Stom t^e £i6rar^ of in (glemori? of ^ubge ^amuef (Qliffer QSrecfttnribge (ptesenteb 6g ^amuef (gttffer QSrecfttnribge &ong fo f ^e £i6ratg of (Princeton ^^eofogtcaf ^eminarg 7772- . ian ; 320 Gcna-al Observations 322 CHAPTER XVI. Philosophy or Language 329 CHAPTER XVIJ. HisTOR\' 33g CHAPTER X VIII. Biography 362 CHAPTER XIX. RoMANCKS AND Novels 370 BRIEF RETROSPECT OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY, SECTION V. MATERIA MEDICA. 1 HE knowledge of the nomenclature, the metho- dical arrangement;, and especially of the virtues of those substances which are employed either for nutriment or the cure, of diseases, must be consi- dere(i as forming a very important branch of medi- cine. Accordingly it has received much of the at- tention of physicians in all ages. But in no period of equal length have inquiries on this subject been pursued with so mucli accuracy and success, or the discoveries and improvements been so numerous, as during the century under review. Many new articles, in this period, have been added to the for- mer catalogues^ the properties of articles^ formerly knoAvn and employed have become better under- stood than before j the application of old remedies Vol. ir. B 2 Medicine. [Chap. IV. greatly extended; and the whole subject made to wear a more scientific aspect. From the account which has been already given of the state of the other branches of medicine, at the close of the seventeenth century, the reader will readily perceive that materia medica, so closely con- nected with them in its principles and application, must have been, at the same period, in a correspond- ing situation; perhaps it may even be said to have been less cultivated at that time than any other branch of medical science. But soon after the com- mencement of the eighteenth century the views of medical philosophers began to be much more cor- rect and enlarged on this, as well as many other subjects belonging to the healing art. About that time the cardinal qualities^ and other jargon of the Galenists; the distilledicaters, essences, quintessences y and extracts, of the chemists; and many of the wild opinions respecting the application and efficacy of remedies, which resulted from mathematical and mechanical doctrines, began to decline; While new light, from various quarters, directed to more ra- tional methods of experimenting and philosophising on the subject. Tiie improvements which were made in the science of Botany, in the course of the hist age, proved the source of many important additions to the materia medica. New plants of great medicinal value were brought from every part of the globe. Vegetables were ex^^mined, and their properties ascertained by means of more numerous, patient, and enlight- ened experiments than preceding naturalists had attempted. The service rendered particularly to Stct. v.] ' Materia Medlca, S this branch of the materia medica by Chomel and Geoffroy, of France- by Vogel, of Germany; by Linnaeus> and his pupil Bergius, of Sweden ; and by Alston, Withering, AVoodville, and others, of Great Britain, are generally known. All these writers have treated of plants with a special reference to their medical uses, and the greater number of them have delivered formal systems. But beside what was effected by their inquiries, our knowledge of the subject has perhaps been still more increased by many of the other illustrious botanists mention- ed in the preceding chapter. For while the latter have laboured to distinguish plants from one ano- ther, and to present them in a convenient method, few of them have failed to pay some attention to their medicinal virtues, and in man}^ instances to make very interesting experiments of their effects on the human body. The improvements in Minei^ilogy, during the pe- riod under review, huve also furnished many new articles, and extended our knowledge of others in the materia medica. The eminent services ren- dered to medicine in this wa}% by Scheele, Berg- man, Klaproth, Vauquelin, and a large number of other distinguished mineralogists, are so generally known, that it is unnecessary to enlarge on the subject. While the progress of natural history has con- tributed greatly to the enlargement and correction of the materia medica, the discoveries and improve- ments in Chemist?'!/ have served still more eminently to promote the same end. When the employment of chemical remedies first became an object of much attention, in the hands of Paracelsus and hi-' ibllow- B 2 4 . Medicine. [Chap. IV. er.*^, it was attended with so much errour, and em- braced so many visionary and absm'd opinions, as rather to corrupt and degrade medical science, than illustrate its principles, or guide their application. And, indeed, till the close of the seventeenth cen- tury, the doctrines of the chemist, when applied to medicine, served little other purpose than to amuse and mislead. But modern chemistry, in every respect a more just, rational, and dignified science than what had been called by that name iix tlie preceding age, has opened resources for the materia medica of incalculable value ; and is daily furnishing the enlightened physician with some of the most efficacious means of preserving health and combating disease. The chemical inquiries of the eighteenth century have brought to light many new medicines, some of which hold the first rank for convenience, cheap- ness, and efficacy. From the same source physi- cians have learned to reject many inert and useless^ substances which formerly held a place in the ma- teria medica. They have been taught, also^ by che- mistry, greater accuracy in forming their prepa* rations, more easy, efficacious, and correct methods of exhiliiting different substances, and more definite rules for adapting remedies to diseases. To enu- merate those who have distinguished themselves by contributing to the improvement of the materia medica, through the medium of chemical investi- gations, would be to repeat the long catalogue of great chemists before given, whose names do so much honour to the last age. Several systematic writers on the materia medica have been already mentioned. To these might be Sect. V.] Materia Mtdlca. 5 added a much greater number, who have written Jearnedly and extensively on the subject, did not the hmits of this review forbid such an enumeration. It would be improper, however, not to take some notice of what has been done in this department of medical philosophy by Lieutaud, Ferrein, and espe- cially by Venel, of France -, by Cartheuser,SpieImann, and Murray, of Germany; and by Hill, Lewis, Al- ston, Cullen, and Darwin, of Great Britain. Of these the work of Dr. Lewis, improved by Dr. Aikin, that of professor Cullen, and particularly the Jp- paratus Medicaminiim of professor Murray of Goet- tingen*, are entitled to the largest share of esteem. The late work of professor Barton, on the mate- ria medica of the United States f, forms a very va- luable addition to the knowledge before possessed on this subject, and reflects high honour on its learned author. From the extent of information, the vigour of mind, and the ardent zeal by which this American naturalist and physician is distin- guished, we may hope for further investigations, and richer discoveries of the medical treasures of our country. * Professor Murray did not live to publish any thing on the mineral or animal articles of the materia medica. Professor Gmelin, of Goettingen, has published the Mineral Materia MediccC, as a supplement to Murray's work 3 but he is not considered as ^having done justice to the subject. f Collections for an Essay toimrds a Materia Medica of the United States, 8vo, 1798. Under tliis modest title. Dr. Barton has presented a body of information, and discovered an accuracy and extent of learning, which might, without impropriety, have made higher claims. It is pleasing to observe that this work is so favourably received by the author's countrymen, that a second edzVio/i was lately demanded, into which he has introduced con- siderable additions and improvements. 6 Medicine. [Chap. IV, Though it is impossible to enumerate all, or even the greater part of the new articles with which the materia medica has been enriched in modern times, it may not be improper to take some notice of a few of the most celeljrated and nseful. The first application of Electricitij to medical purposes belongs exclusively to the eighteenth cen- tury. It was before observed that Mr. Kratz en- stein, of Germany, was the first person w^io applied the electric fluid to the cure of diseases, and that the course of experiment and inquiry on this sub- ject was further pursued by the abbe Noilet, and by many others, at later periods. After correcting numerous errours arising from the extravagant cal- culations of the first experim^enters on medical elec^ tricity, there remains no doubt of its efficacy in many diseases of nervous derangement and mus- cular debility, so that it is now fully establislied as an article of the materia medica. Within a few years past, an agent, which is pro- bably nearly allied to electricity, and which is de- nominated Galvanism^ or the Galvanic Fluid, has become a popular application in certain diseases. The original discovery, together with the progress and gradual extension of this branch of philosophy, was mentioifecl in a former chapter. That this wonderful agent possesses great efficacy in many cases similar to those in which electricity is found to afford relief, seems to be too well attested to admit of doid^t; but the extent of its application, the rules which ought to regulate it, and the de- gree and permanency of relief which it is capable of affording, have been so imperfectly investigated, that it is diflicult to speak with precision or cer- tainty on tlie subject. Sect. V.] Materia Medica, 7 The introduction of FaclUious Airs into the ma- teria medica may be considered as marking a splen- did and very interesting period in its history. Some facts on this subject were stated in a p^'eceding section, to which it will only be added, that though our knowledge of this important class of remedies is yet in its infancy, there arc probal^ly few sources from which more important aid to the physician may be expected to be hereafter derived. The affusion of Water, cold and warm, on the body, in fevers and other diseases, deserves to be mentioned in this place as a new article in the ma- teria medica, at least with respect to the principles and manner of its application. The simplicity, pleasantness, universal readiness of access, and un- questionable efficacy of this remedy, will, it is to be hoped, soon recommend it to general use. The honour due to Dr. Currie, of Liverpool, for his en- lightened experiments, and valuable publication oa this subject, was before noticed. 'The efficacy and uses of Peruvian Bark have been better understood, within the last century, than in any former period. Its free and successful exhibition by modern physicians, in intermittent fevers^ in scrofula , in cases o^ gangrene and mortifi^ cation^ and in numerous, diseases of relaxation and dehillty, is well known. To the exertions of sir Hans Sloane and others, in introducing this medi- cine into general use in Great Britain, much ho- nour is due. The use of Mercurx) has also been greatly ex- tended, and its effects more accurately observed, during the century under review. The introduc- tion of thi^ metal as a remedy in a multitude of 8 Medicine. [Chap. IV. diseases*, and especially in malignant fevers, may be considered as a memorable event in the annals of medicine. Those w^ho have most distinguished themselves by recommending the use of mercurial preparations in the latter class of diseases are Drs. Rush and Chisholm. The great extension of the use of Opium in the eighteenth century deserves particular notice; but the principles of this extension, and the variety of cases in which it has been lately employed, are too numerous to be detailed. Digitalis has long held a place in the materia medica ; but its efficacy in certain diseases, parti- cularly in dropsy and pulmonary consumption^ has been clearly known but a few years. For much information respecting the virtues of this powerful vegetable, we are indebted to the publications of Drs. Withering, Beddoes, and others. The use of Lead, particularly in various external applications, has been better understood, and more frequently employed, within the last half century, than before. Those who have been most distin- guished by their inquiries into the medical virtues of this substance are M. Goulard, of France, and Dr. Aikin of Great Britain. Many of the best preparations of Antimony now employed by physicians, were either wholly un- known, or little used, prior to the eighteenth cen- * The use of Mercury in the S?naU-Pox was resorted to in the American colonies first in 1/45, when it was employed with success by Dr. Thomas, a respectable practitioner of Virginia, and by Dr. ^uirison, an eminent physician of Long Island^ in the province of New York. — Sec Dr. Gale's Dissertation on Small- Par, cjuoted by Dr. Huxham. ' Sect. V.] Materia MecUca. "9 tnry. The important station they now hold in medical prescriptions is well understood. Several of the mineral and vegetable Poisons have been either iirst introduced into the materia medica. or used with unprecedented freedom in the course of the period under review. As a specimen of these it may be proper to mention Arsenic, Co- nium Macidatum, Atropa Belladonna, Solanum Dul- camara, IlyoscyamuSy and Datura Slra/noniam., which, with several others^ have been often and usefully employed by modern physicians. The introduction of I lie Cai^olina Pink-Root (Spigelia Marylandica), by Dr. Garden, of South Carolina ; of the Seneka Snake-Root (Polygala Se- neka), by Dr. Tennant, of Virginia; o^ Gum Kino, by Dr. Fothergill; oi Cuprxtm Ammonia turn, and of many nQ\Y Acids, by various persons, into me- dical use, may also be ranked among the less important of the class of improvements now under consideration. Finally, it would be difficult to mention a single important article in the materia medica which, jn the hands of the physicians of the eighteenth century, has not been better understood, better prepared, more extensively applied, or rendered more convenient and efficacious in its combina^ tions, than in preceding times. Were it possible to include ip this brief review a further detail of particulars, it would be easy to mention many great names, and various brandies of science, to which the materia medica h j;. ;3£CT. v.] Materia Medica. 13 of knowledge connected with the healing art has been rendered more accessible and popular by the exertions of philanthropic and liberal minded physicians. For a number of preceding ages me- dical science was hidden under the veil of dead languages, and obscured by the technical jargon, and the love of mystery, which long distinguished medical practitioners ; but in the course of the century under consideration, and especially the latter half of it, the love of mystery, though not completely vanquished, has much declined. The elements of medical knowledge have been brought down to the capacities of all classes in the com- munity. Plain and popular works for the use of Families have been presented to the public, and much useful knowledge respecting the best means, in ordinary cases, of preserving and restoring health, for the first time, generally disseminated. Among the many popular works of this kind which might be mentioned, those of Tissot, Buchan, AV^il- lich, and Parkinson, have successively appeared, and acquired much distinction. . The different modes of making impressions on the human system, in various states of disease, through the medium of the imagination, and all the endless impositions of 2uacke?\ij and Cliarla- tmiism, have been astonishingly multiplied in the course of the eighteenth century. Though medical knowledge has been evidently increasing througli- out this period, medical imposture lias at least kept pace with it. Among many instances wliich might be adduced in support of this remark, may be mentioned the audacious pretensions of count Cagliostro with respect to his Balsam of Uj> ; 14 Medicine. [Chap. IV. Ihc fiir-famed imposition concerning Animal Mag- netism^ by Mesnier, and his followers; and more recently, the claims of Perkinism, so denominated from Dr. Perkins, late a citizen of the United States. But it is worthy of remark, that, w^hile these kinds of imposture have rather gained ground, those which consist in Witchcraft, Spells^ and Incantations, and all the supposed influence of Demoniacal powers, in producing health or disease, ha^e manifestly dechned within the period under review. The cultivation and progress of medical science in the United States deserves some attention be- fore closing this chapter. It is to be lamented that the want of suitable documents renders a full and satisfactory view of this part of the retrospect impossible : for though little was done in that country, for the science of medicine, until within the last forty years ; yet of a considerable portion of that little the knowledge is either totally lost, or preserved only in that vague and indistinct mauntr in which traditional records are usually presented. During the greater part of the century under review, and especially the early periods of it, me- chcid science was cultivated with most success in the Middle and Southern States. This was, pro- bably, among other circumstances, chiefly owing to the following causes. In those states man}' ot* the ])liysicians were Europeans, who had enjoyed all the advantages of the best schools of physic. Sect. V.] Materia Mcdlca, 15 It was more common among them than in the Eastern States, owing to the greater wealtli of the former to send young gentlemen to complete their medical education m foreign universities. A taste for researches in natural history also appeared in a number of instances, particularly in the states of South Carolina, Virginia, Pennsylvania, and New York, long before a similar taste was formed to the Eastward ; and the tendency of such pur- suits to enlighten the minds and extend the in- quiries of physicians, is too obvious to require elucidation. One of the earliest publications in America on a medical subject, was an essay on the Iliac Pas- sion, by Dr. Cadwallader, a respectable physician of Philadelphia, printed about the year 1740*, in which the author opposes, with considerable talents and learning, the then common mode of treating that disease |. About the same time Dr. Ten- * Before thiS;, William Bull, the first native of South Carolina, and probably among the first natives of America who obtained a degree in medicine, defended and published, in 1/34, at the university of Leyden, his inaugural thesis, Dc Colica Picionutru He was a pupil of the great Bocrhaave, and is quoted by Dr. van Swieten in the following very-respectful terms : Here Colica in regionibns A?ncric(£ meridionalihus tarn frequens est, ut fere pro morho Endemio haheri possit ; uti ah eruditissimo tiro Guliehno Bull, in his oris nato, et nunc feliciter ibi medicinam cxtrcente,^ icipius audivi, qui et pidcliram dc hoc morho scripsit dis.sertationcm inauguralem, qnnm in Academia Lugduno Batava defendit anna 1/34. — KzWcGerardi L.B. vanSwieten Commentaria, tom. iii, p. 35/. t For several of the names and facts here stated, respecting th« early medical writers of America, the author is indebted to the Revieiv of the Improz'emcnts of Medicine, by Dr. Ramsay, of Charleston, before quoted. The learning and talents displayed hy this gentleman, botli as an historian and medical philo->opher. 16- Medicine. [Chap. IV- nant, of Virgiiiia, publislied a small work on the Pleurisy, in which ho brought into view the virtues of seneka snake-root, which were before unknown. Not long afterwjirds. Dr. John Mitchel, of Vir- ginia, published an ingenious Essay on the Causes of the different Colours of People in different Cli- mateSy in which he displayed much anatomical and other learning*. About the middle of the cen- tury. Dr. Thomas Bond, an eminent physician of Philadeljihia, drew up some useful medical me- moirs, which were published in a periodical work in London f. Nearly contemporary with the last mentioued publications were several by Dr. Ben- jamin Gale,' a practitioner of medicine in Connec- ticut, who was much distinguished among his countrymen for his acquirements and skill, and who particularly published a Dissertation on the Inoculation of the Small-Pox in America^ which has l)ecn often mentioned respectfully J. In 1753 )dx. John Lining, of South Carolina, published an entitle him to a distinguished place among the benefactors and ornaments of his country. * This essay was sent to Mr. Collinson, F.R.S,, and was intended as a solution of the prize problem on that subject, announced by the Jcadcyuy of Bourdemix, It was afterwards published in the Philosophical Transactions, vol. xliii, p. 102— 150. Dr. Mitchel also wrote ably on tlie Yello'.o ¥ever, as it ap- peared in Virginia in \'JA2. His instructive manuscripts on this subject fell into the hands of Dr. Franklin, by whom they were njiumunicatcd to Dr. Rush. — Sec Rush on Yclloiv Fever, 8vo, i/()4. i Medical Ohscrvations and hujiiiries, vols, i and ii. \ It is possible that other medical publications appeared in Xovv England, about this time, equally \rorthy of notice 3 but the finlhor l»a> tiot been so fortunate as to ice or hear of them. SiiCT. v.] Materia Med tea. I'j accurate history of the American Yellow Fever, %vhich was the first that was given to the world from our continent. Dr. Lionel Chalmers, of the same state, in 1754, communicated to the Medical Society of London some useful remarks on Opis- thotonos and Tetanus, which were published in the first volume of their Observations and Inquiries. This gentleman also published, in 1767? ^n Essaij on Fevers, in which he gave the outlines of the spasmodic theory, which had been before taught by Hoffmann, and was afterwards more fully illustrated by Cullen. In 1764 Dr. Garden, a scientific phy- sician of South Carolina, before mentioned, pre- sented to the public an account of the medical properties of Pink-Root, and gave, at the same time, a botanical description of the plant. About the same time. Dr. Colden and Dr. Jacob Ogden, both of New York, published some valuable obser- vations on a species o^ Sore Throat which was then prevalent and mortal. The former of these gentle- men also made medical communications on other subjects, which were esteemed*. To this list may be added Dr. John Jones, also of New York, who was greatly distinguished as a surgeon, and w^ho published a work on JVounds and Fractures, which is an honourable monument of his learning and professional skill. Though these physicians were not all of them natives of America ; and though their pubHcat ions were generally small, and cannot be said to be of * Dr. Colden is the gentleman before mentioned as lieutenant- governor of New York, and as having distinguished himself by his knowledge of Astronovij and Botany. Vol. IL C 18 Medicine, [Chap. IV. much value at the present day ; 3"et, considered as indications of a growing taste for medical inquiries, and as among the means of exciting, in a young country, a thirst for knowledge, and an ambition for the attainment of medical fame (as examples of which alone they are mentioned), they doubtless deserve respectful notice in this sketch. They con- tributed to bring the American practitioners of the healing art, scattered over an immense territory, better accjiiainted with each other, and doubtless concurred with other circumstances to forvrard the plans of association and instruction which soon be- gan to take place. About the year 1762 Dr. William Shippen and Dr. John Morgan, both natives of Pennsylvania, and youthful friends, who had gone to the univer- sity of Edinburgh to complete their medical edu- cation, and who had received its honours, met in London, wiiither they had repaired for the purpose of receiving instruction from the large hospitals and excellent teachers of that city. They .there agreed to attempt the establishment of a medical school in Piiiladelphia. Accordingly, in the year 1 76 i, Dr. Shippen gave the first course of lectures upon Anafomy that ever" was delivered in America. In 176.5 Dr. Morgan laid before the trustees of the college of Philadelphia a plan for teaching all the branches of medicine, and conferrino: medical de- grees. This plan w^as adopted ; Dr. Shippen vras recognised as professo^r 0^ Jnatomy ; and Dr. Mor- gan was appointed 'professor of the Institutes of Medicine, and soon afterwards began to teach them. In the year I768 Dr. Adam Kuhn, who had studied under the celebrated Linnaeus, was ap- Sect. V.] Materia Medica. 19 pointed professor of Botany^ and of the Materia Medica; and in 17^9 Dr. Benjamin Rusli, who had just completed his medical studies in Europe, was chosen professor of Chemistry. To these gen- tlemen was added Dr. Thomas Bond, wdio was selected to give Clinical Lectures on the cases of disease in the Pennsylvania hospital. The first American medical school, thus organised, became the resort of students from every part of the then colonies : it has since undergone considerable changes, by the death and resignation of profes- sors, and new appointments 5 but continues to flourish; and will now bear a very honourable comparison, at least wath regard to the talents and learning of its professors, with the most respecta- ble institutions of a similar kind in Europe. In 1764 Dr. Shippen lectured to ten students. In the season of 1801-2 the number of students attending the different medical professors amount- ed to one hundred and ttiirty, of whom twenty- one were admitted to the degree of doctor of phy- sic. The laudable example set by the physicians and college of Philadelphia soon excited the zeal of the physicians of New York to establish a medical school in King's College: accordingly, in 1767 a letter v/as addressed to the governors of that insti- tution, by Drs. Samuel Clossey, Peter Middleton, John Jones, James Smith, Samuel Bard, and John V. B. Tennent, urging the propriety and impor- tance of attempting to form a plan of medical in- struction, and offering their services for carrying it mto effect. In consequence of this letter the go- G2 20 Medicine. [Chap.TV^ vernors, a few days afterwards, elected Dr. Clossey professor of Anatomy, Dr. Middleton professor of Physiology and Pathologyy Dr. Jones professor of Surgery, Dr. Smith professor of Chemistry and Ma- teria Medica, Dr. Bard professor of the Theory and Practice of Physic, and Dr. Tennent professor of Midwifery. In 1770, in consequence of the death of Dr. Tennent, and the removal of Dr. Smith out of the province, the office of instruction in Ma- teria Medica was committed to Dr. Middleton, and Cliemistry to Dr. Bard. Lectures were regu- larly given by the above-named gentlemen ; but no medical degrees had been conferred by the college, when the revolutionary war entirely de- ranged, and in effect destroyed, the whole esta- blishment. In 1784 the regents of the university made an attempt to revive the medical school, and went so far as to appoint several professors in Colinnbia College (the new style by which King's College became known, on the change of government), for the purpose of pursuing the former plan of instruction. But the gentlemen so appoint- ed did not all deliver lectures -, the courses ac- tually given were short and incomplete, and the undertaking languished and finally fell to the ground. After several other inelTectual attempts to esta- blish a course of medical instruction in the city, the trustees of Columbia college, in 1792, organised the school on its present plan, and commenced a course, which has succeeded better than any former attempt. The Faculty of Physic, as then consti- SiCT. v.] Materia Medica, 21 tuted, consisted of Dr. Samuel Bard, JJea7i ; Dr. Wright Post*, professor of Anatomy ; Dr. >\'illiam Hamersley, professor of the Institutes of Medi- cine ; Dr. John R. B. Rodgers, professor of Mid- wifery; Dr. Nicholl, professor of Chemistry ; Dr. Richard Kissam, professor of Botany ; and Dr. Richard Bayley, professor of Surgery, These gen- tlemen, the greater number of whom had received a regular medical education in Europe, soon com- menced the several departments of instruction as- signed to them. The first medical degrees were conferred by this institution in 1793; and though it has not grown so rapidly as might have been ex- pected from the learning and talents of its profes- sors, yet it holds a respectable station, and has ren- dered very important services to the interest of medical science in the state. The third medical school established in the United States, is in the university of Cambridge, Massachusetts. This institution took its rise from the benefactions of several enlightened and liberal persons, who were desirous of promoting the knowledge of medical science. Dr. Ezekiel Her- sey, an eminent physician of Hingham, in that state, who died in 1770, bequeathed one thou- sand pounds, Massachusetts currency, to be ap- plied to the support of a professor of Anatomy and Surgery, His widow, at her death, ieti a * By means of the zeal and enterprise of professor Post, ( «j- iumbia college is possessed of a valuable collection of Anatonurul Prtparations ; to complete which that accomplished anatoii;i.-t made two voyages to Europe. It is believed that thii; i^ the t:v,^t collection of the )?:ind introduced into the United States, and et v- ^ainly the best, 22 Medicine, [Chap. IV. like sum, to be devoted to the same object. His brother. Dr. Abner Hersey, of Barnstable, and Dr. John Gumming, of Concord, left each five hundred pounds, to be also applied to the en- couragement and support of medical instruction*. These generous donations were aided by that of William Erving, esquire, an opulent gentleman of Boston, who, a few years afterwards, gave one thousand pounds towards the support of an addi- tional professor f. Though the first of the benefactions above stated ■was made some time before the commencement of the revolutionary war, yet nothing effectual was done toward executing the will of these public- spirited donors till near the close of it. In 1781 Dr. John Warren began to lecture in Boston on Anatomy and Surgery^ and prosecuted his plan for two seasons. In 1 783 the government of the university of Cambridge proceeded to organise a regular medical school, when Dr. Warren was appointed professor of ^;za/6>7?ij/ ^xi^ Surgery ; Dr. Benjamin A\'aterhousc, professor of the Theory and Practice of Physic ; and Dr. Aaron Dexter, professor of Chemistry and Materia Medica. Since that period these gentlemen have regularly de- * Theso several sums, amounting to four thousand pounds Massachusetts currency, are funded, and their annual proceeds equally divided between the professors oi Anatomy 2ind Sargeri/, and of tlie T/ieory and Practice of Plii/sic ; each of which profes- sorships bears the name of Hersey. t The bequest of Mr. Erving wns exclusively devoted by him to the support of a professorship of Chenustry and Materia Me- dica. This professorship also bears the name of its lirst and principal benefactor. Sect. V.] Materia Medica. . 23 livered lectures on the several branches assigned to them ; and though the number of students who usually attend them is comparatively small, yet they are annually increasing; and the erudition and talents of the professors afford a satisfactory pledge that the institution will, at no distant period, reach a much higher station both of respectability and usefulness. The fourth medical school formed in the United States is that connected with Dartmouth College, in the state of New Hampshire. This establish- ment for instruction in medicine was founded in the year 1798; when Dr. Nathan Smith was ap- pointed professor of Medicine, to lecture on Ana^ tomij. Surgery, Midzvifery, and the TJieory and Practice of Physic ; and Dr. Lyman Spalding, pro- fessor of Chemistry and Materia Medica. A con- siderable number of young gentlemen have attend- ed tlie lectures, and several have received the ho- nours of this institution. The last medical school established in the United States is that of Lexington in Kentucky. This was founded in 1798, when Dr. Frederick Ridgely was appointed professor of the Practice of Physic, Obstetrics, and Materia Medica ; and Dr. Samuel Brown, professor of Anatomy, Surgery, and Che- mistry. Its present state is not known. The establishment of Medical Schools in the United States may be considered as forming a grand asra in our national progress, and as pro- ducing important effects on the character of our physicians. The happy influence of these institu- tions has also been much aided by the formation of Medical Societies in almost every state, whicli 24 Medicine. [Chap. IV. have all come into being within the last forty years. The effect of such establishments in excit- ing a thirst for the acquisition of knowledge ; in producing a spirit of generous emulation ; in cul- tivating a taste for observation and inquiry ; and in combining the efforts and the skill of physicians in every part of our country, must be obvious to every attentive mind. Many of the Inaugural Theses, defended and published by the students in tlie American medical schools, would be con- sidered as honourable specimens of talents and learning in the most renowned universities of Europe*, Within the last fifteen years of the century under review, medical publications have greatly multi- plied in the United States ; many of which do equal honour to their authors and their country f. Among these the numerous and valuable works of Dr. Rush hold the first place; and to no individual are we more indebted for promoting, both by precept and example, that laudable and enlightened zeal for medical improvements, which has been so happily increasing, for a number of years past, among Ame- rican physicians. In a catalogue of our medical wi'iters, also, Drs. Maclurg, Mitchill, Barton, Ram- say, Caldwell, Currie, and several others, would be entitled to particular notice, did not the limits of * Within the last ten er twelve years, all the medical schools in the United Stales have concurred in permitting their medical gradviatcs to write and defend tlieir Inaugural Dissertations in the English language. Whether this is to be considered as an im- provement, or a literary retrocession, is a question which it \^ propo.')ed to discuss in another place. '\ See Additional y'otcs — (¥ I'). Sect. V.] Materia Medica, 25 the present sketch forbid an attempt to do justice to their respective merits. In the year 1797 ^ periodical publication, under the title of the Medical Repository, was commenced by Drs. Mitchill, Miller, and Smith, which, from the peculiar circumstances of the country, may be considered as an important event, in noting the successive steps of medical improvement in the United States. In the premature death of the last- named gentleman, who bade fair to attain the most honourable eminence in his profession, this work sustained a great loss*. It is still, however, pro- * Dr. Elihu H. Smith was born in the year 1/71, at Litchfield, in the state of Connecticut, where his father, a respectable phy- sician, still resides. He entered Yale college at the age of eleven j and after leaving that institution, completed his education under the care of the rev. Dr. Dwight, since president of Yale college, who at that time presided over an academy of distinguished reputation at Greenfield. After this he pursued a regular course of medical studies under the direction of his father 5 commenced liie practice of physic at Weathersfield in 1/9^;. '^i^d removed to the city of New York in l/QS, where he remained until 1/98, when he fell a victim to the yellow fever, which raged with so much violence in the city in the autumn of that year. The sur- viving editors of the Medical Repository .speak of their deceased colleague in the following honourable terms : — *' As a physician, his loss is irreparable. He had explored, at his early age, an extent of medical learning, for which the longest lives are .seldom found sutiicient. His diligence and activity, his ardour and perseverance, knew no common bounds. The love of science and the impulse of philanthropy directed his whole pro- fessional career, and left little room for the calculations of emolu- ment. He had formed vast designs of medical improvement, which embraced tlie whole family of mankind, were animnfed by the soul of benevolence, and aspired after ivery object of a liberal and dignified ambition. I-!is writings, already published, inccs- iiaatly awaken regret, that the number of them is not greater. ^6 Medicine, [Cpiap. IV. secuted with undiminished excellence and success ; and furnishes at once very reputable specimens of the learning, talents, and zeal, of many American physicians ; and a highly useful vehicle for convey- ing to the public a knowledge of every improve- ment in the science of medicine. They displayed singular diligence and acuteness of research, the talents of accurate and extensive obseiTation^ great force and pre- cision of reasoning, and the range of a vigorous and coraprehen- srv-e mind." — Medical Repository, v. ii^ pp. 214^ 215^ aecond Edition. ( 27 ) CHAPTER ^^ GEOGrxAPHY. As few sciences are more interesting than Geo- graphy, so few have received more attention, or been more improved and extended during the pe- riod under consideration. At the beginning of the century, more than half the surface of the globe was either entirely unknown to the enlightened inhabitants of Europe, or the knowledge of it was so small and indistinct, as to be of little practical value. Since that time such discoveries and im- provements have been made, that geography has assumed a new face, and become almost a new science*. A spirit of curiosity has stimulated mankind to unprecedented activity in exploring remote rcsrions of the earth. Individual vov^acrers and travellers, and private associations, have done much to extend our acquaintance Vv ith the globe. Beside the exertions of these, the governments of Great Britain, France, Spain, Sweden, Denmark, and Russia, have severally directed or encouraged expeditions of discovery and of scientific research. * By Geography here is meant not only what the word strictly imports, viz. a description of tlie extent, divisions, and aspect, of the surface of our globe, but also some of the other .statistical in- quiries, which modern writers, however improperly, have gene-* rally agreed to include in geographical treatises. 28 Geography. [Chap. V. To whidi we may add, that the occasional mis- takes and mistbrtunes of mariners, while they over- whelmed with distress the inmiediate sufferers, have contributed to enlarge the sphere of our in- formation with respect to distant countries, and thus, by a wise arrangement of Providence, to in- crease the objects and the means of naval enter- prise. Although in these geographical discoveries Great Britain has undoubtedly made the most distin- guished figure ; yet, witli respect to time, the honour of priority belongs to Russia. Early in the century, Peter the Great, to whose mind bold and grand enterprises were familiar and habitual, conceived the design of exploring regions of the earth which had not been before visited by civi- lised man, and by this means promoting the wealth, cultivation, and aggrandisement, of his empire. In pursuance of this design, he formed several expe- ditions for discovery, which, though not crowned with complete success, were 3-et considerably use- ful, and laid the foundation of greater attainments after his death. It was in his reign that several large districts of country in the north-eastern parts of Asia \\ere first visited and explored by Euro- peans. Under his auspices, some enterprising na- vigators, in ll\^, discovered the chain of islands called the Kun'les, on the coast of Kamtschatka. Under the direction of the same monarch, also, captains Behring and Tschirikow discovered a numb(n' of other islands in the adjacent seas, and cstabHsht'd a profitable trade with the natives! The former, h native of Denmark, in 1728, first entered the strait which divides Asi^ frorr^ the Chap. V.] Geography. 29 American continent, and which was afterwards called by his name*. This spirit of discovery con- tinued to animate the government, but more par- ticularly the subjects, of Russia, for many years after the demise of the czar. About this time some private adventurers in that country became fired with the ambition of discovering a north-east passage to India. Between the years 1730 and 1740, many daring voyagers successively engaged in the prosecution of this plan. Among these, Morovief, Malgyn, Skurahoff, Menin, and Laptief, deserve particular notice. The labours they un- derwent, and the dangers they encountered, were incredible ; but all their exertions and discoveries served only to furnish increasing evidence, that, if such a passage exist, it is next to impracticable, and always dangerous. In 1740 Behring undertook another voyage; in the course of which, with wonderful fortitude and perseverance, he traversed the ocean, from the coast of Kamtschatka to the isles of Japan, and furnished information which was highly useful to * Though Behrhig sailed into this strait, yet (probably owing to the fog) he did not discern land on the eastern side. The strait was more fully explored, a few years afterwards, by capt. Cook, who gave it Behring's name. He discovered that the two continents, at this place, approach within forty miles oi each otlier. It has been since ascertained, by the voyages of Meares, Dixon, Vancouver, la Perouse, and others, that to the north of this strait the Asiatic shore tends rapidly to tiic \\esiward, while the American stretches nearly in a northern direction, till, at the distance of about four or live degrees, the continents are joined by solid and impenetrable bonds of ice. 30 Geographij, [Chai>. V succeeding adventurers. He was followed by Ne- vodtsikoff in 1745, PaikofF in MCSy Tolstyke in 1760, and various others of less note, b}^ whom several additional groups of islands, in what is called the Northern Archipelago, were discovered, the character of their respective inhabitants ascer- tained, and new channels of trade laid open to the commercial world. Lieutenant Synd, also in the Russian service, set out on a voyage of discovery in 1764, and returned in 1768. He steered a course more north-east than any of his predecessors, and made some valuable disco^■eries between Asia and America. While the Russians were thus busily and suc- cessfully emplo3^ed in exploring the north-eastern parts of Asia, and the seas between that country and the American coast, the Southern Ocean be- came an object of attention to several other Euro- pean nations. In this immense field for the dis- play of naval skill and enterprise, captain Woods Rogers, an English commander, was the first who distinguished himself. He was followed by Eeu- illie, Frezier, and Barbinais, all of France. To these succeeded Clipperton and Shelvocke, of Great Britain, who, in a voyage of some celebrity round the world, traversed the same seas. Though none of these navigators made very splendid discoveries, yet we are indebted to them all for many details of geographical information, which were at that time highly interesting, and served greatly to instruct and aid those who came after them. In 17^1 the Dutch West-India company fitted out a squadroii, under the command of commo- Chap, v.] Gcograpliy, 31 dore Roggeweiii, and dispatched him to the Pacific Ocean, in search of unknown countries. The (hs- covery of a southern continent was the particular object of this expedition. And although tlie re- spectable navigator to whom it was entrusted did not succeed in accomplishing his main purpose, yet he discovered a number of islands, and w^as considered as having made a valuable addition to the geographical know^ledge of his time. In 1735 don J.uan and don Ulloa were sent, by command of the king of Spain, to South America, on an expedition, which w^as before noticed, for ascertaining the Figure of the Earth. Few voyages have been more justly celebrated than this. By the labours of the bold and active Spaniards who conducted the undertaking, and by the faithful, accurate, and enlightened observations of tlie French academicians wdio were united with them in the grand design, not only their primary object was gained, but large and valuable stores of information were furnished, in astronomy, geography, naviga- tion, and the sciences in general. Soon after the accession of George I to the throne of Britain, he became fired with a zeal for discovery, which had for some time lain dormant in that country. Two voyages were accordingly set on foot, the one under the command of captain Middleton, and the other under the direction of captains Moore and Smyth, w^ith a view to discover a north-west passage, through Hudson*s Bay, to the East Indies. It is scarcely necessary to say that both these undertakings were unsuccessful with respect to their main object ; still, how^ever, they were productive of some useful information; 32 Geography. [Chap. V. as was also the celebrated vovagc of lord An- son, undertaken principally for warlike purposes, about the same time *. When his present majesty came to the crown, the same zeal for geogra- phical discovery continued and increased. The de- lusive hope of finding a great Southern Continent, which had so long filled the minds of the learned, presented an inviting object both to his love of science and his love of glory and aggrandisement. Accordingly captains Byron, Wallis, and Carteret, were successively dispatched, with orders to sail round tlie world, and to explore with particular care the Southern Ocean. The Terra AustraUs in-- cognila, so fondly sougbt, continued to elude the search of these enterprising commanders ; but they returned laden with much valuable knowledge of the numerous islands which they had discovered, and of other coasts and shores which they had viewed, and which were but partially known to preceding adventurers. Among the voyages which have contributed to the improvement of geography, that wdiich was performed, by order of the French king, in 1771 and 177^--% by Messrs. de Verdun dc la Crenne, of the Academy of the Marine at Brest, de Borda, member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, &c., and Pingre, chancellor of the university of Paris, ought not to be omitted. Though the primary objects of this voyage were the making experi- ments on certain Tbne-kcepcrs of le Itoy and Ber- * The account of Anson's voyage, which is well drnwn, was said to be executed by Dr. Walters, a gentleman wlio accom- panied his lordshij) as chnplain ; but tic real compiler of the nar- rative was Mr. Benjamin Robins. Chap. V.] Gcographxj. 33 thoud, and the investigation, in general, of the best mode of finding the longitude at sea, yet its able conductors made many other observations, and ascertained many facts of great importance to geo- graphical science. They pointed out the true situation of a number of places, seas, and coasts, before but imperfectly known ; rectified charts which had been long in vogue ; and gave new and more accurate information on a variety of points highly interesting to navigators. In 1775 don Juan de Ayala, a Spanish navigator, undertook a voyage for the purpose of exploring the north-western coast of America. He added a little to the sum of geographical knowledge, by discovering some bays, capes, and harbours, be- tween the 47th and 57th parallels of north lati- tude. Our knowledge of Iceland was greatly improved by the voyage of sir Joseph Banks and Dr. Solan- der, to that island, in 1772. These gentlemen, ' being disappointed in their plan of revisiting the South Sea, determined on a northern voyage, in which they were accompanied by the rev. Dr. von Troil, Dr. J. Lind, and several other literary and scientific gentlemen. They gave to the public, ^s the result of this expedition, much new and impor- tant information concerning the geograpliy and natural history of Iceland. The idea of finding a north-east passage to In- dia w^as, during a great part of the eighteenth cen- tury, generally entertained by navigators. It was before remarked, that the Russians, at an early period of the century, made numerous attempts to solve this important question in geography, but Vol. II. D 34 Geography, [Chap. V, without success; excepting that each succeeding attempt rendered the practicability, aild especially the safet}^ of such a passage, still more improbable. In 1773 captain Phipps, since lord Mulgrave, was dispatched, under the patronage of the British governmt?nt, toward the North Pole, on a voyage of discovery. He proceeded as far as the 80th de- gree of nortli latitude, where the mountains of ice presentdd invincible opposition to his further pro- gress. Although the expedition of Phipps con- fu-med the accounts. given by the Russians, Dutch, and others, of the impracticability of a passage to the east, through those seas ; and although it con- siderably increased our acquaintance with that part of the globe, not a k^w believe that such a passage really exists, and that it may yet be found. But of all the circumnavigators and geographical discoverers who have distinguished the eighteenth centur^^, captain James Cook* ought undoubt- jedly to be viewed as the most illustrious, whether we consider the extent or the usefulness of his enterprises. His three voyages, undertaken by or- der, and at the expense of the British govern- ment, and performed between the years 1768 and 1779, were productive of a vast fund of know- ledge, equally interesting and valuable, concern- ing the various parts of the world which he vi- sited. He collected important original informa- tion, respecting islands and coasts long before dis- covered, and supposed to be well known. He discovered man\' others which bad never been be- * Capt. James Cook was born in Yorkshire, in tlie year 1728^ and \va.s killed at Owliyhcc, February 14, 1/79. Oha1».V.] Geography. S5 fore visited by any. European. And even where the honour of discovery could not be strictly ascribed to him, yet he observed with such accu- racy, and described with such faithfulness, that the interests of science, of commerce, and of humanity, are perhaps more eminently indebted to him, than to any other individual in the same sphere of ac- tion, since the days of Columbus. The discoveries made by this celebrated circum- navigator were numerous. He ascertained that the idea, so long and fondly cherished by geogra- phers, of the existence of a great southern conti- nent, was either entirely without foundation ; or, that if such a continent existed at all, it must be given up as inaccessible and useless to man. He demonstrated the impracticability of a north-west passage to India, which had been for so many generations an object of solicitude and pursuit, and the attempts to discover which had cost so many lives and expensive voyages. He fully ascer- tained the vicinity of Asia to the American con- tinent, and thus determined the probability of the latter having been peopled from the former*. He * Before tlie discovery of the vicinity of the Asiatic continent to America it had long been considered a question of difficult solution, how the latter became peopled, as the general Deluge destroyed all the inhabitants of the earth, excepting those who were miraculously preserved with Noah in the Ark, which is generally supposed, after the subsidence of the waters, to have rested on a mountain of Asia. So formidable did this difficulty appear to some, that it led them to renounce their belief in the sacred history. It is true, several plausible, and even probable suppositions might be made to avoid this impious alternative; but the discoveries of Cook, and succeeding navigators, show that there is no difficulty in the case. The t';^o continents are now T) 2 36 Geography. [Chap. V, discovered a number of islands, particularly New Caledonia and the Sandzoich Islands, some of them large and populous, and presenting important ob- jects of commercial and scientific pursuit. His observations threw much light on the manners, the trade, the affmities, and the probable origin of nations. And, finally, to the laudable exertions of this distim?uished vovasrer, and to those of the learned men who accompanied him*, almost every branch of natural history is indebted for great and valuable improvements. And though to these important services his. life was fmally sacrificed; yet seldom has the memory of any man been load- ed with more just and liberal honours, not only by his countrymen, but by the civilised world. While capt. Cook was accomplishing the splendid discoveries which have placed him above all vival- ship in the history of modern navigation, the French government, desirous of signalising itself in the same honourable career, began to project voyages for this purpose. Accordingly, in 1766 M. Bougainville, a naval commander of talents and enterprise, was sent on a voyage of discovery, in the course of which he circumnavigated the globe. His discoveries were numerous and important, con- sisting particularly of a number of islands in the Pacific Ocean. He displayed great abilities as an officer, observed with accuracy, and reported with known to approach so near to each other, that, even setting aside the possibility of passing from one to the other on the ice, the passage might easily have been cllected by means of canoes, or small boatsi * Sir Josepli Banks, Dr. Solander, Dr. Forster, and several others. Chap, v.] Geography. 3? faithfulness 3 and the instruction with which hi.s narrative abounds shows him to have been u man of an enhghteued and hberal mind. In firmness, resolution, and talents for observation, he was pro- bably little if at all inferior to the celebrated Cuok; and although the list of his achievements is by no means so large or so brilliant as those of the British commander, yet his voyage will long be accounted honourable to himself, to his sovereign, and to his country. To Bougainville succeeded Messrs. Pages and Surville, w ho also made a numr ber of valuable discoveries and observations, espe- cially in the Southern Ocean, w hich have secured for their names an honourable place in the liistory of modern voyages. In 1771 Kerguelen, Marion, and du Clesmur, were successively busied in ex- ploring the same seas, in quest of the southern continent. And though the additions which they made to our knowledge of the globe ^vere by no means great, yet they were such as to entitle tliem to respectful mention in the present sketch. Soon after the peace of Paris, in IJS'J, a new voyage of discovery was projected by the French government, and preparation made for carrying it into effect. The objects of this expedition were to improve geography, astronomy, natural history, and philosophy in general ; to collect ^uccounts of the customs and manners of ditferent nations ; and to open new fields of commercial enterprise. Never, probably, was the plan of a voyage more enlightened and extensive, the instructions given to its conductors more scientific and precise, or the provision made for its execution more liberal and ^8 Geography. [Chap. V. perfect*. The immediate direction of it was com- mitted to Messrs. de la Perouse and de Langle, accompanied by a number of learned men, who, in 17S5, sailed from France, under the most favour- able auspices. Seldom has any expedition of the kind excited so general an interest throughout the civilised world, or promised more brilliant success. The melancholy fate of la Perouse and his com- panions is well known. Happily, however, all knowledge of the voyage is not lost with its un- fortunate conductors. From the accounts which have been published, it appears that we are in- debted to them for some important geographical discoveries, especially on the north-western coast of America, and on the eastern coast of Asia, and in the seas between that continent and Japan. From them, also, the accounts of some preceding navigators have received satisfactory confirmation ; the mistakes of others have been corrected ; and impositions under which the learned world had long lain, either through the ignorance or dis- honesty of their authors, have been detected and removed. The discovery of the great extent of Nezv-Hot- land deserves to be mentioned among the most important acquisitions in modern geography.—^ Tliat large portion of our globe, which may in- deed be called, with propriety, a new continent '\y * Sec the voyage of la Perouse, particularly vol. i. t The length of New Holland is about 2/30 miles-, and itg breadth about I96O; so that its extent is but a quarter less than that of Europe. It does not appear to be yet reduced to an abr Chap. V.] Geography. 30 had been discovered as early as the beginning of the seventeenth century, and, as some suppose> earlier*; but for more than a hundred years after this discovery little was known respecting it. Many supposed it to be a part of the great south-- ^rn continent, for which navigators had been so, long and eagerly searching. In 1770 the celebratfsd captain Cook visited and explored the eastern coast of New-FIolland, to the extent of near two thou- sand miles. In 1773 its insular situation was ascertained by captain Furneaux. Since that pe- riod much geographical and other information re- specting it has been obtained, and presented to the public, by Hunter, Meirshall, Collins, and se- veral others, who have done much toward investi- gating the appearance and productions of some important portions of that extensive country -f , To the above may be added the discovery of the Pelew Islands y in 1783, by captain Wilson; the discovery of several islands, a few years afterwards, by captain Shortland, betv^/een Nezv-Holland and Java ; the discovery of another cluster, about the same time, by captain Marshall, in the seas be- tween Nezv-Holland and C/mia ; and the still m^ore interesting information given us by the successive voyages of Portlock, Dixon, Etches, Aleares, and solute certainty, whether the whole of this great territory is a continued tract of land, or divided into two or more islands by narrow straits. * Mr. Pinkerton, the latest, and probably tlie best systematit. writer on Geography in tlie Englis^h language, seems rather in- clined to adopt the opinion that New-Holland was discovered by the Portuguese and Spaniards, near a centuiy before the Dutch navigators saw Van Diemais Land. t Sec the Vo^/a^e of Governor Phillip, 4 to, Ip^fip, 40 Geography. [Chap. V. Vancouver, concerning tlie north-western coast of America. By the last of these navigators, par- ticularly, we have been made acquainted with the existence of islands, on that side of our continent, not less numerous or extensive than those on the eastern side; and with many new facts, which throw light on the geography, productions, and ad- vantages of that part of the globe. The Spanish nation was once among the most adventurous and enterprising in Europe. The discoveries made in former times under its au- spices, and the talents and achievements of its naval commanders, raised it high in the scale of national greatness. This spirit has been in a great measure dormant, for near a century and a half. Excepting the voyage of don Ulloa, ho expedition of any magnitude, for promoting knowledge, had been instituted by the Spanish government for a long time previous to that which is about to be mentioned. The published accounts of Cook*s voyages soon excited the curiosity and the jealousy of that nation. The government fitted out several vessels, at different times, for the purpose, and with the hope of rivalling, if not surpassing, the exploits of the far-famed English discoverer. Of these at- tempts, the latest and most conspicuous was that made in 1 7^9, under the direction of don Malespina and don Bastamente. These commanders deserve an honourable place among the geographical dis- coverers of the century. They made many va- Juablc maps and charts of coasts, particularly on the American continent ; which, though visited be- fore, had not been satisfactorily explored or de- lineated. They discovered a new cluster of islands Chap, v.] Geography. 41 in the Southern Ocean ; and contributed not a little to extend our knowledge of navigation, natural his- tory, and the habits and manners of various savage nations, of whom litUe was before known. In 1785 commodore Billings, an Englishman in the Russian service, was dispatched by the empress to explore some of the northern parts of Russia ; more particularly to determine the latitude and Ictngitude of the mouth of the river Kovimci, and the situation of the great promontory of the TshutsJciy as far as the East Cape ; to form an exact chart of the islands in the Eastern Ocean, extending to the coast of America ; and, in short, to bring to per- fection the knowledge acquired of the seas lying between Siberia and the. opposite coast of America. Though this expedition did not answer the expec- tation of its royal patron, it furnished some ad- ditions to our geographical knowledge. Commo- dore Billings, in particular^ ascertained the latitude of the mouth of the Kovj'ma, and returned to Pe- tersburg, in 1 79^5 with a variety of less important details of information, useful to navigation and geography *. In the years 1790, 1791, and 1792, a voyage round the world was performed in the ship SolidCy commanded by captain Etienne Marchand, a French naval officer of reputation. From this voy- age resulted the discovery of a group of islands in the Pacific Ocean, in the neighbourhood of the Marquesas^ and some additional particulars of mformation respecting the north-v/est coast of America. * 3ce An Account of a Geographical and Astronomical -Ex- pedition, Sec, by Martin Sauer, 4tb, 42 Geographi/. - [Chap. V. Beside the more distinguished voyages which have been enumerated, several others are entitled to notice in the present sketch, as having con- tributed to the improvement of geography. The voyages of Nieuholf and Osbeck, to China, early -in the century; the voyage of Chabart, in 1^53 ; that of Courtanveaux, in 1768; of Stavoriniis, to some of the Asiatic Islands, in 1/68; of Kerguelen, to Iceland, Greenland, 'S'hefland, and Noricay, in 177^; of Forrest, in 1774; of En t recast aux, in search of la Perouse ; of the missionaries to the South-Sea Islands, and several others, who have all furnished some new and valuable information concerning the countries which they respectively visited. From the foregoing very imperfect view of what has been done by the principal Naval discoverers of the eighteenth century, to extend our knowledge of the globe, it will appear to form a great amount of geographical improvement. Their achievements, however, form but a part of our acquisitions in geography ; for, while discoveries by sea have suc- ceeded each other with astonishing rapidity, enter- prising Travellers have been equally diligent, bold, and persevering, in exploring the interior of coun- tries ])efore unknown, and in making us acquainted with their territorial limits, their governments, manners, riches, and science. Some notice of these will be necessary, in order to give a tolerable ex- liibition of modern advances in geographical know- ledge. At the beginning of the century under considera- tion, the greater part of Asia was comparatively little known. While the names of its various king- CilAP.V.] Geography. 43 doms, especiallj' on the sea-coast, were familiar to the scholar, their internal limits and condition were very imperfectly understood even by the best in- formed. But since that time rich additions have been made to our knowledge of this quarter of the globe. Peter the Great, after the battle of Pultowa, sent many Swedish prisoners into Siberia. Until that time little had been known concerning the interior of those northern regions. Strahlenberg, one of the prisoners, employed himself in exploring the country, for the promotion of geographical know- ledge. He collected and published much im- portant information ; and his map of that part of -Asia which he delineated, and presented to the public in l?^?? niay be considered as laying the first foundation for any thing like accurate ac- quaintance with that portion of the Asiatic con- tinent. The knowledge derived from Strahlenberg has been since greatly improved and extended by the travels of professor Pallas and others. About the year 1716, Dr. Shaw, an English gentleman of character, travelled into Syria and Palestine, and collected much vahrable information concerning those countries, particularly calculated to elucidate and conhrm the sacred history. In 1720, Mr. Bell travelled, in the suite of the Russian ambassador, from Petersburg to Pekin ; and, in the course of his journey, made many curious ob- servations on that part of Asia through which he passed, which he afterwards presented to the public in a very interesting form. At several later periods Syria has been visited, and many additional ac- counts respecting it given by the abbe Mariti, 44 G^graphij. [Chap. V. M. Voliiey, M. Cassas, and Mr. Browne. During the same period, our knowledge of Arabia has been extended by the travels of Niebuhr, Sauveboeuf, 'And others. Persia has been also more fully ex- plored than ever before, by Han way, count de Ter- riers, Sauveboeuf, Franklin, Gmelin, Pallas, and Forster. The geography and condition of Hln- dosian have been elucidated in a very interesting manner by Hodges, Bartholomeo, Forster, and, above all, by major Rennel, whose map of that country, and his memoir accompanying it, have been pronounced, by a good judge, one of the most instructive and valuable geographical presents ever made to the public *. Toward the close of the seventeenth century, some valuable information respecting China had been obtained through the medium of Christian missionaries from Europe. Since that period our acquaintance with China has been greatly extended. For this we are chiefly indebted to the works of du Halde f, Grosier, Staunton, and van Braam. Few works have been read with more interest than the celebrated account of lord Macartney's Em* bassy, by sir George Staunton; and seldom has any * Historical Disquisition eonccrning India. By William PiO- bertson, D.D. F.R.S., 8vo, 1791. Preface. t Jean Bnptiste du Hakle was born in Paris, in 16/4. He was extremely well versed in Asiatic geography. His great work, entitled Grand Description de la Chiiie, et de la Tartaire, in four vols, folio, was compiled from original papers of the Jesuit mis- sionaries. He was also concerned in a collection of letters besrun l>y father Gobien, entitled JJes Lettrcs Edijianics. He died in 1713. — Though he appears so familiar with the geography, scenery, and manners of Cliina, he never was ten leagues from Fails in his life. Chap, v.] Geography/. IL5 work of the kind been found more rich in curious information. Tartary lias been, during the same time, partially explored by various travellers ^ the Birman Empire, by Symmes ; Tibet, by Turner ; Kamtschatka, by Lesseps, and others. — To the above sources of information concerning different parts of Asia may be added the Asiatic Society at Calcutta, and particularly its late illustrious presi- dent, sir William Jones, whose diligence and suc- cess in investigating every avenue of knowledge, relating to the arts, sciences, literature, govern- ment, morals, and religion of the principal Eastern empires, were only equalled by his exalted virtues, and his stupendous general learning, which render him a prodigy of the age in which he lived *. For much important information respecting the geography of Siberia, we are indebted to Plenisner, commander of Ochotsk, in the Russian service. He received orders from the court of Russia to pro- ceed- to Aiiadirsk, and to procure all possible in- formation concerning the north-eastern parts of Siberia, and the opposite continent. He returned to Petersburg in 177^, and brought with him several maps and charts of the north-eastern parts of Siberia, which were considered as highly authen- tic documents, and which were afterwards made use of in the compilation of the General Map of Russia^ published by the Academy of Petersburg in 177ti Siberia has also been visited during the eighteen tJi century, and valuable information concerning its geography communicated by Bell;, d'Autcroche, Pallas, and Gmelin. * See his Works, lately published with great splendour i.i Q vols, 4to. See also the Asiatic Researches — passim. 46 Geography. [Chap. V. Much new and valuable infopTiation respecting the Asiatic Isles has also been obtained, and laid before the public, by various modern travellers. Since the time of Koempfer *, Japan has been vi- sited by Thunberg, and others, who have made interesting additions to what was before known concerning that empire. The Philippine Islands have been successively visited and examined by Sonnerat, Forrest, and Stavorinus; the Sicnda Islands, by Beeckman, Marsden, Foersch f , Sonne- i * Though Koerapfer, tlie famous traveller in Japan, visited tliat island towards the close of tlie seventeenth century, yet, owing to his death, the account of his voyage was not published till 1727, when it was laid before the public by Dr.