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MASSACHUSETTS

FORESTRY PUBLICATIONS

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BRIEF INSTRUCTIONS

TO

MASSACHUSETTS

FOREST WARDENS

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A valuable fifteen-year old stand destroyed by a grou?id
fire. Mostly white pine.

BY

F. W. RANE, State Forester

Room 7, State House
BOSTON, MASS., U. S. A.

Approved for Publication

BY THE
STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE

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INSTRUCTIONS

TO

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST WARDENS

FOREST WARDENS may be assured that their
work is one of great economic and aesthetic
importance to the future welfare of this Common-
wealth. A forest warden understanding the object
of his office and faithful to the honor bestowed upon
him becomes a trusted public servant not only of
his town, but of the state and nation.

I. Forest Fires

The prevention of forest fires is a very important
part, one of the fundamentals in practical forestry.

This cannot be done unless there is
Organi- a well-organized force, in which the
zation duties of each person are well defined

and clearly understood. For this
reason, careful attention should be paid to the
following instructions : —

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MASSACHUSETTS FOREST SERVICE

It is the duty of the forest wardens to see that their
deputies are fully supplied with printed notices con-
taining forest fire laws. Early in the
season, fire notices are sent to all
wardens, but more can be obtained
at any time from the State Forester.
The forest wardens should see that
these notices are properly posted in public places
and along forest trails and locations frequented by
fishing, hunting and camping parties.

Posting

fire

notices

During the dry seasons, which occur in the spring
before the trees are in leaf, and in the fall, after the
leaves have fallen, the forest wardens
Caution in should keep sharp watch out for any
dry times Sl&n of fire, and everything should be
kept in readiness so that no time will
be lost in reaching the spot where smoke is seen
or an outbreak reported. Fishermen, hunters and
campers should be cautioned at every
opportunity offered to be careful in
the use of fire; to refrain from throw-
ing lighted matches, pipe ashes, cigars
and cigarettes on the ground, and espe-
cially to completely extinguish their camp fires be-
fore leaving them.

Hunters

and

campers

FOREST WARDENS

The forest wardens must use their own judgment
as to how the work at a forest fire should be con-
ducted, as it is assumed they have had
Back ample experience in this line. Back

firing" firing should, however, be attempted

only as a last resort, and even then
the situation should be carefully examined and
clearly understood.

It is important to remember that one hour's work
in the early morning or late evening is worth six

hours in the middle of the day in con-
Fires over trolling a forest fire. If afire, therefore,
night *s no* extinguished at evening the men

should remain on the ground all night,
and arrangements should be made for their comfort
by the forest wardens. If a fire is left at night,
much valuable time may be lost.

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Especial pains should be taken to learn the cause
of the fire, and the person or persons starting same.

At the present time the answer to the
Cause of questions as to the origin of the fire
fires is " cause unknown." If the matter

is attended to promptly there should
be very little trouble in learning the point from which

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6 MASSACHUSETTS FOREST SERVICE

the fire originated, and the cause. The facts, if
obtainable, should be fully reported, regardless of
whom they concern. If no definite facts can be
obtained the forest warden is at liberty to give his
opinion as to the origin.

In answering the printed questions in the report,
the forest warden should furnish such further in-
formation as may relate directly or indirectly to the
matter.

After a fire has occurred, the forest warden should
immediately fill out and mail the report of the
same to the State Forester, using the
Reports printed form furnished for the pur-
pose. An examination of the burned
area should be made, however, so that the number of
acres burned over, the extent and nature of the
damage, and the amount and kinds of timber de-
stroyed, may be approximately given.

Each forest warden should read carefully the

Massachusetts forest laws, which for

Forest convenience are published in a small

laws booklet, and will be sent upon request,

if you have not already received it.

FOREST WARDENS

Hereafter, the forest warden will represent not

only the town, but individuals in all

Rail- dealings with the railroads relative

roads *° torest fires and their suppression.

(Chapter 431 , section 2, Acts of 1907.)

In towns without definite facilities for combating
forest fires, the forest warden should bring the

matter before the town and emphasize
Equip- the importance of having some fire-
ment extinguishers and other equipment in

readiness. There are few towns but
would adopt more modern methods, it is believed,
if they had a well-defined practical plan placed before
them.

No forest warden should hesitate in doing his full
duty, as he has the laws of the State
Author- 0f Massachusetts back of him to
ity carry out his work successfully.

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MASSACHUSETTS FOREST SERVICE

II. Forest Management, Reforesta-
tion, etc.

The forest wardens shall investigate the values of
forest lands, the character and extent of wood-
cutting operations, the methods of reforestation and
the prevalence of insect pests injurious to forest
growth. He should be able to answer inquiries re-
garding seeds and seedlings of the various species,
where they can be obtained, when and how to
collect, and time and method of planting best
adapted to the species. He should refer to the
State Forester parties in his town desiring exami-
nations and working plans of woodlots.

Especial care should be taken to note the presence
of Gypsy and Brown-Tail moths and
Insects other insect outbreaks, and if dis-

covered should report the same im-
mediately, so that they may be combated before
firmly established.

Any other matters which affect the extent and
conditions of forestry, in general, in the

Taxation respective towns, as over-taxation, etc.,
should be studied and reported upon

as they come under the notice of the forest wardens.

v

FOREST WARDENS

As soon as the appointments of forest wardens
have become sufficiently permanent to guarantee

results, and the State Forester can
Con- procure necessary funds to meet

ventions *ne expenses, arrangements will be

made to have an occasional conven-
tion of forest wardens, according to chapter 475,
section 8, Acts of 1907. At such conventions, be-
sides having discussions and lectures by strong
forest experts on various subjects, each warden will
have ample opportunity to compare his results and
experience with those of others. Such conventions
will tend to strengthen and make more effective the
whole forestry environment in the State.

With a live central organization in the State
Forester's office at the State House, alert to what
is being accomplished by the forest
service of the national government
£ " and other State organizations, and with
zat o a corpS Qf 320 forest wardens (one in

each town), besides those in the cities, each with an or-
ganized working force of deputies, and a constantly
growing public-spirited constituency of townsmen,
we have splendid possibilities for accomplishing
much in bettering our forestry conditions.

State

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10

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST SERVICE

III. Conclusions to Forest Wardens

It may appear that the duties of the forest warden,
as outlined, are numerous, of a broad nature and
exacting, and they are to one who is attempting the
work, if it is properly done. However, the whole
subject of forestry is a new undertaking in this
country, and the work in hand (l) to reclothe our
waste and unsightly lands, (2) care properly for the
forest growth already standing, (3) put a stop to
wanton recklessness and great waste caused by forest
fires, and (4) educate our people to thinking and
doing in the light of forest economy, cannot be
done in a day or year.

The State of Massachusetts does not expect im-
possibilities of you, and in outlining the above in-
structions and in formulating the forest laws passed
by the recent General Court, the aim has been to
devise ways and means whereby we may be able to
accomplish ultimate results, in keeping with modern
progress. Great economic good is to come from
rational forestry methods, to say nothing of the
aesthetic side, which likewise is worthy of our efforts.

That the forest warden has a definite field of use-
fulness in each town in Massachusetts, there can be

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FOREST WARDENS

II

no question, and that his work is one of great pos-
sibilities, I trust is made clear.

In behalf of the position which I hold as State
Forester, I therefore extend to each warden, and
through you to your deputies, a cordial invitation
to consult my office at any and all times on forestry
matters, and let it be generally known that the office
is established by the State to accomplish great good
for the whole State in general, and each town and
individual in so far as practicable.

Yours very sincerely,

F. W. RANE,

State Forester

Room 7, State House,

Boston, Mass.

Telephone 830 Haymarket

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yl thrifty yotmg hardwood growth severely hurt
by a ground fire.

While a ground fire does not kill all of the young hard-
woods, as in the case of the -white pine, it nevertheless dwarfs
the trees and destroys far more value than is ordinarily
realized.

The loss by fire of the forest floor, or spongy leaf mould,
which renders ideal conditions of moisture, etc., for root
development, is very damaging to good results.

We must protect arid encourage these young and promis-
ing forest growths everywhere throughout the Commonwealth.

10W AND WHEN TO COLLECT

White Pine Seed

This and next year's crop of cones. Large ones
mature and ready for picking.

By F. W. RANE

Massachusetts State Forester

Room 7, State House
BOSTON, MASS., - - U. S. A.

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The Staminate (male) and Pistillate (female) flowers
of the White Pine. These appear a year before
the cones develop ; hence it is an easy matter to
determine a year in advance of a seed crop.

HOW AND WHEN TO COLLECT
WHITE PINE SEED

I 'HE white pine (Pinus Strobus) is one
of the most common trees found in
Massachusetts and New England, and is of
great economic and aesthetic value, yet the
writer finds that little is known about its
method of propagation.

Even teachers and those who have studied
botany and nature study, and again farmers
and men who have worked in the woods
or at the lumber industry all their lives,
seem never to have given the matter any
thought or definite observation.

White pine is grown from seed only ;

it does not sprout from the roots when cut,

as our hard woods. In replanting

White pine J L J J 1 J

- v our waste and abandoned lands

from

seed only with white pine, the first step is to

collect the seed. Some evidently

think pine trees come from nothing, or were

Seed
comes
from pine
cones

created, perhaps, but this is not the way
Nature does things. If we expect an agri-
cultural crop, the kind of grain desired is
planted ; just so with growing the white pine.
Pine seed comes from the cones which
grow upon the pine trees. The cones are
more abundant upon trees of
twenty years of age or more, and
are located near the top of the
tree. Old single pasture pines,
or those growing in clumps or along the
edges of the forest, and more or less limbed,
commonly called "cabbage pines," are usu-
ally the greater seed bearers. These trees,
also, are the easier to collect the cones from.
It requires two seasons for the white pine
cones to mature. The embryo cone, which
is the pistillate (female) blossom
of the pine, forms in the spring of
the year, at which time it is fer-
tilized, and can be seen through-
out that whole season as a small, upright,

Two
seasons
for seeds
to mature

so-called "Christmas candle/' an inch or so
long. When vegetation starts the second
season, however, the white pine cone takes
on activity, and by August it reaches full
size, which varies from four to six inches in
length. During this time the seeds form at
the base and under the scales. The cones
remain green until the latter part of August
or fore part of September, depending upon
the nature of the season, when they mature
and turn brown. When mature, the cones,
while still hanging on the tree, open up
(spread out their scales) at the first dry
period, thus allowing the seeds which have
been concealed to drop out. Each pine
seed is provided with a delicate wing, in
some respects resembling the wing
of a bee, and this assists the seed

scattered

by wings very much in its distribution.

With scarcely any wind the seeds

travel for some distance before they reach

the ground, so with a strong gale at time of

Collect
cones
before
they open

shedding, one can imagine how far they
may be distributed. The finding of isolated
pine seedlings is often accounted for in this
way. The prevailing wind at time the cones
are opening governs the territory seeded.

If we desire to collect white pine seed, it

is important that the cones be collected

before they open and lose their

seed. This may be done in

the latter part of the month of

August, any time before the

cones open.

There are various methods of collecting

the cones, but the best advice is to get them

somehow. Picking with a long

ladder is one way ; another, and

one that will recommend itself,

is to find out where lumbering is

going on, and collect the cones as they fell

the trees.

When connected with the New Hamp-
shire College the writer tried a number of

Methods
of collect-
ing cones

ways of solving this problem. One which
worked very nicely was to send about four
or five boys up the trees to pick the cones
and throw them over the branches to the
ground, while another one remained upon
the ground and gathered them into bags.
The cones may again be gathered by pick-
ing and putting directly in a bag which is
attached to the shoulder, similar to the man-
ner of picking apples. Old gluten or feed
bags, inexpensive and commonly available
about farmers' barns, answer very well for
this purpose.

The number or quantity of cones that

can be gathered in a day will vary as to

the yield per tree, method of

Mother . . . .

seed trees gathering, etc. As white pine
box-boards throughout New Eng-
land are in great demand, and at a relatively
high price, even the old " cabbage pines,"
full of limbs, a few years ago considered
valueless, are at present rapidly going to the

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sawmill. These old trees in the past have
been the great seed producers and mother
trees of our present forest stands. If they
are destroyed, however, where must we look
for our future pines?

One man, with two assistants, in a seed
year spent nearly two days in cutting down
about 50 pine trees and picking
the cones from them, and gathered
two wagon loads, some 50 bush-
els before the cones were open.
When they were dried out and
opened, he had fully 100 bushels of cones
and nearly 5 bushels of uncleaned seed.
His method of drying was to spread them
out where the sun could shine on them, rak-
ing the pile over often, covering them with
a canvas at night and in rainy weather. If
the cones get wet they close up. It took
in this case two weeks to get the seeds
from the cones.

An

example
in collect
ing pine
seed

,

WV

White pine cone with scales open and seed gone.
White pine needles grow in clusters of five.

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After the cones are gathered it is not

necessary that the seed be secured from

them at once. They may be

curing deposited in any dry place, where

seed from r J J r

cones squirrels or mice are kept from

them, and the seed thrashed out
later. The practice of using a bag to put
the cones in is convenient, for as they open
up the bag can be flailed at odd times and
the seed falls out into the bottom and is
readily collected.

Should one have a greenhouse, it is usu-
ally available about the time the cones are
ripe, and if they are placed here for a short
time, avoiding any moisture for a few days,
the high temperature will open the cones
very quickly. The writer has made it a
practice simply to place the bags in the
greenhouse, and then turn and flail them occa-
sionally, when the seed is easily separated.
A hotbed or cold-frame sash could be made
to serve the same purpose on a small scale.

Price
of seed

There are probably many other ingenious
ways of extracting the seed from the cones
that will occur to different ones which will
be equally good.

White pine seed has averaged in price in
recent years from $1 .50 to $4.50 a pound.
During the spring of 1907 the
price in large quantities was $3.75
a pound.
White pine seed if given normal condi-
tions, not too moist or excessively dry, re-
tains its vitality for several years.
Vitality yne reason that the seed has been

retained 1*1*1 1 1 11

for years so ni8n is that the demand has
increased very rapidly in this

country lately, and the few dealers have

practically made their own prices.

It is hoped that this brief pamphlet will

assist in calling attention to the importance
of gathering white pine seed each

Important ° ° r

to collect year, when it is fruiting. We
should ultimately consider the im-

seed

Pine seed
campaign

12

portance of harvesting this crop, just the

same as any other.

The writer would consider it a great

benefit to New England, and Massachusetts
in particular, if enough people
could be interested so that a regu-
lar pine seed campaign could be

kept up until the seeds of this most inpor-

tant forest tree could be purchased at 50

cents a pound, and it is believed it can be

done.

With pine and other forest tree seeds in

plenty, at reasonable prices, people generally
will begin to start small nursery

Beginnings kec[s [n tneir garc}ens and fields,

forestry which will in turn give us seed-
lings and transplants at a much
more rational forestry basis than they can
be obtained at present.

There are from 20,000 to 30,000 white
pine seeds in a pound, and it is customary for
nurserymen to plant this amount upon a bed

20-30,000
seeds in
a pound

13

4 feet wide and 50 feet long. Under nor-
mal conditions, which will be described in

a forthcoming circular, a person
ought to raise 10,000 to 15,000
seedlings on this area. With
the above data, and knowing the
distance apart that pines are set, usually

5 by 6 feet, one can figure out for himself
:he cost of growing his own stock of plants.

It has been the endeavor of the writer to
ell in a precise and practical way just how
and when to collect the white
pine seed. It now remains to be
seen how many we can get to do
something in this line. All per-
sons interested in reclothing our waste lands,
md in establishing economic and aesthetic
orestry conditions throughout this Common-
wealth and New England, will find that
practising and impressing the simple begin-
lings of forestry on others will go far toward
in ultimate solution.

Reclothing

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Reason
for high
prices

14

Expensive forestry seeds and seedlings
are the greatest drawbacks at the present
time to beginning forestry work.
Let us remedy it. There are
few seedsmen who handle forest
tree seeds, and the comparatively
little demand until now has made the busi-
ness an uncertain one, and hence the prices
are high.

If white pine sells for even $2 a pound,
no one cares to sow broadcast five pounds
per acre, as is recommended by some
seedsmen, as the expense makes the opera-
tion anything but practical. No one cares
to use five or ten dollars' worth of seed on
land that is in itself almost valueless. Col-
lecting the seed one's self, however, obviates
this difficulty and makes the conditions 'more
favorable.

There is much inquiry as to how often
white pine produces seed. Somehow thq
Seed year idea is quite firmly established in

15

the minds of many that a seed year once
in seven is a fixed law. From observation
there seems to be no definite regularity in
Nature. A white pine, like other trees, if
it yields a maximum crop one year, is not
likely to produce another heavy crop in from
three to seven, depending upon the seasons
and other conditions. The writer has seen
two heavy crops in one locality only four
years apart. Examples are not uncommon,
also, where a pine tree may be fruiting a
fair number of cones and at the same time
have embryo cones which are to fruit the
following season.

Not all sections of the State are likely to
seed the same year, although they may.
By inquiry it is found that one section may
have a heavy crop, while another may have
none. In this way seed usually can be had
from some section each year.

The seeds of spruce, hemlock, and other
evergreens are collected in like manner as

16

Seed of tne Pme- Of course, they vary
other in size of cone and seed and

evergreens .• r . •.

time or maturity. .

Deciduous trees, or hard woods, are also!
easily grown from seed, and when one gets
interested in collecting and grow-

Hardwoods .1 • i*-. •. • 1

, ins the white pine, it is only a

from seed or j

step toward later interest and

pleasure in the whole forestry question.
We need to cultivate as a people a great

love for out-of-door life, and there is noth-
ing that awakens interest and a
love for Nature herself more than
the forests and their associations.
At a later time a companion booklet on

methods of planting and caring for seedlings

will be issued.

F. W. RANE,

State Forester

State House, Boston, Mass.,
August 1, 1907

Forests
and Nature

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FORESTRY

From a Commercial Standpoint

Address delivered by F. W. Rane,
Massachusetts State Forester, before
the Massachusetts Horticulture Society,
February Twenty-three, Nineteen Hun-
dred and Seven

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FOREWORD

The writer has been unable to
supply the requests that have
come in for this address, hence
it is issued herewith from the
State Forester's office for gen-
eral distribution to Massachu-
setts citizens

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Approved by the State Board of Publication

FORESTRY

FROM A COMMERCIAL STANDPOINT

BY F. W. RANE, STATE FORESTER OF MASSACHUSETTS

^

HERE are few if any problems of
greater moment and more economic
importance to the State of Massa-
chusetts at the present hour than that
of forestry. Doubtless there are those
present who have known this forest
patient when she was healthy, vigor-
ous and strong ; how beautiful primeval forests
dotted this good old Bay State in those days and
how, year by year, they have succumbed to our
mad rush of uneconomic commercialism, until to-
day finds us in a sadly depleted and unrational
condition, viewed from the standpoint of modern
forest management. It is always easy to point out
mistakes after they have happened; but experi-
ence, though a dear teacher, is nevertheless ex-
tremely effective. Year by year the primeval forest
growth was cut and harvested. Second growth,
inferior but valuable, has followed, where condi-
tions have been favorable, and this has, in turn, been
utilized as soon as it reached merchantable size.
Demand for forest products has been increasing
in greater and greater proportion as we have been
developing the State and nation, while the prod-
ucts themselves have likewise been approaching
exhaustion. Our people have looked upon the
forest products as inexhaustible, thinking naturally
that, though Massachusetts should be depleted,
there are plenty of other States at our very doors

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with indefinite supplies. Many of our country-
loving and far-sighted citizens have time and again
in the past predicted our present calamity; but
the commercial era has absorbed us, and the
successful business man of America has been the
admired of admirers. /Esthetics in a new country
are as nothing compared with commercial activi-
ties, when the bases of the commodities dealt in
are free gifts and cost only for the marketing.
The balance finally comes with the nation's
development.

From the substantial old-time sawmill, — form-
erly so common upon our streams, now only relics
of bygone days, — our evolution has developed to
the portable mill. Instead of taking the logs to
the mill, we now take the mill to the logs. While
it is easy to comprehend this change of milling
operations and the economy therein, the effect
upon forestry itself and the country community
has changed most remarkably. When logs were
taken to the mills, most farmers employed their
teams and labor during the winter months in
getting out lumber for home consumption, but
sold enough to make the effort and time profit-
able. The old-fashioned method, too, of not
cutting clean but taking only the larger and
mature trees, did not destroy the forest, for re-
placement followed rapidly. Our present method
is to sell the stumpage; and, as the purchaser
finds he is able to market every vestige of the
product, the forest area is stripped of vegeta-
tion. In earlier days this extreme of clearing
was done only when the land was to be used
for agricultural purposes. Where the larger
growth only was taken out in the past, in twenty
years or so the same land could be cut over

4

COMMERCIAL FORESTRY

again at a profit ; under the present practice it
will require a period of nearly or quite twice as
long for similar results. Again, even the cutting
clear practice was not so productive of ill results
until it came into such common use. When only
here and there a tract was cut, the surrounding
growth reseeded it ; to-day the reseeding factor,
also, is cut, leaving great areas where Nature is
unable to assist as formerly. The white pine,
for example, will re-establish itself whenever the
conditions are favorable. When, as in earlier
times, the ill-shaped and limbed specimens con-
tained no commercial value, they were allowed
to remain standing. These trees make our best
seed trees, hence were responsible for reforesting
the land with this species. To-day even these
seed trees have value. No matter how pronged
or crooked, they will make box-boards, pails,
tubs, matches, etc., and bring prices of from $ 1 4
to $ 1 6 a thousand, when delivered. The results
of this practice are, as we find them, altogether
too common. Portable mills are operating at the
present on wood lots that in earlier times could
not be used commercially. Where the diameters
of trees were thought of in terms of feet, we have
simply changed the feet to inches for present
practical usage. The commercial pine tree of
to-day hardly reaches the seed-producing age
before it is harvested.

What is true of white pine is equally true of
many other of our forest trees. Our pulp com-
panies chew up practically everything of the spruce
and even balsam fir, which a few years ago was
considered practically worthless, but which at
present is of equal value in limited amounts.
Hemlock was little thought of for joists and gen-

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eral framing material in buildings not long since,
but our carpenters now are not so particular.
The American larch, commonly called tamarack
or hackmatack, found growing in low, moist situa-
tions, was valueless until railroad ties and telegraph
poles grew scarce ; and then they found immediate
value, now having largely disappeared. Hickory,
commonly called walnut in New England, was
the only wood thought suitable for tools, ax-
handles, whiffle-trees, etc. ; but go to the market
and see what are being substituted in its place.
Of course our tools do not last as long as form-
erly. Were there time, it could be shown that
each and every kind of wood has special qualities
that adapt it for specific usefulness. The more
we advance in commerce, industries and manu-
factures, we continue to discover new economic
uses for all of our raw materials and products.
There is not a species of wood grown at present
but has a recognized standard of value. The
time has come when simply the growing of cord-
wood in most sections of Massachusetts is a
promising crop. Particularly is this true where
the burning of brick is an important industry.

We, as a Commonwealth, are at an extremely
interesting stage at the present time as regards
our forestry problem. It is not only true of Mas-
sachusetts, but of New England and, for that mat-
ter, the whole country, to a greater or less extent.

As long as the prices of forest products re-
mained low, we laughed at the idea of forest
depletion. Experience is a wise teacher ; and
although the histories of older countries point out
very clearly the mistakes they have made, their
errors are seldom heeded in a new country until
many of the same experiences have resulted.

6

COMMERCIAL FORESTRY

When our forefathers came to these shores,
New England was a vast wilderness, a primeval
forest. We are told of the magnificent forests,
and how individual trees reached great propor-
tions throughout this whole section. Even the
decaying stumps still extant remind us that but
yesterday, in point of time, these monarchs of the
forest which had been growing for centuries were
with us. To-morrow a forest tree producing over
a thousand feet board measure will be a veritable
curiosity. We country-loving and public-spirited
people are extremely anxious that the nation re-
serve certain portions of the White Mountains
and the southern Appalachian range, that coming
generations may enjoy, take pride in and benefit
therefrom. A birthright for them as small as this
is a pittance compared with the vast and almost
endless expanse of virgin forest areas that was
ours.

Viewing the subject as a whole, therefore, we
must recognize that the time is ripe for action and
public concern. To accomplish results, much
thoughtful study and definite systematic planning
must be done, in order that there will be no
obstructions in the way. Education and example
are our tools to work with.

"Forestry is the science and art of forming and
cultivating forests ; the management of growing
umber." Forestry, therefore, as the title of my
address indicates, is concerned with the economic
production of merchantable wood and timber.
Forestry should rightfully be thought of as a com-
mercial industry. The forest products of a coun-
try should be one of her greatest assets, just as
much as that of any other crop, agriculturally
speaking, and even more to be relied upon than

7

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. .■

COMMERCIAL FORESTRY

our income from mining ; for, with proper man-
agement, the investment will be permanent, in-
exhaustible, and hence fundamental to the nation's
life and prosperity.

Lumbering is as important to successful forestry
as is the digging of potatoes or the harvesting of
any crop when it is ripe. The same essentials of
culture, also, must be understood in getting maxi-
mum returns in the one case as in the other.

Forestry and commercial forestry are synony-
mous terms. Forestry in its true sense, when
managed properly, will utilize our three million
acres of land in Massachusetts, — at present seen
scattered in every section, known as waste land,
abandoned pastures, sprout lands, barrens, plains,
etc., — returning them to forest culture. The same
culture that will return saw logs to our mills, make
work for our country folk in winter, replenish our
town treasuries, repaint the old red schoolhouse,
pay the sexton to again ring the church bell, make
better roads and, in short, return the former sub-
stantial livelihood of country life, will also con-
serve moisture, protect and enrich the soil, give
an equable climate and return to Massachusetts
and New England the natural beauty we all would
love so much to see.

If commercial forestry will do this, the aesthetic
man, who now and then sets out a shade tree and
spends more time criticising the practical lumber-
man, can employ his time to better advantage.

Our portable mill operators, who are to be
found in nearly every country town, are, generally
speaking, our best and most public-spirited citizens
and, as a matter of fact, the leaders of the com-
munities. These men also are the most approach-
able men in the world, and willing to foster and

8

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COMMERCIAL FORESTRY

further every reasonable and commendable pro-
ject. These men, I am confident, will be the
men of the future, to be relied upon to do things
in forestry. The fact that forest products are
valuable and likely to increase rather than dimin-
ish,— it being an easy matter to demonstrate,
even at present prices, that reforestation and
better forestry management will pay, — gives life
and interest to the undertaking.

Go into any rural section, or city, for that mat-
ter, in Massachusetts to-day and discuss modern
forestry intelligently, beginning with the collecting
of the seed, time of year to gather them, when to
plant, how to care for the seedling, distance apart
to set for results, when to thin and whether to
prune, number of years to maturity, the kind of
soils for different species, probable returns upon
the investment, etc., and there is little trouble in
interesting our people.

For the rest of my time to-day I want to give
some forestry data likely to be of interest. Any
data given upon forestry is, generally speaking,
only suggestive ; but if the basis of estimating is
also given, comparative adaptations can be made
where conditions vary.

In giving the following estimates, I have taken
precaution to be conservative. It is better, it is
thought, to give the data as it really exists, although
the picture may not be as attractive. The rate of
interest, the price of land and the assessed valua-
tion upon the increment growth are all variable
and elastic factors for basing computations.

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COMMERCIAL FORESTRY

PROFITS FROM WOODLAND UNDER

PRESENT CONDITIONS IN

MASSACHUSETTS

Term of years, forty. Taxes and valuation,
figured at 4 per cent, compound interest. Aver-
age price of woodland, free of growth, estimated
at $6 per acre. As the trees grow, an addition
of $5 per acre every ten years is allowed, as
follows : —

First ten years, $6 00

Second ten years, . . . . . 1 1 00

Third ten years, 16 00

Fourth ten years, . . . . . 2 1 00

The average tax rate throughout the State is
$ 1 7 per thousand.

Second growth white pine, chestnut and sprout
hardwood growth are those we are most familiar
with.

(i) SPROUT HARDWOOD GROWTH

In sprout hardwood growth it is generally con-
sidered that a cord per year can be obtained
in average conditions on an acre. Therefore, forty
years equals forty cords ; stumpage value, $50
to $80, depending on locality and proximity to
market.

