tihvavy of t:he theological ^tmimxy

PRINCETON • NEW JERSEY

Samuel Miller
in memory of
Judge Samuel Miller Breckinridge

7772^

V.3

BRIEF RETROSPECT

OF THE

EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.

PART THE FIRST j
IN THREE VOLUMES:

CONTAINING

A SKETCH

OF THE

REVOLUTIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS

IN

SCIENCE, ARTS, AND LITERATURE,

DURING THAT PERIOD.

BY SAMUEL MILLER, A.M.

ONE OF THF. MINISTERS OF THE UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURGHEj,
IN THE CITY OF NEW YORK, MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN PHILO-
SOPHICAL SOCIETY, AND CORRESPONDING 5TEMBEU OF
THE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF MASSACHUSETTS.

VOL. IIL

Pi-iiitcd at New York.
LONDON :

IrEPRIXTED FOR J.JOHNSON, ST. PAUL's CHURCHYARli,

Bij E/krion <S' Bif.corth, Johnson's Court, Flvet Street.
1805.

CONTENTS

OF

THE THIRD VOLUME.

Page

CHAPTER XX. Poetry 1

§1. Epic Poetry ,. 7

§2. Didactic Poetry 11

§3. Moral and Devotional Poetry 19

§4-. Satirical Poetry 22

§ 5. Descriptive Poetry 29

§ 6. Pastoral Poetry 32

§7. Lyric Poetry 35

§ 8. Elegiac Poetry 38

§ 9. Drama 40

General Observations 61

American Poetry 67

General Reflexions 69

CHAPTER XXI. Literary Journals 73

CHAPTER XXII. Political Journals 8S

CHAPTER XXIII. Literary a?jd Scientific Associa-
tions 99

American Societies and Academies of

Arts and Sciences 103

Historical Society lO-t

Medical Soc ietics 1 05

— Agricultural Societies ... 108

General Observations 107

CHAPTER XXIV. Encyclopedias and Scientific Dic-
tionaries ...., 109

CHAPTER XXV. Education .' 117

CHAPTER XXVI. Nations lately become literary... 152

§ I. Russia .., 153

§ 2. Germany 166

§3. United States of America 1S6

Recapitulation - 286

Additional Notes ., , 335

A

BRIEF RETROSPECT

OF THE

EIGHTEENTH CENTURY,

CHAPTER XX.

POETRY.

Jl OETRY, in one form or another, has been the
growth of every age with the history of which we
are acquainted; and the eighteenth century had
its full share of those who paid their court to the
Muses. It may be said with confidence, indeed,
that the last age produced a far greater number of
poets than any former period of the same extent.
But it must be confessed, that of this number few
are entitled to the character of distinguished ex-
cellence. The mantle of Shakspeare or of Milton
has not fallen upon any succeeding bard. Since
the death of the latter, more than a century has
passed away without producing a rival of his
great and deserved fame. Still it may be main-
tained that poets, and poetic excellence, have been
produced, of sufficient distinction to do high lio-

Voi. m. 3

2 Poetry. [Chap. XX. .

nour to modern genius, and to merit ^ respectful
consideration.

The poetic diction and versification of several
modern languages have been much enriched and
refined during the period under review. Of these
improvements it may be proper to take some brief
notice, before we proceed to consider the parti-
cular specimens of poetic genius which belong to
this age.

During the century in question, English versifi-
cation has been greatly improved. Though Dry-
den, at the close of the preceding century, had
done much towards the promotion of this object j
yet the style of English poetry was left by him in
an irregular, harsh, and incorrect state. He was
succeeded by Mr. Pope, whose successful exertions
to polish, refme,.and regulate the language of our
poetry, are well knov*^n*. If Dryden displayed
more vigour of genius and more sublimity of con-
cej)tion than Pope, the latter undoubtedly exhibits
a degree of correctness and elegance of dictionj
and of harmony and sweetness of numbers, which
had never been equalled by any preceding poet,
and which have never been exceeded since his
time. " New sentiments, and new images," says
a great critic, " others may produce ; but to at-
tempt any further improvement of versification
will be dangerous. Art and diligence have now

* A frie«d of learaing and taste, on reading what is said of
the comparative merits of these tw(> great English poets, madQ
tjie following remark : " Dryden, in my opinion, did more to
improve English versification than Pope : the interval is wider
between Dryden and the best of his predecessors, than between
Dryden and Pope.'-'

Chap. XX.] Poetrij. . 8

done their best ; and what shall be added will
be the eftbrt of tedious toil Hud needless curio-
sity*."

English poetry is also indebted to several who
have written since Mr. Pope. The names of
these, and the nalure and amount of the services
which they rendered, will be more fully brought
to the mind of the intelligent reader in reviewing
hereafter the particular works by wiiich they are
most honourably known to the public.

About the beo-innins: of the seventeenth cen-
tury there was a race of versifiers in Europe, and
especially in Great Britain, vvho have been called
by the critics metaphysical poets 'f. They were
generally men of learning, and niany of them en-
dowed with genius ; but were either destitute of
taste, or possessed only that vvhich was false and
perverted. Pedantic, subtle, obscure, and con-
fused, they presented absurd and gross conceits,
rather than just images ; scholastic refmements,
rather than copies of nature ; and far-fetched ideas
and illustrations, to display their reading, rather
than that chaste simplicity v\diich delights, and
that " noble expanse of thought which fdls the
whole mind." This race of poets, if such they
may be called, did not become extinct till toward
the close of the seventeenth century. Cowle\-,
Waller, Denham, and many others, were infected
with the false taste which they had propagated,
and thus extended the mischief. Milton, though
he adopted, in one instance, the manner of these
metaphysical versifiers, yet in general disdained

* ^ife of Pope, by Johnson. t ^'/* ^f Coiiley, by Johnson.

4 Poetry. [Chap. XX,

it, and contributed much to discourage the un-
worthy fashion. Dryden went still further, in
some respects, in rectifying the public taste. But
toward the close of the century a style of poetry
which had so long, and on such high authority,
maintained its ground, ceased to be popular. The
English poetry of the eighteenth century, there-
fore, is in general more delicate in its sentiments,
more correct and elegant in its diction, more
chaste in. its figures and illustrations, more har-
monious in its numbers, and on the whole more
simple and natural in its structure, than that of
any preceding age.

The impro^ ements in French poetry, in the cen-
tury under consideration, though worthy of no-
tice, have been less numerous and remarkable.
With the nature of these, however, and the persons
to whom the honour of effecting them is chiefly
due, the author is not sufficiently acquainted to
enable him to speak distinctly. In improving the
poetry of Italy, Spain, and Portugal, it is believed
that still less has been done within the last hun-
dred years ; but of this, also, too little is known to
warrant an attempt to give any distinct views of
the subject.

The poetic character of Germany rose to great
eminence in the latter half of the eighteenth cen-
tury. Amiong the earliest and most successful
labourers in attuning the German language to
poetry were Haller, Kleist, Klopstock, Gesner,
and Wieland. Before the works of these great
literary reformers appeared, this language could
scarcely boast of any poems superior to those of
Gottsched and Schoonaik. A poetic diction wa^

CilAP. XX.] Poetry. 3

to be formed. Aecordingly baron Haller is said
to have written his poem on Reason, Superstition,
and Infidelity, for the express purpose of proving
that the German language was capable of an ad-
vantageous application to moral and philosophical
poetry. It was before remarked, that Klopstock
was eminently successful in improving the versi-
fication of his native language. His Messiah, on
its first appearance, was seyerely criticised on ac-
count of the novel expressions and combinations
which it contained J but these innovations soon
gained credit, and were generally adopted ; and
the author may be said to have formed a new era
in German poetry. Gesner and Wieland carried
these improvements still further. Beside these,
the writings of Gellert, Lessing, Gleim, and se-
veral others, have contributed largely to enrich
and refme the versification of their country ; in-
somuch that the poetry of Germany, which, half
a century ago, was scarcely thought worthy of no-
tice, may be reckoned at the present day among
the most polished, harmonious, and spirited, in the
republic of letters.

The poetry of Sweden received, during the same
period, improvements of a similai' nature. About
the middle of the century arose Pahlin, the father
of Swedish poetry. He attained high excellence
in the epic, tragic, and lyric departments of po-
etic composition, and contributed much towards
establishing the reign of taste in his country. To
him many successors have arisen, some of whom
have pursued with honourable success the same
track. Among these, the most conspicuous are
ipouiit de Creutz, count de Gyllenborg, madame

6 Poehy. [Chap. XX.

de Kordeiiflyclit^ count Oxenstierna, Kellgren,
Leopold, Lidner, Torild, and several others, whose
writings abundantly testify, that the Swedish lan-
guage, notwithstanding its former defects, is ca-
pable of exhibiting, under the hand of a master,
all that harmony, tenderness, and force, which,
when united, render the productions of the poet
so interesting. The labours of Kellgren, in parti-
cular, for a number of years past, to polish and
refine the versification of his country, are said to
have been eminently si]%essful, and highly ho-
iiourable to his character *.

The poetry of Russia is almost wholly the
growth of the eighteenth century. Cantemir, Ilin-
L^ki, Frediatofski, and a few others, adventured in
this new field at a very early period of the cen-
tury ; but they were rather rhymers than poets.
The first respectable jDoet in the Russian language
Was Lomonozof, who wrote about the middle of
the century. His compositions are principally of
the lyric kind, which, for originality, energy of lan-
guage, and sublimity of sentiment, deserve much
praise. He was followed in this career of improve-
ment by Sumorokof, who is represented as the
founder of the Russian drama, and one of the most
successful refiners of the poetic language of his
country. To these succeeded a number of poets,
who all contributed something to improve the ver-
sification of this language ; among the most distin-
guished of whom arc Kheraskof and Karamsin.
The Jlossiada of the former, as it has been greatly
admired by the author's countrymen, so its ap-

* See Catteau's Fzetv of Sivedm, and Acerbi's Travels.

Sect. I.] Epic Poetry. "J

}3earance doubtless formed an important era in the
progress of their poetic character. The various
works of Karamsin are also entitled to respectful
notice among the valuable contributions to this
branch of literary improvement.

After these preliminary remarks concerning the
refinements and riches which have been commu-
nicated to the poetic language , of several coun-
tries of Europe, it may be proper to take a brief
review of the principal productions to which the
eighteenth century gave birth, in the various de-
partments of poetry ; after which the way will be
prepared for some general reflexions on the poetic
character of the age.

SECTION I.

EPIC POETRY,

In Epic poetry the period of this Retrospect
produced few specimens above mediocrity. The
Henriadt of Voltaire stands at the head of the
list. This performance, like most of the works of
its celebrated author*, discovers great genius, and

* Few literary men in the eighteenth century rendered them-
selves more conspicuous than Francis Arouct do Voltaire. He
t\as born in 1694-, at Paris, where he died in 1778. Endowed
with an uncommon share of wit, hmnour. fancAr, and taste, he
was distinguished as an interesting and entertaining writer for
more than half a century. He enjoyed a high reputation, not
only as an epic poet, but also as a dramatist, an ixistoriau, a uo^

S Poetry. [ChaP. XX',

has been the subject of high applause, particularly
among French critics. For boldness of concep-
tion, general felicity of language, and just and
noble sentiments, it is entitled to honourable di-
stinction. But, from a real or supposed inaptitude
of the French language for the majestic character
of epic composition ; from the indiscreet choice of
a modern hero, and a recent train of events in the
author's own country, as the subject ; and from
some egregious faults in the incidents and ma-
chinery ; the best critics have denied to this poem
the praise of first-rate excellence.

The Leonidas of Mr. Glover is one of the most
meritorious efforts in the department of epic poe-
try which English literature, presented during the
age under consideration*. This work has long
maintained a high character among English cri-
tics. The Calvary of Mr. Cumberland is entitled
to the next place ; a poem which has been pro-
nounced to be " imbued with the genuine spirit of
Milton, and destined, therefore, most probably,
to immortality." Though the author has not,
perhaps, given sufficient scope to his imagination,
but confined himself too closely to the sacred hi&^

velist, an essayist, and a miscellaneous writer. His talents were
90 various, that there is scacely any department of literary labour
in which he has not left something, which, taken alone, would
show him to have been an eminent man. It is to be lamented that
his talents were so much devoted to the cause of impiety and
licentiousness ; and that he so often betrayed a willingness to set
all principle, truth, and decorum at defiance, for the purpose of
attacking the religion and the character of Christians.

* Glover "wrote a second epic poem, entitled The Atheniad,
which has been praised, but is generally considered «^s infcricjf
to his Leonidas,

?ECT. I.] Epic Toetry. %

tory, for the full exertion of his poetic strength,
yet both the plan and execution of his work do
him immortal honour, and afford high pleasure
both to the critic and the Christian. Joan of
Arc, by Mr. Southey, while it obviously betrays
the haste and carelessness with which it was writ-
ten*, discovers at the same time the undoubted
genius and taste of the author f. The sentiments
in general are noble and generous ; the characters
introduced are for the most part well supported;
the imagery is bold and impressive ; and the ver-
siiication, without being always correct, is easy,
harmonious, and beautiful. To these may be
added The Epigoniad, by Dr. WilkieJ; Arthury or
the Northern Enchantment, by INIr. Hole ; and se-
veral other epic poems, which, though not enti-
tled to rank with those above mentioned, yet do
credit to the poetic talents of their respective
writers.

But if no poet since the time of Milton have
honoured our language with a work which de-
serves to be compared with the Paradise Lost, yet
this period has not passed without two impor-
tant events: the Iliad, that great parent stock

* Joan of Arc probably furnishes the first instance in the
history of literature of an epic poem of equal length being -written
in six xveeks !

t In the composition of Joan of Arc Southey was assisted
by his friend Coleridge, a poet of great genius and taste.

X The Epigoniad, by the rev. Dr. William Wilkie of North
Britain, is an epic poem of some nierit, but far from being enti-
tled to a place in the first class. This writer has been called the
*' Homer of Scotland." His work was first published in 1757,
?nd reached a secqnd editiou i» 1759. He died at St. Andrews
in 1772.

to , Poetry, [CiiAF. XX,

of epic productions^ ^vas incorporated with En-
glish poetry, in the course of the century, by
the genius of Mr. Pope; and Fingal and Temo-
ra were recalled from a long oblivion by the
labours of Mr. Macpherson. In the former, this
age may boast of having produced the noblest
translation ever presented to the republic of let-
ters; and in the latter, of having recovered a
work of true and uncommon genius, which, on
several accounts, will probably be read with plea-
sure for many centuries to come, whatever opinion
may be formed with respect to its origin*.

The history of German literature, during the
eighteenth centurj^, presents us Avith an epic poem
which some have brought into competition with
the Paradise Lost. This is the Messiah of Klop-
stockf, a work v/hich has been, perhaps, more
read throughout the literary world, and honoured
with more general approbation, than any other
poetic production of the same country. The
Messiah certainly may be, in some respects, ad-
vantageously compared with the Paradise Lost.
Though the former does not possess the " gigantic
sublimity" of the latter, yet it elevates the mind
by the grandeur and novelty of its fiction, and
displays more tenderness and pathos f. The

* The poems of Oss'ian, a little before the close of the century,
were translated into Italian, by Caesarotti, with great elegance.

f This illustrious poet of Gennany, whose works do honour
"to his country and his agfe, was born in 1724-. The first part of
h\s Messiah was published in H^S, and the remainder in 1773.
He died toward the close of the j^ear 1 802,

"X Herder, an eloquent German -wTiter, thus compares the Poa.
fudise Lost and The Messiah : " The edifice of Milton i? * Sted^

Sect. I.] Epk Poetry^ 11

Death of Abel is not less familiar to every intelli-
gent reader, and its merits have been generally
acknowledged*. Oberon'fy air epic romance, bj
Wieland, discovers the bold and vigorous imagi-
nation, and the felicity of description, for which
the author has been long celebrated J.

In the Swedish language we also find, in the
century under review, two respectable produc-
tions of the epic class. The first is entitled Szve-
dish Liberty, and is a performance of Dahlin, who
was before mentioned as the father of poetry in

fast and well-pl;mnetl building, resting on ancient columns ;
Klopstock's is an enchanted dome, echoing Avith the softest and
purest tones of human feeling, hovering between heaven and
earth, borne on angels' shoulders. Milton's muse is masculine :
Klopstock's is a tender woman, dissolving in pious ecstasies,
warbling elegies and hymns. When Music shall acquire among
us the highest powers of her art, Avhose words will she select to
utter bijt those of Klopstock ?" Letters on Humanisatiofu This is
quoted from the Literary Hours of Dr. Drake, wh(t says that
" impartial posterity avIU probably confirm the judgement of
Herder." A good English translation of The Messiah is still a
desideration.

* The Death of Abel, like several other works of the same'
author, is written in a kind of loose poetry, unshackled by
rhpue and a precise uniform adherence to measure. It has been
said that this method of writing is peculiarly suited to the Ger-
man language. It is to be lamented that this work, as well as
the Messiah, has never been advantageously pj-esented in an
Eqglish dress.

f Oheron has been translated b)^ Mr. Sotheby into English, in
a style' of elegance which does him great honour.

t Oberon, though the best, is not the only epic poem produced
by Wieland. His Llris, his Neucn Amad/s, and his Liebe um
Liebe, were prior in time, but inferior in merit. They have,
however, been highly commended, particularly by the critics
itt the author's own country,

12 Poetry.' [Chap. XX.

that country. This work, with several essential
faults, combines beauties and excellences which
render it worthy of attention. The otlier work
which comes under the same denomination is
The Passage of the Belt, by count de Gyllenborg,
from which the author has derived considerable
reputation among his countrymen. The Rossiada
of Kheraskof, a Russian nobleman, was before
mentioned as entitled to respectful notice, not
only because it possesses considerable merit as a
poem, but because it was the first successful atr
tempt to inlist the Russian language in the ser-
vice of the epic muse, and because its appearance
may be considered as forming an important epoch
in the history of Russian poetry.

The translations of different epic poems, in the
course of this century, were so numerous, that to
give a list and character of them all would lead us
into a field far too extensive. But it would be
impardonable, even in this short sketch, to omit
taking notice of a few beside those which have
been already mentioned. The celebrated Italian
epic poem Giemisalemme Liberata^ by Tasso, has
also been elegantly translated into English, during
this period, by Mr. Hoole. The first three books
had been previously presented in an English dress
by Mr. Brooke ; on whose work Mr. Hoole passes
the most Ii];)eral encomiums. To give a version
of the whole was reserved for the latter gentle-
man, who executed the task with very honoura-
ble success. Shortly afterwards, the Lusiad of
Camoens, on which the Portuguese rest their claim
to epic honours, was translated into English by
Mr. Micklc, which, in spirit and elegance, is cou?

Sect. I.] Epic Poetnj. i$

sidered by some respectable critics, as- rivalling the
first productions of the kind in our language *.

The Iliad was translated, for the first time, and
with considerable ability, into the Spanish lan-
guage, about thirteen years ago, by don Garcia
Malo. The same monument of Grecian genius
was also translated not long since, with high re-
putation, into the German language, by Voss, a
distinguished poet of tliat country ; and into Ita-
lian by the abate Caesarotti, These several works
are said to be considered, by their respective coun-
trymen, as productions of the first class. To these
may be added the translation of the Iliady into
English blank verse, by Mr. Cowper, which,
though a more faithful version than the work of
Mr. Pope, falls short of it with respect to merit
as a poem")*. The JEneid has also been trans-
lated into German, by Voss, before mentioned ;
into Italian by AT C. Bendi ; and into English by
Mr. C. Pitt. The work of the last-named poet,
tiiough inferior to Dryden's translation in vigour
and sprightliness, yet excels it in uuiformity,
correctness, and splendour of versification. Lu-
can's Pharsalia, as translated into English by
Rowe, is pronounced by an eminent critic to b^
one of the greatest productions of English poetry ;
to exhibit more successfully than almost any

* It Is the opinion of some good judges that the Luxiad of
Mickle is much superior to the Lusiad of Camoens. The trans-
lator has certainly, in some respects, improved on the original,
and made many additions.

-}- This translation, however, has great merit as a poem. In-
i^ced Gilbert Wakefield observes, that whoever wishes to see
Homer in an English dress, must read Cuwper's version.

U Poetry. [Chap. XX.

ather the gentius and spirit of the original ; and
to deserve a mtich higher degree of approbation
than it has generally obtained *,

SECTION II.
DIDACTIC POETRY.

In this species of poetic composition the eigh-
teenth century produced some works of great ex-
cellence, a few of which may be compared, without
disadvantage, with the best specimens of any pre-
ceding age. The Ess-ay on Criticism, by Mr.
Pope, as i^ was one of his earliest compositions, so
it is also one of his best f . In the opinion of a
great critic " it exhibits every mode of excellence
that can embellish or dignify didactic composi-
tion ; selection of matter, novelty of arrangement,
justness of precept, splendour of illustration,
and propriety of digression." The Essay o?z
Man J, by the same author, though in some re-

* Life ofRowe, by Johnson.

f He produced this work at twenty years of age, and is pro-
nounced by Dr. Johnson never afterwards to have excelled it.

% It has been often said that lord Bolingbroke had somo
agency in the composition of the Essay on Man. The following
extract of a letter from the late reverend Dr. Hugh Blair, of Edin-
burgh, will probably be considered as deciding the fact. " In
the year 1763, being at London, I was carried by Dr. John
Blair, prebendary of Westminster, to dine at old lord Bathurst's,
The conversation turning on Mr. Pope, lord Bathurst told ns,
that the Essay on Man was originally composed by lord BoUng"

Sect. II.] Didactic Poetri). \$

spects of inferior excellence, has been incompara-
bly more read, and, in general, more highly- ap-
plauded.. This performance is not distinguished
by miicli novelty of sentiment, or felicity of in-
vention; but seldom have common ideas been
presented with so much " b«;'.auty of embellish-
ment," or so much " sweetness of melody." Sel-
dom have opinions of questionable propriety been
more happily disguised, or exhibited with such
" dazzling splendour of imagery," and " seduc-
tive powers of eloquence." The Fleece, by Mr.
Dyer, notwithstanding the small degree of di-
stinction which it has attained, is pronounced, by
good judges, to stand among the most excellent
poems of the didactic kind which the moderns,
have produced. Tlie Pleasures of the Imagina-
tion, by Dr. Akcnside, is also a performance wiiich
belongs to this class; and is, doubtless, one of the
most beautiful specimens that our language af-
fords. Genius, learnmg, taste, pure morality, and
liberal philosophy, shine in every page. Dr.
Armstrong, in his celebrated poem on the Art of
Presey^ving Health, though he did not aim at so
elevated a strain as Akenside, lias produced a_

broke, in prose, and that Mr. Pope did no more than piU it into
verse: that he had read lord Bolingbroke's manuscript in hi*
own hand-writing, and remembered Avell that he Mas at a loss
whether most to admire the elegance of lord Bolingbroke's
prose, or the beauty of Mr. Pope's verse. When lord Bathurst
told this, Mr. Mallet bade me attend, and remember this remark-
^able piece of information ; as by the course of nature! might
survive his lordship, and be a witness of his having said so."
— Bosuell's Life o/Johason^ vol. iii, p. 133.

IG Poetiy. [Chap. XX-

work of high excellence *. Never sinking below
the dignity of his subject, he is always chaste,
correct, instructive, and elegant. The Grave, a
didactic poem, by Blair, is a work of great merit,
and general popularity; highly poetical in its
diction, and just and elevated in its sentiments.

The English Garden of Mr. Mason, may also
be mentioned as a very finished and interesting
specimen of didactic composition. Simple, natu-
ral, and interesting in his descriptions, luminous
and instructive in his philosophy, and purely mo-
ral in his sentiments, he is by no means the least
of those authors on whose works the honour of
English poetry, for the last fifty years, miist rest.
In the Botanic Garden, by Dr. Darwin, there is
a bold attempt " to inlist Imagination under the
banner of Science," to an extent beyond example.
In this attempt the author has been successful to
a degree which does him much honour as a poet.
He unites great extent of learning with singular
variety and felicity of allusion, and a pleasing
harmony and splendour of versification. But it
must be acknowledged that there is a unifor-
mity, which at length fatigues, and does not so
much interest the reader as many less correct and
less regular performances f , The Minstrel, by Dr.

* Lord Monboddo pronounces this poem to be the best speci-
men of didactic poetry in the English language, and equal to any,
ancient or modern. — Origin and Progress of Language.

■f It has been suggested that the author of the Loves of the
Plants v/as considerably indebted to the Connubia Florian of de
la Croix, both in the plan and execution of his work. This
beautiful Latin poem was first published in France, about the

Sect. K.] Didactic Poetry. 17

Beattie, which may without impropriety be men-
tioned under this head, beside the most engag-
ing pictures of nature, abounds in the richest sen-
timental, moral, and poetical beauties. The Es-
says on Painting, History, and Epic Poetry, by
Mr. Hayley, though partaking of the historical
and descriptive, are also didactic in their charac-
ter, and exhibit a very large share of erudition,
correctness, elegance, and poetic taste.

Beside the specimens of didactic poetry above
mentioned, English literature furnished a num-
ber of others, during the period under considera-
tion, which, though not in the first rank of ex-
cellence, are yet entitled to respectful notice.
The Chace, by Somerville, to a just and intellir
gent view of its subject, adds felicity and variety
of description, and elegance of language. The
Infancy of Dr. Downman discovers him to have
been a good poet, an excellent medical philoso-
pher, and a friend to morality and virtue. The

year 1727, and was reprinted at Loaidon, with notes and obser-
vations by sir Richard Clayton, in 1791. If Dr. Darwin had
ever seen de la Croix's work (which can scarcely be question-
ed) some deduction must be made from his claim to originality.
Still, however, the Botanic Garden will be entitled to no small
share of applause as a poem. Though many of the opinions of
the author must be considered as erroneous; though his poetry
evinces more taste than genius, more labour than invention, and.
displays more meretricious glare than chaste ornament; and
though much of the praise which was bestowed on the work
soon after its appearance must be deemed extravagant; yet
since the author of the Pursuits of Literature pronounced judge-
ment upon it, its poetic character has perhaps, in the estimation
of many, sunk too low. Dr. Darwin is far from standing at the
head of modern ^oets; but he holds a place greatly abov« me-
diocrity.

Vol. III. C

18 Poetry. [Chap. XX.

Miiie, a dramatic poem, by Mr. Sargent, is con-
sidered by good judges as a work of genuine philo-
sophical and poetical merit. And the English Ora-
toi\ and Local Attachment, by Mr. Polwhele, dis-
play much excellent sentiment and just precept,
in very harmonious verse.

With the didactic poetry produced on the con-
tinent of Europe during the last age, the author
has but little acquaintance. The Prcedium Rustic
cum of father Vaniere, a Jesuit of France, pub-
lished about the beginning of the century, has
been ever since celebrated in the literary world
as a specimen of elegant Latin poetry, connected
with excellent precepts and just sentiments. The
Connubia Florum of M. de la Croix, also a La-
tin poem, and published a few years after the
Prcedium Rusticuiriy is scarcely less remarkable
for the purity, vivacity, and elegance of its dic-
tion, the ingenuity of its fable and imagery, and
the general soundness of its philosophy. Father
Boscovich's poem, De Solis ac Lunte Defectihusy
has been pronounced an ingenious and able pro-
duction. The abbe Delille, in his Garden, a di-
dactic and descriptive work, presented his coun*
trymen with a poem, which, though it does not
display great invention, has been highly and justly
applauded for the beauty of its descriptions, and
the excellence of its versification *. To these

* " Voltaire, in his discourse pronounced at hi^ reception into
the French academy, gives several reasons why the poets of that
country have not succeeded in describing rural scenes and em-
ployments. The principal one is, the ideas of meanness, po-
verty, and wretchedness, which the French are accustomed t»
associate with the professiou of husbandry. The same thing is

Sect. III.] Moral and Devotional Poetry. 19

may be added baron Haller's poem on Reason,
Supersiitiony and Infidelity, before mentioned, and
which is worthy of its iUustrious author ; Die
Natur, the Anti-Ovid, and the Musarion, of AVie-
land, which have been much commended; and
the various didactic poems of Hagedorn, Gieseke,
Kastner, Vz, and Dusch, also Germans, waiich
have bfeen spoken of b}^ the critics of their own
country with high respect.

SECTION III.

MORAL AND DEVOTIONAL POETRY.

The moral poetry of .the eighteenth century
may without hesitation be pronounced superior,
in the union of correctness, purity, and elegance,
to that of any preceding age. This superiority
is so remarkable, that it must arrest the attention
of the most careless observer, and give pleasure
to every friend of human happiness^ The age,

alluded to by the abbe Delille, in the preliminary discourse pre-
fixed to his translation of the Georgics. ' A translation/ says he,
* of this poem, if it had been undertaken by an author. of genius,
would have been better calculated than any other work for add-
ing to the riches of our language. A version of the JEneid it-
self, however well executed, would, in this respect, be of less
utility; inasmuch as the genius of our tongue accommodates it-
self more easily to the description of heroic achievements, than
to the details of natural phenomena, and of the operations of
husbandry. To force it to express these with suitable dignity,
would have been a real conquest over that false delicacy which it
has contracted from our unfortunate prejudices." — Ste\\ art's Ele-
ments qf the Fhilowplij/ of JSIind, Part II, chap, v, § 2, second edit.

Ct.'

20 Poetry, [Chap. X^^,

it is readily admitted, gave birth to much licen-
tious poetry ; but it produced/ at the same time,
much that exhibits a degree of purity and eleva-
tion of sentiment to which the history of litera-
ture furnishes no parallel.

The Night Thoughts^ and the Universal Passion^
by Dr. Young, are entitled to the first place iii
this list *. In these works the celebrated author
has employed wonderful sublimity and force of
imagination, eloquence and cogency of reasoning,
and music of numbers, in conveying the most im-
portant truths that can engage the attention of
mankind. The Ethical Epistles and some other
moral productions of Pope, are models in their
kind which have never been excelled. The Va-
nity of Human Wishes , a poem in imitation of the
tenth satire of Juvenal, by Dr. Johnson, has been
pronounced as high an effort of ethic poetry as
any language can show. The Tasjiy by Mr. Cow-
per f , is one of the signal honours of the age, in
this class of poetic compositions. For purity of
sentiment, chasteness of description, simplicity
and energy of style, and a vein of original and
w^ell-directed satire, this work will be admired as
long as taste and virtue exist.

The eighteenth century is also distinguished

* The reverend Edward Young was born in 1031. The Last
Day, his first poetical work of much distinction, was published
in 1704. His Night Thoughts were published about the yea?
1740. He died in 1765.

t William Cowper was born in 1731. He was not only one
of the greatest poets, but also one of the most pious, amiable, and
benevolent men, of the age. An interesting account of his life
and writings has been given by his friend, and contemporary
peet. Mr^ Hayley. Hedi«d in 1800.

Sect. HI.] Moral and Dcvotioiial Poetry. 21

by the Devotional poetry which it produced. The
difficulty of this species of composition has been
found and acknowledged, at all periods in which
it was undertaken. Before the commencement of
the age under consideration, theological doctrines,
and portions of sacred history, had been made the
subject of poetry, by a number of distinguished
writers. Versions of the Psalms had been parti-
cularly attempted by several persons with tole-
rable success. Among these the version of Brady
and Tate held the first place in the English lan-
guage. Indeed some parts of their work were so
well performed, that, comparatively, few of their
successors have attained equal excellence.

But among all the sacred poetry of the eigh-
teenth century, that of Dr. Watts stands pre-
eminent. His plan of evangelising the Psalms of
David, and accommodating them to the worship
of God under the present dispensation, as it was
equally new and ingenious, so it has received an
unusual degree of approbation, and has perhaps
been more useful than any other work in this de-
partment of composition that was ever presented
to the world. Simplicity, smoothness, harmony,
and pious elevation, remarkably characterise his
verse. Next to the sacred poetry of Dr. Watts,
the specimens produced by Mr. Addison, Dr.
Doddridge, Mr. Pitt, Mr. Merrick, Dr. Blacklock,
Mr. Logan, and several others, possess a high de-
gree of merit. To these, the immortal name of
Cow per ought to be added, as holding a place in
the first rank. The orthodoxy of his faith, and the
fervour of his piety, joined to his great talents, fitted
him preeminently for this species of composition.

22 Poetry, [Chap. XX.

Poetical versions of the Psalms made, during
this period, on the continent of Europe, were nu-
merous ; but of these a very small portion are
worthy of notice. . The Hymns of Gellert, a cele-
brated poet of Germany, are said to be entitled to a
place in the first class of this kind of writings. The
Hymns oi Kleist, Cramer, Klopstock, Schlegel, and
Herder, of the same country, have also received
high praise among persons of piety and taste.

SECTION IV.

SATIRICAL POETRY.

In this department of poetry the eighteenth
centijfy is, on the whole, superior to any pre-
ceding age. Two satirical poets of great emi-
nence had flourished in Europe toward the close
of the preceding age. Boileau and Dryden, equal
in most respects to the great Roman satirists, and
in some superior to them all, brought modern
satire to a very high degree of excellence. Dry-
den was the first who displayed with success the
power of the English language in this kind of
composition. In the eighteenth century the can-
didates for , satirical fame were numerous ; and in
variety of manner, correctness of taste, purity of
virtue, and, in some instances, in wit, humour,
and force of ridicule, may be said to have exceed-
ed all their predecessors.

In this list Mr. Pope is entitled to the first
place. His Satirical Epistles, his Imitations ©f

I

Sect. IV.] Satirical Poetry. 25

the ancient satirists, his Diinciad*^ and several
other performances of a similar kind, have been
long admired. In keenness of satire, energy of
description, condensation of thought, and vivaci-
ty and correctness of style, he is perhaps supe-
rior to all who went before him : and though
the moral tendency of some of his pictures may
be questioned, yet he lashes vice with great force
and effect f. The Love of Fame the Universal

* Some of the Images in the Dunciad are very gross and dis-
gusting. Pope had too much of that fondness for impure ideas
which was so conspicuous, and carried so much further, in the
writings of Swift.

f The author of the Pursuits of Literature thus speaks of this
great poet : " The sixth and last of this immortal brotherhood,
(the Satirists) in the fulness of time, and in the maturity of poetical
power, came Pope. All that was wanting to his illustrious pre-
decessor found its consummation in the genius, knowledge, cor-
rect sense, and condensation of thought and expression, which
distinguished this poet. The tenour of his life was peculiarly
favourable to his office. He had/rs^ cultivated all the flowery
grounds of poetry. He had excelled in description, in pastoral,
in the pathetic, and in general criticism ; and had given an En-
glish existence in perpetuity to the father of all poetry. Thus
honoured, and with these pretensions, he left them all for that ex-
cellence, for which the maturity of his talents and judgement so
eminently designed him. Familiar with the great ; intimate with
the polite; graced by the attentions o{ the fair; admired by the
learned ; a favourite with the nation ; independent in an acquir-
ed opulence, the honourable product of his genius and industry;
the companion of persons distinguished for birth, high fashion,
rank, wit, or virtue ; resident in the centre of all public infor-
mation and intelligence; every avenue to knowledge and every
mode of observation were open to his curious, prying, piercing,
and unwearied intellect. His works are so generally read and
studied, that I should not merely fatigue, but I should almost in-
sult you by such a needless disquisition."

24 Foetnj. [Chap. XX.

Passion^ by Dr. Young, though mentioned under
a preceding head, is also entitled to a place among
the best satirical productions of the age. The
characters are, in general, well selected and ably
drawn, the illustrations are happy, the sentiments
just, the imagery correct and various, and the
satire at once easy, vivacious, and moral.

The satirical poetry of dean Swift has various
kinds and a high degree of poetic excellence ;
but delicacy is by no means one of its attributes.
His wit is often extremely happy, and his ridicule
just, lively, and powerful. " His diction is cor-
rect, his numbers smooth, and his rhj^mes exact.
There seldom occurs a laboured expression, or a
redundant epithet. All his verses exemplify his
own definition of a good style ; they consist of
proper ivorcb in proper places ^ But the levity
Math which he frequently treats the most serious
subjects is altogether unpardonable * ; and the

* " I know not," says Dr. Beattie, " whether this author is not
the only human being who ever presumed to speak in ludicrous
terms of the last judgement. His profane verses on thattremen*
dous subject were not published, so far as I know, till after his
death : for Chesterfield's letter to Voltaire, in which they are in-
serted, and spoken of with approbation (which is no more than
one should expect from such a critic), and said to be copied from
the original in Swift's hand-writing, is dated in 1752. But this
is no excuse for the author. We can guess at what was in his
rnind when ha wrote them ; and at w^hat remained in his mind
while he could have desti'oyed them, and would not. I mean
not to insinuate tl^at Swift was favourable to infidelity. There is
good reason to believe he was not ; and that, though many of his
levities are inexcusable, he could occasionally be both serious
and pious. In fact, an infidel clergyman would be such a com-
pound of execrable impiety, and contemptible meanness, that I
gm unwilling to suppose there can be such a monster. The pro.*

Sect. I V-] Satirical Foetry. 25

unnatural fondness which he manifests for coarse
indelicacy, and for images drawn from every
source of physical impurity, cannot but fill with
disgust the mind of every virtuous reader *.

