Sheep may be cénsiderdd as the distine- tive breed of Wales, and is distinguished from others by the whiteness of the nose, as ral as of the fleece. The fabric known as Welsh flannel, is made of the wool of this breed, and the flesh is still more celebrated, under the well — term of Welsh mutton. These sheep are small, seldom exceeding 6 boats to ihe quarter, when fat. They are spread throughout the whole of Wales, but delight in lofty situations. Like all “mountain breeds, their habits are extremely active, and when enclosed, few fences can confine them: even when removed to distant spots, they will not unfrequently escape, and regain their native mountains.” Their form corresponds to their habits, being slender throughout, and their hind quarters long like those of the deer. The males have their horns curved backward, but the females do not possess any. They have a mixture of hair, though less than other mountain breeds; and this is particularly noticeable on the throat, where it appears like abeard. The fleece weighs between one and two pounds, and partakes of the long-wool character, and is well Nes for egne and hose, but not for cloths: fi 4 eee : te bx SECTION 1X. rie FOREST BREEDS. ay “ rN t The imineoe and the Dirindor are the principal fores breeds in the west of England. Darimoor is situated in the west part of Devonshire. and is about twenty miles long, north and south, and from five to fifteen miles broad. It is situated in the higher parts of the country. The Dartmoor sheep are a hardy race, adapted to the poverty of the pas- ture which the forest of Dartmoor affords. ‘The Dartmoor _ sheep are very small, having soft wool, and white faces and legs: they thrive slowly, averaging when fat, about ten pounds’ to the quarter. Though bred on heath, they are fattened on plains, and their mutton is highly praised fo. its excellence, and commands a ready sale both in the - 68 BRITISH SHEEP. | | | neighboring and distant markets. They are wild and rest- | less, and apt to break their pastures, when removed to the | more enclosed country. ri “‘ The forest of Exmoor is situated in the west part of the county of Somerset. The sheep of this forest are smaller | than those of Dartmoor, and the males have a beard under the chin, somewhat like goats, and much resemble these animals in their activity and boldness. In other respects, ” they resemble the Dartmoor. Both breeds take the ram early, and when the ewes are put to the Leicester ram, the _ lambs grow rapidly to a large size.” SECTION X. MOUNTAIN BREEDS. BLACK*FACED HEATH SHEEP. | a “This isa peculiar breed, inhabiting the lofty, but barren a | and heathy hills, which extend from Derbyshire, on the south, to the confines of Scotland, through the counties of. Cumberland, Lancashire, Westmoreland, and Yorkshire— . ‘ a BRITISH SHEEP. 69 These tracts of country are much exposed to winds on ei- ther side, and this circumstance, with the poverty of the soil, permits only a hardy race of animals to thrive. -* Though this is the native locality of the breed, it has, however, considerably extended itself through the high- lands and mountains of Scotland, penetrating even to the Orkney and Shetland isles."—(W. C. Spooner.) _ The male and the female have horns very large and spirally twisted in the male, but sometimes disappearing in the female. The limbs are lengthy and muscular, and the general form is robust: The face and legs are black, or, at least, mottled: the eye is wild and fierce : They are covered with wool about the forehead and lower jaw: the wool is somewhat open, coarse and shaggy, and is much -mixed with hard, wiry filaments, called kemps: it is of medium length, and weighs about three pounds to the fleece, when washed, and is fit only for the manufacture of carpets ana coarser stuffs. . “ The ordinary weight of this breed, when fattened at four years: old, is fifteen pounds to the quarter, but some- times rises to twenty pounds. | “« The: mutton of this breed is not so delicate as the South Down, or the Welsh sheep; but is more juicy, has more of the venison flavor, and: is preferred to enery other, by those who are: used to ite’? In consequence of greater attention to choice selections of individuals for breeding, the form has changed, within a few years, for the better: the carcass has become so short, round, and handsome, as to acquire the name of short sheep, in contradistinction to the Cheviot, or long sheep. The black-faced sheep is one of the hardiest breeds, and the ewes are good nurses: They feed-on the loftiest moun- ‘tains, up to the verge, where the heaths give place to the _musca, and other plants of higher latitudes, and are capable of subsisting on the coarsest heaths. A little coarse hay is the only additional food they receive, and this is supplied in sparing quantities, where the frost or snow precludes the | ICR of getting any grass. One shepherd has usually about five hundred ewes under his care; and the lambs are weaned when about three months ‘old. The flocks are ‘sheared in July, anda few days previously, are made to 70 BRITISH SHEEP. swim across a stream, which is all the washing they re- ceive. iM The practice of smearing the sheep in November, a tar and butter, boiled together in the proportion of 8 Ibs. of : tar to 6 of butter, is generally pursued, and the benefits are : considered to outweigh the loss in the quality of the wool. | These sheep are wild and independent in their habits, — but they are not so restless as the mountain sheep of Wales | and other parts, and can be induced to remain in enclosures, — when sufficient food is provided for them.—(W. C. Spoon- © er.) , ‘ Cz = = SESS WES SIREN 4 SAA SNS SSIS aN * 9 ‘ eM Sy A / y “Ih wad Nt NIN GAS AY ca ae ae) won a DN ¢ Ng) \ WA i yay A Vy h | , x f'\ At a (\4 oe wth ‘ VSN A THE CHEVIOT SHEE? . The Cheviot hiils are a part of that extensive and eleva- ted range which extends from Galloway, in Scotland, through “Northumberland, into Cumberland and Westmoredl land, occupying a space of 150 or 200 square miles. The ‘ majority of them are pointed, like cones: their sides are — smooth and steep, and their bases are nearly in contact with { each other. These mountains reach to 2658 feet above the i level of the sea, and are thus exposed to the severe effects — of the weather, and remain covered with snow, long after- i it has disappeared from the cultivated plains below. The soil, except on the very top, is fertile: the pasturage BRITISH SHEEP. 71 abounds with fern and wild thyme, as well as grasses; but differs from that of the native Heath breed, which abounds in Heath, the shoots of which furnish a considerable por- tion of their subsistence during winter. . _ On the upper part of that hill in Northumberland, which is properly termed the Cheviot; a peculiar and most valua- ble breed of sheep is found. They have been there from time immemorial. - Tradition says that they came from the borders of Scotland, But they are totally different from the black-faced sheep, and bear no resemblance to the original dun-faced Scottish sheep. How two breeds, so totally dif- ferent from each other, came to inhabit the neighboring dis- tricts of Ettrick forest, and the Cheviot Hills, neither his- tory nor tradition has attempted to explain.”—(Farmer’s Magazine.) _ “ This breed has greatly extended itself throughout the mountains of Scotland, and also into \Wales and the west of England, and in many instances has supplanted the black-faced breed. They are a hardy race, well suited to their native pastures, bearing, with comparative impunity, the storms of winter, and thriving on poor keep, and may justly be considered as the best mountain breed existing in this country, (Britain). Every mixture of stranger blood has been found to lessen that hardihood, which is the dis- tinguishing character of the race. ‘Though less hardy than the black-faced Heath sheep, they are more profitable ag respects their feeding, making more flesh on an equal quan- tity of food, and making it quicker.” ise _ They are described by Mr. Youatt as follows: ‘ They are hornless; the face and legs generally white ; the eye lively and prominent; the countenance open and pleasing; the ear large; the body long, and hence they are called long _ sheep, in distinction from the black-faced breed; they are . full behind the shoulder, a long straight back, round in the rib, and well proportioned in the hind quarters: the legs ¢lean and small boned, and the pelt thin, but thickly cover- _ ed with a short, fine wool, which extends over the whole body and legs.” seithy i | 7 _..“ The fleece averages about three and a half pounds.— _ Formerly the wool was extensively employed for making cloths, but, having. given place to the finer Saxony’ wools, inhas sunk in price, and been confined 10 combing purpe- 72 BRITISH SHEEP. ses. The wool of this breed is not quite’so fine as that of the South Down, and is asecondary consideration : mutton being the primary object for which they are reared.— Where the herbage is short and sweet, their wool is finer than in coarse anid Heathy pastures.” The Cheviot breed has good fattening properties: the Cheviot wether is fit for the Dukes at ives years old, and averages from 12 to 18 lbs. per quarter: the mutton being ofa good quality, though inferior to the South Down, and of less flavor than the black-faced Heath breed. ; The Cheviot, though a mountain breed, is quiet and do- cile, and easily managed. The food of the Cheviot sheep consists, throughout the greater part of the year, of the herbage of their native hills; hay being allowed only when the ground is covered with snow, or bound with frost. Oc- casionally turnips are supplied; but it is rarely that the farm will admit of their production, the breeding farms be- ing for the most part in lofty situations. ** The period of lambing is necessarily late, in order that there should be a good supply of food: It therefore does not commence till ~ April—the. rams having been admitted in November, at the rate of one to fifty ewes. During the lambing season, greater attention is paid, and the best “food is supplied. Though twins are frequently produced, it is rarely that the number of lambs reared. equals the number of ewes. The Cheviot sheep are washed and sheared between the middle of June and first of July. As soon as each sheep is shorn, it is usually branded with tar or pitch on different parts of the body, so that the different kinds and ages of the sheep may be known ataglance. Soon after shearing, the lambs are weaned by a short separation of them from their.dams. Smearing is less generally practised than with the Heath breeds, and less than formerly, in consequence of the injury inflicted en the wool by the tar. Spirits of tar and turpentine, or rosin, are sometimes rc iant for the tar. ‘** Vast numbers of these sheep have sometimes biden overwhelmed by the snow storms which, in those lofty, ex- posed situations, descend with merciless severity. Herren years ago, as tradition reports, in one winter alone, nim tenths of the Cheviot sheep were entirely destroyed by the BRITISH SHEEP. 73 storms. A graphic and interesting description is related by Mr. Hogg, t e Dgolebeated Eurick Shepherd, of the snow storm of 1794, in which seventeen shepherds lost their lives, and sheep were destroyed by thousands: one thous- and eight hundred bodies being found on the beds of the Esk alone, after the flood. The difficulties encountered and surmounted by our celebrated shepherd, are described with the greatest interest, and the disastrous effects of such storms are strikingly portrayed; and though they occur but seldom, yet the losses are often very severe from ordinary. bad seasons, and point out the necessity of additional shel- er.”’—( W. C. Spooner.) SECTION XI. UPLAND BREEDS. THE SOUTH DOWN. f ‘ ; . Ny, < ry = ws = . HU eK Ne Ue Hi ae OO yyy a hy ( 4 Me Uh TaN i, SH ‘i i as NG e i Hay Dp Pipe pe sent bo: SOUTH DOWN RAM. . t pati tite Saxon language, the word dun signifies a hill, and from this word is derived the English word down. ‘ The Downs of England, are a long range of chalky hills, “diverging from the great chalky stratum, which intersects 74 BRITISH SHEEP. the kingdom, from Norfolk to Dorchester. The South: Downs occupy a space of more than sixty miles in length, and about five or six in breadth, consisting of a Bnectdasbiant of open downs, with few enclosures.’? ‘They are princi- pally situated in the south part of the county of Sussex, a few miles back from the coast, and lie nearly parallel with it. ; ‘On these hills, a certain breed of sheep, thence called the South Down breed, has been cultivated for many cen- tries. They can trace a Jong line of pure descent from a period antecedent to William the Conqueror. It is, says Mr. Spooner, unquestionably the purest, and most unmixed breed in the kingdom. In 1776, Arthur Young speaks of them as having a fine coat, but at the expense of a thin chine, low fore end, and rising back bone. ‘Their fleeces, in their unimproved state, averaged 2% lbs.” ‘¢ At the present time, the South Down holds a place, in the esteem of English breeders, inferior to no other breed. it is considered to be first among the short-wooled, as the New Leicester is first among the long-wooled breeds. ‘* The South Downs have reached their present perfee- tion by constant attention to the purity of the original breed, and by the improvement of their forms. By this improve- inent, they have become smaller in bone, with greater dis- position to fatten, an earlier maturity, and a heavier carcass, while still retaining their former hardihood and capability _ of doing well on scanty pasture. This constitutes the per- _ fection of the breed: they can endure the rigor of the wea- _ ther, and preserve flesh, where a Leicester pag would a die. | ‘* The perfection of form which the South Down now ex- hibits, is owing to the skill of that distinguished sheep- — breeder, John Ellman. The: improvements effected by him, resulted mainly from the practice of the true principles. ot breeding : asystem of choice selection oe the best males and females for this purpose. * The introduction of the use of iureiines and baer arti- ficial food, has tended greatly to increase the number, and ~ improve the quality ofthe sheep. ‘The improvement ofthe — South Downs has, therefore, been slower in its progross — than that of some other breeds; but it has been obtained ‘ BRITISH SHEEP. 75 without any sore of the intrinsic bates of the ori- ” 6 Mr. Ellman describes sis side Sauih Down as fol- Neiaib “The head small and hornless; the face speckled or grey, and neither too long nor too short; the lips thin, and the space between the nose and eyes narrow. The under jaw, or chop, fine and thin; the ears tolerably wide, ‘and well covered with wool, and the forehead also, and the whole space between the ears well protected by it, as a de- fence against the fly. The eye full and bright, but not prominent. The orbit of the eye (the eye cap or bone; ) not too projecting, that it may not form a fatal obstacle in lambing. The neck of a medium length, thin towards the head, but enlarging towards the shoulders, where it should be broad and high, and straight in its whole course above and below. The breast should be wide, deep, and project- ing forwards between the fore legs, indicating a good con- stitution, and a dispositon to thrive. Corresponding with this, the shoulders should be on a level with the back, and not too wide above: they should bow outward, from the top to the breast, indicating a springing rib beneath, and leav- ing room for it. The ribs coming out horizontally’ from the spine, and extending backward, and the last rib project- ing more than the others; the back flat from the shoulders to the sitting on of the tail; the loin broad and flat; the rump long and broad; and the tail set on high, and nearly ona level with the spine; the hips wide; the space be- iween them and the last rib, on either side, as narrow as possible, and the ribs, generally, presenting a circular form pi a barrel. The belly as straight as the back. The legs neither 100 long nor too short. The fore legs straight from the breast to the foot: not bending inward at the knee, and standing far apart both before and behind; the hocks hav- ing a direction rather outward, and the twist, or the meet- ing of the thighs behind, being particularly full ; the bones fine, yet having no ie days i of weakness; and the legs of ~adark color. ~ “The belly well defended with wool, and the civil com- - “ing down before and behind to the knee and to the hock: ig the wool short, close, curled and fine, and free from spity _ projecting fibres. : 76 BRITISH SHEEP. ‘‘ Their wool is not so fine as formerly, and is much used for combing purposes, for which it is now highly prized. — It is also converted into flannels and baizes.’? The aver- age weight of their fleeces formerly did not exceed 24 lbs., and the staple, at that time, was very short. It has now increased to 3 !bs.; and the lowland South Down shears from 34 to 4 lbs. “The staple was formerly from 14 to 2 inches in length, It is now, in many cases, from 3 to 4 inches. *« This breed will endure hard stocking equal to any other; and their early maturity is but little inferior to that of the New Leicesters, the wethers being frequently fatted off at twenty-two months, sometimes at fifteen, and rarely exceed- ing thirty-two months in England. «The average weight is from 15 to 18 lbs. to the quar- ter. But at the age of thirty-two months, they have occa- sionally reached twenty stones, or 280 lbs., the four quar- ters. ‘They make more fat internally than the Leicester sheer, and are therefore greater favorites with the butcher. Their flesh is finely grained, and of peculiarly good Hever; and superior to that of the Leicesters.” They are very prolific, frequently producing twins, aud being great milkers, are generally able to nurse them well, without becoming impovenslied. ‘‘ There are no sheep more healthy than the South Downs. They seldom suffer from hydatid on the brain, nor, on the majority of the farms, are they so much expo- sed to the rot, as in many other districts.” —(Youatt.) This circumstance shows the influence which the chalk, (lime) which abounds in the soils of the South Downs, has in preventing the rot. In New England, it is proverbial that a smutiy-faced sheep is seldom diseoseth The South Down sheep are less hardy than the moun- tain breeds of England, but are sufficiently hardy for the drier climate of the hilly regions of the United States, to which they are admirably adapted. ‘In, 1800, two of Mr. Ellman’s rams were sold to the Emperor of Russia for 150 guineas each. When Mr. EIl- man retired from public life in 1829, his flock was sold by auction at the following rates: 770 ewes, $13,04 each ; 320 lambs, at $7,92; 30 rams, at 8112, 50 each—and bis best ram, ! $292, 50. BRITISH SHEEP. 77 ri «The county of Sussex, in which this breed was first ‘so much improved, still retains its prominence. Most of the modern flocks are founded on Ellman’s.”—(W. C. Spooner.) THE DORSET BREED. i OAT AINA RATAN y MS Ne M4 4 fy bys \ vy AA p {\ wt ip iy oe \\ Ws ‘ ‘ \ = " Gye Wwov' —~—— Po a ott) Renate tame 8 | 'THE DORSET EWE. « This is a very ancient breed, preserved unmixed from a very remote period, and decidedly the best of all the old horned sheep. ‘Though now found in many parts of Brit- ain, they are principally met with in Dorsetshire. They do not, however, extend entirely over the county, but di- vide it with the South Downs, and are mostly found in its western part, and particularly in the neighborhood of Dor- chester, the county town.” : The pure Dorset sheep is larger than the South Down, longer on the legs: is entirely white: the horns of moder- ate size in both sexes. Their faces are long and broad, with a tuft of wool on the forehead. The shoulders are low, but broad: the back straight: the chest deep: the loins broad : the legs rather beyond a moderate length, and the bone small. The hind quarter is good, but the fore quarter is somewhat deficient; the wethers average from 16 78 BRITISH SHEEP. to 20 lbs. the quarter; though in some, this weight will be greatly exceeded. Their mutton is well-flayored. Their wool is moderately fine, and somewhat longer than, the South Down, averaging about three and a half or four lbs. the fleece. ‘ «‘ They are a strong, hardy, active sheep, good travelers and well adapted for folding, though somewhat apt to break through their fences, and by no means so docile as their ri- vals; the South Downs. ‘Their principal value consists in their excellence as nurses, great prolificacy, and the early period at which they,take the ram. They very frequently have twin lambs, and will rear a greater number of lambs than any other description of sheep. They take the ram so early as May and June, and the lambs are usually drop- ped in October and November ; so that they are the princi- pal source of the supply of house and early lamb, which, about Christmas and the following month, is esteemed a great luxury, and accordingly commands a high price. ‘¢The Dorsetshire and Wicklow varieties are most noted for raising early lambs, and are selected for this purpose in the vicinity of large wealthy towns. According to the plan pursued in Middlesex, ‘‘the sheep which begin to lamb about Michzelmas, are kept in the close during the day, and in the house during the night, until they have produced twenty or thirty lambs. ‘These lambs are then put into a Jamb-house, which is kept constantly well littered with clean wheat straw; and chalk, both in lump and powder, is provided for them to lick, in order to prevent looseness, and thereby preserve the lambs in health. Asa preyentive against gnawing the boards, or eating each other’s wool, a little wheat straw is placed, with the ears downwards, in a rack within their reach, with which they amuse themselves, and of which they eat asmall quantity. In this house they are kept, with great care and attention, until they are fit for the butcher. ‘‘The mothers of the lambs are turned every night, at eight o’clock, into the Jamb-house to their offspring. At six o’clock in the morning, these mothers are separated from their lambs, and turned into their pastures; and at eight o’clock, such ewes as have lost their own lambs, and those whose lambs are sold, are brought in and held by the head, till the lambs, by turns, suck them clean; they are % . BRITISH SHEEP. 79 ‘then turned into the pasture ; and at twelve o’clock, the mothers of the lambs are abiven from the pasture into the lamb-house for an hour, in the course of which time each lamb is suckled by its mother. At four o’clock, all the ewes that have not lambs of their own, are again brought to the lamb-house, and held for the lambs to suck; and at eight, the mothers of the lambs are brought to them for the night. | : | _ ® This method of suckling is continued all the year.— The breeders select such of He lambs as become fat enough, and of proper age, (about eight weeks old,) for slaughter, and send them to the market during December, and three or four succeeding months, at prices which vary from one guinea to four, and the rest at about two guineas each.— This is severe work for the ewes, and some of them die from exhaustion. However, care is taken that they have plenty of food; for when green food (viz: turnips, cole, rye, tares, clover, &c.,) begin to fail, brewers’ grains are _ given to them in troughs, and second crop hay in racks, as well to support the ewes, as to ‘supply the lambs with plen- ty of milk; for if that should not be abundant, the lambs would become stunted, in which case no food would fatten them. 3 lamb- firice to suckle from one aban and sixty to one hundred and eighty lambs at a time, should be seventy feet long, and eighteen broad, with three coops of different sizes at each end, and so constructed as to divide the lambs according to size.” —( Middlesex Report.) “«In the county of Wicklow, it is the practice to divide the twenty-four hours by four equal periods, and to feed the lambs with ewe’s milk and cow’s milk alternately.— When commencing with cow's milk, a quarter of a pint is given twice a day to each lamb, and this is gradually in- creased to a pint, exclusive of the milk from the ewe. The -ewe is thus saved. the bad effects of exhaustion, and the lambs are fit for the butcher when six weeks old, or sooner.” sre(Blpakiock.) [his practice of rearing. heuse- lamb, is not so much idee, as it.used to be: there is a greater supply of grass- lamb, and consequently, the price of the former is reduced, cand wi 1 not repay so great an expense, as well as trouble, — 80 BRITISH SHEEP. as used to be bestowed on the production of this more qe —(W. C. Spooner.) The Somerset Sheep is a larger variety of the Thi having more arched profiles, with pink — instead of white; the wool somewhat longer. RYELAND SHEEP. ‘‘ This breed of sheep has been preserved pure from a remote period of English history, in the county of Here- ford. It has been termed the Ryeland breed, from some sandy spots used in the production of rye in the county of Hereford, and in Hereford, is frequently termed the Here- ford breed. These sheep are of small, compact forms, without horns, quiet in their habits, patient and hardy.— The mutton is delicate and juicy; and the carcass from 12 to 15 Ibs. the quarter. The wool is white, and extends over the face, and forms a tuft on the forehead. ‘They are principally distinguished for the fineness of their wool, which is superior for carding purposes to all other of Eng- lish production, the Merino alone excepted. But their fleeces are light, averaging only two pounds. At the pres- ent day, very few flocks of this breed are to be found ina state of purity in England—other breeds having been found more profitable. ”_(W C. Spooner.) There are several other old Upland breeds of sheep in England, a description of which would be neither particu- larly interesting or useful to the reader. SECTION XII. LONG-WOOLED BREEDS. ‘* The long-wooled breeds of sheep are, properly, the na- tives of the rich and marshy pastures of England, from whence, with the improvement of Agriculture, they have extended to all parts of Britain, encroaching, in many pla- ces, on the land previously appropriated to short-wooled sheep ; so that, for years past, they have been graduall increasing, while their rivals have decreased, or aueaninlha : BRITISH SHEEP. 81° the same. The cause of this may be found in the fact, that on suitable land they are undoubtedly more profitable than the short-wooled varieties ;_ the much greater wei ght of the fleece, yielding as much per pound, will account for this, even if the superior aptitude for fattening, and earlier maturity of one particular variety were not also in opera- tion. ra ta 4 ; : _ Whilst many of the Upland and mountain breeds have been preserved unmixed from time immemorial, most of ‘the ancient long-wooled breeds have either altogether dis- appeared, or are preserved by the curious in individual flocks ; they have either been altogether supplanted by the New Leicester, or are ina great measure changed by cross- ing with this improved breed. | ** Mr. Low makes a distinction of two classes of long- wooled sheep: one belonging to the marshes and fens, and the other to the inland plains. The former includes the sagged and Romney Marsh; the latter, the Teeswater, the Leicester, and other varieties.” —(W. C. Spooner-) Bh THE LINCOLN SHEEP. ; * The fens of Lincolnshire, extending into Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, and the adjoining counties, are well adapt- ed for the support of a heavy breed of sheep: and this ac- cordingly is the native district of the old Lincoln, a breed ‘in its pure state almost extinct. Buta flock is still presery- ed by Mr. Jex, of Norfolk. Marae: «The Lincoln sheep has no horns: the face is white: they are of large size and coarse form, with flat sides, and hollow flanks: the legs thick, white, and rough: bones large : pelts thick: the wool from 8 to 10 inches in length : their fleeces from 10 to 12 pounds, and upward: the wool is somewhat coarser than that of the Leicester, but is well adapted for worsted goods. The ewes weigh from 14 to 20 Ibs. the quarter, and three year old wethers, 20 to 30 lbs. the quarter. The wethers, when fat, have been known to reach the enormous weight of 60 lbs. the quarter; but their mutton is, of course, not so delicate as that of the smaller breeds. They fed slowly, but made much internal fat, and were, therefore, much approved by the butcher, _ “The old Lincolns have been greatly modified by exten- sive crossing with the New Leicester, the effect of which ‘ $ 82 BRITISH SHEEP. has been to diminish the size and weight of the fleece, but greatly to improve the form, giving a greater aptitude to fatten, and earlier maturity, and a capability of keeping a greater number on the same extent of land. N evertheless, the mixed breed now presents the hae apis in mona —(W. C. Spooner.) “ Mr. Clark, of Canwick, in 1897, exhibited 1 two wether sheep in Lincoln market, the fleeces of which had each — yielded 12 lbs.: They were slaughtered: the carcass of _ the large one weighed 251 lbs.: the fore quarters were each of them 73 lbs., and the hind quarters, 57% lbs. On the top of the rib, the solid fat measured nine inchs in thick- ness!” The Lincoln sheep are dcaenilly sheared in J une, a heait ten days after being washed; and the average weight of - the Lincoln fleece, of the present time, is about 7 lbs.— Smearing after shearing is not practiced upon this breed of sheep. They are permitted to have their first lambs when about two years old. ‘This breed, as well as some others, have become much more numerous in England since the introduction of turnip husbandry. BRITISH SHEEP. 88 yh 26 oe © | ROMNEY MARSH BREED. BULA Y, > ; ay tr Sars as \ Nii MALY HN % ah i NN INN. NN BAS X ) XS (ROMNEY MARSH EWE.). ‘‘ The other breed of sheep proper to marsh land, is that which from time immemorial has been found on the south- ern coast of Kent, denominated the Romney Marsh. This ‘marsh is nearly on a level with the sea, from which it was reclaimed many centuries ago, and from its encroachment is preserved by means of dikes similar to the land of Hol- ¢ land. It extends fourteen miles in length, and ten in is greatest breadth, and, for the most part, consists of a rich clay soil, well adapted for the production of a large breed of sheep. And, consequently, we find they are more nu- merous than on any other space of land of equal extent—it being not uncommon for seven young sheep, and as many _ fattening wethers, to be placed on an acre. i ta _ «The native breed of this district were large, coarse ‘an- imals, though somewhat smaller than the old Lincoln.— They had long, coarse, thick heads and limbs, narrow | chests, and flat sides, but with large bellies. They fatted slowly, not being fit for the butcher till three years.old: at which age the wethers averaged from 35 1o 40 lbs. per _ quarter, and yielded much internal fat. Their fleeces ay- 84 BRITISH SHEEP. | eraged from 6 to 7 Ibs. Their wool is long and not fine. — They have much hardihood: they bear their cold and ex- — posed situation well, and they require no artificial food du- ring the hardest winter, except a little hay. _ : ‘“‘ For the most part, they have been extensively crossed with the New Leicester, and have, in consequence, been greatly improved in form. With less bulk, they have an earlier maturity, and a greater disposition to Parana C. Spooner.) THE TEESWATER. a ‘¢ This is an ancient breed of sheep, called after the Tees, a river separating the counties of Durham and Yorkshire, and running through a fertile valley. “The old Teeswater was a large, tall sheep, of very uncouth form, having a coarse head, rounded haunches, and long, large limbs, and being hornless, are supposed 10 have been originally of the same stock as the Lincoln.— These sheep fattened slowly, requiring good pasture. But they possessed the quality of being very prolific, commonly yielding twins, and supplying them with an abundance of milk. Their fleece weighed about nine pounds, previous to any improvement of the carcass by the cross with the New Leicester ; and the wool was remarkably long, coarse, and thinly set on the skin. They have been improved by -a cross with the New Leicester, so as to rival them in early maturity, disposition to fatten, as well as quality of fleece.” THE BAMPTON NOTT. ‘‘ This is a long-wooled breed of sheep, found in the fer- tile valleys of Devonshire and Soinersetshire, and called Bampton, from a village of that name on the borders of the two counties. They had white faces, long and heavy fleeces, coarse forms, thick skins, and weighed from 30 to 35 lbs. per quarter, at two years old. A smaller variety, having brown faces, crooked legs, and flat sides, were de- nominated the Southern Notts, and they weighed, at thirty months, 25 lbs. per quarter. The fleece was long and soft, weighing 9 or 10 lbs. Both these breeds fattened slowly, and were long in coming to maturity ; but being extensively — crossed with the New Leicester, their defects have, in a great measure, been remoyed, and they now form a large 4 d BRITISH SHEEP. 85, and valuable ‘breed of sheep: so much so, that a wether = = bs —— eer £2, ae tate = oe —— = Ade SLU ogg oa : 3 Dav AY 4 aA HVE qeqteh 236 ZS THE COTSWOLD EWE. ss Shien illite aecan| THE COTSWOLD, BREED, , | . The following account of this breed is by Mr. Spooner : __* This is an ancient.and celebrated breed, its wool being spoken of very favorably by many old writers. Cotswold signifies a sheep-fold and a naked hill. ‘The Cotswold hills, the native tract of this breed. are of moderate elevation, possess a sweet herbage, and though formerly consisting mostly of bleak wastes, have been latterly much improved. Camden speaks of the breed as having fine and soft wool. Drayton speaks of its fleeces as more abundant than those of Sarum and Leominster. Speed, writing 200 years ago, _ speaks of the wool as being similar to the Ryeland, and ri- - valling. that of Spain. Indeed, some imagine it was the or- igin-of the Merino sheep, as in 1404, Edward the LV per- mitted a number to be exported to Spain, where they great- ke ly increased and spread.. Spain, however, before this, was - eelebrated»for the fineness of its wool. Markham, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, speaks of the Cotswold as hay- 1 ' ‘ ‘ 86 BRITISH SHEEP. / ing long wool. And Mr. Marshal, and other writers, con- sider that they have always been a long-wooled breed. ** It is difficult to reconcile these differences of opinion : for my own part, | am disposed to think that the present race are the descendants of the old race. Be that as it may, we have no evidence, either oral, written, or traditional, of | the change having been made. | “The Cotswold is a large breed of sheep, with a long and abundant fleece; and the ewes are very prolific, and good nurses. Formerly they were bred only on the hills, and fattened in the valleys of the Severn and the Thames. But with the enclosure of the Cotswold hills, and the im- provement of their cultivation, they have been reared and fattened in the same district. ** They have been extensively crossed with the Leices- ter sheep, by which their size and fleece have been some- what diminished, but their carcasses considerably improy- ed, and their maturity rendered earlier. The wethers are now sometimss fattened at 14 months, when they weigh from 15 to 24 lbs. per quarter, and at two years old, inerease to 20 or 30 lbs. ‘The wool is strong, mellow, and of good color, though pals coarse; six to eight inches in length, and from 7 to 8 lbs. the fleece. ** The superior hardihood of the improved Cotswold over the Leicester, together with the prolific nature of the ewes, and their abundance of milk, have’rendered them, in many places, rivals of the New Leicester, and have dbiditied for them, of late years, more attention to their selection and general treatment, under which management still further improvement appears probable. ‘* They have also been used in improving other breeds, and have been mixed with the Hampshire Downs. It is indeed the improved Cotswold, that under the term New or improved Oxfordshire sheep. are so frequently the success- ful candidates for prices offered for the best long-wooled sheep, at some of the principal agriculiutal Pe RE or shows in the Kingdom. » - Ex‘ The quality “of the mutton is coisieleliel superior to that of the Leciester, the tallow being less abundant, with a larger developement of muscle or Mesh. We may, there- fore, equi this breed as one of established reputation, t BRITISH SHEEP. 87 and extending inelf, oMouahias every district of the King- dom. pee PRP Le Benes ae THE OLD LEICESTER SHEEP. _ This breed. of sheep is thus described by Mr. Youatt :-— This. was a large, heavy, coarse-wooled breed, common to ‘most. fag the midland counties, and reaching from. the south of Yorkshire as far.as to Oxfordshire and Gloucester- shire. It had a white face, no horns; it waslong and thin in. ‘the carcass, flat-sided, with large. bones, thick, rough, and white legs ; ; and weighing, the ewe from 15 to °20 lbs., and the wether from 20 to 30 lbs. the quarter. It was cov- ered with wool from 10 to 14 inches in length, coarse in quality, and weighing from 8 to 13 lbs. The. pelt and offal were thick and. coarse: the animal was a slow feeder, and the flesh was coarse grained, and with little flavor.”’ ‘THE NEW LEICESTER ‘RAM. Fist , . THE NEW LEICESTER BREED. The following selections from the works of Matiies: — Youatt, Blacklock, and Spooner, will illustrate the origin, formation, and qualities of this breed: “The New Leicester is an artificial breed of sheep, which was moulded, as it were, into its present form by the ‘master hand of Hukewell The siesta sources from whence 88 BRITISH BREED. Mr. Bakewell derived his breed, cannot be accurately as- certained. He himself was very uncommunative on this point, and the knowledge of the origin of the breed perish- ed with him. It is probable, however, that the foundation of his breed was, the best existing specimens of the old Leicester breed. ‘‘It was about the middle of the last century, that Mr. Bakewell undertook his improvements in breeding sheep. Up to this period, very little care had been bestowed upon the breeding of sheep in England. Two objects appear to have engrossed the attention of breeders: first, to breed animals of the largest size; and, secondly, such as should produce the largest possible fleeces; and with little regard to the proportion of food consumed, or any diminution of the quantity of offal, in the animals produced. “The opinion of Mr. Bakewell was, that the first objéct to be attended to in breeding sheep (in England, where meatis high priced), was the improvement of the carcass ; and that the fleece was a secondary consideration. Find- ing that animals of a medium size, and symmetrically sha- ped. consumed less food in proportion to the quantity of useful meat produced, than the largest but ill-formed ani- mals; and that sheep, carrying very heavy fleeces, have less propensity to fatten, than those with lighter fleeces, he selected sheep of only moderate size and. enagret forms, for the foundation of his flock. ‘‘ Having formed his stock from sheep so peleoted, he carefully attended to the peculiarities of the individuals from which he bred, and, it appears, did not object to breed- ing eccasionally from those which were of near affinity, when, by so doing, he could produce a progeny possessing the characteristics he wished to obtain. “‘ By systematically and unremittingly carrying out his principles, he at length produced animals which surpassed all others in the qualities sought for by him, comprising, as Mr. Cully observes, in the same apparent dimensions, greater weight than any other sheep, with an earlier matu- rity, and a greater propensity to fatten, a diminution of the quantity of offal, and the return of most mneiney: for the. quantity of food cotisumed: “* And although they are not adapted to the poorest soils, where the herbage is so scanty that the sheep must walk : : ‘ oth . PO ae ee eel Se ee “BRITISH SHEEP. | 89 over a oreat extent of ground for the purpose of procuring its food, ‘nor to mountainous or bleak situations in northern climes, for which they are not sufficiently hardy, no other sort of mutton sheep, on soils of moderate or superior qual- ity, is more profitable to the breeder, or produces more meat, according to the amount of food consumed: and at the present day, this breed. nenaains the most perfect’ of any, in the form of the carcass.’ - The various points of the Leicester sheep have Been dines correctly described : | aia » “© The head should be hornless, long, srvih sipéride to- wards the muzzle, and projecting horizontally forwards : the eyes prominent, but with a quiet expression: the ears thin, rather long, and directed backwards: the neck full and broad atits base, where it proceeds from the chest, but gradually tapering towards the head, and being particularly fine at the junction of the head and neck—the neck seem- ing to project straight from the chest, so that there is, with the slightest possible deviation, one continued horizontal line from the rump to the poll: the breast broad and fuli: the shoulders broad and round, and no uneven or angular formation where the sprites join either the neck or the back, particularly no rising of the withers or hollow behind the situation. of these bones : the arm fleshy through its whole extent, and even down to the knee: the bones of the legs smail, standing wide apart, no looseness of skin about them, and comparatively bare of wool: the chest and bar- rel at once deep and round: the ribs forming a considera ble arch from the. ‘spine, so as, in, some Cases, and espe- cially when the animal is in good condition, to make the apparent width of the chest even greater than the depih : the barrel ribbed well home, no irregularity of line on the back or the’ belly, but on the sides, the carcass very gradu- ally diminishing in width towards the rump: the quarters long and full, and as with the fore legs, the muscles ex- tending: down to the hock: the thighs. “also ‘wide and full: the legs of a moderate. length: the: pelt also-moderately thin, but soft and aay and covered with a good quantity of white wool, not so spies as in some ey but dail nas fineys?”: Ry BY i dsc ie Diedoltowing is the measurement of a three years: ‘old ram of Mr. Bakewell’s : i Qo wT8 90 BRITISH SHEEP. Cities My miei, Reset eth Pxiernan Dee inches. PIM Gyo orig. m sei, Bi) ae etic gh es Bae mae Breadth of collars.) =) ::ey 9ecin vane ak Al ee Breadth of shoulders, - - - + 1 “ 114 . Breadth across the ribs, - - +1 104 & Breadth across the hips, - - - 1 % Qf “ | ‘‘ The various qualifications above mentioned, were not obtained until great and long continued attention had been paid to the peculiarities of individuals, adapting the ram to the ewe, so as to correct the faults which either possessed ; and thus, by carefully and progressively getting rid of faults, gradually approaching perfection; which, though it may be rarely or never reached, should yet be the constant aim of the breeder. | “The perfection to which this breed has now been brought, is owing to various other breeders besides Mr. Bakewell; amongst whom may be mentioned Mr. Cully, as one of the first and most succeessful. The disadvantages of the Leicester are, compared with many other breeds, a certain weakness of constitution, an inability to bear exposure to the weather, and a greater pre- disposition to inflammatory diseases; to which may be ad- ded, a want of prolificacy in the ewes as nurses, and for- merly, a deficiency in weight of the fleece. These points, however, have been much improved since the time of Bakewell, and where the purity of the breed is not an ob- ject, they have been altogether avoided, by crossing with those breeds which excel in qualities in which the Leices- ter is deficient, such, particularly, as the Cotswold and the Bampton Notts. The wool has considerably increased in length, and has improved both in fineness and strength of fibre: the fibre varies from five to more than twelve inches in length. In sheep sixteen months old, it is soft, but somewhat infe- rior, for combing purposes, to that of the olderraces. Itis mostly used in the manufacture of serges and carpets. The lambs of the pure Leicester are rarely shorn (in England) until the second year, when the fleece often weighs 8 lbs., and is very long in the staple, and as teg wool is more valuable. ‘The ewe fleeces average about 6 lbs., and those of the fat wethers, though shorn in May, average from 7 to 9 Ibs. BRITISH SHEEP. 91 _ The carcass, however, (in England,) is the principal con- sideration ; and the early maturity of the, Leicester breed is such, that the wethers are not unfrequently fattened at fifteen months, and at two years old will often weigh from 25 to 36 Ibs. per quarter. The flesh, too, is accumulated most where it is most valuable, and the fat is distributed, for the most part, on and amongst the muscles, and exter- nally, and less within the body and around the kidneys, than in other breeds. The weight of the hind and fore quarters, also, approximate much nearer than those of most other breeds ; and the dead weight of the Leicester sheep, is greater in proportion to the live weight than in any other breed.» |. The kind of meat which they yield is of a peculiar char- acter. When the sheep are not over fattened, it is tender and j uey> but, in the opinion of many persons, somewhat fs insi the fee sheep were never favorites with the butch- er, because they had little loose inside fat. It ought, nev- ertheless, to be recollected, that the smallness of the head and the thinness of the pelt, will, in some measure, coun- terbalance the loss of tallow: and that the diminution of offal is advantageous to the grazier, for it shows a disposi- tion to form fat outwardly, and is uniformly accompanied by a tendency to quickness of improvement. As the New _ Leicesters come early to maturity, so also their old age is _ premature; they are shorter lived than most other breeds. Hence, in England, the ewes are generally fatted off and dis- posed of at the close of their third breeding season, or when four years and a half old. And all the wether lambs, and also all the ewe lambs, except what may be necessary to keep good the amount of breeding stock, are generally fat- tened off and sold at or before they are eighteen months or two, years old. The New Leicesters are not so prolific as some other breeds : they seldom produce twins. The object of Mr. Bakewell and his immediate followers was, 1o produce a lamb that could: be forced on, so as to be ready at the ear- he est possible period for breeding or slaughter; and, thgre- ore, the froduetion of twins was not only unsought for, but was regarded as an evil, as they are but indifferent milk- "ers. 92 BRITISH SHEEP. These various advantages in a great measure counter- balance, and, indeed, outweigh the defects of the breed, and sufficiently account for the facts, thatin the course of fifty years it had either supplanted, or was crossed with nearly every long-wooled breed in the country, (England,) that it had, in numerous instances, caused the substitution of long for Siott- wooled sheep, and that it has added greatly to the sheep stock of that country, both as regards the wool and flesh. And alier producing these changes, the Leicester, in most respects, maintains its grounds; but/of late years, the opinions of breeders have inclined towards producing a larger animal, as being attended with more profit; and thus the improved Cotswold, often denominated the New Ox- fordshire, and some of thé heavier breeds, are now success- ful rivals of the pure Dishley breed. | Nevertheless, the improved Leicester still commands a large extent of the most fertile districts in England, and. is also cultivated in Scotland with equal care and success, up- on similar soils. It has been exported to the continent of Europe, and has been extensively introduced into the North American British provinces and the United States, and when placed in suitable localities in America, has been bred suc- cessfully. They appear to be well adapted to the rich and level lands of the Western States, and to be more hardy, and less liable to disease, in the United States, than what they are represented to be in Britain. Robert Bakewell was born about the year 1725, on big paternal estate in Leicestershire, and died there, Cetiet i 1795. ‘Though it does not appear that he contributed any- thing to itenature! yet his efforts to improve the breed of sheep and cattle, justly procured him a widely extended reputation. In the year 1760, the first Dishley ram was let for 16 shillings (sterling) the season, and it was not till twenty years afterwards that Bakewell received anything like a remunerating price. It was then only ten guineas ; but it afterwards rapidly increased till, in 1786, he realized 300 guineas for one ram; and three years afterwards, he obained no less than six ‘HBusand two hundred guineas for theehire of rams: thus handsomely repaying him al his long- continued and untiring exertions. " al BRITISH SHEEP. 93 + |...) MERINO SHEEP IN ENGLAND. ae The following remarks of Messrs. Youatt and. Spooner will sufficiently illustrate this subject: Pio ii “In England, the Merino has received a fair trial, but from eauses which can be readily explained, they have not been profitably bred. ‘The first attempt was made by George the III, who was a zealous agriculturist. A flock was first procured clandestinely from Estramadura, in Spain, but they were, found to be altogether inferior. In 1741, a small. but very superior flock (of the Negretti breed) were presented to his Majesty, and though at first they suffered much from the rot and the foot rot, yet the survivors became naturalized io the soil, and remained healthy, and the wool maintained its quality. The breed. became fashionable ; they were crossed extensively with the South Down, the Wiltshire, the Leicester, and:also up- on the Ryeland, by Dr. Parry, and, for some years, the rams were let at high prices. 1t was thought that by these means, the wool of our (Euglish) breeds would be greatly improved, and their other qualities retained. But it was found that whilst the wool was still greatly inferior to the pure Merino, the other qualities of the sheep were deteri- orated to a great extent. ‘The carcass became inferior, the constitution less hardy, and the experiments so unprofitable, that they were almost universally abandoned. The im- provement of the wool-would by no means compensate for the loss arising from a deficiency in the carcass: for such is the demand for meat of the best quality in this country, and such is the price which it accordingly commands, that the flesh must still remain the principal source of profit, and, indeed, the only one that can meet the heavy expense incurred in raising artificial food. As this cannot be retain-. ed in connexion with the finer description of wool, we must be content with possessing it with wool of an inferior qual- ity. Very few, if any flocks, of Merino, are retained pure in England. Mr. Bennet retains a flock in Wiltshire, it is said, in a state of purity, or nearly so. But, in most cases, they are considerably crossed with other breeds, and, in many cases, so largely, that the principal characteristics of the Merino have disappeared.” ‘ew ; Mr. Youatt’s remarks are as follows: ! _ “Tn Great Britain, where a system of artificial feeding 94 _ BRITISH SHEEP is carried to so great a degree of perfection, where the sheep is so early and so profitably brought to market, that breed, however it may ultimately increase the value of the wool, can never be adopted, which is deficient, as the Merinos undeniably are, in the principle of early matu- rity and general propensity to fatten.” Doubtless the Merino might be bred in England on suit- able soils, and with good shelters, with as little difficulty as in Denmark; but the facts above stated are sufficient to show why it cannot be done advantageously. vie NAMES APPLIED TO SHEEP. , The following (from Blacklock,) is a condensed arrange- ment of the names by which sheep are designated at differ- ent periods of their existence, in various parts of England and Scotland : : : FROM BIRTH TILL WEANING. Male.—Tup, Ram jamb, Heeder, Pur. Female.—Ewe or Gimmer lamb, Chilver. FROM WEANING TILL FIRST CLIP. Male.—Wog, Hogget, Hoggerel. Teg, Lamb-hog, Tup- hog, Gridling, and if castrated. a Wether hog. Female.—Gimmer hog, Ewe hog, Teg, Sheeder ewe, Thrave. FROM FIRST TO SECOND CLIP. Male.—Shearling, Shear hog, Heeder, Diamond or Din- mont ram, or Tup, ‘anil when castrated, a Shearing wether. Female.—Shearing ewe or Gimmer, Double-toothed ewe, or Teg, Yill gimmer. FROM SECOND TILL THIRD CLIP. Male —'Two shear ram, young wedder. Female.— Two shear ewe, counter. FROM THIRD TILL FOURTH CLIP. ~~ Maie.—Three shear ram, old wedder. Female.—Three shear ewe, Fronter. And so on, the name always taking its date from the time of shearing, and not from the birth of the lamb. Broken- mouthed ewes are called crones in Suffolk and Norfolk; krocks, or crocks, in Scotland; and drapes in Lincolnshire. in Scotland, ewes which are neither with lamb, nor giving milk, are said to be ezld. or yield. 95 BRITISH SHEEP. Names. No. 1 T eeswater, 2 | Lincolnshire, . 3 | New Leicestershire, 4 | Cotswold, _5 | Romney Marsh, 6 | Dartmoor or Bampton, 7 | Exmoor, ~ 8 | Heath, 9 | Hereford or Ryeland, 10°} Morf, Shropshire, 11 | Dorsetshire, 12 | Wiltshire, 13 | Berkshire, 14 | South Down, 15| Norfolk, — 16 Hardwick, - 17 | Cheviot, _ = - 18 | Dunfaced, 3 19 ; Shetland, - .. tis 20 | Spanish, = = ae 21) - Concise Description of British Sheep, by Messrs. Cully and Lawrence. Spaniel, Cross, Horns. Color. No horns, White lees and face, do. cdo. do. do, do. do. do. do. do. do. ‘Horned, do. -do. Black face and legs, No horns, | White face and legs, Horned, | Black and speckled, do. | White do. do. do. No horns, | Black and white, do. Speckled do. Horned, — Black a thes No horns, | Speckled, do. do. White face and legs, ‘do. | Dun do do. | Various colors, ram horn’ 'd | White, Quality of wool. Long wool, do. do. fine, do. do.. do. do. do. do. coarse, do. Short fine wool, do... do. Short middling, Long wool, Short wool, do.” do. do. ~ do. | do. fine éottany do. superfine, do. fine, Weight of fleece. 9 Ibs. Is. od. ii tam a kvm ie | | | | | | tO 69 St Oo DOL DOW WOM DW RODOOO Price af - wool per lb. x WA WWRMOMWOMHMWNOOMM EE! Fe ee er een i nr ro oa Wether Age per qr. | when | killed. 30 Ibs. 2 years, 25 2 oe a 24 2 22 y 25 2 16 24 15 | 34 1S: Be 12 3h 18 3k 20 13 18 Qk 18 =e 18 3 10° a; 165-4 = Bom AR a, dee 14-524 16°25 2° 96 AMERICAN SHEEP. SECTION XIII. NORTH AMERICAN SHEEP. The sheep was not indigenous to any part of America, unless the Argali should be considered a sheep; and the only animal which is indigenous to North America, the qualities of whose fleece or covering approximates towards that of the domestic sheep, is a species of goat, which is found about the country of the Flat-Head Indians, among the Rocky Mountains. It is known by the name of the ‘‘wooly sheep,’’ and is frequently confounded with the Argali. Captain Bonneville says: ‘It has white wool like a sheep, mingled with a thin growth of long hair; but it has short legs, a deep belly, anda beard like a “goat. lis horns are about five inches long, slightly curved backwards, black as jet, and beautifully polished: Its hoofs are of the same color. ‘The flesh is said to have a musty flavor. Its wool — alone gives it a resemblance to the sheep. Some have thought that the fleece might be valuable, as it is said to be as fine as the goat of Cashmere; but it is not to be procu- red in sufficient quantities. It is not so plentiful as the big- horn (Argali); rarely more than two or three being seen at a time. It inhabits cliffs in summer, but in winter de- scends into the vallies. This animal is by no means so ac- tive as the big-horn; it does not bound much, but sits a good deal upon its haunches.” 4 Hence, in the first settlement of the United States, the colonisis were necessitated to introduce the domestic sheep, and it is presumed that they brought with them those kinds of British sheep which were peculiar to those districts from which they embarked. These sheep seem to have been bred promiscuously, so that previous to the importation of the Merinos, they did not fully resemble any one of the old British breeds, They were generally long-legged, narrow-chested, flat- sided, and comparatively slow in coming to maturity.— They yielded coarse white wool, of a medium length of staple, and the ewe fleeces averaged not exceeding 3 Ibs. Their principal recommendation consisted in being prolific breeders and good nurses. Butthey were unitraciable,and AMERICAN SHEEP. 97 impatient of being confined within fences. They have been erossed generally with the Merino or improved British breeds, and have thus disappeared, except in some parts of the Southern States. - The only new breed: of sheep which have Hea formed out of those which were imported into this country by the colonists 3 which have or had anything peculiar in their character, are the Otter, the Arlington, and the Smith’s Is- land Sheep. THE OTTER BREED. “This bees was an accidental formation, and it , shows how readily the sheep is operated upon by various circum- stances, so as to change its form,and qualities. The precise point where this breed originated seems un-' settled: Chancellor Livingston states that it was on an is- land opposite the New England coast. Another writer says. it was in,Massachusetts, and in a flock belonging to Seth Wright, and occurred in 1791. An ewe of the long-legged New England breed, being _copulated with a tup of the same breed, gave birth to twins, one of which was a male, with exiremely short legs, which were turned out at the knees in such a manner as to render them rickety. They could not run or jump, and even walked with difficulty. The body was long and round, but not large, and. the breed was well formed, except as to legs. Their wool was similar to other New England sheep, and ofa. medium length. Curiosity at first led to the breeding from this ram, and the progeny presented a striking likeness tothe size. They, were valued only because they could be easily kept within the stone wall fences of New England. But as they were not well formed for moving about in deep snows, or travel- ing to market, the breed has been abandoned, and become extinct. hs Sree tea CEE ARLINGTON LONG-WOOLED SHEEP. | Mr. ‘Livingston notices this breed substantially as follows: « These, Mr. Custis, who was the original owner of them, informs me, were derived from the stock of that distinguish- ed farmer, statesman, and patriot, Washington, who had collected, at Mt Vernon, WIPES he believed useful to. 98 AMERICAN SHEEP. ihe agriculture of his. country; and among other animals, a Persian ram, which Mr. Custis describes as being very large and well formed, carrying wool of great length, but of coarse staple. «“ This stock, intermixed with the Bakewell, are the source from which the fine Arlington sheep are derived— some of which carry wool fourteen inches in length, and their wool was fine for the sort, soft, silky, and beautifully white. ‘¢ They are formed upon the Bakewell model.” This breed is still held in high estimation among some of the farmers in Virginia and Maryland, but are now much inferior to their ancestors, and the long-wooled British breeds, both for mutton and value of fleece.—(L. A. Mor- rel.) SMITH’S ISLAND SHEEP. This island, and the sheep bred upon it, were thé prop- erty of Mr. Custis, and the following is extracted from his account of them: ‘¢ This Island lies in the Atlantic Ocean, irlantdbataly at the Eastern cape of Virginia, and contains between three and four thousand acres. The length of this Island is esti- mated at fourteen miles, which gives that variety and change of pasture so necessary to the system of sheep-farm- ing. The soil, though sandy, is, in many parts, extremely rich, and productive of a succulent herbage, which sup- ports the stock at all seasons. About one half of this island is in wood, which is pierced with glades running parallel with the sea, and of several miles in extent. These glades are generally wet, and being completely sheltered by the wood on either side, preserve their vegetation, in a great measure, through the winter, and thereby yield a support tothe stock. Along the sea coast, also, are abundant scopes of pasturage, producing a short grass in summer, which is peculiarly grateful to the palates of most animals, and par- ticularly to sheep. ‘The access to salt, also, forms a mate- rial feature in the many attributes which Smith’s Island possesses. ‘The origin of the Smith’s Island sheep cannot be pre- cisely ascertained, but they are supposed to be the indige- nous race of the country, put thereon about twenty years AMERICAN SHEEP. 99. since, ‘and. ‘improved by the hand of Nature. Their wool was very white, and comparatively fine, and was soft and silky to the touch. The staple was from 8 to 10 inches in length, and the fleeces averaged about 8 lbs.”’ ~ « The descendants of these flocks, though greatly Pathak erated, are diffused over a wide section of Virginia, nd further South.”—(L. A. Morrel.) ' The accidental formation of this breed of sheep upon this island, shows the influence of rich pasturage upon the quality of the fleece, and the propriety of placing long- wooled ‘breeds of sheep upon the rich level lands of the Western States, in preference to short or fine-wooled breeds. JAMAICA SHEEP. The island of Jamaica is situated in about 18 degrees north latitude. Being surrounded by the Ocean, the. heat of the torrid zone is tempered by its breezes. On this is- land has originated a breed of sheep, the descendants of European coarse-wooled sheep, which is thus described in the American Philosophical Transactions, Vol. v., p. 153: _ * The Jamaica sheep forms a distinct variety, altogether different from any other I have ever seen. ‘I'he hair is a substance sui generis, and is different from the kemp and stitchel hair of Europe, as from the long tough hair of the Russians, and other hairy breeds. The ‘wool, too, is as dif- ferent from that of other sheep-wool, as the hair; it is finer than any other, not excepting the Shetland breed, al- though 1 should suspect that itis scarcely so soft.”’ The aécidental formation of this breed of sheep, from such an original, shows most conclusively that a mild and rather warm temperature is most congenial to the fine- hgaten sheep. | INTRODUCTION OF MERINOS INTO THE UNITED STATES. Previous io the year 1800, a few, and only a few, im- proved coarse-wooled sheep had been innpotted into the Uni- ted States from Britain and Holland. But as the people of the United States, ift those times, were not sensible of the value of superior. breeds of sheep, these imported sheep had little influence in improving the breed of sheep in the Uni- ted States, and comparatively few good sheep existed in 100 AMERICAN SHEEP. these States. The importation of the Merinos, and the high prices of their wool shortly afterwards, gave the first — great impetus in the improving breeds of sheep. The first importation of Merino sheep into the United | Slates, was by the Hon. William Foster, a merchant of | Boston. In April, 1773, being at Cadiz, in Spain, he pur- | chased of a drover from the Sierra Morena, three Merino | sheep, on condition that he should bring them down with | the drove for the shambles, and deliver them outside the city gate to a certain fisherman, who smuggled them for him on board the ship. Bald Eagle, Captain John Atkins, | master. With these sheep he arrived safe at Boston.— | Soon afier, being about to leave the United States for a long residence in France, he presented these sheep to his friend, | Andrew Cragie, Esq., of Cambridge, who supposed that, as — we had no woolen manufactories in the United States at that time, these sheep were not particularly valuable, and ate them. | Early in the year 1801, Mr. Delessert, a‘French banker, _ purchased two pairs of Merinos, selected from the celebra- ted Rambouillet flock, near Paris, and shipped them the same year to the United States. Three of them perished on their passage; the survivor, a ram, was placed on his farm, near Kingston, New York. In the same year, Mr. Seth Adams (now of Zanesville, Ohio,) imported a pair from France, in the brig Reward, which arrived at Boston in the month of October. i In the year 1802, Robert R. Livingston, being Minister Plenipotentiary from the United States at the court of- France, obtained three or four Merinos of the Rambouillet | flock, which he sent to New York, and placed on his farm. In the year 1801, Col. David Humphrey, being then Min- ister Plenipotentiary at the court of Spain, purchased two hundred Merinos in Spain, and shipped them to the United States. They arrived early in the spring of 1802. The | manner of his obtaining them is thus related by Mr. Wil- liam Jarvis : | ‘It was a custom of the Spanish court, when a foreign Minister was recalled, on taking leaveyto make him a pres- ent of five or ten bars of gold—each bat, if L recollect right, was of one pound weight. But as the law of this country forbids any Minister taking any present from a foreign AMERICAN SHEEP. 101 court, Mr. Humphreys declined it, but suggested to the Min- ister that he should be much gratified with a royal license to take out of the’ Kingdom wvo hundred Merino sheep.— This, ‘the Minister stated, could not be granted, but intima- ted that if he wished to take them out, no obstruction ould be thrown in his way. These were purchased in lower Leon or upper Estramadura, and driven down the valley of the Mondego to Figueira, where they were em- barked for the United States. I never could learn out of swhat fldck these sheep were obtained, but they were un- questionably pure blood Transhumantes, which is the only - fact of importance worth knowing.” e In the years 18038-9-10-11, large numbers of Merinos were imported into the United States. The following is an extract from Mr. hab i Jarvis’ account of their see, voto tion. He says: '« T attempted, in 1806, also in 1807, to obtain some from the most cclebrated flocks. But the laws were so _ strict against their exportation, without a royal license, that I failed of success. After the French invasion in 1808, the law became more relaxed; and in 1809, by special favory I obtained two hundred Escurials. At the second invasion of the French, under Joseph Bonaparte, the rapidity of the march of the French troops hurried the supreme Junta from . Madrid, and they retired to Badajos. Being without mon- ey, and being afraid of disgusting the Estramadurans, by levying a tax on them, they were compelled to sell four of the first flocks in Spain, which had been confiscated in consequence of their proprietors joining the French. These were the Paular, previously owned by the Prince of Peace ; the Negretti, previously owned by the Conde del Campo: de Alange; the Acqueirres, which had been owned by the Conde of the same name; and the Montarco, owned by the Conde de Montarco ; and wete such sheep as could not have been got out of Spain, had it not been for the invasion ‘of the French, and the distracted state of the: country, Peoving out of this invasion. “** When the Junta sold, it was ‘pon the express eondi- cn of their granting licences to carry them out of the Kingdom. » Four thousand of the Paular ‘flock were sent to England for the King: and Col. Downie, a Scotch officer in the British service, but who also held the rank of Gen- 102 AMERICAN SHEEP. eral in the Spanish service, and I, purchased the remain- der of the flock, between three and four thousand more: ‘| And of this purchase; I took fourteen hundred, and he sent | the rest to Scotland, with the exception of two or three hun- dred, which he sold to come to this country. | “Sir Charles Stewart purchased the Negretti flock, Ne sent them to England, with the exception of two or three — hundred, which I got out of his flock after they reached Lisbon. ‘‘T purchased about seventeen hundred of the Acqueir- _ res flock of the Junta, and the remainder were sold, and | sent to England. The Montarco flock was bought by a) Spaniard and a poe and about two thousand seven | hundred were shipped to this country. I shipped to the United States the fourteen hundred Paulars, one thousand seven hundred Acqueirres, two hundred Escurials, and one © hundred Negrettis, and about two hundred Montareos. Of © this number, one hundred was sent to Wiscasset and Port- | land ; one thousand one hundred to Boston and Newbury- | port; one thousand five hundred to New York; three hun- — dred and fifty to Philadelphia; two hundred and fifty to Baltimore ; one hundred to Alexandria; and two hundred to Norfolk and Richmond. “ Besides those which I shipped to the United States on my own account, there were about three hundred Guada- loupes, purchased by others, and two to three hundred of © the Paular stock, sold by Gen. Downie, shipped to Boston : and of the Montarco flock, shipped by others, about two | thousand five hundred were sent to Boston, Providence, | New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Savannah. The © Guadaloupes, Paulars, and Montarcos, which were shipped _ to Boston by others, were for the account of Gorham Par- sons, Esq., Gen. Sumner, D. Tichenor, and E. H. Derby, | Esq. All these sheep were shipped in the latter part of | 1809, and the early part of 1811, and were the only Leon- | esa Transhumantes, if we include Col. Humphrey’s and | Chancellor Livingston’s, (which I have no doubt were of | the same stock,) that were ever shipped to the United | States. or “‘ Badajos is but little over one hundred miles from: jak | bon, and all the sheep purchased there, and in that vicinity, — were shipped at Lisbon. I was then Consul there, and | | ?, AMERICAN SHEEP. 103 from my office, was actually acquainted with all the ship- - ments, as certificates of property from me always accom- paniedthem.” — pA ! ! In the years 1827 and 1828, Mr. Henry D. Grove im- ported into the United States 195 pure Escurial sheep, from ne celebrated flock of Macherns, in Saxony. Mr. Grove’s flock was found to be hardy in the climate of New York, and he was successful in propagating them. _ In the years 1824—5-6-7, large importations were made from Saxony of Escurial sheep into the United States, much the largest proportion of which were only grade — sheep; and, at this time, only a small proportion of pure Escurials are to be found in this country. — _In 1840, Mr. D. C. Collins, of Hartford, Connecticut, im- ported 20 ewes and 2 rams from the Rambouillet flock of France. OSS Oa SOUTH AMERICAN SHEEP. ; _ Neither the Argali nor the sheep are indigenous to any part of South America. But the natives of Chili and Peru possessed, from time immemorial, a valuable substitute, in the various species of the Lama. ‘These animals strongly resemble the camel in their general form, except that they have no hump upon their backs; and hence, they are class- ed by naturalists with the Camelide. There are three spe- cies of the Lama—the Guanico, or Lama, the Paco, or Al- paca,.and Vicuna. | : | _ The Vicunas are not very unlike goats in their appear- ance, except that they have no horns, are larger, are of a leonine color, or more ruddy. The wool is very fine, re- sembling silk, or the fur of the beaver, and is held in high estimation. They live on the highest mountains and ‘groves, and particularly love those cold regions of solitude, called punahs by the Peruvians. Frost and snow do not annoy them, but appear to be favorable to them. And such is their timidity, that at the sight or wild beasts, they in- siantly hurry into inaccessible retreats, and thereby elude their pursuits. They were formerly plenty, but are now become ae in consequence of being freely hunted and SUE ye Ae Teer iast - 4 The Lama, properly so called, and the Alpaca, are found in Peru, both in a wild and in a domesticated state. 104 AMERICAN SHEEP. The Lama and Alpaca are both hornless, and strongly — resemble each other in figure, disposition, and general prop- erties. But the Lama, in a wild state, is uniformly of a chestnut color; whereas, the domesticated lamas are of va- rious colors. Both the Lama and Alpaca are used as beasts of burthen by the natives ; and, for this purpose, are very — valuable to them. Their obstinacy, when irritated, is well known. The Alpaca, when full grown, is about thirty-seven cath es high at the tip of the head. It is smaller in stature than the Lama; its legs are shorter, with larger muscles, and its wool finer and more abundant; but itis less robust in its habits, being able to carry a continuous burden of only 50 or 70 |bs.; and is less used as a beast of burden han he Lama. The Alpaca weighs, when full grown, from 160 to. 200 Ibs. The flesh is said to be wholesome and nutritious : the skin may be used for book binding, &c. It yields an- nually a fleece of from 10 to 14 lbs., ‘ais more. In Peru, they are generally shorn every third year, when the wool is about 8 inches long. It usually grows three inches in a year; but if shorn every year, grows 6 inches or more in’ a year. As the Alpaca does not shed its wool like the © sheep, it sometimes attains the length of 30 inches. Nine-tenths of the wool of the Alpacas is black; but some of them are entirely white, or red, or grizzled. It is soft and glossy like hair, and is fitted for the production of | fabrics, differing from all others, and which are of a medi- | um quality between silk and wool. Itis now mingled with’ other materials, in such a manner that while a particular — dye will affect those, it will leave the Alpaca wool with its’ original black color, thus giving rise to great diversity. The Alpacas breed in their third year : their ety of | gestation is nearly twelve months: they usually live ten or?) twelve years. | Both the tame and wild Lamas and Alpacas are foul int} large herds on the Andes. . Here, at an elevation of from — | 8 000 to 12,000 feet above the level of the sea, the Peru-' — vian tends his Alpacas and Lamas, allowing them to range _ at the foot of the snowy cliffs, called punahs, or to wander on the paramos, or heaths, where they derive subsistence | from the moss and licheus growing on the rocks, or crop oH | dl SOUTH AMERICAN SHEEP. 105 the grasses and tender shrubs, which spring up upon the flats which are favored with moisture. But its favorite food ‘ig the ycho, a sort of rushy grass or reéd, which grows in ‘rich abundance on its native hills, Neher: it is said, these animals are never known to drink, so Jong as they can ob- tain a sufficiency of green, succulent herbage. _ They are as gentle and docile in their dispositions, and ate as readily restrained, as the comnion sheep, with which, Wi is said, they perfectly agree. - They will adapt themselves to almost any soil and situa- ‘tion, and are seldom subject to disease, provided the heat is - not oppressive, and the air is pure. They will live and ‘thrive on the same kinds of food as are eaten by cattle and sheep; but the inferior kinds of browse, grass, or hay, with a due proportion of potatoes, or other succulent rvots, are preferred to rich pasture and farinaceous grains, and are more healthy for them. From these qualities of the Alpaca, we may ‘fey that it ean live. best in situations so bieak, that the sheep would starve or perish ; and that, consequently, the Alpaca would be well adapted to the higher mountainous regions of the United States; to which ‘Todalities it may, at some future day, be a valuable acquisition, and far more useful than the best kinds of long-wooled sheep. The Lamas and Alpacas not being adapted to the lower hills and plains of South America, the Spaniards introduced - eoarse-wooled: sheep into their various territories, both of North ‘and South America. - The soil of the vast plains east of the Andes mountains, which are drained by the river La Plata, are very fertile, and the climate salubrious both to man and animals.— Hence, on those plains, these coarse-wooled sheep multi- plied rapidly, and became so plentiful that their carcasses were often used as fuel for burning bricks: and very con- siderable quantities of coarse. wool are exported from Bu- i enos Ayres. During the years 1841 and 1842, seventeen | millions pounds of wool were exported from Buenos Ayres. to’ the United States. Of late years, the South American farmers have turned their attention to the improvement of their flocks by the portation of fine-wooled sheep from Europe and the Uni- tates. In the years 1837 and 1838, 1101 sheep, of the 106 SOUTH AMERICAN SHEEP. average value of $9,60 each, and therefore presumed to: have been Merino bucks, were exported from the United States to Buenos Ayres. The largest sheep estate is that of Mr. Sheridan, an iaelt gentieman, who has 159,000, all of them from one half to. full blood Merinos. This estate lies about fifty miles south, of Buenos Ayres, contains seven leagues square of land, and is devoted entirely to the raising of sheep, which ave divided generally into flocks of 3000 to 5000 each. ‘The South Down sheep are the hardiest, and increase the fast- est. Don Faustius Xemenes has 60,000 on his estate, twenty miles from the city of Buenos Ayres ; but generally, the proprietors have crossed with the Saxon breed. 5 «The price of government lands there is ten cents per acre. It is laid oif into ‘‘Estancias’’ a league square, con- taining 5,700 acres, English: the face of the country al- most a dead level, no tin nber, but a luxuriant coat of grass. ‘“« A cottage is erected in the centre of the farm for the shepherd, and an ample yard enclosed by driving the trunks of the common peach tree into the earth, and wattling the interstices with the branches. An estancia will support 3000 sheep. which is about the size of their flocks. The only care they require is to guard them at night, and during astorm. They will seldom wander beyond the landmarks during the day. At the approach of a storm, they turn their backs to leeward, and feed on until turned by their _ keeper to a place of security. The shepherd does not re- main with the flock, but at the cottage, having a horse al- ready saddled and bridled (ready for a sudden call,) al- ways at the door in the day time.’’—(Cultivator.) The shearing season commences in October, the shear- ing being mostly done by women. Some of them will shear 15, and even 20 sheep inaday. The level nature of the country, and the absence of water, makes it impos- sible to wash the wool on the sheep’s back. Itis therefore sold in the dirt. ‘The common wool, afier being washed, is worth 6 cents the pound only. The soil of these plains is impregnated with salt petre; and this, by many, is sup- posed to be the cause why sheep are not subject 10 foot rot, and are little subject to other diseases. The greatest draw- | back to the production of wool on the pampas, is the small — burr which adheres to the wool: it is the seed of a species | ) AUSTRALIAN SHEEP, 107 of clover, of which they are very fond. The wool from Cordova, one of the interior States of the confederation, is free from burrs, and is a much cleaner kind. In the year 1845, it was estimated that there were four peers of sheep in the province of Buenos Ayres. ert that tract of country south of the Parana river, and extending west to the Andes, goes by the name of the Pam- pas; (or plains,) and is a level country, formed apparently by the washings of the great tributaries of the La Plata, without a stone, or a rock, or a hill, more than a gentle el- evation of a few feet, so level that a carriage can go over - the fields in any direction, and without a single tree or bush. _ The winter’s night is rarely so cold as to form ice of the thickness of glass, and snow is never seen. The’ Ther- mometer is never below 30 deg., or above 90 deg. of Fah- renheit. The climate is delightful. These plains are one vast meadow covered with luxuri- ant grasses and flowers, and immense quantities of thistles in many parts, which spring up 6 or 8 feet high. But they are subject to excessive drouths, which, at times, are so se- vere, that large numbers of horses and cattle sometimes perish for want of water, Hence, as the sheep can subsist on green food, without water, with less difficulty than any other domesticated animal, the South American farmers have, from this circumstance, a strong inducement to ex- tend their sheep husbandry; and as the climate and soil are extremely favorable to the production of sheep, we may expect that that country will eventually compete strongly with every other in the production of wools of aupOnOR ri AUSTRALIAN SHEEP. ~The Island of New Holland comprises much the largest proportion of Australia or Australasia, and is situated in the ‘Indian Ocean, between the 11th and 39th degrees of south latitude. It being surrounded” by the Ocean, “the climate is _more temperate than that of the United States, in the same - Jatitudes north of the Equator. But it is subject to drouths, _ which, though not very frequent, are more serious, and of Tonger continuance than those of South America. ‘The me drouth (in New Holland) which commenced in 1826, ~ did not terminate until 1829. Very little rain fell during 108 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP. the whole of this period, and for more than six months there was not a single shower.’’—(McCulloch’s Com. Dic- tionary.) Nevertheless, there is generally a supply of food, and extensive ranges of pasturage ; and the climate being ‘mild and rather dry, that country is extremely well oe to raising heathy sheep and fine wool. The sheep not being indigenous to that country, the we onists, at first, supplied themselves with inferior, coarse, hairy-wooled sheep, from Bengal. ‘The change of climate and pasturage shortly improved these sheep, so that their fleeces lost their hairiness. Soon after, South Down and Leicester sheep were imported from England. These were crossed upon the Bengal sheep, and improved the quality of their mutton and fleeces. Previous to the year 1800, Merinos were introduced by Capt. McArthur and others; and at this period there were about 6,000 sheep of all kindsin the colony. In 1813, the number was 65, 000. and in 1828, 563,000 —( Wentworth’s New South Wales.) In 1843, the export of wool of all kinds amounted to 16,226,400 Ibs —(W.C. Spooner. ) By these data, it must be evident that the increase of sheep in Australia, has been extremely rapid, and that the fine-wooled sheep of that country must be principally com- posed of grade Merino and Saxon sheep, bred by crossing the Merino and Saxon with long coarse-wooled sheep. Hence, though the best of these grade wools are as fine as the pure Merino, and are tough and strong, they are longer in the staple, and inferior in sofiness to pure Escu- rial wools. As to the management of sheep in Australia, Mr. Cun- ningham states in his book, entitled “Two Years in New South Wales,”’ that where the country is destitute of tim- ber, the sheep are very easily managed, and as many as a thousand sheep may be trusted to a single shepherd ; butin general they are divided into flocks of about three hundred breeding ewes, or four hundred wethers. Every flock has a shepherd, who takes his sheep out to graze before sun- rise, and brings them in at evening. He keeps always be- fore the flock to check the forward among them from run- ning onwards, and wearing out the old, sick, and lame ;— making all thus feed quietly, so as 10 keep them in good AUSTRALIAN SHEEP. 109 condition. In summer he sees, too, that they have water during the heat of the day; and in drawing up under a tree for shade, when it is too hot for feeding, he passes occa- sionally gently among them, spreads them out, and makes them take a fresh position, in as small groups as possible, under another tree ; because, when they remain too long together in one place, they become broken winded. Itisa rule that the sheep should never remain in one spot so long as to paddle the ground much with their feet; and hence, in riding round your sheep stations, you have something whereby to judge whether or not your instructions are at- tended to. The shepherd takes out his victuals with him, and is required to be on the alert all day long, to prevent the sheep from being lost in the woods, or wild dogs from pouncing in among them. “These flocks are always penned together under the charge of a watchman, who counts each in reguiarly at night, and the shepherds again count them oué in the morn- ing; so that they form a regular check on each other, and prevent losses from carelessness or depredation. The watchman has a small weather-proof watch box to sleep in, and is assisted by a watch dog; he keeps up a good fire, which generally deters all native or wild dogs from ap- proaching the fold. The hurdles are made of light swamp oak, iron bark, or gum, measuring seven feet long, with five bars, so close together that a young lamb cannot creep through. They are shifted to fresh ground daily, being sloped outward, and propped together by means of forked stakes, driving a stake through between the bars here and there, to keep the hurdles firm. and prevent the wind from blowing them over. Bells are attached to the necks of the stoutest leaders, to keep the flock together, and give warn- ing of any thing going wrong within the fold. ‘* The breeding season is, in some instances, at the com- mencement of summer; in others, at the commencement of winter ; but, in general, it is in March or April, (the Aus- tralian autumn,) the rams having been put to the ewes in October. This deviation from our practice ig owing, ac- cording to Mr. Cunningham, to the breeders finding that _ the pasture is particularly good in the autumn, from a sort of second spring taking place; while the lambs stand the 110 AUSTRALIAN SHEEP. cold better than the heat, and are less annoyed by the gad flies.” Sheep shearing shee place at the beginning of their summer. The usual plan of washing is by rinsing them in streams; but of late it has become customary with some proprietors to wash them with a spout. But it is not likely that this plan will be generally adopted, as it requires par- ticular facilities with regard to water, and is, besides, a plan fraught with danger to the sheep. It ought to be keptin mind that a stream of water playing on the body, produces a very stunning (chilling) effect, which may destroy life in an inconsiderable time, and has, in this way, been often employed for putting criminals to death.””