INVESTMENT AT END OF FORTY YEARS

Compound interest of valuation, $6, for forty years, $22 8 1

Taxes, with interest : —
First ten years, . . . . $3 97

Second ten years, . . . . 4 48

Third ten years 4 83

Fourth ten years 4 29

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Total cost, $40 38

Profit, $ 1 0 to $40 in forty years per acre, or
25 cents to $1 an acre per year.

10

COMMERCIAL FORESTRY

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(2) CHESTNUT GROWTH

Can expect about 1 00 good telephone poles
or 300 ties with 1 5 cords of wood, total net
approximate value of $100. Investment at end
of forty years, same as for sprout hardwood growth,
$40. This leaves a net profit of $60 per acre
in forty years, or $1.50 a year per acre average.

(3) SECOND GROWTH WHITE PINE
(NATURAL REPRODUCTION)

From actual measurements, this growth was
found to yield on an acre 25 cords of white pine
and 1 5 cords of hardwood. White pine is
worth $5 per cord net for lumber, and hard-
wood for cord wood 1 . Total, 40 cords, equals
$ 1 40. Deducting $40, the investment, which is
the same as for sprout hardwood growth and
chestnut, leaves a net return of $100 an acre
in forty years, or a net income of $2.50 a year
per acre.

(4) NATURAL PASTURES (SO CALLED)

There are in Massachusetts over 1 ,000,000
acres of pasture lands. Assuming that all cattle
and sheep are pastured at the average rental,
statistics show that these lands do not average
$1.50 a year per acre. If from this sum we
subtract $ 1 a year, the amount allowed for taxes
on valuation and compound interest on valuation,
the same amount as allowed in the case of forestry
lands, the net income for an acre per year is only
50 cents. This shows that there are thousands
of acres of pasture lands in Massachusetts that
rightfully and economically should be turned over
to forestry.

11

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Time was when this State was a great pro-
ducer of grazing animals that were raised at a
profit. Conditions now are greatly changed ; and
if we have learned anything in scientific agricul-
ture in recent times, it is that concentration on
smaller areas and a more definite rotation of
crops make the successful farmer. This same
logic and philosophy turn over acres upon acres
of lands of our farms, at present in an unproduc-
tive and unprofitable stage, to an industry with
not only great possibilities commercially, but im-
proving a condition at present greatly needed.

(5) WHITE PINE PLANTED (NURSERY

STOCK)

White pine seedlings, set 6x6 feet, require
1,210 per acre. Two-year seedlings are worth
$5 per 1,000.

Compound interest on valuation,

$11,

for forty

years, ....

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$41 81

Compound interest, 1,210 seedlings, at

$5

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$6 05

Compound interest, transplanting

1,210 seedlings, .

4 95

Total, ....

$11 00

$ 1 1 at interest for forty years, .

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52 80

Taxes, with interest : —

First ten years.

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$6 63

Second ten years, .

.

7 15

Third ten years,

.

6 34

Fourth ten years,

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6 33

26 45

Total cost,

. $121 06

Product at end of forty years, 40,000 B. M.
feet, at $5, equals $200, leaving a net profit of
$78.94, or $1 .97 a year per acre.

These figures are based upon the maximum

12

COMMERCIAL FORESTRY

cost of seedlings and planting, also the valuation
of pasture land at $ 1 1 , instead of waste lands, as
considered under ( 1 ), (2) and (3), at $6.

(6) WHITE PINE PLANTED (HOME GROWN
OR NATIVE SEEDLINGS)

Compound interest on valuation, $6, for forty years, $22 8 1
Initial outlay for seedlings and planting, $5 per acre,

plus interest for 40 years 29 00

Taxes, with interest, forty years, . . . 17 57

$59 38

Returns at end of forty years, 40,000 B. M.
feet, at $5, equals $200. Subtracting cost, $69.38,
leaves the net profits in forty years $ 1 30.62, or
an average of $3.26 a year per acre.

Reducing the whole to tabular form, we have
the following : —

1 . Under favorable natural conditions of re-
forestation ; returns per acre in forty years and
average an acre each year : —

Per Acre

Aver, an Acre

Growth : —

in Forty Years.

Each Year.

Hardwood, .

. $0 00 to $40 00

$0 00 to $1 00

Chestnut,

60 00

1 50

Second growth white pine,

100 00

2 50

From pasture land, valuation $11, average $0.50 an acre per year.

2. Where trees are planted ; returns per acre
in forty years and average return an acre each
year : —

Per Acre

Aver, an Acre

White pine : —

in Forty Years.

Each Year.

Valuation, $11.

•

Seedlings, planting, $11 +

. $70 00

$1 75

Valuation, $6.

Seedlings, planting, $5, .

. 130 62

3 26

From these calculations it is shown that, even
under present conditions, forestry can be practised

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commercially with a reasonable profit. As a long
time investment the returns must be considered as
offering exceptional opportunities. The rate of
interest under each example cited, per year, for
the principal first used, at the end of the forty
year period, is in each case as follows : —

Per Cent

(1), . . .

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25

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(4), . . .

4

(5), • . .

9

(6), . . .

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No matter how attractive we may make it, the
fact still remains that few people are willing to
make long time investments and wait for their
fruition. The time is coming, however, when far-
sighted business men will recognize this source of
investment as a safe and profitable one. The
State of Massachusetts, it is believed, can well
afford to make a beginning in this direction by
purchasing at low cost much of our cheap lands
and restocking them as forest reserves. Not only
can they be made a valuable asset in the future
to the Commonwealth, but to serve as examples
of forestry methods.

Forest fires are a great menace to practising
modern forestry in Massachusetts and are un-
doubtedly one of the greatest drawbacks to for-
estry undertakings. Our present laws regulating
this problem are not effective enough. We have
bills before the present General Court of Massa-
chusetts looking toward an improvement in this
direction. [Has become a law.]

The laws relative to the taxation of forest lands
are in no way systematized or deduced to secur-

14

COMMERCIAL FORESTRY

ing the best results. It is to be hoped that some
simple, practical and expedient forest taxation
laws may be formulated at an early time.

The greatest of all needs, however, — and we
must come back to it as the foundation upon
which our whole forestry structure must stand
for success, — is a well-defined educational system,
by which our people may be taught not only
to recognize the importance of forestry, but how
to get best results from a practical knowledge of
the theory and practice combined.

In conclusion, I would say, let us be wise and
farsighted. The Massachusetts and New Eng-
land of the future will be what you and I make
it. History repeats itself. In the Old World the
rise and fall of the Roman Empire had its asso-
ciations with commercial forestry. Spain, — once
the country of equable climatic conditions and
beautiful meadows, the native country of the
merino sheep and a progressive and prosperous
agriculture, — has cut down her forests, denuded
her mountains ; and what is her present condi-
tion ? We are told that m Biblical times certain
valleys in Palestine were so fertile that they sus-
tained and nourished great flocks and herds.
Figuratively speaking, these valleys flowed with
milk and honey. In those days the cedar of
Lebanon and other forest trees were found in all
their glory. What sort of a country is Palestine
to-day ? Travellers tell us it is dangerous to travel
without a guide ; the country is parched, dry and
desolate.

What do we propose for the future of this
nation or, for that matter, Massachusetts? If
we are public-spirited, as I believe we are, and
have a love for our country and Commonwealth,

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we will awake to our responsibility ere it is too
late.

Instead of following the example of countries
like those mentioned, let us emulate the example
of Germany, where modern forestry is practised
successfully. Then, and only then, can we feel
proud in believing we have done our full duty
toward the forest interests of our native land.

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HOW YOU MAY
KNOW THEM

A POCKET MANUAL

By D. A. Clarke, under the direction of F. W. Rane,
State Forester, State House, Boston, Mass., U. S. A.

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CONTENTS

Pine Trees. Key for identifying .

. 5

White Pine Tree

. 6

Red Pine or Norway

. 8

. 9

Tamarack or Larch .

. 10

Spruce Trees. Key for identifying

. 11

. 12

, 13

. 14

White Cedar ....

. 15

Red Cedar or Juniper

. 16

Walnut Trees. Key for identifying

. 17

Butternut ....

. 18

Black Walnut ....

. 19

Hickory Trees. Key for identifying

. 20

Bitternut Hickory

. 21

Shagbark Hickory .

. 22

Mockernut Hickory .

. 23

Pignut Hickory

. 24

Poplar Trees. Key for identifying

. 25

Aspen (American) .

. 26

Aspen (Largetooth) .

. 27

Birch Trees. Key for identifying

. 28

White or Gray Birch

. 29

Paper or White Birch

. 30

. 31

Sweet or Black Birch

. 32

Hornbeam or Ironwood .

. 33

Blue Beech ....

. 34

Beech Tree

Chestnut ....

Oak Trees. Key for identifying

White Oak .

Chestnut Oak .

Swamp White Oak .

Red Oak

Scarlet Oak .

Yellow or Black Oak

Elm Tree. Key for identifying

Slippery Elm .

White or American Elm .

Hockberry

Sassafras Tree .

Sycamore or Buttonwood Tree

Wild Red Cherry .

Black Cherry .

Locust Tree .

Maple Trees. Key for identifying

Striped Maple .

Sugar or Rock Maple

Silver or Soft Maple

Red Maple .

Basswood or Linden Tree

Black Gum or Tupelo

Ash Trees. Key for identifying

Black Ash

White Ash

Red Ash

. 3!
. 3(
. 37

. 31
. %
. 4(
. 41

. 4:

. 41
. 45

. 47
. 4*
.49

. 50

• 5J

. 52

. 54
. 55
. 56

THE COMMERCIAL §

I FOREST TREES I

OF MASSACHUSETTS

HOW YOU MAY
KNOW THEM

Heal mB

^ POCKET MANUAL

By D. A. Clarke, under the direction of F. W. Rane, State Forester,
State House, Boston, Mass., U. S. A.

BOSTON: WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING COMPANY, STATE PRINTERS,
EIGHTEEN POST OFFICE SQUARE, NINETEEN HUNDRED AND SEVEN

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APPROVED
BY THE STATE BOARD OF PUBLICATION

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

PURPOSE OF THIS HANDBOOK

THIS handbook has been planned and pub-
lished by the State Forester in order to
have a practical working description of the
commercial trees at the command of Massa-
chusetts citizens.

Technical terms necessarily used in botanical
and forestry books are bewildering to the prac-
tical, everyday lumberman, farmer or average
person. The attempt, therefore, of this treatise
is to point out clearly how one can tell the
commercially valuable trees of Massachusetts
in a plain and untechnical manner.

The really most important points or charac-
ters the tree has, which distinguish it from all
others, are first pointed out. This will be all
many persons may care to know. If five needles
growing in a cluster always denote a white
pine, for example, and people have their atten-
tion called to it, few will ever mistake that
tree for others. They can settle the matter
easily by examining the tree for themselves.
Likewise, other trees can be told by following
the same plan of identification.

Jlcknowledgments

Mr. Daniel A. Clarke, a Harvard instructor
and man of recognized experience and ability
in forest botany, was selected to prepare this
manuscript. The individual characteristics for
identifying each species are Mr. Clarke's
arrangement.

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MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

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The cuts illustrating the foliage and seed
production were kindly loaned the State For-
ester by Director J. L. Hills of the Vermont
Experiment Station. These cuts were used to
illustrate a bulletin on ' ' The Trees of Ver-
mont," prepared under the direction of Prof.
L. R. Jones of the University of Vermont.

The cuts illustrating the winter twigs and
buds are from originals made by Miss Helen
B. Mason, from carefully-selected specimens
collected by Mr. Clarke.

Six cuts, credited under each, are from
Sargent's " Manual of the Trees of North
America," by permission of Houghton, Mifflin
&Co.

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It is hoped this handbook will be a source
of inspiration toward assisting people, gen-
erally, in knowing our trees.

When we shall have created in our people,
from youth up, a natural inborn love for
Nature, the fundamentals of practical forestry
will solve themselves as naturally as water
flows down hill. Meanwhile, we have a pleas-
ant task in bringing these conditions about.
The more one knows about trees, the more he
wants to know; and the natural outcome will
be both better economic and aesthetic con-
ditions.

This handbook is offered by the State, free
of charge, believing that the persons possess-
ing it will find it a useful and helpful com-
panion.

F. W. RANE, State Forester

State House, Boston, Mass.,
Nov. i, 1907.

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

PINES

How to know the Pines

White Pine

Red Pine

Pitch Pine

(Pznus strobus L.)

(Pznus resinosa Ait.)

(Pznus rigida Mill.)

Leaves

Leaves

Leaves

Arranged in 5-leaved clus-

Arranged in 2-leaved clus-

Arranged in 3-leaved clus-

ters. Slender, flexible,

ters. Flexible, dark green

ters. Stiff, dark yellow-

bluish-green and 3 to 5

and s to 6 inches long.

green and 3 to s inches

inches long.

long.

PINE LEAF CLUSTERS

a, Pitch ; c , Red ; d, White. All one-half natural size.

Note. — The Austrian and Scotch Pines are sometimes planted in Massachu-
setts. Both are introduced or imported. The Scotch Pine has two leaves in a
cluster, two to four inches long, flat and of a bluish-white hue. The Austrian has
dark green, slender, rigid leaves, two in a cluster, four to six inches long.

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MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

WHITE PINE (Pinus strobus L.)

THE White Pine is abundantly distributed through-
■ out the State. It occurs on fertile soil, in moist
situations, or on uplands.

When standing in the open, the young tree has a
symmetrical, pyramidal outline. In the forest, its trunk
is usually without branches for a considerable distance
and the head is narrow. In old age the tree becomes

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WHITE PINE CONE

With scales open and seeds gone. White Pine needles grow
in clusters of five.

very irregular and picturesque. The trunk is continu-
ous, gradually tapering, commonly from fifty to sev-
enty feet in height and one to two feet in diameter.
The branches are usually in whorls of five and extend
horizontally.

The bark on young stems is thin, green tinged with
red. On the old trunk it is thick and almost black,
and divided by shallow fissures into broad, flat ridges.

The leaves are arranged in clusters of five. They are

6

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

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White Pine — Concluded

from three to five inches in length, bluish-green on the
upper surface and whitish on the under.

The cone is cylindrical and from four t6 six inches
in length. The seeds are small and winged. The cones
open early in September of their second season.

The wood is very useful. It is light in color, light
in weight, durable, except when in contact with the
soil, and not easily warped by the sun. It supplies

WHITE PINE

Embryo and Mature cones. One-half natural size.

From Sargent's "Manual of the Trees of North America," by permission of

Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

boards of good size, free from knots and of light
weight. It is sawed into lumber, shingles and laths.
It is used in cabinet-making, for interior finishing and
for masts. In this State it is very largely worked into
'box-boards' for the making of boxes. Then, in
addition to serving so well these various utilitarian
ends, it is a rapid-growing tree, increasing in height
on the average at least a foot each year. So, all in
all, the White Pine is one of the most valuable trees
in the State and most deserving of being grown for
forestry purposes.*

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Pine Seed."

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

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RED PINE (Norway Pine) (Pwms resinosa Ait.)

IN Massachusetts the Red Pine — appropriately so
' called both on account of the pale red color of the
heart-wood' and the distinctly reddish cast of the bark
— occurs only locally and then chiefly in the northern
and western sections. Usually it grows on light and
somewhat dry soils.

When young it has an attractive conical outline ;
in old age it becomes somewhat irregular. It usually
attains a height of fifty to seventy-five feet and has a
continuous trunk, two to three feet in diameter. The
branches are stout, usually extend horizontally and
clothe the trunk quite or nearly to the ground.

RED PINE. — One-half natural size.

From Sargent's " Manual of the Trees of North America," by permission of

Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

The bark is light red-brown in color and divided by
shallow fissures into broad, flat ridges.

The leaves are in clusters of two, flexible, dark
green and five to six inches long. They remain on the
tree for four or five years.

The cones are egg-shaped, two to three inches long
and mature in the fall of their second season.

The wood is light, strong, hard and pale red in
color. It is used in construction, for building, and to
a certain extent for masts.

The name Norway Pine has so little fitness as applied
to this tree, and is so evidently misleading that its use
is to be discouraged.

The Latin name suggests a resinous wood, but in
fact it is less so than either of the other Pines.

8

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

PITCH PINE (Pinus rigida Mill.)

f~HE Pitch Pine grows in poor, sandy and gravelly
■ soil in all parts of the State, often forming a con-
siderable tract of almost pure growth, as in the south-
eastern sections near the coast.

In habit it is usually a low tree with irregular and
variable outline. Normally, the height is from thirty
to forty feet and the diameter from one to two feet.
The trunk is continuous, straight and tapers rapidly.
The branches, grouped in threes about the trunk, are
thick and
often con-
torted. The
bark on
young stems
and branches
is rough. On
old trees it
is deep gray
or reddish-
brown, and
irregularly
divided into
broad, flat,
continuous
ridges . The

leaves are in clusters of three. They are three to five
inches long, stiff, dark yellow-green and fall during
their second year.

The cones are one to three inches long and light
brown in color. They often remain on the tree for
ten or twelve years. The scales are tipped with sharp
prickles, — a character likely to aid in the recognition
of the species.

The wood is light, soft and brittle. It is sometimes
sawed into coarse lumber and is used for charcoal and
for fuel. It is chiefly valuable because it will do well
on extremely sterile soil, although it is a slow grower.
Turpentine and tar were once made from this species
in New England. There is a growing tendency to use
this species for box-board lumber.

9

PITCH PINE. — One-half natural size.

From Sargent's " Manual of the Trees of North America,"

by permission of Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

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TAMARACK (Hacmatack, Larch) (£&<& laricina

Koch)

[^REFERRING cool, swampy situations, though
■ often growing on uplands, it occurs in most parts
of the State, more commonly in the northern sections
than elsewhere.

In habit it is a tall tree with regular and narrow
pyramidal outline. Ultimately it acquires a height of
fifty to sixty feet and a diameter of eighteen to twenty
inches. The trunk is continuous and tapers rapidly.
The branches are slender and horizontal or slightly
ascending.

TAMARACK

Branchlet and cone. One-half natural size.

The leaves are borne in clusters. They are linear
in shape, from three-fourths of an inch to one and a
quarter inches in length and bright green in color. In
the autumn before they fall they become yellow.

The cones are small, almost globular, nearly three-
quarters of an inch long and light brown in color.
The seeds are small and winged.

The wood is close-grained, heavy, strong and dur-
able. It is used in shipbuilding, and for posts and
railroad ties.

While this species is found in moist places, it often
does equally well when planted on upland.

10

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

SPRUCES

How to know the Spruces

Black Spruce

Red Spruce

(Pz'cea mariana B. S. P.)

(Pz'cea rtibens Sarg.)

Leaves

Leaves

Blue-green and not glossy.

Dark yellow-green and very glossy.

Cones

Cones

One-half to one and a half inches in

One to two inches in length. Usually

length. Usually remain on the tree for

fall during the first year.

many years.

SPRUCES

Branch, cones and cone-scales.

Note. — The Norway Spruce, so commonly planted as an ornamental tree and
for hedges, is an introduced species. It has a large, slender cone, five to seven
inches long, which easily distinguishes it from others. The branches are also more
drooping or pendulous.

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11

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

BLACK SPRUCE (Picea mariana B. S. P.)

THE Black Spruce is a small and rather unimportant
tree which is of frequent occurrence in the northern
and western sections of the State. Usually it grows in
swamps and on the borders of streams, though some-
times on uplands.

In habit it is a conical tree with a height of twenty
to thirty feet and a diameter of six to twelve inches.
The branches are short, horizontal or slightly declin-
ing and tend to turn upwards at the extremities, some-
what after the manner of the Norway Spruce.

The bark on the trunk is grayish-brown and broken
into three scales.

The leaves are about one-half inch long and blue-
green in color.

The cones are egg-shaped, one-half to one and one-
half inches in length and grayish-brown in color. They
usually remain on the trees for several years and often
persist for as many as twenty years.

The wood is light, soft and weak. It is seldom used
here except for making paper pulp.

Black and Red Spruce have, until recently, been con-
sidered the same species, but under the new classifica-
tion the Black Spruce now becomes a far less valuable
tree, commercially, than the Red.

12

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

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RED SPRUCE (Picea rubens Surg.)

THIS Spruce is common in the western and northern
parts of the State, almost always growing in the
well- drained soil of uplands or mountain slopes.

As to habit, its outline is narrowly conical in youth
and middle age, and frequently irregular and pictur-
esque in old age. It is a medium- sized tree, commonly
reaching a height of forty to fifty feet and acquiring
a diameter of one to two feet. The trunk is straight
and tapers very slowly. The branches are rather long,
frequently slightly pendulous, clothe the stem nearly
to the ground and persist for a long time.

The bark is red-brown and broken into irregular
scales.

The leaves are about one-half inch in length, dark
yellow -green and glossy.

The cones are oblong, one to two inches in length
and reddish -brown.

The wood is light, soft and less durable than Pine
when exposed to the action of the weather. It is
largely used for building-timber and for clapboards
and shingles. Owing to the fact that it imparts no
flavor, spruce is used in the manufacture of butter-
tubs and boxes. Great quantities are consumed in the
pulp mills.

This species, Professor L. R. Jones of Vermont says,
was responsible for the suggestion of the name Green
Mountain State to that Commonwealth.

It is not uncommon for lumbermen to designate this
species as Black Spruce, but, as this is the only com-
mercial Spruce of importance to Massachusetts, we
should readily appropriate the right name, or Red
Spruce.

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MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

HEMLOCK (Tsuga canadensis Carr.)

|~HE Hemlock is found in most parts of the State,
* though it is much more abundant in the western
sections. It delights in the moist, cool shade of rocky
ridges and river gorges.

In the open, it is a beautiful, pyramidal tree with
branches extending quite or almost to the ground. In
the forest, it has a tall, gently -tapering trunk which is
surrounded by a rather
small, round head . As a rule,
it attains a height of fifty
or sixty feet and a diameter
of two or three feet. The
branches are slender, hori-
zontal or slightly pendulous
near the ends and
persist for a long
time.

The bark on the
old trunk is cin-
namon red or dark
gray and divided
into narrow,
rounded ridges
which are covered
with scales.

The leaves are from one-third to two-thirds of an
inch in length, oblong, dark green and lustrous on the
upper surface and whitish beneath.

The cones are oblong, about three -fourths of an
inch long and light brown in color. The seed is small
and winged, maturing in the fall and shedding during
the winter.

The wood is very light, soft and brittle. When
exposed to the air it perishes quickly. It is sawed into
coarse boards and used for cheap building material and
sometimes for fuel. The bark is of value for tanning.

HEMLOCK

Spray and cone. One-third natural size.

14

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

I

WHITE CEDAR (Chamaecyparis thyoides B. S. P.)

|~HE White Cedar grows almost wholly in swamps,
■ particularly those that are flooded for most of the
year. In Massachusetts it occurs in patches of con-
siderable area in the southeastern sections and to a
limited extent in other parts.

As to habit, its slender, horizontal branches form a
narrow, conical head of neat appearance. The trunk is
continuous and attains a height of twenty to forty feet
and a diameter of eight to fifteen inches.

WHITE CEDAR. — One-half natural size.

From Sargent's " Manual of the Trees of North America," by permission of
Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

On the trunk the bark is reddish-brown and flakes
off in thin scales. On old trees, particularly near the
base, it is irregularly furrowed.

The leaves are scale-like, not over an eighth of an
inch in length and dull blue-green in color.

The cones are roundish, about a half-inch in diam-
eter and red-brown at maturity. The seed is small and
winged.

The wood is light, soft, weak, very durable and
aromatic. It is used for boat-building, interior finish-
ing and for posts. For this last purpose it is particu-
larly desirable.

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MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

RED CEDAR (Red Juniper) (Juniperus virginianaL.)

HIS tree receives its popular name, Red Cedar, from
the red color of its heart- wood. Growing on dry
and gravelly soil and sometimes on rather moist ground,
it is common in the eastern sections of the State and
of occasional occurrence in the central and western
parts .

In habit it is variable. In youth its outline is nor-
mally conical, and in old age it is broad and round.
The trunk is continuous and attains a height of
twenty-five to thirty feet and a diameter of eight to
fifteen inches.

RED CEDAR

Two-thirds natural size.

The bark on the trunk is light brown tinged with
red. When the tree has acquired age it separates into
long, narrow, ribbon-like flakes.

The typical leaves are seale-like, about a sixteenth
of an inch in length and dark blue-green in color. On
young trees and sometimes on the mature plants, there
are needle-shaped leaves about one-half inch in length.

The fruit is berry-like, globular, about the size of
a pea and dark blue.

The wood is light, close-grained, not strong, easily
worked and durable. It is red in color and pleasantly
aromatic. It is used for posts, for pails and in cabinet-
making.

16

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

WALNUTS *

How to know the Walnuts

Butternut

Black Walnut

{Juglans cinerea L.)

{Juglans nigra L.)

Habit

Habit

Low, wide-branching, with a broad,

Tall, straight, destitute of branches for

round-topped head.

a considerable distance from the ground,

with a narrow, round-topped head.

Bark on Trunk

Bark on Trunk

Dark gray and divided into broad, flat

Dark brown or almost black and deeply

ridges.

divided into rounded ridges which cross

each other obliquely.

Leaves

Leaves

Leaflets n to 17 in number.

Leaflets 15 to 23 in number.

Fruit

Fruit

Oblong, cylindrical and covered with

Globular, without sticky hairs, and

sticky hairs.

somewhat rough.

The Black Walnut and Butternut are easily culti-
vated, being grown readily by planting the nuts where
they are to remain . Seedlings can also be transplanted,
but care must be exercised, as they have a pronounced
tap-root. The Black Walnut makes a valuable forest
tree, and both species make good shade trees and are
also valuable for their nuts.

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* The true Walnuts. New England people use this name commonly for the
Hickories. (See Hickories.)

17

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MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

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BUTTERNUT (Juglans cinerea L.)

GROWING in rich, moist soil near streams and on
low, rocky hills, the Butternut occurs throughout
Massachusetts, though most abundantly in the eastern
and central portions.

It is a low, broad-headed tree, usually rising to a
height of thirty to forty feet with a trunk diameter of
one to four feet. It branches a few feet
from the ground, sending out long, rather
stout, horizontal limbs.

The bark on the trunk is dark gray and
divided into broad, flat ridges. The leaves

BUTTERNUT

Winter twig.

One-half
natural size.

BUTTERNUT

Leaf and fruit. One-third natural size.

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are alternate, from fifteen to thirty inches long and
have from eleven to seventeen leaflets. The nuts, which
are borne in drooping clusters, are oblong-cylindrical
in shape, about three inches long and covered with
sticky hairs.

The wood is light, soft and weak. It is employed
for the interior finish of houses and used in the manu-
facture of furniture.

18

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

BLACK WALNUT (.Juglans nigra L.)

f"HE Black Walnut is rather rare in Massachusetts,
■ though it occurs more frequently in the western
part of the State than in the eastern . When
found, it is usually growing in rich bottom-
lands or on fertile hillsides.

It is a large tree of upright growth and
narrow, round head, which normally attains
a height of fifty to seventy -five feet and a
trunk diameter of two to five feet. The
branches are stout and rigid and the lower
ones extend horizontally.

The bark on the trunk is blackish and
deeply divided into rounded ridges which
have a tendency to cross each other obliquely.

The leaves are alternate, from one to two
feet long and have from fifteen to twenty -
three leaflets.

The fruit is a globose nut, about two
inches in diameter, with a slightly roughened
surface.

The wood is heavy, hard, strong, durable
and capable of taking a fine polish. It is
very valuable for cabinet -making and the
interior finish of houses. The older the
tree, generally speaking, the darker and more
valuable is the wood.

BLACK
WALNUT

Winter twig
and buds.
One-half nat-
ural size.

BLACK WALNUT. — One-half natural size.

From Sargent's " Manual of the Trees of North America," by permission of
Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

19

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

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HICKORIES

How to know the Hickories

Bitternut

Shagbark

Mocker Nut

Pignut

{Hicoria minima

{Hicoria ovata

{Hicoria alba

{Hicoria glabra

Britton)

Britton)

Britton)

Britton)

Bark on Trunk

Bark on Trunk

Bark on Trunk

Bark on Trunk

Less rough than in

Rougher than in

Dark gray, with

Dark gray. Com-

the other species.

other species.

numerous ridges

paratively smooth.