-Scheuchzer, to whom Ka:mpfer's manuscripts were committed by sir Hans Sloane. t Foersch's narrations are not always to be relied an. His ce- lebrated account of the Bohim Upas tree, said to grow in the island of Java, has been long a monument of his credulity, or of his disposition to exaggerate. It is somewhat surprising that Dr. Dai-win should treat tliis account with so much respect. (See the notes to his Botanic Garden.) The truth is, if we may credit the declaration of the most credible modern tiavellers, no such tree exists. It is certain, however, that the vegetable poisons of some Asiatic islands are uncommonly numerous and extremely virulent. In the island of Cdthts they are so frequent and deadly, that it has been called the Isle of Poisons. It produces, we are told, the dreadful Macassar poison, a gum which exudes from the leaves and bark of a species of rhusy probably tlie toxicodendron. This species, together with the other poisonous trees on the same island, is called by the natives ipo or upas. Such, indeed, is the deleterious activity of this tree, that, when deprived of all poetic ffX-aggeratioM, it still remains unrivalled in its powers of destruc- tion. From the sober narrative of llumphius, we learn tliat no otlier vegetable can Hve within a nearer distance than a stone's throw; that birds, accidentally lighting on its branches, are im- mediately killed by the poisonous atmosphere which surrounds it j and Lluit, in order to procure the juice witli safety, it is necessary Chap, v.] Geography, 47 rat, Thunberg, Forrest, and le Poivre ; and Ceylon by Thunberg ; beside the numberless details re- ceived concerning less important islands, and by less conspicuous travellers, at different periods of the century. At the commencement of the period under re- view, the interior of /IJrica was even less known than the Asiatic continent. In fact, little more had been done than to survey the coasts, and to mark the capes and harbours of this quarter of the ^lobe. But since that time, by the exertions of a number of intelligent and persevering travellers, our knowledge of that extensive country has rapidly increased , and there seems to be a fair prospect of our curiosity being, at no great distance of time, much more fully gratified. Early in the century, the travels of Dr. Shaw into Barbary, of Pococke and Norden into Egypt, and of Kolben to the Cape of Good-Hope and the parts adjacent, furnished the civilised world with much valuable information con- cerning those countries. At later periods Egypt has been explored upon a more satisfactory and philosophical plan by Niebuhr, a commissioner of the king of Denmark for this purpose; and by Savary, Volney, and Sonnini, distinguished travel- lers of France. To which may be added the in- teresting communications respecting the geography and natural history of that country, by the learned men lately sent thither, in connexion with the far- to cover the whole body with a thick cotton cloth. If a person approach it bare-headed, it causes tlie hair to fall off j and a drop of the fresh juice, appli{;id on the skin, if it do not produce im- mediate death, will cause an ulcer very difficult to be cured.^ — rSe<- Pinkerton's Geography, vol, i; p. 517- 48 Geography. [Chap. V^ fanied and extraordinary expedition by the French government. The interior of Souther ji Africa has, within a few years past, been explored and made known to us by de la Caille, Thunberg, Sparmann, Vaillant *, Patterson, and Barrow ; while the Northern parts have been visited and examined by Poiret, Lem- priere, Chenier, Hoest, Agrell, and others; from whose travels a great mass of new and curious facts may be derived respecting the natural, civil, and moral condition of those barbarous coun- tries. Prior to the year I768 little had been heard or known of the great kingdom of Ahyssinia, from the time of the Jesuit Lobo, until that period. It was in the above-mentioned year that Mr. Bruce,, a Scottish gentleman, well known in the annals of modern travel, undertook to explore that extensive territory, with a particular view to ascertain the source of the Nile. The dangers which he en- countered in this enterprise, the difficulties which he overcame, and the views which he exhibits of tlie countries that he visited, present a very amusing and instructive spectacle to the inquiring mind, notwithstanding the occasional errours into which he falls, and the inordinate vanity which ap- pears in every page of his narration. It has been said, that to this ardent and intrepid man we are indebted for more important and more accurate in- Ibrniation concerning;' the interior of Africa, and * Bolli Sparmaim and Vaillant, especially the latter, have been charged with being deficient in that iirst of all reijuisites in a travellt^r, fidelity. Chap, v.] Geography, 49 especially concerning the nations established near the Nile, from its source to its mouths, than all Europe could before have supplied. The travels of Mr. Browne in Egypt, and some adjacent parts of AfiMca, considerably enlarged the sum of our geo- graphical knowledge, and presented to the inquisi- tive reader a variety of curious information. In 1788 a number of the nobility, and other gentlemen of liberal curiosity, in Great Britain, formed an association, the express object of which was to explore the interior of Africa. This object they have pursued with a laudable zeal, and with a very honourable and gratifying success*. The successive travels of Houghton, Lucas, Ledyard f, -* See the Proceedings of the Afriean Association. •\ Mr. John Ledyard was an American, born in the state of Connecticut. He entered Dartmouth college, in New Hamp- shire, at the usual age, with a view to the study of divinity ; but, being obliged to leave that institution, on account of tlie narrow- ness of his circumstances, before his education was completed, he resolved to indulge his taste for activity and enterprise. Ac- cordingly, he engaged as a common sailor on board a ship bound from New York to London. On his arrival there he entered as corporal of marines with the celebrated captain Cook, then about to sail on his third voyage of discover)^ Young Ledyard was a favourite w^ith that illustrious navigator, and was one of the wit- nesses of his tragical end. After this he travelled many tliousand miles through the northern parts of Europe and Asia, intending to pass'^from the latter to the American continent, and traverse the interior of his native country. But being arrested in the pursuit of this plan by order of the empress of Russia, he at length re- turned to England, where, in ] 788, he engaged in the service of the African Association, for the purpose of exploring the interior of that country.' In pursuance of this agreement, he reached Cairo, in Egypt, in the month of August of the same year. He had, however, scarcely entered on his travels, when death uu-- expectedly terminated his career. Vol. 1L E <50 Geography, [Chap. V. Park, and 1 lorncman *, under their direction, have been productive of much new and curious infor- mation concerning the countries which they visited. Mr. Park, in particular, has recently brought to our knowledge a more interesting and important number of facts concerning the moral, political, and phj'sical condition of Western Africa., than had been done by any preceding traveller f. Nor is it a circumstance of small moment, in estimating the value of Mr. Park's travels, that they have called forth, from major Rennel, a very learned and in- structive body of remarks, and other materials for throwing light on the geography of that extensive country. The succession of maps, delineating im- portant portions of Africa, published by this last- named gentleman, between 1790 and 1800, forms a curious series of documents respecting our pro- gressive knowledge of that quarter of the globe. The publications of Loyart and Degrandpr^ also contain some valuable information concerning Western Africa, particularly the large territory in- cluded under the names of Congo and Loango, In 1791 a society was formed in Great Britain, by a number of benevolent persons, under the name of the Sierra Leone Company, The principal de- sign of this society was to obtain a settlement, on that part of the coast of Africa called by the name * Two great objects of African curiosity liave been inccompllshed in the eighteenth century, 1;:^. the discovery of the Soitrcts of th€ Nile, by Biiice ; and of the site and condition of the famous Temple of Jupittr Ammoji, by Horneman. f Tlie narrative of Park's journey is said to have been written by tlie late Bryan Edwards. See Jlistory 1^ the West Indies, vol. iii, Adverti.'^enisnt by sir William Youn to 1 70s. Chap, v.] Geography, 57 larly the Moravian missionaries^ from whom some of the best accounts of the physical and moral con- dition of that portion of our continent have been communicated to the pubHc *. The Northern and North-Wesiern parts of North America have been visited, at different periods du- ring the century, by Charlevoix,. CuiTy, Long-}-, Pond, Cartwright, HearneJ, Henry, Turner, and Mackenzie §. The last-named traveller has the honour of being the first white man who ever reached the Pacific Ocean, by an overland progress from the east. Some valuable information concern- ing this portion of the continent, has also been • communicated by certain Moravian missionaries, who resided for a number of years in that inhos- pitable region ||. Beside the travellers who with laudable enter- prise have done much toward exploring such parts of the country as were a few years ago wholly * See the Tlistoiy of the Missions of the United Brethren among the Indians in North America, By George Henry LoskieL Translated by Latrobe. 8vo. London. 179^- f Travels of an Indian Interpreter. 4to. J 7/2. % Journey from Prince of Wales' s Fort, in Hudso?i''s Bay, to the Northern Ocean. 4to. ITQo- § Mr. Mackenzie, now sir Alexander Mackenzie, ascertained, beyond all dispute, that there is no northern communication be- tween tlie Atlantic and Pacific Oceans^ except at so high a latitude as to be rendered wholly impracticable by perpetual ice. This long-contested question will probably be considered henceforth as settled. II See a Description of Greenland, kc, by Hans Egede, who had been a missionary in the country for t^venty years. Translated from the Danish. 8vo. London. 1745. See also the History of Greenland, &c., by David Crautz. Translated from tlie German. 3 vols, 8vo. 17^7' 58 Geography. [Cha?. V". tmknown, we are indebted to many other gentle- men for various publications which have sened greatly to improve American geography. The Geographical Essays of Lewis Evans, published in 17.50, together with the maps accompanying them, formed an important step in the progress of our knowledge of that part of America of which he treated. Dr. John Alitchill, an Englishman, who resided some years in Virginia, and whose name has been frequently mentioned in this work, con- tributed not a little to extend our knowledge of American geography. His Map of North Americay published about the year 175-5, was, for some time after its publication, the best extant. The geogra- phy of Virginia has been well illustrated by Mr. Jefferson ; of Kentucky, by Mr. Imlay ; of New Hampshire, by Dr. Belknap ; of Vermont , by Dr. Williams ; and of the District of Maine, by Mr. Sullivan. But the most full and satisfactory work on American get>graphy hitherto given to the pub- lic, is that by the rev. Dr. Morse, ^vhose talents, zeal, and industry, in collecting and digesting a large amount of information on this subject, are well known both in Europe and America, and ha^•e been very honourably rewarded by public pa- tronage. The geography of Soiilh America, though fai' from being so fully and accurately understood as could be wished, has yet been much investigated and made known during the last age. At an early period of the century don Ulloa, who wrys before mentioned, visited and ;;pent much time in Peru, Chili, the kingdom of Nezv Granada, and several of the provinces bordering on the ^tcxican Gulf. Chap, v.] Geography. .5§ At the same period, and in the same part of tlie New A\"orld, Messrs. Condamine, Godin, and Boii- guer, travelled for several years, and communicated to the public a great variety and a very valuable amount of information respecting the interior of those extensive countries. The travels also of Cat- taneo, Helms, andDobritzhoffer, in Ptru and Para-- guai) ; of Bancroft and Stedman, in Gidajia ; of Armateur, in Cayenne; of don Molina, in CJdli ; and of Falkner *, in Patagonia, have contributed greatly to enlarge the sphere of our knowledge re- specting the southern division of this western con- tinent. Don Malespina, before mentioned, made an excellent survey of the coast, from Rio de la Plata to Panama. But the best geographical view ever published of a large portion of South America is exhibited in the Mapa Geographic a del America Meridional, published in 177-5, ^yy don Juan de }a Cruz, geographer to the king of Spain •(-. Beside all the discoveries and improvements stated in tlie foregoing pages, to which the en-, terprise of navigators and travellers has given birtli, the last age is distinguished, above all others, by the prodiiction of large and excellent systematic works pn the subject of geography. The dilference in fulness and accuracy, between the geographical treatises published at the commencement of the eigiiteenth century, and those whicli appeared tQward the close of it, can be adequately conceived * Falkner, who \v^% a missionary, published a Map of Futagoma in 1774. It is not, however, considered as eqaaliy correct with that of la Cruz. f This map was republished, in London, with improycnjents^ by Faden, in 1799. 60 Geography. [Chap. V^ by none but those who have compared them to- gether. The successive works of Gordon, Bowen, Middleton, CoIIj^er, Salmon, Guthrie*, and Payne, held an important rank at the dates of their respec- tive publications. The extensive geographical work of Mr. Busching, of Germany, may be con- sidered as, on the whole, the most laborious and complete of the age. To these may be added the large and very respectable work of professor Ebe- ling on the geography of America |, and that of Bruns on Africa. The elucidations of Ancient Geography, by se- veral modern writers, are higlily interesting and valuable, and deserve to be regarded among the signal improvements of the eighteenth century. The service rendered to science in this way by M. d'AnvilleJ is too well known to require eulo- * This work, it is said, was not compiled by Guthrie, whose name it bears, but by another person, who had the permission to avail himself of the popularity of that gentleman's character. The stratagem succeeded ; the work, with all its deficiencies and errours, immediately gained general patronage, and entirely sup- planted Salmon's Geographical Grammar, which had before en- joyed universal favour. f I'he diligence and success with which professor Ebeling has laboured to elucidate the geography and history of the American States, are worthy of the highest praise. There is no doubt that the information which he has collected, and has been for some time engaged in laying before his countrymen, on this subject, though in some respects imperfect and erroneous, as was unavoida- ble, is } ct by far the most accurate and full that was ever given to the public by a Pluropcan. X Jean Baptiste Bourgnignon d'Anville, geographer to the king of France, was born in 1697. He was one of the most diligent itnd enthusiastic geographers that ever lived. He is said to have I.ibourcd Hfttcn hours a day, inx fifty years, to improve this favou- Chap, v.] Geography, 61 gium. The more recent works, of a similar kind, bj Gosselin of France, and by Rennel of Great Britain, also do honour to their authors, and to the age. Nor ought the service rendered to the science of ancient geography by Mr. Jacob Bryant to be forgotten, or lightly esteemed. In few respects has the last century displayed greater improvement than in the number, accuracy, and elegance of its Maps. The maps of M. de Lisle * were early and extensively celebrated. Since that time the maps of Cassini-f, d*Anville, la Ro- chette, Robert, Wells, Sottzman, Rennel, Arrow- smith, and many others, are entitled to honourable distinction* At the beginning of the period under review, there was scarcely a map in existence of any part of the American continent that deserved the name. Since that time almost every known part, and especially the United States, have been delineated with accuracy and neatness. No gejieral map of the U nited States, that can be called correct, has yet been published. That of Arrowsmith is the best, and is highly respectable. But good maps of most of the individual states have been presented to the public. Of these the following is an imper- rite science. He died in January 1782. The extent and value of his labours, for the illustration both of modern and ancient geography, are generally known. * William de Lisle, the great French geographer, was born at Paris in 1675. He was appointed geographer to the kingj and was celebrated as one of the greatest map-makers of his day. He died in 1 726. t The map of France by Cassini was begun in 17^4, and finished in 1794, in one hundred and eighty-three sheets. Tiiis. is probably tlie largest map ever formed by human industry. 62 Geographi), [Chap. V. feet list : — New Hampshire^ by Holland ; Vermont, by Whitelaw ; Rhode Island, by Harris ; Connecti'* ciit^ by Bloclget ; Peyinsylvania, by Scull, and by Howell ; Maryland and Delaware, by Griffiths ; Virginia, by Fry and Jefferson ; the country west of the Jlleghan}) Mountains, by Hutchins, Imlay, Lewis, and Williamson ; North and South Carolina, by Mouzon, Purcell, and others ; and Kentucky, by Barker"^. The Charts which have been formed in modern times are also distinguished by their ex- cellence, above all preceding specimens. Among these, the Neptune Orientate of M. de Mannivilette; the charts of the Atlantic, by Bellin ; of the Pacific^ by Arrowsmith ; of the American coast, by du Barres, Holland, and Malespina ; of the Western Isles, by Huddart ; of the coasts of Spain, by To- fnio ; and the numerous charts of detached islands,, coasts, harbours, and straits, by Dalryniple ^ are among the most respectable. The Gazetteers, Atlases, and other helps to the- acquisition of geographical knowledge, have also become very numerous during the last age. They Were not only less common in former periods, but, in fact, little known, and of small comparative value. Their introduction into popular use is a pecu] iar Ity of the eighteenth century. The authors and compilers of these are so generally known, that it is unnecessary to enumerate them. Those . * To this list may now be adued a large and elegant IViap of the state of Kew York^ published in 1803, by Simeon de Witt, esq., surveyor-general. I^his map does its author great honour ; and is, probably, the best delineation that ha. yet bfen given ol any part of our country. Chap, v.] Geography. 63 of Crutwell, Scott, and the rev. Dr. Morse, are among the latest and best in our language. Unprecedented pains have beai taken, during the period under consideration, to collect into re- gular series of volumes those accounts of voyages and travels ^\\\q\\ might serve to give a connected view of the condition of the globe, and of the ac- tivity and adventures of distinguished men in ex- ploring distant countries. The collections of this nature formed by Harris, Campbell, Churchill, Sal- mon, Guthrie, Hawkesworth, and Dalrymple, of Great Britain ; by des Brosses, of France; by Estala, of Spain ; and many others ; hold an im-. portant rank among the instructive and amusing productions of the age. The discoveries and improvements above stated,, beside correcting and enlarging our geographical knowledge, have also led to many and important additions to the stock of general science. There is scarcely any part of natural philosophy, or natural history, which has not received considerable im- provement from this source. New light has been thereby shed on the doctrines of the tides and liie zvinds : the nature and laws oi magnetic variation have been better understood ; the sciences of zo'u- logy^ botany, and mineralogy, have been greatly, ex- tended and advanced ; immense collections of na- tural curiosities have been made from every knovvii region of the earth ; and, what is by no means of least importance, opportunities have been afiTorJeil of studying human nature in a grtjat variety of 64 Geography, [Chap. V. forms, of making rich collections from the vocabu- laries of different languages^ of comparing habits and customs^ of investigating the records and tra- didons of nations scarcely at all known before ; and thus of acquiring rich materials toward completing the natural and civil history of man. Strange as it may appear, our knowledge of An- tiquities^ principally by means of geographical discoveries, and the inquiries naturally flowing from them, has become incomparably greater than was ever before possessed by man. " When the Egyp- tians,'* says a modern eloquent writer, " called the Greeks ckildren in Antiquities^ we may well call them children ; and so we may call all those na- tions which were able to trace the progress of society only within their own limits. But now the great map of mankind is unrolled at once, and there is no state or gradation of barbarism, and no mode of refinement, which we have not at the same mo- ment under our view : the very differ^it civility of Europe and of China; the barbarism of Persia and Abyssinia; the erratic manners of Tartary and of Arabia ; the savage state of North America, and of New Zealand ; are all spread before us : we have employed philosophy to judge on manners, and from manners we have drawn new resources for philosophy*.'* Geographical discoveries have led to an unprece- dented degree of intercourse among men. Though this remark is connected with the subject of the last paragraph, it deserves separate consideration. * See Burke's LtUer to Robertson, in professor Stewart's Ac^ couni of the Life and IVrilnnjr.s of that hi.storinn. Chap. V.] Geography, Cj Toward the close of the seventeenth century, the intercourse between distant nations of the earth was greater than it had been at any former period, and was considered higlily honourable to human enterprise : but since that period it has been in- creased to a wonderful degree ; insomuch that at the present time the inhabitants of the remotest countries have seen and know more of eacli other, than those, in many cases, who resided compara- tively in the same neighbourhood a hundred years ago. Great advantages to Commerce have also arisen from the geographical discoveries above recited. The extension of the trade iovfurs to the north-west coast of America, is one important and beneficial event of this nature. This article of commerce was rapidly becoming more scarce in those parts of the world from which traders had before obtained it : it was, therefore, a most seasonable and interesting discovery to make them acquainted with a coast on whicJi they might be supplied with the greatest abundance, and which is likely to furnish an inex- haustible store for ages to come. To this signal commercial advantage might be added many others, w^ere it expedient to enlarge on the subject. It would be improper, however, to omit taking no- tice, that the numerous groups of Islands, lately discovered in the Pacific Ocean, have risen to un- expected importance, and promise to be of still, greater utility. These Islands afford very con- venient victualling and watering places for ships; and if the civilised nations who visit them were as industrious and successful m introducing among Vol. II. F 66 Geographj/. [Chap. V. them the blessings of literary, moral, and religions knowledge, and the arts of cultivated life, as in initiating them into the vices which corrupt and de- grade, we might expect soon to see them become the happy seats of literature, science, arts, and pure Christianity, and, in time, reflecting rich blessings on their benefactors. The enlargement of geographical knowledge during the last century has led to an increase of the comforts and elegancies of life, in almost every part of the civilised world. By this the productions of every climate have become known and enjoyed in every other; the inventions and improvements of one country have been communi- cated to the most distant regions; and the comforts of life, and the refinement of luxury, have gained a degree of prevalence among mankind greatly beyond all former precedent. Never, assuredly, in any former age, were so many of the natural pro- ductions, and the manufactures of different coun- tries enjoyed by so large a portion of the human race, as at the close of the eighteenth century. Finally, the geographical discoveries of the last age have contributed to illustrate and confirm Re- velation. The discoveries of Behring and Cook were before mentioned as throwing light on the population of the New World, and thus tending to support the sacred history. But, beside these, the knowledge of the manners, customs, and tra- ditions of different nations, especially of those on the Eastern Continent, gained by modern ^•oyager soon after the establishment of the federal govern- ment f. It is supposed that this last-mentioned standard is preferable, both in simplicity and accu- racy, to all others. measuring the precise distance between the real point of suspen- sion, and the centre of oscillation of the pendulum. To obviate this difficulty, Mr. Hatton, and after him, still iiiore succcssfiill)', Mr. Whitehurst, devi«ed their improvements. Since the publication of Air. Whitehurst, sir George Shuckburgh Evelyn, asjsuming his principles, and pursuing his path, has made further experiments, which throw new light on the subject. — Set' rhilos. Trans. 1798, p. 174. *■ An Attempt tcivards obtaining invariable Measures of Lengthy Capacity, and Weight, from the Mawiration of Time. t Mr. Jefferson does not claim tlie merit of this invention ; it was communicated to him by Mr. Robert Leslie, an ingenious watch-maker of rjj^^elphia. Chap. VI.] Mathematics. 79 The attempt made in France, witliln a few years past, to form a standard of length, weight, and capacity, by measuring a certain number of de- grees on a great circle of the earth, is generally known*. This plan is considered, by good judges, as having some important advantages j though ia simplicity and practicability it is certainly inferior to the one last mentioned. The last century is also eminently distinguished for the production of various kinds of Tabtes, which are of the utmost importance to the mathemati- cian, particularly in giving facility and precision to his calculations. Such of these as pertain im- mediately to astronomy were mentioned in a for- mer chapter. Beside these may be enumerated the tables of LogarltJnnSy of Sines and Tan- gents, of Difference of Latitude and Departu?T, of Meridional Points, of Loxodromic or Rhumb Lines, all of which, and many more, ha\e been brought to a degree of perfection, during this period, which was never before known. The ta- bles more particularly entitled to honourable * The liietliod adopted by the French Institute for obtaining an invariable standard of measure is, to assume a certain portion of the whole circumference of the earth. For this purpose tbey actually measured, on a great circle of the earth, the distance be- tween Dunkirk and Barcelona. The portion of the meridian from Dunkirk to Rodez was measured by Delambre ; and tiiat from Rodez to Barcelona, by Mechain. From this measurement the length of the whole meridian was easily calculated 5 after which a certain portion of the whole circle {i\ forty 'millionth) was fixed upon as the standard of measure. This standard tlie French call the Metre, which is about equal to 39.3/1 EnglijU inches. so Mathematics. [Chap. \1, mention are those of Slierwin, Sharpe, Gardner, and Taylor^ of Great Britain ; of Vega, of Germany; and of Callet, and de Lalande, of France. To give an account, in detail, of the various in- ventions and improvements which have taken phice with respect to Mathematical Instruments, during the last age, would exceed the hmits assigned to the present review. Some of these have been al- ready mentioned in another picice ; and many more will readily occur to every reader, whose mind is conversant with objects of this nature. It is sufficient to say that they are numerous and important. The accuracy of construction, the elegance of workmanship, and the ease and expe- dition of manufacture which modern artists have attained, are equally wonderful, and honourable to the century under consideration. The science of mathematics has been but little cultivated in the United States during the period under review. They, indeed, have been by no means deficient in the production of mathe- matical genius s but the state of society, and the particular situation of most of those who might have distinguished themselves in this department of knowledge, have prevented that devotedness to the higher brandies of mathematics which is necessary to the attainment of excellence, or to accomplish in:provements. Still, however, some small productions of this kind, occasionally laid be- fore the public in the Transactions of their Ic^arned societies, aflbrd a very respectable specimen of iCHAP. VL] Mathematics. Si the talents and erudition of the people of America, and hold up to view several names with distinguished honour *. * The first volume on tlic higher branches of the matliematics ever presented to the pubHc by ^ native American made its ap- pearance in the course of the year 1802, under the title of Essays JMathcmatical and Physical, by Jared Mansfield, of New Haven;, Connecticut. This writer displays a degree of. mathema- tical genius and erudition v hich docs honour to himself and ills country. OL. if. S2 . iVar/:>>7f //■>?/ ['CiiAP. VII. CHAPTER VII. NAVIGATION. JN' A^-IGATION, considered both as an an and a science, ^vas greatly advanced daring the iatc century. This advancement was owing to a va- riety of circumstances, which are vrorthy of being transiently noticed in the present sketch. The Construction of Ships has received very con- siderable improvements in modern times. That method of building which is favourable to rapid sailing has been, for a number of years, gaining ground, in place of the old method, in which capa- city was chiefly consulted. New and advantageous plans of rigging vessels have been adopted, and better modes of working them than were formerly in use. In the science of naval architecture, and of navigation generally, perhaps no individual has done more to useful purpose than Euler, of whose ingenious and excellent labours, in several depart- ments of science, \\c have had frequent occasion to s])eak. In consequence of his celebrated pub- lications on this suliject, the mathematicians of France were incited to study the theory of shij)- l)uilding, by v/hich means nautical science in thcit country made remarkable progress. A taste for the same species of inquiry afterward began to grow in Great Britain ; and, untler the aus[)iccs of the government of that country, and various pub- lic societies, bus since produced maiiy important improvements. Chap. VII. ] Ncn:igan'o?i. ^3 In estimating the revolutions which took place in naval architecture in the course of the last acre, perhaps few are more signal than the great in- crease in the .dimensions of ships of the same rate. Sliips of war, in particular, arc now generally a fourth, and, in many cases, a third hirger than ves- sels of the same number of guns were at the be- ginning of the late century*. In this augmenta- tion the naval architects of France took the lead, and have g^one the crreatest lencrths : the Britisii followed their example, and have carried every thing which relates to tlie construction and ma- nagement of ships to a great degree of perfec- tion. While modern ships are larger than the ancient, they are at the same time more light and simple in their structure. The cumbrous and useless orna- ments, which the false and unphilosophical taste of preceding ages employed, have been laid aside ^ and, in general, those principles of architecture adopted, which combine the advantage of easy ma- nagement with the greatest burden. The Mariner s Compass, though it has been in use for several centuries, was attended with great imperfections and inconveniencies until a fev/ years ago, Vvhen \^\\ Gav/in Knight, of Great Bri- tain, in consequence of his invention of Artificial Magnets, was enabled considerably to improve this inestimable instrument. The compasses made by him were found to exceed, in regularity aud exactness, all those which had been constructed before his time. After him further improvemei.it:? * See AdJdlonal Notes. (G. G). Q2 84 Kavigiftio?!. [Chap. VIl of importance were made by Mr. Smeaton, and Mr. M'Culloch. The complete Azimu/h Compass is one of the most valuable presents which modern genius has made to navigators. The compass is scarcely of more importance to tlie mariner, than the celebrated in^^eation of the Q^uadraniy commonly ascribed to Mr. Iladley, of Great Britain, but of ^vhich the honour really be- longs to jNIr. Godfrey;, a philosophic artist of Phila- delphia. To which may be added the numerous improvements of this instrument, some of which were mentioned in another place ; to say nothing of many others, under the names of SexiantSy OcfantSy &'c\, constructed on like principles, and ioi similar purposes. Almost all the methods now in use for fmding the Lojigiiude, whether by means of Lunar Obser- vaiiGus, the position of Jupiler's . Salel/ileSy or of well-constructed Time-keepers, were fu'st brought into general use during the last century. The rise, progress, and authors of these several discoveries and impro\ements were briefly detailed in a former chapter. The important place vrhich they hold in the armals of navigation is too generally understood to require formal elucidation. The . invention of Ephemerides, or Nautical Jlma7iacs, is another important event which be- longs to the century under review. They ^^erc first published for the use of mariners by M. de la Caille, about the }'ear 17^5. Dr. Maskelyne, in England, followed his exaiViplc^ and first pub- iishud ihem in that country, about the year 17(i7. i'hc cfTecMs of these almanacs in advancing the ;u't of naviL'-ation are v.eH known. Their iniiuence Chap. VII.] Navigafioji. 8J in promoting the Lunar method of findmg the longitude is worthy oi' partieular rcmiirk. The exti'emc faeility with which that operation, formerly so tedious and diiiicult, is now performed, even ])y comman seamen, deser\es to he notieed as a di- stinction of the age under consideration. The great angmentation in the number of Maps aijd CharU, and the manifest improvements in their construction, accuracy, and elegance, may also he mentioned among the circumstances, which ha\e coiitributed to the advancement of navigation in modem times. The degree in which these improve- ments have promoted the safet}', the comfoit, and the expedition of late voyages, is scarcely within the reach of ordinary calculation. But there are few modern improvements in tlie art of navigation more gratifying to humanity than the remarkable and very successful attention to the Health of Seamen, Avhigh characterises the conduc- tors of late voyages. The names of those who di- stinguished themselves by devising and bringing into use the most approved methods for promotmg this end were respectfully mentioned in a preceding division of this Avork, The great contrast which the history of ancient and modern voyages presents, with respect to the comparative destruction of the liealth and lives of mariners which they pro'iuced, cannot but forcibly arrest the attention oi every reader, and exceedingly gratify the benevoleut mind. Beside the improvements in diet and regi- men on shipboardj to which modern science ;iiid humanity have given rise, and which have contri^ buted greatly to preserve the health of seamen, the introduction of Veniilaiors into ships also deserves 36 Naviga/ioji. [Chap. VIL to be mentioned as an importaat mean of pro- moting the same object, and, at the same time, for preserving the timber and cargoes of vessels *. To these may be added some notice of the modern im- proved methods of constnicting Pumps, and other hydraulic machinery of ships, by which the safety and comfort of navigators are greatly secured. In addition to the improvements vi^hich have been mentioned, some notice might be taken of the various plans for promoting Submarine Navigationy which have been laid before the public at different times, and by different persons, in the course of the last age ; of the attempts to construct Life- boats, for the safety of mariners in case of extremity ; of the improved methods wdiich have been invented for facilitating the guidance of ships on the ocean, and for measuring their progress. But to give an intelligible enumeration of these and of many other i:^odern improvements in navigation would lead to a minuteness of detail inconsistent with the plan of the present sketch. Beside many ingenious individuals to wdiom m.ariners are indebted for patronising and aiding tiieir art, much is also due to some learned and other societies, for their useful exertions to promote the same end. But perhaps to no public bodies will the annals of modern navigation be found to ascribe more than to the Board of Longitude and the Board of Admiralty of Great Britain. ■^ F(jr ilic invenLion of robability that a few years more will present us with a large amount of this species of improvement in many parts of that country. -^ James Brindiey, the celebrated engineer, was born in Dobr- shire, in the year ] 7iO\ He early devoted himself to mechaiv.cal pursuits, and was bred a mill-wright. Hisastouislung enterprise, and useful improvements in the formation of aquedtxts, camls, &:e., are generally known, and will long do honour to his memory. Ue died in l/Z'i, i" t-hc fifty-si^.th year of his age. 90^ " Jgriculturc\ [Chap, Yllh CHAPTER \m. AGRICUJ,TU.RE. .. IS O art is^ ofmore ancient ddXe than this, it em- ployed our first parents in I'eradise ; and has been niorc or less an object of pursuit in all ages. Like almost every other object of human attention, how- ever, it has undergone numberless revolutions of decline -'id revival, in diiTerent periods, and among different nations. In Egypt, in Palesline, in Greece, in Persia, and in the Roman empire, this art suc^ cessively rose into importance,, flourished under various wise encouragements, and gradually de- clined with the learning, taste, and indu^itry of the respective countries. From the time of Con- stantine tiie Great, to the beginning of the seven- teenth century, the annals of agriculture furnish little worthy of attention. About the latter period, in consequence of many laudable efforts made by men of influence, and the publication of several valuable works on the subject, this art began to revive in France, and in Flanders. The inhabit- ants of lliose countries endeavoured for a consi- derable time to conceal the means which they used for improving and increasing the productive- ness of their lands. Whoever, therefore, became desirous of receiving instruction in their method of hushandry, was under the necessity of visiting their country, and observing for himself. We are told CiiAP. VIIL] JgricuUure. 91 that the Frencli, at this ]5eriod, were in ihc habit of using nine different f^orts of manure ; bat of tiie nature of each we are not informed. It is also said that they v/ere the first people among the mo- derns, who ploughed in green cropS;, for the sake of fertilizing the soil ; and who confmed sheep in sheds at night, for the purpose of increasing the amount of their compost manure*. Agriculture next revived in Great Britain. To this, there is reason to believe, the writings of sir Hugh Piatt yery much contributed. lie discovered, or brought into use, many new kinds of manure, and, perhaps, contributed more to the improvement of the art of cultivating the earth, than any other indi\idual of tlie age in w^iiich he lived. He Avas succeeded by Hartlib, a writer much esteemed in his day, but by no means equal to his predecessor. The exertions of these men, and others of less note, together with the peculiar circumstances of the na- tion, prompted persons of the greatest influence to encourage agriculture, to regard it as the most certain and productive source of weahli to tiieir country^ impoverished by preceding wars, and to promote its improvements with zeal, liut this nourishing era of husbandry Avas of short continu- ance. At the Restoration, the country gentlemen relapsed into negligence and dissipation; suiTcn- dered the rural honours which they had beforc sought wkh so much eagerness, and lei\ them to be pursued by the least enlightened part of the com- munity. Happily, however, this decline, like the preccd- ^- Sec Enc) clopaxlia, art. Agriculture. 9^ JgricuUure. [Chap, VIII. ing revival, was also of short duration. Mr. E\ie- ]yTL was the first writer by whom his countrymen became again inspired with just sentiments on this subject; and by whose exertions agriculture was enabled, once more, to claim its former dignity. Indeed, after the peace of Aixia Chapelle, in 174'8, most cf the nations of Europe, by a kind of tacit consent, applied themselves to the study of this art, which has been, from that period to the present, gradually increasing in extent and im4>ortance, and assiuning more of the regular and consistent aspect of a science. In the course of the last Mty years many capital and most useful im^provements have been intro- duced into agriculture. Individuals of wealth and taste, and learned societies have embarked in plans for its encouragement, with a dej^ree of enlightened zeal which was never before displayed. Many in- genious and judicious publications have suggested new plans and objects of cultivation, have diifused a knowledge of well directed experimv'?nts and ob- servations, and have excited a general spirit of emu- lation in pursuing this kind of improvement. Phi- losophers, in this century, for the first time, have imited with the practical cultivators of the earth, in exploring new means of increasing the fertility of the soil, and consequently of increasing the wealth and the comforts of man. In zeal for agricultural improvements, and in tlie success with which they have been pursued, during the last age. Great Britain certainly holds the first place. Next to her stands France, and afterward come in succession, Italy, the German empire, &c. In Holland, Spain, Portugal, Turkey^ Chap. VIIL] Agriculture. 0.5 and Russia, improvements have been fc^w, and slowly advancing. It is true that, even in the lust mentioned countries, some efforts have been made, by associations and otherwise, to promote the best methods of cuUivating the earth; but various cir- cumstances have hitherto conspired eitlier to weaken these exertions, or render them in a great measure ineffectual. 'Jlie ronnnercial spirit of Holland has long driven fi-cnn her view every general plan of agricultural enterprise, and several of the other na- tions vi'hich W'QXQ mentioned, fixed in inactivit}^, under the cangealing influence of ignorance and .slavery, are equally unacquainted with, and indif- ferent to, the most i.m}X)rtant and indispensable foundations of public prosperity. Among the memorable events in the annals of agriculture, pertaining to the 18th century, may be mentioned tlie mode of tillage invented ^aid proposed about the year 17^0, by Mr. Jethro Tull, of Oxfordshire, and usually denominated the IIorsC'Boehig and D7'ill Hushcmdri). llie ob- jects of iiis plan are, to turn up, break and pulve- rize the soil more deeply and thoroughly than by the usual means before employed, and to deposit the grain in the earth in such regular rows as to admit of the Iwi'se-hoeing cultivation being applied to it in the course of its growth. The introduction of lull's system is considered as forming a grand era in agriculture, not only on account of its owjt intrinsic utility, but also because of the numerous improvemerits to which it indirectly led. Essential service has been rendered to agricul- ture by tiic inquiries of n}odern philosophers i;)to 94 AgricuUurc. [Chap. VIU, the Phy.nology of Vegetables. These inquiries liave led to new and important conclusions, respecting the food of plants, and the best means of promoting vegetation. On- this subject much valuable infor- mation has been communicated to the public by Hales, Hill, Walker, and Darwin, of Great Britain; by du Hamel, des Fontaines, Broussonet, and 1 lassenfratz, of France ; by Ingenhousz, van Hum- boldt, and Jacquin, of Germany; and by Bonnet and Sennebier, of Geneva. The eighteenth century is remarkable for the numerous improvements which, in the course of it, have been introduced into agriculture, through the medium of Chemistry. Indeed, the modern ap- plication of chemical doctrines to the cultivation of the earth, may be considered as forming a grand era in the history of science. In this application of chemical philosophy many^ persons have distin- guished themselves, and rendered important service to agriculture. Amoni^ these the earl of Dhndonald is entitled to particular notice^. He had the ho- nour of publishing one of the first formal treatises on this subject. He has been followed by many others, \\ ho have pursued the inquiry much further, and with great success. The nature and advantages of particular Soils have been, more or less, the objects of inquiry in all ages. But inquiries of this "kind, in the course of the eighteenth century, have been more numerous, enlightened and useful, than ever be- fore. A number of pliilosophers, during thi.^ ^ Sec hii; work on ih-j Comexio7i of Agriculture vjith Chemistrij. Chap. VIII.] AgrkiiUitrc, 95 period, have made careful analysers of dlllerent soils, and by this means tiirew much new lis^ht on the principles of agj-icultnre. Tliose who most flistinguished themselves by investigations of this nature are Gio])ert5 Bero^man, Kirwan, and Parmentier, to say nothing of several others, no less worthy of being respectfully mentioned in thri same list. The last century is also distinguished by llie in- troduction of several new and' important Manures into general use. Of these it will be proper to take some notice in our rapid course. The great advantages of Gvpsiim as a manure ^vere discovered in the 3^ear 17^^S, by ^Ir. Mayer, a respectable German clergyman*. Since that time this substance has been used wdth much success, not only in Germany, but also in several otiiei' parts of Europe, as well as in America; but the manner in which it produces its fertilising effects, notwithstanding the numerous and diligent inquiries which have been made on the subject, is still far from being satisfactorily unfolded. The eHicacy of Carbon, or common Charcoal, m promoting vegetation, was first ascertained, a few years a:les, and that soils are, in general, fertile m proportion to the quantity of it which they contain. The properties and effects of car'oon as a manure have been since 'diligently ^.nd successfully examhied by Marion-; other writers r\v\ experinrenters on tl^e subject. ^' Trans'.iciiom of ihc P.oj/al Irisli Acairmy, vol. v, p. Ic}l5. 55 Agriculture. [Chap. VIIL Tlie general use of Marie, I J me, Chalk, and va- rious combinations of calcareous matter, as means of increasing the fertility of the soil, is chiefly of modern date. And even with respect to these, and such other m.anures as were in a degree known and employed in ancient times, the mode of their ope- ration, the best methods of aj^plying them, and the various circumstances which should attend the ap- plication, have been incomparably better under- stood, within a iew years ])ast, than in any former jjeriod. The most scientific and satisfactor}" mo- dern writers on manures, in general, are Dundo- nald, Middleton, Darwin-, and lennant, of Great Britain; Kir^van, of Ireland; Parmentier, of France; liuckert and von Uslar, of Germany; and Eller, AV'allerius, and Gyllenborg, of Sweden. The influence o^ Light on growing vegetables has also been investigated with great success by many modern philosophers. Among these Hales, Priestley, abbeXessier, Ingenhousz, andSennebier, are entitled to particular distinction. From the experim.ents of these philosophers, it appears that this subtle lluid has a powerful effect on the colour of vege- tables; that, when exposed to its influence, it en- ables them to yield pure air; and that it converts many substances, wliich would otherwise become pu-^ trid and oifensive, into wholesome food for plants. The efiicacy of Electricity in forvv^arding the gemiination and growth of plants was discovered and satisfactorily established by the philosophers of the eighteenth century. It was before remarked I hat Mr. Mainibray, of Edinburgh, was the first who applied electricity to this object. He was followcfl by the abbe Nollet, Mr. Jallabcrt, M. Boze, and Chap. VIII.] Jgriculture. 97 several others, who ?Jl formed the same eonchisions. Still more recently the well devised and indubitable experiments of Messrs. d'Ormoy, Rozier, Carmoy, and Bartholon, all of France, have thrown addi- tional light on the subject, and substantially con- firmed the results of preceding experiments. The influence of various Factitious Airs in has- tening and retarding the progress of vegetation is a branch of agricultural inquiry peculiar to the eighteenth century. On this subject the successive experiments of Dr. Hales, Dr. Priestley, lord Dun- donald, sir Francis Ford, and Dr. Darwin, of Great Britain; of Ilassenfratz, and several other French chemists ; and of Jacquin, von Uslar, and von Humboldt, of Germany, have furnished very inte- resting and important information. Beside the new substances employed for pro- moting the fertility of soils, and hastening the pro- cess of vegetation, the last age is also distinguished by the introduction of a number of new and im- portant objects of culture. Among these scarcely any is more worthy of at- tention than the Potato. This valuable root, which is generally supposed to have been found originally m North America, was not much cultivated in Europe till the close of the seventeenth century; and even then was chiefly confined to Great Britain and Ireland, and seldom seen except in gardens, as a curioslt3^ How much it has increased in im- portance, and in the extent of its cultivation, since that period, both in America and in almost every part of the civilised world, is well known. Instead of being deemed, as it once '\^ as, a food fit only for the lower classes of society, it has come VoL*I;. K 98 Jgricidlure, [Chap. VIII. into general and almost indispensable use among all ranks. It has added another to the list of cheap, .simple and wholesome articles of nutriment, and furnishes an additional barrier against famine, be- yond Avhat our ancestors enjojed. It is a curious fact, that this excellent vege- table has been in common use in North Britain but a few years. In France it has been long known; but was, for many years, expressly proscribed, in consequence of its belonging to the genus solanumy a very suspicious family of plants^ The revolution iji that country, however, has brought it into use, and the prejudices against it are gradually yielding \o experience. In many parts of Germany pre- judices still more inveterate against tlie use of the potato prevailed. We are told, indeed, that in some parts of that country, until ^vithin a i^w years, the inhabitants would almost consent to starve rather than eat this pleasant and use- ful vegetable. Count llumford exerted himself to bring it into favour in Bavaria^ and at length succeeded. At the close of the eighteenth century it had come into general use in most of the coun- tries of Europe. No less important is Maize or Indian Corn, an- other article, which, as an object of general culture, may be considered as in a great meai>ure peculiar to the century under review. This valuable grain, was httle cultivated, at the begnming of the cen- tury, except in America. Since that time it has not only become au object of more general and uniform attention in the new world, but it has been introduced with success into the Soitth of Europe, and several other temperate climates, where CiiAP. VIII.] Agriculture. 99 it was before unknown, and lias been constantly gaining gronnd, both in reputation and utility. The ease with which this species of corn is culti- vated, its great productiveness, its. exemption from injiu-y by those seasons and insects which destrov other grains, its singularly wholesome and nutri- tive qualities, and the great variety of excellent preparations of which it is susceptible, render its extended cultivation one of the most distinguished and useful agricultural improvements of the age. The cultivation of the Sugar Cane, in the Ame- rican islands, though not wholly, is in a great mea- sure an improvement of the eighteenth century. The great importance of this plant, in various points of view, renders the increase of its culture, in any part of the world, an object worthy of particular regard*. Connected with the sugar cane is the Sugar Maple of the United States, which has latel^y grown into an article of consequence. An estimate may be formed of the value of this tree, as a mean of supplying ourselves and other nations with a salutary food, by perusing the various publications which, within a few years past, have been made on the subject, particularly those of Mr. Noble and Dr. Rush. The discovery that sugar of an excel- lent quality may be extracted in large quantities from tlie Beet Root was made a few years ago, by * In 1700 the quantity of sngar imported into England amounted only to 481425 ciut. ; but, in l/tiO, the consumption of this article, in the same country, had^ increased to 148/202 civt. Tiie de- mand for it has been rapidly augmenting through the whole centuiy, and it is now to be found in almost every hovel, the ten;int of ^vhich has the njeans of purclin^ing it. See Ramsay's Raic.v, p. 'iZ, H2 100 Agriculture. [Chap. Vlll. Mr. Achard, of Germany, ^vliosc experiments have been considerably aided, aiid carried to a greater length, by Mr. Noldechen, of the same country. The intraduction of the culture of Rice into the United States, to any extent, is one of the honour? of the period under consideration. In 1693 a ves- sel from Madagascar brought some of this grain to Charleston, in South Carolina. The captain gave such a description of it to some of the inhabitants^ that they determined to try the cultivation of a ve- getable which appeared congenial to their soil. For a number of years they made little progress in it, not properly understanding the nature of the soil, or the means of culture favourable to its growth, and having little prospect of commercial advantage from it, to animate their exertions. But since the restraints and discouragements of colonial servility have been taken off, the cultivation of this grain has become much more extended, not only in South Carolina*, but also in North Carolina and Georgia, and is now to be regarded as a principal stajile of those states +. Cotton was first ciiltivated in America, to any extent, in the century under review. As it hap- * The cultivation of vice in Soutli Carolina lias undergone several revolutions in the course of tlic last thirteen yeais. In the year 179^^^ ^7^79 tierces of this article were exported from that state. In 1 ;'t/2, 102,235 tierces were exported. Since tijat Lime the quan- tity e: tion of this article was inaiiy years prior to its Vxj- comiiig an object of much atteution and importance. But the advantages which have accrued particularly to South Carolina and Georgia, witliin a luvv years past, from cotton having become a principal object of agriculture in those states, are truly astonishing. It is confidently asserted, that in some parts of those* states, the amount of wealth has more than trebled within the last five or six years, from this source alone*. The cultivation of Indigo in America also com- menced w ithin the period of the present retrospect. This plant, which is a native of Ilindostan, had an American residence first assigned to it in Mexico and the Leeward Islands f. Its introduction into South Carolina took place, it is believed, about the beginning of the eighteenth century, or not long afterwards. But though this vegetable a few years ago held an important ])lace among the objects of culture in that southern country, it has lately en- gaged much less attention than formerly. The practice of iiaturalizing foreign vegetables^ in different soils, has been practised on a more ex- tensive scale, during the eighteenth century, than in any preceding period. Amidst all the labour and care of the ancients to impro\e agriculture, * The progress of the cuUivntion of coUon has been much more remarkable. In 1/90, tlie (jiiautity of cotton exported from South Carohiia was 9840 /6^.j in l/Uo, \\0[)i)5'Mbs.; in IbOO, 6425863 lbs.; and in 1801, 830190/ lbs. For the above information the author is indebted to the pohtc- ness of Dr. John Parker Gough, of Charleston. I Raynars Hhtory of ihc Kcc^t and Ifcat Ind/'fS. 102 AgrkuUure, [Chap. VIII. they scarcely enjoyed, in any degree, the advantage of witnessing experiments of this nature. Each country was in a great measure confined to its own indigenous productions. This contii)ued, for the most part, to be the case till the beginning of the centTuy under consideration. Since that time the choicest vegetable productions of different climates have been transplanted to other and distant regions; and great advantages to agriculture have arisen from this source*. The cultivation o^ Fruit trees has become an obr. ject of increased attention, and has received many improvements in the course of the last age f . New and delicate modes of propagating fruit trees have been discovered; new and useful methods of im- proving the flavour, and preserving the soundness of fruit have been adopted; and this branch of husbandry, in general, rendered more important and profitable than formerly. Among many who have distinguished themselves by rendering service to this branch of agricidture, may be mentioned du riamel, Bradley, Knight, Spcechly, Hitt, Wal- ■- An]ong many other instances which might be adduced, it i^ believed that the bread -fruit -tree was never seen either in Europe or America till toward the close of the eighteenth century. The late laudable, uud, in a degree, successful exertions of the British government to naturalise this tree in tlieir American islands, are worthy of high praisck. t CuhiyatL'd fruit-gar dens may be considered as chiefly belong- ing to tlie eighteenth century. At any rate, the improvements ii^ this department of agriculture, during the century, were great and important. Since the time of the celebrated Philip Miller, who was styled by foreigners, as well as his countrymen, Hortulanorum Princcpx, many writers on thif? subject have contributed to the progress of improvement. Chap. VIII.] Agricullurc. 103 ker, and very lately Forsyth, ^vho is said to liavr improved greatly on the labours of all wlio had gone before him. From the increased attention to agricuUure and gardening, in the course of the last ago, lias arisen an important fact, which the friend of human, hap- piness must contemplate with pleasure, viz. a great increase in the use of vegetable food. In the seventeenth century animal food constituted an undue proportion of the nutriment of m.an. In th^* eighteenth some progress has been made toward the correction of this errour, though this desirable end is yet far from being fully accomplished*. It would be difficult, in truth, to mention a sin- gle principle or practice in agriculture, which has not been more or less improved within the period under consideration. The advantages and defects of particular soils; the efficacy of manures; the rotation of crops ; the impro\'ement of the impk- nients of husbandry ; and the almost infmite variety of inquiries connected with agricultural pursuits^ have been investigated with great diligence, and have received much elucidation in the course of the last age. For a gi'cat amount of useful infor- mation on these subjects, and for multiplied im- provements in agriculture generally, the public is indebted to Mr. Miller, Mr. Ellis, Mr. Marshall, Mr. Arthur Young, Dr. Anderson, Mr. Coke, sir * Sir John Pringle states, on the authority of Mr.- Miller, the keeper of the botanie garden at Ciielsea, and author of the Gar- dcners Dictionari/, that the quantity of vegetables used in iind nc;ir London, at the time of the Revolution, in 1688, was not more tliMii one sixth of what was used in the same place in 1 7-^0- See Ranj- gAY's Rerir.:\ 104 Agriculture. [Chap. VIII. John Sinclair, and many others, of Great Britain ; and to Messrs. dii I lamei, Chateauvieux, Tourbilly, Rozier, Tessier, Broussonet, Tillet, and Parmentier, of France; beside others, entitled to notice, in dif- ferent parts of Europe. Probably the most complete and scientific work on this subject now in possession of the public, is Pliytologia, or the Philosophij of AgrkuUiire and Gardening, by Dr. Darwin. In this work the learned and ingenious author has introduced a great amount of curious information, and of ju- dicious principles and precepts; but its value is, doubtJess, diminished by the whimsical opinions, on a varietj^ of subjects, which he so frequently displays. Perhaps the fault most worthy of no- tice is, the ridiculous extreme to which the au- thor presses the analogy between the animal and vegetable tribes, and the principles of vegetation thence deduced. In a poem this would be ex- cusable ; lience the Loves of the Plants may be defended ; but in a sober, didactic, philosophical work, it is much better calculated to amuse than to instruct. While tiic princi])les of tillage have been better understood, and tlic knowledge of them more ex- tensively diffused within a fisw years, numerous and very ini[)ortant im[)rovements have taken place in the art of selecting and rearing cattle, and other animals which fall under the care of the husbandman. The attention paid to the breed, health, growth, and general oecononiy of the va- rious kiinl of stock, wilhin the last half century, in many |«arls of Europe, and particularly in Great CiiAP. VIIT.] Agriculture. 105 Eritain, has not only been greater than ever be- fore, but has also been crowned with a ' >n Derbyshire, letiving property to the simount of ^OOOOOr^ tlie. *»n-nirj? of ingenioas industrv. 1 la Mechanic Arts. [Chap. IX. introduction a \evj important era in the liistory of Great Britain. ^lachines for carding and spinning cotton were introduced into several parts of the United States during the last fifteen years of the century under review. But, like most other enterprises in ma- nufactures, undertaken in that country, they have not been pursued either so extensively or so pro- fitably as could be wished. In this connexion it will be proper to take some notice of two American inventions for facili- tating the making of cards for wool and cotton. About sixteen or seventeen yeai's ago, a machine Avas invented in ^lassachusetts, for cutting and bendhig wire into a state completely prepared for sticking cards*. Before this time the cards used in i\\c. United States were imported from Europe. Ever since a sufficient quantity has been manu- factured in the country to supply its demands, and, at a late period, for exportation to a conside- rable, amount. In 1797, Mr. Amos Whittemore, of Cambridge, in Massachusetts, invented a ma- chine, which, by a simple operation, bends, cuts, and sticks card teeth, by the aid of which a dozen pair of cards can be furnished in less time than was fbrmcily required to make a single pair|. - Two persons claimed t'lc invenlion of this niadiinc, viz. Fooler nnd JM'Clinch. The latter had his maciiine first in use, being more of a practical mechanic 5 but it was said that he had priviitely obtained a sight of Foster's work, who lirst planned the machiiK-.y. As it is not easy to ascertain the precise trutli of this question, &o it is of no impcnlance to the public to which of llic^c gentlemen the honour belongs. fin September, 1799, V/Uliam Whittemore and Co. commenced the manufacture of carc\s \\ith this machine in Cambridge. I'here Chap. IX.] Mechanic Arts. 113 Allied to tlic inventions above enumerated are the improvements in the art o^ IVeavlng which mo- dern times have produced. Among these perhaps none is of more importance than the Flying Shut- tlCj hitely introduced by the machinists of Great Britain. Previous to tlie introduction of this con- trivance, when wide cloth was woven it was neces- sary to employ two or more hands to execute the work. The same task can now be executed by one person, and with much more convenience and expedition than formerly. It was before remarked that Steam Engines were scarcely at all known .prior to the eighteenth cen- tury. To the honour of inventing* and perfecting this kind of machinery the artists of Great Bri- tain are entitled. The honour particularly due to ]\Iessrs. Newcomen, Beighton, and Watt, on this subject, has been acknowledged in a former chapter. The force of Steam has been applied, during the period under review, to the turning of mills for almost every purpose; and there is no doubt that the machines moved by this agent are the most powerful ever formed by the art of man *. are now twenty- three machines of this kind in operation at the same manufactory, which are able to furnish tico hundred duzc/i pairs of cards, on an average, every week. * One of these engines, as improved by Mr Watt, and em- ployed for draining the deep mines of Cornwall, works a pump of eighteen inches diameter, and upwards of 100 latliom, or dOO feet higli, at the rate of ten to twelve strokes, of seven feet long each, in a minute, and with one fifth part of the fuel that a com- mon engine would take to do the same work. The pou'er of tJiis engine may be more easily romprehciided by saying that it can raise a weight equal to SlOOOlbs. eighty feet high, in a zninute. Vol. II. I 1 14 Mcehanic Arts, [Chap. IX. In the erection of Bridges modern artist* have displayed unprecedent boldness and enter- prise. The first biidge constructed of cast iron was produced in the -eighteenth century. This- was erected over the river Severn, in Shrop- shire, in 177i), by Mr. A. Darky, an ingenious iron-ma»ter, assisted bv the exertions of Mr. J, Wilkinson, of the same profession. The second iron bridge was constructed on a larger scale, over the same river, in 17f)C, upon a new plan, by ]\Lv Thelford* A third, on a still larger and more daring scale,, was buik over the river Wear,. in Durham, a short time afterwards, by Rowland Burdon, et^q. To tlicse may be added the icooden bridges, of several kind,-^, and on various new con- structions, which have been invented in the course of a ^Q\w years past, both in Europe and America, and which have proved sources^ of great public utility. In the consti'BCtion of Milh improvements no^ less remarkable and impoi'tant have been made,, within the period in question. Of these some have arisen from the new light lately thrown upon the laws of /??7^/r^z//zi'^; and others from the inge- nuity and enterprise of practi-cal artists. The nu- merous experiments and discoveries, and the learn- ed writings which have been given to the world in the course of the century, on this subject, by Desaguliers, Emerson, Smeaton, Barker, and Burns, of Great Britain ; by Belidor, de Parcieux, and others, of France ; by Bernoulli, of Switzer- whidi is equal to tlie combined action of 200 good horses. Se^ Botanic Garden, part i, Additional Notv xi. Chap. IX.] Mcchaiiic Arts. 115 land ; by Lambert and Karstner, of Germany ; and by Elvius, of Sweden, make a very interesting part of the mechanical history of the age. Equally wortliy of attention are the successive inventions and improvements of modern times, in the construction of all kinds oUVhcel Carriages, To enumerate these, and to attempt to give a list of their authors, would be an endless task. Suffice it to say, that the superiority of modern wheel- carriages, over those possessed by our predeces- sors, in lightness, elegance, beauty of form, and convenience, is very great, and constitutes one of the mechanical honours of the age. Great improvements have been made, during the age under consideration, in the construction of engines for extinguishing fires. The efficiency of those enjrines which have been formed for this purpose within the last twenty or thirty years, compared with those which were in use at the be- ginning of the century, is wonderfully great. The addition of an air-cell to these machines, by Mr. Newsham, of London, greatly increased their power, and deserves to be mentioned as an nn- portant event in the course of their improve- ment In the art o^ Coining several important inventions have been produced, in the course of the last cen- tury, which are worthy of being remembered. Pro- bably the most conspicuous ami valuable ot these is that by Mr. Boulton, of Soho, Birmingham. '' He has lately constructed a most magnificent apparatus for coining, which has cost him some thousand pounds. The whole machinery is moved by an improved steam-engine, which rolls the copper 12 116 jSIechanic Arts, [Chap. IX. for half-pence finer than copper has before been rolled for making money ; it works the coupoirs or screw-presses for cui:ting- out the circular pieces of copper, and coins both the faces and edges of tlie money at the same time^ with such superior excellence, and cheapness of Avorkmanship^ as well as with marks of such powerful machinery as must totally prevent clandestine imitation, and, in con- sequence, save many lives from the hand of the executioner. By this machinery four boys, of ten or twelve years of age, are capable of striking thirty thousand guineas in an hour, and the ma- chine itself keeps an unerring account of the pieces struck '^r Several modern improvements in the art of Printing deserve a place in this imperfect list. The first worthy of beino- mentioned is the Stereo- type-\ plan of printing, which has lately become so fashionable, especially in France. This plan Avas first invented in ll'lo, by Mr. Ged, a gold- smith, of Edinburgh, who, among other books, pnnted a very neat edition oi Sallust X, hi his new method. Owing, however, either to some defect in the plan, or to the want of skill in the execu- tion of his specimen, ]\Ir. (Jed's invention seems to have attracted but little notice. In 1782 Mr. * Darwin's Botanic Garden, part i, canto i, note. t This word, which M. Didot of France seems to have first t-mployed, is derived from the Greek words grs^io^, solultis, and rvro, fiipua, denoting that the types are soldered, or otherwise con- nected together. J In the title page of this edition there are the following words, viz. Edinlnirghi : GuUdmus Gcd, ainifahcr Editicnsis, non typis niohilihus, ut 'cu/go Jlcri sold ; sed tahdlis sen Iambus fusis, cxcudcbat. Chap. IX.] Mechanic Aris^ II7 Alexander Tilloch, of Great Britain, revived, or rather rediscovered this art ; for he is said to have been ignorant of Ged's contrivance till long after he had announced his own. The snhsecjuent year lie took out a patent ibr it, in conjunction with Mr. Andrew Foulis, printer to the university of Glasgow. About the year i7N9 ]\I. Didot, of JVance, seems to have invented, a third time, this valuable art, and to liave contri\ed several impoi- tant improvements, which render his mode more convenient and useful than that of any of his pre- decessors*. The Stereot\)pe plan of printing is most happily calculated to secure accuracy in nu- merical tables, and in books of a similar kind. In- deed, for publishing all \vorks of classical charac- ter, extensive sale, and ])crmanent demand, it is an invaluable acquisition. The beautiful editions of several Greek and Roman classics, which have been executed in this manner, by the French printer above mentioned, are well known to be fa- vourable specimens of this far-famed improve- ment. In a considerable degree resembling the SfcreO' type is the Logogmphic mode of printing, an in- vention announced in 1783 by Mr. H. Johnson, * The Stereotype mode of printing adopted by Didot is as fol- lows : the page is first set up in moveable types 3 a mould or iine pression is then taken off the page \vith any suitable plastic mate- rial 5 and afterwards as many solid pages are east from the mould as may be wanted. The plan adopted by Ged, and oiiiers, seems to liave been different. After setting up the page with moveable types, they soldered them together, and thus formed a permanent page, from which as many copies might be stricken as were de- sired. The comparative merits of these dillerenl plans \wll rea- dily present theniiielves to tlie intelligent reader. 