The satires of Churchill display great vigour
both of thought and language ; and though the
boldness of their abuse, and the nature of their
subjects, were, in some measure, the ground of
their popularity, while the author lived ; yet they
have certainly great strength, and possess no
inconsiderable merit in their way. Vicious as
was the character of the man, he knew how to ex-
pose and correct vice. The Rosciad, and the
Prophecy of Famine, may be regarded as the best
of his poems. London, a poem in imitation of the
third satire of Juvenal, by Dr. Johnson, was one
of the early displa3"s of that genius which after-
wards shone with such distinguished lustre, and
filled so large a space in the literature of the age.
The Faust, of the celebrated Goethe, of Germany,
occupies a high place in the list of modern sati-
rical writings. The Table Talk, the Progress of
Err our, and some other satirical pieces, by Cow-
per, in purity, humour, dignity, and force, have
seldom been exceeded in any language. The
Baviad and Mccviad of Mr. Gilford have receiv-
ed much applause from some of the critics of

faneness of this author I impute to his passion for ridicule, and
rage of witticism ; which, when they settle into a habit, and ven-
ture on liberties with what is sacred, never fail to pervert the
mind, and harden the heart."

* Instances of this fault are so numerous and offensive in Swift's
writings, that no further remarks are necessary either to explain
or enforce the criticism.

5<5 Poetry. [Cq^P- XX.

Great Britain. To these may be added Tkc
Pursuits of Literature, a satirical poem, publish-
ed a few years ago, by an anonymous hand. In
this "work every friend of truth, virtue, and sound
learning will fmd much to approve and admire.
A large portion of the literary and moral opinions
which it contains are doubtless entitled to the
■\\armest approbation. But the judicious reader
will also fmd much to condemn. The author dis-
covers, on many occasions, a bitterness of preju-
dice, and a rage for satire, which frequently lead
liim astray, and which detract greatly both from
the dignity and the value of his work. His pe-
dantic fondness for quotation is indulged to a de-
gree which disfigures his pages, and encumbers
and weakens his meaning ; and, after all, his notes
are so much more spirited and valuable than his
poetry, that the latter ^vill seldom be read except
as an introduction to the former *.

Under the head of Satire falls that jnock-heroic
poetry, which is a species of composition almost
wJiolly peculiar to modern times, and of which the

* The author of this singular work is still unknown. That
he has great learning, and a comprehensive and vigorous mind,
-cannot be doubted ; and that in prose he expresses himself with
much force, vivacity, and taste, is no less evident. But I must
be permitted, on many subjects, to call in question both the can-
dour of his temper, and the rectitude of his judgement ; and as a
poet, notwithstanding all the applause which has been heaped
upon him, I must consider him far below the great masters among
whom he affects to take his station, and with whom he has the
presumption to compare himself. His work is one of those which
derive their chief importance and popularity from the praise and
aspersion of living characters with which they abound ; an4
which, in a few years, must fall into oblivion.

^

SLcT.^^^] Satirical Poetry. 27

last age has been abundantly prolific. Of this
kind of poetry The Rape of the Lock, by Pope, is
a specimen of first-rate excellence. In this work,
novelty of imagery, fertility of invention, felicity of
wit, and sweetness of versification, are combined
in an exquisite degree. The Triumphs of Temper ^
by Mr. Haylcy, may be considered as belonging
to the same class: and though far from being
equal to the immortal production of Pope, it dis-
plaj^s a degrfee of genius, taste, and humour, high-
ly honourable to the author.

The greater part of the poetry of a certain Bri-
tish satirist, who calls himself Peter Pindar, also
belongs to this class. His writings abound in hu-
mour, which, though frequently gross, indicates
talents of no common rank ; and in wit, which,
though generally eccentric, and frequently de-
voted to the worst purposes, manifests extent of
learning and force of imagination. Aware that
quaint phrases, whimsical allusions, and laughable
conceits, when presented unmixed, will soon cease
to please, he has taken care to infuse into many
of his pieces a considerable portion of sentiment
and tenderness, and sometimes to elevate his
reader by an unexpected stroke of the sublime *.

Since the days of Butler many specimens of
that burlesque poetry adopted by him in his Hu-

* The real name of this writer is Wolcot. While justice is
done to his talents, which, in a certain line, are really great, his
faults and vices ought ndt to pass without censure. His blasphe-
mous impiety cannot be viewed by the Christian without abhor-
rence; while the injustice and malignity displayed against pri-
vate character, in many of his writings, must be regarded with
cordial dcteetation by every honest man.

58 I'oetry. [CHA^i*. ^.

dibras have been given to the public; but few
of them are entitled to the praise of high excel-
lence. Probably the most successful imitations
of the Iludibrastic manner are to be found in the
Alma of Prior, and the M'Fingal of Mr. Trum-
bull, a respectable American poet. The merit
of the former is so great, that Mr. Pope, with
all his poetic fame, expressed a wish to have
been the author of it; and the latter has been
pronounced, by good judges, both in Europe and,
America, to be nearly equal to its great model.

M. Gressett, a French poet of high reputation,
lias shown, in his Vert-Vert , and in his Chartreuse y
that between the heroic and the burlesque there is
still another species of poetry, partaking in some
degree of the characters of both : a kind of com-
position which, while it displays some of the attri-
butes of moral and serious poetry, at the same
time embraces the features of the satiric, the gay,
and the refined comic, in a very pleasing degree.

About fifty years belbre the commencement of
the century under review began the fashion of
imitating the great satirists of Rome, or adapting
ancient poetry to modern characters and manners.
This kind of poetical exercise has continued in
rogue to the present day, and the number of those
who have made trial of their genius in this way
has greatly increased. Of this imitation the sa-
tires of Horace, Juvenal, and Persius, have all
been the objects. And among these imitators are
found the names of Pope, Johnson, GifTord, Lewis^
and several other British poets.

- 1

Sect. V.] Descriptive Poetry. m

SECTION V„

DESCRIPTIVE POETRY.

In Descriptive poetry the last age may lay claim
to the character of distinguished excellence. It
not only produced more in quantity, but also
much af a superior quality to that of which any
preceding period can boast. The tale of The
Hermit, by Dr. Parnell, deserves high praise for
justness of sentiment, and delicacy and liveliness
of colouring. The Windsor Forest of Pope also
belongs to the same class ; and for variety and ele-
gance of description, and particularly for a happy
interchange of the descriptive, the narrative, and
the moral, possesses great merit. But the work
entitled to the highest place in this department of
■poetry, is the Seasons, by Thomson*. This wri-
ter may be said to have created a new species of
poetry. " His mode of thinking and of express-
ing his thoughts is original. His blank verse is
not the blank verse of Milton, or of any preceding
poet. His numbers, his pauses, his diction, are of
his own growth, without transcription, without
imitation. He thinks in a peculiar strain ; and he
thinks always as a man of genius. He looks round
on nature and life with the eye which nature be-

* James Thomson was born in 1700,. and received his educa-
tion at the university of Edinburgh. His Winter was published
about the year 1726; \\\s Summer '\\\ 1727; his Spring \n 1728.;
and \m Autumn in 1730. This ilkistrious poet died ija 1748.

30 Poetry. [Chai^. XX.

stows only on a poet ; the eye that distinguishes
in every thing presented to its view, M^hatever
there is on which imagination can delight to be
detained ; and with a mind that at once compre-
hends the vast, and attends to the minute. He
leads us through the appearances of things as they
are successively varied by the vicissitudes of the
year ; and imparts to us so much of his own en-
thusiasm, that our thoughts expand with his ima-
gery, and kindle with his sentiments *."

Kleist, of Germany, in the same department
of poetic composition, has been compared with
Thomson, and is said, by some of his countrymen,
to have attained nearly equal excellence. His
Fj'uhling exhibits some of the most charming
scenes in nature, in just, vivid, and beautiful co-
lours. A similar comparison has also been made
between the immortal British bard and Delille of
France, who, in his L' Homme des Cliamps, or Ru^
ral Philosopher, presented his countrymen with a
poem of acknowledged merit. Tliough in this
work, as well as in that which was before men-
tioned by the same author, there is but little dis-
play of invention ; yet, for correctness and ele-
gance of versification, it sustains a very high
character. The Alpen of baron Haller is a de-
scriptive poem of much merit. To which may
be added t\iQ<Liiise of Voss, and the Hermann und
Dorothea '\ of Goethe, which have a high reputa-
tion in Germany.

The Traveller, and the Deserted Village, by

* Life o/ Thomson, by Johnson.

t This has been translated iato English by Mr. Holcroft.

'SecT/.'V.] Descriplive Podtnj. 31

Goldsmith, are so well known, and have been so
generally admh'ed, that a formal and detailed ac-
count of their beauties is altogether unnecessary.
His versification has been pronounced more sweet
and harmonious than that of any other poet ; and
both his sentiments and imagery display excel-
lence of the first order. The Wander ej\ by Sa-
vage, discovers a large portion of those various
and extraordinary powers which distinguished
that unfortunate and degraded man *. It teem.'i
with beautiful imagery, with " strong descriptions
of nature, and just observations on life." The
Shipwreck, by Falconer -j-, is well known, and has
been universally esteemed, as abounding with the
richest beauties. Scarcely, if at all, inferior, in
descriptive excellence, to any that have been men-
tioned, are some of the poems of Robert Burns,
the Ayrshire bard \. Though his versification is
frequently faulty, yet, for ease and vigour of Ian-

* It is generally known that this extraordinary man was the
son of Anne, countess of Macclesfield, by an adulterous corx-
nexion with earl Rivers. His great talents, the unnatural cruelty
of his mother, his degrading vices, his accumulated distresses,
and his melancholy end, have been so often the subject of min-
gled astonishment and regret, that to attempt to describe them is
as unnecessary as it would be unpleasant. He vvas born in 1698,
and died in 174-3, one of the most remarkable instances of unfor-
tunate genius that the age produced.

t William Falconer was a native of Scotland. His Shipiireck
was published about the year 1762. He was a seaman by pro-
fession ; and going out in 1769 in the Aurora frigate, was never
-heard of afterward.

I Robert Burns was born in Ayrshire, in 1758. He first
became celebrated as a poet about the year 1787, and died mi-
jserably at Dumfries iu 1796. See Dr. Currie's v«ry interesting
Life of this poet<

/

2^ Poet?y. [Chap X

guage, for strong descriptive powers, and a vein
of rich and exquisite humour, his productions have
few rivals. None can read the works of this
justly celebrated writer without admiring the ge-
nius which, amidst so many difficulties and dis-
couragements, could soar so high ; nor without
lamenting the misfortunes and the vices which,
with such a genius, and amidst so many excite-
ments to virtue, could sink him so low.

Walks in a Forest^ and the Vales of Wever, by
Mr. Gisborne, display a very honourable share of
original and strong descriptive' powers. A Tour
through Wales, by Mr. Sotheby ; Grove-Hill, by
Mr. Maurice ; The Sea, by Mr. Bidlake ; The
Pleasures of Memory, by Mr. Rogers ; and the
Pleasures of Hope, by Mr. Campbell ; are all con-
sidered by critics as possessing rich and various
poetic beauties. The Farmer's Boij, by Robert
Bloomfield, to ease and sweetness of versification
adds descriptions of such original and inimitable
excellence, as shows that they were drawn from
nature ; and it possesses likewise a vein of senti-
ment and morality of the most elevated kind.

SECTION VI.

PASTORAL POETRY.

The Pastoral poetry of the eighteenth century
is also highly honourable to modern genius. A
brief review of the principal names which belong
to this class of authors will show that the last, with

Sect. VI.] Pastoral Poetry. 33

Tespect to this kind of poetic excellence, may be
advantageously compared with any former age.

The pastorals of Pope, though not equal to
most of his other works, have yet considerable
merit to reconmiend them. The pastorals of
Phillips, published about the same time, may be
considered as occupying nearly the same rank of
excellence. In the works of Gay and Siienstone
are also fou.id some specimens of this kind of com-
position, which have generally a place assigned
them among the pastorals of superior character.
The Shepherd's Week of the former, and the Pas-
toral Ballad of the latter, are considered among
the most meritorious performances of their kind
in our language. The Despairing Shepherd of
Rowe is also worthy of high praise ; and the va-
rious pastoral productions of Collins *, in richness
and strength of description, in justness and sim-
plicity of sentiment, have rarely been excelled.
But inferior to none that have been mentioned is
the Gentle Shepherd of Allan Ramsay ■\, a work
of great and original genius, in which a happy
delineation of character, an affecting exhibition
of incidents, and a captivating simplicity and ten-
derness, remarkably prevail.

-But among all the pastoral poetry of the eigh-
teenth century, the Idylls of Gesner J unque-

* William Collins was born at Chichester in 1720, where he
died in 1756.

t Allan Ramsay was born in Scotland in 169(), and served an
apprenticeship to a barber in Edinburgh. The Gentle Shepherd is
his greatest work. He died in 1703.

:j: Solomon Gesner was born at Zurich in 1730. He was a
bookseller, a member of the senate of Zurich, and excelled in

Vol.. HI. D

S '/
34 Poetry* [Chap. XX. -^

stionably hold the first place, lie has, indeed,-
been pronounced the greatest pastoral poet that
ever lived, not excepting Theocritus himself, the
fatlier of this species of poetry. In the novelty of
ma!iy of his thoughts, in the judicious choice of
subjects, in liveliness of description, and in ex-
quisite pathos and tenderness of sentiment, he is
without a rival. The Idylls, or Rural Stories, of
mademoiselle Levesque, a poetess of France, are
said by some critics to approach that excellence
which^ distinguishes the productions of Gesner*
To these may be added the Eclogues of Fonte-
nclle and de la Motte, of the same country, which
deserve to be mentioned with honour among the
pastoral writings of the age.

The late pastoral poets of Great Britain are nu*
merous ; but of these few are worthy of being di-
stinguished. Among such as deserve to be .men-
tioned with particular honour. Dr. Beattie and
Mr. South ey stand in the first rank. The Hermit
of the former, which belongs ta this class rather
than any other, in ease, in solemn musical expres-
sion, in elevation of sentiment, and in pathetic
touches, is almost unrivalled, and would be suffi-
cient alone to establish the author's immortality as'
a poet * : and the Old Majisi'in-House, the Ruined
Cottage, and the Botany-Bay Eclogues of the latter,
display theifme imagination, the graceful simpli-

landscape painting as well as in poetry. He wrote much beside
tiis Death of Abel, and his Idj/lls. He died in 1788.

* This excellent man and charming poet was born in 1735, '
and died in 1803. His memory will be aftectionately and le-
s}>ectfully cherished as long as religion, viitue;, ajid taste, txist^

Sect. VII.] Lyric Foetry. 35

city, and the general poetic excellence, for whicli
the author is remarkable.

In pastoral song and ballad, the poets of the last
age incontestably excelled those of all preceding
centuries. In this class of poetic compositions
Great Britain has been particularly fruitful ; and
few names deserve to be mentioned with so much
honour as that of Robert Burns, who was noticed
in a former section. In the happy union of ease,
simplicity, humour, pathos, and energy, he has
j|iad (ew equals in any age. •

SECTION VII.

LYRIC POETRY.

The last age produced some specimens of lyric
poetry which deserve the highest praise. It has
been asserted indeed, that, in this species of com-
position, modern poets are universally and indis-
putably inferior to the ancient ; but this assertion
is made too hastily, and without sufficient qualifi-
cation. Some of the odes of Collins and of Gray
will bear an honourable comparison with the best
productions of this kind oif any age. Beside these,
the lyric compositions of Watts, Thomson, Lyttle-
ton. Mason, Warton, Cowper, Mrs. Barbauld,
Coleridge, and several other English poets, will
long do honour to the literature of their country.

During the same period, much lyric poetry of
a rospectable character was produced on the con-
tinent of Europe. In the French language, the

D 2

1

./

[Chap.

XX

S6 Poetry. ■

odes of J. B. Rousseau, and of Gicssett, are con-
sidered by the critics of tliat country as among
the most fmished productions of their kind. To
the odes of Rousseau this character is especially-
applicable. In the Italian language, the odes of
Metastasio * ; in the German, those of Klopstock,
Weisse, and Wieland ; and in the Swedish, those
of Dahlin, and of Gyllenborg, are all admired
among those who understand the languages in
wliich they are respectively written. But it is be-
liev«d that the best lyric poetry of Great Britain,
during this period, exceeds that of any other coun-
try in Europe, and of course in the literary world.
Under the head of lyric poetry may be placed
the species of composition called the Sonnet, with
many excellent models of which the eighteenth
century has remarkably abounded. This kind of
poetry is of Italian origin. Dante, though not the
inventor, was the hrst who succeeded in the com-
position of it. The hrst successful attempts to
present the Sonnet in our language were made
by Drummond, and afterward by Milton. The
former excelled in delicacy ; the specimens fur-
nished by the latter were chiefly distinguished by
strength of expression, and sublimity of thought,
but were by no means remarkable for smoothness,
harmony, or elegance. In these respects, several
writers of Sonnets, since the day of that immortal
bard, though greatly inferior in genius, have much
excelled him , and of course have produced

* Pietro Metastasio was born at Rome, of poor parents, in
1678. His poems procured hita the gift of nobility. He 4i«d
sA Vienna in 178^?.

Sect. VII.] Lyric Poet ri/. 37

compositions of this kind before unequalled in En-
glish literature. Among those who have most
distinguished themselves in this department of
poetry are Charlotte Smith, Mr. Bowles, and
miss SeAvard. *' In sweetness and harmony of
versification, in unaffected elegance of style, and
in that pleasing melancholy which irresistibly
steals upon and captivates the heart, they have
excelled all other writers of the Sonnet, and have
shown how erroneous are the opinions of those
who deem this species of composition beneath the
attention of genius *, "

Finally, under the general denomination of
lyric poetry fall those various species of poetic
compositions called Sovgs, Ballads, &c., of which
the last age has been eminently fruitful. Never
• was there a period before in which the number
and the poetic merit of these were so great as
during that which is under review. In this de^
partment of poetry the Scotch and English have
excelled not only their contemporaries, but all
preceding writers. But this class of poets is so
numerous, and so familiarly known, that no at-
tempt will be made to exhibit even a selection of
the best.

* Drake's Literary Hours, vol. i, p. 1 13.

38 Poetry. [Chap. XX.

SECTION VIII.

ELEGIAC POETRY.

That part of the poetry of the eighteenth cen-
tury which falls under this head is worthy of par-
ticular notice. It may be pronounced greatly
superior to all the productions of a similar kind
which belong to any preceding age. In this sec-
tion several of the productions of Pope may be
with propriety arranged, and must have assigned
to them a high place. The elegies of Hammond,
though scarcely possessing first-rate excellence,
have been also celebrated. But the writer who
confessedly stands in the first rank of elegiac poets
is Gray. His Elegy 171 a Countni Churchyard
will be read with admiration and delight, as pos-
fieSsing beauties of the most rich and exquisite
kind, as long as taste and sensibility shall exist *.

* Thoi-nSs Gray was born in London in 1716, and died in
1771. His character, as drawn by a friend, is as follows : " Pep-
haps he Avas the most learned rnan in Europe. He was equally
acquainted with the elegant and the profound parts of science;
and that not superficially, but thoroughly. He knew every
branch of history, both natural and civil ; had read all the origi-
nal historians of England, France, and Italy ; and w as a great
antiquarian. Criticism, metaphysics, morals, politics, made a
principal part of his study. Voyages and travels of all sorts were
his favourite amusements; and he had a fine taste in painting,
prints, ajchitecture, and gardening. With such a fund of know-
ledge, nis conversation must have been equally instructing and
entertaining ; but he was also a good man, a man of virtue and

^ECT. VIII.] Elegiac Poetry. 30

Another distinguished name, entitled to an lio-
nourable place in this list, is that of Shcn stone *,
who produced at least one Elegy which will ever
command admiration. Nor would it be just to pass
in silence the name of miss Seward, who, in this
department of poetry, has displayed powers in the
pathetic, the elegant, and the beautiful, which bid
fair long to render her character conspicuous in
the annals of English literature.

The best elegiac poetry of the last age is di-
stinguished above that of all preceding periods,
by the union of a number of qualities which never
before so conspicuously met in this species of
composition. These qualities are regularity, cor-
rectness, pathos, elevation of sentiment, g:nd pu-

humanity." Dr. Johnson, in his Lives of the Poets, is generally
eupposed not to have done justice to this celebrated Avriter. From
his Ele^rj/ in the Churchyard, indeed, that great critic could not
withhold the warmest praise. " In the character of this Elegy,"
says he, " I rejoice to concur with the common reader. It
^bounds with images which find a mirror in every mind, and
with sentiments to which every bosom returns an echo. Had
Gray wrilteji often thus, it had been vain to blame, and useless
to praise him." After all, it must be acknowledged that he wrote
but little J that only a part of that little is in the style of exquisite
excellence ; and that his Elegy is so greatly superior to every
other production of his pen, as to excite a suspicion that it wis
the result of unwearied polish and elaboration, rather than the
spontaneous effusion of a mighty genius. If this view of the sub-
ject be admissible, though Gray will still hold a place in the first
rank of lyric and elegiac poets; yet some of the praise which
has been bestowed on his genius will be pronounced excessive,
and the judgement of T>t. Johnson less liable to exception than is
commonly supposed.

* William Shenstone was born in Shropshire in 17 li, and
idled unmanied in 17G3. His works were afterwards collected
.md published in 3 vols. 8vo,

40 Poetnj. [Chap. XX.

rity of moral character. Nevei' before were these
characters go frequently assembled, so harmoni-
ously united, or so forcibly exhibited, as in some
of the elegiac productions of the century under
review.

SECTION IX.

DRAMA.

Tlie Dramatic Poetry of the eighteenth century
bears, in several respects, a distinguished charac-
ter *. An obvious circumstance, which deserves
to be noted, is the great and unprecedented num-
ber of dramatic productions that have appeared
during this period. In almost every civilised and
literary nation the press has teemed with the ef-
forts of the tragic and comic muses. Perhaps in
no department of literature, if we except Novels,
has the taste of the age for multiplying books
been more remarkably displayed than in that
which is under consideration. In proportion as
theatrical amusements have been multiplied and
extended, the love of fame, the hope of profit, or
a fondness for the employment, have prompted
many to appear as candidates for supplying the
demands of the public. Of the moral effect of

* The author is sensible that many dramatic productions can-
not with propriety be denominated jsoe^^c; but, to avoid multir
plying chapters, he has thought proper to throw under one head
all those works, >vhether poetic or not, which belong to the dra-
matic class.

Sect. IX.] Drama. 41

this increase in the taste and demand for theatri-
cal representations some notice will be taken here-
after^

Though the specimens of KngUsJi Tragedy^
which belong to the period under review, are nu-
merous, yet few of them are entitled to the praise
of first-rate excellence. After the Mourning Bride
of Congreve, which properly belongs to the pre-
ceding age, the Fair Penitent^ and the Jane Shore,
of Rowe *, with respect to time, hold the first
place. These, though of different relative merit,
yet, both on account of their plot and language,
have deservedly continued to be favourites to the
present day f . If Rowe paint the passions with
less force and conformity to nature than Shak-
speare and Otway, he is free from the barbarisms
of the former, and the licentiousness of the latter.
The Cafo of Addison is generally known ; and
the public seem now to be agreed in the opinion,
that, notwithstanding all the loftiness of sentiment
and beauty of diction with which it abounds, as a

* Nicholas Rowe was born in Bedfordshire in 1673. He held
peveral places under government, and upon the accession of
George I was made poet-laureat. He died in 1718. His best
productions are his translation o( Lucarii and the two Tragedies
abovementioned.

-j- In these and the following remarks on dramatic poetry, the
author takes for granted, that no reader w ill consider him as ex-
pressing an opinion favourable to theatrical amusements. He is
persuaded, that the general character and tendency of such amuse-
inents are highly immoral; but in this place, and always when
he employs favourable expressions concerning certain dramas, he
begs to be understood as merely delivering opinions of a literary-
kind.

4i2 Poetry. [Chap. XX.

tragedy it is too " regularly dull," and unnatu-
rally stiff, for scenic representation. The Revenge ,
by Dr. Young, displays no small share of that sub-
limity and fn-e Vv liich the illustrious author so re-
markably possessed. Of his several tragedies,
this only keeps possession of the stage. The
Gamester of Moore will long remain a very ho-
nourable monument of the dramatic powers of its
author. The Elf rid a and Caractacus of Mason *
would have done credit to the most favourable
periods of ancient literature. Douglas, by Mr.
Home, for several reasons attracted an unusual
degree of public attention, when it first appeared ;
and has ever since maintained a high character f.
Among the tragedies of Thomson Tancred and
Sigismunda alone merits distinction. This, with
regard to plot, sentiment, and style, is entitled to
high respect; but perhaps scarcely to that de-
gree which might ha\ e been expected from the
great powers displa^X'd in the Seasons. The Irene
of Dr. Johnson, though it " furnishes a rich store
of noble sentiments, fine imagery, and beautiful
language, is deficient in plan, pathos, and general

* The reverend "Wijliam Mason was a native of Yorkshire.
He publislied his first poem in 1748, took orders in \lb^, and
died in 1797.

f Mr. Home waa a clergyman of the church of Scotland. The
circumstance of a person of his profession giving encouragement
to the stage, by writing for it, gave great and just oftence, and
made his tragedy an object of much more attention and interest
ihan it would otherwise have been. I^e wrote several tragedies
afterward ; but they were all unsuccessful. It seemed as if his
genius had been absorbed by his first production.

Sect. IX.] Drama. 4^

impression." The Mysterious Motlier of Horace
Walpole*, though the subject is shocking, dis-
plays great talents, especially in depicting the
terrible. Miss Hannah More's Percy is a popu-
lar tragic production f- Her Fatal Falsehood
also indicates those talents which appear in most
of her writings. Her Sacred Dramas, though a
monument of her piety, and her desire to promote
youthful improvement, will scarcely be thought
to deserve high praise as works of genius. To
these may be added the Zenobia^ the Grecian
Daughter, and the Alzuma, of Mr. Murphy,
which are considered as respectable in their dra-
matic character, and pure in their moral tenclenr
cy, but with a remarkable prevalence of terrour in
their impression.

The close of the century was distinguished by
the dramatic publications of miss Joanna Baillie,
who is considered by many as having retrieved
the declining character of the age with respect to
tragic composition. A respectable critic has pro-
nounced, that, " for lofty poetry, sublime senti-
ment, and true pathos, her tragedies stand unque-
stionably at the head of every modern eifort of
the tragic muse."

In the history of English Comedy, the eighteenth
ccntuiy forms an important era. Indeed, the £%

* Horace Wulpole, the youngest son of sir Robert Walpole,
was bom in 1717. He succeeded to the title and estat* of the
eitii <f Orfordia. 1781, and died in 1797.

f Percy is said to be a " bad alteration from Gahridle de Ver-
gy, by du Belloy> a c^flefbrated French tragedian." Notwith-
standing this <::iharge, however, it has maintained a high degree
of popularity.

44 Poetry . [Chap, XX.

glish language scarcely furnished an instance of
pure or unmixed comedy prior to the commence-
ment of this period. The comic productions of
Shakspeare are well known not to have been of
this kind; and those of Dryden and Southern were
generally interspersed with too much of the tragic
to have a place assigned them in the department
of ridicule alone. In the last age a remarkable
revolution has taken place in this respect. Spe-
cimens of unmixed comedy have become frequent,
or rather the most fashionable kind of dramatic
<!:omposition ; and in a few instances the wit and
humour of these productions are found more cor-
rect and refined, and their wholp structure more
elegant, than those of any preceding age.

The English Comedies which have attracted at-
tention, and to which great excellence is attri-
buted, are numerous. The Careless Husband of
Gibber, first 'performed in 1704, is generally
ranked among the most respectable of this class,
though it can scarcely be said to be perfectly
pure in its moral tendency. The Recruiting Of-
fiter, and the Beaux Stratagem, by Farquhar *, ,
though liable to still greater blame, for the same
kind of fault, have long been popular plays. The
Conscious Lovers of sir Richard Steele f, for purity
and tenderness of sentiment, and chasteness of

V

* Towards the close of the eighteenth century, the plays of
Farquhar, on account of their licentious character, were seldom
played, and never without great alterations. They are wholly
discontinued on the American stage.

t Sir Richard Steele Avas born in Dublin. Soon after the ac-
cession of George I he was knighted, and became a member ef
parliament. He died iu 1729.

Sect. IX.] Drama. 4.5

language, has generally received warm commen-
dation. The Suspicious Husband, by lioadley*,
also ranks high in this list. The Jealous JFife,
and the Clandestine Marriage, by Colman, have
had a degree of popularity much beyond ordinary
comic productions. The Good-natured Man, and
She Stoops to Conquer, by Goldsmith, have gene-
rally a place assigned them among the superior
works of this class. The School for Scandal, by
Mr. Sheridan, is pronounced, in a literary view,
the best comedy of the age ; but when measured
by a correct moral standard, considerable deduc-
tion must be made from its merit. Two other
comic productions of Mr. Sheridan have been ce-
lebrated ; viz. The Rivals, and The Critic. Both
these works, and especially the latter, are consi-
dered as doing honour to the fertile genius of the
author. The JFest Indian, and the Wheel of For-
tune, by Mr. Cumberland, ha^•e been much ap-
plauded by judges of dramatic excellence. The
comic productions of Garrick, though certainly
not deserving of a place in the highest rank, are
yet lively and pleasing, and in general free from
the charge of immoral tendency. The Heiress
of general Burgoyne, for taste and wit stands
high in the opinion of connoisseurs. The come-
dies of Mr. Hoicroft are entitled to considerable
praise, as efforts of genius ; but the errours of tlie
author's moral and philosophical principles are

* Benjamin Hoadley, the eldest son of the celebrated bishop of
that name, was born in \li)5. He was bred to the medical pro-
fession. In 1742 he was appointed physician \fi the kind's
household; and died in 1757, * ^

46 Poctnj. [Chap. XX.

too often brought into view. In strong and po-
pular exhibitions of the vis comica, Mr. Macklin
displayed unusual talents. For the construction of
musical Afterpieces, of delicate and sentimental
humour, Mr. Dihdin rendered himself famous.
In Farce, few writers of the age discovered more
broad humour than Foote ; but his humour is ge-
nerally coarse, frequently licentious, and in some
instances so grossly impious and immoral, as to
disgrace the author in tlie estimation of every vir-
tuous mind. For taste and wit the dramatic pro-
ductions of Mrs. Cowley and Mrs. Inchbald de-
serve to be honourably mentioned. In ele^fant
comedy, miss Lee has displayed very respectable
powers. But it would far exceed our limits to
give a full catalogue of those who have sought and
received high dramatic honours in the course of
the age under consideration.

The younger Colman is entitled to a place
among the disiinguished comic writers of Great
Britain at the close of the century under consi-
deration. He is said, by some, to be inferior only
to Mr. Sheridan. His Ways and Means, his Sur-
render of Calais, his comic opera of InJde and Ya-
rico, and several other dramas, have commanded
much popular applause. Some of his dramatic
pieces, however, are said to be tinctured with mis-
chievous principles, and to have an immoral ten-
dency ; but of the nature and extent of these
faults the author has too little knovvledge to be
able to speak precisely.

The various dramatic works of O'Keefe, Kelly>
Morton, Reynolds, and several others, are well
known to those v/ho have a tolerable acquaintance

Sect. IX.] DramQ. 47

with the English drama, and have attained variou^j
degrees of respect in the public estimation.

That kind of dramatic composition which is set
to music, and is denominated an Opera^ is well
known to be a modern invention. This species of
theatrical exhibition was first made in Italy about
the beginning of the seventeenth century ; but it
was never introduced into England till the begin-
ning of the eighteenth : and in order to avoid the
absurdity of dramas in an unknown tongue (for
the iirst operas performed in Britain were in the
Italian language), Mr. Addison wrote and pub-
lished his Rosamond. Since that time operas have
become more popular in almost every part of
Europe, and genetally find a place where the
theatre is supporte<ll. The operas of Fontenolle,
of Metastasio, and of other celebrated dramatic,
writers, are well knov\:n. But they are, after all,
a kind of composition too unnatural to hold a
very high ])lace in the list of dramatic amuse-
ments. The first serious operas were brctf-^ght 01?
the English stage by Dr. Arne, who translated
some of the operas of Metastasio ; but this kind
of theatrical exhibition gained little ground. The
first musical piece which commanded any great
success on the English stage was the Beggar s
Opera of Gay. Since his time the cof7uc opera
has been much more popular than the serious.

It would be a culpable omission to conclude
our remarks on this department of British poetry
without taking some notice of the unwearied la-
bours of literary men, during the age under con-
sideration, to illustrate the writings of Siiakspeare,
the great father of the English diama. For some

48 Poetry. [Chap. XX.

time after the publication of his works, they were,
from the defective taste and negligence of the
times, greatly corrupted by various transcribers
and editors. The first attempt to remove these
corruptions, and to present a correct edition to
the public, was made by Mr. Rowe, in 1709, with
considerable success. Some years afterward, Mr.
Pope made his countrymen more fully acquainted
than they had ever been before with the corrupt
state of Shakspeare's text, and excited high ex-
pectations that a more complete reform of it
would be effected by his labours. Neither his
emendations nor his commentaries, however, are
now considered as of much value. Indeed, he has;
been openly charged with corrupting, rather than
purifying or elucidating, his author. His edition
was published in 172J. Pope was followed, in this
field for the display of literary taste and enter-
prise, by Mr. Theobald, who in 1733 gave a new
edition ; in preparing which for the press he col-
lated many copies, and corrected many errours ;
but, defective both in taste and learning, he was
>:till far from having done justice to his under-
taking. The next in this list of critical editors is
?Lr Thomas Hanmer, whose edition appeared in,
1744. He made many emendations with great
judgement, and in a manner which indicated both
discernment ^nd erudition ; but in others he dis-
covered much caprice; and adopted a large num-
ber of the censurable innovations of Pope. In
1747 Dr.Warburton made trial of his great criti-
cal acumen, and his profound erudition, on the
works of the same illustrious dramatist; but though
ike displayed much sagacity and learning, his work

Sect. IX.] Drama. 49

was considered rather as an exhibition of himself
than an elucidation of his author. In 1765 ap-
peared the edition of Dr. Johnson. This great
critic threw more light on Shakspeare than all
who had gone before him. His preface to the
edition, his numerous emendations, and his notes
on obscure passages, discover a soundness of
judgement, a profundity of critical skill, and an
elegance of taste, "which will do him lasting ho-
nour. The editorial labours of Mr. Malonc close
the list. His edition appeared in 1789. Having
devoted much time and pains to the work, and
having the advantage of all that had been done
by his predecessors, he may be considered, on the
whole, the most complete commentator on Shak-
speare that has hitherto appeared.

Ihe dramatic productions of /"/-^wce, during the
period under consideration, were numerous ; and
jsome of them attained, and still hold, a liigh repu-
tation *. The first class of French Tragedies be-
longing to this age may be siighty noticed. In
this list the iirst place is due to the several tragic
productions of Voltaire. The Zaire, the Alzire,
the Merope, and the Orphan of China, by him, are
all possessed of distinguished excellence. It is
peculiarly worthy of remark, that notwithstand-
ing that celebrated infidel, in almost every page
of his prose writings, discloses his hatred of reli-
gion, and the profligacy of his principles, nothing
can be more pure, in a moral and religious view,
than his tragedies. Next to those of Voltaire are
the tragic compositions of the elder Crebillon,

* Sc^ la Harpe's Lectures, and his Literari/ Correspondence.

50 Poelry. [ChaP. XX.

which are universally allowed to display great
powers, and especially to excel in force of charac-
ter. His Rhadamistus and Atreus are always
quoted as his best performances. The tragedies
of la Motte have also a place assigned them among
the great dramatic productions of France during
the last age. Of his several works, the Ines de
Castro holds the highest rank. The historical
and patriotic tragedies of Dubelloy are much ce-
lebrated in the annals of French literature. His
Siege of Calais attained the greatest degree of
celebrity ; and afterwards his Titus and Zelmij^a
commanded considerable attention. The trage- ,
dies of M. Saurin are also honourably mentioned
among the critics of the author's own country.
Of these, to his Spartacus the most liberal praise
has been given. M. Diderot, among the nume-
rous productions of his pen, gave to tlie public
several tragedies ; but they are, like many of his
other writings, more conspicuous monuments of
his moral depravity than of his genius or taste.

The French Comedies which have attracted at-
tention are much more nimierous. The comic
productions of le Sage rank high in this list. His
Tuscaret gained great and general popularity.
Le Glorieii.r, and Le Philosophe Marie, of Des-
touches, were still more eminently popular.
The former, indeed, has been pronounced one of
the best comedies that the age produced. Piron
was also a comic writer of great celebrity among
his countrymen, and even throughout Europe.
His Aletromanie is an effort of high dramatic ge-
nius ; but is liable to exception with respect to
its moral tendency. The younger Crebillon dis-

Sect. IX.] Drama. Jl

plays, in his comedies, a large portion of wit and
humour, but they are too much of the licentious
kind. M. Saurin is also distinguished as a writer
of French comedy. His Anglomane is considered
as the best production of his pen, in this depart-
ment of dramatic writing. The comedies of M.
Gressett sustain a still higher character. The
Mechant, by him, ranks with the first comic
works of the age. M. Boissy has displayed con-
siderable talents as a WTiter of comedy. UHojinne
du JouTy and Les dehors Trompeurs, hold a respect-
able place in the critic's list. M. Beaumarchais
is also entitled to notice as belonging to the same
class. Though little can be said in favour of the
moral tendency of his Barhier de Seville, Mariage
de Figaro, and Mere Coiipable* ; yet they discover
so much wit and humour as to command much of
the public attention.

To France is ascribed the invention of a new
species of drama, called C ome die Lar may ante, or
Crying Comedy. This is a genus between tragedy
and comedy of the pure unmixed kind ; and also
different in its character from the tragi-comedy of
Dryden and Southern. It offers pictures of tem-
porary domestic distresses, which in private life
too frequently occur, and which, though attended
with no consequences sufficiently fatal for tragedy,
are too serious for comic representation. The
inventor of this species of drama was M. Ja
Chaussee. In this style of writing he has had se-

♦ These three plays of Beaumarchais form one story ; and in
the last the crimes and follies of the charJ^cters are represented
as punished.