Light granite-gray

Light gray and sep-

and without flaking

Often broken into

tinged with faint

arates into long,

plates.

plates.

yellow and broken

thick plates which

into thin, plate-like

are only slightly

scales.

attached to the tree.

Leaves

Leaves

Leaves

Leaves

Leaflets 7 to 11 in

Leaflets usually 5,

Leaflets 7 or 9 in

Leaflets 3, 5 or 7

number.

rarely 7.

number.

in number.

Winter Buds

Winter Buds

Winter Buds

Winter Buds

Covered with two

Terminal bud egg-

Termina 1 buds

Terminal buds

pairs of scales and

shaped. Outer

broadly egg-shaped.

elliptical. Outer

bright yellow.

scales are dark

Outer scales are

scales are dark red-

reddish-brown with

dark reddish-brown

dish-brown and

long, narrow tips

and fall in autumn.

usually fall iu the

and persist until

Inner scales light

autumn. Inner

spring.

green.

scales yellow-
green.

Twigs

Twigs

Twigs

Twigs

Smooth.

Smooth or coated

Stout and covered

Smooth.

with soft hairs.

with a woolly
growth.

Fruit

Fruit

Fruit

Fruit

Husk thin. Nut

Husk thick and

Husk thick and

Husk usually thin.

thin-shelled and ker-

deeply channeled at

strong-seen ted.

The shell either

nel bitter.

the seams. Shell

The shell thick

thick or thin and

usually thick and

and the kernel small

the kernel sweet

the kernel sweet.

and sweet.

or bitter.

20

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

BITTERNUT (Hicoria minima Britton)

SNHABITING wet woods near streams and some-
times hilly slopes, the Bitternut is common in
most sections of Massachusetts.

Like most of the genus, its trunk tapers gradually
to the point of branching and develops a tall cylin-
drical head with a breadth of twenty to thirty feet.
Commonly it grows to a height of fifty feet and has a
trunk diameter of one to two feet.

The bark on the trunk is granite -gray faintly tinged
with yellow and less rough than in most of the species,
yet broken into thin, plate-like scales. The
new growths are smooth and orange-green I}}]

t

BITTERNUT HICKORY

Leaf and fruit. One-third natural size.

BITTERNUT

Winter twig.

One-half
natural size.

in color. The winter buds are bright yellow, quite
different from those of its relatives.

The leaves are alternate, compound, from six to
ten inches long and composed of from seven to eleven
leaflets. The individual leaflets are smaller and more
slender than in the case of the other species. The
fruit is about one inch long and thin -husked, while
the nut is usually thin-shelled and brittle and the
kernel very bitter. The wood is heavy, hard and strong.
It is used in making hoops and ox-yokes and for fuel.

21

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

SHAGBARK (Hicoria ovata Britton)

GROWING in rich, deep soil near streams and on
fertile hillsides, the Shagbark is of common occur-
rence throughout the State.

The tallest of the Hickories, it has the characteristic
habit of the group, a tapering trunk destitute of
branches for a considerable distance and a cylindrical
head of relatively narrow spread. Usually it attains a
height of fifty to seventy-five feet and a trunk diam-
eter not exceeding two feet.

The bark on the trunk is light gray, sep-
arating into thick plates often a foot long.
When these are only slightly attached, they
give to
the trunk
a shaggy
appear-
ance in
which is
the sig-
nificance
of the
popular
term

Shagbark
Hickory.

The leaves are
alternate, com-
pound, from eight
to fifteen inches
long and com-
posed of five,
rarely seven leaflets. The fruit is borne singly or in
pairs and is globular. The husk is deeply grooved at
the seams. The kernel is sweet.

The wood is heavy, hard, tough and very strong. It
is used largely in the manufacture of agricultural imple-
ments and in the building of carriages and wagons.
For fuel it is the most satisfactory of our native trees.
The nut is a valued article of commerce.

SHAGBARK HICKORY

Leaf and young fruit. One-third
natural size.

SHAGBARK

Winter twig.
One-half size.

22

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

MOCKER NUT (Hicoria alba Britton)

|~HE Mocker Nut — probably so called because of
' the size of the nut and the smallness of the kernel
— is distributed throughout the State
and is common in the eastern sections.
It grows in various soils, on ridges, rocky
slopes and in rich bottom-lands.

In habit it is very similar to the Shag-
bark. It is a tall tree, fifty to sixty feet
in height and one to two and one-half
feet in diameter.

The bark is dark gray, much like that
of the Pignut, yet with much more
numerous ridges and without the flaking
plates. The recent shoots are short,
stout and more or less covered with a
downy growth.

The leaves are alternate, compound,
eight to ten inches in length and com-
posed of seven to nine leaflets.

The fruit is borne singly or in twos
and ripens in October. It is variable in size
and shape. Usually it is globose and has
a strong- scented husk. The nut is thick-
shelled and the kernel small and sweet.

The wood is heavy, hard, tough and
strong. It serves for the same purposes as
does that of the Shagbark and is only slightly inferior.

MOCKER NUT

Winter twig.
One-half natural

MOCKER NUT. — One-half natural size.

From Sargent's " Manual of the Trees of North America," by permission of

Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

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MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

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THE Pignut is abundantly distributed throughout
Massachusetts. It seems to prefer the dry ridges
and hillsides and is usually in the company of other
trees.

Naturally a tall tree, its height seldom exceeds fifty to
sixty feet and its diameter is from one to two feet. It
has a tapering trunk and a cylindrical head of relatively
narrow spread. The bark on the trunk is dark gray.
On old trunks it is comparatively smooth,
though often it is broken with plates, some-
what after the manner of the Shagbark.

The leaves are alternate, compound, eight
to twelve inches long and composed of five
to seven leaflets. The individual leaflets
are rather small and narrow.

PIGNUT

Winter twig.
One-half natural size.

PIGNUT HICKORY

Leaf and fruit. One-third natural size.

The fruit* which ripens in October, is borne singly
or in pairs and is very variable in shape. Sometimes
it is pear-shaped, sometimes round; at other times it
is egg-shaped. The fruit is usually small and the
husk thin. The wood is heavy, hard, strong, tough
and flexible. It is employed in the manufacture of
wagons, agricultural implements and tool handles.

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

POPLARS

How to know the Poplars

Aspen (American)

Largetooth Aspen

{Populus tremuloides Michx.)

(Populus grandidentata Michx.)

Leaves

Leaves

Roundish. Margin finely toothed.

Broadly egg-shaped. Margin coarsely

Upper surface lustrous.

scalloped. Upper surface not lustrous.

Winter Buds

Winter Buds

Conical, lustrous and somewhat sticky.

Broadly egg-shaped. Not sticky and

covered with whitish, matted hairs.

Bark ,

Bark

Very bitter.

Not bitter.

Note. — Introduced species. — In addition to these native Poplars, two Euro-
pean species are very commonly planted — the Lombardy Poplar (P. nigra Italica),
recognized by its tall, spire-like form, and the White Poplar {P. alba), easily distin-
guished by its leaves, green above and very white-cottony beneath.

The Poplars belong to the Willow family and resemble the Willows, especially
in flower and fruit characters. The nodding, worm-like, staminate and pistillate
catkins are borne upon different trees and, opening before the leaves, are conspicuous
in early spring. The Poplars are quite widely distributed, extending from the Arctic
circle to Mexico and from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

The wood of Poplars is very soft and light and especially liable to warp, but is
cheap and useful for making toys, boxes and smaller furniture. Much of it now goes
to the pulp mills.

The Poplars, like the Willows, can be propagated easily from cuttings.

25

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MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

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ASPEN (American) (Populus tremuloides Michx.)

FHE Aspen is a rapid- growing tree common to all

■ parts of Massachusetts, thriving in many soils and

situations but preferring a moist, somewhat sandy soil.

It is frequently the first tree to take possession where

forests have been burned or cut off.

Here it is a small, graceful tree, seldom exceeding
a height of thirty to forty feet and a diameter of eight
to fifteen inches. The branches are slender, extend at
right angles to the stem, are slightly pendulous toward
the ends and form a narrow, round head.

The bark is smooth and pale green, marked with
patches of dark brown. On the old trunk it is ash-
gray, although at the base of the tree it is almost

AMERICAN ASPEN

Leaves and flowers ; r staminate, 2 pistillate. One-third natural size.

black and conspicuously ridged. The bark is very
bitter and has a taste similar to that of quinine.

The leaves are simple, alternate, roundish, about
two inches in length, finely toothed, and dark green
and lustrous on the upper surface. The leaf stalk is
flattened at right angles to the blade of the leaf.

The flowers are in catkins and appear in April before
the leaves.

The wood is soft, weak and very perishable when
exposed to the weather. It is of little value although
it is used to a certain extent in the making of paper
pulp, box-boards and occasionally for fuel.

26

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

LARGETOOTH ASPEN (Populus grandidenta Michx.)

THE Largetooth Aspen is of common occurrence
throughout the State, growing in various soils and
situations, but preferring rich, sandy soil in the vicinity
of streams and swamps.

It is a quick-growing tree, very similar in habit to
the Aspen. Naturally it attains a height of thirty to
forty feet and a trunk diameter of twelve to twenty
inches.

The bark is smooth and greenish-gray in color. On
old trees it is somewhat darker and divided into broad,
flat ridges.

LARGETOOTH ASPEN

Leaves and flowers ; pistillate above, staminate below.
One-third natural size.

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The leaves are simple, alternate, broadly egg-shaped,
three to four inches in length, coarsely scalloped on
the margins and dark green on the upper surface.
The leaf stalk is flattened at right angles to the blade
of the leaf.

The flowers are in catkins and appear in March or
April, before the leaves.

The wood is similar to that of the preceding, being
light, soft and of little value. It is used for paper
pulp, box-boards and sometimes for fuel.

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MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

^Ef!2?jEr.

BIRCHES

How to know the Birches

Gray Birch

Paper or White

Yellow Birch

Sweet or Black

(Betula populifolia

Birch

{Betula lutea

Birch

Marsh.)

{Betula papyri/era
Marsh.)

Michx. f.)

{Betula leuta L.)

Bark

Bark

Bark

Bark

Grayish-white and

Creamy-white and

Silvery-gray or

Dark, almost black

chalky on the outer

lustrous on the outer

light orange in

and without lustre.

surface and orange

surface and orange

color. Separates

Broken into large,

on the inner. Does

on the inner. Sep-

into thin, persistent

irregular plates.

not separate into

arates readily into

layers. On young

Onyoungbranches

papery layers.

thin layers.

branches aromatic.

aromatic.

Leaves

Leaves

Leaves

Leaves

Triangular, long-

Egg-shaped and not

Egg-shaped to ob-

Egg-shaped to ob-

pointed and coarsely

long-pointed. Usu-

long. Sharply

long. Sharply

doubly toothed.

ally doubly toothed.

doubly toothed.

toothed.

Lustrous on upper

Not lustrous.

surface.

Flowers

Flowers

Flowers

Flowers

Winter catkins

Winter ca tkins

Winter catkins

Winter catkins

borne singly or in

borne in clusters of

not clustered.

not clustered.

pairs.

three.

Three to four on a

Three to four on a

shoot.

shoot.

Note. — The European White Birch (B. alba), an introduced species, is com-
monly planted for ornamental purposes. It is a beautiful tree, closely resembling
the native White Birch. There are numerous horticultural varieties, some with
finely-cut leaves and pendulous branches.

The wood of Birches is valued chiefly for cabinet-making, for spools and other
small articles.

Birches yield quantities of seed and are extremely valuable in reseeding waste
and barren lands, and rendering the conditions favorable to White Pine coming in.
The White Pine then replaces them in clean stands.

When young, the saplings of all the species look more or less alike.

28

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

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GRAY BIRCH (Betula populifolia Marsh.)

j~HE Gray Birch grows abundantly in all parts of
■ the State, thriving on the poorest sandy soils, yet
by no means limiting itself to such unfavorable situa-
tions. This is the tree that is usually the first to take
possession of fields or pastures that have gone into
disuse, mingling with other plants of similar desires
or taking possession of many areas by itself.

As commonly found,
it is a small, slender,
pyramidal tree, from
twenty to twenty-five
feet in height. The trunk
as a rule
ascends
obliquely.
Branches
are short,
slender and
often pen-
dulous and
clothe the
trunk to
the ground.

The whole appearance of the tree is light
and airy . The bark on the trunk is grayish-
white and chalky on the outer surface and
orange on the inner. Unlike some of the
other birches, its bark does not easily sep-
arate into layers. The branches are black-
ish and the young shoots are brown. The
leaves are simple, alternate, triangular, gray birch
long-pointed, two and one-half to four
inches in length, coarsely toothed and dark
green and glossy on the upper surface.

The flowers are in catkins. The sterile ones appear
in the fall and are usually solitary.

The wood is light, soft and not durable. It is used
in the manufacture of spools and shoe pegs and is
useful for summer fuel. The tree is chiefly valuable
for the rapidity with which it grows on poor soil.

GRAY BIRCH

Leaves and fruit. One-third natural size.

Winter twig
and buds.

One-half
natural size.

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29

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MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

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PAPER OR WHITE BIRCH (Betula papyrifera Marsh.)

IN Massachusetts the Paper Birch, so called because
■ of the use to which the early settlers put the bark,
grows commonly in the middle and western parts of
the State and is very infrequent in the eastern sections.
Wherever found, its favorite home is the vicinity of
streams and swamps
and the damp,
wooded slopes.

WHITE OR PAPER BIRCH

Leaves and fruit.
One-third natural size.

In habit it is a
pyramidal tree of
graceful appearance,
commonly attaining
a height of about
fifty feet and a diameter of one to two feet.

The trunk is usually continuous, though it
may sometimes divide, and the slender
branches are horizontal or slightly pendulous.
When old or crowded, the Paper Birch loses
its lower branches and assumes a small, round
head. The bark on the trunk is white and
lustrous on the outer surface and orange on
the inner. It separates freely into thin,
papery scales. The leaves are simple, alter- white
nate, egg-shaped, apex not long-pointed, °\Frch R
three to four inches long, doubly toothed and winter twig

iiii i o an(* buds.

dark, lustreless green on the upper surface . one-half
The flowers are borne in catkins. The sterile natura slze"
catkins which appear in the fall are mostly in clusters
of three. The wood is light, strong and hard. It is
used for spools, shoe lasts, pegs, in the making of
paper pulp and for fuel.

SO

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

"X Jcr JET JIT JJT JIT JC JETjE JflT jIT jsT ^ Jet JZ? jet jI

YELLOW BIRCH (5e^to ?«fea Michx. f.)

THIS Birch is common throughout Massachusetts,
' inhabiting the low, rich woods and hillsides or
mountain slopes.

It is the largest of the native birches and often
attains a height of fifty to sixty feet and a trunk
diameter of two to three feet. Usually
the trunk divides at a considerable dis-
tance from the ground, continuing in
two or three large limbs. The branches
are numerous and slender. In the woods
the head is small and irregular, while in
the open it is broad and round.

The bark on the trunk is silvery-gray
or light orange in color and separates
into thin, persistent layers. On very old
trees the trunk is rough, gray or blackish
and without lustre. The young twigs are
light brown, lustrous and aromatic, but
to a less degree than those of the Sweet
Birch.

The leaves are simple, alternate, egg-
shaped or approximately oblong, doubly
toothed, three to five inches long and
dark green and lustreless on the upper
surface.

The flowers are in catkins . The winter
catkins are three to four in number and
not in clusters.

The wood is heavy, strong, hard and
flexible. It is used in the making of
furniture, in the building of carriages,
for flooring and for fuel.

When this species is in clear stands yellow
it should be thinned as soon as it gets birch

1 io • i • i i i i Winter twig. One-

large enough for use, as it is attacked hal{ natural size>
by a fungus which depreciates the value
of the stand for future results. This species takes on
a deep bronze when very old.

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MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

SWEET OR BLACK BIRCH (Bekda lenta L.)

THE Sweet Birch is of frequent occurrence through-
■ out the State, though it rarely grows in the vicinity
of the coast. Its favorite habitat is the rich, moist
soil of woods or the banks of streams.

As commonly found, it is a medium-sized tree,
having a height of about fifty feet and a trunk dia-
meter of one to two feet, although
specimens may exceed these dimensions.
The trunk is upright and the branches

are slender,
7 extending al-
most horizon-
tally, with the
lower ones
often some-
what pendu-
lous. In the
open the tree
develops a
symmetrical,
round head.
The bark on the trunk is dark, almost
black, dull and broken into large, ir-
regular plates. On old trunks it very
much resembles that of the Sweet
Cherry, wherefore the term Cherry
Birch is often applied to the tree. The
young shoots are dark brown, lustrous
and very aromatic. It is this last
characteristic which justifies the name
Sweet Birch.

The leaves are simple, alternate, egg-shaped or

approaching oblong, three to four inches long, sharply

toothed and dark green and dull on the upper surface.

The flowers are in catkins. Of the winter ones there

are three or four on a shoot.

The wood is heavy, very strong, hard, durable and
easily wrought. It is used largely in the making of
furniture and is highly esteemed for fuel.

SWEET OR BLACK BIRCH

Leaves and fruit.
One-third natural size.

SWEET BIRCH

Winter twig. One-
half natural size.

32

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

i

HORNBEAM OR IRONWOOD (Ostrya virgimana

Koch.)

THE Hornbeam, so called because of its general
resemblance to the European Hornbeam, is a
small, slender, round-topped tree, usually not more
than twenty to thirty feet tall and eight to twelve
inches through. Its branches are long, slender and
somewhat drooping at the ends. It occurs commonly
throughout the State, growing on gravelly and rocky
slopes , often in
rather open woods .

The bark on the
trunk is light brown
tinged with red and
breaks into fine
scales. These sepa-
rate easily, are nar-
rower than the scales
of any rough-barked
tree and become finer
and narrower as the
tree grows older.

The leaves are
simple, alternate,
egg-shaped or nearly
oblong, sharply
toothed, two to three inches long and very similar to
those of the Blue Beech.

The flowers are borne in catkins, the sterile ones
appearing in the fall, usually in clusters of three, and
the fertile ones appearing in the spring.

The fruit, which ripens in September, very closely
resembles a cluster of hops.

The wood is compact, close-grained, strong, tough,
durable and very heavy. It is good for levers, stakes,
binding poles, handles, mallets and the like.

HORNBEAM OR IRONWOOD

Leaves and fruit. One-third natural size.

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MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

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BLUE BEECH (Water Beech) (Carpinus caroliniana

Walt.)

INHABITING wet woods and the border of swamps
and streams, the Blue Beech is of common occur-
rence throughout the State, though less frequent near
the coast than inland. It is a slow-growing, small
tree, ten to thirty feet high, with a short trunk not
more than six to twelve inches in diameter. The
branches are irregular and crooked and extend
at varying angles. The head is compact, broad
and flat or somewhat roundish. The trunk is

marked with
irregular,
longitudinal
ridges. Its
bark is smooth
like that of
the Beech and
of a bluish-

BLUE BEECH grav Color .

Leaves and fruit. One-third natural For this Tea-

son it is called
the Blue Beech. The leaves are simple,
alternate, egg-shaped or oval, sharply
and irregularly toothed,
two to three inches in
length and very similar
to those of the Sweet
Birch, though the aro-
matic flavor is wanting.
The flowers are borne in
catkins. Both the fertile and the sterile ones appear
in the spring.

In the fruit, the leaf-like body which subtends the
nutlet- is three-lobed and not inflated, differing in this
respect from the fruit of the Hornbeam.

The wood is compact, close-grained, tough, durable
and very strong. It is sometimes used for levers,
beetles and the handles of tools.

BLUE BEECH

Winter twig. One-half natural size

34

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

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BEECH (Fragus atropunicea Sudworth)

THE Beech is of common occurrence throughout the
State, yet it is more abundant in the western sec-
tions than the eastern. Its home is on cool rocky slopes.
In habit it is a spreading tree with a broad and dense
head, usually growing from fifty to sixty feet high and
having a diameter of one and one-half
to three feet. Not infrequently the
stem is without branches for ten to

BEECH
Leaves and fruit. One-third natural size.

BEECH

Winter twig and buds.
One-half natural size.

twenty feet. The bark on the trunk is smooth and blue-
gray in color. It is not to be mistaken for that of any
other native tree, except possibly that of the Blue Beech.
The winter buds are long and slender and taper
slowly to a sharp point. The leaves are simple, alter-
nate, oval, from three to five inches in length, coarsely
serrate and green on both surfaces. The fruit is a
four-valved, prickly bur which encloses a triangular
nut. Its wood is hard, strong, tough, perishable and
liable to warp. It is employed in the manufacture of
some kinds of furniture, for shoe lasts, for the handles
of tools and for fuel.

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35

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

CHESTNUT (Castanea dentaia Borkh.)

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f"HE Chestnut is found commonly throughout Massa-
■ chusetts, though less frequently near the sea-coast
than inland. Its habitat is rich, well-drained soil. A
rapid grower and one of the tallest and straightest of
our trees, it usually has a single trunk destitute of
limbs for a considerable distance and a rather small,
round head. However, when it is uncrowded, the trunk
often separates into several stout branches which form
a low, round head of great breadth. In the
former case it often attains a height of sixty
to eighty feet and has a diameter of three
to four feet. Most frequently it is met with
in the coppice form, for it
is one of the trees most
freely reproduced from

CHESTNUT

Winter twig and

buds. One-half

natural size.

CHESTNUT

Leaf and fruit. One-third
natural size.

sprouts. In this case it has a height of thirty

to forty feet and a diameter of eight to

fifteen inches.

The bark on the trunk of a small tree is

dark gray and smooth. On the old trunk it
is thick and divided by shallow furrows into broad, flat
ridges. On the twigs the bark is dark brown. The
leaves are simple, alternate, five to ten inches in length,
sharply toothed and dark yellow-green in color. The
fruit is a round, four-valved, prickly bur and con-
tains, as a rule, two to three dark brown nuts. The
wood is coarse-grained, light, soft, weak, but durable
when exposed to alternations of dryness and moisture.
It is used in the making of furniture, for house finish-
ing, for railway ties, fence-posts and for fuel.

36

9

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

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OAKS

How to know the Oaks

White Oak

Chestnut Oak

Swamp White Oak

(Quercus alba L.)

(Quercus prinus L.)

(Quercus platanoides Sud.)

Bark

Bark

Bark

Light ashen-gray and

Dark brown or almost

Grayish-brown and deeply

broken into thin, irregu-

black and divided into

and irregularly divided into

lar flakes.

broad, rounded ridges.

broad, flat ridges.

Leaves

Leaves

Leaves

With rounded lobes.

Not lobed but coarsely
and irregularly scalloped.

Scalloped or slightly lobed.

Fruit

Fruit

Fruit

Matures first year.

Matures first year.

Matures first year.

Winter Buds

Winter Buds

Winter Buds

Broadly egg-shaped,

Egg-shaped, rather long-

Roundish, obtuse at apex,

acute or obtuse at apex,

pointed and chestnut-

and brown.

and red-brown.

brown.

ill

Red Oak

Scarlet Oak

Yellow Oak

(Quercus rtibra L.)

(Quercus coccinea
Muenchh)

(Quercus velutina Lam.)

Bark

Bark

Bark

Dark gray or almost black

Dark gray and broken

Dark, almost black, and

and coarsely and irregu-

into small, irregular

deeply divided into broad,

larly ridged, yet never ex-

ridges. Inner bark red-

rounded ridges. Inner

tremely rough. Inner bark

dish.

bark often yellow.

reddish.

Leaves

Leaves

Leaves

Lobes with sharp tips.

Lobes with sharp tips.

Lobes with sharp tips.

Upper surface without

Upper surface lustrous.

Upper surface lustrous.

lustre.

Fruit

Fruit

Fruit

Matures second year.

Matures second year.

Matures second year.

Winter Buds

Winter Buds

Winter Buds

Conical, reddish-brown

Small, reddish-brown and

Large, strongly angled

and smooth.

smooth.

and coated with matted
wool.

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MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

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WHITE OAK

Leaves and fruit.
One-third natural size.

■ • . ■

WHITE OAK (gwercwsataaL.)

THE White Oak, which receives this appellation
because of the light color of the bark on the
trunk, grows very commonly in Massachusetts, though
it is perhaps less abundant in the western sections than
elsewhere. It occurs in a variety of soils and situa-
tions, usually on the lighter ground of the uplands,
yet sometimes on moist land.

A tall tree, commonly
developing a height of
fifty to seventy-five feet
and a trunk diameter of
three to four feet, it
shows a considerable
diversity of habit. In
the woods it has a tall,
single stem, with a nar-
row head. In the open
the bole is short and
the large, diverging
limbs, many of them nearly horizontal,
form a broad, round-topped head.

The bark on the trunk is light ashen-
gray and broken into thin, irregular flakes .
The leaves are simple, alternate, from
four to seven inches in length and usually
divided into seven lobes. The upper sur-
face of the leaf is bright green and the
lower, pale green or whitish. In the autumn
white oak ^ne foliage turns to a deep wine-red. Not
winter twig infrequently it remains on the tree during:

and buds. . n .

One-half the winter. The flowers appear in May
when the leaves are half grown. The fruit
matures the first season and ripens in September. The
acorn is about three-fourths of an inch in length, light
chestnut-brown and enclosed for about one-fourth its
length in the cup. Its wood is the most valuable of the
native trees. It is hard, heavy, tough, close-grained
and durable. It is employed for ship-timber, carriage-
making, agricultural implements and for furniture and
interior finishing. The bark is valuable for tanning.

38

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MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

CHESTNUT OAK (Quercus prinus L.)

|~HIS tree derives the justification for its common
■ name, Chestnut Oak, from the resemblance which
its leaves bear to those of the Chestnut. It occurs in
the eastern parts of Massachusetts, sometimes rather
frequent locally, as in the Blue Hills. Usually it may
be found in rich, moist soil on rocky slopes and banks.

Here it is a small or medium tree,
twenty -five to forty feet in height with
a trunk diameter of one to one and
one-half feet. Nevertheless it may
sometimes assume greater dimensions.
In the former case the trunk is usually
continuous. The branches are small
and form a narrow, round head.

The bark on the old trunk is dark
reddish-brown or almost black and
divided into broad, rounded ridges
which have small surface scales.

The leaves are simple, alternate,
five or six inches long, oblong or lance-
shaped, coarsely and irregularly scal-
loped, and yellowish -green and lustrous
on the upper surface.

The flowers appear in May when chestnut oak
the leaves are partially grown.

The fruit matures the first year.
The acorns are about an inch long, light brown in
color and slightly or almost half enclosed by the cup.

The wood is heavy, hard, strong and durable when
in contact with the soil. It is employed for fencing,
for railroad ties and for fuel. The bark is used in
tanning. Chestnut Oak is considered to be equal in
value to the White Oak.

Winter twig and buds.
One-half natural size.

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39

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

SWAMP WHITE OAK (Quercus platanoides Sud.)

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THIS species gets its popular designation, Swamp
■ White Oak, from its resemblance to the White
Oak and its frequent fondness for swampy situations.
Growing in rich soil along streams and swamps, it
occurs throughout the State and is rather common in
some of the eastern sections. In habit it bears a gen-
eral likeness to the White Oak, though its branches
are not so spreading and its head is less reg-
ular and narrower. Ordinarily its height is
from forty to fifty feet and its diameter is
from two to three feet.

The bark on the trunk
is grayish-b r o w n and
deeply and irregularly
divided into broad, flat
ridges. The bark of the
White Oak is somewhat
lighter and the scales finer.
On the young branches
the scales hang loosely,
giving a marked appear-
ance to the tree.

The leaves are simple,
alternate, obovate or ob-
long, four to six inches
long, scalloped or slightly
lobed and dark, lustrous green on the upper
surface.

The flowers appear in May when the leaves winter twig

. ,, and buds.

are partially grown. One-half

mi • n mi natural size.

T.he fruit ripens the first season. I he
acorn is about one inch long, light chestnut-brown in
color and enclosed in the cup for about one-third its
length.

Its wood is very similar to that of the White Oak
and only slightly inferior in quality. It is used in
construction, in carriage-building, for interior finish-
ing, for furniture and for fuel.

SWAMP WHITE OAK

Leaf and fruit. One-third
natural size.

SWAMP

WHITE

OAK

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40

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

RED OAK (Quercus rubra L.)

THE Red Oak is very abundantly distributed through-
' out Massachusetts. It occurs in various soils and
in various situations, excepting, however, wet land.