11$ Mechanic Arts. [Chap. IX. of Great Britain. In this invention the types for printing, instead of answering to single letters^ are made to correspond to xchole xcoi^ds ; a circum- stance which points out the etymology of the name. The advantages of tliis new mode are said to be tliese : that the compositor has less charged upon his memory than in the common way ; that he is much less liable to errour ; that he saves time, hiasmuch as the type of each word is as easily and as readily set as that of a single letter; that the distribution afterwards is more simple, easy, and expeditious ; and that no extraordinary ex- pense, nor greater number of types is required iu this than in the common mode of printing*. Another improvement in the art of printing, which belongs to the last age, is the kind of im- pression called Facsimile, or forming the types in such a manner as precisely to resemble the manu- script intended to be copied. The first approach to this method of printing was the Medicean Vir- gil, printed at Florence in 1711. This, however, though an approximation to the plan, was by no means, strictly speaking, what is now meant by JaC'Simile printing, as the resemblance of the ma- nuscript was not complete. The first great work of this kind was the New Testament of the Alex- andrian MS. in the British ^luseum, published by Dr. Woide, in 1786, which exhibits its prototype to a degree of similarity scarcely credible. Since that time a ^^\\ other works of considerable ex- tent have been published on the same plan, parti- cularly Dr. Kipling's edition of the four Gospel^ * Encijclopccdla. Art. Logograp/ti/, Chap. IX. ] Mechanic Arts. " 1 1 9 and the Acts of the Apostles, according to th^ MS. of Bcza. But, for the most part, tlic practice in question has been confined to manu- scripts of small extent, and to objects of especial curiosity *. The art of forming types for pxi^iting has also received considerable improvements in the course of the eighteenth centuiy. Among tlic numerous authors of these, the celebrated John Basker- ville deserves particular notice. The diligence^ zeal, and success with which he applied himself to improve the mode of foun^ding types, and to give them a more beautiful form, are well known; as well as the numerous editions which he w^as enabled to give of important works, parti- cularly the Latin classics, in a style of elegance far surpassing every thing of the kind which had before issued from the press. Various inventions, to abridge labour in the business of letter-foundery, have also been made within this period ; of these, perhaps, few are entitled to be mentioned with more respect than that of Mr. Apollos Kinsley, an ingenious American, who is said to have de- vised a method of abbreviating, to an astonishing degree, the necessary process in this manufac- ture f. The discoveries made within a few years past in the philosophy of Tamwig have greatly facili- tated the process, and promoted the interests of that important art. For these the pubhc are m-^ * Monthly Rericiv, of London, vol. xii, N. S. p. 241. f American Rtviev;, and Literary jQurnal, vol.i. No. 1. 120 Mechanic Arts. [Chap. IX. debtee! to Dr. Macbride^ Messrs. Fay, Seguin, Desmond, and several others *. The still more numerous and radical improve- ments which late years have produced in the art o^ Brew'mg, are no less woithy of notice. The successive investigations, and valuable writings, of sir Robert Murray, Mr. Combrune, \h Richard- son, Mr. Ker, and Mr. Long, on this subject, are worthy of respectful notice in marking the pro- gress of the age under review. In the art of Bieac/N??g, also, important disco- veries and improvements were made in the course of the last age, especially toward the close of it. The speculations and experiments of Drs. Home and Black, and Mr. Watt, of Great Britain ; and of Messrs. Chaptal, Bertholiet, Pajot de Ch amies, and Beaume, of France ; beside those of many other chemists and practical artists, have con- tributed to place this art, so interesting to manu- fticturers, entirely on a new footing, within a few years past. Instead of the old process, which or- ■■* The mode of tanning leather with great expedition was first recommended by Seguin, of France. It was introduced into England by Mr. Desmond, about the year 1790 ; and has been frequently employed with great success. But it is said to be only eligible in cases of pressing necessity, where the process nwst be completed in a short time, being expensive, and, as some believe, in a degree injurious to the leather. The liquid for tanning leather, according to this method, is obtained by digesting ouk bark, or other proper material, in water, frecjuently drawing oft' the v^ater, and pouring it upon fresh tan, until the liquor is highly coloured, and very strong. Into this liquor the hides are immersed for a few days, after being previously prepared for tanning by means vf a 9olution of the astringent principle and vitriolic acid. Chap. IX.] Mechanic Arts. 121 dinarily employed a number of weeks, and even several months, reecnt diseoveries have fllrni^hed means of redueing eloth to a state of bcaiitifid whiteness in a few hours. In the art of Dyeing no less signal progress Iras been made within a few years. The learned in- vestigations, and laborious experiments, which have been successively instituted for the improve- ment of this art, by Dufay, Ilellot, Macquer, d'Apligny, and BerthoUet, of France; and by Messrs! Delaval and Henry, Dr. Bancroft *, and others, of Great Britain, are very honourably displayed in their respective works, and have been productive of great utility to several of the manu- facturing classes of the community. In the eighteenth century the first Porcelain ware ever manufactured in Europe was produced. The account of the invention, is curious. John Frede ric Bottger, a German, about the year 1706 be- lieved, or pretended, that he had learned the art of transmuting various substances into gold, from a goldsmith at Berlin. He went into Saxony, and was allowed all the requisite materials, and every assistance necessarv for prosecuting his operations, by certain persons who thought proper to encou- rage him. For several years he laboured m vaui. At^'last, imputing his want of success to the cruci- bles not being of a proper quality, he attempted to make these vessels himself of a hard and dura- ble kind ; and in this attempt he accidentally pro- * Experimental Researches concerning the PMosophy of Ferma^ nenl Colours. By E. Bancroft, M.D. &c. 1794. 123 3Iechanic A7'f§, [Chap. IX. dnccd porcelain *. The manufacture of this ar- ticle was afterward extended to France, Italy, and Great Britain. Ikit of all the countries of Europe, France prmluces porcelain in the greatest quantity, and of the best quality. For many of the improvements lately made in several of the manufactures last mentioned, we are much indebted to modern Chemist?']^. The impor- tant aid furnished to these, and a multitude of other mechanical operations, by the facts and prin- ciples brought to light in the course of recent che- mical inquiries, is too v/ell known to require ex- planation. The manufacture of Metallic Hares, in modern times, has made astonishing progress, both in ex- tent and refinement. In Great Britain especially those branches of the mechanic arts which belong to metallic substances, and particularly the manu- factures of Iro?i, have received the greatest de- gree of improvement. The workmen of that coun- try, in this department of art, have been enabled, within a few years past, by various inventions and discoveries, to unite rapidity of execution, elegance of form and polish, excellence of quality, and cheap- ness of price, in their manufactures, to a degree without example in the history of human ingenuity. But to recite the mechanical inventions and im- provements which belong to the period under re» view would be a task almost without limits. To this class belong the ingenious experiments and valuable discoveries by Mr. Wedgwood, in the * Montklij RcxkK, vol. vi, N. S. p. 545. Chap. IX.] Mechanic Arts, 12.3 art o^ Pottery, and in various kinds of mannfacturcs in Clcnj ; the invention of a new and more dunihle kind of Stucco than had ever been used before, bv Mr. Iliggins ; the numerous improvements wliicii have been made in the composition and manufac- ture of Glass ; the ahnost countless new plans for improving the construction of Lamps, by Ar- gand and others ; the various modes proposed for rendering Stoves and Fire-places more economical and comfortable, by Franklin, llittenhousc. Rum- ford, and Peale ; the new degrees of perfection to which Clocks and other C/irono77ietcrs have been carried * ; the invention of new vegetable mate- rials for tlie formation of Paper, more plentiful and, easy of access than those of which alone it had been before made f ; the method of renovat- ing'old paper, by a chemical process, cleansing it * Among the several improvers of Time-keepers, during the last age, Harrison, Arnold, and Kendall were before mentioned as deserving particular praise. The lirst was bred a carpenter, and began by making wooden clocks. It is unnecessary to add, that by the force of his genius he rose to the highest eminence in the arts. t There is a particular reference here to the discovery of the reverend- Mr. Senger, of Germany, that a certain aquatic plant, called by Linnaeus conferva rivularis, is capable of being manu- factured into paper, of as excellent a quality as that made of rags, and at less expense. The same discovery was made a short time afterward by Robert R. Livingston, esq,, late chancellor of the state of New York, and now minister plenipotentiary to the French republic, without any knowledge of what Mr. Senger had done ; and indeed some time before tlie German discovery had been communicated to the public. It has been also ascer* tained that paper of an excellent qualit)' may be made of common ^trau\ and that, in a state of mixture with other materials, even ia-W'da&t is useful in fabricating the same substance. 124 Jllechanic Arts. [Chap. IX. from all foreign matter, discharging the ink, and rendering it again fit to receive new impressions ; the methods which have heen devised for multiply- ing copies of prints and manuscripts with ease, ex- pedition, and cheapness; the various plans for cutting and casting Nails, instead of the old and tedious method of forming them on the anvil; be- side a multitude of others, scarcely, if at all less important, which time would fail to enumerate. Finally, the eifccts of the various improvements wliich have been introduced into every department of the mechanic arts, during the last age, in pro- moting the conveniency, cheapness, and elegance ot^ living, will readily occur to the most careless observer. No one M-ill say that it indicates undue partiality to our own times to assert, that at no period of the world was the art of living, especi- ally the comforts and convenienses of domestic life, ever on so advantageous a footing as at pre- sent. Ancient writers, indeed, have given highly coloured pictures of the magnificence and sensua- hty which reigned at different times in Greece and Rome ; and in more modern da}'s we read many descriptions of luxury which superficial thinkers would suppose to indicate nnich greater plenty, comfort, and splendour, than arc now commonly enjoyed. But they are, for the most part/ descrip- tions of plenty without taste, and of luxury with- out enjoyment. When we compare the ancient modes of living with the dress *, the furniture, the equipage, the conveniences of travelling, and the * When the autlior speaks of the superiority of modern dress to the ancient, he wi.shes to be understood not as asserting that it is superior in its fonn : this he is persuaded would not be in all Chap. IX.] Mechanic Arls. l.j.5 incomparably greater ease Avith wliieh tlic same amount of comfortable accommodation may be obtained at present, none can hesitate to give a decided preference, in all these respects, to mo- dern times. Perhaps it wouk! not be extrava- gant to say that many of the higher orders of meclianics and day labourers now wear better clothes, and live, not more plentifully, but in some respects more conveniently, more neath', and with more true taste, than many princes and kings w^ere in the habit of doino; two centuries ao-o, and in a manner quite as pleasant as multitudes of a rank far superior to themselves, at a later period. In sliort, the remarkable and unprece- dented union of neatness and simplicity, cheapness and elegance, which has been exhibited in the art of living, within the last thirty or forty years, is, at once, a testimony of the rapid improvement of the mechanic arts, and one of the most unques- tionable points in which we may claim a superi- ority over our predecessors. respects true : the full and flowing garments of the Greeks were, probably, more healthful, as well as more graceful ; but in the texture, convenienci/ , and cheapness of dress, it is presumed later fashions have greatly the advantage. 126 CHAPTER X. FINE ARTS. vyN'tliestatcofthefinearts, during theeighteenth century, it is not easy to speak in general terms. ^Vere any remark of this kind to be made, it ought probably to be, that in this department of genius the last age fell considerably below some preced- ing cepturies. In all the branches of art, indeed, which come under this denomination, the period which we are considering had its luminaries ; but they were only^n a few instances of the first magnitude. For this comparative deficiency some at least plausible reasons may be assigned. It has been said that though an art, in its pro- gress toward perfection, is greatly promoted by emulation ; yet, after arriving at maturity, its de- cline is no less hastened by the same spirit. On this principle it has been supposed that the great works of the ancient masters, presenting to mo- dern artists so high a degree of excellence, either discouraged all competition, or prompted those who would not submit to be humble imitators to at- tempt something new, which, in most cases, prov- ed to be degeneracy rather than improvement. Much greater pains have been taken, during the last age, to form many, by laborious instruc- tion, to practise the fine arts, than to encourage and honour those Avho possessed native genius. Hence the number of smatterers in the arts, dur- ing this period, has risen to an unprecedented Chap. X.] Fine Arts. 127 amount. These have all subtracted more or les* of the patronage which would otherwise have been directed to the most deserving ; and thus, by obvi- ous means, robbed the latter of no small share both of fame and excellence. But if the eighteenth century were less distin- guished than some preceding ages for producing specimens of first-rate excellence in the fine arts, it may safely be pronounced to exceed most other -periods in forming numerous, large, and sj)lendid collcclions of specimens of this kind. The monu- ments of human genius, especially in painting and sculpture, collected and displayed in the city of Paris at the close of the century, Averc undoubt- edly niore numerous and magnificent than had been exhibited in one place for many ages *. Next to these the Gollections of a similar kind in (rermany, Petersburg, and Great Britain, -are en- titled to high distinction for their extent and ex- cellence. In several of the departments o-f the fine arts there are a few names and improvements which distinguish the eighteenth century, and which dc- ser\e to be noticed in this retrospect |. * The violation committed on the treasures of the fine arts in Italy, in the course of the late war, under the sanction of tUe Prench government, while it certainly cannot be justitied on the principles of national probity and honour, may, uerliaps, have an unfavoui-able influence on the progress of the arts in France. t Several of the facts and names mentioned in this chapter were communicated to the author by Mr. John R. Murray, of the city e^ New York, a young gentleman o{ extensive mformation, and excellent taste in the tine arts, who has just returned to his iiative country, after making the tour of Europe, where he viewed the noble collections which that part of the world affords, witii a 128 Fine Arts. [Chap. X SECTION I. PAINTING. In this noble art the century under considera- tion is lionourably distinguished. From the mid- dle of the seventeenth century^ till toward the middle of the eighteenth, scarcely any painters of first-rate excellence had appeared. The man- tles of those great masters, Rubens, Vandyke, Guido, and other contemporary artists, seem not to have fallen upon any of their immediate suc- cessors. At the commencement of the century Kneller, Dahl, Richardson, Jervas, and Thornhill, of Great Britain, were conspicuous in their re- spective departments of painting; as were also Cignani, Giordano, Maratti, Jauvenet, and many- others on the continent of Europe. But these artists, though unquestionably of the first class then known, were inferior, particularly the former group, to many who had gone before them, and by no means equal to some of their successors. Though the eighteenth century produced fewer painters of great and original genius than several preceding ages, yet it is remarkable for having given birth to an unprecedented number, who^ v/ith a mo- derate portion of genius, and with great industry, have risen to high respectability in this art. There was, no doubt, more painting performed by artists of this period, than during any former one of si- milar extent since the art was cultivated. The tkgree of intelligence and accuracy of observation by no means common among travellers. Sect. I.] Painting. 129 most numerous and the most excellent painters, during'thc century in (juestion, have been produced in Italy, Great Britain, France, and the United States. The painters of Great JSritain, about the year 1750, with a view oFpro.noting their art, associ- ated together, and formed a kind of academy, which was supported by annual subscription. This association w^as continued, with various changes in the degree of its respectability and success, until 176s J when the Royal Academy of Fainting, Sculp- ture, and Aixhitecture, was established, under the auspices of the king, and composed of the ablest artists residing in that country. In the establishment of this institution no individual was more active, or exerted a more useful influence, than sir Joshua Reynolds, who held the highest rank in his profession, and who was for many years president of the Academy. From the rise of this institution, which at once furnished a School for instruction, a scene o^ Aimual E.vhibition, and nu- merous excitements to emulation, wx may date the revival of a correct taste for the fme arts in Great Britain. In the last twenty years of the century many specimens of painting were produced by British artists, which o-Ive them hio-h distinction in acorn- parative estimate of their talents with those of other nations. Toward producing this eftect much has been ascribed to the eloquent and in- structive discourses of sir Joshua Reynolds, who appears to have taken unwearied and successful pains to form the taste of his pupils on the princi- ples of the great masters oi the Italian and Fie'- VoL. II. K 130 Fine Arts. [Chap. X^ inish schools. His exertions to promote a just taste in this art have been very honourably se- conded by those of West*, Fuseli, and others, who hold a distinguished place in the British school of arts. The Historical Painters of the eighteenth cen- tury were numerous, and some of them highly re- spectable. Among these Cignani, Giordano, Marattf, and Jauvenet, beforementioned, held^ early in the century, an honourable rank. At later periods the Italian school ha.^ been adorned by Battoni, Mengs, Martini, Dietrich, and seve- ral others. In Great Britain the works of West, Reynolds, Copley f, and Trumbull J, have been * Mr. Benjamin West is a native of Pennsylvania. About the year \7CY6 he went to Italy, under the patronage of William Allen^ esq., chief justice of the province, whose son accompanied him. After studying the monuments of ancient and modern genius hi Italy, he went to Great Britain, where he has since re- sided, and where the productions of his pencil have been rewarded with distinguished honours and emolument. The works of this artist are too numerous to be mentioned. His suite of sacrtd paintings for the royal chapel at Windsor have been much cele- brated. Beside these, his Death of Wolfe, his Buttle of la Hague, his Battle of the Boijne, and his Flood, are considered as deserving particular distinction. He is said, by some good judges, to be, on the whole, the greatest painter in his department now living. . \ Mr. John Singleton Copley is a native of the state of Massa- chusetts. He went, a few years aga, to Great Britain, where he was patronised and instructed by Mr. West, and where he has been since very honourably distinguished as an artist. His Death of Chatham, and h\s Siege of Gibraltar, are generally considered among the most respectable monuments of his genius. X Mr. John Trumbull is a native of tlie state of Connecticut. His father was governor of that state for a number of years, and was much distinguished for his talents and patriotism. His excel- lency Jonathan Trumbull, the present governor of Connecticut, Sect. I.] Painting. 131 much cele])rated. In France the national taste had been for some time perverted by the influence of Boucher. But in the latter half of the century a better taste was formed in that country by the genius and exertions of Vincent, David, Regnault, Gerrard, Criraudet, and Guerrin, whose productions hold a high place in the estimation of modern connoisseurs. The eighteenth century is distinguished above all preceding ages ))y the remarkable prevalence of a taste for Comic Painting. The great original in this branch of the art was William Hogarth, an English artist, whose genius and works have been long and universally famed. This wonderful cha- racter is, perhaps, to be viewed rather as a writer of comedy with a pencil, than as a painter. He invented a new species of dramatic painting, in which all the ridicule of life became concentrated and embodied by his magic touch, to a degree al- together unknown to any former artist, and in which he will probably hereafter have few equals. His talent for depicting the comic is thus de- scribed by one of his contemporaries : ''If catch- ing the manners and follies of an age ' living as they rise,' if general satire on vices and ridicules, is his brother. This gentleman early discovered a great fondness for the art, in which he has since made such honourable profi- ciency. He .studied for some time under the direction of his il- lustrious countryman Mr. West, who is not more distinguished by his abilities as an artist, than by his exertions in bringing for- ward American genius. Mr. Trumbull has presented the public with several historical paintings, which place him high among the artists of the eighteenth century. His best pieces arc the Dtatk of Montgomcrij, the Battle of Bunkers Hilly and the Hortie of Gibraltar, K2 132 Fine Arts. [Chap. X. familiarised by strokes of nature, and heightened by wit, and the wliole animated by proper and just expressions of the passions, be comedy, Hogaith composed comedies as much as Moliere. He is more true to character than Congrcve ; each per- sonage is distinct from the rest, acts in his sphere, and cannot be confounded with any other of the dramatis personce, Hogarth had no model to fol- low and improve upon. lie created his art, and used colours instead of language. He resembles Butler; but his subjects are more universal; and, amidst all his pleasantry, he observes the true end of comedy, reformation. There is always a moral to his pictures *." It is remarkable, however, and deserves to be mentioned as an instructive fact, that while his mind was so richly stored yAx\\ ma- terials for exhibiting the common scenes of life ; while he possessed such unrivalled powers in dis- playing the ridiculous, he could not rise to the great historical style of painting, and whenever he attempted it egregiously failed f . It is worthy of remark, that, since the time of Hogarth, a taste for caricalura, and for comic painting in general, has evidently increased, es- pecially in Great Britain, to a degree beyond all former example. Notwithstanding the phlegmatic character usually ascribed to the British, it is a curious fact, that, in no country on earth has the taste for this species of painting been so fashion- able, or carried to so high a degree of perfection. Ill a particular part of comic i)ainting Mr. Henry * Lord Orford's (Horace Walpolc's) Works, vol. iii, p. 4.53, &:c. t Sir Joshua Reynolds's Works , vol. ii, p. 10'3. Sect. I,] Painting. 133 Bunbury has much distinguished himself. His ex- hibitions of scenes in Trlstrarn Shandy, and other works, present his genius in very strong and lively colours, and deserve to be mentioned among the signal peculiarities of tlie age. Bunbury is tiie only successful imitator of Hogarth, and is among the very few imitators who rise, in their respective kinds of excellence, to thll equality witli their ori- ginal. Like his great predecessor, he displays more humour when he invents than when lie il- lustrates. It is probable that Portrait Painting was never before so much practised as in the eighteenth century *, In this branch of the art sir Joshua Reynolds was the great and unrivalled master. *' This celebrated painter," says an eloquent writer, *' was the first Englishman who added the praise of the elegant arts to the other glories of his coun- try. In taste, in grace, in facility, in happy inven- tion, an,d in the richness and harmony of colour- ing, he was equal to the great masters of the most renowned ages. In poiHrait he went beyond them, for he communicated to that description of the art, in which English artists are the most engaged, a variety, a fancy, and a dignity, derived from the liigher l)ranches, which even those who professed them in a superior manner did not always preserve * A taste for Vortrait Painting has, perhaps, been more pre- valent in Great Britain, especially during the last age, than in any Gther country on earth : insomuch that some foreigners ha\e brought the charge of vanity against the English on this account. But a more serious consideration is, that this taste, by limiting the cultivation of historical subjects, has had a disadvantageous in- fluence on the higher branches of the art. 134 Fine Arts. [Chap. X, when they delineated individual nature. His portraits remind the spectator of the invention of history^ and the amenity of landscape *"." But sir Joshua Reynolds was not alone in this department of painting. Many others, though not all equally deserving, are entitled to a place amona: those disting-uished artists who do honour to the period under review. Beside a numher of others who might be mentioned, the merits of Lawrence, Ramsay, Gainsborough, Northcote, Opie, Beechy, Romney, and Barry, of Great Britain; of Greuze, of France ; and of Stuart f, of the United States, entitle them to the highest praise. * Character by Burke, in tlie life of Sir Joshua Reynolds by Malone, 8vo, p. IIQ. f Mr. Gilbert Stuart, tlie celebrated portrait painter, is a native of the state of Rhode Island. He discovered, early in life, a taste for painting. This was encouraged by a friend of the family, who had himself considerable skill in the same art, and who took young Stuart with him to Great Britain, where he spent several years before he reached the age of manhood. On returning to his native countiy, and discovering a growing fondness for the pencil, he was patronised by Mr. Joseph Anthony, a respectabk merchant of Rhode Island, afterward of Philadelphia, by whom he was again sent to England, and placed under the tuition of Mr. West, where he made great proficiency, and soon became distinguished as a portrait painter. The high reputation which he has since gained in this branch of the art is generally known, botli in Great Britain and America. A late satirical, and in many respects very exceptionable writer, speaking of this gentleman, expresses him- self iu the following terms : *' I do not know any living artist to whom I would so eagerly sit, for an immediate and faithful resemblance, as to G. Stuart ; as, I believe, he sees his object, and the infinity of tints constituting that object, with more perspi- cuity than any other existing portrait painter." See Anthony rasf^uiu's Roijal Academicians. Sect. I.] Paintings 135 That mode of delineating the human counte- nance called Mimaturt painting, though practised prior to the age under consideration, yet may be said to have gained a prevalence, and attained a degree of" excellence, during that age, which were altogether unknown in ajiy tormer period. In Allegorical painting Angelica Flauffmann, a distinguished genius of Germany, now residing at ilome, was perhaps never exceeded *. In that vigorous imagination which enables an artist, as it were, to embody and depict metaphysical ideas, Mr. Fuseli has displayed unrivalled talents. In Landscape, Gainsborough, Wilson, Smith, Turner, Morland, and several others, have attained high distinction in Great Britain ; as have also Vernet and Valenciens, of France; Ommagank, of An- twerp ; and several others in different part of Eu- rope. In depicting Cattle, and various kinds of Aiiimah, Wenix and Ommagank, of the Flemish school; and Stubbs, Gilpin, and Catton, of Great Britain, may be honourably compared with the painters of any age. Van Huysum, of Amster- dam, may be considered the greatest painter of Flowers that ever lived ; and in the same class van Spandonck, of the French school, is entitled to respectful notice. The century under review is distinguished by * A friend, on reading what is said above of this celebrated artist, made the following remark; " I tliink you speak in ratlier too strong terms of the genius of Angelica Kautfmann. Al- though she is very high on the list of artists, her works have not sufficient force of character and composition to entitle her to such praibc." 135 Fine Arts. [Chap. X. the recovery of the Encaustic method of painting, ^vhich was mucli used by tlie ancients, but had been long lost. This method consists in the use o^ xvax to give a gloss to colours, and to preserve them from the injuries of the air. The restoration of this art is ascribed to count Caylus, a member of the Acadcmij of Inscriptions in France, and was announced to the Academy of Painting and Belles Lettres in 1753; though M. Bachelier had ac- tually painted a picture in wax in 1749; and he was the first who communicated to the public the method of performing the operation of inustiony which is the principal characteristic of the encaus- tic painting. Some additional facts were after- wards brought to light, and some improvements in this art were proposed by Mr. Muntz, m an elaborate treatise on this subject. A different and improved species of encaustic painting was next discovered, in 1759, by Mr. Joslma Colebrook, of Great Britain; and, finally, IMiss Greenland, of the same country, in 1787, communicated to the Society of Arts some further discoveries and im- provements, which were rewarded by that asso- ciation with a prize. This method of painting has many advantages. The colours laid on in this manner have all the strength of painting in oil, and all the airiness of water-colours, without par- taking of the defects of either. They are firm, will bear washing, and may be retouched at plea- sure, without injury. The duration of this kind of painting is also an advantage; the colours are not liable to fade and change ; no damp, or cor- rosive substance, can aiiect them j they have no Sect. L] Paint] ng. 137 tendency to crack ; and if by accident tlicv re- ceive injury tliey can be easily repaired*. A new kind of painting*, caUed the Klijcloric, which name it derives from oU and xcatcr l)ein:^ both used in its execution, was invented a few years ago by M.Vincent, of France, The great advantages of this invention are, that, by means of it the artist is enabled to give a very higli iinisii- ing to small figures in oil, and to add to the mel- lowness of oil-painting the greatest beauty of water-colours in miniature; and to do this in such a manner that it appears like a large picture seen through a diminishing glass f . The art of Painting on Glass was revived in Great Britain during the eighteenth century, and brought, by the artists of that country, to as great, if not greater, perfection than it had ever before attained. In eifecting this revival, the celebrated Jervas, a British painter, was, among others, much distinguished J. The invention of a more perfect manner of pre- paring/F^^er Co/o^/r^, about the year 1778, by Mr. Thomas Reeves, of Great Britain, also de- serves to be mentioned as an important event in the history of modern painting. The numerous advantages conferred on the art of drawing in water-colours, by this invention, are generally known, and can scarcely be too highly a])pre- ciated. * See Encyclopaedia, art. Encaustic Painting, -t Ibid. art. Fainting. X The finest specimens of Jervas's talents in painting on glass are some copies from West, in the windows of St. George's chapel, at Windsor. 138 Fine Arts. [Chap. X. In the 3^ear 1787 was announced the invention of M'hat is called Poll/ graphic Painting, by which paintings iu oil may be multiplied, by a chemical and mechanical operation, to a \\'onderful extent. The numerous copies obtained, by means of this invention, are said to possess great excellence. The utility of this art, if its merits be such as have been mentioned, is too obvious to I'equire expla- nation. A method was invented not long ago by Mr. Ro- .bert Salmon of Bedfordshire, of transferring valua- ble paintings from the substance on which they were originally painted, to another more eligible one. The utility and importance of this invention will be readily appreciated by every intelligent reader. Numerous experiments have also been made, during the last age, with respect to the best mode of preparing and laying on Colonics, For these, the art of painting is indebted to several chemists and practical artists. But they are too numerous, 3nd would require too much minuteness of detail, to be explained in the present sketch *. Finally, to this section belongs some notice of the art of imitating pictures in ncedte-^work, which has been brought to greater perfection during the eighteenth century than ever before. In very * The laborious and ingenious experin:ients made by modem prtists, particularly those directed towards the recovery of the ce- Jebrated I'tndian mode of colouring, have not been attended with so much success as might have been expected. Mr. West has been much engaged in this inquiry, but without, as yet, attaining the desired object. His colours, however, are permanent. The same cannot be said in favour of sir Joshua Reynolds. His co- louring, though much praised in his day, is liow foynU to fa^ #.'{' tecdingly. MS. note -y" Mr. J. 11. Murray. Sect. II.] Sculpture^ I39 early times we read of specimens of jieeiUC'U'ork, by the hands of celebrated females, whicli attract- ed much attention, and which were exhibited as decorations of dwellings, and as monuments of in- genious industry. But within a few years past improvements have been made in this elegant art, which far surpass the most renowned productions of the same kind in former ages. The names of several ladies might be mentioned, who have much distinguished themselves by contributing to these improvements; but among these the genius and works of Miss Linwood, of Great Britain, hold an undisputed preeminence. The needle, in the hands of this lady, has become a *' formidable rival of the pencil." The pieces she has Mrought so far transcend, both in number and excellence, all preceding attempts, that tliey may^ with great justice, be placed among the distinguishing ho- nours of the period under review. Perhaps no less praise is due to miss Thomson, for her matchless exhibition of paintings in wool. SECTION IL SCULPTURE. In this art the eighteenth century, though it has produced some respectable masters, yet falls far short of those renowned monuments which do so much honour to Grecian genius. Of that por- tion of skill in sculpture which has fallen to the lot of modern artists, the largest share, as in former periods, belongs to those of Italy. la that coun- 140 Fine Arts. [Chap. X. try Algardi* Cherachi, Comolli, Carlini^ and, above all, Canova f, liave been much distinguish- ed. Beside these Roubilliac, la ^loitt, Chaudet, Houdon, and Boizot, of France; Rysbrach and Flamingo, of Flanders ; Schaddau, of Berlin ; Ba- con^ Nollekens, AVilton, Flaxnian, Moore, Banks, and the honourable ]\Irs. Darner J, of Great Bri- tain ; Sergei, of Sweden ; and a iew others, in dif- ferent parts of Europe, have attained, w^ithin the period in question, considerable celebrity. The art of taking human Hkenesscs in JVa.v, though not ab;solutely peculiar to the eighteenth century, has been carried to a degree of perfec- tion during this period, which was never before known. In this art Mrs. Wright, an ingenious American lady ; Mr. Gossett and his nephew, of Great Britain ; and several others on the con- tinent of Europe, have gained very honourable distinction. The various compositions for Busts and other * Algardi lived early in the eighteenth ccntiuy. Among the numerous works on which his reputation is b\iilt, his famous spe- cimen of alto n-licvo, in St. Peter's, at Rome, deserves particular commendation. The subject is the appearance of St. Peter and St. Paul to Attila, when laying siege to Rome. It is one of the finest things to be seen in tliat city. t Canova resides at Rome. The author is informed, by IMr. Murray, tlfat this artist is undoubtedly the greatest sculptor now living, and fully equal to tlie second class of Grecian sculptors, Mr. Murray, when at Rome, was often in the workshop of Canova, and declares, that, on comparing a statue of Perseus, executed by him, with a cast from the Ikhidtrc ^ipolio, placed in the same room, the former sutlVred very little by tlie comparison. X Mrs. Damer is the first instance, in the annals of sculpture, of nf'rnn/e attaining distinction in this art. Some of her works do her great honour. Sect. IL] Scidptiire^ 141 kinds of statuary, \\\\\X:\\ modern genius lias in- vented, are worthy of notice in this brief sketch of the pecuHarities of the last age. Those in parti- cular by Wedgwood and Bentley of (neat Bri- tain are entitled to the highest praise. Modern artists are also distinguished, above all others, by the facility and accuracy with which they take copies of antique specimens of sculpture, in com- mon plastic materials. The utility, as well as ele- gance, of this mode of multiplying the monuments of ancient genius, make it worthy of being noticed among the honours of the eighteenth century. In France a new method of representing the human figure has been lately adopted. Guirhard and Dehl, of that country, in 1800, completed a human figure in porcelain, of four feet high. This ys, probably, the largest made of the same material ever seen. They can, however, still magnify them to the size of life. The advantages to be derived from adopting this kind of statuary are durability, cheapness, and expedition and ease of production. Porcelain is as hard as silex, and less liable to in- jury than marble. These figures may be prepared in a mould, by which means the statues of great men may be multiplied with little labour, and at a small expense *. J\Ir. James Tassie, of London, with a view to the further advancement of the imitative arts, has discovered a method of transferring the figures and heads of antique and modern engraved gems into coloured glass and enamel, similar to the originals in colour, durabiHty, and brilliancy. This has * Garnet's MnaU ofPhilosophi/, Sec. for 1800. 142 Fbic Arts. [Chap. X. been pronounced by some connoisseurs to be a discovery of great value for perpetuating the works of miniature sculpture. By means of it many re- mains of ancient genius, which were lost to the world in general, may be universally diffused in all their original beauty and excellence *. Toward the close of the century under consi- deration, a collection was made, in Paris, of all the Monuments of Sculpture which France could afford, from the eighth to the eighteenth century, and arranged according to the order of centuries. This is the first, and the only collection of the kind, ever made. It is the only school in which the progress of sculpture, during tlie middle ages, can be advantageously studied f . SECTION III. ENGRAVING. This art, which was not known prior to tlie mid- dle of the fifteenth century |, was brought, in the course of the eighteenth, to a degree of relinement and perfection which forms one of the signal ho- nours of the age. And although some specimens * Montlily Magazine, Loud. vol. vii. f DiSiription Historiquc et Chronologiquc dc's Moimmcns dd Sculpture, rtunis au Musec dts Momimcm Fran^uis ; par Alexandre Lenoir. X The nncicnts, it is true, practised engraving on precious .stones and chrystids, with very good success; but this is rather a species of sculpture. The art of engraving on plates of metal, and blocks of wood, from which to take prints ox impressionSj was not known till the period above mentioned. Sect. III.] Engraving, 143 of this art, of a very early date, display the s})irit of the painting they were intended to co[)y, with a success which has never been exceeded ; yet, considering* the general excellence of engravini^. It certainly never attained so high a degree of im* provement, in all respects, as during the century under consideration. The instruments for prose- cuting this art have been, w^ithin the period in question, greatly improved both in power and con- venience; new kinds of engraving liave been in- vented ; and the methods before known carried to an extent of beauty and elegance unknown to the artists of any preceding times. A method of Engraving on Glass was invented toward the close of the century under considera- tion. This is done by means of the El nor Add, discovered a few years ago by Margraaf and Schecle. To effect this kind of engraving a glass plate is covered with melted wax or mastic. A\'hen this coating becomes hard, it is engraved upon by a very sharp-pointed needle, or other instrument of that kind. A mixture of oil of vitriol £ind Jluor acid is then put upon the plate, and the whole co- vered with an inverted china vessel, to prevent the evaporation of the acid. In two days the ])late, being cleared of its coating, exhibits all the traces of the instrument. Engraving in Aquatlnta is also a recent inven- tion. This is a method of Etching on copper^ by which a soft and beautiful effect is produced, re- sembiino- a fine drawing- in water colours or Indian ink. The artists who most distmguishcd themselves in this department of engraving, within the period 144 Fine Art ^. [Chap. X. under consideration, were Sandb}^ Parky ns^ and Jukes, of Great Britain. Calcography, a species of engraving in imitation of Chalk draxvings^ if not invented, was-^rst brouo-jit to a hioh state of excellence and im- provement, in the eighteenth century. Those who have been most eminently distinguished ill this de- partment of the graphic art, are Messrs. Ryland and Bartolozzi, of Great Britain *. Mr, Smith, an engraver of London, toward the close of the period embraced in this retrospect, is said to have invented a method of making im- pressions from his own plates, so to resemble OU Painti}igs as to be with difficulty distinguished from them, even by connoisseurs. These impres- sions are represented as possessing that sort of brightness which is so much admired in Venetian ])aintings, as resembling them also in permanency, and as beino- of such a nature as to render a cover- ing of glass, so expensive and frangible a mjite- jial, altogether unnecessary. The art of producing Coloured Engravings hQ-^ longs almost entirely to the period under consider- ation. About the time of the revival of learning, some artists produced prints of different colours, by means of wood cuts, employing a different plate for each colour. But so much inconvenience and imperfection attended this method^ that it was scl- * For this, and for sci'eral other articles of information, de- tailed in the present section, and for some valuable hints on the subject of modern painting, the author acknowledges himself to be indebted to Mr. Archibald Robertson, conductor of the Coluni- hian Acadcmij of Painting in the city of New York, whose inge- nuity and taite as an artist arc wcU known in America. Sect. III.] Engraving. 145 dom resorted to. No further improvement seems to have been attempted till near the middle of the eighteenth century, when some experiments were made by French artists, with Copperplates, with a view to obtain coloured prints. They also found it necessary to use different plates for different parts of the work; and on this, as well as other accounts, the expense of their plan prevented its general adoption. But toward the close of the century a method was invented of producing an elegant coloured engraving from a single copi)er- plate. ^ The English artists are said to have car- ried this improvement to the greatest degree of excellence. A method of engraving is said to have been lately invented by Ui\ Westall, an artist of Lon- don, more nearly resembling Draxiings than was before known. In 1799 he exhibited a drawing, and the year following a print taken from it, which was so close an imitation as ta ''devcive the eye. :: :i The art of Engraving on wood hdid been prac tised in great perfection for several centuries before the eighteenth, but degenerated, and became little used. At the close of the seventeenth century it was in a very low state ; and it had almost sunk into forgetful n ess, when Thomas Bewick, of Newcastle, a ^Q\v years ago, revived it. He is said by some, in- deed, to be entitled to the honour of reinventnig the art; and has certainly brought it to a degree of elegance and perfection unknown to the later engravers. His pupils, Nesbit and Anderson, also have been for a considerable time distin- Vol. ir. L 146 Fine Arts. [Chap. X. guisheJ by their taste and skill in this branch of engraving. To these names maybe added that of Dr. Anderson, of New York, who has much sig- nahsed himself by his genius for the same art. A method has been, within a few years, devised of taking off an impression of any -figures or writ- ing drawn on the surface o^ Marble, The advan- tages of this invention arc great ease and freedom of execution, and the facility of multiplying, to a great extent, the number of copies. The eminent engravers of the eighteenth cen- tury were numerous. Among those who have either improved the art, or produced specimens very honourable to their characters, it will be proper to mention a few names. Woollett^ Strange, Ryland, Sharpe, and Heath, of Great Britain, stand high in the list of modern engrav- ers. Audran, ]\Ionet, Simon, and Beauvarlet, of France, have received much praise; and For- porerti, Bartolozzi, Testolini, and, above all, Morghen, of Ital}^ deserve to be mentioned with the greatest respect. SECTION IV. MUSIC. In the ait of JMrnlc the century under consi- deration furnished several c\ents and characters worthy of being recorded. These relate either to discoveries and improvements in the principles of music, distinguished composers in this art, or those Sect. IV.] Music: 147 U'ho have rendered themselves famous by the ex- cellence of their personal performances. The principles of music have been considerably improved during the last age. The origin and laws of Harmouy were little understood before the commencement of this period. Facts and rules were known ; and the improvements of the cele- brated Corelli, in Counterpoint, at the close of the preceding age, have received great and just praise. But the philosophy of harmony had been very im- perfectly developed until M. llameau, a scientific musician of France, early in the century, under- took the investigation of this subject, and intro- duced into it more light and order than had been before known. He exhibited the foundation and the principles of harmony, and the source of that pleasure which it affords ; he analysed the conso- nances in music; he explained the mutual de- pendence of harmony and melody, and formed the laws of each into a distinct code, in a manner more luminous and satisfactory than any of his predeces- sors *. The result of his labours was given to the world in 1752, when he was considered by many as the great monarch of the musical world, as '' a theorist to whom this art was as much indebted as physics and philosophy to Newton/' And al- though this opinion of his merit, entertained by Ids countrymen, may be more honourable than he deserves, yet the science of music is doubtless in- debted to him as one of its greatest cidtivatorsand " See d'Alembert's Elanens dc Miis. Thtur. ct Prat, suhans lc>i Vrindpcs dc Rameau, 17 62. 148 Fine Arts. [Chap. X. improvers, during the age in which he hved*. The system of Rameau has received successive il- lustrations and improvements from M. d'Alem- bert, ahhe Roussier, and others. Another great theorist in music was Tartini, an ingenious Itahan, who followed M. Rameau ; and although the scientific correctness of his work is called in question, it still abounds with most va- luable instruction to practical musicians. To these may be added the large and enlightened w^orks of IMarpurg, a great German musician ; beside the publications in different parts of the world on particular departments of music, of which even the principal are too numerous to be recounted f. This new light shed on the principles of music has enabled succeeding artists to carry what is called Modem Symphony^ which took its rise long before, to a very high degree of refinement and perfection. Those who have been most distin- guished in this department are Vanhall, Haydn, Pleyel, and IMozart, all of Germany, and com- posers of the first class. In the new style of music introduced by these artists greater attention than formerly is paid to contrast and effect ; and it is also distinguished by more spngktliness and variety. And if it be less simple, less easy (?f acquisition, and, in some instances, less harmonious than that of their immediate predecessors, it contains, at the bame time, a greater predominance of air and * Rurney's liistvry of Music, 4to, vol. iv, p. 612, Sec. t Ibid. Sect. IV.] Musk, 149 vielody, and is better calculated to make new, surprising, and diversified impressions. It was about the beginning of the century un- der consideration that Italian music first became fasliionable in England. The first Opera, upon tlie Italian plan, was performed therein 1705. Com- positions derived from the same source have sinee become more popular and general. How much this kind of musical drama, invented by Politian, is indebted to Metastasio for its improvement is ge- nerally known. The sacred musical drama, or Oimtorio, was in- vented in Italy in the beginning of the fourteenth century, but was never publicly exhibited in Grc;it Britain until introduced by George Tredcrick Handel, in 1732. This wonderful genius had come from Germany to England about twenty years before, and by his zeal, and the incompa- rable excellence of his compositions, formed a grand a^ra in the history of music. Perhaps no individual musician of the age has been more fre- quently the subject of eulogy, or filled a larger space in the public estimation than this illustrious German. His Oratorios, including the chorusses, which lie brought into use, were exhibitions of the very first order *. It would be improper to omit taking notice in this place of a new musical instrument, which the century we are considering produced, dcn()n)i- nated by Dr. Franklin the Harmonica. This is an instrument formed of glass, on which, by rubbing the finger according to certain rules, the most de- * Burney's History of Music, vol. iv. 150 Fine Arts. [Chap. X. lightful music is produced. Mr. Puckeridge, an Irish gentleman, about the middle of the century, was the first who contrived to play regular tunes on an instrument of this kind. After his death Mr. Delaval, an ingenious member of the Royal So- ciety in Great Britain, made a musical instrument on the same principles, but with a better choice and form of glasses. In this stage of the invention Dr. Franklin undertook to investigate the sub- ject, and considerably improved upon Mr. Dela- val's plan, giving it the name which has been mentioned *. Since Dr. Franklin, Dr. E. Cullen, of Dublin, has formed an instrument of, the same nature, but much more extensive and compli- cated, which he thinks so different as to require a new name. The erreat excellencies of the Har- monica^ as an instrument of music, are, that '' its tones are incomparably sweet, beyond those of any other; that they may be swelled and softened at pleasure, by stronger or weaker pressures of the iinger ; that they may be continued to any length ; and that the instrument being once well tuned, never again wants tuning." The century under consideration has also pro- duced a new species of musical instrument, called i\\Q EKphon, invented in 1790, by Dr. Chladni, a philosopher of Germany. Like the Harmonica, it is performed with the hand, on gla-ssts ; but it differs from that instrument in several respects. Tlie music of the Harmonica is produced by rub- bing the edges of glass vessels, in a circular direc- tion ; whereas the music of the Euphon is effected * See Franklin' b UtUr to lather Bvccaria, on tliis subject. Sect. IV.] Musk. 151 by rubbing the surface of long glass tubes, in the direction of right lines. In the number and sweet- ness of its tones, the latter approaches nearly to the excellence of the former ; but is much supe- rior ill simplicity; in the ease and expedition with >vhich the music is produced ; in cheapness of construction ; and in having so little disagreeable effect on the nerves of the performer*. A new species of HuHting JMuslc was invented m Russia^ a few years ago, by J. A. Marcsch, mas- ter of the imperial chapeb who died in 179i. It is performed entirely on Horns, of differejit sizes and figures^ some long and straight, othcts short and curved, but all of the same tone. These instru- ments are^^id to be carried to such perfection, that the quartettoes and qainfettoes of Haydji, Mozart, and Pleyeb nia,y be performed upon them, and the concertoes of Giarnovichi executed, even to the sluihe, with admirable precision and ease. The great musical Composers of the eighteenth century were very numerous. It will be possible to take notice only of a very small number among the most distinguished. Of these there were in England, Arne, Greene, Boyce, Avison, Arnold, and Burney ; in France, Ilameau, Bertier, Piccini, Gosec, and G retry ; in Germany, beside the il- lustrious names before mentioned, Ciraiin, Abel, Fischer, Bach, Gluck, Fuchs, Fasch, Richter, and Stamitz ; and in Italy, Martini, Jomelli, Metas- tasio, l^ononcini, Raimonde, Salamon, Alessandri, and many others. The great musical Performers of the eighteenth ♦ Tilloch's FhilosopJikal Magazine, 152 Fine Arts. [Chap. X. century were probably more numerous than those of any preceding age. Of these by far the greater number were natives of Italy and Germany, espe- cially the former. They were so many, indeed, that no attempt will be made in this place to give a list even of the most conspicuous. Nor is such an enumeration necessary. The fame of the as- tonishing musical powers possessed by Nicolini, Farinelli, Gabrielli, Carestini, Giardini, Rubinelli, ]\Iarchesi, and a multitude of others, has long per- vaded the civilised world. The year 17^4 was rendered a memorable xra, in the annals of music, by the splendid and mag- nificent manner in which the birth and genius of Handel were celebrated in Westminster Abbey, and the Pantheon, under the immediate auspices of the king and queen of Great Britain, and the other most dignified personages in the kingdom. This commemoration has been since established as an annual musical festival, for charitable purposes *. The number and excellence of the performers en- 2:aofed in this commemoration, and the stvle of the music exhibited by them, may be safely pro- nounced to have exceeded every thing of the kind of which the history of the art gives us any ac- count |. * Enajchrpitdia Britanniai, nrt. Music. t In 1784 this commemoration was celebrated by 500 voices and instruments; in 1/85, by 6lC) ; in 178(), by 741 -, in 1787* by 806\ These performers were, in general, of the very first class. Sect. V.] Architecture, ir/j SECTION V. ARCHITECTURE. In this art the last century presents little \vliich, by the attentive inquirer, can be considered as re- markable. Many noble specimens of architecture have been produced during this period^ but pro- bably few, if any, of these are equal to son^e of the productions of former times. There appear to be two circumstances in the architectural history of the eio-htcenth century, in which it dificrs from that of preceding ages. The first is, that the Public buildings erected during this period will be found, in general, less grand and massy than those of some former periods. But while they fall short in splendour and magni- ficence, they are probably much superior to most of the ancient speciments of architecture in sim- phcity, convenience, neatness, and real elegance. This difference probably arises, in some degree, from the well known fact, that most of the monu- ments of ancient taste and skill in architecture be- long to countries and times when despotic sove- reigns were able to connnand the property and the" labour of millions, and when buikHng cities and temples was one of the standing habits, and chief honours, of great potentates. Since the re- vival of the arts these circumstances have so seldom met together, and particularly in those countries Avhich have been most capable of profiting by them, that buildings on a plan of great splendour and macrnificence^havc been undertaken compa- 154 Fine Arts. [Chap. X. ratively seldom. But convenience, neatness, and simple elegance, as they are within the power of taste in all nations and ages, have been displayed, it is believed^ with peculiar frequency in the last century. The otii&r peculiarity in the architecture of the last age is, that Prhate DxveUings, during this pe- riod, be'cime, in general, more spacious, conve- nient, and agreeable to a correct taste, than ever before. In all preceding ages, even those which were most favourable to the arts, the number of large and convenient private houses was small. While public buildings Avere studiously extended and ornanented^ only a few of the most wealthy possessed large, comfortable, and beautiful habita- tions. The number of this description has greatly increased in modern times. The manifest aug- mentation, in the course of the last century, of that respectable and useful portion of society usually called the Middle CUiss^ has, no doubt, led to this improvement. It may probably be asserted that a larger proportion of mankind were, at the close of the century under review, furnished with conve- nient, and even elegant, habitations, than ever be- fore enjoyed the like advantage. The liberal use of Glass, in modern buildings, greatlv contributes to their beautv and comfort, and is a ])oint in which they peculiarly excel. And in descending to the various minute details of human dwellings, especially those which relate to elegance and enjoyment, it is evident, that in many respects the artists of the eighteenth cen- tury exceeded all others. Sect. V.] Architecture. 155 ^ America, during the period under consrdera- tion, has furnislied but few objects worthy of be- ing contemplated or recorded. Pursuits of more immediate utility and profit have generally oc- cupied the attention of her citizens, and must continue to occupy it, until their weaUh and ta^tc shall be greatly augmented. 'J1uit America is not deficient in native genius for tlie fine arts, the names of West, Copley, Trumbull, and Stuart, be- fore mentioned, abundantly testify ; and that it can 1x)ast of many artists who want nothing but instruction, and incitements to exertion, to place them in a very honourable rank, experience daily renders more probable '"\ A taste for the tine arts in that .country is evidently on the increase f, * Among many nnmes whicli might be mentioned to justify this remark, it would, perhaps, be improper to omit taking notice of Mr. Vandei-lyn, a native of Ulster county, in tJie state of New Yorlv. Tills j^oung gentleman very early in life discovered a taste for painting. For the purpose of encouraging and culiivating this taste, he was sent to Europe, a few years ago, under the patronage of Aaron Burj, esq,, now vicepresident of the United States. Hu has lately returned to this city, and, in the estimation of good judges, bids fair to be an honour to his countiy. t Though the institution of the Acndcmji of the Fine Arts, m the city of New York, does not belong to the century under re- view j yet the autlior cannot avoid taking notice of it in this place, as an event which marks the growing taste of its citizens, does honour to the gentlemen who have exerted themselves in forming and executing the plan, and bids fair to be one of the most ele- gant and interesting ornaments of tlie^ity. 156 CHAPTER XI. PHYSIOGNOMY. Physiognomy, considered with respect to the feelings and the experience of mankind, has been an object of attention in all ages. The counten- ance and general exterior have always been re- garded as furnishing some indication both of the intellectual and moral character. Every one who goes into society, and who observes at all, must receive impressions of this kind involuntarily and without design. It may even be said, that the first dawnings of perception and reasoning in child- ren exhibit abundant proof, that some relation between the dispositions of the mind, and the fea- tures of the countenance, is recognised and un- derstood by them. So far, then, physiognomy has been an object of attention, and of some inquiry in all stages of human knowledge. The first time wx hear of this subject being studied as a science, is about the time of Pytha- goras. It is said to have been much cultivated in Egypt and India, when that philosopher visited those countries, and to have been brought by him into Greece. In the time of Socrates physiog- nomy was studied and adopted as a profession *. Plato speaks of it as attended to by the students * The story of Zopynis, who undertook to decide on the character of Socrates, by inspecting his countenance, is well known. Chap. XL] Physiognomjj* 157 of nature in his day. But the first distinct and formal treatise on the subject is by Aristotle, whose work, as it displays tbe power of his great mind, so it may be considered as the guide to all subsequent inquiries, and the basis of every phy- siognomical treatise tliat has since appeared. After Aristotle, his disciple Theophrastus wrote on phy- siognomy, in a very accurate and interesting mau- nea'. He was succeeded by a number of other* less conspicuous ; and, indeed, at every period of the history of Greece and Home, when learning was cultivated in any considerable degree, we hear something of men who employed themselves in in- vestiiratino: and teachino- this science. But when the Roman empire was overthrown by her northern invaders, and when, in the general wreck, the various departments of philosophy were buried in forgetfulness, physiognomy also became, in a great measure, neglected and forgotten, as a specific object of study. For a number of centu- ries we hear little or nothing about it. At the be- ginning of the sixteenth century we fmd it again exciting some attention, and from that time till near the close of the seventeenth, it continued to be a general and fashionable subject of inquiry. Within that period the writers on physiognomy were very numerous, and some of them respccta- ble and instructive. There was one circumstance, hov/cvcr, con- nected with the study of physiognomy, within the period last mentioned, which served to throw it into a kind of temporary disgrace, and which cer- tainly retarded its progress. Tor more than two ^centuries after the revival of learning, tlie arts ol' 158 Phymgnomy. [Chap. XL ]\fagiCj Alchew.y, and Judicial Aslrologif were fashi- onable pursuits, and were interwoven with ahiiost every other object of study. Unfortunately phy- siognomy was rarely spoken of, or investigated but in connection with those playthings of ancient folly, now so justly ridiculed and exploded. From the middle of the seventeenth century we may date the downfal of the reign of alchemy and astrology, and with them, as one of the sciences denominated Occult, physiognomical inquiries for a time also declined. Philosophers, however, soon learned to distin- guish between the science itself and that perver- sion of it which had arisen from an unnatural con- nection. Accordingly, early in the century under consideration, it was taken notice of respectfully by Dr.. Gwither*; and afterward, in a still more pointed and able manner, by Dr. Parsons f . Be- side these British writers, Lancisius, of Italy ; Ilaller, of Switzerland ; and Buffon^, of France, published observations on certain branches of the subject, which it is scarcely necessary to say were ingenious and interesting. But the first discussion relating to the science of physiognomy, in the eighteenth century, which excited much atten- tion, was that which took place in 1769, between M. Pernetty and ]\I. le Catt, and is recorded in the jMemolrs of the Acadcmif of Sciences J. Both these gentlemen contended for the reality and import- ance of the science; but differed widely with re- * Vhilosophical Transaction/^, vol. xvlii. f Human Pbjsiognojny explained, 1747. X Man. Acad, Scicn. 