E 2

52 ' Poetry. [CHAP.XX.

veral imitators. The domestic and sentimental
comedies of M. Dorat are considerably celebrat-
ed ; and the moral dramas of Monval and Bouilly
have also a high reputation.

Beside the French comic writers above men-
tioned, several others have attained distinction,
though in an inferior degree. Among these, Re-
gnard, la Motte, Marivaux, Marmontel, Sedaine,
and Saint Foix, deserve particular notice. It is to
be lamented tliat purity of moral character cannot
be always ascribed to their productions.

Though the best English comedies of the eigh-
teenth century are far superior to those of the
same language which were produced in the pre-
ceding age, we cannot consider the same improve-
ment as belonging to modern French comedy.
Molicre, who died towards the close of the seven-
teenth century, in the combined excellences of
wit, humour, plot, and character, has never been
equalled by any of his successors. It may be
questioned, indeed, whether he was ever equalled,
in all these respects, by any writer, ancient or
modern. His plays have supplied materials for
plunder to all other comic writers since his time.

The dramatic works of Ttahjy during the jieriod
©f this retrospect, were many in number, and some
of them highly valued as efforts of genius *. la.
Italian Tragedy, the various works of Martelli,
which appeared early in the century, hold an
honourable place. His Perselide, Ifigenia, and
Alceste, are generally enumerated among the best
productions of his pen. To Martelli is ascribed

* Se»\Ys.\kcr'sHiittorical Memoir omitalian Tragedy, 4to, 1799.

Sect. IX.] Drama. 5$

the honour of having adoped astmcture of poetry
which had never before been used in Italy. The
tragedies of Marchesi have also a high character
among the critics of that country. Those under
the titles of Crispo and PoUssena have particularly
attained general celebrity. The Merope of Maf-
fei is pronounced by some the best tragedy that ,
was ever written. It is certain that few tragic
productions have been more famed, or have served
more frequently as models to subsequent writers*.
Granelli and Bettinelli have also a place among
the distinguished authors in this species of com-
position. The Sedecia, Manasse, and Dione, of
the former ; and the Glonata, Demetrio, and Ser'sCy
of the latter, are considered as their ablest prO'
ductions. Monti, of the same country, has ob-
tained considerable distinction by his Manfredi
and Aristodemo. To these names may be added
those of Ccesarotti and Alfieri, who have both pro-
duced tragedies of high reputation \ and that of
Metastasio, whose Operas and Sacred Dramas
have been long and advantageously known to the
public. He perfected the musical and serious
drama of Italy. Rejecting marvellous incidents,
and allegorical personages, his productions be-
came more conformable to nature and life than
those of his predecessors ; and the music of his
pieces was so introduced as to be performed by
real actors, strongly agitated with passion, anil
of course giving more elTect to their performance
than could be done in the chorus of Greek tra-

* The Merope of MafFei is said to have been the model of
Voltaire's tragedy of that name. It is asserted, also, that the worly
of Maffei is the real parent of Home's Douglas.

5i Poetry. [Chap. XX.

gedj, which was usually executed by calm ob-
servers instead of those who participated in the
action of the scene.

Of the Italian writers of Comedy the author
knows too little to attempt any distinct account.
Few, if any, among them are more celebrated than
Goldoni, the most voluminous dramatic writer of
the eighteenth century. A large portion of the
pieces exhibited on the Italian stage are from his
pen. His comedies are so numerous that it would
be difficult to make a selection, and of such ac-
knowledged merit that they need no additional
encomium *.

The dramatic writings of Germany first began
in the eighteenth century to assume a respectable
and interesting aspect. Indeed, till within the
last forty years scarcely any thing had been pro-
duced, in this department of composition, which
could be considered as doing honour to German
genius, or which was much knoWn beyond the
bounds of that empire. But within this period
some writers of high reputation have appeared,
and raised the dramatic character of their country
to great eminence.

Goethe stands among the most celebrated Ger-
man dramatists. His Sisters^ his Stella, and his
Jphigeiiia, are considered as very honourable mo-

* Charles Goldoni was born at Venice in 1707, and died at
Paris in 1792. He is said to have been equal to the greatest co-
mic poets of modern times in dramatic talents, and superior to
theni all in the fertility of his genius. His works were printed
at Leghorn in 1791, in 31 volumes 8vo. He has been generally
called the Moliere of Italy ; and Voltaire, in one of his letters t«
the marquis Albergati^ styles him " the painter of Nature.''

Sect. IX.J Drama. 55

niiments of genius. The tragedies of Lcssing have
a high character among his countrymen, parti-
cularly his Emilia Galotti, Philotas^ and Sarah
Sampso7i. The tragic productions of Babo are
also much distinguished. The most remarkable
of these are Otto of JFiltksbach, Dagobert, and
Conscience. But perhaps no tragic writer of
Germany has gained a reputation more extensive
and commanding than Schiller, whose Robbers
and Don Carlos evince powerful talents, and have
gained unusual popularity. Beside these, Schle-
gel, Weisse, Leisewitz, von Reitzenstein, and
Gerstenberg, have produced tragedies of high re-
putation. The tragedies of Klopstock are also
represented as models of sublimity, in senti-
ment, language, and action. In comedy, Cruger,
iKhnger, Wetzel, Grossmann, Schroeder, Engel,
and Iffland, are spoken of as having merit of a
very conspicuous and popular kind. The last,
in particular, is one of the most liberal contri-
butors to the drama of modern times. Towards
the close of the century, no dramatic writer in the
German language was so generally popular as
Kotzebue, whose principal works are so generally
known, that an attempt to enumerate them, or
draw their character, is altogether unnecessary^,

* Several of the dramas of Kotzebue, as well as those of Schil-
ler, Goethe, and some other Germaa writers, have been the sub-
ject of much criticism with respect to their moral tendency. It
is impossible, in this place, to enter into a discussion of the me-
rits of this inquiry. It isprobable, however, that every sober and
reflecting mind will perceive much to censure on this ground,
particularly in the writings of the three popular dramatists above
mentioned. It is not objected to these writers, that their charac»

o6 Poetry, [CiiAP. XX

The dramatic writers of the rest of Europe, du-
ring the age under consideration, were few ; and of
these few only a small portion gained any consi-
derable celebrity. With the dramatists of Spain
and Portugal the author has no acquaintance. In
Sweden, the dramati<; w^orks ofDahlin, Gyllen-
borg, and Kellgren ; in Denmark, those of baron
Holberg*; and in Russia, those of Somorokof,
are among the most conspicuous and esteemed.
The character of tiie drama in America, towards
the close of the eighteenth century, began to be
more distinct and national than at any former
period. Instead of waiting altogether for the pro-
ductions of the English stage, and continuing to
be its servile echo, the American stage has exhi-

ters are, in general, unnaturally drawn, but that such characters
ought never to have been e^ihibited at all ; not that their inci-
dents are impossible or incredible, but that such incidents, whe-
ther in fiction or in real life, have always been powerful means
of corrupting the principles and undermining the virtue of those
by whom they were frequently contemplated.

* Baron Holberg was one of the most extraordinary characters
of the age. He was born in Norway, towards the close of the
seventeenth century; was the son of a private soldier, and
learned to read without the help of a master. Being deprived of
his father at nine years of age, he persisted in pursuing his studies,
travelled from school to school, and beg2;ed his learning and his
bread. Early in life he made the tour of Europe on foot, and
came over to England, v.here he resided two years at the univer-
sity of Oxford. ^ Furnished with a large portion of the learning
of Europe, he at length settled at Copenhagen, v.here his nume-
rous writings gained him much public notice and liberal favours
from the government. He composed eighteen comedies. Those
in his own language are said to excel j and those which have
been translated into Fi ench are represented as having great merit.
He died about the year 1754'. — Goldsmith's Inquiry into the pre-
icni State of Polite Learning.

Sect. IX.] Drama. 57'

bited a considerable number of original pieces,
and others adopted from the French and German.
And though the former are not equal to the first
class of British productions, and the moral ten-
dency of some of the latter has been questioned ;
yet they form one stop in that literary progress of
the country, which is more particularly detailed
in another place.

There are several characteristic features which
belong to the dramatic compositions of the eigh-
teenth century, in which they differ from those of
any preceding age. It may be proper to take
some notice of a few of these features before bring-
ing this section to a close.

One circumstance in which modern dramas dif-
fer from those of former times is, that they arc
more consistent and correct in the structure of their
fable. If they do not surpass or equal some pre-
ceding productions of this class in genius, they must
be allowed to excel in taste and regularity of plan.
Many of the noblest of the dramas which were given
to the world before the eighteenth century, violated
every principle of probability and nature. They
departed from the most obvious unities of time,,
place, and action. They gave to one country the
customs, laws, and general characters of another ^
and thus, amid splendid excellences, abounded
with manifest absurdities ; and while they grati-
fied the taste, also put to a severe test the pati-
ence of the critic. Vv^ith most of these faults,
even the immortal Shakspeare is chargeable. The
best dramatists of the eighteenth century may be
said, ia general, to adhere more closely to proba-

58 Poetrtj. [Chap. XX.

bility and nature ; to employ a fable more cor-
rect and consistent, and less frequently to ofFend
against the just laws of fiction.

A further circumstance in which the dramatic
compositions of the last age differ from those of
former times is, that they abound more in plot
and action. The great excellence of Shakspearc
is not the artful contrivance of his storv, nor the
variety and interest of his incidents. Were his
plays tried upon ground of this sort, they would
doubtless be found inferior to man}^ of smaller
name. But his distinguishing merit consists in
his knowledge of human nature, in the accurate
delineation of his characters, in forcible and na-
tural descriptions, and in the weight and subli-
mity both of his sentiments and his language.
These, notVv'ithstanding numerous defects in the
structure of his dramas, deepl}'^ impress the mind,
dwe-ll upon the memory, and secure to him a fame
unrivalled and immortal. Some of the remarks
which have been made on Shakspearc, particu^
larly that which relates to his frequent deficiency
in propriety of plot and incident, may be consi-
dered as applying to almost all the dramatic
writers w ho went before him. Those of the last
age, especially the first class, generally adopted a
different method. A more artful contrivance of
fable is beeome fashionable ; a more extensive
and intricate plot is attempted ; more intrigue
and action are carried on ; our curiosity is more
awakened; and more interesting situations arise.
This is said, by good critics, to be an improve-
ment. It is contended that it furnishes a more

Sect. IX.] Drama. 59

favourable field for the display of passion, and that
it renders the entertainment both more animated
and more instructive *.

It may also be mentioned as a peculiarity in the
dramatic writings of the eighteenth century, that
they are in general more decent, and more moral
in their tendency, than those of the age immedi-
ately preceding. The comedies of Vanbrugh, so
justly admired for their humour and native ease
of dialogue, are extremely licentious ; and in the
greater part of .Congrev^e's dramas, amidst the
brilliancy of wit and force of language which so
remarkably characterise them, there are passages
which put virtue and decorum entirely out of
countenance. In several of the comedies of Dry-
den the indecency is so palpable and shocking,
that we are told, even in the dissolute age in
which he lived they were prohibited from being
brought on the stage. It is but justice to say,
that in the course of the last age a more correct
taste has arisen and prevailed. It is true, that,
in some of the most popular dramatic produc-
tions of this period, indelicate scenes occur, and
the general moral tendency of many is highly
censurable. But there has doubtless been, for a
number of years past, a decency in the public
taste, and in that of authors, which has revolted
from open and gross obscenity, and of course
given the dramatic publications of the day a great
superiority, in a moral view, over those w4iich
were fashionable in the time of Otway, Congreve,
yanbrugh, and Dryden. Among the hrst, who

* Blair's Lectures.

60 Toetnj. [Chap. XX.

signalised themselves by discarding grossly sen-
sual descriptions and indecent expressions from
English Tragedy, were Mr. Rowe and Mr. Addi-
son ; and the like service was rendered to Comedy
by sir Richard Steele, and some who immediately
succeeded him.

But though the dramatic productions of the
eighteenth century are in general more decent^
and much less offensive in the exhibition of coarse,
licentiousness, many of them may be charged with
a fault, which, though less obvious, is perhaps
more mischievous in its tendency. This is, the
artful interweaving of false principles in religion
and morals with the whole structure of their fable
and sentiments. Theatrical exhibitions, as well
as Novels, have been employed to insinuate the
poison of corrupt opinions, decorated and con-
cealed, into unsuspecting minds. A splendid hero
is made to inculcate and recommend the most
hateful principles ; and an ingeniously contrived
series of incidents to prepossess the mind in favour
of vice. This, considered as a system deliberately
instituted for the purpose of operating on public
opinion, it is believed is peculiar to the eighteenth
century. Both Great Britain and France have
given birth to a few dramatic productions formed
on this plan ; but they have still niore abounded
in Germanyv

Another peculiarit}^ of modern dramatic pro-
ductions, especially of the tragic kind, is, that
they abound more in love than the ancient mo-
dels. In the ancient tragedies this subject was
rarely mentioned or alluded to : still more seldom
did any of them turn upon it. On the contrary.

Chap. XX.] Poelrij. 61

love is the " main hinge of modern tragedy;" and
where this is not the case, the introduction of the
subject is considered as in some measure indispen-
sable. This fact may be accounted for in several
ways ; but perhaps the most probable reasons to
be assigned for it are the two following. The
progress of civilisation, by increasing the impor-
tance of the female sex, has rendered every thing
which concerns them, and particularly the passion
of love, with its consequences, a more prominent
object in society. The appearance of female per-
formers on the stage, which is a modern improve-
ment in the system of theatrical exhibition, pro-
bably also contributed to produce the same eifect.
But, whatever may have been the cause, the fact
is undeniably true. The unseasonable introduc-
tion of love-scenes into the Cato of Addison is
well knovv'n to diminish the consistency and dig-
iiity of that celebrated tragedy. The same may
be said of many other popular pieces. Still it
must be acknowledged that some modern dramas
of great excellence and popularity have been
formed without recurring to the aid of this pow-
erful passion. Of this, Home's Douglas and Vol-
taire's Merope are illustrious examples. But such
instances are certainly rare.

In recounting the remarkable poetical publi-
cations of the age, it would be improper to pass
without notice two singular events, \\hich have
proved the sources of long-continued and violent
controversies in the literary world, and concern-

6^ Poeby. [Chap. XX.

ing which much diversity of opinion exists to the
present day. The events alhided to are the pub-
lication of the poems of Chatterton, an extraor-
dinary youth of Bristol; and the collection and
exhibition, in a regular form, of the works of Os-
sian, by Mr. James Macpherson, a man who, by
the connexiofi of his name with these poems alone,
has attained [high celebrity in the republic of let-
ters.

In 1760 Mr. James Macpherson, of North Bri-
tain, surprised the world by the publication of
" Frag77ie7its of Ancient Poetry, collected in the
Highlands of Scotland, and translated from the
Gaelic or Erse language." In 1762 he published
" Fin gal, an Epic Poem, in six books, together-
with several other Poems composed by Ossian, the
Son of Fingal;" and again in 1763 he produced
" Teniora, an ancient Epic Poem, in eight books,"
with several additional poems. These were all
ascribed to Ossian, an ancient Scottish bard*, and
were declared by the publisher to have been col-
lected, partly from old manuscripts, and partly
from oral tradition.

Few of the literary controversies of the age ex-
cited more attention than that which immediately
arose respecting the authenticity of these poems.
By many learned men their antiquity was readily
admitted; aiid their reception, particularly on the
continent of Europe, was extremely favourable.
There were not wanting enthusiastic admirers.

* This poet is said, by those •\vho believe in the authenticity of
the poems in question, to have flourished about the end of the
second and the beginning of the third century.

Chap. XX.] Poeh-y. 63

who even placed Ossian on the same shelf with
Homer and Virgil ; who dwelt with rapturous"
praise on his stupendous merits ; and made the
most profuse acknowledgements to the man, who
was supposed to have brought to light such pre-
cious remains of ancient genius*. On the con^
trary, many judges equally learned and acute
have denied the authenticity of the poems ascribed
to Ossian, and have insisted that they are forge-
ries by Mr. Macpherson himself f. Though this
controversy is far from being terminated, yet the
best supported and most probable opinion seems
to be, that the poems in dispute are neither whojly
the work of any ancient bard, nor entirely forged
by Macpherson ; but that the latter really made
large collections of ancient Gaelic poetry, which
he modified and connected in his own way, mak-
ing additions with freedom where he thought pro-
per, and forming an apparently regular work of
fragments which were never before united J.

* Among the distinguished characters who have contended for
the authenticity of Ossian's poems may be mentioned Dr. Blair,
lord Karnes, Dr. Henry, Mr. Whitaker, and on the continent of
Europe a large number.

f Dr. Johnson not only utterly denied the authenticity of these
poems, but also maintained that they had no merit. His opinion
on the former point may, with some qualification, be admitted;
but on the character of the work, it is difficult to suppose that so
acute and profound a critic could deliver such an unfavourable
judgement, without improper bias. Though the poetry of Ossian
has been extravagantly estimated, it is surely worthy of much
praise.

I On the one hand, it is by no means credible that a man of
Macpherson's mediocrity of talents could be himseJf the aulhor
of the poems which bear the name of Ossian ; nor can it be sup-
posed that any one, however great his powers, coiUd compkteli/

64 Poetry. [Chap. XX,

But whatever may be the origin of the poems
which have passed under the name ofOssian, they
doubtless possess merit of a wonderful kind.
Amidst the obscurity which remarkably pervades
them, and the frequent, and even disgusting, re-
currence of the same images, such as the extend-
ed heath by the seashore ; the mountain covered
with mist; the torrent rushing through a solitary
valley ; the scattered oaks ; the tombs of the war-
riors overgrown with moss ; and the melancholy
notes resounding from the hall of shells ; still these
celebrated productions abound with rich beauties;
with energy of- style, force of description, pathos,
tenderness, and in some instances with sublimity
of the highest order.

In 1777 were published " Poems supposed to
have been written at Bristol, by Thomas Rowley,
and others, in the fifteenth Century." These
poems were first brought to light by Thomas
Chatterton, a youth of humble origin, and small
advantages of education *, who professed to be

forge compositions bearing so many marks of antiquitj', both in
the style, the sentiments, and the historical facts. On the othei*
hand, it is no less difficult to believe that manuscript copies of
these poems, in the form in vrhich we now see them, should have
existed from very remote antiquity.

* Thomas Chatterton Mas born in the cit}^ of Bristol, Novem-
ber 20th, 1752; His father was the master of a free school in
that city, and was too poor to ^ive his son any of the advantages
of a liberal education. His acquirements, therefore, were chiefly
made up of such an acquaintance with English literature as a niiiKi
of wonderful force, ardour, and ambition might be expected to
gain under the constant pressure of poverty and other difficulties,
and in the short space of less than eighteen years. He begai^
to \Vrite poetry about the eleventh year of his age ; and was but 4

Chap. XX.] Poetry. 6S

only the transcriber, and declared that they were
written by Rowley, a clergyman of Bristol, more
than three centuries before their discovery by him.
They consist chiefly of dramatic, lyric, and pasto-
ral pieces, and are pronounced by some persons
of distinction in the literary world to be the real
works of Rowley, to whom they were attributed ;
while a greater number of equal discernment and
acquaintance with the subject have decided that
they are forgeries, and that Chatterton himself
was the author *. After much learned, ingenious.

little more than sixteen when he produced the celebrated poems
ascribed to Rowley. These he constantly affirmed he had co->
pied from manuscripts found in an old church in his native
city ; but he never could be persuaded to produce any of the
originals, except a few fi-agments, which he asserted were among
the number, the largest of which was not more than eight inches
long, and four or five Avide. Though the more general and pro-
bable opinion at present is, tiiat this remarkable youth was the
real author of the poems which have passed under Rowley's
name ; yet some other works, certainly known to liive been pro-
duced by him, place him high in the ranks of genius. Some of
his elegies and satires, in patticular, unquestionably display great
talents. He died miserably in London, August 25, 1770. His
death is ascribed to poison, which he had swallowed in a fit of
criminal impatience and overwhelming despair, with the design tp
teruiinate his sufferings. He is said to have imbibed (in the two
or three last years of his life) principles of the most licentious
kind, and to have been very immoral in his practice. His mind
was aspiring and ambitious to a degree almost boundless ; and
not meeting with that success or those rewards of his talents
which he had fondly hoped, he took refuge in a voluntary death,
and left a monument of unfortunate degraded genius, of which a
parallel will scarcely be again contemplated.

* Among those who have contended that these poems were
written by Rowley, Dr. Milles, dean of Exeter, aad Mr. Bryant,
arc the most conspicuous. The principal writers who have con*

Vol. HI. F

^ 66 Poelry. [CHAP. XX.

and interesting discussion, the latter opinion seems
to be considered as, on the whole, the better sup-
ported, and more probable.

The poems in dispute possess a very extraordi-
nary character. The subjects are generally well
chosen and interesting ; the plot, fable, and ma-
chinery, show the author to have had a vigorous
and active imagination ; the delineation of cha-
racter, and the luxuriancy of description with
which they abound, evince a happy union of taste
and genius; and, different from all the poetical
productions which were written at the time when
these are asserted to have been composed, they
•are in general remarkable for harmony and ele-
gance of versification *. Indeed, good judges
have pronounced, fhat some passages arc inferior
in none of the essentials of poetry to the most
finished works of modern times.

If the poems in question be attributed to Row-
ley, then we are presented with the singular spec-
tacle of oiie of the first English poets, both in time
and merit, sleeping in obscurity for more than
three hundred years, and being at last robbed of
his just reputation by the most wonderful literary
delusion that cvxt possessed mankind. If, on the
other hand, it be concluded that Chattorton was

tended fhat Ch?-tterton is the real author, are Walpole, Tyrwhitt,
Gray, Warton, Mason, Croft, and Malone.

* This harmony and elegance of versification appear under all
the disadvantages of the antiquated diction adopted by the author.
If Chattcrton was the author of the poems, it was necessary to
Tiis purpose to employ this diction ; and he is supposed to have
become familiar with the language of the fifteenth century by
perusing the works of CJiaucer.

Chap. XX.] Poetry. 67

the real author of the poems ascribed to Rowley,
then the eighteenth century gave birth to the most
astonishing genius that ever existed; a genius
sublime and universal ; and which, considering
that all his efforts were made before he reached
his eighteenth year, may probably be pronounced
with safety to have been an unique in the history
of man *.

Xo poet of reputation had appeared in America
prior to the eighteenth century. But since the
commencement of this period, the western hemi-
sphere, and especially that part of the continent
denominated the United States, has given birth to
several poets of respectable character. Among
these the rev. Dr. Dwight, before mentioned,
holds a distinguished place. His Conquest of Ca-
naan, though a juvenile performance, and labour-
ing inider several disadvantages, contains much
excellent versification f, and, in general correct-
ness, has not been often exceeded. Greenfieid
Hill, a moral, didactic, and descriptive poem, by
the same author, is also entitled to considerable
praise, for exhibiting pure and elevated sentiment,
just principles, and beautiful descriptions, in har-

* Mr. Wharton speaks of Chatterton as " a prodigy of genius."
Mr. Malone believes him to iiave been " the sjreatest genius that
England has produced since the days of Shakspeare." Mr.
Croft says, " no such human being, at any period of life, has
ever been known, or possibly can be known."

f This is the opinion of Dr. Darwin, expressed in a note to his
celebrated poem. The Botanig Garden.
\ ¥ 2

68 Poetry.- [Chap. XX'.

monioiis and excellent verse. The M'Fingal of
Mr, Trumbull was mentioned in a former page,
a-=: doing high honour to the talertts of its author.
The Vision of Columhus, and other poems, by Mr.
Barlow, are possessed of much poetic merit. To
these may be added the various productions of
Mr. Humphreys, Mrs. Morton, Dr. Ladd, Mr.
Freneau, and several others, who, though far
from being worthy of a place among the first class
of poets, have yet manifested talents honourable
to themselves and their country, and have been
noticed with respect by foreign as well as domes-
tic critics.

From the statement contained in the last para^
graph, it appears that New England, and particu-
larly the state of Connecticut, has been more di-
stinguished by the production of poetical genius,
than any other part of our country. Of the few
poets to which North America has given birth,
several of the most eminent ate natives of that
State.

But though the conspicuous poets of America
are not numerous, we are by no means to ascribe
this circumstance either to the paucity or the bar-
renness of American genius. Great poetical me-
rit has been rare in all ages, and in all countries 5
and that it should be peculiarly rare in a coun-
try Mdiere literature has comparatively few vota-
ries, and where those who have any taste for let-
ters have little respite fi'om the toils of professional
and active lifcj is so far from being unaccountable,
that the contrary would be wonderful.

CiiAP. XX.] Poetry. 69

After the foregoing details, it may not be im-
proper, before closing this chapter, to offer some
general reflexions on the peculiar poetic charac-
ter of the eighteenth centmy. Having already
employed so many pages on this subject, the
most brief and general views only will be at-
tempted.

The last a^e exceeds all preceding periods with
respect to the quantity of its poetry. It is per-
haps not going beyond the truth to say, that a
greater amount of poetic composition was pub-
lished in the course of the eighteenth century,
ihan all former asies toG^ether could furnish.

It may also be stated as a general truth, that the
poetry of the last age is more distinguished for
taste tlian genius ; more remarkable for polish,
smoothness, and harmony, than for invention,
strength, and boldness of thought and imagery ;
<iind abounds more in those qualities which soothe,
amuse, and please, than in those which elevate,
astonish, and transport the mind. To some of
the names mentioned in the foregoing pages, it is
readily acknowledged that exalted genius belong-
ed; but, without staying to perform the task,
equally invidious and difficult, of adjusting the
different claims of authors on this head, it may
certainly be hazarded, as a general remark, that
the prevailing character of modern poetry is that
of correctness and taste. While those who were
most distinguished in preceding times, for origi-
nality and sublimity, were often guilty of the
grossest v iolations of taste ; while, in many of their
writings, blunders and absurdities were frequently
found mixed up, in nearly equal proportions, with

70 Poetry. [Chap. XX.

beauties and graces, it may be said, to the honour
of the first class of poets of the eighteenth century,
that if they fall below some of their predecessors
in the bold, the original, and the sublime, they as
much exceed them in taste, refniement, uniform
proprietry, and general elegance of versification.

It may further be asserted, that a greater por-
tion of the poetry of the last age is purely moral,
than was ever before offered to mankind. Most
of the distinguished poets of former times were
faulty in this respect, and some of them grossly so.
When we look particularly into the English poets
who lived prior to the eighteenth century, we find
them all, if we except Spencer, Shakspeare, and
Milton, representing love rather as an appetite
than a chaste and dignified /?<2j-W(?;z. Accordingly
they w^ere accustomed to put language into the
mouths of the most virtuous and delicate females,
utterly inconsistent vfith our ideas of decorum.
It has been said that Prior's Henry and Emma is
the first poem in the English language, keeping
in view the exception before stated, in which love
is treated with the decency and delicacy to which
it is entitled.

Among many of the latter poets we find a
chasteness in the exhibition of characters and man-
ners, a purity of morals, and a delicacy of senti-
ment, whifch transcend all former example. The
greater part of the moral pieces of Pope may be
safely applauded in this view, as more worthy of
imitation than those of most of his predecessors.
Young has enlisted the sublimity of imagination,
and the music of numbers, on the side of virtue
and piety, with the niost happy success. The

Chap. XX.] Foctni. 71

muse of Thomson, while pouring forth the most
splendid beauties, dictated

" Nothing which, dying, he could wish to blot.'*

For the same kind of excellence Goldsmith and
Johnson deserve the highest praise. In this re-
spect, also, Cowper is inferior to none. His va-
rious performances display beauty of description
and vigour of language, blended with dignity of
virtue and piety, to a degree which places his cha-
racter, both as a man and a Christian, in the most
honourable point of view. In short, to discard
coarse indelicacy from the pictures of poetry ; to
recal Genius from the paths of Vice and Folly, and
enlist her in the service of chaste Enthusiasm and
divine Morality j are among the shining honours
of the last age. And perhaps on no ground does
its poetic character deserve higher eulogium than
for the production and the general popularity of
such writers as Pope, Young, Klopstock, Gesner,
Thomson, and Cowper.

Again ; the discovei^ies in science which distin-^
guish the eighteenth century have also conferred
some peculiarity on the poetic character of the
age, by furnishing the poet with new images, and
more just and comprehensive views of nature. It
would not be difficult to show that the improve-
ments in every branch of the physical sciences,
and particularly in Natural Philosophy, Chemistry ,
and Natural History, have all produced new ma-
terials for the labours of poetic genius, enriched
stores both of imagery and diction, and thus

72 Poetry. [Chap. XX.

contributed to render this kind of composition at
once more instructive and more pleasing.

Finally, in enumerating the peculiar advan-
tages under which poetic compositions were pre-
sented during the last age, it would be improper
to omit taking notice of the illustration of poetic
pictures by elegant engravings, and other appro-
priate ornaments. The Shakspeare Gallery, the
plates for illustrating Milton, Thomson, and many
other distinguished poets, had certainly no equals
in any preceding age.

73

CHAPTER XXI.
LITERARY JOURNALS.

In the former part of the seventeenth century,
" it was a consolation, at least for the unsuccess-
ful writer, that he fell insensibly into oblivion. If
he committed the private folly of printing what
no one would purchase, he had only to settle the
matter with his publisher : he was not arraigned
at tire public tribunal, as if he had committed a
crime of magnitude *." But in the latter part of
that century, Periodical Criticism began to bran-
dish its formidable weapon, and those who under-
took to write for the public were placed in a new
situation. Publications made at stated intervals,
giving accounts and abstracts of new books, and
announcing new discoveries and improvements
in science, then took their rise, and have been
ever since continued. The eighteenth century is
chiefly remarkable for an increase of their num-
ber, for various changes in their form and charac^
ter, for their more general circulation, and for a
corresponding extension of their influence on the
taste and opinions of the public.

The flrst work of this kind ever undertaken
was the Journal des Scavans, published at Paris,

* Curiosities of Literature, vol. i, p. i^

74 Literary. Journals. [CuAP. XXI,

by M. Sallo*, in lG6o. The original plan of this
work comprehended a vast variety of subjects.
" It gave an account of all books which appeared
in Europe ; contained eulogies on deceased cele-
brated men ; and announced whatever had been
invented- that was useful in art, or curious in
science. Experiments in physic and chemistry,
celestial and meteorological observations, disco-
veries in anatomy, the decisions of ecclesiastic^il
and secular tribunals, and the censures of the
Sorbonne, were all proposed to be noticed." This
attempt of Sallo was so well received, that, in the
course of a few years, it was imitated in almost all
the literary countries of Europe, and his work was
translated into various languages.

In 1671 appeared the Acta Medica Ilafniensia^
published by M. Bartholin. To this work suc-
ceeded Mhnoires dcs Arts et des Sciences., esta-
blished in France, by M. Dennis, in ,167!^; the
Acta Eruditorum of Leipsic, by Merkenius, in
1682; the Xouvelies de la Repuhlique des Lcttres,
by M. Bayle, in 1684; the Bibliofheque Univer-
selle Choisie, Ancitnne et Moderne, by le Clcrc,
about the same time; the Histoire des Outrages
des Scavans, by M. Basnage, in 1686; the ]\Io-
nathlichen Vntcrredungen, of Germany, in 1689;
the Boockzal van Europe., by Peter Rabbus, in
Holland, in K692 ; an Historical Treatise of the
Journals of the Learned, in Latin, by Juncker, the

* Dennis de Sallo was an ecclesiastical counsellor in the par-
liament of Paris. He published his Journal in the nameofthe'
.sicnr dc Iledouvillc, his footman ; pei'haps because he entertained
but a faint hope of success, or because he thought the scurrility
of criticism might be permitted on account of its supposed autho^^.

Chap. XXI.] Literary Journals. 75

same year ; the Nova Liter aria Maris Balthici,
in 1698 j together with several others in Ger-
many, France, and Italy. The first work of the
kind established in Great Britain was the Histori)
of the Works of the Learned, began in London, in
1699. Such was the state of Europe, with respect
to literary journals, at the close of the seventeenth
century. It will be observed, that, as they began
in France, so they were most numerous and most
encouraged in that country for a long time after-^
wards.

Soon after the commencement of the eighteenth
century these publications greatly increased both
in number and in the extent of their circulation.
But this increase, for the fnst forty years of the
period we are considering, w^as chiefly confined
to the continent of Europe. The attempts in
Great Britain v^ere few and short-lived. About the
beginning of the century M. de la Roche formed
an English Journal, entitled Memoirs of JMera-
tiire. To tliis succeeded the Present State of the
Republic of Letters, by Reid ; the Censura Tem-
porum, established in 1708; and the Bibliutheca
Curiosa, about the same time. These, howe^'er,
were by no means so instructive and interesting
as modern Reviews. They only gave notices of a
iG\N principal publications, and retailed selections
from foreign journals ; and, together with several
others too unimportant to be namcd,^ were soon
discontinued.

No establishment of this nature, either perma-
nent or in any high degree respectable, was made
in Great Britain until 1749, when the Monthly
Review Wcis commenced; which has been ably

76 Literari) Journals. [Chap. XXI.

supported until the present time. The Critical
Eeviezv was established in 17-56, nearly on the
same plan. These M-ere the only regular works
of the kind in England until 177<5, when another
was begun, under the title of the London ReviezVy
by Dr. Kenrick, which however lasted but a
little \^ hile. From that period to the end of the
century they increased rapidly in number. They _
became gradually improved in their fonn, and
were made to present a greater amount of infor-
mation respecting the several works which they
reviewed. Few magazines or periodical publi-
cations of any kind have been undertaken, within
a iev/ years past, which did not include some kind
of Review; insomuch that the literary journals in
Britain at present are extremely numerous.

The attempts to establish regular Reviews of
new books, and of the progress of letters and
science, in the United States, have been few, and
generally unsuccessful. The small progress of a'
literary taste among the mass of their citizens; the
scattered state of their population ; the rarity of
leisure with those who are best entitled to the
character of scholars ; together with the want of
iaients, enterprise, and capital, in the greater num-
ber of those who have hitherto undertaken to con-
duct such works, may be considered as the prin-i
cipal causes of their failure *.

* As earl" as 174-1 a kind of Review \vas attempted by Dr.
IVanklin, who, in a Magazine which was continued only for a
few months, gave notices of new American books, and presented
liberal extracts from them. Attempts of a similar kind were
made in several sTiccessive works a few years afterwards, but with
as little encouragement and success. Exertions were made to

CllAP. XXI.] Literary Journab. 77

The Reviews of the eighteenth century are
}3ublications of a very different character from the
Literary Journals of the seventeenth. A great
portion of the latter were in the Latin language j
and almost all of such a nature as to be intelligible
only to the learned. Of course they were seen
and perused by few persons, and their intluenco
on public taste and opinion Avas comparatively
small. But the Reviews of the last age, beside
being multiplied to an unexampled extent, have
received a popular cast, which has enabled tJiem
to descend from the closets of philosophers, ayd
from the shelves of polite scholars, to the count-
ing house of the merchant, to the shop. of the ar-
tisan, to the bower of the husbandman, an(,l in-
deed to every class of the communit}^, excepting
the most indigent and laborious. In fact, they
have contributed to give a new aspect to the re-
public of letters, and may be considered as among
the most important literary engines that distin-
guished the period under consideration.

These publications have produced many ad-
vantages. They have excited a more general at-

establish a more regular Review of American publications, about
the year 1790, in two periodical works nearly at the same time,
the one in Philadelphia, and the other in Boston. They were
conducted, however, on a very small scale, with little of the
boldness and impartiality of true criticism, and commanded
little attention from the public. They were, consequently, soon
laid aside ; as were several other undertakings of a similar kind,
for like reasons. In 1799 a more full and formal Revieiv wa?
begun in New York, which has continued to the present time,
and which, from the share of public patronage and attention
bestowed upon it, bids fair to be longer lived than any of \\s
predecessor*.

78 Liierary Journals. [ChaP. XXL

tention to the progress of literature than any for-
mer period couhl boast. They have diffused a
knowledge of books, a taste for reading, and a
spirit of curiosity and criticism, more widely than
Was ever before known, and among a portion of
mankind which had never before been reached
])}' such a taste. ^Vhen well conducted, they have
served to correct public opinion \ to lay a salu-
tary restraint on adventurers in literature ; to
present a powerful and useful check to the licen-
tiousness of the press ; and to furnish rich mate-
rials for the history of human knowledge. Tt is
true, these publications, which should be guides
of popular opinion, are often partial, and some-
times grossly erroneous. Written by a number
of different persons, and of course with different
abilities, opinions, passions,- and prejudices, the
judgements they express can seldom be admitted
w ithout cautious inquiry and modification. Still,
however, though the learned must ultimately
judge for themselves, yet even ilicy derive benefit
from literary journals tolerably conducted ^ and
their influence upon the great mass of those who
occasionally read is extensive and important.
If it be objected that the knowledge they diffuse
is superficial, it is what multitudes would never
attain if this means of bringing it within their
reach were Wanting; and that it is no better than
total ignorance, none will presume to contend.