—( Blacklock.) * The average weight of the fleeces of the ee breeds, is from two to two and a half pounds. ‘The range of pasture is so extensive that the sheep are liable to comparatively few diseases. ‘The dryness of the climate keeps the fleece always in so comfortable a state, that they are almost never struck by the fly, which always deposits its eggs on the moistest part of the skin,’’ (e7 wool.) Notwithstanding the equilibrity and mildness of the cli- mate, bad seasons occasionally occur, and lead to sickness among the flocks; and they are liable to be pastured on im- proper grounds, by which they become affected with diar- rhea, braxy, rot, foot rot, &c., as in other countries. That portion of the work of Mr. W. E. Spooner which treats of the structure and physiology of the sheep, and which is included within the ten next sections, is very lu- cid and satisfactory upon the various subjects therein treat- ed, so far as it extends, and, therefore, is inserted with some few corrections and additions. ‘STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 111 SECTION XIV, Stake ¥ tee! . . A «GENERAL rv EW OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. - The ‘body: of the sheep is composed of solids and fluids. The organization of the frame is effected by means of the solids; they surround and contain the fluids; at least one half of the animal system being composed of water. Late anatomists consider that animals are composed of -three forms of tissues, which they have denominated the fibrous, the lamellar,and the globular. The two former are exemplified in the structure of the cellular substance, which composes the greatest proportion of the animal fab- ric: the fibrous is characteristic of the muscular and liga- mentous structures: the fibrous, united with the lamellar, is exhibited in the texture of the glands, and in the medul- _ lary substance of the nervous system; and the globular is shown in the composition of the chyle, the blood, and sev- eral of the secretions. These several textures, combined together in different proportions, compose the various or- bsp of the body. To give support to the animal frame, and afford fixed ob- . jects for the attachments of the various parts, is the use of the skeleton. which, in the sheep, is composed of nearly two hundred bones of various sizes and shapes. These » bones, in order to admit of motion, are connected, one to another, by means of strong bands, called ligaments; the ends of the bones being constructed in various ways, so as to-admit of motion. In many we have the form of the hinge; in others, that of a ball and socket. ‘The motion of thelimbs is effected by means of the mus- cles or flesh, which, although to a casual observet appear- ing as a homogeneous mass, is really separable into a great number of distinct bodies, of various forms and sizes.— _ These muscles have commonly two separate attachments, which are usually bones, and by contracting in length, they _ bring these points of attachment nearer to each other.— » Muscles are composed of a vast number of fibres, which _ on being acted upon by the nervous influence, diminish in length and increase in bulk, and thereby approximate the objects to which they are attached. They are usually fas- ~ 112 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. tened to bones by means of a strong white substance, call-_ ed tendon, which, however, possesses in itself no power of | contraction, but merely communicates the contractile force to the object to be acted upon. Where the two objects of attachments are distant from each other, the greater por- — tion of the distance is occupied by the tendons, the advan- tage of which is owing 1o their diminished size in propor-— tion to their strength. Thus we find the legs of the sheep below the knee are light and slender, from the absence of muscular and the substitution of tendinous substance. The greater part of the muscles are voluntary, being un- der the influence.of the mind; but some are involuntary, such as the heart and the diaphraghm. Muscles are sup- plied with vessels of various kinds, such as arteries for their nourishment, and veins for the return of the blood, after this purpose is effected. They have likewise nerves, which are the medium of sensation, and also communicates to them the mandates of the will. These nerves proceed either from the brain or spinal cord; the brain being the fountain of sensation, and the residence of the mind. The drain is a soft pulpy substance contained within the head, and the spinal cord is somewhat similar in structure, and extends from the brain to the tail, through a hole in the bones which form the spinal column. The body is divided into two principal cavities, the chest and the abdomen, which are separated by a muscular parti- tion, called the diaphraghm. The former contains the heart and lungs, whose uses are principally to purify and distribute the blood, by means of the respiration and the cir- culation; and the latter contains the stomach and bowels, in which the functions of digestion are carried on, besides severalyimportant glands, such as the liver, kidneys, and pancreas, and other organs. Both the small and large in- testines are fastened to the spine by means of a strong membrane, called the mesentery, which, besides veins and arteries, is furnished with a vast number of small vessels, called dacteals. ‘These lacteals open into the intestines, and there absorb the nutritious part of the food, which is a milky fluid, called the chyle, and convey it to a vessel run- — ning along the course of the spine, which vessel empties it- — self, near the heart, into the circulating system. Thus, by STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 113 these means, the blood becomes enriched with nutriment, and is thus enabled to supply the constant waste which pas- ‘ses from the system. {ii The blood, being furnished with nutriment, requires to be purified before it is fit for circulation. For this purpose, it passes into the right side of the heart, by the muscular con- traction. of which, it is sent to the lungs, where it is expo- sed to the action of the atmosphere, by which it is changed from a dark to a light red color, and being freed from im- purities, it enters the left side of the heart, and from thence is sent, by means of the arteries, to all parts of the body, supplying every part with nourishment, and furnishing each of the glands of the body with materials for the secretion of their peculiar fluids. Thus the salivary glands separate the saliva from the blood; the pancreas, a juice somewhat | similar; the testicles, the semen; and the kidneys, the urine. The urine being secreted by the kidneys, is convey- _ed by two small tubes into the sonia whence it is excre- ted from the body. The liver separates the bile from the dark impure blood which is conveyed to it by a large vein. _ The contents of the bowels are passed onwards by their vermicular motion, and after the nutriment is extracted from them, are excreted from the body generally in a sol- id form. - The cellular membrane is a very elastic subject, and en- ters very largely into the composition of the body ; it con- -Rects the various glands together, forms frequently a covers ing for the muscles, as well as for various vessels, and ex- ists in the form of cells, which have communication with each other. The adipose membrane is found in‘various parts of the body, and secretes the fat, which is deposited in a liquid form, and in small circumscribed bags. The fat thus con- tained, often performs the important office of affording a cushion for parts that would otherwise be exposed to inju- ry; thus the socket of the eye is abundantly furnished with this material. ‘There are two other important membranes which are ex-. tensively found in animal bodies: they are the serous and “mucus membranes. Whenever an internal part has an exter- nal opening, we find that it is furnished with a mucus mem- 114 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. brane, which secretes mucus for its protection; but when the cavity has no external opening, then it is lined with a serous membrane, which secretes a thin ‘watery fluid, to lu- bricate the parts, and preserve them from injury by fric- tion. Thus, from the entrance of the mouth and nosirils to the anus, throughout the whole internal surface of the bowels, a mucous membrane exists, by which the fluid is secreted, the nature of which gives a name to the mem- brane, and which protects it from injury, either by the ex- ternal air, or by the contents of the bowels. The bladder and urinary organs are similarly lined. On the other hand, the cavity of the chest and abdomen, with their contents, as well as the internal surface of the blood vessels, are furnished with a serous membrane, which secretes a watery humor. ‘These different membranes are frequently the seat of disease, and are subject to severe and dangerous inflammation. The admirable manner in\which the various organs are packed away in their proper cavities, is worthy of particu- lar notice. The lungs, heart, and contents of the abdomen, are so shaped and-disposed, that while each organ has full room for the performance of its functions, there is no va- cant space whatever.—(Spooner.) - STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 115 ‘SECTION XV. 7, SKELETON OF THE SHEEP. THE HEAD. THE FORE LEG. 1. The intermaxillary bone. 1. The scapula or shoulder blade. 2. The nasal bones. 2. The humerus, bone ofthe arm. 3. The upper jaw. _| or lower part of the shoulder, 4, The union of the nasal and upper} 3. The radius, or bone of the jaw bones. fore arm. 5. The unionof the molar and lach-/4. The ulna, or elbow. rymal bones. 5. 'The knee with its different bones. 6. The orbits of the eye. 5. The metacarpal or shank bones 7. The frontal bone. —the larger bones of the leg. 9. The lower jaw. 7. Arudiment of the smaller meta- 10. The incisor teeth, or nippers. carpal. 11. The molars, or grinders. 8. One of the sessamoid bones. ae 9. The first two bones of the foot— THE TRUNK. the pasterns. 32% aa he ligament of the neck sup-|10. The proper bones of the foot. porting the head. , 1. 2.3. 4. 5.6.7. The seven ver- THE HIND LEG. tabra, or bones of the neck. 1. The thigh bone. 1--13. The thirteen vertabre, or|2. .The stiile joint and its bone—the bones of the back. patella. 1—6. The six vertabra, of the loins.|3. The tibia or bone of the upper 7. The sacral bone. part of the leg. - 116 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 8. The bones of the tail, varying in/4. The point of the hock. different breeds from twelve to/5. The other bones of the hock. twenty-one. 6. The metatarsal bones, or bones 9. The haunch and pelvis. of the hind leg. 1—8. The eight true ribs with their/7. Rudiment of the small metatar- cartilages. sal. 9—13. The five false ribs, or those/8. A sessamoid bone. that are not attached to the breasti9. The first two bones of the foot— © bone. the pasterns. 14. The breast bone. 10. The proper bone of the foot. The skeleton of animal bodies is formed of bone, a sub- stance possessing firmness and stability for the attachment of muscles, the protection of the vital organs, and the sup- port of the softer parts. It is composed of animal matter and earthy salts; the former consisting of cartilage, gela- tine, and fat, or marrow; and the latter of phosphat of lime in considerable proportion, with a small portion of carbonat of lime, and other salts. The cartilage of bones is formed before the earthy matter, and constitutes the nidus, in which the latter is deposited. Bones can be freed from their earthy portion, by immersion in an acid, by which process the gelatine is also dissolved, and pure cartilage is left, which is elastic, but retains the original figure of the bone. On the other hand, bones, by exposure to great heat, are deprived of the animal substance, and the earthy part re- mains. The use of the marrow is, more particularly, to prevent the too great dryness and brittleness of bones. ‘To the an- imal portion of their composition, they are indebted for their shape, and what degree of elasticity they possess, and from the earthy portion they derive the important qualities of strength and durability. Every bone is covered by a membrane called the perios- teum, which also lines the internal cavities, and secretes the marrow. Its use is to circumscribe the form of bones, and protect them by its tenseness, as well as to afford the medium whereby they are furnished with their vessels.— The Shape of particular bones intimately corresponds to the purpose for which they are intended ; where, for the purpose of protection, we find them flat, and where, for the purpose of motion, long and cylindrical, as in the extremi- ties.—(Spooner.) r] Seauer cise OF THE SHEEP. 117 _ THE BONES OF THE HEAD. In ond to afford space for the attachment or origin of the horns, the frontal bones project, both forward and later- | ally, which gives the peculiar breadth of forehead and prominence of the eye to the sheep. This form of the up- per part of the face is retained in breeds from which the horn has long ago disappeared. The breeds witront horns » are. denominated polled sheep. THE SKULL OF A POLLED SHEEP. J. The occipital bone depressed out of the. reach of danger. 2. The parietal bones, the suture ha ving dis- o aupeer ed, and also out of danger, The squamous portions of the temporal rate Oa buttress of the arch of the skull. 4. ‘The meatus auditorious—or bony opening into the ear, 5. The Frontal bones. 6. The openings through which blood bie pass to supply the forehead. 7. The bony orbits of the eye. 8. The zygomatic or molar bones. Oe i ie lachrymal bones, very much develop- ed. 10. The bones of the nose. 11. The upper jaw bone. 12. The foramen, through which the nerves and blood vessels proceed to supply the low- er part of the face. 13. The nasal processes of the intermaxillary bones. 14. The pelatine processes. 15. ‘The intermaxillary bone, supporting the cartilaginous pad, instead of containing teeth. The bones of the skull are thus disposed of in the sheep : the frontal bones occupy the whole of the broad expanse on the top of the head, extending from eye to eye. (See fig. 5.) They are prolonged as far below the eye as above it, encroaching upon and materially shortening the nasal bones (10.10.). Above, they reach much to the parietal bones (fig. 2.); but before they arrive at this point, the head takes a sudden inclination downward, and a little of the posterior part of the frontal bones—that which is most concerned in covering the brain—is out of danger. The concussion is tremendous when these animals rush against each other in good earnest; but from the peculiar form and strength of the bones which come in contact here, 118 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. and the depression of the brain far below, serious mischief is seldom effected. The horn is occasionally broken; the ribs, the limbs, may sometimes be fractured ; at the rutting season, the contest may end only with the death of one of the combatants; but it is comparatively seldom that the skull is fatally injured. The parietal bones of the sheep (fig. 2.), although not elevated to the summit of the arch, as in the horse, yet re- sume the function of which they are deprived in cattle.— They constitute an important part of the posterior and slant- ing division of the skull, and have the same dense and firm structure which they possess in the horse. At an early pe- riod of the life of the animal, they: are formed, as in the horse and cattle, of two distinct bones; but the suture soon disappears in the sheep, and they become one continuous bony arch over the greater part of the brain. Considera- ble strength is necessary here, in order to sustain or neu- tralize those violent concussions.which may occasionally be propagated from the frontal bones above.—( Youatt.) THE IMPORTANCE OF THE SIZE OF THE HEAD. The head of the sheep constitutes one of the principal points by which his quality and profitableness [as a mution sheep| may be judged of. Compared with his general size, it should be small, and, particularly, not wide between the eyes: too great width of-forehead is an invariable proof of inaptitude to fatten, at least externally. ‘The sheep with a large head will be a favorite with the butcher, because, ip proportion to the slowness with which he gets into condi- tion, will be the accumulation of fat within, even if there was no natural tendency to produce tallow: in other words, there will be more profit to Himself (the butcher), at the ex- pense of the grazier and consumer. The head should be small, thin, and short. It is possible, yet not probable, that this may be carried to too great an extent; but that head must be disproportionably small, which can be considered as a proof of too great delicacy of constitution. There is considerable danger in lambing when the head of the sheep is large.—(Youatt.) THE BONES OF THE BODY. The neck is formed by seven bones, which, with the ex- STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 119 ception of the two first, are very much alike. The first is connected with the occipital, or bone of the skull, with which it forms a joint possessing much motion in a vertical direction. In the human head it is termed the atlas, from its supporting the head. It forms a joint behind with the dentata, as the second bone is termed, from its having in the front part a process like a tooth, which, however, af- fords the head considerable lateral motion. All the bones of the neck are extremely irregular in shape. They all possess a large hole through the centre for the passage of the spinal marrow, and small ones at the sides for the exit of nerves and arteries. They have also projections on each side and above, for the attachment of muscles ; and each one forms a joint, both before and behind, which af- fords that great flexibility to the neck, which most animals possess. ; : The back, or chine, is composed of separate bones, cal- led vertebra, of which there are thirteen belonging to the back alone. They all possess, like those of the neck, a a hole through the centre, for the passage of the spinal cord, as well as a small one at the side, for the exit of the nerves... The superior projection, or processes, are much higher than those of the neck, but considerably shorter than we find in the horse; and thus, we have high withers in this ' animal, and low ones in the sheep; and they are also shor- ter in the improved breeds than in the wilder races—a channel between the shoulders and along the back being justly regarded as a sign of a disposition to fatten. These processes serve for the attachment of muscles, as well of a strong elastic substance, which is attached to all the bones of the neck, and also to the occiput, and serves to support the head, and thus relieves the muscles to a great extent. The ribs are attached to the vertebre by means of a joint —one rib is joined tg two vertebra, and vice versa, thus af- fording the ribs a céftain extent of motion. There are thir- teen ribs on each side, eight true and five false: the former are attached to the sternum, or breast bone, and the latter are merely joined to the former at the lower parts, which is formed of cartilage. The ribs should spring from the back bone as horizontally as possible, as thereby the rotundity of the frame is increased. : The loins are formed by five bones, which partly resem- 120 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. ble the bones of the back ; but instead of ribs springing from the sides, there are fixed bony processes, several inch- es in length, which afford a protection or roof for the abdo- men, ‘These processes, in a well formed sheep, should be long and horizontal. After the loins, the spine continues in the sacrum, which, in the lamb, is composed of separate pieces, but is consoli- dated into one bone in the sheep. ‘This bone is perforated for the passage of the spinal cord, which, however, dimin- ishes in size, and terminates at the end of the sacrum, in several nerves which run to the tail. The bones of the tail are numerous, but are not perforated.—( Spooner.) THE BONES OF THE FORE EXTREMITIES. The joints, or articulations of the extremities, are the same as those of the horse, but the limbs, on reaching the fetlock joint, become divided, and the four bones, situated below the fetlock, are consequently double. The scapula, or blade-bone, is similar in shape to that of the horse, hav- ing a spine or ridge down its middle, for the atfachment of muscles; but in sheep, the bone is not so long in propor- tion to its width. It is attached to the ribs by muscular substance, by means of which the body is suspended, or hung, like a carriage, between the fore legs, and concussion is thereby materially diminished. From the more circular shape of the ribs, the shoulder blades are attached to them with much less mechanical ad- vantage, as far as the speed is concerned. ‘They are pla- ced wider apart, both above and below, but particularly at their lower parts, so that the limbs spread open, at a great- er angle, much more like a pair of compasses, than do those of the horse, and even the ox, thus giving the sheep that rolling walk so peculiar to that animal, and-so disad- vantageous with regard to speed. The humerus, or shoulder bone, strong and cylindrical, forms, with the blade above, the shoulder joint, the action of which, with that of the elbow-joint below, is much more limited than that of the horse. : . The radius, or bone -of the fore arm, is comparatively shorter than that of the horse; and we find that it is always long in animais of speed, and short where speed is not re- quired. ‘Fhis bone is also strong and eylindrical. STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 121 The wna, or bone which forms the elbow, does not sup- port the weight, but serves for the attachment of the pow- erful muscles so conspicuous in a shoulder of mutton, and which are generally divided by the first cut. For this pur- nose, it is attached to the radius, and rises above the elbow joint, the back of which it forms, but does not reach the knee. This joint, the carpus, is composed of seven bones, arranged in two rows, the upper of which articulates with the radius, and the lower with the cannon, or metacarpus. The metacarpus, or shank, much resembles that of the horse, until it reaches the fetlock, where it is to some little extent cloven, so as to articulate with the double arrange- ment of the bones below. Instead of the two small meta- carpal or splent bones that we find in the horse, there is merely one, and that of small extent and use. The small bones, situated at the back of the fetlock, call- ed the sesamoids, and which serve as levers for the attach- ment of ligamenis, and the action of the sinews, are double those of the horse, being four in number. The bones below the fetlock, viz., the large pastern, or os suffraginis, the small pastern, or os corona, the os pedis, or coffin bone, and the navicu/ar bone, are all double, and like the same parts in the ox, somewhat resemble the bones of the horse sawn in two. All these joints have less extent of motion than we find in the horse, and the bones, therefore, present a more up- right appearance.—(Spooner.) THE HIND EXTREMITIES. _ The haunch is formed by three bones in the young sub- ject, but these bones soon become consolidated into one, and are called the pelvis, or basin, withinw hich is situated tha bladder and parts of the organs of generation. Viewing this bone from below it, it appears pretty nearly circular within, but externally, the circle is broken by various irreg- ular processes, two of which project upwards on each side of the spine, which lies between them; these two other bones extend backward below the tail, and are called haunch bones, and two project laterally, and are termed hips.— These bones project but little in a well formed sheep, being altegether clothed with flesh and fat. The bones of the pelvis extend downwards and back- > 122 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. wards from the spine, and toward the inferior part form on each side a deep cap or socket, into which fits the upper thigh bone, which is formed like a ball, so as to fit into the socket. The thigh bone, or foemur, extends ora. and isprela- tively longer in the sheep than in the horse. [tis the flesh surrounding this bone which composes the bulk of a leg of mutton. Its lower part forms, with the éidia below, the sti- fle joint, which is singular, from having two cartilaginous bodies within it; and is protected in front by a small bone called the patella, or knee-pan, which bone becomes a sort of pulley, receiving the insertions of the very strong mus- cles above, and is attached below to the tibia by strong lig- aments. The tzdia, or leg-bone, runs backward from the stifle, and is not so long in proportion as inthe horse. it corres- ponds to the radius in the fore extremity, and it forms the - upper part of the hock joint. This joint is composed of six bones, arranged in rows so as to form three articulations, but motion is confined to that formed by the astralagus, or knuckle bone, and the tibia. The other bones serve as cushions to diminish concussions, with the exception’ of the os calcis, situated at ihe back, which acts as a Jever, receiving the insertions of the pow- erful muscles which straighten the hock. This bone is much shorter than in the horse, speed not being required. The bones below the hock correspond with those found be- low the knee in the fore extremity. BIFLEX CANAL. The large pastern-bones are not connected together by ligamentous substance, and it is not till the pastern-joint, that the foot becomes exteriorly disunited. At the situation of this joint in front, we can detect a small opening suffi- ciently large to admit a small probe. This is the entrance of a small canal, which presently enlarges, and passes first downwards, and then winds round in a semi-circular direc- tion, ending in a sert of cul de sac. On cutting into this canal, it appears to be a duplication of its skin. — Its inter- nal surface is lined with hair, and there is found a consid- erable of detached hair, mixed with an oily secretion in the canal, secreted by various small glands which empty into * STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 123 this cul de sac. The hair is, no doubt, excreted from the internal surface, and which, from the smallness of the open- ing, cannot escape, or ater is detained for a useful pur- pose. The use of this canal thus stuffed with hair, is self- evident. ‘The motion possessed by the pastern-joint is so great as to threaten to chafe the skin, by the friction of one side against the other. It is to prevent, or ward off this friction, that these biflex canals, or rather, hair-stuffed cush- ions, are provided ; and also, to secrete an oily fluid which serves to Jubricate the parts between the hoofs. This part~ occasionally suffers from the insinuation of dirt and sand, and is subject to inflammation and uleeration, which some- times prove sid troublesome. < HORNS AND HOOFS. The horns of sheep are composed of two distinct parts : one is the bony part, which is a highly vascular prolonga- tion of the frontal bone of the upper part of the head. This part is covered over by a portion of the vera cutis, or true skin, which runs under the other, or outward part of the horn. This outward part of the horn, which is the part usually called horn, is an elastic sheath of ag eolutinated hairs or filaments, eich ave secreted from the skin which covers the bony part of the horn, and which serves to de- fend the parts underneath from external injury. This sheath, at its base, is thin, being composed of only one lay- = er of filaments. Farther on in its growth, additional fila- ments are continually added, underneath the layer first formed, so as. to increase the thickness. The sheath grows faster than the bony part, and is gradually crowded off from it, and, beyond the bony part, becomes solid, in con- sequence of ‘the additional filaments which are added. The external filaments may be distinctly seen by the naked eye. The fleece, or covering of the sheep, consists of hair or wool, or both; and the form of the horn is always in uni- son with the quality of the fleece. Thus, if a sheep is cov- ered with wool which has many spiral curves, as the Me-. rino, its horns will be spiral; but if the wool or hair is straight, as on the Wallachian sheep, the “idids of the horns will correspond. . The growth of horns on the sheep appears to be subject to a lunar influence. Frequently, twelve distinct rings, or % 124 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. protuberances, are formed, in a corresponding number of lunar months of the year, particularly in the third year of their growth, when the growth of horns is most active. This may be ascertained by marking the horns, in the sum- mer of their third year, at which time this fact appears most distinctly. He | The horny part of the hoof consists of the crust, or true- horn, and the sole. Both the sole and the horny part are secreted from the vera cutis, or true skin, which runs un- der and around the bones of the feet. The horse is thin- nest at its uppermost edge, and is increased in thickness by additional filaments as it grows downward, and becomes solid at the toes, in the same manner as the horns of the head; so that the sole and crust form a defence to the skin and bones of the feet. fees Sometimes a small horn is secreted from the skin of the ear of the sheep. This circumstance shows that it is the skin alone which secretes horn from the animal system. By the appendix, it will be seen that according to the analysis of Schever, ihe composition of wool, hair, and -horns, is similar ; and their odor, when burned, is similar ; but they differ in the proportions of their component parts. SECTION. XVI. THE MUSCLES, OR FLESH. Although the shape of the body depends materially on that of the skeleton, so that if the latter is any wise faulty, the former will not be perfect; yet there is a very great contrast between the appearance of the skeleton, and that of the body itself, of which it forms a part. - Whilst the for- mer is angular and extremely irregular, the latter is round and smooth ; so that, though the good shape of the animal depends on the skeleton, yet it requires the eye of the anat- omist to detect, in the conformation of the latter, the good poinis which, in the body itself, are readily observed. The bulk of the body is formed of flesh or muscles.— Their principal use, when living, is to effect the movement STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 325 of the limbs: when dead, to afford nutrimenttoman. The motion of the body is occasioned by the contraction of the muscles, which, being fastened to different bones, draw these bones towards each other: and thus, the limbs are bent whenever particular muscles. shorten or contract.— These muscles which bend the limbs, are called the flex- ors; whilst an opposite set, which straighen them again, care denominated the extensors; the latter, however, are mostly smaller and weaker than the former. Thesize and shape of muscles are very diversified, some being so min- ute as to he scarcely visible, as those within the ear; whilst others, namely, those of the loins and buttocks, are large enough to afford a feast to several persons; some muscles are thin, and spread out likea fan; others are thick and bulky ; some are extremely short ; others are long and cyl- indrical. Muscles are furnished aah nerves both of mo- tion and sensation: the former convey the mandates of the will, and are thus the cause of motion: the latter commu- nicate the sense of feeling, and are the medium both of pleasure and pain; but the flesh possesses much less feel- | ing than the skin. The muscles are composed of fibres, and are bound together by cellular membrane, and_ they are, in sheep, mostly clothed with fat, which is also depos- ited amongst the fibres. It is the capability of containing this fat, and the abundance and laxity of the membrane containing it, which distinguishes a sheep of a good, from one of a bad breed, and gives to the former that softness and elasticity, or resiliency, which is felt on handling it, even when poor. The former sheep, too, possesses large muscles, particularly at those parts where the meat is most esteemed. ‘Thus, the loins of a good sheep are broad, and abundantly covered with flesh and fat, and so likewise are the buttocks and shoulders, whilst the head and neck are small. The muscles that are in most constant use, are more interlaced with tendinous fibre, and, consequently, are much less tender, as meat, than those which are less actively engaged. The muscles of the lower part of the legs, between the knees and hocks and the joints above, as well as those of the neck and head, are instances of the former kind: whilst the muscles Ee the loins, and more particularly those within the pelvis, are examples of the latter, and afford the most tender meat in the body. 126 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. SECTION XVII. ia THE BRAIN AND NERVES. The brain, the seat of the mind, and the fountain of sen- sation, is a soft body, situated in a cavity of the skull, called the cranium. In man, it occupies by far the greater por- tion of the skull ; but in the sheep, from its much smaller size, and from the large space devoted to the face, its cavi- ty, the cranium is much the smaller part. It is closely in- vested by a membrane called the pia mater, whilst the cranium is lined by a firm, strong membrane, called the dura mater. Between these, there is another delicate membrane called the tunica arachnoides. The dura ma- ter, by its duplications, forms several processes and sinu- ses: the former, by descending between its divisions, serves to secure the brain in its position, and the latter acts as res- ervoirs for the venous blood, thus preventing the brain from being injured by any temporary impediment in its passage. The pia mater closely embraces the brain, and dips into its convolutions. ‘The brain consists of three parts—the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the medulla oblongata. The cerebrum is considerably the largest, and is divided into two hemispheres, each of which corresponds with its: fellow. On cutting into the cerebrum, we find that it consists of two portions—the medullary, or white, and the grey, or costical part. The latter is mostly situated towards the centre, but both appear to run into each other. Within the hemispheres, there appear to be various cavities, canals, and membranes, which, in this work, it is unnecessary to describe. . The cerebellum, or little brain, is situated behind the cer- ebrum, than which itis considerably smaller. It appears to consist of medullary and costical subbstance mingled to- gether. The medulla oblongata, the smallest division, is situated at the base of the brain. It is medullary in its structure, and gives origin to the greater part of the cranial nerves. It is by far the most sensible part of the brain; for whilst ' STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 127 portions of the cerebrum have been cut away, in some ani- | mals, without giving any apparent pain, the least pressure on the medulla is productive of injury or death. The brain is largely supplied, by means of the carotid arteries, with blood, which is returned to the heart by the jugular veins. ~The spinal marrow may be considered as the continua- tion of the brain, running from the medulla oblongata, throughout the spinal canal, to the tail. It is enveloped by the same membranes as the brain, and continues to the sa- crum, where it ends in several nervous cords. Its form is cylindrical, and it has been found to consist of six bands, in the centre of which there is a sort of canal. The nerves arising from the brain and spinal cord, in sheep, are forty pair, ten of which proceed from the brain, and the remain- der from the cord, and are, therefore, called the spinal nerves. ‘These forty pair of nerves include all the nerves of sensation and motion. On examining a nerve, we find that it consists of a vast number of white filaments, each having its particular cov- ering, and yet bound together and invested by membrane. —(Spooner.) There are certain cavities in the brain which particularly deserve notice. They are called ventricles, and are four in number. They are very irregularly shaped cavities, sit- uated in the medullery portion of the brain; and their sur- faces are kept constantly moistened with a fluid, which sometimes collecis in too great quantities, and forms one species of the disease called sturdy.—( McKenzie.) 128 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. td CHAPTER XVIII. ORGANS OF MASTICATION. barbie Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. . Fig. 5. ‘‘ Sheep have no teeth in the upper jaw, but the bars or ridges of the palate thicken, as they approach the fore part of the mouth; there, also, the dense, fibrous, elastic mat- ter, of which they are constituted, becomes condensed, and forms a cushion or bed, that covers the converse extremity of the upper jaw, and occupies the place of the upper inci- sor, or cutting-teeth, and partially discharges their func- tions. The herbage is firmly held between the front teeth in the lower jaw and this pad, and thus partly bitten and partly torn off. The rolling motion of the head is proof of this fact. The teeth of the sheep are the same in number as in the mouth of the ox. ‘There are eight incisor, or cut- ting-teeth, in the fore part of the lower jaw, and six molar teeth in each jaw above and below, and on either side.— The incisors are more admirably adapted for grazing than in the ox. The sheep bites closer and gathers nourish- ment where the ox would be unable to crop a single blade. The sheep, by his close bite, not only loosens the roots of the grass, and disposes them to spread, but by cut- ting off the short suckers and sproutings—a wise provision of Nature—causes the plant to throw out fresh, and more numerous and stronger ones, and thus impreves and increa- ses the value of thecrop. Nothing will more expeditiously, ’ STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 129 or more effectually make a thick permanent pasture, than its being occasionally and closely eaten down by sheep. In order to enable the sheep to bite thus close, the upper lip is deeply divided, and free from hair about the centre of it. The part of the tooth above the gum is not only, as in other animals, covered with enamel, to enable it to bear and to preserve a sharpened edge, but the enamel, on the upper part, rises from the bone of the tooth nearly a quar- ter of an inch, and presenting a convex surface outward, and a concave within, forms a little scoop, or gouge, of wonderful execution. ‘‘ The mouth of the lamb newly dropped is either with- out incisor teeth, or it hastwo. The teeth rapidly succeed to each other, and before the animal is a month old, it has the whole of the eight. They continue to grow with its growth until it is about fourteen or sixteen months old. In the accompanying cut, fig. 1, will give a fair representation of the mouth of a sheep at this age. Then, with the same previous process of diminution as in cattle, or carried to a still greater degree, the two central teeth are shed, and are replaced by new ones, which attain their full growth when the sheep are two years old, Fig. 2 gives a delineation of the mouth at that age. Between two and three years old, the next two incisors are shed; and when the sheep is actually three years old, the four central teeth are fully grown (see fig. 3.); at four years old, it has six teeth fully grown (see fig. 4.); and at five years old,,all the teeth are perfectly developed (see fig. 5.). In examining a flock of sheep, however, there will often be very considerable difference, in the teeth of the hogs, or one shears; in some measure to be accounted for by a dif- ference in the time of lambing, and, likewise, by the’gen- eral health and vigor of the animal. There will also be a material difference in different flocks, attributable to the good or bad keep which they have had. Those fed on good land, or otherwise well kept, will take the start of oth- ers that have been half starved, and renew their teeth some months sooner than these. There are, however, irregular- ities in the times of renewing the teeth, not to be accounted for by either of these circumstances ; in fact, not to be ac- 130 i STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. counted for by any known circumstance relating to the breed or the keep of the sheep. - The want of improvement in sheep, which is occasion- "ally observed, and which cannot be accounted for by any deficiency or change of food, may sometimes be justly ate tributed to the tenderness of the mouth, when the perma- nent teeth are protruding through the gums. After the permanent teeth have all appeared and are ful- ly grown, there is no criterion as to the age of the sheep. In most cases the teeth remain sound for one or two years, and then, either on account of the hard work in which they have been employed, or from the natural effect of age, they begin to loosen and fall out; or, by reason of their nat- ural slenderness, they are raked off. Causes, of which the farmer is utterly ignorant, or over which he has-no con- trol, will sometimes hasten the loss of teeth. One thing, however, is certain—that close feeding, causing additional exercise of the teeth, does wear them down; and that the sheep of the farmers, who stock unusually and unreasona- bly hard, lose their teeth much sooner than others do.— (Youatt.) The sides of the mouth are formed by the cheeks, which are composed of skin and membrane sufficiently loose to admit the limited motion of the jaws. They are connected with the powerful massiter muscles, which form the great- er part of the bulk of the face, and principally occasion the grinding motion of the jaws. In the skull, we find the low- er jaw considerably narrower than the upper; but in the living animal this does not appear, the space being occupied by the masseter muscles. The mouth is principally filled with the tongue, which is muscular in its structure, and very flexible, being, indeed, the principal agent in swallowing. It possesses both the power of feeling and tasting, and is covered by a mucus membrane, like that of all other parts of the mouth. The mouth is abundantly supplied with a watery fluid, called saliva, particularly during mastication, when it is secreted in considerable quantities. This fluid is principaliy secreted by three pair of glands, the largest of which are the parotid, situated at the root of each ear; the submavillary, situated under the jaws; and the sublingual, situated under the tongue. Besides these, - STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 131 are other, small glands vivitar with the cheek and_ bot- tom of the mouth. There is, hus, from these various sources, an abundant supply. of saliva, more copious than most animals possess, and which is rendered necessary by the hard and woody nature of the food consumed in a natural state: and it has been found that a large supply passes into the stomach, in- dependent of mastication, and is there required for sofien- ing and macerating the dry food; for, when deprived) ‘this. supply. by an experiment, it ‘ding been found that AM eopronia, of the paunch remained dry.—(Spooner.) SECTION XIX. “ORGANS OF DIGESTION. The digestive organs of the sheep, like those of gram- inivorous animals in general, have a far more difficult and elaborate office to perform than those of carnivorous ani- mals. To meet these peculiarities, the digestive organs are much more spacious and complicated than those of the carnivora: means are afforded for detaining the food until the nutriment can be properly extracted, and a larger. anount of chemical and vital force is employed. The natural food of the sheep is embraced by the apposi- tion of the incisor teeth of the under jaw, and the cartila- . ginous pad on the upper jaw, and is torn off by the motion of the head. The food being moderately chewed by the molar teeth, or grinders, to which it is conveyed by the’ tongue, is, by the same organ, carried to the back of the mouth, and being softened by ihe saliva, and thereby mix- ed with atmospheric air, enters a fleshy bag called the pharyne, or gullet. ' This pharynx is lined by the same membrane as the mouth, and is surrounded by, and, in fact, composed of va- rious Hiidbhes. which contracting force the food forwards into’a long tube called the “@sophacus, which leads to the stomach. The pharynz is situated immediately above the laryne or cartilaginous box which forms the entrance to the 132 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. ‘windpipe, and the food in entering the gullet passes over the entrance to the larynx, which it is prevented from en- ering by a triangular lid termed epiglotiis, which in the act of swallowing shuts down on the larynx, but otherwise leaves it open for the purpose of respiration. ‘The food af- ter leaving the gullet enters the esophagus, a very long tube lined internally by a white insensible membrane, and externally by muscular coats, which, by contracting, force the food onwards to the stomach. The zesophagus passes down the neck towards its left side and somewhat above the windpipe, with which it enters the chest between the two first ribs; it then takes an upward or ascending course through the cavity of the chest over the base of the heart, passes the midriff or diaphragm, and then descending soon afterwards reaching the stomachs. On entering the chest it somewhat diminishes in size, but again expands in the abdomen. It does not actually terminate in either of the stomachs, but in what is called the e@sophagean canal, which is about four inches and a half in extent, and is form- ed above by a continuation of the zesophagus, and below by a sort of muscular pi!lars—duplications of the upper por- tions of the first and second stomachs. ‘Thus the zsopha- gean canal is a sort of lobby or passage having entrances to the different stomachs, and which, with the exception of the second and fourth, are the only entrances these stom- achs possess. By the annexed cutit will be seen that the food duct commences at the entrance to the rumen, and for the space of three inches its floor consists of muscular pillars or lips, formed by the upper part of the second stomach, the entrance to which is between these lips. The pillars then continue within the cavity of the third stomach for the space of an inch and a half to the entrance of the fourth stomach, the third being principally situated above, form- ing the roof of the esophagean canal. ‘The entrance, how- aver, to the third commences before the opening into the second stomach ceases. The entrance to the fourth stom- ach is two inches and a haif in extent, and is formed by duplications of the mucous and muscular coats of this vis- cus, which meet so as to close the entrance when either the will of the animal or the necessity of nature requires. The usual course of the food is into the rumen or first stomach, whose entrance is close to the termination of the Sen OF THE SHEEP. 133 zsophagus and the entrance of the canal. This stomach is of enormous extent, occupying, indeed, when full, near- ly three-fourths of the abdomen. It lies towards the left side extending to the flank, and by a sort of muscular band it iiperinlly Giyened into two, pepeipal compartments. It pe a feat contents i the ‘ahdaniet: and internally by an insensible ‘membrane, called the cuticular, between which. there are two other coats—the mucous, which se- eretes the fluid found in the stomach, and external to this the muscular coat, which is formed of iwo orders | ‘of fibres running in opposite directions. Its interior aspect presents a nuhaber of pouches or compartments, which are formed by muscular bands thrown across from one part to another ; and the surface presents an innumerable number of pa- pillee or eminences, not sharp, but blunt-pointed, which are formed by the mucous coat and merely covered by the cu- ticular. These papillz are coarser in the lower compart- ment of the viscus than in the upper. We have said the rumen consists of wo compartments, but with greater pro- priety it may be stated that there are three, a smallar one | being situated immediately below the termination of the esophagus and adjoining the second stomach. The use of these partial divisions is very evident. They relieve one portion of the stomach from sustaining the whole of the weight of the food, and they afford a sort of steps or rest- ing- places for the food that has undergone maceration, the upper and smaller compartment being that into which the food is raised just previous to being ruminated. The ru- men is partly attached to the second stomach, but only communicates with it Heeeee the common oPRne into the esophagean canal. The second stomach is. called the eooutene its size is considerably less than the rumen, but it possesses much strength in its coats, and its muscular fibres are more devel- oped. It is globular i in shape and somewhat larger than the maniplus, and is familiar to us in tripe, not only from its cellular structure, but from its being thicker than the oth- ers. [ts internal aspect is very singular, having a vast number, indeed several hundred, of shallow cells somalia like a inonsyeomb. These cells are much smaller at the part of the viscus nearest the entrance, and gradually in- 134 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. » INTERNAL VIEW OF THE STOMACHS. STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 135 DESCRIPTION OF THE CUT. A. The lower part of the esophagus, showing its external coat. B. Its internal coat at its termination. ‘ear rs compartment of the rumen, or first stomach, showing its in- aa n J coat. r se museuler band d which divides the lower from.the upper we FE. ma igtdcath band: GG. The external coat of the rumen. H. The: entrance tothe rumen cut open, and its opposite part reflected back, so as to exhibit an internal view of the second stomach. I. The external coat of the reticulum, « or second stomach. JJ JJ. The muscular pillars forming the floor of the e@sophagean canal when close, but now spread open to show the second stomach. K K. An internal view of the retic se. or second stomach, showing its peculiar honeycomb structure. LL. The continuation of the esophagean canal at the entrance to the third stomach. M M. An internal view of the maniplus, or third stomach; showing its pe- culiar folds or plaits. NN. The fleshy lips, which act as valves to guard the entrance between them to the fourth stomach. O. The termination of the esophagean canal. P P. The external coatof the abomasum, or fourth stomach. Q@ Q. The internal coat of the abomasum, or fourth stomach. Both these coats are displayed by slitting open the stomach and then pinning the duplications together, at its upper part. RR. The valve formed by puckerings of the internal coat, and Brenig the entrance into the small intestines. . S. The internal coat of te small intestines. yeni * ; 4 i crease in size from this point. The. sides of these cells consist of ridges formed by the mucous and cuticular coats, and ‘smaller ridges are also observed running across within the cells. Most of them are pentagonal, but many have six sides, and on their surface we observe an immense number of sharp-pointed papillae much smaller in size though sharper than those of the rumen, and which secrete a mucous fluid. ‘This viscus has the same coats as the ru- mien, but the muscular coat has two layers of strong fibres arranged both transversely and longitudinally. The open- ing into this stomach is of some extent compared to its size ; the duplications or lips which form it are indeed the floor of the greater portion of the zsophagean canal. Though in the ordinary state the roof or upper part of the reticu- lum is the floor of the zsophagean canal, yetif air is pump- ed into the cesophagus so as to distend the stomachs, the situation of the reticulum will become reversed, rising up , 136 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. towards the esophagus; and thus if this viscus is distended in hoove, as from its free communication with the rumen it probably is, it must press upon the diaphragm with very considerable force, greater in proportion even that the ru- men itself. The contents of this stomach are more nici than those of the others. Somewhat before the end of the entrance of the ed: the canal terminates, as it were, in the third stomach, the maniplus or manifolds, so called from its curious internal structure, which is formed by a great number of plaits or folds arranged longitudinally in a direction from the en- trance of the stomach; so that although it is not large, ex- ternally not exceeding the reticulum, its internal surface is increased in more thana tenfold degree. These plaits are very curiously arranged, being in ‘the form of seven or eight groups of six leaves, each leaf dissimilar in length, the longest extending almost from the upper to the lower part of the stomach. ‘These leaves are studded with nu- merous small papillee, much harder than those of the reti- culum, and some on the edge of the plaits of the shape of a bent cone, thus ee / , the point directed towards the en- trance. It has been found in certain cows that would nev- er retain their food, but were continually scouring, that these plaits were unusually short. The maniplus has but one opening, but this opening is in direct communication with both the canal and the fourth stomach, as may be seen in the sketch, page 134. The plaits are studded with numerous minute papille, some- what similar to those found in the reticulum. The mani- plus possesses four coats like the others, and its external appearance is globular. Its contents are generally found of a much harder consistence than those of the other stom- achs. The stomach, when full, is found above the wsophagean canal, forming, indeed, a portion of its roof, and its longest leaves fall down, as it were, almost into that canal. The abomasum, as the fourth stomach is called, is, in fact, the true stomach, being that which secretes the gas- tric juice by which the food is converted into chyme. It is ‘ STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 137 this peculiar acid which gives it the power of coagulating milk, and in calves itis particularly employed for this pur- pose in the manufacture of cheese, under the term rennet. _ Externally this orgaif is somewhat conical in shape, its apex being the part which joins the intestines. It possesses three coats, like the other stomachs; but its internal sur- face is very different, being smooth and shining, and of a pale red color. Its mucous membrane is, indeed, very vas- cular, and this secretes the gasiric juice. ‘The internal sur- face is greatly increased, and exceeds the external, by be- ing in the form of plaits, arranged longitudinally, but very different from those found in the maniplus. ‘The entrance to this stomach (its cardiac opening) is close’to the en- trance to the maniplus; it is arranged somewhat in a cres- centic form, and is situated at one extremity of the base, while the pyloric opening, leading into the small intestines, is, as before observed, situated at the avex. Having thus described the situation and appearance of the stomachs, an external view of which may be seen at page 142, we must return to the consideration of the course of the food through them. 3 _ The situation, the structure, and the size of the rumen point it out as the first and general receptacle for the food, which receives in the mouth only sufficient mastication to enable the animal to swallow it. It is then received by the rumen, and morsel after morsel is taken until this viscus is comparatively full. The animal then feels some repletion, and rumination usually takes place, ihe animal generally preferring a recumbent position. It has been shown, how ever, that it is not the food just taken, but that which has been swallowed some twelve or sixteen hours previously, that undergoes the ruminating process. ‘The food, indeed, is turned and shifted about the stomach by its muscular ac- tion, and well mixed with the fluid secreied by its internal surface: it, of course, enters at first the superior compart- ment, from which it passes tothe inferior, and again enters the former division ere rumination takes place. A tolera- bly full stomach is necessary for the act; for it has been found in sheep that had, fasted for several days that a toler- able portion of food still remained in the rumen. ‘Before rumination can take place itis evident that the food must rise to the upper part of the viscus and enter the wsopha- ‘ 138 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. gean canal. What, then, is its direction? The liquid por- tion passes on in the course of the canal; but it is contend- ed by some physiologists that the second stomach, the reti- culum, is the active agent in rumination, and that the food enters it previous to its being returned to the mouth, and they are supported in this opinion by the muscular strength possessed by this viscus. In opposition to this opinion it may be urged that it requires but little more force to raise the food to the root of the esophagus than to the entrance of the reticulum, and also, that the contents of the second stomach are of a more fluid nature than those of the first. It is not to be supposed that all the food taken is again ru- minated; it is only the hard indigestible portion that un- dergoes the process. Rumination is assisted by the pres- sure of the abdominal muscles and the diaphragm, and the Jarger and more distended the stomachs the more likely they are to receive assistance from these aids. Keeping these facts in view. we are inclined to believe that both the first and second stomach may have equal powerlin the process of rumination. In accordance with this idea we must suppose that a mass of food is raised from the rumen into the esophagean canal, that the hardest and driest por- tion is selected by the root of the esophagus, and that the other part passes onwards, and whilst some portion may reach the third, the great part will fall, as it were, through the trap-door into the second stomach, there to undergo a further macerating or digesting process. When this viscus is moderately full it will contract on its contents, and first squeeze out the fluid portion, which will, of course, pass onwards into the third and fourth stomachs, whilst the solid part will be embraced by the esophagus and returned to the mouth. Iu is evident that the functions of the esophagus are much more onerous than in non-ruminating animals, and accordingly it is furnished with more muscular power; the lower portion particularly is surrounded with spiral mus- cles, by which the selected pellet is first sent upwards. [tis not unlikely that some portion of the food may be submitted two or more times to the process of rumination. It is probable that the most liquid portion of the food at once enters the fourth stomach, and that of a harder na- ture the maniplus. The singular construction of this vis- STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 139 cus evidently shows that it must effect an important office, ‘and it has been found that in animals which through lite have never thriven well, notwithstanding that they have consumed a larger quantity of food than other beasts, the maniplus has been imperfectly formed, the plaits being short so as to afford considerably less surface than usual.— The use of this stomach, therefore, is to detain the food, to press it between the folds, and to soften it by the secretion afforded by its extensive surface, and thus to prepare it for the action of the gastric juice in the fourth stomach, to which organ we now trace it. In the young animal living entirely on its mother’s milk, the fourth is the only stomach employed; it is, therefore, then fully developed, whilst the others are small and im- perfectly formed. The milk contains the elements of nu- irition in a much more perfect state than it exists in vege- table food. It requires but a little separation in order to fit it for nutrition. As the young animal gradually becomes inured to other food, the other stomachs become more de- veloped. By the time the food reaches the abomasum it is ina macerated pulpy state, and fit to be exposed to the pow- erful solvent action of the gastric juice. This fluid is se- ~ereted in abundance by the mucous coat of the fourth sto- mach. Itis a peculiar fluid, acid in its nature, and so pow- erful a solvent that it has been known after death to dis- solve a portion of the coats of the stomach itself. It has in its composition muriatic acid, and its action on the food is of a chemical nature, converting it into chyme and render- ing it into a fit state for the other digestive processes. The food being thus dissolved passes through the pyloric open- » ing into the small intestines; this orifice has a valve-like construction (see p. 134), admitting the food to pass in one direction only, and then not until it has been sufficiently acted on by ths gastric juice. The small intestines,are of considerable leagth in the sheep, being upwards of sixty feet. In the human subject it is customary to divide them into three portions, and they are called the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum.— These distinctions are arbitrary even in man, but still more so in the sheep, and, in fact, cannot be properly applied.— The whole length of the intestinal tube of the sheep, from 140 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. the stomach to the rectum, is upward of 90 feet.* The first portion of these intestines (the duodenum in man) differs much from the rest. Itlies comparatively loose, and on open- ing it we observe a yellow substance, which is, in fact, the bile, which enters by a ductor very small tubesome eighteen inches from the stomach, and at nearly the same place an- other fluid flows in from the pancreas or sweetbread. These fluids, it may be supposed, exercise an important office in the process of digestion, and the early portion of the small guts is the situation where the admixture takes place. The diver is a bulky organ whose size, general appear- ance, and shape must be familiar to most people. Its weight in sheep is about one-fiftieth that of the carcase, and its specific gravity is somewhat greater than water. It is partially separated into divisions or lobes, and is princi- pally situated towards the right side. Its office is to separ- ate ihe bile from the venous blood—that which has circu- jated through a great portion of the body and is on its way to the lungs to be re- purified. It is called a gland, and is, in fact, a fine sieve or filter, having the power of separating a peculiar substance from the blood and no other. it is supplied with arterial blood for its own nourishment, but by means of a large vein called the vena porta it is furnished with venous blood for the exercise of its functions. The bile being thus separated, is then conveyed into a reservoir attached to the liver and called the gall-bladder, from which the gall-duct rises, and enters ihe intestine about eighteen inches from the stomach. Ruminating animals, in common with man and the carnivora, are furnished with a gall-bladder, whilst horses and the other solid ungulous animals do not possess them; the reason being that in the latter the digestive process is continually going on, and therefore a constant supply of bile is essential, while in the former the food is either taken in distinct meals, as in man and the carnivora, or otherwise the ruminating process is carried on and renewed at different periods, as in sheep and cattle—in either case requiring large and copious supplies of bile to complete the process of digestion. It must be ey- ident from the existence of the gall-bladder in some species of animals and its absence in others that the bile must per- {orm an important part in the digestive process. One of ils * Blacklock. STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 141. functions is to neutralize the acidity which the food or chyme has acquired in the stomach by means of the gastric juice, and thus prepare it for the separation of the chyle which may be seen on the surface of the food. For this purpose it is largely supplied with an alkaline fluid, which unites chemically with the acid of thechyme. The quan- tity of bile secreted by the sheep in 24 hours is very con- siderable, probably from 3 lbs. to 5 lbs.; but we are not to suppose that its sole use is that adove stated, for it has been © proved that the bile does not pass away with the excre- ments, but is again taken into the system to perform an im- portant office to be noticed when we speak of the circula- tion. Thus the liver separates that which would be detri- mental to the blood, and it supplies what is wanted for di- gestion as well as for another important process in respira- tion. Besides the bile the duodenum receives a copious sup- ply of fluid of a thin watery nature from the pancreas.— This fluid closely resembles the saliva, and its principal use appears to be to liquify the contents of the intestines. ‘The remaining part of the small intestines understood under the terms ze7unum and ileum are confined to, and connected with, the spine by means of a thin transparent membrane called the mesentery, which not only supports the intestines, but prevents their entanglement, and serves as the vehicle by means of which the arteries, veins, nerves, and absorbent vessels are transmitted to and from the bow- els. Amongst these there are some very minute, though’ very numerous vessels called the lacteals, whose office it is to convey the chyle, a white milky liquid resembling albu- men, from the intestines to a duct termed the thoracic, which passes along the spine and terminates in a large vein just previous to its arrival at the heart. The composition of the chyme is very similar to the blood, differing from it in little more than the absence of its coloring principles. ‘The lacteals, of course, open into the inner coat of the intestines, and the greater portion of the chyle is taken from the food in the small intestines and in the earliest portion of them in the greatest degree. The small intestines are remarkably long in the sheep, exceed- ing, indeed, sixty feet, and this great length renders them capable of containing much more than the large guts. 142 : ‘STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. EXTERNAL VIEW OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES Spread apart and arranged according to the following scale, 80 a8 to : show their actual and relative size. . 1 foot. STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 143 DESCRIPTION bere THE CUT. A A. The esophagus. B BBB. The rumen, or first stomach, showing its compartments. C. The reticulum, or second stomach. ’ D. The maniplus, or third stomach. D. The abomasum, or fourth or true stomach. F. The commencement of the small intestines at the pyloric orifice of the ~ stomach. G. ae situation where the biliary duct empties its contents into the duo- denum. H HH. The small intestines freed from the mesentery, and arranged evenly, so as to show their length. I. The terniination of the small’ and beginning of the large intestines, guarded by a valve. J i The colon, or first large intestine. K. ‘The blind extremity of the colon, by some termed the cecum. bos he rectum, or straight gut. In man, the large intestines are distinguished as the cecum, the colon, and the rectum; in the horse, these di-. visions likewise obtain, and with much more propriety than the artificial distinctions of the small guts. The cecum and the colon in the horse commence almost close to each other, but the former is a blind gut, having but one en- trance. The sheep, however, can scarcely be said to pos- sess a cecum, unless we term the blind portion of the co- lon by that name; for the fact is, the small intestines ter- ‘minate in the larse ata right angle with them (see I, in p. 142), and the blind portion extends about a foot in one di- rection from this angle and maintains its size for the space of iwo feet. The’ termination of the small intestines in the large de- serves particular notice. The internal. membrane of the former projects into the latter so as to form a sort of valve, which, admitting the feeces to pass forwards, effectually prevents their passing backwards, and thus, too, prevents the effects of clysters operating beyond the large intestines. The diameter of the colon is about treble that of the small intestines, but this increased size only reaches the extent of three feet, when the intestine gradually diminishes to about the size of the small guts, and $0 continues for about nine feet, when it enlarges about a foot prior to its termi- nation... This latter portion: may be termed the rectum without impropriety. Soon after the large intestines be- come narrow, the feces gradually become hard, and ac- 144 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. quire the form of small black balls, in which state they are dropped. . . The chyle, we have observed, is principally absorbed from that portion of the small intestines termed the ileum : there is little or none remaining by the time the feces reach the large intestines, but the fluid absorbed from these guts is principally of a watery nature. SECTION XX. THE URINARY AND GENERATIVE ORGANS. The urine is separated from the arterial blood by means of the kidneys, which are two large glands shaped like a bean, situated within the abdomen, but attached firmly to the loins. These glands are largely supplied with blood by important arteries; and the urine being separated as by 4 filter enters two long white ducts termed the ureters, one of which rises from the pelvis or central notch of each kid- ney, and passes on to the bladder, whose coats are pierced in an oblique direction (which, forming a sort of valve, prevents the urine returning) not very far from its extrem- ity or fundus.* The bladder is situated partly in the pelvis and partly in the abdomen, the latter part being comparatively free, whilst the former is closelv attached to the pelvis. The shape of the bladder is too well known to need description. It becomes smaller as it approaches its posterior part, where it contracts and forms the neck just opening into a canal *The urine of the sheep is much less copious than that of the cow, and, though less abounding in substances containing nitrogen, possesses a larger proportion of salts. The following is an analysis of 100-000 parts by weight :— Wight clases bin’e saie el’ alain wis epala alee ores o clkinl de olaieichc ope ataeeae ne ntanem Urea, along with some albumen and coloring matter ---- 2:800 Salts of potash, soda, lime, and magnesia, with traces ! of silica, alumina, iron, and manganese --------+.----- 1-200 io ‘ 100-000 This gives 4 per cent. more water than the urine of cows, than which it is STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 14% called the urethra. The bladder, although apparently so’ thin, yet has three coats, the middle one of which is mus- cular and possesses the power of contracting so as to expel the whole of its contents when required, and the opening is usually kept closed by a sphincter or circular muscle, which relaxes when thé bladder is being emptied. The urethra in the ewe is very short, a few inches only in length, and it is guarded by muscles which are employed both in expelling the urine and in the act of procreation. In the ram the urethra is of considerably greater length, extending the whole length of the penis ; it forms an acute angle at the perineum, just under the anus. The penis isa muscular organ, having a very curious structure, which en- ables it to receive at times a considerably increased quan- tity of blood, which causes the erection of the organ and fits it for the purpose of generation. Its usual state, howev- er, is flaccid, when its use is confined to the ejection of the ube: ._ The vagina and uterus, or womb or lamb-bag, lies’ be- tween the rectum above and the bladder below, and though much within the pelvis in their ordinary state, yet when’ pregnant they rise into the abdomen to agreat extent. The vagina, which commences a few inches within the body, ig a cylindrical cavity several inches in length, and opens in- to the uterus by a round opening called the mouth of the womb, which is naturally open, but becomes closed after © impregnation. Its shape corresponds with the extremity of the penis, and these parts come in contact in the act of coi-' tion. The womb consists of a body and two branches or horns. It has the same number of coats as the bladder, but they are much stouter and more so than those of the vagina. Attached tothe extremity of each horn by amem- branous substance are two red bodies called the ovaries, each of which consists of a number of ova or eggs, the germs of the offspring, one of which on being impregnated escapes into the uterus, and thus, in the course of time, be- less fertalizing to the soil, if the latter is properly prepared; but the dung of sheep is much more nutritious than that of cows, and the urine likewise, when dropped on pasture land, is more serviceable, in consequence of the small quantity deposited at a time, and the less proportion of caustic am- monia contained, so that it does not render the herbage rank, as is the well-known effect of the fresh urine from cows, 146 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. comes a young animal; sometimes, indeed, two or even tree ova may be impregnated, and twins or triplets are pro- duced. . The testicles, or stones, as they are commonly termed, are two oval glands situated in the scrotum, a sort of bag formed by the skin and two membranes within, which are so disposed as to form two separate cavities, each contain- ing a testicle. ‘The testicles are first formed in the abdo- men of the fetus, aud each possesses a covering closely at- tached to the gland. They escape from the abdomen through the openings called the abdominal rings and take with them portions of the peritoneum, the membrane which lines the abdomen and its contents; thus it is that they possess two coats besides the skin. The abdominal rings remain open afterwards, contrary to what takes place in the human subject, so that a fluid can be ejected from the sero- tum into the abdomen, and thus it is that sometimes after the operation of castration inflammation takes place and spreads upwards into the belly and destroys the lamb. In those cases where portions of the intestines are found in the scrotum they escape from the abdomen, together with the testicle, and the case is denominated congenital hernia. The testicles are also each connected with the belly by means of the spermatic cord, which consists of a long slen- der muscle, nerves, veins, arteries, and a strong hollow tube called the spermatic duct. It is the latter which con- veys the semimal fiuid secreted by the singular structure of the testicle into the urethra, where, after mixing with other secretions from some small glands, itis forcibly eject- ed by ihe muscles of the penis in the act of copulation. The testicles are very large in proportion to the size of the animal, and. are in keeping with the powerful seminal powers possessed by the ram, and which enable him when fall grown te serve properly eighty ewes or upwards. , STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 147 SECTION XXI. THE CONTENTS OF THE CHEST. a abe ky ie The mouth in the horse is almost entirely devoted to the office of mastication. It is separated from the cavity of the _ nostrils by a loose fleshy membrane called velum palati, which is confined to the bone above by a semi-circular bor- “der, and falls downwards and backwards so as to prevent, in a natural state, any communication between the wind- pipe and the mouth. The sheep likewise possesses this velum palati, but it is not so long, and therefore permits this animal to respire through the mouth as well as the nos- trils. The importance of this construction is seen in the process of rumination, and also accounts for the horse vomiting through the nostrils, on those few occasions when this animal has been known to vomit. The nostrils, how- ever, are the principal channel through which the air pas- ses to and from the lungs. ‘Their entrance is compara- tively small and confined; the sheep does not require so extensive a supply of air as other animals that are called upon to make considerable exertions. The cavity of the nostrils is divided into two compartments by a thick carti- Jaginous substance, termed by anatomists the septum nasi, fixed to the nasal in front, and behind to the maxillary bones. This cartilage, as well as the other parts of the nostrils, is lined by a fine delicate membrane which se- cretes a mucus for its protection. It is indeed an inflam- mation of this membrane which constitutes a catarrh or cold, and an increase of its natural mucous secretion is the discharge from the nose which is visible in this disease.— This membrane is called the Schneiderian, from the name of its discoverer, as well as the piduitary, and it isendowed with a high degree of sensibility, which it derives from an abundant supply of sensitive nerves; it is also the principal seat of the sense of smelling, and for this purpose the nerve devoted to this function is spread out on its surface. This membrane also covers four curious bones, thin and gauze- like in their structure, and roiled up like a turban, so that they are termed turbinated, and attached to the chambers of the nostrils. These greatly extend the surface on which ¢ \ 148 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. the nerve of smell is diffused, and consequently increases the function of this sense, which sheep enjoy in a very high degree. ‘The nostrils at the upper and back part terminate in a cartilaginous box called the larynz, which is situated immediately beneath the pharynx or food-bag, so that food, in passing into the latter, traverses the entrance of the for- mer, which, however, it is prevented from entering by a triangular lid called the epig/ottis : this lid in its usual state is elevated from the glottis or entrance of the larynx, so as to admit the free entrance and exit of the air, but the pas- sage of food forces it down so as to close the entrance of the windpipe. The larynx is formed by four separate cartila- ges besides the epiglottis just spoken of. One is shaped like a shield, and forms the front of the larynx and great portion of its sides. Another below this is circular, and two other smaller ones, shaped like an ewer, forms the rims on which the epiglottis shuts down. The larynx is lined throughout by a mucous membrane, which is endowed with a high degree of sensibility, particularly at its upper por- tion; and thus when any foreign body accidentally enters, or the mucus is in undue quantity, it excites the membrane, and coughing is produced, by which it is expelled. The windpipe consists of a number of cartilaginous rings con- nected together by elastic membrane so as to form a con- tinuous tube passing down the front part of the neck, and entering the chest between the two first ribs. The rings are not completely cartilaginous, but the circle is made up of membrane, the membranous part being on the upper por- tion of the tube. ‘This structure permits the windpipe to be bent in any direction or compressed without injury, its elas- ticity quickly restoring it to its former shape, or position. The windpipe, on entering the chest, divides into two por- tions, going to each division. of the lungs; and these sub- divide into others, which again ramify into numerous small — tubes, which ultimately terminate in very minute air-cells. The lungs, which receive these terminations, form by far the greater portion of the contents of the chest, which, how- ever, it will be proper to describe first. - | The chest of the sheep, in common with most quadru- peds, is unlike that of the human body, becoming narrow towards the lower part and terminating like the keel of a ship; a form more favorable to the flexion and extension STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 149 of the fore-legs, as well as of the shoulder-blades, than any other. This keel-like form is, however, much less devel- oped in the sheep than in the horse and many other quad- rupeds. ~The upper part of the chest is formed by the spine or back-bone, the sides by the ribs, and the lower and front. part by the sternum or breast-bone.. The number of ribs varies in different animals; in man there are twelve, in the horse eighteen, but in the sheep there are only thir- teen pair. Each rib possesses two heads or protuberances, each of which is connected by a joint with two vertebre or bones of the back, and to the breast-bone by means of car- tilage. The sternum or breast-bone, in young animals, is chiefly cartilaginous, and may be separated into eight pie- ces; it afterwards becomes divisible into four only, and with age is consolidated into one. The ribs are exté rnally convex, and are divided into the true and false; the former ‘ being situated anterior to the others, and immediaiely con- - nected with the sternum, whilst the latter are impianted in- to each other at their cartilaginous extremities, and are on- ly connected with the breast-bone by means of the true ribs. Their connexion with the spine, by means of a double joint, affords to the ribs a motion backwards and forwards, -by which means the cavity of the chest is enlarged or di- minished. This motion, however, is considerably less in quadrupeds than in man, for in the latter the rising and fall- ing of the chest is seen in common respiration, “whilst in the former it is not perceived, unless the ‘breathing be em- barrassed. The ribs are connected together by fleshy sub- stance, termed the interested muscles, which are disposed — in an oblique course, by which means their length consid- erably exceeds that of the space between one rib and anoth- er, so that a contraction of one-third their length will bring. the ribs together, which. could not be the case if the mus- cles took the shortest course from one rib to another. The chest is separated from the abdomen or belly by a very singular and important muscle, called the diaphragm or midriff, which is conyex towards the chest when in a state of rest. ‘This muscle is shaped somewhat like a fan, and is attached to the inferior extremities of the ribs and the spine, by which means its position is rendered oblique, its developments more extended, and its action greater than it would otherwise have been. The diaphragm, unlike ey- 150 | STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. ery other.muscle, is fleshy at its circumference and tendin- ous at its centre. The reason of this peculiar construction may be thus explained :—the central part of the diaphragm is pierced with two holes, for the passage of the esophagus (the tube which conveys food to the stomach) and the vein which conveys the blood to the liver for the secretion of bile. Now, if these important vessels were surrounded with muscular substance, they would be forcibly compressed ev- ery time the diaphragm contracted, and would in conse- quence be liable to considerable injury ; but being sur- rounded with tendinous substance, which possesses no such power of contraction, all danger of compression is at once removed, without any sacrifice of strength or power in the muscle. The diaphragm, when in a quiescent state, is con- vex towards the chest, ‘and when in action it becomes flat, thus enlarging the cavity of the chest. The thorax is everywhere lined internally by a thin se- rous membrane, which secretes a fluid by which the surface of the cavity is lubricated, and its centents are enabled to slide upon each other without occasioning any friction or inconvenience. ‘nis membrane is called the pleura, and the portion which lines the chest itself is designated the pleura costalis, while that which covers the lungs is distin- guished as the pleura pulmonalis. This membrane di- vides the chest into three cavities, one on the right side containing the right lung, and the other two on the left side, the smaller of which contains the heart and the lar- ger the /eft lung. The right lung is thus the largest, and consists of three lobes or divisions, whilst the /eft lung only contains two.— These divisions of the chest do not communicate with each other, so that if one cavity is injured, or air is admitted in- 10, respiration can be cazried on in the other. | The dungs are light spongy bodies, their specific gravity being one-half less than water. They are composed of the air- cells before spoken of, the bronchial tubes connected with them, and a vast number of arteries, veins, and ab- sorbent vessels. the whole being connected together by cellular substance, or parenchyma as it is termed : thus con- stituted, the lungs are closely packed away in the cavity of the chest, filling every part of it, so as to leave no vacant space whatever. ‘STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 351 CHAPTER XXII. a ie THE BLOOD AND ITS CIRCULATION. The blood is by far the most important fluid in the ani- mal machine: it stimulates the heart to contract, secretes and nourishes the various organs of the body, and supplies it with heat; and although it is the source whence other fluids are obtained, it is yet a fluid sui generis, differing from all others. Soon after it is drawn from the body it coagulates, and then separates into two parts: the serum, a watery, colorless fluid, which floats on the top, and the ~ crassamentum, which appears of a firm consistency and a red color. The serum is a peculiar fluid, and may be sep- arated into its constituent principles. If subjected to a tem- perature of 150 deg.,a portion is converted into a sub- stance resembling albumen or the white of an egg; the oth- er portion remains fluid and is termed the serosity of the blood, and is that which constitutes the gravy in meat.