1709^ Mem. 4th aiid 5Ui. Chap. XL] Phymg7iomy, I.jO spcct to its principles and extent. And tliongh, probably, neither was entirely correct in liis views, yet they donbtless contributed to increase the knowledge and study of the subject. In a short time after the discussion in France had been laid before the public, the great and far- famed work of the rev. ]\I. Lavater, of Zuricli, appeared. The opinions respecting ])hysiognomy which he had been for some time divulging in conversation, and disseminating in fragments, vcexQ collected by him into formal and exten- sive volumes. This is certainly the most splen- did and interesting work on the subject that was ever published ; and the deep and general atten- tion which it has excited is well known. Not only in Switzerland, but in Germany, in France, in (ireat Britain, and indeed, throughout the iite- rary world, it has been read with a degree of ar- dour and admiration seldom bestowed on the pro- ductions of genius. It has been translated into various languages ; passed through an astonishing number of editions ; and though now somewhat diminished in popularity, is still perused with high respect and pleasure. That the illustrious Swiss is enthusiastic, fanciful, and' visionary; that his M^orksevhil)it a sinii'nlar mixture of wonderful dis- cernment; plausible conjectures, and laughable dreams; and -that he gives an extension and im- portance to the subject which ^t\v will allow, seems to be generally admitted. That he carries his principles to an extreme, and attempts to con- fer upon his rules a definiteness and prtclsion lit- tle short of the ridiculous, is also evident. Stdl there is, doubtless, much reality and justness in his J 60 Fhyslognomrf. [Chap. XI* s}*stem. And he often displays the refined accu- racy of a very delicate observer, together with the enlightened views of a real philosopher*. Tlie method of illustrating physiognomical dis- cussions by Engravings was first adopted by Bap- tista Porta t, one of the earliest writers on the subject after the revival of letters. The en- gravings of M. Lavater are more numerous, bet- ter executed, and, consequently, far more instruc- tive than his. Since the labours of this amiable, pious, and ingenious divine^ nothing has been done in the science of physiognomy worthy of be- ing recorded as new. All, therefore, relating to this subject, that can be considered as peculiar to the eighteenth century, is the revival of attention to it; ths detaching it from the disgraceful con- tiection in which it had previously stood ; and the exhibition of its principles in a more popular and splendid manner. But sanguine calculators ima- gine that a foundation has been recently laid for incomparably greater progress. They look for- ward to the time when the students of this science shall carry it to a degree of perfection of which faint ideas only can now be formed; when its principles shall be so clearly defined, our know- ledge of its laws so greatly extended, and depart- ments, at present unknown, so fully laid open to tlie prying eye of philosophy as to render it one of * See his Essays on Fhysiognomij. Some account of his mode •f thinking and reasoning on the subject may also be found in tlie Encydoputdiay from which many of the facts above stated are collected. t A philosopher of Kapks, who flourished about the middle of the sixteentli centur}\ Chap. XL] Plnjsioguomi/, IGI the most safe standards of judo-mcnt, and one of the best guides of action. In short, ukuiv have spoken of it as a science susceptible of mathema- tical certainty, and as capable of endowing- man with a power little short of complete intuition into the hearts, intentions, and talents of hib fellow men. It may be well doubted whether these antici- pations be not altogether extravagant and vain. To set bounds to the progress of science is im- possible. We can only say, that its cultivators and improvers being finite creatures, there must be limits somewhere, beyond which they cannot hope to advance. Aud though some further im- provements in physiognomy may be with reason expected, yet several considerations concur to ren- der it probable that these improvements must ever fall far short of the point to which many extend their views. Mankind have been long employed in investigating the subject, without making any signal or important advances in their know- ledge of its nature and principles. There seems to be little room, in this field of investigation, for those experiments and discoveries M'hicli have so brilliantly and profitably abounded in many otlicrs. But, above all, to look forward to a period when physiognomy shall be so generally and perfectly understood, as to furnish mankind witli a })lain and infallible criterion, by which, in all cases, to ascertain precisely tlie talents and the dispo- sition of each other, is to think of invading thr prerogative of Omniscience, and ac«juiring an in- strument subversive of humnn society.. Ami e\en Vol. II. M 162 Phijsiognomy. [Cfl[AP. XL if we could suppose such progress in this science within the bounds of probability, we must believe that the arts of concealment, deception, and every concomitant of artifice and false refinement will, at the same time, make equal progress, and thus leave us in the same relative situation as at present. m CHAPTER XI r. PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN MIND. IF the physical sciences have received great and radical improvements during the century under consideration, it is feared the same degree of im- provement cannot he ascrihed to the science of tlie human mind, and the auxiHary hranches of plnlo- sophy. In this wide field new cxpaiments and dis' coverics, in the proper sense of the words, can have no place ; and there are serious grounds of suspi- cion, that many modern systems of higli chiims, and imposing aspect, are hy no means- suhstantial additions to the sum of knowledge. There is no douht, indeed, that we have happily gotten rid of much pedantry and jargon, which once ohtained currency among the learned. We have thrown off the 8tifl[; uncouth, and disgusting hahiliments which formerly enveloped the systems of tlie schoolmen. But, in many cases, there is reason to helieve that one jargon has heen discarded only to adopt another equally exceptionahle. Various old dresses have heen laid aside, to make way for others, more fashionable, indeed, hut no less fan- tastic and odious. This character, however, though it belongs to many modern metaphysical writers, by no means applies to all. The last age has, doubtless, produced some writers tQ whom we are indebted for substantial improvements, and real progress, in the interesting field of incjiiiry M 2 164 Philosoph} of the Human Mind, [Chap. XII. under consideration. Even some of those who taught doctrines in general delusive, yet have shed new light, and contributed to clear the way for those who should come after them. By many rimning to and fro, though they frequently devi- ated into the paths of errour, knowledge has been, on the M'hole, increased. It has been peculiarly happy for this branch of philosophy, that, in modern times, the prin- ciples and power of language have been more studied, and better understood, than m any pre- ceding century. One great cause of the darkness^ and perplexity which so long hung over many of the doctrines of mind, was the loose and inac- curate manner in which the terms employed to ex- plain the plienomena were used. This evil, though not entirely, has been in some measure corrected. The use and abuse of terms liave received a more enlightened attention than in former times. The art of definition has become more precise, intelli- gible, and popular. The senseless prating about occuh qualities, and the perpetual use of unmean- ing words, have gradually become less fashionable. A habit of more precisely distinguishing between cause and effect, between those things which may be investigated, and those M'hich are beyond the reach of the human mind ; and between those truths which are self-evident, and such as require demonstration ; has been introduced, and is still gaining ground. And although this sceptical ten- dency of the age lias retarded the progress of this department of philosophy in these various respects, yet we have reason to rejoice that so much pro- Chap. XII.] Philosophy of the Human Miml 165 gress through defiles of errour has been made, as to render tlie last ao-e one of the most distino-uished 'periods in the annals of the human mind. It is, however, a curious fact, that while a much more simple and intelligible philosophy of mind has, in the course of the last age, taken the place of former perplexed and abstruse systems, yet the study of metaphysics, through the whole of that age, has been almost uniformly declining in popu- larity. That taste for light and superficial read- ing which so remarkably characterises modern times, cannot endure the accurate, the profound, and the patient thinking, so indispensably neces- sary for pursuing investigations into the laws, powers, and progress of our intellectual faculties. Hence the word metaphysics is seldom, pronounced but with contempt, as signifying something use- less, unintelligible, or absurd*. But the profun- dity and difficulty of the subject do not form the only reason of that general neglect, and want of popularity attending studies of this kind, at a period when they might be expected to command more esteem and attention. The dreams and mystical nonsense of the schoolmen, which scarce- ly began to be rejected till the time of des Car- tes -^, and were not generally thrown aside till * See AJililionnI notes— -(JIH.) t Renes des Cartes was born at la Haye, in France, in 1596, and educated among the Jesuits. His doctrines concern- ing the human mind were first published about the year 1033, and soon began to excite much attention among the learned. For a number of years before his death hejl^i^idcd chiefly in Hol- land. Removing to Stockholni, in consequence of an invitation given to him bv the queen of Sweden, in Id 10, he died tliere in iDli Piiilosophij of the Human Mind. [Chap. XIL after the labours of Mr. Locke led a large num- ber, even of the literary and ingenious, to decry pursuit's of this nature, and to imbibe strong pre- judices against tiieiii. These prejudices have de- scended thi'ouoii successive cenerations, and are yet far from having lost their influence* But if the m'md be our better part ^ if its powers and acti- vity be all important, as every one must acknow- ledge them to be ; and if some correct understand- ing of these powers be intimately connected with our improvement, comfort, and usefulness; then to despise metaphysics is to despise one of the no- blest objects of human inquiry, and to display a very degrading ignorance of tlie comparative worth of those studies which invite our attention. It was before remarked^ that at the opening of the century Mr. Locke had laid his Essay on Human Understanding before the woi'ld *. The publication of this great Vv'ork forms an era' in the history of metaphysical science. The author was the first who gave, in the English language^ an ICjO. It is universally known that the opinions taught by this great man long hlled an immense space in the philosophical world. * Jolin T.or]:e was born at Wringion^ near Bristol, in the year lOo'i. Jfe was educated at the University of Oxford, v\hich he entered in l(i51. After leaving the university he studied physic, and engaged for a time in the practice of tliis prolcssion. In J 004 he went to Germany, as secretary to sir William Swan, envoy to the elector of Brandenburgh. In 1670 he began (o ibrni the plan of his Esmy on the Human Undci' •^fitiidifig, which he published in lO\(p. He died in 1/04. Of flie vigorous intellect, the profound and extensive views, the great learning, and the excellent character, of this celebrated " master builder" in science, it is unnecessary to speak. The above dates arc gi^ven merely for the convenience of reference. Chap. XII.] Philosophy of the Human Mind. 167 example of writing on such abstract subjects with simplicity and perspicuity ; and tliere is, pcrliaps, no work, in any language, ** better adapted to teach men to think with precision, and to inspire them with that candour and love of truth which are the genuine spirit of philosophy." Though des Cartes had done much, before the time of Mr. Locke *, to correct the errours which abounded in the ancient systems of metaphysics ; and though some of the leading opinions of that great French philosopher were adopted by the il- histrious Briton, yet the latter was, in many re- spects, an original, and a reformer in science. His investigations concerning the origin and formation of ideas, concerning the use and abuse of terms, and concerning the extent and limits of our intel- lectual powers, are well known by those conver- sant with the philosophy of mind to display many new doctrines, and to place their author among the most profound thinkers. Mr. Locke differed from des Cartes with respect to the origin of our ideas. The latter thought some of them are in- nate ; the former maintained that there are no in- * Dcs Cartes was the first metaphysician who drew a plain and intelligible line of distinction between the intdkctuul and ma* it rial world, or between spirit and bodt/. Tke importance and utility of this disHnction are obvious. He was the tirst who showed that the analogical mode of reasoning, concerning the powers of the mind, from the properties of body, is totally erro- neous ; and that accurate reflection on the operations of our o^^•n mind is the only way to gain a just knowledge of them, it was his philosophy which brought ihe phantasma, the samblt sptcics, the substantial forms, &c. of the old systems into disgrace, and intro- duced a more simple, perspicuous, and rational metiiod of inves- tigating metaphysical truth. 168 FhilosuphijoJ the Human Mind, [Chap. XIL jiate ideas, and that they are all derived from two sources, .sensation and inflection, Des Cartes siip- ])Osed that the essence of mind consists in thoiighty and that of matter in extension; while Locke be- lieved that tiie real essence of both is beyond the reach of human knowledge. The British philoso- pher exj)lainc(l more distinctly than any one had done before him the operations of the mind in classing the various objects of thought, and re- ducing them to genera and species. He was the lirst who distinguished in substances what he calls the nominal essence^ or that generic character^ and specific difference, which may be expressed by a definition from the real essence, or internal con- stitution, wliich he supposed could not be known ; and who, by means of this distinction, pointed out the wav of brino'intr to an issue tho^e subtle dis- putes, particularly the controversy between the Nominalists and Realists, which had puzzled the schoolmen for ages. He showed, more satisfacto- rily than j)receding inquirers, how we may form ab- stract and general notions, and the use and neces- sity of them in reasoning. He first expressed the distinction between primary tiudsecondanj qualities, thougli tlie iticas implied in this distinction seem to have been in some measure understood by des Cartes. And, finally, Mr. Locke had much merit l)cculiai- to himself, in exhibiting the ambiguity of . Nvords, and by this means solving many dilKcult questions wliich had tortured the wits of former metaphysicians *. * See Esauj,' on the Huivatt Undcrstonding, passim j and Reid's Khsap on the ZntaU^ctuui toxiicm of Man, vol. i, Essay 2, chap. ix. Chap. XII.] Philosophij of the Human iM'tml iGf) But while ample justice is done to Mr. Locke's genius; while the splendid service wliich he ren- dered to the philosophy of mind is readily acknow- ledged ; and while his intentions are allowed to have been nnexceptionably pure ; yet it may be doubted whether his writings have not done more to promote a spirit of scepticism than those oi'imy other individual since his time, 'i his eficct has l)een produced not only by some oi' his doctrines, but also by the general spirit of his philosophy. In tracino* all our ideas to two sources, sensation and refttction, he imposed on the mind of the in- quirer by a plausible/but very deceitful, appear- ance of simplicit}^ It is no less true in the philo- sophy of the mind than in that of the physical sciences^ that attempts to simplify and generalise may be carried not only further than truth will •warrant, but also to a seductive and mischievous length. Mr. Locke defmes njkciion to be *' the notice which the mind takes of its own o[)erations, and the manner of them.'' This definition, be- side being rather descriptive oF consciousness than of reflection, embraces a more important errour. To say that all our ideas are ideas either of sensa- tion cr reflection, is to say that we can think of nothing but an object of sense, or an act of (mr own minds. But is this true ? According to this account, what shall we say to the various exercise^ of memory, of imagination, &c. ? This I)hi^)^()- pher, also, in representing ideas not as thoughts in the mind, nor yet the external objects of tliought, but as intermediate, occult iniacres, whicli alone the mind contemplates, gave countenance to a principle from which the most dangcious and ah- 170 Philosophy of the Human Mind [Chap. XII* surd inferences have since been made. The whole controversy about innate ideas, if IMr. Locke uni- formly employ tliis phrase in the same sense, is a var of v;ords. If an idea be an object of thought which intervenes between the mind and the thing perceived, none can, or ever did, suppose that ideas AxQ innate in this sense. To assert that the mind has such innate ideas, would be to represent it as thinkirg before it thinks, and acting before it acts. — From these, and other erroneous principles taught by this great philosopher, it soon became apparent that doctrines from which he wo«!ld have shrunk with abhorrence must necessarily result; and the history of metaphysical science since his time evinces how mischievous errour is, when sup- ported by the authority of such a mind as that whicli produced the Es> lie contributed nioi'c than any other individual of modern tinics to develope the nature and operations of the human mind, ai^d to introduce a more ra- tional ar.d correct mode of pliilosophising on this subject than had btjfore prevailed, seems to be ge- ueialiy admitted. Not long before Mr. Tocke published his cele- brated Essay, father Malebranche, a learned and acute metaphysician of France, in a work entitled Recherche de La I'eri'c, or Injuiry after Truths pub- Chap. XIL] Phllosophi) of the Human Mind. 171 lisbed a doctrine which soon led to singukir con- sequences. He laid it down as a principle, which, indeed, had tlien been admitted by all preceding philosophers, that we do not perceive external ob- jects ijruiiediately, but by means of images, or ideas of them present to the mind. In order to account for the production of these ideas in the mind, he maintained that the soul of man is united with a being possessed of all perfection, who has in himself the ideas of every created be- ing; and therefore that we see all things in God. Malebranche Avas sensible that this system left no evidence of the existence of a material world ; for if the mind sees all things in God, or if the Di- vine ideas alone are perceived by us, we cannot Ijc certain that the various forms of matter around us exist, since the ideas in the Eternal Mind were the same before any creature was made. Ihis conseciueiice he candidly acknowledged, and mam- tained that the only evidence we have ofn. dc A- couverieSj &c. torn, i, 53. 1 74 Ph ilosopliy of the Human Bfind. [C ii a p . X I L There \va3 only one step more which was left for the most daring metaphysical revolutionists to take, viz. to deny the existence of a spiritual as well as of a material world. This step was at length ventured upon by Mr. Hume *, a scepti- cal metaphysician, whose acuteness and inge- nuity are Avell known. Adopting Mr. Locke's and bishop Berkeley's opinion, that all the im- mediate objects of human knowledge are ideas in the mind, he traced the consequences of this principle to their utmost extent, and contended that there is neither matter nor mind in the universe ! That what we call body is only an as- semblage of sensations; and what w^ call mind only an assemblage of thoughts, passions, and emo- tions, without any subject. On the opposition in which the doctrines of the Irish ecclesiastic and the Scottish historian stand to the common sense and all the spontaneous and the deepest impressions of mankind, it is needless to remark f . Their authors * David Hume, the celebrated metaphysician and historian, was bom at Edinburgh, in the year 171I. He was designed for the law by his friends; but having no inclination himself to that profession, he applied to business, and in 1/34 became a clerk to ji merchant at Bristol. Soon afterward he went to France, where lie wrote his Jnaiise of Human Nature, which was published at London in 1739. Between this period and his death he travelled into Italy, Germany, and again, into France. His Moral Es.saj/s were published in 1/42; his Political Discourses, and his Inquiry concerning the Principles of Morals, in 1/52 j his Natural History of Pension in ]756; and his History of England was completed h\ l/ih. He died in J 7/0. t The universal scepticism to which the sophistry of Mr. Hume leads, or rather uhich it directly embraces, cannot, witli pro- priety, be considered here. Nor is it necessary. I'hc extrava- gance and the mischievous tendency, especially of some of his Chap, XII.] Philosophy of the Human M'md. 175 were sensible of this, and it is probalilc did not, in moments of sober reflection, believe their own speculations. Certain it is, they both acknow- ledged that tiie adoption of the principles which they maintained ought not to aiicct the [)racticc of men, who must ever act as if they were known to be false ; an argument, one would imagine, it- self, of strong presumptive force against all their plausible reasonings. But however the doctrines inculcated by these subtle disputants might have opposed their own feelings, or shocked the minds of others, it is certain they contributed much to promote that speculative philosophy, the tendency of which is to strike at the root of all knowledge, and all belief. Mr. Hume taught that all tfie perceptions of the human mind resolve themselves into two classes, "viz. hnpressiojis and ideas; comprehending under the former all our sensations, passions, and emo- tions ; and under the latter the faint images of these, when we remember or imagine them. Our ideas, in the opinion of this philosopher, arc all copied from our impressions, the former differing from the latter only in being weaker perceptions, '' He adopted Locke's account of the origin of our ideas^ and from that principle inferred that we have no idea of substance, corporeal or spiritual ; opinions, seem, at present, to be acknowledged by all, excepting the desperate few, who are ready cahiily to resign all principle, and all belief. The character of his philosophy, '^ t^lsely so called," has been exposed with great beauty of rhetoric, by Dr. Beattie, in his Essay on Truth; and, with great force of rciison- ing, bvDr.Reid, in \{x?, Inquinj u>to the Human Mind, and his fssaj/sun the Intellectual and Active Powers of Man. 1 76 Philosophif of the Human Mind, [Ckap. XII. no idea of power ; no otlier idea of a cause, but that it is something antecedent, and constantly con- joined to that which we call its effects; in a word, that we can liave no idea of any thing but our sen- sations, and the operations of mind of which we arc conscious," and that nothing else exists *. But though Mi\ Hume's fiindamental doctrines were thus extrava^'ant and absurd ; and thouo:h his philosophy, falsely so called, leads to the most unlinnted scepticism, as he doubtless intended it should ; yet both he and bishop Berkeley rendered important service to metaphysical science. The mode in which they discussed their very errours and absurdities contributed to confer on this branch of philosophy a perspicuity and precision, which are of the utmost importance in studying the human mind. On the subject of causotion Mr. Hume has thrown new light. Some of his reasonings, indeed^ on this subject, were suggested by Malebranche, and, even at a still earlier period, by Bacon and Hobbes. Ideas, also, similar to sonre of those which he advanced, Avere thrown out by Barrow^ Butler, ]]erkeley, and others. But Mr. Hume has the merit ot" having first clearly shown to philoso- phers that our common language, with respect to cause and effect, is merely analogical ; and that, il' there be any links among physical events, they must for ever remain invisible to us. Nor is the justness of this doctrine to be doubted on account (Tf the sceptical inferences which its author has de- duced from it : his errour, in this case^ does not so ^' Heid's Essai/s, ii. Chap. XIL] Philosophj of the Human Mind. 1 77 much lie in his premises as in the conchisions which he draws from them. In tact, if this part of his system be admitted ; and if, at the same time, we admit the authority of that principle of the mind whicli leads- us to refer every event to an efficient cause ; his doctrine conducts us to a re- sult more subhme, more favourable to piety, and more consistent with sound philosophy, than the opinion commonly held on this subject*. On observing the sceptical conclusions which Berkeley and Hume had drawn from the old theory of perception, as it had been taught in sub- stance by all writers, from Pythagoras down to their time, some philosophers of Great Britain were led, about the middle of the eighteenth ccn- tur}v to call this theory in question. If it were assumed as true that we perceive, not external ob- jects themselves, but only the ideas in our minds, they saw no method of avoiding the consequences which had been so daringly admitted. They, therefore, denied the grand doctrine on whicli the whole superstructure they wished to oppose was built ; and endeavoured to show, that as the premises were gratuitously assumed and false, so the conclusions deduced from them were absurd and impossible. This controversy, doubtless, de- serves to be considered amono- the most memora- ble of the age; and if the principles and reason- ings of certain modern metaphysicians of North Britain, to the publication of which this contro- versy has given rise, be regarded as just, they cer- tainly form the most important accession which * Stewart's Philosophj/ of Mind, Notes C. and D. Vol. II. N 1 78 Philosophy of the Human Mind, [Chap. XII. the pliilosophy of mind has received since the time of Mr. Locke. At the head of these British philosophers stands Dr. Rcid*j who firsts in \\\s Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense, and af- terwards in his Essays on the Intellectual and Active Pozvers of Alan, gave a display, and attempted a refutation of the sceptical philosophy, which no one who suitably estimates the importance of the subject can peruse without profound respect for the author, and the deepest interest in his reason- ings. He totally rejected the ideal system, or theory of perception, as taught by his predecessors, and maintained that the mind perceives not merely the ideas or images of external objects, but the ex- ternal objects themselves ; that when these are presented to our senses they produce certain im- pressions ; that these impressions are followed by correspondent sensations ; and these sensations by a perception of the existence and qualities of the objects about which the mind is employed. He contended that all the steps of this process are equally incomprehensible; that we can assign no * Thomas Reld, D.D. was born at Strachan, in Kincardineshire, April 26, ] 7 ' 0. He was educated at the University of Aberdeen, and for a number of years held the pastoral charge of the congre- gation of New Machar, in the neighbourhood of that city. He was chosen professor of moral philosophy in the university of Glasgow in 1763. His hiquin/ into the Human Mind, on the Frin- ciples of Common Sense, was published in 1 764 ; his Essays on the Intellectual Poivcrs of Man, in 1 785 ; and his Essays on the Aetivc Powers, in J 788. He died October 7, I/QO, in the 87th year of Ills age. Few men, since the days of Locke, have discovered talents more eminently fitted to explore the regions of mind than this phibsopher. Chap. XII.] Philosophij of the Thunan Mind. 179 other reason for these /acts takino- place, but that such IS the constitution of our nature; and that when sensible objects are presented to us, we be- come persuaded that they exist, and tluit they pos- sess the qualities which we witness, not by a train of reasoning, by formal reflection, or by associa- tion of ideas ; but by a direct and necessary con- nection between the presence of such objects and our consequent perceptions. In short, the great and distinguishing peculiarity of tliis class of me- taphysicians is, that they appeal from tlic delusive principles and shocking conclusions of their op- ponents, to the Common Sense of mankind, as a tribunal paramount to all the subtleties of philoso- ])hy. The same principle they apply to memory, and other powers of the mind. It is obvious, from this view of Dr. Reid's la- bours, that, although he has taken much pains to overturn the old theory of perception, lie has not ventured to substitute any theory of his own in its place. Indeed it would have been inconsistent with his leading doctrine to have attempted this. His aim rather was to give a simple and precise statement of facts, divested of all theoretical ex- pressions ; to show how long philosophers have im- posed on themselves by principles gratuitously assumed, and by words without meauing; and to convince them that, '' with respect to the process of nature in perception, they are no less ignorant than the vulgar." Nor let any slight this as a niiere negative and unimportant discovery. If it be founded in truth, '' icw^ positive discoveries in the whole history of science can be mentioned, which have a juster claim to liigli reputation t)iai\ N 2 180 Philasopht/ of the Human Mind. [Chap. XII. that which has detected, so clearly and unanswera- bly, the fallacy of an hypothesis, which has de- scended to us from the earliest ages of philosophy, and which, in modern times, has not only seiTed to Berkeley and Hume as the basis of their scepti- cal systems, but was adopted as an indisputable truth by Locke, by Clarke, and by Newton *." Beside the doctrine of perception, stated in the above-mentioned page, Dr. Reid's system is distin- guished by a view of the powers of the mind, or of the sources of our ideas, Avhich differs considerably from the systems of his predecessors. Instead of dividing the intellectual powers into simple appre^ hension, judgment, and reasonings as the greater number of metaphysical writers have done since the days of Aristotle, he considers this division as far from embracing all the phenomena of mind. He does not, indeed, attempt a complete enumera- tion of all the powers of the human understand- ing ; but supposes that there are at least 7iine ; viz, 1. The powers we have by means of our external senses. 2. IMemory. 3. Conception. 4. The powers of resolving and analysing complex objects, and * Elements of the Vhilosophy of Mind, by Dugald Stewart, F.R.S.E. &-C., p. 94, 4to, 1792. In adopting, from professor Stewart, this high praise of Dr. Reid, and his writings on the human mind, I would by no means be understood to express un- qualified approbation of his philosophy. To rae his Essays on the Active Puivers of Man have always appeared much inferior to those on the Intellectual Pouers. Indeed in the former tliere are several doctrines which I must consider as entirely erroneous. But of tlms guarding and qualifying our approbation there is no end. Speaking of Dr. Reid's works in general, they are certainly among tlie most instructive and valuable metaphysical writings of the age. Chap. XII.] PkUosophij of the Human Mind. 1 8 1 compounding those which arc more simple. .0. Judging. 6. Reasoning. 7. Taste. 8. Moral per- ception. 9. Consciousness. — Each of these he sup- poses to be an original and distinct power, not re- solvable into any one or more of the rest. This may be pronounced an important step in the progress of metaphysical science. Incalcula- ble injury has been done to various branches of philosopliy by injudicious attempts to reduce nu- merous facts and principles to one or two classes, wlien they do not admit of such plausible simpli- fication, and when they can be considered with advantage only in detail. The progress of medi- cal science has been retarded by too close an ad- herence to systems of nosological arrangement. Chemical philosophy may also be said to have been disserved by premature attempts to form a re- gular classification of its phenomena. Metaphy- sicians have fallen into a similar mistake. One writer on the human mind tells us that all its ope- rations may be explained by referring them to sensation and reflection. Another would derive all our ideas from sensation only ; while a third would account for every intellectual exercise, by ascrib- ing them to vibrations of a stronger or M-eaker kind. Though some of these writers approach much nearer to the true doctrine of mind than others, they are all erroneous ; and many ol' their mistakes arise from aiming at a simplicity of which the subject does not admit. The works of the Author of Nature can be contemplated by us only in detail : and the process of generalisation, though always pleasing to human pride, and some- times, in a degree, just and useful; yet, when 182 Philosophy of the Human ]\ruid. [Chap. XIL carried beyond a certain length, is, doubtless, cal- culated to deceive the inquirer, and to counten- ance the most miscliievous errours. Dr. Reid was enabled to present the improved views of the science of mind, which his works con- tain, by pui'suing a method of inquiry which he first applied to this subject. The inductive plan of investigation, recommended by Bacon, had l^en long before applied to the physical sciences ; and a few writers, from the beginning till the middle of the eighteenth century, had suggested the pro- priety of attempting to explore, on similar princi- ples, the phenomena of the intellectual world. But Dr. Reid is asserted to have been tlie first per- son '' who conceived justly and clearly the ana- logy between these two diiferent branches of hu- man knowledge ; defining with precision the di- stinct provinces of observation and of reflection, in furnishing the data of all our reasonings con- €erning matter and mind ; and demonstrating the necessity of a careful separation between the phe- nomena which they respectively exhibit, while we adhere to the same mode of philosophising in in- vestigating the laws of each *. It ought in justice to be stated, that Dr. Reid, however great his merit for illustrating and de- fending the doctrine of Common Sense, as taught in his metaphysical writings, was by no means the first who resorted to this method of opposing the sceptical philosophy of the age. Father Butfier, a learned and ingenious Jesuit of France, early in the century espoused a doctrine substantially the * Stewart's Life of Reid, p, 48. Chap. XII.] Philosophij of the Human Mind. 183 same, and announced it in his '' Fimt Truths,'' as the only ground that could be taken in order combat successfully des Cartes, Malebranelie, and Locke. It must be owned, indeed, that But- iier does not always speak of this faculty or power in man in precisely the same terms with Dr. Keid and his followers, nor can their different accounts of the subject be in every case fully reconciled ; yet there is, doubtless, such a similarity between the ideas of the learned Jesuit and those of the celebrated British divine, that the merit of c'W^i- nalUy can hardly be yielded to the latter * To Dr. Reid, however, and some contemj)orary phi- losophers, the honour undoubtedly belongs of liaving more fully explained the grand principle upon M'hich their system turns ; of having extend- ed its application ; and of having deduced its con- sequences in a more exphcit and systematic man- ner f . * See Additional Notes— CI I.J f See First Truth, &c., translated from the French of Perc Buffier by an anonymous hand, 8vo, London, 1/80. The trans- lator of this work, in a long prefatory discourse, endeavours to fasten the charges oi Plagiarism, Cunccahiicnt, and Ingratitude, on doctors Reid, Beatfie, and Oswald, with a degree of zeal, acri- mony, and contemptuous sneer, by no means honourable to him- self. He represents them as indebted to Buffier for the substance of all they have written. Whoever this violent assailant is, lie certainly does them i;ijustice. To exculpate those gentlemen wholly from the charge of plagiarism would not perhaps be easy ; but to push the charge so far as he does, and especially to treat their general character and merits as he permits himself to do, cannot fail to disgust every candid reader. After all tliat he has advanced concerning pere Buffier, the impartial inquirer will find such a degree of originality in the works oi the celebrated Scottish metaphysicians, especially tliose of Dr. Reid^ as ought to secure to them a high and lasting rcpuUtion. The 184 Philosophy of the Human Alind. [Chap. XII. Since the publication of Dr. Raid's philosophy, it has been espoused and defended by several di- stinguished metaphysicians, especially in Great Britain. Among the most able of these is Dr. Dugald Stewart, professor of moral philosophy in the university of Edinburgh. It was before re- marked, that Dr. Eeid, after demolishing the doc- trines of his predecessors, and laying the founda- tion of a new system, forbore to undertake the erec- tion of an improved superstructure on this basis. Professor Stewart, though far from having, in his own estimation, completed such a superstructure, is yet considered as having done something towards it, and as having rendered substantial service to the philosophy of mind. He has carried some of his doctrines to a greater length than they were carried by his great predecessor, and in some im- portant particulars he dissents from that able pneu- matologist *. The principles of Dr. Reid have also been adopt- ed, and perspicuously displayed by Dr. Beattie, in The late Dr. Witherspoon, president of the college of New Jer- sey, whose vigour and originality of mind are generally known, once informed a friend that tlie first publication in Great Britain in which Reid's leading doctrine was suggested, and in a degree developed, was an Essay written by himself, and published in a Scottish magazine, some years before Dr. Reid wrote on the sub- ject. Those who are acquainted with the talents of the illustri- ous president, and who know how remote his disposition was from that vanity and arrogance which prompt men to make false pre- tensions, will probably, without hesitation, accredit his claim. * It is not easy, in this place, to point out the particulars in which Dr. Stewart differs from Dr. Reid. The reader will re- ceive satisfactory information on this subject by looking into those chapters in Stewart's Elements of the Philosoplnj of the Mhid, "which treat of Conception, Abstraction, and Association. Chap. XII.] Philosophy of the Human Mind, 1 85 his Essai/ on Truth, and other puhlications ; hy Dr. Oswald, in his Jppcal to Common ."^msc in Be- half of Religion ; hy lord Kamcs, in his Sketches of the Histo?y of Jllan ; hy Dr. A. Ferguson, in his Principles of Moral and Political Science; and hy some other respectable writers. A system of pneumatology, partly helonging to the eighteenth century, from the noise which it made, and the speculations which it excited dur- ing that period, is that of the celebrated Leibnitz, a philosopher of Germany *, who was mentioned in a former chapter f. This system appears to have been formed by its author with a view, on the one hand, to amend the theory of des Cartes, and on the other to oppose the doctrines of New- ton. Leibnitz conceived the whole universe, minds as well as bodies, to be made up o'i monads, tjiat is, * In chronological strictness the system of Leibnitz ought to have been noticed before those of Berkeley, Hume, and Reid; but as tlie latter stood in close connection \\ iih the doctrines of Malebranche, and as it did not appear expedient to interrupt the course of narration respecting them, it has been judged proper to hitroduce a brief account of the doctrines of the illustrious Ger- man in this place. t Godfrey William Leibnitz was born at Leipsic, in Saxony, in the year 1046. He was a prodigy of learning, had nn astonish- ing memory, and possessed great vigour and versatility of talents. His works are very voluminous. His doctrines concerning the • mind may be gathered from his T/ieodicca, published towards the close of the seventeentli century. The system of philosopliy taught in this work was designed partly in emendation of the Car- tesian, and partly in opposition to the Newtonian. Leibnitz re- tained the subtle matter, the universal plenitude, and the vortices ©f des Cartes, but differed in some respects from that philoso- pher. But against sir Isaac Newton his scientific warfare was principally directed. — He died in the year l^lO. 186 Philosophy of the Ilumau ]\rmd. [Chap. XII. simple substances, each of which is, by the Crea- tor, in the beginning of its existence, endowed with certain active and perceptive powers. A monad, therefore, is an active substance, simple, without parts or hgure, which has within itself the power to produce ail the changes it undeigoes, from the beginning of its existence to eternity. The changes, according to him,, uliicli the monad undergoes, of whatever kind, though they may seem to us the effects of causes operating from without, yet are only the gradual and successive evolutions of its own internal powers, which would have produced all the sanie changes and motions, although there had been no other being in the universe. He taught that every human soul is a monad, joined to an organised body, which or- ganised body consists of an infinite number of monads, each having some degree of active and perceptive power in itself; but that the whole machine of the body has a relation to that monad which we call the soul, which is, as it were, the centre of the whole. He further supposes that there are different orders of monads, some higher, and others lower. To the higher orders he gave the name of dominant, and to this class belonos the human soul. Those which make up the or- ganized bodies of men, animals, plants, cS:c., he contended were of a lower order, and subser\'ient to the dominant monads. iJut every monad, of whatever order, he represented as a complete sub- stance in itself, liaving no parts, ami indestructi- ble by any power less than divine, which there is no reason to believe M'ill ever be exerted in the Chap. XII. ] PliUosophy of the Human Mind. 1 8? annihilation cf any being which it has created. Finally, he maintained that monads of a lower order may, by a regular evolution of their powers, rise to a higher order; that they may be succes- sively joined to organised bodies of various forms, and different degrees of perception ; but that they can never die, or cease to be, in some degree, active and percipient. This philosopher distinguished between percep- tion and apperception. The former he supposed common to all monads. The latter, implying con- sciousness, reflection, and a capacity to compre- hend abstract truths, he believed to be peculiar to the hi "'her orders, such as the soul of man. He conceived that our bodies and minds are united in such a manner, that neither has any physical in- fluence on the other, each performing all its ope- rations by its own internal powers ; yet the opera- tions of one corresponding exactly with those of the other, by a precstablished harmony. Ac- co.rding to this system, all our perceptions of ex- ternal objects would be the same, though those ob- jects had never existed, or though they should, by divine power, be annihilated. We do not per- ceive external things because they exist, but be- cause the soul was originally so constituted as to produce in itself all its successive changes and per- ceptions independently of external objects. Every ' operation of the soul is the necessary consequence of that state of it which preceded the operation ; and that state the neces^sary consequence of the state immediately preceding it, and so backwards, till we come to its first constitution, which pro- duces successively, and by necessary consequence, 188 Philosophy of the Himan Mind. [Chap. .XII, every successive state throughout the whole course of its existence *. This system, for many years after its pubhca- tion, excited uncommon attention, and obtained great currency, especially in the native country of the author. It Avas early espoused by Christian Wolfe f , a celebrated philosopher, also of Ger- many, a very voluminous commentator on the writings of his master, and a zealous defender of his doctrines. On the foundation of these doc- trines he formed a new system of cosmology and pneumatology, digested and demonstrated in a mathematical method. The principles of Leib- nitz had also some advocates, either in wliole or in part, in other parts of the continent of Europe, and in Great Britain, for a considerable time. But at the close of the eighteenth century their repu- * Reid's Intellectual Vou-ers of Many Essay ii. t Christian Wolfe, a native of Breslau, in Germany, was born in the year 1679. He was a follower of Leibnitz, and wrote largely in defence of his philosophical opinions. At the age of 26 Wolfe had acquired so much reputation as to be appointed professor of mathematics in the university of Halle, and soon afterwards professor of philosophy in general in the same institu- tion. His famous work, entitled Tkouglits on God, the World, and the Human Soul, in which his metaphysical doctrines are deli- vered, was published in 1719. Accused of heresy, on account of his holding the doctrine of necessity, and some other obnoxious opinions, he was banished from the Prussian dominions in 1723. For a number of years after this event Germany was filled witli disputes concerning his opinions, and the treatment which he had received -, and the names of IVolJians and Antiwolfians were txery where heard. In 1732, the current of public opinion turning in bis favour, he was recalled from his exile, and appointed vice- chancellor of the university of Halle. In 1745 he was raised to the office of chancellor of the university, and created a barou^ by the elector of Bavaria.— He died in 1754. Chap. XII. ] Plnlosophjjoft/te Ilinmn Mind. 18D tation had much diminished, and they were adopt- ed by comparatively few in any part of the philo- sophical w^orld. ^ Contemporary with ^^^olfe was the celebrated George Ernest Stahl, professor of medicine in the university of Halle, lie was distingni-^^hed not so much by any new doctrine concerning the nature and powers of the mind (for it is even uncertain w4iat were the opinions which he held on this sub- ject), as by entertaining the singula;- idea that the soul presides over, and governs, the M'hole eco- nomy of the body, both in health and disease. To the will he referred all the vital functions, and contended that if there be instances in which v\x will an etfect, without being able to make it an object of attention, it is possible that what we call vital and involuntary motions may be the conse- quences of our own thought and volition. He supposed that the influence of the soul is extended to every part of the system by means of the nerves; and that, wlien their action is impeded or derang- ed, disease is the unavoidable consequence. These opinions of Stahl were adopted, particularly by a number of medical pliilosophers in different parts of Europe • but at the close of the century there were few or none who professed an adherence to them. Among the great theorists in pneumatology which belong to this period, the celebrated Dr. Hartley also holds a conspicuous jjUice"*. The two grand principles on which his whole system * Dr. David Hartley was born in Yorkshire, August 30, 1/05, and died at Batli, August 28, 1757. His great work, the Obscr^ vations on Man, was published in 1/49. He was educated With a 190 Philosophy of the Human MiJid. [Chap. XIL rests, are those of ^vibration and association. Newton had taught that the rays of hght, fall- ing upon the bott£)m of the eye, excite vibra- tions in the retinoy and that these vibrations, be- ing propagated along the optic nerves into the brain, produce the sensation of seeing*. Dr. Hartley adopted this hypothesis, and applied it, >vith ingenious additions and modifications of his own, to the other senses. Mr. Locke had thrown new light on the doctrine o^ association, and shown its great influence and importance in the opera- tions of the human mind. Dr. Hartley also adopt- ed the leading ideas of this great metaphysician on this subject, and by uniting them M^ith the Newtonian opinions, formed a system on which the praise of great ingenuity and plausibility has been bestowed. He taught, that the white medullary substance of the brain, spinal marrow, and the nerves pro- ceeding from them, form the immediate instrument of sensation and motion; that whatever changes are produced in this substance, corresponding changes take place in our ideas ; that external ob- jects impressed upon the nerves occasion, first in view to tlie clerical profession, in the church of England ; but feel- ing some scruples about subscribing to the thirty-nine articles, he relinquished that design, and devoted himself to the study and practice of medicine, in which he was eminent. While he de- parted from the public standards of his church in several impor- tant particulars, he was much distinguished for the force of his mind, the extent of his learning, the amiablencss and benevolence of his disposition, and the purity of his moral character. He was a firm believer in Revelation, and wrote, though not with ortho- doxy, yet with great seriousness and ability in its defence. * See Additional Notes— (KK.) Chap. XII.] Philosophy of the Human Mind. I9I the nerves on which they are impressed, and then in the brain, vibrations of tlie small and infmitesi- mal medullary particles, ^\'hich vibration excites a sensation in the percipient princij)lc, which remains as long as the vibration kists, tliat is, as long as the object continues to affect the organs of sense. Tliat the medidlaiy substance having once vibrated in a particular manner, docs not return entirely to its natural state, but continues disposed to vibrate in that manner rather than any other, which ten- dency of the brain to the renewal of the vibration is the cause of the retention of the idea in the ab- sence of the archetype. That whatever renews the vibration, renews also the perception ; but the renewed vibration beino; less vigorous than the original one, is called a miniature 'cibration, or vi- bratiuncle, and the renewed perception correspond- ing with it is called an idea. That vibrations may be revived not only by the repetition of external impressions, but by their association with each other; and th.at, of vibrations which have been associated together a sufficient number of times, either synchronously, or in succession, if one be excited, it Avill excite the miniatures of all tlie rest. This is supposed to furnish a solution to all the phenomena of the association of ideas. According to this theory the nerves are divided into two classes, sensory and mot 01^ ; the former beino- the immediate instruments of sensation, the latter of motion. Both originate in the medullary substance of the brain, and their vibrations influ- ence and modify each other. In short, every sen- sation, idea, muscular motion, affection, and in- ternal feeling, whatever, is su])posed, by Dr. liait- 1 92 Philosophi/ of the Human Mind. [Chap. XII. ley, to correspond with some vibratory state of the medullary substance, so that the one may be regarded as the exponent of the other ^. Though this system contains many ideas which bear a near relation to the theories of des Cartes, Malebranche, and Leibnitz f ; and though its two fundamental principles are derived from the works of Newton and Locke, yet the author has a con- siderable claim to the character of originality. His doctrines, combined as they are, and formed into a fair structure, belong to himself, and cer- tainly present some new and useful truths. It seems to be the opinion of many that he ought to be classed with the ?natcna lists of the age, and it is not easy to assign him any other place. This, in- deed, is contrary to his own express declarations. He was apprehensive lest the doctrine of corporeal vibrations, which forms so prominent a feature of his work, should be deemed favourable to materi- alism. '^ He was therefore anxious to declare, and to have it miderstood, that he was no materi- alist J.*' Notwithstanding this declaration, how- * Observations on Man, vol. i. See also Belsham's Elements of the Philosophy of Mind, kc, Svo, 1801. t Observations on Man, vol. i p. 1 10, and 111, Edit. Lond. 1/91. X The following passage is extracted from the Life of Dr. Hartley, published with the last edition of his work. " There was but one point in which he appeared anxious to prevent any misapprehension of his principles: that point re- spected the immateriality of the soul. He was apprehensive lest the doctrine of corporeal vibrations being instrumental to sensa- tion should be deemed unfavourable to the opinion of the imma- teriality of the soul. He was therefore anxious to declare, and to have it understood, that he was not a materialist. He has not presumed to declare any sentiment respecting tlie nature of the Chap. XII.] Philosophj of the Human Mind. 1 9^3 ever, it is difficult to reconcile l)is doctrines with the immateriality of the soul. Good judges have pronounced that if these doctrines be pursued to their natural consequences, they must terminate in absolute Spinozism. Accordingly it is well known that some of the most distin2:uished materialists of the age not only profess to admire Dr. Hart- ley's work, but also adopt his reasonings, and ac- knowledge him as their great master. Another metaphysical system which deserves to be mentioned among the curiosities of the age is that adopted and published by lord Monboddo, a celebrated and voluminous writer of North Britain. This system is, in fact, little more than a revival of w^hat his lordship considers the Aristotelian philo- sophy, or the doctrine of Universal, \vith the ad- dition of some crude and absurd visions of his own, which have been little studied, and still less re- spected by those who are competent to judge. Lord Monboddo analyses sensil)le objects into matter and form, and teaches, like most of the disciples of the Stagirite, the eternity of both. He msists that there are in mdiW four distinct minds. sonl, but the negative one, that it cannot be mateiidl according to any idea or definition that we can form of matter. He has given the following definition of matter, viz. ' That it is a mere passive tiling, of whose veiy essence it is to be endued with a vis inertia: ; for this lis inertice presents it-:elf immediately in all our observa- tions and experiments upon it, and is inseparable from it, e\en in idea.' The materiality therefore of the sensitive soul is precluded, by tiio definition of matter being incapable of sensation. If there be any other element capable of sensation, the soul may consist ot tliat element J but that is a new snppo>iiion, still leaving the ori- ginal question concluded in the negative, by the fundamental de- finition of matter," Vol. II. O lOl Philosophijof the Human Mind. [Chap. XII. viz; the elemental, the vegetable, the animal, and the inicllectual; that of these the intellectual only is immortal ; tliat the soul is not created for any particular hody, but transmigrates from one to another; that there are different orders of minds; those which occupy earths and stones, and those which reside in plants, and the inferior animals up to man ; that gravitation is nothing more than the activity of a soul residing in, and animating, masses of earth ; and that it is more honourable to the deity to consider him as operating in all the de- partments of nature, by the instrumentality of in- ferior minds, than to represent him as acting on matter immediately. Whether the souls of men transmio-rate to the bodies of brutes he is doubt- ful ; but that the souls of vegetables and inferior animals each transmigrate from one to another of their own species, and perhaps from a lower to a higher, arid vice-versa, he thinks there is abundant reason to believe. So far as lord Monboddo agrees with the Aris- totelian philosophy, he talks with a semblance of reason, and may be read with patience. But the extraordinary consequences which he draws from this ancient system of pncumatology, the caprici- ous use which he snakes of it, and his visionary and fantastic additions to it, render his work as singu- lar a mass of good sense and absurdity, erudition and ridiculous credulity, as any age ever produc- ed *. Mr. James Harris, in liis Hermes, and in •<■ Sec /jucknt Mefapln/sict, 5 vols, 4to. From the lingular opi- nions which abound in this learned and extensive work, the fol- lowing selection is oltered to the reader as a specimen. That the oura/'^ oiitarg i.s a man not civilised 3 that men originally had Chap. XIL] Philosophij of the Human Mind. 1 95 h\s Philosophical Arrangements, strove with equal zeal, nearly about the same time, to revive the philosophy of Aristotle, but without so strangely distorting its features, or incumbering it with such heterogeneous and whimsical additions. Among the new metaphysical theorists of the age, it would be improper to pass in silence the ce- lebrated Immanuel Kant, professor at Koenings- berg, in Prussia*. This gentleman, about the year 1781, first published a system of metaphysics and moral philosophy, which has been ever since gaining ground among the literati of Germany, and is now much in vogue in that country. Pro- fessor Kant, we are told, was led to the train of thinking, which ripened in his mind into the sy- stem which bears his name, by the perusal of Hume's essay on the idea of necessary connection ; and of Priestley's reply to Reid, Bcattie, and Oswald |. tails, and went upon all fours; but that the one dioppeJ off, and they rose from the other to an erect posture by the progress of civiUsa- tion 'y that the natural state of man is to live without habitation, clothing, fire, or language ; that his best and only proper food is raw vegetables J that there have been giants of two or three, and in some instances of eight or nine, times tie height of ordi- nary men in these degenerate days j that there are now hordes of men with tails, and whole nations who have but One leg ; that in Ethiopia there are men who have their eyes in their breasts, and others who have only one eye, and that in their foreliead ! Sec. * Immanuel Kant was born in 1 724, and is still living. Plis philosophy has excited almost as much attention as that of Wolfe did eighty years ago, and has called forth the talents of many of the most eminent men of Germany, for and ag.iin>t it. t Elements of the Critical L^hilosophy, &c., by J. C. Adelung , translated, with additions, by A. F. M. Wiliicb, M. D. Lond. 8vo, 1798. 02 196 Philosophy of the Human Mind. [Chap. XII. But from whatever source his ideas are derived, he has formed them into a fabric, which is extolled by his adlierents as one of the most sublime efforts of human genius, and as ranking among the most important improvements ever made in science. If we may beheve the extravagant panegyrics of these enthusiastic disciples, he has more successfully ex- plored the darkest recesses of the human mind than any individual amongst all his illustrious pre- decessors, and liis writings con4:ain a developement of precisely those truths after which mankind have been seeking for centuries in vain. *' Still, however, when inquiry is made among the followers of this singular man, respecting the general drift of his system, they answer chiefly in negations. It is not atheism ; for he affirms that practical reason is entitled to infer the existence of a Supreme Intelligence. It is 7iot theism ; for he denies that theoretical reason can demonstrate the existence of an infinite intelligent Being. It is 7wt materialism ; for he maintains that time and space are only forms of our perception, and not the at^ tributes of extrinsic existences. It is not idealism ; for he maintains that noumena are independent of phenomena; that things perceptible are prior to perception. It is not libertinism ; for he allows the will to be determined by regular laws. It is 7iot fatalism ; for he defines this to be a system in which the connection of purposes in the world is confiidered as accidental. It is not dogmatism ; for he favours every possible doubt. It is not scepticism ; for he affects to demonstrate what he teaclves. Such are the indefinite evasions of this Chap. XII.] Philosophy of the Human Mind, 197 school*." The disciples of this celebrated pro- fessor assure us that their system is so profound and extensive, that the acutest understaudinj^ cannot tolerably comprehend it by less than a twelve- month's study ; and that to become a thorough, master of its subtle and recondite principles, re- quires the unwearied labour of many years. After such a declaration, it would be presumptuous for one but slightly acquainted with the subject to attempt an exhibition even of the outlines of this plan. But not to omit all notice of so celebrated a system, it may be proper to state the following doctrines, as among the elementary principles which it contains. Professor Kant teaches '^ that all men have a cer- tain innate faculty, consisting in the capacity of the soul to receive immediate representations of objects ; that the representations which this sensi- tiv^e faculty affords us are perceptions ; that all our perceptions have a twofold form, space and time ; that this faculty ought to be called theoretical rea- son, or speculative understanding ; and that it is of so limited a nature that it cannot perceive any thing beyond the two forms already mentioned, one of which belongs to the perception of our internal, and the other to that of our external, senses. He maintains, that the objects wliic h we perceive in space exist not externally, but only internally; they are mere phenomena, but cannot be said ro be only ideal, nor to have no objective reality ; because they depend on established laws, and real •principles. When, therefore, they are said to e.xi.^t^ * Monthly Reiicw of London, vol. xxviii, N.S. p. 02, irno. 198 Philosophyof the Human Mind. [Cha?. XIJ. no more is meant than that they are perceived in space, or in the form of external organisation. He believes, that as the nature and form of our per- ceptions are determined by the nature of our sen- sible faculty, so the form of our thoughts, or the manner in \vhich we judge concerning phenomena, or arrange our perceptions, is determined by the nature of our theoretical reason ; and as that which, when knowledge is obtained by means of the senses, gives a form to the matter perceived, is called a pure perception; so that by which we de- termine the connection of our observations^ and form a judgment concerning them, is called a. pure votion, ov category. Those pure notions which are discoverable by an analysis of the judgment, may be reduced to notions of quantity, quahty, rela- tion, and modification. These categories, consi- dered abstractedly, are not deduced from our per- ceptions and experience, but exist in the mind prior to these latter, and experience is the result of their combination with our perceptions : but it is only in connection \vith our perceptions that these pure notions can be the source of knowledge ; for, in themselves, they are mere forms, without any independent existence. They serve to direct us in the use of our observations ; but they cannot ex- tend our knowledge beyond the limits of percep- tion and experience. *' There are, according to professor Kant, two kinds of propositions, concerning which our minds may be employed, analytical and synthetical. The former are those in which we only explain or illustrate that of which we have already some idea; "W'hereas^ in the latter^ ^vc incrtase our knowledge, Chap. XII.] Philosophy of the Ihman Mind. \ 0!) by adding something new to our former idea of the suhject. Thus, when we say all matter is ex- tended^ we form an analytical proposition ; and when we say all bodies have a certain zceight, that is a synthetical proposition, *■* Without experience we cannot form any syn- thetical proposition concerning the objects or mat- ter of our knowledge ; but, as the forms of our knowledge are independent of and prior to our ex- perience, we may, witii respect to the pure notions already mentioned, conceive synthetical proposi- tions, or acquire pure science ; and indeed it is only when w^e have pure perceptions and pure no- tions for our objects, that we can arrive at univer- sal and necessary certainty; as is the case in pure mathematics and philosophy, in which we crof. KHi;t asciibes to man another faculty, which he calls practical reason, endued with power sufficient to in^pel and direct the will, lie asserts that, if this iaculty were not granted, it would follow that practical laws would not be universal moral ])recepts, but only particular maxims, which individuals might prescribe to themselves as the rule of their conduct. To these universal moral laws, j)ractical reason commands our implicit obedience, without any regard to our inclinations or views of advantage. These are, indeed, sometimes at variance with the dictates of duty, but, in order to diminish their in- fluence as obstacles to virtue, our jn\ictical reason must determine us Mrmlv to believe the existence 200 Philosophy of the Unman Mind, [Chap. XII» of the deity, and of a future state in which our happiness will be proportioned to our internal worth. This is what our philosopher calls rational faith, as it is independent of all knowledge of its object ; for the principles of religion can be neither demonstrated nor disproved by theoretical reason, but arc mere postulates of practical reason ; and the only theology that is really founded on our understanding is moral theology, which depends on moral principles *." The complaint that all this is obscure, and scarcely intelligible, will probably be made by every reader. An English philosopher tells us that it would require more than ordinary industry and ingenuity to make a just translation^ or a satisfac- tory abstract of the system in question, in our lan- guage; that for this purpose a new nomenclature, more difficult than that of the Linna^an botany, must be invented. This circumstance itself 'affords strong presumption against the rationality and truth of the Kantian philosophy. Locke and Newton found little difficulty in making themselves under- htood. Eveiy man of plain good sense, v/ho is used to inquiries of that nature, readily compre- hends their systems, in as little time as it requires to peruse their volumes. Even Berkeley and Hume, with all their delusive subtleties, found means to render themselves easily intelligible. Is thfTC not reason, then, to suspect either that the system of ])rofessor Kant is made up of hetero- gcncoris, inconsistent, and incomprehensible mate- > The above brief acconnt of the Kantian Fystem o( pncumalc-' bgrj is extriicterl r:om a Bnli^h Litcrarij Journal. Chap. XII.] Philosophy of the Human Mind. £01 rials; or that. In order to disguise tlie old and well known philosophy of certain English and French writers^ and to impose it on the world as a new system^ he has done little more than present it un- der a new technical vocabulary of his own ? Or, which is, perhaps, not the most improbable sup- position, that^ being sensible of the tendency of Iiis philosophy to undermine all religion and morals, as hitherto taught and prized in the world, he has studied to envelope in an enigmatic language a system which he wishes to be understood by the initiated alone; a system which has been pronounc- ed "■ an attempt to teach the sceptical philusc)j)hy of Humein the disgusting dialect of scholasticism?" At any rate, notwithstanding all the unwearied pains which some of the disciples of this fauious Prussian have taken, to rescue him from the im- putation of being one of the sceptical philosopher* of the age, the most impartial judges will proba- bly assign him a place among those metaphysical empirics of modern times, whose theoreticul jui- gon, instead of being calculated to advance sci- ence, or to forward human improvement, has rather a tendency to delude, to bewilder, and to shed a baneful influence on the true interests of man. The system of Kant lias found numerous friends and commentators, particularly in Germany, who contend that it sets limits, on the one hand, to the scepticism of Hume; while, on the other, it refutes and overturns materialism, fatalism, and atheism, as well as fanaticism and infidelity. Amoni? those who have distinguished themselves t02 Philosophijof the Human Mind, [Chap. XIL as the friends and advocates of this system, pro-* fessor Reinhold, of Kiel; professor Sch in id, of Jena; professor Born, of Leipsic; professorJakob, of Halle; professor Beck, of Rastock ; and Messrs. Will, Rei- marus, Mellin, and Adelung, hold a conspicuous place. On the contrary, among its opponents m'c find the names of professor Plattner, of Leipsic; pror fessor Tiedemann, of Alarpurg ; professor Flatt, of Tiibingen; professor Selle, of Berlin ; professor Maas, of Ilalle ; and of Messrs. Feder, Eberhard, Herder, and others. The controversy to which the Orilical Philosophy has given rise, as it has produced a multitude of voluminous publications, so it will long be ranked among the most curious and in- terestinq; of the a2:e. In the latter half of the century under consider- ation, a new doctrine concerning the human mind was announced, which is entitled to some no- tice in this place. This doctrine, it is believed, >vas first adopted and advanced by M. Helvetius, a celebrated French writer*. He was followed by * Claude Adrian Helvetiiis was born in Paris, in the year 1/15. In the year 1/58 he produced his first work, entitled, C Esprit, ■which, on account of its atheistical principles, was condemned by the parliament of Paris. The odium which he incurred hereby induced him to visit England in I7t»4, and thence he went to Prussia, where he was very favourably received by the king. On his return to France he led a retired life in the country, and died in J /"/I' His treatise on Man, formed on the same princi- ples with his first work, was published a short time before his death. He wrote a poem, in six cantoes, entitled Lc Bunhcur, which was published in 1772. Helvetius may be regarded as one of the tarliest and most conspicuous of the advocates for that sy- stem of watenalism, and of athddical nicrus, usually called. the new philusophif. Chap. XII.] Philosophy of the Human Mind. *203 M, Condorcet *, and some others, also of France ; J3y means of whose writuigs it obtained consider- able currency among the literati of that country, and was afterwards embraced and defended, with much plausibility, by Mr. Godwin f, and others, pf Great Britain J. The advocates of this doctrine maintain the Per- fectibility of Man. With regard to the nature of the human mind they appear, in general, to cm- brace the system of inaterialim^. They suppose^ that the thinking principle of man is the result of coi pureal organisation ; that the difference in minds results from the difference of this organisation, and more especially from the subsequent circumstances and education of the individual ; that by means of the diffusion of knowledge, and the adoption of better principles and modes of education, the im- prove.nent of man in intellect, in virtue, and in happuiess, will go on to an illimitable extent ; that, at length, mind shall become - omnipotent over matter," perfect enjoyment assume the place of present suffering, and human life, instead of being * Outlines of an Historical View of the Progress of Hit Human Mind, 8vo, 1795. , ,. « 1 c t inquirij concerning Political Justice, second ccat. 2 vols, 8no, 1706. . . > It Is not meant to be asserted that all these writers agree with respect to the details of their several systems ; but tliat diey con- cur in asserting the omnipotence of education, and Uie perfectibility of man. ,. ,.,.,,. ^ § Some of those who profess a belief in ihe rcrfectdnliti/ of man appear to be in doubt with respect both to the immatniahfy and immortanty of the soul. They are so busied about the mi- provement of man in this world, that they have little time, and less inclination, to bestow a tliought on hi. dc^tI^> and prospects jn that which is to come. 204 Philosophy of tJie Human Mind. [Chap. XI L bounded by a few years, be protracted to immor- tality, or at least to an indefinite duration. This system is unsupported by any facts; it is contrary to all the experience of mankind * ; it is opposed to every principle of human nature, and it is scarcely necessary to add, to the plainest dic- tates of Revelation. That man may, and probably "will, make great improvements hereafter, in sci- ence and art, is readily admitted. That we can- not presume to assign the bounds of this improve- ment is also admitted. But that there will be absolutely no bounds to it, or, which is the same thing as to the argument, that it will go on be- yond all assignable or conceivable limits, is to sup- pose the constitution of man essentially changed, his present wants, habits, and mode of subsistence, totally superseded, and a nature conferred upon him wholly different from that which his Creator gave him. But as the doctrines held by the ad- vocates of human pcrfectibiliiy become still more important when considered with respect to their moral and political application, the further consi- deration of their extravagance, weakness, and in- consistency, and the injurious consequences arising from their adoption, will be attended to in a sub- sequent part of the sketcli f. * It is somewhat curious that many of those who adopt the opinion concerning man which is here opposed, believe, at the same time, that this world has existed from eternity. If, amidst eternal revolutions, and eternal progress, mankind have not yet risen above the rank at which we now behold them, there seems little encouragement to hope for any thing like what they antici- p/ite in future. t Some further remarks on this delusive system will also be found under the head of Education, in the pvesent volume. But CiiAP. XII.] Philosophy of the Tinman Mind. 205 During the last age several (.letached parts of the pliilosophy of iiiiiul have been illustrated in a manner greatly superior to the attempts at expla- nation made in former periods. Perhaps there is no subject to which this remark more forcibly ap- plies than to the great question of Liberty and Ac- cessity, which, through so many successive ages, has served to puzzle the acutcst metaphysicians. Never, probably, was any point more largely, ably, and profoundly discussed. The writings of Leib- nitz, Collins, Hume, Hartley, Priestley, and Belsham, on the side of moral 7Kcessity ; and of Clarke, Butler, Reid, Beattie, de Luc, (ircgory, and Horsley, in favour o^ liberty, are well known, and form very important materials in the metaphy- sical history of the age. I^ut the greatest work which the century produced on this subject, and certainly among the ablest ever written on any department of philosophy, is that by the celebrat- ed American divine, Mr. Jonathan Edwards, for some time president of the college of New Jersey. This o;entleman wrote on the side of moral 7ieccs' sity, or against the self-determining power of the will ; and investigated the subject with a degree of originality, acuteness, depth, ])recisi()n, and force of argument, which the accurate reader can- not contemplate but with astonishment. It will not be said that he has brought to au issue a controversy which will probably last as lung as men exist on earth ; but that he has thrown much new light on the subject will be questioned by m the ^/^//t/ division of the work, in which it is proposed to take .1 view of the moral principles and estabhsliments of tlie ei-hiecutJi century, a more particular coii^idcratioii of it wiJJ be aUcinptcd, S06 Philosophy of the Human Miftd, [Chap. Xlt, none; and that he has approached as near to a de- monstration that the doctrine of moral necessity (as explained and guarded by him) is the only scriptural and philosophical doctrine on this sub- ject, as the nature of such inquiries admits, is cer- tainly the opinion of some of the best judges in every part of the literary world *. The extremes to which the system of the venerable president has been carried by several subsequent writers, and the consequences deduced from it, were far from be- ing recognised by him ; and with respect to some of them, they are, beyond all doubt, illegitimately drawn. It is worthy of remark that Mr. Edwards appears to ha\e been the first Calv'mist who avowed his belief so fully and thoroughly in the doctrine of moral necessity as his book indi- cates f. Though all Calvin istic writers before his time were characterised by^. a firm adher- ence to the doctrine of predestination ; yet they seem, for the most part, to have adopted a kind of middle course between his creed and that of the Arminian contingency. The penetrating and comprehensive mind of Edwards went fur- ther ; demonstrated that this middle ground was untenable, and presented a more clear and satis- factory view of the doctrines of free grace, when "* Soon after the publication of president Edwards's celebrated work on the Will, he received the tlianks of several professors of the universities of Holland, and of other gentlemen of distinction, in various parts of Europe, for having, in their opinion, thrown more light on th? subject than all preceding writers. This pub- lication has long ben considered and quoted as a standard work oa the side of this question which it is designed to defend. f See Additional notvi>*^[LL.) Chap. XII.] Philosophy of the Human Mind. 20? contemplated through the medium of his maia doctrine, than had ever before been given •. That class of philosophers who taught that the soul is material were, until the eighteenth cen- tury, generally ranked among infidels, and in most instances really deserved this character. Hence a materialist has been commonly considered as a de- nomination tantamount to a charge of atheism it- self, or at least of criminal indifference to religion. The Christian world, accustomed to connect this tenet with such heresies as those of Spinoza, Hobbes, Collins, and others, of a similar character, naturally concluded that a belief in immaterialism necessarily flows from a belief in Christianity. The last age is distinguished by the adoption of this antichristian errour, by some who profess to embrace the Christian faith. Among these the most conspicuous and active is Dr. Priestley f, who maintains that " man does not consist of two substances essentially different from each other ; but that the conscious and thinking principle, or what we generally term the sonJ, is merely a pro- perty resulting from a peculiar organ ical structure of the brain." On this principle he attempts to show that the idea of the natural innnortality of the soul is wholly fallacious ; that the properties of sensation and thought, and of course all the dis- tinguishing characteristics of the thinking part of our nature^, must be extinguished by the dissolu- tion of the organised mass in which they exist ; and tlierefore that the only reason which n\rn ii.ive •> See his Jnquirj/ ifito the Freedom of the Jl'ill, &:c. pas.ui). t DisqmMfions concerning Matter and Spirit, and Con esponJcT,Cf befu-een Price and Prjestle/, 208 Phllosophij of the Human Mind. [Chap. XIL to expect a state of consciousness or enjoyment hereafter is derived from the scripture doctrine of the resurrection. In former parts of this work the services of Dr. Priestley in the physical sci- ences have been mentioned witli high respect, and with frequently repeated tributes of applause. It is to be re2:retted that so much of what he has written on the philosophy of mind, and almost the whole of his writings on the subject of theology, should be so radically erroneous, and so subversive of all the interests of evangelical truth and prac- tical piety. The principal materialists of the eighteenth cen- tury differed in some of the details of their opini- ons from those philosophers of preceding times who held the same general doctrine. Epicurus supposed the soul of man to be a material sub- stance, but a very refined and attenuated kind of matter. He taught that this substance, notv/ith- standing the extreme subtlety of its texture, is composed of four distinct parts ; fre, which causes animal heat ; an ethereal principle, which is moist vapour; air; and a fourth principle, M'hich is the cause of aen.