There is another class of publications nearly
allied to literary journals, and by the multiplica-
tion of which the eighteenth century is much di-
stinguished, the Transactions of Academies and
Philosophical Societies. Publications of this kind-

Chap. XXI.] Littr a ry Journals: 79

ajDpear to have taken their rise near the middle of
the seventeenth century ; but, for a considerable
time afterwards, they w^ere few in number, and
were presented to the public at distant and irre-
gular intervals. Since the commencement of the
period under consideration, they have greatly in-
creased in number, in the extent of their circula-
tion, and in the practical and useful nature of their
contents. Associations for literary and scientific
purposes, of various kinds, and under diiferent
names, have multiplied in every part of the learn-
ed world, and have laid before the public, at
stated times, the result of their experiments and
inquiries ; insomuch that from the aggregate of
their Transactions a catalogue might be formed
of several thousand volumes, most of ^vhich in-
clude much matter highly interesting to the phi-
losopher, the artist, and the man of taste, and may
be considered as presenting a tolerable history of
human knowledge during the period which they
embrace.

This mode of recording and announcing the
discoveries and labours of science, though pro-,
ductive of much good, is yet not without its dis-
advantages. To understand the memoirs and acts
which these ponderous volumes contain, usually
requires a profound knovvledge of the subject.
They are addressed by philosophers to philoso-
phers. Hence, though their circulation is more
extensi?e in modern times than formerly, they are,
of necessity, even yet read by a chosen few. On
this account it is, that while the archives of so-
cieties are filled with interesting and instructive
memoirs, these labours of the learned are seldom

80 Literary Journals. [Chap. XXI.

brought forth from their obscure retreat, reduced
to systematic arrangement, and exhibited in a
popular manner. And for the same obvious rea-
son it happens that the Transactions of literary
societies display a repetition of the same hints,,
experiments and discoveries, which, for want of
being more generally known, are often supposed,
at each successive exhibition, to be original.
This latter evil, however, begins to be in some
measure remedied, by adopting a more popular
form for these publications, and also by commu-
nicating from time to time to the public the
most important portions .of their contents, in ve-
hicles of more extensive circulation.

Next to regular Rcvieios, and the formal Me-
moirs and Transactions of literary and scientific
societies, it is proper to take notice of the nume-
rous periodical works, under the name of Afaga-
zines. Sac, with which the republic of letters has
abounded in modern times. The astonishing
number and the extensive circulation of these
v/orks^ are certainly among the peculiar charac-
teristics of the age, and mark an important era in
the history of learning.

The first publication ever made under the title
of a Magazine was in the year 1731, by Edward
Cave, of London, who then commenced the Gen-
tleman's MagsTizine, which has been continued to
the present time. Several periodical works had
before appeared under different names j but they
were chiefly confined to political transactions, and
to foreign and domestic occurrences of various
kinds, without paying much attention to literary
objects. Indeed, this was the case with Mr.

ClJAP. XXI.] Literary Journals. 81

Cave's Magazine for several years after its com-
mencement. The way, however, was gradually
opened for the introduction of literary, moral, and
philosophical discussions, and the work proved to
be one of the most popular and productive perio-
dical pamphlets ever published.

In the latter half of the eighteenth century, and
especially in the last twelve or fifteen years of this
period, these monthly miscellanies multiplied to a
prodigious amount, and gained a circulation be-
yond all former example. The taste for works of
a. similar kind spread rapidly over the continent of
Europe ; insomuch that their number at the present
time is almost too great to be accurately estimated.

In America the attempts to establish Maga-
ijines of difierent kinds have been very nume-
rous ; but, for the v\ ant of due encouragement^
they have generally failed in a short time. It is
believed that the first attempt to publish a work of
this nature in North America was about the year
1741, by Dr. Benjamin Franklin, then a printer,
ill Philadelphia. His publication, howev-er, under
the title of the General Magazine and Historical
Chronicle, after a few months, was discontinued.
Since that time many similar undertakings have
solicited the public patronage, and have gained
attention and currency for a time, but have seldom
protracted their existence beyond four, six, or at
most eight, years.

The influence of these miscellaneous publica-
tions has been as remarkable and extensive as
their number, and in many respects of consi-
derable advantage. They have excited a. taste
for reading in many who would never have en-
Vol. in. " . G

"■82 , Literary Journals. [CilAP. XXI,

dured it under any other form than that of amuse-
ment. They have inspired many youthful minds
with a spirit of literary aml)ition and enterprise,
which has been productive of the most brilliant
and succe^isful exertions. They have recorded
a number of facts, hints, observations, and dis-
cussions, instructive at the time they were made,
and invaluable to posterity, but which would ine-
vitably have been lost had they been presented to
the public in a more evanescent form. And,
finally, they have shed, in a gradual and almost in-
sensible manner, numberless rays of knowledge
among all descriptions of persons in the commu-
nity, even indirectly among millions who never
enjoyed the perusal of them; and have thus greatly
enlarged the public understanding, and astonish-
ingly increased the sum of popular inform.ation.

But the great popularity and the unexampled
circulation of these periodical works have also
been attended with some disadvantages. They
have made tliousands of light, ostentatious, and
superficial scholars, and have evidently operated
luifavourably to sound and deep erudition. They
have led many a self-suflicient pedant to content
himself with shining in borrowed plumes, and to
indulge in the deceitful expectation of finding'
short and ea^y paths to real scholarship. They
have discouraged those habits of connected read-
ing, and of patient systematic thinking, which were
the glory of the learned in former ages, and en-
abled them to accomplish those mighty labours
which fix their posterity in astonishment. Ac-
cordingly, it would perhaps be no difficult task
to show that the general literary features of the

CiiaP. XXI.] Liter ar\) Journals. 83

period before us remarkably correspond with this
unfavourable picture, and that the general diffu-
sion of superficial reading and scraps of knowledge
may be said preeminently to characterise the
last age.

But this is not the whole of the evil. Such are
the effects which must result from the general cir-
culation of works of this nature, supposing them to
be, on the whole, well conducted. Many of them,
however, are by no means entitled to this charac-
ter. They have often given prompt and willing
currency to erroneous opinions in morals and re-
ligion. They are too frequently found recepta-
cles of such fdth, obscenity, and impiety, as are
fit for the perusal of none but the prostitute, the
thief, and the murderer. It is scarcely necessary
to add, that the e0ect of such publications on the
manners, principles, and happiness of society, must
be in a high degree pestiferous ; and that this is
one among the numerous instances in moderu
times, in which literature, perverted and abused
under plausible forms, has been found insidiously
to undermine the morals and welfare of man.

Another item in the literary history of the age
falls perhaps more properly within the design of
this chapter than of any other part of the present
sketch. The mode of addressing the public by
short periodical Essays, though not wholly peculiar
to the eighteenth century, was yet so much extend-
ed, and had such a powerful influence in this pe-
riod, as to entitle it to be ranked among the re-
markable circumstances of the age. " To teach
the minuter decencies and inferior duties ; to re-
gulate the practice of daily conversation 3 to cor-

G 2

84 Literarij Journals. [CilAP. XXt,

rcct those depravities which are rather ridiculous
than criminal, and remove those grievances which,
if they produce no lasting calamities, impress
hourly vexation, was hrst attempted by Casa, in
his book of Manners, and by Castiglione, in his»
Conrfier* ; two books yet celebrated in Italy for
purity and elegance, and which, if they be now
less read, are neglected only because they have
effected that reformation which their authors in-
tended, and their precepts are no longer wanted.
Their usefulness to the age in which they were
written is sufficiently attested by the translations
which almost all the nations of Europe were in
haste to obtain. This species of instruction was
continued, and perhaps advanced, by the French j
among whom la Bruyere's Manners of the Age f ,
though, as Boileau remarked, it is written without
connexion, certainly deserves great praise for
liveliness of description and justness of observa-
tion J."

The first series of essays devoted to common
life in Great Britain was the Tatler ; the publica-
tion of which began in 1709, by sir Richard
Steele, assisted by Addison, Tickcl, and others^
It appeared tliree times a week. To the TatleVy
in about three months succeeded the Spectator ;
-a series of essays of the same kind, but written
with less levity, upon a more regular plan, and pub-
lished daily. " The Tatter and Spectator,'' says.

* Casa and Castiglione >Tere Italian writers, who flourished
lu the sixteenth century.

■\ La Bruyere wrote towards the close of the seventeenth
century.

t Johnsou's L/feo/ Addison.

Chap. XXL] Literary Journals. 85

Dr. Johnson, " adjusted, like Casa, the unsettled
practice of daily intercourse by propriety and po-
liteness ; and, like la Bruyere, exhibited the cha-
racters and manners of the age. But to say that
they united the plans of two or three eminent
writers, is to give them but a small part of their
due praise. They superadded literature and cri-
ticism, and sometimes towered far above their pre-
decessors, and taught, with great justness of argu-
ment, and dignity of language, the most impor-
tant duties and sublime truths. AH these topics
were happily varied with elegant fictions and re-
fined allegories, and illuminated with different
changes of style and felicities of invention. It is
said by Addison, in a subsequent work, that they
had a perceptible influence upon the conversation
of that time, and taught the frolic and the gay to
unite merriment with decency; an effect which
they can never wholly lose while they continue to
be among the first books by which both sexes are
initiated in the elegances of knowledge *."

The Spectator had not beeu supported more
than eighteen months when it was discontinued.
The year after, viz, in 1713, the G^iardiaji was
undertaken by the same editor, assisted by the
gentlemen before mentioned, as well as by Mr.
Pope, Dr. Berkley, and others, and continued a
little more than six months, with nearly the same
respectability and success which had attended its
predecessor. It was natural for the excellence
and the reputation of these papers to produce
^Tiany imitations. Accordingly, for a number of

* Life of Addison,

86 Literary Journals. [Chap. XXI.

years afterwards, periodical papers were continu-
ally announced, and pursued for a little while,
under different names, and upon various plans j
but they were generally feeble when compared
with the noble models which had gone before
them, and seldom commanded the public atten-
tion for any length of time. Among these might
be enumerated the Hiimoiirisf, the Observer^ and
a vast multitude of others that rose into view%
lived their day, and sank into forgetfulness. The
Free-Thinker, Cato's Letters, and the Craftsman,
were executed with greater ability, and were also
better received, being more devoted to political
discussion, than the papers which had gone before
them. In 1150 the Rambler appeared, and for
the first time presented a rival to the enchanting
productions of Addison and his contemporaries.
In this work Dr. Johnson, the principal writer,
carried the composition of moral essays and
instructive narrations, with respect to purity and
dignity of sentiment, acuteness of observation,
and vigour of style, to a higher degree of perfec-
tion than they had ever before reached. Next
followed the Idler, also by Dr. Johnson, but less;
laboured, and more light and superficial in its cha-
racter, than the Rambler. These were succeeded
by the Adventurer, the World, the Connoisseur, thq
Mirror, the Looker On, the Lounger, and the Ob-
server, which generally consist of papers of great
merit, and will long be read with pleasure. The
numerous unsuccessful attempts which have been
made, within a few years past, to revive this mode
of writing, seem to indicate that it is nearly ex-
hausted; and that to renew and carry it on re-

Chap. XXI.] Literary Journals. 87

quires more diligence, ability, and leisure, than
commonly fall to the lot of those who adventure
in such a field.

From the foregoing details it appears that the
eighteenth century may be emphatically called
the age of periodical publications. In the number
of these it so far transcends all preceding times, as
to forbid comparison ; and their amusing popular
forni constitutes a peculiarity in the literary his-
tory of the period under consideration equally
signal. They form the principal means of diffus-
ing knowledge through every part of the civilised
world ; they convey, in an abridged and agreeable
manner, the contents of many ponderous volumes,
^nd frequently supersede the appearance of such
volumes ; and they record every species of infor-
mation, from the most sublime investigations of
science to the most trifling concerns of amusement.
When the future historian shall desire to obtain a
/correct view of the state of literature and of man-
ners, during this period, he will probably resort to
the periodical publications of the day, as presents
ing the richest sQurces of information, and forming
ithe most enliglitened and infallible gui4es in hi?
iCpurse,

88

CHAPTER XXII.

POLITICAL JOURNALS.

X HE method of announcing political events, and
the various articles of foreign and domestic intel-
ligence which usually engage the attention of the
pul^lic, by means of Gazettes or Ncivspapers, seems
to have been first employed in Italy, as early as
the year 1536 *. It was in that country that these
vehicles of information received tjie name Ga-
%etta-\y which they have ever since retained J.

The earliest newspaper printed in Great Britain
was " The English Mercurie, by Clp'istopher Bar-

* The first Gazette is sairl to have been printed at Venice, and
to have been published monthly. It was under the direction of
the government.

t The word Gazetta is said, by some, to be derived from Ga-
zerra, a Magpie; or Chatterer ; by others, from the name of a little
coin called Gazetta, peculiar to the city of Venice, where news-
papers were first printed, and which was the common price of i
these periodical pnblications ; while a third class of critics sup-
pose it to be derived from the Latin word Gaza, colloquially
lengthened into the diminutive Gazetta, and, as applied to a news-
paper, signifying a little treasury of jieivs. — Curiosities of Litera-
ture, vol. i, p. 27 1 .

X Those who first wrote newspapers were called by the Italians
Menanti; because, says Vossius, they intended commonly by
these loose papers to spread about defamatory reflexions, and
were therefore prohibited by Gregory XIII, by a particular bull,
under the name of Menantes, fi'om the Latin minanfes. — (^uriosU
ties of Literature, vol. i, p, 273.

Chap. XXII.] Political Journals. 89

ker," her highness's printer, in 1.588. But public
prints of this kind, after the dispersion of the Spa^
nish armada, seldom appeared. The first regu-
lar weekly newspaper published in this country
was by Nathaniel Butter, in August 1622, en-
titled '* The certaine Naves of this present Weeke.'*
Three years afterward another of a similar kind
was established. But during the civil wars, which
took place under the protectorate of Cromwell,
these channels of public intelligence became more
numerous than ever, and were diligently employ-
ed by both parties to disseminate their opinions
among the people. About that time appeared
the Mer cur ills Aulicus, the Mercurius llusticus,
the Meixuriiis Civicus, &c. And it is said, that
^^ when any title grew popular, it was frequently
stolen by some antagonist, who, by this stra-
tagem, obtained access to those who would not
have received him, had he not worn the appear-
ance of a friend. These papers soon became a
public nuisance. Serving as receptacles of party
malice, they set the minds of men more at vari-
ance, inflamed their resentments into greater
fierceness, and gave a keener and more destructive
edge to civil discord. But the convulsions of those
unhappy days left few either the leisure, the tran-
quillity, or the inclination, to treasure up occa-
sional or curious compositions ; and so mugh were
t;hey neglected that a complete collection is now
no where to be found, ^V^^^ little is known respect-
ing them *."

* Johnspn's Jjife of A.dd\so^,

90 Political Journals. [Chap. XXII,

The earliest British Gazette of which any di-
stinct record remains was that published in 1663
by sir Roger L'Estrange, under the title of the
Public Intelligencer. This he continued until the
y^T 1665, when a kind of court newspaper was
es\;ablished at Oxford, then the seat of govern-
ment, and issued every Tuesday. The first num-
ber was printed in the month of November of
that year, and appears to have superseded sir
Roger's. Soon after this the court was removed
to London, on which the title of the paper was
changed to the London Gazette, the name which
it still bears.

From the middle of the seventeenth century the>
employment of newspapers as channels of intel-
ligence became more frequent and popular, not
only in Great Britain, but also in several other
countries of Europe. Newspapers and pamphlets
were prohibited in England by royal proclamation
in 1680. At the Revolution, in 1688, this prohi-
bition was taken oil; but in a few years after-
ward newspapers were made the objects of tax-
ation, and were first stamped for this purpose in
1713. Their number, however, has been constant-
ly increasing from that period till the present
time : but since the beginning of the eighteenth
century, this increase, particularly in Great Bri-
tain *, France, Germany, and America, has been
almost incredibly great.

* There was no newspaper in Scotland till after the accession
6f king William and queen Mary. At the Union there were
three established in that part of the united kingdom. In th«
kingdoni of Great Britain the whol^ number of newspapers print-

Chap. XXII.] Political Journals. 91

Perhaps in no respect, and certainly in n© o^her
enterprise of a literary kind, have the United
States made such rapid progress as in the esta-
blisKment of political journals. At the beginning
of the eighteenth century there was no publication
of this kind in the American Colonies. The first
newspaper printed in America was i\\e BostonNews-
Leftery begun April 24th, 1704, in the tpwn, of
which it bears the name, by B. Green. The second
was the Boston Gazette, which commenced toward
the latter end of the year 1720, by Samuel Knee-
land. The next year a third was published, under
the title of the New-England Conrant, by James
Franklin *. Between the last mentioned year
and 1730, three other newspapers were published
in Boston, though some of them appear to have
been soon laid aside. As the first printing work
done in North America was executed in Massa-
chusetts, so in that colony the earliest, and for a
number of years the most vigorous aud success-
ful exertions were made for the establishment and
circulation of political journals.

The first newspaper printed in Pennsylvania
was The American Weekly Mercury, by Andrew
Bradford, the publication of wliich commenced
December 22, 1719. The first printed in New

ed in the year 1775, was 12G80000. In 1782 the number hacj
increased to 15272519. At the close of the century they were
still more numerous.

* James Franklin was a brother of Benjamin Franklin, who
afterward became so conspicuous as a man of science and a po-
litician. Benjamin was at that time employed as am apprentice
in his brother's office, aad tontributed much tp render the Cow
fant popular.

n Political Journals. [Chap. XXIL

York, it is believed, was by William Bradford *,
October 16th, 1725, under the title of The Nctc^-
York Gazette. The lirst paper published in Rhode
Island was the Rhode-Island Gazette, by James
Franklin, before mentioned, who began the pub-
lication in October 1732. The first in Connecti-
cut was by James Parker, in 17-55; and the first
in Nezv Hampshire, by Daniel Fowle, in 1756.
The periods at which Gazettes were first intro-
duced into the other states are not certainly
known. In 1771 they had increased to the num-
ber of fwenly-frce ; and in 1801 more than one
hundred and eighty different newspapers wer&-
printcd in different parts of the United States f .

* The family of the Bradfords deserves to be mentioned in
hononrable connexion with that of the Greens, in the annals of
American printing. The press of Samuel Green was the first
introduced into New England ; and the pi'esses of Andrew and
William Bradford were, it is believed, the first established ia
Pennsylvania and Ncav York. It is remarkable that there has
been, for more than a century past, in both these families, a
constant and respectable succession of printers.

•f Of these vik)(yjX fifteen are dailu papers; and supposing 1000
copies of each to be printed, the whole number of copies an-
nually distributed, making due alloAvance for Sundays, b^c, will
be about 4590000. The number printed three times a week is
about nine. Of these, supposing 800 copies to be on an average,
(rtricken off, the amount annually distributed will be 1080000.
About twenty-five are printed tvoice a Aveek. Of these, alloAving
800 copies each to be the common number sent abroad, the nunir
ber annually circulated Avill be 2000000. Finally, about one
hundred and thirtj/ newspapers are printed iveeklij ; and, alloAving
the number of each published to be 800, the amount of this class
annually' edited Avill be 5408000. So that the whole number
of neAV'spapers annually circulated in the United States may be
estimated at thirteen niilllons and seventr/'eight thousand. For the
s^e of being rather beloAV than above the mark, say tvoelve mih

Chap. XXIL] Political Joiiniah. ^2

It is worthy of remark, tlitit newspapers have
almost entirely changed their form and character
within the period under review. For a long time
after they were first adopted as a medium of com-
munication to the public, they were confined in
gejlteral to the mere statement o^ facts. But they
have gradually assumed an office more extensive,
and risen to a more important station in society^
Tliey have become the vehicles of discussion, in
which the principles of government, the interests
of nations, the spirit and tendency of public mea-
sures, and the public and private characters of indi-
viduals, are all arraigned, tried, and decided upon.
Instead therefore of being considered now, as they
once were, of small moment in society, they have
become immense moral and political engines,
closely connected with the welfare of the state,
and deeply involving both its peace and prosperity.

Newspapers have also become important in a
literary view. There are few of them, within the
last twenty years, which have not added to their
political details some curious and useful informa-
tion on the various subjects of literature, science,
and art. They have thus become the means of
conveying to every class in society innumerable
scraps of knowledge, which have at once increased
the public intelligence, and extended the taste for
perusing periodical publications. The advertise^

lions. It will be seen, by comparing this Avith a preceding note,
that, while the population of the United States is not more tlian
one hulfoi that of Great Britain, the number of newspapers cir-
culated in the former country may be estimated at more than
mo M/VJy of the number published in the latter. — See 4dditioiiul
N^Uf!, (Hj.

94 Political Journals. [Chap. XXII.

menta, moreover, which they daily contain, re-
specting new books, projects, inventions, discove-
ries, and improvements, are well calculated to en-
large and enlighten the public mind, and are wor-
thy of being enumerated among the many me-
thods of awakening and maintaining the popular
attention with which more modern times, beyond
all preceding example, abound.

In ancient times, to sow the seeds of civil dis-
cord, or to produce a spirit of union and coope-
ration through an extensive community, required
time, patience, and a constant series of exertions.
The art of printing being unknown, and many of
the modern methods of communicating intelli-
gence to distant places not having come into use,
the dillicuhy of conducting public aifuirs must
have been frequently great and embarrassing.
The general circulation of Gazetti^s forms an im-
portant era, not only in the moral and literarj'-,
but algo in the political world. By means of this
powerful instrument impressions on the public
mind may be made with a celerity and to an ex-
tent of which our remote ancestors had no con-
ception, and which cannot but give rise to the
most important consequences in society. Never
was there given to man a political engine of
greater power ; and never, assuredly, did this en-
gine before operate upon so large a scale as in the
eighteenth century.

America in particular, and especially for the
^ast twelve or fifteen years, has exhibited a spec-
tacle never before displayed among men, and even
yet without a parallel on earth : it is the spectacle,
jjot of the learned and the wealthy only, but of

GhaP. XXII.] Political Journals. 9^

the great body of the people, even a large por-
tion of that class of the community which is des-
tined to daily labour having free and constant
access to public prints, receiving regular infor-
mation of every occurrence, attending to the
course of political affairs, discussing public mea-
sures, and having thus presented to them con-
stant excitements to the acquisition of knowledge,
and continual means of obtaining it. Never, it
may be safely asserted, was the numl)er of poli-
tical journals so great, in proportion to the popu-
lation of a country, as at present in America :
never were they, all things considered, so cheap,
so universally diffused, and so easy of access * :
and never were they actually perused by so large
a majority of all classes, since the art of printing
was discovered.

The general effects of this unprecedented mul-
tiplication and diffusion of public prints form a
subject of the most interesting and complex calcula-
tion. On the one hand, when well conducted,
they have a tendency to disseminate useful infor-
mation ; to keep the public mind awake and ac-
tive ; to confirm and extend the love of freedom ;
to correct the mistakes of the ignorant, and tlie i^i-
positions of the crafty j to tear off the mask from
corrupt and designing politicians ; and finally to
promote union of spirit and of action among the
;nost distant members of an extended community.

* The extreme clieapness with which newspapers are con-
veyed by the mail, in the United States, added to the circuni-
stance of their being altogether unencumbered with a stamp
duty, or any other public restriction, renders their circulation
ffiore coQyenient and general than in any other country.

96 Political Journab. [CilAP. XXII.

But to pursue a path calculated to produce these
elTects, the conductors of public prints ought to
be men of talents, learning, and virtue. Under
the guidance of such characters, every Gazette
vvoitlil be a source of ?no!Til and potitical instruc-
tion, and of course a public blessing.

On the other handj when an instrument so po-
tent is committed to the weak, the ignorant, and
the vicious, the most baneful consequences must
be anticipated. When men of small talents^ of lit-
tle information, and of less virtue, undertake to be
(as the editors of public gazettes, however con-
temptible their character, may in a degree be
considered) the directors of public opinion, what
must be the result ? We may expect to see the fri-
volities of weakness, the errours and malignity of
prejudice, the misrepresentations of party zeal,
the most corrupt doctrines in politics and morals,
the lacerations of private character, and the pol-
luting language of obscenity and impiety, daily
issuing from the press, poisoning the principles,
and disturbing the repose of society ; giving to
the natural an%l salutary collisions of parties the
most brutal violence and ferocity ; and at length
consuming the best feelings and noblest charities
of life in the flame of civil discord.

In the former part of the eighteenth century,
talents and Iea^rniJlg, at least, if not virtue, Vv^ere
thought necessary in the conductors of political
journals *. Few ventured to intrude into this ar-

* This has not been, generally, so much the case in Ame-
rica as in Europe. From the earliest period too many of their
Gazettes have been iu the hands of persons destitute both
•f taltats and literature. But, in later times, the number of

CliAP. XXII.] Political Journals. 97

duous office, but those who had some cUihns to li-
terature. Towards the close of the centur}^ how-
ever, persons of less character, and of humbler
qualifications, began without scruple to undertake
the high task of enlightening the public mind.
This remark applies, in some degree, to Europe j
but it applies with particular force to America,
where every judicious observer must perceive that
too many of the Gazettes are in the hands of per-
sons destitute at once of the urbanity of gentle-
uicn, the information of scholars, and the princi-
ples of virtue. To this source, rather than to any
peculiar depravity of national character, we may
ascribe the faults of American newspapers, Mhich
liave been pronounced hy travellers the most
profligate and scurrilous public prints in the ci-
vilised world*.

editors wlio fait ijndcr this description has become even greater
tlian fornifTly.

* These considerations, it is conceived, are abundantly suffi-
cient to account 'for the disagreeable character of American
newspapers. In every country the selfish principle prompts men
to defame their personal and political enemies ; and whore the
supposed provocations to this are numerous, and no restraints
are imposed on the indulgence of the disposition, an inundation
of filth and calumny must be expected. In the United States the
frequency of elections leads to a corresponding frequency of
struggle between political parties; these struggles naturally en-
gender mischievous passions, and every species of coarse invec-
tire ; and, unhappily, too many of the conductors of their public
prints have neither the discernment, the firmness, nortiie virtue
to reject from their pages the foul ebullitions of prejudice and
malice. Had they more diligence, or greater talents, they
might render their Gazettes interesting, by filling them with
materials of a more instructive and dignified kind ; but wanting
these qualifications, they must give such materials, accompi nied

Vol. III. II

98 Political Journals. [Chap. XXIt.

If the foregoing remarks be just, then the friend
of rational freedom, and of social happiness, can-
not but contemplate with the utmost solicitude
the future influence of political journals on the
welfare of society. As they form one of the great
safeguards of free government, so they also form
one of its most threatening assailants: and unless
public opinion (the best remedy that can be ap-
plied) should administer an adequate correction
of the growing evil, we may anticipate the arrival
of that crisis in which we must yield either to an
abridgement of the liberty of the press, or to a
disruption of every social bond.

with such a seasoning, as circumstances furnish. Of what kinj
these are, no one is ij^aorant.

99

CHAPTER XXIII.

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC ASS0CUTIQN5.

-t* OR a long time after the revival of learning in
Europe, men devoted to letters were in a great
measure insulated with respect to each other.
We read, it is true, of a society of learned men,
associated for the. purpose of promoting literature
and science, as early as the time of Charlemagne ;
but the plan appears to have been rude and de-
fective. Several others were institufed in Italy,
in the si^^teenth century ; still, however, they seem
to have been, both in their formation and effects,
much inferior to many which have flourished since.
The most enlarged ideas of literary societies seem
to have originated with the great lord Bacon, who,
in his Ncxv Atalantis, delineated a plan of one
more liberal and extensive than had ever before
existed. But although his project received little
encouragement from his contemporaries, it was
destined to produce important eliects not long
afterward.

In the seventeenth century, the taste for form-
ing scientific and literary, societies may be said to
have commenced its prevalence, and to have
gained considerable ground. It was a little' after
the middle of that century that the two most
conspicuous associations of the kind in Europe,
Tiie Boval Society of Great Britain, and The Royal

H 2 ■

100 Literary Association j. [Chap. XXIII.

Academy of Sciences of France, were formed.
The former by Mr. Boyle, Mr. Hooke, and a
number of others, who at that time held a high
station in the philosophical world ; and the latter
by Lewis XR'^, prompted by the suggestion and
assisted by the counsels of his minister, M. Colbert.
But the eighteenth century is preeminently re-
markable for multiplying these associations; for a
great increase in the number of their publications ;
and for their unexampled activity and usefulness
in the cause of science. Bv far the frreater num-
ber of the societies for promoting useful know^ledge
Avhich now exist in the world, were formed du-
ring the period under consideration. Among these
the most important and useful are the Imperial
Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg; the Royal
Academies of Stockholm, Copenhagen, Berlin, and
Lisbon ; the Royal Society of EdirJourgh, and the
Royal Irish Academy of Dublin. Beside these,
a multitude of others have arisen, under different
names, for various purposes, and at different pe-
riods of the century, in Great Britain, France,
Italy, Germany, and almost ever}'' literary coun-
try of Europe. Perhaps in no part of the world
have institutions of this kind been so much multi-
plied as in Italy; and next to her, in the number
and activity of similar associations, we may esti-
mate Franc^e. In the former there is scarcely a
town of any importance without an academy or
literary association; and in the latter they are
very numerous.

In addition to the societies formed for promot-
ing general literature and science, the eighteenth
century h distinguished by the formation of many

CllAP. XXIII.] Literary Associations. 101

other associations, for promoting some particular
art or branch of science. There were instituted,
during this period, academies of Painting, of
Sculpture, of Music, of Inscriptions and Belles-
Lettres, of Lazv, of Medicine, of Arts and Manu-
factures, of Agriculture, and indeed for cultivat-
ing almost every particular department of human
art and knowledge.

It was before remarked that the publications
made by these societies and academies, exhibit-
ing the result of their labours, were more nume-
rous, more valuable, and more generally circu-
lated, during the eighteenth century, than in any
former period. They amount to many hundred
volumes, and hold an important place among the
literary and scientific productions of the age.

We had occasion to remark, in a former part
of this work, that the discoveries in Geography,
and the numerous improvements in Navigation,
during the last age, had led to a great and unex-
ampled increase of the intercourse of men. The
same effect has been produced, in modern times,
by the formation of so many learned societies, by
their great extent, their frequent meetings, their
numerous publications, and by their correspoii-
dewce and mutual interchange of literary ho-
nours. Never, assuredly, at any former period,
were learned men so well acquainted with the
labours and the characters of each other, so fi'ee
and mutually instructive in their intercourse, or
enabled so far to combine their talents and in-
dustry in the pursuit of important investigations.
But this is by no means the only advantage of
these associations. They may be reckoned among

102 Literary Associations. [Chap. XXIII.

the principal causes of the superiority of the mo-
derns over the ancients, especially in the physical
sciences. They have kindled a spirit of emula-
tion among the learned ; they have stimulated
into action many useful talents, by holding out
literary rewards ; and they have suggested ob-
jects of inquiry, and methods of experiment,
which might otherwise have passed unobserved
and forgotten. Such societies, also, have furnish-
ed useful repositories for the observations and
discoveries of the ingenious, and have thus been
enabled to present to the world many valuable
productions, which would probably otherwise
have been lost through the modesty, the indo-
lence, or the poverty of authors. Literary and
scientific associations, moreover, by extending
their honours to distant countries, bind more
closely together the members of the republic of'
letters in different quarters of the globe, and
teach them to feel as brethren embarked in the
sp.me" cause. They may even be said, in some in-
stances, to have a great influence in advancing
national prosperity, and promoting a spirit of ge-
neral improvement. It is true, in accounting for
these facts, other causes may be assigned which,
beyond doubt, contributed to their production ;
but it can as little be doubted that the increased
intercourse and connexion among the learned, by
means of the establishment of academics and so-
cieties, ought to be considered as holding a place
among the most important sources of modern im-
provements in science. ^

The formation of literary and scientific associa-
tions in the United States be^an to take nlace in

CjiaP. XXIII.] Literm-y Association!;. 103

the latter half of the eighteenth century. Within
that period many useful societies have been insti-
tuted which deserve some notice. The principal
of these are the following :

1. Societies and Academies of Arts and Sciences^
Of this class there are several. " The American
Philosophical Society, held at Philadelphia, for
promoting useful knowledge," was instituted in
January 1769- It was formed by the union of
two smaller societies, which had for some time
existed in that city, and has been ever since con-
tinued on a very respectable footing, This so-
ciety has published four quarto volumes of its
transactions, containing many ingenious papers
on literature, the sciences, and arts, which exhibit
American talents and industry in a favourable
light. Over this institution have successively pre-
sided, Benjamin Franklin, David Rittenhouse,
and Thoraas Jefferson *. The American Acade-
my of Arts and Sciences, held at Boston, was esta^
blished in May 1780, by the council and house
of representatives of Massachusetts, " for promote
ing the knowledge of the antiquities of America,
and of the natural history of the country j for de-
termining the uses to which its various natural
productions might be applied ; for encouraging
medicinal discoveries, mathematical disquisitions,
philosophical inquiries and experiments, astrono-
mical, meteorological, and geographical obsei>
rations, and improvements in agriculture, manu-
factures, and commerce ; and, in short, for culti-
vating every art and science which may tend to

* See Additional Notcsj (I),

104 Literal'}; Associations. [Cha?. XXIII.

advance the interest, honour, dignity, and happi^
ness of a free, independent, and virtuous people,"
This academy has published one quarto volume
of its transactions, and several parts of a second,
which will probably soon be completed. The
contents of its respective publications afford a very
honourable specimen of learning and diligence
in the members, and furnish ground for expecta-
tions of still greater utility, The gentlemen who
have presided o\ier this association are James
Bowdoin, and John Adams*. The Connecticut
Academy of Arts and Scioices was formed in 1799,
at New-Haven, " for the purpose of encouraging
literary and philosophical researches in general,
and particularly for investigating the natural his-
tory of that state." This society has existed so
short a time, that no publication of its proceed-
ings, of any extent, could yet be reasonably exr
pected. The gentleman first elected presidentj
and who yet remains in that office, is the rev.
Dr. Timothy Pwight, president of Yale college.

2. Historical Society. The only association of
this kind in the United States is in Massachu-
setts. It was instituted in the beginning of the
year 1791, and the late rev. Dr. Belknap, the ho-
nourable judge Tudoi'. and the rev. Dr. Eliot,
are more entitled to the honour of being called
its founders- than any other individuals f. The

"^ See Additional Notes, (K).

f Dr. Belknap, whose taste for liistorical researches is well
known, and who has rendered such important service to the in-
terests of American history, first urged the adoption of some plan
for collecting and preserving the numerous historical documents
relating to that couiitr}'-, and especially to New England, which

Cl.ur* XXIII.] Literary Associations, 105

design of this association is to collect and pre-
serve all documents, either manuscript or printed,
which have a tendency to throw light on the na-
tural, civil, ecclesiastical, or literary history of
America. It has already made very large and
valuable collections, an important portion of
which has been laid before the public *, and it
bids fair to be one of the most useful institutions
in the country f.

3. Medical Societies. Prior to the revolution
which made the United States fiee and indepen-
dent, the physicians of that country aiTorded little
instruction or aid to each other. Scattered over
an immense territory, seldom called to confer

were widely scattered, and rapUly falling a prey to the destroy-
ing hand of time. He was zealously seconded by judge Tudor,
who first proposed the formation of a society for this purpose,
and by the rev. Dr. Eliot, who engaged with ardour in the plan>
and has been since one of the most active and useful members of
the institution. These gentlemen were soon joined, and ably
assisted, by the rev. Drs. Thatcher and Freeman, by the honour-
able judges Sullivan and Minot, Mr. Wiuthrop, and several
others, \A ho were membefs of the association when first orga-
nised.

*■ The historical documents published by the Society amount
to seven octa\ o volumes.

t By far the greater part of the publications made by this so-
ciety relate to the history of New England. This has arisen,
not from any blamable partiality of the resident members to
the history of their own country ; but from tlie negligence of
\.\\Qcorresponding\\\cmhe'c?. tomake communications respecting the
several states to which tliey belong. It is earnestly to be wished,
cither that gentlcjuen of a literary character in different parts of
the United States would consider the society in Boston as a na-
tional one, and exert themselves to render it more extensively
useful ; or, without dehiy, form independent societies for the
^^me purpose, to act ia cooperation with the parent society.

106 Litcrar]) Assoclatloiis. [Chap. XXIII.

together and compare opinions, and little habi-
tuated to the task of committing their observa-
tions to writing, each was compelled to proceed
almost unassisted and alone. Soon after the
confusion and devastation of war had given v/ay
to the arts of peace, attempts began to be made
to remedy this serious evil. Associations for the
purpose of improving medical science were soon
formed, not only in Philadelphia, which had been
for some years the seat of a medical school, but
in almost every state in the union. Few of these
societies have made very large or important pub-
lications J but they have produced many lasting
advantages to the individuals composing them,
and to the interests of the healing art. They
have brought physicians to be acquahited with
rach other. They have collected a large mass of
facts, hints, observations, and inquiries, which, if
not always given to the world, constitute a source
of improvement to the associates themselves.
They have instituted annual orations, which, in
various ways, tend to promote their primary ob-
ject. They have issued prize questions, and be-
stowed premiums, which awaken dormant powers,
and excite a laudable spirit of emulation. In a
word, they have contributed to raise the practice
of medicine in America from a selfish and sordid
trade, to a libei:al, dignified, and enlightened pro-
fession. •

4. AgrkuUural Societies. Associations for the
promotion of agriculture and the auxiliaiy arts
and sciences, while they have been multiplied
in every part of the scientific world, have also,
during the latter half of the last century, l^ecom^

Chap. XXIII.] Litej-ary Associations, 107

jiumerous in America. There is scarcely a state
ill the Union in which an institution of this kind
has not been establir^hed; and in some of the
states there are more than one. The most con-
spicuous and active of these associations are
those established in Massachusetts, New York,
and Pennsyl^Fania. That in New York, denomi-
nated the Society for promoting Agriculture^ ArlSy
and Manufactures^ has been particularly distin-
guished, and, it is believed, is the only one of this
nature in the United States which has made a re-
gular publication of its proceedings, and of the
principal memoirs communicated by its mem-
bers *. The useful elfects of these institutions
are undeniably great in various parts of the
country. They have excited a spirit of inquiry,
experiment, and diligence, in agricultural pur-
suits, among a considerable portion of the citi-
zens ; they have contributed to raise the dignity
and importance of agriculture in the popular opi-
nion \ they have collected facts and doctrines,
from different districts, for more full trial and sa-
tisfactory comparison ; and if they have encou-
raged 'in any cases a disposition for speculative
and visionary farming, they have promoted, in a
still greater degree, practical and valuable im-
provements.