One of the most rapid-growing of the Oaks and the
largest of the native species, it attains a height of
sixty to seventy feet and a diameter of three to four
feet. Frequently a specimen exceeds these dimensions.
Normally the trunk is continuous. The branches are
jk stout, upright or horizontal, develop higher up
ym on the trunk than do those of the White Oak

and form a narrow
or sometimes broad
head.

The bark on the
young tree is
smooth and gray.
On the old it is
dark gray or almost
black and ridged
coarsely and irreg-
ularly, yet never
becoming extremely
rough. The leaves
are simple, alter-
nate, five to eight
inches in length and
variable in outline.

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RED OAK
Leaf and fruit. One-third natural size.

red oak Frequently they are oblong and show seven to

Winter twig nine lobes. The upper surface is a dull, dark

One-half green and the lower surface is yellowish-green.

natura size, rp^ flowerSj the earliest of the Oaks, appear

in late April or early May when the leaves are partially
grown. The fruit matures the second season. The
acorn is from three-fourths to one and one-fourth
inches in length and is larger than that of any other
native Oak. The wood is heavy, hard and strong. It
is less valuable than that of most of the Oaks, though
it is used for furniture and interior finishing. For
fuel it is held in little esteem.

41

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MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

SCARLET OAK (Quercus coccmea Muenchh)

THE deep scarlet which the leaves assume in the
■ autumn is responsible for the popular name which
the tree possesses. Normally growing on dry soil, it
occurs abundantly in the eastern sections of Massa-
chusetts, frequently in the central portion and only
rarely in the western.

As to habit, it is usually a medium-sized tree,
thirty to fifty feet in height and one to two feet in
diameter. The trunk is straight and taper-
ing. The branches are slender, horizontal
and drooping towards the ends. The head
is rather narrow and open.

The bark on the old trunk is dark gray
and broken by shallow fissures into irreg-
ular ridges. The inner bark is reddish.

The leaves are simple, alternate, three to
six inches in length, variable in outline but
usually oblong or egg-shaped, divided into
seven or sometimes nine lobes and bright,
lustrous green on the upper surface.

The flowers appear in May when the
leaves are about half grown.

The fruit matures the second season.
The acorn is about one-half inch long,
bright reddish-brown, often striped and
enclosed in the cup for about one-half its
length.

The wood is heavy, hard and strong. In
value it ranks a little lower than that of
the Red Oak and serves to a limited extent
for the same purposes.

Chiefly because of its beautiful autumnal
coloring it is rather commonly planted for
ornamental purposes.

SCARLET
OAK

Winter twig
and buds.
One-half

natural size.

42

■r

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

YELLOW OAK (Quercus velatina Lam.)

THE Yellow Oak, or, as it is more frequently called,
■ the Black Oak, occurs in all parts of Massachu-
setts and is really abundant in the eastern sections.
Its usual home is on poor soil, particularly on gravelly
uplands and ridges.

As to habit, it is intermediate between the Red Oak
and the Scarlet Oak. The trunk commonly attains a
height of fifty to sixty feet and a diameter of two to
three feet. The branches are stouter than those of

YELLOW OAK
Leaf and fruit. One-third natural size.

the Scarlet Oak, yet not so stout as those of the Red.
The head is narrow and roundish.

The bark on young stems is smooth and dark gray
or brown. On old trunks it is dark, almost black, and
is deeply divided into broad, rounded ridges. In this
last respect it differs from the Red Oak, the bark of
which has flat ridges and is never quite so rough.

The winter buds are large, strongly angled and
covered with a matted, woolly growth.

The leaves are very variable, sometimes resembling
those of the Scarlet and sometimes those of the Red
Oak. They are simple, alternate, egg-shaped or ob-

43

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

Yellow Oak — Concluded

long, mostly seven-lobed, sometimes divided nearly to
the midrib and again nearly entire, and dark green and
glossy on the upper surface.

The flowers appear in the early part of May when
the leaves are nearly half grown.

The fruit matures the second year. The acorn is
one-half to three-fourths of an inch long, light red-
brown, often marked with lines of a darker color and
enclosed in the cup for about one-half its length.

The wood is heavy, hard, coarse-grained and strong.
It has little use except for fuel. The bark is used in
tanning and in medicine.

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YELLOW OAK

Winter twig and buds. One-half natural size.

44

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

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ELMS

How to know the Elms

Slippery Elm

White Elm

( Ulma fiubescens Walt.)

(Ulmus ainericana L.)

Habit

Habit

Medium height. Head broad and almost

Tall and variable in outline, yet typically

flat.

vase-shape.

Bark on Trunk

Bark on Trunk

Dark brown tinged with red. Inner bark

Ashy-gray. Inner bark not mucilagin-

mucilaginous.

ous.

Leaves

Leaves

Very rough on the upper surface and

Somewhat rough on the upper surface

nearly as rough on the lower.

and smooth on the lower.

Winter Buds

Winter Buds

Dark brown and covered with rusty hairs.

Brown and smooth.

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MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

SLIPPERY ELM (Ulmus pttbescens Walt.)

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THE Slippery Elm, a common name attached to this
■ species because of the mucilaginous inner-bark, is
very rare or wanting in the eastern sections of the State,
but is rather frequent in the western parts. It has a
preference for low, rich soil, though it some-
times occurs on higher ground.

In habit it is a lower tree than the Ameri-
can Elm and, in proportion to its height,
more spreading. It is a medium- sized tree,
attaining a height of forty to fifty feet and
a trunk diameter of one to two feet. The
head is very broad and almost flat.

The bark on the trunk is thick, dark
brown tinged with red, divided by shallow
fissures into flat ridges and covered with
flat scales.

The winter buds
are obtuse, dark
brown in color and
covered with rusty
hairs .

The leaves are
simple, alternate,
four to six inches
long , sharply doubly
toothed, dark green
and very rough on
the upper surface
and rough on the
under -surface.
The nowers appear before the leaves about the mid-
dle of April and the small fruit ripens in late spring.
The wood is very similar to that of the American
Elm, being heavy, strong and durable. It is employed
in the manufacture of agricultural implements, for the
hubs of wheels, in the construction of vessels and for
fence-posts.

slippery

ELM

Winter twig
and buds.
One-half

natural size.

SLIPPERY ELM

Leaves and fruit. One-third
natural size.

46

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

WHITE OR AMERICAN ELM (Ulmus Americana L.)

THE American Elm is very common everywhere in
Massachusetts and reaches its maximum develop-
ment in the Connecticut Valley. Its favorite habitat is
the moist ground along streams and rich bottom-lands.
Its graceful habit, typically vase-shape, yet often
varied, is very familiar. Commonly from fifty to sixty
feet in height, it often grows to a height of one hun-

WHITE ELM

Leaves and fruit. One-third natural size.

dred feet or more and
acquires a trunk diameter
of six to ten feet. It is
usually a quick-growing
tree.

The bark on the trunk
is ashy-gray, thick and
divided by deep fissures
into flat ridges which sep-
arate into thin scales.

The leaves are simple,
alternate, two to five
inches in length, coarsely

doubly toothed and dark green and somewhat rough

on the upper surface.

The flowers appear in late March or early April

before the leaves, and the small, winged fruit ripens

in May before the leaves are fully developed.

The wood is heavy, hard, strong and tough. It is

employed for the hubs of wheels, in boat and ship

building, for flooring and in cooperage.

47

AMERICAN ELM

Winter twig and buds. One-half natural
size.

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MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

HACKBERRY (Celtis occidentalis L.)

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/^ROWING in various situations, sometimes in moist,
" rich ground, yet more frequently on gravelly soil
or rocky hillsides, it occurs occasionally throughout
the State, nevertheless it is somewhat more abundant
in the southeastern sections near the coast. Here it is
a slow-growing tree, of medium dimensions, and attains
a height of twenty to forty feet and a diameter of eight
to twenty inches . Its habit is somewhat vari-
able. The trunk is short and the branches
are stout, spreading and angular. The twigs
are extremely slender. The head is low and
round.

HACKBERRY

Winter twig
and buds. One-
half natural size.

HACKBERRY

Leaves and fruit. yhjr The bark on the

One-third natural W tmnk Qf ol(J treeg

is grayish and is
broken into thin scales. It is often marked
with ridges or with varying excrescences.
The bark on the season's shoots is reddish-
brown.

The leaves are simple, alternate, two to four inches
long and variable in outline. They bear some resem-
blance to the leaf of the American Elm. The flowers
are greenish and appear in May with the leaves.

The fruit is a globular drupe about one-fourth of an
inch in diameter. The flesh is sweet and the outer sur-
face is purplish-red, changing in winter to brownish-
orange. The wood is heavy, rather soft, weak and quick
to decay. It is employed in making the cheaper grades
of furniture.

48

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

SASSAFRAS (Sassafras sassafras Karst.)

THE Sassafras occurs in almost every part of Massa-
chusetts. It grows in various soils and situations
but prefers a rich, somewhat sandy, well- drained soil.
For the most part it is a small tree. Usually its
height would not be much above thirty feet and its
diameter
much over
twelve
inches.
The stem
is rarely
erect, and
is often
bent and
crooked.
In young
trees the
branche s
h a v e a
whorled
appear-
ance. They

are always short and stout, and frequently
they are contorted. The head is narrow and
flat. The bark of the old trunk is thick,
dark reddish-brown and strongly ridged.
On young stems the bark is greenish and finely striate.
The twigs are yellowish-green and have strong aromatic
properties, as does the bark of all the parts.

The leaves are simple, alternate and of greatly vary-
ing outline. Sometimes they are entire and then again
they are three-lobed. In summer the foliage is dark
green and in the autumn it turns to yellow or to orange
tinged with red. The flowers are small, greenish -yellow
and appear in May when the leaves are unfolding.

The fruit is a small, dark blue, lustrous berry which
ripens in early fall. The wood is light, soft, brittle
and very durable when in contact with the soil. It is
used for posts, in construction of light boats and in
cooperage. The roots supply the oil of sassafras.

49

SASSAFRAS

Leaves and young fruit. One-third natural size.

SASSAFRAS

Winter twig
and buds. One-
half natural
size.

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MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

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SYCAMORE (ButtonwOOd) (Platanus occidentalis L.)

[~HIS, the largest of the New England trees, occurs
■ occasionally throughout the State, frequenting the
borders of streams and rich bottom-lands. It grows
from fifty to one hundred feet in height and has a
trunk diameter of three to eight feet. The trunk may
spread near the ground into several large, secondary
limbs, or it may rise without branching for a consider-
able distance and then have large, spreading branches.
The branchlets are very often tufted in
appearance, due to the activities of a
fungus. The bark on the trunk and large

SYCAMORE

Winter twig and

buds. One-half

natural size.

mm

SYCAMORE

Leaf and fruiting head. One-third natural size.

limbs is greenish-gray in color and flakes
off in broad scales, exposing the inner bark
which is at first whitish or light green,
then darker. The leaves are simple, alter-
nate, three to five lobed and light green.
The base of the leaf-stalk is swollen and includes the
winter bud. The fruit is in the shape of a ball and is
about an inch in diameter. It contains very many
small seeds and usually remains on the tree until
spring. The wood is hard and firm but very perish-
able when exposed to the weather, and liable to warp.
It is used for tobacco boxes, furniture and interior
finish of houses. It is fairly good for fuel.

50

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MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

WILD RED CHERRY (Bird Cherry)

{Frunus pennsylvanica L. f.)

j~HE Wild Red Cherry is a tree of little value, which
■ often takes possession of areas cleared by fire. It
occurs in the State, being more abundant in the central
and western sections than elsewhere. While it grows
in a variety of situations, it really prefers a moist,
rich soil.

In habit it is a small tree, seldom exceeding a height
of twenty -five to thirty feet and a diameter of ten
inches. The trunk is continuous and the branches
slender. The head is narrow and roundish or oblong.

WILD RED CHERRY

Leaves, flowers and fruit. One-third natural size.

The bark on the young trunk is smooth and red-
dish brown, while in the old it is dark red-brown and
broken into thin plates. The inner bark possesses
bitter, aromatic properties.

The leaves are simple, alternate, oblong or lance-
shape, three to four inches in length, finely toothed
on the margin and bright green and lustrous on the
upper surface.

The flowers appear in May when the leaves are
about half grown. They are white and occur in clus-
ters of four or five.

The fruit is globular in shape, a little larger than
a pea and bright red.

The wood is light and soft and without economic
value.

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51

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

BLACK CHERRY (Prunus serotina Ehrh.)

fOR the economic value of its wood, the Black
■ Cherry is the most important of the native
Cherries. It is of common occurrence in all parts of
the State, growing on many soils and in many situa-
tions, yet preferring moist, rich ground.

As to habit, though sometimes a mere shrub, it
usually reaches a height of thirty to forty feet and
acquires a diameter of ten to fifteen inches, — at
times even exceeding these dimensions. The trunk is
usually continuous and the branches are small and
horizontal. The head is narrow and oblong.

BLACK CHERRY

Leaves and fruit. One-third natural size.

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The bark on young stems is red-brown and some-
what lustrous. On the old trunk it is darker and
broken into small, irregular plates. The inner bark
is bitter to the taste.

The leaves are simple, alternate, oblong to lance-
oblong in shape, three to five inches in length, the
margin notched with fine teeth, somewhat leathery in
texture and dark green and lustrous on the upper
surface.

The flowers appear in late May or early June, when
the leaves are only half grown. They are small, white

52

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

BLACK CHERRY — Concluded

and borne in many -flowered racemes which are four to
five inches in length.

The fruit is globular, about the size of a pea, dark
purple in color and usually slightly bitter.

The wood is light, close-grained, rather hard, not
liable to warp and capable of taking a good polish.
It is employed in cabinet-making and for interior
finishing.

The fruit and bark possess valuable medicinal
properties.

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MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

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LOCUST (Robima pseudacacia L.)

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1 LTHOUGH the Locust is not native to the State,
'* it has become so thoroughly naturalized that it is
as common as many of the indigenous species. It
prefers rich ground, yet it is found in various soils
and situations.

When young it is a rapid-growing tree, often attain-
ing a height of twenty feet in half as many years.
After that period its increase is much slower. Here
it is usually a small tree, from twenty-five to fifty
feet in height and from eight inches to two feet in
diameter. The trunk is erect or sometimes oblique
and irregular. The branches are small and brittle and
form a narrow, oblong head.

The bark on the old trunk is dark gray, thick and
deeply and irregularly furrowed. The young branches
are armed with spines which disappear as the tree
ages.

The leaves are pinnately compound and composed
of seven to twenty-one leaflets. The individual leaflets
are small, about an inch or an inch and a quarter in
length and oval in outline.

The flowers, which appear in early June after the
leaves unfold, are borne in loose racemes, four to five
inches in length. They are creamy- white, showy,
fragrant and much frequented by bees.

The fruit is a pod which is smooth, flat, dark brown
and about three inches in length.

The wood is heavy, exceedingly hard, strong and
very durable when in contact with the soil. It is
employed for shipbuilding, for fence-posts, in turnery
and for fuel.

54

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

MAPLES

How to know the Maples

Striped Maple

Sugar Maple

Silver Maple

Red Maple

(A cer pennsylvani-

(A cer saccharum

{A cer saccharmum

(A cer rubrtim

cum L.)

Marsh.)

L.)

L.)

Habit

Habit

Habit

Habit

A shrub or small,

When young the

Normally, trunk

Trunk upright and

erect tree. Trunk

outline is usually

separates at a few

usually continu-

continuous.

narrowly egg-

feet from ground

ous. Occasion-

shaped. Later it

into three or four

ally it divides into

may become round-

upright stems.

2 or 3 upright

ish. Trunk con-

Branches slender

stems. Head

tinuous.

and often pendu-

narrow and round-

lous.

ish.

Bark on Trunk

Bark on Trunk

Bark on Trunk

Bark on Trunk

Reddish-brown or

Gray in color. On

Dark gray with a

Dark gray. Mark-

dark green with

old trunk, rough

reddish tinge. More

ed by longitudinal

whitish longitudinal

with long ascending

or less furrowed.

ridges and broken

stria tions.

scales which project

Separates into thin

into plate - like

irregularly at the

scales.

scales.

edges.

Leaves

Leaves

Leaves

Leaves

Roundish, 3-lobed

Usually s lobes,

Usually 5 lobes,

Lobes 3 to 5.

and finely and sharp-

sometimes 3. Bays

rarely 3. Lobes

Lobes broad and

ly doubly toothed.

between lobes

long, narrow and

irregularly doubly

rounded. Lobes

toothed. Silvery

serrate or toothed.

sparingly toothed

white on under-sur-

White on under-

face.

surface.

Flowers

Flowers

Flowers

Flowers

Bright yellow, in

Greenish-yellow, in

Greenish-yellow 0 r

Scarlet or yellow-

slender racemes.

clusters, on long,

pinkish, in clusters.

ish-red, in clusters.

Appear when leaves

threadlike stalks.

Appear long before

Appear before the

are fully developed.

Appear with the
leaves.

the leaves.

leaves.

■ f ■ . ~ — - ■

55

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

1

STRIPED MAPLE (Acer pennsylvanicum L.)

THIS Maple is of common occurrence in the central
■ and western sections of Massachusetts, but rare
or absent near the coast. In the tree form it is slender
and graceful, attaining a height of twenty to twenty-
five feet and a diameter of five to eight inches. Its
favorite habitat is cool, rocky woods.

The bark on the trunk is reddish-
brown or dark green, striped longi- im«

STRIPED MAPLE

Leaf and fruit. One-third natural size.

STRIPED MAPLE

Winter twig and buds.
One-half natural size.

tudinally with whitish lines which in
time turn brown. The bark on the
twigs is bright reddish-brown.

The leaves are simple, opposite, from five to six
inches in length and nearly as broad, three-lobed and
pale green. In the autumn they change to a clear,
light yellow.

The flowers, which are bright yellow in color, appear
in slender racemes in late May or early June when the
leaves are fully developed.

The wood is light, soft and without direct commer-
cial value.

56

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

SUGAR MAPLE (Rock Maple) (Acer saccharum

Marsh.)

I~HE Sugar Maple may be found abundantly through-
■ out the State, although its occurrence is much less
frequent toward the seacoast. Wherever it may grow,
it is much at home in cool, rich woods and on moist,
rocky slopes. Normally, it is a tree growing from fifty
to sixty feet high, yet it often reaches a height of at
least one hundred feet. In the open the branches
develop at a distance of eight or ten feet above
the ground and make an acute angle with the
trunk, thus forming, at least when the tree
is young, an
egg - shape d
head. Later
in life the tree
may assume a
roundish form.
The bark on
the old trunk
is gray and
roughened
with long ver-
tical scales
which project
irregularly at
the edges. The
young twigs
are reddish-brown in color and lustrous.

The leaves are simple, opposite, from three
to five inches in length and have three to five
lobes. The upper surface of the leaf is dark
green, and the under-surface is pale green,
autumn the foliage takes on brilliant shades of red,
scarlet and orange. The flowers, which are greenish-
yellow in color, are borne on long, thread-like flower
stalks and appear about the middle of April.

The wood is heavy, hard, durable, close-grained and
capable of taking and retaining a good polish. It is
used largely in the interior finish of buildings, in the
making of furniture and in shipbuilding.

SUGAR MAPLE

Leaf and fruit. One-third natural size.

SUGAR
MAPLE

Winter twig
and buds.
One-half

natural size.

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v

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

SILVER MAPLE (Acer saccharinum L.)

THE Silver Maple is met with occasionally in the
■ central part of the State, though in the eastern
sections it is rare or absent. It grows chiefly along
streams and in rich intervales.

Normally, it is a tree from fifty to sixty feet in
height, having a trunk which separates at a few feet
from the ground into three or four upright stems that
are destitute of branches for a considerable distance.

The branches
proper are long,
slender and not
infrequently pen-
dulous.

The bark on the
trunk is dark gray
with perhaps a
reddish tinge,
more or less fur-
rowed and sep-
arates into large,
thin scales. The
bark on the twigs
is chestnut -brown
in color and lus-
trous.

The leaves are
simple, opposite, from six to seven inches in length
and deeply five-lobed. The upper surface of the leaf
is pale, while the lower surface is silvery- white. In
autumn the foliage becomes a pale yellow.

The flowers, which are greenish-yellow or sometimes
pinkish, appear before the leaves, in late March or
early April. ,

The wood is soft, weak and perishable. It is used
in the making of furniture and sometimes for floors.

SILVER MAPLE

Leaves and fruit. One-third natural size.

58

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

RED MAPLE (Acer rubrum L.)

f* ROWING in a variety of situations^ though usually
^-^ where it is wet, the Red Maple appears commonly
throughout the State. It is a rapid-growing tree of
medium size, with a low, narrow, round head. Nor-
mally, it rises to a height of forty to fifty feet and
has a diameter of one to two feet. Usually the trunk
is continuous, though occasionally it divides
into two or three upright stems. The
branches proper are rather slender and come
out at varying
angles with
the trunk.

The bark
on older trees
is dark gray,
marked by
longitudinal
ridges and
broken with
plate-like
scales. On the
young shoots
the bark i s
red and shiny.

The leaves
are simple,

RED

opposite, from three to four inches in length maple
and have from three to five lobes. The winter twig and
upper surface of the leaf is light green and buds# One-half

113. rum 1 sizs.

the under-surface white. In the fall the

green gives place to varying shades of scarlet or scarlet

and orange.

The flowers appear before the leaves, in early April,
and are scarlet or yellowish-red. Likewise, the fruit,
which ripens in June, has a reddish coloring.

The wood is heavy, close-grained, easily worked and
capable of taking a good polish. However, it lacks
strength and decays speedily when exposed to alterna-
tions of moisture and dryness. It is used in the making
of furniture, in turnery, for gun-stocks and for fuel.

59

RED MAPLE

Leaf and fruit. One-third natural size.

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MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

BASSWOOD OR LINDEN (Tilia americana L.)

THE Linden is found in rich, moist soil in almost
■ every part of the State. In habit it is a large
tree, with an average height of fifty to sixty feet and
a diameter of two to three feet. The branches are
very numerous, comparatively small and slender and
often somewhat pendulous. The head may be broad
and round- topped or it may be conical.

On young trees the bark is gray and
smooth, while on older trunks it is darker
and deeply and irregularly furrowed. The
twigs are yellowish-green or reddish- brown

in color.

The leaves are
simple, alternate,
very broadly egg-
shaped, from four
to five inches in
length and
toothed.

The flowers are
greenish -yellow
and appear in late
June or early July.
The stalk which
bears the flowers
is attached to an
oblong, yellowish,
leaf-like body. The flowers themselves are
pleasantly fragrant and rich in honey.

The fruit is globular, about the size of
a pea, woody and gray in color.

The wood is light, close-grained, soft
and more tough and pliable than almost any other
wood. It is employed for paper pulp, in carriage-
making, for furniture and for wooden utensils.

The tree is a favorite with bee-keepers, for bees
collect from its flowers a large amount of honey of a
very desirable quality.

BASSWOOD

Leaf and fruit. One-third natural
size.

BASSWOOD

Winter twig
and buds. One-
half natural
size.

60

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

BLACK GUM OR TUPELO (Nyssa sylvatica Marsh.)

THE Black Gum occurs rather commonly throughout
Massachusetts, where it inhabits the borders of
swamps and streams.

Here it is a small or medium -sized tree, of slow growth
and of very variable habit. Its height development
ranges from twenty-five to fifty feet and its diam-
eter from one to two feet. The branches are slender
and angular, the lower ones horizontal or
slightly drooping and the upper horizontal
or slightly rising. The head is of vary-
ing form,
cylindrical,
conical,
pyramidal,
often flat-
topped and
usually
pictur-
esque.

The bark
o n t h e
trunk is
dark gray.
On the old
trunk it is
divided

into many small scales. The leaves are
simple, alternate, entire and from two to
five inches long. In summer the leaves are
dark green and lustrous on the upper sur-
face. In the autumn the foliage takes on
brilliant hues of scarlet and crimson.

The fruit, which ripens in October, is about one-
half inch long, blue-black and sour.

Its wood is heavy, soft, strong and not very durable.
It is used for the hubs of wheels, for rollers and piles.
It is difficult to split; hence, when it is made to serve
for fuel, the logs are usually employed.

61

BLACK GUM

Leaves and staminate flower clusters.
One-half natural size.

BLACK GUM

Winter twig
and buds. One-
half natural size.

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MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

ASHES

How to know the Ashes

Black Ash

White Ash

Red Ash

{Fraximis nigra Marsh.)

{Fraxinus americana
L.)

(Fraxinus pennsylvanica
Marsh.)

Leaves

Leaflets 7 to ^1 and with-
out stalks, excepting the
terminal one.

Leaves

Leaflets 7 to 9 and sup-
ported by short stalks.

Leaves

Leaflets 7 to 9 and sup-
ported by short stalks.

Winter Buds and
Twigs

Winter Buds and
Twigs

Winter Buds and
Twigs

Buds black. Shoots olive-
green, smooth.

Buds brown. Shoots
olive-green, smooth and
lustrous.

Buds brown. Shoots
greenish and more or less
covered with down.

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62

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

BLACK ASH {Fraxinus nigra Marsh.)

|~HE Black Ash is found to a certain extent through-

■ out the State, though more abundantly in the

central and western portions than in the eastern. It

confines itself almost exclusively to rich, moist ground

in the vicinity of streams and swamps.

In habit it is a very slender tree, usually growing
to a height of sixty to seventy feet and having a
diameter of one to two feet. In the woods the trunk
is slim and without branches until near its very top.
In the open
it may have a
broad, round
head.

The bark
on the trunk
is dark gray
and marked
by parallel
■ridges. The
season's
shoots are
olive-green
and smooth,
and the buds
are black.

The leaves
are opposite,
twelve to fif-
t e e n inches

in length and consist of seven to eleven leaflets.
These are oblong, four to five inches long, remotely
toothed and without stalks, except in the case of the
terminal one.

The flowers and fruit for all superficial purposes
resemble those of the White Ash.

The wood is heavy, soft, tough and durable. It is
used in cabinet work, for interior finishing, for hoops
and for baskets. For this last purpose it is held in
very high esteem.

BLACK ASH

Leaf and fruit. One-third natural size.

63

MASSACHUSETTS

FOREST TREES

'*■■■■.■
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WHITE ASH (Fraxinus americana L.)

PHIS rapid-growing tree occurs in all parts of Massa-
■ chusetts and on every kind of ground, although
it thrives best in deep, rich soil in the vicinity of
streams.

As to habit, it usually attains a height of fifty to
seventy-five feet and a trunk diameter of two to three
feet. In the open the trunk divides at a few feet from
the ground into two or three large limbs, then assumes
a broad, round head.

WHITE ASH

Leaf and fruit. One-third natural size.

The bark on the trunk is dark brown or deep gray.
It is deeply divided by furrows, which are parallel or
connect at intervals into broad, flattened ridges. The
season's shoots are olive-green and smooth.

The leaves are opposite, eight to twelve inches in
length and composed of seven to nine leaflets. The
individual leaflets are egg-shaped or oblong, three to
five inches in length, stalked, remotely toothed and
dark green on the upper surface.

The flowers appear in May before the leaves.

64

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

Mi

WHITE ASH— Concluded

The fruit is a winged body, oblong in shape and
one to two inches in length. It ripens in late August
or September and often hangs on into the winter.

It is a valuable forest tree and the most useful of
the Ashes. The wood is heavy, hard, strong, tough
and elastic. It has many uses. It is employed in the
manufacture of agricultural implements, in the making
of furniture, for the handles of tools, in carriage-
building and sometimes for interior finishing.

mm 8&H H

WHITE ASH

Winter twig and buds. One-half natural size.

65

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

RED ASH (Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh.)

THE Red Ash, not infrequently mistaken for the
* White Ash, occurs occasionally throughout Massa-
chusetts. Its home is in low, rich soil near streams
and swamps.

In habit it is very much like the White Ash, though
it is usually smaller in every way. It seldom grows to
a height of more than fifty or sixty feet and its diam-
eter rarely exceeds eighteen to twenty inches. In the
open the head is rather broad and round-topped.

RED ASH

Leaf and fruit. One-third natural size.

The bark on the trunk of a mature tree is dark gray
or brown and furrowed, but less deeply and more
regularly than in the case of the White Ash. The
season's shoots are greenish-gray and coated with
numerous fine hairs which often persist until the sec-
ond season.