^Mt ion. This sentient principle he sup- posed to dilfer essentially from the* three former, biit to be, like the re*t, corporeal, because it is capable both of acting and being acted upon by , bodies. From the union of the soul, thus con- stituted, with the body, he believed life and sensa- tion to result. Something like this seems to have been the opinion of almost all the ancient mate- rialists. Spinoza and llobbes held a system of ma- terialism quite as gross as any of their predeces- sors y for ihey seem to have thought that cveri^ Cr^AP. XII.] Philosophy of the Human Mind. L>09 material atom is, in a greater or less degree, ani. mated or endowed with sensation. Dr. Hartley (if lie be ranked in tliis class, and it is not easy to giv'e him any other phice) sometinies appears to re- cognise a sentient principle, >viiich, if not wholly immaterial, differs from any ideas which he seems to have formed of ordinary matter. l)r» Priest- ley's opinions on this subject, considered as a con* nected system, are new. He denies that there is any ground for making a (hstinction between the soul of man and the body ; supposing the whole human constitution to be made up of one homo- geneons substance. He denies that we have any evidence that the deity himself is immaterial, in the commonly received sense of this word ; and, finally, by the adoption of father Boscovich's theory, he so refmcs and ,spiriti(alhcs matter, as to make it an extremely different thing from tliat gross and impenetrable substance which it is gene- rally represented to be. He differs from preced- ing materialists, then, in his views of the nature of matter, and in rejecting the idea entertained by most of them, that the sentient principle is a spe- cies of matter peculiarly refined and attenuated *. Dr. Darwin supposes that tiie sentient principle, or the mind oi'-man, is a subtle J/uid, which he de- nominates se)isorial power, or spirit of aniwatioNi This sensorial power he represents as secreted in the brain, and in the medullary part of the nerves, where it especially resides, and from whicli it ex- tends to every part of the body, w iihout being * ^xiQ Additional notcs^( MM 0 Vol. II. P 210 Philosoph\joJiheIIu77ianMincl [Chap. XIL cognisable by our senses, except in its effects. He supposes that the o.vygen which enters into com- bination with the blood in respiration, affords the material for the production of sensorial power; that this fluid is liable to be accumulated or dimi- nished by various circumstances ; that it is con- stantly expended by stimuli, and is probably too fme to be long retained in the nerves^ after its pro- duction in the brain; and, finally, that it is capa- ble of assuming the property of solidity^ or divest- ing itself of this property at pleasure. This spirit of animation, or sensorial power, ac- cording to the theory under review, produces con- tractions or motions in the animal fibre, and these iibrous motions/ thus occasioned, are the immedi- ate cause of all our ideas ; an idea being defined " a contraction, or motion, or configuration, of the immediate organs of sense." This spirit has four different modes of action ; or, in other words, the mind possessesybz^r different faculties, which are occasionally exerted, and cause all the con- tractions of the fibrous parts of the body\ These are, 1. The faculty of causing fibrous contractions in consequence of the irritations excited by exter- nal bodies, 2. The faculty of causing contrac- tions in consequence of the sensatioi^ of pleasure or pain. 3. The faculty of causing contractions in consequence of "volition, 4. The faculty of causing contractions in consequence of the asso- ciations of fibrous contractions with other fibrous contractions, which precede or accompany them. These four faculties, during their inactive state, arc termed irritability^ sensibility, voluntarity, and Chap. XII.] Philosophy of the Human ^flud. 211 fissociahility ; in their active state they arc termed irritation, sensation, miition, and association *. Up- on these principles Dr. Darwin accounts for all tlie phenomena of mind. Memory, according to this author, embraces a class of ideas arising from volition and association. Imagination includes those ideas which were originally excited by irri- tation, and become, in like manner, more fre- quently causable by sensations of pleasure or pain. Ide^s of Abstraction and oUlcflcction are partial re- petitions of former perceptions, by the repetition of a certain stimulus f. ^ In 1702 Dr. William Coward, a physician, pub- lished a work entitled Thoughts on the Soul, in •which he maintained that it is material and mor- tal. He was answered by the rev. Thomas Brough- ton and others, and defended himself with great zeal. The house of commons at length interfered in the dispute, and ordered his work to be burned by the hand of the common hangman. In I70G Henry Dodwell, professor of history at Oxford, published a singular work, in which he attempted to prove, from the Scriptures and the early fa- thers, that the soul of man is a principle naturally mortal, but actually immortalised by the pleasure of God, by virtue of its union with the divine baptismal spirit; and that, since the apostles, none have the power of giving this divine immortalising spirit excepting the bishops. This pubhcation oc- casioned a controversy of considerable warmth and * See chapter iv, section iii, of this work. t Zoonomia^ vol. i, section iii, vi, xiv, xv. See Additional notcs'-flfN.) P2 212 Philosophy of the Human Mind* [Chap. XIL interest^ in which Dr. Clarke *, Mr. Norris, and otliers, wrote against Dodwell, and in M'hich the subject received nuich ehicidation. After Dr. Clarke, Andrew Baxter, a distinguished writer of North Britain, undertook, in a large work, to estabHsh the immateriality of the soul. This work is generally considered as among the most able and satisfactory ever written in defence of the truth which it supports f . This controversy respecting the immateriality of the soul was revived, many years afterwards, by Dr. Price J and Dr. Priestley; whose correspond- * Samuel Clarke, D.D., was born at Norwich, in the year 1675. He was educated at the university of Cambridge; and received orders in the church of England about the year I698. In 1706 he published his letter to Dodwell, on the immorta- lity of the soul^ a philosophical and learned discourse. In 1715 he maintained a controversy with Leibnitz, which has been much celebrated j and in 1717 he published ' remarks upon CoUins's Philosophical Inquiry concerning Human Liberty, His other works are numerous, and indicate great acuteness, learning, and critical skill. He died in 1729. Dr. Clarke is cer- tainly entitled to a place among the greatest men of the eighteenth century. t There were, no doubt, many writers on this subject, on the continent of Europe, equally worthy of notice with those above- mentioned; but the author has too little acquaintance with their character and merits to attempt any account of them in this place. I Richard Price, D. D., was bcrn in Wales, about the year 172.1. He was an eminent dissenting minister, no less distin- guished for the amiableness of his private character than fot his great talents, and hiii laudable exertions in the cause of human happiness. He published his llcvieiv of the prindpal Questions and Dlt/iailtic.s in Murals, ike, in 1758; his Observations on Reversion' art/ Payments, &:c., in 1771 ; and A free Discussion of the DoC" irincs of Materialism and P/iilosophical Keeessitj/, uith Dr. Priest- ley, in 1778. These arc his most celebrated works. He died in Chap. XI I.] Philosophij of the Human Mind, 2 1 3 ence on the subject forms a very important pait of the metapliysical liistory of the period in which they lived. Some of the immaterialisls of the age, such as Dr. Clarke, Dr. Price, and others, main- tained tliat the mind has one property, viz. cjctai- sio7i, in conmion with matter, and, consequently, that it occupies space, and has a proper locality; or, as the schoolmen express it, ubiety; while otliers, such as Dr. Watts *, perhaps more con- sistently and philosophically, supposed tliat mind has no common property with matter ; that it is inextended, does not occupy space, and has no proper locality f . The celebrated dispute between the NomimiUstx and RealistSy which perplexed the schoolmen for so many ages J, and which all their acuteness was not able to terminate, was carried on w^ith great warmth, under different names, and with some new modifications, through the whole of the last century. And though stilT far from being con- cluded, yet probably there was never so much light thrown on the question in any preceding period. Of those w^ho maintained the doctrine of the Realists, it is believed that Mr. Harris, Dr. * Isaac Watts, D. D,, was born at Southampton, in l6"74. The works of this great and good man are numerous and e^ cellent. His Treatise on Logic, his Treutiac on the Improic mcntofthe Mind] and his Philusuphical Essays, contain the chief of what he wrote on metaphysical subjects. He entered on the' work of the Gospel ministry about the year i;00j received the degree of D.D. from the universities of Edinburgh and Aber- deen, in 1/23 i and died in 1741. f See Currespundence between Price and Priestley; and aba fllements ufthe Philosophy of Mind, by T. Belshani. + See Additional notes — (00.) !214 Philosophy of the Human Mind, [Chap. XIL Price, and lord ]\fonboddo, were amoftg the niost eminent; while the system of the Nomi- 72alists was espoused and defended with great ingenuity by Leibnitz, bishop Berkeley, Mr. Hume, Dr. Campbell, professor Stewart, and many others. Mr. Locke, Dr. Reid, and a few .more under the name of Concept ualists, adopted a kind of middle course between these far-famed disputants. From a review of the whole of this chapter it appears, that the principal improvements wl)ich have been made in metaphysical science, during the last age, may be summarily presented in the following particulars. 1. The Inductive Method of inquiry has been in- troduced into this branch of science, more fully, and with greater success, than ever before. In other words^ some philosophers of the last age have taught us, for the first time, to study the human mind by ascertaining facts, and carefully observing and arranging its phenomena, without endeavouring to explain these phenomena by hy- potheses and conjectures. ^. The theory of Perception, which had for so many centuries perplexed and deluded philoso- phers, was, for the first time, during this period, denied and disproved, and a more rational doc- trine introduced in its stead. 3. The enumeration and arrangement of the intellectual powers have been delivered, by me- taphysicians of this age, from the false, inade- quate, and mischievous simplicity, which were so long and obstinately adhered to by their predeces- sors. The original powers of the mind have been Chap. XII. ] PJiUosophij of the Himan HJind. 215 shown to be more numerous than they were before supposed ; and the plan of studyuig them iu de- tail, rather than through the. medium of a set of deceptive systematic rules, exhibited and recom- mended. . 4. The metaphysical writings of the eighteenth century are, in general, more clear, popular, and intelligible, than those of any former age. To this some of the most erroneous writers of the age have, by their acuteness, contributed. Even Berkeley and Hume have thus indirectly subserved the interests of metaphysical science. Beside the writers on the general philosophy of mind, or on particular parts of this science, whose names have been mentioned in the foreo:oino' pages, a number of others are entitled to notice in the metaphysical history of the last age, as having either written professedly on the subject, or inter- woven much matter relating to the philosophy of mind in the discussion of theological, moral, and literary subjects. Among these bishop Butler, Dr. Hutcheson, Mr. Grove, Dr. Campbell, Dr. A. Smith, ]\Ir. Toplady, U\\ Tucker *, and Mr. Al- lison, of Great Britain ; Beausobre, Condillac, * See The Light of Nature Pursued, by Edward Search, esq. 7 vols. Svc, 1768, 1778. Tlie real author of this work was Abraham Tucker^ esq. It contains much new, curious^ and highly interesting discussion on metaphysical and moral subjects. Of Mr. Tucker Dr. Paley, in the preface to his Moral and Vuliti* cat Philosophy, speaks in the following terms : " I have found in tliis writer more original thinking and observation upon the seve- ral subjects that he has taken in hand, than in any other, not to say, than in all others put togetlier. His talent for illustration is unrivalled. But his thoughts are diffused Qirough a long, various, iind irregular work." 216 PJdlosophij of the Human Mind, [Chap. XII. and many more, of France; Hollmann, Lossius, Tetens, P'eder, Kruger, and Mendelssohn, of Ger- many; Crousaz^ le Clerc, Bonnet, and several others, of Switzerland; and a much longer list which might be selected from different parts of Europe, are en- titled to respectful distinction *. Indeed, the con- nection is so close between the philosophy of mind and moral science, that every systematic writer on the latter subject has, in a greater or less degree, treated of the former. This will more fully appear when we come, in a future division of the present work, to take a view of the various moral systems which have obtained currency, or excited atten-r tion, in the last age, * Of the writings of the greater part of the metaphysicians above-mentionedj which belong to the continent of Europe, espe- cially those of Germany, the author knows little but by report j it will not, therefore, be expected that he should deliver any for-^ mal statements or opinions concerning their doctrines. CHAPTER XIII. CLASSIC LITERATURE. At the revival of learning in the fifteenth cen- tury, Classic Litcrahtrc, or the study of the best ancient writers of Greece and Rome, was an ob- ject of primary and enthusiastic attention among the literati of Europe. The remains of those wnters were sought with avidity, and studied with persevering dihgence. Criticisms and com- mentaries upon them abounded. To gain posses- sion of a classic manuscript; to remove an ob- scurity ill an ancient text ; or to propose a new reading, was then considered among the most honourable and useful of all literary achievements. At that time he who could lay claim to the cha- racter of an adept in the Greek and Latin tonguss was, of course, a great and learned man-, while, without this, however solid, extensive, and valu. able, his knowledge of other subjects, no one could be rescued from the charge of barbarous and con- temptible ignorance. In a word, instead of con- sidering classic literature as a incans of obtaining more important knowledge, the directors of pub- lic taste, at that period, unwisely erected it into an ultimate end, and taught their followers to con- sider it as the most worthy object of pursuit, to all who were ambitious of becoming lc;irned. This was an improper extreme. The more judicious had just cause to lament that such a disproportion- ate share of regard was bestowed on language, ^IS Classic Literature. [Chap. XIIL to the neglect of studies more important and im- mediately practical. This erroiir began to be corrected about the beginning of the seventeeth century. At this period brilliant discoveries in natural philosophy began to arrest the attention of the learned world^ and the physical sciences in general became more objects of regard. But this dechne of classic li- terature was gradual. One errour was not imme- diately exchanged for its opposite. The Latin language was now generally employed as a me- dium of publication in science ; and although it bad come to be generally considered in its proper liglit, as a means rather than an end; yet both this and the Greek were generally and deeply studied by all who had a taste for letters, or aspired to distinction in knowledge. At the beginning of the eighteenth century the study of the ancient languages was still esteemed an essential part of liberal education. It was then the habit of the learned not only to write and speak the Latin tongue with the greatest facility, but they also still employed it as a medium for con- veying the result of their philosophical labours throughout the literary world ; and most of those ■\vho laid claim to the character of scholars had an extensive and accurate acquaintance with Gre- cian literature. Li both these respects the eigh- teenth century produced a singular revolution. The J.atin language has in a great measure ceased to be that familar medium of conversation and of writing among the learned that it once was ; and the Greek, though nominally retained as a branch of study in modern- seminaries of learning, has be- Chap. XIIL] Classic Literature. 219 come almost unknown even to the liberally edu- cated. A belief is daily becoming more prevalent and popular, that the time bestowed on the acqui- sition of these languages^ if not entirely wasted, might at least be more usefully employed. This belief, of course, has had considerable inlhience on modern plans of education. And althougli in a few of the ancient European seats of learning, some portion of the former zeal for classic litera- ture still remains ; yet even in these a considerable decline from their wonted eminence is plainly vi- sible; and in by far the larger number the decline is great, humiliating, and evidently on the in- crease. The vernacular tongue, it is believed, first be- gan to be employed in works of science, to the re- jection of the Latin, in Italy. From that country the practice made its way into France, and soon became general. Great Britain was the next, in order, to adopt this innovation, whieh was ad- mitted last of all into Germany and Holland. At the present day the number of books published in any other than the living languages is extremely small. In America the decline of classic literature is especially remarkable and prevalent *. i\lany of •* This statement respecting the low state of chissic literature in the greater number of the American colleges, though true in general, is not to be admitted witliout exception. There arc in- structors in several colleges in the United States under whose tuition a youtli, who is disposed to do justice to Wmsclf, may ob- tain as accurate and good an introduction to Greek and Latin li- terature as can be obtained in any European university, witlioiit exception. But as nothing more than the found;Uion of know- ledge can be laid at seminaries of learning, at least in the usual 220 Classic Literature. [Chap. XIII. our colleges require in their students but a super- ficial acquaintance with the Latin language ; and Avith respect to the Greek, are contented with a smattering which scarcely deserves the name of knowledge. And although in otliers laudable ex- ertions have been, and continue to be, made for retaining to some profitable extent this part of education, yet the popular prejudice against it is slrons: and o-rowino^ : and there is too much reason to fear that this prejudice will, at no great distance of time, completely triumph*. The causes of this revolution are various. Since the commencement of the eighteenth century the physical .sciences have been gradually extending their bounds, demanding more attention, and ac- quiring greater ascendency. As the objects of course ; and as this foundation in classic literature is too seldom built upon, in after life, by the youth in America, it has fewer proficients in this department of learning than its just proportion. The author has been lately informed, and mentions with great pleasure, that in some parts of the United States there are promise ing appearances of a revival of classic literature. * While a great fondness prevails in the United States for giv- ing young men a college cdncotioii, and obtaining for them the usual academic honour of a diploma, there is also a prevailing disposi- tion, not only among the youth themselves but also among pa- rents and guardians, to give them as small a portion of classic, and especially of Greek, literature as possible. Against this latter language, it seems, particular hostility is denounced. And in some of our colleges it requires the exertion of all the authority vested in the immediate instructors, and the governors, to prevent popular ignorance and prejudice from expelling the study of Greek from their plans of education. This is a circumstance which threatens much evil to the interests of literature in the country ; and unless the trustees and other officers, to whom the direction of the seminaries of learning is entrusted, combine to oppose the plausible but delusive literary heresy, another generation will wit* ness the mOBt unhappy effecti arising from its prevalence. Chap. XIIL] Cte.svc Literature, 9'Jl study nuiitiplied, a less degree of leisure was left for any partieular pursuit. The splendour of seve- ral new brandies of i)hilosopliy, as they sueees- sively rose into view, attraeted the studious, and gave a new turn to fasliion. Jlenee those who employed themselves in the illustration of the elas- sies, in the settlement of various readings, or in making themselves masters of those venerable re- mains of antiquity, soon sunk in j)opular esteem. It became fashionable to represent them as persons void of taste ; as *' word catcliers, that lived on syllables;" as far l)elow the votaries of scienee in dignity. This ridicule sensibly diminislied the public respect for classic literature, and still con- tinues to operate with undiminished force. Another cause which has, doubtless, contributed to produce the effect iu question, is the incon- ceivable enlargement of the sphere of enterprise and activity which the past age exhibited. New objects of profit and pleasure have arisen, and en- gaged the public mind ; new fields of labour and adventure have been thrown open ; and, of course, in calculatino- an education for active life, the re- linements of ancient literature began to receive a smaller share of regard. To which may be added, that the increased intercourse of mankind on the one hand, by bringing several living languages more into use, necessarily diverted a share o^ at- tcntion from the ancient; and, on the other, by rendering the study of various modern tongues more easy and useful, took away one important argument in favour of a learned language as a medium of general intercourse. It must be admitted that this manifest decline of classic literature has been attended with some ^22 Classic Literature. [Chap.XIIL advantages. In consequence of discarding dead languages, as the ordinary medium of philosophi- cal publications, such writings have become more accessible and popular ; the student has more time left for becoming acquainted with his vernacular tongue ; the attention of the learned is more di- rected to moral and physical sciences ; the youth destined for active life is no longer condemned to waste his days by devoting them to objects which are, to him at least, of subordinate importance. In a word, the gradual disuse of what are called learned languages, may be regarded as an im- portant branch of the system of those who con- sider the general diffusion of knowledge as a de- sirable object; and who wish to make every part of it as popular as possible. There are few things more directly calculated to break down the '' wall of partition" between the literary and the other classes of citizens, and to render liberal informa- tion the common portion of all ranks in the com- munity, than making living languages the only means of intercourse, and removing the necessity of acquiring any other. But if some advantages have attended the de- cline of classic literature ; if it have produced a greater diffusion of knowledge, and favoured the progress of the arts and sciences, there is, per- haps, reason to doubt wjiether it has not pro- duced more and greater evils. It has rendered the intercourse between learned men more difficult, for want of a common medium. It has produced a necessity of consuming more time in the acqui- sition of various modern languages. And, what is of no less consequence, it has caused some of the best and most precious works of antiquity to Chap. XIII.] Classic Literalurc. 223 be little known at the present day, and of conse- quence to be^ in a great measure, lost to the world. It has been asserted, by the ablest pliilologists, that the knowledge of tlie Greek and Roman writers has a very important influence in pro- moting literary taste. Those writers display ex- cellencies with respect to the structure and polish of language which, it seems to he generally agreed, are unrivalled in the annals of composition. To study these excellencies has a natural tendency to render the mind familiar with the philosophy of grammar, and to inspire it with a taste for the rc- tinements of eloquence. It has a tendency to form in the student a capacity to discern, and a solici- tude to attain, the purity, the precision, ami the graces, of speech. Perhaps it may be (juestioned whether a man can possibly understand any one modern language, in its various inflections, beau- ties, and shades of meaning, without having some acquaintance with those ancient tongues. Certain it is, that almost the whole of that invaluable mass of instruction on this subject, to be derived from etymological inquiries, depends on such an ac- quaintance, and must be commensurate with its extent. Hence it is supposed, by some of the most judicious literary historians, that the liigh estimation set on classical literature, and the enthu- siastic attention paid to it, until within a few years past, may be considered among the principal causes of that rapid improvement in several Eu- ropean languages, which distinguishes the seven- teenth and eighteenth centuries. By diligently studying the ancient models of composition, anrl ^U Classic Literature. [Chap. XIIL habitually referring to them as standard, the lite- rati of those days were enabled to transfuse their beauties into the living languages ; to give the lat- ter a large portion of the copiousness, regularity, and numerous excellences, of the former ; and to convert them from that miserably defective and barbarous state in which they were found, to a de- gree of richness and refinement bordering on rival- ship with their admired patterns. If these facts and reasonings be admitted, it would seem to follow that the same course of studies which contributed so much to raise modern languages to their present refined and improved state, must also be considered as useful, if not in- dispensably necessary to the preservation and sup- port of those excellences which they have attained. The tendency of living languages to fluctuate and change is universally known. The intercourse of different nations ; the ignorance, presumption, and affectation, of authors; the gradual introduction of provincial barbarisms, and many other causes, are frequently found to debase the purity, and, in no small degree, to affect the regularity of modern tongues. Of the mischief which has been often done in these respects, even by a single popular writer, the annals of literature furnish numerous instances. It is true, to possess a language abso- lutely//.ret/ is neither possible nor desirable. New discoveries in science, new refinements in art, and the continual progress made in various depart- ments of human knowledge, call for new words and phrases, and necessarily give rise to many corre- sponding changes, some of which are invaluable improvements in speech. But if left unrestrained Chap. XIII. ] Cla-^sic LiftraUirc, 525 these innovations will be wantonly and injuriously muUipliccl. Every uniledgcci sciolist will assume the ortice of a rctl)rnicr. Additions and alterations will no longer be made conformably to the analogy of the stock on which they are grafted ; and lan- guage will speedily degenerate into a corrupt, ca- pricious, and unintelligible jargon. Against this degeneracy> perhaps, no barrier is more effectual than the study of the ancieht classics, and con- tinually referring to them as the best standards of literary taste which mankind possess* Tlic most illustrious models of English style have, un- doubtedly, been produced by those who were in- timately acquainted with those classics. Scarcely an instance can be found of an author who was ignorant of them, and who, at the same time, at- tained any high degree of excellence as a writer in his own language* And if ever the time should come when the polished tongues of antiquity shall cease to be studied in our seminaries of learning, it requires no spirit of prophecy to predict that our vernacular language will gradually lose the purity and regularity of its proper idioms ; become loaded with anomalies and meretricious ornaments; and no longer exhibit that philosoi)hic uniformity, and systematic beauty, which are so desirable and useful. It is believed that the style of some very popular writers, within the last thirty years iur- uishes a very ii^structive comment on the foregoing ideas, and affords abundant evidence of their truth, y But this subject may with propiiety be cunsi- • ckred as a matter of still more serious concern. To discourage the study of ancient languages is to discourage one important mean-^ of supporting and Vol. n. (i '226 Classic Literature^ [Chap. XIIL defending Revelation. With what boldness would every heresiarch assail the foundation and the pu- rity of our faith, if its teachers were j>'enerally ig- norant of the original records of truth ! With what confidence would unbelievers triumph, and with what manifest advantages would they be armed, were the friends of religion unable to appeal to the primitive oracles of inspiration, and to the» primitive witnesses of their authenticity ! To re- commend the dismission of classic literature, there- fore, from plans of education, is not only to de- clare war against taste and sound learnings but also to betray the interests of evangelical truth, and put a new weapon into the liands of its ene- mies. No wise man, indeed, would think of enjoining the acquisition of the dead languages upon every youth who seeks a liberal education. To impose such a task upon those who have no view to any of the professions denominated learned, or whose circumstances in life leave little leisure from the toil of active pursuits, would be to make a very improper use of one of the most important portlouij of life. But that the acquisition is abundantly worthy the labour of making it, to those who have the time and the means necessary for the pur- pose; that some knowledge on this subject has a tendency to meliorate the whole literary charac- ter, even if it be afterwards forgotten ; and that the prevailing and increasing disposition to neglect this department of study ought to be regretted a^ among the fashionable follies of the age, would seem to follow necessarily from the foregoing re- marks. Chap. XI IL] Classic Literature. 227 But notwithslandincv the decliniii;^ state of clas- .sic literature durini]^ the eighteenlli century, this period was distinguished by a few events and cha- racters wliicli attracted considerable attention, and wliich are worthy of being noticed in the present sketch. Though it is certain that tl>c great proficients in classic literature were mucli fewer at the close of the eighteenth century than at its commence- inent, yet, in some respects, these few possessed ad- vantages which none of their predecessors enjoyed Their advantages over them in the following par- ticulars are obvious. A spirit of philosophy has been introduced, during this period, into histo- rical investigations, which, united with unwearied research, has greatly extended our knowledge of ancient manners, and afforded new illustra- tion to ancient writings. The niceties of conjee- tural criticism have been carried, since the time of Bentley, to a greater length than was ever before known. The proper excellencies of st\)U have become lately much better understood than they were at earlier periods of the critical art ; and the reign of just taste among classical com- mentators more generally established. Many o-^^/w- matical rules of the ancient languages, and espe- cially of the Greek language, have been ascer- tained and laid down with a degree of precision \o which former critics were entire strangers. The metres of the ancient poets have been much better understood and illustrated by the commentators of the last century than those of any preceding age. And, finally, by the collation of old manuscripts, nevy light has been thrown on many passages of Q 2 i2*28 Classic Literature, [Chap. XIIL classic authors which were before unintelligible or obscure. For these improvements we are chiefly indebted to the critics of Great Britain, Germany, and Holland. The labours of learned men, during the age under consideration, to facilitate the acquisition of the Latin language, have been numerous and use- ful. Dictionaries^ GrammarSy and other similar works, have been executed on new and improved plans, Avith great diligence, perseverance, and suc- cess. A number of scientific publications have been made in this language, in various parts of Europe, in the course of the century, which will long remain monuments of the learning and taste of the age. A few publications of this description have appeared in Great Britain ; but by far the greater number on the continent of Europe. Well executed and useful helps for acquiring the Greek language have also been multiplied during the eighteenth century, and have contributed to the. degree of cultivation which it received. Before the commencement of the eighteenth century, it is believed, the Latin language was always taught by means of grammars written m the same language. In other words, a plan of in- struction was adopted which presupposed the know- ledge of that which was meant to be acquired. This absurd custom subjected youth to unnecessary labour, and burdened their memories with words to them altogether unmeaning. In the course of the century a considerable improvement in this respect took place. Grammars and Dictiojiarics. in the .popular language became more common. And, what is worthy. of remark in this century, Chap. XIII.] Classic Literature. 2*29 a LcdicoHj for cnaljling those wiio understand no otlier language than English to acquire the know- ledge of Greek, was for the first time presented to the pubhc by tlie celebrated Mr. Parkhurst, of Great Britain, whose learned and useful labours for promoting the stud}' of the ancient languages, and especially of those in which tlie sacred volume was onginally Avritten, are well known. In Greek literature the learned men of Holland, for a considerable part of the century, bore the palm from the contending world. Among these Schultens, Hemsterhuis, Ruhnkenius, Valckenaer, I.ennep, and Scheid, will long be remembered with respect by the friends of learning. The first named of these great scholars, the immortal Al- bert Schultens, early in the century investigated, with singular erudition and acuteness, the deriva- tion and structure of several languages, and parti- cularly the Greek. He was followed by his coun- tryman, the celebrated Tiberius Hemsterhuis*, who undertook to derive the whole Greek lan- guage, various and copious as it is, from a few short primitives, on a plan entirely new. His doc- trines were further pursued and iUustratcd by liis disciples, Ludovic Caspar Valckenaer f, and John Daniel Lennep {, who offered to the world many refined and curious speculations on the subject. * Hemsterhuis did not himself, it is believed, publish hi-; doc- trine respecting the derivation of the Greek inngunL;(\ This wai done by his disciples. f Vide Ludovici Caspar! Valckenaerii Ohcrx at 'tones, qiiibus via tnumtur ad Origincs Gnrcas luvcatigandns, ct Lcxicorum defect us rc&arscicndos. X Vide Joann. Daniel. Lennep Dc Anahgia J.iug'ur Cintcx, six' Hationum Analogicarum Lini^mc Grctccs Expositiv. 2^Q Classic Literature. [Chap. XIII. To these succeeded Everard Scheid '*', a disciple of the same school, who wrote largely and learn- edly on the proposed system of derivation, but differed materially from his preceptor and his fellow pupils. Beside the services rendered to Greek literature by the great critics above-men- tioned, the Ellipses Grceae of Lambertus Bos ; the Doctrina P articular um of Henry Hoogeveen f ; and the ingenious speculations of lord Monboddo, in his Origin and Progress of * Language |, have all contributed to unfold more clearly than before the etymology, th^ genius, the beauties, and the various excellencies of this ancient tongue. But the services of these eminent critics have not been all stated. While they pursued further than their ])redecessors the analysis of the Greek language, they purified the grammar from many absurdities and errours ; they interpreted and amended many passages in ancient authors ; and contributed in various ways to facilitate and re- commend the study of those authors. And even * Vide Etymologlcum ; and Animadvcrsiones ad Analogiam Liiigtice GrctccT, t Docfn'na Farticularum Livguce Grceccv, Aitdore et EJitore Henrico Hoogeveen, 2 torn. ^ito. Tliis is a liirge, ingenious, and learned work, on the origin and meaning of the Greek Particles, Lord Monboddo speaks of it in terms of great respect and appro- bation. Sec liis Origin and Progress of Language. % Lord JMonboddo derives tlie whole Greek language from com- binations in duad.Sy of the uj with tlie other five vowels, ql, s, <, o, u j the oj being always last : so t4iat aa-, sw, luj, ocv, vw, are the radi- cal soundS;, from whlcl) the whole language is derived. ]t is very remiu-kable, that tlie British philologist adopted ;dmost precisely the same doctrine on this subject which had been before taught, though without his knowledge, by Hemsterhuis, and his followers, of the L^} den school. CiiAP. XIII. ] Cl!/s.slc Litcratare. on if all their speculations respecting the analysis of the language, and especially concerning the origin and meaning of the particles, siiould he judged to be wholly unfounded, which probably few will sup- pose to be the case, they will doubtless be pio- nounccd to have thrown much light on the sub- jects which they discussed. Hut a satisfactory view of their ino'enious and useful hd)ours can onlv be obtained by the careful perusal of their numer- ous publications. It might have been expected, in an age in which the intercourse of men was so much extended as in the last, and in which so many rich repositories of ancient manuscripts were for the hrst time opened to the inspection of the intelligent and the curious, that many remains of ancient genius, before un- known, would have been brought to light. Few acquisitions, however, of this kind have been made by the republic of letters. The industry and zeal of former times in this pursuit seem to have left little to be gained by modern exertions. Tlie small additions which have been made during the last age, to the classic treasures before possessed by the world, may perhaps deserve some brief notice. It had been long known that a composition bearing the title of a Hymn to Ceres, and ascrib- ed to Homer, existed in the second century; but learned men considered it as irretrievably lost. In the eijrhteenth century this composition was brought to light; and, what is remarkable, it was found in one of the rudest and most unelassieal countries of Europe. About the yiar 177-3 C'hiis- tian Frederic Matthi3ei, a learned German, having 232 Classic Literature. [C'hap. XIIL been invited to settle at IMoscow, in Russia, ob- tained access, soon after taking up his residence there, to a number of Greek manuscripts, depo- sited in the hbrary of the J-My Synod in that city. Among these manuscripts he found the Hjpnn to Ceres abovementioned, ahnost entire, which he sent to his friend D. Ruhnkenius, of Leyden, who, in 1780, committed it for the first time to the press, accompanied with learned annotations *. It is^ indecil, far from being certain that this Hymn, notwithstanding all its celebrity, is really the pro- duction of the immortal Grecian bard to whom it is ascribed f . The learned editor himself expresses much doubt with respect to this point. The com- position, though exquisitely beautiful, is said by- good judges to want some of the more striking characteristics of Hom^r, and, in particular, to be deficient in that energy and spirit for which he is 60 remarkable J. Nearly contemporaneous with the above-men- tioned discov^ery in Moscow^ was another made in Venice, by M. Villoison, a learned Frenchman, who, among m^ny valuable manuscripts which he * This Hymn was elegantly transited into English verse, and accompanied witl> learned notes, by Jlichard Hole, LL.B., 8vo, 1781. t It is generally known that of the other Ilymus ascribed to Homer, suspicions have been entertained that the greater part, if not all, are spurious. See on this subject Davidis Ruhn- ^enji Epistola Crlticc in Homcridarum llymnos ct IIesiudu?n ad iv- rum clarifiumum Ludov. Casp. Valckenacriam, 8vo, Lug. Bat., 1749- X I'^ide Ofji^r^^ou T/xvo; ei$ Ar^iJ.r,r^xy : vel Homeri Hymnus ad Cerereni, mnc primuin editvs a Davide Ruhnkenio, Lug. BJit., 8vo^ Chap. XIII.] CUmic Liter atitre. 033 examined in the library of St. Mark in tliat city, found a very curious copy of the Iliad, made ia the tenth century, and enriched with tiie nolt^s and scholia, liitherto unpublished, of sixty of the most eminent critics of ancient times. Beside the nutcs and sckoUa^ the manuscript was found to con- tain various ixadings, ecjually numerous and im- portant, drawn from tlie ancient editions of Ho- mer, given by Chios, Cyprus, Crete, ]\Iarseilles, Sinope, and Argos; editions before known only by name, and by some citations of Eustatliius. This manuscript also exhibits various readings drawn from many other editions ; so that it may be emphatically called the Homerus Variorum of all antiquity, and more especially tlie Homer of the famous school of Alexandria. Isl, Villoisoii has since committed this copy of the first e|)ic poem to the press, and thereby made an inestima- ble present to the lovers of Greek literature*. To this chapter belongs also some notice of aa event which the classical scholar regards with no small interest. Nearly thirty years ago the presi- dent dc Brosses, a distinguished philologist of France, finding, in the course of his researches, some remains of a Histor}) oj the Roman Rcpuhllc, by Sallust, which had been supposed to be entirely lost, undertook the arduous task of rest..ring it After taking immense pains to collect all the (pio- tations which had been made from this precious relic, by the ancient grammarians and others, he * The author believes that M. Villoison also publiblied a splen- did edition of the Odijssty ; but the character of the edition, or tlic ^circumstances attending its pubUcation, are unknown to hini. !y54 Classic Literature. [Chap. XIII. fotiiul himself in possession of more than seven hun- dred fragments, which he laid together with so much skill and patience, as to produce a connected 'work, by no means uum orthy of the celebrated Ro- man whose name it bears. This work was trans- lated into French, and published in 1777, at Dijon, in three \'olumes, quarto^ under the following title: Histoire de la Uepiiblique liomaine dans ks cours du vii SihclCy par Salluste, &c. It will be readily supposed that a production of one of the greatest historians of antiquity, recovered in a manner so extraordinary, excited much of the attention of learned men, nototilyin France, but also through- out the literary world. Among the numerous monuments of ancient ge- nius, both in literature and the arts, which were dug out of the ruins of Hercidaneum^ in the course of the last age, there w^ere many hundred manu- scripts which excited high expectations among the learned. Ol' these nearly eighteen hundred manuscripts, chiefly Greek, have been long de- posited in the museum at Portiei, belonging to the king of Naples. But so much trouble and ex- pense have attended all the attempts hitherto made to unroll and decipher them, that the anticipations of the curious have been hitherto but little grati- fied. It is hoped, however, that better success may attend future exertions in this ample field of lite- rary labour *. * In 1B02 it was nnnouiiced to tho public, by a letter from Italy, that a manuscript of some importance had been, a short time before, found in the museum at Portiei. It seems the prince of Wales lately requested of the court of Naples to authorise Mr. Haiter, one of iiis librarjaiis, to examine the manuscripts in that Chap. XIII.] Classic Literature. 035 Almost all the chissics luul \)l\'\\ rcpcati-dly edited prior to the commencement ul' the ci<;h- teenth century. Beside many single works of liigh reputation which pertain to this class, tlicit: are two of a more extensive and celehnited kind belonging to tlie seventeenth eentnry, which arc worthy of notice. These are the Variorum edi- tions, as they are generally called, published in Holland, about the middle of that century, by Gnevius, Gronovius, Schrevelius, and others; and the still more famous editions, In usuni Sereuis- simi Delpliun, published toward the close (jf the same century, under the patronage of Lewis \1\^, and chiefly completed by the labours of iiuet, Bossuet, Montausier, and Rua^us. But these, not- withstanding all their excellence, have n(^t dis- couraged subsequent attempts. The editions which have been given to the public, during the period of this retrospect, are chicHy distinguished by their great typographical elegance ; then- additions to the various readings before collected ; the su- perior taste and delicacy of their conjectural criti- cism ; and their more enlightened and liheral commentaries on the defects, beauties, and mean- ing, of the ancient writers. Of the Greek classics, the works oi^ Homer were museum, which were dug from Herculaneum, that thoir contents night be ascertained. The authority was granted. Mr. Haiicr entered on the task with great zeal and intclJigeuce j and soon discovered a work of Epicurus, entitled Of the ^'atvrc of Tlun^s, which was known only from the mention made of it by honie writers of antiquity, and which appears to have served as the basij for the poem of Lucretius, on the same subject. At the date of the account a copy of this manuscript was preparing tor the press. 236 Classic Literature, [Chap. XIII. edited, during this period, with great splendour, by Wolfius and Clarke; the works of Aristotle, by Buhle; Herodotus, by Gronovius and Wessel- ing ; Thucydides, by Duker ; Xeiwphon and Poly-^ bias, by Ernestus; Loiiginus, by Pearce, Toup, and Rulinkcnius ; Demosthenes, by Wolfius, Tay- lor, and Keiske ; Ilesiod, by Krebsius, Bodini, and Loesner ; Pindar, by Heyne ; Euripides, by I\Ius- grave; Sopiiocles, by Brunck and Capperonier; Aristophanes, by Kuster and Brunck ; Lucian, by lleitzius, Hemsterhuis, and Gesner; Plutarchy by Jleiske ; Theocritus, by lleiske and Wharton ; Epic- ietus, by Upton ; Anacreon, by Barnes, INIaittaire, Pauw, Spaletti, Degen, and Gail ; JEschylus, by Pauw and Porson ; Diodorus Siculus, by Wessel- ing ; Dion Cassias, by Fabricius and Reimarus ; Lysias, by Taylor and Augur ; Isocrates, by Battie and Auger; and Callimachus, by Bentley and Ernestus. OH\\G Latin classics the following editions, pub- lished during the period under review, are worthy of particular notice : Virgil, by Burmann, Heyne, and AVakeficld ; Horace, by Baxter, Gesner, and Zeunius ; Cicero, by Vcrbergius, Olivet, and Lal- lemand j Liry, by Maittaire, Drakenborch, Rud- dinian, Crevier, and Homer; Tacitus, by Grono- vius, Ernestus, Broticr, Grierson *, and Homer j * Mrs. Grierson, an Irish lady, who was " possessed of singu- lar eriiditioii, and had an elegance of taste, and solidity of judg- ment, wliich jusil)' rendered her one of the most wonderful, as well as amiable, of her sex. Her Tacilu.s is one of the best edited books ever delivered to the v.orld." See Harwood's View of the Classics, Chap. XIII.] Classic Literature, 2:)7 Sallust, by llavcrcamp, by don (iabru'l* ol' Spain, and by Homer; Qin/iti/ia/t, by iiiinnaini, CJcsncr, and Homer; Lucretius, by Ilavereamj) ami Wake- field ; Ovul, by Burnianii ; Luciui, by BurnKiun, Bentley, and Cumberland; Persius, by Homer; Terence, by Bentley, Mrs. Grierson, AWsteibovius, and Zennius; jKst'm^ by Gronovius; dcmrs Com- mentaries, by Clarke; Plutdrus and Petronius Arbiter, by Burmann ; Pl'imi the elder, by Brotier and liardouin ; PUny the younger, by Longaliiis, (lesner, and Lallemand ; Hhullus, Catullus, and P/'opertius, by Vulpius ; Suetonius, by Pitiscu.^, Burmann, Ernestns, and Oudenorp ; F/utrnpiu.i, by Havercamp ; C/('//^ioirell ; 7erence, by Cooke and Colman ; lihullus, by Grainger; Aulas Gel- * Mrs. Elizabeth Carter is another instance of great classical erudition and taste in a female of tbe eightccntli century. t '' The version of Lucan," says Dr. Johnson, " is one of t\\& greatest producticiiis of English poetry ; for there is perhaps none that so completely exhibits the genius and spirit of the original. It deserves more notice than it obtains 3 and as it is more rc^d will be more esteemed." f>40 Classic Literature. [Chap. XIIL Uus^ by Beloc; and Plautus, by Warner and Thornton. The translations made into several of the lan- guages of the continent of Europe, during the period under consideration, are numerous and re- spectable. But of these too Httle is known to at- tempt any thing like a discriminating selection. Tlie Jllad and Odyssey of Homer were ably trans- lated into French, by Madame Dacier and ]\L Ilochefort; into German, by Voss ; into Italian, by CiEsarotti * and Ceruti ; and into Spanish, by Malo. The Cyropcedia of Xenophon was translated into French, by Dacier and Gail ; and into Ger- man, by Wieland ; Thucydldes, into French, by Levesque ; and Herodotus, into the same language, by Larcher; the works o^ Plutarch, into French, by Amiot and Riccard ; the Politics of Aristotle, into French, by Champagne ; Theocritus, into the same language, by Gail; Demosthenes, also into French, by Tourreil ; Hesiod, into German, by Schutze; and Plutarch, also into German, by Penzel. Versions of Virgil were made, in the period of this retrospect, into Italian, by Bendi ; and hito^ Crerman, by Voss and Spitzenbergen ; of Horace. into iTcnch, by Sanadon and Darcu ; oi Sallust, into German, by Schlutcr ; and of Tacitus, into French, by Guerrin, Bletteric, and Dotterville. The translation of the Buculics and Gcorgics of Virgil, into Greek hexameters, by Eugenius, a ♦ Severn! of tlie translations abovomentioned, made on the con- tinent of Europe, arc said to possess first-rate excellence. In par- ticular those cf Voss and Cresarotti, both poetical, are represented as having merit of a superior kind. CfiAP. XIIL] Classic Liltraturc. ^^\\ Russian archbishop, is a singular spcchiicn of li- terary labour. This work was splendidly printed, towards the close of the eighteenth century, under the patronage, and at the expense, of prince Po- temkin. But notwithstanding all the labours of learned men to promote the knowledge of the Greek and Latin classics, the study of them was almost uni- formly declining from the beginning to the end of the century. And in the course of little more than two centuries this kind of knowledo-e, from beino- considered the most interesting and important that could occupy the attention of man, came to be regarded by a large portion of the literary world as among the most useless objects of pursuit. Vol. II. R 21^ CHAPTER XIV. ORIENTAL LITERATURE. A HE literature of Asia, the birth-place and cra- dle of our species, where Philosophy first reared her head, and whence Greece and Rome borrowed a large portion of their knowledge, cannot be otherwise than highly interesting to the enlighten- ed and inquisitive mind. At the beginning of the eighteenth century much had been written, but comparatively little was really knozvn, concerning that important part of the globe. The works of Pococke and Hyde, of Great Britain ; of Erpenius and Golius, of Holland ; and of d'Herbelot^ Bo- chart, Bouchet, and others, of France, toward the close of the preceding century, had all communi- cated to the public much curious and valuable information respecting various eastern countries, particularly Arabia, Periia, and some parts of India* But these works had so limited a circula- tion, and the intercourse between Europe and the east was so small, that few were excited to pay much attention to this branch of literature. In Great Britain especially, during the first half of the century, oriental learning was at a low ebb, insomuch that, during the reign of George I, a great orientalist was a rare phenomenon. But in the latter half of the century under con- .sideration more encouraging prospects began to open. Indeed, within the last forty years, some Sect. I.] Hcbrezo LiteMtiire. 043 departments of oriental literature have been cul- tivated with a fervour of zeal, and with a brilHancy of success, hio-hly interesting and honourahlc to the age. And even in those departments which have been less diligently and successfully cultivat- ed, some events and characters have adorned this period, which arc worthy of notice in the present .sketch. SECTION I. HEBREW LITERATURE. The first place in this chapter is due to that lan- guage in M'hich it pleased infinite ^Visdom to re- jcord and convey the divine will to man. A Ian- gifage which, if it be not the most ancient in the world, will doubtless be considered amonu: those which have the best claims to this honour. With regard to this language, though it lus been less studied through the learned world in general, dur- ing the last age, than in some preceding periods ; yet several events took place, and a number of im- portant publications appeared respecting it, which it would be improper to omit in the most rapid survey of oriental learning*. * For a number of the fiicts and names mentioned in these pa- ragraphs on Hebrew hterature the author is indebted to his vene^ rable friend the reverend Dr. Kunze, senior of the Lutheran clergy in the state of New York, and late professor of oriental languages in Columbia college. The various acquirements of this .^enlJe- man, and particularly his oriental learning, have long rendered him an ornament of tlic American republic of letter:*. He has proba- 11 ^2 244 Oriental Literature. [Chap. XIV. The controversy respecting the vozvel points*, which M^^s begun in the sixteenth century by Ehas Levita, a learned Jew, and which was pur- sued with so much zeal and learning in the seventeenth, by tlie Buxtorfs, Capellus^ Walton, and others, vv^as continued in the eighteenth, and gave rise to much interesting discussion. Early in the century M. Masclef, a canon of Amiens, published his grammar, in wdiich he undertook to teach the Hebrew language without points |. He was opposed by Guarinus, a Benedictine of France, with great learning and warmth ; but defended by his countrymen, the famous father Charles Francis Houbigant, M. dcla Bletterie, and others. The sy- stem of i\fascl^f obtained general credit in France ; but the greater number of German and Dutch cri- tics opposed it. In England it was, with some alter- ations, espoused and introduced by Hutchinson,* bly done more tlian any individual now living to promote a taste for Hebrew literature among those intended for the clerical pro- fession in the Ignited States. And though his exertions have not been attended with all the success that could have been wished, owing to the \\-ant of that countenance from the public, and from individuals, which is necessary 5 yet he is, doubtless, entitled to the character of a benefactor of the American churches. * The great questions concerning the Hebrew points respect their antiquity and i??7portcf?icc. The first question is, whether they were invented by the Alasorifcs, a set of learned Jews, who are supposed to have lived about the fifth century after Christ, and who are said by the addition of loicds and accents to have fixed the true reading of the sacred text : or whether these vowels were employed by those who first wrote the Hebrew language, and of course made a part of the original writing of the scriptures ? The second question has a respect to the utility and importance of the points ; or how far they are ?ieccssarj/ and useful ? t Graminatlca Ihbrua, a pundis aliiiquc Masurcthicis inxaitis lihcra. \y\C). Sect. I.] HcbrrLV Literature. Ci; who was followed by Bate and Paikhurst, and more recently by professor AVilscjn, of tlic univer- sity of St. Andrews, in North Brit.iin. The antiquity and importance of the iV//?/6 have also been maintained, during the period in ques- tion, hy the great Albert Schulteirs *, of Leyden ; by the learned professor James R(/bertson, of Edinbur/rh; and by tlie celebrated orientalist, professor Tychsen, of Germany. On the otlier liand, the points have found zealous opponents in the same period, in Sharpe, of Great Britain ; in Diipuis, a learned Frenchman ; and in the cele- brated John David ■Michaelis, of Germany |. The result of this controversy seems to be a general impression, among those most competent to judge, that the points cannot boast of that anri(]uity which Schultens and Robertson would assign to them J ; but that they were invented b}^ men deeply skilled in the language ; that they serve as a good commentary, and are therefore of great utility, and deserve to be respectfully regarded. In 1736 bishop Hare published a plan for as- certainino; and restoring the Ilebrexv Metre 4. He * Albert Schultens wns born in \6QC), and died at Leyden in 1741. He was first professor of the oriental languages at Frane- ker, and afterwards at Leyden, where he tauglit tliem till liis death. He was a stupendous orientalist. f Professor Michaelis, in the former part of kis life, was fa- vourable to the points ; but afterwards changed his opinion. He was one of the most stupendous oriental scholars of the age, and probably one of the greatest that ever existed. X Clavis Vcntatcuchi : she Anal pis Omnium Foe urn Hebraicarum, &:c. J//cVy/r Jacobo Robertson, S.T.D. Lini;: Orient, in Araif. Edin. Vrof. 8vo, 1/70. § rsaimorum LiUrJn J'asiculos Mdricc divi.^ux, ct cufn alits 246 Oriental Liferature, [Chap. XIV. supposed that lie had revived the knowledge of the true versification of this language, and that he was in possession of principles by which it might be scanned, like any other poetry, and its rhythm discovered with the utmost precision. He sup- posed that in Hebrew poetry all the feet consist of two syllables ; that no regard is to be paid to the quantity of the syllables ; tliat when the number of syllables is even, the verse is Trochaic, and the ac- cent to be placed on the first; but that when the number is odd, the verse is to be accounted Iambic, and the accent to be placed on the second syllable ; that the periods generally consist of two verses, often of three or four, and sometimes of a greater number; that verses of the same period, with few exceptions, are of the same kind ; that the Trochaic verses, for the most part, agree in the number of feet, but that to this rule there are a few exceptions ; that in the Iambic verses the feet are in general unequal, though in some in- stances it is found to be otherwise. To accom- modate the sacred text to these doctrines he in- dulged in many conjectures and fancied emen- dations, which wTre altogetlier capricious and unwarrantable*. This hypothesis was generally considered, by the most judicious critics, as afan- Crltices Subsidii.'i, turn praxipue IShtriccs npc, multis in locis infcgri- iafi sua reatitutus. Edidit Franciscus Hare, S.T. P. Episcopus Cic^strensis. Tom. 2, 8vo, 17'iO'. * Gomams, a learned Hebraist of Holland, in the seventeenth century, invented and taught an hypothesis concerning Hebrew MetrCy somewhat resembling that of bishop Hare, but not attend- ed with so many arbitrary and conjectural emendations of the- sacred text. Sect. I.] Hebrew JJtcraturc. S47 ciful and unfounded speculation. The bishop's doctrine was^ however, adopted by the reverend Dr. Thomas Edwards, of Great Britain, a contem- porary Hebrew scholar of considerable reputation. It was also adopted and carried to a still greater length by Mr. William Green, also an English cler- gyman, in his metrical version of the Psalms *. But at the close of the century, it is^bc^eved, this -cloctrine had few if any advocates, and had en- tirely ceased to command public attention. A much more valuable improvement in Hebrew literature, in the period under consideration, was that effected by the labour and talents of ])r. Lowth, bishop of London f. This profound and elegant scholar, in the year 1153, published a learned and highly interesting Avork on Hebrew Poetry, in which he displayed its structure, genius, beauties, and various kinds, more successfully than any preceding writer J. This great work, which is regarded by every orientalist as a very impor- tant acquisition to the Hebrew critical art, formed a memorable ccra in the investigation of the sub- ject of which it treats. The bishop has been fol- * A Nc-x Translation of the Psalms from the Original HcbrnL>. By Wiliiam Green, M.A. Rector of JJurdingham, yoifu/L bvo, 1762. t Dr. Robert Lowth was born at Winchester, in ITIO. In 1740 he was elected professor of Hebrew poetry in the university of Oxford; in 1766' was made bishop of St. David's j in 1777 was translated to the see of London ; in 1778 pubHshed his trans- lation of Isaiah, and died in 17^7- + De Sacra Pot si Hthwurum Pra-hrtioncs habit ^r a Roborf- Lowth, &c, 4to, 1753. This work has been translated by the reverend G. Orr^ory, F. A. S,. and published i" ^^'^7, in 2 voh Svo. 248 Oriental Literature, [Chap. XIV. lowed in this laudable and instructive inquiry by Herder, a learned, ingenious, and eloquent writer of Germany, who is said to have pursued the sub- ject still further, and to have thrown additional light on the spirit of Hel^rew poetry. The publication of the works of the celebrated John Hutchinson, in Great Britain, at an early period of the century, doubtless contributed some- thing to promote the study of Hebrew in that country. It was before remarked that this philo- sopher and his followers laid great stress on the in- tegrity of the common Hebrew text, and drew from a fanciful interpretation of Hebrew words many theological and philosophical principles, in their view of the utmost importance. This cir- cumstance, of course, prompted all who applied themselves to the study of Hutchinson's writings, and especially those who studied them carefully and deeply, to acquire as much Hebrew learning as they were able. Those who have attended to the progress of knowledge in Great Britain during the last age, have probably been able to trace very di- stinctly the influence of this visionary philosophy in producing the effect which has been stated. Of the great number of Hebrew grammars which have been published since the revival of letters, that of.Buxtorf, till near the close of the seven- teenth century, had received by far the largest share of public approbation. And though it was dry, complicated, tedious, and of course difficult to be acquired ; yet as it was on the whole well constructed, and contained an excellent body of niasoretical rules, it continued lon^* to be the rei":n- ing favourite among the teachers of this language, Sect. I.] Hebrew Lilcralurc, O-if) Capellus seems to have been the first who made a successful attempt to divest Hebrew grauunar of its superfluous precepts, and perplexing append- ages. Since his time the system of siniphfic:ition has been carried still further .by IMascIef, and many others, both the advocates and opposcrs of the points. At an early period of tlie century professor Dantz, of Germany, published a Hebrtw and Chaldaic grammar, in which he almost entiirly departed from the methods before in use. Instead of perplexing the learner with numberless 7mNuli(r^ Avhich are apt at the beginning to disgust and dis- courage, he presented the elements of the lan- guage in a simple, easy, and attractive form. The Dantzian method soon became general, was adopted as the ground work hi innumerable sub- sequent grammars, and is yet the prevailing one in the schools and universities of Germany. Tlie Hebrew grammars produced in Great Britain and Ireland, during the last age, were numerous, and a ^t\v of them highly valuable. Out of a long list which might be made, those of Parkhurst, Robert- son, Gray, Wilson, Bayly, and Fitzgerald, arc entitled to particular distinction *. In the eighteenth century, for the first time, * In the formation of some of these grammars the Voint,s aud Accents are employed j in others they are rejected ; while, in a third class, a middle course is pursued between a total rejection jmd an unlimited admission of them. The Inst is particularly tlic case with the grammar of Dr. Fitzgerald, professor of Hebrew iu the university of Dublin, published in i;c}<). He retains the vowel points, and such of the accents as are most distingui:,hable and useful. All tlie other accents, of which the number is cou- siderable, he has discarded. 