— The serum contains several salts in solution, the most -abundant of which is soda. Thecrassamentum is likewise divisible into two portions: the cruor, which gives to the blood its purple hue; and the lymph, which is more solid in its nature, and is considered the basis of the coagulum. The latter can be separated from the former by washing, and likewise separates when the blood is a long time coag- ulating, in which ‘case the red portion of the blood, being the heaviest, falls to the bottom of the vessel, leaving the lymph on the top. The cruor, or red portion of the blood, has been found, on being submitted to a microscope, to be composed of globules, which are supposed to be each about the three or four thousandth part of an inch in diameter— It is therefore to these globules that the blood owes its red- ness: but the intensity of the color is subject to great vari- ation, being darker in animals that are poorly fed, or when exposed to carbonic acid, and becoming more florid in oth- ers that are well fed, and also when exposed to oxygen, or to atmospheric air. } The other part of the cressamentum, the lymph, which from its nature is also called the fibrine, is, in fact, the most important of all; for it is that which mainly supplies 152 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. the different parts of the body, particularly the muscles, with nutriment, and repairs wounds and fractures in an ex- traordinary manner. Unlike the cruor, it exists in the blood. of all animals, and in every part of the system.— Some animals have .entirely white blood, the cruor being absent; and in red-blooded animals there are some por- tions of the body, such as the white of the eye, where the vessels are so small that they do not admit the red globules. The specific gravity of blood rather exceeds that of water ; but venous blood is somewhat heavier than arterial. The temperature of the blood varies in different animals; in man it is 98 deg., but in the sheep 103 deg. It is rather warmer in the arteries than in the veins, and is liable to va- riation from disease, it having been found in severe inflam- mations to be raised 7 deg. in man, and in the cold fit of agues 4 deg. lower than ina state of Heald: Itis, however, but slightly raised or depressed by external temperature.— It was not till comparatively a recent date that the blood has been considered to possess vitality, which, however, is now generally acknowledged. ‘The vitality and fluidity of the blood are intimately associated; in fact, its coagulation, when removed from the body, constitutes its death. The time in which this is taking place is different in different animals, and is influenced by various circumstances. In strong animals, such as the horse, it is longer than in such weak animals as the sheep: in the former itis often as long as fifteen minutes; and if the body be in a state of plethora, the vital power being too highly developed, the death of the blood is much longer resisted. In these cases coagulation is delayed, and, in consequence, the red portion of the blood, being the heaviest, falls to the bottom of the vessel, and the fibrine remains at the top, constituting the buffy coat of inflammation. This separation, when arising from the above cause, takes place long before the serum is de- veloped. The coagulation of the blood has been endeav- ored to be accounted for without success; it was held by some that it was produced by the cessation of its motion; | but it has been found that if stirred in a vessel it will coag- ulate quicker than before. It was thought that exposure to the atmosphere was the cause; but it has been known 1o coagulate in a vacuum, and likewise in the body when a vein has been tied. It was next conceived that it was cau- STEUCTURE OF THE SHEEP: 153 sed by the low temperature to which it is exposed ; but it has been ascertained that it will coagulate quicker if the temperature is either higher or lower than natural; but if so low as to freeze the blood, it will not coagulate when af- terwardsthawed. ‘These experiments show that the blood is analagous to no other fluid, and that coagulation cannot be owing to physical causes, but can be explained only by reference to its vitality. si hbts Although the blood will coagulate in the body if obstruct- ed, yet there is a considerable difference between this state and its coagulation out of the body. In the former instance coagulation is longer occurring, new vessels are thrown in- to its substance, and it becomes organized. So, likewise, if a part be wounded, the divided vessels throw out clots of blood, which adhere to the surface of the wound; the red particles become absorbed, the glutinous fibrine organized, and the breach is thus gradually restored. Thus we see how important it is that the blood should possess its pecu- liar properties, its state of fluidity, and its disposition to co- agulate : if the former did not exist, the blood would be o0b- structed in the capillary vessels, and the vital functions could not be carried on; and if deprived of its coagulating property, no wounds could heal, or loss of substance be restored, but the most trifling cut would be the precursor of death. » The quantity of blood contained in the body is very dif- ficult.to ascertain; for if an animal be bled to death, a good deal will siill remain in the blood-vessels. It has, however, been estimated to be about one-fifth the weight of the body; and of this, about three-fourths are contained in the veins, and-one-fourth in the arteries. In young animals there is more than in old ones, asin them the body must not only be sustained, but increased in size. It is likewise more abundant in wild animals than in tame ones, and in propor- tion to the vigor of the animal. ‘The Heart is a strong hollow muscle, of a conical shape, with its base towards the spine, and its apex towards the left side, against which it is thrown at every contraction.— It is double, having a right and left side, the former con- taining black, and the latter red blood; the right side is the thinnest and weakest, being devoted 10 the lesser office of the circulation of the lungs; the left the stoutest, having to 154 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. govern the general circulation of the system. Each of these halves consists of two cavities, au auricle and a ven- tricle; the former, which derives its name from its resem-" blance to a dog’s ear, is considerably thinner than the lat- ter, and is situated towards the base. The heart is formed principally of fleshy fibres, connected together by cellular tissue, whence it obtains its elasticity ; and its surfaces, both internal and external, are lined by a transparent membrane. The blood is prevented from moving in a retrogade course by means of a number of valves: teed are three in the left ventricle, the edges of which are connected by tendi- nous cords (corde tendine) to small fleshy eminences on the inside of the ventricle, called carne columne, or fleshy columns. The tendinous cords are more numerous in the valves of the left ventricle than in the other paris, and be- ing supposed, with the valves, to resemble a mitre, are named mitral valves. There are valves also in the right ventricle for similar purposes, which are named tricuspid, or three poinied; also in the great artery, or aorta, and in the pulmonary artery, where, having no cords, and resem- bling, or supposed to do so, a half-moon, they are named semilunar. The heart is enclosed in a strong membranous bag, which is named pericardium, and this encloses also the trunks of the veins and arteries, as well as the appendages or auricles. The heart is a muscle, but unlike other muscles, it is in- voluntary, being altogether independent of the will, and is for this purpose supplied by a peculiar set of nerves. It is also furnished abundantly with blood for its support, by means of arteries which are the first that are given off; and these arteries are accompanied by veins for the return of the blood to its proper receptacle. THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD is one of the most important processes in the animal econ- omy: when suspended for a few moments, a state of insen- sibility is produced, and if this suspension continues a little longer, death quickly supervenes. The heart, we have seen, consists of two halves or sides, the right being devoted to the pulmonary circulation. The right auricle receives from a large vein, called the vena cava, the blood which has travelled throughout the system ; STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. ' 155 whence it passes, by the action of the heart, into the right ventricle, which by its contraction forces it injo a large ves- sel called the pulmonary artery. Thence the blood is sent into the lungs and ramifies throughout its minute vessels, where it is exposed to the action of the inspired air, and becomes, by means we shall afterwardsspeak of, reddened and purified. This process being accomplished, the blood passes into minute vessels, which, coalescing, become the pulmonary veins, and through them the blood again returns to the heart; thus finishing the circuit of the pulmonary circulation. The left auricle receives the purified blood from the pul- monary veins, forces it into the left ventricle, which, con- tracting, sends the vitai fluid into a large strong vessel call- ed the aorta, whence it enters smaller arteries, to be dis- tributed throughout the whole system. The remote divi- sions of the arteries are called the capillary vessels, and in them the blood, after having accomplished its purposes and conveyed nourishment to all parts, becomes black and im- pure, and in this state enters the capillary veins, which, conjoining and increasing in size and diminishing in num- ber, convey the blood again to the right auricle of the heart. Just before it enters the heart it receives a supply of chyle, which, as we have before observed, is extracted from the food, absorbed by certain vessels called lacteals, and con- veyed by a specific channel to the heart. Such, then, is the circle, or rather the double circle, which the blood takes, and by which so many important purposes are beau- tifully and correctly accomplished. The circulation of the blood is accomplished by the joint action of the heart and arteries, but principally by that of the former. The contraction of the ventricles and of the auricles immediately succeed each other: as the one ex- pands to receive the blood, the other contracts to force it forward, thus producing the unequal double action of the heart thas: we feel. These actions, however, of the differ- ent cavities could not be correctly performed unless some provision were made for preventing the blood, when the ventricles contract, from retrogading into the auricles.— This, however, is effected by means of a valve, situated between these cavities, which is formed by a duplication of the inner membrane of the heart, thickened by fibrous sub- 156 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. stance. The floating edges of this valve in the right ven- tricle present three points and in the left two; whence the former is called the tricuspid, and the latter the mitral.— The edges of each valve are joined by numerous short ten- dons to the fleshy columns of the heart; and whilst the blood is flowing into the ventricles the fleshy columns are passive; but when the ventricles act these columns also contract and draw the edges of the valve together, and thus close ithe cavity in that direction and prevent the blood re- entering the auricle. There are also valves that guard the entrance of the aorta and pulmonary arteries, but they are of a different description, being of less strength, because they are not called upon to oppose the powerful action of the ventricles. Accordingly we find that they consist of three folds of mem- brane, and are called, from their shape, semilunar. They are so situated that when the blood passes into the arteries they are thrown against their sides, and when the blood has passed they are thrown up so that their edges meet, and thus prevent the blood returning to the heart. In fishes the heart is single, and only serves the office of the pulmonary circulation, “that of the system being accom- plished by the arteries alone. In the sheep, though, the heart is the principal power, yet the arteries greatly assist. The aorta, which receives the blood from the left ventricle, divides into two branches, called the anterior and posterior aorta; the former conveying the blood to the head and neck, and the latter to the lower parts of the body. These arteries are strong and thick, and consist of three coats ; the outer, the strongest and thickest, gives the vessels the remarkable elasticity which they possess ; the middle coat is the fibrous, which seems 1o be a modification of muscu- cular power, and enables the arteries to contract on their contents; the third coat is the serous, which lubricates the - interior of the vessel and facilitates the passage of the blood. Thus to these several coats, but particularly: to the two for- mer, do the arteries owe the remarkable property they pos- sess of contracting when distended with blood, and almost immediately afterwards expanding to receive a fresh sup- ply, and which, assisted by the action of the heart, consti- tutes the pulse ;.and may be felt in every part of the body STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP: 157 where an artery is sufficiently near the surface to be per- coptiblerss a7" 1 The arteries, however, do not all possess an equal thick- ness and power ; for instance, the pulmonary artery, though quite as large as the aorta, is neither so thick nor so strong ; and the reason is, that the same power is not required to send the blood over the smaller circuit of the lungs as over ‘the larger one of the whole system ; and, for the same rea- son, the right side of the heart is weaker than the left. The arteries, as they divide and subdivide in their course, become weaker in their coats in proportion to the diminu- tion of their size, till at length they terminate in the minute branches called the capillary vessels, which do not possess any pulsating power, and many of which do not contain red blood. Diminutive, however, as these branches may be, yet it is by them that, the most important offices are per- formed; by them the different parts of the body are nour- ished, whether bone, fiesh, nerve, or skin; by them the va- rious fluids are secreted, however different in appearance they may be; by them the most ghastly wounds are heal- ed, and often in a remarkably short space of time: and all these various offices are performed not only by the same class of vessels, but by the same fluid, the blood. Having — accomplished these important purposes, the capillary arter- ies terminate in equally minute vessels, caHed the capillary yeins; and so abundant are these diminutive vessels that the finest point of the finest needle cannot be plunged into the body without penetrating some of them. By the time the blood reaches the veins it becomes dark and impure, and loaded with carbon : the office of the veins, therefore, is to return it to the heart to be again purified. ‘The cireu- lation, however, becomes much slower as it is further re- moved from the impulsive power of the heart, and the veins, which are supposed to contain two-thirds of the whole blood circulating in the system, are consequently much more numerous than the arteries: they do not, however, possess the same strength in their coats as the arteries, nor have they any pulsating power. They have, however, the assistance of other agents in propelling the blood to its des- tination. The greater number of them possess valves, which admit the blood to pass in one direction, but effectu- ally prevents its passing in any other. It was, indeed, from 158 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. reflecting on the structure and necessary office of these valves that led the immortal Harvey to discover the circu- lation of the blood. . Another circumstance peculiar to the veins is their situation, being mosily near the surface of the body, whilst the arteries are generally deep seated. The wisdom of this provision is evident: it.is well known that in wounds it is readily ascertained if an artery be wounded by the jet of blood that ensues, and which even from an artery of small size is very considerable, and the danger of death from bleeding is often great in consequence of the force with which the blood is thrown into these vessels.— Now such being the danger attending the division of arter- ies, it was necessary to remove them as much as possible from the risk of injury, and accordingly they are almost in- variably deep seated, and when they do approach the surface it is in parts least likely to be injured. Thus round these important vessels nature throws a thick muscular covering, and protects the whole by a manile so sensitive as to give warning to the least attack.’ The veins, however, do not require this care; in them the circulation is languid, and their wounds are comparatively unimportant and unattended with danger, for the blood generally stops, without assist- ance, from its coagulating quality. Itis also of importance that the greater portion of the veins should be situated near the surface, in order to receive the influence of the atmos- pheric pressure, which greatly assists the motion of the blood; and it has also been found that veins possess a pow- er of absorption in common with a particular order of ves- sels called the absorbents; thus these various purposes are effecied by ihe relative position of the veins and arteries. The structure of the veins is very different from that of the arteries; for, whilst the latter are thick, elastic, and com- : posed of three coats, the former are thin, inelastic, and composed only of two coverings. But although thin they are yet capable of affording great resistance to pressure. We have seen that the blood is sent to all parts of the body by the action of the heart and arteries, but what is the cause of its return? First in importance is the law of by- drostatics, ‘‘ that all fluids support their level.’? Thus the same law by which springs arise, and streams are produced, and rivers flow towards the sea, is brought to bear in the living system, and enables the blood in the arteries to sup- STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 159 port thatin the veins. This effect is greatly assisted by the action of the valves in supporting the column of blood. The blood thus supported and propelled by the arteries, as- sisted by atmospheric pressure, must go somewhere, as the valves prevent return; it goes, therefore, where alone a va- eancy is afforded, and that is in the right auricle of the heart, which has just propelled ‘its contents into the ventri- cle. To these several forces may be added a power of suc- tion the heart possesses whenever the chest is enlarged in respiration. _ The manner in which the chyle is mixed up with the blood, so that its color quickly disappears, is worthy of par- ticular notice. It is owing, indeed, to the great agitation the blood receives, and to the irregularity of the heart’s in- ternal surface: When the auricles contract, their contents are, in a great measure, discharged into the ventricles, but a portion is thrown back into the veins, which constitutes what is called the venous pulse, and may sometimes be seen in the jugular veins. In like manner, when the ven- tricles contract a portion of their contents is thrown back into the auricles, at any rate that part of it situated behind the valves. By these means an agitation is produced which effectually mixes these different fluids together. It has been ascertained that the veins possess a power of absorption in common with a numerous class of vessels called the absorbents, or lymphatics. These vessels are very minute, and are distributed throughout the whole body ; they geneaally accompany the veins, and, like them are furnished with valves. 160 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. SECTION XXIII. ON RESPIRATION AND ITS EFFECTS.: The phenomena of respiration, which is carried on from the first minute after birth to the last of existence, consists of two acts, inspiration and expiration. ‘The former, that of inhaling the atmosphere, is accomplished mostly by the diaphragm, which, in its relaxed state, is convex towards the chest. As its fibres contract, the muscle flattens, and thus enlarges in a considerable degree the cavity of the tho- rax. A vacuum is thus produced, or rather a tendency to- wards it; for the air rushes into the lungs, and the blood into the heart; and, as the lungs are elastic and spongy in their nature, they become closely adapted to the enlarge- ment of the chest, and prevent any vacuum from taking place between them and the sides of the thorax. The dia- phragm is thus the chief agent in the act of inspiration, al- though in some degree assisted by the intercostal muscles, which raise the chest, and also, when the breathing is vio- Jently excited, by those muscles that in quadrupeds attach the fore extremities to the body. ‘The air thus thrown in- to the lungs throughout its internal surface, and, having ful- filied it office, is forced out by the act of expiration. This part of the process is effected chiefiy by means of the elas- ticity of the lungs, which acts as soon as the diaphragm be- comes passive, assisted, however, in some degree by the elastic cartilages of the chest, and occasionally by the ab- dominal muscles. Atmospheric air consists of unequal parts of two aeriform fluids, viz., four-fifths of nitrogen or azote, and one-fifth of oxygen in each 100 parts; besides which it contains other - heterogeneous matters, such as odorous effluvia, aqueous exhalations, electric matter, and carbonic acid gas. It ev- erywhere surrounds and embraces the globe, extending, in the opinion of some, a distance of forty-five miles, and in that of others a much greater height. Its eravity differs very much at different times and in different places, being heavier on a clear than on a close day, and also in low pla- ces than in lofty ones. ‘The small portion of carbonic acid gas which the atmosphere contains is not chemically, but ® STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 161. mechanically mixed with it.. This gas is evolved by the fermentation of beer, and the decomposition of vegetables, and is often found in wells and deep places, It is much heavier than the atmosphere, and thus remains in these low places by its gravity. A lighted candle placed in this gas is immediately extinguished ; so that it is used as a safeguard in descending into these low and foul places; for whatever will not support combustion will not support life, It.is not a simple gas, like oxygen, but is formed by the union of carbon and oxygen. Nitrogen or azote is a simple gas, but its use in the at- mosphere seems to be principally of a passive nature, being for the purpose of diluting the oxygen and rendering it less stimulating : it will not alone support life or combustion, but is chemically mixed with the oxygen. Oxygen is es- sential for the support of life and combustion ; for if air be deprived of it no animal can live, nor will a candle remain lighted. It is abundantly furnished by plants and shrubs, which thus restore the loss of it occasioned by animals.— When a flame is exposed to this gas it greatly increases in brilliancy ; and when venous blood is submitted to’ it, it quickly becomes florid. ~ We have before shown that all the saute in the body was in its turn carried from the heart to the lungs by means of the pulmonary artery, which divides and subdivides into the smailest branches, and terminates in small capillary veins, which, coalescing, become larger, and convey the blood again to the hear by the pulmonary veins. Before it reach- es these veins, however, an important change takes place : the blood proceeds from the heart in a black and i impure state ; it returns reddened and purified ; it is submitted in its course to the action of the air in the air-cells, not by ac- tual contact, but through the membrane which forms these cells: and by this means the important change is effected. There is, we well know. a considerable ae be- tween the expired and the inspired air; the former it hot, the latter cold; this is healthy, that injurious; one will support combustion. and life, the other is unfit for breathing, and will extinguish a flame. There is but little difference in quantity between the air in its. different states, but the oxygen in expired. air has nearly disappeared and carbonic acid gas is found in its stead; it also contains much aque- 162 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. ous vapour, which is condensed in a visible form, at a tem- perature of 60 deg. Thus, although the carbonic acid gas is much heavier than common air, partly from the aqueous vapour which the expired air contains being much lighter, but principally from its own increased temperature, the ex- Rs air, notwithstanding its carbonic aid, is yet specifically ighter than the atmosphere; and consequently rises up- wards, and thus, in a great measure, is prevented from be- ing respired a second time. It has been found by experi- ment with a portion of atmospheric air, containing 80 parts of nitrogen, 18 of oxygen, and 2 of carbonic acid, that, on being respired, the nitrogen continued the same, but the carbonic .acid was increased to 13 parts, and the oxygen reduced to 5; whence it apneared that 11 parts of carbonic acid were substituted for 13 of oxygen, 2 parts having en- tirely disappeared. Thus the disappearance of the greater portion of the oxygen was accounted for by its being con- verted into carbonic acid; but there remained a small por- tion, whose absence could not be thus explained, more par- ticularly as Sir H. Davy calculated that about 32 ounces of oxygen were necessary for 24 hours’ expenditure in a man 5 but only 264 ounces are requisite for the formation of even 37 ounces of carbonic acid gas, giving us an unexplained surplus of 55 ounces of oxygen, during the above period. By some it was supposed that this surplus oxygen united with the hydrogen thrown off by the blood, and is thus con- verted into watery vapour: by others it is held, that this oxygen is absorbed by the blood, and enters the circulation. Carbonic acid gas is exhaled from the lungs in different quantities during different periods of the day, being genera- ted in the greatest quantity about noon, decreasing in the morning. It also increases in man by taking animal food. Sir H. Davy contended that a small portion of nitrogen is absorbed by the blood; but this has been denied by oth- ers. The chief use of nitrogen, however, is to dilute the oxygen; for if the latter is inspired pure a sense of warmth is felt in the chest, the heat of the skin is raised, the pulse quickened, and other symptoms of excitement produced.— A given quantity of oxygen will, however, support life longer than the same quantity of atmospheric air. It has been computed that, in the course of twenty-four hours, about 2 Ibs. 8 ozs. of oxygen is consumed bya man. After STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 163 an ordinary respiration a considerable quantity of air still . remains—perhaps four-fifths, one-fifth having been expired. Having mentioned the changes that take place in the at- mosphere, we must next consider in what manner the blood becomes so altered by its passage through the lungs. The blood, as it traverses through the body, gradually becomes darker; it is loaded with carbon, and is rendered unfit for the circulation, and in this state it is called venous blood. If venous blood, taken out of the body, be exposed to oxygen, it quickly becomes red; and so it does if expo- sed to the atmosphere, but not so rapidiy. So, likewise, if arterial blood be exposed to carbonic acid, it quickly ac- quires the color and character of venous blood. In the same manner is the color of the blood changed in the lungs; thus the principal use of respiration appears to be to free the blood from its impurities; and this is effected although the air and the blood do not actually come in con- tact. It was found, that if bloodin a common bladder were exposed to the atmosphere for some time, it acquired a coat of florid blood; and thus, as the membrane lining the ‘air-cells is by no means so thick as that of the bladder, there is no longer any difficulty in accounting for the change taking place. It has been the subject of some dis- pute as to when the change, or rather exchange, takes place, some contending that the carbon unites with the oxy- gen in the air-cells, whilst others maintain that the oxygen enters the blood, and there unites with the carbon, formin carbonic acid gas, which is then exhaled into the air-cells, It was found, however, that if venous blood were put with- in the exhausted receiver of an air-pump a quantity of car- bonic acid escapes; thus proving the presence of this gas in the blood, and supporting the second theory. And as there appears to be a greater quantity of oxygen abstracted from the atmosphere than can be accounted for by the for- mation of carbonic acid, we must conclude that a portion mingles with the blood and enters the circulation ; which theory agrees with the fact, that it has recently been dis- covered, by correct analyses, that both venous and arterial blood contains carbonic acid, nitrogen, and oxygen; but that the latter gas is most abundant in arterial and the for- mer in venous blood. Although the action of the heart is much more frequent 164 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. than that of the chest in respiration, yet there is a most in- timate connexion between the one and the other; for, be- sides the changes which we have spoken of in the blood, it rushes into the heart when the chest is expanded, and when, from any cause, respiration is delayed, the pulse be- comes less frequent and more languid in consequence of the obstruction in the current of the blood. .Thus, in vio- lent fits of coughing, the chest collapses, the air is expelled, and the blood not being purified, is unfit for circulation, and the consequence is the veins of the head become distended, and, ia man, the person becomes red or black in the face, and sometimes a blood-vessel has ruptured and death su- pervened. THE PRODUCTION OF ANIMAL HEAT. This important operation is effected by means of respir- ation, the chemical process carried on in the lungs. The sensation of heat is derived from the presence of an extremely subtle fluid called caloric, the particles of which have a tendency to repel each other and unite with other substances. Thus, if we touch a body whose temperature - is lower than that of our hand, caloric passes from the hand to this substance, and the sensation of cold is experi- enced: and if, on the contrary, the temperature of the sub- . stance is higher, we feel a degree of heat from the passage of caloric into the hand. It is a singular fact, that this cal- oric may exist in two different states—the one in a free or sensible form, the other in a latent or combined form.— Thus two substances may appear to be of the same temper- ature, and yet one may contain a much greater degree of caloric than the other, but so combined with the substance that it is not sensible tothe touch. If, however, the object be exposed to the influence of some chemical agent, its la- -tent coloric may be set free or rendered sensible. For in- stance, if sulphuric acid and water be mixed together, al- though each fluid were before cold, the mixture is raised to a high temperature, and caloric is evolved. In the fer- mentation of malt liquors the temperature of the liquid is raised with the process, and carbonic acid is produced ; and whenever, indeed, this material is formed, heat is evolved. Animal heat is kept up and supported by the chemical union of these two substances, oxygen and carbon—the same that STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN. 165. produces combustion in our fires and candles. Carbon may be considered as the fuel, not only in ordinary combina- tion, but also in the animal economy, whilst oxygen may be regarded as the fire; and, in fact, this agent, throughout nature, is the cause of what appears to be destruction, but is, in fact, only change of form; such, indeed, is its ten- dency 10 combine with other substances. Carbon is sup- plied by the food, and it is necessary that sufficient should be furnished to counteract the consuming tendency of oxy- gen, which would otherwise gradually waste and destroy the system. In cold weather and cold climates more oxy- gen is taken into the lungs, the air being more condensed, and a greater waste of the system would be the consequence were it not for the fact that the appetite is increased, and more food is taken, particularly that which contains most carbon. This accounts for the fact of the people in cold Countries having such a great inclination for oily food, which consists chiefly of carbon, whilst those in hot cli- mates dislike fat of every description, and prefer a vegeta-. ble diet: thus the functions of the lungs and the stomach most intimately agree. In cold weather a large fire must be kept up to preserve the animal warmth, and the digest- ive organs furnish the fuel, or otherwise the tissues of the body would be wasted or consumed. SECTION XXV. STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN. The skin of the sheep, like that of most other animals, is composed of three coats. The external coat is called the cuticle, or scarf-skin. It is very tough, and destitute of feeling, and is pierced by innumerable holes for the pas- sage of wool and yolk. On other animals, the principal secretions from the skin are hair and insensible perspira- tion ; but the skin of the sheep has large sebaccous glands, from which the secretion is more oily and abundant than on other animals, and is called yolk. : 166 ig STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN. The next coat is called the mucus coat, from its pulpy appearance. It is in this coat that the nerves of the skin terminate, and it is therefore the seat of external sensation. The color of the mucus coat, and of the hair or wool which passes through it, are frequently much alike, and, there- fore, it is ordinarily supposed that the coloring matter of - the wool or hair is communicated to it from this layer.— But this seems to be a mistake. By inspection of the ap- pendix, it will be seen that the dark color of hair is com- municated to it merely by its ingredients being differently proportioned from those of light hair; and the color ‘of wool is doubtless determined in the same manner; and as dark hair is frequently secreted from a light colored skin, it seems very evident that its color does not depend upon that of the skin. The third, or innermost layer, is called the cutis, or true skin. It is a dense, firm, elastic membrane, fitting closely to the body, and capable of vielding to the various motions, and to external resistance. It is composed mostly of gela- atine. It is insoluble in cold water, but may be dissolved by boiling. It is in this skin that the glands which secrete the wool and yolk and horns and hoofs are placed. The caloric, which is disengaged from the skin of the sheep, is considered to be equal to about one-seventh part of that which is emitted from the skin of man. This ari- ses from the non-conducting power of the wool, and is a wise and kind provision of nature well explaining the means by which the animal is enabled to endure many. hardships from vicissitudes of the weather. Whether a thick skin or a thin one is preferable, is a matter about which there is a difference of opinion. The New Leicester,and the Cheviot are commended for having thin mellow skins. On the other hand the Cotswold are considered more hardy than the New Leicester or Dishley breed, on account of their having thick, mellow, silvery. skins; and doubtless a moderately thick mellow skin is preferable to a thin one, more capable of withstanding the various vicissitudes of the weather. The thickness of the skin may be ascertained in some measure by the thickness of the ears. The New Leicester and the Cheviot with thin skins have thin ears. Different PROPERTIES OF WOOL. : 167% breeds of Merinos differ in the thickness of their skins, and the thickness of their ears appears to correspond. _ . COVERING OF THE PRIMITIVE SHEEP. In all the regions over which the patriarchs roamed, and extending northward through the greater part of Eu- rope and Asia, among the most unimproved breeds of sheep, the sheep is externally covered with hair, but under- neath is wool, of various degrees of fineness on different breeds, from which, in most cases, the hair is easily separa- ted. ‘This is the case with the sheep at the Cape of Good Hope, and also in South America. Also, sheep of almost every variety have at times been in the gardens of the Zoological Society of London; but there has not been one on which a portion of crisped wool) “though exceedingly small, has not been found at the bot- tom of the hair.—(Youatt.) , These circumstances render it probable that the covering of the primitive sheep consisted of both hair and wool; and that on the best improved breeds the hairy portion of the fleece has been mostly bred out by careful selection and ‘management. CHAPTER XXV. WOOLAND ITS PROPERTIES. ¢ sii FELTING. In ancient times, the. people of most northern climates clothed themselves with the skins of animals. In winter, - the fur or wool was turned inwards. This practice is continued among the peasants of Russia to this day; many of them make use of sheep skins with the wool turned inwards, for their ordinary clothing in win- ter. These skins were called among the Saxons, frpm whom we derive our language, felts (i.e.skins). So that, strictly speaking, the word felting means manufasturing a 168 PROPERTIES OF WOOL. skin or covering; but is now generally used in the same sense as the word fulling. The phenomena of the felting properties of wool long r re- mained a mystery. ‘This gave rise to many speculations as to the cause of it. To} M. Monge, the distinguished French chemist, are we indebted for the first correct view of the structure of the fibre of wool. He asserted “that the surface of each fibre of wool is formed of iamellee or little plates, which cover each other from the root to the point, much in the same manner as the scales of a fish cover that animal from the head to the tail. By the perseverance of Mr. Youatt, the author of a val- uable treatise on British sheep husbandry, Monge’s theory was shown to be correct. ‘The construction of a superior achromatic telescope by Mr. Powel, of London, enabled him to determine this fact. In February, 1835, Messrs. Youatt, Powel, and several other persons present, ascer- tained with this telescope that the edges of wool are hooked, or more properly serrated ; that they resembled the teeth of a fine saw, with all the projecting edges pointing in a di- rection from root to point; and that consequently, in the process of fulling, the fibres of wool can moye only root end foremost. The serrations of wool are the great causes of its felting quality. But its elasticity, pliability, and the spiral curve contribute greatly to render it more perfect. Hence the fine wool of the Barbary sheep, which is very glossy and perfect in every respect, except that it wants the spiral curve, is inferior in value to the Merino, which has many spiral curves. In order to complete the felting process, the presence of soap or moisture is necessary ; these add greatly to the co- hesion of wool or fur. Hence, when cloth or stockings are simply placed in water, and are suffered to remain a con- siderable time, they will frequently be fulled by this means. . The variations of heat from day to day will cause an alter- nate expansion and contraction of the wool, so as to cause the felting process to proceed. By means-of these qualities of wool, and the alternate pressure and relaxation of the hand or machinery , the fibres. of wool are compelled to imitate the process of weaving, being driven root end foremost in every direction, so as to a. ” PROPERTIES OF WOOL. 169 form a solid and firm body, which cannot be unravelled, and which is far superior to whe can be obtained merely by weaving. ) In order to a more naeredt endutade of the qualities of wool, it will be necessary to notice its "formation and prop- erties more particularly. FORMATION OF WOOL. “Wool is secreted from glands which are placed in the cltis vera or true skin, and according to the analysis — of Scherer, is composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxy- gen, and sulphur. Each fibre ‘Of wool is composed of a number of distinct filaments ranged side by side. Mr. Bakewell has remarked, “ that hair is frequently observed to split at its points into distinct fibres. A division is also sometimes seen in the fibre of wool. In one hair, I dis- tinctly perceived fifteen of these divisions or fibres, lying parallel to each other.”’ The cause of these divisions seems to be, that the glands which secrete wool are, like some other blatida, divided in- to distinct divisions, and each of these divisions doubtless secretes a filament of wool by itself; and these filaments, _in their fresh state, are agglutinated together by the action of the skin, before the wool comes to ine air. Inthe same manner, the ducts which convey the gall from the various divisions of the liver, all unite and convey the gall into one common receptacle, the gall bladder. Whether wool is hollow, (i. e. tubular,) or not, has not been determined ; but moisture may pass to its different parts by capillary attraction, between the different filaments. Whatever the diameter of wool is when formed, so it remains ; it does not grow in diameter like a tree, though its filaments lie side by side, like the grains of a tree. And if the roots of a large hair’ be examined, it will be found that at bottom it comes to a point, giving room for a cen- tral filament and the arrangement of others around it, much like the grains of a tree ; ‘and as there is nothing to keep these filaments asunder, there seems to be no reason to imagine that either hair or wool is tubular. , ~The fibre of wool is circular; it differs materially in di- ameter on different breeds, and also in di fferent paris of the same fleece. The component parts of wool and hair are ‘precisely sim- Sy 7 170 PROPERTIES OF WOOL. ilar; but these component parts are differently proportioned in these two articles. Hence, hair is Benetilly opake; but wool is usually semitransparent. The following observations by Mr. Youait will illustrate the subject: ‘ The fibres of wool, when cleansed from grease, are semi-transparent; their ‘surface in some places is polished ; in others curiously incrusted, and they reflect the rays of light ina pleasing manner. Their exterior pol- ish varies much in different wools, and in wools of the same breed of sheep at different times. When the animal is in good condition, and the fleece healthy, the appear- ance of the fibre is really briliiant. But when the sheep has been half starved, the wool seems to have sympathized with the state of the constitution, and either a wan pale light, or scarcely any is reflected. ‘* As a general rule, the filament is most transparent in the best and most useful wools, whether long or short. It increases with the improvement of the breed and the fine- ness and healthiness of the fieece. Nevertheless, some wools have different degrees of transparency and opacity, which do not appear to affect their value and utility. (It is the difference of transparency in the same fleece, or in the same filament, that is chiefly to be noticed as affecting the value’ of the wool.” MICROSCOPIC VIEW OF WOOL. SERRATION No. 1, a fibre of South Down wool as a transparent ob- ject; No 2, the same, as opaque. No. 3,a fibre of Merino wool, iransparent; No. 4, the same, opaque. PROPERTIES OF WOOL, - 171 ‘The manner in which the serrations of wool are forrnied, seems to be, that the wool glands, like other glands,* have a motion ; thatis, at the time of the foeaeaunn of the long- est point of the serration, the wool glands must rise some- what in the centre, and expand, so as to put forth the lar- gest bulk of woolly fibre; and then gradually sink down again in the centre, so as to form only the smallest diame- ter of the wool. And as hair or wool is formed in glands which is formed in the cutis vera, or true skin, this motion will be necessary, in order to expel the hair or wool through the two outer coats of the skin, and also to compress the fila- meiis. The serrations are doewNSt differently shaped on dif- ferent kinds of wool and hair. Hence, hair being of a more uniform texture, is less pliable’ than wool, which has deeper serrations. And the greater the iuimber of serra- tions in a given length, the greater is the pliability of the wool. {[lence, too, the deeper and sharper the serrations of wool are according to its diameter, the harsher will be the wool, even though there be a plentiful supply of yolk. I have sometimes noticed in crossing two full blood Me- rino breeds of sheep together, that although the wool of the cross breeds was equal in fineness to that of either kind by itself, and was very curly, it was excessively harsh. In using a ram which was a half and half cross of this kind, he communicated this defect to his progeny; and their wool was at the same time remarkably curly, and had abundance of yolk. A cross between the Escurial Saxon breed and other breeds of Merinos, sometimes produces some other defect of the skin, which makes such cross bred sheep very ten- der, and sensitive to cold. These circumstances seem to show the propriety of breeding each kind of tine wooled sheep by itself. We ean then know at all times what to depend upon, as to the quality ‘of wool. In. Spain, they have, for many centuries, pursued ihat course which by experience they found would produce the best wools, and they have bred each kind by itself; and their long experience should not be disregarded. ERY Mr, Youatt’s examination of wool with the micro- ; * See Richerand’s Physiology, p. 262, Li? PROPERTIES OF WOOL. scope, the diameter, and number of serrations in an inch, of several kinds of wool, were found to be as follows: tik Diameter. Serrations in an inch. Merino, 760th of Sas iimich, - 2400 Saxon, (Escurial) 840th 2720 South Down, 600th “6 2080 Improved Leicester, 500th if 1860 Australian Picklock Ba ie ; grade Saxon, (Escurial) ¢ 780th aad As to the Merino, he remarks, “The fibre thus looked at, assumed a flattened, ribband like form; it was of a pearl grey color, darker towards the centre, and with faint lines across it. The edges were aed hooked, or more properly serrated; they resembled the teeth of a fine saw.”” Of the Saxon, he observes: ‘* The greater number of serrations, with equal prominence when compared with the Merino, accounts for its superior felting properties.” Of the South Down he says: “The fibre is clearly lar- ger: it is the 660th of aninchin diameter. The serrations differ in character; they are larger, but not so acute; they appear almost as if they had been rounded ; they have a yhomboidal, and not a hooked character.” The Ediioe of the Genesee Farmer remarks that, ** The South Down is a valuable wool, but its felting power is in- ferior, and it is little used in the manufacture of the best broadcloths.’’ Of the Improved Leicester, Mr. Youatt says, “The la- mellee are superficial and irregular, differently formed in diferent parts; a few like small spines running along the surface of the fibre, while other prominences were round- fi As tothe Picklock Australian grade Saxon, Mr. Yo att says: ‘* The serrations of this sample were very sharp, and in appearance almost barbed. There is a marked differ- ence, not only in the length. but in the structure of the: Saxr- on wool, as cbtained direct from Germany, and that import- ed from Australia. The fibre of the Australian wool is considerably longer, bui not so fine: the serrations are not SO NUMCTOUS ; they are of a different character, seemingly giving pliability and softness to the one [the Saxon], and Jeltiness to the other [the Australian]. fe) PROPERTIES OF WOOL. 173 ‘30 ' far as the examinations iid proceeded, the serra- tions’ are sharper and more numerous in the felting wools than in others, and in proportion as the felting property exists.”) | | AG Beatie Merino, as wclndpieag with the wool of the bat, Mr. Youatt says: ‘“ Though the lamelle were not so distinct on the Merino as on that of the bat, yet the cone-like points were distinctly visible, forming a series of cup-like inden- tations, with their projecting edges painnine from the root to ‘the point.” ‘As to the formation of the Leicester and South Dowii fibres of wool, it may be observed, that in the formation of these two ‘kinds of wool, there must be a mechanical movement of the skin in fovinitig the serrations, or the ser- rations would not be so very different in their iivnipaien on the same fibre of wool, in its texture lengthwise. It is evident that wool does not grow into a particular shape, like the leaves of a tree, which are formed precisely alike on the same tree; whereas, wool is a secretion like horn, and is put into a particular shape by the action of the glands from which it'springs. As every new cross of different breeds may form wool glands which will make differently and badly formed serra- tions, such crosses should be made with caution. SPIRAL CURVE. The manner in which the spiral curves of wool are form- ed, seems to be, that the opposite sides of each wool gland are alternately im a more active state than the other side; and the extreme regularity of these spiral curves shows that this action is very regular in most breeds of sheep, and es- pecially in Merinos of pure blood. Wool generally has more or less-spiral curves; but not always; the wool of some breeds, as that of the Barbary sheep and the Wallachian sheep, is straight. But hair is more generally straight. The spiral curve isa valuable property of wool. Itiadds greatly to the elasticity of wool, and multiplies the oppog- tunities for the interlacing of fibres, and thereby greatly in- creases its felting properties, and the munenetts of the articles felted. In most kinds of wool, especially i in that of pure bred Me- = 174 PROPERTIES OF WOOL. rinos, it has been found that the number of curves in agiv- en space is very nearly in proportion to the diameter of the fibre ; the smaller the diameter of the fibre, the greater is the number of the spiral curves. Hence, the comparative fineness of wool may be nearly ascertained by counting the number of curves in an inch. In Mr. Lafoun’s work on the German management of sheep, are the following observations : ‘‘ Those breeding pure Saxons inspect their flocks three times in a year; before winter, when the selection of lambs is made; in the spring, and at shearing time. Each sheep is placed in its turn on a kind of table, and examined carefully as to the growth, the elasticity, the pliability, the brilliancy, and the fineness of the wool. ‘The latter is as- certained by means of a micrometer, Jt being found that there was an evident connection belween the fineness of the fibre and the number of curves, this was more accurately noted, and the following table was constructed. ‘The fleece was ae in the manner usual in France. The fineness of the Superelecta, or Picklock, is represented by a space corresponding with the number 7 on the instru- ment.”’ Sort. Name. Curvesinaninch. Diameter of fibre. 1. Superelecta, 27 to.29 7 or 1-840th of an inch. 2. Electa, 24 to 28 8 or 1-735th < 3. Prima, 20 to 23 9 or 1-600th “6 4. Secundaprima 191019 + 10 or 1-558th a 5. Secunda, 161017 Il or 1-534th ss 6. Tertia, 14.10 15... 114,0r, 1-510th....% The lamb or sheep, after being duly examined, is mark- ed upon the ears, and samples of its wool are preserved in papers, and these papers are numbered, so that by refer- ence to the breeding register, the quality of its wool, its age, and relation to others in ihe flock, may at any time be ascertained. The spiral curve is a delusble property of wool, and care should be used in breeding so as to preserve it, and’ also not _ lggsen it by systematic high feeding. ELASTICITY OF WOOL. if a fibre of wool, or any other substance, be drawn out + PROPERTIES OF WOOL. 175 beyond its natural length, and will, without breaking, re- turn to its natural shape, it is said to be elastic. This prop-, erty depends chiefly upon the component parts of any sub- stance, and their relative proportions. Hence, though wool, and the feather of a quill, are composed of precisely simi- lar ingredients, wool is very elastic ; but the feather of a quill is destitute of this property. ‘Two specimens of wool, of the same fineness and evenness, will often differ much in their elasticity and pliability ; ; and doubtless this arises from some small difference in the proportions of their com- ponent parts. Evenness of texture is necessary, in order to pera the most perfect elasticity of wool. When a sheep is kept in high order in one part of the year, and in low condition at other periods of the year, the size and strength of the fibres of its wool will vary in different paris, and one part will break before the other can be fully extended. The usefulness and value of wool depend chiefly upon its elasticity and pliability ; and these properties render it _far superior to hair. By these qualities it is admirably adapted to all the purposes of felting and the ona of hats, cloths, &c. SOFTNESS. The softness of wool depends much upon its comparative fineness. Hence, high feeding ever has a tendency to ren- der it coarser and harsher. But there are several causes which make a different de- gree of softness in wools of the same fineness. The dif- ferent proportions of its component parts doubtless render some kinds hard and wiry, whilst others of the same fine* ness are soft and mellow. For the same reason, the hair of the head of man is generally soft, but that of the beard is always comparatively hard and wiry. (See Appendix.) Also, by the preceding observations, it will appear that the softness of wool depends very much upon the form of its serrations; wools of the same fineness, and the same quantity of -yolk, varying much in their softness from the difference in their serrations. . bois ‘The soil, also, upon which sheep are pastured, some- times renders the wool harsh. The chalky soils in Eng- land, not t being well covered with herbage, absorb the yolk, ® 176 PROPERTIES OF WOOL. and thus expose the wool to the influence of the weather, and render it harsh and brittle. But the limestone soils of the United States are generally well covered with wie and are among the best for growing fine wool. Hence, also, when sheep on mountains, or very low lands, are much exposed to cold misty and rainy weather, the secretion of yolk is lessened, and the wools of such sheep are generally harsh, and sometimes wiry; for wool owes much of its softness to the presence of a plentiful sup- ply of yolk. Yolk preserves the sofiness of the fibre, and sheathes it from the external influences of soil, air, and moisture. The salving of sheep with a mixture of tar and grease, as practised in England and Scotland, has the same usefuls tendency. Hence, if fine-wooled sheep are kept in uni- form middling good order, and are well sheltered, the ne- cessary supply of yolk will be produced on young and mid- dle aged sheep, and the softness of the wool will be pre- served. But on old sheep the secretion of yolk diminishes | in quantity, and the wool becomes comparatively hard and inelastic. : As wools of the same fineness frequently differ in their quality as to softness,so much as to make 15 or 20 per cent. difference in their value, every circumstance which can affect this quality should be particularly attended to by those whose principal object is, the rearing a superior qual- ity of wool; and those should be selected for breeders of each sex, which have the softest wool, and whose fleece contains the least hair (or jar), provided they have all oth- er necessary qualities. TRUENESS. By this term is meant, an equality of the dlicetaasies of the fibre of wool from root to point. This quality depends principally upon’a regular supply of good food, and shelter from the inclemency of the weather. If these are both provided, the skin will be able at all times to secrete a fibre nearly uniform in size. Hence, if at any time the sheep be fed much higher than usual, a larger fibre will be produ- ced, and such wool will felt unevenly. If food or shelter are not provided when necessary, especially in winter, the skin will sympathize with other parts of the body, and the PROPERTIES OF WOOL. 177 wool glands will’be unable to secrete as large a fibre as at other times; ‘smaller, and consequently weaker portions of the fibre will be formed, in which breaches will be made when used for ‘manufacturing purposes; and this defect will greatly injure its value. Such wool is termed unsound, and will be trier accordingly by the stalful wool buyer. ; whine CP COLOR. “The ‘color of the fleece, or coat of the sheep, like that of other animals, seems to be determined principally by the influence of light and heat. In the torrid zone, and coun- tries bordering nearly upon it, the fleece or coat of the sheep is generally black, brown, or reddish. In more north- ern climes, white or grey are the prevailing colors, and _ black and brown are exceptions to the general rule. In wild races, as the Shetland sheep, it is presented of various colors ; and the white hue of our present races.is owing, in some measure, to the constant practice of breeding only from white parents. » Wools of the purest white are most highly prized by manufacturers, for the reason, that those of a black, brown, dun, or grey hue, do not receive a perfect fancy dye, and therefore can be converted only into black or grey cloths or goods. Flock masters, therefore, should breed only from rams of a pure white, unless for the sake of domestic as hia or some 1¢'particular use. FINENESS. This term, iia applied to wool is wholly comparative. The fibre may be considered coarse. when it is more than the five hundredth part of an inch in diameter, and very fine, when it is less than the nine-hundredth part of an inch in diameter, as in some of the choicest samples of Saxon Merino. Yet, on some animals, which have wool under- neath a covering of hair, but whose wool has not been used for manufacturing purposes, the diameter of its fibre is less than the twelve-hundredth part of an inch. _ The fineness varies, to a very considerable degree, in different parts of the same fleece, and the diameter of the same fibre is often exceedingly different at each of its ex- iremeties. The micrometer has sometimes indicated that — the diameter of the outward point is BURISMICS five times 178 PROPERTIES OP WOOL. greater than that of the centre or root; and, consequently, that a given length of pile, taken from the outward point, would weigh twenty-five times as muchas the same length taken from near the root, and cleansed from all yolk and grease. ‘This results, from the sheeps having an abun- dance of food, at the time of being shorn, and from mod- erate cold strengthening the glands of the skin, so as to secrete a larger bulk of fibre. Grade Merinos often produce seven or eight different qualities of wool in one fleece; whereas that of the pure Merino is, in Spain, commonly divided into but four sorts ; but the Negretti breed is remarkable for the even fineness of its wool, and awell assorted flock of that breed will produce only about three qualities of wool. Most breeds of sheep may be much improved, by a care- ful selection of individuals for breeding, which have fleec- es of the most uniform fineness ; and this improvement deserves the particular attention of the wool-grower. FORM AND QUALITIES OF THE STAPLE. The following remarks of Charles L. Fleischman, Esq., will fully illustrate this subject :* ‘¢ The wool of sheep does not grow, as does the hair of other beasts, in a manner, that every individual hair takes its own direction, but its many threads of wool always unite into one little tuft, and each of these again stands in such connexion with the rest, as may allow every wool pelt, (every fleece) as a whole, to appear like a web. ‘The sin- gle tufis we call the staple.” is ; ‘‘ The fleece of an original, (or pure improved Merino,) contains, upon a square inch, 40 to 48,000 wool hairs.— The fleece, in this epoch,is separated upon the skin in small wool divisions, which consist of 2000 or 3000 wool hairs, and which are, from root to top, regularly curved, equal, fine, connected, and, at the top, ending in an even staple. ‘Chese wool divisions are about as large as one six- teenth of asquareinch. ‘The yolkis clear, oily, and gives the wool a glossy, shiny appearance.” ‘+ Mr. Jeppe remarks, in his report on wool, at the meeting of German agriculturists, at Munich, Bavaria, held *From Patent Office Report for 1848. PROPERTIES OF WOOL. 179 in the year 1844, that upon aheavy fleeced animal he counted, on one sixteenth of a square inch, 2618, and up- ona thin, flabby fleeced animal, 1018 wool hairs : the wool was nearly equally fine in hor fleeces.”’ “ The formation of the staple may be easily discerned in the. surface of the fleece, which contains on it web-form- ed furrows, woolly seams, but will be more noticeable, if one lays the same out together, in any place. If we exam- ine the fleece more closely, we may discern in it the so called strands, (still smaller branches,) in which many threads of wool are closely connected. Strands of differ- ent forms, different fineness, or an irregular curl, transfer these peculiarities to the staple, whereby yet further the exterior of the whole fleece is affected. We may, with tol- erable certainty, from this form, and from the state of the staple, draw a conclusion as to the condition of the threads of wool, and correctly assume, ihat the wool which has a good structure of staple, must also possess the other good properties, which render it a valuable article. But the in- verse of this does not hold, because the condition of the sheep, dust and sweat, moist and musty fodder, frequently the soaked state of the fleece, &c., may give to the staple a faulty appearance, without affecting. the goodness of the wool, or being injurious for the whole life time of the an- imal, bs es The wool itself appears, in the staple, much shorter than it really is, in its extended state, because by its curl it is'very much contracted. The smaller and more regular are the bends of the single threads, the more it allows itself to be stretched out, far beyond the length of the staple, indeed, io double the unstretched length of the same.— Such we call wool of a short contracted staple, and such as scarcely allows itself to be stretched to half its length, or yet less, wool of a long extended staple.” “The staple itself must approach a cylindrical shape, when it is well formed, and be round and smoothly termi- nated, (blunt,) on the upperend. ‘The staple often appears of greater circumference, that is, more extensive, than it really is, while a stronger and larger staple in extent is fre- quently composed of a number of small ones.” _ * A clear, true wool, which is valued above all, is that in which the strands of ihe staples lie capers to each oth- 180 PROPERTIES OF WOOL. er, because the threads, (fibres) are of equal fineness, and form. ~On the contrary, if the staple comes out strikingly pointed, so that it ends with a hairy point, this shows that many hairs (fibres) do not reach’ the top, either becausé they are shorier, or because they have an irregular ‘growth, and on this amount, the single strands do not lie’ near each other. Such uneven grown wool is called untrue; not clear and causes many difficulties in’ the manufacture. ‘Hence we consider this peculiarity as Ais the: principal defects of wool.” “If the points of the staple stand out very far, we say that the wool is pointed. If, besides, they are underneath pretty strong, and many stick out far, then the surface of the fleece has astiff appearance like a reed, which is like- wise a fault.” — ‘If, on the contrary, the staple is thicker and stronger above than below, then too, the single fibres are coarser above than below, and thus it is not fitted for an even yarn.” 5 The curling of the upper end of the staple, by which small knobs arise, is also a defect because then the woolly fibres are not of equal length and fineness.” ‘‘ When the wool is curled more on one place than on another, and many staples also stand upright, while some are blunt, and others again pointed, this then is a mark of the great unevenness of the wool, and the surface of the fleece maintains a bushy appearance. It sometimes hap- pens, with sheep of very fine, but somewhat long and soft wool, when they are poorly fed. . ‘Further, ihe staple must stand upright. Itis defec- tive, when the wool on the back of the sheep parts and hangs down loose on the sides.* It then not only wants” the necessary compactness, but it is also often washed out by rain, on the back, and thus becomes rough, harsh, and coarse pointed.” “Generally a fleece should not open itself, but present itself more clesed ; the former is always a sign of a thin state of the wool.” i ‘‘ Much as a closed fleece is derived, the surface of the *This refers especially to Merinos ; for with the peculiar long wooled races of sheep of the lowlands of England and Germany, usually the wool more hangs than it stands up. PROPERTIES OF WOOL. 181 same must not appear like a board, because thew eran the : staple e is too large and flat and the high degree of fine- ness is is lost to the woolly fibres. The fleece must more re- semble'a, soft, elastic cushion.” “lf the wool appears, on parting it on the body of the animal, as a uniformly woven cloth, and many staples are 1 pparently joined into one whole, as itis said, the wool is full, andis not therefore of less value ; or when the staple, on closer examination, shows continual indentations across its whole breadth, it is approved; for such are always signs of evenness, purity and compactness of the fleece.” “Tf the surface is not wholly smooth, but is covered with little soft knobs, (hard ones they must not be,) as if with pearls, then this shows a great softness of the points, which is approved. Itis called bedewed, and also cauli« flower staple. Wool is called strongly marked, when the curves of the single fibres are very high and perceptible, but are uniform. But if the curves are uneven, sometimes small and some- times large, and many of the small ones run together again into the greater, and twist the sirands together in particular places, so that they appear winding at these points like a corkscrew, then the wool is called twisted. This is a worse fault, because twisted wool cannot be well spun on the spin- ning machines, and does not produce smooth cloth. We must therefore labor, to the utmost, to counteract this fault which usually affects the withers of the sheep between the shoulder-blades. «If the particular fibres, strands and staples stand apart from each other, without showing much dependence on each other, than it is distinguished by the term empty hol- low staple; and if the whole fleece is thus conditioned, a hollow fleece. Sheep which are thus affected, in general, have only a little wool. The faults of being ‘stranded or twisted are often connected with it. «When the strands in many places lie closer together than in others, and the curves of the particular fibres are very, different i in form and size, the wool is called tangled, and ina yet higher degree, felted. ‘This fault may sorne- times arise out of a disease, a sickly, weak state of thé sheep; and, besides, is probably an original tendency. In © a anblemished fleece, nota trace of feltis tobe met. [In ~ 182 - PROPERTIES OF WOOL. such a fleece], the fibres of wool belonging to a staple should be so perfectly closed together, that the particular staples, from the surface of the fleece to the foundation, may be fully separated from each other, without the partic- ular fibres running up across, or in streaks, from one staple to another. Sp, ‘ ‘The better sort of wool [i. e., that which is produced by the various breeds of pure Merino,] shows, after a full year’s growth, at the time of the usual shearing of wool, either short compressed staples, (1, 14, or at the highest, 2 inches long,) which are small, blunt, and perfectly cylin- drical, but well rounded above, which form a close, nearly even, or cauliform surface of the fleeces ; or if it is long stapled, slightly curved, it is of a more sleek character.* The staples, in this case, are 3 inches or above, long, and do not end roundly, but more in a pointed form, and yet without having any faulty points. ‘The short stapled, as it is called, is the card-wool, as the long staple is the comb- wool; the first is used for making cloths; the second for ~ smooth fabrics [i.e., worsted goods. |” The above very particular description of well-formed staples, and of those which are defective, is inserted in or- der to show what should be the aim of the breeder, and what defects are produced by mismanagement. Defective staples are ordinarily produced by improper crosses of va- rious breeds, by disease, by want of a regular supply of good food and shelter, hard usage, &c. On the best breeds of coarse-wooled sheep, and also on the varigus breeds of pure Merino, the staple is generally very perfect. Hence, by selecting and adhering to any one valuable breed of sheep, whose qualities have been long in- bred, with good management, a good staple of wool may ever be produced with certainty. | Tae The qualities most desirable in wool, whether fine or coarse, are, trueness, firmness, elasticity, pliability, soft- ness, and the spiral curve. The two first mentioned quali- ties are the natural result of a regular supply of good food and suitable shelter. With these precautions, Saxony and Silesia produce wools, which are superior to the best * This refers to long fine wool produced by crosses of the Merino with long coarse wooled sheep. YOLE, 183 which is produced ‘in Spain, by the migration of flocks, at different periods of the year, so as to provide a supply, at all times, of fresh pasture, and a temperature which is sel- dom very hot, and never very cold. , ’ Wool is generally injured, in some measure, by being kept on hand for a long time before it is manufactured ; it becomes harsher and less pliable, and is sometimes injured by moths. HM RS Sith SECTION XXVI. VOLE... This substance is also called eke, in some parts of the United States; and with much propriety, as it is continu- ally eking or oozing out of the skin. ‘The words eke, and yolk or yoke, as itis frequently pronounced, appear to be _ derived from the Saxon word eac, which in their language is pronounced e-oke. So that between the spelling and the pronunciation, the two words eke and yoke or yolk are made out of the same word. In the present state of the English language, the word eke seems to define this secre- tion of the skin with propriety, and the words yolk or yoke seem to be the Yorkshire dialect, for the same thing. The yolk of wool is a kind of soap, which is composed of potash and an adhesive oil, and the potash is supersaturated with this oil, and to it are added acetate of potash, muriate of potash, and lime in small quantities. That it is principally a soap, in which the alkali is supersaturated with oil, any persons may convince themselves by putting some alkali, either potash or soda, into some rain water, and washing some eky wool init. The eke will be turned into a per- fect soap, and the wool made clean with the greatest ease. _ The yolk of wool appears to be useful for three purposes. First—lt preserves the softness and elasticity of the wool. Hence, that kind of yolk which is most abundantly saturated with the adhesive oil, is best. It will then adhere to the ends of the wool, as well as to that which is near the - 184 YOLK. skin, and every part of the wool will be kept lively; whereas, - if the yolk is almost nothing but a mere soap, as seems io — be the case with the yolk of some kinds of sheep, it will be washed by the rain out of the ends,of the wool, and such wool will become harsh or dead. é' Second—The yolk forms a defence against the weather. If it is of such a quality that it will not “be washed out by the rain, it will be for the sheep a complete coat of mail, and the severest storms of rain or snow will seldom wet through a fleece which is well covered with such yolk. In “Scotland, after the lambs have been weaned in au- tumn, it has been customary to milk the ewes a few weeks, and from this milk to make a quantity of butter; and then _ mixing this butter with tar, two or three pounds of butter with one of tar, they prepare a kind of artificial yolk, with which they smear their sheep, in order to defend them against their wintry rains and snows. If they find it profit- able to take so much pains to make this artificial yolk, how carefully should ihe breeder of Merinos so breed them to- gether as to preserve the proper quantity and quality of the yolk upon his sheep; and one very especial cause for pre- serving Merinos pure, is the preservation of the quantity and quality of their yolk. Third—there is very little taste to the yoik, and yet it appears to be, in some measure, a defence against flies and worms. ‘lhe sheep tick and louse seem to be the only an- imals which can live comfortably in it. No fly of North - America will lay its eggs in pure yolk of wool of the Merino. It is only when the yolk is mixed with blood, mucus or some other animal matter, that the fly will deposit its eggs in it. And after the wool is shorn, it will not be disturbed by moths, so long as a moderate portion of the yolk is left in it. This, to the wool buyer, is a very use eful property of yolk; and he ever buys the wool, making proper allowance for yolk and dirt; and buys it readily when it is black with yolk, knowing it to be good. And therefore, a large proportion of yolk on wool is’ disadvantageous, only with relation to the expense of transporting it to market. On ahealthy Merino, the yolk should flow like oil, near- | ly or quite to the ends of the wool. In such case the yolk will defend the wool from the influence of the weather, INFLUENCE OF SOIL. 185 and prevent dead ends of wool. The original breeds of Spanish Merinos are very perfect in this respect; but a mixture of the Escurial or Saxon breed, with other breeds of Merinos, frequently makes a race on which the wool often appears clapped, mashed down, and the yolk is im- perfectly formed, and becomes inspissated, before it reach - es the ends of the wool. .The consequence is, that the ends of the wool are deprived of yolk, and an abundance of dead ends are produced. Such crosses should be avoided. Mildness of temperature contributes to the secretion of the greatest quantity of yolk, and the truest fibre of wool ; and therefore in northern climates, both a plentiful supply of good food, and sufficient shelters, should be provided, especially for fine wooled sheep, in winter. . When a flock of sheep is a mixture of several breeds of Merinos, the color of the yolk, with other points, will be an useful guide for the selection of those for breeders, which appear most desirable. More yolk is usually found upon thorough bred Merinos than upon those which have been crossed with coarse wooled sheep; and hence an abundance of yolk is evera favorable point upon the Merino ram. we SECTION XXVII. INFLUENCE OF SOIL, FOOD & CLIMATE UPON THE FLEECE. INFLUENCE OF SOIL. The fleece, or covering of the sheep, is subject to the immediate influence of soil, food, and climate, or weath- er. Even the fibres of the same fleece vary in different parts of the year, from the same influences. _ When sheep graze upon chalky soils, as in some parts of England, the wool becomes harsh, and is wanting in ,pliability, in consequence of the direct influence of the lime upon their wool by their lying upon it. The lime does not act as a corrosive upon the wool; but it absorbs 186 INFLUENCE OF FOOD. the yolk, and thereby renders it brittle and harsh. It is possible that al! limestone soils which are but thinly coy- ered with herbage, may have this effect in a degree; but such soils are extremely healthy for sheep. Lime is an indispensable constituent of all wholesome grasses; and whether it is received into the stomachin water, or in grass, or as a condiment, is immaterial; the lacteal ducts. of a healthy sheep will receive into the system no more lime than what is necessary for the health and well-being of the animal; and, consequently, the quality of the wool cannot be impaired by its being in their food. . In order to prevent the influence of lime upon the fleeces of sheep grazing upon limestone soils, sheep, having am abundance of yolk, should be selected and bred upon them. With this precaution, the hilly limestone soils of America are the best which can be selected for growing fine wool. some of the finest and sofiest wooled flocks in the United Siates, are pastured upon limestone lands without injury to the softness of their fleeces. , INFLUENCE OF FOOD. The food of the sheep has an immediate and strong in- fluence upon the fibre of wool. Mr. Youatt remarks that. ‘* the staple of wool, like every other part of the sheep, must increase in length or bulk when the animal has an abun- dance of nutriment; and; on the other hand, the secretion which forms the wool must decrease like every other, when sufficient nourishment is not afforded.” Dr. Parry, of Bath, in England, savs, ‘ the fineness of a sheep’s fleece of a given breed is within certain limits in- versely as its fatness, and perhaps also as the quickness with which it grows fat. A sheep which is fat, has com- paratively coarse wool, and one which is lean, either from the want of food or from disease, has the finest wool: and the very same sheep may, at different times, according to these circumstances, have fleeces of all the intermediate qualities, from extreme fineness to comparative coarseness.” The influence of quantity of food upon the fibre of wool, has been exemplified in the Paular breed. One hundred years ago, the pile of this breed was considered to be equab in fineness to that of the Escurial, or any other the finest in Spain. But in later years, their proprietors became pos- INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE. . ay _ sessed of some privileges of pasturage exclusively belong- ing to this flock, such as feeding in the finest pastures in its way to the mountains, and the pile of their wool increased in size so as to be only on a par with other transhumantes flocks.—(Letier from Edward Sheppard to Sir John Sin- GB) 62: ) _ Hence, on the low rich lands of England and other coun- tries, have originated breeds of sheep having coarse and very heavy fleeces. On the other hand, if the food is deficient in quantity or quality, the skin, as’well as other parts of the body, will be debilitated, and a smaller fibre of wool will be produced, and sometimes none at all. In such case itis said that the sheep has the pelt-rot; for the skin becomes too weak to produce wool, and the yolk isimperfectly formed, and pre- sents the appearance of a mere scurf. These circumstances show, that in order to produce wool of an uniform fibre, whether fine or coarse, the sheep should be kept as near as may be in even good condition throughout the year. bau | In Spain, the Merino is provided with a plentiful supply of upland pasture at all seasons of the vear; but their long journies, and continual breeding, prevent any excessive accumulation of fat, and the best of wools are produced. Hence, in producing the finest qualities of wool, the Me- rino should be supplied with short pasture, upon dry hilly lands; but in producing long coarse combing wools, an abundance of highly nutritious feed will be most suitable. INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE. A dry mild climate or temperature is, doubtless, most favorable to the production of the most perfect wool. | The sheep is ever impatient of the extremes of heat or cold. In summer, it seeks) the highest hills and coolest shades ; in winter, the vallies and places of refuge from cold and storms. - The Spanish custom of driving sheep from the south of Spain, in spring, into the mountainous regions farther north, and then back again to the south in autumn, origina- ted in the necessity of providing food for them, in conse- “quence of the severe annual drouth, which takes place on the southern plains of Spain in summer. By this means, 188 INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE. they are kept on cool uplands on mountains in summer, and in winter, in a temperature which rarely falls below 48 degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer. But this custom has shown conclusively thata moderate, not very warin temperature, will produce the: most per- fect wool: and it is in no wise improbable that it has been the means of perfecting the Merino race of sheep, the most perfect wool-growing race which has yet been exhibited. In this matter we cannot, with propriety, compare the sheep with furred animals; for their anatomical structure, food, and mode of life, are entirely different from that of the sheep. We can only reason from experience, from a view of the effects which climate has upon the sheep in different parts of the world. If the sheep of the temperate zones be carried to the tor- rid zone, the wool becomes, on such a sheep, thin and coarse, and finally degenerates into short hair: even if the change does not take place to its full extent on the individ- ual, it will infallibly do so in the course of a few genera- tions. —( Mr. Hunter.) On the other hand, if the same breed of sheep be taken to very high northern latitudes, the various breeds propa- gated in those countries show, that a mixture of hair will supervene with the wool, and ihe wool generally becomes coarse and harsh, instead of finer and soiter like fur. And in spring, after the sheep is first shorn, when the skin is most exposed to cold, the largest bulk of fibre is immediately produced, and the fibre diminishes in size af- ter the fleece has grown, so as to produce that temperature of the skin which is most congenial to the sheep. These facts all go to show, that a climate of medium warmih, a temperate climate, will produce the most perfect fleece—that which contains the smallest proportion of hair. In such a climate, the sheep is most comfortable and heal- thy; the action of the glands of its skin is most regular, and produces fibres the most uniform in size, and of the softest texture. If, then, in such a climate, the sheep can be kept as near as possible in the same condition as to health and flesh, and without exposure to the extremes of heat, or cold, or mois- ture, the greatest possible perfection of wool may be ob- iained. INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE. 189 In the northern parts of Africa and southern parts of ‘Spain, fine wools have been produced for ages, without any very special care, in a climate not much differing in warmth from that of the southern parts of the United States. In such a climate, by pasturing sheep in summer on highlands well provided with shades, and in winter on lower hills, the sheep may be accommodated with a temperature the most desirable for producing fine wools. In the northern parts of the temperate zones, doubtless, _. sheep will produce the heaviest. fleeces; for in such lati- tudes, the largest fleeces are necessary for their protection. But in more southern latitudes, with the same care, they will produce the best wools. Hence, in high northern latitudes, vallies and low ran- ges of hills are best adapted for wool-growing; and shel- ters will be necessary in winter, and also even in summer, in cool, moist northern climates, like those of England and Saxony, in order to prevent the growth of hair, (or jar, as it is called,) to which the skin of the fine-wooled sheep has a strong tendency in such climates. By means of shelters, proper selection and management, the wool of the Merino has been greatly improved in the climate of Saxony—a climate which is entirely unnatural oe ae | : As it is less difficult to provide against the extremes of heat in the southern parts of the temperate zones, than against those of cold and moisture in the northern parts of them, with good management, doubtless, fine-wooled sheep may be reared advantageously in any part of the temper- ate zones, on suitable localities. But the sheep has a constitution which is so extremely pliable that it will continually endeavor to adapt itself to the climate, food and soil where it is placed: therefore, if any breed be placed in situations which are not congenial to it, it will be only by special care that such breed can be preserved in its purity and full perfection for any great length of time. Hence, in Prussian Silesia, the lempera- iure of their sheep-stalls is regulated by the thermometer, -in order to provide such a temperature as is best adapted to ihé growth of fine wool upon the Merino. a fed, - ot {90 BREEDING. SECTION XXVIII. BREEDING. SOF LIL Fi Le LEAL La VEGIE?. mm | ol Fi ES etAWN < f ‘ i) 4.) Me NY pes! YM aes HAPS AO PSS ‘ BSS POINTS OF THE SHEEP. A—Forehead. B--Face. O—Nose. C—Neck. D--Shoulder. E —Bosom. F—Brisket. G—Fore-flank. H—Chine. J--Loin. K— Rump. L-—-Leg. M—Hip. N—Flank. When sheep have, for a long period, been bred in and in, or with others so nearly like them, that their progeny will, regularly and successively, possess points and quali- ties which are peculiar and very nearly similar, they are ealled a breed, or race. The breeds of sheep are improved principally with refer- ence to two great objecis—wool and mutton. The breeder acts upon the general principle, that “like produces like.’ But in order to realize the benefits of this general law of nature, he should possess a very correct knowledge of the structure of the animals to be improved, together with an equally perfect acquaintance with their qualities and habits. He should also bear in mind that the above rule holds good more generally in breeding down- ward than in breeding upward. . : Bakewell, Ellman and others, have well defined the noints of a good mutton sheep ; and with respect to form. ¢ BREEDING. 