The literary and scientific associations of the
eighteenth century differed considerably from
those which were formed in preceding times. Be-

* The Agncultural Socieij/ of Massachusetts the author be-
lieves, has published several small works; but he has not been
so fortunate as to see them, ©r to be J)articularly informed of their
contents.

108 Literary Associations. [Chap. XXIII

side being more numerous, they were also more
extensive in their plan, and embraced a greater
number of distant and foreign associates ; they
directed more of their attention to the physical
sciences, and rendered the mode of inquiry by
experiment more general and more accurate ;
and, fmally, they were more active in their ex-
ertions, kept more heads and hands at work, and
engaged more of the public attention, than the
societies of preceding tinies^.

109

CHAPTER XXIV,

ENCYCLOPAEDIAS AND SCIENTIFIC DICTIONARIES-

Almost all the works of this kind which exist
are productions of the last age. The first at-
tempt of which we read, to give a distinct and
^[lethodical view of all arts and sciences, in a se-
ries of volumes, was that by Avicenna, the great
Arabian philosopher and physician, who flou-
rished in the eleventh century. At the age of
twenty-one, as we are told, he conceived the bold
design of incorporating into one work all the parts
of human knowledge then studied ; and, in pur-
suance of this plan, compiled a real Encydopce-
dia, in twenty volumes, to which he gave the
name of The Utility of Ul Hides, The art of print-
ing, however, being then unknown, it is not to be
supposed that his work had any considerable cir-
culation, or that it contributed much to the pro-
motion of knowledge.

The next publication of this kind worthy of
notice, is the Margarita PhilosopJiica, by Reis-
chius, a learned German, printed at Strasburg,
in I0O9. About the same time with Reischius
flourished Andrew Matthew Acquaviva, duke of
Alti and Teramo, in thj kingdom of Naples, who
formed a plan of a universal dictionary of arts
and sciences, to wliich he first gave the name x)^

no EncydopcecUas, Kc. [Chap. XXIV.

an Enqjclopctdia, which has been since generally
employed to designate works of" this class. After
Acquaviva, no literary labourer seems to have
engaged in so hardy an enterprise, until Alste-
dius, a German protestant divine, who, in the
beginning of the seventeenth century, published
ati Enc\xlopasdia, which Was highly esteemed
even among catholics. It was printed at LyoiiS;^
and had much circulation over a considerable
part of the continent of Europe. These appear
to have been the most important, if not the whole,
of the works of this kind \\ hich appeared prior to
the eighteenth century; for the Dictionaries of
Bayle and Moreri, published towards the close
of the preceding age, though works of great la-
bour and learning, yet being chiefly of a biogra-
phical and historical nature, can scarcely have a
place assigned them, with propriety, in the pre-^
sent list.

About the beginning of the eighteenth cen-
tury *, Dr. John Harris, an English clergyman
of distinguished erudition, published his Lexicon
Technicum, a work in two volumes folio, em-
bracing a great variety of knowledge as it then
stood, and at that period highly instructive and
much esteemed. The next compilation of this
kind was that produced by Mr. Ephraim Cham-
bers, also of Great Britain, which first appeared
in 1728, in two volumes folio, and was doubtless
much superior to all that had gone before it.

* It is be fieved that Dr. Harris's ^vork was first published in
i70-t, the fifth edition of it is dated 1736.

Chap. XXIV.] Encyclopcedlas.Kc. Ill

Chambers denominated his work a Cyclopaedia^
It was the result of many years' intense applica-
tion to study, and was received by the public
in the most favourable manner. It went througli
a number of editions within a few years after
its first appearance, was soon translated into
the Italian language, and had many honours
heaped upon it by the learned of those time.s.
This work has been since enlarged, and print-
ed in four volumes folio, by Dr. Rees, and iu
this improved form is much valued.

The next in order vras a Dictionary of Arts and
Trades, published by a society in France, antl
embracing an amount of information on all me-
chanical subjects, more extensive and curiou.^
than had ever before been collected. This was
,follov/ed by the celebrated French Encyclopedic.
of which Messrs. d'Alembert and Diderot were
the principal conductors, aided by a number of
their learned countrymen. It is probable th.at
they were prompted to this undertaking by tht?
fame and success of Mr. Chambers's Vvork, and
also by a premeditated and svst,^matic desijjn to
throw all possible odium on revealed religion
This great compilation was begun in 1752, and
brought to a close about fifteen or twenty years
afterward, in thirty-three folio volumes. A lead-
ing feature of the Encyclopedie is the encourage-
ment which it artfully gives throughout to the
most impious infidelity ; and though much valu-
able science is undoubtedly diffused through its
pages, yet it is so contamuiated with the mixture
of licentious principles in morals and religion,
that nothing but its great voluminousness prevents

112 Encyclopaedias, SCc. [Chap. XXIV.

it from being one of the most pernicious works
that ever issued from the press.

After the appearance of the French Encijclope-
diCy baron Bieliield, of Germany, published a
work which he called The Elements cf Universal
Erudition. This compilation, however, is com-
paratively little known, and is certainly inferior
to many made both before and since. About the
3^ear 1760, a bookseller of the name of Owen
published a kind of Encyclopaedia in four very
large octavo volumes. This work, though less
full on many subjects than some that had gone
before it, yet contained much useful informa-
tion, the mode of exhibiting which has been ge-
neralh^ applauded. In 1764 appeared The Com-
plete Dictionary of Arts oftd Sciences, in three vo-
lumes folio, by the rev. Henry Temple Croker,
and others. This work gained no' reputation.

About the year 1773 was published, in Edin-
burgh, the Encyclop(£dia Britannica, in three vo-
lumes quarto, of which the principal editor was
Mr. Colin Mac Farquhar, assisted by a number
of the learned men around him. A second edi-
tion of the same work was completed in 1783,
enlarged to ten volumes quarto, executed chiefly
by the same persons who had compiled the for-
mer edition. A third impression, still under the
same title, was undertaken in 1789, with the aid
of a number of new literary labourers, and com-
pleted in 1797, in eighteen quarto volumes. This
work deserves to be highly commended on va-
rious accounts. The friendly aspect which it
bears in general toward relip;ion and good mo-
rals, is entitled to much approbation : and though.

Chap. XXIV.] Encydopccdias, &;c. US

on some subjects, it is far from containing the
same depth and extent of scientific research
with the French Ency dope die, yet it presents a
rich variety of knowledge, and in the general
usefulness of its tendency far exceeds that cele-
brated performance.

From the last edition of the Encydopcedia Bri-
tannica., an American impression has been given
by Mr. Thomas Dobson, a respectable printer
and bookseller of Philadelphia, who, with a de-
gree of zeal and enterprise then altogether un-
rivalled in the United States, soon after the
commencement of the publication in Britain, an-
nounced his intention of giving it to the Ame-
rican public through the medium of his own
press. His plan has been executed in a manner
equally honourable to himself and his patrons 3
and his edition, on account of many valuable
additions and corrections, deserves to be consi-
dered as decidedly superior to that from which
the greater part of it was copied*.

In 17S3 some of the literati of France, not sa-
tisfied either with the plan or the execution of
the grand Encydopedie, which had attracted so
much of the public attention, commenced a new
work under the title of the Encydopedie Metho'
dique. This has been, with some propriety, called
a Didionary of Diclionaries. It is entirely on a
new plan, and was lately finished, having reached
the wonderful extent of tiuo hundred volamts in
quarto. It is scarcely necessary to say, that this

* Beside other new matter, Mr. Dobson's edition contains
much important information respecting the United States not
contained in tJie work as it game from the British prcia.

114 Encyclopcediasy k^c, [CilAP. XXIV.

last work, executed by many of the persons who
"were engaged in the preceding, bears, like that,
an antireligious complexion ; and that, while it
displays much genius, learning, industry, and
perseverance, its general tendency is highly un-^
favourable to the interests of virtue and piety.

Some years before the close of the eighteenth
century, a Dictionary of Arts and Sciences was
undertaken by Varrentrapp and Wenner, learn-
ed and enterprising booksellers at Frankfort, in
Germany. This work, under the title oi AUgemeine
E ncy clop ct die d'er Kiinste und Wissenschaften, has
already reached to a considerable extent, but is
not yet completed*. It has been said, by persons
acquainted with the German language, to be, on
the whole, so far as it has gone, the best Encyclo-
paedia yet published.

Several other compilations, intended to em-
brace the circle of arts and sciences, were made
in different parts of Europe, in the course of the
last century. Some of these were translations or
abridgements of those already mentioned, while
others had better claims to originality. But too
little is known of those which belong to either
class, to undertake any detailed account of their
characters, or even of their titles *.

* The English Encyclopedia, begun a few years ago, and
intended to be comprised in eight or nine volumes 4-to, was
nearly concluded at the close of the century. The Em:yclo-
pcEdiu Perthensis, which has been for several years printing in
Perth, is also still unfinished ; as is an Encyclopwdia publishing
by Mr. John Low, . an enterprising bookseller in the city of
New York, in America, in which considerable progress is
xua.de, and which it is expected will form six quarto volumes.

Chap. XXIV.] Encydopcedias^Kc, ll.O

It deserves also to be noticed, that the last age
produced an unprecedented number of systematic
works on particular sg^ences, exhibited in the
form of dictionaries, and having the several parts
disposed according to alphabetical arrangement.
Of these the number is too great to be recounted.
As a specimen, it may be observed, that we have
dictionaries of Agr^iculture, by several associa-
tions and individuals ; of Gardening, by Miller,
Mawe, and others ; of Trade and Commerce, by
Savary, Postlethwaite, and Rolt; of Law, by
Jacob; of Mathematics, by Hutton ; of Chemis-
/n/, by Macquer and Nicholson; oi Mineralogy,
by Rinman ; of Botany, by Martyn ; and of
Painting, Music, &c., by various persons of learn-
ing and taste, in different parts of the world.

That these numerous and extensive collections
of the different brandies of human knovdedgo
have had a considerable influence on the literary
and scientific character of the age, will scarcely
be questioned. They have contributed to render
modern erudition multifarious rather than deep.
By abridgeing the labour of the reader they have
diminished his industr\^ But they have been at-
tended, at the same time, with considerable ad-
vantages. To those residing at a distance from
large libraries, and other repositories of science,
they have furnished a very instructive epitome cf
knowledge. They have thus contributed to en-
large the mind, and to show the connexion be-
tween the several objects of study ; and though
they are far from presenting a sufficiently minute
and detailed view of each of the various subjects
©f which they treat ; yet, to general readers, they

12

116 Encyclopedias y 8s c. [Chap.XXIV.

give more information than would probably have
been gained without them ; and to readers who
wish to investigate subjects more deeply, they
serve as an index to more abundant sources of
information.

117

CHAPTER XXV.

EDUCATION.

JlLDUCATION has always been considerea
among the most difficult and important of those
duties which are intrusted to man. Correspond^
ing with its arduous and interesting nature have
been the numerous plans to facilitate its accom-
plishment, or to improve its methods. Of th^se
plans the eighteenth centiiry was eminently pro-
ductive, as no age ever so much abounded in
learned and ingenious works on this subject;
but the real improvements to which the period
in question has given birth, in the business of
€ducation, are by no means of that radical kind
which might have been expected by the sanguine,
from the ..progress of society in other arts and
sciences. Still, however, the last age produced
some events and revolutions, with regard to this
subject, which demand our notice in the present
brief review.

Of the numerous treatises on the subject of
education, which were presented to the public in
the course of the last age, there are few entitled
to particular attention. Among these, perhaps
the celebrated work of Rousseau, under the title
of Emillus, is most extensively known. This sin-
gular production undoubtedly contains some just
reasoning, many excellent precepts, and not a

118 Education. [Chap. XXV.

few passao^es of unrivalled eloquence. But it
seems to be now generally agreed by sober re-
flecting judges, that his system is neither moral
in its tendency, nor practicable in its application.
If the author excelled most other men in genius,
he certainly had little claim either to purity of
character, or real zeisdom.

Beside this work, a few others are worthy of
particular notice ; some of which, if they have
less claim to ingenuity than the celebrated pro-
duction of Rousseau, are more judicious, practi-
cal, and conducive to the happiness of youth.
The Method of studying and teaching the Belles
Lettres, by M. Rollin, has received much atten-
tion and general applause, and is preeminently
favourable to the interests of virtue and piety.
The Pla7i of a Liberal Kducation^ by Dr. Vicesi-
mus Knox, is also the production of a learned
and ingenious man, and may be ranked among
the best modern treatises on this subject. The
Elementar-Werk, by Basedow, of Germany, is
said to be one of the most influential and useful
works on education that the age produced. Much
praise has also been bestowed on the Neuen Emit
of professor Feder, of Gottingen, which still con-
tinues to be held in esteem in the author's own
country *. Towards the close of the century

* The author has no acquaintance with the works of Basedow
or Feder. This account of them is taken from a learned and
interesting Historical Account of the Rise and Progress of Litera-
tnrj in Germany, puhHshed in the German Museum of London,
and said to be drawn up by the rev. Mr. Will, lately of London,
at present minister of the German Calvinist church in the city of
New York.

Ch.ap. XXV.] Education, 119

was published a work entitled Lectures on Edu-
cation, by David Williams, which, though it ma-
nifests considerable talents and erudition, is de-
cidedly unfriendly to religion, and consequently
to genuine virtue. To these may be added, the
Theatre of Education, by madame Genlis ; Prac-
tical Education, by Mr. and miss Edgeworth ;
and treatises on the same subject by Mrs. H,
More, and miss Hamilton, which have been much
read and esteemed.

The eighteenth century produced a remarkable
revolution with respect to the objects of study in
the education of youth. These are now more ac-
commodated to the different employments for
which the pupils are intended than in former
times. Education, during this period, has been
more than ever divested of its scholastic form, and
rendered more conducive to the useful purposes
of life. The study of the dead languages has
been gradually declining throughout the age
under review, and scientific and literarj' pursuits
of a more practical nature taking their place.
Instead of spending eight or ten years, as for-
merly, in the acquisition of Latin and Greek
words and rules, youth are now more liberally
instructed in the physical sciences, in belles let-
tres, in modern languages, in history, in geogra-
phy, and generally in those branches of know-
ledge which are calculated to fit them for action,
as well as speculation. Though the change in
this respect has been carried to an extreme;
though the disposition discovered by many in-
structors, during the last fifty years, to di^car4

120 Education. [CiiAP. XXV.

entirely from among the objects of study the rich
stores of ancient literature, may be pronounced
unfriendly to true taste and sound learning; yet
the revolution which has been mentioned may be
considered in general as a real improvement.

Another obvious revolution which the last age
has produced in the business of education, is re-
moving a large portion of that constraint and ser-
vility, and of those monkish habits, which were
formerly connected with the diligent pursuit of
knowledge, and considered a necessary part of a
system of study. Modern academic discipline is
much less rigid than it was a century ago : more
scope is given to the natural spirit and tendencies
of the youthful mind : the paths of instruction
are more diversified, and more strewed with
flowers : in a word, the labour of youthful study,
formerly fashionable, has in a great measure
ceased to exist. This has arisen from several
causes ; from the growth of luxury and dissipa-
tion, which are always unfavourable to sound
erudition ; from the multiplication of helps and
abridgements, to be hereafter mentioned, which,
while they lessen the toil of the student, deceive
him, by promising greater acquisitions than he
can gain from them ; and especially from the
plans of education in modern times being so much
extended, and the objects of study so greatly mul-
tiplied, as to render the wonted attention to each
difficult, if not impossible. Hence the greater
number of scholars, at the present day, are more
remarkable for variety than depth of learning ; and
liave generally contented themselves with walking

Chap. XXV.] Education. 121

lightly over the fields, and plucking the flowers
of literature and science, instead of digging deeply,
and with unwearied patience, to gain the recon-
dite treasures of knowledge *.

A further circur^stance, in some degree pecu-
liar to modern education, and which no doubt
produces a considerable effect, is the early age at
which students are admitted into the higher semii-
naries of learning, and, as a necessary consequence,
their premature entrance into the world. Lord
Bacon somewhere remarks, that it was a defect
^n the plans of education, in his day, that studeats
were introduced at too early an age to the more
abstruse and grave parts of their philosophic stu-
dies. This remark, in the eighteenth century, may
be applied to the general period of beginning the
academic course. The universities and colleges
of modern times, especially in the United States,
are filled with children^ who are unable either
suitably to appreciate the privileges they enjoy,
or so much to profit by them, as at a more mature
period of life. If these higher seminaries be in-,
tended, as they commonly are, to complete the
education, then to send pupils to them before they

* It has been asserted by good judges, and probably with truth,
that one of the principal reasons to be assigned for the compara-
tive superficiality of modern classical learning, even in the best
seminaries, is the increased use of translations, particularly within
the last sixty or seventy years. It is certain that helps of this
kind, to abridge the toil of the indolent and careless, never be-
fore had so general a circulation ; and it is proverbially true, that
acquisitions made by means of long and patient labour are more
deeply impressed on the mind, longer retained, and usually held
ju higher estimation, than those which cost but little time an4
pains.

152 Education. [Chap. XXV,

have emerged from the state of childhood is al-
together unwise. That this circumstance has an
unfavourable influence on the dignity and gene-
ral success of a course of public instruction can
scai-cely be doubted. That it should cooperate
with other causes to render the number of superfi-
dal scholars greater than they would otherwise
be, seems to be an unavoidable consequence ; and
that it tends to diminish the subordination and the
regularity of modern academic systems, expe-
rience abundantly demonstrates.

The last century also produced considerable
improvements in the means of instruction. These
are of various kinds, and deserve our particular
attention, in estimating the progress of literature
during the period under consideration.

The first circumstance deserving of notice under
this head is the great muUiplication of Seminaries
of learning, in the course of the last age. This is
a very interesting feature in the period which we
are endeavouring to delineate. Institutions for
the purpose of instruction, from universities down
to the smallest schools, were never half, perhaps
not a tenth part, so numerous as at the close of
the eighteenth century. In every portion of the
civilised world they have increased to an astonish-
ing amount; they have brought the means of
education to almost every door ; and, with oppor-
tunities, have presented excitements to the acqui-
sition of knowledge before unknown.

Charity Schools, if not first established, were
gi-eatly multiplied during this century ; and per-
hjips deserve to be considered as one of the most
useful plans of public beneficence to which the

Chap. XX V.] Education. 1^3

age gave rise. These have been numerous for
many years in several countries of Europe ; but
probably in no part of the world have so large a
number been established, and on a footing so li-
beral, as in Great Britain. Institutions of this
kind have also been for some time common and
highly useful in the United States.

The establishment of Sunday Schools deserves to
\>e mentioned as a further improvement of modern
times. This is an excellent plan for disseminating
the elements of useful knowledge among the more
laborious and indigent portions of society ; and
bids fair to be generally adopted throughout the
Christian world.

The last age also abounded, beyond all prece-
dent, in popular zvorks\ for facilitating and improv-
ing the education of youth. Of this kind are
the nXimerous translationSy compends, and abridge^
inentSy which modern instructors have produced.
Scarcely a department of art, science, or taste,
can be mentioned, in which numerous works of
this nature have not been furnished by the friends
of youth. To the same class also belong the moral
taleSy the histories, adventures, and selections, of
which a few 3^ears past have produced an unex-
ampled number and variety. Some of these per-
formances have been planned with great wisdom,
and executed with great felicity ; and are emi-
nently suited to attract tlie youthful mind, to di-
rect and strengthea its growing powers, to beget
a taste for the sciences, and to cultivate the best
principles of the heart. Of many others, indeed,
a very different character must be given j but it is
certain that parents and teachers were never be-

124 Education. [CiiAP. XXV.

fore presented Avitli so rich a variety of helps, or
so ample a field of choice, in works of this nature,
as during the last thirty years of the period under
review.

Among the many writers and compilers to whom
the public are indebted for their labours in this im-
portant field, it is not difficult to make a selection
of those who are most entitled to praise. Of this
number are Mrs. Barbauld, Mrs. Trimmer, Dr.
Percival, Mrs. C. Smith, miss Hannah More, Mrs.
Wakefield, Mr. Day, Dr. Aikin, and miss Edge-
worth, of Great Britain ; madame Genlis, abbe Gaul-
tier, M. de Beaumont, and M. Berquin, of France ;
Messrs. Basedow, Campe, Salzmann, and von Ro-
chow, of Germany ; and Mr. Lindley Murray, and
Mr. Noah Webster, of America. To say that the
performances of all these have commanded much at-
tention, and that those of several of them have been
eminently and extensively useful, would be to
describe their merits in a very imperfect manner.

From this multiplication of the means and faci-
lities of education we may account for the fact,
that during the last century the advantages of edu-
cation M^ere more extensively diffused through the
different ranks of society than in any former age.
It may safely be asserted, that there never was a
period in which the elements of useful knowledge
were so common and popular as during that which
is under review. In all preceding stages of hu-
man improvement, knowledge was possessed by a
few. Before the invention of printing, indeed, the
obstacles in the way of a general diffusion of in-
formation were numerous, and almost insurmount-
able j and even with the advantage of that invew-=

Chap. XXV.] Education. U5

tion, it was in a great measure confined to the
opulent, until within the last hundred years.
During this period, the great increase in the num-
ber of seminaries of learning ; the wonderful mul-
tiplication of circulating and other libraries ; the
growing practice of divesting the most important
parts of knowledge of their scholastic dress, and
detaching them from the envelopments of dead
languages; with various other considerations;
have all conspired to extend the advantages of
education, and to render the elements of useful
knowledge more cheap and common tlian ever
before.

Towards the close of \he eighteenth century,
the physical education of youth became an ob-
ject of more particular attention than in any
former period. The considerations of bodily
health and vigour were by no means forgotten iu
the most ancient systems of education with which
we are acquainted. Perhaps it may be asserted,
that, in practice^ the ancients succeeded much
better than the moderns in rearing robust and vi-
gorous children : but they attended less to theory
thsLii practice J they attained the end without hav-
ing just philosophical ideas respecting the jnearis ;
and sometimes indeed by methods which neither
the habits nor the opinions of modern nations
would admit. But the eighteenth century gave
birth to more 'speculation and writing on this sub-
ject than any former age could boast. The philo-
sophy of physical education has been more stu-
died, discussed, and understood. And though the
luxury, the various premature indulgences, and
the general habits of youth at the present day.

126 Education. [Chap. XXV.

may be considered as peculiarly unfriendly to
health and long life, yet it is certain, that, within
a few years past, the inquiries on this subject,
and the theoretical and practical works in relation
to it published, have been more numerous, more
enlightened, and more conducive, so far as re-*
duced to practice, to the union of health, delica-
cy, and virtue, than the wisdom of former ages
produced *.

But perhaps one of the most striking peculiari-
ties of the eighteenth century, on the score of
education, is the change of opinion gradually in-
troduced into society respecting the importance,
capacity, and dignity, oiihe female sex, and the
consequent changes in the objects, mode, and ex-
tent of their instruction. It is much less than a
hundred years since female education v»'as lamen-
tably, and upon principle, neglected tliroughout
the civilised world. Until the age under review,
" no nation, ancient or modern, esteemed it an
object of public importance ; no philosopher or
legislator interwove it with his system of general
instruction 5 nor did any writer deem it a subject
"worthy of full and serious discussion. Many sys-
tems of instruction have been adopted for the.
other sex, various as the countries, the govern-

* Some of the Tiiethods employed by the ancients, for promo-
ting the expansion, vigour, and longevity, of the human body,
■svere by no means consistent w^ith delicacy or virtue, especially
in the case of the female sex. In modern times, by more care.-
fully studying and more generally understanding the philosophy
of diet, exercise, air, dress, and general regimen, the improvers
of physical education have been enabled to do much in a way
iiitogetiier cou^isteat both A^ith decorum and pure morals.

Chap. XXV.] Education. 127

ment, tlie religion, the climate, and even as the
caprices of the writers who at diilerent periods
have undertaken to, compose them. But, by a'
strange fatality, women have been almost wholly
omitteil in the account, as if they were not gifted
with reason and understanding, but were only to
be valued for the elegance of their manners, the
symmetry of their forms, and the power of their
blandishments." In the history of the earliest na-
tions, we occasionally meet indeed with accounts
of females who had elevated and pov/erful minds,
and who were well informed for tlie period in
which they lived. In the history of Europe, dur-
ing the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, we
also fmd a ^qw instances of distinguished wonicn»
some of whom, in talents, learning, and virtue,
have perhaps never been excelled since that pe-
riod : but the number of this description was so
inconsiderable, the circumstances in which they
v/ere placed were so peculiar, and the influence
of their character and example so small, that they
scarcely form exceptions to the general statement
which has been given. The great mass of the sex
still remained unacquainted with letters and sci-
ence ; their whole attention being directed either
to the allurements of personal decoration, or tt*
the details of domestic economy.

The eighteenth century produced a memorable
change of opinion aud of practice on this subject.
The character and talents of the female sex have
become during this period more highly esti-
mated, their importance in society better under-
stood, and the means of rendering their salutary
influence more familiarly known and adopted 5

I2S Education. [CllAP. XXV.

in short, a revolution radical and unprecedented,
with respect to their treatment and character,
has taken place, and M^rought very perceptible
effects in society. Female education has been
more an object of attention, and been conducted
upon more liberal principles within the last thirty
years, in every cultivated part of Europe, and in
America, than at any former period. Some of
the ablest pens have been employed in prescribing
plans for the cultivation of their minds ; semina-
ries of learning, particularly adapted to their ad-
vantage, have been instituted ; women have of
course become, in general, better informed ; the
sex has furnished more instances of learning and
talents than ever before; a female of elevated un-
derstanding, and of respectable literary acquire-
ments, is no longer a wonderful phenomenon.
Corresponding to the increase of cultivation be-
stowed upon them, they have risen higher in the
scale of intellect, and evinced a capacity to vie
with the other sex in literature, as well as moral
excellence. In a word, at the close of the eigh-
teenth century it had become as rare and disgrace-
ful for a woman to be ignorant, within certain
limits, as at the commencement of it such igno-
rance was common.

As there is no truth more generally admitted,
than that every step in the progress of civilisation
brinsrs new honour to the female sex, and increases
their importance in society; so there is, perhaps,
no fact which better establishes the claim of the
eighteenth century to much progress in kno\yledge
and refinement, than the improvements in female
education to v.hich it has given rise. It is a pro-

Chap. XXV.] Education. 129

minent feature in the age, and forms one of its sig-
nal honours, that its close found the fe-male sex,
through a great part of the civilised world, naore
generally imbued with the elements of literature
and science, than they ever before were since the
creation.

The learning of the female world, in the period
under review^ i^i^}^ be considered as bearing some
peculiarity of character. What might have been
the nature or extent of the attainments made by
literary women in ancient Egypt, Greece, and
Rome, we are scarcely qualified to judge j but
the learned women of Europe, in the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries, according to the fashion
of the day, entered deeply into the study of an-
cient languages* ; they chiefly belonged to the
higher ranks of life; and as writing and publish-
ing were comparatively rare among all classes, so
few females presented themselves before the pub-
lic in this manner. lu the eighteenth century

* Lady Jane Gray, who lived in the sixteenth centun", was a
proficient in classic literature. " She had attained a familiar
knowledge of the Latin and Greek languages, beside modern
tongues; had passed most of her time in an application to learn-
ing, and expressed a great indifierence for other occupations and
amusements usual with her sex and station. Roger Ascham,
having one day paid her a visit, found her employed in reading
Plato, while the rest of the family were engaged in hunting in
the park ; and on his admiring the singularity of her choice,
she told him that she received more pleasure from that author
than the others could reap from all their sport and gayety.''
Hume. Queen Elizabeth was no less remarkable for her learn-
ing. She is said to have spoken both Greek and Latin with rea-
diness, and to have been familiarly acquainted with the French,
Italian, and Spanish languages. Other instances of the same
kind might be adduced as belonging to that «ge.

Vol. in. K

130 Education. [CHAt>. XXV.

the character of female learning hecame materi-
ally different. Literary females, during this pe-
riod, paid more attention to general knowledge,
not omitting some of the practical branches of
physical science. In studying languages, they
devoted themselves more particularly to modern
tongues, especially the French, Italian, and Ger-
man*. Literature has descended from females of
high rank to those in the middle walks of life, and
is perhaps, on the whole, more frequent among
the latter than the former. And while learned
women of former times wrote and published little,
those of thaf^sex who have lately gained literary
distinction have been the authors of numerous
and valuable publications j-, some of which will
doubtless descend with honour to posterit3^

* Afew females of the eighteenth century distinguished them-
selves by their profound and accurate acquaintance with the
Latin and Greek classics. The names of madame Dacier, Mrs.
Crierson, Mrs. Carter, and a few others, will be remembered
with respect as long as the ancient languages are studied. But
there was certainly less disposition among the literary females of
the eighteenth century to devote themselves to this pursuit than
among those of the two preceding centuries.

f " In this country," (England) says Mr. Polwhele, in his
JJnsex'd Females, " a female author was formerly esteemed a
phenomenon in literature; and she was sure of a favourable re-
ception among the critics, in consideration of her sex. This
soecies of gallantry, however, conveyed no compliment to her
understanding. It implied such an inferiority of women in the
scale of intellect as was justly humiliating; and critical for-
bearance was mortifying to female vanity. At the present day,
indeed, our literary women are so Huirrcrous, that their judges,
waving all complimentary civilities, decide upon their merits
with the same rigid impartiality as it seems right to exercise to-
w:ards the men. The tribunal of criticism is ne longer charmed

Chap. XXV.] Education. 131

Tliis revolution has been gradually elTccted,
and was produced by a variety of causes. The
progress of refinement, while it raised the female
character, naturally placed that sex in a situation
more favourable to the acquisition of knowledge.
The unexampled diifusion of a taste for literature
through the various ranks of society could
scarce!}'' fail of increasing the intelligence, and
meliorating tlie education, of females among the
rest. Added to these considerations, the example
and the writings of some celebrated women served
to excite emulation, and to produce a thirst for
knowledge among many others of their sex j these
latter, again, within the sphere of their influence,
produced the same good eftects on their associates;
academies for the particular instruction of females
soon became popular j and thus, within the last
fifty years, their literary interests have been con-
stantly gaining ground. , ^

Among the numerous females, whose names
might be mentioned as having contributed to this
revolution by their example and their writings,
particular distinction is due to Mrs. Coc'kburn *,
Mrs. Carter f , Mrs. Barbauld, Mrs. Lennox, Airs.
Montague, Mrs. Macaulay Graham, Mrs.Cha-

iuto complacence by the blushes of modest apprehension. It no
longer imagines the pleading eye of feaunine diffidence, that
speaks a consciousness of comparative imbecility, or afeurfulness
of haying oH'ended by intrusion."

*' An acute and celebrated metaphysician, who died in 1749.
Her works have been since printed in two volumes octavo.

t Elizabeth Carter, a lady of great erudition, and of distin-
guished talents. H^ translation oiEpktctm j& generally known.

132 Education. [Chap. XXV.

pone, Mrs. Ratlcliffe, miss Hannah More, miss
Seward, Mrs. d'Arblay, Mrs. Charlotte Smith, miss
Edgeworth, miss Hamilton, miss Wakefield, and
many others, of Great Britain; Mrs. Grierson *,
and ^Irs. Sheridan, of Ireland ; madame Dacier,
and madame Chatelet f , of France ; together with
many more J, worthy of respectful notice.

The extension and improvement of female edu-
cation has also been promoted by the writings of
archbishop Fenelon, Dr. Gregory, Dr. Fordyce,
Mr. Bennet, Dr. Darwin, and some others. Even
the celebrated work of Rousseau has contributed
to this end, notwithstanding the visionary and
erroneous principles with which it abounds.

But while female talents have been more justly
appreciated, and more generally improved, espe-

* Mrs. Constantia Grierson descended from very poor and il-
literate parents, in the county of Kilkenny, in Ireland. She waaH
born in the year 1706, and died in 1733, in the 27th year of her
age. She was profoundly acquainted with Grecian and Roman
literature; published editions of Terence and Tacitus, which are
among the best extant; and addressed an elegant Greek epigram
to the son of lord Carteret, by whose influence her husband pro-
cured a patent to be the king's printer for Ireland, on condition
that the life and character of Mrs. Grierson should be inserted in
it, as a monument in honour of her learning.

f The numerous and profound works of madame Dacier, in
classic literature, are well known ; as are also the talents and
learn ing of madame du Chatelet, the able commentator on Newton,

t To this list may be added the names of the margravine of
Anspach, Mrs. Dobson, Mrs. Brooke, Mrs. Cowley, Mrs. Years-
ley, Mrs. Inchbald, Mrs. West, miss Lee, Mrs. Trimmer, miss
H. M. Williams, and several others, distinguished in the walks of
polite literature; and also the honourable Mrs. Darner, Mrs.
Francis, and Mrs. Thomas, celebrated for their acquirements in
the ancient languages.

Chap. XXV.] Educatioju 133

cially during the latter half of the eighteenth cen-
tury, certain extravagant and mischievous d()C-
trines relating to that sex have arisen within this
period, and obtained considerable currency.
These doctrines are the following, viz. " That
there is no difference between the powers and
tendencies of the male and female mind ; that
women are as capable of performing, and as fit
to perform, all the duties and offices of life, as
men; that their education should be the same
with that of the men ; in a word, that, except in
the business of love, all distinctions of sex should
be forgotten and confounded." These opinions,
if not wholly new, and peculiar to the last age,
have doubtless obtained a currency, within a few
years past, which they never before had, and
which has produced much interesting discussion,
and very sensible eilects in society.

The most conspicuous advocate of these opi-
nions is the celebrated Mary Wollstonecraft,
whose ingenious vindication of the Rights of JVo-
man is universally known. In her principles on
this subject she has been followed by several of
her own sex, as well as by a few male writers.
To the former class belongs Mary Hays, who, in
her Novels and Philosophical Disquisitions, has en-
deavoured, with great art and plausibility, to re-
commend the principles of this mischievous
school.

It cannot be denied, that a total mistake con-
cerning the capacity and importance of the female
sex has long held that part of our species under a
very degrading thraldom, and obscured the por-
tion of intellectual and moral excellence, which

134 Education. [Chap. XXV.

they possess. It may also \\'\\\\ truth be granted,
that the idea of an o^'zoZ/za/ difference between the
mental characters and powers of the two sexes
has been pushed greatly too far, and been made a
source of long-continued ancl essential injury to
women. Females, if it were practicable or proper
to give them, in all respects, the same education
as that bestowed on men, would probably discover
nearly equal talents, and exhibit little difference
in their intellectual structure and energies. But
is it possible, or consistent with the obvious in-
dications of nature, to give them precisdij the
same education as is given to the male part of our
species ? That this is neither practicable nor de-
sirable will appear from the following considera^
lions.

First. Women are obviously destined to dife-
rent employments and pursuits from men. This i^
evident from various considerations. Among all
the classes of animals with which we are acquaint-
ed, the female is smaller, weaker, and usually more
timid than the male. This fact cannot be ascribed
to difference of education, to accident, or to per-
verted systems of living among the inferior ani-
mals; for it is uniform, and nearly, if not entirely,
universal, applying to all countries, climates, ant}
situations ; and if ever we may expect to find na-
ture pure and unperverted, it must be among the
brutal tribes. The same fact applies to the hu-
man species. The bodies of women in gene-
ral are smaller and feebler than those of men,
and they are commonly more timid. This is not
merely the case in the more polished states of
society, in which false refmcment, or injurious

CllAP. XXV.] Education. 135

iiabits, may be supposed to have degraded the fe-
male character ; but it is nearly if not equally so
among savages, where women, instead of being
wholly or chiefly sedentary, are rather the more
laborious sex. How shall we account for this fact ?
Does it not seem to indicate a difference of em-
ployment and destination? Is it conceivable that
there should be so much difference of structure
between beings intended for precisely the same
sphere of action F No one can suppose this, who
believes that the various departments of nature
are all formed by a Being of infinite wisdom, and
that in the economy of creation and providence
means are adjusted to ends.

Again ; the important offices of gestation and
parturition being assigned to women, plainly
point out the difference of situation, pursuit, and
employment, for which we are contending. The
various circumstances of infirmity and confine-
ment resulting from these offices present insur-
mountable obstacles in the way of that sex en-
gaging in many employments destined for men.
If all distinctions, except in the business of love,
ought to be confounded, then females ought to be
called to sit on the bench of Justice, to fill the
seats of legislation, to hold the reins of executive
office, and to lead the train of war. But would
such a kind of activity as any of these stations
suppose, comport with their sexual duties ? The
slightest reflexion, it is presumed, will be sufli-
cient to convince every unprejudiced inquirer,
tiiat there is a total incompatibility between
them.