250 Oriental Literature. [Chap. XIY, graminars, dictionaries, and other books^ for teach- ing the elements of the Hebrew language, were presented to the public in English. Before this period all such works M'ere in the Latin language, and of course the acquisition of this language, at least, was necessary before any thing could be done towards acquiring the Hebrew. In the last age this ditBculty was removed. Those who are acquainted with no other than their native tongue are now furnished with books, by means of which they may be conveniently initiated into the know- ledge of Hebrew literature, so far as is necessary for enabling them to peruse the sacred scriptures, Mr. Parkhurst, it is believed, first obliged the public with a work of this nature. His example was followed by his countryman, ]\Ir. Bate ; since which time the same means for rendering Hebrew literature more accessible have been adopted by professor Wilson, professor Fitzgerald, and several othei-s. Those who studied the Hebrew language in the eighteenth century derived an advantage from the circumstance of the other oriental dialects, the Syriac, Chaldaic, Arabic, and even the Coptic and iEthiopic, being more and better cultivated during this time than in any former period. The aid furnished to the student of Hebrew by the knowledge of these dialects will be readily un- derstood and appreciated by those who have any knowledge of the subject. The labours of Re- land and Schultens, in Holland ; of lleineccius, the Michaclises* (especially the last of tha|< * In ir0'.2 that illustrious orientalist, John David Michaelis^ Sect. I,] Jhhmv Literature, 231 name). Stock, Eichorn, Bode, Storr, and Adler, in Germany ; of la Croze, in France ; of de Rossi, in Italy; and of Diirell, Ridley, Woide, and White, in Great Britain, to illiisirate these auxili- ary lang,uages and dialects, or to present the pub- lic with various readings and versions from them, and through this medium to illustrate the Hebrew scriptures, are well known, and have often been the subjects of high praise. The collection and collation of ancient Hebrew Manuscripts, which were pursued in the eighteenth century to an extent greatly beyond any former example, may be considered as among the distin- guished honours of the age. In 1707 Dr. Jolin Mill, a learned English divine, published an edi- tion of the New Testament, with the various read- ings, collected from -many diliercnt manuscripts, to'^which he had devoted the unwearied labour of thirty years. In 1752 the celebrated Wetstein, of Germany, whose talents and erudition are well known, published a work on the same plan, but, as many suppose, executed with greater judgment. He like his predecessor, expended much tune and labour in his work, and travelled into foreign countries to examine all the manuscripts that published a number of curious and interesting questions relating to Arabic literature, which he had addressed to a nuniber ot learn- ed men, sent by the king of Denmark into Arabia and o ^vhich he desired their attention. These querves not only led to much inquiry, and produced much infor.nation, irom the persons for whom they were immediately intended ; but they also .d o a more general study of the Arabic language, as an aux.h r> to ibe Hebrew, than had before taken place in tlic coUeg^ and uni- Teriitles of Germany. 2.52 Oriental Literature, [Chap. XIV. could be procured *. These publications, toge- ther With a conviction of its utility and import- ance, animated Dr. Benjamin Kcnnicot, of the university of Oxford, to engage in a similar un- dertaking with respect to the Hebrew text of the Old Testament. As early as 17^53, by a disserta- tion on the state of the common printed text, he called the attention of the religious world to his design, and laid the foundation of his great work. His plan was no sooner announced than he found ample support both of a pecuniary and literary kindf. He collated more than 700 manuscripts, obtained from different countries t, beside many printed copies ; and was enabled from these sources to present a xtry curious and instructive amount of various readings. In 1776 the first A'olume of his work appeared : and in 17^0 the second, which completed his plan, was laid before * The collations and various readings of Mill, Kuster, Wet- stein^ Greisbach, Malthst^i, and others, will be noticed more par- ticularly when the Literature of the Chyistian Church shall come under consideration, in the fourth and last part of this work. t The Uferarij aid rendered to Dr. Kennicot was received from almost every part of the Christian world, particularly from his own country, Germany, and France. The pecuniary aid with which he was favoured for the prosecution of his plan was derived chiefly from Great Britain, in which there was raised by subscrip- tion, for this purpose, the sum of 'ddOOOl. sterling. A degree t)f liberality which reflects the highest honour on the age. X Among the great number of manuscripts examined by Dr. Kennicot, there was one from America, 1 his belonged to the family of the late Mr. Solomon Simson, of the city of New York, who sent it to the learned collator iji 1 771, and had it returned in 1772. Thjs manuscript is the J 44th in Dr. Kennicot's list, undef the title of '' Codex /Imericanus Neo-EivraccnmJ' Sect. I. j Ilebrav Ijteratiuw o:,.^ the workl *. Every lover of oriciiuii iiuiaUin: must, tccl Ijiin^elf uiuk'r deep ohiin-atioas to this great eolhitor, not only for the hght wliieh his in- defatigable hibour threw on the sacred scriptures, but also for tliat taste and zeal in Helirew litera- ture, and particularly in biblical criticism, whicli his example evidently and remarkably revived in Great Britain f . When Dr. Kennicot began his celebrated work, he entertained an opinion decidedly opposed to the integrity of the common Hebrew text of the Bible. But, though there is no reason to suj)posG that he altered his opinion afterwards ; yet his la- bours certainly produced a conviction in the minds of discerning and impartial men, entirely contrary to what he expected. They confirmed rather than destroyed the general confidence in the niasoreti- calreadino-; and instead of subservini** the cause of infidelity or heresy, by unsettling the sacred text, as the Hutchbisoniaus and some others had predicted, their influence was directly of an oppo- site kind. Encourao-ed bv tlie success of Dr. Kennicot, and influenced, also, by the circumstance of his having a convenient and easy access to the Am- brosian library of Milan, John Bernard de Rossi, ^- Vdiii^ Testament urn Hcbraicum cum xar'iis Ltctinmhu». FJidd Benj. Kennicot, S.T. P. Oxonii. 1776, 178O. 2 vols., folio. f It is certain that since the pubhcation of Kennicot's work the study of Hebrew has remarkably revived in Great Britain j in which, at. the close of the eighteenth century, it is probable tiiere was a greater iumibor of Hebrew scholars tlian at .in> fouiicr period. ilj4 OHental Literature; [Chap. XIV. professor of oriental languages In the imiverslty of Parma, undertook a similar M'ork, wliicli he com- pleted, and laid before the world in 178()^\ He collated many manuscripts which Kennicot had never seen, and added many important readings to the former treasure. His work may, therefore, be considered a very useful supplement to that of his laborious predecessor. The same effect re- sulted from this- publication as from that of Ken- nicot. It tended to confirm the masoretical text, and disappointed the hopes of those who wished to unsettle or dishonour it f . Drs. Docderlein and ^ieissner, of Germany, by selecting and publish- ing, in a cheap and convenient form, the most im- portant and useful of the various readings exhibit- ed by Kennicot and de Rossi, produced a work which does honour to themselv'es, and deserv^es to * Van'a Lcctlones Vcteris Testamenti, ex immensa JMSS. eiUtorum,' >jU€ Codicum congcric hausfcc, ct ad Sa?}iar. Text urn ad icfustlss, rer- siones, ad accuratiores S, Critica: fnntcs ac leges examinata, opere ac studio Johan. Bern, de Rossi, S.T.P. et in li. Parmaisi Jcad. Lin^;. Oil. Prof. torn. iv. The author speaks thus of his work, '* Pro- duiitntur Jiic varice Lcctioncs V. T. ex inunensa MSS. editorumqite codicum congerie, id est, ex milk quadringcntis sepfuaginta et a?7ipliu$ mcri 'I'extus codicibus.'* f It is well known that in the common Hebrew Bibles there arc remarks, or various readings, in the margin, called Kcri, to di- stinguish them from the reading in the text, called Cltttib. The litter is, in mniiy places, obscure and difficult of construction. 1 he Kcri is the Masoretical emendation, or different reading j and of these there are in the Bible about one thousand. It is remark- able that, of this number, nine hundred and eighty-six have been found in the texts of different manuscripts, by the industr>' of Ken^ niiut and dc Rossi. A result so honourable to the Masuritts could scirccly have been expected. , SrfcT, I. J Hebrew Literature. ^255 be mentioned as one of the ornaments of the age *. Many other publications appeared, du'ring the eighteentli century, wliich facilitated and piomot- ed the study of the Hebrew language. Among these the Critica Sacra of Edward Leigh, an Eng- lish divine ; the Claris L'uigucu Saiictiv of Christian Stock, a learned German ; the Jamia Hcbraiccc Lhigme^ of Reineccius; the Hiippkmcnta ad Lexi- ca Ilebraica, by John David Michaelis ; and the Instltutlones Lingiue Hebraicce, by Schroeder, all of Germany, are worthy of high praise. The Trac- tatus Stigmologicus of the reverend Thomas Bos- ton, a pious and learned clergyman of North Bri- tain, deserves a distinguished place in the list of those publications which do honour to the eigh- teenth century, in Hebrew hterature. It is too little known, and as it is more read will be more esteemed. As the seventeenth century was adorn- ed by the Buxtorfs of Switzerland, and the study of the oriental languages greatly promoted by their example and their labours, so the eighteenth was rendered remarkable by the wonderful oriental learning, and the numerous publications on this branch of literature, by the Michaelises, of Ger- many. There were three in succession of this name, who all hold high and honourable places in the list of modern scholars, riz. John Henry, Christian Benedict, and John David. The last. ^- Biblia Ilchraka, oUm a Christiano Reineccio edita, nunc denuo cum variis lectionibiiSy ex ingcnti codicum copia, a B. Keimi- cotto ct Johan. Bern de Rossi, &c. cdidiruut J. C. D(;ederlein, ct J, H. Meissuer, 8vo, Leips. 1793. ?55 Oriental Literature. [Chap. XIV. U'lio was the son of John Henry, and who was nearly half a century engaged in promoting orien- tal literature, exceeded both his fadier and uncle in tliis species of erudition, and, indeed, might probably witli truth be pronounced the greatest orientalist that the western world ever beheld. His Oriental and E.vegetical Library '■^, and his nume- rous detached treatises, may be said to have form- ed a new epoch in Hebrew literature in Germany, Another work of great importance, which deserves to be mentioned, and which certainly contributed to keep alive and extend the zeal for this branch of literature which had been before excited, was a periodical publication entitled the Universal Li- brary of Biblical Literature, printed at Leipsic, from the year 1777 to 1786, in eighteen volumes. This publication M'as conducted by professor Eich- horn, of Jena, and is full of masterly criticism, and highly valuable information for the orientalist f. To these may be added the Oriental Library of professor llirt ; the large and learned works of pro- fessor Hezel, professor Ilasse, and professor Vater, all of Germany ; and the various publications of Drs. Hunt, Sharpe, Lowth, and many others, in * Tliis is a periodical publication, begun in 1/71, and con- cluded in 1783, and consists of twenty-three volumes, beside the general index. It was renewed in 1786, under the title <>f jScuc OrientaUschc BibUotlick, and continued for a number of years, in v.hich time there were at least eight volumes more pub* lishcd. f In this rich treasure of oriental learning are found valuable -treatises not only from the pen of the immediate conductor, but also many from professor Bruns, professor Tychsen, and others, -whose names are a sufficient pledge for the di^lay of great erudi- tion and talents in oriental literature. Sect. I. ] Ihhrccv Literature, 2.57 Great Britain, and on the continent of Eu- rope *. The study of the Hebrew language in America has long been at a low ebb. At the close of the seventeenth century much knowledge of tliis lan- guage appears to have existed among those vene- rable divines who planted and ministered to the churches in New England. Indeed, at that period this kind of knowledge was possessed by very few in any other part of our country. Accordingly the colleges of Harvard, in Massachusetts, and'^of Yale, in Connecticut, it is believed, are the only seminaries of learning in the United States in which the Hebrew language has been, for any con- siderable portion of time, regularly taught ; and at the present period they are the only American seminaries in which there are regular oriental in- structors f . A few of those destined for the cleri- cal profession in our country make themselves ac- quainted, to a small extent, with this language, so inestimably important to every biblical critic ; but * For a more particular notice of several publications since those of Dr. Lowth, more particularly by Drs. Nevvcome, Blaney, Wintle, Hodgson, and a long catalogue .of Hebrew translators and critics, the reader is referred to the fourth part of this work., under the head of Biblical Literature, t If the author do not mistake, the Hebrew language has been taught in Han/ard college for nearly a century, and during the greater part of that time by a professor regularly appointed for the purpose. In Yale college there has been for many years more or less attention devoted to Hebrew literature} but it was not until the autumn of 1802 that a professor for this branch of in- struction was appointed. The gentleman selected to fill this office is the reverend Ebenezer G. Marsh., who has the character of an excellent Hebrew scholar. Vol. II. S 258 Oriental Literature* [Chap. XIV. the acquisitions of such are generally made by their own unassisted industry, or by means of pri- vate tuition *. In 1779 the office of instruction in the Hebrew langaagc was added to a professorship, then held in the university of Pennsyh ania, by the reverend Dr. Kunze : but few availed themselves of the op- portunity thus afforded for gaining a knowledge of this ancient tongue; and the professorship was continued only for a short time. In 17S4 pro- fessor Kunze removed to the city of New York, and was soon appointed to a station in Columbia college, similar to that which he had held in the university of Pennsylvania f. This professorship ■* About the year 1760 the reverend J. G. Kals, a German clergyman, who had an uncommon stock of Hebrew learning, came to America. Anticipating the want of Hebrew types in this country^ he brought with him a large edition of a voluminous Hebrew grammar, which he had composed, and sometime before published j and many copies of a dictionaiy, also his own produc- tion, together with many other books of a similar kind. He ex- pected, by the Side of these works, and by the encouragement which he should meet with as an instructor of this language, to gain an •ample support. But he soon found tliat Hebrew hterature was jiot a very saleable article in America ; and that all his zeal was not sufficient to inspire even his clerical brethren with a general taste for its cultivation. Being present at a meeting of the clergy, when some candidates for the gospel ministry were examined^ and finding that ignorance of this language was not considered as a diaqualificatiou for the sacred office, he rose and made a speech, filled with reproaches, in which he denoimced his brethren as '• a gcmraiion o/'vipers," and left them with disgust. When the members of the same ecclesiastical body afterwards heard of his being in distress, and made a liberal collection for his relief, he received it with tlijs sarcastic remark, '' I am Elijah ; the ravens must feed me." t Professor KunzC; soon after roctjiving this appointment iu Sect. I.] Hebreo) Literature, 259 had a slender support afforded to it, by an annual allowance from the legislature of New York, for five years; but at the end of this time, the allow- ance being withdrawn, the department of oriental iuitruction was discontinued. This is one amonsr tlie several instances of disrcputalde literary retro- cession, by which the United States were distin- guished at the close of the eighteenth century. Some small publications for promoting Hebrew literature appeared in America during the cen- tury under review. Among these a Hebrew grammar, by Judah Monis, many years ago a teacher of this language in the university of Cam- bridge, in Massachusetts ; a grammar, by Stephen Sewall, also some time since a Hebrew instructor in the same institution ; and a work of a similar nature by Dr. Johnson, formerly president of King's college, in the city of New York, may be reckoned the most considerable *. They are only mentioned in this place as evidences that there has been some taste for Hebrew literature in Ame- Columbia college, entered on the duties of his office with an en- lightened and ardent zeal. That he might be more extensiveljr useful, he took the earliest opportunity of sending to Europe for a number of curious and voluminous works in oriental literature; and resolved by this meins not only to furnish himself with tlie best publications for teaching the Hebrew language in the most profitable manner, but also for initiating his pupils into the know- ledge of the Arabic and Syriac dialects, for which he is abundantly qualified. But all his exertions were rendered abortive by the Unreasonable and misplaced economy of our legislators, who have not infrequently acted as if they considered the interests of litera- ture among the most unimportant objects of their attention. * Professor Kunze also composed a Hebrew grammar on an improved plan, for the use of his pupils, which he designs to pub- lish as soon as a prospect of sufficient encouragement appears. S2 260 Oriental Literature. [Chap. XIV. rica ; and especially that a few individuals have displayed some zeal for its promotion, which only required public patronage to have been more suc- cessful. SECTION 11. ARABIC LITERATURE. Though something was said in the preceding section of the Hebrew language having been more successfully studied in modern times, on account of the increased knowledge of Arabic literature ; yet the subject is worthy of more particular no- tice. Scarcely any oriental language was so well un- derstood in Europe, at the close of the seventeenth century, as the Arabic. The excellent publica- tions of Erpenius and Golius, of Holland, for faci- litating and recommending this branch of east- ern literature, had been then laid before the world, and were of so superior a character that, by means of these helps, sir William Jones assures lis we may understand the learned Arabic better than the deepest scholar at Constantinople or at Mecca *. The Bibliotkcgue Orientate of M. d'Her- belot, a very learned and entertaining work, may also be mentioned among those aids which had been furnished in the preceding century, for the attainment of the same object. Since that time further light has been thrown on the literature of * See Sir William Jones's Works, vol. i, p. 39. Sect. II.] Arabic Literature. 261 Arabia, by the observations of several travellers, and by the labours of various learned men. Early in the century Adrian Reland, of Holland, and John Hudson, and Mr. le Roque *, of Great- Britain, laboured much, and with very honourable success, to illustrate the literature and science of Arabia. They were followed by Albert Schul- tens f , of Holland, and George Costard J, an En- glish divine, who were certainly among the most accomplished Arabic scholars of the age, and whose various publications contributed to extend this species of knowledge. The latter, in particu- lar, distinguished himself by his illustrations of Ara- bian astronomy; and has been pronounced, by a good judge, to be one of the most profound orien- tal astronomers ever born out of Asia. In Arabic literature, also, the labours of the Michaelises, Hezel, Wahl, Paulus, Bode, and Storr, of Ger- many ; of professor White and sir William Jones, of Great Britain ; and of M. Renaudot, the abb6 Marigny, and M. de Sacy, of France, deserve to be mentioned with high encomium. To the above may be added the information communicated by * Translation of Abulfeda's Arabia, 12mo, Lond. 17I8. And also his Account of Arabian Customs and Manners, 12mo, Lond. 1/32. -f- Mommenta Antiquissimoe Historic Arohum. Schultens sig- nalised himself by maintaining, in opposition to Gousset and Driessen, that, in order to gain a perfect knowledge of the He- brew, it was necessar}' to join with it not only Chaldeac and Syriac, but also, and more particularly, the Arabic. + See his Letters on the Rise and Progress nf Astronomy among the Ancients, 8vo, 174^: and aho hh General History of Astro" nomy, including that of the Arabians, 4to, 1777. 262 Oriental Literature. [Chap. XIY^ several travellers, among whom Niebubr, of Den- mark, holds a distinguished place. As in the seventeenth century the learned men of Holland were the great sources of information in Arabic literature, and had done more than those of any other country in Europe to advance its cultivation ; so in the eighteenth it is believed that Great Britain and Germany successfully vied with that country in the production of eminent Arabic scholars. Still, however, Holland held a high place with respect to this branch of oriental litera- ture. The names of Reland and Schultens alone do great honour to their nation, and may stand in the place of a host of minor orientalists. Professor Reiske, of Leipsic, who died in 1774, after a life of more than eighty years, was one of the most able and zealous promoters of Arabic li- terature that the age produced. By his unremitted oral instructions, and by his valuable publications, he contributed to the rearing of a great number of excellent Arabic scholars. His successor in the professorial chair at Leipsic, E. C. Rosenmuller, is highly distinguished in the same walk of litera- ture. Y{\s> Arabisches Ekmentarbuch, &c., isrepre« sen ted as a work of much value, and worthy of a place in the library of every student of the Arabic language. In 1800 professor Wliite, of the university of Oxford, presented to the lovers of Arabic litera- ture a curious and valuable work, entitled Abdolla- tiphi Historice JF.gypti Compendium Arabice ct La- tine. This work was iirst carried to England by Pr. Pococke^ tli<; celebrated traveller. His son, u Sect. II.] Arabic Lilcrature, ^C)f^ great orientalist, undertook to translate and pub- lish it, but never completed his undertaking. Pro- fessor White, at length, published the original Arabic, with a Latin translation, and learned notes. This has been represented as one of the most curi- ous and valuable specimens of Arabic literature ever imported from the east. In the eighteenth century the Koran, or sacred book of the Mahometans *, was, for the hrst time, translated into English from the original Arabic. In the seventeenth century that work was first translated into the French language, by M. du Ryer, consul of the French nation in Egypt, but in a very imperfect manner. Soon afterwards a translation from this version, with all its inaccu- racies and imperfections, was made into English, by Alexander Ross, who knew but little of the French language, and nothing of the Arabic ; and who of course, as might have been expected, added a great mass of mistakes to those of du * '' The book which the Mahometans call the Koran or AU coran, is composed of several papers and discourses of Mahomet, which were discovered and collected after his death, and is by no means that same Law whose excellence jNIahomet vaunted so highly. That some parts of the true Koran may be copied in the modern one, is indeed very possible j but that the Koran or Law, given by Mahomet to the Arabians, is entirely distinct from the modern Alcoran, is manifest from this, that in the latter Mahomet appeals to and extols the former, and therefore tliey must be two different compositions. May it not be conjectured that the true Koran was an Arabic Foem, which Mahomet recited to his fol- lowers, without giving it to them in writing, ordering them only to commit it to their memories ? such were the laws of tiie Druids in Gaul, and such also those of the Indians, which the Brahmins receive by oral tradition, and get by heart." Mosheim's licdts. Hist, vol. ii, p. 158, 264 Oriental Literature, [Chap. XIV. Ryer. But in the century under consideration this ancient record of the Mahometan faith was ably translated into English, from the original Arabic^ "by ]\Ir. George Sale, an English gentle- man profoundly versed in the literature of Arabia, and who accompanied Iiis work with instructive and highly interesting annotations. The Koi^an was also translated, a itw years afterwards, into the French language, by M. Savary, the celebrated traveller into Egypt*. The appearance of this version may be considered as forming an epoch in the progress of the sacred literature of Arabia among the learned of Europe. The translations of some other important works, both prose and poetical, from the Arabic, in the course of the last fifty years, may also be mentioned as favoura- ble to the same object. SECTION III. PERSIAN LITERATURE. The Persian language was also an object of con- siderable attention, and the knowledge of Persian literature made some progress in Europe during the last age. It was before remarked that the la- bours of Dr. Hyde, towards the close of the se- venteenth century, contributed much to the pro- motion of this object. This gentleman, from va- rious Persian and Arabian writings, from the rela- tions of travellers, together with numerous letters from persons in the east, compiled his celebrated work on the ancient Persians, which has been ever * This version makes a part of his Letters on Egypt and Greece , 6 vols, 8vo. Sect. III.] Persian Literature. 265 since regarded as a standard work in this l^ranch of literature. Since that time much has been ac- complished in the same field of inquiry. An at- tempt Avili be made to select a few out of the nu- merous facts and names which might be mentioned under this head. About the middle of the century M.Anquctil du Perron, of France, made a voyage to the east, for the purpose of recovering the writings of Zo- roaster, or Zaratusht, the celebrated ancient phi- losopher, who is said to have reformed, or found- ed, the religion of the Magi. After spending a number of years in Persia and India, and apply- ing himself to Persian literature with great zeal, he returned to his own country in 1761, and not long afterwards published a work under the title of Zend-Avesta, a work ascribed to Zoroaster, and said to contain his pretended revelations. Though it seems to be generally agreed that this work is spurious *, and that it was compiled long posterior to the time in which Zoroaster lived ; yet it is, on several accounts, an interesting publication, and a rich source of instruction to the student of Per- sian literature f . About the time in which M. Anquetil publish- ed this work, the study of the Persian language began to receive much attention, and to become fashionable amono- some of the literati of Great Britain. Warren Hastings, under w hose auspices, * Sir William Jones, on the appearance of this work, immedi- ately decided that it was spurious. See his Lettre a M. A du p dans laquelle est compris VExamen de sa traduction des livret attribues a Zoroastre, 1771' t Zend-Avesta, Ouvmge de Zoroastre, c^-c, 3 torn. 4 to, 1/71. f65 Oriental Literature* [Chap. XIV- when afterwards governor of India, oriental'litera,- ture was cultivated with so much zeal, became early in life fond of this language, and exerted himself to diffuse a knowledge of it in his own countiy. Sir William Jones also, while yet a youth, discovered much of that enthusiastic at- tachment to eastern learning, in which he after^ wards made such astonishing progress *, In 1773 * Sir A^'illinm Jones was one of the brightest ornaments of the eighteenth century, and in some respects one of the most wonder- ilil men that ever existed. He died in 179"^, after having lived a little more tlian 47 years. In this short period he had acquired an extent of learning, and a variety and elegance of accopiplishments, which seldom fall to the lot of an individual. There were few sciences in which he had not made considerable proficiency, and in most his knowledge was profound. His capacity for the ac- quisition of languages has probably never been excelled, in Greek and Roman literature his early proliciency was the subject cf admiration and applause > and knowledge, of whatever nature, onee obtained by him was ever afterwards progressive. 'J'he more elegant dialects of modern Europe, the French, the Spanish, and the Italian, he spoke and wrote with the greatest fluency and precision j and the German and Portuguese were familiar to him. At an early period of life his application to oriental literature com* menccd; he studied the Hebrew with ease and success, and many of the most learned Asiatics have the candour to avow, thai his knowled j;e of Arabic and Persian was as accurate and exten- sive as their own. He was also conversant in the Turkish idioms, and even the Chinese had attracted his notice vso far as to induce him to learn the radical characters of that language, with a view, perhaps, to furtlier improvements. It was to be expected, after his arrival in India, that he would eagerly embrace the opportu- nity of making himself master of the Sanscrit) and the most en- lightened professors of the doctrines of Brahwali confessed, wrth pride, delight, and astonishment, that his knowledge of their sa- cred dialect was mott critically correct and profound. To a pro- ficiency in the languages of Greece, Rome, and Asia, he added a knowledge of the philosophy of tliose countries, and of every thixig ;5ect. IIL] Persian Literature^ 26? he published his History of Nadir Ska h, and the year following his Persian Grammar; both of which works hold an important place auu)ng the events in oriental literature with whicii the age is niarked. The version of the former from the ori- ginal Persian into French^ he undertook and ac- complished from a regard to the literary reputa- tion of his country, that it might not be carried out of England with the reflection that no person had been found in the British dominions capable of translating it *. The same accomplished Briton afterwards wrote several important publications. curious or valuable that had been taught in them. The doctrines of the Academy, the Lyceum, and the Porch, wei^ not more fami- liar to him than the tenets of the P^eclas, the mysticisms of the Sujis, or the religion of the ancient Persians ^ and whilst, with a kindred .genius, he perused with rapture the compositions of the most renowned poets of Greece, Rome, and Asia, he could Uirn with equal delight and knowledge to the sublime inquiries or ma- thematical calculations of Barrow and Newton. Beside all tliesc acquisitions, the theory of music was familiar to him j he had made himself acquainted with the modern interesting discoveries in chemistry, and his last and favourite pursuit w^as the study of bo- tany, in which he made great progress, and, had his life been spared, would probably have been a reformer and discoverer. His poetic productions discover a vigorous imagination and an elegant taste. His learning and talents as a lawyer were still more eminent. His abilities and integrity as a magistrate and a judge were universally applauded 3 and, to crown all, the purity of his life, and tiie fer- vour of his piety as a Christian, shed a lustre upon every oUier ac- complishment. See a Discourse delivered before the Asiatic Society in Mai/, 1794, bj/sir John Shore, now lord Tei-nmouth, prefixed i(^ thejirst volume of Sir William J ones s Works. * The translation of the History of Nadir Shah was under- taken by sir William Jones, at the instance of the king of Den- mark. For this honourable monument of learned labour, Ins foyal employer, presented him witl^ a >»nufi'-box ! $68 Oriental Literature, [Chap, XIV. connected with Persian literature, and shed much additional light on this department of eastern learning. To Mr. Francis Gladwin, also of Great Britain, one of the most unwearied labourers ia oriental literature which the eighteenth century produced, the public is much indebted for the aid which he rendered to students of the Persian language. Be- side several important translations, which alone entitle him to distinction, he published a gram- mar, entitled the Persian Monshee ; and also a Compendious Vocabulary ^ English and Persian, These were presented to the public about the year 1780, and have received great and just praise. Beside the above-mentioned gentlemen, who were eminently distinguished as promoters of Per- sian literature, some others deserve to be respect- fclly noticed, as having contributed to the same object. Among these Mr. Richardson, by his Specimens of Persian Poetry\, and other publica- tions ; major Davy, by his Institutes of Timour ; major Ouseley, by his Oriental Collections ; and M. Mirkliond, by liis Historia Priorum Regum Persarum, have rendered important aid to the students of oriental learning. Persian literature has also been enriched, during the last age, with a number of important translations into the different languages of Europe. To these may be added the valuable information given respecting the arts, sciences, and literature, of Persia, by Tavcrnier, Franklin, Niebuhr, and various other intelligent travellers in that country. Sect. IV.] Hindoo Literature, ^9 SECTION IV. HINDOO LITERATURE. In tills branch of oriental literature the eiglv- teenth century presents a degree of progress highly interesting and honourable. Though it is now more than three centuries since Europeans first na- vigated to India ; and though the inhabitants of that and the adjacent countries merit the attentioTi of the curious mofe, perhaps, than any other peo- ple on the globe ; yet it is but a few years since any suitable inquiries were instituted, and any sa- tisfactory information obtained, respecting tlie li- terature and science of that important portion of the Asiatic continent Early in the century the Lettres Ed\fiantes et Curkuses, enriched with communications from missionaries in India, were published, and engag- ed much of the attention of the literary world *, After these M. Renaudotf, of France, and Theoph. S. Bayer J, a learned German, each com- municated to the public some important informa- tion concerning the literature and sciences of Ilindostan; insomuch that, notwithstanding the * The principal compiler of the Lettres Edijianfes et Ctiricuses was father Charles Gobien, a Jesuit, of St. Maloes, assisted by du Hald€, and others, of the same order. These Letters are filled with interesting accounts of the natural history, geography, policy, and literature, of the countries visited by the Jesuits. They aj)- peared at an early period of the century, in a number of volumes. f Anciennes Relations des Indes, et de la Chine, ^-c, 1718- + Elementa Literal . BrahmaniaB, S^c. 1732. 2/0 Oriental Literature. [Chap. XIV. great improvements in oriental knowledge since their time, they are still quoted frequently^ and with high respect. To these great orientalists, after an interval of many years, succeeded Mr. ?Iolwell^ and Mr. Dow f, of Great Britain, who spent some time in the east, and who professed to give the public much new and curious informa- tion concerning the religion and sacred literature of the Hindoos. The publications of these gentle- men, however, are by no means consistent with each other, or, with themselves ; and although they contain, especially the works of IMr. Hol- well J, some useful and instructive matter, they are far from being considered unexceptionable au- thorities, by later and better informed writers. Mr. Warren Hastings, soon after receiving the appointment of governor of Bengal, formed the design of procuring a complete code of the laws and customs of the Hindoos. With a view to the accomplishment of this design he invited, about the year ]7'^3, a number of Brahmans, who were learned in the Sanscrit language, from Benares and other parts of the country, to convene in Cal- * S^K his \voik on the Tnsts, Fcsfivals, and Metempsychosis of the hindonfi, 2 vols, 8vo, 1/66, and also his Interesting Historical Krents, 2 vols, Svo, 1/66". -f- TrnnsJntion o/'Ferishta's Indian History, 3 vols, 4to, 17/0. I John Zephaniah Holwell, esq., governor of Bengal, was among the persons confined in the Black Hole at Calcutta, in 17.56, of which he published a narrative. He was one of the- first P2uropt'ans who engaged in the study of Hindoo antiquities; and pointed out the pith which others have so successfully pur- sued. He was, however, wholly ignorant of the Sanscrit Ian* guage; and, on account of this deficiency, laboured under many disadvantages, and made gross mistakes in his investigations. Sect. IV.] Hindoo Literature. 271 cutta. Tliey complied with the invitation, and, after making large collections from the m'ost au- thentic books, both ancient and modern, the whole M'as translated into the Persian language, from which an English version was publi^.hed by Mr. Nath. Brassey Halhed, in 1776\ The publication of this work may be regarded as an important event in the history of Hindoo literature *. It Mas long ago known that all the science and literature possessed by the Brahinaiis \vere recorded in the Sanscrit f , an ancient and sacred language which was understood only by a few of the most learned among themselves, and with M'hich ihc rest of mankind were wholly unacquainted. For nearly three centuries different Europeans, settled in India, sought to acquire a knowledge of this * About the middle of the sixteenth century Akber, the sixth in descent from Tamerlane^ and a prince of distinguished talenti and virtues, ascended the throne of Hindostan. As in everr part of his extensive dominions the Hindoos formed the great body of his subjects, he hiboured to acquire a perfect knowledge of their religion, r.ciences, laws, and institutions j that he mi^lit condiict every part of his government, particularly the adminisLr:i- tion of justice, in a manner as much accommodated as possible to their own ideas. In this undertaking he was seconded by his viz-ier, Abul Fazel, a minister whose understanding was not less enlightened than that of his master. By their assiduous researche> and consultation of learned men, such information was obtained as enabled Abul Fazel to publish a brief compendium of Hindoo jurisprudence in tlie Ayeen Ahbcry, which may be considered as tiie first genuine communication of its principles to persons of a different religion. About two centuries afterwards Mr. Hiitings imitated and surpassed the example of Akber. See Robertson's India, p. 260. t The word Sanscrit, according to Mr. V/ilkins, is compound- ed of the preposition San, signifying compkfwn, and Skrita,Jitiis/i- edt implying that the languiigc is exquisitely relin^d and puliihed. 27^ Oriental Literature. [Chap. XIV. language, but without success. The Brahmans, either systematically averse to the use of any means for gaining proselytes to their religion and habits, or suspecting tliat some improper use was intended to be made of the information solicited, uniformly refused to instruct any one in their sa- cred books. But, at length, won by the address and persuasion with which the application was presented, and being convinced that no intention hostile to them or their religion was entertained by the applicants, they yielded. Mr. Nathaniel B. Halhed, before mentioned, was the first En- glishman who acquired a knowledge of the Sanscrit, He was soon followed in this interesting acquisi- tion by Mr. Charles Wilkins and sir William Jones, who were not long in giving to the public the fruits of their labours. The first translation ever made from the sacred language of the Brahmans into English was hy Mr. Wilkins, and published in 1785. This trans- lation was from the Mahaharat, an epic poem much esteemed among the Hindoos, and which, in the original, is very voluminous, consisting of more than four hundred thousand lines, of which Mr. Wilkins translated one third, but published only an episode, entitled Bhagmt-Gecta. The publication of this work excited great curiosity in the literary world, and was the occasion of increased attention to eastern learning. In 1786 a second translation from the Sajiscrit language, by sir William Jones, was laid before the public. This was Sacontala, a dramatic poem of great antiquity, and indicating considerable refinement, both of sentiment and manners, among those who could produce or relish Sect* iV.] Hindoo Literature. 273 in In 1787 Mr. Wilklns again laid the republic of letters under obligations to him, by publibhino- a version of the Heeto-pades, or Amicable Inst rue- tmi, a series of connected fables, interspersed with moral, prudential, and political maxims. These Avere followed by several other versions from tlie Sanscrit of less importance, by Mr. Wilkins, sir William Jones, and some anonymous hands. In addition to the various translations which have been made from this ancient language, its struc- ture, beauties, and antiquity have been the sub- jects of much ingenious and instructive iuvestiga- tion within a few years past. Among these the in- quiries of Mr. Halhed* and especially of sir Wil- liam Jones, deserve particular attention, and the highest praise f . To father Paolino, formerly pro- fessor of oriental languages in the Propaganda at Rome, the public are also indebted for some * Mr. Halhed is of opinion that the Sanscrit was, in ancient periods, current not only over all India, considered in its largest extent, but over all the oriental world ; and that traces of its ori- ginal diffusion may still be discovered in almost ever}' region of Asia. f *' The Sanscrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure -, more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined tlian either j yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and in the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident 3 so strong, indeed, that no philologer could examine them all without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists. There is similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothic and the Celtic, though blended witli very ditfcrent idioms, had the same origin with tlie Sanscrit : and the old Per^ sian might be added to the same family." See sir William Jones'f Third Discourse before th^ Asiatic Society, Vol. II. T ^74 . Oriental Literature. [Chap. XlV- useful exertions to promote the study of Sanscrit. During a residence of thirteen years in India he acquired much information concerning this lan- guage, and formed a grammar, which is said to exhibit its elements in a very clear and satisfactory manner. The institution of the Asiatic Societi/, in Cal- cutta, in the year 1784, forms an important a^ra in the history of oriental learning. The design of this association was to trace the antiquities, arts, sciences, and literature of the immense continent of Asia. It was planned and founded by sir Wil- liam Jones, who was long its president, and cer- tainly the most active and extensively useful mem- ber. How diligent and unwearied the labours of this association, and how curious and valuable the results of their investigations, are generally known by means of the several volumes of Asiatic Re- searches, which have been laid before the public in the course of the last fifteen years. In these volumes the intelligent reader will find an amount of information on the subjects of inquiry before stated, which the whole literary world could not have furnished antecedently to their appearance. By studying the Sajisciit language, in which the most authentic and ancient records of the Hin- doos are written ; by opening communications between distant regions of the east ; and by fre- quently penetrating into the interior parts of the country, conversing with the learned men, in- specting their monuments, and observing their habits atid manners ; an astonishing mass of new facts has been obtained and given, by their la- bours, to the public ; and from the same source Sect. IV.] Hindoo Literature. 275 hiuch more, perhaps, of still greater value may be expected. They have entered into paths of in- quiry which, if diligently and skilfully pursued, must conduct to the richest treasures of informa- tion. It is believed that neither the original Vcdas *, ■which are the sacred books of the Hindoos, nor the Shastahsy which are commentaries upon them, have ever yet been exhibited complete in any Eu- ropean language. At the beginning of the eigh- teenth century scarcely any thing was known of these books, out of their native country. Since that time important extracts from them have been published, and a tolerable view of their contents presented to the world, first by Mr. Holwell, before mentioned ; afterwards, though with less faithful- ness, by Mr. Dow; and at still later periods, by sir William Jones and others f. The disclosures which these publications have effected, concern- ing the sacred literature of the Hindoos, have served equally to interest and to gratify the curio- sity of the philosopher and the Christian. The astronomy and chronology of Hindostan engaged much of the attention of oriental scholars, especially towards the close of the century under consideration. The honour is due to the French ©f having commenced this inquiry in a regular * The books called Fcdas are four in number. They are so denominated from Veduy a Sanscrit root, signifying to knoiv. f Sir William Jones tells us that the four Vtdas are comprised in eleven large folio volumes, a complete copy of which was ob- tained by colonel Polier, of Great Britain, who resided many years at Delhi, and displayed the most laudable zeal in collecting Indian curiosities. T2 276 Oriental Literature^ [Chap. XIV. and scientific manner. ^I. le Gentil was the first who brought to hght from the recesses of their tem- ples, with any tolerable accuracy, the astronomy of the Brahmans *. Since he wrote, the inquiry has been pursued more fully and ingeniously by his countryman, IM. Baillyf ; by sir William Jones, who has contributed to the illustration of almost every part of oriental literature and science ; and by Mr. Playfair J, of the university of Edinburgh; and still more recently by Mr. Samuel Davis, Mr. John Bentley, and others, whose valuable communications appear in the Asiatic Researches, To these may be added the chronological inqui- ries of Mr. Marsden and Mr. Paterson. The result of all which is the most complete proof that the extravagant and ridiculous claims made by the Brahmans, concerning the antiquity of their nation and their sciences §, are wholly desti- tute of foundation. Indeed, the latest inquiries afford satisfactory evidence not only that no an- tiquity inconsistent with the Mosaic chronology can be claimed by them, but that the dates of their most ancient books and records arc far more * See Voyage dans le Mers de llndc, kc. par M. le Gentil^ I76ij. f Trait t de V/lstronomie Indicnnc ct Orient ale, 1/87. X See Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. ii, p. 135. § In all the computations of the Brahnnans the most enormous extravagance appears. They suppose the period which has elapsed 5.incc the creation to be more than seven millions of years ! In the 8amo spirit of boundless absurdity, they make the c-rcumferencc of the earth to be 5QQ{X)O0O0 yojunas, or 2456000000 British miles ; and the height of many mountains to be IQO yojanas, oi 491 British miles! Sect. IV.] Hindoo Literature, 277 recent than even the friends of the scripture hi- story at first supposed. The geography of India received much chicichi- tion, by the labours of learned orientalists in the course of the last age *. At an early period of the century Jolin Hudson, of Great Britain, com- menced this inquiry, and pursued it with honoura- ble success. He was followed, after an interval of many years, by M. d'Anville, of France, who, in his Antiquite Geographique de rhide, and in his Eclaircissemens Geographiques sur la Carte de VInde, gave a more satisfactory and scientilic view of the subject than any who had gone before him. The next important publication on the geography of India was by Major Rennell, who, in his Map of Hiudostan, and in his Memoir accompanying the same, made a present of incomparable value to the public. And, finally, the services rendered to this branch of oriental inquiry by sir William Jones, colonel Wilford, and several other members of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta, demand many acknowledgments from the friends of literature and science. Beside the contributors to Hindoo literature above named, a number of other gentlemen, who have employed themselves in promoting the same object, deserve to be respectfully mentioned. Among these the several publications of Mr. Orme, an 'English gentleman much conversant in * Though the Geography of India does not Btrictly fall under the denomination of Hindoo Literature ; yet, as the two subjects have generally been treated in such a manner as to stand in con* jiection with each other, it is thouglit proper to introduce this pa- ragraph here. 278 OHental Literature. [Chap. XIV. Hindoo learning ; those of Mr. Cokbrooke, who has translated a body of Hindoo laws, and thrown •considerable light on the history and literature of Hindostan * ; the Sketches relating to the letters and science of that country, successively given by Forster, Crauford, and Kindersley, all of Great Britain ; and tlie various works of different com- parative value, by sir John Shore, sir William Ouseley, Mr, Burrow, Mr. Hunter, and a number more of the same country, who spent a considera- ble time in India, have added much to our stock of knowledge respecting that important portion of Asia. But among all the writers on this subject few have rendered such essential service to the cause of oriental literature as the reverend Tho- mas Maurice, a learned and ingenious English divine, who,, in his Indian Antiquities, has collect- ed and laid before the public a mass of informa- tion respecting the theology, geography, jurispru- dence, political establishments, and various litera- ture of Hindostan, so rich and instructive, as will entitle him to the lasting gratitude of every friend to liberal knowledge, and genuine religion f. The living languages of India have been better and more extensively understood by Europeans of the eighteenth century than ever before. This is particularly the case with the Bengal language. Mr. Halhed published a Gi^ammar of the Bengal * Mr. Colebrooke, towards the close ®f the century, published • Dif^e^t of Hindoo Law, in four vols, 8vo. He was induced to undertake this work by the recommendation of sir William Jones, It is, on various accounts, a curious and valuable work. t See Indian Antiquities ; or Dissertations relative to Hindostan^ 7 vols, 8vo. Sect. IV.] Hindoo Literature, ^79 Language, in Calcutta, in 1778, and in London in 1780. Considering this language as the sole channel of personal and "epistolary communication among the Hindoos of every occupation and tribe; and considering also, that of all the oriental lan- guages this approaches nearest to the Sanscrit in expression, structure, and character ; every at- tempt to illustrate its principles, and facilitate its acquisition, may be regarded as an important pre- sent both to the literary and commercial world. The reverend Wilham Carey, a Baptist missi- onary of distinguished talents and piety, has, by his persevering labours, rendered important ser- vice to the Hindoo literature. At the close of the eighteenth century he had translated the whole Bi- ble into the Bengal language, had printed his trans- lation of the New Testament, and distributed a large edition of this portion of the sacred scrip- tures among the Hindoos. This zealous and un- wearied missionary has also formed a i^anscrit Grammar, and has begun a Dictionarxj of the same language. The establishment o'f the British East India company, and the extensive commercial arrange- ments of that association, may be considered as bearing an important relation to the advancement of oriental literature. The exertions of this com- pany have extended the intercourse between Eu- rope and Asia, have led many persons of curiosity and learning to visit that quarter of the globe, and have in various ways promoted the study of the languages and science of the east. £80 Oriental Literature, [Chap. XIV SECTION V. ' CHINESE LITERATURE. It is generally known that Europe is indebted to the learned men of France for almost all the know^ ledge of Chinese literature of which it can boast. As early as the sixteenth century a number of French Jesuits penetrated into China, and by their learn- ing and address conciliated the favour of the go^ vernment. These missionaries were followed by others^ of various characters and talents, and, iri fact, a succession of them was maintained, amidst many changes of reception and treatment, until after the middle of the century under considera- tion. The opportuaiities which they enjoyed for exploring the literature and science of that empire were diligently improved. Much of the informa- tion which they acquired was transmitted, at dif^ ferent periods, to Europe ; and though the foitlu fulness of their narratives has sometimes been called in question, the works compiled from their letters and journals may be considered as, on the whole, the richest sources of instruction in this department of oriental inquiry *. Toward the close of the seventeenth century M, Couplet, one of the missionaries above mentioned, * The missionaries have been, perhaps, too freely charged with the want of fidelity \\\ their accounts of China. Later inquiries Jiave shp\yn that there is ground for this charge, at least in sonoe instances. Still, however, these accounts are highly valuable, anc| abundantly worthy of perusal. «. Sect, v.] Chinese Literature, $81 translated sucli of the works of Confucius, tlie celebrated Chinese philosopher; as have been preserved. This was considered as an important service to literature, and gave him an honourable place in the list of oriental scholars. Not long afterwards a very extensive and interesting pubh- cation made its appearance in France, under the title of Lett res Ed'ijiantes et Curieuses des Missions Estranghxs. The greater part of this work, %vhich was compiled from the papers of the mis- sionarieSj and which extended to more than forty volumes, was published at an early period of the eighteenth century, and contains an ample fund of instruction concerning the literature and science of China, This was folloM^ed by the Anciennes Relations des Lndes, et de la Chine, of M. Ilenau- dot, which made an important addition to the stock of information before possessed on the sub- jects of which it treats. To these succeeded the great work of father du Halde, entitled a General Description of China ; and a work, under nearly the same title, by the abbe Grosier, both of which are considered as publications of the first class, and as containing much instructive matter relat- ing to the learning, arts, and general condition of the wonderful country Avhich they describe. The singular intricacy of the Chinese language, the difficulty of acquiring a tolerable knowledge even of its elementary principles, and the restraints which have long been imposed upon all intercourse between the learned men of Europe and of China, have prevented an acquaintance with that language from becoming more frequent in the literary world. Hence, while the philosophy, astronomy, history, sa^ Oriental Literature. [Chap. XIV. and other, sciences of China have been deeply in- vestigated, and some knowledge of them exten- sively diffused, during the last age, the characters and structure of the language of that country have been but little explored. A ^e\v attempts, how- ever, were made in the period under reviev/, and not altogether without success, to communicate to the public some information on this subject. In the beginning of the century, and nearly about the same time, Theophilus Sigifred Bayer *, before mentioned, and ]\I. Fourmont, a learned oriental- ist of France, published their researches in the Chinese language. The former was one of the greatest proficients in the literature of China that the age produced ; the latter also attained high eminence in tlie same walk of learning, and pub- lished a grammar of the Chinese language, which has received much praise. A few years, after- wards I\I. deGuignes published the result of his inquiries respecting this language, and gave some specimens of its characters and words f . He was folloM'ed by M. Pauw, a learned Prussian, who presented to the world what he called Fliilosoplii* cat Researches concerning the Chinese, which, though they indicate the strongest prejudices, yet contain some useful information. * Theophilus Sigifred Bayer was bom in Germany in 1()94. lie acquired great knowledge of the eastern languages, and parti- cularly the Chinese. In 1726 he was invited to Petersburgh, and made professor of Greek and Roman antiquities.. He died in J 738. His ^lusiium iSinicu?}}, 2 vols, 8vo, 1/30^ is a curious and learned work. t See Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Lisiriptions and Belka 'Uttrcsy especially vols^ xxx, xxxvi, and xxxviji. Sect. V.] Chinese Literature, <£S5 In 1 7^1 a very singular and carious performance made its appearance in Great Britain. This'was a translation of a Chinese novel, under the title of Hail Kiou ChooaUy or the Pleasing History, in four volumes. The translation had been made a number of years before, by James Wilkinson, a British merchant, who had resided for some time at Canton, where he studied the Chinese lan a"^ ^^^'^ in J 719. 296 3Iodern Languages. [Chap. XV. ed also more judgment in the choice, and more pre- cision in the use of terms. The forced metaphor, the dragging clause, the harsh cadence, and the abrupt close, were carefully excluded from his pages. He exhibited, in an eminent degree, that correctness, perspicuity, ease, and harmony, ia which preceding writers had been so remarkably deficient. He was the first English prose writer who discovered any thing like distinguished taste in the choice and management of figures. *' Pure without scrupulosity, and correct without apparent elaboration ; equally free from studied amplitude and affected brevity ; familiar, but not coarse ; and elegant, but not ostentatious*," he deserves to be ranked among the most meritorious reformerar of our language. While Addison was employed in communicating to English style a new degree of ease and polish. Swift t was successfully engaged in cultivating it, with a particular view to its purity and precision. Endowed with a mind among the most vigorous of the age in which he lived, and directing parti- cular attention to the subject of language, he at- tained distinguished excellence as a writer. He was the first who attempted to express his mean- ing without '' subsidiary words and corroborating phrases.'' He was still more sparing in the use of synonymes than Addison ; and m ithout being very solicitous about the structure or harmony of his * Johnson. t Jonathan Swift was born in 166/. He received his educa- tion in Trinity college, Dublin j was appointed dean of St. Patrick's in 1/13, and died in 1745.— His whole works have been printed in various forms. Sect. I.] English Language. 597 periods, he attended particularly to the foix;e of individual words. Less iigurative and adorned than Addison, he learned more successfully than him to avoid the diffuse and feeble manner which had so generally characterised English composition. Mr. Hiiriic supposes that the first elegant prose iu our language was written by Swift. To Mr. Pope, also, English style is much in- debted*. '' He cultivated the beauties of lan- guage with so much diligence and art that he has left, in his Homer, a treasure of poetical elegances to posttrity. His version may be said to have tuned his native tongue ; for since its appearance no writer, however deficient in other powers, has wanted melody '\.'' The style of English vcrsilica- tion attained in his hands that sweetness of har- mony, that grace of embellishment, that ciinosa felicitas, which have never since been surpassed. There is scarcely a happy combination of words, or a phrase musical and captivating, which is not to be found in his writings. The improvements introduced by these benefac- tors to English literature were pursued and ex- tended by several contemporary and succeeding wTiters. Among the first of these Shaftesbury and Bolingbroke hold an honourable place J. The * Alexander Pope was born in London in the year 1688. His first great work was his Essay on Cntidsw, published in 1704. In ]713 he published proposals for a translation of Homer's Iliad, which was, in 1 720, completely given to the world. From this period till his death, in 17-14, his history is marked by few cvetiU but those which relate to his successive publications. ■f Johnsons Life of Pope. * It will readily occur to the reader that nothing is meant to be spden of here but the .t,lc of thc.e writers. Ihe teudcncy of 298 Modern Languages. [Chap. X\^. style of the former, though excessively and elabo- rately delicate, and displaying a continual fond- ness for artificial arrangement, and affected state- liness^ is still rich and musical, and contributed not a little to improve the public taste. The writings of the latter, exhibiting the ease and ele- gance of Addison with more vigour, were also useful in promoting the prevalence of correct and elegant composition. Neither of them, however, can be said to have introduced a fashion of writ- ing wholly new, or to have formed a remarkable asra in the histoi-y of the English language. The same may be said of Middleton, Fielding, Sher- lock, Smollet, Hawkesworth, Goldsmith, Mel- moth, and several others. With various talents and modes of expression, and with different de- grees of literary merit, they all contributed some- thing to the cultivation of style, and each display- ed some new and peculiar excellence, v/ithout producing, singly, any thing like a revolution in manner. The change introduced into English style by Dr. Johnson, deserves particular notice *. This great philologist, while he was ambitious to convey im- portant moral and literary truth, laboured also to " refine the language of his country to grammati- cal purity, and to clear it from colloquial barbar- their publications, in a moral and religious view, will be particn- larly noticed in a subsequent part of this work. * Dr. Samuel Johnson was born at Litchfield, in Staffordshire, in 1 706, and died in London in 1/84. The history, character, and writings, of this *' literary colossus" are loo well known to render any minute details respecting them necessary in this place. Sect. I.] English Language. ^99 isms, licentious idioms, and irregular combina- tions ; to add something to the elegance of its con- struction, and something to the harmony of its cadence*." Nor did he labour in vain. He ef- fected important improv^ements in English style. He improved the form of its phrases, tlic construcr tion of its sentences, and the precision and ajv propriateness of its diction. He introduced a strength and solidity of expression ; a dignity, not to say pomp, of manner, which, though becoming in him, can scarcely be imitated without danger; and in the happy art of exhibiting a number of adjunct ideas in the same sentence with perspicuity and vigour, he has rarely if ever been cc^u ailed. He enriched the language, also, with many words, adopted from the Greek and Latin. In this, in- deed, he has beerf censured by some, and perhaps with justice, as having gone too far, and resorted to foreign aid without necessity. But though it be admitted that he has, in some instances, trans- gressed his own rules, yet he certainly added largely to the stores of English diction, and may, on the whole, be considered one of the greatest benefactors to English literature that the age pro- duced. But signal as the improvements in style which Dr. Johnson either introduced, or contributed to promote, yet it cannot be denied that, in some re- spects, he gave countenance to a false taste iii writing. He brought into vogue a style which is, perhaps, too far rem.oved from the ease and sim- plicity of colloquial discourse; which too nuicli • Rambler, vol. iv, No. 208. 500 Modern Languages. [Chap. XV. abounds in artificial embellishment, formal mono- tonou5 structure, and elaborated figure; and which, when employed on subjects less digniiied than those of which he usually treated, is extremely faulty. His manner, perverted and extravagantly extended, has led many fashionable writers to sup- pose that a continual glare of metaphor, an un- ceasing effort to exhibit epigrammatic point, and an tmdistinguishing stateliness of march, were among the superior beauties of composition. These faults, togetlier with the short sentences, so much affected within a ^^\w years past by several popular writers, are among the fantastic errours which a spirit of niisguided imitation, or a perverted taste, have brought too much into use. It would be unpardonable, in this sketch, not to take notice of several other writers, who, to- ward the close of the century in question, made a distinguished figure in the annals of English style. Among these perhaps the most worthy of our at- tention are the author of the letters of Junius, Mr. Burke, sir Joshua Reynolds, and bishop Wat- son. The remarkable characteristics, and the peculiar excellence of the style of Junius are well known *. Mi-. Burke, though sometimes very in- accurate, yet furnished many specimens of splen- did and forcible eloquence, which would have done honour to the brightest icra of Grecian or * The Lctitrs published under the signature of Junius form one of the most curious items in the literary history of the last age. The peculiarity of their style, the boldness of their invective, and the impenetrable veil of secrecy under which their author has left bis name, have excited a degree of attention and speculation rarely bestowed on the ]>roductions of genius. Sfxt. I.] Efiglish Language, 501 Roman taste. AVliile the writings of sir Josluui Reynolds * and bisliop Watson, more clia^^te and correct, and scarcely interior in force and other beauties, will loni>; be read as admirable models of English composition. To the above names miglit be added those of Dr. Beattie, Dr. Blair, and several others, both in North and South Britain, either still living or late- ly deceased, who have.contributed to form and ex- tend a taste for elegant writing. But to these it would be impossible to do justice without engag- ing in a discussion too minute for the limits ot the present sketch. In English historical style Hume and Robert- son are, unquestionably, the best models. The former excels in ease, spirit, and interest ; the lat- ter in purity, dignity, strength, and elegance. The great improvement which they have effected in this kind of composition^^ since the lime of Clarendon and of Rapin, must be obvious to the most care^ less reader. Mr. Gibbon has attempted to carry the ornaments of this kind of style much higher than his predecessors had ventured. But it seems to be the opinion of most impartial judges, that many of his favourite ornaments are meretricious; that his loftiness is often nothing more than bombast and affectation ; that what he imagined to be beau- tiful splendour of diction is frequently disgust- ing glare; that aiming at a dignity tar above the * In this remrtrk, the charge against the memory of sir J. Reynolds, as having been assisted by Mr. Burke in the composi- tion of those noble discourses which he delivered before the Royal Academy, is taken for granted to be false, or, at least, not true to the extent which has been stated. 