191 the New Leicester breed may be regarded as a perfect mo- del. With reference to wool. the Merino may be regarded as a perfect model. But as extraordinary fattening proper- ties cannot be united with the growth of fine wool on any one breed of sheep, it will be necessary to take a view of oape kind aby itself. MUTTON SHEEP. What is requisite in a well formed sheep, is, thi the proportion of flesh and fat should be greatest on those parts which are most valuable, and that the bones should be com- paratively small, or only of a medium size. And this, not because that bone detracts any thing from the growth of flesh or fat—for it is mostly composed of ingredients differ- ent from those of flesh or fat—but because it has been found, by experience, that animals, having comparatively small well formed bones, most readily take on flesh and fat. Mr. Arthur Young, in a tour through some of the agri- cultural counties of England, visited Mr. Bakewell, and ex- plains the general principles which guided Mr. Bakewell in breeding a beast for the butcher—and they are as follows: First—* In all his exertions, his aim was, to obtain that _ breed which, with a given amount of food, would give the most profitable meat; that in which the proportion of the useful meat to the quantity of offal is the greatest.” Second—* Points of the beast. T’he points are those where the valuable joints lie, viz: the rump, the hip, the back, the ribs, and after these, the flank. But the belly, legs, head and neck, should be light; for ifa beast has a disposition to fatten and be heavy in these, it will be found a deduction from the more valuable points. A beast’s back should be square, flat, and straight, or if there is rising, it should be from a disposition. to fatten and swell about the rump and hip-bones ; and the belly should be quite straight ; for if it swells, it shows weight in a bad point. He prefers to have the carcass well made, and showing a disposition to fatten in the valuable points. So far on seeing.” | Third—* Mr. Bakewell, to judge whether a beast has the right disposition to fatten, examines by feeling. His friend, Mr. Cully, who has had an infinite number of beasts pass through his hands, agrees entirely with Mr. Bakewell in this circumstance, and when with him in Norfolk and Suf- 192 _ BREEDING. folk, was surprised to find that lean bullocks and sheep were bought there by the eye only. So absolutely neces- sary is the hand in choosing either, that they both agreed, that if they must trust the eye in the light, or the hand in the dark, they would not hesitate a moment in preferring the latter. The form of the bone in sheep is quite hidden ; jt is the hand alone that can tell whether the back is flat and broad, and free from ridge in the back-bone, (as it should be in all breeds ;) or can examine correctly, if the other points are as they should be. The disposition to fat- ten is discovered only by feeling. Speaking of sheep par- ticularly, the points to examine are the same as in the ox ; flatness, breadth of back, a spreading barrel carcass, and by no means curved and hanging. The essential is the carcass, and a disposition to faiten in the carcass, and per- haps to have the least tallow on the sides.” ‘in explanation of these principles, it may be observed, that the head should be small, short, and thin, that is, nar- row in the forehead, both because it contains little flesh, and also, that it may not cause difficult parturition. Extraordinary powers for travelling are not necessary to the mutton sheep, and, therefore, the legs should be com- paratively short, but well formed, and standing wide apart both before and behind, so as to give room for a well-form- ed chest and abdomen. With legs comparatively short, the neck also should be. With such legs, a short neck will have length sufficient for the animal in grazing. ‘T’he neck should be thin toward the head, in order to avoid coarseness of form; but it should be thick toward the shoulder and chest, in order to obtain that breadth of chine, and capacity of chest, which are necessary to a good constitution and fattening proper- ties. ‘The drooping neck—the thin ewe neck—is rarely or never connecied with the quick accumulation of outward fat: itis usually an indication of weakness of condition, and although not the first, is one of the ‘most unerring proofs of deterioration. If the head of the sheep be light, there will be no necessity that the withers should rise high, in order to give extra room for the insertion of muscles for the support of the head. Hence, a rising at the withers is a bad point: it indicates a large, heavy head, and is inva- BREEDING. 193 riably accompanied with a chest eho is narrow, and in- compatible with a disposition to fatten readily. The bones of the back should be straight, from the rump to the neck, and the vertebre thick and short, soas to bie the» short ribs near to the hips, thus forming a short strong back. ° The back-bone of the horse contains 18 vertebrae, to which are attached 18 ribs on either side. For this'animal, length of carcass is necessary, in order to make room for large lungs, and the insertion of powerful muscles, on the action of which its speed depends. The ox and the sheep are less active, and have each only 13 ribs on each side; but the slightest inspection of a well-formed sheep will show how much more horizontally its ribs spring from the spine, than do those of the horse, or even of the ox, and, consequently, its chest is rounder, and proportionately more capacious. ‘On the roundness and capacity of the chest, depend’ tha size and power of the heart and lungs; and in proportion to their size, is the power of converting food into nourish- ment; and the great cardinal point in animals designed for fattening, is, that the chest should not only be round, but aiso large in proportion to the size of the abdomen, and oth- er parts of the body. Within a given circumference, a circular form compri- ses a greater bulk than any other possible shape: it gives the most room for the laying onward and inwardly of mus- cles and fat, and for large lungs and abdominal regions, and for the proper expansion of the lungs, and permianie mo- tion of the bowels. The food is concocted in the abdomen, and nourishment is there eliminated from it; but this nourishment (or car- _bon,) cannot be used in the formation of muscle and fat, until it has passed through the lungs, and has been duly oxygenized by them. ‘The lungs have a two-fold purpose to accomplish: one is, to produce warmth for the animal system ; and the other is, to communicate oxygen to the carbon, which is contained in the blood, so that it may ae- complish the metamorphosis of the tissues of muscle and fat; may form and preserve them. If, then, the lungs aré sufficiently large, so as to accomplish both these purposes at all times, a due proportion of the carbon, which is recei- ved into. the system in food, can be fully used i in the forma- 194 BREEDING. ; tion of flesh and fat, as well as in the production of heat; and be the lungs ever so large, only so much carbon will be used in the production of heat in a quiet, healthy animal, as will be sufficient to preserve the even temperature of the body. . | But if the lungs be proportionably small, as they are in flat-sided animals, too large a proportion of the carbon will be wasted in the production of heat, especially in cold ' weather; and it will be only in warm weather, that such animals can gain flesh and fat rapidly; and at no time so rapidly as round, large chested animals. Hence, as a general rule, round, large chested animals require the least food, and possess the greatest strength, according to their size. On this account, the horizontal projection of the ribs from the spine, and the consequent roundness and greater capacity of the chest, are reckoned among the most important points of the sheep. Doubtless Mr. Bakewell clearly perceived the importance of these points in a well formed animal; and hence we see that the New Leicester breed possesses a broader and larger chest, in proportion to its size, than any other breed, and, in this particular point, excels to this day, so as to render its form superior to that of all other breeds of mutton sheep. In accordance with these principles, the chest should be broad and deep; the back and loins broad, and the rump both long and broad, thereby securing large abdominal regions, and large hind quarters—the most valuable part of the sheep. The lower line of the belly should be nearly level or parallel with that of the back. A pot belly apparently gives the most room ; but it indicates weakness of the mus- cles of the abdomen, and an inability to afford its contents that support and pressure, which are necessary for the proper discharge of the digestive functions, and a tendency to increase of offal at the expense of more valuable points. ‘-A general squareness of frame is indicative of large muscles, particularly of the quarters; and a large devel- opement of flesh is pretty sure to be accompanied by a disposition to fatten ; but for profitable feeding it is es- sential that their qualities should be developed early—con- stituting early maturity.” A soft mellow feeling of the skin and parts beneath it, is justly regarded as an extremely favorable point. It de- ‘ ° BREEDING. 195 notes that healthy condition of the skin and the adipose membranes underneath it, which is necessary to all ani- mals possessing good fattening propensities. ‘s But,” “says Mr. Sparrow, “there are various points that are sought after, not because of the particular value of those points, but because they are evidence of other valuable qualities. Thus, in the South Down breed, small bones are esteemed, as they are qualities which are found connected with fattening propensities. Black muzzles and legs are also valued, probably because.they denote the good constitution and hardihood of the animal. We must, however, take care, lest in carrying these points to an ex- treme, we neglect other valuable qualities.” Hence, as most breeds of animals which possess extra- ordinary fattening propensities, are apt to be somewhat deficient in their prolificacy and milking properties, each of these qualities should receive its due attention. In order to improvea breed of sheep, or preserve the good points and qualities of those which are already im- proved, it is necessary that they should be ever well fed and sheltered. Poverty, and undue exposure to cold, wet weather, have a direct tendency to produce deformity and disease. dail Upon the pidctical part of breeding for oe Mr. Spooner remarks as follows: “The improvement of a flock by means of breeding, requires very considerable and long continued care. “The qualities of both parents must be considered, both with a view of correcting bad, as well as perpetuating good qualities.” “In breeding animals of a pure kind, the princ‘pal rule to be observed is, to breed from the very best of both sex- es ; to cull the faulty ones every year, saving only the fe- inale lambs for the future flock, that are as free from de- fects as possible. Of course the flock must be kept to its proper size; but, year by year, the finest animals should be selected, ‘until, in the course of time, the flock will con- sist entirely of thei. “And if a superior ram of the same breed can be procured from another flock, by all means make use ot it, and give it the preference, if it is equal to our own. “The stronger the resemblance there is in the qualties © 196 BREEDING. Ps of both parents, supposing those qualities are good, the more likely is it that the offspring will be perfect. | “Then again with regard to size; animals that grow most in stature, have the greatest developement of bone, are in fact the coarsest. In improving the flock, such ani- mals are avoided, not on account of their size, but their coarseness ; and then in the course of time, the larger sheep having been drafted, the flogk consists of the smaller and kinder animals. ‘i ‘The offspring of some animals is very unlike them- selves. It is, therefore, a good precaution to try the young males with a few females, the qualities of whose produce has been already ascertained. By this means we shall know the sort of stock they get, and the description of fe- males to which they are best adapted.’ (Seabright on the art of improving domestic animals.) As to horns, as a general rule, if any breed has naturally horns, as the Merino, it is best 10 breed from those which have well-shaped horns ; for if polled rams of such breeds are used, their progeny are very apt to have an unusual growth of hoofs, which need very frequent paring, and are apt to turn up so as to cramp the fleshy part of the foot, and produce foot rot. Moreover, ihe growth of horns on such sheep, does not appear to lessen the growth of wool, or propensity to fattening. It is supposed, with good reason, that Bakewell, in form- ing the New Leicester breed, made use only of the long wooled sheep of different flocks of the same race of sheep, which were in his neighborhood ; and itis certain that Ell- man used none but the pure South Down in perfecting his flock of that breed. These are strong precedents to show that the best mode of improving races of sheep for mut- ton, is to improve each kind by itself. . In Spain, each breed of Merinos has been bred and im- proved by itself, breeding in and in for ages, and the best of wool has been produced. ‘The number of sheep in each eavana being very large, continual changes of affinity are made, and no detriment results from this course of breed- ing. And in Silesia and Saxony, the wools of the pure, unmixed Escurials have been improved, so as almost to de- fy competition. fas These numerous precedents afford an argument siill BREEDING. 197 more weighty, that the best wool can be produced by im- proving each breed by itself. FINE WOOLED SHEEP. For fine wooled sheep, the form of the Merino may be considered a model ; and though the various breeds of Me- rinos differ much in their appearance, the forms of every breed are well adapted to travelling. Being compelled to travel annually, in Spain, 800 or “900 miles, their forms have been moulded to this purpose, and the production of fine wool. They are keptat breeding or travelling nearly the whole year; are truly working animals ; ; and, doubtless the want of hardiness of the fine Re oled sheep of Saxony, may be imputed, insome measure, to the great confine- ment to which they are subjected in that country. Hence, in breeding the Merino, it is necessary that we adhere to the forms and other peculiarities which distin- guish the Merino from the muttonsheep. The best speci- mens of each breed of Merinos are well enough for all practical purposes; and these best specimens of the Meri- no, are only an approximation towards the best forms of the perfect mution sheep. As the Merinosin the United States do not travel; are not working animals, as in Spain, we should be cautious not to mould them into the form of the perfect mutton sheep ; else they will be too strongly in- clined to take on flesh and fat, andthe quality of their wool will become inferior, both coarser and harsher. And if we breed for size, we shall be in danger of the same re- sults, without increasing the profits ; as large animals con- sume a proportionably greater amountof food. Moreover, small animals have a larger surface (skin), according to their weight, than larger ones, and, therefore can more readily produce the same weight, and a superior quality of wool. On the other hand, as the weaker and more unhealthy animals of any breed of sheep are apt to produce a smaller fibre of wool, than those which are strong and healthy, we should carefully abstain from breeding with such weak or unhealthy animals, or the flock will become less hardy. The health and strength of the flock should never be sac- rificed, to any refinement in breeding. In breeding Merinos, it is particularly necessary, in all 198 BREEDING. northern climates, to select well formed animals of both sexes for breeders; the finer the wool, the more perfect should be the form. | In each of the original breeds, time has adjusted its dif- ferent properties to each other, and these should not be disturbed, by unsuitable crosses, with other breeds. The great desideratum is, to breed from such aaimals, as will pepetuate ihe superior quality of the fleece ; and for that purpose, I shall insert the following remarks, which were communicated tothe Commissioner of Patents, of the United States, by Charles L. Fleischman, Esq., and insert- ed by said commissioner in his annual report for the year 1847, relative to Spanish and German rules for breeding fine wooled sheep. ‘** According to Petri, who travelled in Spain, with the view of collecting information upon wool culture, the Span- ish consider Merino sheep, with folds, as a sign of an im- proved and thorough breed. More or less folds upon an animal, give proof of the greater or less qaantity of wool ; but these folds must be covered withas fine and gooda wool as itis on the adjacent parts of the body.. The Spaniards kill all those lambs which are born with few folds, and fine short hair, or almost naked, because experience has taught them, that the offspring of such animals bear a fine wool, but produce, by degrees, animals with light, flabby fleeces, which gradually lose the folds, and become thinner and thinner in the fleece, and are consequently less advanta- geous to the wool-grower than those sheep which are pro- duced from lambs with plenty of folds, and a cover of fine, soft hair. ‘When we examine such a sheep, after the fleece has its full growth, the wool must be, on all parts of the body, even in fineness; the folds must be covered with as fine wool as on the shoulders and sides. “ Twenty years ago [in Germany] bucks with a smooth tight skin, which had extremely fine wool, were considered the best; but their fleeces were light in weight, and hada tendency to run into twist. The German wool-grower had to come back to the original form of rams, with a loose skin, many folds and heavy fleeces, and since then they have succeeded in uniting, with a great quanity of wool, a high degree of fineness, This kind of heavy folded ani- -BSEEDING. | 199 mals are now considered the best for breeding and wool- bearing. A ae nt | . ‘ : “The lambs of the Electoral flocks of Saxony have been of that smooth kind just mentioned, and produced the Elec- toral wool, which was found to be similar to that grown in Spain from the Merinos-estanies, which is but a small quan- ‘tity when compared with the clips from the transhumanies, ‘the flocks of which generaily bear heavy fleeces. «The common country sheep, on the continent of Eu- rope, have no foids, and they get them only when they are crossed with full-blooded Merino bucks, whereby the fleece becomes thicker and closer. “Only to the Merino belongs the close and thick se fleece which, in respect to their size, produces the greatest quantity of wool. The folds are not a necessary condition of fineness, but of quantity, and are peculiar to the Spanish full-blood Merino. Almost all superior Merinos have folds upon the ribs, where the finest wool grows, and the wool of these animals is of such an uniform character that the folds are only discernible after the animal is shorn. *‘ Petri observed that the lambs which bring into the world fine soft hair, and a great number of folds, and whose tails are, in appearance, shortened by the large folds around them, bear the indication of great softness and quantity of wool. } bi ‘‘ Experience has shown'that only thorough blood should be employed in the improvement of stock. Sometimes, in an inferior flock, an animal is found which has all the qualities of a super Electoral; but such an. animal will produce lambs inferior to himself, and full of the faults of his original parents. | sf ae _ “Tt is likewise to be noticed thatthe powerful, thick, and rich wooled bucks more strongly transmit their peculiari- ties, than the thin and fine-wooled; so that it is easier to increase the weight of wool of a highly refined flock, than to bring it to a yet greater degree of fineness. **We must also aim at the production of a wool of an uniform character, and the growth of a staple free from faults; since, in most of our sheep-folds, we now find, at the same time, long and short, coarse and fine wool, thick and thin, slight curled and uncurled fleeces. In order to attain gradually to an entirely uniform kind of wool in a * 200 BREEDING. sheep-fold, according to the opinion of judicious sheep- breeders, we should make use of bucks of an uniform char- acter, that is, of equally long or equally short wool, &c., according as any one, guiding himself by local circumstan- ces, Biches to produce a longer or shorter wool; and not, as happens at the present day, choose bucks of different kinds of fleeces for coupling in one and the same flock of ewes. The bucks must be chosen from the sheep-folds of exactly the same kind of growth and formation of staple, and the wool must, at the same time, be of equal fineness in the hair, on all parts of the body; that is, exactly even; for only with such can we reckon on continuing the blood and securing a good stock in future. ‘The transition from one variety to another, when it becomes necessary, must be made only gradually; consequently, every one should avoid rapid transition at every coupling. The choice of the buck must be made in the months of March and April, or at least before the shearing, by one who is a judge in such matters, with circumspection and prudence ; but not as is frequently done shortly before the crossipg—by the shepherd, who then, even if he under- stands it, can make no proper choice. ‘“ Whoever makes the production of a highly fine wool the object of his breeding, will finally obtain a flock, each of which bears scarcely one than one pound of wool; but, on the contrary, whoever merely directs himself to secure a rich weight of wool, will, by richer nutriment, obtain sheep which will produce four pounds and over of wool. Jn an economical respect, it is, in most cases, advisable to avoid both extremes. ** But, above all, in order to obtain a sufficiently profita- ble sheep- -fold, whether it be by the production of a highly fine wool, or by the quantity of wool, one must be careful, and one must indeed know what he would have, and not waver and change the wool in his experiments; he must know what he would have, and that by proper means.”’ POINTS OF THE MERINO RAM. The different breeds of Merinus differ widely in the pro- portions of their various parts ; but on each breed the vari- ons parts should be rightly proportioned to each other. Therefore, in breeding, we should not endeavor to alter the ‘BREEDING. 201 general form of any breed; but only to select and breed from the best specimens of the kind which we cultivate.— With this view, the following rules will be applicable to every breed : The head should be of a medium size and length for the breed, but wide between the eyes; the eye full and bright ; the nose convex, and covered with fine soft hair; the ans large, but not too near the eye or face; the neck short, and oad where it sits on the body, well rounded, and gradu- ally tapering, and nearly straight from, the withers to the head; the frame compact, but not over large; the bosom broad and full; broad shoulders; the back broad, level, straight, and ehirt for the breed ; hed the top of the atmal: der-blades on a level with the back-bone; the hind quar- ters full, and round at the rump, and ihe flesh deep and full between. the thighs (or in the twist) ; the tail set well up; the belly round and full, but not over large; the legs strong, upright, and of a ei ciues size and length for the breed, and:standing rather wide apart both behind and be- fore, so as to give room fora chest which is well rounded, but proportionaily smaller than that of the perfect mutton sheep; sound hoofs; the testicles large, and well covered with wool; a large folded, mellow skin, which has a fine carnation hue; a large dewlap is indicative of a heavy fleece, and for that purpose the forehead, belly, and legs should be.well covered with wool; the wooLsoft and com- pact, and as nearly as possible of even fineness, length, and thickness over the whole body; no hair (or jar) intermin- gled with the fleece; the wool well covered with yolk; if the ram has only a moderate quantity of yolk, the ewes— his progeny—may be somewhat deficient in this respect, and the ewe never has too much yolk for the benefit of the fleece. _* The following measures will furnish data by which to judge of the various breeds of Merinos. They are selected from the valuable work of Petri, a highly celebrated writer on sheep, and an admikted: authority, in these matters, in Germany. 202 JOO} YStLouy PEe'T ljsny uy— ALON Ql LEo'T sjenba ‘zo gf Jo punod ue sjenba soyour ey Jo 100j ueisny ty ‘stodnpatoae eee ee ee esse so OME eee ee ee ee eh se ee ea ee see WBY “OWS 9p BIIVIG JO sajuRisyY soUTIO;A "sojUBISY OULLET] [ews eave oe ee ot se eee es ee oo OMY 7 eecee ee ee oe ee Be Oo Oe oe oes TUIBY - eoeen sees e eeeeteceoen 8 ee Oo oo cS 38 . @ oe esce seen ceee Fs «OO oe te seve eevee osce ee ll mm OO Comer! ee ee eeees cane bed peek ww foryse} “agika eet geet eeee wow ~ - ase . he no WP i oY Se el ia Aor . =! —_ me oo pete loraor) bo oo) ie BREEDING. W eeee ee ee ee ee we ee coors ss OMA eoae ce ee 202 ee oe oe Be Oe coos UUY ‘OpeyuRsUuy JO 4903s ayy WOT a "10190 NT ey} JO syr0js oy} Wor, ee ae ee ae ee 848 te Oh Oe oe oe 6H ee OH OD en et oe ee 08 88 08 Se Ce ee co OM ee oe ee ee oe oe we ee oe ee cows OM ence cee eeve seve es ce eees (IS -yoo}s ednojspeny oy} mor eoeee oF OF oe ewe CH FB 28 ee esee tie sees ee ee eee sesh sees B® geese seers eees enue eset S a mo SHO mo on O29 NWF e se e . ° oe) ee (GO eS as Stl 2 8 = —e won 0S COS to be @eor ee eet see eH etceoer ee et sesetese sete sess esese eves saee > one Nw wWWNn-: mer moo MNOS ecece F*F@ seer se eF ees ses sse ovens sees sees eress ones Laney oO. £2 BBD _ w- Hoos’ yo n= tee > = Oo oO, & P* —o” SS ieee Be es a Be st aes mS bo o° . . a . . e . e > ao oOo Wot Be ie Poot ee cc cose Chet ee es sneer cece FF FF CH HF OH ee ee Be esos Distance of the hip- eeece sc@ PF osseetevas sete sees sees oese fone eon oe eo beoe eeene eeeeee e e o- . . ° S ey} JO soureyr *syo0y IW ystued outs p pun wsof ay, FuLN0YS 97QDJ, —SIINSDIUs Weight including wool. USUIUEL - Length from the mouth to the horns. . eeeet seeet seer eses ee se eess eos Length from the horns to the shoulders. Length from the — shoulders to the tail. The whole length. Circumference of the belly. Height of the fore- ey ce Height of the hind- legs. bones from each other. ag fq uyndg u Ub fo suo 1 sys0if woLf UayD? UDLLISNY Ur ‘spaalg ourwayy ysiundy 70.9008 BREEDING IN AND IN. 203 The Infantado breed of Merinos, highly improved by se- lection and good management, is cultivated at Alesuth, in Hungary. ‘Their fleeces are there washed in the nicest possible manner upon the. sheep’s back, and the average weight of their fleeces, as ascertained by personal examina- tion by C. L. Fleischman, and by reference to the bills and books, is as follows : Rams’ fleeces, - - - + 3. Ibs. _ Wethers’ “ . e - - 3% | Ewes’ 66 bad a a - 2k $6 Lambs’ “ a UE a Nee ks SECTION XXIX. BREEDING IN ANDIN. ’ : By breeding in and in is meant, the copulation of indi- viduals of the same family or race, between which there exist near relationship of blood. - In the human family, breeding with too near affinity pro- duces deformity of body and imbecility of mind, and the ‘supreme power has given to man discretion to avoid this evil ; but as to other animals, no such discretion was given —breeding with near affinity among them rarely produces deformity : it only produces weakness and inferiority of size. It is well known that male animals, of various kinds, are frequently copulated with their own dams or progeny, with- out producing badly formed animals. Animals in a state of nature, are sure to breed occasion- ally from the nearest affinity ; and the evils which would arise from this course, if steadily pursued, are prevented, in a great measure, by the circumstance, that in a state of nature, the strongest animals are continually the principal sires of the flock, and are always making some change of affinity in the crosses which they make, so as to produce a strong progeny in most Cases. 904 BREEDING IN AND IN. Now, though we cannot understand why the copulation of animals, having a very near affinity, will have the above effects, either in the human family or among other ani- mals, it is sufficient for our purpose to know that such ‘breeding produces a defective organization, and that the continual selection of the best formed and healthiest ani- mals cannot entirely prevent its evil effects, especially where such a course is pursued for several generations. In support of this theory are the observations of Mr. Dick. of Edinburg, in Scotland. ‘* He has been informed by eminent farmers, that catile bred in and in, are sub- ject to clyers in the throat, after they have attained their first year.”’ By clyers, are meant enlarged lymphatic glands, which are a sure sign of what is termed a scrofu- lous habit—a breaking up of the constitution.”’ In a number of the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture of Edinburg, Mr. Dickson remarks that, “ the evil of breeding in and in, is manifested, in the first instance, by a tender- ness of constitution; the animals not being able to with- stand the extremes of heat and cold, rain and drouth. If the evil is prolonged through several generations, the forms of the animals become alfected, the bone becomes very small, the neck droops, the skin of the head becomes tight and scantily covered with hair, the expression of the eye indicates extreme sensibility, the hair on the body becomes thin and short, and the skin as thin as paper; the whole carcass becomes much diminished in size.’ The objects sought to be accomplished by. breeding i in and in, are, the preservation of good points or qualities, = which are supposed to exist in one or both parents, or in” the breed. ! In order to succeed in breeding from animals haying ve- ry near affinities, it will be necessary that the climate and soil be very favorable, or that there should bea masterly selection and management of the individuals selected for breeding, or that all these circumstances attend the under- taking ; “otherwise, some weakness or imperfection of some part of the flock, will surely succeed and show itself. Mr. Bakewell bred in and in to a certain extent, but it should be remembered that this was done by the hand of a master. «Mr. Cully, the eminent breeder, expressed the opinion that less risk was incurred by breeding in and in, than was ‘BREEDING IN AND IN.’ 205 generally supposed; yet appears to have preferred the practice of breeding from different families of the same race, as he hired his rams from Mr. Bakewell for many years, and, at the same time, other breeders were paying him a liberal price for his own valuable animals.” And Blacklock observes, “this is of all methods deservedly the best, as the males, which are interchanged, have always had shades of difference impressed upon them by various soils and treatment, so that the defects of each family have a good chance to be counteracted by the perfections of the other.” In this manner, by proper selection of males, good points and qualities may be heightened, and bad points and qualities may be gradually exhausted. This course is more particularly necessary where the flock is small, so that not many crosses can be made, without breeding from those which are too nearly related. Where this mode is not practicable, breeding from rams of the same flock in such a manner as to preserve a distant affinity between sire and dam, is the next best mode of pro- ceeding. This may be done ina convenient manner by keeping several sets of rams, and marking each set of rams and its progeny, both ram-lambs and ewe-rams, with a particular ear-mark or nick, and crossing the ewes, descended from any one set of rams, with rams of, or descended from, a different set. By making use of several sets of rams, a continual change of affinity will be made, by which means a flock may be preserved in full perfection, especially where the climate and soil are favorable to the breed im- proved, and if the strongest and best bodied rams are se- lected for sires. In Germany, breeding registers are kept by many per- sons, and each sheep receives distinct marks upon the ear, by which its affinity to the rest of the flock is readily known, and its ear-mark and the quality of its wool is duly registered; so that good blood and a distant affinity may be preserved. The following cut exemplifies one mode of numbering on the ears, which is much used in Germany. 206 BREEDING IN AND IN. 5 500 | 1 100 EXPLANATION. 4 the point of the left ear - : - 25 below four times one - ai ieee “0.454 above three times five” - mrieh dn - 15 On the pointoftherightear _ - - - 50 above 4times 500 - < - - 2000 below 2times 100 - = = = 200 2294 The. following form of a breeding register, as kept by Mr. H. D. Grove, together with his notes of explanation, as contained in the fourth of Colman’s Massachusetts Ag- ricultural Reports, will exemplify the German mode of re- gistering sheep. Breeding Register, from July 1, 1838 to July 1, 1839. : Yearin ; Tupped : Date of : No.of lambs : Classification : No : which : byram : lambing; ----.------: of the lambs, : General r norn et) IN@y, (5 ‘rams ; ewes : &c. : remarks 25: 1833 : 27-4 + 6-4 1 0 / lake teres gaa pene : 5 : close curbed. : lambs; 1 : : very fee- 2 : 5 g : ble&died Ue PERS hOGA ie : 1 +: 2d. Middle,: Lambs : 5 : 5 : : small curls, : hada few : : : ¢ : fine hairs 5 : : . : : underthe : : : ; belly, &e ‘“ cin the first column is the number of the ewe; in the second, the ram’s age, and instead of writing it out, T mere- ly write 3, 4, 5 cant 6, which means 1833, 34, 35, 36, &c. In the third column is the number and age of the ram, thus 27-4: 27 means the number, and 4, his age; namely, 1834, &c. In-the fourth column is the day and month when the lamb is yeaned—thus 6-4 means the 6th day and 4th month. In the sixth columns are the number of ram and ewe lambs. In the seventh isthe classification of the lambs, when a few days old, and ihe last columnis for gen- eral remarks.’’ ae . e voevscee | CROSSING. 207, 4 Mr. Grove says, ‘1 am very particular in classifying my lambs with as much accuracy ‘as possible, to enable me to decide upon the good. or bad qualities of a progenitor or breeder. If his progeny is not such as I desire, he is re- jected atonce. 1 select my stock of rams with the great- est care, for 1 consider this the most important point in breeding ; and here I find my records of great value. If I have two rams before me of equal quality, and hardly knowing which to give the preference, my records decide the question ; for the one which has the best ancestry is preferred to the other.” SECTION XXX. CROSSING. é . Crosses are made with reference to different purposes. ‘And frst, with reference to forming new breeds of sheep. This is a difficult task, and requires the application of cor- ~ rect principles, and much practical judgment. In order to success, it is necessary that the soil, climate, locality, quan- tity and quality of food, and management, should be suitable for the breed intended to be formed. Also,there should be an affinity of constitution, between the breeds which are to be united ; each breed should possess properties which are compatible with those of the other; and the stronger the resemblance between them, the less the difficulty in blend- ing. them. Thus, two breeds of Merinos which resemble each oth- erin form, may, in many cases, be thoroughly amalga- mated, after a few generations. But if they differ widely in form, very many crosses may be necessary to ‘consoli- date them, so as to retain the good properties, and avoid the defects, which each possesses. Hence, it has been found almost impossible to form a good cross between the Negretti and some other breeds. So also, most of the long wooled breeds of England have been improved by crossing with the New Leicester ram ; 208 CROSSING. put it has generally failed in making any permanent im- provement in short wooled sheep, among which the South Down has been far more successful. Hence, breeds of sheep, between which there is a wide contrast in their qual- ities, as the Merino and New Leicester, should never be copulated for the purpose of perpetuating their progeny ; unless for the purpose of substituting one breed for anoth- er, by continued crossing, or, unless the immediate proge- ny is intended for the butcher. For the latter purpose, such crosses are very useful, generally producing, in the progeny, great thriftiness and strength of constitution.— Great length of staple cannot be united with extreme fine- ness and sofiness, on any one breed; it supposes a rapid and strong growth of the fibre, which is inconsistent with the production of fineness and softness. Lord Western has experimented in England, upon a large scale, in cross- ing the Merino with the New Leicester, and other long wooled breeds, for many years, but without establishing a breed, which can be said to have fixed characteristics.— Even if this object is attainable,a very great length of time and much judgment would be necessary in order to accomplish it. In breeding from mongrels, produced by such crosses, the rule, that “like produces like,’? cannot be depended upon; even if these mongrels have been bred together for many generations, the form and size of the progeny, and qualities of their wool, will frequently vary; often resem- bling some remote ancestry, or possessing some defect which was not foreseen. In crossing, to form a new breed, the breeder should have have a sufficient number of animals, from which to select, so so that there may be an opportunity of obtaining the points he wishes for, without the concomtiant defects. Range for selectionis very important, and much disappointment has fre- quently been experienced, from inattention to this particular. The successful results should be carefully selected for breeders ; rejecting the others, and using for this purpose only healthy animals, which have not too near an afhnity by blood. The selections must be continued for many generations, before the distinct qualities of the new breed can be fully established. CROSSING. | 209 Crossing should be adopted cautiously, and at first with only a portion of the flock : for we should not run the risk of spoiling the whole ; and the success of the first experi-_ ment will regulate the second. | Tf we cross to correct abad, or produce a favorable qual- ity, then we should immediately return to our own breed, as soon as such effect has been obtained; always bearing in mind that we are making an experiment, which may, or may not succeed. ! | ‘Under such circumstances, the safer and surer course, for those who wish for a breed which possesses uniformity of character, and which can be depended upon, is, to select and adhere to some one breed, whose qualities have been long inbred, and are well known. It would seem that there is already in existence, a sufficient variety of breeds, to satisfy the fancy or judgment of the most fastidious. Second—Crossing, in order to substitute one breed for another. j ERS , This may be done conveniently by using the male ani- mals enly of the new breed as sires, until the old breed is lost; especially if the new breed is smaller than the old one. In this case, the ewe being proportionally larger than the ram, she will yean without difficulty, and will supply an abundance of milk for the growing lamb. But if the new breed be larger than the old one, it will be necessary, in the first cross, to use the smallest sized rams of the new breed as sires; otherwise the ewes will be very liable to be injured in lambing, in consequence of the large size of the lambs, and an insufficient supply of milk may be afforded, so that the progeny will be apt to exhibit the appearance of starvelings. Mt sve The crossing should be continued, until every point and peculiarity of the new breed is fully developed in the prog- eny ; and this object will be soonest attained by using only thorough bred animals of the new breed a&8sires. - Third—As to alteration in the fineness of the wool. It is a general rule, that the alteration will be nearly in exact arithmetical proportion to the relative fineness of the fibres of the wool of the sire and the dam. If the fibre of the wool of the sire be represented by 800, and that of the dam by 600, that of the progeny will be 700. Hence, in crossing the pure Merino with.coarse-wooled sheep, four 210 CROSSING. crosses are generally considered sufficient in order to ob- tain wool as fine as the pure Merino. But if the sheep with which the Merino is to be crossed, is very coarse, five or more crosses may be necessary before that object is ob- tained; and ten, or even thirty crosses, with pure blooded Merinos of the most improved breeds, may be necessary before every perfection of such breeds can be fully ob-. tained. Fourth—With reference to the color of the wool. In the middle and northern parts of the temperate zones, sheep seem disposed to put on white fleeces; and black, or other colored fleeces, appear to be only accidental varie- ties. For, if black sheep are copulated with white ones, either a black ram with white ewes, or a white ram with black ewes, the progeny will be almost invariably white. In order to procure progeny having black fleeces with certainty, it is necessary that both sire and dam be black. In such case, the wool of the progeny will generally be black, or nearly so. . | It seems that anciently in laly, special care was used not to breed from rams having a spotted tongue or lips, lest a dark colored or spotted progeny should arise from such connection; and the same care is used in Spain to this day ; but there seems to be no good foundation for this notion. . Fifth—With reference to obtaining the greatest number of lambs. . lf twin lambs are desired, a ram should be used which has been dropped a twin lamb himself. Mr. John Ellman, in speaking of the South Downs, says: ‘‘ Experience has satisfied me, that a ram, which may be a twin, will get double the number of twin lambs that other rams will.’”’— And Mr. Tusser says— ‘« Ewes yearly by twinning rich masters do make, The lambs of such twinners for breeders go take.” Mr. Youatt also remarks that ‘* No fact can be more clearly established than a hereditary tendency to fecundity.” Sixth—With reference to the form of the progeny. M. Charles Giron de Busareinges, an agriculturist in the south of France, has ascertained, by numerous experiments upon animals of different kinds, that, as a general rule, the law of nature is, ‘‘ that in animals of mature age and per- fect developement, the influences of the sexes on the exter- CROSSING. . OTF nal. form crosses in generation—the male progeny being more like the dam, and the female progeny more like the sire.” This. he has decided by experiment and observa- tion. And if we reflect upon the course pursued by ani- - mals'in propagation, it will be seen that this law of nature was intended by the supreme power for the perpetuation of races. Among animals left to themselves, the sireship of the flock is determined by fighting, and the strongest ani- mals become the principal sires of the flock. They com- municate to their female progeny their own forms, and their female progeny transmit the same to the next generation of males. . And thus strength of form will be communicated from generation, to generation, equally both to males and females. And the sentiment that, ‘none but the brave de- serve the fair,’’ is entirely in unison with this law of nature. If, therefore, rams are wanted which shall have a particu- lar form, ewes should be chosen which are as near as pos- sible of the form desired; and then, if the sire with which the ewes are to be coupled, is a vigorous animal, and does not differ very widely in shape from the ewes, we may ex- ~ pect ram-lambs of the form desired: but the ewe-lambs will inherit the shape and qualities of the sire, except as to wool, as aforesaid. Seventh— With reference to sex of progeny. : M. Giron has also by numerous experiments ascertained what appears to be the law of nature in this respect. And it is, *‘that in regard to sex itself, the influence i8 direct ; the sex of the progeny will correspond with that of the pa- rent which had the strongest constitution, and was in the soundest health at the time of union.” _As to this proposition, his first remark was, ‘that in his flocks, those females which were at the most vigorous age generally produced females, whether united to strong or weak subjects; while those females that had neither not attained, or had passed the: prime of life, produced males when anited to prime subjecis, or females when united to very old males. -* T'o ascertain whether this discovery corresponded with . general observation among practical farmers, M. Giron made inquiries of the neighboring agriculturists, who in- formed him that they had constanily remarked, that when the male was young, and the female vigorous, the product 212 CROSSING. of their union was female, while the contrary had as uni- formly happened when the conditions were reversed. | ‘“‘ In order to test this matter still farther, M. G. announ ced, in 1825, to the Agricultural meeting of Severac, that a part of his flock, already marked, would give him, at ‘hie next lamb time, more females than males. The Society nominated two commissioners to ascertain the facts; and it turned out that the proportion of males to females was 1000 males to 1472 females.”’ At a subsequent meeting, July 3d, 1826, M. Giron offer- ed to effect the production of a majority of males or fe- males in a given flock, at the choice of the Society. Two flocks were immediately furnished iby. the members of the Society. “ The first flock was divided into two equal parts. The first part, being supplied with very young rams, gave a pro- duct of 30 males to 76 females. The second part, being supplied with strong and vigorous rams four or five years old, gave a product of 55 males to 31 females. “ The second flock was also divided into two sections, but with more regard to the other conditions referred. to.— The first section was composed of strong sheep four or five years old, and sent into a rich pasturage, and visited by yearling rams: it produced 15 males and 25 females. The second section, composed of feeble sheep under four or five years old, was placed in dry pasturage, and received two strong rams over three years old. ‘The result was 26 males and 14 females. In both experiments it was observed, that the lambs produced by the young rams were equal in ap- pearance to those preduced by the most vigorous. ‘‘ The experiments were continued in other classes of animals, birds, and insects, with the same result. In the poultry yard, (e. y. ) where the preponderance of maiurity and vigor was on the part of the hen, there resulted 725 males and 1000 females; and where the male parent was the most vigorous and of the ripest age, there resulted 1415 males and 1000 females.—( New England Farmer.) The principles of Breeding cannot be used so as to pro- duce exact results, like mathematical rules; butthe experi- ments of M. Giron are very satisfactory, and long observa- tion has convinced me that the principles set forth by him are correct, as applied to sheep. SELECTION OF BREEDS. 213 Po guaaiat (4. SECTION XXXL SELECTION OF BREEDS. ? The two great purposes for which sheep are reared are es wool and mutton. Consequently, in the selection of reeds, it beeomes necessary, not only to select a breed which i is adapted to the soil and climate, but also with ref- erence to the value of its wool and mutton where it is rear- ed. If the locality be far from a market for mutton, the ae ge of very fine wool or a great quantity of long combing wool may be most profitable, and mutton only a secondary consideration. Under such circumstances the . breed, whether fine or coarse wooled, should be particu: larly adapted to the soil and food. If the locality is near a good market for mutton, that may be the principal object, and wool the lesser. In such cases, the deficiency of the productions of the farm BAY be in some measure supplied by. purchase, if necessary. . _ When two breeds of sheep are equally well formed, the expenditure of food will be nearly in exact proportion to . their relative size. But as animals, which are well form- ed, consume less food in proportion to their size, than those which. are ill formed, and are also generally the hardiest and healthiest, every breeder should carefully select a well formed breed, whether it be coarse or fine wooled. _ Asa general rule, animals of a moderate size, of any breed, with ihyifiiness of habit and hardiness of constitu- tion, are best adapted to most parts of the United States, and produce the best wools. Animals of the largest size, of any breed, may be more pleasing to the eye, but, gener- ally speaking, are less hardy and less capable of enduring a scarcity of food from drought, or other causes, or. hard usage of any kind; and consequently to most persons are less profitable than those of a medium size. For the production of fine wool, the various breeds of Merino - possess all the qualities which are necessary on dry soils of a medium or inferior quality. For the pro- duction of mutton or mutton and long wool on very rich grass lands, the various improved breeds of English sheep, -and their crosses with the Merino, are best adapted ; ; and 914 SELE CTION OFBREEDS. with reference to these English breeds, the remarks of Mr. Spooner will fully illustrate the subject, as follows : ““The management and selection of any breed of sheep, must after all become a matter of pounds, shillings and pence. The question the farmer has to consider is, what description of sheep will, in the long run, return the most profit ; and this question must be viewed in strict relation to the management he will be able to adopt, on the particular farm on which he may be located. It is not, therefore, a simple, but a compound question. It is not merely which breed will make most flesh and fat, but which will make it in the shortest time, and on the least food; which can bear the weather, or hard keep, or travelling, or a particular mode of management, with the greatest impunity. All these considerations must enter into the farmer’s mind, before he can come to a sound conclusion. From the want of mak- ing these considerations,many fatal mistakes have been made and a flock has been selected, altogether unsuitable to the soil, and incapable of bearing the severity of the weather.’’ “‘ The two breeds which appear as rivais, in their claims on public attention, are the New Leicester and the South Down. It cannot be doubted, that as far as propensity to fatten and early maturity are considered, the Leicester will - not only rival, but eclipse all others; for these qualities the form may be justly considered a model, and all other breeds will possess these qualitiesin a greater or less de- gree, in proportion as they possess the similitude of the form and points of the Leicester sheep. TheSouth Down itself will not be an exception io this rule. For if the im- proved and the neglected specimens be compared together, it will be found that the excellencies of the former consist in those points which approximate most to the Leicester. The wool, too, is also a, consideration; for the fleece, from its greater length and weight, will bring in nearly double that of the South Down. When, therefore, the pas- ture is very fertile, the Leicester may be justly regarded as the most ‘profitable of the pure breeds. Its drawbacks are, the incapability of the animal for bearing exposure, or tray- elling, or living hard; in fact its weaker constitution, and greater liability to inflammatory disorders. by Airy ‘‘Then again, the mutton is not so good as the South Down, which, however, is, partly, not wholly owing- to SELECTION OF BREEDS. 215 the early period (twenty months) at which they are fit for the butcher, and partly to the large proportion of tallow in Peon to the lean. Thus it is not a favorite in the ; 4zondon markets. Accordingly, of late years, the first cross between the Leicester and the Down has been produced, instead of the Leicester. And it is contended that this first cross is the most profitable sheep that can be fattened, ‘making greater and more rapid progress than the Down and better meat than the Leicester. But it is better to stop at the first cross, devoting the produce entirely ‘to the butcher, and preserve the stock sheep pure.” - The South Down, or rather the improved South Down —for there is a great difference between the two—posses- ses most valuable qualities ; with a propensity to fatten in- ferior only to the Leicester, but with-later maturity, (often thirty-two months, though considerably shorter than it once was,) this breed are excellent travellers, well adapted for folding, hardy, compared with the Leicester, and capable of living on short pasture, and perhaps the best of all breeds for the Down farms of the south of England. The mutton, too, is more esteemed than any other, with the ex- ception of the small mountain sheep. | ‘Perhaps there is no ancient pure blood of sheep that has undergone so much improvement as the South Down; and it affords the owners of other breeds a proper example, showing what can be done by care and attention, and the application of correct principles. “The Cheviot sheep possess many valuable qualities ; _ decidedly inferior to the South Downs in their fattening powers and their early maturity, they are superior in these points to all other mountain sheep, and, in hardihood, even to the South Down, and are thus adapted to their native hills, and all other pastures of a similar character. _ ‘‘ These three breeds, the Leicester, the South Down, and the Cheviot, may be considered: as the principal pure breeds which this country (England) possesses; they are essential to the variety of pastures, and without them this country could not be properly stocked. Other breeds, which it may be advantageous to adopt, either possess pe- culiar qualities, which render them valuable, or have been crossed extensively with more improved breeds. “The Dorset and the Somerset, for instance, are valua- 216 ‘SELECTION OF BREEDS. ble on account of the ewes taking the ram so much earlier than other breeds, so that the lambs come into the market when scarce, and thus command a higher price. These qualities have caused this breed to be diffused to a great extent within the circuit of a hundred miles of London.— The qualities of this breed, in other respects, are inferior to the Down: the mutton is not quite so much esteemed, the sheep are not so hardy, and do not possess equal fatien- ing powers. «The South Down and the Cheviot rams have been used extensively for the purpose of improving the mountain breeds, both of Wales and Ireland, and when care is taken to retain a preponderance of the indigenous breed, the re- suit has generally been successful. “‘ The Leicester have been extensively Hecate in im- proving the breed of other sheep, and so successful has this practice been in many instances, that the result of the cross has produced a breed more profitable than the Leices- ter itself—retaining the fattening qualities of the sire, with the greater hardihood of the soil possessed by the native breed. .The Lincoln, the Romney Marsh, the Bampton, and the Cotswold sheep | have been thus ‘improved; ; the large frame and length of wool of the Cotswold have been retained, together with much of the fattening qualities of the. Leicester sire.’ The above isthe opinion of Mr. Spooner as to the cross of the Leicester and the Cotswold breeds. But, ** There are many of the Cotswold breeders, who say they have nota drop of the Leicester blood, but have improved their symmetry by a close attention to the smaller male of the original, with a fat back and curly skin in view, still keep- ing their long faces and ears, rumps, and legs of mutton ; thus producing earlier maturity, and a better mixture of fat and lean, than the Leicester cross.—(A. Agriculturalist.) From the observations of Mr. Spooner, it would seem that the Cheviot breed are best adapted to the high, moun- iainous regions of the Northern States; the New Leices- ter, the Cotswold andthe Lincoln breeds, to rich, low lands and to the flat prairie, and other level grass lands of the Western States, and the South Down to the shorter pas-’ tures of hilly lands. To such pastures, also, the various breeds of Merinos, and their crosses with coarse wooled SHELTERS, | G sheep, are best adapted, and the mutton of the Merino, when fatted on such lands, is excellent. ty The prudent farmer, therefore, will do well to make him. self acquainted with the inhereni qualities and peculiari- ties of the different races of sheep, within his reach, and to make choice of, and adhere to, some one breed, which under all circumstances, promises to pay best, for his out- lay of capital and aitention. SECTION XXXII. “SHELTERS. In all past ages, the common sense of mankind has decided that shelters were necessary and useful for sheep in winter. Among other picturesque objects, which Ho- mer delineated on the shield of Achilles, nearly three thousand years ago, was a pasture with many white sheep, in a beautiful valley, and shepherds’ tents, and hurdiing stakes, and sheep cotes, well roofed over: _ Virgil, in his Georgies, (i. e. poetical works upon hus- bandry,) specially directs that sheep should be foddered in stalls through the winter: and he informs us that the Germans, and other northern nations, kept their herds in stalls in winter. Less care has formerly been used in Britain, with re- spect to shelters, thanin other northern parts of Europe, in consequence of the greater mildness of the climate; but of iate years more attention has been paid to the benefits of protection. ‘Sir G. 8. McKenzie, of Scotland, thus remarks upon this subject: ‘*Shelter is the first thing to be attended to in the management of sheep. While every good shep- herd is decidedly hostile to their being confined, or to their being forced into shelter, whether they wish for it or not, it cannot be too strongly recommended to all sheep far- mers, to put the means of avoiding the severity of stormy weather within the reach of their flocks at all times.” - 218 SHELTERS. In this matter, the comfort of animals, and the profit of man, are promoted by the same means. Shelters are beneficial in many respects ; and First, they save a very considerable amount of food. All practical farmers know full well, thar every de- scription of stock may be fattened ack more rapidly in a mild temperature, than when the weather is extreme- ly cold, and that animals will consume more food in extreme cold, or only moderately cold weather, than when the temperature is mild; and sheep managers are fully sensible that the sheep is not an exception to oth- er animals, in this respect. Hence good shelters, by lessening the cold to which the sheep is exposed, diminish also the amount of food which is necessary for them. But in order to understand this subject scientifically, it will be necessary to bear in mind, that all the varie- ties of their food is composed principally of carbon, and also that their flesh and fat, wool and horns are com- posed mostiy of the same material, as may be seen by the following table :— [ Hay. Oats. ee fat. Wool | Horns |! _ Carbon, - - - | 46.8] 50.7] 51.9] 79.99 | 50.65] 51.54 Hydrogen, - 5.0}, 6.4) 7.0). Lai oe Te onan Oxyoeing ech. S871, 3627) 2112 9.30 , Nitrogen, - - £5): 22d 6.4 17.01). ie Athes, ---] 9.00}; 4.0) 4.2 Sulphur & Ox- ygen,- - - 24.60} 24.39 100. 0 100.0 100.0} 100,00 |100.0€1100.60 By this table it aapears, that hay and oats, flesh, wool, and horns contain carbon, in nearly equal proportions. Hence, at first view, it would seem that a given amount of hay and oats ought to produce a regular proportional amount of flesh, wool and horns. But the carbon which is taken into the animal system by digestion, is used for distinct purposes: one is the production of flesh and fat, wool and horns; and the other purpose is, the production of animal heat, by slow combustion in the lungs. When- \ SHELTERS. . oie ever, therefore, for want of shelter, the animal is expos: ed to extreme cold weather, ‘or wet weather, which chills the body, an increased amount of carbon will be necessary as fuel in the lungs, in order to keep up that even temperature of the body, which is necessary for the proper action and preservation of the animal system ; and unless the carbon be supplied in food, the tissues of flesh and fat will be wasted, in order to furnish the ne- cessary quantity. In such case, shelter, by lessening the cold to which the animal is exposed, will lessen the amount of food which will be necessary to the system, in order to keep it at the proper temperature, will be in parta substitute for food. Second. Protection increases the quantity and preserves the quality of the wool. Whatever contributes towards the preservation or in- crease of flesh and fat, also promotes the growth of the wool and the secretion of yolk. For, if the sheep be in good condition, the glands of the skin will act with strength and regularity; the fibres of wool will consequent!y be uni- form in size, and a full supply of yolk will be produced, so as to give the wool all that softness, pliability and bril- liancy which can be obtained only by keeping the sheep in a mild temperature, as in Spain, or by a full measure of pro- tection as, in Saxony. Third. With proper protection, sheep are much less liable to disease and death, than if exposed to the severity of the weather. Cold and wet weather have a direct ten- dency to produce foot rot, scab, coryza and dropsy, and, above all, poverty and rot, which last mentioned. disease is very frequently an unsuspected cause of death. Cold and wet weather close the pores of the skin, and if the fleece be wet through, have the same injurious effect upon the sheep as upon other animals. | Fourthly. As ewes which have the benefit of shelter, will be more healthy than those which are exposed to the inclemency of the weather, they will rarely need mechan- ical aid in parturition; a greater number of lambs may be raised, andthe lambs will be healthy as their dams. Fifthly. A greater quantity of manure can be saved, so as to be distributed on such parts of the farm as may most need it. Whereas, if the sheep be permitted to run ae 999 SHELTERS. at large and find shelter as best they can, a large share of their manure, in winter, will be deposited by the sides of. fences, and in other places where it is least needed. Sixth. lt is a great convenience to be able to fodder en- tirely under shelter; and the hay and straw of every kind will be eaten up cleaner than if it is exposed to wet weather. Those who are opposed to the sheltering of sheep in winter, assert that the breath of sheep, and the effluvia of their manure are injurious to them. In ill-ventilated and ill-cleansed sheep stalls, these circumstances sometimes produce serious diseases ; but with proper ventilation and removal of their manure, sheep will no more be liable to injury by their shelters, than are cattle or horses. The experience of Mr. L. A. Morrell, of Tompkins coun- , New York, will illustrate this subject: ‘ Before he had provided shelter for his flock of Saxony sheep, 1,200 in number, he lost from 70 to 100 annually, during winter, and once lost 150. For four succéssive years after protection was provided, the average number wintered being 1800, the average yearly loss amounted to only 31, being less than 14 per cent.” Mr. L. A. Morrell is satisfied, that at least one ton to the hundred sheep, is saved by protection every winter, (in his latitude). He says, ‘‘Of oats which I fed liberally before protection, the amount saved is pds alent to 506 busheis each year, ‘and yet my sheep have been in finer order than when they were grained; showing, notwithstanding the virtue of grain, that there is more virtue in warm shelter. The same successful manager has also found, that the aggregate increase in four clips of wool from his flock, resulting from protection, amounted to 1250 pounds ; and that the increased number of lambs exceeded one hun- dred a year.’’—( Cultivator.) QUANTITY AND QUALITIES OF FOOD. 221 SECTION XXXII. QUANTITY AND QUALITIES OF FOOD. The great value of most articles, which are used as food for sheep and other animals in Europe, has induced a much greater attention to the economy and principles of feeding in those countries, than in America, where such food is com- paratively much less valuable. Hence their experiments, © and the observations of their writers furnish many details and principles which are necessary in order ito fully under- siand this subject. In Europe, it has been ascertained by numerous experiments, that animals of the same species, after arriving at maturity, if equally well formed, consume ‘food in proportion to their weight. This rule will not hold good in all cases, but it is sufficiently correct for practical uses. By the estimate of Mr. Spooner, sheep take 34 per cent of their weight in hay per day, to keep them in store con- dition. Thaer was along time at the head of the distinguish- ed agricultural school of Mogelin, in Prussia, where many experiments were conducted in sheep management under his eye. He states that ‘* 33 lbs of dry fodder for a sheep daily are necessary, and the greater proportion of this in nutritious hay, compared with dry straw, the better.’’ Veit was Professor of Agriculture in the Royal Institu- tion of Bavaria. He makes the following observations, based.upon experiments : } “« The need of fodder is proportioned to the live weight of the sheep, and two and a half pounds of the value of hay is required daily for every 100 lbs. live weight, to keep the animal ina profitable state. Hence the following amount of fodder is required for store sheep.” eagle QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF FOOD. Live weight. Daily. Yearly. Summer. Winter. For a long wool ; German sheep, | 100 lb. | 2.5 912 | 5a2 380 Rich wool Infan- tado,coarse wool 88 «6 a B00 | ‘473 330 Moderately fine | Merino, 80 * 2.0 730 | 426 304 FEiscurial Elect’ral i.e. pure Escurial GQ i 1.55 | 506 | 334 232 Now if we take Veit’s estimate as a correct standard, and suppose the average weight of a flock to be 80 lbs. each, and the foddering time to be 150 days, or five months, this will be two pounds daily, to each sheep, and for 5 months, 300 lbs., and, consequently, in that time 100 sheep will eat 15 tons of hay. It should be borne in mind, that this estimate by Veit was made in and for the cold climate of Germany, where the winters are severe, and where an- imals, of course, consume more food than in more tem- perate climes. And, therefore, in latitude 41 or 42 in the United States, 15 tons of hay may be, and is considered by most farmers as an ample provision for wintering 100 full grown Merinos. Young sheep of any breed, if thrif- ty, require nearly as much food as when they have, arriv- ed at maturity ; eat more in proportion to their size than full grown sheep. [t must be understood, that in this esti- mate by Veit and port tee good upland hay, well matured and well cured, is the standard of nutriment, and that if grain or other food is used as an equivalent, allowance must be made for it in proportion to its value, as compared with hay. Also if the hay be very succulent when cured, or is grown on wet lands, or in a wet season, or abounds much in stalks, or is made from grasses of an inferior kind, an allowance of from. 10 to 33 or even 50 per cent. in some cases, must be made. In dry seasons, the grasses will be fully perfected, wa, therefore, in such seasons the same weight of grass, hay, or other fodder will be much more nourishing than in a wet season. | Special care-should be used, that hay and straw of all kinds be thoroughly dried before they are put into the barn. Mouldy or musty hay or grain is far less nutritious than that which is well cured, and moreover has a sirong tenden- : treet mete ae QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF FOOD. ee ey to create disease. Such fodder is much disliked ‘by sheep, and consequently much of it will be wasted. The above computations were made wiih reference to keeping sheep in good store condition only. Now whether they are to be kept merely in good order, or are to be fat- tened, nearly the same bulk of food will. be indispensa- ble, in order to produce the distension, which is necessary to the proper healthy action of the siomach and bowels ; and, therefore, so far as the health and convenience of the animal is concerned, bulk constitutes an essential part of the value of food. For the purpose of fattening, it will be necessary that the food should comprise, within the same bulk, a greater pro- portion of the elements of nutrition than in the above esti- mates. Consequently, it will be very convenient to know the amount of nutriticus matter which is contained in each kind of food, and, also, its value, cnmpared with other kinds—both for the purpose of fattening, and also in the use of equivalents for good hay. ‘The following table, given in Burger, from Petri’s work on the care and keeping of sheep, may be considered as a test of equivalents. It will show that while of some an animal could scarcely eat enough to support life, of oth- ers the nutriment would greatly exceed what the wants of the animal demanded. 100 Ibs. sweet meadow hay contains 50 Ibs. of nutritious fnatter and is equal to— 90 ibs. of clover hay, 100 Ibs. of which contain 55% Ibs. [of nutritious matier. $0 do tender Vetch hay, do 55% do 90 do tender lentil hay, do 55% do 360 do wheat straw, do $4) de 500 do corn straw (stalks) — do te Or 4! do 180 do barley straw, do OF Eto 200 do oat straw, . do 75... do 200 do pea straw, ; do 2S do 190. do millet straw, do 264 do 200 do horn bean straw, do 25 ado 180 do chaff, (wheat and oat) do 27% do 200 do _ potatoes, do 25 do 200 do cabbage turnips, - do °25 = do 224 QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF FOOD. 200 lbs. of yellow turnips, 100 lbs. of which contain 25 lbs. | of nutritious matter. 200 do white do do 123 do 300. do «beets, do 16% do 500 do white cabbage, do 10°" “de 52 do wheat, do 95 °° do 52° do Indian corn, do 95 "ae 55 do rye, do 90°. do 61 do barley, do 82 do 64 do buckwheat, do 78 do 71° do oats, do 70" do 54 do peas, do 93°" da 105 do wheat bran, do 48 do 109° do rye bran, do 46 do Petri gives the following, as examples of averages of fodder for an ewe, in the month of January, when the yeaning time commences in March. ist Day—lIn the morning, 3 lb. good oat sraw. noon, 5 lb. good hay or clover. evening, # lb. good barley straw. 2d Day—In the morning, 3 |b. millet straw. noon, ‘2 |b. potatoes, with 4 oz. _ chopped straw, and 4 OZ. oats. evening, 3 1b. barley straw. 3d Day—In the morning, # lb. hay. noon, # lb. hay. evening, 1 lb. wheat, barley, or buckwheat straw. 4th Day—In the morning 3 lb. summer straw. noon, 3 lb. chopped straw, with 3 oz. bran moistened with water. evening, $ lb. winter straw. 5th Dayv—In the morning, # Ib. hay. noon, 2 \bs. potatoes, with $ lb. | of chopped straw. evening, 3 |b. winter straw. 6th Day—In the morning, 4 |b. hay. noon, as in 4th day. UY QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF FOop. 225 If the sheep be left to itself, and be allowed to crop such things ¢ as the God of Nature has provided for it, it feeds principally upon fine stalk grasses, and bitter, astringent, and diuretic leaves and weeds. When, therefore, it is compelled into a cold climate, the best fodder which can be provided for it in winter, is obtained from these same articles dried. For this purpose, many kinds of grass are cultivated in Europe. But of those kinds which are most cultivated in the northern part of the United States, Timothy, or meadow cats tail grass, (Phleum pratense) appears to be one of the best on upland meadows. | Mr. Youatt says, “this grass is of much value for perma- nent pasture, mixed wish other grasses, on account of its early herbage, its great productiveness, and the superior proportion of nutritive matter it contains. A little time be- fore the seed is ripe, at which time it should be cut, it af- fords 11} drachms of nutritive substance to the pound. It _ is most useful in the form of hay.” The proper time for cutting grass is here pointed out by Mr. Youatt. Grasses, which are cut when in flower, or previous to that time, are more succulent, but have less substantial nutriment in them, than those which are cut af- ter the flower is fallen, and their seed i»nearly matured. Such young grasses contain much saccharine matter, and when made into hay, readily produce acids in the stomach, and diarrhcea in consequence, especially if grown in a wet season, or on moist lands. Whereas, if grasses are cut while the stalks are yet green, but after the flower is fallen and the grain is formed, the saccharine matter becomes mostly converted into starch, and ceases to be injurious.— At this period, also, they contain the largest PYoportipn of nutriment. Kentucky blue grass, smooth stalked meadow grass, (poa pratensis) nearly resembles the June grass or Spear grass (poa compressa) of more northern States, which is less es- teemed. Dr. Darlington says, “ Kentucky blue grass is de- cidedly the most valuable of all American pasture grass.” It comes in spontaneously upon rich calcarious soils, and is, therefore, considered to be indigenous to the Enited States. It is also one of the best for hay. The Franklin (Kentucky) Farmer asserts that it flourishes only on cal- # 296 QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF FOOD. carious soils; but that is not strictly correct; it flourishes where there is a fair proportion of lime in the soil. It is less liable to be affected by frost than other grasses, and, therefore, makes the best of winter pasturage. Herds’ grass—red top and white top—( Agrostis Vulga- ris) is a spontaneous growth of the wet lands of the United States.—(Buel.) The red top and white top are different varieties of the same grass. It is very hardy, and is easily cultivated. If cut when itis fully matured, it makes excel- lent hay, and on Meistsoils is valuable for pasture. Ox eye Daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum) is gen- erally considered a vile weed: but if it is cut when in flower, it makes good hay for sheep, cattle, and horses ; and for pasture, sheep prefer it to almost any grass what- ever; it is aromatic and mucilagenous.* It is very hardy, and will grow on dry, sandy, and gravelly, or other poor upland soils, where grasses will hardly live, much less flourish ; and, therefore, on some lands may be advanta- geously sown for sheep pasture. Crecping White Clover, (Trifolium repens) is a peren- nial. plant, which is common to Europe and the United States, Growing spontaneously in pastures, meadows. and woodlands, to the height of from 4 to 12 inches. It gener- ally grows too short to be exclusively used for hay ; but is useful when mixed with other grasses. It is very sweet and nutritious grass for pasture, and is much relished by sheep, but is not very productive. Red Clover (Trifolium protense), is very nutritive, and is well relished by sheep for hay or pasture, especially when mixed with timothy or other upland grasses ; but the bulk required for them is very great, and hence it will be no object for the farmer to cultivate clover, for hay for sheep, on soils where timothy, or blue grass, or other use- ful fine stalk grasses can be cultivated with less difficulty. But on dry ground, or sandy soils, where those grasses are cultivated with difficulty. and do not flourish, clover will be an useful substitute. It penetrates deep into the ground and bears the drought better than most grasses. The above mentioned grasses, together with those other grasses and herbage which are indigenous to various parts * See Livingston on Sheep, page 72. | QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF FOOD. ' OBeT -of the United States, will furnish on most farms a sufficient variety of hay and pasture. All the various kinds of straw of grains and leguminous plants, are to be viewed only as substitutes for good hay, and are to be fed only for the purpose of economy, or for the sake of furnishing a part of that great variety of food, in which the sheep delights. If the best of out straw be placed in the same manger along with hay, only a small proportion of the straw will be eaten by the sheep, as long as the hay lasts. Hoi | This is evidently the opinion of Thaer upon this subject. fle says, “The quantity of hay which is given to sheep, (in Germany,) is very different. In poor sheep folds, it is considered much to allow 3,000 or 4,000 pounds of hay 10 100 sheep for wintering. In better conducted ones, 7,000 Ibs. is considered the minimum forsheep; 34 lbs. of dry fodder for sheep daily are necessary, and the greater proportion of this in nutritious. hay, compared with dry straw, the better. Hence, in Germany, and other parts of Europe, where it is an object to raise as much grain as possible, large quantities of straw are produced, and much of this straw is fed to sheepin Germany, for the sake of economy, and the deficiency in nutriment of straw is made up by feeding grains, leguminous seeds, (beans, peas, vetches, and lentils), and roots; and the manure of sheep being more valuable than that of any other domesticated quad- ruped, the folding and pasturage of sheep alternates well with the raising of grain. In many cases it will be profitable to preserve the same course in America. 1.—Oat straw. Of those kinds of straw which are cul- tivated in America, oat siraw is one of the best. If cut when rather green, there will be little or no diminution in weight or quality of the grain, and the straw will be very nutritious, and a portion of it is well relished by sheep. 2.— Buckwheat has rather a fine straw, and is well fill- ed with leaves, and is equal in value to the straw of win- ter grain. Asa large quantity of it may be raised on lands which are too poor to raise other grains or grass, in some cases, it may be very convenient and useful fodder for sheep. 3.— Wheat straw. The straw of bald wheat may be fed 228 QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF FOOD. with propriety to sheep. But the straw of bearded grains, such as bearded wheat, rye, or barley, (the straw of which is more nutritious than that of whear,) should be fed to them only in case of great scarcity of fodder; as the beards of such grains frequently produce braxy 4.—Indian Corn, (Maize). The blades and stalks con- tain much saccharine matter and are very nutritious. ‘The finer parts of them are highly relished by the sheep. The hard stalks when cut up are eaten freely by cattle. The cobs of Indian corn may be ground with the grain, and be- ing very nutritious may be fed advantageously to sheep. In very dry seasons, when there is a scarcity of hay, or on farms where the quantity of meadow land is small in pro- portion to that of the pasture, Indian corn may be sown broadcast, and cut and cured when it is three or four feet high, so as to form a very nourishing and productive —- | Stitute for hay. 5.—Beans and Peas. The straw of beans, peas and oth- er leguminous plants, if cut and thoroughly cured when those articles are rather green, is much relished by sheep, and is nearly equal to hay. In such case, the straw and seeds may be fed together, without threshing. If the seeds of peas and beans aye allowed to become fully ripe before they are harvested, sheep will not readily eat either the pea or bean straw. But such ripe pea straw is much rel- ished by horses, and cattle prefer the pods of ripe bean straw to almost any other food. 6.—Millet. The grain of this plant contains much nu- triment, and it produces a great bulk of straw which is much esteemed as fodder.—( London.) Apples and Roots are fed advantageously to shies either asin part a substitute for hay, or for the sake of variety, or for the health of the flock. Of these, the potatoe is one of the best articles. They are sufficiently succulent to keep the bowels open, and at the same time are very nutritious Apples answer much the same purpose as ‘semen and are much relished by sheep, Jerusalem Artichoke, (Helianthus tuberosus.) The tops of artichokes if cut and cured while green, and before they are injured by frost, are excellent fodder for sheep and cattle. The roots are the hest of succulent food fer sheep, ; QUALITY AnD QUANTITY OF FOOD. 298 and they donotreadily produceidiarrhea. They are not sub- Ject to rot by disease like potatoes; and as 600 or 800 bushels to the acre may be raised without difficulty, they are the least expensive roots which can be grown for sheep - in the northern part of the United States. Carrots are very nourishing, and are undoubtedly one of the healthiest articles which can be provided {or sheep in winter. Butas their cultivation is somewhat trouble- some, they will be little used for this purpose on lenge farms. Beets contain much nutriment, and are much used in Kurope for the fattening of animals, and near large towns in the United States, where mutton is valuable, may, per- haps, in some cases, be used advantageously for the same purpose. . Turnips are used to a vast amount, and with great ad- vantage, in Europe, for the same purpose. Butin the Uni-, ted States, the climate is too dry and scorching, in most parts, to admit of their extensive cultivation, and, there- fore, large flock-owners must depend principally upon pota- toes, apples and artichokes, for succulent winter food for sheep. 1 As to food designed for fattening, the experience of farmers has already been in favor of the principle, that food, which contains oil, is most productive of fat. The oil contained in such food is assimilated by the digestive process to the fat of the animal using it. Beech nuts, Lin- seed oil cake, and Indian corn, each contain a large pro- portion of oil, and consequently are highly valued for this purpose. Liebig has advanced the doctrine, that vegetable food, as wheat, potatoes, beets, &c., is fattening on account of the starch, sugar and gum which it contains; that starch, sugar and gum being composed of the same ingredients as fat, (viz. carbon, oxygen and hydrogen,) are readily con- verted into fat by digestion. ‘This unquestionably is cor- rect in principle; but yet in ordinary farm management, itis found cheaper aud more expeditious, to use a propor- tion of food which already contains oil, rather than to wait for the transformation out of the starch, sugar, é&c., which are contained in vegetables and seeds. The following table will show the amount of oil contain- 230 QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF FOOD. ed in sundry kinds of vegtable food, and, consequently, , their comparative value for fattening: Indian Corn, 9 to 10 per cent. of oil. Oats, 4) tov do Wheat, Qi to, 24 do Bran, Ais ans do Straw, 1 to 14 do Clover hay, 4 do Meadow hay, 35 to 4 do Peas and Beans, 2i to 3 do Beach mast, 1Sinto Why do Sunflower seed, - 15 ——— do Linseed, 11. to 22 do flempseed, 18 to 25 do Linseed oil-cake, 9° te 0 do These proportions are not constant; for the amount of oil depends upon the Season, increasing with the brilliancy and dryness of the weather. Potatoes, beets, carrots, tur- nips, and mangel wurtzel, contain less than one-quarter per cent. of oil, and, therefore, are not so well adapted to fattening, when used alone; are best when fed with some kind of grain or meal. One of the most successful articles in the list is Linseed meal, or oil-cake. But Linseed, or the oil-cake, are used most beneficially mixed with meal of oats, peas, or other farinaceous grains, or with cut straw, in order to preserve the health of animals. Indian corn, also, contains so much oil that it is used most advantageously in the same manner. These two articles—oil-cake and Indian corn—and all oth- er grains which contain much oil, readily produce diarr- hea, unless used in moderate quantities, or combined with other ingredients; and being more difficult of digestion, are not so beneficial alone, as constant feed for stock sheep, as oats, barley, buckwheat, and other more farinaceous grains. As a general rule in feeding, the quantity should always be adapted to the quality ; and such combinations should be formed as both to distend the stomach, and afford the necessary nutriment. Grain alone, or roots alone, would not answer both these purposes, and, therefore, when used, they should ever be fed along with hay or straw. The leaves or straw of herbage, are “also necessary for the pro- cess of rumination. > QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF FoepD. 231 The following table will exhibit the results of the exper- iments of the distinguished Agriculturist, M. De Raumer, of Silesia, and the effects produced by an equal quantity of several substances, in increasing the flesh, tallow, and wool of sheep. Increa- sed the w’ght of| Prod- | Produ- the liv-| uced |ced tal- ing ani-|wool.|low. mal. 1000 lbs. of Potatoes raw with salt,/464 lbs./64 lbs./123 lbs. do do do without salt,| 44 4 113 do do Mangel Wurtzel, raw, (383 : 63 do do Wheat, 155 14 594 do do Oats, 146 10 425 do do Barley, 136 113 |60 do .do. Peas, 134 144 |41 do do Rye with salt, ss iA 2: SO Fe do do do without salt, 90 12; {43 do do Meal, wet, 129 133 {173 do do Buckwheat, 120 10 33 do do Good hay, 58 TS.” ido do do MHaywith straw,with- | out other fodder, 31 154 64 Piste resnlts agree nearly with those of De Dombal, and with those of a number of other agriculturists. De Raumer found, * that sheep ate with avidity eight pounds of mangel wurtzel a day, intermixed with straw; during which time they drank one quart of water, and remained in good and healthy condition.” «That of raw sliced potatoes, they ate, with good appe- tite, at the rate of seven pounds per day, also with straw, and drank three pints of water in twenty-four hours; also remained healthy. *« That they ate two pounds of peas daily per | head, drank from two to three quarts of water, and remained fine and healthy. It was necessary to soak the peas to prevent in- jury to the teeth. ** That wheat produced nearly the same result as peas. 232 QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF FOOD. “That they do not eat rye readily, and it appears not well adapted to their use. «© That of oats and barley they ate about two and a half pounds per head daily, ein avidity, did extremely well on it, and drank about ‘three quarts of water in twenty-four hours. “That buckwheat produced excellent effecis upon them, and that they ate it with avidity. ‘‘ And that of good hay they ate four and a half pounds daily, and, drank from two and a half to three quarts of wa- es hs From the quantity of hay consumed, we may conclude that the sheep upon which these experiments were made, were of large size. It will be perceived by the above table, that wheat pro- duces the greatest increase in flesh of the living animal, though but little greater than oats; that barley and wheat produce the greatest increase of tallow; that hay, with some straw, produces the greatest increase of wool; and that peas, wheat, and rye are the next most valuable arti- cles for this purpose. That on an average, grain generally gives about three times the increase in flesh that roots and hay do, when in equal weights; that grain produces about twice as much wool as is caused by an equal weight of roots, and four or five times as much tallow as is produced by either roots or hay; that potatoes and mangel wurtzel produce a far greater amount of wool, according to the amount of nutri-. ment contained in them, than hay, oais, wheat, or other grain. From the results of the foregoing experiments, we may, therefore, conclude, that when. wool j is the principal object, we must depend, in winter, upon good hay with some straw, with a moderate daily Fltitoaders of oats, buckwheat, peas, or beans, together with some potatoes, mangel wurt- - zel, or apples, as green food, for ihe greatest amount of wool;. and we may expect the greatest increase in flesh and fat. fom the feeding a moderate portion of oil-cake, barley, or Indian corn, along with oats, buckwheat, or other farin- aceous grains. That hay or straw may be used to the best advaniage, it should be fed in racks or mangers, if possible. And for _ WATER. 