Secondly J To meike the education and the em-

136 Education. [Chap. XXV.

ployments of the two sexes precisely the same,
would, if practicable in itself, be productive of
the most immoral consequences. Let us suppose
young females to mingle promiscuously with the
youth of the other sex, in their studies, in their
amusements, and in all the means adopted to
Strengthen the bodies and the minds of each. Let
us suppose, that after the elements of knowledge
were acquired, the same employments Avere as-
signed to each sex. Let us suppose the various
stations of civil trust to be filled indifferently by
men and women ; the places destined for the in-
struction of lawyers, physicians, and surgeons, to
be occupied by a jumbled crowd of male and fe-
male students; the clerkships in counting-houses,
and public offices, executed by a joint corps of
male and female penmen ; and the bands of la-
bourers in manufactories formed without any
distinction of sex. What would be the conse-
quence of these arrangements } It would con-
vert society into hordes of seducers and prosti-
tutes. Instead of the regularity, the order, the
pleasing charities, and the pure delights of wed-
ded love, a s^^stem of universal concubinage
would prevail. Seminaries of learning would be
changed into nurseries of licentiousness and dis-
ease y the proceedings of deliberative assemblies
w^ould be perverted or arrested by the wiles of
amorous intrigue; the places of commercial or
mechanical business would become the haunts of
noisy and restless lewdness ; and all sober em-
ployment would yield to the dominion of brutal
appetite.
Let us take a retrospect of those countries and

Chap. XXV.] Education. 137

ages, in which the intercouse of the sexes, with
respect to violations of what are commonly call-
ed the laws of decorum, came nearest to the point
of freedom here recommended- In the ancient
gymnastic exercises, it is well known, that the
young women were obliged to run, to wrestle,
to throw quoits, &c., and in these exercises to ap-
pear naked, as well as the men ; and at their
feasts and sacrifices, they were also obliged to
dance, in the same state of perfect nudity, amid
crowds of male spectators. AV^hat was the con-
sequence of these proceedings ? According to
the doctrine under consideration, such freedom
in exposing the naked limbs, and those parts of
the body which are generally concealed, ought to
have rendered the people who indulged in these
habits the most virtuous in the world, Avith re-
gard to the intercourse of the sexes. But was
this really the consequence ? Directly the re-
verse ! The exercises in question were converted
into occasions of wantonness and libertinism, so
gross and flagitious, that they became subjects of
universal complaint, and filled even pagans with
horrour.

The truth is, wherever the intercourse of the
sexes has been most guarded, and the fences of
delicacy and modesty most carefully kept up, there
the highest degree of virtue and order has inva^
riably prevailed. It is so far from being a correct
opinion, that throwing off reserve is the best way
|;o prevent corruption, that uniform experience
proves this course to be the most mischievous and
corrupting that can be imaglhed. There is no
way of avoiding this consequence, but by main-

138 Education. [Chap. XXV,

tainin*, that maii}^ things which Christianity, and
those who take their standard of morality from it,
pronounce vicious, are really innocent, if not
laudable.

Thirdly 5 To defend the system which would
confound all distinctions of sex, except in the
business of love, is as opposite to the spirit of
Ciiristianity, as it is inconsistent w^ith the pur-
suits of the female sex, and immoral in its conse-
quences. Those who are familiar with the scrip-
tures will recollect, that a line of distinction be-
tween the sexes is frequently and carefully drawn
therein, and an habitual reference to this distinc-
tion represented as highly important in the system
of human duty. Upon this distinction, consider-
ed in several points of view, are founded some of
the most interesting conjugal obligations, and all
the leading principles of domestic government.
The scriptures indeed do not exhibit w^oman as
an enslaved and servile being; they represent
}ver as a rational and immortal creature, as the
counsellor, companion, and helpmate of men,
and teach us, both by precept and example, to
consider her as holding a high and respectable
station in society: but they exclude her, by di-
rect prohibition, from the office of public reli-
gious instructor, and plainly intimate, that seve-
ral other eniployments and pursuits are unfit to
engage her attention. In short, they distinctly
and unequivocally hold up the idea of an appro-
priate sexual character, and represent a corre-
sponding peculiarity of studies and action as pro-
perly belonging to the male and female.
; It is Evident then, from reason, from the uiiin

GiiAP. XXV.] Education. 139

form course of nature, from experience, and from
the word of God, that females are destined for
different pursuits and employments from men, and
that the sphere of their activity should be diffe-
rent. This, of consequence, will call for a diffe-
rent education, will lead to different habits, and
yvill give rise to distinguishing characteristics. Do
not the professional employments of men every
day beget observable peculiarities of character
and taste ? And is it not perfectly natural, on the
same principle, that there should be sexual pecu-
liarities ? Nor is there any necessity for supposing
a radical inferiority of intellectual power in fe-
males. It will be readily granted, that with the
same kind, and with the same degree, of cultiva-
tion with men, they would exhibit equal capacity
of mind. But the necessary reserve of the female
sex, their domestic duties, their sedentary life, the
infirmities and confmement resulting from the pe-
culiar sexual oflices before alluded to, and the va-
rious peculiarities of their situation, are abun-
dantly sufficient to produce in them a different
genius and character of mind from those of men,
whose active employments, daring enterprises,
aspiring ambition, diversified scenes and occupa-
tions, familiarity with danger, and unceasing la-
bours to gain fame, wealth, or pleasure, impart to
their minds a vigour, a courage, a solidity, a wa-
riness, and a persevering patience in exertion,
which are rarely found in wpmeu *.

* Miss Ilaunali IMore, in one of her Essays, seems to admit
the idea of an ori'^inal inferiority of mental character in females.
She expresses herself in this manner : " Women have generally
tjuicker perceptions ; men have justcr sentiments. Women cpa»

140 Education. [Chap. XXV.

What, then, is the conclusion of the matter?
It is, that women, as well as men, are rational
beings ; that they are made not to be the servants
but the companions of men ; that for this purpose,
where it is practicable, their minds should be
cultivated with care, liberally imbued with know-
ledge, and so strengthened and polished as to fit
them to shine, not only in the routine of domestic
employments, but also in the social circle, and
in literary conversation. Every man who under-
stands the true interests of society will desire to

slder how things may be prettily said ; men, how they may be
properly said. Women speak, to shine or please ; men, to con-
vince, on confute. Women admire what is brilliant; men, what
is solid. Women prefer a sparkling effusion of fancy to the most
laborious investigation of facts. In literary composition, women
are pleased with antithesis ; men, with observation and a just
deduction of effects from their causes. In Romance and Novel-
writing women cannot be excelled. To amuse, rather than to
instruct, or to ilistruct indirectly, by short inferences drawn
from a long concatenation of circumstances, is at once the busi-
ness of this sort of composition, and one of the characteristics
of fenriale genius. In short, it appears, that the mind, in each
vsex, has some natural kind of bias, which constitutes a distinc-
tion of character ; and that the happiness of both depends, in a
great measure, on the preservation and observance of this di-
stinction."— Essay, p. 9 — 13. In the sentiment here expressed,
I cannot altogether agree with this excellent and illustrious wo-
man. That there is some such difference as she has stated be-
tween the sexes, I am ready to allow ; but this appears to me to
arise not so much from any original inferiority in the structure of
the female mind, as from a difference of education a»d employ-
ment; from a difference in the circumstances in which women
are placed in society, with respect to inducements to action, the
nature of their amusements, b;c. ; a difference which is neces-
ssiy and proper, and which to set aside, would be to derange
the order, and destroy the happiness of society.

Ghap. XXV.] Education. 141

see females receive the best education which their
circumstances will afford. And every one who
considers the importance of enlightening and
forming the minds of the young, and who recol-
lects that this task must, for a number of the
first years of life, be almost entirely intrusted to
mothers, will perceive the propriety of having
them more accurately and extensively informed
than they commonly are. But when women carry
the idea of their equality with the other sex so far
as to insist, that there should be no difference m
their education and pursuits; when they con-
tend that every kind of study or occupation is
equally fit and desirable for them to pursue as
for men * ; when they imagine and act on the
presumption, that they have talents as well suited
to every species of employment and enterprise;
they mistake both their character, their dignity,
and their happiness. The God of nature has
raised everlasting barriers against such wild and
mischievous claims. To urge them is to renounce

* It is by no means the intention of the writer to say, that the
profound investigations of mathematical or metaphysical science
are unfit for all females. Where persons of this sex are so circum-
stanced, with regard to property and employment, as to render
investigations of this kind convenient and agreeable, there a|:-
pears no rational objection to their engaging in them. But when
females devote themselves to studies of this nature, to the neg-
lect of religious and moral improvement, which are indispensa-
bly necessary for every sex and age ; and to the omission also
of geography, history, chemistry, and some of the more attrac-
tive branches of natural history, if they do not depart from the
province of their sex, they certainly have a singular taste as to
what is most useful and most ornamental in females, situate as
they are in society.

142 Education. [Chap. XXV,

reason ; to contradict experience ; to trample on
the divine authority ; and to diminish the useful-
ness, the respectabilit}', and the real enjoyment
of the female sex.

The increased intelligence and the taste for
readnig, which remarkably characterise the fe-
male sex of the present day, compared with their
condition a century ago, are attended with some
circumstances, which the friends of virtue and
happiness cannot contemplate with unmingled
pleasure. By far too great a portion of the read-
ing of females is directed to Novels, and other pro-
ductions of light and frivolous character, which
at best can only amuse, and which often exert a
corrupt influence, instead of enlightening the
mind, and forming it to a love of wisdom and
virtue. Hence the frequent complaint, among
the sober and discerning, that modern female
education is calculated to make superficial, as-
suming, and dissipated, rather than wise and use-
ful women ; and that they have just learning
enough to detach them from the peculiar and
proper duties of their sex, but not sufficient to
expand, enrich, and regulate their minds. This
complaint has, doubtless, some foundation *. But

* If the statement given in a former page, respecting the cha-
racter and destination of the finale sex, be just, then engaging
in literary pursuits of such a kind, or to such a degree, as will
render them either unfit or indisposed to act in their peculiar
domestic sphere, is, in ordinary cases, unwise and mischievous.
This remark applies with particular force to that kind of read-
ing, which has a tendency to consume time, without conferring a
single advantage of solid information, or of real wisdom. Those
young ladiea who, instead of studying theology, morals, gram-

Chap. XXV.] Education. 143

instead of proving that a taste for literature is
improper or injurious in females, it only serves
to admonish us, that their studies should be morq
extensive and better directed ; that an acquaint-
ance with novels only will never make any wo-
man a good housewife, mother, friend, or Chris-
tian J and that literature in them, as ^vell as the
other sex, though in itself an invaluable blessing,
may be perverted into a heavy curse.

The elegant accomplishments of music and
draiving were also more commonly made a part
of female education, at the close of the eighteenth
century, than at any former period with the his-
tory of which we are acquainted. We now see
every day, in the houses of those who belong to
the middle class of society, instruments of music,
and productions of the pencil, which a century
ago were rarely seen in the houses of the most
conspicuous and wealthy. This increase of atten-
tion to music, as a part of female education, dur-
ing the last century, is more especially remark-
able in Great Britain and America.

On the subject oi Education, the centur}^ under
review has given birth to a doctrine, which,
though noticed in a former chapter, is yet too re-
markable and too pregnant with mischief, to be
suffered to pass without more particujlar conside-
ration in the present. It is, that education has
a kind of intellectual and moral omnipotence ; that

mar, geography, historj% chemistry, ^'c, give all their reading-
hours to Novels, would do well to ask themselves, how far this
kind of employment is likely to qualify them to be dignified
heads of families, respectable companions of their husbands, or
u^sful members of society.

144 Education. [Chap. XXV.

to its different forms are to be ascribed the chief,
if not all, the differences observable in fiie ge-
nius, talents, and dispositions of men 5 and that
by improving its principles and plan, human na-
ture mav, and finally will, reach a state of ab-
solute perfection in this world, or at l^ast go on
to a state of unlimited improvement. In short,
in the estimation of those who adopt this doc-
trine, man is the child of circumstances ; and by
meliorating these, without the aid of religion, his
true and highest elevation is to be obtained : and
they even go so far as to believe, that, by means
of the advancement of light and knowledge, all
vice, misery, and death, may finally be banished
from the earth. This system, as was before ob-
served, seems to have been first distinctly taught
by M. Helvetius, a celebrated French author who
wrote about the middle of the age we are consi-
dering, and was afterwards adopted and urged
with great zeal by many of his countrymen, par-
ticularly Mirabaud and Condorcet ; and also by
Mr. Godwin, and others, of Great Britain.

This doctrine of the omnipotence of education,
and the perfectibility of man, seems liable, among
many others, to the following strong objec-
tions : —

First. It is contrary to the nature and condition
of man. Though every succeeding generation
may be said, with respect to literary and scien-
tific acquisitions, to stand on the ground gained
by their predecessors, and thus to be continually
making progress; yet this is by no means the
case with regard to intellectual discipline and mo-
ral qualities. Each successive individual, how-

Chap. XXV.] Educatio?!. 145

ever elevated tlie genius, and- however subjime
the virtues of his ancestors, has to perform the
task of restraining his own appetites, subduing
his own passions, and guarding against the ex-
cesses to which his irregular propensities would
prompt him. Suppose a Bacon, or a Newton,
after all his intellectual and moral attainments, to
have a son. Is this son more wise or more vir-
tuous, on account of the genius and attainments
of his parent ? By no means. He has the samQ
laborious process to undergo, for the acquisition
of knowledge, and thj same vigilance and patient
self-denial to exercise, for the regulation of his
moral character, as if his parent had been the
most ignorant and degraded of beings. And this,
from the nature and condition of man, must al-
ways continue to be the case. If every succes-
sive individual of our species must come into the
world ignorant, feeble, and helpless j and if the
same process for instilling knowledge into the
mind, and restraining moral irregularities, must
be undergone, dc ?iovo, in every instance, on what
do these sanguine calculators rest their hopes that
we shall attain a state of intellectual and moral
perfection in the present world ? They must sup-
pose either that the propagation of the species, by
the intercourse of the sexes, will cease ; or that,
contrary to every law, man will at length come
into the world with all that maturity of reason,
light, and information, which belongs to adult
years. But it is presumed neither of these suj>
positions will be adopted by rational inquirers.

Secondly. Another objection to this doctrine
is, that it is contrary to all experience. The world

Vol. m. L

146 Education. [Chap. XXV

has existed near six thousand years ; and, during
this long period, the exertions of intellect and of
virtue have been numerous and great. It will
even be readily granted, that, amidst the mortify-
ing vicissitudes and the degrading retrocessions
which the history of knowledge presents, man-
kind are now far more enlightened than at any
former period. But is it a fact, that real wisdom,
moral purity, and true happiness, have always
kept pace with the improvements in literature and
science ? Are the most learned and scientific na-
tions, and the most learned and scientific indivi-
duals, always the most virtuous? Are luxury,
fraud, violence, unprincipled ambition, the vi-
cious intercourse of the sexes, and the various
kinds of intemperance, less frequent among the
polished and enlightened nations of Europe, than
among the untutored natives of America.^ It is
presumed that no reflecting mind will answer
these questions in the affirmative. What, then,
becomes of the fundamental principle of those
ivho hold the doctrine in question ; viz. That the
progress of knowledge is alone sufficient to re-
form, exalt, and finally to render perfect, the hu-
man race ? If this principle were well founded,
we should find virtue and happiness, both in indi-
viduals and societies, bearing an exact proportion
to the advances made in knowledge, which expe-
rience attests is far from being the case.

But it will perhaps be said, that the principle
o^ experience may be pressed too farj that it is
not legitimate reasoning to infer, because an
event has never yet occurred, that therefore it
never can or will take place. But if a certain

Chap. XXV.] Education. 147

cause produce a given effect, there must be a ten^
dency in that cause to produce this effect. Now,
if this tendency be real, when the cause is exerted
in a certain degree, the effect may generally, if
not always, be looked for in a corresponding de-
gree. But if it be not generally true, that the
most enlightened are the most virtuous ; if it be
noi generally true, that in proportion as men make
progress in intellectual improvement, they make
progress in moral excellence j we may with con-
fidence conclude, that these two species of im-
provement do not necessarily stand in the relation
of cause and effect to each other, and, therefore,
that from the existence of the former, we cannot
legitimately infer the existence of the latter.

Thirdly. A further objection to the doctrine of
human perfectibility has been drawn, with great
force, from the principle oi population, compared
with the means of subsistence. It has been asserted
by acute and well informed writers, that the pro-
gress oi population y when unrestrained, is always
in 3i geometrical ratio, and that the increase of the
means of subsistence is, under the most favourable
circumstances, only in an arithmetical ratio. If
this be the case, it is evident that the progress of
population must continually, unless in extraordi-
nary circumstances, be checked by the want of
subsistence; that these two will ever be, from
their very nature, contending forces, and will be
found more or less, in the most advantageous
states of society, to produce want, fraud, violence,
irregularity in the sexual intercourse^ disease, and
various kinds of vice; and, as the natural conse-
quence of these, especially in their combined

JL2

148 Education. [Chap. XXV.

force, much misery and degradation to man.
There seems to be no method of avoiding this con-
chision, but by contending, that, when knowledge
shail have made a certain degree of progress, both
the intercourse of the sexes and the necessity of
food and raiment will cease. But will any one
seriously maintain that such events are probable ?
Do we actually see individuals or communities, as
they advance in learning and refinement, discover
less propensity to the sexual intercourse, or a
greater disposition or ability to do without the
means of bodily sustenance ? It will not be pre-
tended that either of these is the case. But as long
as the propagation of the human species continues
to stand on the footing and to depend on the prin-
ciples which it now does ; and as long as food and
raiment are necessary as means of subsistence, hu-
man society must be doomed to exhibit more or
less of ignorance, vice, and misery *.

Fourthly. It is evident that the doctrine of the
unlimited efficacy of education, and the perfectly
bility of man, is wholly inconsistent with the scrip-
ture account of the creation and present state of
man. The sacred volume teaches us that we are
fallen and depraved beings ; that this depravity is
total, and admits of no remedy but by the grace
declared in the Gospel ; that the most virtuous
will never be perfect or completely holy in the
present world, and that misery and death are the

* See this argument placed in a strong and interesting
point of light in a work entilled An Essay on Population,
by Mr. Malthus, which, in force of reasoning, and in can-
dour and urbanity of discussion, has rai'ely if ever beien' ex-
ceeded. OjriQL"i

Chap. XX^^j Education. 149

iin^ivoidable lot of man while under the present
dispensation. It is true, the same scriptures speak
of a future period of iiullennial happiness and
glory, when divine knowledge shall universally
abound, and when peace and happbiess shall fill
the 'World. But the Millennium of the Bible dif-
fers essentially, both in its caust and nature^ from
the period which the advocates of this philosophy y
falsely so • called *, describe in such glowing co-
lours, aiid expect with so much confidence. The
believers in the former expect it to be produced
by the prevalence of that divine illumination, and
that evangelical holiness, \\'hich have already been
found so transcendently efficacious in promoting
the virtue and happiness of men, notwithstanding
the obstacles which have stood in the way of their
benign operation j while Helvetius, Condorcet,
Gqdwin, and their disciples, expect every thing to
be ; accomplished, by the progress of knowledge,
which has been so thoroughly tried, and proved
so lamentably ineffectual . The Millennium of
scripture is represented as a period of knowledge,
benevolence, peace, purity, and universal holi-
ness ; but the millennium depicted in philosophic
xlreams is an absurd portrait of knowledge with-
out real wisdom, of benevolence without piety,
and of purity and happiness without genuine
virtue.

It will be readily granted, indeed, to the advo-
cates of this delusive system, that education is ex-

* It, is to be regretted that the word philosophy, so noble and
elevated in its original and only proper meaning, should be so
often prostituted by an application to the reveries of pride, igno-
rance, and vanity.

150 Education. [Chap. XXV.

tremely powerful j that much of the diiference w^
observe m the talents and dispositions of men is
to be ascribed to its eilicacy; and that the lovers
of knowledge may be expected hereafter to make
such improvements in literature, such discoveries
in science, and such useful reforms in the plans
of instruction, as exceedingly to promote the ge-
neral improvement of man. But before the doc-
trine of perfectibility can be adopted, the nature
of man must be totally changed ; his present ha-
bits and wants must cease ; and he must become
a being of an essentially different character from
that which his Creator has given him. The hus--
bandman, by skilful and patient culture, may
highly improve the quality of many species of the
vegetable tribes. Pie may cause that which, in a
neglected spot, was small, feeble, and unpromi-
sing, to become, in more favourable circum-
stances, vigorous, luxuriant, and flourishing : in
short, it is not easy to say how far, under enlight-
ened and vmwearied cultivation, he may carry the
improvement of those objects to which he devotes
his attention. But to suppose that there are no
limits to this improvement; to suppose that under
the wisest management a rose might be so ex*
panded as to cover a field of many acres, or a
stalk of wheat so enlarged as to vie with the oak
of the forestj would surely be the height of extra-
vagance and folly *.

The doctriae of human perfectihiUty^ however,
is too flattering to the pride of man not to have
considerable currency among certain classes of

* See the 'Esmy on Population before quoted.

Chap. XXV.] Education, 151

society. Accordingly, the effects of tliis doctrine
may be distinctly traced in many parts of the ci-
vilised world, from its influence in seminaries of
learning, on the general interests of education,
and on many social institutions. That this influ-
ence is unfavourable, will not be questioned for
a moment by those who consider truth and utility
as inseparably arid eternally connected.

From the foregoing remarks it appears that
education, in the course of the eighteenth cen-
tury, underwent important revolutions. That so
far as respects the extension of its benefits in a
greater degree to the female sex, and to almost
every rank in society; the multiplication of se-
minaries of learning, of popular elementary works
for the use of youth, and of the various means
and excitements to the acquisition of knowledge ;
and the decline of that despotic reign which the
dead languages held for three preceding centu-
ries, we may look back on the period under con-
sideration as a period of honourable improve-
ment : but that in some other respects, and par-
ticularly with respect to the patient, laborious,
and thorough investigation of the various objects
of knowledge ; the depth of erudition ; the disci-
pline and subordination of academic establish-
ments ; and the general moral influence of lite-
rary and scientific acquirements ; the last age can-
not with propriety boast of much progress.

152

CHAPTER XXVI.

NATIONS LATELY BECOME LITERARY.

X HE last century is not only distinguished by
numerous discoveries, and by rich additions to
the general stock of science, but also by the rise
of several nations from obscurity in the republic
of letters, to considerable literary and scientific
eminence. To attempt to give a full view of the
commencement and progress of a taste for jlitera-^
ture in those nations would lead to a minuteness
and extent of discussion altogether beyond the li-
mits of our plan. The design of the present chap-
ter, therefore, is only to state some general factSj,
and to connect with them such names and colla-
teral events as may appear to demand notice, ei-
ther for the purpose of throwing light on the prin-
cipal object of inquiry, or of doing honour to me-
ritorious individuals. In the list about to be given
of new literary countries, it will not be possible,
for various reasons, to include all that might with
propriety be mentioned. Passing by several na-
tions, therefore, of inferior character, the most
important of those which in the last century have
become literary are Russia, Ge?i?iamj, and the
United States of America. To each of these some
attention will be separately directed.

Sect. I.] Nations lately become Literar^» 153
SECTION I.

RUSSIA.

At the beginning of the eighteenth century,
Russia had scarcely a literary existence. Almost
entirely without learned men, and destitute of the
means of acquiring knowledge, the whole empire
may be said, with little exception, to have been
sunk in ignorance and barbarism. The language
of the country was in a miserably confused and
chaotic state, without rules, and with scarcely
any fixed character; and of course no writers of
taste in that language had appeared. It is true,
the art of printing was introduced into Russia as
early as the sixteenth century, and some feeble
efforts were made, about the same time, to en-
lighten and civilise the people. Efforts still more
vigorous and extensive, to effect the same pur-
pose, were made in the seventeenth century ; but
they were soon relaxed, and little was done in
this way until Peter the Great ascended the im-
perial throne.

The crown devolving on Peter, at the close of
the seventeenth century, he early formed the de-
sign of introducing into his empire, as far as pos-
sible, the various arts of civilised life, and that
attention to letters and science which he found to
be so useful in other nations. For this purpose
he travelled into foreign countries ; made himself
acquainted with their literary and scientific insti-

154 Kations lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

tutions ; sent some of the most conspicuous young
noblemen in his dominions into different parts of
Europe, for the purpose of improving themselves
in literature ; and invited many foreigners of dis-
tinction to settle at his court. He established a
printing office in Petersburg, for publishing books
in the vulgar tongue; and among many other
works caused a large edition of the Bible in that
language to be printed and scattered through his
dominions. He instituted also, beside schools of
less celebrity, in different parts of the empire, a
mathematical school, a seminary for instruction
in navigation, a museum for the collection of cu-
riosities from all parts of the world, and an obser-
vatory, for the promotion of astronomical sci-
ence: in short, he endeavoured, as far as possible,
to transplant from all other nations, into his own
country, every thing that appeared to him orna-
mental or useful. By these means he produced a
taste for letters and science among some of the
higher classes of his subjects, and laid the foun-
dation of that general improvement in his empire,
which has since risen to such an honourable
height *.

The establishment of the Imperial Academy of
Arts and Sciences forms an important era in the
history of Russian literature. This institution
owes its origin to Peter the Great, who, during
his travels, observing the advantages of public
societies for the promotion of useful knowledge,

* For more juinute information on the subject of Russian li-
terature than it is convenient to give in the present sketch, see
Coxe's Travels, and Tooke's Survey of the Russian Empire, his
History of Russia, and his Life of Catharine JI.

Sect. I.] Russia. 155

determined to form an association of this kind in
his own country* For this purpose, when in Ger-
many, he consulted Leibnitz and Wolf, and avail-
ed himself of their learning and experience in the
formation of his plan. With their aid he at length
completed the constitution of the Academy^ and
signed it on the tenth of February, 1 724, but was
prevented by his sudden death from putting it
into effective operation. His decease, however,
did not defeat the laudable and well formed de-
sign. The academy was established by Catha*
rine I on the twenty first of December, 1 725, and
the first meeting took place two days aftervv'ards.
This empress not only favoured the institution,
but also exercised great munificence towards it.
She made a liberal grant of money for the support
of fifteen members eminent for learning and ta-
lents, who were pensioned under the title of pro-
fessors in the various branches of literature and
science. And that nothing might be omitted
which could promote her leading object, she in-
vited a number of eminent foreigners to Peters-
burg, for the purpose of filling the professorial
chairs, for which provision had been made. The
most distinguished of these foreigners were Nicho-
las and Daniel Bernoulli, the two de Lisles, Bul-
finger. Wolf, and Euler, whose profound erudir
tion and scientific industry could not fail of pro-
moting the in4:erests of knowledge -vyherever they
were placed.

Perhaps few institutions of this mature, in mo-
dern times, have been more diligent or more suc-
.cessful in pursuing the objects for which it was
formed than this academy, j^eside its published

166 Nations lately become ^Aiterary. [Cil, X^XVI.

tratisdctidn'St M'hich amount, it is believed, to
nearly fifty volumes, aiid: which are full of valu-
able information both in literature and science ;
its members have done much, both in their oilicial
and private capacities, to diffuse almost every
branch of useful knowledge throughout the em-
pire. Perhaps no country can boast of having
produced, within the space of a few years, stich a
number of excellent publications on its internal
state, its natural history, its topography, and geo-
graphy ; and on the manners, customs, and lan-
guages of different nations; as have iissued from
the press of the academy.

These exertions of Peter and Catharine werb
aided by some of their native subjects, wlio began
to perceive the importance of literature, ^nd to
form plans for the diffusion of it among the peo-
ple. It was in the reign of the former, that those
improvements in the Russian or Sclavonian lan-
guage commenced, which have since made such
honourable progress. To Theophanes Prokopo-
vitch*, archbishop of Novogorod, a man of learn-
ing and taste, and a native of Russiaj much ho-
nour is due, for labouring to promote among his

* Theophanes Prokopovitch was born in Russia in 16SI:, and
died archbishop of Novogorod in 1736. After receiving as good
an ed«cation as his country afforded, he went to Rome, where he
resided three yeats, and where his literary and scientific acquire-
ments were greatly extended. He was profoundly learned, not
only in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew literature, but also in philoso-
phy and theology. He was the fjrst Russian divine who pub-
lished a regular systematic view of the doctrines of his church.
His principal work is composed in Latin, under the title of Chris-
fktnn Orthodoxa Theologia. His discourses are deemed classical
oerfcrraances.

Sect. L] Bussia. 157'

eoimtryinen a taste for polite literature. He not
only cultivated and endeavoured to extend the
influence of learning during his life, but likewise
left a legacy to be applied to the same object
after his decease.

In this laudable zeal for promoting the lite-
rary interests of his country, Theophanes was" fol-
lowed by Lomonozof, who, it was before observed,
has been styled the great refnicr of the Russian
language*. ,His labours may be considered as
forming an era in the literary progress of his
country, and are always mentioned as having
been eminently conducive to this progress.

During the short reign of Peter II, the acade-
my, and the general interests of literature, being-
neglected by the court, greatly declined. The sa-
laries of the professors were discontinued, and an
almost universal disregard to science prevailed.
When the empress Anne came to the throne, the
court again patronised the cause of letters and
science. She revived the academy ; enlarged the

* Lomonozof was the son of a fishmonger at Kohnogori, in
Russia. He Was born in the year 1711, and died in 1764, in the
54-th year of his age. He was fortunately taught to read, an ac-
complishment by no means common among persons of such hum-
ble origin ,in Russia. His genius for poetry was fust kindled by
the perusal of the Song of Solomon, done into verse by Polotsky,
in a very rude and miserable manner. He fled from his father,
who would have compelled him to a. disagreeable marriage, and
took refuge in a monastery at Moscow, where he had an abun-
dant opportunity of indulging his taste for letters. He was after-
■svards taken under the patronage of the Imperial Acad.-iity at
Peiershuri^, and proved one of the most distinguished literary
characters of the age. His works were collected after his death,
in three volume's octavo. ^ hdr, i\yb'^\,ii[

158 Nations lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

provision which had been made for its most active
members ; added a seminary for the instruction of
youth, under the superintendence of the profes-
sors ; and did much for the diffusion of liberal
knowledge. Both the academy, and the semi-
nary connected vv^ith it, flourished for some time
under the direction of baron Korf ; but upon his
death, towards the latter end of Anne's reign, a
person without erudition, wisdom, or enterprise,
being appointed president, many of the most able
and useful members quitted Russia in disgust.
At the accession of the empress Elizabeth, new
life and vigour were again restored to this institu-
tion; the original plan was still further enlarged and
improved; some of the most learned foreigners
were again drawn to Petersburg; and, what was
considered a very promising omen for the litera-
ture of Russia, two natives of the country, Lomo-
nozof, before mentioned, and Romofsky, another
man of genius and learning, were enrolled among
the members of the academy.

But when Catharine II came to the imperial
throne, a new and illustrious era commenced.
Her exertions for the encouragement of literature
were more spirited and liberal than those of any
of her predecessors, excepting Peter, and more
extended and successful than even his. She fos-
tered the academy with the utmost zeal; provided
additional funds for its more ample support ; pre-
vailed on a number of learned foreigners to accept
of professorships in the academy, and other places
of honour and profit at her court; caused the
geography and natural history of her empire to
be carefully explored ; and gave a new spring to

Sect. I.] Russia. 159

the growth of literature and science in every part
of her dominions in which they had been planted.
But there were two events in the reign of Catha-
rine which deserve to be particularly recorded,
and which must be supposed to have had a con-
siderable influence in promoting the diffusion of
knowledge among her subjects.

The first is, the order issued, in the year
1768, by the empress, for translathig a number
of standard zvorks, in various languages, into the
Russian, thereby at once improving the national
tongue, and extending a knowledge of some of
the best publications of taste and science through-
out her empire. For defraying the expense of
this undertaking she granted an annual sum, and
engaged in the work some of her most learned
subjects, by whose labours many of the Greek
and Latin classics have been presented in a re-
spectable Russian dress * ; and a nun^ber of the
most valuable works in the English, French, and
German languages, given to the inhabitants of
that country in their own dialect. A considerable
portion of these translators were natives of Russia,
but the greater number were learned foreigners.

The other event referred to is the establishment

* Among the numerous versions made in consequence of
this imperial order, the following are worthy of particular no-
tice. The works of Plato, translated by Siderofsky and Pak-
homof; the works o( Hesiod by Fr\'antynofsky ; Homer-'s Iliad
by Yekimof ; the Mneis and Gcorgics of Virgil by Yekimof, and
also by Petrof ; the Metamorphoses of Ovid by Kofitzky ; and the
Odes of Horace by Popofsky. To attempt an enumeration of the
English, French, and German classical works which have been
naturalised in Russia, would exceed the reasonable limits of a
note.

160 Nations lately become Liter an). [Cii. XXVL

of normal Schools, by Catharine, in every pro-
vince in her empire. This estabhshment com-
menced about the year 1780, when places of in-
struction were formed, not only for the children
of the nobility, but also for those of inferior rank.
For this object the empress did not content her-
self with making ample pecuniary provision, but
also caused elementary books, for the instruction
of youth in religion and morals, as well as letters,
to be composed or translated, and distributed
throuG:hout her dominions. It is scarcely neces-
sary to add, that the influence of these institutions
has been benign and extensive.

Beside the seminaries of learning already men-
tioned, the various sovereisrns of Russia durinij
the last age, and especially Catharine II, formed
numerous societies for the promotion of Jrts, Ma-
nufactures, and Agriculture i established Libraries,
not only in Petersburg, but also in other parts of
the empire; made large collections of specimens
m the Fine Arts, and endeavoured, by other me-
thods, to awaken the attention of an ignorant and
barbarous people to the improvements of civilisa-
tion, and the importance of knowledge.

Perhaps it is not saying too much to pronounce,
that, notwithstanding the detestable character of
Catharine II, considered in a moral view, and
notwithstandnig the odious despotism which she
exercised, no crowned head ever did more, in the
same length of time, to raise the character and
promote the general welfare of her subjects. And
when it is considered how low she found the
greater part of these subjects sunk in ignorance
and brutality at her accession to the throne^ it

Sect. I.] Russia, 161

is astonishing tliat her efforts were attended with
so much success.

When this empress began her reign, little at-
tention had been devoted to Natural Philosophy,
or Natural History, in her dominions: but within
a few years past, much has been done in these
branches of science, by a number of persons, both
natives and foreigners. Among the former, Lepe-
chin, Guldenst;edt, Ozeretzkofsky, Solokof, Suyef,
Rumofsky, and Florinsky, deserve to be mention-
ed with particular respect. Among the latter,
Pallas *, Gmelin, Falk, /Epinus, Georgi, Renovantz,
and several others, hold an honourable rank. . By
the labours and writings of these philosophers, a
considerable taste has been excited in Russia, for
the inquiries to which they directed their attention.

* Peter Simon Pallas was born at Berlin in the year Mil, and
is the son of a distinguished surgeon of that city. After enjoy-
ing every advantage to be derived from the universities of Halle
and Gottingen^ he travelled into other parts of Germany, spent
some time in Holland and in England, and every where directed
particular attention to natural history, beside improving himself
in other branches of knowledge. He was, early in life, invited
by Catharine II to Petersburg, where he was appointed profes-
sor of natural history in the Imperial Academy of Sciences, and
v/here he has ever since maintained a growing reputation for ta-
lents and learning. Professor Pallas is probably the most ac-
complished naturalist now living. Wis Elcnchus Zoophj/torum ;
Ins Miscellanea Zoblogica ; his Nova; Species Qiiadnipedinn e Gli-
rinm ordine ; his Enumeratio Plantarum quce in Horto Procopii a
Demidof Moscua vivent ; his Neue Nordische Heytrage ; his Iconss
luKectarum, S^c; and his Flora Rossica, are too well known, and
too highly esteemed among natural historians, to render an ac-
count of their respective merits necessary. This great man now
resides in Crim Tartary, on an estate granted him by the empress,
where, in the enjoyment of dignified leisure, he devotes himself
to his favourite pursuits.

Vol. III. M

162 Nations lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVI,

In Mathematical Science y Kotelnikof, Rumof-
sky, and Inokhodzof, have shown themselves ac-
complished in a very respectable degree, by their
memoirs in the transactions of the academy. Be-
side these, Koselsky, Anit^chkof, Golovin, and
Siretuschkin, have published distinct works on
various branches of the Mathematics, which, be-
side doing honour to their authors, have contri-
buted to extend the knowledge of this science
among their countrymen.

For contributions to the science of Geography^
Russia is still more distinguished. The Statistical
S^irvey of the Russian Empire, by Pleschtscheyef,
is a very instructive and valuable work. In ad-
dition to this, the various publications of Suyef,
Irodionof, Kotoftzof, and Hackman, are all con-
spicuous and useful.

A little more than thii'ty years ago, the science
of Medicine was wholly uncultivated in Russia.
It is said, that scarcely three books had been pub-
lished on this subject in the whole empire, antece-
dently to the year 1770. Since that period, the
progress of medical knowledge has been astonish-
ingly great, and the number of medical publica-
tions remarkably increased. To professor Ambo-
dick, his countrymen are indebted for valuable
publications on anatomy, physiology, materia me-
dica, and obstetrics, beside translations of some
important works on different branches of the heal-
ing art. The medical works of Schumliansky,
Tichorsky, Samoilovitch, and Terekhofsky, both
original compositions and translations, are also
mentioned with applause by the literary histo-
rian- of that country. It is, moreover, proper to

Sect. I.] Russia. ^ IG3

take notice, that several foreigners of distinction
have published, on various medical subjects, in
the Russian language. The names of Bacherach,
Vien, Pekin, Uhden, Mohrenheim, and Ellisen,
belong to this list, and are represented as holding
a respectable station in the public opinion at
Petersburg.

In Historical composition, Russia has lately
produced some specimens worthy of notice. The
History of Russia, by Schtscherbatof,, is said to
hold the first place in the catalogue. Beside this,
the various productions of Gollikof, Tumansky,
Tschulkof, Bogdanovitch, and Vagonof, are ge-
nerally mentioned amojig the respectable works
of this class.