The leaves are opposite, compound, ten to twelve
inches in length and composed of seven to nine leaflets.

The flowers and fruit, to all intents and purposes,
are similar to those of the White Ash.

The wood is heavy, hard and brittle. It is much
inferior to that of the White Ash, though it is used
for many of the same purposes.

66

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Massachusetts Agricultural Coiie^

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How You May
Know Them

A POCKET MANUAL

By D. A. Clarke, under the direction of F. W. Rane,
State Forester, State House, Boston, Mass., U. S. A.

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CONTENTS

PAGE

Pme Trees. Key for identifying . . 5
White Pine Tree .... 6
Red Pine or Norway . . .8

Pitch Pine 9

Tamarack or Larch . . . .10
Spruce Trees. Key for identifying . 1 1
Black Spruce . . . . .12
Red Spruce . . . . .13

Hemlock 14

White Cedar . ... . .15

Red Cedar or Juniper . . .16
Walnut Trees. Key for identifying . 17

Butternut 18

Black Walnut 19

Hickory Trees. Key for identifying . 20
Bitternut Hickory . . . .21
Shagbark Hickory . . . .22
Mockernut Hickory . . . .23
Pignut Hickory . . . .24
Poplar Trees. Key for identifying . 25
Aspen (American) . . . .26

Aspen (Largetooth) . . . .27
Birch Trees. Key for identifying . 28

Gray Birch 29

Paper or White Birch . . .30

Yellow Birch 31

Sweet or Black Birch . . .32
Hop-Hornbeam or Ironwood . . 33
Blue Beech or Hornbeam . . 34

PAGE

Beech Tree 35

Chestnut 36

Oak Trees. Key for identifying . .37

White Oak 38

Chestnut Oak . . . .39

Swamp White Oak . . .40

Red Oak 41

Scarlet Oak 42

Yellow or Black Oak . . .43
Elm Trees. Key for identifying . 45

Slippery Elm . . . . .46
White or American Elm . . .47

Hackberry 48

Sassafras Tree . . . .49

Sycamore or Buttonwood Tree . 50

Wild Red Cherry . . . .51

Black Cherry 52

Locust Tree . . . . .54
Maple Trees. Key for identifying . 55
Striped Maple . . . .56

Sugar or Rock Maple . . .57
Silver or Soft Maple . . .58

Red Maple 59

Basswood or Linden Tree . . 60

Black Gum or Tupelo . . .61
Ash Trees. Key for identifying . . 62

Black Ash 63

White Ash 64

Red Ash 66

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| THE COMMERCIAL

FOREST TREES

OF MASSACHUSETTS

Xt

HOW YOU MAY
KNOW THEM

J <POCKET MANUAL

By D. A. Clarke, under the direction of F. W. Rane, State Forester,
State House, Boston, Mass., U. S. A.

BOSTON : WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING COMPANY, STATE PRINTERS,
EIGHTEEN POST OFFICE SQUARE, NINETEEN HUNDRED AND ELEVEN

THIRD EDITION

APPROVED
BY THE STATE BOARD OF PUBLICATION

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

3T jC IB jC Jff Iff jC -3T HT jT JET jbT jet JET JET JET

PURPOSE OF THIS HANDBOOK

THIS handbook has been planned and pub-
lished by the State Forester in order to
have a practical working description of the
commercial trees at the command of Massa-
chusetts citizens.

Technical terms necessarily used in botanical
and forestry books are bewildering to the prac-
tical, everyday lumberman, farmer or average
person. The attempt, therefore, of this treatise
is to point out clearly how one can tell the
commercially valuable trees of Massachusetts
in a plain and untechnical manner.

The really most important points or charac-
ters the tree has, which distinguish it from all
others, are first pointed out. This will be all
many persons may care to know. If five needles
growing in a cluster always denote a white
pine, for example, and people have their atten-
tion called to it, few will ever mistake that
tree for others. They can settle the matter
easily by examining the tree for themselves.
Likewise, other trees can be told by following
the same plan of identification.

Acknowledgments

Mr. Daniel A. Clarke, a Harvard instructor
and man of recognized experience and ability
in forest botany, was selected to prepare this
manuscript. The individual characteristics for
identifying each species are Mr. Clarke's
arrangement.

3

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

The cuts illustrating the foliage and seed
production were kindly loaned the State For-
ester by Director J. L. Hills of the Vermont
Experiment Station. These cuts were used to
illustrate a bulletin on ' 6 The Trees of Ver-
mont," prepared under the direction of Prof.
L. R. Jones of the University of Vermont.

The cuts illustrating the winter twigs and
buds are from originals made by Miss Helen
R. Mason, from carefully-selected specimens
collected by Mr. Clarke.

Six cuts, credited under each, are from
Sargent's " Manual of the Trees of North
America," by permission of Houghton, Mifflin
&Co.

It is hoped this handbook will be a source
of inspiration toward assisting people, gen-
erally, in knowing our trees.

When we shall have created in our people,
from youth up, a natural inborn love for
Nature, the fundamentals of practical forestry
will solve themselves as naturally as water
flows down hill. Meanwhile, we have a pleas-
ant task in bringing these conditions about.
The more one knows about trees, the more he
wants to know; and the natural outcome will
be both better economic and aesthetic con-
ditions.

This handbook is offered by the State, free
of charge, believing that the persons possess-
ing it will find it a useful and helpful com-
panion.

F. W. RANE, State Forester

State House, Boston, Mass.,
Nov. i, 1911.

4

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

PINES

How to know the Pines

White Pine

Red Pine

Pitch Pine

(Pznus strobus L.)

{Pimis resinosa Ait.)

(Pinus rigida Mill.)

Leaves

Leaves

Leaves

Arranged in 5-leaved clus-

Arranged in 2-leaved clus-

Arranged in 3-leaved clus-

ters. Slender, flexible,

ters. Flexible, dark green

ters. Stiff, dark yellow-

bluish-green and 3 to 5

and 5 to 6 inches long.

green and 3 to s inches

inches long.

long.

PINE LEAF CLUSTERS

0, Pitch ; c, Red ; d, White. All one-half natural size.

Note. — The Austrian and Scotch Pines are sometimes planted in Massachu-
setts. Both are introduced or imported. The Scotch Pine has two leaves in a
cluster, two to four inches long, flat and of a bluish-white hue. The Austrian has
dark green, slender, rigid leaves, two in a cluster, four to six inches long.

5

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

WHITE PINE (Pinus strobus L.)

THE White Pine is abundantly distributed through-
' out the State. It occurs on fertile soil, in moist
situations, or on uplands.

When standing in the open, the young tree has a
symmetrical, pyramidal outline. In the forest, its trunk
is usually without branches for a considerable distance
and the head is narrow. In old age the tree becomes

WHITE PINE CONE

With scales open and seeds gone. White Pine needles grow
in clusters of five.

very irregular and picturesque. The trunk is continu-
ous, gradually tapering, commonly from fifty to sev-
enty feet in height and one to two feet in diameter.
The branches are usually in whorls of five and extend
horizontally.

The bark on young stems is thin, green tinged with
red. On the old trunk it is thick and almost black,
and divided by shallow fissures into broad, flat ridges.

The leaves are arranged in clusters of five. They are

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

White Pine — Concluded

from three to five inches in length, bluish-green on the
upper surface and whitish on the under.

The cone is cylindrical and from four to six inches
in length. The seeds are small and winged. The cones
open early in September of their second season.

The wood is very useful. It is light in color, light
in weight, durable, except when in contact with the
soil, and not easily warped by the sun. It supplies

WHITE PINE

Embryo and Mature cones. One-half natural size.

From Sargent's "Manual of the Trees of North America," by permission of

Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

boards of good size, free from knots and of light
weight. It is sawed into lumber, shingles and. laths.
It is used in cabinet-making, for interior finishing and
for masts. In this State it is very largely worked into
"box-boards' for the making of boxes. Then, in
addition to serving so well these various utilitarian
ends, it is a rapid-growing tree, increasing in height
on the average at least a foot each year. So, all in
all, the White Pine is one of the most valuable trees
in the State and most deserving of being grown for
forestry purposes.*

* Send to the State Forester for a pamphlet, "How and When to collect White
Pine Seed.'"

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

RED PINE (Norway Pine) (Pinus resinosa Ait.)

|N

Massachusetts the Red Pine — appropriately so
called both on account of the pale red color of the
heart-wood and the distinctly reddish cast of the bark
— occurs only locally and then chiefly in the northern
and western sections. Usually it grows on light and
somewhat dry soils.

When young it has an attractive conical outline ;
in old age it becomes somewhat irregular. It usually
attains a height of fifty to seventy-five feet and has a
continuous trunk, two to three feet in diameter. The
branches are stout, usually extend horizontally and
clothe the trunk quite or nearly to the ground.

RED PINE. — One-half natural size.

From Sargent's " Manual of the Trees of North America," by permission of

Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

The bark is light red-brown in color and divided by
shallow fissures into broad, flat ridges.

The leaves are in clusters of two, flexible, dark
green and five to six inches long. They remain on the
tree for four or five years.

The cones are egg-shaped, two to three inches long
and mature in the fall of their second season.

The wood is light, strong, hard and pale red in
color. It is used in construction, for building, and to
a certain extent for masts.

The name Norway Pine has so little fitness as applied
to this tree, and is so evidently misleading that its use
is to be discouraged.

The Latin name suggests a resinous wood, but in
fact it is less so than either of the other Pines.

8

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

PITCH PINE (Pinus rigida Mill.)

THE Pitch Pine grows in poor, sandy and gravelly
■ soil in all parts of the State, often forming a con-
siderable tract of almost pure growth, as in the south-
eastern sections near the coast.

In habit it is usually a low tree with irregular and
variable outline. Normally, the height is from thirty
to forty feet and the diameter from one to two feet.
The trunk is continuous, straight and tapers rapidly.
The branches, grouped in threes about the trunk, are
thick and
often con-
torted. The
bark on
young stems
and branches
is rough. On
old trees it
is deep gray
or reddish-
brown, and
irregularly
divided into

broad, flat, PITCH PINE. — One-half natural size.

COntinUOUS From Sargent's " Manual of the Trees of North America,"
. ., 1 by permission of Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

ridges. The

leaves are in clusters of three. They are three to five
inches long, stiff, dark yellow-green and fall during
their second year.

The cones are one to three inches long and light
brown in color. They often remain on the tree for
ten or twelve years. The scales are tipped with sharp
prickles, — a character likely to aid in the recognition
of the species.

The wood is light, soft and brittle. It is sometimes
sawed into coarse lumber and is used for charcoal and
for fuel. It is chiefly valuable because it will do well
on extremely sterile soil, although it is a slow grower.
Turpentine and tar were once made from this species
in New England. There is a growing tendency to use
this species for box-board lumber.

9

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

TAMARACK (Hacmatack, Larch) (Larix laHdna

Koch)

PREFERRING cool, swampy situations, though
' often growing on uplands, it occurs in most parts
of the State, more commonly in the northern sections
than elsewhere.

In habit it is a tall tree with regular and narrow
pyramidal outline. Ultimately it acquires a height of
fifty to sixty feet and a diameter of eighteen to twenty
inches. The trunk is continuous and tapers rapidly.
The branches are slender and horizontal or slightly
ascending.

TAMARACK

Branchlet and cone. One-half natural size.

The leaves are borne in clusters. They are linear
in shape, from three-fourths of an inch to one and a
quarter inches in length and bright green in color. In
the autumn before they fall they become yellow.

The cones are small, almost globular, nearly three-
quarters of an inch long and light brown in color.
The seeds are small and winged.

The wood is close-grained, heavy, strong and dur-
able. It is used in shipbuilding, and for posts and
railroad ties.

While this species is found in moist places, it often
does equally well when planted on upland.

10

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

JC JT JET JET JET

JL. J- Jk ..Jis. _U~ -~W

SPRUCES

How to know the Spruces

Black Spruce

Red Spruce

(Picea 7nariana B. S. P.)

(Pt'cea rubens Sarg.)

Leaves

Leaves

Blue-green and not glossy.

Dark yellow-green and very glossy.

Cones

Cones

One-half to one and a half inches in

One to two inches in length. Usually

length. Usually remain on the tree for

fall during the first year.

many years.

SPRUCES

Branch, cones and cone-scales.

Note. — The Norway Spruce, so commonly planted as an ornamental tree and
for hedges, is an introduced species. It has a large, slender cone, five to seven
inches long, which easily distinguishes it from others. The branches are also more
drooping or pendulous.

11

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

BLACK SPRUCE (Picea mariana B. S. P.)

THE Black Spruce is a small and rather unimportant
tree which is of frequent occurrence in the northern
and western sections of the State. Usually it grows in
swamps and on the borders of streams, though some-
times on uplands.

In habit it is a conical tree with a height of twenty
to thirty feet and a diameter of six to twelve inches.
The branches are short, horizontal or slightly declin-
ing and tend to turn upwards at the extremities, some-
what after the manner of the Norway Spruce.

The bark on the trunk is grayish-brown and broken
into three scales.

The leaves are about one-half inch long and blue-
green in color.

The cones are egg-shaped, one-half to one and one-
half inches in length and grayish-brown in color. They
usually remain on the trees for several years and often
persist for as many as twenty years.

The wood is light, soft and weak. It is seldom used
here except for making paper pulp.

Black and Red Spruce have, until recently, been con-
sidered the same species, but under the new classifica-
tion the Black Spruce now becomes a far less valuable
tree, commercially, than the Red.

12

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

RED SPRUCE (Picearubens Sarg.)

THIS Spruce is common in the western and northern
parts of the State, almost always growing in the
well-drained soil of uplands or mountain slopes.

As to habit, its outline is narrowly conical in youth
and middle age, and frequently irregular and pictur-
esque in old age. It is a medium-sized tree, commonly
reaching a height of forty to fifty feet and acquiring
a diameter of one to two feet. The trunk is straight
and tapers very slowly. The branches are rather long,
frequently slightly pendulous, clothe the stem nearly
to the ground and persist for a long time.

The bark is red-brown and broken into irregular
scales.

The leaves are about one-half inch in length, dark
yellow-green and glossy.

The cones are oblong, one to two inches in length
and reddish-brown.

The wood is light, soft and less durable than Pine
when exposed to the action of the weather. It is
largely used for building-timber and for clapboards
and shingles. Owing to the fact that it imparts no
flavor, spruce is used in the manufacture of butter-
tubs and boxes. Great quantities are consumed in the
pulp mills.

This species, Professor L. R. Jones of Vermont says,
was responsible for the suggestion of the name Green
Mountain State to that Commonwealth.

It is not uncommon for lumbermen to designate this
species as Black Spruce, but, as this is the only com-
mercial Spruce of importance to Massachusetts, we
should readily appropriate the right name, or Red
Spruce.

fj3x

3?

18

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

HEMLOCK (Tsuga canadensis Carr.)

THE Hemlock is found in most parts of the State,
■ though it is much more abundant in the western
sections. It delights in the moist, cool shade of rocky
ridges and river gorges.

In the open, it is a beautiful, pyramidal tree with
branches extending quite or almost to the ground. In
the forest, it has a tall, gently -tapering trunk which is
surrounded by a rather
small, round head. As a rule,
it attains a height of fifty
or sixty feet and a diameter
of two or three feet. The
branches are slender, hori-
zontal or slightly pendulous
near the ends and
persist for a long
time.

The bark on the
old trunk is cin-
namon red or dark
gray and divided
into narrow,
rounded ridges
which are covered
with scales.

The leaves are from one-third to two-thirds of an
inch in length, oblong, dark green and lustrous on the
upper surface and whitish beneath.

The cones are oblong, about three-fourths of an
inch long and light brown in color. The seed is small
and winged, maturing in the fall and shedding during
the winter.

The wood is very light, soft and brittle. When
exposed to the air it perishes quickly. It is sawed into
coarse boards and used for cheap building material and
sometimes for fuel. The bark is of value for tanning.

HEMLOCK

Spray and cone. One-third natural size.

14

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

WHITE CEDAR (Chamaecyparis thyoides B. S. P.)

|~HE White Cedar grows almost wholly in swamps,
■ particularly those that are flooded for most of the
year. In Massachusetts it occurs in patches of con-
siderable area in the southeastern sections and to a
limited extent in other parts.

As to habit, its slender, horizontal branches form a
narrow, conical head of neat appearance. The trunk is
continuous and attains a height of twenty to forty feet
and a diameter of eight to fifteen inches.

WHITE CEDAR. — One-half natural size.

From Sargent's " Manual of the Trees of North America," by permission of
Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

On the trunk the bark is reddish-brown and flakes
off in thin scales. On old trees, particularly near the
base, it is irregularly furrowed.

The leaves are scale-like, not over an eighth of an
inch in length and dull blue-green in color.

The cones are roundish, about a half-inch in diam-
eter and red-brown at maturity. The seed is small and
winged.

The wood is light, soft, weak, very durable and
aromatic. It is used for boat-building, interior finish-
ing and for posts. For this last purpose it is particu-
larly desirable.

15

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

RED CEDAR (Red Juniper) (Juniperus virginiana L.)

THIS tree receives its popular name, Red Cedar, from
the red color of its heart- wood. Growing on dry
and gravelly soil and sometimes on rather moist ground,
it is common in the eastern sections of the State and
of occasional occurrence in the central and western
parts.

In habit it is variable. In youth its outline is nor-
mally conical, and in old age it is broad and round.
The trunk is continuous and attains a height of
twenty -five to thirty feet and a diameter of eight to
fifteen inches.

RED CEDAR

Two-thirds natural size.

The bark on the trunk is light brown tinged with
red. When the tree has acquired age it separates into
long, narrow, ribbon-like flakes.

The typical leaves are scale-like, about a sixteenth
of an inch in length and dark blue-green in color. On
young trees and sometimes on the mature plants, there
are needle-shaped leaves about one-half inch in length.

The fruit is berry-like, globular, about the size of
a pea and dark blue.

The wood is light, close-grained, not strong, easily
worked and durable. It is red in color and pleasantly
aromatic. It is used for posts, for pails and in cabinet-
making.

16

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

WALNUTS*

How to know the Walnuts

Butternut

Black Walnut

(Juglans cinerea L.)

{Jitglatis nigra L.)

Habit

Habit

Low, wide-branching, with a broad,

Tall, straight, destitute of branches for

round-topped head.

a considerable distance from the ground,

with a narrow, round-topped head.

Bark on Trunk
Dark gray and divided into broad, flat
ridges.

Bark on Trunk

Dark brown or almost black and deeply
divided into rounded ridges which cross
each other obliquely.

Leaves

Leaflets n to 17 in number.

Leaves

Leaflets 15 to 23 in number.

Fruit

Oblong, cylindrical and covered with
sticky hairs.

Fruit

Globular, without sticky hairs, and
somewhat rough.

The Black Walnut and Butternut are easily culti-
vated, being grown readily by planting the nuts where
they are to remain. Seedlings can also be transplanted,
but care must be exercised, as they have a pronounced
tap-root. The Black Walnut makes a valuable forest
tree, and both species make good shade trees and are
also valuable for their nuts.

* The true Walnuts. New England people use this name commonly for the
Hickories* (See Hickories.)

17

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

BUTTERNUT (Juglans cinerea L.}

GROWING in rich, moist soil near streams and on
low, rocky hills, the Butternut occurs throughout
Massachusetts, though most abundantly in the eastern
and central portions.

It is a low, broad-headed tree, usually rising to a
height of thirty to forty feet with a trunk diameter of
one to four feet. It branches a few feet
from the ground, sending out long, rather
stout, horizontal limbs.

The bark on the trunk is dark gray and
divided into broad, flat ridges. The leaves

aF

BUTTERNUT

Winter twig.

One-half
natural size.

BUTTERNUT

Leaf and fruit. One-third natural size.

are alternate, from fifteen to thirty inches long and
have from eleven to seventeen leaflets. The nuts, which
are borne in drooping clusters, are oblong-cylindrical
in shape, about three inches long and covered with
sticky hairs.

The wood is light, soft and weak. It is employed
for the interior finish of houses and used in the manu-
facture of furniture.

18

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

. '

BLACK WALNUT (Juglans nigra L.)

JTHE Black Walnut is rather rare in Massachusetts,
' though it occurs more frequently in the western
part of the State than in the eastern . When
found, it is usually growing in rich bottom-
lands or on fertile hillsides.

It is a large tree of upright growth and
narrow, round head, which normally attains
a height of fifty to seventy -five feet and a
trunk diameter of two to five feet. The
branches are stout and rigid and the lower
ones extend horizontally.

The bark on the trunk is blackish and
deeply divided into rounded ridges which
have a tendency to cross each other obliquely.

The leaves are alternate, from one to two
feet long and have from fifteen to twenty -
three leaflets.

The fruit is a globose nut, about two
inches in diameter, with a slightly roughened
surface.

The wood is heavy, hard, strong, durable
and capable of taking a fine polish. It is
very valuable for cabinet-making and the black
interior finish of houses. The older the WAL
tree, generally speaking, the darker and more and buds.

Valuable is the WOod. One-half nat-

ural size.

BLACK WALNUT. — One-half natural size.

From Sargent's " Manual of the Trees of North America," by permission of
Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

19

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

HICKORIES

How to know the Hickories

Bitternut

Shagbark

Mocker Nut

Pignut

{Hicoria minima

{Hicoria ovala

{Hicoria alba

{Hicoria glabra

Britton)

Britton)

Britton)

Britton)

Bark on Trunk

Bark on Trunk

Bark on Trunk

Bark on Trunk

Less rough than in

Rougher than in

Dark gray, with

Dark gray. Com-

the other species.

other species.

numerous ridges

paratively smooth.

L i g h t granite-gray

Light gray and sep-

and without flaking

Often broken into

tinged with faint

arates into long,

plates.

plates.

yellow and broken

thick plates which

into thin, plate-like

are only slightly

scales.

attached to the tree.

Leaves

Leaves

Leaves

Leaves

Leaflets 7 to 11 in

Leaflets usually 5,

Leaflets 7 or 9 in

Leaflets 3, 5 or 7

number.

rarely 7.

number.

in number.

Winter Buds

Winter Buds

Winter Buds

Winter Buds

Covered with two

Terminal bud egg-

Terminal buds

Terminal buds

pairs of scales and

shaped. Outer

broadly egg-shaped.

elliptical. Outer

bright yellow.

scales are dark

Outer scales are

scales are dark red-

reddish-brown with

dark reddish-brown

dish-brown and

long, narrow tips

and fall in autumn.

usually fall in the

and persist until

Inner scales light

autumn. Inner

spring.

green.

scales yellow-
green.

Twigs

Twigs

Twigs

Twigs

Smooth.

Smooth or coated

Stout and covered

Smooth.

with soft hairs.

with a woolly
growth.

Fruit

Fruit

Fruit

Fruit

Husk thin. Nut

Husk thick and

Husk thick and

Husk usually thin.

thin-shelled and ker-

deeply channeled at

s trong-scen ted.

The shell either

nel bitter.

the seams. Shell

The shell thick

thick or thin and

usually thick and

and the kernel small

the kernel sweet

the kernel sweet.

and sweet.

or bitter.

20

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

BITTERNUT (Hicoria minima Britton)

INHABITING wet woods near streams and some-
times hilly slopes, the Bitternut is common in
most sections of Massachusetts.

Like most of the genus, its trunk tapers gradually
to the point of branching and develops a tall cylin-
drical head with a breadth of twenty to thirty feet.
Commonly it grows to a height of fifty feet and has a
trunk diameter of one to two feet.

The bark on the trunk is granite-gray faintly tinged
with yellow and less rough than in most of the species,
yet broken into thin, plate-like scales. The
new growths are smooth and orange-green

BITTERNUT HICKORY

Leaf and fruit. One-third natural size.

BITTERNUT

Winter twig.

One-half
natural size.

in color. The winter buds are bright yellow, quite
different from those of its relatives.

The leaves are alternate, compound, from six to
ten inches long and composed of from seven to eleven
leaflets. The individual leaflets are smaller and more
slender than in the case of the other species. The
fruit is about one inch long and thin-husked, while
the nut is usually thin-shelled and brittle and the
kernel very bitter. The wood is heavy, hard and strong.
It is used in making hoops and ox-yokes and for fuel.

21

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

SHAGBARK (Hicoria ovata Britton)

GROWING in rich, deep soil near streams and on
fertile hillsides, the Shagbark is of common occur-
rence throughout the State.

The tallest of the Hickories, it has the characteristic
habit of the group, a tapering trunk destitute of
branches for a considerable distance and a cylindrical
head of relatively narrow spread. Usually it attains a
height of fifty to seventy -five feet and a trunk diam-
eter not exceeding two feet.

The bark on the trunk is light gray, sep-
arating into thick plates often a foot long.
When these are only slightly attached, they
give to
the trunk
a shaggy
appear-
ance in
which is
the sig-
nificance
of the
popular
term
Shagbark
Hickory.

The leaves are
alternate, com-
pound, from eight
to fifteen inches
long and com-
posed of five,
rarely seven leaflets. The fruit is borne singly or in
pairs and is globular. The husk is deeply grooved at
the seams. The kernel is sweet.

The wood is heavy, hard, tough and very strong. It
is used largely in the manufacture of agricultural imple-
ments and in the building of carriages and wagons.
For fuel it is the most satisfactory of our native trees.
The nut is a valued article of commerce.

SHAGBARK HICKORY

Leaf and young fruit. One-third
natural size.

SHAGBARK

Winter twig.
One-half size.

22

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

MOCKER NUT (Hicoria alba Britton)

THE Mocker Nut — probably so called because of
■ the size of the nut and the smallness of the kernel
— is distributed throughout the State
and is common in the eastern sections.
It grows in various soils, on ridges, rocky
slopes and in rich bottom-lands.

In habit it is very similar to the Shag-
bark. It is a tall tree, fifty to sixty feet
in height and one to two and one-half
feet in diameter.

The bark is dark gray, much like that
of the Pignut, yet with much more
numerous ridges and without the flaking
plates. The recent shoots are short,
stout and more or less covered with a
downy growth.

The leaves are alternate, compound,
eight to ten inches in length and com-
posed of seven to nine leaflets.

The fruit is borne singly or in twos
and ripens in October. It is variable in size
and shape. Usually it is globose and has
a strong- scented husk. The nut is thick -
shelled and the kernel small and sweet.

The wood is heavy, hard, tough and
strong. It serves for the same purposes as
does that of the Shagbark and is only slightly inferior.

MOCKER NUT

Winter twig.
One-half natural

MOCKER NUT. — One-half natural size.

From Sargent's " Manual of the Trees of North America," by permission of

Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

23

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

PIGNUT (Hicoria glabra Britton)

f~HE Pignut is abundantly distributed throughout
■ Massachusetts. It seems to prefer the dry ridges
and hillsides and is usually in the company of other
trees .

Naturally a tall tree, its height seldom exceeds fifty to
sixty feet and its diameter is from one to two feet. It
has a tapering trunk and a cylindrical head of relatively
narrow spread. The bark on the trunk is dark gray.
On old trunks it is comparatively smooth,
though often it is broken with plates, some-
what after the manner of the Shagbark.

The leaves are alternate, compound, eight
to twelve inches long and composed of five
to seven leaflets. The individual leaflets
are rather small and narrow.

PIGNUT

Winter twig.
One-half natural size.

PIGNUT HICKORY

Leaf and fruit. One-third natural size.

The fruit, which ripens in October, is borne singly
or in pairs and is very variable in shape. Sometimes
it is pear-shaped, sometimes round; at other times it
is egg-shaped. The fruit is usually small and the
husk thin. The wood is heavy, hard, strong, tough
and flexible. It is employed in the manufacture of
wagons, agricultural implements and tool handles.

24

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

POPLARS

How to know the Poplars

Aspen (American)

Largetooth Aspen

{Populus tremuloides Michx.)

{Populus grandideutata Michx.)

Leaves

Leaves

Roundish. Margin finely toothed.

Broadly egg-shaped. Margin coarsely

Upper surface lustrous.

scalloped. Upper surface not lustrous.

Winter Buds

Winter Buds

Conical, lustrous and somewhat sticky.

Broadly egg-shaped. Not sticky and

covered with whitish, matted hairs.

Bark

Bark

Very bitter.

Not bitter.

Note. — Introduced species. — In addition to these native Poplars, two Euro-
pean species are very commonly planted — the Lombardy Poplar {P. nigra Italica),
recognized by its tall, spire-like form, and the White Poplar (P. alba), easily distin-
guished by its leaves, green above and very white-cottony beneath.