233 this purpose, mangers or boxes are preferable to racks.— Sheep are very apt to pull the hay out of racks, so as to get their feet upon it; after which they refuse to eatit. There- fore, if hay or straw is fed to them by scattering it upon the ground, a very considerable portion of it will always be wasted. _. Grainis fed most advantageously in flat-bottomed troughs, In such case, the grain being scattered, they do not readily gorge and choke themselves. may? ; SECTION XXXIV. WATER. It is computed by physiologists that at least one half of the animal system is composed of water. Water, there- fore, is not only nutriment, but it is also the vehicle by which all other nutriment is conveyed through the lacteal ducts, and other absorbents, into the blood. Hence, at no other time is the sheep so healthy and thrifty as when feed- ing on succulent grasses in dry summer weather. Such grasses, on an average, contain as much as two-thirds wa- ter, and one-third solid matter. In summer, when no dew falls, the sheep occasionally drink a little water. But when dew falls regularly, sheep kept in pastures will, for months in succession, hardly taste a drop of water. They prefer feeding mostly early in thé morning, or in the evening. when the dew is on the grass; and this dew ordinarily affords all the water which is neces- sary for them, in addition to what is contained in the gras- ses. But when snow is on the ground, and they are confined entirely to dry hay or straw, their repugnance to eating snow is such, that aa insufficient supply of water will be thus obtained, and they will become, in some measure, cos- tive and feverish, and, in consequence, many of them will pine away and lose flesh. By the experiments of De Raumer, it appears that when it WATER. confined to dry hay and straw, the sitio ate four ‘and a half lbs. of dry fodder, and drank from two and a half to three quarts of water. This experiment shows conclusively that, when confined to dry fodder, the sheep needs about one- -fourth more weight of water than of hay or straw. For this purpose, a full “supply of water should be provided for them in winter at least once a day. If they can have the privilege of ac- cess toa spring, or water running from a spring, at ail times, it will be far preferable ; otherwise, water drawn from a well will suffice. In such case, they will never in- jure themselves by drinking too much, let the weather be ever so cold. Butif permitted to drink only once in two or three days, sheep, like other animals under lize circum- stances, may sometimes drink so much as to injure them- selves. It should be remembered that the principles of digestion are much the same in different kinds of ruminating ani- mals, and that, consequently, the sheep, when fed upon dry hay, has the same need for its proper supply of water, as cattle when fed in the same manner. The sheep, it is true, can live, can> exist, longer without water than most animals. M. Daubenton found by experiment, that a sheep could live a whole month on dry hay and straw, without water; but if deprived of it, even for one day, it would, on the succeeding day. drink an extra quantity, which showed that it was tormented with thirst. “De Raumer found that of raw sliced potatoes, a sheep ate, with good appetite, at the rate of seven pounds per day, along with straw, and drank three pints of water in twenty-four hours, and continued healthy. In this ease, the sheep drank only half as much as when fed entirely on dry iodder. This experiment shows that green food, in winter, besides furnishing a portion of that great variety of food in which the sheep delights, and which contributes -so largely towards their hedlehiness, is also, in part, a substi- tute for water. But if a full supply of salt and water is provided for them, they will seldom be troubled with cos- tiveness, or the drying of the manifolds, which are indica _ ted by stretches. te , FALL MANAGEMENT. 1235 ay mntaneteny re A SECTION XXXxv. ¥ erst oo ‘ "MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. eeped Sep hie ' e4ary ‘ fi A natural arrangement of the subject is, doubtless, the » best of any, and will be adhered to as far as the nature of sthe subject will permit—selecting such rules as are of gen- eral application, and such as are generally aaa by Bree. -enced flock-masiers. s i FALL MANAGEMENT. — an ne " PUTTING RAMS TO EWES. | The proper time for putting ewes to rams, will depend in some measure upon the.breed, cultivated... The lambs of coarse-wooled sheep, when first dropped, bear cold bet- ter than those of fine-wooled sheep : and hence, coarse- wooled sheep may be put earlier to the ram than fine- wooled sheep. If the lambs of such sheep are intended for the butcher, and asupply of succulent spring food is provided, the ewes should yean early in spring. But those who choose to take that method, either with coarse or-fine- wooled sheep, which is most. convenient, and which affords ° the best chance for raising the greatest number of lambs, will put the ewes to ram at such time. that, the lambs may be dropped when there will be a good bite of grass in spring, so as to produce a supply of milk for the lambs. Conse- quently, the proper time for this purpose will depend upon the latitude and climate. , In Prussian Silesia it has been found, by experience, that Merino lambs which are dropped in summer, produce a quality of wool which is superior to that of those which are dropped in winter; and hence, the rams.and ewes are there cotipled in January,,and the lambs are dropped: in AUB Get 5 Lovins ; The ewes of coarse-wooled sheep should not be put to ahe ram until they are about 20 or 22 months old; and the young ewes of fine-wooled sheep, nottill they are 30 or 52 months old. . Uniil they have. attained these ages respec tively, they. have not the strength which is neeessary to fur- nish a full supply of milk and raise strong lambs. Those Live 236 FALL MANAGEMENT. which are of quite inferior size should not be permitted to breed at any age. Ewes should be selected for tects having not only the requisite qualities as to form, wool, and good constitutions, but also those having good milking qualities should be pre- ferred. For this purpose, see that they have good teats and udders; that there are no hard schirhus lumps upon their udders. Ewes, having defective udders, cannot give the supply of milk which is necessary for the lamb, and, therefore, such ewes should be rejected; as all those which have had difficulty in lambing from malformation ; they will be again subject to the same difficulty. No other but healthy animals of either sex should be used for breeding. Old ewes should be excused from breeding. The best flock-masters in England, fatten and sell off their ewes (coarse-wooled ewes,) at four, or, at most, at five vears old. It was the opinion of the celebrated Mr. Ellman, that though an old ewe would bring a large lamb, yet, generally speaking, such a lamb would not make as large or fine a sheep, or fatten as well, as a lamb from a younger ewe.— Merino sheep are longer in coming to maturity than Brit- ish sheep, and the ewes may, with propriety, be kept bre ed- ing until they are seven or eight years old. After which, it will be well to fatten and dispose of them, unless their teeth and constitution are more than usually good. Rams should be selected having, as nearly as possible, all the points and qualities most desirable, and of a size properly proportioned to that of the ewes. The ram should not be too large in proportion to the size of the ewe; if too large, there will sometimes be difficulty in lambing, and the ewe may not have a supply of milk for such large si- zed Jambs. Rams and ewes should be selected for each other, so that the good points of one may remedy the de- fects of the other, as far as possible, in their progeny ; and always preferring the best blooded animals, if equally per- fect in other respects. For a few weeks before the rams are used, they should have first-rate pasture or hay, with as much grain, and on- ly. so much, as will be necessary in order to put them in. first-rate order: A gill of oats, or its equivalent in wheat, buckwheat, or other grain, daily, will be sufficient. If ex- tra services are required, a little more than the usual quan- Ll _ ‘FALL. MANAGEMENT. 2oe tities of grain should be allowed them; and in such case, this extra feeding should continue during the rutting sea- gons, and for two or three weeks after the rams are taken . from the ewes, lest they should become impoverished. The number of ewes which may be put with each ram, will depend upon the breed, the age and vigor of the ram, and the manner of management. | If a number of rams ‘be ca Ais into good pasture along with the whole number of ewes, as in Spain, it will be pro- per to admit only about 25 ewes to each ram. This mode is practised in Spain from necessity, but is not the best method. ‘The rams are very apt, in such case, to fight too much, and the strongest rams are apt to obtain for them- selves a greater number of ewes than are consistent with the retention of their own vigor, and the strength of their progeny. If each ram be kept in a separate fold or pasture by him- self, and eight or ten ewes only be turned in with him the first day, and only about the same number each succeeding day until 40 or 50 are put with him, in such case neither he nor his progeny will be injured by his being overtasked, Ifthe ram be kept in a yard by himself, and the ewes, which are rutting, be ascertained by an aproned teaser, and are brought to the ram at regular intervals during the day, such ram, if of mature age and vigor, will be sufficient for 150 or 200 ewes. In auch case, the ewes should be thrown out as fast as they are tupped. And in all cases where large services are required of rams, it will be prudent to keep them from the ewes at night, and feed them well. The above calculations are based upon the suppo sition, in each case, that the rams are of mature age and vigorous. If the rams are very young, (yearlings or two year olds,) or are oldish and past their full vigor, only one-third or one-half as many ewes should be put with them. _Improved British breeds come to maturity sooner than the Merino by one year, on an average—are as far advan- eed at 18 months old as the Merino at 30 months, and may be used proportionally sooner. The Merino ram does not ittain its full size and vigor till past three years old. Overtasking the male produces a weak progeny, and, ‘therefore, should be avoided. Nothing is gained by coup- ‘ing the ram with too many ewes at an early age, as his a 2938" FALL MANAGEMENT. — vigor fails him proportionally sooner. If not overtasked | when young, ihe coarse-wooled ram may be used for breed- | ing till six or seven years old, and the Merino till eight er nine years old. Merinos, of both sexes, have been known to breed till 15 years old. agro While ihe rams are with the ewes, the ewes should have | better feed than they previously had. If they are neither very fat nor very thin in flesh, and are moderately fed with _ stimulating food during the rutting season, and are allowed — to range about in fields, or are driven about so as to obtain suitable exercise, which helps to bring them in heat, but few will remain barren. The ewe comes in heat at intervals of about seven days. — Therefore, as, during the lambing season, special attention to the ewes will be necessary; it will be most convenient to leave the rams with the ewes only about three weeks or a | month; within which time, if proper care is used, but few will remain barren; and by noting the time when the rams are placed with the ewes, and when removed from them, we may know when to Heide our attention to them in spring. FALL FEEDING. oil As soon as severe frosts come.on in fall, the grass be- comes less nourishing and wholesome ; and though ani- mals, having the appetite sharpened by cold weather, eat it freely, and fill themselves well and look plump, they grad-_ ually lose flesh, unless something be afforded to them which is more nourishing than grass. At this time, therefore, iambs, old sheep aind breeding ewes should be fed with a portion of hay or grain, or both, in order to prevent their declining in health. Hay, besides affording good nourish- ment, helps to prevent diarrhea. Lambs and feeble sheep should have access to shelters early in fall. Strong wethers, and rams which are not used for breed- ing, fiéed less attention, and with the necessary condiments, and some grain, may be kept mostly on grass through the winter, if ihe eround is bare, or on hay without grain. If the flock begins the winter in good condition as to health and flesh, there will be litile difficulty in getting most of them through the winter with proper care. But if they are in bad condition on the approach of severe weath- * WINTER MANAGEMENT. 239" er; it will be almost impossible to put flesh‘on them during its, continuance. For this reason, the same quantity of | grain fed in, November and December, will be worth to them at least three times as much as if fed only in Febru- ary and. March. ~The extra flesh and fat, which is laid up- on them by good feeding early in:fall and winter, helps to defend them against the influence of cold—fat being a non-conductor of heat. Whereas, if the same grain be ted to them in February and March, after the digestive powers. of many of ihemshave failed, such ones cannot be niga ping hay must, joan ! a : SECTION XXXVI. WINTER MANAGEMENT, SORTING. On the approach of winter, sheep should be sept ink reference to sex, age, size, and condition as to flesh, so as to give to éach kind the requisite proportion of food, anda chance to obtain it, without being driven away by others. Barren Merino ewes, if in good condition, will take the: ram at any season of the year, and, therefore, neither they nor ewe lambs, after being weaned, should be permitted to run with rams at any time, except for the purpose of breed- ing... And aS, phahotahding the most skilful management, some will generally become during fall or winter, more than. usually poor or diseased, such animals should be sort- ed out, and a comfortable place should be provided for them, where they may receive all the extra food and atten- tion which their case requires, until they are restored ; and if any are seen déclining, they should be removed to this place in due season. By) delay of attention, poverty and disease increase, and restoration becomes more difficult. MANAGEMENT OF LAMBS. | If first-rate animals are wanted, they should not be over- / $40 WINTER MANAGEMENT. fed, so as to force them, but should always be well fed from the earliest period of their existence until their growth iscomplete. If they are scantily fed for any considerable time while they are growing, they become stunted, and no after management or nourishment can eradicate the effects of shori feed or neglect at this period. With this view, a few old sheep or wethers, should be placed in each flock of lambs, in order to learn them to eat hay, grain and roots, &c. | After the grasses are injured by frost, they should be fed daily, in the morning, a little first rate hay, and at noon or evening a half gill or “less of oats to each of the flock, if Merinos or other small sheep’s lambs; taking care to. distribute the grain so far along in the troughs, that each one may have a chance to partake of it. After ten days, the quantity of grain may be gradually increased to twice the above amount, or, for the sake of variety, an equivalent in buckwheat, barley or other grain; but for lambs, either of those three articles will be pre- ferable to Indian corn; Jess injurious to their tender teeth. If the lambs are of the large, coarse wooled breeds, nearly or quite twice as much grain may be fed to them daily. Such lambs grow faster than Merinos, and need more food in proportion to their size. And these largest portions of grain should be fed to them daily, through the remainder of the season, to each kind its proportion. Whenever, for the health of the flock, or the better growth of wool, it may be thought best to feed them with. potatoes or other roots, these articles should be cut or chopped fine with a root cutter, spade or otherwise, so that they may be eaten by them, and should be sprinkled with meal of oats, or other grain, and a little salt, until they learn to eat them without meal. A bushel of roots or ap- ples may be fedto each hundred daily, or thrice weekly, as may be expedient. They will generally eat apples very readily. without meal. Some persons feed more largely than the above propor- tions of grain, especially in severe cold climates ; but those - who wish to produce the first quality of wool will feed so much, and only so much grain, either to lambs or other sheep, as will keep them in good thriving condition. This WINTER MANAGEMENT. : 241° amount will vary in different climates, and may be deter- | mined by experience. ' - As soon‘as cold, rainy or stormy weather comes on, the lambs should have ‘the benefit of shelters, which they can use at pleasure; and care should be used that lambs, and all other kinds of sheep, have sufficient room at their racks or mangers, so that each one may feed without being crowd- ed, and that hay, or occasionally straw, be fed to them at least twice daily. YEARLINGS AND BREEDING EWES. Some persons winter sheep of these kinds upon hay only. But if the flock be large, the hay must be of an extra quality, or they cannot be kept in good store condition through a northern winter in this manner. Breeding ewes are generally somewhat exhausted by raising lambs, and yearlings are still growing and need more nourishment in proportion to their size, than full grown sheep. Animals of mature age require only food sufficient to keep the sys- tem as it is; but growing animals not only require enough for this purpose, but also in addition sufficient to form new parts; and, in so doing, their digestive organs are more active than those of full grown animals, and consequently they use a larger proportion of food according to their size. Yearlings, therefore, of all kinds, will need quite as much food as breeding ewes; and both should be fed as much grain and succulent food in addition to hay and straw, as will keep them in good condition. For this purpose a gill of oats, or its equivalent in buck- wheat, corn, peas, or beans, or a mixture of some of these articles may be fed to them once or twice a day, as may be found necessary, increasing the quantity of grain at times as may be expedient. Beans seem to be particular- ly adapted to the use of the sheep, on account of the large proportion of soda which they contain, and are highly rel- ished by them. When the ground is covered with snow, so that they are confined to dry fodder, a bushel of apples, or roots may be fed to them twice or ihnrse" times weekly; with good ah RAMS AND WETHERS. If rams and wethers begin the winter in good condition, 242 - WINTER MANAGEMENT. they may, generally, be well wintered upon hay and some straw, without grain. But if any of them are quite thin’ in flesh, or if rams have been used for propagation, they should be sorted oui and should receive betier feed and ate — tention than the rest of the flock ; andif any are designed to be fattened off on grass the ensuing summer, they al should be better fed than others during winter. ) REGULARITY OF FEEDING. ! The digestive process in healthy animals is very regu- lar; the stomach needs and can digest in a given time its regular quantum of food. This quantity, therefore, should be supplied with as much regularity to animals as to man, if we desire them to thrive ; and they have the same suf- ferings, if itis witnheld. The quantity, as well as kinds of food, which shouldbe. fed to them, will depend upon the -temperature of the weather, the quality of the fodder, and the condition of the flock. And judgment must be used, in rightly proportion- ing the quantity to the quality, and in making the proper changes of food; and, in order to keep them ina healthy and thrifty condition, they should never be compelled to, eat much at any one time, of any article of food, which . they do not relish. As it is generally desirable to make use of such grains and other articles as are raised on the farm, the table of: equivalents will be found very useful, in adjusting the quan- . tities of each kind of food. In summer time, when the sheep is at pasture, the prin- cipal feeding is done mornings and evenings; a large pro- . sagen of the middle parts of the day, being devoted to rest and rumination. In winter,we should allow them to take much the same course. The hay and straw, therefore, should, be, fed princi- pally mornings and evenings. But if the weather be severely cold, a small additional foddering of hay at noon will be necessary along with grain, or succulent food. But ‘in moderate winter weather, if grain or succulent food is fed but once daily, it should be at noon, and in such , case, will be sufficient without hay. At each foddering, so much, and only so much, should be fed, as will be fuily necessary for them, in the en ~ -| » yes eR vant kM: HAMS ae it WINTER MANAGEMENT. 943 of foddering. In such case, the fodder being always fresh and uninjured by their breath, they will eat it cleaner than. if over-fed, and little will be Gani Tf, however, at any time, orts of hay or straw be left in the racks or mangers, such orts may be occasionally sprinkled with weak brine, and'will then be readily consuméd. For this purpose, — a watering pot will be found a very useful and convenient article ; or, the orts may be used for litter. And the necessary condiments should be provided fbi them at all hang so as to ensure eporfeet digestion. EXERCISE. | In’astate of nature, graminivorous animals are continu- ally moving from place to place, in order to procure suste- nance. This exercise is indispensable to perfect digestion, health and vigor; and is more especially necessary to. young animals, in order to the proper growth and developement of muscle and bone. Hence, close confinement, for any great length of time will be, in some measure, injurious to stock sheep. In winter, when there is much snow on the ground, necessity compels the domesticated sheep to remain quiet. butin climates where the ground is bare or partly bare, at intervals during the winter, it will be very economical, and will contribute greatly to the strength of the flock, if they can have an extensive range upon hilly pastures, Ww which have been permitted to grow up during autumn, or upon rye fields which have been sown early. They will thus obiain the necessary exercise. In such case, they will need some grain daily, in order to keep them in good flesh ; but much hay will be saved. At the same time, the necessary condiments should be carefully provided for them, as they are very liable to diarrhéa and braxy, when feeding on such pastures in winter. Fields of blue grass will be very useful to those who adopt this course of management; blue grass being less liable to injury by frost than most other grasses. For lambs, short pasture, with plenty of hay and grain, will be more beneficial ; and if the land be rich, and the climate or soil is moist, very short pasture, with a good supply of hay, &c., will be preferable for every division. of the flock, until the grasses are well sprouted in spring, 244 SPRING MANAGEMENT. SECTION XXXVII. SPRING MANAGEMENT. In spring, sheep of every kind which have been winter- ed mostly on hay, or other dry fodder, should, if possible, be induced to continue on eating a portion of such fodder daily, until the grasses are well‘ started, so as to afford a full supply of food. Dry fodder, at this time of the year, helps to prevent indigestion and diarrhcea ; but as they do not willingly eat much of it at this time of the year, if any grass can be obtained, they may be induced to relish it by sprinkling such dry hay, or other fodder, occasionally with weak brine. And in order to keep up their sirength, when first beginning to feed on such young grasses, it will be well to continue feeding grain moderately, for a short time after they have discontinued eating hay. Before they are sent off to their summer pastures, all such as have much filth adhering to their hind parts should be tagged, especially coarse wooled sheep, in order to pre- vent the deposition of fly blows, whereby sheep are some- times much injured or destroyed. Breeding ewes, which are heavy with lamb at this period, should be managed with caution in handling them ; otherwise abortion might follow. For this purpose let them stand upright upon the legs, and be held by one person, while another clips off all the wool and filth which it may be necessary to dislodge. Bat no wool should be pulled or clipped from the udder of the ewes at this time; if the udder be partially or wholly denuded before lambing, it will have a strong tendency to produce garget, and endangers the life of the ewe. If the ewes be properly tagged at this time, the lamber will more readily see the stain of blood on the parts behind, which; and which only, will sometimes tell him when the ewe has yeaned ; for it is no uncommon thing for a young ewe to desert her lamb, and be found grazing unconcern- edly with the rest of the flock, as if nothing had happened. Also, the male part of the flock should be examined, and, if necessary, the wool should be cut off for two or three inches around the extremity of the sheath, whenever the wool appears to be constantly saturated with urine, so SPRING MANAGEMENT. 245 that there will be danger of i its producing soreness or ulcer- ation. As the ground is usually wet at this season of the year, their hoofs will be softer than at most other times ; and thia opportunity should be improved for cutting and paring them. In this operation, breeding ewes should be handled carefully ; and their hoofs should be attended to ) three. or mth weeks before parturition. THE LAMBING SEASON. In breeding for improvement, a number should be plac- ed upon each ewe with paint, about a month before the time of parturition. Shortly after each lamb is dropped, the number of its dam should be put upon the lamb. In this manner, by reference to the breeding register, the ne- cessary selections of lambs for breeders may be made, with reference to their progenitors. * The average period of gestation of the ewe is stated to be 152 days. T. E. Pawlet states, in the Lon- don Farmers’ Magazine, that he found, by observations ‘carefully made, that the times his ewes went with lamb were as Plae. : Weeks. Days. The longest time any ewe went with a ram lambwas, - - - - - - - = = = = 2 4 The shortest, do do do do 21 4 The longest time that any one went with a ewe Pe Wee a ae BE NE The shortest, do . do do do 20 4 From these experiments, it would seem that the sheep (and, perhaps, all other animals) go longer with males than with females ; though the difference is trifling. The proper time for parturition must be determined by climate, locality, and the purposes for which the flock is principally reared. During the latter part of the time of gestation, more par- ticular atiention should be paid to the ewes. If it is intend- ed that ihe lambs shall drop in March or April, or at any time of the winter or spring, before grass grows, in order to raise early lambs for market, or other purposes, the ewes should be fed, for a week or two before lambing, with suc- ‘eulent food, or wheaten shorts, or barley ground or boiled, 246 SPRING MANAGEMENT. or should have a chance to feed upon early sowed rye, : ne have, at the same time, a little grain daily. If the lambs are to drop after the grass is well started in spring, a mod- erate portion of grain, with a litile ny daily, will be suf- ‘ficient for them. ‘As to quantity of feed, a middle course should be pursu- ed, in order to enable. the ewe to produce the lamb with “comparative safety. ‘T'oo high feeding disposes to fever. On the other hand, with too poor keep, the ewe will not have strength to go through with the process of lambing safely, nor will she have milk enough for the lamb. If the dam has not previously, had sufficient support, the lamb will be weakly when it is dropped, and will not thrive as well afterwards. en When the time of yeaning approaches, suitable care may prevent considerable losses. ‘The ewes should be placed in a smooth, dry, nearly level, grassy field, which is as free as possible from ditches and hollows, or in well littered yards, near good shelters, as, even if the lambs are drop- ped late in the season, it will sometimes be necessary to pen some ewes by themselves; and in case of cold rains or extreme cold weather, al] should be under shelter, espe- cially at night. If the lambs are to be dropped early in the season, be- fore grass appears, and while the weather is rather cold, the ewes should be kept, at this season, principally in yards near their shelters, or in small pasture fields; but they should not be too much confined, as moderate exer- cise is essential to breeding ewes. For ten days or a fortnight before the time of yeaning approaches, the ewes should be visited often during the daytime, lest some of them should be cast, and being una- ble to rise, should suffer abortion, or should continue io ‘struggle occasionally, until death overtakes them by ex- haustion and suffocation. As storms. appear to accelerate the birth of lambs, the sheep-fold shouid be frequently visited at such times, after - the ewes begin to yean. As ofientiines some ewes will drop their lambs pipaune average time of lambing is completed, the attention of the shepherd should be increased as the time of parturition ap- proaches; and after it has commenced, he should carefully mh SPRING MANAGEMENT. “O47 observe every ewe that apheurs to be in labor, in order to ‘render assistance, if necessary ; but, at the same time, the “operations of nature should not be hastily interfered with. In case of difficult parturition, the following observations, from an essay by Mr. Cleve, in the first volume of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, will i found useful, and worthy of particular attention : The shepherd must not be led by the appearance of Birietosth es and pain to interfere prematurely ; he must watch the ewe closely, and so long as she rises at his ap- proach, he may rest assured that whatever uneasiness she may exhibit, all is well. Much uneasiness is generally apparent ; she will repeatedly lie down, and rise again with seeming distress. If this occurs when’ driving her to the fold, he must be very cautious in urging her. “hese symp- toms ought to be continued for two or three hours, or even more, before he feels imperatively called on to interfere, except the lamb is in such a position as to warrant fears of losing it. In cold weather particularly, the labor is likely to be protracted. Should the ewe appear exhausted, and gradually sinking under labor, it will be right to give her some oatmeal gruel, with a little linseed, in the proportion of a spoonful of the latter to two of the former. When the ewe feels that she is unable of herself to expel the lamb, she will quietly submit to the shepherd’s assistance. In giving her this assistance, his first duty is, to ascertain whether the presentation is natural. The natural presenta- tion is, with the muzzle foremost, and a foot on each side of it. Should all be right in this respect, he must: proceed to disengage the lamb, first very gently drawing down the legs, and with all possible tenderness smoothing and facili- tating the passing of the head with his fingers, rather than forcibly extricating it, the particular attention of the shep- herd being given to these points. This may be effected by passing the finger up the rectum, until he feels the back of the lamb’s head, and then urging it forwards, at the same time that he gently pulls the legs. Sometimes the head is sufficiently advanced, but the legs are too’ backward. In this case, the head must be gently pushed back, and the hand being well oiled, must be introduced into ihe vagina, and applied to the legs, so%as to place them in their natural position,’ = with the head, Should the fore feet, onthe 948 SPRING MANAGEMENT. other hand, protrude, they must in like manner be returns ed, and the same assistance given io the head. Ifthe hinder quarters present themselves first, the hand must be applied to get hold of both hind legs together, and draw them gently but firmly; the lamb may ofien be easily re- moved in this position. It is no uncommon occurrence to find the head of the lamb protruding and much swollen; but still, by patience and gentle manipulation, it may often be gradually brought forward; or even nature will complete the work, if the pelvis is not very much deformed. Should, however, the strength of the mother be rapidly wasting, the head may be taken away; and then, the operator, pushing back the lamb, may introduce his hand, and laying hold of the fore legs, effect the delivery. It also often happens that the legs are thrust out to the shoulder, and from the throes of the ewe, it is not possible to replace them, so as to get up the head of the lamb. By partially skinning the legs, you may disunite them from the shoulder joint; there will then be room for the intro- duction of the hand, and by laying hold of the head you can deliver the ewe. A single season of practice, will do more than volumes of writing, to prepare the farmer for the preceeding, and some other cases of difficult labor. But let him bear in mind, that, as a general rule, the fcetus should, if possible, be placed in its natural position, previous to any attempt to extricate it by force. When force must be used, it should be as gentle as is consistent with the object of delivery. I need scarcely observe, that the ewe must be the object of careful nursing and management, until she is completely restored. ”’ | In addition, it may be observed that, sometimes, the lamb dies within the uterus before parturition, and in such cases there is very apt to be a wrong presentation, the breech frequently coming foremost; but in such, or other wrong presentation, the ewe may often be saved by’ introducing the hand into the vagina, or even into the uterus, and push- ing back the lamb and turning it so as to bring the hind legs, or the head and fore legs, foremost, and then gently extracting it. . In such cases, or any other, if the lamb is dropped alive, < SPRING MANAGEMENT. 949 so much. wool, and only so much, should: be pulled or shorn from around the teats, that the lamb can conveniently suck. Jt should then be placed before the ewe, and the ‘ewe, by. its scent, will generally know it and own it. But as she is apt to be frightened, in some measure, by such intervention, so as to run off and leave the lamb, the surest way is,1o place the ewe, along with her lamb, in some small enclosure, or diyision of a shed or barn. Should-the ewe, ‘under such circumstances, or any other, refuse to suckle the lamb, she should: be held, and the teat should be placed in the mouth of the lamb. If she has plenty of milk, she will seldom refuse to suckle thelamb. |The sooner the lamb can suck after it is dropped, the better; the milk gives strength to the lamb immediately. The lower end of the teats of the ewe are filled with gluey ispissated milk before the lamb is yeaned, and, con- sequently, it is with difficulty sometimes that weak lambs can draw any milk from the teats: and, therefore, itis well, in most cases, to draw a little milk by hand from each teat, when the lamb is first yeaned. _. After the lamb has sucked, the ewe will generally c own it. If, however, she does not, a little fine cal rubbed on’ its head and back, will help on this purpose; and, if'neces- sary, the ewe may be, confined for a few days alone with her lamb, and held three or four. times a day, or tied up so that the lamb can suck. With such care, the ewe will rarely refuse to own the lamb after a short period. Sometimes’ an ewe, after having dropped a good lamb, will leave it. and run off to pasture. Such ewes should be looked up and placed with their lambs. Perhaps the ewe will show her affection for the lamb when her udder begins to be distended with milk. When the ewe is separated from her lamb in this manner, care snould be used not to have the lamb wrapped or tonched by any thing which is offensive, as ibe scent of the lamb is the principal source of recognition by the dam. Ewes, which have dropped their | lambs over night, should be examined in the morning, and see that their lambs just dropped are capable of sucking, which may generally be known by the distention of the lamb’s belly, or by the appegrance of the ewe’s teats. The ewe may give too litle milk, when her lamb is first dropped early in spring. In such case, it pays well to 250 SPRING MANAGEMENT. aid the lamb by milk fed from a bottle; or another ewe may be compelled to suckle the lamb, unuil its dam affords a full supply of milk. This care will prevent the lamb from being stunted. The milk from anew milch cow, or cream warmed, should be fed to the lamb. Milk from a farrow cow is not suitable to feed to young lambs when they are first dropped; it is not sufficiently oily and purge tive. In such cases, the milk of the ewes may be greatly in- creased, in a short time, by feeding them with apples, pota- toes, bran, or barley he seis, We. If lambs become chilled soon after they are first dropped, they may, in many cases, be resuscitated by placing them in warm water, and then rubbing them until they become dry ; or simply, by wrapping them in a warm blanket, and placing them in a warm room, but not too near the fire.— In such cases, give the aati no milk until it calls for it, and then it should be fed with warm milk, moderately at first. It sometimes happens that an ewe, with an abundance of milk, loses her lamb. In such case, it may be profitable to provide her with another, which does not get plenty of milk. ‘l’o affect this, place the skin of her dead lamb on the body of the live one, and she will generally own it. The skin need not remain on more than a day or two. If no lambs are provided for ewes which lose their lambs, it may be well to see that they are milked a few times at intervals, in some cases in order to prevent garget. The young lambs of fine-wooled sheep are very sensitive to cold and moisture, and, therefore, in order to prevent undue exposure of them, it is necessary to anticipate storms, and place the ewes and lambs under shelter, Storms appear to accelerate the birth of lambs, therefore, the ewes, which have not yeaned, should be put under shelter at such times, lest some lambs should be lost for want thereol, and the necessary attention, As fast as the lambs are dropped, it will be well to keep what are dropped each twenty-four hours, in pens or yards by themselves for a day or two, until each lamb has learn- ed to know its mother, or each mother owns its lamb; and then it will be convenient to turn all such ewes and lambs into a flock by themselves, separate and apart from those ; oe SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 251 which are yet to yean; the young lambs which are lately dropped by the remaining ewes, may then be readily dis- cerned and attended to. For this purpose, it will be very convenient to have two or more lots adjacent to shelters, where the ewes and lambs may be kept until all the lambs are yeaned, and until the lambs are large enough to be cas- trated ; after which operation, as hereafter mentioned, they may soon be placed in their summer pastures. _ _ During the time of yeaning, their pasture should be nei- ther very luxuriant nor very poor; but when this is: past, they may be put into better pastures, which should be dry and free from undue exposure: and all necessary condi- ments should be provided for them in every paswure, lest some should become diseased. SECTION XXXVIII. SUMMER MANAGEMENT. WASHING. A day or two previous to the washing of sheep, they should all be tagged in the nicest manner, by shearing all tag-locks from their hinder parts, and all burs, which are visible, should be cut off or picked off. The washing and shearing may then be performed with much more ease and cleanliness than if tagging is neglected at this time. j The time for washing will depend upon the latitude and the season; but as soon as settled warm weather comes on in spring, it may be done with propriety. Coarse-wooled sheep, in latitute 41 or 42, should be washed in May, be- fore their wool begins to shed; Merinos may, with more propriety, be washed in the last of May, or early in June. _. Fair and warm weather should be improved for this pur- pose, and the water should be comparatively warm. If pos- sible, they should all be washed in the fore part of the day. If the washing is finished a few hours before sunset, they will become partially dry before the chilly air of night comes on, and, of coutse, will be less affected by it. 959 SUMMER MANAGEMENT. The most convenient place for washing, is in a stream of clear water, with a gravelly or stony bottom, and suffi- ciently large to carry off the filth; or a small stream may be damed, or may be turned into a vat so as to answer this purpose. The sheep should be taken into the water, and keeping the head sufficiently elevated, the washing should be per- formed by squeezing portions of the fleece between the hands, until the water flowing from it will not be colored by the dirt. Then, if convenient, the sheep may be taken to some higher and purer part of the stream, and rinsed.— When the sheep is taken out of the water, if it is a weak sheep, or if the. fleece is so filled with water that it cannot stand, it should be supported until the fleece is drained, s that it may not fall upon the sand or mud. During the process of washing, it should be borne in mind, that the sheep is taken into an element for which it feel: the greatest abhorrence, and which it ever avoids as far as possible, except to quench its thirst; and, therefore, it should be kept in the water no longer than is necessary for clean washing, and should be handled and treated as kindly as is consistent with perfect cleansing. In putting the sheep into the water, the arms and hands should be applied round ihe neck or body, or to the hind leg; and the sheep should never be lifted up‘or tossed about merely by clinch- ing the wool, nor be thrown violently into the water, so as to “injure it by contusion, as is frequently done in sport. — The above method of washing sheep will render the wool sufficiently clean to be fair, merchantable wool. But if itis desirable to make the wool extra clean, the sheep should be washed immediately afier a rain, by which their wool has been well soaked; or they should be taken to the washing pen, and each sheep should be dipped into the wa- ter, or “all may be thoroughly sprinkled with a watering- pot; and then, after being wet in either of these modes, they should be allowed to huddle together for an hour or more before they are washed. This “method is more par- ticularly necessary in washing Merinos. After washing, they should ‘be kept, till sheared, in clean, grassy pastures, which are free from burs, thistles, and half- charred wood. Wek. SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 258 SHEARING. Sy % i i if Stlearine ih with propriety, be commenced in about five or six days after. washing, if the weather has been fair, 50 as to fully ‘dry thé fleece ; otherwvise, a longer time may be necessary for that purpose. ‘The yolk, in that time, will be started into the fleece, so aS to sofien’ ‘the! wool, and preserve it from moths after it is packed away. iy. 4 A small flock only should be taken to the Showride place. ee at any one time; that is, only about so many as can | iM ie sheared each half day. A clean, smooth floor is the mo convenient place for sheating—either on a common b: floor, or a floor of peeks made peal ina ne or shed. In shearing, as well as at all other tirfies, the same cau: tion should be used in handling sheep asin washing. Shearers differ somewhat as to the minutice of shearing ; but the principal points to be attended’ ‘to, are, to cut the wool with one clip of the shears, and not in twain, as per- sons shearing too fast are apt to dog and to shear it even and close, without cutting any part 6f the skin; and special care should be used not to cut thé udder, or teats, or any delicate part of either sex ; cand. if a wound is made by the shears, a little tar and grease mixed, or a little powdered charcoal, should be applied, to the wound, in order to heal it, and keep off flies. ‘The, shearer should hold the sheep in positions which will be ‘éasy for it, and should be permit- ted to shear no faster, nor greater number in a day, than what he ean shear in a workmanlike manner. A common mode of shearing, and, perhaps, ¢ as convenient as any, is as follows: Haying first well swept the shearing floor, the shearer eatches th ‘sheep, and removes all straws and burs from the fleece, and filth from about the tail, with shears, if ne- cessary ; he then places the sheep on ihe floor, and rest ing upon its rump, with the head upwards, and with its back and neck vesting against the legs of the shearer. The shearer first shears the wool from around the head and neck, making short clips, with the shears close to the skin, and bending the neck from side to side, as may be found con- venient: he then clips the wool from the fore legs, brisket, and belly, as far down as he can reach while standing in this position; he next lays the shee He down upon its side, 954 SUMMER MANAGEMENT: and shears off all the wool upon one side, from the ‘elie to the back; he then turns the sheep over upon the other side, in aah a manner as not to tear the fleece, and clips the wool in like manner from the other side ; after which, he places the sheep upon its legs, on another part of the floor, and trims off the leg-wool, which is kept by itself. ROLLING THE FLEECES. The fleece (without the leg-wool,) should be placed with shorn side downward upon the floor, and then, if any tag- locks remain, they should be carefully removed ; ; the fleece should then be made as compact as possible, by pushing the wool from each side towards the centre; the loose good wool is then thrown upon the fleece; next, the shearer folds each side of the fleece towards the centre, so that (if the wool be fine,) it will not exceed eight or ten inches in width ; the head and neck portions of the fleece should then be turned back upon the fleece, as far as the part shorn from the shoulders, and then, beginning at the tail end of the fleece, roll it up as tight as possible. Next, wind some twine around it, and tie it; crossing the twine in different directions, and passing it only so ma- ny times around the fleece as will be sufficient to render it compact. Small, smooth twine should be used for this pur- pose, and no other. ‘This method presents as good wool as grows upon the sheep, and if all is done right, it will ap- pear desirable. The wool, when shorn, should be remo- ved to a cool, clean, dry, dark room, where it will be en- tirely unexposed to dust or dirt of any kind, until it is sold, or packed in sacks. Exposure to light for a few days will give ita yellow hue.—(A. Agriculturist for 1846, pa. 93.) After sheep are shorn, they should be housed for two or three successive nights, and at any time for several days afterwards, should “cold or stormy weather ensue. The neglect of this precaution frequently causes great suffer- ings and losses in flocks; and the humane flock-master will not-forget this part of his duty. BALEING OF WOOL. | The kind of linen cloth which is generally used in the United States for baleing wool, is termed burlaps, and is generally from 36 to 40 inches in width. Cotton cloth SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 255 will not answer for this purpose, unless the wool is very clean, as'the yolk of wool soon causes it to decay. The quantity of burlaps which is necessary for an ordi- nary sized sack, is five yards. A hoop of wood or iron wire is generally used, around which the edges of the mouth of the sack are folded, and sewed with packing twine. The hoop and sack are then placed on the inside of a square frame, which is just large enough for the hoop to rest‘upon its four sides, and at an elevation sufficient for the sack to swing clear from anything below. If the wool is fine. five or six fleeces are thrown in for a layer, and are followed by a man or boy, who carefully adjusts and treads. each successive layer, till the sack is full. It is well, be- fore the packing begins, to stuff the lower corners of the sacks with wool clippings, and vie them. When the sack is filled, it is then drawn together with twine, and the up- per corners are then prepared in the same manner as the lower corners, in oddbhvs to form handles for moving the bales. : SORTING, MARKING, ETC. “Dane and after the process of shearing is the most con- venient time for the sorting and brand-marking of sheep.— The quality and weight of each fleece may, at this time, be fully ascertained, and the form and every imperfection of carcass may be clearly seen. At this time, therefore, should be selected out for breed- ers, all those, of either sex, which are most distinguished for the several purposes for which they are reared, whether for quality or quantity of wool, or the excellence and fair proportions of their forms. Such should receive a lasting mark, and the weight and quality of their fleeces should be duly noted. At this time should be sorted out the wethers and dry ewes, particularly those which are old,,or diseased, or inferior in size, and, which are designed to be fornia off for the butcher. ! _ Ewes and lambs should be pastured in flocks by them- selves, and separate and apart from all other kinds. Rams and wethers may herd together; and yearling ewes and barren ewes in flocks together. PS “At this time, each sheep should receive a mark or brand on some part of the body, with a paint brush or brand, of 256 SUMMER MANAGEMENT. the initial letters of the owner’s name, or some other suit- able mark, so that it may be seen at a distance, in case any should stray or get mixed with other sheep. The maierials most suitable for marking, are spirits of turpentine, or linseed oil, or both these articles, mixed with lampblack, or Venetian red, or Spanish brown. The marks may be placed on different paris of the body, so that each kind may be readily known. Tar is frequently used for brand-marking ; but it forms a deep, heavy crust upon the wool which cannot be easily cleansed from it, and, therefore, is injurious in its manu- facture. {f the skins of any are found io be in bad condition, the proper remedies may now be conveniently applied. _Wash- ing them with salt water will have a good effect upon their skins—will prevent their taking cold, and will cause ticks to drop oH (Caliah 1845. ) At this time, also, attention should be paid to the hes of sheep: if any press too near the bones of the head or face, or endanger the eyes, they should be cut partly or wholly off, as may be necessary. The feet, also, should. be examined and pared, if necessary. Also, the teeth of old sheep should be examined, nie) if any are found to be loose, or in any wise defective, so as to be useless, they should be extracted with pincers. OF PASTURAGE. The natural habits of the sheep attach it to the highest grounds, to the upland slopes where aromatic plants abound. Nature never intended this animal to consume continually the succulent grasses of rich lowlands; and all, who have observed the habits of the sheep, are aware that their natu- ral instinct, afier being domesticated for ages, still leads them io the elevated portions of the fields in which aay are kept. For this reason, the highest hills of every farm on which sheep are kept, will always be best adapted for their pastur- age, provided the soil be dry, and the quantity and quality of the herbage be suitable for them, and provided, sani that the breed be adapted to the climate. Either uplands or lowlands, which contain much vege table matter, and which are, at the same time, so moist as SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 257 to be mucky, will be objectionable on account of their pro- ducing foot rot. | | On the other hand, soils which are composed almost en- tirely of sand, will not have consistence sufficient to fur- nish a regular supply of pasture, | _ The best pasturage lands for sheep, are those which are firm to their feet, and which have such a mixture of ingre- dients that herbage may flourish, and, at the same time, will suffer least by drought or wet weather. _ As the highlands, in which the sheep naturally delights, are generally the thinnest and poorest soils, it becomes ne- cessary for the sheep, in a state of nature, to take a large range of pasturage, in order to obtain the quantity and va- riety of herbage which is necessary for its welfare. Hence, on prairies and other large unenclosed lands, breeds of ' sheep which are suitable for such situations, are accommo- dated with all the variety of food which is necessary for them. But when they are confined by enclosures, it is ever good policy to divide these enclosures into as many conve- nient sized lots as will be sufficient, in order to gratify their appetites by frequent changes of pasture. A frequent change of pasture, says Blacklock, is the soul of sheep hus- bandry. Grass lands, in small divisions, will keep or fatten more sheep than if there are few or no divisions. They can then be fed off at regular intervals, when the grass has attained the proper height. In an enclosed country, sheep generally do best when they are separated into small parcels ; they feed more quietly, and they waste less. Short sweet pasture is most relished by sheep, and is most healthy for them; and a sufficient number should be kept on the grounds on which they are depastured, so that the pasture may be kept at its proper height ;, and if, at any time, the grasses become too high and rank for sheep, they should be fed off occasionally by horses or cattle. On the other hand, it is very unprofitable and inhumane solicy to overstock lands with sheep, or other animals.’ B averstocking, all the flock is impoverished and liable to dis- zase, whereby they produce no more wool than a less num- yer with proper rations of food; not to speak of mutton, which, in such case, is entirely out of the question. : Fallow fields and stubble fields are the best of pasture for 258 ‘SUMMER MANAGEMENT. sheep, on account of the large quantity of bitter, astringent, and diuretic weeds which spring up in them. But they should never be permitted to run upon new stubble fields of bearded grains, such as bearded wheat, rye, or barley ; as the beards of such grains frequently produce braxy and death to them. Hogs or cattle should always precede sheep in such fields, or the sheep should be kept out of such fields until the beards of such grains are rotted enough to make them tender; they will then be harmless. Sheep may be turned into other stubble fields without harm to them, provided there be not so much grain left in them as to injure them by its large quantity. When convenient, they should be allowed to range oc- casionally, on dry, oe wood lands, or bushy pastures, so as to browse upon their leaves and shoots which are much relished by them, and are healthy for them. But after acorns begin to drop freely, on oak lands, they should no longer range on such lands; aeorns, in large ey aien aa being very injurious to them. They should not be long confined at any one time, to thickly shaded pastures, the herbage of such pastures ‘being much less nutritious and wholesome, that that of open lands. They should be frequently changed from field to field, unless they havea large range; but, when possible, they should never be changed from very short pasture, to that’ which is very luxuriant, or the reverse ; and, especially, they should not be turned in upon rank clover pastures, when they were wet with dew or rain, lest some be hoven. _ They should never be permitted to run very long at one time, on low, moist lands, particularly in summer. But if a farm contains a considerable proportion of such lands, particular care should be used to select a breed which is suitable for it. Mornings and evenings are the best times for change of pasture. At such time, the flock will generally all be up and feeding, and may readily be discerned. SHADE TREES. ~All domesticated quadrupeds suffer from exposure to the extremes of heat, especially the sheep. Hence, in sum- mer, the sheep is very apt to stand or lie during the warm- SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 259 est part of the day, upon the cool ground, in the most airy or shady places. Shade trees contribute greatly to their comfort, and blisters, and permanent injury to the skin, are. sometimes produced by undue.exposure to the sun, imme- diately after being shorn. Hence the considerate farmer will ever encourage the growth of a sufficient nnmber of shade trees in his pas- tures, and in airy places, and, if possible, where they will least interfere with ploughing. If all trees have been cut from pasture fields, such useful shade trees, as are natural to the soil, may be planted, and will soon form the neces- sary shades. And if a choice can be made, it will be well to cultivate in plough fields, such kinds as strike their roots deep into the ground, and will least interfere with the plough; suchas the oak, &c. WATER. Water is not so absolutely necessary to sheep in summer time, as to most other graminivorous animals, as their prin- cipal feeding is done mornings and evenings, when the dew is onthe grass. Butthere are times in April, and also in the latter part of summer, when the ground is frequen t- ly much parched by the sun, and but little dew falls. At such times, sheep of all binds, but more especially ewes which suckle lambs, suffer, if water is withheld from them ; and, at such times, all should, if possible, be grat- ified with it. If only a part of the pastures upon a farm are supplied with water, these should be allotted to the ewes and lambs at such times, so that there may be no failure of milk. WEANING LAMBS. ’ The time for weaning lambs will depend upon the time of parturition, the breed cultivated, and upon the disposi- . tion which is to be afterwards ae of the lambs. The time usually allowed for the lambs of fine wooled sheep to suck, is about four months. In Europe, the time allowed for the lambs of coarse-wooled sheep to suck, is generally about three anda half months; unless it is in- tended to fatten them off for the butcher ; in such case, a - longer. time is sometimes allowed for them to be suckled by the ewe. _ Such sheep grow faster, and come to maturi- tad A 260 SUMMER MANAGEMENT. Gy ty more rapidly than fine-wooled sheep, and, ‘therefore, their lambs may be sooner weaned. If lambs are weaned at the usual times, thee vil gen- erally, after a short period, do better than to run longer with theewes. After the ewes have given milk three and a half or four months, the quality of their milk becomes inferior, and the lambs are better off without it than with it. They then depend entirely upon grass and feed free- ly. Consequently, if coarse-wooled lambs have been drop- ped in the latter part of April, or fore part of May, they should be weaned by the 15th or 20th of August; and fine- wooled lambs, dropped at the same times, should be wean- ed as early as from the first to the 10th of September. As early as this will be necessary, in order that the ewes may thrive, and be in good condition, for renewed gestation, and the endurance of winter. When the lambs are first weaned, the ewe lambs should be put by themselves, along with a few old barren ewes, and the ram lambs by themselves, with a few wethers ; they will, in such case, be much more quiet, than if apart from any old sheep, and wiil more readily submit to be driven from field to field, in changes of pasture. The dams and their offspring should be removed as far apart as is convenient, at any rate, so far that they cannot hear the bleating of each other; otherwise, their inqui- etude will be prolonged so as to be injurious to both of them. 4 The lambs should be placed in better pasture than before they were weaned, in order to compensate for the loss of their mother’s milk; but not into that which is very luxu- riant, as they are more liable to braxy in such pastures than older sheep; and the necessary condiments should be carefully provided for them at this time, lest disease should ensue ; and if the farm is apt to produce rot, the driest pas- tures should be allotted to the lambs. A contrary course should be adopted ee the ewes, as to their pasture, for at least two weeks. that time, it can hardly be too short: otherwise, a wi rll frequently produce a great extension and inflammation of their udders. And those who wish to save the udders of their ewes, so that all may be fit for breeding, should also take them to’ their stalls, and thoroughly milk each ewe, on the third. yi g \ Basa FATTENING; 264 dav after the lambs are weaned. In some cases, it will be necessary to repeat this operation twice or three times, at intervals of three or four days, in order to prevent inflam: « mation of the udder with certainty. As soon as any or all of them are dried up, such ones should be immediately put into first-rate pasture, and should continue in such pastures until winter. If any of them are much thinner in flesh than others, they may be placed by themselves, and a little grain may be fed to them daily until they are recruited, so as to join the rest of the flock. SECTION XXXIX, FATTENING. aw beibar sheep are to be fattened in summet or in wins ‘ fey, it is ever desirable that they should have been well kept for some considerable time before rapid fattening is at-) | tempted. Their digestive organs will then be) sirong, and able to bear full feeding. ‘Therefore, if any “are quite thin in flesh, they should, at first, not be put into too rank pas- tures in summer, te in winter should not receive too much grain in beginning to feed them, lest they should be cloyed, in some measure, or should become diseased in consequence of excess of nutriment. With these precautions, if it is intended to fatten them for the butcher, it is always an object to fatten them as fast as possible, if we wish to obtain the greatest quantity of flesh and fat, according to the amount of food consumed ; for, regular daily rations of food are nécessary to support life, and supply the natural waste of the body ; and the sooner the flesh and fat accumulaie to the desired quantity, the sooner, also, will this daily waste be brought to a close. . Therefore, in summer, the pasturage should be amply sufficient, so that they may be as quiet as they please, and not be allowed to range over too large a surface, in order to fill themselves. And most special care should be used _ 262 FATTENING. that they are frequently moved from field to field, or that a large range be provided for them, and all necessary con- diments. . The digestive powers of young animals being weaker than those of animals which have arrived at maturity, such young animals should be fed more cautiously ; and it takes a longer time to fatten them, as a portion of their nutriment is appropriated to the development of muscle or flesh. In summer and fall, sheep may be fattened off most rap- idly, and with least expense: good pasture and frequent changes of it, with suitable condiments, being sufficient for that purpose. But it is sometimes an object to fatten them very rapidly in summer, and, also, to fatten off old sheep which cannot readily be fatiened on mere pasture alone. In either case, the feeding of a moderate quantity of grain daily, will gen- erally effect it very advantageously. One bushel of grain fed in summer, will make as much fat as three or four fed in winter. An experiment was made at Shrewsbury, in England, in fattening three sheep on peas, allowing them, at the same time, to run in pasture. They gained 39 lbs. in 21 days, — being an average of nearly 10 ounces each per day.—(A. Agriculturist, 1843.) : Ifthe first quality of mutton is desired, sheep of the smaller breeds, and those which do not soonest come to ma- turity, should be selected for that purpose, anda large pro- portion of upiand pasture should be provided forthem. For though the quality of the mutton depends very much upon the breed of the sheep, the qualities of the food upon which they are fattened have also a powerful influence in deter- mining the qualities of the mutton. In fattening sheep to the best advantage in winter, it is necessary that they should have good shelters, and that these shelters should be often supplied with fresh litter, so as to make them quiet and comfortable; and, also, that proper allowances of food, water, and condiments should be regularly supplied to them. The observations of Mr. Spooner will illustrate this sub- ject as follows: ‘* Quietude and warmth contribute greatly io the fattening process. ‘This is a fact which has not only been developed by science, but proved by actual practice, FATTENING. 263 ‘The manner in which these agents operate, is simple, and easily explained. Motion increases respiration, and the excess of oxygen thus taken, requires an increased quantity of carbon, which would otherwlse be expended in produ- cing ‘fat. So, likewise, cold robs the system of animal heat; to supply which, more oxygen and more carbon must _be employed in extra combustion, to restore the diminution of tem perature. Nature enforces the restoration of warmth, by causing cold to produce both hunger and a disposition for motion, supplying carbon by the gratification of the for- mer, and oxygen by the indulgence of the latter. The above facts are illustrated by Lord Ducie: ‘* One hundred sheep were placed in a shed, and ate 20 Ib. of Swedish turnips each, per day; whilst morher hun- dred, in the open air, ate 25 |b. each, and at the end of a certain period, the former animals weighed each 30 lbs. more than the latter ; plainly showing that, to a certain ex- tent, warmth is.a substitute for food. This was also proy- ed, by the same nobleman, in other experiments, which also illustrated the effect of exercise. No. 1. Five sheep were fed in the open air, between the 2ist of November, and the Ist of December. They consumed 90 lbs. of food per day, the temperature being 44 deg ; at the end of this time, they, weighed 2 lbs. less, than when first exposed. No. 2. Five sheep were placed under shelter, and al- Yowed.to run at a temperature of 49 deg.; they consumed _ at first 82 lbs. then 70 lbs. per day, and increased in weight 23 pounds. No. 3. Five sheep were placed in the same shed, but not allowed any exercise; they ate at first 64 lbs., then 58 lbs., and increased in weight 30. Ibs. No. 4, Five sheep were kept in the dark, quiet and covered ; they ate 35 lbs. per day, and increased in weight $ lbs.” A similar experiment was tried by Mr. Childers, M. P. He states, that 80, Leicester sheep, in the open field, con- sumed 50 baskets of cut turnips per day, besides oil cake. On putting them ina shed, they were immediately able to consume only 30 baskets, and soon after but 24, being on- ly one-half the quantity required before ; and yet they fattened as rapidly, as when ih the largest quantity.” 264 > FATTENING. From these experiments, it appears, that the least quan- tity of food, which is required for fattening, is, when ani- mals are kept closely confined in warm shelters ; and the greatest quantity, when running at large exposed to all weather. But, although animals will fatten faster for a cériain time, wiithout exercise than with it, if they are closely confined for any considerable time, and are at the same time full fed, they become, in some measure, fever- ish ; the proportion of fat becomes too large, and the meat is not so palateable and healthy, as when they are allow- ed moderate exercise, in yards or small fields. _ As to the kinds of food which may be used most ad- vantageously in fattening, this will generally depend upon what is raised upon the farm, it being preferable, in most cases, io use the produce of the farm. Sheep prefer beans to almost any other grain ; but neither beans or peas are so fattening, as some other grains ; and are used most advan- tageously along with them. Beans, peas, oats, barley, rye, buckwheat, &c., may be used along with Indian corn, or oil cake, or succulent food, making various changes and mixtures, in order to furnish the variety of food, which ig so much relished by the sheep, and which should ever be attended to by the sheep fattener. This will prevent their being cloyed, and will hasten the fattening process. A va- riety of food, (says Mr. Spooner) operates like cookery in the human subject, enabling more sustenance to be taken.’ The quantity of grain or succulent food, which. it will be proper to feed, will depend upon the size, age and con-, dition of the sheep, and judgment must be used, in ascer- taining how much they can bear. Mr. Childers states that sheep (New Leicester) fed with the addition of half a pint of barley per sheep, per day ; half a pound of linseed oil cake, with hay, and a constant supply of salt, became ready for the butcher in ten weeks; and gain of flesh and tallow, 33 lbs. to 40 lbs. per head. (One sheep gained 55 lbs. in 12 weeks.) This experiment shows what is about the largest amount of grain which it is necessary or proper to feed to New Leicester sheep, at any time while fattening. The aver- age weight sf 40 New Leicester wethers before fattening, was found by Mr. Childers to be 1284 lbs. each. By weigh- ing an average lot of any other kind of sheep, which are FATTENING. \ Ses to be fattened, and by reference to the table of compara- tive nutriment of the different kinds of food, a calculation may be readily made, as to the largest amount, which will be necessary for them, of any article of food whatever. When sheep are first put up for fattening, they should be sorted, when convenient, so as to put those of the same age, size, and condition, each by themselves, so that each may have a fair chance to obtain its proportion of food, and may be fed the proper length of time. They should be fed moderately at first, gradually in in- creasing the quantity to the largest amount, and making the proper changes of food, so as not to cloy them, nor produce acute Hiecaaas of the head or intestines, and never feeding so much as to scour them. Sheep, when fattening, should not be fed oftener than three times a day, viz: morning, noon, and evening. In the intervals between feeding, they may fill themselves well, and will have time sufficient for rumination and di- gestion; these processes are interrupted by too frequent feeding. But they should be fed with regularity, both as to the quantity of food, and the time when it is given.— When convenient, they stil have access to water at all times; otherwise, a full supply of it should be furnished to them maneeiniety after they have consumed each fodder- ing. , “When sheep become esiremiely fat, whether purposely or not, it is generally expedient to slaughter them. Per- mitting animals to become aliernately very fat and lean is injurious to all stock. Therefore, if animals are too strong- ly inclined to fatten at an age when wanted for breeding, their condition as to flesh should be regulated by the quan- tity and quality of their food or pasture. * Pe a pa 266 CONDIMENTS. SECTION. XL. CONDIMENTS. A condiment is defined to be, something which seasons food, or fits it for digestion. Man uses maay condiments, such as salt, sugar, vinegar, spices, aromatics, &c. The same course is pursued by other animals ; if left to them- selves, they range abroad far and near, gathering a variety of herbage, and each of the kinds which they select assists as a condiment, either directly or indirectly, in helping te digest other kinds. And ina state of nature, and where the number of animals is not too large, according to the range which they obtain, the vegetables which they find will contain all the condiments which they need. For this purpose, the sheep uses the greatest number of plants of any other domesticated quadruped, especially ‘those which are bitter, astringent, and diuretic. Linneeus found, in examining this subject, that by offering fresh plants to such animals, in the ordinary mode of feeding, horses ate 262 species, and refused 212; cattle ate 276, and refused 218; while the sheep took 387 species, and only refused 141. | In England, Ireland, and Scotland, ordinarily no salt is fed to sheep from one year’s end to the other, especially where large flocks are kept, and tended by shepherds ; though, of late years, more salt is fed to them in those countries than formerly. Dr. Parry, a distinguished wool- grower of England, states, in his essay,on sheep, that he never gave his sheep salt but once; and then he mixed it amongst his hay when made into the rick. And in Spain, the transhumantes Merinos are salted only in summer, when on the mountains, in the northern parts of Spain.— PWhereas, in the dry climate of New England, salt is con- sidered to be indispensable for them in all seasons. But, doubtless, sheep would do well without salt in ordinary seasons, on such a soil, and in such a climate, provided they could have as large a range as they might choose, on dry and hilly lands. And there are instances where sheep have been kept in Ohio and western Pennsylvania for 20 years, without feeding any salt to them; letting them run in “ \ CONDIMENTS. 267 the roads where there are. no salt licks: and these sheep, prospered more than those which were kept in fields ad- joining, and received plenty of salt, which, when fed free- ly, in a moist climate, helps to pr oduce the rot. The truth is, that most, and perhaps all of the various plants which they eat, contain common salt, and a sufficient variety of them will furnish all the condiments which are necessary for sheep, and other graminivorous animals.— But when they are confined to a few acres, they can no longer find this variety, and sink with disease ; especially where the soil and climate are not particularly favorable to them. Magendie, a celebrated French physiologist, has shown, by experiment, that it is impossible to keep an ani- mal in a healthy state longer than six weeks on one article of diet; death frequently taking g place even before the end of that period, Now, as the customs of our country require that every person should keep their own animals mostly within their own boundaries, and these are frequently much circumscri- bed, it will become them to supply to their sheep such con- diments as may be deficient in their pasture or ‘fodder, es- pecially bitter articles ; for bitterness is essentially neces- sary in the food of all herbivorous animals. Without it, they sooner or later fall into ill health. It promotes diges- tion, strengthens the stomach, and through the sy mpathetic medium of that organ, all other parts of the body. Bitter and diuretic plants or articles are necessary to the proper action of the kidneys of the sheep, on account of ihe suc- culence of their food. In Europe, sheep browse freely up- on broom and whin plants, both of which are highly diur- etic articles. | One of the most useful iter articles which can be fed to them, will be tar, (or pitch,) which may be mixed with the other condiments which I shall describe. These arti- cles are most excessively bitter, and are also strongly anti- septic, tonic, and diuretic ; and should be used in sufficient quantities, especially on wet soils, or wherever their food is very succulent. But as these articles are very powerful, large quantities of them will not be necessary. In winter, boughs of pine will be usefulto them. Hop vines may be fed to them for bitters: they are used for this purpose in Sweden. These sabia do. or a portion of them, along with eee 268 CONDIMENTS. the various bitter weeds and plants which are found in pas- ture fields and in meadows, and which may be saved, along with hay, will be amply sufficient for them. But the great and essential condiments which are neces- sary for sheep and other graminivorous animals, are found in the ashes of the various grains and vegetables upon which they feed, of which number, common salt is only one among several others. By inspection of the appendix, it will be seen that car- bon, or the basis of wood, is the principal ingredient in the formation of blood, flesh, and fat; and by the analysis of hay and grain, it will be seen that carbon is also the princi- pal ingredient which goes to form those articles, or is the principal basis of them. Now, these various alkalies, salts, earths, and minerals, which are found in the ashes of these Various grasses and grains, are the great natural condiments which are necessary in various proportions in the stomachs of every graminivorous animal which moves upon the face of the earth, along with the gastric juices, in order to dis- solve and transform the carbon, which is in their food, into chyle, and out of the combinations which are formed in the stomach, to form blood, flesh, bone, fat, &c. And all the ingredients which are necessary to form animals, are con- tained in the food which they usually consume. ‘The sto- mach is, in fact,a kind of laboratory in which whatever food is placed, will be compounded and decompounded, so as to accomplish the transformations which are necessary, in or- der to nourish the system, and eventually to complete the metamorphosis of tissues which is continually going on in the animal system; and these ashes, or condiments, are the means which the stomach uses, along with the air which is absorbed by the saliva, in the process of POO in order to effect these transformations. As animals differ somewhat as to thoi sateen fune- tions, and the temperature of their bodies,} the carbon is, in some measure, differently eliminated in them, so as to provide nourishment suitable for each kind. And in accomplishing this purpose, it will be seen that those articles of food which are natural to graminivorous animals, and which are most nearly assimilated to that * Liebig’s Animal Chemistry, page 39. + See Appendix. ; CONDIMENTS. ! 269 state which is necessary in order to form chyle, and to en- ter the blood and the system, and which, of course, are most easy of digestion, contain the least amount of ashes or condiments; because the least amount is necessary in order to transform such food. When the carbon enters the blood, it should have the same combinations as when in the blood. And I insert the analysis of the blood, and also of sundry articles of food, in order to show how the carbon must be changed in its combinations with oxygen, hydro- gen, and nitrogen, in order to form blood : ' Carbon. Hydrogen. Nitrogen. Oxygen. Ashes. Ox blood, dried, 51.96 7.25 15.07 21.30 * 4.42 Wheat, 45.78 6.79 2.09 44.16 1.18) Oats, 51.97 6.27 1.74 © 37.43 2.58 Potatoes, 44.01 5.08 1.50 43.51 5.00 Bag! 45.08 5.00 1.05 38.07 9.00 By these analyses, it will be seen that the combinations of the carbon, in hay and in blood, differ very much ; and, therefore, a large amount of ashes or condiments is neces- sary, in order to effect the necessary transformation. The _ gastric juices alone would be insufficient to dissolve all the nutriment contained in such food. Therefore, whenever the food of sheep, or other gram- inivorous animals, is deficient in quality as to its composi- tion, they are strongly inclined to eat clay or dirt, in order to make up the deficiency of natural condiments contained | in such food. In such case, it will be necessary that we provide for them those portions of these natural condiments which they require; and these ashes I\ shall, for brevity’s sake, call either natural condiments, or condiments, as may be convenient. 7 In order, therefore, to ascertaln what should be provi- ded for them, it will be necessary to ascertain and desig- nate the qualities of these ashes; and for the sake of illus- tration, I shall take the article of white clover, and explain the properties of each article which is contained in the ashes of that plant, or the properties of the compounds formed by those articles; for the acids form compounds with the alkalies and earths, in the various grains, and grasses, and other vegetables. This kind of grass contains * ‘ 270 ; CONDIMENTS. every article which is usually found in the ashes of whole- some grains and grasses, except manganese. - 1000 pounds of white clover hay contain 91 32-100. oe of ashes, of which the component nee are as follows : : Uncombined. In combination. : Potash, 31.05 lbs. Potash, 31.05 |) Solvent and Soda, YG) Soda, 4.09 | relaxing ar- ‘Chlorine or Chloride of p ticles. muriatic a- sodium or. | cid, 2.11 common salt 3.81. . Magnesia, 3.05 Magnesia, 3.05 Relaxing earth, ) Neutralize car-- Alumina, 1.90 Alumina, 1.90 Absorbent ete bonaceous Lime, 23.48 Lime, 14.84 Astringent earth, acids. Sulphate of ) Sulphuric lime or acid, 3.53 gypsum, 6.00 Phosphate Phosphoric of lime or | acid, 5.05 bone dust, 11.22 } Tonic articles. { Oxyd of i- | ron, or | Oxyd of i- rust of | i ron, 0.63 iron, 0.63 | Silica, or J Silica. 14.73 sand, 14.73 Neutral earth.. 91.32 Ibs. 91.32 lbs. : {st.. Potash isa powerful solvent, and is necessary in the formation of milk, says Liebig. . When superabundant, it relaxes the stomach and bowels extremely. It abounds in alluvial soils and rich uplands ; and the true reason why such lands rot sheep, is, not that they create fluke worms, but that the great quantities of potash, in combination with saccharine matters, in grasses growing on such lands, espe- cially in those which are young and succulent, progiase acids, which relax and inflame the bowels. ; 2d. Soda. The appearance and solvent properties of potash and soda are very similar; but they are essentially different substances. Potash, when exposed to the air, at- tracts moisture, whereas adel paris with its moisture when thus exposed, and becomes a dry powder. Soda is a com- ponent part of the bile of animals, and, therefore, is essen- tially necessary to them, in proper quantities, but more par- ticularly to the sheep, whose saliva contains so large a _proportion of carbonate of soda, that it will effervesce with acids.—(Graham’s Chemistry.) ae CONDIMENTS, o71 Chlorine, or Muriatic acid. This article, also, is a bats solvent, and forms a component part of the gas- tric juices of the stomach, and, combined with soda, forms chloride of sodium, (Muriate of soda,) or common salt, which is strongly antiseptic and purgative. When used in moderate quantities, it stimulates the digestive organs and the glands; when superabundant, it is very relaxing. 4th. Magnesia isa relaxing earth, and neutralizes acids. Tt is, also,fa small component part of bones, ! _ 5th. Alumina is an absorbent earth, and neutralizes acids. 6th. Lime. THis to ‘an earth which ‘is never found in its pure state. When combined with carbonic acid, as usu- ally found, it is, in some measure, astringent, and neu tnee. zes all the acids which can be formed in the stomach, and renders them inert and harmless. For this purpose, large quantities of it are necessary in the stomachs of graminiv- orous animals. 7th. Sulphuric acid, in ussibinadon with lime, forms sulphate of lime or gypsum, (Plaster of Paris.) which is an astringent and antiseptic condiment. Sulphur i is the basis _of sulphuric acid; and sulphur isa component part of milk, wool, hair, horns, and hoofs. Gypsnm seems to be the nauiral astringent for the mucus membranes and the lacteal ducts of the intestines, that nothing improper or impure may pass through them into the anima! system, and its antiseptic properties prevent inflammation and decompo- sition. ‘Sheep are very subject to infiltrations,” says De ‘Aubenton, that is, they readily receive into the system too many acid crudities. Therefore, they should, at all times, receive a sufficient supply of lime and gypsum to neutral- ize the acids which are formed in the stomach, and to as- tringe the bowels. And the greater the quantity. of potash, soda, or common salt there is in the soil and plants grow- ing upon it, the greater will be the quantity of lime and gypsum which they will need in their condiments; for, in. order to perfect digestion, the condiments should be rightly proportioned in the stomach. , 8th, \ Phosphoric acid, in A Ao with lime, forms phosphate of lime : phosphate of lime is the basis of bones, -and some portion. of it is supposed to be directly assimilated in the stomach for that purpose, and it is tonic and astrin- 272 CONDIMENTS. gent. A proper supply of phosphate of lime, either in food or as a condiment, is essentially necessary to the full devel- opment of bone in growing animals. 9th. Oxyd of Iron is a powerful tonic medicine, and is a component part of the blood. In the circulation of the blood through the lungs, the iron becomes oxydized, and carries oxygen to every part of the body. 10th. Silica is a neutral earth. It seems to form the bones of plants, as phosphate of lime forms the bones of animals. 1ith. Oxyd of” Manganese. This article is not found in white clover: but it is found in the straw of beans, peas, barley, and oats; all of which articles are healthy for sheep and cattle. It is also found in the grain of rye, and roots of carrots; and it may be the cause why those arti- cles are so healthy for some persons and animals. It op- erates powerfully and favorably upon the glands : its effects upon the liver, kidneys, and the glands of the throat and skin, have been more particularly noticed -—(Braithwaite’ s Retrospect.) The natural condiments are the means which the su- preme power has prescribed for the due regulation of the animal system, and are necessary, either for the purpose of digestion, secretion, or action: therefore, a full knowledge of their properties is highly necessary. The subject may be, in some measure, illustrated by the analysis of the fceces of a cow, by Mr. Dana. By his an- alysis, it appears that there pass daily through a healthy cow, feeding on 24 lbs. of hay and 12 lbs. of potatoes, as follows: Humus or geine, 12 lbs, Phosphate of lime (bone dust), 3% OZ. * Gypsum (Plaster of Paris), |e tlhe Carbonate of lime (chalk), ean Common salt, ts Sulphate of potash, ig By this analysis, we see that the lime and salts of lime, which passed through this animal, were six times as much as the common salt, and all advantageously for this animal ; and all this without counting the silica, alumina, and mag- | | : | | : CONDIMENTS. 