In Poetry, it was before observed, that Russia
had given birth to works of considerable merit;
and also that they were almost whqlly the
productions of the eighteenth century. The
services rendered to this branch of literature by
Lomonozof, Sumorokof, Kherashof, and Karam-
sin, were particularly mentioned in a former
chapter. Beside these, Kniseshnin, Derschaven,
Petrof, van AVisin, and Yelaghen, are enumerated,
with great respect, among those Russian poets,
who are either now living or lately deceased.

Even the Fi?ie Arts have not been vrithout some
zealous and able cultivators in the empire under
review. In Painting, Levitsky and Koslof, beside
several foreigners, are much distinguished; the
former in portrait, the latter in history : in Sculp-
ture, Schubin, Maschalof, Ivanof, Gardeyef, and
Khailof, are mentioned as respectable artists :
^nd in Efigraimig, Skorodumof and Sclijepper,

M 2

164 Nations lately becDJiie Literary. [CiL XXVL

beside others, drawn from different countries,
afford abundant evidence, that, even in the inhos-
pitable climate of Russia, the elegant arts can live
and flourish.

The study of Languages has been, for a num-
ber of years, more cultivated in Russia than could
have been expected, considering the infant state
of literature in that country. Beside all the at-
tention paid to the cultivation of the vulgar
tongue, ■which was before noticed, and the nu-
merous instances of profound acquaintance with
the best writers of Greece and Rome*, consi-
derable labour has been bestowed, by a number
of the literati of that empire, on the study of va-
rious living languages. The astonishing monu-
ment of learning and industry, in this branch of
inquiry, given to the public by professor Pallas,
was mentioned in a former chapter, as doing him
great honour. The translator Y?erig is sup-
ported by the academy, to study the Alongolian
language among that people. Leontief, of the
college of foreign affairs, has translated a great
number of works from the Cliinese language, and
may be considered among the most accomplished
scholars in Chinese literature now living in
Europe. And there is no want of works in Russia,

* Among n>any persons who might be mentioned as having
distinguished themselves by their attainments in classic litera-
ture, it would be improper not to take some notice of Plato,
archbishop of Moscow, and Eugenius, a naturalised foreigner,
archbishop of Slavensk and Kherson. The former has the cha-
racter of a profound scholar ; but the latter is perhaps still more
celebrated for his translation of the iic/oj^j;« and Geor^/cs of Vir-
gil into Greek hexameters, which was a few years ago splendidly '
printed in folio, at the expense of prince Poterakin.

Sect. I.] Russia. IG5

for learning a large portion of the modern Euro-
pean languages.

Literarij Journals have never had much encou-
ragement or circulation in Russia. Several at-
tempts have been made to establish them, and
they have obtained a slender support for a time ;
but the state of literature in that country is not
sufficiently popular to render works of this kind
generally sought after and read. Newspapers are
also few in number, and comparatively confined
in their dissemination. The nature of the go-
vernment conspires with various other disadvan-
tageous circumstances, to impose restraints on
their circulation.

Petersburg possesses onXy one public library;
but has several large private collections of books,
and cabinets of natural history, &c. : the booksell-
ing trade, however, has experienced an auspi-
cious increase. The metropolis could boast in
1793 of about thirt}^ booksellers ; and towards the
close of the last empress's reign, book-shops were
first seen in the markets and fairs of provincial
towns *.

During the last four years of the century under
review, literature, it is believed, has received much
less encouragement from the governing powers
in Russia than for a considerable period before.
And indeed, after all, it must be acknowledged,
that the advantages of education have by no means
had that general and equal diffusion in the em-
pire which is to be wished, and might have been
expected ; and that a large portion of the inha-

* Sec Store h's Picture of Petersburg.

166 Nations lately become Literary, [Ch. XXVI.

bitants are still sunk in a degree of ignorance and
barbarism, which the exertions of another cen-
tury, and of another succession of enterprising
sovereigns, Avill perhaps not be more thian suffi-
cient to remove.

SECTION II.

GERMANY.

It can scarcely be said, with strict propriety,
that Germany has lately become literary; fof
iong before the period under consideration, there
was much, both of literature and of science, in
that empire. Those who have any acquaintance
with the great contributors to human knowledge,
wiiose names adorn the history of Europe, in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, need not be
informed, that of this number Germany may
claim a very respectable portion. But the culti-
vation of the German language ; the publication
of dignified and popular works in that language ;
and especially the commencement of a just taste
in German literature^ may all, Avith truth, be
ascribed to the eighteenth century.

At. the beginning of this period, all works of
importance in Germany were written in the Latin
tongue : and it seemed then to be a prevalent
opinion among the Jiterati of that country, that
the compilation of huge folios, interspersed with
innumerable quotations from writers in all known
languages, was the most unequivocal proof of

Sect. II. ] Germany. 167

literary merit. For this reason, the greater part
of German procKictions, prior to the period under
review, were proverbially tedious and dull, and
were seldom sought after by the learned of other
nations j insomuch, that it was often and seriously
questioned, whether genius could grow in a Ger-
man soil.

The first conspicuous writer who emplo3'ed the
German language in important scientific publi-
cations was Christopher Thomasius, the celebrated
metaphysician and moral philosopher, who died
in 1728. After him Wolf was the next wlio made
use of the vulgar tongue, in treating of philoso-
phical subjects. This example was soon followed
by Mosheim, Schlegel, and others, of distinguished
reputation in various species of composition *.

But though the employment of the German
language in philosophical works began thus early
in the last century, yet it must be confessed, that
in the former part of it this language was ex-
tremely rude, harsh, and disgusting; exhibiting
a motley mixture of Latin, French, and Italian
words and idioms, incorporated without judge-
ment or taste with the original Gothic stores f .

* For a knowledge of many of the facts and names contained
in the following pages, the author acknowledges himself to be
indebted to the Historical Account, S^c, before quoted, and
ascribed to the rev. Mr. Will, now of New York.

f In the sixteenth century some specimens of German style
were given to the public, much superior to any that appeared
in the seventeenth. The works of Martin Luther, the great re-
former, exhibit, we are told, a correctness, variety, and energy
of diction, not to be met with in the works of any writer that
preceded him, nor indeed of any that immediately followed him.
Through the greater j/art of the seventeenth century this language

168 Nations laidi) become Literary. [Cii. XXVI,

It is true, much was done al^ont this time, by
several learned men, for regulating me grammar of
their vernacular tongue. K. Dunkelberg, who died
in I7O8, was the first conspicuous German who
perceived and publicly insisted on the necessity
of regularly instructing the youth of his country
in their native language. After him, Schilter,
Leibnitz, von Stade, Steinbach, Wachter, and
Frisch, wrote largely on the German language,
and contributed much to its regulation and refine-
ment. Still, however, after all the labours of
these philologists, persons of tolerable correctness
of taste were much dissatisfied with the corrupt
jargon which continued to be in vogue.

About the year 1740, J. C. Gottsched became
animated v/ith a laudable zeal for the improve-
ment of his native language, and engaged with
ardour in various undertakings for this purpose ;
and though his own style was far from being a
model of that purity and elegance for which he
contended, yet his labours were by no means
without considerable effect. He wrote several
works on the subject, which were extensively
useful. He engaged in controversies relating to
philological questions with Bodmer, Breitinger,
and others, w^hich also served to throw important
light on the Gernian language. And he directed
the attention of his countrymen to the English
and French classic writers, whose influence in pro-
iijoting the same object was very sensible. In

Avas In a course of degeneracy ; and at the commencement of
tbe eighteenth was found in a condition ^yhich loudly demanded
(•eform.

Sect. II.] Germany. 169

short, before the death of this indefatigable la-
bourer, which happened in 1766, he had done
much to discountenance the wretched models
which were before implicitly followed, and to
bring into view principles and examples more
worthy of imitation.

While Gottsched was engaged in these useful
exertions, the great object of his pursuit was aided
by the WTitings of Popowitsch and Meiners, who
both published extensive and important works
on the German language, and contributed to-
ward its improvement in a degree much to their
honour. But to no individual now living is this
language more indebted than to the celebrated
J. C. Adelung, who was mentioned in a former
chapter. His Grammar and Dictionary of the
i//<;A German lan^iiaire * are famous throu2:houL
Europe, and have proba]:)ly done more to explore
the etymology, to correct the orthography, and
to regulate the syntax of that language, than any
writer who appeared before him. To the above
named eminent cultivators of the German lan-
guage we might add, Voightel, Fulda, Moritz,
and many more, ^vho have published works on
the subject of various degrees of merit, and who
are mentioned with honour among the useful phi-
lologists of that country.

* The language snoken in the middle and southern parts of
Germany is called iheHigk German, of which that dialect which
pre\ uils in Upper Saxony, especially in Leipsic, Dresden, ^t.,
is reckoned the most pure and elegant. In Lower Saxony and
Westphalia the country people speak a language called Flat
German, or Loxo Dutch, but still differing greatly from the Loxv
Dutch of the United Netherlands.

170 Nations lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

But beside the numerous and valuable im-
provements which the German language owes tCJ
the professed writers on the subject mentioned
in the preceding paragraphs, much may be
ascribed to the circulation and influence of those
specimens of good writing in that language, with
which the eighteenth century, and especially the
latter half of it, abounded. In this list, the first
in chronological order which deserve to be men-
tioned are the publications of Bo<:lmer, Breitin-
ger, Gellert, Rabener, Cramer, and a few others,
who furnished examples of regular and polished
style decidedly superior to any former models.
The period in which these men wrote is repre-
sented as the first grand epocha in the progress of
German prose. It was in this period that the
French classic writers began to be better known
in Germany, through the medium of translations,
by means of which the German style was enriched
with many new words, idioms, and graces.

The second epocha in the German style is repre-
sented to be that which was formed by the au-
thors of the Berlinschen Litter aturhriejen, and
especially by Lessing and Moses Mendelssohn.
About this time the British classic writers began
to be studied with much ardour in Germany;
and many of them being translated, and consi-
dered as models by some of the most respectable
authors of that country, gave rise to new and im-
portant improvements in their style. The beau-
ties of Milton, Addison, Swift, and Pope, began
not only to be relished, but also to be copied by
the German literati ; and were soon afterwards, \\\
a considerable degree, transfused into their own

Sect. 11.] Germany, 171

tongue. From this period we are told that Ger-
man prose became more concise, copious, and
energetic, as well as more lofty and bold in its port.
The third and last epocha in the progress of
German style is that formed by the writings of a
number of eminent men since the improvements
of Lessing and his contemporaries. Among
these, Klopstock, Zimmermann, Wieland, Unzer,
Herder*, Garve, Engel, Lavater, and a number
of others, hold a high place. These writers en-
riched the language in which they wrote with new
w^ords and phrases ; taught new and improved
modes of constructing periods ; introduced orna-
ments of speech more simple, natural, and ele-
gant, than those which had been commonly in
use before ; and infused a sprightliness and vi-
gour into their pages which scarcely any pre-
ceding writers had attained. The German con-
stitution has confined eloquence almost entirely
to the pulpit. We must therefore look to the
sermons of that country for some of the best spe-
cimei^s of style. Mosheim was the first who in-
troduced any kind of refinement and elegance of
composition into the sacred desk. He was fol-
lowed by Spaldingj who is said to have- been the
first pulpit orator in Germany, who, in a supe-
rior degree, united simplicity with elegance, ener-
gy, and pathos. Zollikofer stands in the same
high rank, with the addition of a philosophical
cast to the elegant and popular form of his dis-

* Of all the German writers it is generally supposed that
Klopstock, Lessing, Wielaud, and Herder, discover the most pro-
C^und and intimate acquaintance with tlieir native langviagc

1 7'2 Nations lately become Liteiriri/. [Ch. XXVL

courses. Beside these, the names of Sturm, Cra-
mer, Sack, Less, Seller, Reinhard, Wurz, Braun,
and many others, are considerably distinguished
in the annals of sacred eloquence.

From all these sources, the German language,
within the last fifty years, has drawn improve-
ments so rich and numerous, that it is said to be
one of the most copious and energetic li^ngqages
in Europe. It has gained astonishingly in con-
venient and sonorous compounds, in elegant
idioms, and graceful inversions j insomuch, that
the German writer, instead of being cramped in
every step of his progress by a narrow, confused,
and unsettled jargon, as was the case at the be-
ginning of the eighteenth centurjs has now a
language at command, rich, various, of most ac-
commodating pliancy, abundantly adequate to all
his wants, and capable of being modified to as
great a degree of perspicuity, suavity, and har-
mony, as almost any modern tongue.

In consequence of these improvements in the
German language, it has been adopted, within a
few years past, in most of the courts of the em-
pire, instead of the French, which was formerly
the court language in almost every part of Ger-
many. Nor is its currency confined to the Ger-
man empire. It has lately become one of the
fashionable languages of Europe, and the acqui-
sition of it is now considered nearly as important
a part of polite education, as the acquisition of
the French or English.

While the German language was undergoing
this rerdical and important reform, other objects
pf a, literary and scientific nature engaged the

Sect. II, ] Germany. 173

attention of the learned men of that country, and
were pursued with a degree of diligence and
success which does them and the age which gave
them birth the highest honour. A few facts and
names only, out of the multitude which occur,
can be mentioned in this place.

Natural or Mechanical Philosophy was cultivated
by a fevv' distinguished Germans in the seventeenth
century ; but in the eighteenth the number of this
class of philosophers astonishingl}^ increased in
every part of the empire. The names of Leib-
nitz, AVolf, Kastner, Lambert, Mayer, von Zach,
Herschel, Boze, Winckler, Ludolf, Richter, Y^olt-
man, von Humboldt, Schroeter, and Burckhardt,
are only a small portion of those whose fame has
fdled the scientific world, as the authors of im-
portant discoveries and improvements in philo-
sophy.

In Natural History the Germans made wonder-
ful progress in the course of the last age. The
amount of what they accomplished in this branch
of science during the seventeenth century "was
comparatively small. Soon after the commence-
ment of the eighteenth century better prospects
opened, and since that time have been very ho-
nourably realised. No naturalist needs to be
reminded of the invaluable service rendered to
Zoology by madam^e Merian, Rosel, Klein, Lud-
wig, Frisch, Zimmermann, Blumenbach, Soem-
mering, Bloch, Muller, Leske, and Forster. Ad-
ditions, not less important, or less known, have
been made, within the same time, to Botanical
science, by Knaut, Gtcrtner, Iledwig, Schreb(^r,
Jacquin, Breidel, Gmelin, Wildenovr, S])rong(?l,

174 Nations lately become Litetary. [Ch. XXVI.

and many others. While Mineralogy has re-
ceived immense improvements from the hands of
Henke], Woltersdorf, Vogel, Cartheuser, Voigt,
Gellert, Raspe, Pott, Margraaff, and Werner.

At the commencement of the period under con-
sideration atill less had been done in Chemistry^
by the German philosophers, than in either of
the preceding departments of science. How great
an amount of discovery and of useful experiment
they have presented to the public since that time,
it is unnecessary to state. The labours of Stahl,
Juncker, Pott, Margraaf, Neumann, Klaproth,
Crell, Meyer, Ingenhousz, Jacquin, and von Hum-
boldt, are kno^vn and esteemed wherever chemi-
cal science is studied. Of distinguished writers
on Medicine^ Germany has been, though not
equally, 3'et very honourably prolific during the
period under review. The claims of Stahl, Hoff-
mann, van Swieten, Hcister, Storck, Vogel, and
}^furray, to high honours, are generally acknow-
ledged. And beside these, de Haen, Meckel,
Weitbrccht, Sagar, Ilufeland, Reil, Roschlaub,
Reich, and many others, have contributed to raise
the medical character of their country.

But it is chiefly with respect to progress in
literature^ strictly so called, that the eighteenth
century gave rise to such remarkable improve-
ments in Germany. In the Belles Lettres, and
in works of taste generally, that extensive empire
furnished nothing worthy of notice anterior to the
age under consideration. But within this period
no other part of the literary world has been, on
the whole, so abund*ntly productive of works of
this nature.

Sect. II.] Germany. 175

It was observed in a former chapter, that no
Historical work, deserving of commendation for
its taste or elegance, had appeared in Germanr
prior to the period under review. Within the
latter half of this period, the works of Haber-
lin, Gebauer, Schmidt, Muller, Heinrich, Beck,
Meusel, Gatterer, Galletti, Ebeling, and Schiller,
afford very honourable monuments of German
talents. Of these the manner of Schiller appears
to be considered as the most easy, spirited^
and elegant- But though the historians of that
country have made great progress, within a iev>
years past, in cultivating this species of compo-
sition, it is conceived that none of them have yet
reached the high rank of historical excellence
for which Robertson, Hume, and Gibbon, are so
generally celebrated.

The Germans exceed all the rest of the v»orld
in the number and excellence of their Statistical
histories. The first work published under this
denomination, and in a scientific form, was about
the middle of the century, by professor Achen-
wall, of Gottingen, who is considered as the
father of Statistics. Since that time many others
have published works of a similar nature, but
of superior excellence. Among these Walch,
Reinhard, Bauman, Toze, Remer, Meusel, and
Sprengel, are entitled to particular notice-
But there is no species of composition v/ith re-
spect to which a greater improvement has been
made in Germany, during the last age, than in
that of Fictitious History. The only Romances
or Novels which had appeared in that country, at
the beginning of the century, were wretched

176 Nations lately become Literary. [Ch, XXVI.

imitations, which attract attention at present only
as monuments of bad taste. About the year
1746, Gellert made the first attempt to introduce
a different and more correct model of fictitious
history. The appearance of his Scliwedische Grd"
Jin, publislicd in that J^ear, forms a new era in this
department of German literature. The novels
published in German}', from 1746 to 17'54, were,
for the most part, translations from the English
and French languages. In 1754 Gesner's pastoral
romance, entitled Daphnis, appeared ; excited
much attention, and formed a second epocha in
the progress of this kind of composition. A few
years afterward the Teutschen Grandison of Mu-
Stisus, and the Agatlion of Wieland, gave another
and a still more correct turn to the German taste
in novel writing. Beside these, the various works
of Goethe, Schiller, Nicholai, Klinger, Herder,
Richter, and many others, deserve to be enume-
rated among the most celebrated fiction? of that
country*. In no part of Europe, it may be safely
affirmed, are so many novels continually produced
as in Germany. Several hundreds annually issue
from the press, and are circulated with growing
zeal in every part of tlic empire. It must be
granted, however, that some of the most popular
German novels are highly mischievous in their
moral tendency; and that no small number of
their mercenary writers are constantl}^ engaged
in diffusing, through the medium of fictitious his-

* The author is too liltle acquainted with the works of these
and other German novelists, to say any tiling about their com-
parative moral tendency. He only nioans to speak of them as
celebrated in a literary view.

Sect. II.] Germany. 177

toiy, the most corrupt and poisonous principles,
both in religion and morals.

No less remarkable has been the progress of
the German literati in Poetry, within the last fifty
years. The history of literature in that country
presents us with no specimens of poetry to which
any high degree of excellence can be ascribed,
before those of Hagedorn and Haller, who were
both born in 1708, and who are justly considered
as the founders of the modern poetical school in
Germany. Between 1740 and 17-50, an associa-
tion was formed by a set of young poets, pos-
sessed of eminent talents ; many of whose com-
positions were published in the Belustigungen des
Verstandes und Witzes, and in the Neuen Beytrd^
gen zum Vergniigen des Verslandes und Witzes.
The most eminent members of this society were
Cramer, Gellert, Gleim, Klopstock and Kabner.
Among these, the works of Gellert and Klop-
stock had the most extensive and the most happy
influence on the poetic taste of their countrymen.
The Messiah of the latter * introduced a great
and very useful reform both in the diction and
versification of German poetry. So that the
period of their association may be considered as
forming a grand epocha in the history of this de-
partment of German literature.

Beside the poets already mentioned, a number
of others have been long celebrated throughout
Europe. Among these are Gesner and Wieland,
distinguished in epic poetry j Kastner, Uz, and

* Klopstock published the first Canto of his Messiah m 1748 ;
but it was not completed till the year 1773.
Vol. Ill, N

178 Nations lately become Literary. [C[L XXVI.,

Diisch, ill didactic poetiy ; Kleist, \"oss, and
Goethe, m descriptive ^oeiiy :, Schlegel, Herder,
Weisse, and Raniler, in lyric ; and Canitz and
Stolbers,'-, in satirical poetry : Gesner and Voss^
in pastoral ; and Lichtwehr, Lessing, and others,
in fable. Nor have the dramatic poets of Ger-
many, in the last age,, been inferior in genius and
taste to those of any other country, Cruger,
Schrarder, Iffland, Grossman, Lessing, Engel,
Goethe, and Kotzebue, in comedy ; and Weisse,
Lessing, Leisewitz, Klopstock, Schiller, Goethe,
Babo, and others, in tragedy, are well known to
have raised the German drama to a very high
degree of reputation, if not for moral purity, at
least for spirit, force, and natural delineation of
characters.

Germany has also abounded within the last
twenty years, beyond any country on earth, in
miscellaneous publications on philology, criti-
cism, education, and every branch of polite lite-
rature. It ought further to be mentioned, to the
honour of Germany, that although classic litera-
ture lias much declined in that country, especially
since the practice of delivering lectures in Latin,,
and speaking that language, in many of her se-
minaries of learning, has been discontinued ; yet
this kind of knowledge has declined probably
less in Germany than in any other part of the
literary world ; and the literati of that empire
may be considered as, on the whole, the best
classic scholars that now adorn the republic of
h'ttcrs. The names of Kuster, Reiske, Ernesti,
lleyne, Kuhnken, Matthasi, Schneider, Voss,
lleeren, F. A. Wolf, Bottis^er, and Heusingcr,.

Sfxt. II.] Germany. 179

with a much greater number of nearly equal emi-
nence, would do the highest honour to any coun-
try, or any age.

Oriental literature eminently flourished in Ger-
many during the eighteenth century. It may be
questioned whether the oriental learning and
critical skill of the Michaelises, Eichhorn, and
Reiske, were ever before equalled. To which il-
lustrious names it would be improper not to add
those of Reineccius, Ludolf, Hezel, Schroeder,
Wahl, Hirt, Tychsen, Paulus, and Hasse, who
have rendered important services to the cause of
eastern learning, and biblical criticism.

No country has ever produced so great a num-
ber of authors, within a similar period, as Ger-
many, in the eighteenth century ; and there is no
country where a taste for reading more generally
prevails, especially in the protestant provinces.
Printing is carried to an excess truly wonderful.
Almost every man of letters is an author. Books
are multiplied to an incredible extent. Between
six and seven thousand new works are annually
published, beside smaller controversial pieces ;
for no one can become a graduate in their uni-
versities unless he has published at least one con-
troversial treatise.

In Germany the authors by profession amount
to about fifteen thousand? It is true, the greater
part of these are chiefly occupied in translating
from other languages, especially the French and
English. But their translations are generally ac-
companied with large bodies of learned notes,
which, if well executed, require all the judgement
and labour of original composition. It is further

N 2

180 Nations lately become Liter m^y. [Cll. XXVI.

to be observed, that, of their prodigious number
of books. Novels make a considerable part. But
they also make a large annual emission of im-
portant works on the most interesting subjects in
literature and science.

The book-trade of England and France is al-
most entirely confnied to their capitals, while the
other great towns have few booksellers ; and even
the greater part of these only act as factors or
agents to those who reside in the grand centre of
business. But the German empire has no capital
city, which, like London or Paris, forms a kind of
literary vortex, that absorbs the whole produce
of the country, and out of which few books are to
be found. For this reason literature is more ge-
nerally diffused in Germany. The residence of
many a petty prince is more fertile in literary
productions, than some large cities in England or
France. Hence the book-trade is more equally
distributed through the country ; and small
towns, otherwise of little importance, are fur-
nished with respectable and independent book-
sellers, each of whom, perhaps, will carry to the
Leipsic and Frankfort fairs a dozen new works
published by him, to be distributed not only in
his own immediate neighbourhood, but also in,
every province of the empire.

The mode of disposing of books by resorting to
Fairs for the purpose is peculiar to Germany,
and has been established in that country for many
years. To these great literary marts the book-
sellers flock in crowds from every part of the
country, with bales of books, and with complete
catalogues of the works which. they have to sell.

Sect. II.] Germany. 181

Here an amount of sales, and especially of barter,
is effected, which has no parallel in the world.
This plan is attended with many advantages.
Booksellers, by having so extensive and ready a
sale, are enabled to strike off much larger im-
pressions of good works, and to afford them at
a lower price. He who wishes to procure a
book in that country, instead of being con-
demned to a long and tedious search for v* hat is
only sold by one bookseller, has every publica-
tion of value brought to his door with the great-
est certainty and expedition. And the frequent
return of these extensive scenes of sale and ex-
change, has a tendency to keep up the public at-
tention to literary objects, and to give a degree
of life and interest to the commerce in books,
which we look for in vain in other countries.

The zeal and enterprise of German booksel-
lers are incredible. They frequently have agents
and correspondents in every literary p&.rt of Eu-
rope, who send them, with the utmost speed, all
useful intelligence, and procure for them the
proof-sheets of new and important works as they
are printing : whence it often happens, that the
originals and the German translations are offered
for sale at the same time. To this it may be
added, that the ready and extensive sales of books
which the fairs enable them to effect, give such
manifest advantages, that they can more easily
afford, and are more cheerfully disposed to pa}^ a
liberal price for literary services, than the same
class of men in most other countries. It is said
that between three and four hundred booksellers

182 Nations latelx) become Literary. [CilXXVI.

regularly attend the literary fairs, and that their
number is rapidly increasing.

In Great Britain and Ireland there are seven
universities. In Germany there are thirty-nine* ;
each of which maybe considered as a grand focus
from which the rays of light are thrown over the
Avhole adjacent country, thus illuminating the
empire, and bringing the means of knowledge to
almost every door.

Within a few years a taste for the acquisi-
tion of living languages has remarkably prevailed
in Germ.any. Perhaps the inhabitants of no
country are so much disposed as those of the Ger-
man empire to learn the languages of other na-
tions. Beside the English and French, which
have a very general currency (being read and
spoken by a very large portion of their literary
men), the Italian, Spanish, and Swedish are taught
in many of their seminaries of learning. The
great increase of this taste is one of the circum-
stances which preeminently distinguish German
literature in the eighteenth century.

The interests of letters and science have seldom
received very extensive or permanent aid from
government in Germany. The constitution of the
empire prevents any material aid of this kind from
being rendered, especially on a large scale, A
few of the subordinate princes have distinguished
themselves by their efforts for the advancement

* Six of these universities were founded during the eighteenth
century ; viz. those of Gdtnngen, Erlahgen, Fulda, Bom> Butzow,
and Stutgard.

SfXT. IL] Germany. 183

of knowledge; and though Frederic II of Prussia
was no friend to the German language *, yet his
accession to the throne may be considered as a
favourable era to German literature; because, by
collecting so many foreigners, and especially
Frenchmen, at his court, he excited a spirit of
emulation among his native subjects; introduced
much of the literature and science of other coun-
tries into his dominions ; and thus indirectly pro-
moted the general interests of knowledge in Ger-
many.

Public Libraries were greatly enlarged and
multiplied in Germany in the course of the
eighteenth century. To this circumstance, and
also to the great multiplication of literary and
scientific Societies, may be ascribed no small share
of that astonishing progress in literature and
science by which every part of the country, and
especially the northern provinces, have for some
time been and are every day becoming more
distinguished.

In short, during the eighteenth century Ger-
many has risen from pedantry and dulness to a
high character for genius and refined accomplish-
ments in the literary world. Instead of present-
ing few and cornparativcly uninteresting publica-
tions, as was the case a hundred years ago, she
has become by far the most prolific nation on

* Frederic II, among his numerous freaks and errours, was a
great enemy to the German language. He ordered the Trans-
actions of the Royal Society of Berlin to be published in French ;
by whicli, as many supposedj he meant to cast undeserved re-
proach ©n his native tongue, and to discourage the study an4
cultivation of it, tljough it had then become so fashionable.

184 Nations lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

earth in every species of literary production. She
gives birth annually to double the number of pub- ,
lications that appear in France, and to nearly
treble the number that are issued in Great Britain
and Ireland *. Instead of being despised as she
was at the beginning of the century for furnish-
ing scarcely any other than hewers of ivood and
draivers of water to the republic of letters, she
has produced, within the last fifty years, histo-
rians, poets, and dramatists, whose writings evince,
that judgement, acuteness, imagination, elegant
taste^ and every qualification for fine writing,
abound among her people. In fact, she has in
several respects pushed her literary progress to a
degree hitherto attained by no other nation, and
affords a striking example of the influence of
literature on national character.

But, while the progress of Germany in liberal
knowledge, the industry of her authors, the en-
terprise of her booksellers, and the growth of taste

* The whole population of Germany is not supposed to exceed
ihirt}) millions. In the Austrian dominions the class of peasants
are mostly serfs, or predial slaves, of which it is probable few are
able to read. In the other provinces, especially Suabia, West-
phalia, and the Upper Rhine, the number must be very great of
those who, if they have been taught to read at all, never devote
any part of their attention to books. Not more than ten millions
of the thirty are of the reading age ; and it is a very liberal cal-
culation to suppose, that, of these ^.en millions, not more than one
tenth are in the habit of purchasing and perusing books. Hence,
allowing the number of authors by profession to be fifteen thoii'
sand, which is said by some to be much below the real num-
ber, it appears, that, for every sixty-six readers, there is one who
lives by the trade of authorship. — See New York Month. Mag.
vol. ii, p. 9.

Sect. II.] Germany, 185

among her literati, deserve much praise, it may be
questioned whether the friend of sound and useful
learning can contemplate her literary aspect with
unmingled pleasure. Is it not to be feared that
the business of book-making is carried in that
country to excess ? Is it useful to fill a country
with a countless number of hastily composcjd,
and of course superficial books, on the most com-
mon subjects; thus perplexing and overwhelm-
ing the student, and imposing an unnecessary
tax on the friends of literature ? Above all, are not
the moral and theological principles contained in
too many of these works, and the practical ten-
dency of a still larger number, such as must fill
the virtuous mind with apprehension } There is
such a thing as an injurious multiplication of
books, even when they are all, individually harm-
less; but where a considerable portion of them,
bear a corrupt character, every increase of their
number will give the friend of human happiness
a mixture of pain. There is no country now on
earth (unless, perliaps, we must except France)
in which literary enterprise is made the medium
for conveying so much moral and theological
poison as in Germany *.

* See Additional NoUs (L),

186 Xations latelij become Liter ary. [Cil. XXVI.

SECTION III.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

The annals of American literature are short
and simple. The history of poverty is usually
neither very various, nor very interesting. Those
who are accustomed to contemplate only the
ancient and extensive literary establishments of
Europe, and who measure every object by Eu-
ropean standards, must look upon all that the
Western hemisphere has hitherto presented, espe-
cially until within a ^ew years past, as trivial and
unworthy of regard. But those who recollect the
origin and progress of the settlements which now
form the United States, and who make an im-
partial estimate of what may be justly expected
from a people situate as their inhabitants have
been and are, will entertain a more respectful
opinion of the small portion of literature which
the country contains *.

* The author regrets that his account of the rise and progress
of Y^merican literature is so much less full and satisfactory than
he once hoped to make it. With all his partiality for his native
country, he is convinced that its literary history, even if com-
pletely drawn out, Avould not make a very honourable figure. But
of the few learned men and literary events of which we have to
boast, it is mortifying that we know so little. The very names
of some who, a century ago, were the most conspicuous bene-
factors to the interests of liberal knowledge in our country, are
now almost forgotten; and with respect to the details of their
acquirements and services, nothing can be learned. An attempt

Sect. III.] United States of America. 187

■ The original settlers of the American States
may be divided into three classes, viz. 1. Emi-
grants from England, who fled from persecution,
and came to enjoy liberty of conscience : of this
class were the fn-st settlers in New England. 2.
Emigrants from the same country, who were
prompted chiefly by the hope of temporal emo-
lument: of this description were the first settlers
in Virginia and tlie Carolinas. 3. Emigrants
from Sweden and Holland, who planted them-
selves in New York, and certain parts of New
Jersey and Pennsylvania. The English colony
established some years afterward in Pennsylva-
nia by the illustrious William Penn, as well as that
in Maryland by lord Baltimore, may be consi-
dered as bearing the mixed character of settle-
ments prompted both by religious and worldly
motives.

It-inight have been expected that the colonists
of New England woidd be most early and zealous
in their attention to literature. Their character,
both for learning and piety, and the circum-
stances attending their establishment, were suffi-
cient pledges of their disposition to promote the
interests of knowledge, which they well knew
to be one of the most important pillars of the
church as well as of the state. Accordingly, dur-
ing the greater part of the seventeenth century,

is made in the following pages, to collect a few of the names and
fuels which appeared worthy of notice. There is no doubt that
many more will occur to different readers equally worthy of
being mentioned. The author can only say, that he has endea-
voured, as impartially as he was able, to exhibit the small portion
of information which came within his reach.

188 Nations lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

the literature of the American colonies was in a
great measure confined to New England. There
the first college in America was instituted*; there
the first printing press was established f ; and
liiose who are acquainted with the characters of
Hooker, Davenport, Stone, WarhamJ, Cotton,
Dunsler, Chauncey, Eliot, the Mathers, and
other distinguished clergymen; and ofWinthrop,
Hayner, Eaton, Hopkins, Wyllys, and Wolcoi,
eminent civilians of Massachusetts and Connec-
ticut, need not be informed that the number of
learned men at that period in New England was
by no means small.

The kind of learning most in vogue among
such of the clergy and laity of that country as de-
voted themselves to study, during the seventeenth
century, v>as precisely that kind which was most

* Harvard college was Instituted in 163S, a few years after the
first settlement of the colony. In the Additional Notes to this
volume, the reader will find as particular an account of all the
colleges in the United States, as the author could collect. He
therefore forbears to enter into further details in this place.

f The first printing press established in North America was by
Mr. Samuel Green, at Cambridge, in Massachusetts, in the year
1638. The first work printed was the Freentan's Oath; the next
an Almanac, made for New England, by Mr. Pierce, a mariner ;
and then the Psalms of David, newly turned into metre, 8fc.
There was printing work done in South America earlier than this.
Professor Barton, of Philadelphia, whose zeal and talents in ex-
ploring American antiquities do him the highest honour, lately
showed the author a vocabulary of one of the principal Indian,
languages of South America, printed in Mexico, not long after
the middle of the sixteenth century.

1 The rev. John Warham, who died at Windsor, in Connec-
ticut, in 1670, is said to have been the first minister in New En-
gland who used nates in preaching.

Sect. III.] United States of America. 18<)

fashionable in their native country when they left
it*. Accordingly they were generally well, and
some of tliem profoundly, read in the Latin,
Greek, and Hebrew languages ; in theology, an-
cient history, metaphysics, and some parts of ma-
thematical and astronomical science. There is
good reason to believe that the clergy and other
scholars of New England, for near a hundred
years after their first settlement, that is, till after
the commencement of the eighteenth century,
were more eminent for classical and theological
erudition than men of the same profession at this
dayf. They were, in particular, much better
acquainted with the Latin and Greek writers than
their descendants can now boast of being; TiwA
many of them were masters of the Hebrew lan-
guage, which at present is almost entirely neg-
lected J.

* The university of Cambridge, in Massachusetts, was formed,
as far as circumstances would admit, on the same plan Avith the
. universities in England; and the same course of learning was, in.
substance, pursued. The study of biblical literature and theological
science was encouraged by the peculiar spirit of the times, and of
the emigrants. And the direction once given was continued by
the force of example and habit long afterwards.

f This appears not only from the MagnaUa Americana of the
celebrated Cotton Mather, but also from the few publications
made by the clergy and others of that day ; from an inspection
of the books found in their libraries, and from the quality of
early donations in books made to Harvard and Yale colleges.

X Marty of the distinguished divines of Massachusetts and,
Connecticut, in the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth
centuries, were celebrated for their knowledge of the Hebrew
language. It is said that the rev. John Davenport, the second
clergyman of that name, and who died minister of the church at

190 Xafmis lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVI,

Beside the establishment of a college in Mas-
sachusetts, the inhabitants of that colony directed
early and particular attention to the erection of
subordinate schools in every part of the country.
In 1641 the following law was enacted: " If any
do not teach their children and apprentices so
much learning as may enable them to read per-
fectly the English language, to forfeit twenty
shillings ; and the selectmen of every town are
required to know the state of the families, &c."
Not long aftCTward a law was made, that when
any town increased tj» the number of one hundred
families, they should set up a grammar school, the
master thereof being able to instruct youth so far
as that they may be fitted for the university, under
certain penalties. To these schools, after a few
years, academies were added ; thus forming a
system of general education, which has been
from time to time improved, and which in the
eighteenth century became one of ihe distin-
guished honours of New England.

It was not till towards the close of the seven-
teenth century that a seminary of respectable
character, for general instruction in literature and
science, was established in Virginia. The origi-
nal settlers in that colony were, in several re-
spects, of a very different description from their
countrvmen who settled in New Eno^land. But a
small portion of them could boast of any consi-
derable acquirements or taste in literature. Ac-
tuated chiefly by the love of gain in coming to a

Stamford, in Connecticut, about the year 1731, carried into his
pulpit a Hebrew Bible only, and made use of no other.

Sfxt. III.] United States of Amej^ca. 191

rude £tnd uncultivated country, they directed their
principal attention to this object, and neglected
most other concerns. Besides, not being so much-
under the iniluence of religious principles as their
eastern brethren*, nor feeling in so high a degree
the necessity of literary institutions for the pro-
motion of ecclesiastical as well as civil prosperity,
they might naturally have been expected to be
more indifferent about their establishment. And-
to crown all, being formed of members who,
though chiefly from one country, were less equal
in station, less homogeneous in character, and less
united by common sufferings, it was not to be
supposed that they would act with the same har-
mony and zeal, in any pursuit which had public
good for its object.