The Poplars belong to the Willow family and resemble the Willows, especially
in flower and fruit characters. The nodding, worm-like, staminate and pistillate
catkins are borne upon different trees and, opening before the leaves, are conspicuous
in early spring. The Poplars are quite widely distributed, extending from the Arctic
circle to Mexico and from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

The wood of Poplars is very soft and light and especially liable to warp, but is
cheap and useful for making toys, boxes and smaller furniture. Much of it now goes
to the pulp mills.

The Poplars, like the Willows, can be propagated easily from cuttings.

25

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

ASPEN (American) (Populus tremuloides Michx.)

THE Aspen is a rapid-growing tree common to all

■ parts of Massachusetts, thriving in many soils and

situations but preferring a moist, somewhat sandy soil.

It is frequently the first tree to take possession where

forests have been burned or cut off.

Here it is a small, graceful tree, seldom exceeding
a height of thirty to forty feet and a diameter of eight
to fifteen inches. The branches are slender, extend at
right angles to the stem, are slightly pendulous toward
the ends and form a narrow, round head.

The bark is smooth and pale green, marked with
patches of dark brown. On the old trunk it is ash-
gray, although at the base of the tree it is almost

AMERICAN ASPEN

Leaves and flowers ; i staminate, 2 pistillate. One-third natural size.

black and conspicuously ridged. The bark is very
bitter and has a taste similar to that of quinine.

The leaves are simple, alternate, roundish, about
two inches in length, finely toothed, and dark green
and lustrous on the upper surface. The leaf stalk is
flattened at right angles to the blade of the leaf.

The flowers are in catkins and appear in April before
the leaves.

The wood is soft, weak and very perishable when
exposed to the weather. It is of little value although
it is used to a certain extent in the making of paper
pulp, box-boards and occasionally for fuel.

26

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

LARGETOOTH ASPEN (Populus grandidenta Michx.)

|~HE Largetooth Aspen is of common occurrence
' throughout the State, growing in various soils and

situations, but preferring rich, sandy soil in the vicinity

of streams and swamps.

It is a quick-growing tree, very similar in habit to

the Aspen. Naturally it attains a height of thirty to

forty feet and a trunk diameter of twelve to twenty

inches.

The bark is smooth and greenish-gray in color. On

old trees it is somewhat darker and divided into broad,

flat ridges.

LARGETOOTH ASPEN

Leaves and flowers ; pistillate above, staminate below.
One-third natural size.

The leaves are simple, alternate, broadly egg-shaped,
three to four inches in length, coarsely scalloped on
the margins and dark green on the upper surface.
The leaf stalk is flattened at right angles to the blade
of the leaf.

The flowers are in catkins and appear in March or
April, before the leaves.

The wood is similar to that of the preceding, being
light, soft and of little value. It is used for paper
pulp, box -boards and sometimes for fuel.

27

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TI EES

BIRCHES

How to know the Birches

Gray Birch

Paper or White

Yellow Birch

Sweet or Black

(Betula populifolia

Birch

(Betula hdea

Birch

Marsh.)

(Betula papyri/era
Marsh.)

Michx. f.)

(Betula lenta L.)

Bark

Bark

Bark

Bark

Grayish-white and

Creamy-white and

Silver y-g ray or

Dark, almost black

chalky on the outer

lustrous on the outer

light orange in

and without lustre.

surface and orange

surface and orange

color. Separates

Broken into large,

on the inner. Does

on the inner. Sep-

into thin, persistent

irregular plates.

not separate into

arates readily into

layers. On young

Onyoungbranches

papery layers.

thin layers.

branches aromatic.

aromatic.

Leaves

Leaves

Leaves

Leaves

Triangular, long-

Egg-shaped and not

Egg-shaped to ob-

Egg-shaped to ob-

pointed and coarsely

long-pointed. Usu-

long. Sharply

long. Sharply

doubly toothed.

ally doubly toothed.

doubly toothed.

toothed.

Lustrous on upper

Not lustrous.

surface.

Flowers

Flowers

Flowers

Flowers

Winter catkins

Winter catkins

Winter catkins

Winter catkins

borne singly or in

bome in clusters of

not clustered.

not clustered.

pairs.

three.

Three to four on a

Three to four on a

shoot.

shoot.

Note. — The European White Birch (B. alia), an introduced species, is com-
monly planted for ornamental purposes. It is a beautiful tree, closely resembling
the native White Birch. There are numerous horticultural varieties, some with
finely-cut leaves and pendulous branches.

The wood of Birches is valued chiefly for cabinet-making, for spools and other
small articles.

Birches yield quantities of seed and are extremely valuable in reseeding waste
and barren lands, and rendering the conditions favorable to White Pine coming in.
The White Pine then replaces them in clean stands.

When young, the saplings of all the species look more or less alike.

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

. asf^w Mk

'?¥'

GRAY BIRCH (JBetula populifolia Marsh.)

THE Gray Birch grows abundantly in all parts of
■ the State, thriving on the poorest sandy soils, yet
by no means limiting itself to such unfavorable situa-
tions. This is the tree that is usually the first to take
possession of fields or pastures that have gone into
disuse, mingling with other plants of similar desires
or taking possession of many areas by itself.

As commonly found,
it is a small, slender,
pyramidal tree, from
twenty to twenty -five
feet in height. The trunk
as a rule
ascends
obliquely.
Branches
are short,
slender and
often pen-
dulous and
clothe the
trunk to
the ground.

The whole appearance of the tree is light
and airy. The bark on the trunk is grayish-
white and chalky on the outer surface and
orange on the inner. Unlike some of the
other birches, its bark does not easily sep-
arate into layers. The branches are black-
ish and the young shoots are brown. The
leaves are simple, alternate, triangular,
long-pointed, two and one-half to four
inches in length, coarsely toothed and dark
green and glossy on the upper surface.

The flowers are in catkins. The sterile ones appear
in the fall and are usually solitary.

The wood is light, soft and not durable. It is used
in the manufacture of spools and shoe pegs and is
useful for summer fuel. The tree is chiefly valuable
for the rapidity with which it grows on poor soil.

GRAY BIRCH

Leaves and fniit. One-third natural size.

GRAY BIRCH

Winter twig
and buds.

One-half
natural size.

29

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

PAPER OR WHITE BIRCH (Betula papyri/era Marsh.)

IN Massachusetts the Paper Birch, so called because
■ of the use to which the early settlers put the bark,
grows commonly in the middle and western parts of
the State and is very infrequent in the eastern sections.
Wherever found, its favorite home is the vicinity of
streams and swamps
and the damp,
wooded slopes.

WHITE OR PAPER BIRCH

Leaves and fruit.
One-third natural size.

In habit it is a
pyramidal tree of
graceful appearance,
commonly attaining
a height of about
fifty feet and a diameter of one to two feet.

The trunk is usually continuous, though it
may sometimes divide, and the slender
branches are horizontal or slightly pendulous.
When old or crowded, the Paper Birch loses
its lower branches and assumes a small, round
head. The bark on the trunk is white and
lustrous on the outer surface and orange on
the inner. It separates freely into thin,
papery scales. The leaves are simple, alter- white
nate, egg-shaped, apex not long-pointed, ORBIp^5fR
three to four inches long, doubly toothed and winter twig

Jiii i e an<* buds.

dark, lustreless green on the upper surtace. one-half
The flowers are borne in catkins. The sterile
catkins which appear in the fall are mostly in clusters
of three. The wood is light, strong and hard. It is
used for spools, shoe lasts, pegs, in the making of
paper pulp and for fuel.

30

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

YELLOW BIRCH (Betula lutea Michx. f.)

THIS Birch is common throughout Massachusetts,
■ inhabiting the low, rich woods and hillsides or
mountain slopes.

It is the largest of the native birches and often
attains a height of fifty to sixty feet and a trunk
diameter of two to three feet. Usually
the trunk divides at a considerable dis-
tance from the ground, continuing in
two or three large limbs. The branches
are numerous and slender. In the woods
the head is small and irregular, while in
the open it is broad and round.

The bark on the trunk is silvery -gray
or light orange in color and separates
into thin, persistent layers. On very old
trees the trunk is rough, gray or blackish
and without lustre. The young twigs are
light brown, lustrous and aromatic, but
to a less degree than those of the Sweet
Birch.

The leaves are simple, alternate, egg-
shaped or approximately oblong, doubly
toothed, three to five inches long and
dark green and lustreless on the upper
surface.

The flowers are in catkins. The winter
catkins are three to four in number and
not in clusters.

The wood is heavy, strong, hard and
flexible. It is used in the making of
furniture, in the building of carriages,
for flooring and for fuel.

When this species is in clear stands
it should be thinned as soon as it gets

t i/> • ■ • i • i i Winter twig. One-

large enough for use, as it is attacked half natural size
by a fungus which depreciates the value
of the stand for future results. This species takes on
a deep bronze when very old.

YELLOW
BIRCH

31

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

SWEET OR BLACK BIRCH (Betula lenta L.)

THE Sweet Birch is of frequent occurrence through-
■ out the State, though it rarely grows in the vicinity
of the coast. Its favorite habitat is the rich, moist
soil of woods or the banks of streams.

As commonly found, it is a medium- sized tree,
having a height of about fifty feet and a trunk dia-
meter of one to two feet, although
specimens may exceed these dimensions.
The trunk is upright and the branches

are slender,
extending al-
most horizon-
tally, with the
lower ones
often some-
what pendu-
lous. In the
open the tree
develops a
symmetrical,
round head.
The bark on the trunk is dark, almost
black, dull and broken into large, ir-
regular plates. On old trunks it very
much resembles that of the Sweet
Cherry, wherefore the term Cherry
Birch is often applied to the tree. The
young shoots are dark brown, lustrous
and very aromatic. It is this last
characteristic which justifies the name
Sweet Birch.

The leaves are simple, alternate, egg-shaped or

approaching oblong, three to four inches long, sharply

toothed and dark green and dull on the upper surface.

The flowers are in catkins. Of the winter ones there

are three or four on a shoot.

The wood is heavy, very strong, hard, durable and
easily wrought. It is used largely in the making of
furniture and is highly esteemed for fuel.

SWEET OR BLACK BIRCH

Leaves and fruit.
One-third natural size.

SWEET BIRCH

Winter twig. One-
half natural size.

32

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

HOP-HORNBEAM OR IRONWOOD

(Ostrya virginiana Koch.)

T*HE Hornbeam, so called because of its general
■ resemblance to the European Hornbeam, is a
small, slender, round-topped tree, usually not more
than twenty to thirty feet tall and eight to twelve
inches through. Its branches are long, slender and
somewhat drooping at the ends. It occurs commonly
throughout the State, growing on gravelly and rocky
slopes , often in
rather open woods.

The bark on the
trunk is light brown
tinged with red and
breaks into fine
scales. These sepa-
rate easily, are nar-
rower than the scales
of any rough-barked
tree and become finer
and narrower as the
tree grows older.

The leaves are
simple, alternate,
egg-shaped or nearly
oblong, sharply
toothed, two to three inches long and very similar to
those of the Blue Beech.

The flowers are borne in catkins, the sterile ones
appearing in the fall, usually in clusters of three, and
the fertile ones appearing in the spring.

The fruit, which ripens in September, very closely
resembles a cluster of hops.

The wood is compact, close-grained, strong, tough,
durable and very heavy. It is good for levers, stakes,
binding poles, handles, mallets and the like.

HORNBEAM OR IRONWOOD

Leaves and fruit. One-third natural size.

S3

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

tlEES

WMMT I

BLUE BEECH OR HORNBEAM (Water Beech)

(Carpinus caroliniana Walt.)

INHABITING wet woods and the border of swamps
and streams, the Blue Beech is of common occur-
rence throughout the State, though less frequent near
the coast than inland. It is a slow-growing, small
tree, ten to thirty feet high, with a short trunk not
more than six to twelve inches in diameter. The
branches are irregular and crooked and extend
at varying angles. The head is compact, broad
and flat or somewhat roundish. The trunk is

marked with
irregular,
longitudinal
ridges. Its
bark is smooth
like that of
the Beech and
of a bluish-
gray color.
For this rea-
son it is called
the Blue Beech. The leaves are simple,
alternate, egg-shaped or oval, sharply
and irregularly toothed,
two to three inches in
length and very similar
to those of the Sweet
Birch, though the aro-
matic flavor is wanting.
The flowers are borne in
catkins. Both the fertile and the sterile ones appear
in the spring.

In the fruit, the leaf-like body which subtends the
nutlet is three-lobed and not inflated, differing in this
respect from the fruit of the Hornbeam.

The wood is compact, close-grained, tough, durable
and very strong. It is sometimes used for levers,
beetles and the handles of tools.

BLUE BEECH

Leaves and fruit. One-third natural
size.

BLUE BEECH

Winter twig. One-half natural size.

34

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

BEECH (Fagus atropunicea Sudworth)

THE Beech is of common occurrence throughout the
State, yet it is more abundant in the western sec-
tions than the eastern. Its home is on cool rocky slopes.
In habit it is a spreading tree with a broad and dense
head, usually growing from fifty to sixty feet high and
having a diameter of one and one-half
to three feet. Not infrequently the
stem is without branches for ten to

BEECH

Leaves and fruit. One-third natural size.

BEECH

Winter twig and buds.
One-half natural size.

twenty feet. The bark on the trunk is smooth and blue-
gray in color. It is not to be mistaken for that of any
other native tree, except possibly that of the Blue Beech.
The winter buds are long and slender and taper
slowly to a sharp point. The leaves are simple, alter-
nate, oval, from three to five inches in length, coarsely
serrate and green on both surfaces. The fruit is a
four-valved, prickly bur which encloses a triangular
nut. Its wood is hard, strong, tough, perishable and
liable to warp. It is employed in the manufacture of
some kinds of furniture, for shoe lasts, for the handles
of tools and for fuel.

35

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

CHESTNUT

(Castanea dentaia Borkh.)

THE Chestnut is found commonly throughout Massa-
■ chusetts, though less frequently near the sea-coast
than inland. Its habitat is rich, well-drained soil. A
rapid grower and one of the tallest and straightest of
our trees, it usually has a single trunk destitute of
limbs for a considerable distance and a rather small,
round head. However, when it is uncrowded, the trunk
often separates into several stout branches which form
a low, round head of great breadth. In the
former case it often attains a height of sixty
to eighty feet and has a diameter of three
to four feet. Most frequently it is met with
in the coppice form, for it
is one of the trees most
freely reproduced from

CHESTNUT

Winter twig and

buds. One-half

natural size.

CHESTNUT

Leaf and fruit. One-third
natural size.

sprouts. In this case it has a height of thirty
to forty feet and a diameter of eight to
fifteen inches. fc

The bark on the trunk of a small tree is
dark gray and smooth. On the old trunk it
is thick and divided by shallow furrows into broad, flat
ridges. On the twigs the bark is dark brown. The
leaves are simple, alternate, five to ten inches in length,
sharply toothed and dark yellow -green in color. The
fruit is a round, four-valved, prickly bur and con-
tains, as a rule, two to three dark brown nuts. The
wood is coarse-grained, light, soft, weak, but durable
when exposed to alternations of dryness and moisture.
It is used in the making of furniture, for house finish-
ing, for railway ties, fence-posts and for fuel.

S6

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

OAKS

How to know the Oaks

White Oak Chestnut Oak

{Quercus alba L.) {Quercus prinus L.)

Bark Bark

Light ashen-gray and Dark brown or almost
broken into thin, irregu- black and divided into
lar flakes. broad, rounded ridges.

Swamp White Oak

{Quercus />lata?ioides Sud.)

Bark

Grayish-brown and deeply
and irregularly divided into
broad, fiat ridges.

Leaves

With rounded lobes.

Leaves

Not lobed but coarsely
and irregularly scalloped.

Leaves

Scalloped or slightly lobed.

Fruit

Matures first year.

Fruit

Matures first year.

Fruit

Matures first year.

Winter Buds

Broadly egg-shaped,
acute or obtuse at apex,
and red-brown.

Winter Buds

Egg-shaped, rather long-
pointed and chestnut-
brown.

Winter Buds

Roundish, obtuse at apex,
and brown.

Red Oak

Scarlet Oak

Yellow Oak

{Quercus rubra L.)

{Quercus coccinea
Muenchh)

{Quercus velutina Lam.)

Bark

Bark

Bark

Dark gray or almost black

Dark gray and broken

Dark, almost black, and

and coarsely and irregu-

into small, irregular

deeply divided into broad,

larly ridged, yet never ex-

ridges. Inner bark red-

rounded ridges. Inner

tremely rough. Inner bark

dish.

bark often vellow.

reddish.

Leaves

Leaves

Leaves

Lobes with sharp tips.

Lobes with sharp tips.

Lobes with sharp tips.

Upper surface without

L~pper surface lustrous.

L'pper surface lustrous.

lustre.

Fruit

Fruit

Fruit

Matures second year.

Matures second year.

Matures second year.

Winter Buds

Winter Buds

Winter Buds

Conical, reddish-brown

Small, reddish-brown and

Large, srrongly angled

and smooth.

smooth.

and coated with matted
wool.

87

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

WHITE OAK

Leaves and fruit.
One-third natural size.

WHITE OAK {Quercus albaL.)

THE White Oak, which receives this appellation
because of the light color of the bark on the
trunk, grows very commonly in Massachusetts, though
it is perhaps less abundant in the western sections than
elsewhere. It occurs in a variety of soils and situa-
tions, usually on the lighter ground of the uplands,
yet sometimes on moist land.

A tall tree, commonlv
developing a height of
fifty to seventy -five feet
and a trunk diameter of
three to four feet, it
shows a considerable
diversity of habit. In
the woods it has a tall,
single stem, with a nar-
row head. In the open
the bole is short and
the large, diverging
limbs, many of them nearly horizontal,
form a broad, round-topped head.

The bark on the trunk is light ashen-
gray and broken into thin, irregular flakes.
The leaves are simple, alternate, from
four to seven inches in length and usually
divided into seven lobes. The upper sur-
face of the leaf is bright green and the
lower, pale green or whitish. In the autumn
the foliage turns to a deep wine-red. Not
infrequently it remains on the tree during
the winter. The flowers appear in May
when the leaves are half grown. The fruit
matures the first season and ripens in September. The
acorn is about three-fourths of an inch in length, light
chestnut-brown and enclosed for about one-fourth its
length in the cup. Its wood is the most valuable of the
native trees. It is hard, heavy, tough, close-grained
and durable. It is employed for ship-timber, carriage-
making, agricultural implements and for furniture and
interior finishing. The bark is valuable for tanning.

WHITE OAK

Winter twig
and buds.

One-half
natural size.

38

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

CHESTNUT OAK (Quercus prinus L.)

THIS tree derives the justification for its common
' name, Chestnut Oak, from the resemblance which
its leaves bear to those of the Chestnut. It occurs in
the eastern parts of Massachusetts, sometimes rather
frequent locally, as in the Blue Hills. Usually it may
be found in rich, moist soil on rocky slopes and banks.

Here it is a small or medium tree,
twenty -five to forty feet in height with
a trunk diameter of one to one and
one-half feet. Nevertheless it may
sometimes assume greater dimensions.
In the former case the trunk is usually
continuous. The branches are small
and form a narrow, round head.

The bark on the old trunk is dark
reddish-brown or almost black and
divided into broad, rounded ridges
M'hich have small surface scales.

The leaves are simple, alternate,
five or six inches long, oblong or lance-
shaped, coarsely and irregularly scal-
loped, and yellowish-green and lustrous
on the upper surface.

The flowers appear in May when
the leaves are partially grown.

The fruit matures the first year.
The acorns are about an inch long, light brown in
color and slightly or almost half enclosed by the cup.

The wood is heavy, hard, strong and durable when
in contact with the soil. It is employed for fencing,
for railroad ties and for fuel. The bark is used in
tanning. Chestnut Oak is considered to be equal in.
value to the White Oak.

CHESTNUT OAK

Winter twig and buds,.
One-half natural size.

39

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

SWAMP WHITE OAK (Quercus platanoides Sud.)

THIS species gets its popular designation, Swamp
' White Oak, from its resemblance to the White
Oak and its frequent fondness for swampy situations.
Growing in rich soil along streams and swamps, it
occurs throughout the State and is rather common in
some of the eastern sections. In habit it bears a gen-
eral likeness to the White Oak, though its branches
are not so spreading and its head is less reg-
ular and narrower. Ordinarily its height is
from forty to fifty feet and its diameter is
from two to three feet.

The bark on the trunk
is grayish-b r o w n and
deeply and irregularly
divided into broad, flat
ridges. The bark of the
White Oak is somewhat
lighter and the scales finer.
On the young branches
the scales hang loosely,
giving a marked appear-
ance to the tree.

The leaves are simple,
alternate, obovate or ob-
long, four to six inches
long, scalloped or slightly
lobed and dark, lustrous green on the upper
surface.

The flowers appear in May when the leaves winter twig

. „ and buds.

are partially grown. One-half

. . , . .. natural size.

I he fruit ripens the first season. I he

SWAMP WHITE OAK

Leaf and fruit. One-third
natural size.

SWAMP

WHITE

OAK

acorn is about one inch long, light chestnut -brown in
color and enclosed in the cup for about one-third its
length.

Its wood is very similar to that of the White Oak
and only slightly inferior in quality. It is used in
construction, in carriage-building, for interior finish-
ing, for furniture and for fuel.

40

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

RED OAK (Querctis rubra L.)

THE Red Oak is very abundantly distributed through-
■ out Massachusetts. It occurs in various soils and
in various situations, excepting, however, wet land.

One of the most rapid-growing of the Oaks and the
largest of the native species, it attains a height of
sixty to seventy feet and a diameter of three to four
feet. Frequently a specimen exceeds these dimensions.
Normally the trunk is continuous. The branches are
stout, upright or horizontal, develop higher up
on the trunk than do those of the White Oak

and form a narrow
or sometimes broad
head.

The bark on the
young tree is
smooth and gray.
On the old it is
dark gray or almost
black and ridged
coarsely and irreg-
ularly, yet never
becoming extremely
rough. The leaves
are simple, alter-
nate, five to eight
inches in length and
variable in outline.
red oak Frequently they are oblong and show seven to
winter twig nme lobes. The upper surface is a dull, dark
One-half green and the lower surface is yellowish-green.
natural size. The flowers? the earliest of the Oaks, appear

in late April or early May when the leaves are partially
grown. The fruit matures the second season. The
acorn is from three-fourths to one and one-fourth
inches in length and is larger than that of any other
native Oak. The wood is heavy, hard and strong. It
is less valuable than that of most of the Oaks, though
it is used for furniture and interior finishing. For
fuel it is held in little esteem.

RED OAK

Leaf and fruit. One-third natural size.

41

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

SCARLET OAK (Quercus coccinea Muenchh)

THE deep scarlet which the leaves assume in the
■ autumn is responsible for the popular name which
the tree possesses. Normally growing on dry soil, it
occurs abundantly in the eastern sections of Massa-
chusetts, frequently in the central portion and only
rarely in the western.

As to habit, it is usually a medium-sized tree,
thirty to fifty feet in height and one to two feet in
diameter. The trunk is straight and taper-
ing. The branches are slender, horizontal
and drooping towards the ends. The head
is rather narrow and open.

The bark on the old trunk is dark gray
and broken by shallow fissures into irreg-
ular ridges. The inner bark is reddish.

The leaves are simple, alternate, three to
six inches in length, variable in outline but
usually oblong or egg-shaped, divided into
seven or sometimes nine lobes and bright,
lustrous green on the upper surface.

The flowers appear in May when the
leaves are about half grown.

The fruit matures the second season.
The acorn is about one-half inch long,
bright reddish-brown, often striped and
enclosed in the cup for about one-half its
length.

The wood is heavy, hard and strong. In
value it ranks a little lower than that of
the Red Oak and serves to a limited extent
for the same purposes.

Chiefly because of its beautiful autumnal
coloring it is rather commonly planted for
ornamental purposes.

SCARLET
OAK

Winter twig
and buds.
One-half

natural size.

42

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

YELLOW OAK (Quercus velutina Lam.)

THE Yellow Oak, or, as it is more frequently called,
■ the Black Oak, occurs in all parts of Massachu-
setts and is really abundant in the eastern sections.
Its usual home is on poor soil, particularly on gravelly
uplands and ridges.

As to habit, it is intermediate between the Red Oak
and the Scarlet Oak. The trunk commonly attains a
height of fifty to sixty feet and a diameter of two to
three feet. The branches are stouter than those of

YELLOW OAK
Leaf and fruit. One-third natural size.

the Scarlet Oak, yet not so stout as those of the Red.
The head is narrow and roundish.

The bark on young stems is smooth and dark gray
or brown. On old trunks it is dark, almost black, and
is deeply divided into broad, rounded ridges. In this
last respect it differs from the Red Oak, the bark of
which has flat ridges and is never quite so rough.

The winter buds are large, strongly angled and
covered with a matted, woolly growth.

The leaves are very variable, sometimes resembling
those of the Scarlet and sometimes those of the Red
Oak. They are simple, alternate, egg-shaped or ob-

43

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

Yellow Oak — Concluded

long, mostly seven-lobed, sometimes divided nearly to
the midrib and again nearly entire, and dark green and
glossy on the upper surface.

The flowers appear in the early part of May when
the leaves are nearly half grown.

The fruit matures the second year. The acorn is
one-half to three-fourths of an inch long, light red-
brown, often marked with lines of a darker color and
enclosed in the cup for about one-half its length.

The wood is heavy, hard, coarse-grained and strong.
It has little use except for fuel. The bark is used in
tanning and in medicine.

YELLOW OAK
Winter twig and buds. One-half natural size.

44

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

Jkk JL*. <Jk+ ~JU ^Jkk. *Jiu. J*. ^U .JU .Jit. -JL. JL Jl*> .Jkt

ELMS

How to know the Elms

Slippery Elm

White Elm

(Uhuus fiubesceiis Walt.)

{Ulmus a77iericaii.a L.)

Habit

Habit

Medium height. Head broad and almost

Tall and variable in outline, yet typically

flat.

vase-shape.

Bark on Trunk

Bark on Trunk

Dark brown tinged with red. Inner bark

Ashy-gray. Inner bark not mucilagin-

mucilaginous.

ous.

Leaves

Very rough on the upper surface and
nearly as rough on the lower.

Winter Buds

Dark brown and covered with rustv hairs.

Leaves

Somewhat rough on the upper surface
and smooth on the lower.

Winter Buds

Brown and smooth.

45

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

SLIPPERY ELM {Ulmus pubescens Walt.)

THE Slippery Elm, a common name attached to this
* species because of the mucilaginous inner-bark, is
very rare or wanting in the eastern sections of the State,
but is rather frequent in the western parts. It has a
preference for low, rich soil, though it some-
times occurs on higher ground.

In habit it is a lower tree than the Ameri-
can Elm and, in proportion to its height,
more spreading. It is a medium-sized tree,
attaining a height of forty to fifty feet and
a trunk diameter of one to two feet. The
head is very broad and almost flat.

The bark on the trunk is thick, dark
brown tinged with red, divided by shallow
fissures into flat ridges and covered with
flat scales.

The winter buds
are obtuse, dark
brown in color and
covered with rusty
hairs.

The leaves are
simple, alternate,
four to six inches
long, sharply doubly
toothed, dark green
and very rough on
the upper surface
and rough on the
under- surface.
The flowers appear before the leaves about the mid-
dle of April and the small fruit ripens in late spring.
The wood is very similar to that of the American
Elm, being heavy, strong and durable. It is employed
in the manufacture of agricultural implements, for the
hubs of wheels, in the construction of vessels and for
fence-posts.

slippery

ELM

Winter twig
and buds.
One-half

natural size.

SLIPPERY ELM

Leaves and fruit. One-third
natural size.

46

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

WHITE OR AMERICAN ELM ( Ulmus Americana L.)

THE American Elm is very common everywhere in
Massachusetts and reaches 'its maximum develop-
ment in the Connecticut Valley. Its favorite habitat is
the moist ground along streams and rich bottom-lands.
Its graceful habit, typically vase- shape, yet often
varied, is very familiar. Commonly from fifty to sixty
feet in height, it often grows to a height of one hun-

WHITE ELM

Leaves and fruit. One-third natural size.

dred feet or more and
acquires a trunk diameter
of six to ten feet. It is
usually a quick-growing
tree.