273 nesia, which were included in what he calls Humus, or geine, and these articles were equal in quantity, in the hay and potatoes consumed, to at least half as much as the salts of lime. So that, of the whole amount of condiments which passed through this animal daily, not more than one-tenth was common salt. The solid foeces of a sheep were analyzed by Zierl.— 1000 parts of sheep-dung, being burnt, yielded 96 parts of ashes, which were found to consist of— Carbonate, sulphate, and muriate of soda, 16 parts. Carbonate and phosphate of lime, | 20 do. By this analysis, we can hardly estimate the amount of common salt which was voided at as much as one-tenth of the different condiments. So that, with a soil and climate of average moisture, we need not estimate that the common salt should be more than one-tenth of the whole amount of condiments which are necessary or proper for sheep, with- out including potash. Now, in order to estimate what condiments will be ne- essary for sheep on every kind of soil, as the sheep de- lights in a poor, dry soil, in which there is not much po- tash, we may compute that there is always potash and soda enough in the grasses which grow on any soil, on which sheep should be kept, so as to form a supply of alkalies, with what soda will be furnished in common salt. There- fore, we have only to furnish common salt, and the other condiments to them. » By the analysis of Sprengel, the ashes of red beach and oak, contain the following ingredients : O74 CONDIMENTS. Red Beach. Oak. Silica, 5.62 passer a Alumina, Dn . we Oxyd of iron, Sha 8.14 © Oxyd of Manganese, 3.85 hs Lime, | 25.00 17.38 Magnesia, 5.00 1.44 Potash, 2214 16.20 Soda, oe 6.73 Sulphuric acid, 7.64 3.36 Phosphoric acid, 5.64 ; 1192 Chlorine (or Muriatic acid), 1.84 241 Carbonic acid, 14.00 12.37 100.00 100.00 By these analyses, we see that every essential condiment is present in these ashes; the ashes of trees, grasses, and grains are similar in their composition. But as potash is not wanted, and will be injurious, leached ashes should be used; and as the proportion of gypsum which is contained in on ashes, and in the ashes of many other kinds of trees, is very small, it will be necessary 10 add gypsum. And thus, by mixing leached ashes, gypsum, and common salt in their proper proportions, along with bitter articles, we have all the natural condiments which will be necessary for sheep on every soil, and in every climate, season, or weather, so that, with what is contained in the grasses, their digestion may be fully perfected. 4 “Ev ery person may not fully understand these computa- tions: but they will find, that upon a very dry soil, and in avery dry climate and seasons, they may not need any condiment for sheep but common salt; for under such cir- cumstances, the grasses will be fully perfected. But in a moist climate, the grasses will seldom be fully perfected ; and in warm © wet seasons or weather, or on a moist soil, silica and potash will abound in the grasses, but lime, gyp- sum, and other earthy condiments will be, in some meas- ure, deficient, so that the acids of the stomach will not be neutralized, nor the bowels properly astringed, and animals will suffer great injury from the want of the condiments ' ‘CONDIMENTS. 5 975 “which are necessary for digestion, unless they are supplied ‘tothem. We may, therefore, set it down asa rule, that, the mois- ter the soil, the climate, or the weather, the greater should be the proportion of leached ashes and gypsum with bitter ‘and diuretic articles, and the smaller the proportion of ‘common salt; and with a drier soil, climate or weather, ‘an jncreased. proportion of commen salt, and less a the other ingredients. Alluvial soils may be counted as bad as wet upland wail, fur sheep grazing upon them. Those who spread leached ashes, lime, gypsum, or phi: phate of lime, upon their land, will see the benefit of them to their stock in ordinary seasons ;* but in very wet sea- sons or weather, it willbe necessary to use the all same condiments, as on wet land. “The most convenient mode of ares condiments to sheep is, to place them ina box or trough, with a cover ‘over head, so as to exclude the ‘rain. The cover should be raised up by standards, 18 or 20 inches higher than the ‘top of the box, so that they tiety have” free access to them at all times; they will then take'so much, as will be neces- sary for perfect digestion. and will ‘not injure themselves ‘by eating too much; And with them may be placed, and mixed together with a shovel, pitch, tar, or rosin finely pulverized, soot, sulphur, or any other article, which may be useful or necessary for them. | Ihave used ten parts leached ashes, one part gypsum, and two or three parts common salt, in wet seasons; at other times, one-third salt, and the balance in gypsum < and ashes. Others can mix these articles, as they find neces- sary by experiment. For each one hundred sheep, iwo to four pounds of pitch pulverized, and mixed with these arti- cles monthly, will be sufficient in most cases, to prevent dropsy, and affections of the lungs. The various condi- ments should be rightly proportioned. If the alkalies and alkaline salts superabound, they will be injurious by causing too great relaxation; but if the earthy condiments super- abound, they will pass through the bowels harmlessly. Where ashes cannot be conveniently obtained, two parts ¥#See A. Agriculturist for 1843, page 93. ‘ ° ¥ 976° CONDIMENTS. slacked lime or chalk, one part gypsum, and one op two | parts of common salt, may be mixed together, and used — advantageously for the same purpose ; and, if convenient, one part burnt clay may be pulverized, and usefully mixed with these ingredients, along with bitter articles. The | quantity which sheep will eat weekly varies ; sometimes a hundred sheep, will eat, in one week, a bushel of salt, ash- es and gypsum, mixed in proportion as first mentioned : at other times the same amount will suffice them for three or four weeks. The quantity of ashes and gypsum, which | they seem to require, evidently depends upon the quality — of the grass or hay. | Perfect digestion is the great source of health to all ani- | mals, and, therefore, particular attention should be paid to | supply the condiments which may be necessary for them’; and when they are supplied, their digestion will generally | be very perfect, and a less quantity of food will suffice | them, than if they are withheld. | In order to test the properties of gypsum, | fed one part | gypsum, and two parts common salt to sheep and cattle. | In the softest and rankest pastures. all diarrhea of sheep | was entirely prevented. Its effect upon calves and fatting | cattle was particularly excellent. Also gypsum mixed | with saltor with provender is very useful to horses NS ed with slavering, or the heaves. | BOX FOR CONDIMENTS, DISEASES OF SHEEP. ye { SECTION XLI. , DISEASES OF SHEEP. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. In order to understand the proper management of sheep, a general knowledge of their diseases will be necessary. It is only by knowing the causes and symptoms of disease, that we can fully understand the correct modes of prevents tion and treatment. The animal system is composed of solids and fluids ; and these solids and fluids are ordinarily composed, of all the different ingredients, which are found in the grain of wheat, except silica and alumina. Upon the proper organ. ization and secretion of these different ingredients, de- pends the nutrition and preservation of the animal sys- tem. ‘The improper organization, secretion or decomposi- tion of these ingredients, produces disease and. death. Hence, the treatment of diseases will consist in the resto- ration of the regular secretions, and the prevention of de- composition. i The food and principles of digestion,. of man and other graminivorous animals, are much alike and their diseases and causes of disease, upon a careful comparison of them, will be found to be mueh more alike than most people ima- gine. Their digestive organs being stronger than those of man, they need larger doses, in ‘proportion to their size, than man, in order to affect them. Butas a general rule, when the disease is evidently similar to that of man, med- icines of the same class as for man, may be used advan- tageously for the sheep. In their treatment, we should ascertain, as nearly as possible, the nature and symptoms of the disease, with which the animal is afflicted, the qualitiesof the medicine which we intend to administer, the effects which we intend this medicine shall have, and the quantity which will be necessary in order to produce the desired effect. And in all cases where any of the natural condiments can be used beneficially, they will be the best of medicine, if nghily used. 278 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. The natural habitat of the sheep is upon very dry up- lands and mountains, where the herbage is fully perfected, and the air is invigorating. Hence, as man places the sheep on various localities, which are unsuitable for it, whereby it is exposed to unnatural relaxation, it is, in such situations, particularly subject to diseases of debility from this cause. But as the sheep is afflicted with different diseases in dif- ferent countries and climates, it becomes every flock-mas- ter or shepherd to attend more particularly to the nature of those diseases which are most common in his country.— Under these circumstances, it is proper that some account of every variety of diseases should be contained in a shep- herd’s compendium. SIGNS OF HEALTH. Signs of health in sheep are, a skiuish brightness, clear. azure eye, florid ruddy eye-strings and gums, teeth fast, breath sweet, nose and eyes dry, respiration free and regu- lar, feet cool, dung substantial, wool fast and unbroken, skin of a fine florid red, particularly on the brisket.—(Law- rence on Cattle, page 337.) 3 SECTION XUII. DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM. , Apoplexy, Inflammation of the Brain, Hydrocephalus, Ep- ilepsy, Palsy, Tetanus, and Rheumatism. APOPLEXY. sa . This disease consists in a fatal pressure of the blood up- on the brain; the base of the brain, whence arise the nerves of sensation and motion, is compressed, benumbed, and its functions are suspended: the animal loses all feeling and power of voluntary action—life is suspended or lost. ‘There’ is no inflammation, though it sometimes follows apoplexy. This disease is caused by a redundancy of blood in the system, or by any thing which causes too great a flow DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. O79 of blood towards.the head. Hence, a sudden change from very short to very luxuriant pasture, or over feeding them with grain or succulent food, or worrying or over dri- ving fat sheep, will sometimes produce it. Hence, fat sheep should ever be driven with moderation, The New Leicester sheep, from their greater tendency to fatten and be plethoric, are more liable to apoplexy than most other breeds. | 3 Symptoms. The attack is usually sudden: the sheep moves forward or stands still, unconscious; the eyes are dilated or prominent, and sometimes the animal is almost or quite blind: the membranes of the nostrils and of the conjunctiva of the eye are full of blood, and of a deep red or violet hue; the nostrils are dilated, the pulse Hard and full, and the breathing generally sterterous ; if not relieved, the sheep will usually stagger and fall, and will often die in less than half an hour; but sometimes will linger for several days, or the disease will terminate in inflammation of the brain. ‘These symptoms are produced by the pres- sure of the blood upon the brain, and sometimes its vessels are ruptured. , Treatment. If the symptoms are aggravated, a quanti- ty of blood, half a pint or a pint, should be promptly drawn from the neck vein ; and two or three ounces of Epsom or Glauber salts should be immediately administered. If ne- cessary, give small doses of the same, half an ounce or less, once in six hours, until the feverish symptoms are fully reduced. For lambs, half the same quantities will be sufficient. The sheep should be fed sparingly for a few days. INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. Sometimes the substance of the brain, and, at other times its membranes, and occasionally both of them are subject to inflammation. Inflammation of the substance of the brain often follows an attack of the apoplexy, and is gene- rally produced by nearly the same causes as apopiexy, and occasionally by atmospheric influence. i ‘Symptoms. In an early stage of the disease, the eyes are red and protruded—the animal is dull and heavy, and disinclined to move; but the scene soon changes—the eyes brighten—the flanks begin to heave—the sheep is in \ . 2890 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. constant motion—he cocks his tail and gallops about the field, and attacks his companions, or the shige or even a post or tree—appears frantic. Treatment. The animal should be confined, without delay, So as not to injure itself or other things. It should then be bled and purged, as in case of apoplexy, and the purgative medicines should be continued until the animal is fully restored. In case of apoplexy or inflammation of the brain, as soon as the animal is fully restored to health, it should be slaugh- tered, or otherwise disposed of; for it will be liable to a re- turn of the complaint from slight causes. Prevention. In England, sheep are frequently subject- ed to this disease by being changed from short pasture into . a field of fine turnips. This circumstance shows, that in in order to prevent this disease in such cases, the sheep should be dosed with'plenty of tar, pitch, rosin, or other diuretic articles ; for, besides water, the turnips contain on- ly a small proportion of nutriment, but the excess of wa- ter in them causesa plethora, which in such cases can be avoided only by exciting the kidneys into full action. HYDROCEPHALUS. Hydrocephalus, or sturdy, is a collection of water or serum in the brain. The water is collected, either in hy- datids, from the causes hereafter mentioned, or it is col- lected in some of the natural cavities (the ventriéles) of the brain. In the latter case it is owing to a congested state of the spinal marrow, the result of long continued cold upon the back, as appears by the following circum- stances, pointed out by the Ettrick shepherd, in the Farmer’s Magazine for 1812. 1.—It is always most common after a windy or sleety winter. 2.—It is always most destructive on farms which are ill sheltered, and on which sheep are most exposed to blasts or showers. 3.—It preys only on sheep rising their first year. when | Ho wool separates above, leaving their backs quite exposed to wet and cold. 4.—TIf a piece of cloth, or hide, is sewed to the wool, so DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 281 as to coyer the back, such a sheep will not be affectéd with the disease. “Mr. Spooner says: “ This disease is considered to be more prevalent i in wet undrained soils, than in high and dry pastures.” ‘This circumstance shows that the succu- lent quality of the food is also a frequent cause of dropsy in the head, as it is of dropsy in other parts of the body ; and, therefore, both external and internal influences oper- ate to produce this disease. - When the water is contained in hydatids, these hydatids are unconnected with the brain. They are thin cysts, or bladders, containing serum, and are formed of a variety of shapes, so as to accommodate themselves to the cavity in which they are formed. In either case, the water acts fa- tally by its pressure upon the brain. This excessive accu- mulation of fluid. within the brain, leads to the dilatation nt the skull, and the absorption of its walls, when the bones can no longer be made to yield. For this reason, the skull, towards the termination of the disease, frequently becomes thin and soft in front of the root of the horn, or on the sides of the head. Ina head which was presented to A. Black- lock by Mr. Grieve, each temple, exactly beneath the upper extremity of the upright branch of the lower jaw, displayed a circular opening entirely through the bone, wide enough to permit the passage of an ounce bullet. Symptoms. Very soon alter the water begins to collect, either in the brain, or in the hydatids contained in the brain, the animal shows evident and decisive symptoms : these symptoms are, a dull, moping appearance ; a wander- ing and blue appearance of the eye, and sometimes partial or total blindness; the sheep appears giddy and unsteady in its walk—will sometimes stop and suddenly fail down ; at other times, will gallop across the field, or separate itself from the flock ; and after the disease has. existed for some lime, will almost constantly move around inacircle. There ‘seems (says Mr. Spooner,) to be an aberration of the intel- lect of the animal.. These symptoms, though rarely all present in the same subject, are yet sufficientiy marked prevent the disease being mistaken for any other. Treatment. When the existence of a collection of wa- ter near the surface of the brain, is denoted by the skull yielding, at, some particular spot, to the firm pressure of the 282 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. thumb, the disease may sometimes be ended at once, by thrusting an awl or steel wire through the bone, down ta- wards the centre of the brain. This will let out the water, and may end the disease at once. A small syringe may be used to pump out the water, or contents of the hydatid, if necessary. A boy, in England, cured a sheep of sturdy, by boring with a gimblet directly through the skin and bone, on the top of the head. When it was done, the sheep was lying stupid upon the ground: the water streamed out, and the sheep soon jumped up, and went to eating with its fel- lows, and recovered.—( Amer. Agriculturist.) Another method, pointed out by Blacklock, is as follows: Make two incisions, so that when completed, they shall be in the form of the letter T, in the skin covering the soft part of the bone, under which the hydatid is supposed to be. ‘T'wo flaps are in this way marked out, and should be dissected back, so as to expose the skull to view. The yielding portion of the latter should then be pared away, which will bring the sac to view. This will be seen alternately to rise and sink, following, in this respect, the motions of the brain. A moderate sized needle, slightly curved and filled with thread, should be passed through the cyst, and the thread allowed to remain. The fluid is thus permitted slowly to escape, and, at the same time, the sac becomes slowly collapsed: after which it is easily removed by pulling gently at the thread with which it is connected. As good a hold should be taken with the string as possible, and all the water should be allowed to flow out before any attempt is made to extract the remains of the hydatid. T’o conclude the operation, lay down the flaps of the skin in their original position, covering them with a small piece of folded linen, smeared with lard, and over all apply a cap. Never try to save the bone which you cut in the form of a lid; for, by so doing, you will only endan- ger the life of the animal, which otherwise will be in little danger. | . It will often happen that the hydatid, from being in the interior of the brain, will not be brought into view by the removal of a portion of the skull. In this case, the brain must be punctured, in order to reach the sac, and evactuate its Contents. . : Hither of the above plans appear to be much superior to , DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 283 that which was devised by Mr. Hogg, the Ettrick Shepherd, of running a knitting-needle, or other wire, up through the ‘nostril into the brain: for, in sucha process, there is but a small chance to hit the water or hydatid which is con- tained in thé brain; and there is great danger of injuring the delicate parts within the nose and brain, so as to pre- clude the possibility of recovery ; and, of course, a large proportion of those which are treated in such a manner, must die. Ifthe animal is very valuable, it may be well to employ a regular surgeon to remove a portion of the skull with a . trephine, ‘bhi is a circular saw, which is used for such purposes. This plan has been employed successfully in many instances; but there is danger of inflammation, and the number of failures has greatly preponderated over the cures.—(W. C. Spooner.) — If the animal is not very valuable, it may be well to butcher it for the pelt and tallow. Mr. Greaves, of Bakewell, Derbyshire, (in England,) states, in the first volume of the Journal of the Royal Agri- cultural Society of England, that “the easiest and most - effectual way, not only to cure, but to prevent its progress, is, totake some common tar, and place it between the eyes of all the sheep, spreading it down to the nose, and it is as- tonishing to find how soon they recover ; nor will any oth- er of the sheep, having the tar ot ba in this manner, be _ liable to have the complaint.” | Prevention of Hydrocephalus. The above statement by Mr. Greaves seems to show, that the diuretic properties of the tar, which the sheep lick from their noses, have the same effect in preventing or curing dropsy in the head, that they have with respect to dropsy in other parts of the body : : and in summer, when sheep are pastured upon succulent grasses, the use of pulverized pitch, or tar, or rosin, mixed with other condiments, must be depended upon for the pre- vention of sturdy. e , Ai 2) prevent ‘this disease in winter, it will be necessary, in addition, where the climate is moist, to supply sheep with wholesome dry fodder, and sufficient shelters. Brat- - ting them, that is, covering their backs lengthwise with pie- ees of cloth or hide, or smearing their backs lengthwise with a mixture of tar and grease, will doubtless be useful, 284 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. where suitable shelters cannot be provided. ‘The climate of the United States is much drier than that of Britain or northern France, and sturdy is, consequently, a rare com- plaint in these States. Even in districts where the rot pre- vails, sturdy is rarely seen. This circumstance shows that a moist climate or weather is the most frequent cause of this disease. Consequently, good shelters in winter will contribute greatly towards its prevention. ‘‘ This disease (says Mr. Spooner,) is principally confi- ned to young sheep, and to their first year: so that, on the continent of Kurope, they in some places avoid it, by keep- ingthe sheep in houses or sheds during their first year, which, it is stated, prevents the disease. It is much more common on ihe continent of Europe, and particularly in France, than in England; and it is supposed, that in the Jatter country it destroys nearly a million annually, and in Germany, upwards of two per cent.” EPILEPSY. Epilepsy, in the sheep, is known by the names of Epi- ) lepsy, Leaping-ill, Louping-ill, Twarter-ill, or Trembling. The symptoms of this disease are very similar to those of Epilepsy in man, and hence, Epilepsy seems to be the ap- propriate name for it, ; Epilepsy consists in an inordinate action of the nervous system, and of the voluntary muscles connected with it, and strongly resembles tetanus—tetanus in the sheep being lit- tle more than an aggravated state of Kpilepsy. Causes of Epilepsy. Epilepsy is usually produced in the sheep by exposure to cold wet weather, and pasturing upon frozen grasses, in a moist climate, and proceeds from their not having been folded, or from their being dismissed. from their fold too early in the morning, so that they gath- era quantity of congealed water with gi food, which chills the rumen, and determines the blood towards the head, and the nervous system is effected through the me- dium of the nerves of the stomach. Hence, attacks of Kp- ilepsy are most frequent at the beginning of spring, or to- wards the latter part of autumn, when the hoar frost diag thick upon the ground. Symptoms. if the animal is in high order, it will, on a sudden, and without any apparent cause, cease 10 graze— DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 286 ‘will stare stupidly in every directiion, stagger, run round three or four times, and then fall and struggle violently for several minutes; and these symptoms are often accompa- nied with gnashing of the teeth, foaming at the mouth, and a spasmodic locking of the jaws. In such cases, the brain is oppressed by congestion of the blood upon it, much in the same manner as in incipient apoplexy, and the animal of- ‘ten dies off within a short period, unless relieved. These sudden attacks oftenest occur in young sheep which are in good condition, and after a sudden and im- provident change of pasture. - ia If the animal is in rather low condition as to flesh, when first slightly attacked, it exhibits a dull, heavy appearance, with what may be termed a deadness of coat; there is a loss of power-in one or more limbs, and sometimes of fa whole side, or even of the whole animal—the head and neck are drawn spasmodically towards the shoulder or back with a violent tremor, and a constriction of the ceso- phagus, so as to endanger suffocation, when a liquid is at- tempted to be conveyed to the stomach, together with a spasmodic locking of the jaws, and emission of a frothy saliva from the mouth, when the convulsive fits come on, which, in some cases, frequently happens once or twice every five minutes, together with a laborious and quick res- piration, which subsides altogether as soon as the fit has terminated. : In this deplorable state the animal will sometimes re- main for minutes, hours, or days, according to the severity of the attack; and if it does not rally from it, death sooner or later ensues; or it becomes necessary to use the knife as the only means of putting an end to its sufferings.— Sometimes the animal will rally and recover from this sit- uation, and get entirely well; but, in other cases, one of the hind legs often remains cold and powerless for some time, in spite of the use of friction or stimulants; and sometimes a tumor of the size of a pigeon’s egg, or even of a hen’s egg, filled with pus or ichor, will appear near one of thé joints or arms of the legs, or upon the brisket, or near tie. patis. If the sheep is predisposed'to Epilepsy, by the quality of the pasture and wet, frosty weather, the disease will some times make its appearance, ifthe animal is injured 286 ‘DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. either in its loins by running, jumping, or stretching, or by rough usage in the fold, or if the addin of ewes that are near the time of yeaning, be underlocked, as the fatigue which they thereby undergo, and the cold which thus pen- etrates to the most tender parts, are often followed by the most fatal consequences.—(See Spooner on Sheep. ) , Treatment. When the disease arises from injuries to the back, joins, or other parts of the body, by accidents or by rough usage in the fold, Blacklock advises that the sheep should be slaughtered ; ; as, should a cure be attempted, the treatment, in ordinary ‘hands, will be too tedious and com- plicated to succeed. When the disease comes on suddenly and violently, it is owing to oppression of the brain from congestion. In such cases, copious blood-letting and doses of Epsom salts will be found most useful. This kind of Epilepsy is almost certain to end in sturdy, unless combatted by energetic de- pletion.—( Blacklock.) When the animal is in low condition, and the disease comes on moderately, or if of long standing, and has ev- ery appearance of the true Epilepsy, blood-letting will be injurious. In such cases, warm shelter, with a supply of dry nutritious food, will frequently restore the animal. If this fails, give frequent doses of an infusion of horse castor, made by seetheing it in water. In Epilepsy of man, this has been found to be the most effectual of all remedies; and possibly it may be quite as useful to the sheep as to man. Prevention of Epilepsy. Exposure to cold wet weather, and feeding upon frozen herbage in a moist climate, appear to be the principal causes of this disease. Hence, in such climates, it may be avoided by providing good shelters, and feeding the sheep with dry hay in the morning, during frosty weather, and not permitting them to feed on grass in the morning until the frost has disappeared. Epilepsy is a frequent disease in the moist climate of northern Europe. In the dry climate of the United States, it is rarely or never seen; nevertheless, its occurrence in Europe shows the injurious influence which wet, frozen herbage must, in some measure, exert upon the sheep in other climates. DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 287 | TETANUS. | This digeaso, which is more usually understood under hes term of Locked Jaw—this being a principal and com- mon symptom—consists of a violent irritation of the ner- yous system, occasioning the spasmodic and violent con- traction of the voluntary muscles of the body, particularly those of the neck, jaw, and back. It usually commences with a peculiar motion of the head, and sometimes of the limbs, and the jaw becomes fixed, and there isa grinding of the teeth, ‘These appearances, which are involuntary, increase, and the head is bent round, the neck twisted, and one of the limbs fixed. The muscles feel very hard, being in a violent state of action; and sometimes they become less rigid, and convulsions take place. These symptoms are often fatal in the course of twelve hours; but if the ‘sheep survives more than two days, it is likely to recover. ‘This disease is more common with lambs than with sheep, and is not unfrequently the effect of castration, par- ticularly when the operation is performed with unusual vio- lence, and by means of twisting. Exposure to cold and wet is also a frequent cause, and deaths oftener arise from this neglect than farmers are generally aware of.’”’ Italso sometimes arises from wounds or bruises, or a foul state of the bowels. Treatment. The treatment should consist in removing the animal to a more comfortable, quiet place, where no disturbance can possibly arise. The, ,body should be kept comfortably warm, and a mild purgative should be given, such as linseed oil or castor oil. This should be followed by doses of one-third of a scruple of laudanum, with the same quantity of ginger, in thick gruel three times daily. The animal should be disturbed as little as possible, for it has been found in this disease that quietude is one of the most important agents in establishing a cure. !f laudanum fails to give relief, doses of an infusion. or decoction of horse castor should be administered freely, with gruel suf- ficient to preserve the strength of the animal. PALSY.. This disease consists in a partial suspension of the pow- ers of the nervoussystem. Semetimes the animal is totally 288 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN, helpless—every limb being, in some measure affected; at § other times, the disease is principally confined to the loins. It differs from apoplexy—apoplexy being a total suspension of the powers of the nervous system. Jal id ** The cause of this disease is generally cold combined with moisture ; the animal becomes chilled, and is found, perhaps after a snowy night, in the helpless state before mentioned. Though more frequently affecting lambs, it may also attack sheep of all ages, and particularly the ewe that has aborted her lamb with difficulty, and after a tedi- ous labor in cold weather. It often attacks the newly drop- ped lamb, and sometimes proves fatal during the night.— When less severe, the lamb is found stationary, and with its hind legs powerless; and when this is the case, it rarely becomes otherwise than stunted in its growth, though after a time it may get rid of the paralysis. ‘“‘ This disease is often confounded with Rheumatism, and is sometimes connected with it ; but the former has its ori- gin in the nerves, whilst the latter, (the rheumatism,) though more painful, is an affection of the muscles.’””— (Spooner.) ; “This disease is sometimes produced by an excess 0 nutriment, or by the quality of the food. ' ‘¢ Mr. Cleve, in the first volume of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, relates the follow- ing facts: “I had been giving two cart-loads of mangel wurtzel daily to about 150 couples. Finding the pasture get short, I one day ordered an extra load, and the follow- ing day | found that thirteen of the ewes had nearly lost the use of their limbs. On another occasion, having some hoggets that would not eat the roots, I enclosed them in a pen, in order to starve them to it; but as soon as they be- gan to feed heartily, they were all similarly effected. If I rightly attribute the complaint to this cause, and, indeed, I have no doubt on the subject, the treatment is, to withhold the mangel wurtzel for a short time, and only return to the use of it gradually, and in small quantities.” Treatment. ‘In the cases last mentioned, Mr. Cleve bled, and gave each sheep an ounce and a half of Epsom salts, under which treatment they all recovered, with one exception.”’ In ordinary cases of Palsy, arising in the manner first ” - DISEASES’ OF THE BRAIN. 289 _ mentioned, the treatment should consist in the application of warmth externally, but moderate at first, and gradually increased. A drachm of ginger, or other mild stimulant, mixed with gruel, should then be administered to the sheep ; and the dose should be repeated occasionally until the ani- mal is restored. . _ A lamb thus afflicted should be wrapped in a blanket, and placed in a warm room, but not too near the fire. A little ginger mixed with a little warm milk, may then be given to it; but as soon as itis able to move about, it should be pla- ced with its dam, in a comfortable place, and her care and milk will, in most cases, gradually restore it. If symptoms of Diarrhcea should appear, the treatment recommended under that head should be employed. | ; RHEUMATISM. “ Rheumatism is an affection of the muscles instead of the nerves, and consists in a peculiar inflammation of those parts, very frequently causing considerable pain, when they are called into action. !t is usually caused by exposure to cold wet weather, and sometimes shifts from one part to another, occasionally degenerating into a slow. or chro- nic form, and attacking the sinews, ligaments and joints, as well as muscles. ‘The neck and loins, (in England) are the parts most frequently attacked, either separately or combined. The former affection causes the head to be car- ried in a bent position, and the latter produces considera- ble stiffness and weakness of the loins.’? In America, the thighs and legs of sheep appear to be more frequently affected with this complaint, than other parts of the body. Treatment. As this complaint arises most frequently from exposure to cold wet weather, suitable shelter should be provided for animals so afflicted, and a drachm of gin- ger, or pimento, should be given to them, in gruel, or in their provender, twice aday. A stimulant, such as _harts- horn and oil, or opodeldock, should be well rubbed over the part affected. ' ' | Epilepsy and palsy are rare complaints in America; but rheumatism is not uncommon. These complaints will rarely occur in any country where suitable food and shel- ters are provided. as : ps 290 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. SECTION XLIIL, DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. OBSTRUCTION OF THE GULLET. Sheep are liable to this affection, by swallowing or at- tempting to swallow apples or roots, either whole, or pieces of them, which are imperfectly masticated, or by gorging themselves with large quantities of oats or other grain. When this affection is caused by apples or roots, “ the sheep should have its head elevated, and held firmly be- tween one man’s legs, whilst another passes the end of a flexible probang, carefully over the root of the tongue, into the pharynx, and thence down the esophagus, foreing the obstructing morsel with it. Much care must be exercised in this operation ; the probang should be oiled, and forced onward with gentle firmness, so as not to lacerate or inflame the coats of the cesophagus. In the absence of that use- _ ful article, a cane or flexible rod having at one enda bulb formed of tow or smooth wood, and being well oiled, may be used as a probang.”’ If these means should fail, the obstructing morsel should, if possible, by gentle manipulation and pressure upward, be raised up so far in the esophagus that it may be extracted by the knife. For this purpose, clip off the wool from about the part where it lies, and aroundthe neck, and then with the knife cut down upon the obstructing substance, through the skin and cesophagus, and remove it. Two or three stitches should then be passed through the edges of -the wound in the cesophagus, which should be brought neatly together. The same must be done with the external skin, the ends of the threads which closed the esophagus being brought titrough the outer wound. The neck should then be bandaged, but not too tightly ; and the wool above and below will keep the bandage firm. The sheep must be fed with mashes or gruel fora few days, or until the wound is closed ; and the stitches should be removed as soon as the edges of the wound plainly adhere. This is a very simple operation, and will rarely be injurious; but the probang should always be first and fairly tried_—(Youaitt.) If the gullet is obstructed by oats or other grain, its pas- DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 294 sage downward may be facilitated by gently squeezing the -@sophagus.. | MECHANICAL DISTENSION OF THE RUMEN. This disease is more commonly known in the United States, by the name of the stretches, which action is only a symptom of the disease. It almost never occurs to sheep, when they feed entirely upon grass, or other succulent food; but when they are confined to hay, or other dry food, and - are deprived of water, it frequently happens that a large quantity of food*is collected in the stomach, and is packed in a hard, dry mass, so that it cannot pass out of the stomach; this is called by some persons, the drying of the manifolds. Symptoms. The sheep. ceases to ruminate, and will alternately lie down and rise up at brief intervala, frequent- ‘ly stretching itself, and refuses food of every kind ; some- times froths a little at the mouth. _ Treatment. Frequently alittle common salty a quarter or half an ounce, will relieve the animal in a short time. If this fails, a dose of two table spoonsfuls of castor oil, linseed oil, or hogs lard melted, will sometimes give relief. But the surest and safest medicine is yeast. ‘urna half .a pint of yeast, mixed with an equal quantity of lukewarm water, down the animal’s throat, once in two orthree hours until relief is obtained. This will produce a fermentation and dissolve the contents of the stomach, which will then pass off, without Papi or danger. Prevention. A daily supply of succulent food, such as apples, potatoes or turnips, will prevent this difficulty. Also a plentiful supply of water is the great and most con- venient means of prevention; and if this is provided it will almost never occur. i : HOVEN. _ When sheep are turned in upon wet clover fields, or oth- er indigestible grasses, at a time when their stomachs are empty, they are apt to feed too freely, and, consequently, their stomachs are often inflated with wind, which is pro- duced by the fermentation of these grasses in them. In such case, both the upward and downward orifices of the stomach are closed, so as to prevent the escape of the wind or gas. All ruminating animals are subject to this affec- 292 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. tion. Sheep are sometimes, though rarely, hoven, when eating hay in winter. In this disease, the rumen is disten- ded, so as to press upon the diaphraghm, and thus prevents _ the hast from expanding to admit the the air, and suffoca- tion is produced, so as to cause death. Treatment. Whether hoven is produced by eating clo- ver, or other indigestible grasses, or by hay, or other food of a bad quality, a quarter or half an ounce of salt fed to a sheep, or dissolved in water, and put down the throat, will frequently give relief. If this fails, give a gill of melted lard, and soon after, another gill: or linseed oil or sweet oil may be used in place of lard. ys It is stated in the Dublin Farmers’ Gazette, that one or two doses of an egg-shell full of tar, put down the throat of an ox, willsurely cure hoven. ‘The same remedy is also useful to sheep. For this purpose, give to the sheep the tenth part of one of the above doses. ‘Tar and common salt are both strongly antiseptic, and will check the fermen- tation which produces hoven. Repeat the doses, if neces- sary. : If chemical remedies do not give relief, a hollow flexible probang may be used; or, in lieu of it, a strong flexible wooden rod, with a round knob at the end of it. ‘The knob should be covered with leather, or a piece of bladder, or smooth cloth, and should be oiled or greased. It may thea be thrust down the throat, so as to allow the wind to ‘s- cape. If it collects again, the operation may be repeated. In using the probang, the mouth may be kept open by means of a round eine having a hole ‘through it, So as to admit the passage of the probang. This Speration should be conducted with care, so as not to injure the pees adh or meat-pipe. If the case proves desperate, the last remedy is, to plunge a knife through the skininto the rumen. The knife should be sharp at the point, and dull on the edge, so as not to make too broad a wound. ‘The sheep will swell most on the left side, and a part of the swelling will be very protu- berant below the hip-bone. Into this protuberance, plunge the knife. ‘The aperture must be kept open until all the wind is discharged ; and if it does not at once freely and rapidly escape, the sides of the belly should be moderately pressed, so as to force it out. After the wind has escaped, F | DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 298. the wound may be drawn together by putting on an atin sive plaster. This is evidently a dangerous remedy, and should be used only in the last resort, as it is evident that the animal must sometimes die in consequence of the wound which is made. If the animal is fat, it may be well to butcher it at Prevention. “The usual cause of this complaint i is, that clover is a grass which is difficult of digestion, and when it i received into the stomachs of ruminating animals at a time when it is moistened with dew or rain, it goes into a state of fermentation before the gastric juice can operate upon it; whereas, if it is received into the stomach without dew or rain upon it, the gastric juices will readily have their due influence on every part of it. Hence, in order to prevent this complaint, sheep should be turned in upon clo- ver pastures only at such times of the day that the grass will be dry : and should it be necessary to turn them in upon such fields at other times, it will be well to keep them moving about for a little time when first turned in, so that they cannot gorge themselves too suddenly ; or they may be turned into them when well filled with other grasses. THE ROT. The Rot is a decay of the bowels: it is a complication of diseases, each of which, either directly or indirectly, . arises fromthe same causes. This complication of disea- ses has never been fully explained by any author; and as,. in order to the proper management of sheep on the va- rious soils, and in the various seasons and climates which may occur to them, it will be necessary to have a correct knowledge of these internal diseases of sheep, it will be necessary to use more words than what have generally been used by writers upon this subject. No one has so graphically described the external causes and symptoms of these diseases, as the poet Virgil. I shall, therefore, insert an accurate translation of part of the 97 last lines of the third book of his Georgies, or poetical works upon Agriculture, which were written about 50 years before the birth of Christ, as follows: : i 294° DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. ‘«« Not so frequent does the whirlwind, driving winter be- fore it, rush from the Ocean, as the plagues of cattle are numerous. Nor do diseases seize upon single bodies only ; but the whole summer’s increase, the hope and the flock together, and the whole stock from their origin. If any one can see the aerial Alps, and the Norican Castles upon the hills, and the fields of lapidian Timavus, and the realms of the shepherds, now, after so long a time deserted, he may then know. Here, formerly, a miserable tempest of the sky, began along with the disease, and it increased with the whole heat of autumn, and it put to death the whole race of caitle, and wild beasts; seized upon the lakes; in- fected the pastures with contagion. Nor was the manner of death simple ; but when the fiery thirst, driven into all their veins, had drawn together their miserable limbs, again the fluid liquor abounded, and drew io itself by piece meals, the bones collapsed in the course of the disease.— Oftentimes the victim, standing in the midst of the service to the gods, at the altar, while a woollen fillet, with a snowy label, is put around it, has fallen down about to die, inthe midst of the servants waiting. Or if any priest had killed any one with a knife, neither do its fibres placed upon the altars burn, nof can an augur consulted return an answer : and the knives applied ‘are scarce tinged with blood, and the surface of the sand is hardly stained with meagre gore. Hence, ihe calves frequently die in luxuriant pastures, and yield up their lives_at the full cribs. Hence, madness comes upon the gentle dogs; and wheezing cough shakes the diseased swine, and chokes them in their swollen jaws. on ES Se a SOS EELS SENT SOUS GENS i Non tam creber agens hiemem ruit equore turbo, Quam multe pecudum pestes. Nec singula morbi, Corpora corripinut; sed tota estiva repente, ee greremque simnl, cunctamque ab origine gentem. ‘Tum sciat, erias Alpes, et Norica si quis Castella in tumulis, et Iapidis arva Timayi ** Nunc quoque post tanto videat, desertaque regna, Pastorum, et longe saltus lateque vacantes. Hic quondam morbo ceeli miseranda coorta est Tempestas; totéque autumni incanduit estu; Et genus omne neci pecudum cedit. omne ferarum, ~ Corripuitque lacus; infecit pabnia tabo. - THis Nec via mortis erat simplex: sed ubi ignea venis, Omnibus acta sitis miseros adduxerat artus; Rursus abundabat fluidus liquor; omniaque in se, Oss@ minutatim in morbo collapsa trahebat. Sape in honore Deum medio stans hostia ad aram,” a - | DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 295 The miserable horse, though once victorious, falls down, unmindful of his exercise and grass; is averse to water, & and frequently strikes the ground with his foot; his ears hang down; an intermitting sweat breaks out, and that cold to those about to die; the skin becomes dry, and hard to the touch, resists the handling. _“ Lo, 100, the bull, smoking under the oppressive’ plough- share, falls down and vomits from his mouth blood mingled with foam, and draws his last groans.. _ “Neither does the wolf search round the sheep-folds ‘for an ambuscade, nor does he prowl about the flocks at night ; a sharper caresubdues him. The timid doés and fugitive stags wander about, among the dogs and around the houses.— ‘The air becomes unfavorable, even to the birds, and they falling give up their lives in the high clouds. _ Nor does it avail any thing that the pastures are chan- ged: the usual arts of healing prove injurious ; the masters Chiron and Melampus ceased to prescribe. Pale Tisiphone, sent from Stygian darkness into light, rages, and drivés disease and dismay before her. The streams, and dry banks, and sloping hills, resound with the bleating of ‘« Lanea dum nivea circumdatur infula vitta, Inter cunctantes cecidit moribunda ministros. “Aut si quam ferro mactaverat ante sacerdos; ' Inde neque impositis ardent altaria fibris; Nec responsa potest consultus reddere vates; Ac vix suppositi tinguntur sanguine cultri, Summaque jejuna sanie infuscatur arena. Hine letis vituli vulgo moriuntur in herbis Et dulces animas plena ad preesepia reddunt. Hinc canibus blandis rabies venit; et quatit egros Tussis anhela sues, ac faucibus angit obesis. Labitur infelix studiorum, atique immemor herb Victor equus; fontes avertitur, et pede terram Crebra ferit; demisse: anres; incertus ibidem Sudor, et ille quidem moriturns fregidus; arit. Pellis, et ad tactum tractanti dura resistit. Ecce autem duro fumans sub vomere taurus. Concidit, et mistum spumjs vomit ore cruorem Extremosque ciet gemitus . Non lupus insidias explorat ovilia circum Nec gregibus nocturnus obambulat; acrior illum Cura domat. Timidi dame, cervique fugaces, Nunc interque canes et circum tecta vagantur, Ipsis est aer avibus non equus; et illa”’ i 296 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. destruction, and in the very stalls heaps up carcasses, over- turned by. the foul contagion; until they learn to hide them in pits, and cover them with earth. Neither was there any use for their skins ; nor could any person cleanse their viscera with water, or purge them with fire ; nor shear their fleeces, eaten through by disease and uncleanliness ; nor touch the putrid stuffs. But if any one tried the odious vestments, burning pimples and filthy sweat overspread his noisome limbs. Then, no long tim: intervening, the cursed fire preyed upon his infected limbs.” Rie Those who remember the summers of 1335, *36 and ’37, may recollect, that the influence of the weather upon animals, was much the same as above described. Long continued hot and wet weather combined, ever will pro- duce such pestilences. In such seasons, the grasses grow rapidly, and are deficient in their earthy salts, and the pores of the skins of animals are partly closed by moisture, so that their bowels are oppressed with bad food, and excre- mentitious matter, and they sink with disease. And much the same thing happens yearly, where flocks are pastured upon wet lands ; therefore, a very particular knowledge of this complication of diseases is necessary in all cli- mates. Symptoms of Rot. The animal pines away, and appears languid and dull; is troubled with fabulence ; the white of the eyes, and the eye-lids, if lifted up, are pale and hardly Precipites alta vitam sub nube relinqunt. Preterea, nec jam mutari pabula refert; Qesiteque nocentartes: cessere mgistri Phillyrides Chiron, Amythaoniusque Melampus. Sevit etin lucem Stygiis emissa tenebris Pallida Tisiphone; morbos agit ante metumque. Balatu pecornm, et crebri is mugitibus amnes, Arentesque sonant ripe, collesque supini: Jamque catervatim dat stragem, atque aggerat ipsis In stabulis turpi dilapsa cadavera tabo; Donec humo tegere, ac foveis abscondere discunt. Nam neque erat coriis usus ; nec viscera quisquam Aut undis abolere potest, aut vincere flamma ; - Nec tondere quidem morbo illuvieque peresa Vellera, nec telas possunt attIngere putres. Verum etiam, invisos si quis tentarat amictus Ardentes papule, atque immundus olentia sudor Membra sequebatur ; nec longo deinde moranti Tempore, contactos artus sacer ignis edebat.”’ DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 297 show the veins ; the caruncle of the eye appears yellowish ; the skin loses its carnation color and looks paleish ; the tongue becomes livid and furred. In the course of the dis- ease, the wool frequently becomes loose, so as to be easily separated from the pelt; and some part of the skin is often mottled with round reddish or brownish spots, and, in some cases, the whole skin of the back becomes Heb with; the sheep shrinks, and becomes flaccid about the loins : some- times it has dropsical swellings, which are most frequent in the peritoneum, or under the jaws; sometimes it has a cough: and diarrhcea is frequently one of the symptoms, but not always: at death, the animal more generally sinks away gradually, and dies off with very little pain. Causes of the Rot.—These are principally of two dis- tinct kinds. One cause is, the acids, which are produced by the fermentation of grass or food in the stomach. The other cause is, the mechanical action of sharp-edg- ed grasses, irritating and cutting the mucus membranes of the stomach and intestines. ~ That kind of ‘rot which is produced in the manner first | mentioned, will be first treated of, being that which is more generally nowt as the rot. When the digestive powers of the animal are eae ne or the food is of sucha quality as to be difficult of digestion, fermentation takes place in the bowels, and acids are pro- ~ duced. “Of all the food,’’ says Blacklock, ‘on which sheep can possibly be kept, none is known to act so dele- teriously as grass which has sprouted quickly.” This re- mark is well known to be most perfectly correct, and it af- fords a key to this complication of diseases called rot.— Such young grasses contain a large proportion of saccha- rige matter, alkalies, and alkaline ‘dali ® and, at the same time, are deficient as to their earths and earthy salts : es are in a state of rapid preparation for the formation of their grain or seed. Hehed: in such a state, they readily fer- ment and produce acids. Sugar ferments and produces acids in the stomach more readily than any other kind of food. Underneath are inserted the analysis of sugar, and of Sundry acids, as follows : * See analysis of oats, by Mr, Fromberg , in the Appendix, 298 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS, Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Sugar, 42.58 6.37 51.05 Oxalic acid, oracid of sugar, 33.22. 0.24. 66.53 Acetic acid, 46.83 6.35 46.82 Tartaric, 36.16. 3.95 59.88 Citric, 41.36 3.80 54,83 Malic, 41.47 3.51 55.02 By this table, it will ,be seen that the constituents of su- gar, and of each of these acids, are precisely the same ; they only vary in the proportions of those ingredients. Of course, the saccharine’ matter of grasses, may, by indiges- tion and fermentation, be changed into apy of these acids. Ure says, in his dictionary of chemistry, ‘‘From the gen- eral phenomena, it may be concluded, that a vegetable sub- stance, heated moderately with potash, gives oxalic acid.*”’ Now, as potash is ever present in the grasses, whenever it is superabundant, the heat of the stomach will readily form oxalic acid. The manner in which these acids act, is, that they irri- tate or erode the mucus membranes, or inner lining of the stomach and intestines: they are also partially absorbed, and pass through the lacteal ducts and mesentery glands, along with the chvle: and abscesses, or cavities, are form- ed in the lacteal ducts, which sink through the muscles of the intestinal canal; and the mesentery glands are enlarg- ed, and sometimes become schirhus or hard. And when these muscles of the bowels are affected by abscesses, as above mentioned, the tissue of those muscles is so much relaxed that the bowels are no lenger able to perform the usual peristaltic or vermicular motion, and sink down into the lower part of the belly, from absolute weakness. . such case, the parts between the hips and the short ffbs fallin: the sheep shrinks. And when these ducts and glands are injured in this manner, the chyle will be impurely received, or will utterly cease to be received through the parts which are decayed; and if a very large proportion of these organs is injured, the animal must die, for the very portals of life are closed. I have dissected very many which died with this affection, and never have examined * This principle is worthy of particular attention. a DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 299 any one in,which the lacteal ducts were not defective. In lambs 6 or 8 months old, the mesentery glands appear most enlarged ; in full grown sheep the lacteal ducts appear to be most defective. And the lacteal ducts and mesentery glands are the parts which first fail, and give rise to this complication of diseases called rot. If only the mucus membranes of the stomach and bowels, or if only the liver or lungs.are somewhat affected, there will be a.chance for restoring the animal; but if the lacteal ducts and mesen- tery glands are much defective, they can never be restor- ed; the animal must perish for want of nutriment. If only a small portion of these organs.are injured, the animal may sometimes be fatted off and killed. -And the state of these organs may be nearly known, by the appearance of the parts between the hips and the short ribs; if, with plenty of food before the animal, those parts sink in more than usual, those organs are surely injured. | But in order fully to understand the effect of these acids, ‘it will be necessary to take a view of them. All the four acids last mentioned in the table, may, and doubtless do, pass through sheep and other animals, and cause diarrhea, which is frequently continued for a considerable time with- out rotting them. But the oxalic isa powerful acid, and is a strong vegetable poison. If it is formed in the stomach or intestines, in any considerable quantity, it cannot pass through them harmlessly. That it is so formed, is certain. ‘¢ In the so-called mulberry calculi, or stone in the bladder of the human body, we find oxalat of lime, says Liebig, and always in persons in whom, from want of exercise, or from other causes, the supply of oxygen has been dimin- ished.’’ Such persons are ever subject to indigestion and acidity of the stomach. Under such circumstances, we see that oxalic acid is formed in the human body. | _ That oxalic acid is formed in the bowels of the sheep, will be apparent by the round reddish or brownish spots which are seen on the skins of sheep affected with rot. Unfortunately, the oxalic acid has been taken as a medi- cine by a number of persons in England, in consequence of their mistaking it for Epsom or Glauber salts. And [ in- sert, from Beck’s Medical Jurisprudence, an account of the effects which it had upon them, and upon other animals, as it will show its properties, as follows : / 300 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 1st.—The earliest symptom was, a burning pain in the stomach. 2d.— Vomiting a dark, sanguinolent fluid, which com- monly continues till death. 3d.—When life was prolonged ise a few hours, pain in the bowels and, purging followed, and the foeces were mixed with blood. 4th.— Along with these symptoms, was a sunken coun- tenance, and pulse imperceptible at the wrist: 5th.—In a case in which Dr. Arrowsmith attended, itis patient had a deep red mottled appearance of the shin, in circular patches, and also leaches, applied to the stomach six hours after the poison was taken, were poisoned ; they fastened weil to the skin, but on touching one, it fell mo- tionless and dead. 6th.—ln Mr. Elebbs’ case, the stomach appeared as if scalded, and contained a pint of dark- colored fluid, oie to the blood contained in it. 7th.—In Mr. Fraser’s case, the villous coats of the sto- mach were completely destroyed s though in some parts they appeared entire, on examination it was found to be soft, and easily rubbed off with the finger; and the small intestines exhibited similar appearances. Experiments were made with this acid, by Meésrs: Chris- tison and Coindet, upon animals, and it was found— ‘ 1st.—That its effects on the bowels of mankind, - on those of animals, were similar. 2d.—They noticed that a small quanity of acid, when diluted, destroys an animal sooner than when concentrated, [one-third of an ounce is sufficient to destroy the life of a man—12 grains a rabbit.) 3d.—The oxalates of potash and ammonia do not cor’ rode, but they produce tetanus, (locked jaw,) and coma, (stupidity,) like the diluted oxalic acid. Messrs. Christison and Coindet found death to ensue to animals in a few min- utes from either of these oxalates; and the conclusions drawn from these observations were, that this id acis through the medium of absorption. — lt is impossible not to see the resemblance seliich sich deaths of mankind have to those of cattle dying off with red-water, (called bloody murrain in the United States,) the symptoms of which are before described by Virgil.— DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. B01 Sheep, drying with braxy, often appear as if affected by ox- alat of potash : they often appear to be much affected in the jaws, and grate their teeth ; and in cases of rot, the cir- cular red or potash colored spots, which often appear upon their skins, show that both the oxalic acid and the oxalat of potash have helped to destroy them ; oxalic acid is form- ed in the stomach, and potash being always present in the grasses, oxalat of potash is readily formed. It is absorbed along with the chyle, and passes through the lacteal ducts and mesentery glands, into a duct which passes along. by the sides of the back bone, and the chyle enters into a large vein, just previous to its arrival at the heart. Along by the back bone is the place where these circular potash colored spots first appear onthe skins of sheep. As the disease advances, these spots gradually. become more numerous, and are scattered over the skin of the back and sides ; and sometimes the whole skin of the back, on strong sheep, becomes brown from this cause. When cattle are affected with chronic red-water, or merely indigestion, their skins often become dappled or brown, in the same manner. —(See Youatt on Cattle, page 508.) The effect of the oxalic acid upon animals is similar. i in one other respect, viz: it salivates them. In the Massachusetts Ploughman, for 1844, B. F. Wil- bur states, ‘* that he purchased a few hundreds of hay and sorrel, nearly equal quantities of each. Ina day or two, the horse began toslaver excessively. Hebefore fed him on clear clover, and also on other hay, without any such effect.— Now, in this case, the,oxalic acid, which is. the acid found in the sorrel, and which gives it such an agreeable taste, is evidently the article which produced the salivation: But it is well known that horses, feeding on the hay of aftermath clover, or on clover grass, are salivated by either of them. Cattle, also, on such pastures, are frequently af- fected in the same manner. In braxy, the sheep is fre- quently salivated: it either froths or drools at the mouth ; and even the hog is sometimes salivated by clover.—(See Meases’ Archives of Useful Knowledge, Vol. I, page 398.) » The true reason why clover salivates animals seems to be, cheat contains a very large proportion of potash, and, conse- quently, by fermentation in the stomach, it readily produ- ces oxalic acid. And itis evidently of no consequence 302 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. whether the oxalic acid is taken into the stomach directly, as in the sorrel, or whether it is formed in the stomach by the fermentation of clover, or other grasses, the effect will be the same. The dog afflicted with rabies is also saliva- ted, and animals afflicted with rabies present the same hag- gard countenance as the ox afflicted with red-water. Similar seasons seem to produce these diseases in these different animals; and the part which the oxalic acts in the formation of deadlv and contagious diseases, is yet to be ascertained by observation. ‘The oxalic acid in- flames and crodes the bowels and produces salivation: the oxalat of potash produces spasmodic action of the jaws, urinary organs, &c., and these two ingredients seem to be the causes of some of the most fatal diseases to which graminivorous animals are liable, such as mi red-water and murrain of caitle. Hence, also, the oxalic acid is to man the ordteible cause of the water-brash, the cholera, inflammation of the bow- els, &c.* We will now compare the internal appearance of sheep dying with rot or braxy, with those of mankinie poisoned by oxalic acid. ist.—Qn dissection, wherever the — colored spots were quite numerous, I have found the mucus membranes, or inner lining of the stomach, pylorus, and duodenum were very highly inflamed, and of a dark red color, and soft and pulpy ; and sometimes, in such cases, the infiam- mation appears to extend the whole length of the bowels. This agrees with what Sir G. S. McKenzie and Blacklock say. . McKenzie says: “A young sheep was observed in the morning not to eat, and seemed remarkably languid—in the afternoon was brought home gasping for breath; pulse very quick; eyes blood-shot; skin remarkably hot. It was bled: but-no blood would run. In an hour it died. On opening the body, the fourth stomach was found mortified over all its upper and fore part, which was extended to * Many symptoms produced by a large dose of oxalic acid are similar to those pf Cholera; 1—A burning pain in the stomach; 2—Vomiting and purging 3—Spasms; 4—A sinking of the pulse, and a sunken counte- nance; BNGitinese of the blood. DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 303 where it joins the bowels, which were quite red ; the inter- nal coat of them all was loosely attached.’’ . Blacklock says, as to braxy: “ Though many parts are commonly implicated, there is every reason for believing the fourth stomach or reid to be primarily affected: inflam- matory appearances and mortification are visible on its coats, especially at the pyloric extremity. The inner coat presents a blackish red and gelatinous appearance : the en- tire bowel. me soft and pulpy, and permeable to the fin- ger. 29 day " Here we see that the effects of the oxalic acid upon the bihiels of man and beast are almost precisely simi- lar: and it may be here observed that the reason Jj} why the pylorus and duodenum are more affected ff with inflammation than the bowels, appears to be, that it is here that the food is first strongly com- il pressed in passing from the stomach to the lower # bowels, and, of course, those parts are most expo- & sed to the influente of the acids which are contained. i in the food. fil - 2d.—As to the appearance of the intestinal canal : The mucus membranes line the whole of ihe intes- | 1 Sd SL SS ee == aw —— rectum. {i When in a healthy state, eee are of a whitish color, with a tint of red, and are not cae a eroded. ‘The! mucus membranes discharge mucus | into the bowels to lubricate them, and the lacteal ducts }} receive chyle into the general circulation ; 3 and the #il i mouths of these lacteal ducts and mucus membranes {i} gi are all pointed towards the interior of the intestinal ii (@i canal. When abscesses are formed in the intesti- }ii Mg nal tube, by which the lacteal ducts are injured, @ |i ‘most of them are of the size of half a pea or Bean, Yi iM with the bulging side outward; and sometimes the } intestinal tube has these abscesses bulging out, va- riously scattered over it, through its whole length, /# in cases of the rot. The annexed figure represents f ‘a section of the intestinal tube, showing how it a 3 affected by abscesses, in cases of the rot. Ng -3d.—The mesentery glands, in a healthy state.@ nn are very nearly of the same color as the kidney ;% } 304 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. when enlarged or diseased, upon being cut open, they are. generally of a pale reddish brown color near the outside ; at other times, when very badly diseased, they are of a whitish color, are much distended, and are indurated with calcareous salts, like tubercles. bie 4th.—The affections of the other parts of the howels appear to be, generally speaking, merely consequent upon an impure state of the blood. | As to the lungs, it may be remarked that so far as my observation extends, not more than one in four or five of those whose bowels were decayed, had any cough, or any appearance of diseased lungs upon dissection: and I have taken particular notice as to this point. [tis not strange that, in Britain, the lungs of sheep or other animals should be much affected; for their misty atmosphere is very op- pressive ‘to the lungs. Neither is it strange that lambs should be dropped which are diseased in the lungs; for the blood of the mother nourishes the lamb; and if the blood of the mother is bad, it may create diseases of the Jungs in both dam and progeny precisely alike; and Sir G. 8S. McKenzie observes, that lambs are sometimes dropped wih tubercles upon their lungs. 5th.—The livers of sheep are generally more affected i tubercles and inflammation than the lungs; and the reason seems to be, that after the transformation of tissues is com- pleted, by the blood passing through them, the blood is con- veyed by the veins to the liver, in its most impure or high- ly carbonated state: and as, in our very warm seasons, the lungs do not, in all cases, fully oxygenize the blood, the liver suffers from the imperfect action of the lungs.* In order to illustrate this principle, I shall state the case of a Merino ewe dying aged 16 years.. On dissection, there was no inflammation of the mucus membranes; the lungs, kidneys, and liver were sound; the liver, upon being cut, was sound like that of a middle-aged sheep; the molar teeth we¥e good: and this animal was never known to be sick with coryza or cough, and died off without the least apparent pain; and the only parts which were found defec- tive, were, the lacteal ducts and mesentery glands. The true reason why this animal attained such an age, seems to * See Liebig’s Animal Chemistry, page 17. DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 305 Be. that it had a large, broad, and deep chest, which con- ed lungs \ which were so latge | as to be able to impart a Paige we of oxygen to the blood which passed through iat and. thereby to save the liver, which i isa mony impor: tant organ in the digestive process. 6th—The kidneys are sometimes a little enlarged, though seldom; but are frequently flabby, and decayed in substance, so as to cause dropsical effusions from want of their full action. . “Th. —Dropsical effusions and: hydatids are common symptoms in the last stages of the.rot—especially under the jaws, in the peritonzeum, and near the kidneys. I shall now state what properly constitutes the rot, and the treatment. In the rot or gradual decay of the bowels, there is a chronic inflammation of the mucus membranes of some part or parts of the intestinal tube, which is frequently not very severe; the tongue, though furred, may show little or no sign of inflammation, and, at the same time, the lacteal ducts and mesentery glands are gradually decaying, in con- sequence of this inflammation; nutriment cannot pass into the lacteal ducts through the ‘inflamed parts, nor through those parts which are injured by abscesses, and, conse- quently, the sheep pines away by degrees. _ This is, prop- erly speaking, the rot; it is very similar to the dyspepsia of man, and the complication of diseases which ensues, is the. result of this indigestion. The same effect is “produced when man is affected with inflammation of the mucus membranes. Dr. John Mack- intosh, of Edinburgh, says: ‘Sometimes the mesenteric glands are affected, @ e,, with tubercles,) but I have never seen them so, without finding the corresponding part of the mucus membrane inflamed, more generally extensively ulcerated. a Treatment of the Rot. —When man is afflicted with chronic inflammation cf the mucus membranes of the bow- “els in this manner, it has been found that mineral water, which is strongly impregnated with gypsum, (Plaster of Paris,) is one of the best remedies for this complaint; and -mankind are seldom afflicled with dysentery in those districts where the waters are made hard by gypsum; and most hard waters are of this description: and dysentery is an 306 ‘DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. acute inflammation of the mucus membranes of the lower parts of the bowels; and it is only when lime and gypsum are. deficient in upland grasses, that graminivorous animals, feeding upon them, are afilicted with inflammations of the mucus membranes of the bowels. The reason for this ef- fect appears to be, that inflammation is the beginning of de- composition ; gypsum is the natural astringent of the bow- els both to man and beast, and its powerful antiseptic qual- ities arrest the decomposition which begins in the parts in- flamed, and nature restores them to a healthy action. | Therefore, when the bowels of sheep are more or less decayed, nothing better can be done for them than to give them a full proportion of gypsum and lime in their condi- ments, and a suitable proportion of tar or pitch along with them; and if any one does not incline to eat ashes and gypsum, a cleaner mixture may be made with one pars slacked lime or chalk, two parts gypsum, and two or three parts common salt: such a mixture will not be refused. In winter, sheep, whose boweis are in any wise decayed, should be kept warm and dry, and should be provided with a supply of well-cured hay, and a moderate supply of grain : but special care should be used not to feed them so much as to scour them. LS Dis course will, in most cases, arrest the disease, and prevent any farther decay of the lacteal ducts and mesen- tery glands, and will take away all diseased action, so that such animals may, with propriety, be fattened and eaten, in all cases where they can be made fat: but it is seldom that medicine can restore them to their original sound state, when their bowels are much decayed. If any such ani- mals fully recover, as they sometimes will, the round po- tash colored spois on their skins, will, in many Cases, dis- ‘ appear. But where the bowels of such animals have been much injured, these spots are very apt to remain: and it is only in summery that such animals can be fattened, by al- lowing them good pasture and a little grain daily, with a * full supply of condiments. ROT PRODUCED BY ACORNS. There is another species of rot, which is produced by — their eating acorns. In ordinary rot, the disease arises from inflammation and relaxation ; but in this kind of rot, DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 307 “the disease ‘proceeds from their too great astringency ; ; the “tannin, or tannic acid, or gallic acid, astringes the bowels, so that portions of them can no longer receive the chyle “through the lacteal ducts, into the system; and consequent- ly, animals, thus afflicted, pine away and die, much in the same manner as in the kind of rot last mentioned. Con- ‘siderable numbers of sheep and cattle, in Mahoning coun- ~ty, Ohio, have been injured in this manner. Sheep ‘drovers frequently have their flocks injured by acorns. Also, hogs,:when butchered, frequently show that their bowels are injured by them. Tusser, an old British writer ‘upon husbandry, speaking of acorns, says : -- * Some left among bushes shall pleasure thy swine, For fear of a mischief keep acorns from Kine.” “Small quantities of acorns may be useful and wholesome ‘food for sheep or cattle. But special care should be used, that sheep be not allowed to range upon oak wood- lands, “ where they can have a full supply of acorns; for it is not probable, that anything can restore the bowels, when they are astringed or tanned in this manner. ROT PRODUCED BY ASTRINGENT WATERS. In New Holland, it has been found that astringent wa- ‘ters produce rot. ~The following is substantially what was communicated “by: Mr. Cheatham, to the Veterinarian, (a paper printed -in London.) “ In New Holland, where water in summer “is frequently scarce, the water holes are usually surround- ed with trees, which, during a continued drought, shed their leaves into the water. Now, while any large body ot water remains in the holes, the effects upon the animal, arising from the infusion, will not be perceptible; but when ‘during the excessive Heats of summer, the quantity of war ter becomes reduced, its powerful astringent effects will be discovered, in the disease, and consequent death of mae ny of the flock. “ ROT PRODUCED BY ALUM WATER. >Mr. Cheatham also says, “ There is another disease, not unlike the above, to which sheep are liable, arising from a somewhat similar cause; this is the drinking of water im- perecoue with alum. I was — by 2 a gentleman, 308 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. that, on one occasion, a very large proportion of a flock © died off ; a circumstance for which he could in no wise ac- count. There was no external sign of illness, and yet they died. This induced him to subject the carcass of one of them to a regular anatomical process, which pointed out the stomach as the seat of disease. And from other cir- -cumstances,,ne came to the conclusion that the evil was caused by the water. He accordingly tested the water from holes on the run, and discovered one strongly impregnated with alum. The mystery was elucidated ; the flock was removed, and the mortality ceased. . In the above cases of alum water and other astringent waters, itseems that their bowels must have been opera- ted upon, much in the same manner as by their eating acorns. And the principie by which we should be gov- erned, is, to deprive them of any access to such causes of disease. va ROT PRODUCED BY SHARP-EDGED GRASSES. The second principal cause of rot is, the pasturage of sheep upon a kind of grass called scour-grass, or horse- tailed grass, (equisetum hyemale). ‘There are seven spe- cies of this grass; they usually grow on marshy lands. In America they grow more commonly in bunches from 12 to 24 inches high; their leaves rise up, and, near the top, bend over like a horse’s tail ; and, from this circumstance, they take their name. ‘Their edges are sharp like a sickle. When sheep feed upon such grasses, their sharp edges irri- tate, and cut the mucus membranes and lacteal ducts of their intestines mechanically, so as to cause inflammation and decay of those parts; so that, eventually, the animal dies off precisely in the same manner, as if the inflamma- tion had been caused by acids. Cattle and horses are fre- quently injured and destroyed by these grasses, in the same manner, and on examination their stomachs are found cut and lacerated.—(Farmer’s Encyclopedia.) Any other kind of sharp-edged grasses will, of course, roduce the same effects. Blacklock treats of this kind of rot, under the name of pining. ‘He says: “ The name has arisen, from the rap- id wasting, which is a prominent symptom of this com- plaint. A farm om hardly be subject to a more ruinous i ‘ | | | DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS, 309 distemper, as the same sheep will be affected by it, year afver year, and if a ewe be attacked during autumn, it is ten to one she will not have a lamb in the ensuing season. Pining only seizes on thriving sheep, preferring young ones, those, more especially, of the larger breeds, and is confin- ed to farms where the land is principally micaceous, and covered with occasional stripes of benty grasses. A whole flock sickens at once, their usual alacrity seems to have de- serted them, their eyes are dull, and the whole flock seems weary and languid. Ata more advanced stage, the wool acquires a bluish tinge, the blood becomes thick, diminish- ing in quantity, and the muscles assume a bloodless ap-. pearance. The bowels are constipated, and to this the fe- verish symptoms apparently owe their origin. If the dis-. ease progresses, death will ensue in about a month.” Mr. Spooner says: ‘ The farms most liable to this dis- nare are those dry grassy farms, abounding in flats and ridges of white and flying bent; these are the bane of the flocks. On the genuine pining farms, the disease is more fatal in dry, than in wet seasons: and most so at that sea- son when, by the influence of the sun, the plants are less juicy, or in autumn, when the gaasses which have pushed to seed become less succulent: consequently, June and September are the most deadly months.” ‘The true reason why these grasses are so injurious at this time is, that when “they are ripened and dried, their edges become very hard and sharp ; they then more read- ily cut and irritate the mucus membranes of the stomach and intestines, and produce inflammation in them; and the feverish meres are produced by this inflamma- tion. | From the eobeighinn given by Blacklock, it is ev- ident that sheep*thus afflicted, pine away, precisely in the same manner, as if afflicted by rot, which is pro- duced by the grasses having too much saccharine mat- ter inthem. It is the inflammation of the mucus mem- branes, which causes the decay of the other parts of the bowels : it is the beginning of the decay ; and the effect produced is the same, whether the inflammation is pro- duced by acids, or by the mechanical action of sharp- -edg- ed grasses. _ Treatment. If the bowels of the détinial appear to be 310 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. constipated, the first object should be, to obtain-a free dis- charge from them, by means of purgatives and injections, if necessary. For this purpose, oils will be the best med- icines, as they will, in some measure, sheath the bowels from the edges of the grass; one or two ounces of linseed. oil, hog’s lard melted, or castor oil, may be given to each animal ; or the same quantity of Epsom or Glauber salts, or. common salt instead of oils. Animals afflicted in this manner should be removed to pastures of a better quality, and the same medicines and condiments should be given to them, as for the kind of rot first treated of. And these will be sufficient for them ; that is, no better treatment can be used for them. I fed a mixture of one part gypsum, and two parts | com- mon salt, to calves whose. bowels were injured by horse tail grasses, with good effect. : BRAXY. This disease is also sometimes called red water, in Eng: land, from the appearance of their urine. It is an acute inflammation of the mucus membranes, (or inner lining) of the stomach, pylorus, duodenum, and a portion of the intestinal canal next immediately adjoining ; but the stomach and the duodenum are generally most affected. This disease is produced, either by acids or by sharp edged. grasses. . BRAXY PRODUCED BY ACIDS. | Symptoms. In the commencement of this disease, the animal will appear uneasy, lying down and rising up fre- ‘quently, loathing food and drinking often; or will stand with its head down andits back raised; sometimes, when fever sets in, willstand with its head stretched out, and its mouth open and panting; at other times will froth or drool at the mouth; the pulse will be quick and strong; the respiration rapid and laborious ; the belly sometimes. is much swollen ; the urine is sometimes totally stopped by strangury, oris small in quantity, and is high colored and sometimes bloody. Sometimes the animal groans and grates its teeth, as if much affected inthe jaws and pain- ed in the bowels: and often its back is dappled with red or brown spots, as in cases of the rot, If the disease is DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 311 not arrested, the feverish symptoms will increase, until the animal dies; and death will generally ensue within a week, unless a recovery is obtained. » | ” When the appearances are as above stated, if the ani- mal’s mouth be opened, the tip of the tongue, and the edges of it will be found to be considerably redder than the middle, of it; and this is a very sure way of judging as to the extent of the inflammation of the mucus mem- branes, either in this disease or in dysentery. On dissection, the mucus membranes of the parts affects ed are found highly inflamed, and of a dark reddish color, and doubtless the oxalic acid is the principal agent, which acts so powerfully upon them; asin such cases, they fre- quently drool or froth at the mouth, especially lambs or yearlings. Hither young grasses which have sprouted quickly, or old frost-bitten grass, most readily produce the disease : such grasses readily ferment and suet acids in the sto- mach. Treatment of Brary. As soon as the diseased state i the animal is noticed, medicine should be promptly admin- istered ; give one or two ounces of Epsom or Glauber salts, (or common salt, when neither of the other kinds are on hand,) combined with one-tenth of an ounce of chalk, in order to neutralize the acids which are ever present in such cases. If the animal is very feverish, bleed a half pint or pint from the fore leg. If the medicinie does not operate within two or three hours, repeat the dose of salt and chalk; and, if necessary, make use of injections, in order to produce an evacuation of thé bowels. As soon as this is effected, mix common salt, gypsum, and chalk, an’ equal proportion of each, and give to the animal one-third ‘or one- fourth of an-ounce ‘of this mixture iwo or three times daily, mixed in with gruel of wheaten shorts, or other finely ground provender. If the weather is unfavorable, place the animal under shelter, and furnish the necessary hay or grass. Pursue this course until the animal is recovered so as to join the flock—enlarging the doses, if necessary. A single case of severe braxy was cured by givinga mixture of equal quantities of gypsum and common salt,.in portions of one-third of an ounce once in a'fount outs, during day- ty - 312 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. light, for two successive days, without the use of any othe’ medicine: its effects were excellent. a a aR If the lacteal ducis and mesentery glands are sound, the animal may generally be restored, especially if the disease is early discovered. _. As the appearance of animals afflicted with braxy is not always precisely alike, I shall state cases which will show the nature of the disease. In the Cultivator, printed at Al- bany, for the year 1844, are cases stated by Mr. Pierre V. Miller, of Shawanyunk, N. Y. June 9th, 1836, he turned a flock of one hundred ewes, with their lambs, into a field of red clover, which was in full bloom. They remained in the field 11 days, during which time 25 were taken sick, and 19 died. ot “« The first symptom of disease was, that they reeled and staggered back for a while; after which, they lay insensi- ble until death, which generally happened in an hour or two. 3 ‘‘ On searching the field, he found nothing poisonous but two small stools of elder, which should not be there. He found, however, that the strips of grass on the old sward, along the fences, and elsewhere, which had not been ploughed and stocked with clover, were gnawed close to the earth ; and the sheep showed their dislike to the clover, by their twice breaking out of the field over a good fence. _ A post-mortem examination was made of. two carcasses, and no unusual appearance was found, except that the paunch was very red, and much inflamed; there was no distension, as in bloat.’