502 Modem Languages, [Chap. XV; ease of discourse he becomes so '^ fantastically ill- folded" as to be obscure, if not unintelligible. His manner has, indeed, many beauties, but it has also multiplied blemishes; and the reader of taste will proba!)ly allow that English style has rather suf- fered deterioration than gained improvement by his literary labours. The sum of the matter, then, seems to be this; that English style, since the commencement of the eii^liteenth centurv\ has become more rich and copious, by a large accession of words; that it has gained a more " lofty port," and '' moves with a more firm and vigorous step ;" that the structure of sentences, in our best authors, is more compress- ed, accurate, and philosophical; that '^the con- nective particles are used with more attention to their genuine meaning;" and, in general, that the scientific spirit of the age has extended itself re- markably, in giving to our, language that preci- sion, spirit, force, polish, and chaste ornament, which are so frequently met with at the present day *. The English language is, indeed, capable of much greater improvement, and will, probably, receive more than it has yet attained. Improprie- ties, and viohitions of analogy, are to be found, in considera])le number, in the best writers ; and * There are some good remarks on English style in the ///- quircr, a So its of Kssat/s, by William Godwin. Though no friend to human ha^jpincss can recommend the moral or religious princi- ples of this writer, which are preeminently fitted to delude, cor- napt, and destroy j yet he is himself master of a vigorous style, and hi3 judgment on a question of literary taste is entitled to re- spect. Sect. I.] English Language* 303 many of those words and phrases which modern innovators have introduced, a better taste will, no doubt, indignantly dismiss. If more than forty years ago a celebrated writer could complain, with justice, of numerous departures from the purity of Englisli idiom, and deviations toward the '' Gallic structure and phraseology," it is presumed that, since that time, the complaint has become better founded. Mr. Hume, and, in a high degree, ]\Ir. Gibbon, to say nothing of a multitude of less con- spicuous writers, are chargeable with many devia- tions from the purity of our language, and the in- troduction of many phrases by no means consistent with its analogy. Stilly however, it must be ad- mitted that these faults are accompanied with real and numerous improvements ; that the style of our best authors is not only incomparably superior to that which prevailed antecedently to the time of Addison, but also, in some respects, superior to his best specimens ; and that excellences of style have lately become more common and popular than at any former period ; insomuch, that wp now often find in an occasional pamphlet, or in the pages of a gazette, a perspicuity, energy, and elegance of diction^ for which we might have looked in vain amono- the best models of the seventeenth cen- tury. Beside the improvements which have taken place in English style, during the last age, the language has undergone several minuter changes, which are not unworthy of being just mentioned, i'he Orthographij of our tongue has received con- siderable modifications. Superfluous letters have been discarded from many words. And, in the- 504 English Language, [Chap. XV# use of capitals, great alterations have been intro- duced. But beside the changes in orthography which have been generally received^ and are now estabhshcd, several proposals were made, in the course of the century we are considering, for a more radical reform. Of this reform, which con- sisted in an attempt to render the spelling more conformable to the rules of pronunciation, Mr. Elphinstone of North Britain, and Dr. Franklin and Mr. Noah Webster, of America, among others, have appeared as the most conspicuous projectors and patrons, since the time of bishop Wilkins. The successive proposals and exertions of these gentlemen, to attain this favourite end, were all unsuccessful. The great majority of philologists seem to have considered them as use- Jess in themselves^ calculated to injure the analogy of the language, completely subversive of etymolo- gical principles, and productive of numerous in- conveniences and evils. The attention lately paid to English Orthoepy * may be considered as . peculiar to the eighteenth century. The pronunciation of our language was, a few years ago, in a very crude, loose, and ne- glected state. This circumstance attracted the notice of several ingenious and accurate men, who, perceiving the importance of some regular and consistent plan of pronouncing, engaged in a sy- stem of reform on this subject; and by exhibiting the anomalies of pronunciation, and pointing out * This word, like the art which it is designed to express, is of recent formation. It is derived from the Greek words 'o^dof, rectus, 2nd h^s, vcrbuniy and signifies the art of pronouncing rightli/t. Sect. I.] Englhh Language. 305 its analogies, were enabled to lay down rules which have proved extensively useful. Among those writers who deserve high praise on this sub*^ ject Mr. Elphinstone, before-mentioned, is entitled to the first place. At the commencenicnt of his inquiries he found Orthoepy in a very chaotic con- dition. In his Principles of the English Lcniguagc he did much towards reducing the chaos to order, and laid down the principles of a just and regular pronunciation. But by treating the subject in a way not calculated to be popular, and by endea- vouring to make an extravagant and ill-judged re- form in the orthography of the language, he lost that portion of credit with the public to which his merit entitled him ; and his labours were less use- ful than they ought to have been. After Mr. Elphinstone, Dr. Kenrick appeared as a teacher and reformer in pronunciation; and his Rheto- rical Dictionary may be regarded as a useful con- tribution for this purpose. Next to him came Mr. Sheridan, who carried his improvements on this subject still further; and in h\s Dictionary gave to the public a standard of pronunciation mucji superior to any thing that had been of- fered by his predecessors. He was succeeded by Mr. Nares, who, in his Elements of Ortho- epy, treated the subject in a new and ingeni- ous manner, and introduced yet greater im- provements. The last distinguished writer on this branch of English grammar, is Mr. Walker. This gentleman, in \m Critical ami Pronouncing Dictionary^ seems to have united the different ex- cellencies of those who went before him \ to have Vol. II. X 306 Modern Languages. [Chap. XV. avoided many of their mistakes ; to have supplied a large portion of their defects ; and, on the whole, to have furnished the republic of English literature with the best standard of pronunciation, which the language affords. Notwithstanding the splendid excellencies of composition displayed in the writings of Addison, Pope, and Swift, all the treatises on English Grammar in use when they wrote were crude and unsatisfactory. The principles of the Greek and Latin tongues were transferred to the English, and grammatical works formed accordingly. On this plan every writer upon English grammar had pro- ceeded anterior to the time of Dr. Lowth. The number and value of his improvements are gene- rally known to grammarians. Since his time the labours of Priestley, Sheridan, Ash, Pickburn, Wal- ker, Webster, Murray, but far beyond all others. Home Tooke, have produced additional light and improvement in the grammar of our language. The best English grammar now extant is that by Mr. Lindley Murray, who, by this publication, and by several others connected with it, and de- signed as auxiliaries to its principal purpose, has become entitled to the gratitude of every friend to English literature, and to true virtue *. At the beginning of the century in question there was no Dictionary of the English language which deserved the name. Not long afterwards there appeared one superior to all that had gone * Mr. Lindley Murray is a native of Pennsylvania, but resided during the early part of his life chiefly in tlie city of New York. SicT. I.j English Language. 507 before it, by Mr. Bailey. This work, though pos- sessing jconsiderable merit, especially in the ttynio* logical department, was still defective in so many respects that it was by no means a safe or adequate guide. Bailey was succeeded by several others of inferior note, who laboured as English lexi- cographers, but they did little worthy of being recorded. In this state of things Dr. Samuel Johnson, a distinguished philologist, undertook to compile a grand national dictionary, a task to which learned academies had generally been considered alone equal. His plan of the work was laid before the public in 1747, and in 1755 this wonderful production of the labour of an individual issued from the press. It must be ac- knowledged, that the Dictionary of the English Language, notwithstanding all its splendid me- rits, is an imperfect work. Its illustrious com- piler was, in a great measure, ignorant of the philosophy of language^ which at that period was little understood by the most profound grammari- ans. His etymologicat \\\\Qst\gdi\\on?> are too often superficial and unsatisfactory; and his numerous omissions of words unquestionably belonging to Having removed to Great Britain for tlie benefit of his health, her has employed his leisure, for a number of years, in improving the grammar of his native tdngue, and in composing such other publications as have a tendency to form the minds of youth to a love of literature and of virtue. The excellence of all his literary labours, and the charitable appropriation of the product of his works, to which he has long rigidly adhered, have secured for him a station in the public esteem too high to render eulogium necessary in this place. X2 SOS Modem Languages. [Chap. XV. the langusLge * indicate either carelessness or haste in the execution of his task. Added to these faults, his style of definition has been criticised as' ''loose and pedantic;" he has been accused of a needless and improper subdivision of meanings ; and his frequent indulgence of a taste for *' neoteric im- portation from the Latin/* is considered by many as a departure from his o>\ n principles, by means of which the purity of our tongue has suffered in- jurious mixtures and adulterations. Still, how- eveo viewing the work of Johnson a. the produc- tion of one man ; recollecting how small a portion of his life it employed; considering its immense superiority to every thing of a similar kind which had gone before it ; and taking into the account also, that it was written *' with little assistance of the learned, and without any patronage of the great ; not in the soft obscurities of retirement, or under the shelter of academic bowers, but amidst inconvenience and distraction^ in sickness and in sorrow," it must be regarded as a wonderful monument of philological taste, erudition, and labour. The English dictionaries which have been given to the public since that of Dr. Johnson are nu- merous. They have in general, however, content- ed themselves with sCi'vilely copying that great lexicographer, and have made iQ\w important ad- ditions to his labours. To this general character * Dr. Johnson, In his Dicflonary, has collected about 48000 words. The reverend H. Croft asserted that he had made a list of 11000 more, which he projx)sed to introduce into a new work. See Wendeboni'fi P'ird- of England ^ &:c. Sect. I] English Language. ^09 Dr. Ash is an exception : consiclcringhis dictionaiy as a collection of all kinds of words, scientific, technical, obsolete, colloquial, decent, or other- M'ise, it is doubtless the most complete extant; and 60 far as the mere number of words is an excel- lence, his work must be pronounced much superior to that of Johnson. It may fairly be questioned, however, vvhetlier such an indiscriminate admis- sion of words, as Dr. Ash lias thought proper to adopts be not more injurious than useful. Tlic dictionaries of Kenriek, Sheridan, Walker, with a comparative view of their respective merits, were before noticed. But as these were designed rather to promote English Orthoepy than the general in- terests of our language, the further consideration of them will not be attempted in this place. It is worthy of remark, that the eighteentli century has prothiced a great extension of the knowledge and use of the English language. Within the last forty or fifty years this language lias been gradually becoming more known among the learned of other countries, and its best models of composition more studied. J\lr. Pope is said to have lamented that his writings were not likely to be much read, excepting by the inhabitants of one small island. Plad he lived till the present day he would have seen better prospects opening to his literary ambition. To say nothing of ^the immense continent of North America, where the productions- of that great poet will probably long be perused by many millions ; and to place also out of the account the extensive foreign dependences qf Great Britain, wh^re English literature is likel^^, ^10 Modern Lajiguages, [Chap, XV. in time, to flourish ; it is an undoubted fact^ that the language in which he wrote is incomparably more read and spoken on the continent of Europe^ since his day, than ever before. SECTION II. FRENCH LANGUAGE. The French language, during the last century, received modifications and improvements in a con- siderable degree similar to those which have al- ready been noticed as belonging to the English. It was before remarked that this lano-uap-e was some time before the EngHsh in the progress of improve-* ment. The reign of Lewis XIV has been common- ly called the golden age of French literature^ and the period of perfection in French style. It is pro« bable that this opinion is rather better founded than that which assigns the reign of queen Anne as furnishing the highest degree of refinement in English composition. The publication of the fa- mous Dictionnaire de rAcademie Frangaise, a great and splendid work in its day, formed an important aera in the history of the French language. The grand object of the association which compiled this dictionary, and presented it to the world, was to improve and fix their language ; and there can be no doubt that the publication was, in a considera- ble degree, subservient to these purposes. But to expect a living language to be absolutely stationary, is to expect that which borders on the region of impossibility. Accordingly, since the Sect. II.] French Language. 311 completion of the grand national dictionar}- just mentioned, the French lancjuaGre has o-aincd lar""c accessions of words and phrases, and lias received various kinds of mehoration. The work of th(^ academy has long been superseded by the private and better dictionary of M. llichelet, which has been honoured with high and general praise. But even the latter is far from embracing the numerous additional words with which learned philologists of that country have endowed their language. Still more recently a more full and accurate dic- tionary of the French language has been compiled by the abb6 Feraud. The large work of M. Court de Gebelin, on language, published a ^tw years ago, contains an extensive and learned investigation of French £(^- mology, which has thrown new light on the struc- ture and genius of that language. Indeed, within the last thirty years of the century under consi- deration, several French writers of high reputation, but of whom the author has too little knowledge to speak distinctly, have undertaken, with considera- ble success, to exhibit the beauties and defects of their native tongue, and to point out means for its further refinement. The list of those writers who contributed, in tlie course of the last century, to enrich and polish the French language, is too large to be gi\'en at length, even if the information requisite for this purpose were possessed. Out of the great number, Fontenelle, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Buffon, de- serve to be selected, as standing In the first rank. Since the date of their writings it may be doubted whether the language has gained any real reline- 312 Modem Languages. [Chap. XV. iTients, If an air of metaphysical abstraction, and antithetic point, be more prevalent among some late popular writers of that country than formerly, it is believed no substantial improvements have been made in the vigour, the polish, the precision^ and the chaste ornaments of French stvle. ■ «/ At the commencement of the eighteenth ccn^ tury it is probable that there was no liviiig lan- guage so generally understood, and so correctly spoken, among the learned of ail civilised coun^. tries, as the French. It was then spoken as the niost polite medium of iptercourse at se\ eral of the courts of Europe, and the acquisition of it consir dered as an important part of liberal education. Since that time the knowledge and use of this lan- guage have greatly extended. It has, in fact, al- most become, what the Latin once was, a univer- sal language. Perhaps it may be asserted that a larger portion of mankind, at the present day, understand and speak this language, than were ever before known to be actjuainted with a living tongue *♦ * Some remarks on modern improvements in the Spanish lan- guage would naturally follow this section, if the author were suf- ficiently acquainted with the nature and amount of these improve-t pients to make even general remarks on them. It may not be improper, however, to mention that the Roj/al Spanish ^hadcmy of Madrid, founded in 1713, was instituted for the express purpose of cultivating and improving the national language. With this view, after spending many years in the requisite preliminary in- vestigations J after devoting much attention to tlie selection of such words and phrases as were used by the best writers, and not- ing those which xvere either low, corrupt, or obsolete; that learned society published, in 1783, the Diccionario de la Lengua Casfel- lana ; a work which, though defective in ttymological incfuiries^ find in several other respects, is yet by far the best extan^. Sect. III.] Italian Language. 313 SECTION III. ITALIAN LANGUAGE. During a great part of the seventeenth century the Italian language was in a state of coniparative degeneracy. It ahounded to an excess with me- taphor and antithesis, aUusion, and conceit ; so that, instead of the simphcity which had hefore prevailed, affectation and obscurity became its th- stinguishing characteristics. This taste was too much countenanced and promoted by the writings of Marini, Tasso, and Ckiabrera, which, though monuments of great genius, yet gave currency to false principles of composition. During this pe- riod the best models of ancient taste fell into ne- glect; and such were selected for imitation as fa- voured the glitter, the bombast, and the pedantry which were then in vogue. Of this the satires of Benedict Menzini, and of Salvator Rosa, and the discourses of Morone, Paoletti, and others, atibrd sufficient proof. Towards the close of the seventeenth century these perversions of taste began to dechue, and the Italian literati assumed a style more simple, unat- fected, and accurate than that which had been in fashion for more than a hundred years. Ap<>^- tolo Zeno, a distinguished \'enetian Nvriter, was one of the first who introduced a natural turn of sentiment and expression into his writuigs, and recommended this manner to his couutryinen. Gravina, about the same time, recallcil the atten- 311 Modern Languages. [Chap. XV tlon of the learned to the best specimens of Gre- cian and Roman eloquence. Beside these, the poems of Lazzarini, the miscellaneous pieces of Tagliazucchi, the historical writings of Muratori, the dramatic productions of Marteli, MaiFei, Csesa- rotti, Aliieri, and Metastasio, the various works of the marquis of Beccaria, and many others, are en- titled to particular notice, as honourable to Italian literature during* the eighteenth century, and as having contributed to the progress of its improve- tnent. By the influence of these and other writers, the Italian language gained, in the eighteenth century, a degree of purity, dignity, and general excellence, unknown even in the age of Bembo and of Casa. The ancient rules and models of taste resumed, in a considerable degree, their sway ; and, what is perhaps of little less importance, some of the most classical productions of Great Britain and of France, by being translated into Itahan, and naturalised in that country, have contributed in no small degree to meliorate the public taste, and to produce a reform in the literature of that country *. SECTION IV. GERMAN LANGUAGE. The German language, in the course of this C2ntury5 has been greatly enriched and refined*. Until the middle of the century it remained in a rude and unpolished state. Such of the learned * ' See Denina's Essay on tliQ Revohtioris of Literatvrc, Sect. IV,] German Language. 315 ineii of that country as had then devoted them- selves to philology, chiefly studied the ancient languages, to the neglect of their own. Most of their scientific publications then written were ia Latin. Since that time more has been done to promote the interests of German literature, and especially to cultivate the German language, than had been done for several centuries before. About the year 1720, the practice of employ, ing the vernacular tongue in important scientific pubhcations was commenced in Germany. For the introduction of this improvlement the honour is chiefly due to Thomasius, an eminent metaphy- sical and moral writer of that country; and t» Wolf, distinguished for his labours in the same department of science. Their example was soon followed by others. From that period, tlierefore, it became necessary for authors to cultivate their own language with o;reater care ; the influence of which soon became visible in their writings. A few years afterward, that is to say, about the middle of the century, the practice of translating the best French and English books commenced in Germany, and produced very sensible effects in meliorating the style of writing among the Ger- man literati. > These events were succeeded by the Avorks of several authors, who wrote with a par- ticular view to the introduction of new idioms and graces of language, and whose exertions were pro-» ductive of the most useful eflects *. * See the progress of the German style more minutely traced \j\ the 26th chapter of this book. 51 6 Modern Languages. [Chap. XY. One of the first steps in this course of cultivation was the publication of the JMesmih, by Klopstock. When that celebrated poem made its appearance, the many new combinations of words, and the va- rious licences of language with which it abounded, excited much complaint among the countrymen of the author; but these innovations soon became fa- miliar, gradually gained admirers, and at no great distance of time were generally adopted by the best German writers. Klopstock was particularly successful in improving the versification of his na^ tive language. He introduced a new style of poe- try into his country ; and has been generally fol- lowed as one of the best authorities in polite lite- rature. Tills celebrated poet has also done much to improve the oi^tfwgraphj of his language. • He first suggested, and by his own example enforced, the propriety and necessity of reform in this de- partment of the German tongue. His proposals, indeed, were not adopted in their full extent ; but they led others to direct their attention towards^ this object ; and to Inm therefore is due a large share of the credit arising from the improvement^ which have since taken place. Next to the radical reform introduced by Klop- stock, the writings of many others of the literati of that country have had a considerable influence in promoting the same object. Among these the pofuis oF Hallcr; the Ichjlls, and Death of Abel , of Crcssner; the fables and moral writings of Gel- lert ; the numerous and diversified productions of Wifland ; and tlie various works of Lessing, Her- der, Goeihe, Schiller, \o^ii, and many others. Sf.ct. IV.] German Lcmguage. 317 ha\T all contributed a share, to reiuler a lano-uage pnce but little esteemed ia Europe one of the most copious, energetic, and lich of modern tongues. But among late German writers no individual is ejUitled to more honourable mention than J. C, Adelung, a celebrated pliilologist of that countrv. His labours in studying and improving his native language have been extensive, persevering, and successful to a degree almost without precedent. He has produced works, in this department of li« tcrature, with \i^hich the productions of learned academies, and royal societies, can scarcely be brought into competition. His Grammar of the German Language * is an elaborate and systematic work, unquestionably superior to all preceding works of a similar kind, and has contributed much towards forming and regulating the language of which it treats. But his greatest work is a Corn- plate Dictionary of the German Language '\. lu the composition of this extraordinary work he spent the greater part of thirty years, and it is pronounced^ by good judges, to come nearer to the idea of a perfect dictionary than any other effort of human diligence hitherto published. It contains a larger number of words than any other extant: the definitions are singularly lucid and satis- factory; every word is scientitically arranged, with respect to its literal and metaj)horical signification ; the etymologies of words are pur«>ucd with an acutc- ness and a skill which render them highlv instruc- * In two volumes large octavo. f It consists of live volumes large quaito. 5 1 S MocIe7V2 Languages. [Chap. XV- tive; and the author displays an acquaintance with the history of his language, and the peculiar merits of its best authors, which eminently qualified hmi for the task which he undertook to execute. This grammar and dictionary, we are told, have been useful, beyond any other publications, in correcting the orthography, in exploring the ety- mology, and in regulating the syntax of the Ger- man language. The incessant efforts of Adelung have also served to animate and guide the exertions of his countrymen in pursuit of the same object. Since he wrote, philological inquiries have acquired an ascendency and a prevalence in that empire which they never before possessed. Grammars, dictionaries, and critical essays, have unusually abounded. Questions for elucidating and improv- ing the language have been published by acade- mies and literary associations in every part of the country, and have occupied much of the attention of learned men. And, finally, their popular writers, especially their poets and dramatists, are continu- ally adding to the stores of the language new words, and combinations of terms, which, though in some cases they have been considered as inju- rious innovations, have yet contributed not a little to tlie mass of improvement. This language, as well as the two preceding, has been much more studied towards the close of the eighteenth century than ever before. So many in- teresting works in literature* and science have been published in Germany, particularly within the last thirty years, that the acquisition of the language seems now to be regarded by the literati of Europe Sect, v.] Swedish Language, 319 as nearly of equal importance M'ith tliat of the French or English, which have, heretofore, en- gaged such preeminent attention. [SECTION V. SWEDISH LANGUAGE, The Swedish language, in the course of a few years past, has also undergone great improvements. Previous to the middle of the century, it had heea much neglected, and, like its kindred dialects, the German and the Danish, was but little esteemed in Europe. About that time John Ihre, Pro- fessor of Belles Lettres in the university of U[)sal, was commissioned, by queen Ulrica Eleonora, to translate into Swedish The Ladies' Library, by sir Richard Steele. In obeying this com- mand, he was naturally led not only to study his native language, but also to compare it with the more polished tongue from which the translation was to be made. The result of these inquiries was an attempt to place the language of his coun- try on a more respectable footing than it had be- fore held. With this view he pubHshed his Glos^ sarium Sueo^Gothicum, which displays great eru- dition, the talents of a master in criticism, and un- common sagacity in detecting both the faults and the beauties which he wished to make known. In this work the author exhibits, with great skill, the analogy and etymology of the Swedish language; and may be regarded as standing with the highest 5t20 , Modern Languages. fCHA?. XY. in rank among its distinguished cultivators and reformers. Since the time of ^h\ Ihre other, writers have employed their tak'uts on tlie same suhject. These writers have estabiislied rules of construction, cor- rected the orthography, discarded foreign phrases and corrupt modes of expression, and by producing works in a correct, elegant, and refined style, have done much to improve their native tongue. Among these, Da id in, Botin, Gyllenborg, Creutze, Klew- berg, Leopold, and Lidner, are perhaps entitled to the most honourable mention, and furnish ex- amples of Swedish style according- to its latest and best improvements. In 1786 a literary asso- ciation, under the name of t\\Q Szcedhh Academy , was established at Stockholm. The principal ob- ject of this institution is to cultivate the language of that country ; with which view it is said to be preparing for publication a national Grammar and Dictknary *. SECTION VL RUSSIAN LANGUAGE. The Russian language, during the period under review, has also been much and successfully cul- tivated. This language, which is a dialect of the Sclavonian, was, at the beginning of the eighteenth ccnturv, in a wretchedly irreo-ular and neo-lected condition, very few compositions of dignified cha- * See A General rUn of S-j:edcn, by ;M. Catteau. Sect. VI.] Russian Language, 321 ractcr having then appeared in it. Since that time it has employed nuicli of the attention of learned men; grammars and dictionaries have been formed, with many successive improvements; nu- merous translations from other langiiages luive con- tributed greatly to enrich and polish it; the ivus- sian academy has long been diligently engaged in its cultivation ; and writers of taste have done much to confer upon it regularity and ornament. Previous to the year 1707 tiie alphabet of this lan- guage consisted of thirty-nine letters. In that year it was newly modified, and reduced to thirty. These are chielly made up of Greek and Roman letters, together with some characters, to express sounds, whicli are peculiar to the Sclavonian tongue. Though the language of Russia is still imperfect, it is said, by those who have studied it, to be re- markably rich, harmonious, and energetic, and well fitted for every species of composition *. Among the improvers of Russian style in tlie last century the first place is due to Theophanes Prokopovitch, archbishop of Novogorod, a gen- tleman of learning and taste, wlio, during the reign of Peter the Great, laboured much to pro- mote among his countrymen a fondness for polite literature, and especially to encourage the study of their natiye tongue. He was followed by Lo- monozof, a distinguished poet and historian. He, as well as Theophanes, was a Russian by birth, and is styled the '* great refiner" of the language of his country. Next to him stands Sumorokof, a * Code's TravcU into Russia, &c. vol. ii, chap. viii> and al^o Tooke's rieic of the Russian Empire. Vol. II. . Y SQf Modern Languages, [Chap. XV. distinguished dramatist, who displayed many beau- ties of composition, v/hich were before unknown in the Russian language ; and contributed greatly to the diffusion of a taste for poetry, and a zeal for philological and other polite acquirements. To these may be added the name of Kheraskof, the author of the first Epic Poem in his native language, a work greatly admired by his countrymen, and the appearance of which may be considered as forming an era in the history of their poetry, and, generally, in the progress of their literary cha- racter *. In order to spread a taste for literature among her subjects, Catharine II, in 1768, appointed a committee to order and superintend translations of the classics, and the best modern authors, into the Russian tongue ; and made a liberal allowance for defraying the expense of the undertaking. In consequence of this order, a considerable number of the most esteemed Greek and Roman writers, and some of the first class in the English, French, and German languages, became naturalized in her empire f. Those who have any acquaintance with philology \vill readily perceive, that the attempt to transfer the contents of these rich, refined, and regular languages into one less cultivated, must always communicate more or less of the excel- lencies possessed by the former to the latter. Beside the numerous and Important improve- ments in the more cultivated languages, for which * Coxe's Travels into Russia, B. v. c. viii, t Ibid. I Chap. XV.] Modern Languages. 02;j the eighteenth century is distinguiiihcd, we may also mention, as a peculiarity of the ag-e, equally worthy of remark, the extensive knowledge which has been acquired, by learned philologists, within a few years past, of many other living languages, even some of the most barbarous and unpolished. The amount of information communicated by modern voyagers and travellers on subjects of this nature, is great and valuable. Among these Strahlenberg, Sonnerat, Marsden, Thunberg, For- ster, and many others, are entitled to honourable distinction. The idea of tracing the origin and history of na- tions through the medium of inquiries into their respective languages, if not first conceived, was cer- tainly tirst reduced to practice, to any considera- ble extent, in the cer^tury under review. It is be- lieved that the first considerable specimen of an inquiry of this nature was given to the world by Mr. Jacob Bryant, a gentleman whose profound erudition, critical sagacity, and unwearied labour, are among the signal honours of the age *. Nearly about the same time appeared the celebrated and voluminous work of M. Court de Gebclin, be- fore mentioned, in which, with great learning, * It is impossible for any friend to virtue and sound learning to pronounce the name of this veteran in literature without vene- ration. In his Observations and Inquiries relating to various Parts of Ancient History, and in his Nen: System, or Anaksis of /Indent Mythology , he has displayed an extent and a minuteness of in- formation truly wonderful, perhaps unequalled by any other in- dividual living; and a degree of critical acumen, and philosophic soberness of inquiry, joined with a love of truth, and especially of Evangelic truth, which entitle him to the lasting gratitude both of the pliiiosopher and the christian. Y2 324 3Iodern Languages, [Chap. XV. but with, perhaps, less judgment, he has investi- gated the history of nations through the same medium *. Large and curious collections of languages re- markably abounded in the eighteenth century. Among these the collection of J. Lorenzo liervas, a native of Spain, but residing at Rome, deserves respectful notice. This learned man, in his great work, entitled Idea dd Ujikerso^ gave a general synopsis of all known languages, their affinities, differences, &c., of which the best judges have spoken in terms of higli praise. Of later date the Fhilosvphical and Critical Estimate of Fourteen Ancient and Modern European Languages, by D, Jenisch, of Germany, is aUo a valuable acquisition^ to the student of philology. But the most extensive collection of modern languages which the last age produced,, was that formed toward the close of it, by the learned aca- demicians of St. Petersburgh, in Russia. The empress Catharine 11 conceived the vast design of compiling a '' universal and comparative vo- cabulary of all languages,'* and ordered such a work to be undertaken. Accordingly Mr. Pallas, a distinguished member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, assisted by a number of other learned men, engaged in the arduous task, and laid the first part of the work before the public in 17^(5, and anotlier portion of it three years afterwards. Ihis Comparative Vocdhularij f may justly be ■* Monde Vihnitif analf/se ti cconparc uvec Ic 2Ionde Modcrne. 9 tftin. 4to. f Lini^uarum fotiiis Orbis Vocahularin Comparafiva; Aui^udis- iiimc Cura ajlitda. Lcctloinspima ^ Lingvas lluropctj d jtditc cvm* Chap. XV.] Alodcrn Languages. 325 ranked air.ong* the wonders of tlie century. Spe- cimens of so great a number of languages were certainly never before brougbt togetber by iunnau diligenee. And tbe work, wbile it reflects great hcrnour on tbe illustrious editor, and bis learned coadjutors, and on tbe pul)lic spirit of tbeir em- ployer and patron, tbe empress, furnisbes tbe most instructive documents, n'- ing the figure and complexion of mankind, they shoidd not ne- glect inquiries into the resemblances of all languages. The far- ther we push our researches of this kind, tlie more we dwcover the proofs, if not of the absolute derivation of all mankind from one pair, at least of the ancient intercourse of ail the nations of the earth," 328 Modern Languages, [Chap. XV. laid great stress not only on the div-ersity of com- plexion and figure, but also on the tmrieiy of Ian- guages among men, as arguments for discrediting the sacred history. Both these arguments, by later investigations, have been clearly refuted. In- deed, modern inquiries into the languages of dif- ferent nations, instead of giving countenance to the rejection of the sacred volume, have rather served to ilkistrate and confirm its historical re- cords ; for they have resulted, if not in complete proof, at least in establishing the highest probabi- lity, that all languages bear an affinity to each other; that they may all be traced to c. common stock ; and that we have reason to conclude, indc* pendently of the ^Mosaic historj^, that the human race sprang from a single pair. 329 CHAPTER XVL PHILOSOPHY OF LAXGUAGE. U NDER this head it is intended to present a brief and general view of those incjuiries into the Origin and Progress of Language, and of Universal Grapiniar, which have heen pursued with so much success in modern times. These, it is heheved, are in a great measure pecuhar to the period under consideration ; or, at least, have been conducted more extensively and more successfully than ever before. The Origin of language is a question concern- ing which disputes have heen long and warmly maintained : some contending that it is an inven- tion of man, gradually growing from rude inarti- culate cries, into a regular, polished, and system- atic form, in the progress of civilisation ; and others asserting that it must have been revealed from Heaven. This controversy arose many cen- turies before that which is now under review; but in no preceding age was it ever considered in a manner so extensive, learned, and satisfactory. The former opinion was defended with great zeal, erudition, and ingenuity, by lord Monhoddo*, of * Lord Monboddo supposes that Inngiiage is not natural to man ; that men sang before they spa/^c; that before they arrived at the point at which language began to be used, they conversed together by signs and inarticulate cries j that from these latter language was gradually formed j that all languages are derived from Egypt, the great source of science and cultivation ^ that the Egyptian 330 Philosophij oj Language, [Chap. XVI. North Britain ; by fatlicr Simon, M. Voltaire, and the abbe Conclillac, of France ; and by J. G. Herder *, and others, of Germany. The Latter doctrine was adopted, and maintained^ during the period under consideration, by J. P. Sussmilch, Dr. Bcattie, Dr. Bhiir, and by many other writers, Avho have treated either formally or indirectly on the subject. The true nature and philosophy of language, or the ^ymc\]A^?> o^ Uiikersal Gi^ammar, seem to have eluded the inquiries of the most sagacious for many centuries. A multitude of writers of the first cha- racter, from Plato down to Leibnitz, treated large- ly and ably on the subject ; but they did little more than copy the mistakes of each other^ or present a succession of delusive systems, which would not bear the test of more enlightened exa- mination. Though this may appear strange to a careless or superficial inquirer, yet when tbe ex- treme difficulty of the subject is duly appreciated, it will no longer be a matter of surprise that so many great men should, in their investigations, have gone so wide of the mark. After the many preceding failures to examine with success the philosophy of language, Mr. Locke undertook the task, in his great work on the language is the same with the Sanscrit, or sacred language of India, of which the Greek, is a dialect. See his Origin and Pro* grcss of Language, * Herder accounts for the origin of language on mechanical principles, or by combining the organical structure of the body with the faculties of the mind which inhabit it, and the circum- stances in which the being is placed^ in whom t)iis organisation and these faculties are united. Chap. XVI.] Thllosophy of Language. 33 1 Munian Understanding *. But while lie threw much light on the doctrines of niind, and treated more successtully than any preceding writer of the com- position and use of terms, he did little to advance the knowledge of universal grammar. liis suc- cessor, Dr. Hartley f, assuming different ground, attempted also to form an analysis of language, and to present a philosophical view of the iiuhject. But, like his predecessors, his iahours served only to show more clearly than ever the importance, the profundity, and the difficul:y of the inquiry. Dr. Hartley was followed jy Mr. James Har- ris J, a learned English gentleman, who, in his Hermes, professed to treat this subject in a formal and systematic manner §. He acknowledges him- self to be indebted for some of the leading princi- ples of his system to ApoUoniis, a learned gram- marian of Alexandria; but h^ is, perhaps, still more indebted to professor Peiizonius, a celebrat* ed philologist of Leyden, who early in the cen- tury, in his notes on Sanctii Minerva, delivered nearly the same doctrines ; so rearly, indeed, that good judges have denied to Mr. Harris the honour of having made any important mprovement upon them. The system of grammar tauglt in Hermes is ibe * lEssay on Human Understanding , vol. i, book ill. •^ Obserxations on Man, vol. i, chap, iii.sect. i. t Jajnes Harris was born at Salisbury L i/Op, and educated at the univerity of Oxford. He died in 1,80. His /Fo/A.y have been lately collected in 2 vols, 'Ito, and ajood account of his life prefixed, by his son, tlie present lord Malnesbury. § See Hermes, or a phiksophkal Inquiu concemivg Vnivcrsal grammar. J 751. 332 Philosophy of Language. [Chap. XVI. . following. The author divides all words into twct grand classes, called Prwc'pals and Accessories. The former he subdivides into two branches, Sub- sfaniives 'dni\Attrlbutkesi the latter into two others, Defini trees zx\d ConnLCthe.s ; so that under one of these four species, Substant'rccs, Attributives^ De- finitircs, or Connectives, he includes all the varie- ties of words. He considers articles, conjunctions, and prepositions, as having no signification of their own, but as deriving a meaning only from their connection witli other terms. Oii these lead- ing principles his boasted fabric rests. !\Ir. Harris was doubtless a learned and inge- nious man ; but as somei of the best judges utterly deny that his doctrines of general grammar are either original or just, it is not probable that they will long be considd'cd as doing him much honour. His work, however was for many years received with high approbction, not only in the native country of the auhor, but also on the continent of Europe, and hai, even yet^ many ardent ad- mirers. About the tinidtliat AFr. Harris laid his doc- trines before the Jublic, the j)hilosophy of gram- mar was an ohjei of lalx>rious and learned in- quiry at tlie celehijited Greek school of Leyden. I:i these investigjtions the great Schultens, and alter him professoj Hemsterhuis and his disciples, made a distinguisl^d figure. Schultens examined tlie derivation andkructure of the Greek language .with great care, .nd particularly gave some new and interesting vyws of the Greek particles. Af- 'tcrwards professoj Hemsterhuis * undertook to de- * Tiberius IIemst«/l)uis was a native of Groningenj where lie Chap. XVI. ] Phllo.sophij of Language, 335 rive the whole Greek language from a few .short primitives, on a plan entirely original. His spe- culations were carried further, and reecived new light, by means of the incjuirics of his pupils Vale- kenaer, Lennep, and others. Though the labours of these great philologists were chRlly eonfined to the Greek language, yet they were intended to throw light on universal Grammar, and to educe principles applicable to all languages. To give even a brief account of the various opi- nions which they taught would require a more intimate acquaintance with them than the writer of this retrospect possesses, and would lead to a detail inconveniently and disproportionably ex- tended. It is sufficient to say, that though they failed to form a fair, consistent, and regular fa- bric, yet they furnished many insulated facts, and useful materials, and analysed many words and classes of terms, in a manner which did them great honour, and rendered important aid to the philosophical grammarian * The Dutch etymologists were followed by lord was born in l635. In \'J\'J he was appointed Greek professor at Franeker, and in ] 740 was chosen to the same office at Lcydcn. He died in 1/66, * For some further information concerning the celebrated Dutch etymologists above-mentioned, see Obsci-rations on the Na- ture of Demonst rathe £i7(/c«ce, by Thomas Beddoes, 8vo, 1793. No man can look into the writings of Dr. Beddoes without disco- vering marks of a vigorous, original, and active mind. But are the precipitancy and decision with which he j)ronounces on some of the most important and ditlicult quesiions that occur to the human mind, and the satirical coiiteniptuous severity which he indulges toward some of the greatest benefactors to science, con- sistent with the cautious and candid spirit of philc>sopliy '. 334 Philosophy of Language. [Chap. XVL Monboddo, m4io, in his Origin and Progress of Language, gave some general views of the philo- sophy of grammar. Like Plato and Aristotle, to ^vhose doctrines, especially those of the latter, he looked with the profound veneration of a disciple, he divided language into two parts. Noun and Verb, and endeavoured to bring all the other parts of speech under these general denominations. But while he adopts this division of words in one part of his work, he retracts it in others, and admits principles wholly inconsistent with the general doctrine. So that, though he must be acknow- ledged to have given some learned and ihgenious views of language, yet the praise of having formed an original, consistent, and satisfactory system of philosophical grammar must be wholly denied him. In 1786* this perplexing and mysterious sub- ject, which had so long eluded the researches of philosophers, was unfolded by an English philolo- gist of great acutencss and erudition, in a manner which the ablest grammarians have generally and justly praised. In that year was published the ce- lebrated EHEA IITEPOENTA, or Divei^sio7is of Pur- ley f, by Mr. John Home Tooke, a work in which. * As eaily as 1778 Mr. Tooke, in his letter to Mr. Dunning, laid before the public the substance of the sixth, seventh, eighth, and 7unlh chapters of tlie Diicrsium of Purley, printed eight years afteru'ards. f The Greek scholar will immediately perceive that the first part of this whimsical title signifies zci/igcd uurds, and refers to the author's doctrine of derivations. The second part alludes to the celebrated seat of president Bradshaw, near Croydon, at wliich he amused himself witli the composition of tlie work. Chap. XVI. J PhilosopJu) of Language. 335 as good judges have asserted, *' by a single flash of hght" he has done more to explain tiie whole theory of language than any, or than all his j)re- decessors. He seems at length, indeed, to have terminated the dispute^ and to have dispelled the darkness which for so many ages had rested on the subject. The leading doctrine of Mr. Tooke is, that there are only two necessary ])arts of speech, riz, the Noun and the Verb, and that all other words, whe- ther adverbs, conjunctions, prepositmis, &c. are to be considered as corruptions or abbreviations of these two ; and, of course, that the latter classes of words, instead of being in themselves, as both Mr. Harris and lord Monboddo had taught, mere unmeaning sounds, might be traced to a distinct and sensible signification. In dividing all words into tw^o grand classes Mr. Tooke agrees with the plan which lord Monboddo adopted from Plato and Aristotle ; but with respect to the remaining details of his system he is original, and j)resents a much more consistent and philosophical view of the subject than any preceding writer. In a few small particulars also, the doctrines of the Dive)- sio7is of Pur ley had been anticipated by the learn- ed Dutch etymologists before-mentioned ; but the points of coincidence between them are so i't:\y and vmiiiiportant as to take away nothing material from Mr. Tooke of the honour of originality *. * The author of ETTfa Urs^csvla, lately published tJie first vo- lume i»f a iiew and enlarged edition of this work, intended to con- sist cf three vols. 4to. This volume is a republication of tlie forw. ; edition in octavo, with additional examples and illustra- tio. But the two remaining volumes (the second is now in tliQ Vol. II. Y 8 33^ Philosophy of Language, [Chap. XVL The general doctrine of Mr. Tooke, especially so far as it applies to the English language, has been pronounced by the best judges to be fully established ; and the probability is strong that it api:)frcs with equal exactness and felicity to all other languages. So far as they have been inves- tigated the result is decidedly in favour of such an opinion. The inquiries of the great etymologists of Leyden, before-mentioned, though they differ from Mr. Tooke in many respects, furnish, at the same time, strong confirmation of his doctrine. But it is plain that the absolute proof of the univer- sal truth of this doctrine would require an extent of acquaintance with languages which can never be acquired by any individual, and which, to be collected by a number of individuals, will require a long course of patient labour. It is to be regret- ted that so ^t\i philologists have pursued the path marked out by Mr. Tooke, and that none have been found to extend the inquiries which he com- menced, into regions which he was unable to ex- plore. Even some of the latest writers on the con- tinent of Europe, who have undertaken to philoso- phise on the subject of language, proceed chiefly upon old and exploded principles ; and appear either not to be acquainted with, or not to em- press, and will be published in November, 1805) must necessarily exhibit new matter, and we understand relate to topics not touched upon in the former part. Such disquisitions from the pen of a writer, who may be said to have formed a system, as new as it is important, on the subject of language, must afford a most interesting accession of knowledge, to all who are curi(/us respect- ing the operations of the human mind or desirous to carry forward and consummate the commendable refinements of man in a state of society. Chap. XVI.] Philosophy of Language. 3J7 brace the discoveries of the sagacious Briton, whose work forms so important an cura in the hi- story of pliiiosoj)liical grammar. Beside the great theorists above-mentioned, tlic philosophy of language has been treated with great learning and ingenuity during the period under consideration, by Drs. Campbell* and Eeattic -f, of Edinburgh; and by president de Brosses j, ]M. Beauzee§, the abbe Girard, the abb6 Condil- lac II, and M. Court de Gebelin f , of France. The opinions taught by the celebrated Scottish professors are too generally known to render a detailed view of tliem here either requisite or pro- per; v/hile, with respect to the doctrines of the learned French philologists, the author has too lit- tle information to attempt even a general sketch. These inquiries into the philosophy of grammar have liad, it is believed, a useful effect on many modern Avritings, and, with respect to their proba- ble influence hereafter, may be regarded as of great value. Every investigation which has for its object the structure, the analysis, and the real improvement of language, doubtless tends, in pro- portion to its success, to advance the interests of education, to promote every department of science, especially the science of the human mind, and, in general, to increase the happiness of man. * Vh'dosophy ofTlhctoric, 2 vols, 8vo, t Theory of Language, publislied in liis Dissertations, 1 vols, 6vo, 1/83. I Formation Mkaniquc des haugues. § Grammaire Gentralc, 1 torn. 8vo, \yQ7- II See the first volume of his Coins d'EliuU, in \6 vols. Paris, ^\ Hist, de la Varole^ and Grammaire Univcrsalr. Vol. 1 1. Z 35S CHAPTER XVII. HISTORY. 1 HE historic muse, during the eighteenth cen- tury, had many votaries. From the time of Ta- citus to the commencement of this period, she had been supplicated by multitudes, but with little suc- cess. After the revival of letters, the first histo- rical productions of respectable character were composed in Italy ; but with these the author is too little acquainted to compare them with subse- quent works of the same class. It may be assert- ed^ however, that previous to the age under review no historians had arisen, for many centuries, who might be compared v/ith the illustrious models of Greece and Rome^ without incurring a sort of li- terary profanity. But early in the century which forms the period of this work the prospect brighten- erl. Specimens of history began to appear so much superior to the uncouth and meagre compilations of preceding ages, as to inspire a just hope that a more auspicious 5i?ra was at hand. There, are several circumstances belonging to the historical productions of the eighteenth cen- tury which are peculiar to this period, and which distinguish it from all preceding times. An at- tempt will be made to take notice of some of the more obvious and inq:)ortant of these circumstances in the following phages. The niimhcr of historical works produced in the course of the age is the first circumstance of a pc- Chap. XVII.] Histvrij. 3:?9 culiar kind wliicli attracts our notice. No former period, certainly, can be compared to this with respect to the multiplication of iiistorical records. Scarcely any portion of time, or the affairs of any nation, or the lives of any conspicuous monarchs, have escaped the notice of some writer who aspired to the rank of an historian. Indeed tljis, like every other department of modern composition, has be- come, witlrin a lew years past, so crowded with ad- venturers as to render the enuuieration of them next to an impossible task. The Instorians of the first class in the eighteenth century presented tlieir readers with a greater por- tion of truth, and instructive matter, than any preceding writers of the same class. The works of the best Greek historians are notoriously corrupted by a large mixture of fable. The same rein ark may be applied, though not to an equal extent, to the finest Roman models. The best historical works of modern Europe are certainly entitled to n^.ore credit, with respect to authenticity. It is not meant to be asserted that they are free from misrepresent- ation and fable, with which they all, in different degrees, abound; but merely that they contain much less of thesfi than their predecessors. The reasons of this superioiity are obvious. The an* cient historians could only consult manuscripts and traditional records. The forrner were cou;para- tively rare, difficult of access, liable to mutilation and other injuries, and not easily corrected, wluju erroneous, by collations with many others which detailed the same facts. The latter is a source of information so obviously imperfect and fabuloui that no prudent writer, in ordinary cases, would '^ . 1 340 History, [Chap. XVII. receive materials from it with confidence. The stores of information open to modern historians are more numerous, rich, and authentic. The art of pv'mt'wg has multiphed records beyond all former example. Tlie increased intercourse be- tween distant countries, and the facihty with which documents may be collected from every civilised quarter of the globe, also present a new and important advantage to the modern com- piler of history. Accordingly this class of writers, in the course of the century under review, admitted less fiction into their narratives ; stated truths in a more luminous, connected, and satisfactory man- ner ; and went, in general, more deeply and suc- cessfully into tlie relations of |)olitical causes and effects, than any of their predecessors*. We have at least one instance on record of an eloquent Greek historian attending the Olympic games, for the express purpose of publicly recit- ing his history to the assenil)led multitude. It is natural to conclude that a work formed with a view, to such an exhibition would be rather an agreeable poem, accommodated to popular preju- dices, and addressed to popular feelings, than a faithful rer^ord of facts, foi' the instruction of poste- rity. The historians of the present day lay their authorities before the reader, and their caution is excited, and their fidelity rendered more vigilant, •^•' This remark is meant to be a general one ; but it admits of some exceptions. The histories of Clarendon and Burnet, in the preceding century, mny be considered as'\ying, in point of aut/ien- fici/i/, with the bcht subsequent works of the same kind. They arc botli said to be partial j but what book, or v/hnt mind, wa? ever completely free from partiality? Chap. XVIL] Hnfojy. 341 by the recollection that tlie same sources of inlbrni- atioii are o])en to others, and that contemporary rivals^ and many classes of reaxiers, will sit in judg- ment on the truth of their narratives. Another great improvement, which began in the eighteenth century to characterise the more formal and dignilied works on civil history, .is connecting the progress of literature, science, arts, and manners, with the chain of civil and military transactions. Very imperfect views of these col- lateral, but important and interesting, objects of inquiry, are to be found in any histories of an earlier date. But of late years, and particularly within the last half century, the best liistorians have interwoven with their narratives of political and military events much amusing and valuable information concerning the rehgion, learning, jaws, customs, trade, and every other object tend- ing to throw light on the progress, genius, and condition of different communities. The import- ance of this improvement will be readily appre- ciated by those who love to study the course of im- provement which the human mind has exhibited ; or who reflect how intimately revolutions and other national events are often connected with the current of literCcry, moral, and religious opinions; ; and how much a knowledge of one is frequently fitted to elucidate the other. The author to Avhom we are probably more in- debted than to any other individual, for introduc- ing and recommending this improvement in civil history, is M. Voltaire. His J^e of Lacis XII' was one of the first specimens of a work upon this plan. The attention and admiration which it e.v 345 History. [Ckap. XVIt cited, and the degree in which it has been imitat- ed and surpassed by several succeeding historians, are generally known. The best historians of the eighteenth century diiTer from those of the same clasa in ancient times, in excluding speccJws and other extraneous mat- ter from tlie body of their works. This practice, it is well known, was much in vogue among the ancients^ and was an important part o^ t\\(t poetical. and even dramatic structure at which they appear to have aimed in their historical compositions*. The exchision of every thing of this kind from the best models of history which the last age produced, deserves to be mentioned as a modern improve^ ment. Connected with tliis circumstance is the practice, also recently introduced, of subjoining to historical v/orks, in the form of appendices, those speeches, state papers, and other documents, for the support or illustration of their narratives, which would have encumbered or disfiii'ured the text; but which, at the same time, lay open to the reader the sources of information, and augment the sum of instruction and amusement. Another point of difference between the most respectable historians of the eighteenth century and their predecessors, consists in the superior ex- cellence of the .9/3/ /f? employed by the former. It is not intended to institute a comparison with re- spect to this particular, between the best ancient models of history and those of modern times. ■* Lord Monbocklo pronounces that no man can write history as it ouj;ht to be written without the introduction oi sptechcs ; and that exchiding them is one of the numerous symptonis pf literary degeneracy which characterise modern times. Chap. XVIL] IlUforj/. 3A3 But it can he doubted by none tliat the Ihst class of historical works produced in the hist age tar transcend in excellence of manner every s[)ecinien in this department of composition which, for fifteen centuries before, had been given to the world. The first English liistorian who seems to have paid any attention to style, and who rises to any thing like the dignity of this species of composi- tion, is lord Clarendon. The histories which pre- ceded his, though many of them invaluable as repositories of facts, were dull and uninteresting compilations, thrown together without taste or skill, and apparently without even an attempt to excel with respect to style. He had the honour of introducing a higher kind of historical writing among his countrymen ; and his work may doubt- less be pronounced to have formed a remarkable tera in this branch of English literature. Though his sentences are tediously long and involved, and his narratives equally prolix and perplexed; yet he wrote remarkably well for his time, and de- serves an honourable place among the im[)rovers of historical style. After Clarendon, towards the close of the seventeenth century, came bishop Burnet, who, though inferior to his predecessor in dignity, went beyond him in sprightliness and perspicuity. He was accused of being jiartial to the houses of Orange and Hanover ; but with re- spect to manner, and general authenticity, he is entitled to much praise, aud certainly contributed something to the improven)ent of English hislori- i:al style. On entering the eighteenth century, Uapin ap- 344 History. [Chap. XVIL pears as the first respectable historian *. His Hi- story of England, written in the French language, was first published at the Hague, in 1/27, ^nd soon afterwards translated into English bv Nicliolas Tindal f . Though Rapin was by no means ma- ster of an agreeable style ; and though his zeal to be as full and accurate as possible, led him to pro- tract his work to a tedious length ; yet he is en- titled to the honour of having compiled one of the most complete, impartial, and satisfactory histo- ries extant. He was one of the last historians of any note who loaded the text of his work with speeches and stale-papcrs. In 17'57 another History of England was pub- lished by Dr. SmoUet J. This production is scarcely equal to the talents of the writer, being compiled in great haste, and rather with a view to profit than fame, and with scarcely any attention to ori- ginal sources of information. Still with regard to style, it M'as a considerable step in the course of improvement, and exhibited excellences in this respect superior to any preceding English historian. In 1^55 Islw Hume published his History of the Reigns of James I and Char ks I; in 17^6 tJie Reigns ^ Paul Rap'm de Thoyras was born in France, and came to England in 1688, in the army of the prince of Orange. He afterwards fixed his residence in Holland, where he died, in J 725, before the publication of his history. t Nicholas Tindal was nephew to Dr. Matthew Tindal, the celebrated deistical writer. X Tobias Smollet was born at a village near Cameron, in Scot- land in 1/10. His first considerable work was Roderick Randoji?, published in 1749, which brought him into reputation. His other works are numerous, consisting chiefly of novels. He died inl77l. Chap. XVIL] History, 3\5 of Charles II andjavdcs II; in 17.09 the Reigns of Henry VII, VIII, EchvardVl, Alary and Eliza- beth ; and in M^ljrom the Invasion o/jNliiisCa'sar to the Commencement of the Reign ojlhnry Vll^ completing his plan for the same period with Smol- let. He far excelled all hispredecessors in beauty and excellence of historical style^ and at once raised the character of his country, in this branch of literature, to a very high rank. His work, indeed, is charged with glaring partiality; and that spirit of hostility to rehgiou which he was known to possess too frequently appears, w^henever, in the course of his narrative, a pretext for this purpose was presented. It must even further be allowed, that, with re- spect to style, in which his great excellence lies, lie is not w^ithout considerable fault.-. But in the choice and arrangement of his materials, and es- pecially in native ease, spirit, and force of lan- guage, he has no equal among modern historians, and has certainly furnislied a specimen of history which M^ill bear a very honourable comparison with the illustrious models of Clreece and Rome. Soon after ]\lr. Hume's publication, liis coun- tryman and contemporary. Dr. Robertson*, gave to the public his History of Scotland, which A\'as followed by \\\g History of Charles l\ and the Hi- story of America. This gentleman unquestionably deserves a place among the greatest historians of the age, if he do not oceuny the very lirst station. Though his narrative is not ecjual to Mr. Hume's in ease and spirit, yet he exceeds him in unifuiiu * Dr. W. Robertson was born at Bortlnvick in Scotl:iiul in 172 J, and died in 1793. A very instructive Account of Inn Life and Writings has been given by Protcssor Ste\\-.irt, of ilie university of Edinburgh. J 10 History. [Chap. XVIL purity, dignity, and elegance of diction. In these respects Dr. Robertson may be pronounced to stand at the head of all modern historians, and perhaps to hav^e no superior of any age. In enumerating the first class of English histo- rical writers, i\lr. Gibbon * comes next in order. The Historij of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire^ovms an interesting article in the catalogue of modern historical works. The insidious and malignant zeal to discredit religion, so often mani- fested in this work, is well known. And the ar- tificial structure, the circuitous obscurity, and the meretricious ornaments of the style are no less ge- nerally acknowledged. Notwithstanding, there- fore, all the learning, and other splendid accom- plishments of this celebrated historian, he is far from having furnished a model that can be safely imitated, or conferred any real improvement on this department of English literature. Nor is his work less hostile to all the interests of decorum and virtue, than to the best rules of taste and cri- ticism f . Though the three last-mentioned m riters are ge- nerally represented as holding the first rank amongst English historians, there are some other names, * Edward Gibbon was born at Putney in 1/37. He was probably one of tlie most learned men of the age. His great historical work was begun about the year 1/72. The first vo- lume was published in \77ij, and the last in J 788. The author died in J 79^- t I'hose who would see a faithful exhibition of the partiality, tlie want of regard to truth, and the shameful obscenity which abound m Mr. Gibbon's celebrated work, especially in the fourth, fifth, and sixth volumes of the quarto edition, will do well to con- sult the \ery able review of this part of the work by Mr. Whit- aker^ 6vo, J 791. Chap. XVII.] History, 347 worthy of honourable disthictlun, belonging to the period of this retrospect. Lord Lvttleton's Hi- story of Henry H has long and deservedly sus* tained a very high character. Dr. (iokUniillis Histories of Rome and England ?iXC\\'xau-A\ \\\ the agreeable style of that popular author. The Hi- story of EngUntd by j\Irs. Alacauhiy is a very respectable specimen of female talents, and holds a conspicuous place in the list of English histori- cal compositions. Beside these the histories of Dr. Henry, professor Stuart, Dr. Watson, ^Ir, Mitford, Dr. Gillies, Dr. Coote, .Mr. Ferguson, Dr. Russell, Mr. Andrews, Mr. Belsham, and several others, have received much praise. To /Jesignate the comparative and peculiar merits of each of these would lead to a discussion altoge- ther beyond the limits of this chapter. It is suf- ficient to say that, with different views, and va- Tious degrees and kinds of talents, they have all presented the public with works which do them honour, and which occupy an important space in the annals of English literature. But it was not only in Great Britain that histo- rians of a highly respectable character arose in the course of the last age. Most of the countries of Europe, and especially those distinguished by the cultivation of letters, may boast of a number who hokl an elevated rank in the same department of literature. The historians of France, during this period, were numerous and distini>'uished. Earlv in the century jM. llollin, \)\ hh Aneicnt Historij*, v^Va.- * The respect every where pnid by M. RoUiii, in the ronr-e of his hib'tory, to the governaicnt and pravJ.I'juce of Gcxl, :ind to 548 History. [Chap. XVII. blished his character as an interesting and instruc- tive writer, and has been more generally perused and praised than most other historians of the age. He was followed by M. Vertot *, who, in several historical M'orks, displayed considerable talents, especially in gracefulness of manner, and in the happy art of rendering his narrative entertaining* Next in order occur the numerous and extensive historical works of M. Voltaire. There can be no question that this writer, in style, in comprehension of mind, in the philosophical cast of his inquiries, and especially in his reflections, exceeded all the former historians which his country had produced. But it requires only a slight acquaintance with his works to perceive that he is partial, uncandid, grossly defective in authenticity, and disposed, upon every pretext, to depart from probability, truth, and decorum, for the purpose of reviling the religion of Christf . The Abb6 Millot:}: suc- Revelation, deserves particular notice^ and is one of the numer- ous characterics of this great uork, which recomnaend it to the general perusal and regard of those who love truth, virtue, and piety. * Ren<^ Aubert de Vertot was born in Normandy, in 1(555. His principal works are the Rewlutioiis of Portugal, of Sweden, and of Home, and History of Malta. He died in 1/35. ■\ The degree of credit due to M. Voltaire, as a recorder of facts, will appear in the perusal of a work entitled the Letters of eetfa'in Jtus, ^c. written by the abbe Guennc, professor of rhe- toric in the university of Paris, and published about tlie year 1/70, In this work the author is enabled, by his profound erudition, his vigorous and penetrating mind, and his talents for mild but most efficient satire, to place the historian ot Ferney in a point of light by no means honourable eitlier to the accuracy of his learning or to his love of truth. } Claude Francis Xavicr Millot was a native of Eesancoii, Chap. XVIL] History. 