The bark on the trunk
is ashy-gray, thick and
divided by deep fissures
into flat ridges which sep-
arate into thin scales.

The leaves are simple,
alternate, two to five
inches in length, coarsely

doubly toothed and dark green and somewhat rough

on the upper surface.

The flowers appear in late March or early April

before the leaves, and the small, winged fruit ripens

in May before the leaves are fully developed.

The wood is heavy, hard, strong and tough. It is

employed for the hubs of wheels, in boat and ship

building, for flooring and in cooperage.

47

AMERICAN ELM

Winter twig and buds. One-half natural

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

HACKBERRY (Celtis occiclentalis L.)

f* ROWING in various situations, sometimes in moist,
^■^ rich ground, yet more frequently on gravelly soil
or rocky hillsides, it occurs occasionally throughout
the State, nevertheless it is somewhat more abundant
in the southeastern sections near the coast. Here it is
a slow-growing tree, of medium dimensions, and attains
a height of twenty to forty feet and a diameter of eight
to twenty inches. Its habit is somewhat vari-
able. The trunk is short and the branches
are stout, spreading and angular. The twigs
are extremely slender. The head is low and
round. \.

HACKBERRY

Winter twig
and buds. One-
half natural size.

HACKBERRY

Leaves and fruit. V kjP^ The bark on the

One-third natural \W trunk of old trees

is grayish and is
broken into thin scales. It is often marked
with ridges or with varying excrescences.
The bark on the season's shoots is reddish-
brown .

The leaves are simple, alternate, two to four inches
long and variable in outline. They bear some resem-
blance to the leaf of the American Elm. The flowers
are greenish and appear in May with the leaves.

The fruit is a globular drupe about one-fourth of an
inch in diameter. The flesh is sweet and the outer sur-
face is purplish-red, changing in winter to brownish-
orange. The wood is heavy, rather soft, weak and quick
to decay. It is employed in making the cheaper grades
of furniture.

48

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

SASSAFRAS (Sassafras sassafras Karst.)

THE Sassafras occurs in almost every part of Massa-
chusetts. It grows in various soils and situations
but prefers a rich, somewhat sandy, well-drained soil.
For the most part it is a small tree. Usually its
height would not be much above thirty feet and its
diame t er
much over
twelve
inches.
The stem
is rarely
erect, and
is often
bent and
crooked.
In young
trees the
bran c he s
have a
w h o r 1 e d
appear-
ance. Thev

are always short and stout, and frequently
they are contorted. The head is narrow and
flat. The bark of the old trunk is thick,
dark reddish-brown and strongly ridged.
On young stems the bark is greenish and finely striate.
The twigs are yellowish-green and have strong aromatic
properties, as does the bark of all the parts.

The leaves are simple, alternate and of greatly vary-
ing outline. Sometimes they are entire and then again
they are three-lobed. In summer the foliage is dark
green and in the autumn it turns to yellow or to orange
tinged with red. The flowers are small, greenish -yellow
and appear in May when the leaves are unfolding.

The fruit is a small, dark blue, lustrous berry which
ripens in early fall. The wood is light, soft, brittle
and very durable when in contact with the soil. It is
used for posts, in construction of light boats and in
cooperage. The roots supply the oil of sassafras.

SASSAFRAS

Leaves and young fruit. One-third natural size.

SASSAFRAS

Winter twig
and buds. One-
half natural
size.

■■n

-•••-■.'

:■„■:"■

■"•'i;': ■

49

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

J* jE jB jE jST IB Js 3T jC .

SYCAMORE (ButtonwOOd) (Platanus occidental™ L.)

THIS, the largest of the New England trees, occurs
■ occasionally throughout the State, frequenting the
borders of streams and rich bottom-lands. It grows
from fifty to one hundred feet in height and has a
trunk diameter of three to eight feet. The trunk may
spread near the ground into several large, secondary
limbs, or it may rise without branching for a consider-
able distance and then have large, spreading branches.
The branchlets are very often tufted in
appearance, due to the activities of a
fungus. The bark on the trunk and large

SYCAMORE

Winter twig and

buds. One-half

natural size.

SYCAMORE
Leaf and fruiting head. One-third natural size.

limbs is greenish-gray in color and flakes
off in broad scales, exposing the inner bark
which is at first whitish or light green,
then darker. The leaves are simple, alter-
nate, three to five lobed and light green.
The base of the leaf-stalk is swollen and includes the
winter bud. The fruit is in the shape of a ball and is
about an inch in diameter. It contains very many
small seeds and usually remains on the tree until
spring. The wood is hard and firm but very perish-
able when exposed to the weather, and liable to warp.
It is used for tobacco boxes, furniture and interior
finish of houses. It is fairly good for fuel.

50

*

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

WILD RED CHERRY (Bird Cherry)

(Prunus pennsylvanica L. f.)

|"HE Wild Red Cherry is a tree of little value, which
■ often takes possession of areas cleared by fire. It
occurs in the State, being more abundant in the central
and western sections than elsewhere. While it grows
in a variety of situations, it really prefers a moist,
rich soil.

In habit it is a small tree, seldom exceeding a height
of twenty-five to thirty feet and a diameter of ten
inches. The trunk is continuous and the branches
slender. The head is narrow and roundish or oblong.

WILD RED CHERRY
Leaves, flowers and fruit. One-third natural size.

The bark on the young trunk is smooth and red-
dish brown, while in the old it is dark red-brown and
broken into thin plates. The inner bark possesses
bitter, aromatic properties.

The leaves are simple, alternate, oblong or lance-
shape, three to four inches in length, finely toothed
on the margin and bright green and lustrous on the
upper surface.

The flowers appear in May when the leaves are
about half grown. They are white and occur in clus-
ters of four or five.

The fruit is globular in shape, a little larger than
a pea and bright red.

The wood is light and soft and without economic
value.

_BE9

ndHB

■pHnl

SHE!
■■

IBB '.

51

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

BLACK CHERRY (Prunus serolina Ehrli.)

C"OR the economic value of its wood, the Black
■ Cherry is the most important of the native
Cherries. It is of common occurrence in all parts of
the State, growing on many soils and in many situa-
tions, yet preferring moist, rich ground.

As to habit, though sometimes a mere shrub, it
usually reaches a height of thirty to forty feet and
acquires a diameter of ten to fifteen inches, — at
times even exceeding these dimensions. The trunk is
usually continuous and the branches are small and
horizontal. The head is narrow and oblong.

BLACK CHERRY
Leaves and fruit. One-third natural size.

The bark on young stems is red-brown and some-
what lustrous. On the old trunk it is darker and
broken into small, irregular plates. The inner bark
is bitter to the taste.

The leaves are simple, alternate, oblong to lance -
oblong in shape, three to five inches in length, the
margin notched with fine teeth, somewhat leathery in
texture and dark green and lustrous on the upper
surface.

The flowers appear in late May or early June, when
the leaves are only half grown. They are small, white

52

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

BLACK CHERRY— Concluded

and borne in many-flowered racemes which are four to
five inches in length.

The fruit is globular, about the size of a pea, dark
purple in color and usually slightly bitter.

The wood is light, close-grained, rather hard, not
liable to warp and capable of taking a good polish.
It is employed in cabinet-making and for interior
finishing.

The fruit and bark possess valuable medicinal
properties.

BLACK CHERRY

Winter twig and buds. One-half natural size.

5$

$

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

LOCUST (Robima pseudacacia L.)

1 LTHOUGH the Locust is not native to the State,
*" it has become so thoroughly naturalized that it is
as common as many of the indigenous species. It
prefers rich ground, yet it is found in various soils
and situations.

When young it is a rapid-growing tree, often attain-
ing a height of twenty feet in half as many years.
After that period its increase is much slower. Here
it is usually a small tree, from twenty-five to fifty
feet in height and from eight inches to two feet in
diameter. The trunk is erect or sometimes oblique
and irregular. The branches are small and brittle and
form a narrow, oblong head.

The bark on the old trunk is dark gray,' thick and
deeply and irregularly furrowed. The young branches
are armed with spines which disappear as the tree
ages.

The leaves are pinnately compound and composed
of seven to twenty-one leaflets. The individual leaflets
are small, about an inch or an inch and a quarter in
length and oval in outline.

The flowers, which appear in early June after the
leaves unfold, are borne in loose racemes, four to five
inches in length. They are creamy-white, showy,
fragrant and much frequented by bees.

The fruit is a pod which is smooth, flat, dark brown
and about three inches in length.

The wood is heavy, exceedingly hard, strong and
very durable when in contact with the soil. It is
employed for shipbuilding, for fence-posts, in turnery
and for fuel.

54

<$*

m

wBfi ■ ■ I ' ■

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

MAPLES

How to know the Maples

Striped Maple

Sugar Maple

Silver Maple

Red Maple

(A cer pennsylvani-

{A cer saccharutn

(A cer saccharinum

{A cer ritbrwn

cum L.)

Marsh.)

L.)

L.)

Habit

Habit

Habit

Habit

A shrub or small,

When young the

Normally, trunk

Trunk upright and

erect tree. Trunk

outline is usually

separates at a few

usually continu-

continuous.

narrowly egg-

feet from ground

ous. Occasion-

shaped. Later it

into three or four

ally it divides into

may become round-

upright stems.

2 or 3 upright

ish. Trunk con-

Branches slender

stems. Head

tinuous.

and often pendu-

narrow and round-

lous.

ish.

Bark on Trunk

Bark on Trunk

Bark on Trunk

Bark on Trunk

Reddish-brown or

Gray in color. On

Dark gray with a

Dark gray. Mark-

dark green with

old trunk, rough

reddish tinge. More

ed by longitudinal

whitish longitudinal

with long ascending

or less furrowed.

ridges and broken

stria tions.

scales which project

Separates into thin

into plate - like

irregularly at the

scales.

scales.

edges.

Leaves

Leaves

Leaves

Leaves

Roundish, 3-lobed

Usually 5 lobes,

Usually s lobes,

Lobes 3 to 5.

and finely and sharp-

sometimes 3. Bays

rarely 3. Lobes

Lobes broad and

ly doubly toothed.

between lobes

long, narrow and

irregularly doubly

rounded. Lobes

toothed. Silvery

serrate or toothed.

sparingly toothed

white on under-sur-

White on under-

face.

surface.

Flowers

Flowers

Flowers

Flowers

Bright yellow, in

Greenish-yellow, in

Greenish-yellow or

Scarlet or yellow-

slender racemes.

clusters, on long,

pinkish, in clusters.

ish-red, in clusters.

Appear when leaves

threadlike stalks.

Appear long before

Appear before the

are fully developed.

Appear with the
leaves.

the leaves.

leaves.

*

55

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

STRIPED MAPLE (Acer pennsylvanicum L.)

THIS Maple is of common occurrence in the central
■ and western sections of Massachusetts, but rare
or absent near the coast. In the tree form it is slender
and graceful, attaining a height of twenty to twenty -
five feet and a diameter of five to eight inches. Its
favorite habitat is cool, rocky woods.

The bark on the trunk is reddish-
brown or dark green, striped longi- i*™

STRIPED MAPLE
Leaf and fruit. One-third natural size.

STRIPED MAPLE

Winter twig and buds.
One-half natural size.

tudinally with whitish lines which in
time turn brown. The bark on the
twigs is bright reddish-brown.

The leaves are simple, opposite, from five to six
inches in length and nearly as broad, three-lobed and
pale green. In the autumn they change to a clear,
light yellow.

The flowers, which are bright yellow in color, appear
in slender racemes in late May or early June when the
leaves are fully developed.

The wood is light, soft and without direct commer-
cial value.

56

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

fflJff jEJff Jff JET XS3r3rj7XJ7ZXSJZ,2rjEr2rj7

SUGAR MAPI/E (Rock Maple) (Acer saccharum

Marsh.)

I~HE Sugar Maple may be found abundantly through -
■ out the State, although its occurrence is much less
frequent toward the seacoast. Wherever it may grow,
it is much at home in cool, rich woods and on moist,
rocky slopes. Normally, it is a tree growing from fifty
to sixty feet high, yet it often reaches a height of at
least one hundred feet. In the open the branches
develop at a distance of eight or ten feet above
the ground and make an acute angle with the
trunk, thus forming, at least when the tree
is young, an
egg - shape d
head. Later
in life the tree
may assume a
roundish form.

The bark on
the old trunk
is gray and
roughe n e d
with long ver-
tical scales
which project
irregularly at
the edges. The
young twigs
are reddish-brown in color and lustrous.

The leaves are simple, opposite, from three
to five inches in length and have three to five
lobes. The upper surface of the leaf is dark
green, and the under-surface is pale green,
autumn the foliage takes on brilliant shades of red,
scarlet and orange. The flowers, which are greenish-
yellow in color, are borne on long, thread-like flower
stalks and appear about the middle of April.

The wood is heavy, hard, durable, close-grained and
capable of taking and retaining a good polish. It is
used largely in the interior finish of buildings, in the
making of furniture and in shipbuilding.

SUGAR MAPLE

Leaf and fruit. One-third natural size.

SUGAR
MAPLE

Winter twig
and buds.
One-half

natural size.

In the

mt

57

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

SILVER MAPLE (Acer saccharinum L.)

["HE Silver Maple is met with occasionally in the
■ central part of the State, though in the eastern
sections it is rare or absent. It grows chiefly along
streams and in rich intervales.

Normally, it is a tree from fifty to sixty feet in
height, having a trunk which separates at a few feet
from the ground into three or four upright stems that
are destitute of branches for a considerable distance.

The branches
proper are long,
slender and not
infrequently pen-
dulous.

The bark on the
trunk is dark gray
with perhaps a
reddish tinge,
more or less fur-
rowed and sep-
arates into large,
thin scales . The
bark on the twigs
is chestnut-brown
in color and lus-
trous.

The leaves are
simple, opposite, from six to seven inches in length
and deeply five-lobed. The upper surface of the leaf
is pale, while the lower surface is silvery -white. In
autumn the foliage becomes a pale yellow.

The flowers, which are greenish-yellow or sometimes
pinkish, appear before the leaves, in late March or
early April.

The wood is soft, weak and perishable. It is used
in the making of furniture and sometimes for floors.

SILVER MAPLE

Leaves and fruit. One-third natural size.

58

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

JET JT jff Jff Jff jS IB JT 3 Jff Jl? 3? JC Jff JET 3T JC JF J* JBT :jff

RED MAPLE (J.ce?* rubrum L.)

^ ROWING in a variety of situations, though usually
" where it is wet, the Red Maple appears commonly
throughout the State. It is a rapid-growing tree of
medium size, with a low, narrow, round head. Nor-
mally, it rises to a height of forty to fifty feet and
has a diameter of one to two feet. Usually the trunk
is continuous, though occasionally it divides
into two or three upright stems. The
branches proper are rather slender and come
out at varying
angles with
the trunk.

The bark
on older trees
is dark gray,
marked by
longitudinal
ridges and
broken with
plate -like
scales. On the
young shoots
the bark i s
red and shiny .

The leaves
are simple,

RED

opposite, from three to four inches in length maple
and have from three to five lobes. The winter twig and
upper surface of the leaf is light green and buds# o™-^

*■*■ ■ ' m oo natural size.

the under surface white. In the fall the

green gives place to varying shades of scarlet or scarlet

and orange.

The flowers appear before the leaves, in early April,
and are scarlet or yellowish-red. Likewise, the fruit,
which ripens in June, has a reddish coloring.

The wood is heavy, close-grained, easily worked and
capable of taking a good polish. However, it lacks
strength and decays speedily when exposed to alterna-
tions of moisture and dryness. It is used in the making
of furniture, in turnery, for gun-stocks and for fuel.

59

RED MAPLE

Leaf and fruit. One-third natural size.

JBBC

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

BASSWOOD OR LINDEN (Tilia americana L.)

THE Linden is found in rich, moist soil in almost
* every part of the State. In habit it is a large
tree, with an average height of fifty to sixty feet and
a diameter of two to three feet. The branches are
very numerous, comparatively small and slender and
often somewhat pendulous. The head may be broad
and round- topped or it may be conical.

On young trees the bark is gray and
smooth, while on older trunks it is darker
and deeply and irregularly furrowed. The
twigs are yellowish-green or reddish- brown

in color.

The leaves are
simple, alternate,
very broadly egg-
shaped, from four
to five inches in
length and
toothed.

The flowers are
greenish -yellow
and appear in late
June or early July.
The stalk which
bears the flowers

'J Leaf and fruit. One-third natural jg attached to an

•1 oblong, yellowish,

leaf-like body. The flowers themselves are
pleasantly fragrant and rich in honey.

The fruit is globular, about the size of
a pea, woody and gray in color.

The wood is light, close-grained, soft
and more tough and pliable than almost any other
wood. It is employed for paper pulp, in carriage-
making, for furniture and for wooden utensils.

The tree is a favorite with bee-keepers, for bees
collect from its flowers a large amount of honey of a
very desirable quality.

BASSWOOD

Leaf and fruit. One-third natural

BASSWOOD

Winter twig
and buds. One-
half natural
size.

60

HE

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

[>5i8iftlB!ft!ft!ft!R!ff!ff*:ff5

BLACK GUM OR TUPELO (Nyssa sylvatica Marsh.)

THE Black Gum occurs rather commonly throughout
Massachusetts, where it inhabits the borders of
swamps and streams.

Here it is a small or medium-sized tree, of slow growth
and of very variable habit. Its height development
ranges from twenty-five to fifty feet and its diam-
eter from one to two feet. The branches are slender
and angular, the lower ones horizontal or
slightly drooping and the upper horizontal
or slightly rising. The head is of vary-
ing form,
cylindrical,
conical,
pyramidal,
often flat-
topped and
usually
pictur-
esque.

The bark
o n t h e
trunk is
dark gray.
On the old
trunk it is
divided

into many small scales. The leaves are
simple, alternate, entire and from two to
five inches long. In summer the leaves are
dark green and lustrous on the upper sur-
face. In the autumn the foliage takes on
brilliant hues of scarlet and crimson.

The fruit, which ripens in October, is about one-
half inch long, blue-black and sour.

Its wood is heavy, soft, strong and not very durable.
It is used for the hubs of wheels, for rollers and piles.
It is difficult to split; hence, when it is made to serve
for fuel, the logs are usually employed.

61

BLACK GUM

Leaves and stamina te flower clusters.
One-half natural size.

BLACK GUM

Winter twig
and buds. One-
half natural size.

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

ASHES

How to know the Ashes

Black Ash

White Ash

Red Ash

(Fraximis nigra Marsh.)

(Fraxz'nus americana

(Fraxinus pennsylvanica

L.)

Marsh.)

Leaves

Leaves

Leaves

Leaflets 7 to 11 and with-

Leaflets 7 to 9 and sup-

Leaflets 7 to 9 and sup-

out stalks, excepting the
terminal one.

ported by short stalks.

ported by short stalks.

Winter Buds and

Winter Buds and

Winter Buds and

Twigs

Twigs

Twigs

Buds black. Shoots olive-

Buds brown. Shoots

Buds brown. Shoots

green, smooth.

olive-green, smooth and

greenish and more or less

lustrous.

covered with down.

62

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

BLACK ASH (Fraxinus nigra Marsh.)

|~HE Black Ash is found to a certain extent through -

' out the State, though more abundantly in the

central and western portions than in the eastern. It

confines itself almost exclusively to rich, moist ground

in the vicinity of streams and swamps.

In habit it is a very slender tree, usually growing
to a height of sixty to seventy feet and having a
diameter of one to two feet. In the woods the trunk
is slim and without branches until near its very top.
In the open
it may have a
broad, round
head.

The bark
on the trunk
is dark gray
and marked
by parallel
ridges . The
season's
shoots are
olive-green
and smooth,
and the buds
are black.

The leaves
are opposite,
twelve to fif-
t e e n inches

in length and consist of seven to eleven leaflets.
These are oblong, four to five inches long, remotely
toothed and without stalks, except in the case of the
terminal one.

The flowers and fruit for all superficial purposes
resemble those of the White Ash.

The wood is heavy, soft, tough and durable. It is
used in cabinet work, for interior finishing, for hoops
and for baskets. For this last purpose it is held in
very high esteem.

BLACK ASH

Leaf and fruit. One-third natural size.

63

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

WHITE ASH (Fraxinus americana L.)

THIS rapid-growing tree occurs in all parts of Massa-
' chusetts and on every kind of ground, although
it thrives best in deep, rich soil in the vicinity of
streams .

As to habit, it usually attains a height of fifty to
seventy-five feet and a trunk diameter of two to three
feet. In the open the trunk divides at a few feet from
the ground into two or three large limbs, then assumes
a broad, round head.

WHITE ASH

Leaf and fruit. One-third natural size.

The bark on the trunk is dark brown or deep gray.
It is deeply divided by furrows, which are parallel or
connect at intervals into broad, flattened ridges. The
season's shoots are olive-green and smooth.

The leaves are opposite, eight to twelve inches in
length and composed of seven to nine leaflets. The
individual leaflets are egg-shaped or oblong, three to
five inches in length, stalked, remotely toothed and
dark green on the upper surface.

The flowers appear in May before the leaves.

64

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

WHITE ASH

Concluded

The fruit is a winged body, oblong in shape and
one to two inches in length. It ripens in late August
or September and often hangs on into the winter.

It is a valuable forest tree and the most useful of
the Ashes. The wood is heavy, hard, strong, tough
and elastic. It has many uses. It is employed in the
manufacture of agricultural implements, in the making
of furniture, for the handles of tools, in carriage-
building and sometimes for interior finishing.

••• r-
10

■■:■■■■

US

WHITE ASH

Winter twig and buds. One-half natural size.

65

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST TREES

RED ASH (Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh.)

THE Red Ash, not infrequently mistaken for the
' White Ash, occurs occasionally throughout Massa-
chusetts. Its home is in low, rich soil near streams
and swamps.

In habit it is very much like the White Ash, though
it is usually smaller in every way. It seldom grows to
a height of more than fifty or sixty feet and its diam-
eter rarely exceeds eighteen to twenty inches. In the
open the head is rather broad and round-topped.

RED ASH

Leaf and fruit. One-third natural size.

The bark on the trunk of a mature tree is dark gray
or brown and furrowed, but less deeply and more
regularly than in the case of the White Ash. The
season's shoots are greenish-gray and coated with
numerous fine hairs which often persist until the sec-
ond season.

The leaves are opposite, compound, ten to twelve
inches in length and composed of seven to nine leaflets.

The flowers and fruit, to all intents and purposes,
are similar to those of the White Ash.

The wood is heavy, hard and brittle. It is much
inferior to that of the White Ash, though it is used
for many of the same purposes.

66

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THE

Study of the Evergreens

IN THE

Public Schools.

Prepared by

CLARENCE M. WEED,

UNDER THE DIRECTION OF

F. W. RANE, State Forester.

BOSTON:

WRIGHT & POTTEE PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,

18 Post Office Square.

1908.

Approved by
The State Board of Publication.

PURPOSE.

This publication is offered by the State Forester as supple-
mentary to " The Study of Trees in Our Primary Schools,"
issued by this office last year.

The coniferous or evergreen trees make an interesting
group to study by themselves. They can be utilized by the
teacher in the winter time, or dormant season of the year,
when other material is not so accessible. In fact, at this
season of the year they give great variety and beauty to the
landscape. The interest in and association with the ever-
greens become very pronounced as soon as the deciduous tree
leaves have changed from their natural beauty of summer
to their grand autumnal glory, and finally fallen to the
ground. The uses to which the evergreens are put at yuletide,
and their part in making this season of the year one of the
happiest to the child mind, make this the psychological time
for their study.

If this treatise helps to awaken in our young and coming
generation a greater interest and love in trees and nature it
will have done its part.

Two other publications that teachers may find of assist-
ance, if they do not possess them already, are : —

" The Commercial Forest Trees of Massachusetts. How
you may know them. A Pocket Manual," for general use.

" The Study of Trees in Our Primary Schools," for teach-
ers, mothers, and all interested in teaching children to love
trees and nature.

Under the Resolves of 1908, chapter 121, the Governor
and Council have designated that these publications be sold
by the State Forester at a price not less than the cost thereof ;
and additional copies may be printed, the expense thereof
to be paid from the receipt of such sales.

According to this decision the above-named publications
are offered at the following prices : —

" The Commercial Forest Trees of Massachusetts. How
you may know them. A Pocket Manual," for five cents a
copy at this office, or by mail for two cents extra.

" The Study of Trees in Our Primary Schools/' for
twelve cents, or by mail eight cents extra.

In case a large number is wanted, as for schools, etc., they
can be forwarded by express.

These publications are neatly gotten up, and as they are
in great demand (the first edition of 5,000 having been
exhausted in ten days), charging for them at cost is the only
feasible method of dissemination.

Acknowledgments.

Dr. Clarence Moores Weed, of the Lowell State Normal
School, was selected to prepare this pamphlet. Owing to
Professor Weed's knowledge and interest in public school
work, he requires no introduction to Massachusetts teachers.
In fact, the syllabus and suggestions herein given have passed
the experimental stage, and have been successfully taught
as outlined.

The illustrations are from prints and drawings by pupils
in the Lowell Normal School and its training schools.

F. W. PANE,

State Forester.

State House, Boston, Mass.,
Oct. 1, 1908.

The ear shares with the eye the beautiful effects of weather on
the landscape. The rushing of the storm through the narrow valley,
the murmuring tremor of the pines in the gentle breeze, the rustling
and bowing of a field of corn in an August gale, the clatter of
palmettos in a wind, the rattle of pebbles on a beach, dragged down
by the retiring wave, the onset of a thunder shower, — are delights
for the ear as well as the eye. — Charles W. Eliot.

THE CONIFEROUS EVERGREENS.

The study of the coniferous evergreens is especially desir-
able early in winter, and for the lower grades may well cul-
minate at the time of the holiday festivities.

These trees furnish the most important features of many
of our winter landscapes ; they are of great beauty as well
as of much economic value, and they give excellent opportu-
nities for studies of distinctive educational worth. Their
branches are easily obtained, and when brought into the
schoolroom are of decided decorative value. They may be
studied to great advantage in winter as they are available at
a time when it is most difficult to get material for nature
studies.

In this study of the evergreens especial emphasis should
be placed upon the native species. These are to be found in
fields and woods, where specimens may be gathered in abun-
dance. A very large proportion of the conifers planted for
ornamental purposes are exotic species, the determination
of which is frequently difficult, and which have not the
interest and associations possessed by the native sorts. An
exception, however, must be made in the case of the Norway
spruce, which has been so generally planted for so long a
period that it is as abundant and as widely distributed as
some of our native trees.

In associating the evergreens with the animal life of the
winter season, the skillful teacher will point out the utility
of their seeds as food for the winter birds, and the great
benefit of their protection as homes, not only for the birds
but for rabbits and other animals that require shelter during
the winter months. The value to the trees themselves of their
slender leaves in shedding snow will of course be pointed out.

In most localities it is a comparatively easy matter to get
abundant material for the study of the evergreens. This is

8

one reason why the subject should be reserved for the winter
season. Two or three small branches will furnish enough
leaves of a given species to suffice for a whole class, and
wherever there are large bearing trees, with little trouble one

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can get the cones which are so necessary to an adequate study
of these trees. The cones of the white pine may generally be
found in abundance underneath the trees, while those of the
pitch pine, though generally less numerous on the ground,
are frequently within easy reach upon the lower branches.
By a little searching one may often find trees which have

9

been blown over or cut down, so that the cones in the top-
most branches may easily be reached. This applies not only
to the pines but also to most of the conifers.

The cones of some of the spruces fall to the ground early,
where they may readily be gathered. This is particularly
true of the Norway spruce, the large and beautiful cones of
which furnish most interesting objects for study. In the
case of the black spruce, which abounds in peat bogs, the
cones are generally within reach upon the smaller trees ; this
is also commonly true of the hemlock, the arbor vitse and
the tamarack or American larch. The curious berry-like
fruits of the red juniper and the low juniper are also very
easy to obtain.

The teacher who does not avail herself of the opportunity
to make the collecting of these evergreens the object of many
winter walks will miss a personal pleasure, and will not
secure the enthusiasm from her pupils that she might easily
get.

In the cities one can often obtain fir balsam and some of
the spruces at Christmas time among the trees offered for
sale as Christmas trees. It will frequently happen that such
trees may be obtained directly from the pupils after the
Christmas season is over.