? In these cases, the inflammation of the stomach shows the effect of the oxalic acid, and their stupidity, the effect of the oxalat of potash. And it should be observed, that in those cases, braxy was produ- ced by the clover when in full bloom; the very time at which it contains the largest proportion of saccharine mat- ter, and, of course, most readily produces oxalic acid. Other cases are mentioned by J. C.,in the Genesee Far- mer for 1838. He says: ‘‘ The first symptoms of the dis- ease are, a dumpishness—not inclined to eat—not even 10 lick salt—froth a little at the mouth, and run at the nose ; remain in this state a few hours, when death ensues. On . dissection, the animals appeared full of clotted blood, so much so, that we should suppose that the whole of the ee DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 313 ysood had left the veins, and found its way to the interior of the body.”* In these cases, the frothing at the mouth shows the influence of the oxalic acid, and their dumpishness that of the oxalat of potash. | BRAXY PRODUCED BY SHARP-EDGED GRASSES. When such grasses are freely devoured by sheep, the irritation is frequently so great, that the animal often dies off, in the course of a few hours, in consequence of the in- -flammation produced. Symptoms. When distressed by eating these grasses, they throw up, and shake their heads about, showing there- by: the irritation and pain which afflicts them within, and the difficulty of raising their cuds, in consequence of the sharp edges of the grasses. In such cases, the fever will be intense. and will soon carry them off, unless they are relieved; and, therefore, medicine should be promptly ad- pinisiered’ Treatment. In such cases, a dose of two ounces of lin- seed oil, castor oil, or hog’s lard melted, and turned down their throats, will doubiless be the best purgatives which can be given them; the oils will help to sheath the bow- els, and the grasses will pass off with less injury to them than if Epsom or other salts are used. But, in such cases, delay will be dangerous, and the best purgatives on hand should be used. After which, feed them with wheat flour porridge, or wheaten shorts, along with hay or grass, until they are restored; giving them occasionally a little salt and chalk or gypsum, with their porridge Or provender ; and repeating the doses of oil, if necessary. Cases of this kind of braxy happened in Washington Co., Pa.,a few years since. A drover turned adrove of 1200 sheep into a pasture, in which was marshy ground on one side of the pasture, on which was an abundance of horse-tail gras- ses. As the sheep had been driven during the day, and were hungry, they fed upon these grasses freely, and in the course of the night, one-half of them were affected with braxy, and 150 died, Instead of giving purgative big the drover gave them pepper and whiskey, ini Thée cases of bey, are similar to to red- water (bloody ree cattle. — 314 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. which doubtless increased the malady. Information as to. this calamity was furnished by a creditable drover, who was an eye-witness of it. Drovers, therefore, should use special care as to placing their flocks in swampy pastures. Sheep, when very hungry, devour rough-edged grasses very freely ; whereas, at other times, they will seldom eat much of them, if there is a supply of other good grasses. Cases of braxy, produced by new wheat, are related by. Mr. John Hawes, in the *‘ Veterinarian,” for 1840. He says: ‘‘In the month of September, in the last year, a flock of sheep, more than 200 in number, strayed into a field where there was a quantity of wheat, which had not been carried in, in consequence of the unfavorable state of the weather. They fed rather bountifully upon it before they were discovered by the shepherd; when they were immediately removed to the pasture on which they had previously been grazing; and no farther notice was taken of them until the following day, when four of them were found dead, and several others were evidently ill. To all that evinced any symptoms of disease, Epsom salts and castor oil were immediately given. But on the following morning, finding that twenty-eight had already died, and nearly as many more were almost dead, the owner sent for me, as it is too frequently the case, when it was too late to. be of,much service. The first thing that I did, was, to ex- amine some of those that had died, and | found the rumen, in every instance, filled with wheat, barley, and straw: the abomasum highly inflamed, as well as the bowels: the spleen had the appearance of a mass of coagulated blood— its structure being entirely destroyed: the lungs, in most of the cases, presented a healthy appearance, as alo did the liver. Fifty-eight died in the course of five days after eat- ing the wheat; the others were bled, and half a pint of lin- seed oil was given to each, and they recovered : but many of them have since thrown their lambs.” In the above case, it is very evident that the beards of wheat and barley caused an inflammation of the internal coats of the stomach, similar to that caused by horse-tail grasses ; the berries of these grains being the very best of feed for sheep. Prevention of Braxy and Rot. A review of the cau- ses which produce braxy and rot, will show us that low, “ DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 315. moist lands are unfavorable to sheep, either from the chem- ical composition, or from the shape of the leaves of grasses, which frequently grow on such lands; and upland hay, in winter, is as much better for them than lowland hay, as up-. land pasture is better than lowland pasture. ehh Hence, sheep should not be confined to pastures where sharp-edged grasses abound; and whenever their food is deficient in quality, from the moisture of the soil, climate, or weather, a suitable supply of pitch or tar, with salt, ashes, and gypsum, should be carefully supplied for them at all times, as prescribed under the head of condiments. ' These are the means of prevention of braxy and rot which can ever be depended upon. But as every thing which weakens, relaxes, or injures the bowels, has a tendency to produce these diseases, the cleficiency of nutriment of hay, straw, or pasture in winter, should be made up in grain or roots. If, notwithstanding these precautions, some. are inclined to these diseases, they (especially lambs) should be confined to fields, where the pasture is very short, and should receive a full supply of hay, with a suitable amount of grain: they will thus obtain the exercise which is necessary for them, without being in- jured by frost-bitten grasses, which have a strong tendency to produce diarrhaea and braxy. In summer, a sufficient supply of pasture should be provided, so that all may begin the winter in good condition: they will then be less liable to braxy during winter. Hence, also, mouldy or musty hay, being partially de- composed, will be extremely injurious to sheep: and as it is much disliked by them, much of it will be wasted. Hay should always be sufficiently dried by the sun or air, so as not to become mouldy or musty in the barn or stack. The pasturage of sheep, in the neighborhood of stagnant waters, should be avoided: such waters produce bowel diseases as effectually for sheep as for mankind.—(Mc- Kenzie.) : ‘The rot cannot be considered a contagious disease: but as ewes, which are much effected with it, cannot produce strong, healthy lambs, and, therefore, should not be used for breeding, | shall insert Mr. Beattie’s rule for judg- ing them, as follows: “ The first thing to be observed, is, in the spring time, when they are dropping their lambs. 316 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. A sound ewe, in good order, drops a lamb covered with a thick and yellow slime, which the ewe licks off it: and the» rule is, the sounder and higher the condition the ewe is in, the darker and thicker will be the slime; but when they observe a ewe drop a lamb covered with thin watery bub- bles, and very white, they note her down as unsound.”’— (Blacklock. ) If the bowels of a sheep are much dedayed and it has plenty of good food within its reach, the parts between the hips and the short ribs, will surely fall in more than they should in a healthy animal, and thereby show the state of the bowels. " As perfection of form is a great preservative against es bowel complaints, sheep should be selected for breed- g, which have a large, deep, broad, and round chest. It fre- alibi happens that when one-half, or three-fourths of a fleck of Jambs are destroyed by the rot, few will be saved but such as have a large, well-formed chest. Hence, the New Leicester, and other improved long-wooled breeds of mutton sheep, are admirably adapted to rich, level lands, which are unfavorable to most other breeds. Much has been written to show that salt was a preventive against the rot; but this is a great mistake. So much salt as will be necessary for the purpose of digestion, will be useful: all over and above whatis strictly necessary for them, will be injurious to them—will help to create the dis- ease, it being a very relaxing article. Potash is” very abundant in rich beach lands. Hence, such lands generally are not so favorable for, sheep as oak lands, which contain less potash but more soda. As the bowels of sheep, when afflicted with these inter- nal diseases, are very tender and sensitive to injury, the use of poisonous medicines, such as digitalis, copperas, calomel, and salt-petre, should be carefully avoided : for under such cireumstances, even a moderate use of grain will often be injurious, causing them to scour too much; and any thing poisonous will be highly injurious. DIARRHEA. oe By this term, is meant a constant purging, , which affects sheep occasionally at all times of the year; but is most common in spring. In simple diarrhoea, there is no in- DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 317 . flammation of the mucus membranes of ,the bowels, and, consequently, there is no fever, and the appetite is unim- "paired, unless in the last stages of the disease. Diarrhea _is generally an effort of nature to expel from the intestinal canal something which is offensive, and is the natural re- sult of the crude, acid, undigested, or irritating state of the _ food which passes through them. And itis only in the last _ stages of the disease, that inflammation of the mucus mem- branes and fever frequently supervene. The causes of diarrhea are— -First,—Eating young or rank grasses of rapid growth. Therefore, when the foddering season is about to expire, they should have a little hay daily, for a week or two; and ' if they do not incline to eat it, it may be sprinkled with a little very weak brine: they will then eat it freely ; after which, grass alone, with the necessary condiments, will be sufficient for them. Second,—Change from short pasture to full feeding. Third,—Exposure to sudden transitions of weather, or to wet weather, closing the pores of the skin. Hence, shelter will be an useful preventive. Fourth,—W eakness of the bowels, from poverty, or other causes. | | Fifth,—Salting too freely early in the spring, when the grass is very young and flashy. Sivih,—Feeding upon irritating weeds or grasses.— Sharp-edged grasses will sometimes make cattle scour ex- cessively ; and will doubtless affect sheep in the same manner. In such case, their pastures should be changed without delay. If such grasses are to be used as hay for animals of any kind, they should be cut as soon as they have attained their full height, and before they have become hard and wiry. | | _ Seventh,—Feeding upon aftermath hay, or hay which _ was made from any grasses which were not sufficiently ri- pened before they were cut. Such grasses abound in sac- -charine matter, and readily create acids by fermentation in the stomach; and, consequently, the hay. which is made from them, will have the same effect, only ina less degree, Upland grasses should be cut while the stalks are yet green, but after the blossom has fallen, and before the seed begins » to shell; for then, alarge proportion of the saccharine mat- 318 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. ter will have been converted into starch—which does not so readily become acid in the stomach assugar. Such hay is most relished both by sheep and cattle. Eighth,—Giving grain in too large quantities, when first beginning to feed it. It should be fed moderately at first, and the quantity gradually increased. Treatment of Diarrhea. In many cases, an allowance of good hay, or confinement to good, “well-cured hay, with- out much water, and with suitable shelter, will gradually stop the disease. Feeding a proportion of oat straw will frequently be very beneficial. If these means are ineffec- tual, mix equal parts of pulverized chalk and common salt, and give doses of one-eight or one-fourth of an ounce of the mixture once or twice daily.—(Dr. Parry.) Or what is better, mix equal proportions of gypsum and common salt, and give doses of one-eight of an ounce. If necessary, cleanse the bowels with one, two or three drachms of rhubarb, and then give doses of the aforesaid mixtures, adding a fourth of a drachm of ginger to each dose. Sometimes diarrhea proceeds, principally, from a want of action in the kidneys, and, in consequence, the animal system contains so much water, that the lacteal ducts do not readily receive water into the animal system; hence, — that which is in the intestinal canal, instead of being absorbed by the lacteal ducts, is carried off by diarrheea. In such cases, put tar or pitch into the sheep’s mouth once ina day or two, so as to compel it to swallow the tar ; this will excite the kidneys into full action, and will frequently be a sufficient remedy for the complaint. Diarrhea is generally an easily managed disease. But it is sometimes only a symptom of some other disease, or an effort of the constitution to ward off some more serious evils. In such case it will be be necessary to proceed with caution, and not stop the disease too suddenly. When it is only a symptom of rot, it will be difficult to cure it; and, in such case, should be stopped only by such medi- cines as are proper for rot. Prevention of Diarrhea. With a suitable proportion of lime and gypsum, in their condiments, sheep will sel- dom be troubled with this complaint. The acids which are generated in the stomach, are the principal cause of DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 319 this disease : lime will neutralize these acids, and gypsum will strengthen the bowels, so as to prevent the complaint, unless their food is of a very bad quality, or the bowels are extremely weak. When ewes have free access to a supply of salt, ashes and gypsum mixed, their lambs are almost never troubled with diarrhoea. _ At those times of the year when sheep are more partic- ularly subjected to diarrhcea, a little more than the usual proportion of gypsum, should be mixed with their condi- ments, together with an increased proportion of pitch, as the grasses at such times are too succulent. Lambs, after being weaned, are much more subject to diarrhcea, than full grown sheep, and therefore they should be placed upon the driest pastures, and in winter should ‘be provided, with the best quality of hay, and other food, together with the necessary condiments. ‘ DYSENTERY. The dysentery is an acute inflammation of the mucus membranes or inner lining of the hinder part of the bow- els, or large intestines. Fever is a constant attendant upon it, in its early stages, and wasting and debility rapid- ly follow. Causes of Dyseniery. ‘These appear to be, principally, a bad quality of the grasses, or a sultry state of the atmos- phere, or some peculiar changes of weather. ‘These causes produce a weakness of the bowels; the foeces become in- jurious to them, and inflammation sets in. _ Symptoms of Dysentery. In this disease, the pulse is quick, and the respirations hurried, giving evidence of fe- ver; the eyes are red and languid, and the ears droop ; the mouth is dry, and the tip and edges of the tongue will be redder than the middle portions of it; the animal eais “sparingly, and rumination is stopped: the discharges from - the bowels are frequently slimy, sometimes green, and at a more, advanced stage of the disease, are mixed with blood, or become black and fetid; flatulence is frequently attendant upon this disease ; and the: bowels are sometimes - knotted aud lumpy to the touch. - Dysentery is distinguished from diarrhcea, in several - particulars, as pointed out by Dr. Duncan, of Scotland, as follows: — g / 320 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 1.—Diarrhea is more frequent in spring, and late in au- tumn ; whereas, dysentery is most common in July, Au- gust and September. _2.—In diarrhea there is little or no fever, or tenesmus, or pain before the stools, asin dysentery. saa $.—lIn diarrhoea the feeces are loose and, in other re- spects, natural ; whereas, in dysentery the fceces consist of hard lumps, passed occasionally ; the rest being blood and slime. 4,—In diarrhea, the appetite is not lessened ; where- as, in dysentery, the animal will have no appetite ‘for food. ls dysentery the animal wastes rapidly ; but in diar- rhea, only a temperary stop is put to its thriving ; after which, it makes rapid progress in convalescence. 7.—Dysentery is frequently fatal; diarrhcea is rarely fatal, unless the animal has been previously much debil- inated. Treatment of Dysentery. The following treatment is related by Mr. Sayer, in a useful essay on this disease, read to the Veterinary Medical Association :—* Two ounces of linseed oil and two grains of powdered opium were given to each sheep, in an infusion of linseed, the gruel being repeated several times; and on the following day the opium was again administered, with half a drachm ~ of powdered ginger, and the same quantity of gentian, which was given several times, and sometimes combined with linseed oil. “ This treatment proved successful, and, indeed, is as good as can be advised ; the food being also attended to, and proper care bestowed.’”-—(W.C. Spooner.) For me- | rinos, smaller doses. For this purpose, feed the animal, at intervals, with small quantities of well boiled porridge, made of wheaten flour or shorts, combined with a small proportion of linseed gruel ; and a moderate allowance of hay or Brass when its appetite returns. A solution of mutton tallow has been found very bene- ficial in dysentery of man, and, doubtless, would be as useful, and perhaps better than linseed oil, in that of the - sheep. Possibly a mixture of common salt and gypsum may be as useful in dysentery as it is in a DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 321 _, When the appetite returns, and the fceces begin to ac- quire a proper color and oh ae a speedy recovery ‘may be expected. — ___ During recovery, a part of the wool always falls of — (Blacklock.) Prevention of Dysentery. “Dysentery cannot be consid- -ered a contagious disease, unless to animals which are par- ‘ticularly predisposed to the complaint, from having been in- _ jured by the same causes; and then only when confined to the same stall or shed. It cannot be considered more _ contagious among sheep than among mankind. And, there- fore, when sheep are pastured in open fields, a free air will prevent any contagious influence ; and no particular ' precaution will be necessary, in order to prevent it, more than proper changes of pasture, and asupply of the neces- sary condiments and good waver. JAUNDICE. This disease consists in a superabundant discharge of bile, or an obstruction of the biliary ducts of the liver, in consequence of the undue thickness and viscidity of the bile, or by hardened bile, or gall stones, or by inflamma- tion or tubercles upon the liver. In either case, too great a quantity of bile is re-absorbed, and enters ihe circulation, and thus tinges the eyes and skin. Symptoms of Jaundice. The principal symptoms to be depended upon, are, a yellowness of the eyes, or caruncle of the eye, anda sluggishness of the animal almost amount- ing to sleep. —(Blacklock. ) {n rot, the liver is frequently affected with inflammations and. dipereles, and, of course, some symptoms of jaundice are frequently apparent in such cases. Treatment of Jaundice. Barley is an old and useful remedy for liver complaints. In Hillis’ remedy* for the rot, a decoction of barley was the principal ingredient “among several others, and was undoubtedly used on account ‘of its supposed efficacy upon the liver. In fattening hogs in Ohio, upon corn, or other such articles as are usually fed to them, a large proportion of their livers, when they are killed, are found to > be diseased with tubercles in them ; : * Big a — ancient author of ide The Shepherd’s Sure Guide.” 322 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. whereas, those which are fed mostly with barley, have, when killed, good sound livers. This has been ascertain- ed by repeated experiments. ‘*The husk of barley con- tains a bitter principle which is tasted in the decoction of the entire barley ;* ”’ and hence, doubtless, its medical properties are contained principally in its husk. We may, therefore, rest assured, that no better or more convenient remedy can be used for these liver complaints, than barley. For this purpose, feed a gill or more to,each sheep once | or twice daily. But as it is a very relaxing and deobstru- ent article, care should be used that they do not get so much as to scour them. Barley, in its raw state, is best for this purpose: cooking it in water, or any other way by heating it, lessens its medicinal properties. If the liver is the only part diseased, barley may be used more freely : remem- bering that any article, which is powerful enough to do — good, may also produce injury, if improperly used. Prevention of Jaundice. Liver complaints prevail most where the soil and climate are moist and relaxing, or where there are stagnant waters. The last mentioned is, proba- | bly, the most frequent cause of jaundice. Therefore, in — order to prevent it, care should be used not to pasture them in the neighborhood of such waters or marshes. Where the soil and climate are very dry, as in New Eng- — land, the lower viscera, and particularly the liver, are gen- erally very sound. DROPSY. Dropsy is an effusion of serum in different parts of the body; and is a complaint which frequently acconipanies the rot. Dropsica! deposits are frequently found under the jaws: in such case, it is sometimes called the Poke; also about the kidneys, and between the muscles in various parts of the body ; also in the peritoneum. Ordinarily, dropsy comes on slowly. In such cases, the | serum is of awhitish or yellowish color. Butdropsy some- | times comes on with rapidity, particularly in the perito- - nzum ; which is a membrane which lines the abdominal cavity. In such cases, it is accompanied with inflamma- , #Farmers’ Encyclopedia. ay DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 323 tion, and the serum is of a reddish color. This acute kind of dropsy is sometimes called the red-water. “‘It is the natural office of this membrane, the perito- Neeum, to secrete a watery fluid, in order that the bowels should glide readily on each other. But when diseased action is set up in this membrane, its secretion becomes ex- cessive, and the serous portion of the blood, mingled with some of the red portion, becomes effused in this cavity, where it cannot escape. * This acute dropsy in the peritoneum is (in England,) very common to lambs, both during the time they are with their dams, and after they are weaned, and in them, as well as in the sheep, it is very fatal, destroying the cel in twenty-four hours, and the lambs in less time.”—(W. C - Spooner.) In America, dropsy is generally chronic; it is seldom acute. It is a disease very common among old sheep. Causes of Dropsy. Dropsy is produced by exposure to cold, damp weather in autumn, winter, or spring, or imme- piateiy after they are shorn, when it is more particularly injurious to them; or by eating wet, frost-bitten gras- ses, or succulent grasses, or lowland pasture ; also, by feed- ing too freely on turnips, or other succulent roots. In Eng- land, feeding on turnips is a common cause of dropsy, par- ticularly where there is a hoar frost, and the sheep are folded on them during the night. © | Symptoms of Dropsy. 'The sheep appears dull and dis- _ inclined to move; has a staring eye; loses flesh, strength, and spirits; is generally, but not always, constipated ; -dropsical swellings appear under the jaws or ‘belly, or upon _ the legs; acute pain is seldom manifested. Appearances on Dissection. In every dissection, when the sheep is afflicted with dropsy under the jaws, or in the - abdomen or parts adjacent, the kidneys are invariably found to be defective; they are either enlarged in size, and flabby, or are injured in substance, and turned of a yellowish brown color on the outer edges, like the color of the mesentery _ glands when injured in rot; and the true reason why _ dropsical affections arise in sheep, appears to be, that there ‘is either an improper action, or a want of full action of the _ kidneys ; and for that reason, too large an amount of water remains in the animal system. — 324 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. When man is afflicted with dropsy, the kidneys are gen- _ erally defective in the same manner. —(Dr. McIntosh.) Treatment of Dropsy. In the treatment of this disease, place the animal in a dry and comforable situation, especi- — ally when the weather is cold and wet. If succulent grass or food has been the cause of the disease, the sheep should be put upon drier food, either hay or dry pasture. Ifitis costive, a gentle purgative of linseed oil or rhubarb, should be administered 1o it; otherwise, a purgative will be unne- cessary : bleeding will be improper. Medicine should then. be given which will strengthen the kidneys, and excite | them into action, such as gum guiac, tar, pitch, or spirits of | turpentine, in small doses. And for this purpose, tar or | pitch is one of the most convenient and powerful medicines — which can be used: itis tonic, diuretic, and antiseptic. It _ will frequently lessen, or take entirely away, a dropsical _ swelling under the jaws, even in the last stages of the rot; and a perfect cure may sometimes be effected, when there is a large swelling under the jaws, by applying tar to the | lips or mouth of ihe sheep, a few times, once in two days. — But it is seldom that a perfect cure can be effected, either © for man or beast, when the kidneys are much affected; and, © therefore, a large proportion of the sheep which are afflicted © with dropsy, die, as a matter of course; but the means of | recovery should be used, and some may be saved. Prevention of Dropsy. In summer, pasture them as — much as possible on dry lands. Fallow fields and stubble fields will be particularly useful to them, on account of | ‘the large quantities of bitter and diuretic weeds, which | are sure to spring up and grow in them. In winter, be — careful not to feed too large quantities of turnips, cabbage, — or other succulent food, especially to ewes which are with ~ lamb. Shelter from wet and cold should be provided for © them in winter, and also in summer, for a few days after © they are shorn ; and in order fully to prevent dropsy, a small quantity of tar or pitch should be mixed with their condiments, or tar should be applied to their noses, once in — two or three weeks. ! In confirmation of my experience, as. to the benefit of, y set, 1 preventing and curing dropsy, | shaNghsert the re-_ marks of Mr. Greayes, of Derbyshire, in England, upon — inis subject. He says : “This disease (acute dropsy) is » DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 325 very prevalent in this part of Derbyshire, and a friend of mine, Mr. Cooper, of Ashford, for many years, lost one fifth of his hoggets from red water. Three or four years ago, he was advised to bring them into a yard, and give each hogget a table spoonful of common tar, every fort- night; and the consequence has been, that, although they are kept in every respect, in the same way as before, and on the same ground, he has not lost one sheep since the adoption of this treatment.”-—(W. C. Spooner.) From a full view of the causes of dropsy, it seems very evident that, the more succulent their food, the greater will be their need for bitter and diuretic articles. , : HYDROPHOBIA. Sheep are liable to be bitten by rabid dogs, and, there- ifore, it will be proper to take notice of this disease, in this place. This disease is primarily produced only in carnivorous animals, such as dogs, cats, &c., and there is no satisfactory , evidence on record, that it is ever originally produced, in purely graminivorous animals ; yet when propagated among them, by the bites of rabid animals, the symptoms produ- ced in them are very similar to those produced in the ani- mals first affected; and the disease is communicated by means of the saliya of the rabid animal. This disease appears to be produced by the joint influ- ence of the oxalic acid and the oxalat of potash, formed in the stomach of dogs, &c.; the stomach is the part first affected, and the symptoms produced, arise from the in- flammation of the stomach, and the qualities of the oxalic acid and oxalat of potash. | ie As like causes produce like effects, a comparison of the symptoms produced in man, by a dose of oxalic acid, with ihe symptoms of hydrophobia in man, and also a compar- ison of the effects of the oxalic acid and. oxalat of potash, upon the sheep, in cases of braxy, with the symptoms of hydrophobia in the sheep, will show that it originates from the same causes as braxy. | In man, the following symptoms are similar, both in cases of hydrophobia, and upon taking a dose of oxalic acid. _ 1.—Nausea and vomiting, attended with a burning heat at the pit of the stomach. | | 326 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 2.—Inflammation of the stomach and upper part of the intestinal tube. . 3.—A weak and frequent pulse, and a sunken counte- nance. 4.—The blood of persons afflicted with hydrophobia, has, on dissection, an oily appearance, like that which has been found in the stomachs of those who have died by taking oxalic acid.—(M. Troillet.) 5.—The skins of some of those persons, who have died by taking oxalic acid, were dappled with red circular patches; but in cases of hydrophobia, the whole skin of the person afflicted, usually becomes of a livid red color, after death.—(See Eberle’s Practice of Medicine.) In the sheep. the following symptoms are often present, both in hydrophobia, and also in in that kind of braxy, which is produced by the oxalic acid, and oxalat of pot- ash. ; 1.—A frothing at the mouth, or salivation. ‘ 2.—Inflammation of the stomach and intestinal tube next adjoining. 3.—A spasmodic action of the Jaws, urinary organs, &c. 4.—Coma, or stupidity. The observations of Mr. Spooner will illustrate these facts. Hesays: ‘‘In the sheep an indefinite period may elapse between the time of the inoculation, and the first exhibition of the symptoms, ranging from two to six weeks; and this is a shorter period, than usually super- venes, both in the dog and in the human being.”’ ‘The first symptoms of rabies in the sheep, which are observed, are, a diminished appetite, and a disposition to ride each other ; to which succeed a propensity to mischief. The sheep will often butt each other furiously, but will not bite, although they will nibble at a stick, if presented io them. ‘There is considerable nervous irritability develop- ed, spasmodic twitchings of the muscles and quickened respiration. ‘They become drowsy, lose their appetite, and take no notice of surrounding objects ; saliva flows from the mouth ; thirst is exhibited without ability to swal- low. There is no dread of water at any period of the dis- ease, which, in some cases, proves fatal in a couple of days, arfd in others continues upwards of a week.” ‘The post-mortem appearances are not always alike, ln ca a SS aa ee Pear ree Baas DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 327 but it is very rare, that some of the following appearances are not found, and generally they are mostly present to- gether: Much inflammation is found at the back of the tongue, and entrance of the windpipe and gullet; and the course of the windpipe often shows similar inflammation. _ Sometimes the first stomach will appear greatly inflamed, and partially filled with heterogeneous indigestible con- tents ; but more frequently the disease will be found most extensively in the fourth stomach, which contains a dark frothy fluid.* Sometimes the brain and spinal cord will exhibit the tokens of much inflammation, but in others will _ appear pretty free from disease. ‘In the dog, these appearances are present in a more matked degree. The stomach is either full of a dark, chocolate colored fluid, or distended with a mass of indi- gestible substances, such as hay, straw, wood, &c. The back of the tongue and entrance to the windpipe also exhi- ’ bit a highly inflammatory appearance, and the brain like- wise is often affected.” | , _ In hydrophobia, the nerves of the pylorus are, doubt- _ less, much affected. The pylorus is a very sensitive part " of the bowels, and when its nerves are much affected, by anything which is contained in the stomach, as by the ox- alic acid, which is very irritating, a tremor is often com- municated to the whole system ; and this tremor is a com- - mon symptom in hydrophobia. | Treatment. ‘If a sheep, which has been bitten by a rabid dog, is in any wise fit for the butcher, it will be prop- er, by all means, to kill it, if it has been recently bitten ; and by carefully removing any part suspected to have been bitten, no danger whatever will be incurred.”—(W. C. Spooner.) an | “The poison of hydrophobia is confined to the saliva, and the flesh of a rabid animal, which has not been in - contact with the teeth or the saliva, may be eaten with im- punity. The livers of hundreds of rabid dogs have been eaten, in days of ignorance, dressed in all manner of ways, * Dr. Thatcher has recorded a case of inflammation of the stomach in man, attended with spontaneous hydrophobia.—[See N. York Medioal and Physical Journal, Vol.2.] 328 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. but usually fried as nicely as possible, as a preventive _ against madness.’’—(Y ouatt. ) Otherwise, if a sheep is suspected or known to have been bitten bv a rabid dog, it will be necessary to examine it with — the greatest care, and to clip off the wool closely from every place which has received a flesh or skin wound, or even the smallest scratch. The edges of the wound should then be cut off with a knife, and lunar caustic (nitrate of silver,) or a hot iron, should be applied to every part which has received the slightest scratch; and, if necessary, the wound should be enlarged, so that the lunar caustic or hot iron may penetrate as far as the teeth of the rabid animal have reached. If this operation is performed soon after the animal is first bitten, and is thoroughly done, the beast will be safe. : If the beast becomes rabid, mix equal parts of leached ashes, gypsum, and magnesia, with half a part of tar, or Spirits of turpentine, or “both, and administer to the sheep a half an ounce or an ounce of this mixture, stirred in with gruel, once intwo orthree hours. This mixture is designed to neutralize the acids of the stomach, and to arrest the rapid decomposition which goes on in the animal system, and to strengihen the kidneys, and to excite them into ac-— _ tion. In order to quiet the pylorus and the nervous system, peal from the fore legs of one or more horses, an ounce of | horse castor, which grows on the skin a little above the ~ knee-joint, and cut it up in fine pieces, and steep it in wa- ter, and give half a gill or more of the infusion to the sheep, once in an hour or two, or as much oftener as may appear necessary, in order to effect the desired purpose. This horse castor is one of the most powerful antispas- modic medicines which can be used; and its formation and — existence in the blood of the horse, is probably the cause why the horse is able to withstand, in a great measure, the spasmodic influence of the oxalat of potash, which most other graminivorous animals cannot do. The principal injurious effect which the horse receives from the oxalat of potash is, in the produciion of the heaves. As the masti- cation of the horse is much less perfect than that of rumina- ting animals, its digestion, also, is often less perfect, and, consequently, its stomach is more subject to the formation Od DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 329 of the oxalic and other acids, than those of ruminating ani- * mals: and the elimination of this substance, in the system _ of the horse, may have been intended as a defence against ! the influence of such acids, and afler it is formed and used in the system, it is secreted upon the sides of the fore legs ; _ for the qualities of every thing which exists, were created with reference to other things. | If by these means the animal can be kept alive six or seven days, the disease will run its course; the poison will be carried off in the saliva, and the animal may live. Special care should be used that the saliva of the rabid animal does not come in contact with any wound or scratch upon the hand or other part of the body, or with the lips of the person atiending such animals. _ Mx. Spooner remarks that, “the rabid dog invariably dies within a week, generally about four days from the first _ exhibition of the symptoms. ‘This fact, therefore, affords @reason why the suspected dog should not be destroyed, but should be tied up securely, so as to test by its death, as well as by the symptoms manifested, the existence of the disease. The symptoms that he will probably exhibit, are, a disposition for mischief; a peculiar glassy expression of _ the eye; twitching of the muscles; an unceasing restless- ness; a peculiar and unsatural howl; a copious flow of viscid saliva from the mouth ; a want of appetite, but a dis- position to gnaw and tear and swallow wood, hay, straw, or any foreign substance that may be near. These are the _Jeading symptoms; there are no fits, no running round, no turning or falling over. The animal possesses conscious- ness throughout, and the presence of fits will be almost suf- ficient to decide at once that the animal is not rabid. It should, also, be distinctly observed that, in the dog, there is no dread ‘of water, though ofien an inability to swallow. ‘The dog will often thrust his nose in, and lap the water, though unable to. swallow a drop. rs » “ The time between the bite of one dog by another rabid dog, and the manifestation of the disease,.is uncertain, va- rying from six weeks to six months, but usually about iwo orthree months.” . i an eo | (Gg aeaks ein 330 DISEASES OF THE CHEST AND AIR PASSAGES. SECTION XLIV. DISEASES OF THE CHEST AND AIR PASSAGES, CORYZA. Coryza i is a running of mucus from the nose. It arises from a slight inflammation of the membranes lining the air passages Bf the nose, head, and throat, and is an effort of the system to expel excrementitious matters which should pass off through the skin and kidneys. The sheep is more incommoded by coryza than most other animals, owing to the naturally small calibre of its nostrils ; and it is from this peculiarly small formation of the nostrils that the sheep is so easily blown, when made to exert itself in running. When the infiammation extends far down the air sabes of the throat, the symptoms often assume a severer type, and death sometimes occurs from suffocation. It then be- comes bronchitis, in its worst form, and, in such cases, is generally accompanied with a cough and feverish symp- toms. ; Treatment of Coryza. In all mucus or dropsical affec- tions of the head, throat, or jaws, the kidneys seem not to act sufficiently for the time being, or else they act improp- erly; and, therefore, in such affections, the use of tar, or pitch, administered to the sheep, has an excellent effect ; it stimulates and strengthens the kidneys, and helps diges- tion, and is one of the best remedies for coryza. 1t should. be applied to the mouth and lips of the sheep, once in a day or two, so that the animal cannot avoid the use of it. Tar is a very effectual remedy. Or, feed a drachm of ginger, or pimento, daily to each sheep, in provender or gruel, for a few days. If the feverish symptoms are severe, it will be well to give a mild purgative, and, in some cases, to bleed; but bleeding will seldom be necessary in this disease. If any one is badly afflicted, so as to breathe with great difficulty, a little snuff may be placed in its nose; this will compel it to dislodge the mucus, and give relief, until other medicines can have effect. Prevention of Coryza. Exposure to cold and wet wea- A DISEASES OF THE CHEST AND AIR PASSAGES. 331 ther are among the most prominent causes of this com- plaint: and, therefore, in winter, good shelters and whole- some food are the best means of prevention ; in summer, a ‘proper supply of tar or pitch, especially where the grasses are very succulent. If any are particulary subject to this disease, they should be sorted out and fattened off, if posstale. CONSUMPTION OF THE LUNGS. | Symptoms. A cough and coryza are the principal appa- rent symptoms of consumption of the lungs. Causes. Mr. Youatt says: “* This disease is especially prevalent in low and moist pastures, and it is of most fre- quent occurrence in spring and autumn, and when the weather at those seasons is unusually cold and changeable.” Appearances on Dissection. Blacklock informs us that, ‘“when the lungs are much affected, tubercles are formed in them. These tubercles are hard, white bodies, which vary in size from that of a mustard seed to that of a pea. They are sprinkled through all parts of the lungs, and will, in every dissection, be found in a variety of stages, from the firm condition in which they were deposited, to the soft state which denotes their speedy expectoration. Each tu- bercle, however small, usually holds a particle of calca- rious matter in its centre. ‘The lungs in the advanced sta- ges of rot, (in Scotland,) will be full of cells or caverns, owing to the destruction of its texture by suppuration in those parts where tubercles existed. ‘The cells or sacs are of all sizes, from that of a bean to that of a goose egg. These sacs contain purulent matter of all shades and odors, and identical with that which the animal coughed up. Tu- bercles, and all their concomitants, as sbaie detailed, are also met with in the liver, though not so frequently as in the lungs. They constantly occur in the clyers, (mesen- teric or lacteal glands,) which, on this account, are much above their usual size, and are occasiona!ly found in other parts.” | Aecording to the ientival analysis of M. T. Bisides, the peiiisipal elements of tubercles of the human lungs, (which are, doubiless, similar in substance to those of graminivo- rous animals,) are chlorate of sodium and sulphate of soda, with salis of lime in small quantity. « Jo2 DISEASES OF THE CHEST AND AIR PASSAGES. Now, the true reason why these tubercles are formed, seems to be, that there is in the blood an excess of the above mentioned salts of soda and lime, which are not fully car- ried out of the circulation through the kidneys, as they should be, and, consequently, deposits of them are formed in the lungs and other glands, which are the basis of these tubercles. By chemical analysis, the urine of the sheep consists of the following ingredients : Water, 96.00 Urea, along with some albumen, 2.80 and coloring matter, | ‘ Salts of potash, soda, lime, and magnesia, with traces of silica, be Os alumina, iron, and manganese, By this analysis, it appears that a proportion of the salts of the urine is, doubtless, composed of the very same in- gredients which compose tubercles. Whenever, therefore, the kidneys become inactive, these salts superabound, and the lungs, liver, and other glands receive deposits of them ; and eventually, the kidneys become so weak that they do not carry water enough out of the system, and dropsy sets in. Hence, in rot, these affections of the lungs are fre- quently accompanied with dropsy in some part of the body. ireaiment. ‘The above theory shows why tar and other resinous articles are so useful to the sheep, in affections of the lungs, and dropsy. These resinous articles strengthen and excite into action the kidnevs, so as to carry off the va- rious salts cf lime, soda, éc., which they should do, and prevent the formation of tubercles; and, possibly, some- times discuss those which are already formed ; for tar is sirongly diuretic and detergent. But as barley will discuss tubercies of the liver, it may, with propriety, be used for the same purpose in nibabeled of the lungs. Hence, the treatment which promises to be most advan: tageous for tubercles (or consumption) of the lungs, will consist in feeding a half gill or gill of barley daily, to each sheep thus ulfected, and in the frequent application of tar to. the sheep’s mouth, together with all necessary condi- ments 5 eter being ever present in such cases. Fortunately, the lungs of sheep are much less affected DISEASES OF THE CHEST AND AIR PASSAGES, 333 with disease in America than in Britain; even in the cold, severe climate of New England, consumption of the lungs, as an original, primary complaint in the sheep, is seldom seen. And, therefore, if the lungs are much ef- fected, we may be assured that some part of the other vis- cera are unsound, or very deficient in their,action, espe- cially the kidneys. bask INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. . ' “ This disease consists in an inflammation of the sub- stance of the lungs; and thus differs from two other disea- ses, for either of which it may be mistaken, and with which it may or may not co-exist, that is plewrisy and bronchitis ; pleurisy being an inflammation of the membrane covering the lungs and lining the chest, and bronchitis being an in- flammation of the membrane lining the bronchial or air tubes of the throat.” The causes of this complaint are, an undue exposure to wet and cold: hence, washing or shearing when the wea- ' ther is too cold ; exposure after being shorn, or chills after hard driving, may cause this complaint; also, over-feed- ing, or feeding too largely in beginning to feed grain, or other stimulating food to sheep which have previously had short feed. . : “‘High bred animals, particularly the Leicester breed, are more disposed to this complaint, and also to pleurisy, than some other breeds of sheep.” Symptoms. The symptoms of this disease, as given by M. Seron, a French Veterinary Surgeon, are as follows :— ‘“« The whites of the eyes are red and injected; the mouth hot ; accelerated pulse and laborious breathing ; the mouth of the sheep rests on one side, and the animal makes fre- quent attempts to getrid of a yellow mucus with which the nostrils are clogged. One symptom is remarkable, and al- ways present, namely, great tenderness of the loins; if the animal is pressed on that part, he will often fall suddenly to the ground.” Other symptoms are, ceasing to ruminate: an unwilling- ness to move; slight heaving of the flanks; a frequent and painful cough. . Treatment. Bleed a pint from the neck or leg. After this, give a dose of two ounces of Epsom or Glauber salts, & 334 DISEASES OF THE CHEST AND AIR PASSAGES. and place the animal under a.comfortable shelter. When the bowels are cleansed, give half adrachm of nitre in gruel once in six hours—oftener, if the fever appears to increase, together with cooling drinks, such as cream of tartar dis- solved in water, with small quantities of gruel, until the in- flammation is subdued. After which, feed moderately, un- til the animal is restored. “The duration, of the malady is from twenty- four to thirty hours, and its termination is always fatal, unless med- > ical aid is rendered without delay.”’ PLEURISY. ‘‘ This disease is an inflammation of the pleura, or mem- brane lining the chest. It is produced by the same causes as inflammation of the lungs, with which it may be accom- panied ; pasoalad y by dea changes, which chill the whole system. It is not unusual, on examining the bodies of sheep, to find the lungs adhering to the sides of the chest ; and the animal thus affected generally loses flesh. This adhesion is the effect of pleurisy.” Sympioms. ‘* The symptoms of this disease are, in ma- ny respects, like those of inflammation of the lungs; but it is attended occasionally by severe pain, and by a harder and more defined pulse, and more warmth of the body, than inflammation of the lungs.”’ Treatment. ‘* This must consist of active bleeding, in the first instance; and, in this disease, the sheep can bear blood-letting to a greater extent than in most other disea- ses. The bleeding may be repeated, if necessary; setons may be inserted in the brisket; the bowels should be kept moderately relaxed, and, in other respects, the same treat- ment observed as in inflammation of the lungs.”—(W. C. Spooner.) Sheep are seldom afflicted with pleurisy, or inflamma- tion of the lungs, in the United States. DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 335 SECTION XLV. dt pt ae f ft ; 3 DISEASES OF THE, URINARY ORGANS. roe "INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER, (CYSTIOIS). . Inflammation of the bladder, sometimes called watery drazy, is rather a rare disease with sheep, and is chiefly confined to such as are kept on artificial food, such as oil- cake, beans, &c.; though it is said that clover, which has been mown, will produce it. It is mostly confined to ihe male sex, and principally to rams, and such as are highly ‘fed... ; _** The state of the bladder appears to be that of fulness, which shows that its neck is involved in inflammation, and ‘thus becomes contracted, and closes the cavity, producing strangury.’’—( Spooner.) Symptoms. ‘These are, uneasiness, frequently shifting the hind legs, and straining, as if to void urine, without the capability of doing it; stiffness, and unwillingness to move about, with feverish symptoms. Treatment. Bleed.a pint from the neck or leg: after which, administer one or two ounces of linseed or castor oil, with ten grains of powdered opium: if necessary, re- peat the purgative dose during the day, or any succeeding day: feed the animal with wheat flour gruel, mixing with it small portions of cream of tartar, together with hay or grass; feeding moderately until the feverish symptoms are reduced. is CALCULI IN THE URINARY ORGANS. _ Urinary calculi, or gravel of graminivorous animals, is generally composed of phosphat of lime or oxalat of lime, united with small portions of carbonat of lime, carbonat of magnesia and mucus. They result from a peculiar indi- gestion, whereby too large a proportion of these salts is re- ‘ceived into thé animal system, or from a want of due ac- tion in the kidneys. They may be produced by confine- ment io dry fodder, which is made from unripe grasses, whereby oxalat of lime may be produced, or by the con- stant feeding, or over-feeding of oil-cake or other highly nutritious relaxing food, whereby the lacteal ducts are too “4 * 336 DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. much relaxed, and phosphat of lime is too freely absorbed. The bad effects of bad food is increased in such cases, by a» want of sufficient exercise. Sheep are also sometimes af- flicted with this complaint when confined to woody pastures, the herbage of which is of inferior quality. These calculi are generally found in the uretha of rams or wethers, and are apt to lodge near the end of the penis, in pieces of the size of awheat kernel. They produce excessive pain, and sometimes destroy the animal by stopping the passage of the urine. Symptoms. If the animal is very uneasy, and tries to void urine frequently, and without much effect, it may be suspected that he is troubled with gravel. Mr. Stevens, of New Market, in England, in a communication in the 13th volume of the ** Veterinarian,’” observes, that in every case which had occurred to him, concretions were found adhe-~ ring to the hairs of the prepuse, like beads, of the same character as the calculi taken from the uretha. Treatment. In such cases, the penis should be drawn out and examined, and if a calculus is found to be in it,a cut should be made into the penis, down upon the gravel. which may then be removed. One or two sutures should then be passed through the edges of the wound, which will speedily adhere. Ifthe animal is very valuable, it may be well to employ a skilful surgeon to perform the operation. After which, means should be used for the prevention of calculi. Prevention of Calculi. it has been found that astrin- gent and diuretic medicines were most useful for this pur- pose. With this view, feed to animals thus afflicted, a large proportion of gypsum with tar, rosin, or pitch. If these ar- | ticles fail to give relief, make a decoction of one ounce of juniper berries, one-fourth of anounce of boxwood leaves, and one-fourth of an ounce pearlash, in one gallon of water, and give doses of one gilltwiceor threetimes daily.—(See Amer- ican Agriculturist, 1844.) Ifthe animal is constipated, give a dose of linseed or castor oil; and if the animal is kept upon dry food, succulent food should be provided for it.— In place of oil-cake, &c., oats, buckwheat, and other farina- ceous articles should be fed alternately. Atihe same time, a full share of exercise should be allowed to animals thus affected ; exercise being very essential to the proper action i arta i a a tt PIE i nae So RS DISEASES OF THE MOUTH. 337 of the kidneys; and, in summer, frequent changes of pas- ture should be provided forthem. If this complaint is fully seated upon an auvimal, so that it has become constitutional, it is very difficult to cure it. Hence, if possible, such ani- mals should be fattened off and slaughtered without delay. SECTION XLVI. DISEASES OF THE MOUTH, APTHE OR THRUSH. This disease is an inflammation of the mucus mem- branes of some part of the mouth or tongue. Causes of Thrush. General relaxation, exposure. to cold combined with moisture, or an acrimony of the hu- mors produced by unwholesome herbage, are the probable causes. This disease is of two kinds—acute and chronic. ACUTE THRUSH. “This kind of thrush is commonly ealled Blain, or Glass Anthrax, in England. It is thus described by Mr. Spooner : : “In this complaint, the tongue, or rather its connexions, are mostly affecied; a number of vesicles or bladders appear on its side, attended with inability to feed, and a discharge of saliva from the mouth, which sometimes becomes bluody and offensive. These bleddens burst, and leave behind: large sores, which sometimes be- come troublesome ulcers; and these symptoms are occa- sionally attended with swellings of the head and throat. There is little doubt but that the disease is infectious, wheth- er it appears as epidemic or not; and, therefore, the af- fected sheep should be immediately separated from the rest of the flock.” | Treatment. The vesicles in the mouth, and also any tumors upon the head or neck, which evidently contain a fluid, should be freely lanced. These vesicles or tumors should be bathed. with warm water, until the matter is mostly evacuated—then with cold water, in each pint of which, a drachm of chloride of lime, or alum, or borax, t 398 DISEASES OF THE MOUNH. has been dissolved. Aperients must be administered very cautiously, and not at all, unless there is considerable con- stipation. ‘The strength of the animal should be supported with mashes of bran, linseed, or other farinaceous meal, and the best of succulent vegetables; plenty of good thick gruel, if necessary, being horned down, and two drachms of powdered gentian and one of ginger being given morning, noon, and night, along with the gruel. CHRONIC THRUSH. This disease is less severe than acute thrush. It is attended with vesicles, but of a slighter description, and the sheep is often unable to feed. The following cases are related by | Mr. Rawlins, of Bris- tol, in the tenth volume of the “ Veterinarian.”? He says: ‘¢In the month of May, 1836, I was requested to examine the flock of Mr. Charles Marshal, of Snowhill, near Broad- way, Worcestershire, who had lost several ewes and lambs previous to my seeing them. I found seventy lambs in a most emaciated state, “scarcely able 10 move, their mouth being a mass of disease, being one completeulcer. On ex- amination, | found a large fungus issuing from all around the lower gum, enveloping the teeth, and protruding from. the lip io a very considerable extent. ‘There were about thirty still more or less affected. The disease clearly ori- nated in the lower gum, and when it was matured 10 any extent, the ewes refused to allow the ‘ambs to suck, and it cradually pined away. At this stage of the disease, the lamb communicates it to the ewe’s udder. As soon as the ewe is effected, she begins to lose flesh rapidly : the udder becomes tumefied. In some of ithe extreme cases, the ud- der suppurated, and parts of it, with one or both teats, sloughed, and the cure was rendered useless as a stock oy) 5 ewe. Treatmeut. First, separate the diseased lambs with their dams, from the rest of the flock, as the disease is conta>_ gious. The object desired, is, to destroy the fungus flesh and heal the parts affected. Tor this purpose, mix two ounces of alum with a gill of molasses, and the same quantity of vinegar ; apply the mixture two or three times daily to the parts affected. 1f the udder of the ewe is af- fected, wash it off, and apply the same ingredients to it DISEASES OF THE MOUTH. 334 witha ‘syringe. Give to the» dams or other sheep thus afflicted each an ounce or two of Epsom salts or linseed oil. ifthe dam is: purged, the ‘sucking «ova will not need a ee vant Prevention of Thrush. “With ope dkienos and food, iiss sheep will seldom be afflicted with this disease. It is almost or quite unknown, in the dry climate of the United States. > SECTION XLVI. DISEASES OF THE SKIN. aes PELT ROT. , dD hts: affection arises from exposure to cold, wet weather, and hard keeping, or poverty. .The skin becomes so weak, as neither to be able to secrete the wool, or perfect- ty formed yolk ; the wool falls off from the parts affected, and the yolk presents the appearance of a mere scurf. Treatment. If’ much wool becomes loose, the skin should be well cleansed with soap and water, so as to dislodge the scurf, and then an ointment, made of one part tar, and three or four parts oil or grease, should be applied to the parts affected. Sometimes it will be neces- sary to apply a fiannel covering, to the parts from which the'wool has fallen. Full feeding anda warm stall will shag complete the cure. | hase prey . ERVSIPELAS. | “This disease consists in an inflammation of the skin, 1 Sehich raises the outer or scarf skin into blisters, which _ 2 contain a thin, reddish, watery fluid; on which account it is sometimes called the red-water. ‘These blisters contin- | ue for a short time, break, discharge their matter, and are | followed by a blackish scab. Generally, it first appears | about the breast and belly ; though at other times, it begins on other parts of the body, and spreads over it. It attacks | most generally, sheep which are in the best condition, and y has sometimes proved very fatal, when not attended to in. 340 DISEASES OF THE SKIN. season. In such cases, the fever eat and soon de- stroys the animal. 7 This disease makes its appearance more generally, about the beginning or end of winter. In such cases, it proba- bly arises from the exposure of the animal to cold and wet weather, which affects the animal internally, thus produ- cinga slight fever, which throws out these vesicles, simi- lar to the scabby eruptions, which appear about the face, and, more particularly, the mouth of persons affected by a cold. This disease also sometimes attacks sheep in the summer months. In such cases, it probably arises from the animal’s being in high condition and, at the same time, feeding on too succulent pasture ; for, on dissection, in such cases, there appears to be an inflammation of some part of the bowels. | | Treatment. 'The sheep should be placed in a fold by itself; if the disease is violent, a little blood should be taken ; otherwise it will be sufficient to use cooling purga- tive medicines internally, and lotions or ointments exter- nally. For this purpose, give the animal an ounce of Epsom or Glauber salis—repeating the dose, if necessary, at the end of 12 or 24 hours—or give one-third of an ounce of — flour of sulphur and one ounce of molasses, mixed with — water or gruel, sufficient to wash it down; repeating the dose fora few davs. At the same time, a weak decoction of tobacco, or a weak solution of sugar of lead in vinegar, should be applied to the parts affected : or, lard or oil, with | which has been mixed one-tenth of its weight of tar, ee be used for the same purpose. When the disease appears in summer, flies will be eseiily lesome ; and, therefore, in such case, some small portion of tar, sulphur, or tobacco, should be contained in the ointment or lotion, which is applied externally. Prevention of Erysipelas. Occasionally this complaint is very severe, and, in some countries, assumes the ap- | pearance of an epidemic; and, in some cases, it may be | contagious. It will be proper, therefore, in all cases, to | separate the animals affected from the rest of the flock, un- | til they are restored. | DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 341 ‘ ‘BLACK MUZZLE. “*'There is a disease known as the “ black muzzle,’ a pimpled or scabby eruption about the nose of the sheep, sometimes extending up to the eyes and ears, encircling the former and covering the latter.””—(Youatt.) This disease, also, sometimes begins atthe corner of the mouth and the lips become swollen. It probably arises from some constitutional derangement ; and hence ears whichare con- tinually scabby or scurvy, are indicative of some defect in the constitution. A correspondent of the Albany Culti- _ vator (vol. 7, pa. 48) thus speaks concerning it. ‘Iv gen- erally commenced in one corner of the mouth and spread over the lips, and the lips swelled to the thickness of a man’s hand. My flock consisted of about 300, and in the space of about three weeks, about forty died of the distem- per, and not one had recovered. By this time, at least one half of the remainder of the flock. were attacked. It oc- curred to me, that tar would be as likely as anything to give relief. I accordingly had my sheep brought together, and filled their mouths, and daubed on their. lips, all that could be made to stick, and, to my surprise, it affected an immediate cure. [| lost but two or three afterwards, and these were nearly dead when | made the application.. In _a few days every sheep was well.’’ _ An ointment of hog’s lard and sulphur, applied to. the parts affected will also affect a cure; but tar is the most convenient remedy. Prevention. From the above description of this com- _plaint, and its progress, it appears to be quite contagious. Consequently, those which are affected with it, should be separated from the rest of the flock, until they are restored. SCAB OR ITCH. _. This disease is of two distinct kinds. One kind is, that which arises from some irritating quality of food, or from constitutional derangement. Mr. Youatt says, “a sheep is observed to scratch himself in the most furious manner, and with scarcely a moment’s intermission. He rubs him- ‘7 self against every projecting part of the hedge, and every _ post, and the wool comes off in considerable flakes... When _he is caught, there is no appearance whatever of cutaneous disease.” Mr. Young says that, “ the sheep rub themselves’ 342 DISEASES OF THE SKIN. in all attitudes—ihey have clear skins without the least sign of scab—never observed that it was catching—and the better the food the worse they become.”’ Treatment. \n such cases, if the disease arises from a bad quality of food, a change of pasture or food will be apt to relieve the animal. If this does not give relief, there will probably be some constitutional derangement. There- fore, administer a purgative of one ounce of Epsom or Gluuber salts’: ; and, if necessary, repeat the dose at inter- vals of two or three days. If ihe weather is warm, the sheep should be thoroughly washed with soap and water, or with brine of common salt. But if the weather is cold, it will be necessary to depend upon purgatives, and proper changes of food, together with the necessary condiments combined with a small proportion of sulphur. The other kind of itch, which is more generally known by the name of the scad, is similar to the itch in man, and to the mange in cattle, horses, &c., and is caused by para- sitic insects belonging to the Acari, or mite tribe, exceed- ingly minute in size, and living in the skin of the animals with which they are brought in contact. The origin and economy of this class of insects have at- — tracted much attention from naturalists. It is well known that their origin is sometimes owing to the peculiar state of the animal system of the animal in which they are found ; yet, when brought into existence, they have the same dif- ference of sex, and in their propagation are governed by the same laws as animals of higher orders. The most rational conjecture as to the formation of the itch insect, and that of some other parasitic animals, is, that they arise from the want of some ingredient which is — necessary in the animal system; though as to how they are formed, we are entirely in the dark. And it would seem, that the itch insect arises from a want of a proper supply of sulphur in the animal system. In support of this theory, the experience of Mr. E. C. Genet will be in point. In the tenth volume of the old series of — the Cultivator, printed at Albany, page 170, it is stated that Mr. Genet fed some weak but valuable sheep with milk. Their restoration was complete, and while the rest of the — flock suffered with scab, these sheep (which it would seem — would be most apt to have it,) were entirely exempt from it. — DISEASES. OF THE SKIN. 343 And the true reason why milk had this effect, is, that it contains in itself every element which is necessary to sus- tain life; and among other things, a full proportion of sul- phur, which is necessary to all graminivorous animals. That sulphur was the ingredient which. produced this ef- fect, will more fully appear from the experience of Mr. Ed- ward Wait, of Orange county, N. Y. (Am. Agriculturist, vol. ii, pa. 277.) He repeatedly cured the scab in sheep, merely by placing flour of sulphur mixed with salt, in troughs where they could come and eat it at pleasure. These different experiments show, that the itch insect of the sheep canuot exist, and, of course, cannot be formed, where there is proper supply of sulphur in the animal system. These insects are no larger than the hole formed by a pin or needle of a medium size. They burrow under the skin, producing great irritation, and when the pustule dries, they leave it for another part, and thus propagate it by con- tact with another animal. ‘The mode in which this is ac- complished, has been pointed out by M. Waltz, a German, as follows: “If one or more female acari are placed on the wool of a sound sheep, they quickly travel to the root. of it, and bury themselves in the skin; the place at which they penetrated being scarcely visible, or only distinguish- ed by a minute red point. On the tenth or twelvth day, a little swelling may be detected with the finger, and the skin changes its color, and has a greenish blue tint. The pus- tule is now rapidly formed, and about the sixteenth day breaks, and the mothers again appear with their little ones attached to their feet, and covered by a portion of the shell of the egg, from which they have just escaped. These little ones immediately set to work, and penetrate the neighboring skin, and bury themselves beneath it, and find their prover nourishment, and propagate, until the poor an- imal has myriads of them to prey on him, and to torment _ him; and it is not wonderful that he should speedily sink. _ Some of the male acari were placed on the sound skin of a sheep, and they, too, burrowed their way, and disappeared _ for a while, and the pustule, in due time, arose; but the - itching and scab soon disappeared without the employment of any remedy. _ “Tt, therefore, appears necesary, that both sexes of the acari should be present, in order to propagate the disease 344 DISEASES OF THE SKIN. to any extent, and then such are the prolific qualities of the female, (from eight to fifteen being produced at a litter) that we cannot wonder that the disease should spread so extensively.”’ ' By? ‘© Mr. Waltz found that the young acari, kept in a dry place, dried and crumbled to dust; but when old, that it would retain its life through the winter ; thus proving the necessity of not relying on the season for its destruction, but on preparations of active medicine, when the disease shows itself.’ Fig. 1. The female, of 366 times the natural size, larger than the malé, of an oval form, and provided with eight feet, four before and four behind. a. The sucker. sat b.b. 6.6. The four anterior feet, with their trumpet-like appendices. c.c. The two interior hind-feet. Kesh, d.d. The two outward feet, the extremities of which are provided with some long hairs, and on other parts of the legs are shorter hairs. To these the young ones adhere when they first appear from the pustule. Fig 2. The male on his back, and seen by the same magnifying power. The external causes of scab.are, filth and the poverty, which arises from exposure to cold and wet weather, or bad food, or contagion, which is the most usual cause. — It spreads both by direct contact, and also by means of the rubbing places. For it has happened, that when a farmer has got rid of his tainted flock, and covered his pastures with a new one, the disease has broken out again. And this has arisen from contact of the sheep, with the old DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 345 _ seratching places of fences, trees, &c. As this disease is _ very contagious, if any sheep is observed to be infected, it should be immediately removed from the flock ; other- : wise; the whole flock wiil shortly be infected. Symptoms. ‘The first symptom is, that the sheep is rest- less, rubbing itself against any object, nibbling itself, or tearing off the wool with its teeth. If closely examined, the skin will be found to be red and rough ; and it is ascer- tained that the sheep begins 1o rub about twelve days after having received the infection. Pustules will next be visi- ble, and in a few days these pustules are broken by rub- bing, and a fluid escapes, which soon becomes dry, and forms the scab, which gives designation to the disease. The shoulders and back are generally soonest affected by these pustules. On the infected part, the color of the wool becomes changed, and is readily noticed. The general health of the puttin is affected, according to the extent and virulence of the eruption: sometimes it pines away and dies, exhausted by continued irritation and suffering. Treatment. ‘The sheep acarus is very different in form, size, and color, from the human acarus. But any applica- - tion which will destroy one, will prove fatal to the other. The remedy is, the destruction of the insects. In the treatment of this, as well as most other complaints, those modes are preferable which are most convenient, pro- vided they are effectual, and can be depended upon, and can be used without injury to the animal. The mode of treatment which has been used by Mr. Edward Wait, of mixing sulphur with their salt, is certainly the most conve- nient, “and is also the safest; sulphur, being natural to the animal system, if used in moderation, cannot be injurious, like mineral poisons, which may dederay the itch insect, but will also frequently injure or destroy the sheep to which they are applied. For this purpose, sulphur may be mixed with salt alone, or with salt and other condiments, ape fed to them until a cure iseffected. “If this remedy alone fails to effect a cure. shear off the ; wool about the pustules, and remove the scab with a knife or probe ; after which, the diseased parts should be washed “ | with: ee and water; then anoint the parts affected with be 346 DISEASES OF THE SKIN. an ointment made of the following ingredients, well mixed, Viz: Lard, : - - : 4 \bs. Tar, - ° - - a “ Sulphur, - - - - ¥e Spirits of turpentine, - - gill. repeating the operation, if necessary. Or, wash the parts affected with a decoction made by thorouglily boiling one ponnd of plug tobacco in four gal- lons of water ; to “which add the same quantity of lime wa- ter, and one pint of spirits of turpentine. Or, dissolve five quarts of common salt in four gallons of @ strong decoction of tobacco, made as above mentioned, and apply it to the parts affected.—(Cultivator, 1845—page 336.) Mercurial ointments, of various kinds, are frequently used for curing scab; but mercury is injurious to sheep in the same manner as to man. ist—lIf a sheep gets wet, while under its influence, it will be very apt to be salivated or die. 2d—lif a sheep is once anointed with it, such sheep will never regain its constitution; and will not keep or fatten as - easily afterwards; and is liable, every spring after, to peel off its wool from those parts that were touched with the mercury.—(Cultivator, 1845.) Prevention of Scab. This disease is most prevalent in cool, moist climates, or weather, and, therefore, dry and warm shelters, with plenty of wholesome and nutritious food, will be the best means of prevention. A poor sheep will be the first to suffer from this disease. In Scotland, sheep are smeared with tar and grease, in the months of October or November, as a defence against the weather and the scab, and with the best results. Where good shelters are provided, this operation will be unnecessary. SHEEP POX. This disease is unknowa in the United States, but is not uncommon in France, Spain, and some other European countries. It consists in a pustular eruption upon the in- side of the thighs and arms, but extending to all parts where the skin is thinnest, and when severe to every part of it: ~~ DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 347 and is accompanied with febrile and other symptoms which run through a regular course, much like the small pox of "man, and is highly contagious to other sheep by contact. “The treatment of this disease (in France) consists in separating the sound sheep from the diseased, being care- ful'that, having been thus separated, they are not subjected to the infltence of cold, or wet, or insufficient food. The diseased sheep are supplied with wholesome food. During the febrile stage, aperients of Epsom salts are administered. The state of fever having passed, mild tonics, as gentian ‘and ginger, are administered—the Epsom salts being still retained, but in smaller doses. Common salt is a favorite, and a very useful medicine, on account of its antiseptic and tonic properties. ‘«¢ The practice of inoculation, so as to produce the dis- ease in a milder form, was introduced about the middle of the last century, and was so far attended with success, that, whereas, when the disease appeared naturally, one-half of a flock or upwards fell victims to its attack, in the artificial disease, this mortality was limited to about oné in a hun- dred. The practice has been, in consequence, pretty gen- erally adopted ; and it is considered the duty of flock-mas- ters on the continent, when the disease appears in the neighborhood, to submit their sheep immediately to inoc- ulation.”—(W.C. Spooner.) This disease is rarely pro- duced except in cool, moist climates. press - 348 DISEASES OF THE FOOT. » SECTION XLVIIL. . DISEAS ES) OF TE ki OF | POOL ROL. A SECTION OF THE SHEEP’S FOOT. Showing the interdigital gland. g». The gland. d. The duct leading from it. There are two varieties of this disease ; or rather there is a disease of the foot, properly speaking, and another’ disease of the fetlock-and pastern joints. 1n the skin, im- mediately over the forks of the pasterns, and between the pasterns is placed, in the sheep, a small glandular sac and a tube, running from it, with an orifice to it, in the skin. ‘his sac and tube lie nearly in a circular form, between the pasterns. The orifice of this tube is marked by a little tuft of hair, and should be always open. It is, however, frequently glued together by the strong-smelling, oily fluid which is secreted from this sac, and which should at all times have a free passage out. When this orifice is stop- ped up, pull out the hairs which are around it, and then put one finger under the foot, between the claws, and the thumb or finger of the other hand above the orifice. and press out this oily fluid, which is stopped up, and the sheep will soon be well, ordinarily. . If the pressure with the thumb and finger is found insuf- ficient to open the orifice, it may be opened with a probe, and all-glutinous matter or sand, or other foreign substance, should be extracted. And if probing alone is insufficient, this tube may be opened by cutting as far as may be ne- cessary for this purpose. It should then be dressed at in- tervals, with an ointment of lard and tar, or other healing | } DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 349 ointment, and, if necessary, a bandage should be applied. But the orifice, above mentioned, should be kept open.— Astringent remedies, in some cases, may be necessary. In such case, dip a bandage into an infusion of oak bark or alum water, and bind it on the parts affected. If any fungus flesh arises, apply a solution of burnt alum and sugar of lead, with a syringe, to the parts affected, when “Necessary. . This gland and tube should never be cut out, if a cure can be effected without proceeding to that extremity ; for the oily secretion from them is designed to lubricate and sheath from friction the parts between the claws. The real foot rot, is an ulcer upon the foot, near, or within the horn of the hoof. This affection is caused by the irritation, which is occasioned by long hoofs, or by ma- nure, peat or muck, or other vegetable substances, lodged between the hoofs, or by the skin or flesh near or between the hoofs being cut by sharp-edged grasses, sand or stones, or in consequence of the sac and tube, above mentioned, being stopped up. ' The cause of the inveteracy of this complaint is, that an extra quantity of ammonia is secreted from the feet of the sheep, more than from the feet of other animals, and -more than from other parts of the body. ‘Ammonia helps to decompose animal and vegetable substances, and to com- municate such decomposition to the flesh, wherever it is wounded, or irritated. Hence, if sheep are pastured on firm lands, and with hoofs well pared, they will seldom be troubled with this complaint. But if they are kept in fil- thy stalls, and without a suitable quantity 6f straw to rest upon, or if pastured{on mucky or peaty soils, they will be very apt to contract the disease ; for on such soils an abun- ~dance of sharp-edged grasses usually grow, which will wound the flesh or skin; the decomposition of peat or muck, by the ammonia, will be communicated to the ' wounded parts, and inveterate ulcers will be formed. For the same reason the disease is readily communicated from - the feet of one sheep to those of another, by means of the ' matter of suppuration. | fs - Symptoms and treatment. If a sheep is observed to be lame in the feet, it should be examined; and if foot rot has begun on, or in any part of the foot, the foot will gen- 350 _ DISEASES OF THE FOOT. | erally be. considerably hotter, than the other feet; which fact may be ascertained by comparing the lame foot with the other feet. It should then be ascertained what part of the foot is affected ; whether between. the hoofs, or upon the external parts, or internally. Where the. complaint begins between the hoofs, it sometimes arises from the stoppage of the sac and duct above mentioned. In such case its orifice should be opened without delay. But whatever may be the cause, in the first stages of the dis- -ease, the skin between the hoofs frequently appears red and inflamed, and sometimes has the appearance of a scald, and will often forma blister, which will break. In such cases, the application of tar to the parts affected will gen- erally affect a cure. If an ulcer is formed between the hoofs, or near the hoofs, and above them, it should be first cleansed with soap and water ; and pulverized burnt alum or blue vitriol should be sprinkled upon it, and then it should be covered with tar, or with tar and grease ; repeating the dressings, until the ulcer is firmly healed. Or apply, with a syringe, one part burnt alum and two parts sugar of lead dissolved in vinegar, to the parts affect- ed, twice daily ; Or, spirits of turpentine alone until cured ; Or, apply muriate of antimony, (butter of antimony) and a few minutes after, apply white lead, and Pandas if necessary ; Or, wash the ulcer, and dress with equal parts of on, ccopperas and charcoal ; Or, alum, gypsum, fe charcoal ; Or, blue vitriol, white lead and charcoal ; Or, if a considerable portion of a flock, is affected with this complaint, dissolve two, three or four pounds of blue vitriol in each gallon of water, more or less according to the violence of the comiplaint, and put a sufficient quantity of the solution into a flat-bottomed trough, which is 8 or 10 feet long, so that the water may be about two inches deep in the trough, and with suitable fixtures, cause the flock to pass lengthwise through this trough, two or three times weekly, as may be found necessary, until all are re- stored. ) In cases where the hoof is quite hot, and no external — ’ rer es De Ee ee aN DISEASES OF THE. FOOT. 351 affection is visible, it may be ascertained what parts are af- fected, by pressing the foot slightly with the thumb, around the junction of the horn and skin, and also the sole of the foot. The seat of the abscess will be made known, by the wincing motion of the foot. If the abscess is within the horn, of the hoof, the horn of the hoof should be pared away, so as to bring the diseased partsto view ; for in such cases, the horn will shortly be reproduced. If the abscess as found to be above the horn of the hoof, it will then be necessary to cut into the part diseased, with a keen knife, so as to occasion a discharge of the matter. In either of these cases, if the diseased parts are brought to view so that medicines can be conveniently applied, the ulcer may be treated as before mentioned. But if the ulcer is deep seat- ed, as it will sometimes be, and will even penetrate to, and -among the bones of the foot, it should be washed out, by injecting water or soap suds into it, with a syringe} aso- Jution of one part burnt alum, or blue vitriol, and two or three parts sugar of lead (acetite of lead) in water, should then be syringed into the parts diseased. This treatment should be, continued once or twice daily, until the parts affected are fully healed ; washing the foot from time to time,soas to keep it as clean as circumstancess will per- mit. __ If, by paring away the horn of the hoof, the parts. un- _derneath are left bare,so as to be irritated or injured -by treading upon the ground, it will be necessary to apply . bandages to the foot, and tie them on, after the dressings are completed. Each claw of the foot which is pared away in this manner, should have a separate bandage upon it, in order to prevent friction of the paris diseased, and so as to keep them more cool, than if both claws are enclosed by one bandage. lor this purpose, bandages of linen or cotton cloth will be most suitable ; and these must be kept on until horn is reproduced, so.as to protect the parts af- _ fected. _ When the disease has been very severe, so as to pene- _ trate to the bones or joints, it will be very difficult to effect, . a perfect cure ; the malady, in such cases, will be subject -. to frequent returns ; frequently, at the end of six. months or a year. the same feet will be again affected. In such _-cases, unless the animal is very valuable, it may be well \ 352 DISEASES OF THE FOOT. to butcher it. No animal afflicted with foot rot, should be permitted to rejoin the flock until perfectly restored. Prevention of Foot Rot. Sheep which are affected with foot rot, should be kept by themselves; they can then be examined more conveniently, and the contagious influence of the complaint may be avoided. In some soils and cli- mates, this complaint does not seem to be particularly con- tagious, and is an easily managed disease ; but in others, it is extremely contagious ; even on high mountains and dry pastures, the complaint is sometimes very prevalent. Sometimes the disease is contracted merely by sheep passing along in the same road, or by being pastured in a pasture where sheep, diseased with foot rot, had been pas- tured, and removed a month previous to the well sheep’s being turned into it; or by their being put into the same yard or pen, where sheep, diseased with foot rot, were pen- ned or stabled several weeks before the well ones were in- troduced. And it is said thatthe space of time, between the sheep’s being exposed, and the symptoms becoming vis- ible, varies from nine to fourteen days. That it is contagious, has been proved by the experi- ments of M. Farre, of Geneva, (in Switzerland). Out of 32 cases, inoculated with the matter of foot rot, 20 became infected. In the cases where the disease was produced by inoculation, it was sufficiently marked to leave no room for doubt. The inference drawn from his experiments has been confirmed by those of others. Ordinarily, the matter of contagion is taken up by the absorbents of the feet with which it comes in contact. Wherever the circumstances are such that sheep are any wise predisposed to this disease, their feet should, at all times, be kept well pared, so that the feet may stand in a natural position. If the hoof is too long at the end, or on the sides, the upper part of the hoof will bear too heavily upon some of the fleshy parts above, and will cause great irritation, so as, without any other cause, to produce an ul- cer, in some cases. When sheep are pastured upon grounds which are apt te produce the disease, their feet should be pared at least four times a year. But, generally, it will be sufficient to pare ‘them twice a year: once in April or May, and once in No- _ vember; at which times of the year, their hoofs will gener- DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 353 ally be softer than in midsummer or midwinter. For this purpose, a strong knife or a hoof-cutter will be necessary ; ‘or, instead of a hoof-cutter, a fine pannel saw will be found ‘convenient; it should be oiled often. One person may hold the claws upon a block with both hands, while another saws off the toe; or a chissel and mallet may be used for this purpose. After which, they should be pared, so that they may stand in a natural position. Ewes, far advanced in pregnancy, should not be set up on end in order to pare off their hoofs; placing them in such a position, when they are weak, will sometimes cause ‘abortion. In order to prevent foot rot in winter, spread straw in their sheds or stalls, so that their feet may be kept dry, and free from manure. / In summer, pasture them on lands which are free from mucky or peaty deposits; hilly lands, which are merely moistened by running water, do not produce the disease. And keep them from fields on which infected sheep have run, until after the frosts or rains have destroyed Uae con- tagion, Tf pasturage lands ¢ appear to produce the disease, a quan- tity of lime, or gypsum, or charcoal pulverized, and depos- ited about their box of condiments, will be very useful in preventing the disease, by neutralizing the ammonia, which is continually produced, and excreted “from their feet. In such case, their box of condiments, and, also, the lime, gypsum, or charcoal, should all be under shelter, so that the rain cannot fall upon them. If the disease is among the flock, when they are brought to their stalls, gypsum or. charcoal may be sprinkled in their stalls, for the same pur- pose. And for this purpose, charcoal is one of the best and least expensive articles which can be used. Dried charcoal will absorb 90 times its bulk of ammonial gas ; which is a greater quantity than any other substance has been found capable of absorbing. Charcoal is an article to which sheep seem to be partial. If there is a pile of half- burnt and half-charred logs in a field, they will be sure to make a resting place by the side of them. Pasturing sheep in newly burnt fallow fields, has been found very beneti- cial in foot rot. —(See Genesee Farmer, 1838, pa. 95. ) ' The constitutions of short-wooled breeds of sheep, ‘354 _ DISEASES OF THE EYE. whether their wool be coarse or fine, are adapted to dry up- lands, on which foot rot seldom prevails to any great ex- ‘tent, except by means of contagion; and hence, when pla- ced upon rich level or lowlands, they are far more liable to this disease than long coarse-wooled breeds, whose feet and qualities are far better adapted to such lands. * SECTION XLIX. DISEASES OF THE EVE. The eyes of sheep, like those of other animals, are lia- ble to inflammation from various causes; from the pollen of flowers, or other minute substances lodged in them; from an undue determination of blood towards the head, by over-driving, or over-worrying, or over-feeding; or from some donstitutional derangement. If the eye appears to be affected, it should be examined, | and all foreign substances which are between the eyes and | the eye-lids, should be carefully removed with a probe, or | with a piece of fine silk cloth, or by washing the eyes with | water. After which, a drop or two of laudanum, or Jauda- | num diluted with four times its weight of water, may be ( dropped into the eye twice or thrice daily, until the inflam- mation is subdued. If the eye is inflamed by over-driving, worrying, or over-feeding, administer a dose of Epsom or Glauber salts, | and wash the eye three or four times daily with cold water. If necessary, repeat the dose of Epsom salts, and feed mod- | erately, until the inflammation i is subdued. Sometimes a considerable portion of a flock is afflicted with sore and inflamed eyes, particularly at the latter end of the year, or in spring, when the weather has been cold and moist for a long time. In such cases, the inflammation is moderate, but the eyes © are weak, anda white film gradually spreads over the eyes, ‘i which the animal sometimes keep closed. At first a wa- tery fluid, and afierwards, a thicker — “mucus matter ‘is J ; _ WORMS. 