349 ceeded Voltaire, and in his Elements of Getieral History, an elegant and popular work, raised a monument to the honour of himself and his coun- tr}^ The ahbe Raynal, in his History of the East and JFest Indies, presented the puljlic with a pro- duction, \rhich, though not generally respected as authentic, drew much of the attention of the lite- rary world *. To these it would he un pardon ahlc not to add the justly celebrated Histojy of the Reign of Queen Elizabeth, by mademoiselle Keralio f, which has been pronounced by good judges to be an impartial and elegant production. Several other respectable historians appeared in France, towards the close of the century, who would deserve to be mentioned in connection with the foregoing names, did our plan admit of entering into further par- ticulars. In Germany no historical work deserving of high praise, with respect to arrangement, struc- ture and style, had appeared prior to the middle of the century under consideration. Since that time, tlie successive w^orks of Schmidt, Muller, Habcrlin, Heinrich, Schiller, Wagner, Galletti, where he was born in the year 1726. He belon^edi for some time, to the order of Jesuits j was, for several years, professor of Hi- story at Parma; and died in 1785. Beside his FAcmcnfs of Gene- ral History, the best known of his works, he published Elements of the History of France, and Elements of the History of England. * The abb^ Raynal's work is said, by Mr. Bryan Edwards, to have no more title to the character of autlientic history than Ro- binson Crusoe. This is, probably, an extravagant mode of express- ing what is no doubt true, that llie nbbe is often chargeable with taking his statements from imagination rather than from authen- tic records. f History of the Reign of Elizabeth Queen of England, 4 vpls, «vo, 176-5. 350 Historij. [Chap. XVIL Buchholz, Beck, IMeiners, Wieland, Baczko, and several others, have raised the character of their country with respect to this species of composi- tion. Of these it is heheved that Schiller, in ease, spirit and interest of narrative, and in correct- ness and elegance of style, stands at the head of the list of German historians. In Sweden, Benzelius and Wilde, soon after the commencement of the century, first undertook to present the history of their country in a connected and agreeable form. They M^ere succeeded by Dahlin, who pursued the same course with more taste and success. About the same time appeared the work of Botin, which is much distinguished for the excellence both of its matter and style. Beside these, a still larger performance of Lager- bring deserves a respectful notice among the im- proved spccim.ens of history which that country produced during the period of this retrospect- To the above names may be added those of Celsius and Hallenberg, who have also been considerably praised, in their own country, for several histori- cal compositions *. The historians of the rest of Europe, during this period, though numerous, were few of them ex- tensively known, or highly esteemed. The Hhtoiy of Naples, by Giannoni, has been much admired for the purity of its style, and the justness of its senti- ments. That ofDenmarky by the chancellor P. F. Sulim, is said to be a work indicating considerable erudition and talents. The liistori/ of Mcvico, by Clavigero, and the History of the Ncio JVorld, by * Catteau's Vicu nfSzccdcn, cliap. xxiil, 8vo, Lond. irQO. Chaf. XVII.] Illstorij. 351 Munoz, as they supplied, in sonic degree, import- ant desiderata in the repuhlic of letters, may be re- garded as among the most interesting of tlie nu- merous vokimes whieh might be recounted, did our hmits admit of such details. On the whole, it is believed that Great-Britain produced the best models of historical composition of which the eighteenth century can boast. Though some of the French historians, and particularly M. Voltaire, seem to have led the way in forming the present improved taste in this species of writing ; yet there can be no doubt but that their British suc- cessoi-s went far beyond them, and produced hi- stories which, in the choice and arrangement of facts, in dignity, purity; and elegance of style, and in general authenticity, display an assemblage of excellences which were never before equalled in any age or country. Next to these the historians of France and Germany justly claim superior rank. The other countries of Europe stand in an order, with respect to degrees of excellence, which it is neither easy nor necessary to adjust. Though America has not yet produced hrsto- rians who can vie with the hrst class of British models, yet she has given birth to a number quite proportioned to her literary age and standing, and some which will do her lasting honour. These all belong to the eighteenth century. The first iii- storical work published by a native American was the History of Virginia, by the reverend Wi ham Smith, president of William and Mary college. This gentleman was learned, collected his mate- rials with a singularly minute care, and, it is saul a.av be relied on, as exceedingly faithtul and 552 Histori/, [Chap. XVIL accurate ; but his luanner is inelegant and unin- teresting. Mr. Smitl; was followed by Mr* Beverly, who wrote the history of the same province, up to the year 1700. If his predecessor were too mi- nute and tedious, Beverly ran into the opposite ex- treme, and failed of being so instructive or pleas- ing as he might otherwise have been^ from his ex- cessive brevity. The next American who displayed his talents in this dej)artment of literary labour was Mr. Cadwal- lader Colden, lieutenant-governor of the pro- vince of New- York, who was before mentioned as a respectable physician, botanist, and astronomer. His History of the Five Nations of hidians is an- other monument of his talents and diligence. In 1756 Mr. William Smitii published his ///- sto7'y of the Province of Nezc-York, a work, wljich, though executed at an early period of the life of the author, and in great haste, yet affords a large and very valuable amount of instruction to the student of American history. In 1765 Mr. Samuel Smith published 2i History of Nciv Jersey^ which appears to be a judicious and faithful com- pilation. A ^Qw years afterwards governor Hut- chinson presented to the public his History of Massachusetts, which holds a respectable rank among the historical productions of this country. He was followed bv Dr. David Ramsav of South-Ca~ Tolina, Avho, in his History of the Anmncan Re- volution, and his History of the Revolution in Soiith- Carolina, has done honour to his fidelity, dili- gence, and literary taste. In 1792 the reverend Dr. Jeremy Belkna]) completed his History of 2slaC'Ha7Jip-shir€, a work which will lono- be con- Ghap. XVII. ] History, 353 sideretl as an honourable testimonial of the hidus- try and judgment of the author*. Two years afterwards Dr. Samuel \yilliams gave to the pub- lic his History of Vermont, which indicates an ingenious and philosophical mind, and con- tains much useful information. The next Ame- rican history is that of the District of Maine, by James Sullivan, esquire, which affords a cousidei"- able portion of interesting instruction to tiie stu- dent of American history. In 1797 appeared the Civil and Ecclesiastical History of Connecticut, by the reverend Dr. Benjamin Trumbull, a perform- ance which, for the fulness of the inforinatioa which it exhibits, and the minute accuracy and fidelity manifested in every part of the narrative, deserves high praise f. In the same year was published a History of Pennsylvania by Mr. Ro- bert Proud, which^ though not distinguished by much taste in the jselection and arrangement of its materials, or by the correctness or elegance * l)r. Belknap will long be respectfully remfcmbered by the friends of literature in Massachusetts, and in the United States, Beside presenting the public with works which must be considered among the best specimens of histoiy and biography that our country Iras produced, there were few men in America more learned, of more solid and useful talents, or more devoted to the estabhshment and support of literary and scientitic institutions. He who shall attempt hereafter to give a view of the progress of literature in New-Engiand, and- especially in Massachusetts, must assign a conspicuous place to the character and labours of Dr. Belknap. t This gentleman is now engaged in compiling a Witonj of the United States, on which he has bestowed much labour, and of which those who know his fidelity anj accuracy entertain Idgh expectations. Vol.. ir. 2 A 3!^i History. [Chap. XVII. of its style, is yet entitled to credit as a faithful compilatiori of facts, especially as it presents a concise view of the society o^ Friends, and a very satisfactory account of the settlement and progress of that denomination of Christians in Pennsylvania. The last important work of this kind given to the American public is a Continuation of the History of Massachusetts, by George R. IVIinot, esquire, of that State, a work of considerable merit, and which it is hoped the ingenious author will be in- duced soon to complete *. ^A new plan of history was introduced, a few years ago, b}^ the reverend Dr. Henry of Edin- burgh, in his Histoynj of Great Britain f, in which the civil, military, naval, commercial, constitu- tional, and scientific departments of his work are severally placed in distinct chapters, and while their mutual influence is stated, may each be read separate from the rest, through the whole period embraced by the historian. In this plan he was followed, with some impi'ovements, by Mr. James V. Andrews, whose premature death the literary * Since the above was v/iitten, this gentleman, to the regret of all who knew him, has been removed by death. His learning end talents, combined with a degree of modesty, ui-banity, and dignity of character truly rare, endeared him to a large and re- spectable circle of friends, and rendered him one of the orna- ments of his native State. Seldom has the memory of any man been more highly respected, or more fondly cherished by his ac- quaintance, than that of George Richards Minot. . t Some years before the appearance of Dr. Henry's work. Dr. Mosheiuihad adopted a plan somewhat similar in his Ecclesiastical llisturij. Dr. Henry is entitled to the honour of having intro- duced Uiis plan into cixil history, and of having conferred upon it several important impro\ements. Chap. XVIL] History. 3rj5 world has mucli reason to regret ; and to whom it is hoped some successor will appear as compe* tent to tread in his steps as he was in those of Dr. Henry. The mode of writing history in the form of Letters is^ in a great measure, if not entirely, pe- culiar to the century under consitleration. This form of historical composition, it is believed, was first introduced into the English language by Dr. Goldsmith*, and was afterwards adopted by Mrs* Macaulayf, Dr. Russell, and others. That it presents some advantages, chiefly on the score of that ease and familiarity admissible in the episto- lary style, is obvious ; but whether it be consist- ent with the proper structure, continued narrative, and true dignity of history, may certainly be ques- tioned. A new species of historical composition, to which the age under review has given rise, is that which is commonly called Statistical History. The word Statistics, as the name of a peculiar kind of inquiry, was first introduced into the English language by sir John Sinclair. He derived it from the German writers, who have long employed the term to sig- nify those topics of inquiry which interest the statist, or statesman. That is a proper Statistical history of any country which exhibits every thing * The History of England, in the form of Ldtas from a No- bleman to ttis Son, in 2 vols, 12mo, was ascribed to lord Lyttleton, to die earl of Orrery, and other noble writers > but was, in reality, written by Dr. Goldsmith. f Mrs. Macaulay, in her History of England from the lietola- iionto the present Time, 4to, 1778, adopts tJie mode of wriiinj in Letters, addressed to the rev. Dr. Wilson. '^ A i^ 8rj6 Ilutory. [Chap. XVIL relating thereto, which the rulers of the State arc concerned to examine and to know. Those who have written histories of this kind in Germany are numerous. Achcnwall of that country is generally considered as the father of regular statistics : he has been followed by many of his countrymen. The first and most conspicuous Statistical historian in the annals of English literature is sir John Sin- clair, who has collected, in this form, an amount of information concerning North Britain, which does much honour not only to the individuals who furnished the information, but also to the industry and public spirit of the editor *. The execution of a plan of Uiiiversal History, to any considerable and useful extent, was first ac- complished in the eighteenth century. It is certain that English literature can boast of no respectable production of this kind before the commencement of the period in question. Since that time works of this nature have been compiled in various parts of Europe, and some of them are entitled to high praise, with respect both to their fulness and their judicious structure. The last age was also very productive of another class of historians, which had appeared in the. preceding one, in a great measure peculiar to it. These are the persons who have undertaken to deduce the progress, and exhibit the condition, * Proposals have been published for the compilation of statisti- cal histories of several of the American States, and smaller dis- tricts of our own country. Among the most important and pre- mising of these are the proposals made by the Connecticut Aca- demy of Arts and Sciences, to publish a statistical histor}^ of that State. From the talents and learning included in that body, high expectations are formed concerning tlieir projected work. Ckap.XVII.] Hisiorij. 357 of Coiaitks, Cities y and otlier particular Districts : and they are so numerous that they would form a library of themselves. There is another species of historical composi- tion, in some measure peculiar to the age under review, of which several meritorious specimens have been given. It consists in an exhibition of ancient events, literature, and manners, under the denomination oS Travels, and in the fictitious style o^ Romance. In this class of writings the Athenian Letters, printed in Great Britain in 1740, are entitled to the first place. This work consists of the imaginaiy correspondence of a set of Greeks, the contemporaries of Socrates, Pericles, and Plato ; but in reality of the actual correspondence of a society of ingenious and learned gentlemen in the university of Cambridge, who, under fictitious characters, communicated to each other the result of their researches into ancient history, and, through this medium, laid before the public an entertaining and instructive work *. The next * When this correspondence had continued for a considerable time, and the number of letters had become so large as to render the transcribing of them for the use oi the association too trou- blesome, it was agreed to print tii:clvc copies, which was accord- ingly done, in the year 1740; but the work was not then pub- lished. In 178I, another small edition of oac hundnd copies was printed ; but the work could not yet be said to be published, as the circulation of it was confined to a few individuals. It was not until 1798 that it was, strictly speaking, laid before the pub- lic, in two vols, ^Ito. This work is said to be the best comment- ary on Thucydides that ever was written. It was at first sup- posed that Barthelemi had taken the plan of his work from this pubUcation ; but it has since appeared that he had never seen the Athenian tetters previous to the completion of his celebrated Tra- vels of Jnacharsis. 35S Histon/. [Chap. XVII. remarkable production of this kind, which has been still more celebrated than the Athenian Lct-^ ters, is the Travels of Ana char shy by Barthelemi*. The models of this learned composition are said to have been the Cyropcediay and the Travels of Cy- rus; and tlie author^ we are told, devoted to it the labour of thirty years. Its great merit and singular popularity arc well known. The Travels of Antenor, by M. Lautier, in imitation of Barthe- lemi's work^ is, in every respect, inferior to that curious production. Beside the various kinds of history which have been mentioned, the eighteenth century produced liistories of several Arts^ Sciences^ and departments of Literature, These, if not peculiar to this pe- riod, have greatly increased, in the course of it, in number, accuracy, and value. Of the large list which might be recited, it is proper to notice, with particular respect, the learned and judicious History of Philosophy^ by Brucker, abridged and presented in an English dress, by Dr. Enfield ; i\\^ History of Astronomy, by M. Baiily ; the Hi* story of Optics and o^ Electricity, by Dr. Priest- ley ; the History of Chemistry, by Boerhaave, Wiegleb, and others; the History of Medicine, by le Clerc and Sprengel ; the History of English Poetry^ by Dr. Warton ; the History oj' Music, by Sir John Hawkins, and Du Burn.ey ; the History of the Law of Nations, by Ward; the History of Jacobinism, by the abbe Barruel ; and the history ■♦^f Jean Jacques Barthelemi was born in Provence, in lyiQ. He published the 'J 'rave h of Anne h arsis in 1788, and died in \7C)5. His learning was various and profound, and jiis modesty and good nature were no less remarkable. Chap. XVIL] Hhtoiij. 3.>9 of the Fine Arts, by the abbe Winckehiiann, iiiul others. The plan of publishing large Collcction.s (>f Smtc Papers, for historical purposes, though couceivcd, and in some degree executed, before the com- mencement of the eighteenth century, yet preemi- nently belongs to this period. Never, certainly, were collections of this kind so numerous, exten- sive, and rich, or so useful to the liistorian, as during the last age. They were so numerous, in- deed, that no attempt can be made here to recount even the most voluminous and remarkable which were compiled in various parts of Europe. The most curious and valuable Collection of this kind that has been made in America is that by Mr. Ebenezer Hazard, of Philadelphia, who, for his useful labours, is entitled to the thanks of every One who wishes to become acquainted with Ame- rican history *. Among the various contrivances to facilitate the acquisition of historical knowledge, to which the age in question gave birth, may be mentioned the Charts of History^ in diiferent forms, which mo- dern ingenuity has framed. These, it is believed, were first brought into Great Britain from the con- tinent of Europe f- Among the first presented to * See Historical Cullrdions, kc. by Ebenezer Hazard, A. M. 2 vols, 4to, 1792 and 1/94. t The first Chart of llistury was published, it is believed, in I'rance, about the year 1 760, by the abbe Langlct du Fre^noy. A few years afterwards, a similar work, taken from du Fresnoy's, but much improved, was published in England. Dr. Priestley's JSle-w Chart of History was the third attempt of the kind ; and is, doubtless, superior to all preceding works of a siiniiar nature. 360 nistorij, [Chap. XVIL the British public was that invented and delineated by Dr. Priestley, with whose indefatigable labours we meet in almost every department of literature and science. The Lectures on History, by the same gentleman, may be considered^ on the whole, as one of tlie most able and useful works produced by its author ; and, indeed, as among the best and most satisfactory views of that subject which the ^ge furnished. The eighteenth century not only gave birth to many original productions of the historical kind, but also to many valuable translations of the works of ancient historians. This exhibition of the well-constructed and elegant productions of antiquity in ^lodern dress, while it deserves to be mentioned among the literary enterprises which distinguish the age under consideration, may also, at the same time, be pronounced to have, exerted ^ favourable influence on the character of modern historical composition. It is impossible to dismiss this subject without recollecting how much tlie researches of liistorlans, in the eighteenth century, haye contributed to fur- pish evidence in favour of Rcvelatron. There never was a perjod in which Antiquities wtrt so ex- tensively and successfully investigated ; and every step of this investigation has served to illustiate and support the Sacred V^olume. A f^^w superficial inquirers, in the course of the century, supposed ?iud hoped that t)iey had made discoveries frorp the stores of auti({uity which would be found de- structive of the in^^pired history. But these fond hopes were soon disappointed. When the path of inquiry opened by these sanguine discoverers was Chap, XVII.] Ilislory. . ;5Gl pursued further, and the facts on which tlicv rested their opposition to scripture were more eloseU ex- amined, they were found to terminate in evi 372 Romances and Novels, [Chap. XIX. were often grossly immoral in their nature and tendency, abounding in every species of impure and corrupting exhibition df vice. They were also, in general, tediously diffuse, extending to many volumes, and fatiguing the reader with their unnecessary prolixity. Romance retained its empire in every literary part of Europe until the beginning of the seven- teenth century, about which time Miguel de Cer- vantes, a native of Madrid, published his celebrat- ed satirical romance, entitled The History of Don Qiilvote* This performance was expressly in- tended to pour ridicule on those masses of absur- dity and impurity which had so long maintained an influence over the world. Few works were ever so much read, or so effectually answered their pro^ posed end. Its effect M^as equal to the most san- guine expectations of the author. It destroyed the reign of chivalry; produced a new modifica- tion of public taste ; occasioned the death of the old romance ; and gave birth to another species of fictitious Amting. This may be called romance divested of its most extravagant and exceptionable characters. In the Avorks of this kind the heroism and the gallantry of the old romance were in a degree retained; but the dragons, the necromancers, and the enchanted castles, were chiefly banished, and a nearer ap- proach made to the descriptions of real life. The A.Hrxa of M. d Urfe, and the Grand CyruSy the Clelia^ and the Cleopatra, of Madame Scudery, are among the most memorable specimens of romance thus pruned and improved. These works, how- ever, had still too much of the improbable and un- Chap. XIX.] Romances and Novels, 373 natural to please a just taste ; and thcreiore gave way to a further improvement, which was the in- troduction of the modern Novel. The word Novel is intended to express that kind of fictitious history, which presents natural and prohable exhibitions of inodeni manners and cha- racters *. In this species of writing the extrava- gance, the heroic exploits, the complicated and -endless intrigues, and the mock elevation before thought necessary, were abandoned : heroes, in- stead of being taken from the throne, were sought for in common life : in place of the enchanted castles, the conflicts of giants, and the absurdities of chivalry, the incidents which daily happen in the world, the ordinary scenes of social and domestic intercourse, weve introduced : instead of the pom- pous inflated style formerly admired, and which alone was congenial with the romantic spirit, a more simple and familiar manner was adopted ; and, from ten or twelve tedious volumes, the nar- rative was reduced to two or three, and seldom much exceeded the latter number. Of modern Novels a few appeared in tlie seven- * Most writers on this subject employ the word Kumancc to express both those performances which pourtrayed anciait man- ners, with all the extravagance and folly of chivalry j and those which depict modern manners tme to nature and life. But since the word Romance is considered as invariably expressive of some- thing wild, unreal, and far removed from common practice, ought not some other word to be adopted to designate those fictitious works which profess to instruct or entertain by describing com- mon life and real characters ? And is not the word ^onl \\A\ suited to this purpose of discrimination ? This word has long been used; but, if I do not mistake, in many instances without that accuracy of application which is desirable. 374 Romances and Novels, [Chap. XIX. teenth century ; but the number was so small, and the character of these, for tlie most part, so low, that even the names of but a small portion of them have reached the present time. The eighteenth century may be peculiarly and emphatically called the Age of Novels. The first great work of this kind, in the English language, was Joseph Andrews, by Mr. Henry Fielding *, a comic performance, which, though sometimes indelicate, and often ex- ceptionable in its moral tendency, yet displays great wit, humour, learning, taste, and knowledge of mankind f. The next was Pamela, by Mr. Samuel Richardson J. This work introduced, and rendered popular, the mode of writing novels in the form of Letters, which has been since adopted by many, both in Great Britain and on the con- tinent of Europe. Pamela was succeeded by Tom Jones, which, though by no means pure in its mo- ral tendency, is esteemed by the ablest critics as the first performance of the heroi- comic kind that was ever written §. The same author next pro- * Henry Fielding was born in Somersetshire, in 1 707, and died at Lisbon, whither he had gone* for his health in 1754. His ex- travagant and intemperate habits prevented his rising to those civil honours to which his genius would probably have otherwise con- ducted him. f Dr. Eeattie tells us, that lord Lyttleton, once in conversation with him, after mentioning several particulars of Pope, Swift, and other wits of that time, when he was asked some question relating to the author of Tom Jowe^,. began his answer with these words, " Henry Fielding, I assure you, had more wit, and more humour, tlian all the persons we have been speaking of put together." X Samuel Richardson was a native of Derbyshire, where he was born in ] 689. He was bred a printer, and carried on that busi- ness for many years. He died in 1 76I . § " Since the days of Homer, says Dr. Beattie, the world Chap. XIX.] Romances and Novels. 375 duced his Amelia, in which he imitated the epic poets, hy beginning his narrative in the middle of the story. Tiiis plan was soon followed by Ri- chardson, in his Clarissa Harlowe, and Sir Charles Grandison, in both whicli the epistolary form of writing is retained, to which he seems to have been particularly attached. The earliest productions of Great Britain in this department of writing may be considered as her best. Fielding and Richardson have never been exceeded, and probably not equalled, by any no- velists since their day, either in their own or any other country. Each of these authors may be said to have invented a new species of fictitious writing, and to have carried it at once to the high- est point of improvement which it has ever reached. Their talents were different, and their works display this difference in a very strong light; but each attained a degree of excellence in his way altoge- ther unrivalled. Fielding is humorous and co- mic ; Richardson more grave and dignified. They both paint with a masterly hand ; but Fielding is has not seen a more artful epic fable than Tom Jones. The cha- racters and adventures are wonderfully diversified j yet tlie cir- cumstances are all so natural, and rise so easily from one another, and cooperate with so much regularity in bringing ©n, even while they seem to retard, the catastrophe, that tiie curiosity of the reader is kept always awake, and instead of flagging grows more and more impatient, as the story advances, till at last it becomes downright anxiety. And when we get to the end, and look back on the whole contrivance, we are amazed to find that of so many inci- dents there should be so few superfluous 3 that in auch variety oi fiction there should be so great probability ; and that so complex a tale should be so perspicuously conducted, and with pexfeci unilj of design." See the Dissertation on Fable and lioinuna 576 Romances and Novels, [Chap. XIX. perhaps more true to nature than his rival. The former succeeds better in describing manners; the latter in developing and displaying the hearti In plot and contrivance Fielding has no superior; while Richardson interests us less by his incidents than by the beauty of his descriptions, and the ex- cellence of his sentiments*. Fielding is most at home when describing low life, and exhibiting the humorous effusions of coarseness and indelicacy f. Richardson, on the other hand, is more in his element when displaying the purity and sublimity of virtue J. The most eminent writers of dif- ferent countries have paid homage to the merits of Richardson as a novelist. His works have been translated into almost every language of Europe, and notwithstanding every dissimilitude of man- ners, and every disadvantage of translation, they have probably been more generally admired and euloo'ised than those of anv other author in this o ^ * Dr. Johnson, once in conversation with Mr. Thomas Erskine, jfaid, " Sir, if you were to read Richardson for the story your im- patience would be so much fretted that you would hang yourself. But you must read him for the sentiment, and consider the story ds only giving occasion to the sentiment." t Richardson used to say, that had he not known who Fielding was, he should have believed him to be an ostler, X Richardson was a man of great purity and excellence of cha- racter. He was one of the best bred gentlemen of his day — ha- bituated to genteel life — amiable, benevolent, and unaffectedly pious ; and no doubt endeavoured, though eome have supposed without complete success, to constmct all his narratives in such a manner as to give them an unexceptionable moral tendency. Field- ing was less pure in his principles and character, and had been more conversant at some periods with low life. In wit, humour, and knowledge of mankind, he has been pronounced inferior to no individual of modern times excepting Shakspearc. Chap. XIX.] Romances and Novels. 377 species of composition. Though Fielding has been less popular abroad, owing, perhaps, to the pecu- liar appropriateness of his pictures of English nian- ners; yet, in several important attributes of ficti- tious narrative, he certainly transcends every other writer. These distinguished and standard novelists have had many imitators, particularly in their own coun- try ; but none who have risen to the same degree of excellence which they attained. Among the most successful of these was Dr. Smollet. His Roderic Random was written in imitation of 7 is;/! Jones ; his Humphrey Clinker, the last and best of his works, after the manner of Richardson; and his Historif of Sir Launcelot Greaves, with a view to the manner of Cervantes *. These imita- tions are by no means without success, and cer- tainly hold, in some respects, a very high place in the list of those fictitious writings which belong to the age under consideration. In exhibiting the peculiarities of professional character Dr. Smollet displays great powers. Perhaps no writer was ever more successful in drawing the character of sea- men. Sometimes, indeed, his pictures I)or(ler on the extravagance of carkatura, to which his sati- rical and cynical disposition strongly inclined him. His propensity to burlesque and broad humour too frequently recurs ; and he is often indelicate and licentious to a very shameful degree. These remarks apply, in some measure, to most of his works ; but to his Peregi^ine Pkidcj and T/ie Ad- * It is obvious, from the definition before ^^iven of a Strvrl, that Smollet's Sir Launcelot Greaves dioes not stricdy belong tothii class 3 but rather falls under the denomination of liomanu: 578 Romances aiidNotels, [Chap. XIX, ventures of an Atom, the charge of indelicate de- scriptivon, and immoral tendency, is particularly applicable. About the beginning of the eighteenth century M. le Sage *, an ingenious French writer, publish- ed his Gil Bias, which appears to have been among the earliest works of the novel kind, published on the continent of Europe, that rank with the first class, or that are now held in much esteem. This performance was intended to be a picture of Span- ish manners, and abounds with a great variety of incident and vivacity of description. It differs from Tom Jones in that it partakes less of the Epic character, and may, with more propriety, be de- nominated a piece of '^ fictitious biography;" but resembles that celebrated Arork in wit, humour, and knowledge of the world. Soon after the pub- lication of Gil Bias the Marianne of Marivaux f, on the same general plan, appeared. This work has a place assigned to it among the best novels in the French language. It discovers much acquaint- ance with human nature, and, under the veil of MHt and incident, conveys much useful moral. Several other novels were written by the same au- thor, but none of them are equal to this. They were succeeded by the fictitious writings of Vol- taire and Diderot, which were of different kinds, ♦ Alain Rene le Sage was born in Britanny, in 1667. Having studied the Spanish language and manners with great care, he wrote several works in imitation of Spanish authors. He died in I7'17. t Peter Carlet de Carablain de Marivaux was born at Paris in 1(583. His novels and dramas are distinguished by their good moral tcndfncy. He died in 1/63, Chap. XIX. ] Romances and Novels. 379 and possessed different degrees of literary merit ; but chiefly designed, like most of the other writ- ings of those far-famed infidels, to discredit reli- gion, both natural and revealed, and lo destroy the influence of those institutions which have proved so conducive to human happiness. The novels of Diderot, in particular, abound with every species of licentiousness, and have the most pernicious ten- dency. M. Crebillon, the younger, distinguished him- self by several works of fiction, executed in a new taste, which, though rendered highly interesting to many readers by their levity, humour, and whimsical digressions, are yet dangerous iu their tendency, from a continual display of libertine sen- timent. Madame Riccoboni is another distin- guished novelist of France, belonging to the period under review. Her Fanny Butler, and several other works, have been much read and admired ; but have been also severely criticised as containing much indelicacy, and even obscenity, iu their nar- ratives. M Marmontel, of the same country, also presented the public, during the period under con- sideration, with a nevf species of fiction, in his Moral Tales, which, being less prolix than the common novel, combine instruction and amuse- ment in a very pleasing degree. * Many of them, however, it must be owned, are indelicate and cor- rupting in their tendency, and ought to be con- sidered as especially unfit to be put, as they fre- quently are, into the hands of children and young persons. But, among all the French novelists, J.J. Rous- iseau unquestionably holds the first place as a man 580 Romances mid Novels. [Chap. XIX. of genius. His Nouvelle Heloise is one of the most j*eniarkable productions of the age. Eloquent, tender, and interesting in the highest degree ; yet full of inconsistency, of extravagance, of li- centious principle, and of voluptuous, seducting description. Poison lurks in every page; but conceafed from the view of niany readers by tbe wonderful fascination which is thrown around every object. Of the dangerous tendency of his work, indeed, tlie author was himself fully sen- sible, and speaks freely. A circumstance which forms one among the many grounds of imputatioa against the morality of that singular man *• The writings of the distinguished novelists above mentioned produced, in every part of Europe, a host of imitators and adventurers in the regions of fiction. To give even a general sketch of the nu- merous classes of those who have written under the titles of Memoirs y Lives, Histoines, Adventures, &c. would fill a volume. Since the time of Field- * The character of Rousseau perhaps exhibits the most sin- gular and humiliating contrasts that were ever displayed in a hu- man being. Exalted genius and groveling folly alternately cha- racterized his mind. At some periods he appeared to be under the influence of the most pure and sublime moral feelings 5 while, at others^ the lowest propensities, and most detestable passions, possessed and governed him. Oftentimes, when speaking of morality and religion, one would imagine that sentiments of the most elevated benevolence and piety were habitual to him j but the tenour of his life, and, indeed, his own Confessiom demon- strate, that an unnatural compound of vanity, meanness, and contemptible self-love, a suspicious, restless temper, bordering on insanity, and a prostration of every principle and duty to his own aggrandisement and gratification, were the real predominant characteristics of this strange phenomenon in human nature. He was born at Geneva, in the year 1712, and died in ITS. Chap. XIX.] Romances and N(yccls. 381 ing the Epic form of novels has been more in vogue than before. Plot has become more fashion- able, and is considered more essential to the ex- cellence of their structure. During the last thirty years of Xht century under consideration, the countries most productive of respectable works in this species of composition were Great-Britain, France, and Germany. Among the later Britisli novelists, Dr. Gold- smith*, Miss Burney (now Madame d'Arblay), Mrs. Radcliffe, Mr. Mackenzie, Mrs. C. Smith, and Dr. Moore, undoubtedly rank highest. The Vicar of JVakeJield \vill ever be read Avith new plea- sure, as one of the finest, most natural, and most happily imagined moral pictures that was ever drawn. The author of Evelina^ .Cecilia, and Ca- milla, has marked out for herself a manner of writ- ing in some respects new. If the reader do not find in her pages those bold and daring strokes which indicate the hand of a great and original genius; yet, in giving pictures of characters and manners, simple, natural, just, lively, and perfectly moral in their tendency, she has no equal among Iier con- temporaries. The performances of Mrs. Kad- cliffe will be presently mentioned as belonging to a new and sino'ular class of fictitious writinurs. o o The publications of I\Ir. Mackenzie, which be- long to this department of literature, have been much read, and have received high praise. Mrs. Charlotte Smith holds an honourable place among the ingenious and moral novelists of the age. * Oliver Goldsmith was born at lloscommon in liL-land, m 1729. He was bred a physician. .His works arc univciiall/ known. He died in J77^» 382 Romances and Novels, [Chap. XIX. Her Ethelinde and Emmeline have few equals. Dr. Moore, in describing English manners, has acquitted himself with high credit. But the works of the three last writers will probably never be mentioned as forming an era in the histor}^ of British novels, like those of Field- ing, Richardson, Smollet, Burney, and Rad- diffe. To the class of novels, rather than to any other, belongs that remarkable production, the Life and Opinions of Trist7^am Shandy, by the reverend Law- rence Sterne*. Notwithstanding the often re- peated, and well supported, charges brought against this writer, of borrowing without acknowledg- ment many of his best thoughts from preceding British and French authors f, yet his work is a unique in the history of literature. When it first appeared his readers were astonished at the sin- gular farrago of obscurity, whim, indecency, and extravagance which it exhibited. The majority appeared to be at a loss, for a time, what judg- ment to form of its merits. But some of the friends of the writer, professing to comprehend his meaning, and disposed to place him high in the ranks of wit and humour, gave the signal to ad- mire. The signal was obeyed; and multitudes^ •* Lawrence Sterne was born at Clonmell, in Ireland, in 1713. The first two volumes of Tristram Shandy were published in 176O. Two years afterwards he travelled into France, for the benefit of his health, which gave rise to his Sentimental Journei/. He died in 1773. + It seems to be now well ascertained tliat Sterne carried to a very great length the practice of filling his pages with plunder from other writers. Chap. XIX.] Romances ami Norcls. 38S to the present day, have continued to mistake his capricious and exceptionable singularities for ef- forts of a o;reat and oriiJ-inal jj^enius. But his ee- nius and writings have certainly been overrated. That he possessed con??iderable powers, of a cer- tain description, is readily admitted; that the Ej)i- sodes of le FexTe and Jlfaria are almost unrivalled, as specimens of the tender and pathetic, must also be granted; and that the man who could con- ceive and draw the character ol* i^ncle Toby must sometimes have had elevated moral feel- ings, as well as peculiar talents, is equally evi- dent : but those parts of his works which de- serve this character bear so small a proportion to the rest, and the great mass of what he has written is either so shamefully obscene, so quaintly obscure, or so foolishly unmeaning, that there are very few M^orks more calculated to corru[)t both the taste and the morals. That a man who bore the sacred office should employ his talents in re- commending a system of libertinism ; that he who could so well delineate the pleasures of benevo- lence and purity, should so grossly offend against both ; and that volumes which abound with such professions of exalted philanthropy, should con- tain so many pages on which a virtuous mind can- not look but with disgust and indignation, are facts more atrociously and disgracefully criminal than the ordinary language of reprobation is able to reach *. * " What is called sentimental writing," says, Ilor.ice W al- .pole, " though it be understood to appeal solely to the heart, m.17 be the product of a very bad one. One would imagine thnt Sterne had been a man of a very tender heart ; yet I know, from 3Si ' liomajices and Novels* [Chap. XlXr The last age is also distinguislied by some pro- ductions of a singular kind, partaking of the ex- travagance of the ancient Uomance, with some of the attributes of the modern NoveL The Castle of Otranto^ by Lord Orford, better known by the name of Horace Walpole, was one of the earliest and most remarkable productions of this kind. To the same class, though in many respects differ- ent, belong the works of Mrs. Radcliffe. This lady has formed for herself a department of fiction which may be called new. She has been justly styled '' the Shakspeare of romance writers," and displays a skill altogether unrivalled ^* in com- municating terrific impressions from imaginary causes." But it is a remarkable peculiarity of her narratives, and greatly augments her title to praise, that, while the scenes which she exhibits abound with wildness and terrour, yet they are so softened down, and the mind so much relieved by' beauti- ful description and pathetic incident, that the impression of the whole seldom becomes too strong, and never degenerates into horrour; but pleasurable emotion is the predominating result. It ought, likewise, to be mentioned to her honour, that the general tendency of her writings is favourable to virtue*. indubitable authority, that his mother, who kept a school, having run in debt, on account [of an extravagant daughter, would have rotted in jail if the parents of her scholars had not raised a su^b- scription for her. Her son had too much sentiment to have any feeling. A dtad asa was more important to him than a living mothtrj" Walpoliatia, vol. i. * The MysttrU's of Udulpho, the Romance of the Forest, and U'he Italian, are considered as tlie best performances of this lady. Chap. XIX.] Romances and Novels* 385 To this mixed class also belongs the Monk of Mr. Lew is. While this production evinces talents. It must be considered as higldy mischievous in its tendency, and as disgraceful to the character of the writer. In this department of fiction several German writers have made a conspicuous ligure> especially the authors of the Ghost Seer, The Victim of Magical Delusion, and many others uf a similar cast. The herd of low and impotent ipiitators of these works, with which Great-Britain, and other parts of Europe, have abounded for se- veral years past, while they dishonour literature, and corrupt good morals, present a very curious picture of the taste and character of the age which gave them birth. Among the peculiarities of the century under consideration may be mentioned the practice of conveying certain principles on the subjects of mo- rals, religion, and politics, through the medium of fictitious narrative. Though many works of fiction had been formed, prior to this age, with the view to convey, to a certain extent, moral principles and impressions; yet the plan of attack- ing particular classes of men or of doctrines through this medium, and of interweaving systems of morality, theology, or philosophy, into the pages of romances or novels, was seldom, if ever, attempted before the eighteenth century. One of the earliest productions of this kind was the Adventures of Telemachus, by archbishop Fe- nelon*, which appeared at the beginning of the * This most amiable and excellent of men was born in l651, and died in 1 7 15. It is generally known that, beside the //(/- ventures of Tdanachus, he published several valuable works. Vol. II. 2C 386 Romances and Novels. [Chap. XIX^ century. This work was intended to assert and exemplify those moral and political maxims which the pious and benevolent author had before taught to the dukes of Burgundy and Anjou, when com- mitted to his tuition. The style of this celebrated poem * is generally admired ; the fiction is ably conducted; and the moral is pure and sublime. Its extensive circulation and great popularity are well known. About the same time appeared the Tale of a Tub, one of the first publications of Dean Swift. The design of this allegorical fable was to expose certain abuses and corruptions in learn- ing and religion, especially the latter ; and it has been pronounced in felicity of wit, in force of sa- tire, in copiousness of imagery, and in vivacity of diction, to exceed all the subsequent productions of the author f. About twenty years afterwards the same celebrated writer published his Gulliver's Travels, a performance which was, perhaps, more read than any other of the age. This satirical work is levelled at human pride and folly, at the abuses of learning, at the absurdity of theorists and projectors, and, especially, at the expedients and blunders of politicians. In this, as in the former, the fable is, in general, well conducted, the satire is keen, the description admirable, and the style at once easy, graceful, and vigorous. But the work is by no means free from gross faults. * Telemachus, though not written in verse, is so poetical in its character, that it may with propriety be denominated apoem. t This praise must be received with qualification. The Tale of a Tub contains some images and illusions highly indelicate, and even grossly offensive. The author is also chargeable with treating serious things, in this performance, with too much levity. Chap. XIX.] Romances and Nwels, 387 It discovers a prevailing fondness in the author for filthy alkisions, and indecent nauseating descrip- tions. The J\i/age to the Hoiujimfinms, in particu- Li!% is very objectionable. Its satire is that of a misanthrope; its imagery and allusions those of a mind which delighted in fdth; and its tiction alto- gether inconsistent and irrational. In 17-59 was puljlished the Rasselas of Dr. Johnson, a philosophical tale, the design of which was to convey, in the oriental manner, useful les- sons respecting the vanity of the worUl, the insuf- ficiency of temporal things to secure human happi- ness, and the consequent importance of having a due regard to things eternal. This work has been translated into almost all the modern lano-uases of Europe, and was one of the first moral effusions of that mind which aftcrwaids laboured so much, and so well, to '' give ardour to virtue, and con- fidence to truth." About the same time appeared the Candkle of M. Voltaire, written to refute the system of optimism, and probably with a wish also, to discredit the belief of a superintending Providence. There is a considerable similarity in the plan and conduct of Rasselas and Candide. But the circumstances under v/hich they were pub- lished precluded the suspicion of either having been indebted to the other *. After the publication of tlie foregoing works, ^Ir. Ridley, in his Tales of the Genii, endeavoured * '" I have heard Johnson," says Mr. Boswell, " say of these two works, that if they had not been published so closely one after the other, it would have been in vain to deny that the scheme of that which came latest was taken froni the other." Boswell's Life of Johnson, vol. i, p. 282. 388 Romances and Novels, [Chap. XIX. to defend some of the peculiar doctrines of Chris- tianity; while, on the other hand, these doctrines have been covertly attacked, in the Life and Opi- iiions of John Bunckk-^^jun. in the Alemoirs of se- veral Learned Ladies, in The Spii^itual Quixote, in Dialogues of the Philosophei^s of Uluhrce, and in se- veral other works of fiction. That system of opi- nions usually styled the Neiv Philosophy f has been exhibited with great zeal, with a view to its defence, hi the fictitious writings of Diderot, and many other French novelists ; and in those of Holcroft, Godwin, Mary Wollstonecraft, and Mary Hays, of Great Britain. The same delusive and mis- chievous system has been successfully attacked and exposed in The Highlander, by Dr. Bissett ; in the Modern Philosophers, by Miss Hamilton ; in Vaurien, or Sketches of the Ti??ies, by ]\lr. Disraeli; in the Memoirs of St. Godwin, in The Vagahondy in Plain Sense^ and in various anonymous publica- tions of the novel kind. A number of other novelists, both in Great- Britain and on the continent of Europe, deserve to be mentioned, in recounting the conspicuous writers of this class, which belong to the eigh- teenth century. In Great Britain female novelists have been numerous and respectable. Among "* The Life and Opinions of John Bunckle, esq., and Memoirs of several Learned Ladies, were written by Mr. Thomas Amory, an excentric genius of Great Britain, who was born in 1692, and died in 1789. He was a zealous Socinian. f B7 the iV(fzy Philosophii is meant, that system of doctrines concerning the constitution of man, and concerning morals and religion, taught by the author of the Sj/sfanc de la Nature, by H^'.vetitis, and Condorcet, and afterwards by several other cele- brat.d writers, both of France and Great Britain, Chap. XIX.] Romances and Novels. 389 these Mrs. Brooke, Mrs. Inchbald, Mrs. Sheri- dan, Mrs. Yearsley, Miss Seward, Miss West, and Miss Williams liave attracted most attention, and been the objects of most applause. In France, out of a long list which might be enumerated, the fictitious writings of M. de St. Pierre, Madame Genlis, and M. Florian, are worthy of particu- lar distinction, especially on account of their pure moral tendency. In Germany the writers of ro- mances and novels, during the age under review, were extremely numerous. Of these Wieland is entitled to the first place. The appearance of his Agathon is represented as a grand epoch in the history of fictitious writing in that countij *. Next to Wieland, Goethe is respectably known as a novelist, not only in his own country, but also throughout Europe. The name of F. J. Hermes also deserves to be distinguished among the living novel writers of Germany, as do those of Nicholai, Richter, and several others. In a word, in every cultivated part of the European world novel writers have incredibly abounded in modern times ; but the author has so little know- ledge even of the names of the principal works of this kind, and so much less of their respective me- rits and demerits, that he cannot undertake to speak of them in detail. America has given birth to few productions in the department of romance or novel. Indeed, no ♦ Lessing, a German critic, of great learning 'and acuteness, pronounced The Histori/ of Agathon to be one of the finest efforts of genius in the eighteenth century; nay, he called it thejirst and onli/ novel of tlte Gerraanf^ written for ihijilcing men of classical taste. 390 Romances and Novels* [Chap. XIX^ work of this nature deserving respectful notice had appeared in the United States jirior to the year 1798, when Mr. Charles B. Brown, of Phila- delphia, puhiished his fVieland, which has been since followed by Ormonde Arthur Mercyny Edgar Himtly, and Jane Talbot^ from the pen of the same author. Mr. Brown discovers, in these several productions, a vigorous imagination, a creative fancy, strong powers of description, and great command, and, in general, great felicity of lan- guage. He has the honour of being the first American who presented his countrymen with a respectable specimen of fictitious history ; and is certainly the first who succeeded in gaining much attention to his labours in this branch of literature. It was before observed that the eighteenth cen- tury was the Age of Novels. Never was the lite- rary world so deluged with the frivolous effusions of ignorance and vanity, in this form, as within the last thirty years. Every contemptible scribbler has become an adventurer in this boundless field of enterprise. Every votary of singular, and especi- ally of licentious opinions, has thought this a conve- nient mode of disguising and serving up his errours. The thirst for this species of composition is incon- ceivably ardent and extensive. All classes of per- sons in society, from the dignified professional cha- racter to the lowest ranks of labouring indigence, seek and devour novels. These ephemeral produc- tions are daily composed, translated, revamped, and reprinted, to indulge the growing demand. What will be the effect and the end of this morbid appetite; whether, like many other diseases, it will work its own cui'e, or whether it will go on to in- Chap. XIX.] Romances and Novels. 391 crease as long as human society shall exist, are questions to the solution of which the friend of hu- man happiness looks forward with deep solicitude. It has often been made a question, whether ro- mances and novels form a useful kind of readini^, or the contrar}^ This question, fifty years ago, was of little moment compared with the importance which it has lately assumed. At that period the number of novels was small, and the popular classes of them sustained, in general, a tolerably pure moral character. Since that time, the case is, un- happily, altered; their number has increased, their character is so changed, and the task of discrimi- nating among them has become so delicate and ar- duous, that the question above stated must now be regarded as one of the most interesting that can be asked, concerning the literary objects of the day, by the wise and affectionate parent, the faithful guardian, or the mind of general benevolence. It may not be improper, therefore, before taking leave of this singular feature in the history of the eighteenth century, to offer two or three brief re- marks on the general tendency of the class of writ- in2:s under consideration. That fictitious history, when constructed on pro- per principles, and executed in a proper manner, may be productive of utility, is a position too plain to be doubted. It is one of the most powerful means of exciting curiosity, of awakening sympa- thy, and of impressing the understanding and the heart. Such fiction '* may do more good to many minds than the solemnities of professed morality, and convey the knowledge of vice and virtue with A^iore efficacy than axioms and definitions." Oa 30^ Romaiwes and Novels. [Chap. XIX. this ground it was, ro doubt, that the infinitely wise Author of our religion frequently adopted the form of parable for communicating the most im- portant truths to his hearers. And, on the same principle, some of the wisest human teachers have used the vehicle of lively and interesting fiction, known to be stich at the time, for insinuating into the mind moral and religious lessons, which, in a different form, might not so readily have gained ad- mittance. It is obvious, then, that to this kind of writing, as stick, there can be no sohd objection. Novels mai; be so written as to promote the cause both of knowledge and virtue. They mai/ be constructed in such a manner as will tend to lead the mind insensibly from what is sordid and mean to more worthy pursuits, and to fill it with pure, elevated and liberal sentiments. Nay, it may be further conceded, that, out of the myriads of no- vels which have been composed, di/ew are, in fact, entitled to this character, and have a tendency to produce these effects. But it is evident, that a kind of writing, which, when wisely and ingeniously executed, may be conducive to the best purposes, may also, in the hands <)f the unskilful or the wicked, produce the worst effects. If an artfully conducted fiction be so well fitted to interest the curiosity, to awaken sympathy, and to impress the mind, then it follows that if this fiction be enlisted on the side of cor- rupt principle, or licentious practice, it must do incalculable mischief. The question before us, therefore, must be solved by examining the influ- ence of novels, not as they might and ought to be com])osed, but as they are found in fact to be Chap. XIX.] Romances and Naveh. 59-^ written. We are not to assume for our standard the utility which xvould be derived from this spe- cies of writing, were it confined to the enlightened and virtuous; but the character and tendency of that heterogeneous mass wliich is daily accumu- lating from every quarter of the hterary world. What then is the general character of modem novels? The most favourable estimate that can be made stands thus: — Were the whole number which the age produced divided into a thousand parts, it is probable thatj^re hundred o^ these parts would be found so contemptibly frivolous, as to render the perusal of them a very criminal waste of time ; and though entirely destitute of character, yet so far as they are the objects of attention at all, they can do nothing but mischief. To devote the time and attention to works of this kind, has a tendency to dissipate the mind; to beget a dislike to more solid and instructive reading, and especially to real history; and, in general, to excite a greater fond- ness for the productions of imagination and fancy, than for the sober reasoning, and the practical in- vestigations of wisdom. Of the remaining Jive hundred parts, four hun- dred and ninety-nine may be considered as posi- tively seductive and corrupting in their tendency. They make virtue to appear contemptible, and vice attractive, honourable, and triumphant. Folly and crime have palliative and even commendatory names bestowed upon them ; the omnipotence of love ovtr all obligations and all duties is continually maintained; and the extravagance of sinful passion represented as the effect of amiable sensibility. Surely these representations can have i^'J other tea- 504. Roma7ices and Novels. [Chap. XIX. dency than to mislead, corrupt and destroy those who habitually peruse them, and especially those who give them a favourable reception. But this is not the worst of the evil. A portion of this latter class of novels may be charged with being seductive and immoral on a more refined plan. They are systematic, and, in some instances, ingenious and plausible apologists for the most atrocious crimes. In many modern productions of this kind the intelligent reader will recognize the following process of representation. Corrupt opi- nions are put into the mouth of some favourite hero, the splendour of whose character, in other respects, is made to embellish the principles which he holds, and the force of whose eloquence is used to recom- mend the most unreasonable dogmas. When this hero commits a crime, and when by this crime, ac- cording to the fixed law of the Divine government, he is involved in serious difficulty, if notlasting misery, the fashionable novelist endeavours to throw the blame on the religious and moral insti- tutions of the world, as narrow, illiberal and un- just. When a woman has surrendered her chas- tity, and prostituted herself to a vile seducer; and when she suffers in her reputation and her com- fort by such base conduct, all this is ascribed to the '' wretched state of civilization," to the '' de- plorable condition of society !" Every opportunity is taken to attack some principle of morality under the title of a '' prejudice;" to ridicule the duties of domestic life, as flowing from *' contracted" and ** slavish" views; to decry the sober pursuits of upright industry as '' dull" and '' spiritless;" and, in a woid, to frame an apology for suicide, adul- Chap. XIX.] Romances and Novels. 39.5 tery, prostitution, and the indulgence of every pro- pensity tor which a corrupt lieart can plead an in- clination. It only remains to speak of the one t/iousandtlt part not included in the classes already characterized. IJf the g-reater portion of these the most favourahle account that can he given is, that they are innocent and amusing compositions. But even with regard to a considerahle numher which have been com- monly placed among the good and useful novels, a correct judge would scarcely be willing to pio- nounce them innocent without some (jualification. After all these deductions, how small is the num- ber of those which can be said to merit a perusal, or which can be considered as tending, in any to- lerable degree, to enlighten the mind, or to pro- mote the interests of virtue and happiness ! So small, indeed, that out of the numerous volumes which a simple catalogue of the novels produced in the eighteenth century would fill, a single page would embrace all that could be with propriety recommended to the attention of ^lie youtliful mind. • # Many novels which contain no licentious prin- ciples or indelicate descriptions, are still defective, inasmuch as they are not pictures of nature. A\'hen this is the case, though they be not chargeable with making a direct attack on the fortress of vir- tue, yet they are only fitted to mislead. To fill the mind with unreal and delusive pictures of life, is, in the end, to beguile it from sober duty, and to cheat it of substantial enjoyment. Were all the mischief presented to our view which has been done to thoughtless, unsuspecting miuds, by ficti- 396 Romances and Novels, [Chap. XIX. tious writings 6f this character, it would be found to form a mass of crime and misery too great for the ordinary powers of calculation. Hut it is not etiough that the fiction be true to nature. It may in no case depart from the proba- ble and natural; every line may be drawn with 4^ strict regard to the original character designed to be represented ; the most transient beholder may pronounce tiie Hkeness to be perfect; and yet the Tiew may be fitted to corrupt the mind of every- one who looks upon it. The truth is, there are nianv characters which outernal stimuli. In short, the theory of Dr. Darwin, at most, can only be considered by a candid inquirer as solving tlie phe- nomena of one class of ideas, x'lz , those which we receive im- mediately from our external senses. Even of some of these it furnishes an adequate solution ; but all the rest, not only those ^of memory and abstraction, but also those of imagination, taste, moral perception, &c., are left completely in the dark, after ,^U his- fanciful attempts ai explanation. It is. also worthy of remark, that one of the leading doctrines .,^f this theory is plainly contradicted by fact. Dr. Darwin leaches that perception is not to be referred, as some have taught, to any common sensovium in the head, but that it takes place in the several organs of sense themselves ; that the fibrous motions in these organs constitute our ideas ; and that of course, when any organ of sense is totally destroyed, all the ideas connected with it necessarily perish. But is the man who became deaf in adult years incapable of forming any ideas of sound? Were Homer and Milton unable to conceive of Vol. II. '^ E 418 A dditional Notes. visual objects after they became blind ? The noble descrip- tions with which their poems abound are alone sufficient to re- fute Dr. Darwin. He is contradicted by the experience of every day. 5. Finally, this theory is unnecessarily complex, and offends against the best rules of philosophic simplicity. Irritation is an exertion of the sensorial power, or of the spirit of anima- tion, exciting the fibres to coi^traction. By this contraction no end appears to be gained. It is not the fibre which is senti- ent, but the sensorial power resident in the fibre. The con- traction can, therefore, be of use only by communicating a certain effect to the sensorial power. But the sensorial power, according to this theory, was itself affected, previously to the contraction, and was itself the proximate cause of the contrac- tion. Of what use, then, is this combination of effects ? It may, indeed, render errour more complicated and perplexing; but it cannot assist us in the developement of truth. Such are some of the numerous defects and errours of this celebrated system of intellectual physiology. The author falls into the grand mistake adopted by all the materialists, viz., a be- lief that we are acquainted with the nature of causation. In the physical world we see events connected with each other, with respect to time and place j but we know not the relation which they sustain. At most, a series of facts is all that we can deter- mine. The links which bind them together, and the nature of the respective processes by which they succeed to each — in a word, the nature of causation we can never understand. We are equally unable to understand the nature of causa- tion in the intellectual world. Dr. Darwin, like a number of ingenious and learned men before him, has attempted to explore this impenetrable region. But in the attempt, instead of en- lightening us by the exhibition of factJ, he amuses by present- ing phantasms of his own creation. To these he ascribes such powers as he thinks suit his purpose ; and having drawn out in detail a statement of the actions and variations of these fictitious beings, he wc^nld persuade us that the phenomena of mind are explained. But let none mistake words for idea*, or creatures Additional \ofes. 419 v>f the fancy for realities. *' The aficctluns of the sentient principle are not rendered in the least degree more intelligible by resolving them Into motions of solids or fluids ; for the cause of motion is as inexplicable ats the rauso of the sentient aft'ec- tion. If the science of mind were less sure than that of mat- ter, the systems of materialism might have some claim to our respect j but though they were, liable to nn other c.hjection, the material changes can be known to us only by the chancres of mind, and must, of consequence, be liable to all their uncer- tainty. The theory of Dr. Darwin, therefore, has not made us more acquainted with the mystery of ourselves j and whatever praise it may deserve as ingenious, its principles cannot be adopted as just.'' Those who would see a more detailed view of the defects, errours, and gross inconsistencies of the metaphysical theory of this celebrated physician, will do well to consult Obscri at iuns on Zoonomia, by Thomas Brown, esq., Edinburgh, 8vo, 1798; a work which, though it contains perhaps some groundless strictures, manifests great aculencss, learning, taste, and urba- nity. Note (O'^J, page 213. — The following view of the contro- versy between the NotninalisU and licali^is It is hoped will be intelligible. — The licaluiti- supposed that there are certain sub- stantial forms or essences J corresponding to general terms, and which the mind contemplates in employing such terms. Thus, when the general term vegetable is used, they contend that the mind contemplates some substance of a very refined nature, or a generaiyb/v//, having a positive existence. This substance or form, according to them, does not belong to any particular genus or species of vegetables exclusively, but is a phantasmy made up of every thing that is common to dlflerent genera or species. It it about this form or general essence that the mind is employed while considering vegetables in the abstract. Both the riatonists and the Aristotelians were Realists, though dil- fering among themselves with regard to some details. The No?ninalists, on the other hand, contended that there 420 Additional Notes, . arc no existences in nature corresponding to general terms, and that the objects of our attention, in all our general speculations, are not essences, forms, or ideas, but words. Thus they suppose that, in the instance above selected, the word vegetable is the proper object of thought. This word, having been adopted as the representative of certain ideas collected from several genera and species, is used, in a manner, analogous to an algebraic character, which we employ throughout a process, without at- tending to the quantity which it represents. This was the doctrine of Zeno, of the stoics, of Roscelinus in the eleventh century, and of his successor Abelard. The Concept ualists dissent from both of the above stated opinions. They suppose that words are connected^ by eomtnon consent, with certain attributes common to a number of genera and species, and abstracted from all peculiarities. By the la.v of the association of ideas, when the word vegc^.ble is pro- nounced, all these attributes are drawn out of the ''>bi!ict of memor}', and arranged, by the faculty of concepiicj , t,-.uie the mind. This collection of ideas they suppose to be the object about which the mind is exercised. We lose sight of the word, and instantly attend to these conceptions. END OF VOL. 11. 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