In the hot, dry rooms of most schools the spruces, hemlock
and other conifers whose leaves are shed in drying dry out
rapidly and fall off, and may cause trouble for the janitors.
This may be avoided to a considerable extent by keeping the
specimens in unheated closets, or hanging them out of doors,
when not in use ; they will thus retain their leaves much
longer.

Methods of Study.

The teacher who appreciates the value of visual impres-
sions in nature study will display before the pupils twigs
and cones of the pines, and such other conifers as do not
drop their leaves in drying, mounted upon good-sized sheets
of paper or cardboard and plainly labelled. She will also
make upon the blackboard characteristic drawings of the
various species studied, using as far as possible colored

10

crayons, showing the appearance of cones and branches, as
well as detail drawings of the leaves upon a larger scale.

The evergreens may be nsed to great advantage in bringing
the pupils into direct contact with real things in nature. The
material is so easily obtained, and in such abundance, that
there is no excuse for adopting the mere question and answer
method in vogue in many of our schools. Give the pupils
twigs, or at least bundles of leaves, and if possible cones, and
let them use their discriminating powers in sorting the speci-
mens as to species. Let them see for themselves the dis-
tinctive characters of each, and in the higher grades let them
determine the species by reference to illustrated tree books.
Then let them make careful drawings of the twigs or leaves
and cones of each species, being sure that they know the name
while they are making the drawings. Part of the drawings
at least should be made with a lead pencil, securing as great
a degree of accuracy as is possible, but some of them should
be made with green and brown pencil crayons, by means of
which very attractive pictures may be obtained. In the
upper grades it may also be worth while to. use water colors
for some of the drawings.

The importance of blackboard drawings by the pupils,
especially in the grades above the fourth, can hardly be over-
estimated. These are especially valuable for the memory
drawing, and in the case of the evergreens, through the use
of green and brown crayons, the great advantage of colors
that simulate the actual plants may be utilized.

Very beautiful Van Dyke solar prints may be made of
many of the evergreens. Examples are shown in the accom-
panying illustrations of the arbor vitaa and the white pine.

In addition to the drawings the pupils may*use the same
specimens for language work, which shall take the form of
short essays in which the chief characteristics of the speci-
mens are described. The length and completeness of these
descriptions will of course vary with the development of the
pupil, but something worth while may be done in any grade
above the fourth. These written exercises should be upon
paper the same size as the drawing paper. Dictation exer-
cises may also be given, using poems and prose selections
treating of the various evergreens.

11

For the written descriptive exercises the pupil in the inter-
mediate and upper grades should have before him upon the
blackboard some such outline as the following. The wise
teacher will of course adapt it to the degree of development
of her pupils, leaving out those things which the pupil will
be unable to describe to advantage. If there are no cones it
may be better to omit that topic.

Outline for Description of a Conifer.

1.

Leaf : — ■

4. Fruit : —

Arrangement,

Color.

» Color.

Size.

Length.

Shape.

Shape.

Scales.

Apex.

Seed.

2.

Bark : —

5. Tree: —

Color.

Manner of growth

Surface.

Range.

3.

Buds : —
Color.
Shape.
Surface.

Many of the conifers have distinctive odors, which may
well be noted in their study. The aromatic perfume of the
arbor vitse is very different from the resinous odor of many
of the pines, and would serve to identify it at any time.

Upon the foundation laid by the studies thus outlined a
more complete superstructure may be built by a study of the
trees out of doors, beginning with such as may be seen from
the windows of the schoolroom, and continuing as far as
possible by means of outdoor excursions. Occasional reviews
with actual specimens, and memory drawings of leaves and
cones, as well as sketches of the growing trees, will be helpful
in making permanent the pupils' knowledge of the ever-
greens.

The final visible result of the pupils' work may be a
booklet, into which is bound the drawings, the mounted speci-
mens, the descriptions and the written selections. The com-
pleteness of these booklets and the perfection of their work
will depend, of course, upon the development of the pupil and
the kind of supervision given. To some extent such booklets

12

may be made in every grade of the lower schools, and they
certainly may be made to great advantage in the high and
normal schools. Some standard size of drawing paper, which
is of good shape for artistic results, should be selected. A
good size is six by nine inches, as this enables one to put both
the mounted specimen and the drawing upon the same sheet
if desired. To accompany the drawing paper there should
be sheets of writing paper of the same size, 'ruled or unruled,
as the development of the pupils may necessitate. All the
sheets are to be punched upon the left-hand six-inch margin,
so that they may be bound in covers of stiffer paper, either
by the ordinary brass fasteners or preferably by means of
raffia. In the latter case it is desirable that three holes be
punched in the margin.

>
Examinations.

It is very easy to determine whether the pupils know the
evergreens they have been studying or not. Place a small
branch and cone of each variety upon a side table, numbering
each species, and let the pupil, absolutely without assistance,
make a list of the names of the evergreens represented.
Memory drawings may also be utilized for examinations, or
the pupils may be required to write a synopsis of the dis-
tinctive characteristics of a certain number of species.

COERELATIONS.

It may be worth while, at the risk of some repetition, to
indicate briefly the correlations with other studies which may
properly be carried on in connection with the study of the
evergreens.

In language it is obvious that any written or oral exercise
describing the evergreens is simply one phase of English
expression, and may very well be utilized as work in com-
position. It is also readily seen that the pupil who secures,
through the study of the evergreens, adequate mental images
of the characteristics of the different species, and of the
appearance of the trees, either singly or in forest groups, is
preparing himself to appreciate references to these trees in
literature. This appreciation will be increased through the

13

use of selections from the best writers of prose and poetry,
as recommended on a previous page.

The correlation with drawing is so evident that it need
scarcely be dwelt npon. No nature study is at all adequate
which does not constantly afford the child opportunity to
express, through graphic representation, what he sees. In
the case of the coniferous trees it is especially desirable that
the appearance of the tree as a whole be represented from the

,sH>

RANGE OF
WM ITE PIN

point of view of the art supervisor, and that the cover designs
for the booklets be made according to his suggestions. It is
desirable, also, that some of the selections be from those
artists who have written appreciatively of the outer world.

It is easy to see the lines which should be followed in cor-
relating the study of the evergreens with geography. The
range maps will form the foundation for this. The use
which is made of these trees for commercial purposes, as
lumber, as the basis for wood pulp, as the source of turpen-

14

tine, pine tar, Canada balsam and similar products indicates
that in treating of the product the source from which it comes
should receive adequate consideration. ' The importance of
the great coniferous forests as features of the landscape and
as modifiers of climate are facts of great geographic interest.
The natural distribution of our various native species may
also serve as a basis for interesting studies in geography.

In the lower grades the bundles of needles of the pines
could advantageously be used for combinations in number
work. In the higher grades interesting computations may
be made as to the number of leaves on a given branch or a
given tree.

The value of the conifers in forestry and in ornamental
planting will of course be emphasized. Wherever practicable
each pupil should be led to transplant in spring or early
autumn at least one evergreen about his home. Just as soon
as possible there should be an assortment of native conifers
growing on the school grounds.

Sequence of Study.

A natural sequence of study of the evergreens through the
grades may be indicated as follows : —

Grades 1 to S. — Definite acquaintance, making through
sense perceptions and name connections. The pupils to see,
hear, feel, taste, plant and enjoy, in every way possible, as
many of the evergreens as may be; and always to know the
name of the species they are utilizing.

Grade 1+. — Review of conifers in connection with topic
of seed dispersal.

Upper Grades. — In one upper grade a definite study of
the families of conifers, with individual booklets, including
the native species. In other grades correlations with geog-
raphy, language and drawing.

Lists foe the Lowee Geades.

In making out the following list the species most easily

recognized are placed first, although in many localities the

sequence might well be modified to meet local conditions.

The sequence is of comparatively little importance, however,

15

provided there is a definite list for each grade, so that when
the pupils enter the fourth grade they will not have been
studying a few of the abundant species to the exclusion of
the others. Constant reviews, of course, are necessary, but
when the pupils really know a species a new one should be
taken up.

First Grade.

Second Grade.

Third Grade.

1.

White pine.

6.

Red pine.

11.

Juniper.

2.

Pitch pine.

7.

Fir balsam.

12.

Red cedar.

3.

Norway spruce.

8.

Low juniper.

13.

Yew.

4.

Arbor vitas.

9.

Black spruce.

14.

Red spruce;

5.

Hemlock.

10.

American larch.1

15.

white spruce
Cypress.

•

16.

Southern white
cedar.

A good time to begin the study of the conifers in any of
the grades is late in November, four or five weeks before
the holiday vacation. The subject can be gone over pretty
thoroughly before the term ends, and rapidly finished when
the winter term begins. It may well be followed then by a
study of the broad-leaved evergreens.

The Conifers to Study.

First Year List.

White Pine (Pinus Strobus). — Leaves arranged in clus-
ters of five, each leaf being long and slender and averaging
from 2% to 4 inches in length; its margins are finely serrate,
and in cross-section it is triangular. Green in color, with
two or three distinct whitish lines on the two lower surfaces.
Bark of young twigs olive brown, covered with a brownish
pubescence ; bark of older twigs smooth and shining. Scars
where the bundles of leaves have fallen off broadly oval,
sometimes nearly circular. Buds conical, with a distinctly

pointed tip; they are rather small, averaging; V± inch in
r l ' J in an eg ° l

length. Cones large, slender, 4 w&t to 6 wefc long; scales
resinous, whitish brown, each scale distinctly pointed ; rather

1 While the larch is not an evergreen it is a conifer and is usually associated with
evergreens.

16

thin at the tip, with their apical margins rounded and smooth.
Seed with wing. 9 inches long, light brown in color. One of
our most important commercial trees, which is being planted
in great numbers in Massachusetts for lumber purposes.

CI vV/H-i "Fil ~F 1 Ki H >

Pitch Pine (Pinus rigida). — Leaves arranged in clusters
of three, each leaf being long, rather stout and roughened by
a row of serrations along three of the margins, the teeth
pointing toward the tip. Green, with narrow rows of white
spots on all the sides. Bark of young shoots yellow brown,
not pubescent ; its general appearance rough on account of

17

the scales, from in front of which the bundles of leaves come

out. Bark of older branches duller Yellow brown. Terminal

buds very resinous, rather long, cylindrical with a conical

tip, averaging % inch in length ; usually two or three or

more smaller accessory buds beside the main terminal bud.

inches

Cones large, broad, 2 imb long. Scales thickened at the tip,
with a stout sharp spine at the middle of the outer margin;
borne on the sides of the branches, often in small clusters.
Seed with wing. 6 inches long; wings very delicate in texture,
whitish, with stripes of brown. Called also torch pine.

The pitch pine is a much less important tree than the white
pine, but throughout the northern States it is abundant and
generally distributed. The tree is at once distinguished from
the white pine by the lighter color of its leaves, as well as
by their coarser appearance, and by the broad cones which
hang upon the branches in all parts of the tree for many
years after the seeds have been dropped. The younger cones
are bright reddish brown in color, while those which have
been weather-beaten for many years become a dark slaty
gray color.

Norway Spruce (Picea excelsa). — Bark of season's
shoots light reddish brown; of older shoots much darker.
Buds subcorneal, the imbricated scales reddish brown, with
their margins slightly darker. Leaves yellow green, more
bluish green on the under surface; arranged spirally on the
branches, but the lower ones twisted around so as to give a
flattened effect to the lower surface and a brushlike effect
to the upper; average length, % inch. Cross-section of each
leaf nearly square, with parallel rows of whitish dots upon
each of the four sides ; apex bluntly pointed. Cones very
large, averaging when expanded 5 inches long by 2 inches
broad. Margins of the scales rather thin, slightly and irregu-
larly toothed, with the exposed portion having somewhat of a
triangular effect, though the point of the triangle is generally
truncate. AVinged seeds light reddish brown in color, Vs inch
long by Yq inch broad.

The Norway spruce is, perhaps, the most generally planted
for ornamental purposes of all the evergreens. Although
not a native species it is so universally distributed and its

18

cones are so characteristic that it probably will need to be
included in any study of the evergreens.

Arbor Vitce {Thuja occidentalis). — Easily recognized
among all the evergreens by the flattened, frond-like character

Design of Pitch Pine Needles. First Grade.

of the foliage, the leaves being very small and suggestive of
closely appressed, imbricated scales. Bark of older parts of
the twigs somewhat shining, grayish brown. Cones small,
ovoid,. 5 inches long, with few obtuse scales, chestnut brown

19

in color. Seeds elongate oval, broadly winged on both sides.
Fully developed tree generally of conical form. Foliage
with a distinct, characteristic, aromatic odor, which probably
arises chiefly in the little glands upon the leaves.

O
<

O

fa

H

z

M

Ph
o

The arbor vitse is one of the most generally distributed of
the evergreens. It is a native of the northern States, and is
probably more widely planted for hedges in private grounds
and public parks than any other conifer. The Indians used
to call the plant by the characteristic name of featherleaf.

20

Some confusion is likely to arise because in many regions
this species is called the white cedar, but it is very distinct
from the true white cedar, or, as the latter is sometimes called,
the southern white cedar. When growing in the open the
arbor vitse assumes the form of an attractive pyramidal tree.

Hemlock (Tsuga Canadensis). — Branches generally hori-
zontal and having a flattened appearance, due in part to the
horizontal position of the leaves, which are commonly two
ranked on each side. There is also a row of leaves along the
upper side of the twig, each leaf parallel with the twig, and
in typical cases lying nearly flat upon it. In these cases the
apex of the leaf points to the apex of the twig, so that the
normal lower surface of the leaf becomes here the upper sur-
face; these leaves are generally less than half the length of
those that project sideways. The ordinary leaves generally
a little less than % inch long and not quite %2 inch wide,
each leaf having a short petiole and generally a rounded tip ;
the upper surface bright, shining green, the under surface
appearing very much lighter, due largely to the whitish
stripes along the midrib and along each side of it. Crushed
leaves have a distinctly resinous odor. Youngest twigs pubes-
cent, light grayish brown in color ; older twigs much darker
and roughened by the scales from which the leaves have
fallen. The leaves fall off in drying.

The hemlock is one of the best known and most character-
istic of the evergreens. It is widely distributed throughout
the United States and Canada, sometimes becoming a forest
tree more than 100 feet high. The lower branches are apt
to be scraggly, so that it is not so commonly planted in open
ground as some of the other evergreens.

Second Year List.
Bed Pine (Pinus resinosa). — The red pine is at once
distinguished from the other native pines of the northern
States by its long leaves, arranged in pairs in a rather long
sheath, and its cones, borne at or near the ends of the branches.
The slender leaves are 4 to 6 inches long, and the sheaths are
from % inch to 1 inch in length. The cones are only about
2 inches long, nearly egg shaped, and the scales are smooth.

21

Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea). — General aspect of leafy
horizontal branches flattened, due to the approximately hori-
zontal position of the leaves. Upper surface a bright, clear
green, under surface markedly bluish green. Each leaf ses-
sile, averaging % inch in length, with the sides nearly parallel
and the apex distinctly notched; upper surface bright, deep
green, with a longitudinal depression in the middle; lower
surface with two broad whitish stripes, one on each side of
the distinctly projecting midrib. Bark of season's shoots
light reddish brown, rather thickly covered with stiff brown
hairs ; bark of older twigs darker. Buds clear reddish brown,
with the imbricated scales covered by a transparent shiny
varnish ; subcorneal and rather small, averaging about Vq
inch. Leaves with a distinct balsamic odor and aromatic
taste. Cones large, averaging 4 inches long by 1 inch wide,
with the margins of the scales rounded; projecting upward
from the small branches.

The balsam fir is an abundant tree in the northern forests.
It is noted for the fragrance of its branches and for the trans-
parent resin produced upon the bark, which is the source of
the Canada balsam, largely used for preserving objects for
microscopic study as well as for other purposes. The wood
is used largely commercially in making paper pulp.

Low Juniper (Juniperus nana). — A low-growing shrub,
often occupying circular areas in dry pastures and on open
hillsides throughout the northern States and much of Can-
ada. Leaves awl shaped, commonly coming out of the stem
in whorls of three, sometimes simply opposite in two ; hol-
lowed on under side and curved downward as seen from
above. Upper surface deep green ; general effect of under
surface blue green on account of the whitish stripes along
the middle of the under surface of each leaf. Bark of the
last season's twigs very light brown, with a greenish or gray-
ish tint ; bark of the next to the last season's growth reddish
brown, and of older branches dark brown. Leaves. 5 inches
to -6 inches long. Fruit a berry-like object, % inch long
by % inch broad ; blue, with a glaucous bloom. The berry is
formed by the union of the thickened fleshy scales, the tips
of which may generally be seen. These enclose the three

22

nutlike seeds, which are curiously margined and sweetish
aromatic in taste. When crushed the fruits have a distinctive
aromatic odor. Called also ground cedar and ground
hemlock.

Black Spruce (Picea mariana) . — Bark of young branches
reddish brown with a short pubescence, the hairs being brown-

B

. — —

A

L

S

A

M

F

i
R

ish or whitish. Leaves encircling the young twig yellow
green or green in color ; average length 4 inches ; cross-section
obtusely four angled ; longitudinal lines of whitish spots gen-
erally to be found on each of the four sides ; apex acute.
Twigs straight or slightly curved, and commonly coming out
of the main trunk nearly horizontally. Buds commonly
arranged in groups of three at the ends of the more vigorous

23

twigs. Scales reddish brown, lower ones with long points
at the tip, upper ones with thin margins; general shape
ovate. Bark of older branches commonly blackish, giving a
generally dark appearance to the tree, which grows especially
in peat bogs from the far north southward to Michigan and
New Jersey. Cone. 9 inches to 1% #*§£ long, oval in outline,
each scale having along the outer margin numerous irregu-
lar teeth; remaining on the twigs for several seasons.

The black spruce grows abundantly in the so-called spruce
bogs of the northern States. It is not a very good tree for
ornamental purposes, as even in its favorite localities it is
commonlv unsvmmetrical. It is often brought into the mar-
ket as a Christmas tree.

American Larch (Larix laricina). — In early winter the
twigs are commonly bare, having dropped the leaves late in
'autumn. Bark of season's shoots light reddish brown, with
more or less of a glaucous bloom. Buds on these shoots
globose, dark reddish brown, shining, the imbricated scales
having thin margins. On older twigs the bark is darker,
commonly being slaty gray in color, a'nd the buds are on the
tips of very short branches.

The American larch or tamarack is one of the most abun-
dant cone-bearing trees to be found in the swamps of the
northern States. It is a distinctive tree that seems to require
an abundance of moisture. In the summer its numerous fine
leaves give it an attractive appearance, which is largely lost
when the leaves drop off late in autumn.

Third Year List.

Common Juniper (Juniperus communis) . — Distinguished
from the low juniper by its tree-like form, with slender and
rather straight leaves. It is a northern species, which extends
southward to Michigan and New Jersey. By many botanists
it is considered the same as the low juniper.

White Cedar (Chamcecyparis thyoides). — Bark of smaller
twigs reddish brown, somewhat shining, with the ends more
or less greenish. Leaf buds rather small, without scales.-
Leaves minute, scale-like, opposite and four ranked, covering
the twig; tips sharply pointed. Most of the leaves have a

24

rounded greenish gland on the middle of the back. Fruit a
curious cone, usually rather small, seldom more than % inch
in diameter, with the scales opening on the inside and several
minute winged seeds under each scale. Color of cone dull
brownish purple. Called also cedar.

The white cedar is generally found along the eastern coast
of the United States, although inland it occasionally occurs
in deep swamps, where it often forms the principal tree
growth. It is sometimes confused with the arbor vitse, largely
because the latter is also called white cedar. It is easily dis-
tinguished from the arbor vitse by its curious brownish purple,
more or less globular cones. - The trees sometimes reach a
height of 50 feet, and the wood is famous for its durable
quality. Logs have been taken out of peat bogs and found
to be in good condition to work into lumber.

Red Spruce (Picea rtibens). — Leaves rather short, gen-
erally less than % inch long, obtusely pointed, dark green,
with longitudinal rows of white dots showing through a lens.
Surface of last season's twigs deep brownish red, with the
distinct sterigmata which make up this surface covered quite
densely with stout, prominent, brownish or blackish hairs,
and with the projections that serve as the bases of the leaves
unusually prominent. Bark of earlier years' growth darker,
especially on the sides most exposed to the weather. Buds
rather prominent, reddish brown or brownish red in color,
darker at the obtusely pointed apex. Surface of buds hairy.
Cones deep reddish brown in color, quite regular in size and
shape, when fully opened averaging 1% inches long by 1 inch
wide. Scales with the margin slightly irregular, giving a
suggestion of short, obscure teeth. Seed with its wing %
inch long, the wing at its broadest part being half that width.
General outline broadly triangular, with the light grayish
brown wing terminal on the dark brown seed.

White Spruce (Picea Canadensis). — Bark of season's
shoots light brown, with bases of leaves of a slightly reddish
brown tinge ; bark of older branches very much darker. Buds
.subcorneal; scales reddish brown, imbricated. Leaves bluish
green, a little lighter when seen from below; those on the
under part of the twig twisted around so as to give the upper

25

surface of the branch a much more dense appearance thar
the lower surface. Average length of the leaf % inch; four
angled, sharply pointed at tip, with stripes of white dots on
each of the four sides. The bruised leaves have a pungent,
aromatic, slightly disagreeable odor. Cones generally termi-

BLACK SPRUCE

nal on the smaller twigs, when fully developed averaging 1%
inches long by % inch broad, generally ovate cylindrical
when opened. Scales with thin and more or less rounded
margins, the middle of the margin being commonly truncate
and generally entire. Seeds rather small ; length with wing

bein

g but !/4 inch ; width of wing % inch.

26

The white spruce is one of the most beautiful of our native
evergreens, forming a tall pyramidal tree, with the branches
extending from the ground. The cones drop off soon after
fruiting, so that they may be found beneath the tree at any
time. The blossoms appear during April and May.

Red Cedar (Juniperus Virginiana) . — The twigs of this
common evergreen are especially interesting because of their
two forms of leaves. In one form the leaves are small and
scale-like, arranged in opposite pairs which alternate with
each other, each leaf being acutely pointed and subtriangular
in its shape. The other form of leaf is long and slenderly
lanceolate or needle-shaped, with a very sharp point. This
second form of leaf seems in general to be present upon the
twigs and branches which have grown rapidly. The bark of
the older parts of the branch is reddish brown and shining.
The fruit is a bluish, berry-like object, the size of a pea, in
which the thickened outer scales have grown together to
enclose the three or four angular seeds. Called also savin.

The red cedar is an interesting and characteristic tree,
scattered over almost the whole of eastern North America.
It varies greatly, but in its typical form it has a characteristic
columnar appearance which is very attractive. The berries
form a large part of the winter food of many birds, so much
so in the case of the cedar bird as to give that species its com-
mon name. The tree belongs to the genus Juniperus and is
sometimes called the red juniper.

American Yew or Ground Hemlock (Taxus baccata). —
General appearance of the leafy branches flattened in a way
suggestive of the hemlock, the leaves, however, being much
larger and more robust, and the color very much more of a
yellow green. Average length of leaves % inch to % inch;
width, Vi2 inch. Each leaf narrowed at the base into a short
petiole and sharply pointed with a mucronate apex ; longitud-
inally convex above and concave below. Midrib projecting
on both surfaces, more prominent on upper. Shining yellow
green on the upper surface, less shining and lighter on lower
surface. Bark of young twigs shining greenish brown ; of
older twigs reddish brown. Buds small, with rather thick
imbricated scales. Each scale brownish green, with a whitish
longitudinal stripe along the middle and sometimes upon the

27

margins. Fruit a curious, red, berry-like object, formed by
the disk becoming pnlpy and cup-shaped, so as almost to cover
the hard seed; % inch long. Small masses of the cut twigs
have a curious musky odor, very different from that of any
other of our evergreens. The leaves remain upon the twigs
in drying.

Synopsis of the Conifers.

The conifers as a whole are distinguished from the majority
of seed-bearing plants in that the seeds are borne on the face
of a scale rather than enclosed in an ovary. Our native
species belong to two families, — the pine family, which in-
cludes all but one of them, and the yew family. The former
is characterized by cone-like fruits, while the latter is char-
acterized by its soft, berry-like fruit.

The Pine Family (Pinacece).

The Pines (Pinus). — ■ The pines are known by having the
leaves needle-shaped and in clusters of two to five, and by the
numerous woody cone scales. The three following species
are the most generally distributed native species : —

White Pine (Pinus Strobus). — Leaves long, five in a
sheath ; cone long, with margins of cone scales smooth and
unarmed.

Pitch Pine (Pinus rigida). — Leaves long, three in a
sheath ; cone broad, with outer end of cone scale armed with
a pointed tooth.

Red Pine (Pinus resinosa). — Leaves long, two in a
sheath ; cones not long, oval conic ; margins smooth.

The Larches (Larix).

The larches are characterized by having the leaves in dense
clusters on the ends of very short branches, the leaves falling
off late in autumn. Our native species : —

American Larch or Tamarack (Larix laricina). — Small,
short, pale green leaves, in dense clusters. Small branches,
not drooping. Cones persistent and erect on twigs.

European Larch (Larix Europcea). — 'Distinguished by
the drooping character of the branches. Commonly planted
for ornament.

28

The Spruces (Picea).

In their general aspect the spruce trees are similar, being
conical in outline and having rather short, four-sided leaves,
which spread in all directions on the branches, although they

commonly project upward in a manner that gives them a
brush-like effect. Leaf buds scaly and generally more or less
resinous.

Norway Spruce (Picea excelsa). — •. Distinguished by the
large cones, 4 or 5 inches long, and the drooping position of
the smaller branches. An introduced species.

White Spruce (Picea Canadensis). — Distinguished by the
absence of hairs upon the bark of the smaller branches ; cones
oblong, cylindrical.

29

Red Spruce (Picea rubens). — Distinguished by slender
pubescent twigs, with sharply pointed leaves, and cones that
fall off.

Black Spruce (Picea mariana) . — Distinguished by stout
pubescent twigs, with the leaves abruptly pointed, and cones
that remain upon the tree.

The Hemlock (Tsuga Canadensis).

Only one species in the northern States, distinguished by
flat leaves with short petioles.

The Balsam Fir {Abies balsamea).

Easily recognized by the erect cones and the rounded or
notched tips of the rather large, flattened leaves.

The Bald Cypress (Taxodium distichum).

This tree has not before been mentioned in this article, as
it is a southern species, ranging north to Delaware. The
scales of the small cones are arranged spirally and the leaves
are deciduous.

The Arbor Vitce (Thuja occidentalis) .

Easily recognized by the flattened appearance of the
branches, and the small cones with opposite scales.

The Southern White Cedar (Chamcecyparis thyoides).

Known by the small, scaly leaves and the globose cones
with peltate scales, each scale having a projecting tooth on
the middle. Hanging as far north as Massachusetts.

The Junipers (Juniperus).

The junipers are readily known by their fleshy, berry-like
fruits, which are cones modified through the thickening of the
scales. The leaves vary much in size in the different species.
Many leading botanists now separate the common juniper
into two species, juniper and low juniper, according to its
tree-like or spreading habit.

Juniper (Juniperus communis). — A tree-like shrub or

30

small tree, having awl-shaped leaves nearly % inch long,
arranged in whorls of three. Fruit a berry-like cone, dark
blue, with a glaucous bloom when ripe.

Low Juniper (Juniperus nana). — -A low, spreading
shrub, very abundant in rocky fields in many regions, with
awl-shaped leaves arranged in whorls of three, and berry-like
fruits; dark blue, with a glaucous bloom when ripe. Called
also ground cedar.

Red Cedar (Juniperus Virginiana). — A tree or tree-like
shrub with two kinds of leaves, partly small and scale-like
and partly longer and awl-shaped. Fruit, berry-like, similar
to that of the low juniper, borne on short, straight twigs.

Shrubby Red Cedar {Juniperus Sabina). — A shrubby
procumbent form, similar to the red cedar except that the
fruit is on recurved twigs. Found in northern regions,
extending southward only to Maine, northern New York,
Minnesota and Montana.

The Yew Family (Taxacece).

The Yew (Taxus Canadensis). ■ — 'Characterized by the
red, pulpy, resinous fruit partially enclosing the seed, and
the linear leaves with short petioles and awl-shaped tips. A
low shrub.

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