355 ' discharged from them, and the film increases, until the i eae of the eye is ofa pearly whiteness, is blind. In such cases, the inflammation will sometimes abate, even if nothing is done, and the eye begins to clear, usu- ally commencing at the upper part of the eye, and gradu- _ally proceeding downward, until the whole of the organ is once more transparent. _ In such cases, when a film is perceived to be growing up- on the eye, or obscuring the eye-sight, drop a ‘Tittle finely pulverized burnt alum upon the parts most affected, once or twice daily. This will remove the film without injury to the eye. Or, drop a few drops of molasses into the eye once or twice daily; the oxalic acid, which is in the mo- lasses, will remove the film without pain to the animal. SECTION L. OF WORMS. Worse. are frequently generated within the sheep. They probably arise from a want of a sufficient supply of common salt, (chloride of sodium), in the animal system. This will appear from the treatment and mode of preven? tion, which are necessary. WORMS IN THE TRACHEA, OR WINDPIPE. « Worms in the windpipe cause great irritation, and pro- duce a species of bronchitis, with a discharge of mucus from the nose, and a cough which is frequent and distres- sing. This disease is more common with young cattle, from their being more exposed to wet and woody pas- tures ; and when sheep are thus afflicted, it is confined to fs young animals.’’ Treatment. **'The same means should be resorted to, as are employed with success in young catile; and for _ which we are indebted to Mr. Mayor, of New-Castle-un- der-Lyne.. Lime water, haif a pint for a sheep, anda | quarter for a lamb, should be given inthe morning; 356 WORMS. and in the evening one or two large teaspoonfuls of salt, dissolved in a quarter to half a pint of water. ‘This, treatment should be continued for a week, or until the improvement becomes very decided.’”’—(W. C. Spooner.) Prevention. \t is very evident, that if lime water and salt will destroy worms, under such circumstances, a suit- able supply of salt and lime, as condiments to the sheep, will prevent their formation. In the above prescription, salt is the principal efficient remedy. FLUKE WORMS. =: i Ril The Fluke Worm—a, the mouth ; 5, the reproductive apparatus; ¢, ¢, vessels forthe distribution of the blood. The Fluke—the Fasciola of Linnaus—the Distoma | hepaticum of Rhodolphi, is found in the billiary ducts of | | the. eae the goat, the deer, the ox, the horse, the ass, | the hog, t he dog, the rabbit and various other animals, and even in the human being. It is flat and oval, and of a brownish yellow color. Itis from three quarters of an | inch, to an inch and a quarter in length, and from one-third to half an inch. in ereatest breadth. The head is of a pointed form, round above, and flat beneath; and the mouth opens laterally, instead of vertically. There are no barbs or tenacula, as described by some authors. Mr. Morton was unable to discover any eyes; and it is not | probable that these residents of a locality never penetrated by light, actually possess any. | Origin of Flukes. ‘ The fluke worm has been found © by Frommen, in the foetus of the sheep, into which itd] could not have been conveyed by transmission from the _ mother, as there is no direct vascular communication, be- tween the fetus and the mother.’’—( Blacklock.) . | This circumstance shows that the fluke worm is formed | ! m | | ‘ WORMS. ob within the animal. Jlow they are formed we can no more determine, than how the itch insect is formed. ‘ Each worm is bisexual, or hermaphrodite ; on which account they multiply with great rapidity. They produce eggs to be hatched while floating in the bile. They are found only in the gall bladder, and the ducts which lead to it. In these they are often found in such numbers, as to cause great distension, and, in some instances, the irritation pro- duced by them leads to the thickening of the walls of the gall bladder, and to deposition of calcarious matter between its coats ; frequently also to complete obliteration of por- tions of the ducts. Hence the crackling sound some- times perceived, when handling the liver of a rotten sheep.”’ _ These last observations are by Blacklock. In Ameri- ca, such quantities of fluke worms are a circumstance en- tirely unknown. I have examined great numbers of sheep, which had died of rot, and which always had plenty of salt, without finding a solitary fluke worm. But asa prop- er supply of salt is not generally afforded to sheep in Eu- rope, and as fluke worms have usually been there round an attendant upon rot, they have been more noticed than they deserved. ‘They are only an attendant upon rot; they may exist with or without it. _ Treatment. \tis not probable that we can know, toany certainty, whether fluke worms exist in the liver of a sheep. But if it is suspected that a sheep is troubled with them, give one anda half ounces of common salt, in three quarters ‘of a pint of water, to a sheep, on an empty stomach, for three or four mornings. The sheep should be kept from eating during the night preceding each’dose. This is said to be an effectual remedy.—( Cultivator. ) Prevention of Fluke Worms. A regular supply of com- ‘mon salt. 358 “FLIES AND TICKS. orn SECTION LI. FLIES AND TICKS. During the summer months, sheep are much anno yed by the various species of maggot flies, and the Oestrus Ovis. These flies are most abundant in woody localities. These maggot flies deposit their eggs upon the ‘sheep, selecting | for that purpose a wound, or sore, or filthy parts about the tail, or about the horns, or even in the wool, when it-is moistened by warm damp weather, especially on breeds which have not much yolk. The maggots being hatched, burrow in the skin or flesh, causing severe irritation, and frequently produce extensive and troublesome wounds, which sometimes destroy the sheep, by the irritation and | fever which they produce, in the course of a short time; — and, therefore, when struck by the fly, they should be at- tended to without delay. Treatment. The wool should be cut off around the parts, where the maggots are deposited; then dislodge them with a knife or probe ; or apply spirits of turpentine to the parts affected; the maggots will soon crawl out and — perish. Apply tar and grease, or white lead and oil to the corroded parts from which they have been removed. Maggots may be dislodged by applying honey to them, when spirits of turpentine would be ineffectual—(J. 5. _ Skinner.) | ‘Asa local application, imediately after the sheep has- been struck, white lead is one of the best, and it will also | ‘act asa preventive. Inusing it, while one person, holds — the sheep by the head, let another open the wool, and hav- | ing ready a pepper box, containing pulverized white lead, _ scatter it among the wool, wherever there is any appear-_ ance of maggots or slight wounds made by them.” Prevention. Clip off all tag locks, and apply to any | parts, which are particularly liable to wet or filth, portions — of amixture of five parts lard, and one part tar, or sulphur or white lead. Flies are very apt to deposit their egos about the roots of the horns of rams, whether the skin © is abraded by fighting or not. Many valuable rams are ~ destroyed by maggots thus produced. Therefore, imme- | FLIES AND TICKS. 359 diately after shearing, tar should be daubed around the roots of their horns, and between Liat THE GAD FLY, (GSTRIS Sirsa.) These flies somewhat exceed half an inch in length, and are nearly a quarter of an inch in breadth, when full grown. The figures in the above cut are taken from Mr. Youatt’s treatise. Fig. No. 1 shows the larva or bot of the Cistris ovis half grown; 2, the same at its full growth ; 3, the CEstris ovis in the pupa state; 4, the Céstris in its perfect State, giving a full length view of it. These flies deposit their eggs on the insidé of the nos- trils, which the sheep endeavor to prevent by holding down their heads, and flocking together. Ifa fly of this kind ap- pears near, they strike violently with their fore feet, and, at the same time, plunge their noses into the dust. When ‘the fly succeeds, the sheep exhibits the greatest uneasiness, shakes it head, snorts, stamps with its feet, and runs off fu- riously to some dusty spot or protected corner. The at- tacks of this fly continue from May to October. Some- times a dozen maggots are placed in one sheep’s nose; but not often more than three or four in one season. _ The eggs thus deposited are soon hatched, and the young maggots crawl up the nostrils, in doing which, they pro- duce great irritation, which causes the sheep to sneeze and shake its head. They enter. the frontal and other sinuses connected with it, where they femain, increasing in size until Bias following spring, feeding on the mucus which is 360: FLIES AND TICKS. secreted by the membranes which line those cavities. “At some time between the middle of April and the end of July, the larvee attain their full growth, and then make their exit from these sinuses, and crawl down the nostrils; in doing which, they prove a source of great irritation, causing the sheep to sneeze and shake their heads. The maggot then burrows in the ground or rubbish of the sheep- -yard; its skin gradually shrinks and hardens, and it is soon formed into the chrysalis. In from forty to sixty- three days, according to the experiments of Valasnieri, the perfect transformation takes place, and the fly comes out. ‘Though most of the worms leave the head of the sheep to undergo transformation, it is certain that all do not: for shells ae the chrysalis are sometimes found in the sheep’s head, showing that some reach the fly state before leaving. The fly will live two months after it is produced, but like a butterfly, it is supposed that it takes no nourishment of any kind. Afier the two sexes have copulated, the male dies after a few hours or days; ea however, hay- ing impregnated a second or third female ; but the female lingers until she has found a proper receptacle for her Om, when she also expires. ‘In most cases, the worm leaves the sheep’s nostrils with out pagel “olaays injury ; but sometimes they are very injurious ey destroy the sheep by the long continued irritation and inflammation which they create in the nasal sinuses. Symptoms of Worms in the Head. The eyes sink. ji in and look glassy, the ears lop, the head droops, the nostrils discharge more than usual, and, in the last stages, bloody, watery matter frequently runs from the nose: the animal becomes poor, with a good appetite, and the best of keep- ing, and, in the last stages, is generally troubled with di- arrhoea. Treaiment.—To destroy worms in the head, mixa pound of scotch snuff with eight quarts of water—a half gill of this mixture will be sufficient for each nostril, if the opera- tion is performed in the fall season, when the worms are young. Throw it up each nostril by means of a syringe. This operation is most ¢onveniently performed by thrust- ing the nose of the sheep into a hole made through a board, which is fastened to a post, and made sufficiently large to ‘TICKS AND LICE. 361 Receive the nose of the sheep two-thirds of its length from "the eyes to the nose.. The board keeps the head steady, so that there is no difficulty in performing the operation. A decoction of tobacco is used by some persons for the ‘same purpose; and others blow tobacco: smoke into each nostril, with good effect in such cases. Another remedy is—mix equal proportions of spirits of turpentine and oil (sweet oil or linseed oil), and injecva ta- ble spoonful or less of the mixture into each nostril. These processes will disable the worms, and cause the sheep to sneeze so as to expel them. Sulphur is offensive to some other parasitic insects of the sheep; and hence, the feeding of it, in moderate quantities, to sheep thus affected, may destroy or dislodge the worms from the nasal sinuses, when other means fail. Prevention of Worms in the Head. With a wooden spatula, smear a streak of tar from the end of the sheep’s Nose up to the wool between the eyes. This operation should be repeated upon each sheep, once in two or three weeks, from May till frosts appear inautumn. This is the best mode of prevention ; but it should be thoroughly done, -andresularly attendedto. As soonasthe lambs are weaned, ‘tar should be smeared upon their noses also, in the same ‘manner. If sheep are kept in first rate condition as to flesh, they will the more readily avoid this fly by their ac- tivity, and if the worms are deposited in their nostrils, they will bethe better able to endure the irritation caused by them. | TICKS, AND, LICE. The sheep louse is of a brownish red color, with a flat body, and three legs on either side. The tick has also three legs on’ each” side; but it has a large round body, owith a small chest and head, which it buries deep in the skin, and by which he holds so fast as 10. be with difficulty torn off. The lice are propaga aged by means of eggs or nits. i The origin of the tick is not so well understood. They are both injurious to the wool and to the health of the ani; “mal, on account of the constant irritation whieh they pro- duces: » The louse is more injurious than the tick. The tick on- ly buries its head in the skin; but the lice burrow and form their nest in or under it; they collect together, and a scab 362 TICKS AND LICE. soon rises, whence a glutinous matter proceeds. The seab — continues to increase until it is of the size of a sixpence, | and undermines and destroys the wool, and portions of tha fl fleece come off in patches. The itching then becomes in- — tolerable; the sheep rub themselves against everything © within their reach, and tear out locks of wool with their | mouths. | Lice and ticks infest sheep of all ages, but are most trou- © blesome to lambs. | Treatment. The most convenient mode of destroying ! ticks, is, to feed sulphur to animals thus afflicted. For this | purpose, feed to each hundred sheep, weekly, 10 or 12 _ ounces of flour of sulphur mixed with their condiments; | or, feed the same amount of sulphur to them weekly in © small doses, mixed with their provender, until the ticks are destroyed, which will generally be effected within three or | four weeks. The sheep should be examined, and as soon — as the desired effect is obtained, the sulphur should be with-_ | held from them. Sulphur is a relaxing article, and while || they are using it, they will be more subject to take colds © than at other times, and, consequently, the most proper | time for killing ticks in this manner, is in cold, dry wea- ther in winter, or in warm, dry weather in summer, when — the sheep is well covered with wool ; but not immediately after they are shorn. This method has been used success-_ fully. i\ Another method of destroying them when the wool is” long, is, by fumigation with tobacco. Take a canister of | copper; sheet-iron, or tin, made at one end to fit the nose — of a bellows, and having at the other end a small pipe, for || the escape of the smoke. Fill the canister with tobacco, || put in a coal of fire, and fasten the canister to the bellows’ 4) pipe, around which there should be wrapped some damp tow or cloth, to make it fit tight. One person should hold || the sheep and open the wool, and another should blow the || smoke with the bellows. The wool should be opened in || Jines or furrows around the body, from six to eight inches” apart. As the wool is opened, the pipe of the canister should be applied close to the skin, the wool closed around, and 7) slightly compressed at the surface withthe hands ; and, at the same time, a puff given with the bellows. This will |. % ce met DISEASES OF PARTURITION. (363 keep the smoke close to the animal’s body, and neaglyy amesah tick will be killed.—(Cultivator.) i Or, open the wool in lines or furrows, and sprinkle saat or flour of sulphur among the wool. » Or, in a few days afier the sheep are sheared, the ticks, Slings deprived of protection on the sheep, will resort to the lambs, whose wool will then be sufficiently grown to afford them a covering ; if, at this time, the lambs are dipped ina decoction of tobacco, the ticks may be exterminated at once. For this purpose, make use of one pound of tobacco for every six gallons of water—five pounds of tobacco will be sufficient for one hundred lambs. Chop the tobacco fine, and boil it in the water uutil its strength is fully extracted. After which, put the decoction into a large tub or kettle; on the side of which, fasten a board on which the lambs may rest after their immersion, in order that the liquor may drain from them into the kettle or tub. The lambs should be held by the head with both hands, and then dipped into the decoction up to the ears, using special care that none of the decoction passes into the eyes or mouth. Or, if the lambs are dipped in a strong solution of com- mon salt in water, the ticks will mostly die, or will drop off. The salt will also have a good effect upon their skins. —(See Cultivator, 1845.) Good keeping during the summer months, isa great pre- ventive against the influence of flies and ticks. SECTION LII. DISEASES OF PARTURITION. ABORTION. _ Abortion occurs at all periods of pregnancy, but is most frequent, when the ewe is about half gone. When sheep are in some measure afflicted with the rot, it also frequently occurs a short time previous to the full period for their lambing.” 364 DISEASES OF PARTURITION. U Causes of Abortion. These are, sudden fright ; jump- ing over hedges or ditches; being worried by dogs; blows, or strains of the back or abdomen; ihe tdo free use of common salt; also, the unlimited use of turnips, or other succulent food; confinement to wet pastures during fall or’ winter; or anything which more than usually relaxes the . system. Hence, sheep affected with rot, are very liable to abortion; and abortion is more common after a wet fall and winter. te, Symptoms of Abortion. The symptoms first manifested are, dullness, and refusal to feed ; the ewe will be seen mo- ping at a corner of a fold or field, and will be heard to bleat more than usual. ‘To these symptoms succeed restlessness, and often trembling with slight labor pains, and in the course of twelve hours, abortion will have taken place. Some- times the paris will be so relaxed, that the uterus, or vagina, will become inverted, and the expulsion of the placcuta will precede that of the foetus. Aborted lambs are gener- ally dead when dropped. Treatment af the Ewe. Ifthe ewe is apparently much injured, she should be placed in a sheltered situation, but should be allowed plenty of fresh air; and the following medicines, with some nourishing gruel : Epsom salts, - Se 7 Omnlee. Tincture of Opium, - - 1 drachm. Powdered Camphor, - -. a ee The two latter medicines may be repeated for one or more following days, as may be found necessary ; but not the salts, unless the bowels are constipated. The immedi- ate cause of death, in fatal cases, is inflammation of the uterus, or womb.—(W. C. Spooner.) Prevention of Abortion. When many cases of abortion occur, it frequently arises from some quality of their food or pasture. fn such cases, the ewes should be confined to a full supply of good hay and water, or dry pasture fields, with a moderate allowance of grain. Ewes which have suffered abortion, should be removed from the rest of the flock, and the aboried lambs should be buried. ° INVERSION OF THE UTERUS. Though this occasionally takes place in the ewe at any DISEASES OF PARTURITION, 365 period, from sudden severe exertion or straining hard, yet it is most frequent immediately or very shortly ¢ after partu- rition. In this case, it arises from the violent spasmodie action of the womb, which turns inside out, and protrudes from the sheep. The womb is also sometimes forced out of the orifice, when great force has been used in extracting the lamb. No time should be lost in replacing it. If ne- cessary, the womb should be cleansed with warm water. The ewe should then be placed on her back, with her hind ’ feet elevated, and the hands being well ubiioavend with oil, _ the uterus should be gently forced back into its natural _ place by a person having a small hand. Gentle and con- tinued pressure will effect this much sooner than the appli- cation of the greatest force. When it is returned to its nat- ural place, the lips of the orifice should be secured by pass- ing through them a piece of fine wire, and twisting it, so as to keep them together until the animal is fully restored ; otherwise, it may again protrude. ‘T'wenty or thirty drops of laudanum should then be given to the ewe in a pint of gruel, and the ewe should be kept perfectly quiet, ull fully restored; repeat the dose of lJaudanum, if necessary. If the uterus is thus returned before it has been much bruised or inflamed by hanging out, there will be little danger to the mother, and she may suckle her lamb as usual. Whenshe has accomplished that, she should be fattened; for the same accident would almost certainly happen to her at her next parturition. HEAVING, OR AFTER-PAINS. The ewe is occasionally subject to after-pains, especially if she is in high condition, or if much force has been used in extracting the lamb. The spasmodic pains arise from the violent contraction of the womb, and the effort of na- ture to restore it to its natural size; and though, to a cer- tain extent, it is a healthy operation of nature, it often pas- ses beyond the bounds of health, and becomes disease, and exhausts and destroys the animal. Symptoms. ‘The first symptom is, generally, a frequent and painful disposition to expel her urine, which is highly colored and bloody; she breathes quick, lies down, and ap- pears to have spasmodic pains; her ears droop, ‘and she takes no notice of her lamb; on pressing her hind parts she 366’ DISEASES OF PARTURITION. yields and almost sinks to the ground; and if she moves, it is with much pain and difficulty. The hind parts often swell, and mortification follows, when the pain, in a great measure, ceases, but is soon followed by death. Treatment... When the pains are not inordinate, it is better not to interfere with nature; but when otherwise, twenty or thirty drops of laudanum, mixed with gruel, should be given, and repeated once in two or three hours, until the pains abate; increasing or diminishing the dose, as may appear necessary, according to the size and condi- tion of the ewe. GARGET. This is an inflammatory affection of the udder. It is generally produced by the death of a lamb, and the milk of the ewe becoming coagulated. But it may also be pro- duced by some constitutional derangement, or by cold and wet lair, or by the ewes taking cold in any manner. Hence, pulling or shearing off too much of the wool which grows about the udder, will have a tendency to renee garget, if the weather be frosty. Garget wiil be first denoted by disinclination or refusal to suckle the lamb ; and one or more of the teats will be — found wholly or partially enlarged, and knots or tumors will be felt. Treatment. If garget arises from the death of one of the lambs, the other lamb should be made to suck both teats, — and this will generally afford relief. Ifit arises from other — causes, the udder should be well washed with strong brine of common salt; or, apply to the udder a mixture of opo- deldock and a small proportion of laudanum; or ointment of lard and bittersweet. If the inflammation runs high, an ounce of Epsom salts or common salt, and one drachm of ginger, mixed with water or gruel, should be given to the ewe. At the same time, the lamb should suck her, or the milk should be drawn from her by hand. If the swelling continues, and matter forms, the abscess should be opened by a free incision, and the escape of the pus should be as- © sisted by pressure. If the wound becomes foul, it should be washed out with water, applied with a syringe, and aso- — lution of one part burnt alum and three parts sugar of lead should then be applied to it, in the same manner, twice — DISEASES OF YOUNG LAMBS. 367 daily; and, if necessary, apply some healing Ointment in addition. . : ‘a , _ When some portion of the udder becomes schirhus, hard, from the effects of garget, so that the ewe cannot give a full supply of milk, she should no longer be used for breed- ing. : é SECTION LIII. DISEASES OF YOUNG LAMBS. COAGULATION. OF THE MILK. All the milk which is swallowed by the young lamb, is first coagulated in the stomach by the power of the gastric | juices, as by rennet in making cheese; after which, it is _ digested by means of the same gastric juices. Therefore, whenever the quantity of milk taken by the lamb, is so - great that the gastric juices are only able to coagulate. it, _ without digesting it, the whey is separated from the curd, as in the process of making cheese, and passes off through the bowels by a light colored diarrhcea; and, at the same * time, the curd remains in the stomach, and sometimes ac- cumulates to the amount of two or three pounds, thus pro- _ ducing a dangerous constipation. Hence, this disease can _ arise only when the ewe furnishes for the lamb more milk than it can digest, or milk of a bad quality. _ Symptoms. When a thriving lamb, with a healthy dam, having a full udder, begins to be dull, and stands panting and distressed, with a hard and distended abdomen, and can scarcely be induced to move, and the fceces appear white, as before mentioned, or nothing passes its bowels, its illness probably arises from coagulation of the milk. Treatment. The first thing to be done, is, to administer a purgative of two or three drachms of magnesia, combined with one or two drachms of Epsom salts, or common salt, and a little ginger, dissolved in water, in order to dissolve the coagulated mass, and evacuate the stomach. The above dose should be repeated, in less quantities, twice or three 368 DISEASES OF YOUNG LAMBS. times, at intervals of three or four hours, combined with plenty of warm water, in order to carry off the dissolved curd. At the same time, the ewe should be supplied with we succulent food, or be turned upon shorter pasture. Also, it may be necessary to draw from the ewe’s udder a por tion of her milk daily, for a short time, until it is reduced in quantity, so as not to injure the lamb. DIARRHEA. This generally arises from exposure to cold wet weather, or from some bad quality of the mother’s milk. When it arises from such causes, the faeces are generally of a green- ish color. If the diarrhoea arises from the quality of the mother’s milk, which is naturally aperient, and, in some cases, may be too much so, especially if she has an abundance of it, the ewe should be put upon drier feed or pasture ; or she should be dosed with the same medicines or condiments, as if she herself was afflicted with diarrhcea; and this will generally relieve the lamb. If this fails, give to the lamb small quantities of chalk and ginger once or twice daily, mixed with alittle warm cow’s milk, or boiled milk. The stomachs of young lambs are weak, and, consequently, small doses, at proper intervals, will have the best effect. Or a pinch of leached ashes, gypsum and salt, prepared as for full grown sheep, may be placed in the lamb’s mouth once or twice daily, un in most cases, this will be a very effectual remedy. Indeed, young lambs will often take to’ eating this mixture before they are two weeks old. As soon as the diarrhoea abates, the medicine should be im- mediately suspended, lest costiveness should ensue. ® INJURIES AND OPERATIONS. 369 SECTION LIV. INJURIES AND OPERATIONS, Sheep are liable to external injuries in the form of wounds, fractures, bruises and strains. | WOUNDS. All the wounds which can be inflicted may be classed under the heads of incised, punctured and lacerated. An incised wound is one which is made by a cutting in- strument, such as a knife or a piece of glass. Punctured wounds are those produced by sharp-pointed bodies, as pins or thorns. Lacerated wounds are those which are produced by blunt bodies, as the teeth of the dog, tearing rather than cutting the flesh. ORV > When a sheep has received any of these injuries, the following rules ought to be attended to, and in the order here recommended. 1.—Arrest the bleeding, if profuse and likely to endan- ger lifes: : | 2.—Clip away the wool, for a few inches around the parts injured. : 3.—Remove dirt or other foreign body from the wound. 4,—Bring the separated parts as nearly together, as cir- cumstances willat the moment permit, and retain them there by a suitable apparatus. ) TO STOP BLEEDING. | Bleeding will, if no large arteries are divided, cease, on the free éxposure of the surface for a few minutes to the air, but when a large vessel has been cut, more determined means must be used. Pressure on the bleeding suriace, and its neighborhood, will, in many cases, succeed. But this or any similar method, is far inferior to that of secur- ing the open vessel by a thread. ‘I'o accomplish this, the mouth of the vein or artery must be slightly drawn out from the contiguous surface, by means of a small hook, called by surgeons a tenaculum, and easily procured form oa 370 INJURIES AND OPERATIONS. any blacksmith. While the mouth of the vessel is thus ‘held exposed, an assistant must surround it with a noose of thread, which, on being secured with a double knot, will effectually close it. The thread ought to be of white silk, though any undyed thread, which is firm, round and capa- ble of standing a pull, will answer the purpose. Care must be taken to place the thread, before tying it, fairly be- hind the point of the tenaculum, so as to avoid including the instrument within the ligature, a circumstance which would lead to the slipping of the noose, and failure of the operation. The hook is now to be withdrawn, and one end of the ligature cut off by scissors, within a little of the noose. The remaining threads are allowed to hang out of the wound, so as to admit of their removal, when they become loose, which does not, however, take place till the termination of the first four days, and they are frequently retained for a much longer period. At each time the wound is dressed, after ihe fourth day. the ligatures should be gently pulled, or, which is preferable, twisted to disen- gage them, if at all loose,so that the wound may be speed- ily closed. Before proceeding to any operation where bleeding is expected, the operator should provide himself with a few well waxed threads, each twelve inches long, so that no delay may ensue, on a division of’ large ves~ sels. REMOVAL OF EXTRANEOUS MATTER. Dirt is best removed by washing with a sponge, or old linen rag, and warm water : Other foreign bodies may in general be extracted by the finger and thumb, or by a probe. In some cases, however, it may be necessary to enlarge the wound, with a fine-edged knife, in order to facilitate the removal of substances, which from their shape or situ- ation, cannot be otherwise displaced. : . CLOSURE OF A WOUND. | The last thing to be done, is, to bring the edges of the wound into as accurate contact asthe state of the parts: will at the moment permit, without, however, using any force. This, with a little care, is readily accomplished ; ithe only difficulty being to retain them in the desired posi- tion. They may be held in contact, either by stitches, INJURIES AND OPERATIONS. oT plasters, or bandages, or by an union of the three. Stitch- es are only required, when the wound gapes to a consider-— able degree, as it always will do, when it runs across a muscle. ‘They may be applied in the following manner : Transfix one side of the wound with a curved needle, (armed with a well waxed thread,) forcing the needle from without, obliquely towards the bottom of the wound; then carry it through the opposite side, from within, taking care to bring it out, about the same distance from the edge, as that at which it entered on the other margin. The needle must now be removed, by cutting the threads close to the eye, and while the ends are allowed to hang loose, the same operation” should be repeated at the distance of an inch or an inch and a half from the other stitch, as often as the length of the wound may render it necessary. Your assistant will now bring the sides of the wound together, as accurately as possible, and retain them there till you have tied the corresponding ends of the threads in a double knot. BANDAGING. Adhesive plaster is, in some instances of service, but, upon the whole, ought rather to be disposed with, being of difficult application, and, moreover, tending to the accu- mulation of filth, and the discomfort of the animal. Noth- ing will be found to serve the purpose of supporting the parts so well, as a properly adjusted bandage, which is use- ful in every instance, and serve to stay on, if sewed here and there to the fleece. The bandage should never be omitted, where the wound has any tendency to gape, as too great a strain upon the stitches cannot but lead to delay, in the healing process. pens In bandaging a limb, or part of a limb. commence ai- ‘ways at the foot, and proceed upwards. On other parts of the body, begin where you find it most convenient. Before applying a bandage to an injured surface, a couple of pie- ces of old linen or cotton cloth should be folded into pads or compresses, and laid one on each side of the cut, and over these the bandage should be rolled evenly, and with mod- erate and uniform firmness. By this plan, the separated surfaces are supported, and preserved in close juxtaposition, 372 INJURIES AND OPERATIONS. especially at the wound, a thing of some importance where the wound is deep. Transverse cuts of the limbs of sheep require more care- ful and more complicated treatment than cuts in other parts, as there is a constant tendency of the edges to retract. The retraction of the edges may be, in some degree, obviated, by the application of a splint, which may be made of a slip of stiff leather, (such as is used for saddle-flaps,) well wet- ted, so as to be easily adapted to the form of the limb. It is intended to impede the motion of the leg, which occa- sions the gaping of the wound, and must, therefore, be made to pass over one or more joinis, as circumstances may require. ‘Tow must be laid along the’Surface (a sound one, if possible,) on which the leather is to be placed, and a bandage then rolled over it, so as to make all secure. CLEAN CUTS. Clean cuts, as every one knows, heal readily ina healthy animal, seldom demanding above three dressings. Simple incised wounds should, if possible, be united by the first in- tention. The edges of the skin should be brought together, and joined, by means of stitches, over which a bandage may is placed, and by this means, a cure is frequently of. fected in a short time. LACERATED WOUNDS. | Lacerations require a longer period for their reparation ° than clean cuts; inasmuch as ihe process which nature goes through, is more complicated. In clean cuts, the paris are speedily glued together so soon almost as in con- tact, and the union is generally complete within the first thirty-six hours. Notso, however, with lacerations. Here the parts are bruised, torn, and, perhaps, to a considerable degree, wanting. Sane ue the diseased portions may die, and are, of course, to be renewed. ‘This is a process re- quiring great effort on the part of the vital powers, which are oiten inadequate to the task. And on this account, when the injury is severe, we ought to sacrifice the animal, rather than run the risk of its dying during the process of the attempted cure. When the wound has been cleaned and freed from all extraneous substances, such parts as are almost completely . INJURIES AND OPERATIONS. 373 torn or squeezed off, should be removed. To replace the lost part, suppuration, or the formation of matter commen- ces; while under cover of this, a crop of fleshy particles (granulations,) rises to fill the vacancy. Granulations are best promoted by warm emollient applications, such as poultices of oatmeal, linseed meal, barley flour, or wheat bread, which ought to be frequently renewed, to prevent their becoming cold or dry. Whenever the granulations - become too luxuriant and rise, as they are apt to do, above the level of the skin, (i. e.) whenever it is evident, by their appearance, that fungus flesh is formed in the wound, the poultices must be laid aside; and in order to remove the fungus flesh, burnt alum should be applied to it, or it may be washed once or twice daily, with a solution of sulphat of copper, made by dissolving two or three drachms of blue vitriol, in an English pint of soft water; after which, the sore should be covered carefully over with a pledget of fine tow, spread with lard, or any simple healing ointment, by which means a cure will easily be accomplished. The wounded animal should be allowed to move about as little as possible, and food should be rather sparingly given. In the cure of a mere wound of the skin, tar, or, with more propriety, a mixture of tar and grease, may be applied, which will speedily heal the parts affected ; but to a deep wound of any kind, pure tar should never be applied. It prevents the suppuration which is necessary to the proper growth of flesh. | | PUNCTURED WOUNDS. The orifice being small in these, and the depth consid- erable, the sides are apt to adhere irregularly, and prevent the free escape of matter, which is certain to collect at the bottom. To avoid such occurrences, it is, in many cases, proper to convert a punctured into an incised wound. When, from neglecting this, the matter is denied an outlet, an incision must be made to allow it to escape; otherwise, much harm will ensue from its burrowing between the dif- ferent textures. Fomentations will also here be servicea- ble, and should be preferred to poultices. ‘To apply them, make a decoction of meadow hay, or hop vines; dip a piece of flannel into the decoction when itis very hot, 374 INJURIES AND OPERATIONS. | then wring it, and double it one or more times, and apply it to the parts affected; dipping the flannel again when the heat is gone, and continuing this application until suppura- tion takes place freely. After which, apply healing oint- ments. WOUNDS OF JOINTS. Such wounds are highly dangerous, and apt to 0 baffle the most experienced. The grand object in every case, how- ever, where acure ts aiteinpted, is to produce a speedy union of the wound, by closure and bandaging, as before directed. Ifthe injury be very extensive, the best thing a far- mer can do, is to slaughter the animal. FRACTURES. The mending of a broken bone, though somewhat serie ous, is by no means difficult, when the skin covering the fracture has not been torn. Let the limb be stretched, and the ends of the broken bone be pleced very accurately in contact with each other. A piece of stiff leather, or of pasteboard, or thin wood, wrapped in a soft rag, is then to be laid along the limb, so that it may extend an inch or two beyond the contiguous joint. Whichever of these substan- ces is employed, it should be carefully secured in its situa- tion by a bandage of linen, cotton, or flannel cloth, an inch and a half broad, and two yards long, or more, if necessary. After having been firmly rolled up, it should bespassed spi- rally around the leg, beginning at the foot, and carrying it up above the end of the splint. When any considerable swelling appears, the bandage should be carefully slack- ened, and tightened again, when the swelling abates. When the swelling is considerable, and fever present, you cannot do better than to open a vein of the head or neck, al- lowing a quantity of biood to escape, proportioned to the size and condition of the animal, and the urgency of the symptoms. ‘The exhibition of purgatives should never be neglected. Epsom salts, in ounce doses, given either with gruel, or as a drench, will be found to answer the purpose well. Ifthe broken bones be kept steady, the cure will be complete in from three to four weeks; the process of re- union always proceeding faster in a young than in an old sheep. INJURIES AND OPERATIONS. 375 . Should ‘ia soft parts be injured to any extent, or the ends of the bone protrude, recovery is very uncertain, and it will be a question whether it would not de better to con- vert the animal into mutton without delay. BRUISES AND STRAINS. “Bruises and strains, unless very severe, need not be in- terfered with. ‘The fetlock joint is most frequently injured by strains. Whena severe strain or bruise happens, to that or other part of the limbs or body, if the weather be warm, no better application can be made than to apply cold water or cold strong brine of common salt, frequently to the parts affected. If the weather be cold and wintry, opodeldock or astringent remedies may be applied. At the same time, the animal should be placed where it may obtain food, without being Pomperetis to moye much about. ULCERS, ABSCESSES AND TUMORS. | These are produced by some constitutional derangement or by bruises. In either case, there is a collection “of pus or matter under the skin; and whilst this is collect- ing, the surface of the skinis usually very tender, and sometimes there is also much constitutional irritation pres- .ent. A collection of matter may be known by the heat, swelling and pain of the part. On pressing it, the contain- ed fluid is felt to fluctuate, and the pressure being removed, the part immediately assumes its former shape; whilst a watery or dropsical swelling, on being pressed, leaves for some time the marks of the fingers. After some time, the abscess points; that is, the matter can be more distinctly felt at one particular point, at which, if permitted, the abscess would burst. This, however, should not be permitted ; but atthis stage,a large opening should be made with a knife or lancet, atthe lower part, or at that part which will admit most readily of its discharging itself. If the abscess is languid and slow in forming, a stimu- Jant, such as ammonia and oil, rubbed in occasionally, will be useful; or a plaster of rosin and tallow may be applied to it, until it it comes to a head,so that it may be lanced as above mentioned. Afier the pus is discharged, apply portions of lard, with which a small proportion of tar is mixed, together 376 INJURIES AND OPERATIONS. with caustics, if fungus flesh arises. The tar and lard will keep off flies and heal the parts affected. If a fistula or pipe forms in an ulcer it may be discussed by injecting common salt into it a few times ; after which it may be healed as in other cases. Tumors may sometimes be discussed, driven away, by washing them with brine of common salt. - BLOOD LETTING. In describing this operation, too much stress is always laid on the importance of opening particular veins, or di- visions of a vein, in certain diseases. Such directions are altogether unnecessary, as it matters not from what part of the animal the blood be drawn, provided it be taken quickly. Nothing tends so much to the recovery of an animal from a disease in which bleeding is required, as the rapid flow of the blood, from a large orifice. Little impression can be made, on an acute disease, by the slow removal of even a large quantity of blood, as the organs have time to ac- commodate themselves to the loss, which might, for any good it will do, as will be dispensed with. Either bleed rapidly, or not atall. The nearer the commencement of an ailment, in which you employ bleeding, the operation is resorted to, the greater the chance of its doinggood. No time, therefore, ought to be lostin using the lancet, when once it is known to be required. Bleeding, by nicking the under surface of the tail, does very well, when no great deal of blood is required ; but it is not to be thought of, if the veins of the face or neck can possibly be opened.— These are to be taken, in preference to a vein on the leg, as they are much more readily got at. The facial vein commences by small branches on the side of the face, and runs downwards and backwards to the base of the jaw, when it may be felt, within two inches of the angle, or opposite the'middle grinding tooth. It is here that the orifice must be made; the thumb of the left hand being held against the vein, so as to prevent the flow of. blood towards the heart, will make it rise. Some prefer opening the jugular vein, which commences behind the eye, and runs down the side of the neck. This vessel is, however, more difficult to open than the former, being bet- ter covered with wool, and not so easily exposed or made INJURIES AND OPERATIONS. 377 to swell. Stringing i is the mode commonly resorted to, for this end ; that is to say, a cord is drawn tightly round the neck, pe to the shoulder, so as to stop the circula- tion through the vein, and render it perceptible to the fin- fier. A lancet is the instrument generally used in.bleed- ing, though a well pointed knife will do ata pinch. The Opening must always be made obliquely ; butbefore attempt- ing this, the animal must be secured, by placing it between , the operator’ s legs, with it croup against a wall. The se- _ lected vein is then fixed, by the fingers of the operator’s left hand, so as to preyent its rolling ¢ or slipping before the lancet. Having fairly entered the vein, the point of the instrument must be elevated, at the same time that it is pushed a little forward, by which motion it will be lifted from, or cut its way out of the vein. A prescribed quan- tity of blood should never be drawn, for the simple reason, _ that this can never be precisely stated. If the symptoms are urgent, your best plan is, not to stop the flow of blood till the animal falls or is about to fall. When this occurs, run a pin through the edges of the orifice, and finish, by twisting round ita lock of yool.—(Blacklock.) _.» Bleeding is almost never practised in the United States, _,and with’,good reason: for sheep are little subject in this country to those kinds of inflammatory complainis in which bleeding is necessary. , CASTRATION, DOCKING AND MARKING OF LAMBS. ‘The most suitable age for castrating young lambs is, be- tween the tenth and thirtieth day after they are dropped.* The testicles will then be large enough, so that they can be got hold of, and yet not so large, ihat profuse bleeding‘ will follow, in extracting them. Cool and dry weather should be. chosen for performing these operations. In such weather, the wounded parts will ‘generally soon stop bleeding ; whereas, if the weather is warm: and moist, profuse bleeding Spidosigass takes place, which results in the injury or death o! f the lamb. The flock should be brought to their stalls, Hishelit hur- rying, 30 that the laenbs may not be overheated. i 1ST YG Fy nt are ide Merino ram lambs, are usually castrated and docked im their eighth week, if the weather be favorable. —[C. L. Fleischman, ] 378 INJURIES AND OPERATIONS. After a lamb is caught, it should be held for a little time, until the agitation is over. It is then to be held at acon- venient height for the operator. The assistant should be in a sitting position, and placing the back of the lamb upon’ his knees, should draw the hind legs of the lamb towards him, so that the scrotum may be fully exposed for the operator. The operator should then cut off about one-third or one-fourth part of the scrotum; that is, only so much of theend of it should be cut off, that each testicle may pass out. He should then start the testicle, by means of his thumb and fore fingers, pressing on the abdomen with his other fingers. Next, cut a slit through the film which envelopes the testicle, and slit off the side ligament from it; then draw the testicle slightly, and cut off the blood vessels and sper- matic cord, about half an inch above the testicle. The generative organs of young lambs are not active, and no danger from bleeding will ensue,. by cutting off the blood vessels. Cutting them off will be less painful to the lamb than pulling them out; and it should be remembered, that lock jaw is sometimes produced, by performing this ope- ration with unusual violence, and by means of twisting. A little experience will show how much of the scrotum it will be necessary to cut off; and care should be used not to cut too much of it off; for when too large a portion of it is taken off, the inflammation sometimes extends into the bowels, and causes the death of the lamb. After the testicles are removed, the necessary ear marks should be put upon the lamb, and the tail should be cut off. For this purpose, lay the tail upon a block of wood, and cut it off with a chisel and mallet, or with an axe, which is a very convenient tool for this purpose. It should be cut off, so as to leave it only one or two inches long. The blood which flows, by marking the ears, and cutting the tail, undoubtedly contributes to prevent too violent inflam- mation in the scrotum: and, for that reason, docking and ear marking should be deferred until castration is perform- | ed. Docking promotes cleanness of the wool, and ewes, which have been docked, are not liable to lose their lambs, | by their being entangled by the tail; an accident which happens to long tailed ewes, oftener than most persons are ~ aware of. INJURIES AND OPEKATIONS. 379 - At the’ conclusion of the castration and docking, an “ointment, made of one part tar or spirits of turpentine, and four or five parts of lard or oil, well mixed, should be ap- plied to the mutilations of the scrotum and tail. This “ointment will promote healing of the parts mutilated, and will effectually keep off flies. Pure tar, (without grease, ) ‘should not be used for this purpose. _ The lambs should be put out of the enclosure as fast as each has passed the operations; and should be kept quiet for an hour or two, until the blood has stopped flowing, and ‘becomes concreted on the‘ parts. affected. Afier which they may be moved off slowly to their pasture, if it is not far distant. But, if convenient, they should not be moved far within a day or two after castration. If the weather be cold and wet, the lambs should have the benefit of shel- ters, till they are perfectly well. CASTRATION OF OLD RAMS. The following is a very safe and convenient mode of -eastration: Apply iron clams firmly to the scrotum, near .the testicles ; then sear off or cut off the scrotum, with the same iron; and sear the cords and blood vessels with the same iron; after which spread over the wound a quantity of tar made hot with the sameiron. The searing with the hot iron prevents any flow of blood, and the tar heals the wound, and keeps off flies. | The following is also a safe mode of castration, but not go convenient as the foregoing : ~ On each side of the scrotum, cut a slit for each testicle through the film which envelopes each testicle, cutting from the lower end of the scrotum upward just so far as will be sufficient, in order to extract the testicle, and no farther; then slip the testicle outof its envelope, and care- fully slit from it the ligament which adheres to it on its side, cutting close to the testicle as far as this ligament ex- tends ; after which, pull out the blood vessels and spermat- ic cord, together with the testicle. If the blood vessels are pulled out, there will be no danger of the animal’s ‘bleeding too much—the internal wounds, made by lacera- ting the blood vessels, will heal by the first intention, and the ‘scrotum will be healed in the course of two or three weeks. But the blood vessels should not be cut off with a knife ; 360, INJURIES AND OPERATIONS. for in such case, there will be danger of excessive bleeding. _Castrated rams should be examined from time to time. In four or five days after castration, if the scrotum appears inflamed, and suppuration does not appear to progress, as it should do, itshould be washed out, and the finger should be passed into it, and all clotted blood or other foul matter, should be extracted by the finger; a little fine salt should then be sprinkled into each of the wounds. This will cause suppuration to progress, and healing will take place in due time. If flies are troublesome, a little finely pulverized char- coal or sulphur should be sprinkled into the wounds, or an ointment composed of one part spirits of turpentine or tar, and ten parts lard, may be applied round the edges of them; either mode will keep off flies. If maggots get in- to the scrotum, they should be probed out, or “extracted by the finger ; otherwise the irritation and inflammation, which they will create, will extend up into the bowels, so as to cause the death of the animal. , Tar, in its pure state, should never be applied to the edges of the wounds of the scrotum of rams, which are castrated in this manner; ; it prevents the suppuration, which is necessary to the proper closure of the wound. CUTTING OFF HORNS. The most suitable time for this operation is, in spring or fall, when the weather is neither very warm nor very cold, and when flies are least troublesome. They may be sawed off most Lonyanny ee wait an ordi- nary fine-toothed hand-saw, at the distance of two or more inches from the skull. After they are sawed off, and after the blood has, in some measure, ceased to fiow, tar and grease, or tar alone, should be applied to the stumps of the horns, and bandages of linen or cotton cloth should be put over each of shud, and tied on, so as to keep off the flies, and keep out the air. The tar will generally heal them, without any other application. But they should be exam- ined from time to time, and if the marrow does not heal, and fungus flesh arises within the pith of the horn, which may be known by a thin glairy running from it, equal parts of sugar of lead and burnt alum, dissolved in water, should be syringed into the hollow of the horn: after which, drop a ee - eS ee ee POISONS. 381 _ a little pulverized white lead into it. This operation should _ be repeated twice or three times daily, until the horn ap- _ pears to be dried up and healed. __ Some persons, after cutting off the horn, plug up the hole, in the end of the stump of the horn, with a smooth wooden lug. This excludes the air, until the internal paris are healed. This plan has been used successfully. SECTION LV. OF POISONS. . ANIMAL POISONS. «« Not unfrequently sheep are bitten by snakes. As the wound inflicted by these reptiles is very small, the injury is never perceived till the poison has entered into the sys- tem. Sheep are often observed to be sickly, and to swell. These symptoms are often attributed to braxy and rot, when, in reality, an adder or a viper has occasioned the mischief. ‘* When itis suspected that a sheep has been bitten by a snake, doses of oil should be given, or, if at hand, small, but frequent doses of volatile salts (ammonia) mixed with water.”—(Sir G. S. McKenzie.) The wool or hair should be cut off round the wound, which should then be well washed with warm water, and oil should be rubbed into it; ora plaster of hog’s lard and pulverized charcoal should be bound on to it; repeating these applications at intervals of three or four hours. New milk, fed to the sheep several times daily, has been found to be an effectual remedy for snake-bites—(T. No- ble.) VEGETABLE POISONS. As a general rule, ihe use of poisonous articles, as med- icines for sheep or other animals, should be avoided when possible. They are more or less dangerous to persons and , 382 POISONS. animals, and are seldom needed by the sheep as internal medicine. The effects of poisons should be known, that they may be avoided. With this view, an abstract is made, from sundry authors of an account of sundry poisons, their ef- fects, and the remedies used for them. Mountain Laurel, (Kalmia.) The leaves of this shrub are highly poisonous to sheep, and in man, a small portion of them has produced vertigo and convulsions. There are two species of this Plant. Broad-leafed Laurel, (Kalmia Latifolia,) grows to the height of 8 or 9 feet—blossoms in June or July—the blos- soms are white, tinged with red. Narrow-leafed Laurel, (Kalmia Angustifolia,) called also Ivy, or Lamb Kill, is a low shrub—grows from three to five feet high—blossoms in June or July—blossoms are reddish variegated. Symptoms. When Laurel has been eaten by sheep, they appear dull and stupid; swell a little, and are constantly gulpingup a greenish fluid, a part of which trickles out of their mouths and discolors their lips. Treatment. One gill of cow’s milk (new milk is the best,) should be sweetened with molasses, and turned down the throat of each sheep; it will shortly operate as an emetic, when the animal will be relieved. Repeat the dose, if necessary. Also, a gill of hog’s lard, given in the same manner, will have a similar effect—repeat the dose as may be ne- cessary.—( Cultivator.) Also, strong whiskey, or whiskey and molasses, are first rate remedies. ‘These remedies have been fully tested by drovers in passing the Allegheny mountains. _ Cherry Trees. The leaves, twigs, and kernels of the fruit of the various species of Cherry—such as the Com- mon Red and English cherries, (Prunus Cerasus,) and the wild red, (Prunus Virginiana,) and black cherry, (Prunus Nigra,) are all poisonous, on account of the Hydrocyanie, er Prussic acid, which they contain. Peach Tree. ‘The leaves and flowers of the peach tree,\ — and kernels of the peach stone, are also poisonous, on ac- count of the Prussic acid which they contain. Sheep and eattle are frequently poisoned by feeding upon the leaves POISONS. 383 of the cherry tree, and, also, sometimes by those of the Peach. | Symptoms. They stagger about, and tumbie upon their heads. | Treatment. Ammonia was found by Mr. John Murray, of London, to be one of the best remedies for the poisonous effects of the Prussic acid. He administered fatal doses of it to animals, and immediately applied ammonia to their nostrils. ‘They invariably recovered. Animals, which have been poisoned by eating cherry or Peach tree leaves, should be treated as if poisoned by the Prussic acid. If ammonia is administered to animals thus poisoned, it should be applied to their nostrils, or rubbed upon them. It is very acrid, and should not be given internally. Saint Johnswort, (Hypericum,) if eaten freely by sheep, produces inflammation of the bowels, and is frequently fa- tal to lambs, and sometimes to full grown sheep. It also produces an irritation of the skin, and a species of scab about the mouth and nose, which sometimes extends over the body and legs. | Treatment. Administer a purgative of linseed oil or hog’s lard ; anoint the irritated parts with an ointment of lard, sulphur, and tar, as for scab. Prevention. Feed common salt combined with a large proportion of gypsum and tar. Groundsel, or Ragwort, (Senecio obovatus,) is a native of the State of New York, and is said to have proved a deadly poison to sheep.—(Silliman’s Journal.) Wake Robin, (Arum Maculatum.) Flocks have been poisoned by this plant in England, where pastures were so short from drouth, that sufficient feed could not be other- wise obtained.—( Cultivator.) _ Juniper. The common juniper does not seem to act as a poison; but Mr. E. B. Brown, of Mystic, Connecticut, found, that when his sheep pastured freely upon juniper bushes, their wool fell off.—(Cultivator.) Sabine, (Juniperus Sabina.) This well known poison, produces abortion.—(Beck’s Med. Jurisprudence.) Tobacco. When a strong decoction of tobacco is applied externally, either to man or beast, it produces giddiness, ST ee ee 384 | POISONS. retching, and vomiting. If used for killing ticks, the de- coction should be weak. : Wind flower, (Anemone.) The various species of this plant are poisonous, Anemone nemorosa, wind flower of the woods, produces dysentery in sheep.—(Beck’s M. J.) Ergot, or Spurred Rye, is a highly poisoneus article. It produces, in mankind, gangrene of the hands and feet, and sometimes of the nose ; and issometimes accompanied with spasmodic symptoms. lt produces abortion; and, therefore, rye, or ground provender, which contains much of this article, should be withheld from sheep, and other animals.—( Beck.) Diseased Wheat. When the farinaceous part of this grain becomes converted to a black powder, it produces colic and diarrhcea. Oats and Indian corn, similarly dis- eased, will, doubtless, be equally injurious. All such dis- eased grains should be withheld from sheep. | Treatment. As a general rule, purgatives should be ad- ministered, when sheep are poisoned by vegetables. For this purpose, two or three ounces of linseed oil, or melted hog’s lard, should be given at adose. If necessary, repeat the doses. For this purpose, oils will be preferable to alka- line salts. ® é MINERAL POISONS. Arsenic. This well known poison should never be used for killing ticks. It is sometimes absorbed by the skin, so as to destroy the sheep.—( W. C. Spooner.) Mercury. ‘The use of mercurial preparations, by anoint- ing, is injurious to fattening sheep; it also sometimes makes the wool peel off; and they are sometimes salivated and destroyed by it, when exposed to cold and moisture. Acetate of Lead, (Sugar of Lead,) taken internally, pro- duces vomiting, weakness and stiffness of the legs prece- ding death; but is less poisonous than red lead and white lead. Sulphat of Copper, (Blue Vitriol,) taken internally, one ounce produces colic, convulsions, death; should never be used internally as medicine for sheep. Sulphat of Iron, (Copperas,) is also a strong poison. One-fourth of an ounce was found sufficient to kill a dog in 26 hours. It is used by physicians, in doses of from three LIST OF MEDICINES. Ay 386. td five grains, to affect the genital organs of ‘mankind. Sheep need no such medicine internally. ; - Nitrate of Potash, (Salt-petre.) This is also a strong ‘poison; an ounce is suificient to destroy the life of a man; an over dose produces abortion in females... In small. doses, it is cooling and diuretic. ‘It is useful to the sheep only in case of acute inflammatory diseases. Dose, one-eighth to one-half a drachm. SECTION LVI. A LIST OF MEDICINES EMPLOYED IN THE TREATMENT OF THE DISEASES OF SHEEP, Alum. As an external application, it is useful as a wash or lotion, when applied to the mouth, in several of its diseases, and also mixed with chalk, it makes a good external application to sores, Burnt Alum, is a safe, convenient, and useful antiseptic and caustie remedy, when applied to fungus flesh, in ulcers, in foot rot, or any other cases. ; Ammonia, (or volatile spirits of hartshorn,) is a strong stimulant, and has been found useful when poisonous substances have entered the stom- ach, as the Prussic acid, and in snake bites, _ Antimony, Chloride of, (or Butter of Antimony.) is a useful caustic in cases of foot rot, or fnngus flesh in other cases, Borax, is cooling, astringent, and detergent; useful in cases of thrush and foul ulcers. Camphor, isa narcotic, sedative, and anti-spasmodic remedy; dose, one scruple to a drachm, It is also used with oil, or spirits of wine, as as external stimulant. | ' Chalk, is an absorbent, and slightly astringent earth; is very useful in correcting acidity of the stomach, and as an external application to wounds and sores in some cases. Copper, sulphat of, (Blue Vitriol,) externally is a mild caustic, when ap- plied to fungus flesh: should never be used internally, Epsom Salts, (Sulphat of Magnesia.) An excellent purgative, in doses of from one to two ounces, or more, dissolved in warm water or gruel, Gentian. A useful vegetable tonic; dose from one to three'drachms. Ginger. A useful cordial and stomachic medicine; dose, from half a drachm to two drachms. Itis very commonly given withjaperient med- icine, which it secures from griping. Ipecachuana. This acts asastimulantto the stomach. In repeated small doses it is useful in dysentery. Horse Castor, is a powerful antispasmodic remedy, in cases of Epi- lepsy, &c.—(See page 328.) Laudanum. See Opium, f Lead Aceate, (Sugar of lead.) This article, when dissolved in water, er water with a small proportion of vinegar, is a useful application, ip 386 LIST OF MEDICINES. superficial inflammations, in diseases of the skin, and in bruises, ulcers, or wounds. Where there is fungus flesh in wounds or ulcers, alum, or burnt alum in small proportions, is used advantageously, when dissolved along with sugar of lead. Lead, White, is a useful application for the prevention of the fly, aud for superficial inflammations. ~~ Lime Water, or chalk water,is sometimes applied to ill-conditioned sores, and operates as an astringent. Lime, Chloride of, A valuable antiseptic, and an excellent application to foul and offensive wounds and ulcers; also, useful as a means of pre- venting infections. ; Linseed oil. A safe and useful purgative; dose, from one to two ounces. Muriatic Acid. A powerful caustic, useful in foot rot. Opodeidock, Is made by dissolving half an ounce of hard soap, and half an ounce of camphor in one pint of spirits (alcohol); is useful for bruises, strains, and rheumatism, Olive oil, A gentle laxative and purgative; dose one to two ounces; useful as an external application in cases of burns, or bites of venomous insects or snakes. Opium, A valuable antispasmodic and sedative. It may be used, ei- ther in the form of a gum, or powder; dose, tengrains. It is more usu- ally given in the form of tincture of opium (laudanum); dose, one to three scruples. In diarrhcea or dysentery, it allays pain, and diminishes the in- creased action of the bowels, and is useful either alone, or joined with other medicines. Pimento, (Allspice.) A useful cordial and stomachic; dose, one totwo drachms, Rhubarb. Besides its purgative qualities, it possesses considerable as- tringent powers, which render it useful in diarrhea. Salt, Glauber’s, (Sulphat of Soda,) is a mild and effectual purgative; dose, one to two ounces. Salt, Common, [Chloride of Sodium,]in moderate quantities, is tonic and stomachic; in large doses it is a useful purgative, but not so mild as Epsom salts; dose, one ounce; a solution of it applied externally, is e powerful discutient. Sulphur, operates as a purgative, and promotes insensible perspiration, dose, one to two ounces, when used alone. It is very efficacious in scab; and other diseases of the skin. Sulphuric Acid, [Oil of Vitriol,] A powerful caustic, useful in foot rot, alone, or combined with tar. Tar, A useful application to the feet, in cases of foot rot, or cases re- sembliug it, either alone, or when combined with burnt alum, or sul- phuric acid, or other caustics; is valuable in the cure and prevention of dropsy and coryza. A small proportion of tar, with lard or oil, is a good stimulant to wounds, and is usefully applied in this manner, to wouads made in sheep-shearing, or for the fly. Turpentine, oil, or spirits of, is a powerful stimulant and antispasmodie siven internally; dose, one drachm,; externally, in small quantities, is a useful application to wounds or sores, or to prevent the attack of the fly. Yeast, is a cooling, antiseptic, purgative remedy, useful in cases of ob- stiaate constipation; dose, half a pint to a pint, mixed with an equal quaa- tity of lukewarm water. : == ee ae ee ee oe ea vr. DASA AA + it Ernata,.—Paege 359—lines 3,7, $, 3—For Matris read Hstrus, : | 387 ENTRANCE TO A SHEEP STALL. At Von Thaer’s sheep fold, in Germany, the sheep enter each door, by passing up an inclined path, which is of the same width as the door, the object of which is to prevent ewes in a state of pregnancy from being pressed against the sides of the door, on entering the stable. The door is about one foot from the ground; to it leads the inclined path, as seen in the above figure, and this path holds just as many sheep, as there are spaces between the door posts. Should a sheep force its way to the door, it will displace an- other on the side, which has to jump off and take its turn with the rest ; whereby no injury is done to ewes in a high state of pregnancy.—|C. L. Fleischman.] . SHEEP GATES. 388 | APPENDIX. Fina. SHEEP BARN. Fig..,2. SHEEP MANGER. APPENDIX. . 389 '| ©) DESCRIPTION OF A SHEEP BARN AND MANGER. Fig. 1.—A sheep barn—100 feet long, by 28 or 30 feet wide; height to the eaves, 16 feet, and framed with posts and beams, each bent of which’stands 11 feet apart ; the . beams are supported by 2 posts standing 3 feet apart in the , middle of the barn, so as to leave room for mangers or racks between them—windows on the sides, and two doors at each end, so that asled or wagon may pass through it for removal.of the manure. In Germany, ‘‘ the oblong form is found the best”’ for sheep barns.—[C. L. Fleisch- man. | Fig. 2—Shows the plan of the ground room, and the dis- position of the mangers or racks—one on each side of the barn, the entire length of it, and one broad one in the centre, at which two rows of sheep can feed. The ground room may be conveniently divided into four apartments, by moveable cross partitions. In this plan the disposition of the mangers or racks is einailar to the most approved German mode. ‘Fie. 3.—A view of the upper or hay floor, with an opening through it, about two feet in width, the entire length of the barn. Before the barn is filled, this vacant Space in the upper floor is covered over with boards. Af- ter the barn is filled, a gash is cut in the hay, about two feet in width, directly over the opening in the hay floor, and the temporary boards placed over it, are removed, so that the fodder may be thrown from the loft into the centre mangers or racks,and thence be distributed as may be neces- _ sary. The gash inthe mow also operates as avventilator. _ Around the entire barn dog proof yards may be placed, so as to accommodate each division of the flock. Fic. 4.—A sheep manger, in the form of a parallelo- gram. The four upright posts at each corner, may be about 3 inches square, and about 3 feet high, and sianding at each end about 24 or 3 feet apart. To these may be nailed, at the bottom, boards 10 or 12 feet long, and about 12 or 14 inches wide, and the upper boards” may be 10 _ or 12 inches wide so as to leave a space between them, 8 _ or.10 inches wide, and suitable to the size of the sheep. For lambs, the space between the boards may be 2 or 3 | inches less. 390 follows : APPENDIX. _ Composition of sundry animal substances of which 100 parts contain as Carbon. Oxygen. Hydrogen. Nitrogen. Ashes. 15.01 15.07 Beef, (dried) 51.83 Ox blood, (dried) 51.95 Hog’s lard, 79.09 Mutton Fat, toe Sugar of Milk, 40.46 Curd, 59.78 Gelatin, 47.08 21.37 7.56 21.39 7.17 9.75 11.14 9.30 11.70 52.93 6.61 11.46 7.42 27.04 7.09 e 21.38 16.09 4.28 4,42 Composition of Horny Tissues, according to the analysis of Scherer: Hair of the head of man, fair, 49.39 do. brown. 50.62 do. black, 46.93 Hair of the beard of man, 51.52 Wool (of the sheep)50.65 Buffalo Horn, 51.99 Quill of a feather, 52.42 Beard of a feather, 50.43 6.57 6.61 6.54 6.68 7.02 6.71 721 7.11 17.93 17.93 17.52 17.93 17.71 17.28 17.89 17.68 26.14 24.82 25.49 23.84 24.60 24.00 22.46 24.77 Carbon, Hydrogen. Nitrogen. Oxygen and Sulphur. Temperature of the blood and frequency of the pulse of sundry ani- mals, according to Prevost and Dumas. The mean temperature is— Of the pulse in Man, 98. Horse, 98. Dog, 99. Goat, 102.5 Sheep, (3 y’r old) 103. Common fowl, 106.7 Duck, 108.5 Lark, 117.2 Composition of sundry Vegetable substances—100 parts of each article contain as follows: Carbon. Oxygen. Hydrogen. Nitrogen. Ashes. Water, Woody Fibre of Oak, (dried) — 49.40 Hay dried at 212°, 45.08 Grain of Oats, do. 51.97 do Wheat do, 45.78 Wheat siraw do. 46.37 Starch, 44,91 Sugar, 42.47 Gum, 42.23 Rosin, 75.94 Olive oil, rial} Potatoes, (dried) 44.01 Peas, 35.74 Beans, 38.24 a minute, 72 56 90 84 90 140 170° 200 44.40 6.00 38.07 5.00 37.43 6.27 44.16 6.79 43.73 5.68 48.98 6.11 50.63 6.90 50.84 6.93 13.34 10.72 9.43 13.36 43.51 5.08 35.96 5.40 34.10 5.84 Of the respirations in a minute. 18 1.05 1.74 2.09 0.20 1.50 3.40 © 4.00 (Canfield. ) vit APPENDIX. 391 The annexed quantities of ashes are contained in 1000 lbs. of the dry hay of each of the «arab ar ed Clover. White Clover. Lucern. Sainfoin. 13.40 6.15 48.31 3.48 0.33 0.30 3.30 4.04 13.07 Rye Grass. Potash, 8.81 Soda, 3.94 Lime, 7.34 Magnesia, 0.90 Alumina, 0.31 Oxyd of iron, Silica, 27°72 Sulphuric acid, 3.53 Phosphoric do. 0.25 Chlorine (or muri- atic acid), 0.06 52.86 19.95 5.29 27.80 0.14 3.60 4.47 6.57 3.62 —— 74.77 31.05 5.79 23.48 3.05 1.90 0.63 14.73 3.53 5.05 ZA —— 91.32 3.18 — 95.66 20.57 4.37 21.95 2.88 0.66 5.00 3.41 9.16 1.57 69.57 According to the analysis of Sprengel, 1000 Ibs. of the grain er dry straw of each kind of grain here mentioned, contain ashes and ingredients each as follows: WHEAT. Grain. Straw. Potash, 2.25 - 0.20 Soda, 2.40 0.29 Lime, 0.96 2.40 Magnesia, 0.90 , 0.32 Alumina, 0.26 0.90 ‘Oxyd ofiron, a trace Oxyd of manganese, Silica, 4.00 28.70 Sulphuric acid, 0.50 0.37 Phosphoric do. 0.40 = 1.70 Chlorine, 0.10 0.30 er 11.77. 35.18 OATS. Grain. Straw 1.50 -8.70 1.32 0.02 0.86 1.52 0.67 0.22 0.14 0.06 0.40 0.02 0.02 19.76 45.88 0.35 0.79 0.70 0.12 0.10 0.05 25.89 57.40 BARLEY, RYkg. . Grain. Straw. Grain. Straw. 2.78 1.80 5 32 0.32 2.90 0.48 f 0.11 1.05 ° 5.54, 1.22 1.78 1.80 0.76 0.44 0.12 0.25 146 0.24 0.25 atrace 0.14 0.42 : 0.20 0.34 11.82 38.56 1.64 22.97 0.59 1.18 0.23 1.70 210 1.60 0.46 0.51 0.19 0.70 0.09 0.17 23.49 52.42 10.40 27,98 , APPENDIX. $92 TREES tee SSS ST x _e : * ¢ ‘WeG) JO yove ul «epiue Lr9a O18 YOIYM S][90 JO WILOJ oY} UL ‘seTqujocoA UT puesyeMuL ut TI0q ‘poyisodep st uogreo ey} pue tsearvo] saieq) ul sorqriaodea JO eq} pus “youmojs oy} ur poultojaod Suieq syeuipue Jo yey) fsoyse owes oy Jo suvom Aq sepqeieSoa pue sypemiue ut Wo *paystdwooor st uoqavo oy} Jo vuorsesip oyy yory ur fsyeunue jo uonriayna OY} UT SB S8]qujodeA JO YIMOAS Vy UL [JOM se qed juvjzodun ue syov 4jes uowMod yey savodde pW ‘os[y “Ajlanjeur JO osadep cures oy) pouteye savy sossead Oy} 1247e 4nd s1 yorym ‘fey uodn Sutpasy spemrue 0} yes Jo uoyzodoad: pasvoaour ue sutpeay jo Mordoad ay} smoys ‘adia you nq ‘pesos sea UleLo OY} SUIT Yor ye ‘A[nE Jo YI] et) UO s}VO ay} UT peureyuoD yes UOMMMOD Jo Ayuenb jews Aros oy} pue $tyymoad x19q) jo 9.0@]8 Jey} 32 Ajoyero pour yes Surpooy jo Ajorado. ey} pue ‘porsed yeqy ye ee 3 : “WMOd toys Jo soceys Ajrva oy} ul Way} UL pouejUuoD st YoryA [y]Vs UoUTHIOD 10] ‘umipos jo aprropyo Ajrepnonazed ‘syyes aul] “BYTE pue soljeyx[e Jo sontuenb odre] oy} pur! ymoasd prides jo sossead jo yeu} 07 avzrems 81 81eQ Jo YMoas oY —aON Eee a a e NONI RRR RIAN PRR ARRAS SSAA PR RSPR NAP £6001 PL-001 (29-66 16°66 1L6'66 {PLOOT| 44°66 (60°66 1Pe'66 s0"001/Z6'66 (88°66 19866 {08°66 SS aap alae eerie gre a ae ae ee gad coy al ages oreo Gece Co gt G8'PE 196" 8g 166 GE 1889 IPN'9E [ZI LP 180'8z (09°98 {Th'0w ILE"08 Ze'PL 19°8s IB@'9L {39°91 [rt tere cee ever ecee eee bBOTIG TE9 HGS [gS iPV'9 HSS i269 ISL [98 199'SL ITVOL I96'EL 1L9°OL ISLOL LOL OE jt str see +++ ‘prow otoydsoyg PSL OST 606 8h'9- 862 (096 LS h 188'L 1198 16S'OL IZ8'L {98°SE IS1'9 IPLLL Jer eres sees ee ‘prow oramyding 90 (S90 (890 '!P&0O (88°0 '0F'0 '89°0 1660 10P'0 {G40 (0S'0 iog'O. {660 1190 rs isies as-slgea es OAT JO BING LVI iS9T Wes 9E%G IAT 1 168% (89'S 190° OSS ILHE 10s's IEE 1880 (So. feeb ee se ee ke eves os tesarsErA Gly i€09 109'T ae 19'S 1169 i2h's |PL'9 Ph I86L (Oy eh OP's 2 ea anes eee Se eee Tis IY 00 jG8AI GOP (SOIT !Z6L 15S 99% [PES OG'IL 'S9'PE PS'EL 199'ZE IPEOT [r+ +++ ++ ++ uUNTpos Jo eplaozyy EV'oP I9e°8L [OLS 160°91 l9e'98 ISLS 198°8z (OL'8% 169°bS 11S'9S Isr'I1z [19°86 POPS 109°PS [rstseereeee ss*BDOS PUY YSBIOg -- Ve a al | =|-— =| on |_| me lan | --|——-- “yTEIS | *yeoy | [PIs i “jeay | ures | “jeo] ‘y]eIs | yea] | “yeas! ‘Jeo I HTBIS | "Jeol | ures | ‘Jeol ~ Se eS eae (| aaa ae eet — {— ee | = | ‘OL Ajne ia @ sine 1 eA Aine j ‘GG ouns ‘e ounge ; ‘TT eune ‘p oung 1 *peAlaoar YUOM OY} Jo keg ‘TAOLH 8IL JO sportod snorwwa ye “41 Uf POUTEPUOD SPUITPILSUY YUBSIONT of} SUIMOTY “BLqmorg ‘W Aq ‘YQ oy} Jo YTVIG pu yoo] ony Jo sIsdTRUY ' ‘HORSE-TAIL Sulphat of Potash, | Chloride of Potassium, Silica, _Carbonat of Lime, _ Sulphat of Lime, Phosphat of Lime, _ Magnesia, ee Notr.—All grasses were designe é APPPENDIX. | HEATH GRASS. 12.00'Sulphat of Potash, 11.40'Chloride of Potassium, 50.00!Carbonat of Potash, 6.20\Silica, 14.40\Carbonat of Lime, 99.20) do. 1 1 \ 2.20'!Phosphat of Lime, 3.00'Magnesia, {Oxyd of Iron, Manganese, Composition of the Ashes of Heath Grass and of horse-tail grasses— 1000 lbs. of the dried hay of each of these grasses contain as follows: iy GRASSES. ; 5,00 1.20 6.80 37.50 28,00 13.00 120 1.40 6.10 94.20 d for the use of such graminivorous animals as they are adapted for; therefore, it may be noticed, that in the ashes of horse-tail grasses, besides a large proportion of sulphat of lime, there is also a large proportion of sulphat of potash, which is a powerfully antiseptic salt, and was doubtless placed in these grasses, in addition to the sulphat of lime, in orderto neutralize the injurious influence of the form of the leaves of these grasses. The ashes of the Seed and Straw of the field bean and field pea, dried in the air, contain in 1000 parts of ea Potash, Soda, — Lime, Magnesia, Alumina,. Oxyd of Iron, Oxyd of Manganese, » © Silica, Sulphuric Acid, ts Phosphoric Acid, Chlorine, - A15 8.16 1.65 1.58 0.34 1.26 0.89 2.92 0.41 21.36 ch, as follows:— FIELD BEAN. Seed. Straw. 16.56 0.50 6.24 2.09 8.10 0.07 0.05 2.20 0.34 2.26 0.80 —— FIELD PEA. Seed. 8.10 © 1339 0.58 1.36 0.20 0.10 4.10 0.53 1.90 - 0.38 —— 31.21 24.64 Straw. 2:35 27.30 3.42 0.60 0.20 0.07 ° 9.96 3.87 2.40. 0.04 49.71 __ The Turnip, Carrot, and Potatoe, each, as they are carried from the field, contain respectively in Potash, Soda, Lime, Magnesia, . Alumina, Oxyd of Iron, Oxyd of Manganese, Siliéa, Sulphuric Acid, Phosphoric Acid, Chlorine, TURNIPS. Roots. Leaves. 23.86 32.03 10.48 22.02 7.62 62.00 2.54 5.09 0.36 0.03 0.32 1.07» 3.98: 32308 8.01 25.02 3.67 9.08 - 2.39 8.07 —_—- 63.03 ——e 180.09 1000 lbs., as follows: ‘CARROTS. | 35.33 9.22 6.57 3.84 0.39 0.33 0.60 14 2.70 5.14 0.70 —— 66.19 POTATOES. © Roots. Leaves. 40.28 81.09 23.34 0.09 a.01. 328.07 3.24 17.00 0.50 0.04. 0.32 0.02 0.84 49.04 5.40 4.02 4.01 19.07 7.60 5.00 82.83 308.04 Sy a ae ', APPENDIX. ANALYSIS OF SUNDRY SOILS, BY SPRENGEL. | (A.) Surface soil of a mountainous district in the neighborhood of Ohio. (B.) Analysis of the subsoil. This soil is also distinguished for its reat fertility. : i B.C Ba Silica, with fine Silicious sand, 87.14 94.26 Alumina, © 4 5.66... 1.37. Peroxide and protoxide of Iron, 2.22, ae Peroxide of Manganese 0.36 1,20 Lime, 0.56 0.24 — Magnesia, : bined with silica,) 0.31 0.31 Potash, (principally combined with silica, ; 0.12 Soda, P a) 0.25 0.24 Phosphoric acid, 0.06 atrace Sulphuric acid, ~ 0.02 0.30 Chlorine, 0.03 a trace Hummus soluble in alkaties, 1.30 Humus, 1.07 ‘, Carbonat of lime, 0.08 eh “ Nitrogenous organic matter, 1.01 Ge 100.00 100.00 t Analysis of a very fertile alluyial/ Surface soil, of alluvial land in i soil from Honigpolcer in Germany |Ohio, remarkable for its great fertili- y No manure had been applied to it.|tility, One hundred parts consisted Wheat has been raised on this land| of— for70 years without manuring; it is\Silicaand fine Silicious sand, 79.53 occasionally left fallow. One hun-| Ajumina, 730 — dred parts of the earthy portion of/Peroxide and protoxide of Iron. this soil contained as follows: (much magnetic iron sand,) 5.82 Silica and fine Silicious sand, 64.80 Peroxide of Manganese, 1.32 Alumina, 5.70 Lime, 0.61 Peroxide of Iron, 6.10 Magnesia, Famega ies BE do Manganese, 0.09|Potash, (principally combined Lime, 5.88! with Silica,) 0.20. Magnesia, 0.84|Soda, 0.02 Potash, principally in combina- Phosphoric acid, (combined with _ tion with Silica, 0.21] limeand oxyde of iron,) 1.77 Soda idem, 0.39/Sulphat of lime, 0.12 Phosphat of Lime, 0.43/Chlorine, 0.03 Sulphat of Lime, ‘ Q.21|Humus soluble in alkalies, 1.95 Chlorine (in common salt) 0.20| Nitrogenous organic matter, 0.23 Carbonat of Lime, 3.92] Wax and resinous matter, 0.02 Humus soluble in alkalies, 2.54 = 4 Humus, 5.60 \ ~ 100.00 © Nitrogenous matter, 1.58 ae J Water, — 1.50 rit | 100.00 svete mie. ; APPENDIX. _ 395 b _(A.) Analysis of a barren heath soil from Aurich, in Ost Frieland.— (B.) A sandy soil containing much humus, but also sterile (C.) A san- dy soil possessing the same characters: A. B, C, Silica and coarse silicious sand, 9.77, S897) 96.72 Alumina, 032 032. 0.37 Peroxide aud protoxide of Iron, 0.40 0.44 0.48 Peroxide of Manganese, ? atrace atrace atrace Lime, | 0.28. 0.16 Magnesia, 0.06 0.24 0.08 Soda, 0.03 0.01 0.03 Potash, -atrace atrace atrace Phosphoric acid, atrace atrace atrace Sulphuric acid, . - atrace atrace atrace Chlorine in common salt, 0.05 0.01 0.05 Humus., . 0.76 0.63 0.80 Vegetable remains, 2.30 8.20 1.45 —-——_—. —_—-————. 100.00 100.00 100.00 ey eee enyY FORTHE FOOT ROT. A new remedy for the foot rot has been tried, with signal success, on the extensive flocks of Humphrey Howland, Esq., of Cayuga county, _N. Y., and the continued application of the remedy has wholly removed the disease from his flocks, so that not a solitary case remains; and so simple and effectual is the remedy, that had it been applied at the com- aes ia of the disease, it would have saved him several thousand dol- ars. The remedy is now in use for the second season, during which time, _» the foot rot has diminished from thirty per cent to one per cent. Other My flocks in the neighborhood, to which the remedy has not been applied, are as badly afflicted as ever. ; The remedy consists in mixing flour of sulphur with the salt given to the sheep, in a proportion just sufficient to discolor the salt or about oue- twentieth part. They are regularly and constantly fed with this mixture through the whole season<—(Cultivator for October, 1848.) Gypsum contains sulphur; hence the feeding of it to sheep possibly may beas useful as the pure sulphur in cases of foot rot. ' The rationale of the operation of sulphur in cases of foot rot appears to be, that foot rot is produced by morbific matter which is generated in the skin or which is applied to it externally and is absorbed into it, be- tween the hoofs or neer them; sulphur opens the pores of the skin and _ excites it into action. so as to expel the excrementitious matter, and na- _ ture restores the parts affected. Buckwheat is a kind of grain which powerfully stimulates the skin, _ and being a very wholesome grain for sheep,* may be useful along _ with sulphur in diseases of the skin. See page 232. if