Hence, during a great part of the seventeentli
century, the southern colonists paid but little at-
tention to literary institutions. Such as wished
to give their sons a liberal education, and could
afford the expense, sent them to Europe for this
purpose, and generally to some of the universities
of Great Britain. This practice, indeed, was con-
tinued by many for a long time afterward ; and
accordingly it happened, that, until near the mid-
dle of the eighteenth century, by far the greater
proportion of the young men of the Southern
States who were liberally educated, had received

* The author does not mean to intimate that the fust settlers
in Virginia were destitute of religion ; but merely (what he takes
for granted every one will readily admit), that religion seems to
have been a less prominent object, and to have entered less into
their motives and plans iu forming the settlement, than in New
England.

1 92 Nations lately become 'Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

their education at European seminaries. Those
who could not afford to adopt this plan wer6
obliged to content themselves either with such
private tuition as they could command, or with
the miserable system of instruction pursued in
the few small and ill conducted schools which
had been formed.

Such was the low state of literature in Virginia
when the rev. James Blair, who went to that co-
lony as a missionary about the year 1685, ob-
serving the great want of seminaries for the reli-
gious and moral, as well as literary instruction
of youth j and perceiving among other evils the
obstacles which this presented to the success of
his missionary labours, formed the design of erect-
ing and endowing a college at Williamsburgh.
For this purpose he not only solicited benefactions
from the colonists, but also made a voyage to
England in 1693, to obtain the patronage of the
government, and a charter for the proposed insti-
tution *. King William and queen Mary being
then on the throne, the application of Mr. Blair
was favourabl}'^ received; a patent was imme-
diately made out for erecting and endowing a se-
minary, under the name of " William and Mary
college," agreeably to his request-}-, and the plan

* The laudable exertions of Mr. Blair are mentioned with
great respect by bishop Buniet, in hlsHisioiy of his Oivn Times.
See vol. iv, p. 174.

t The object declared in the charter was, " to found and esta-
blish a certain place of universal study^ or perpetual college,
for divinity, philosophy, languages, and other good arts and
sciences." But neitJier theology nor the Hebrew language ap-
pear to have been so much studiod here as at Cambridge in Mas*
sachusetts,

Sect. III.] United Stales of America. 193

was «oon carried into execution. He was named
in the charter as the first president, and acted in
that capacity till the year 174.2*.

This college, though liberally endowed, has not
flourished so much as its friends could wish. For
more than seventy years after its establishment, it
had rarely more than twenty students at any one
time. The habit of sending young men to Eu-
rope for their education had continued so long,
that many of the more wealthy persisted in it after
they had a college erected among themselves.
Within a few years past the number of students
has considerably increased, and the prospects of
the institution are becoming much more favour-
able.

* The rer. James Blair was born and educated in Scotland,
whwe he obtained a benelite in the episcopal church. On ac-
count of the unsettled state of religion which then existed in that
kingdom, he quitted his preferments, and went into England,
near the end of the reign of Charles II. The bishop of London,
considering him as well qualified for the office, both as to talents
and piety, prevailed on him to go to Virginia as a mi;ssionary,
where he was highly popular and eminently useful ; and in
1689 obtained the appointment of ecclesiastical commissary for
the province. Though the charter wds given for " William and
Mary college," about the year 1693, and though he was named
therein as the first president, yet he does not appear to have en-
tered on the duties of this office till the year 1729, from which
period, until 1742, he discharged them with faithfulness. Mr.
Blair was a learned and exemplary man, respected and useful in
his various stations, and died at a good old asre in 174-3. lie
published four octavo volumes of discourse-;, under the following
title : Our Saviour's Divine Sermon on the Mount explained ; and
recommended in divers Sermons and Discourses. London, 1742.
This work is spoken of with high approbation by Dr. Doddrid"e,
in his Fmmilj p.xpositor.

Vol. III. O

194 Nations latelij become Literary. [Cil. XXVI.

Neither in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylva-
nia, Delaware, nor Maryland, had any thing
taken place, in favour of literature, worthy of
notice, prior to the eighteenth ceiitury. The in-
habitants of these colonies, struggling with the
difficulties of new settlements, not always in a
state of perfect harmony among themselves, and
of course too frequently encumbered with other
engagements, did little to advance the interests of
knowledge. A ^ew schools were established, but
they were on a small scale, were but indifferently
conducted, and attracted but iew pupils. The
more wealthy class in these middle colonies, like
their southern brethren, were at this time in the
habit of sending their sons to Europe for their
education; a practice which, though it caused a
small portion of the youth in the middle and
southern states to be more thoroughly educated
than was common in New England, yet rendered
education a much more rare attainment among
the former than the latter, and, on the whole, ex-
ceedingly checked the progress of literature in
the colonies.

It is to be observed, also, that the advancement
of literature in the American colonies, during the
seventeenth century, was not only retarded by
the general poverty of the colonists, and by the
numerous difficulties with which they had to
struggle while surrounded by tribes of savages,
and an uncultivated desert ; but also by the erro-
neous opinions at that time prevailing concerning
the liberty of the press. The business of printing
was laid under very inconvenient and discouraging

Sect. III.] United States of America. 19J

restrictions, during a part of this period, in Mas-
sachusetts*. In the province of New York, for a
considerable time, the introduction of a press was
entirely prohibited. And it is believed similar
restraints took place in some of the other colonies.
The influence of such restrictions on the general
progress of liberal information could not be
otherwise than highly unfavourable.

At the commencement of the eighteenth cen-
tury, an important seminary of learning rose in
Connecticut. A number of the clergy, anxious
more particularly that means might be adopted
for supplying the churches with a succession of
learned and able ministers, conceived the design
of erecting a college. This was accordingly soon
attempted, and Avith the most happy success. An
act of incorporation was obtained from the gene-
ral assembly in the year 1701, and the first com-
mencement took place in Saybrook in lyoSf.

* In 1662, twenty- four years after a printing press had been
established at Cambridge, the general court of Massachusetts ap-
pointed two persons as supervisors of the press, and prohibited
the publishing any books or papers until after they had been
examined and approved by them. In 1668 the supervisors hav-
ing allowed the celebratetl work of Thomas a Kempis, De Imita-
tione Christi, to be printed, the court interposed, alleging that it
"had been written by a popish minister, and contained some
things less safe to be diffused among the people."

t Most of those who graduated on this occasion in Yale col-
lege had previously taken their master's degree at Cambridge,
in IVIassachusetts. This accounts for a commencement taking
place so soon after the erection of the college, and before stu-
dents could have been carried regularl}'^ througli an academic
coyrse. It must bd acknowledged, however, that the American
colleges early began to discover that fondness for dealing out

0 2

1 96 Nations lately brcorne Literary. [ClI. XXVI

The course oi* instruction adopted in this college
was, in general, directed tov/ards those objects
Miiich were before mentioned as being most in
vogue in New England. Its establishment is an
important era in the literary history of Connec-
ticut. From this institution, as well as from the
sister college in Cambridge, many sons have been
sent, who have done honour to their alma mafer^
and proved benefactors to the cause of liberal
knowledge.

In 1714, the foundation of a library was laid
in this college. Jeremiah Dummer, esq., of Bos-
ton, then an agent in London, presented to it
more than eight hundred volumes of very valuable
books, part of which were purchased by himself,
and the rest obtained from his friends in, London.
Among the donors, on this occasion, appear the
names of some of the most conspicuous literary
and philosophical characters then living in Great
Britain *. These books, together with large ad-
ditions soon afterward made by governor Yalef

thrir honours with a liberal hand, which has since so much in-
rreased, not only in the United States, but also throughout the
literary Avorld.

* In the number of the contributors to this collection of
books for Yale college, we find sir Isaac Newton, sir Richard
Blackmore, sir Richard Steele, Dr. Burnet, Dr. Woodward^
Dr. Halley, I>-. Bentley. Dr. Ken net. Dr. Calamy, Dr. Ed-
wards, the rev. Mr. Henry, and Mr. Whiston, who severally
presented copies of their own works. See the Account of Yale
College ill the Appendix to the rev. Mr. Holme's Life of President
Siilcs.

+ Thomas Yale, esq., who had been governor of Fort St. George,
in India: for his repeated acts of genercsity to the college the.
tiusttcs cave it his name.

■Sect. III.] United States of America. 197

and otiicrs, produced immediate and visible ef-
fects on the state of learning in the colony. Be-
fore their arrival there Avere scarcely any books
in use, but such as had been imported with the
first settlers; and of course little was known con-
cerning the most important publications, disco-
veries, and improvements, which had been laid
before the public in the course of the preceding
century. From these books, the instructors and
students of Yale college first learned the phi-
losophy of Locke and of Newton, as well as
the important improvements which had recent-
ly taken place in various departments of litera-
ture.

It was some years after the establishment of
Yale college before the interests of literature be-
gan to. assume a promising aspect in Pennsjd-
vania. William Penn, being himself a learned
man, was a friend to the progress of knowledge.
We therefore find, that, under his auspices, there
was established, as early as 1689, a respectable
seminary for the instruction of j^outh, not only in
reading and writing, but also in the learned lan-
guages, and in the sciences. This seminary was
more particularly in the hands of the Friends, and
was no doubt useful in formins; many crood
scholars, and in producing a considerable degree
of taste for the acquisition of knowledge. The
celebrated George Keith* was. the first teacher

'O'

* George Keith was a native of Aberdeen, in Scotland. In
early life he belonged to the episcopal church ; but afterward
left that communion, and became a celebrated preacher amouij
the friends. In lt)92, having manifested a troublesome and
disorderly disposition, he was disowned by tliem, and in a short

19S Nations lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

in this academy. lie continued in the office,
however, but one year ; and was succeeded by
Thomas Makin, who has been followed by a
number of good instructors to the present time.
But the circumstance of this institution being in
a great measure confined to one denomination
of Christians, rendered it less viseful than it might
have been on a more extensive and liberal foun-
dation. Among those who were most active in
promoting the interests of literature from 1689,
until a iew years after the commencement of the
eighteenth century, Vv^e find the names of Edward
Shippcn *, Anthony Morris, Jonathan Dickinson,
Isaac Norris, Nicholas Wain, and James Loganf.

time returned to the episcopal church. He was a man of learn-
ing and talents ; but arrogant, vain, and given to litigation.

* Edward Shippcn was early and much distinguished in Penn-
sylvania. He came from England to Massachusetts to avoid
persecution ; but belonging to the society of friends, he met
with no better ti-eatment in New England than in his own coun-
try. He therefore removed to Pennsylvania soon after Mr. Penn's
arrival, and became conspicuous and useful in the new colony.
He was successively speaker of the house of assembly, member
of the governor's council, and the first mayor of the city of Phila-
delphia. His descendants have continued to be persons of dis-
tinction to the present day.

f James Logan, meotioued in a former chapter as a distin-
guished botanist, was born at Lurgan, in Ireland, in the year
1674. In 1699 he came to Pennsylvania, in company with
William Penn, under whose patronage he was much employed
in public affairs. He held, in succession, the several olfices of
provincial scrretary, commissioner of property, chief justice, and
ibr near two years discharged the duties of governor, as presi-
dent of the council. He died in 1751, at Stenton, his country
seat, near Germantown, where he had long enjoyed a dignified
retirement, devoted to study, and much employed in correspond-
ing with learned men in the different parts of Europe. He was

Sect. III.] United States of America. 199

The greater part of these gentlemen were among
tlie founders of the academy above mentioned,
and all of them were, for a number of years after-
ward, its zealous and diligent supporters.

About the year 1730 a spring was given to tho
progress of literature in Pennsylvania, and tlie
adjacent colonies, by the exertions of some pres-
byterian clergymen and others, most of whom
had a short time before arrived from Europe, and
who embarked with a laudable zeal in the pro-
motion of knowledge. The first of these was the
rev. William Tennant, an emigrant from Ireland,
who, about the year last mentioned, established
at Neshaminy, in the neighbourhood of Phila-
delphia, an academy, which was more particu-

well versed in both ancient and modern learning; had made con-
siderable proficiency in oriental literature; was a master of the
Greek, Latin, French, and German languages ; and had a very-
respectable degree of skill in mathematics, natural and moral
philosophy* and natural history. His principal works are the
following: 1. Experimenta et Mektcmata de Flantaruni Geneia-
t-one, ^'c, printed at Leyden in 1739, and afterwards in London,
by Dr. Fothergill, in 1747. 2. Canonum pro inveniendis Refruc-
tionum, turn siinplicium, turn in lentibus dupliciionfocis, Detnonstra^
tiones Gcotnetricw, ^f., also printed at Leyden in 17 39; and, 3.
in his old age he translated Cicero's treatise De Stnectute, with
explanatory notes, which was published with a recommenda-
tory preface by Dr. Franklin in 1744-. Mr. Logan had, with
great care and pains, collected a. librarj/ of more than three thousand
volumes, which, at that time, was by far the largest in Pennsyl-
vania, and particularly rich in works in the Latin and Greek
languages, and in the most curious, excellent, and rare scientific
publications. This valuable collection of books, usually called
the Loi^anian lil)rary, was bequeathed by its possessor to the ci-
tizens of Philadelphia, and has been since deposited in one of the
apartments belonging to the library company of that city. —
Proud's Ilistorj/ of Pavisi/hauia, vol. i/p. 478, ^-c.

^00 Nations lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

kirly intended for the education of ministers for
the preshyterian church *, This institution con^
tinued to flourish for some time, and was the
means of forming a number of good scholars, and
distinguished professional characters. "When it
began to decline, the rev. Mr. Roan, a learned
and able divine, also of the preshyterian church,
erected another academy at Neshaminy, in the
vicinity of the former. Mr. Roan, as well as his
predecessor, is entitled to grateful remembrance
for his zeal and success in promoting useful
knowledge.

About this time also Mr. Theophilus Grew f
from England, Mr. Annan from Scotland, and
Mr. Stevenson from Ireland, set up grammar
schools in Philadelphia, in which the dead lan-
guages were taught with great skill and assiduity.
Mr. Grevv :ivas the first person in Pennsylvania

* Mr. William Tennant had been a clergyirian in the esta-
blished church of Ireland before he came to America. Soon
after his arrival he renounced his connexion vith the episco-
pal church, and joined the presbytery of Philadelphia. He was
much celebrated for his accurate and profound acquaintance with
-the Latin and Greek classics, and taught them with great success
in his academy on the Neshaminy, which v.as called at that time
his hog college, from the edifice in which his instruction was
carried on being built of logs. IMr. Tennant had four sons, Gil-
bert, William, John, and Charles, who were all distinguished
and useful clergymen, and whose praise has long been in the
churches.

f Theophilus Grew was probably a son or grandson of the
celebrated botanist bearing the same name, who, in 1676, first
suggested the sexual doctrine of vegetables to the Royal Society
of London. The former was much distinguished as a mathema-
tician, and was afterward professor of mathematics in the colleg<5
of Philadelphia. - "

Sect. III.] United States of America. 2 0l

who undertook to teach the English language
grammatically. By the aid of these teachers
some of the oldest and most respectable inhabi-
tants of Pennsylvania, now living, were initiated
into the elements of English and classical know-
ledge.

About the year 1 740 the rev. Dr. Francis Al-
lison opened an academy for teaching the Latin
and Greek classics and the sciences at New Lon-
don, in Chester county, Pennsylvania *. Here he
began that course of public instruction, and that
zeal for the diffusion of general knowledge, which
•ended only with his life, and to which Pennsyl-
vania owes much of that taste for solid learning,
and particularly for classic literature, for which
many of her eminent characters have been so
laudably distinguished. Not long afterward the
rev. Samuel Blair opened an academy at Fog's
Alanor, also in Chester county, on nearly the same
plan of education. with that which was adopted
in Dr. Allison's seminary, but with more particu-
lar attention to the study of theology as a science.
Mr. Blair was a man of respectable talents as

* The rev. Francis Allison, D. D., was born iu Ireland, in the
year 1705. He received an excellent classical education at an
acadeniy in the north of that kingdom, under the particular in-
spection of the bishop of Raphoe, and afterward completed his
studies at the university of Glasgow. He came to America in
1735, and was the pastor of a presbyterian church in Chester
county, Pennsylvania, until about the year 1753, when he was
chosen rector of the academy in Philadelphia. Beside an un-
usually accurate and profound acquaintance with the Latin and
Greek classics, he was well informed in moral philosophy, his-
tory, and general literature. He died in 1779, in the seventy-
/burth year of his age.

»$02 Nations lately become Literari/. [Cn. XXVI.

well as learning *, and was eminently serviceal>lc
to that part of the country as a teacher of human
knowledge, as well as a minister of the Gospel.
From this " school of the prophets," as it was fre-
quently called, there issued forth many excellent
pupils, who did honour to their instructor both as
scholars and Christian ministers f . The next in-
stitution of this kind was the academy opened a
k\M 3^ears after Mr. Blair's, by the rev. Dr. Samuel
Finley J, at AV^est Nottingham, in Chester county,
in which a number of young persons were in-
structed in the languages and sciences, and some
in particular trained up to usefulness and honour
in the Christian church §.

Before the institution of these academies, that
is, anterior to the year 1730, there was very little

* The rev. Samuel Blair was a n;*"ive of Ireland. He came to
America very early in life, and was one of Mr. Tennant's pupils,
in his academy at Neshaniiny. He was considered not only as
©ne of the most learned and able, but also as one of the most
venerable, pious, and excellent men of his day?

f Among the distinguished characters who received their clas-
sical and theological education at this seminary, were the rev,
Samtjel Davies, afterwards president of the college of New Jersey ;
the rev. Dr. Rogers, of ZSew York ; the rev. Messrs. Alexander
Cummings, James Finley, Hugh Henry> and a number of other
respectable clergymen.

;|: The rev. Dr. Finley, afterwards president of the college of
New Jersey, was a native of Ireland. He came to America in
early life, having first received an excellent education in his
native country, and a short time after his arrival was licensed by
the presbytery of New Brunswick. The eminence which he
subsequently attained is well known.

§ Some of the facts and names above stated were received by
the author from his venerable colleague, the rev Dr. RogerSj and
from Dr. Hugh Williamson.

Sect. III.] United States of America. 203

taste for classical learning in the middle colonies
of America. It is true, the number of respectable
divines, physicians, and lawyers, was not small,
but the greater part of those who had attained to
any eminence had received their education in Eu-
rope, and almost all the instructors in academies
or schools were emigrants from Great Britain or
Ireland. But from this period a new era com-
menced. Native Americans began to discover a
taste for both ancient and modern literature, and
the interests of liberal knowledge began to
assume a more promising aspect.

It is generally known that the clergy, in all
civilised nations, are the chief promoters of the
instruction of youth. Accordingly, it is a remark-
able fact, that in all those parts of our country in
which the clergy are most numerous, pious, and
exemplary, literature is most popular ; and in re-
viewing the literary history of the several Ame-
rican states, we find that useful knowledge has
been most early and most generally encouraged
in those parts of the country in which clergymen
of good character were most early and generally
settled. This remark was strikingly confirmed and
exemplified in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, at
the period of which we are now speaking. The
exertions made by some of the clergy of these
colonies, at this period, for the promotion of lite-
rature, M^ere unwearied and persevering, and de-
serve the most grateful acknowledgements. The
synod of Philadelphia embarked in this cause with
great zeal. They particularly favoured the aca-
demies of Dr. Allison and Mr. Blair, before men-
tioned. To the former they agreed to pay a

204 Natiojis lately become Literary. [Cn. XXVI.

certain sum annually, that he might be enabled
to render his seminary more extensive in its plan,
and especially to educate for the service of the
church such pious young men as might not be
able of themselves to bear the expense of an aca-
demic course *.

But the clerg}'- and others of the presbyterian
church, soon fmding that the provision heretofore
made by them for the encouragement of literature
v/as inadequate, began to form designs of more
extensive and permanent utility. In the year
1746 a plan of a college was formed by a few
distinguished clergymen of this denomination, in
the states of New York and New Jersey f , aided

* When Dr. Allison, after a few years, removed to Philadel-
phia, and was appointed vice-provost of the college erected there,
his academy at Nexv London was transferred to Neiv Ark, a plea-
sant village in the state of Delaware, where it was put under the
care of the rev. Mr. M'Dowell, a respectable presbyterian clergy-
man, 'who had received his education at the university of Edin-
burgh. This institution continued for a number of j^ears under
the patronage of the presbyterian church ; and was the means
of forming a number of excellent scholars, not only for the Go-
spel ministry, but also for the other learned professions.

t Among these were, 1. The rev. Jonathan Dickinson, a na-
tive of Connecticut, and an alumnus of Yale college; a man of
learning, of distinguished talents, and much celebrated as a ,
preacher. He was for some years minister of the presbyterian
church at Elizabeth Town, in New Jersey. 2. The rev. Aaron
Burr, also a native of Connecticut, and a graduate of Yale college,
who was called, in 1742, to take charge of the Presbyterian
church at New Ark, in New Jersey, and who was so eminent
as an able and learned divine, and an accomplished scholar, that
he was afterwards unanimously elected president of the college
■which he was instrumental in founding. He was the father of
Aaron Burr, esq., the present vice-president of the United States.
2. The rev. Ebcnczcr Pemberton, a native of Massach'-'settSj and

Sect. III.] United States of America. 205

by some gentlemen of literary character and
liberal views, of the same religious commmiion*.
The charter was obtained, and the college com-
menced its labours in Elizabeth Town, New Jer-
sey, in the year above mentioned, under the pre-
sidency of the rev. Jonathan Dickinson, who was
then pastor of the presbyterian church in that
town. Mr. Dickinson dying the next year, the
college was removed to New Ark, in the same
province, and the rev. Mr. Burr elected to the
office of president; from which place it was finally
removed in 17«57 to Princeton, which had been

a son of Harvard college, a man of respectable abilities and in-
formation. He was, at this time, pastor of the presbyterian
church in the city of New York, from which he removed to Bos-
ton, and died, many years afterwards, minister of a church in
that town.

* The most distinguished of the lay gentlemen who aided in
the erection of this college, by their councils, property, and in-
fluence, were the three following: 1. William Smith, esq., a na-
tive of England, who came to America about the year 1715, and
received a liberal education in Yale college. He was bred a
lawyer ; attained great eminence at the bar, both for erudition
and eloquence, and was afterwards one of the judges of the supreme
court of the province. 2. Pet«r Vanbrugh Livingston, esq., a
native of New York, and descended from one of the oldest and
most respectable families who migrated thither from Great Bri-
tain. He also received his education at Yale college, and was
long distinguished as a judicious, well informed, and public-spi-
rited man. 3. William Peartree Smith, esq., also a native of New
York, a man of considerable talents and reading. It is believed
he was an alumnus of the same college. At the period of which
we are speaking he resided in New York, but afterwards re^
moved to New Jersey, where, after sustaining a number of public
honours, he died a few years ago. Beside these, some other
laymen might be mentioned who were animated with a lite-
rary spirit, and embarked with zeal in the same caus? ; but our
limits forbid more minute details.

i06 Natiojis lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

agreed upon as its permanent situation *. The
circumstances attending the establishment of this
college; the zeal for the promotion of literature^
which was indicated by its erection, and which it
served afterwards greatly to increase; and the
many distinguished characters which it has con-
tributed to form, render it, beyond all doubt, one
of the most conspicuous institutions in America,
and one of those the history and influence of which
are most worthy of being traced.

While these measures for the advancement of
literature were proceeding thus favourably, Ben-
jamin Franklin f appeared in Pennsylvania, and
began to distinguish himself by his exertions for
promoting useful knov»dedge. The original genius
of this celebrated man ; his sound practical under-
standing ; his scientific discoveries; and his zeal
and unwearied assiduity in forwarding every pur-

* It ought not to pass unnoticed, that the middle colonies were
much indebted for their progress in literature, at this time, to
New England. The first three presidents of New Jersey college
were born and educated in that country, as were also a consi-
derable number of the other active and enlightened promoters
of learning then residing in New York, New Jersey, and Penn-
sylvania.

f Benjamin Franklin was born in Boston in the year 1706.
He first came to Philadelphia in the autumn of 1723, in the cha-
racter of a journe\aiian printer; established himself tliere in this
business on his own account in 1729, and soon began to print a
newspaper. In 1732 he commenced the publication of Toor
Richard's Almanac ; and from this time till about the year 1752,
when he made his grand discoveries in electricity, was gradually
rising in reputation and usefulness. His political character and
activity, beside being irrelative to the present subject, are too well
known to render any attempt to detail them in this place either
necessary or projjer.

Sect. III.] United States of America. 207

suit which had for its object the progress of lite-
rature, are well known, and have been applauded
not only ])y his countrymen, but also by the
learned of all nations *. North America in gene-
ral, and in particular Pennsylvania, owes a large
debt of gratitude to this man. He had great in-
fluence in awakening and directing the attention
of those around him to literature, science, and
useful arts of every kind. He was one of the first
native Americans who succeeded in cultivating
an easy, unafifected, and polished style of writing-j-.

* A late writer in the Monthly Magazine (see the Supplement
to vol. xiv), among other severe remarks on the state of Ame-
rican literature, afiects to speak with great contempt of the
character and writings of Dr. Franklin, An essay which dis-
covers so much ignorance, weakness, and inconsistency would
liot be noticed in this place, did it not ail'ord an opportunity of
doing justice to a man to whom his country owes much. That
the character and opinions of Dr. Franklin were, in all respects,
faultless, is by no means contended. This was far from being
the case. But that he had an original genius, a strong mind, and
much practical wisdom ; that he made many valuable contribu-
tions to science and the arts; and that his writings have been
much read, translated into various languages, and quoted with
respect by the learned of foreign countries, can be questioned by
no one who is not as ignorant as he is prejudiced.

f The anonymous writer above mentioned, after bestowing a
number of severe epithets on the American style of writing, some
of which are not altogether unmerited, represents its writers as
having generally formed their manner after that of Dr. Franklin.
It is scarcely possible to conceive of a remark more unfounded,
or that discovers a more entire unacquaintance witli the subject
which he undertakes to discuss. It is generally known to well
informed persons, that Franklin, as he tells us himself in his ac-
count of his own life, took the style of Mr. Addison for his mo-
del ; and though he was far from attaining a style equal to that
of the illustrious British essayist, yet he certainly wrote with an
f^ase, simplicity, sprightliness, purity, and perspicuity, highl}-

208 Nations lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

He was the projector and founder of some of
the most useful literary institutions which Ame-
ll^ica can boast; and may Justly be considered as
having given an impulse to the public mind, in
favour of liberal knowledge, which forms a di-
stinguished era in the history of that country.

Hitherto scarcely any native American had at-
tracted attention among the learned of Europe,
or by his writings or discoveries turned their eyes
to this new world. The first persons who attained
this honour, in any considerable degree, were
the rev. Air. Jonathan Edvrards*, the celebrated

respectable, and very diiTerent from the aflectation, the bombast,
and the perpetual use of unauthorised terms and phrases, which
characterise too many American Avriters in later times, and from
which some popular writers of Great Britain are by no means
exempt.

* The rev. Jonathan Edwards was born at Windsor, in Con-
necticut, October 5, 1703. He received his education at Yale
collesre, where he irraduated bachelor of arts in 1720. He earlv
began to preach, and the presbytcrian church of New York, then
in its infancy, had the honour of enjoying his ministrations for
eight months, in the year 1723. He afterwards became the.
pastor of a congregational church at Northampton, in Ma?ia-
chusetts; and in 1757 M-as chosen president of the college of
New Jersey, in which office he continued till his death, which
took place March 22, 1738, in the fifty-fifth year of his age.
This illustrious man was very respectably learned in the Latin,
Greek, and Hebrew languages, and a'so in the mathematics, and
natural philoscphy ; but in theological, moral, and metaphysical
science, he discovered an acuteness, vigour, and comprehensive-
ness of mind, which decidedly place him in the very first rank
of great men belonging to the age in which he lived. He read
Locke's Essay on Human Understanding at thirteen years of age,
and declared to an intimate friend a short time before his death,,
that, at that early age, " he was as much engaged, and had more
tleasure in studyi"Dg this work; than the most greexly miser could

Sect. III.] United Stales of America. 209

theological and metaphysical writer, and Dr. Ben-
jamin Franklin. Though the genius, talents, and
general character of no two persons could be
more different, yet each in his way gained high
and extensive celebrity, and for the first time con-
vinced the literati of foreign countries, thut Ame-
rica had given birth to philosophers who were
capable of instructing them.

The arrival in America of the rev. Mr. George
Berkeley, then dean of Derry, afterward bishop
of Cloyne, deserves to be noticed in the literary
history of America, not only as a remarkable
event, but also as one which had some influence
on the progress of literature, particularly in
Ilhode Island and Connecticut. This great man,
in 1729, nineteen years after the publication of
the celebrated work in which he denied the ex-
istence of the material world, came to America
with a particular view to the establishment of
an episcopal college, to aid in the missionary
cause *. He landed at Newport, in Rhode Island,

have in gatlioring up handfuls of silver or gold from a newly
discovered mine." The fruits of this early initiation into me-
taphysical science were afterwards laid before the public in his
Inquiry into the Freedom of the Will, S^c, a work which has been
pronounced " one of the greatest efforts of the human mind,"
which was received with high approbation in Europe ; and
which has been, ever since its publication, quoted as a great
standard work on the subject of which it treats.

* Dr. Berkeley was born in Ireland in the year 1684-, and re-
ceived his education at Trinity college, Dublin. About the
year 172t he was made dean of Derry; and in 1725 published
A plan, which he pursued with great zeal, of establishing a col-
lege in one of the Bermudas, or Summer Islands, the principal
objects of which were, the obtaining a better supply of mission-
aries for the coloaies, and the conversion of the American Indi-

VOL. III. P

210 Nalions lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

and purchased a country seat and farm in the
neighbourhood of that town, where he resided
about two years and a half: and though va-
rious circumstances discouraged him from pro-
secuting his original design, and induced him to
return to Europe without eiYecting it, yet his
visit was by no means without its utility. The
presence and conversation of a man so illustrious
for talents, learning, virtue, and social attractions,
could not fail of giving a spring to the literary
diligence and ambition of many who enjoyed his
acquaintance. He visited the various 1 iterary in-
stitutions vyhich came within his reach, and wrote
and spoke in their favour, as opportunities were
afforded, and their exigencies required. lie exer-

ans to Christianity. The plan was favourably received^ not only
by his friends, but also by the government. Ho obtained a
charter for the proposed college, in which he was named as the
first president; and also a parliamentary grant of 20000/. ster-
ling for its support. In the month of February, in the year 1729,
he came to America for the purpose of putting his plan into ex-
ecution, and brought with him his lady, whom he had married
but a few months before. Soon after his arrival he became con-
vinced that the plan of establishing the proposed college in the
Bermuda isles was by no means an eligible one; he therefore
\vrote to his friends in England, requesting them to obtain an al-
teration in the charter, fixing the institution on some part of th«,
American continent (which would probably have been New
York), and soliciting the immediate payment of the sum which
had been granted for its establishment. Findjng, however, after
a delay of two years and a half, that there was no probability of
the money being paid, and considering his plan as impracticable,
he embarked at Boston in September 1731, and returned to En-
gland. In 1733 he was promoted to the bishopric of Cloyne,
and in January 1753 he died in the city of Oxford, universally
respected and lamented. While he resided at Rhode Island, he
coHiposed his Alciphron, or Minute Philosopher.

Sk CT. III.] United States of America. 211

cised particular munificence toward Yale college,
to which his attention was directed by one of the
trustees of the institution with whom he was ac-
quainted, and also by the rev. Mr. Williams, then
president of the college, with whom he corre-
sponded. Soon after his return to Europe he
sent, as a gift to this college, a deed of the farm
which he held in Rhode Island, which he directed
to be appropriated to the maintenance of the
three best classical scholars who should reside at
college at least nine months in a year, in each
of the three years, between their fn'st and second
degrees * ; and all surplussages of money, arising
from accidental vacancies, to be distributed in
Greek and Latin books to such under graduate
students as should make the best composition or
declamation in the Latin tongue, upon such a
moral theme as should be given them. This do-
nation is still held by the college, and the distri-
bution of the Dean's Bounty is annually and faith-
fully performed, agreeably to the directions of
the donor.- While at Newport, the dean also pre-
sented a copy of his own v/orks to the college
library; and after his return to Europe, partly
out of his own estate, but principally with monies
which he procured for the jDurpose by donation

* The dean directed, that on the sixth of May annually, or, in
case that should be Sunday, on the seventh, the candidates for
this bounty should be publicly examined by the president oi'the
college, and the senior episcopal missionary within the colony
who should then be present; and in case none should be present,
then by the president only : and in case the president and senior
missionary should not agree in deciding on the best aeholar:, that
then the case should be decided by lot.

P2

212 Nations latelij heco7ne Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

in England, he made an additional present of
nearly one thousand volumes to the same li-
brary *,

In 1748 a public library was established at
Newport, in Rhode Island, by Abraham Red-
wood, esq,, an opulent gentleman, who wished to
encourage literature. It was founded for the use
of all denominations of Christians indiscrimi-
nately : a company was afterwards incorporated
by the legislature, for the purpose of holding and
superintending it ; and large additions were made
to it by donations from Europe and elsewhere.
This library afforded to the inhabitants of Rhode
Island means of literary improvement which they
had never before enjoyed; and no doubt contri-
buted something to the extension of a taste for
letters and science in that colony f .

The influence of Dr. Franklin's literary zeal and
industry soon began to display itself in Pennsyl-
vania. In 1742, an association, which had been
formed at his instance, and by his unwearied ex-
ertions some time before, was incorporated, by
the name of " The Library Company of Phila-
lielphia." This institution was greatly encouraged

* The attention and munificence of the clean to Yale college,
^vhen considered in all its circumstances, reflects much honour
on his disinterestedness and liberality. When it is considered
that he ^^tls warmly attached to the episcopal church, and that
he came to America for the express purpose of founding an epis-
rtipal college ; his Catholicism, in patronising an institution
under the exclusive direction of a different denomination, will
appear worthy of high praise.

t Thi3 library, which bore the name of its founder, was in a
great measure destroyed during the revolutionary war.

Sect, III.] United States of America. 21a

by the friends of literature in America and in
Great Britain. Valuable contributions were
made to it, not only by Franklin, and his literary
friends and countrymen, but also by his corre-
spondent Mr. Collinson, by Thomas and Richard
Penn, and others. From that period to the pre-
sent it has been continually growing ; and now,
in conjunction with the Loganian library, forms
the largest and best collection of books in the
United States*.

In 1749 Dr. Franklin drew up tlie plan of an
academy, to be erected in the city of Philadel-
phia, which was adopted and liberally encou-
raged ; and the seminary was established ^n the
beginning of the following year. In 1153,
through the interposition of his learned and phi-
losophic friend Mr. Collinson f , a charter was
obtained for this academy, from the proprietors
of the province, accompanied with a liberal do-
nation towards its funds. In 17«5o an additional
charter was granted, extending the plan of the

* The city librarj/ of Philadelphia contains, at present, between
eleven and twelve thousand volumes — say eleven thousand five
hundred. The Lo^rt?»zVm library consists of about three thou-
sand five hundred, making in the whole a collection of fifteen
thousand volumes.

f Peter Collinson, F. Jl-S., was a native of Westmoreland, ai^d
resided the greater part of his life in London. lie was much
distinguished by his fondjiess for natural history, and also Ijy his
desire and exertions to promote literature and science in the
American colonies. He long -maintained a friendly correspon-
dence witii lieutenant-governor Golden of NewYorJc, and with
Dr. Franklin, as well as with other American gentlemen. He
d^ed in 1768.

214 Nations lately become Literarx). [Ch, XXVX

institution, and forming it into a college *. The
first provost was the rev. Dr. William Smith f ,
whose popular talents, and taste in polite litera-
ture, contributed greatly to raise the character of
the college. He was principally assisted by the
rev. Dr. Francis Allison, who had been called from

* In the establishment of this seminary on its original plan,
and in finally erecting it into a college. Dr. Franklin is said to
have been chiefl}^ aided by the councils and exertions of chief
justice Allen, wfio Avas much distinguished as a friend to litera-
ture ; by Thomas Hopkinson, esq., one of the governor's council ;
by the rev. Richard Peters, secretary of the province ; by Tench
Francis, esq., attorney-general; and by Dr. Phineas Bond, an
eminenf physician ; all residing in Philadelphia.

f The rev. Dr. William Smith was a native of Scotland, and
received his education at the university of Aberdeen, where he
graduated in March 1747. The three following years he spent
in teaching in one of the parochial schools of that country ; and
in 1750 was sent up to London, in pursuance of some plan for the
better endowment of the said schools. In London he was induced
to relinquish the employment in which he wa5 engaged, and to
embark for America, where he soon afterward arrived. Here
he was employed upwards of two years as a private tutor in the
family of governor Martin, on Long Island, in the province of
New York. In this situation he was invited to take charge of
the college in Philadelphia, to which he consented; and after
revisiting England, and receiving regular ordination in the epis-
copal church (which took place in December 1753), he returned
to America; and in the month of May, 1754-, was placed at the
head of this infant seminary. The talents of this gentleir,an, and
his histoiy, from the time of his induction into the office of pro-
vostjfuntil his death, in the montTi of May ] 803, are generally
known. He gave important aid in the formation and establish-,
ment of another college in the state of Maryland ; and certainly
rendered important services to the literary interests of America.
It is expected that his loorks, in several volumes, will soon be
laid before the public.

Sect. III.] United States of America. 215

his academy, before mentioned, to the office of
vLceprovost in this seminary ; and who, perhaps,
still more eminently contributed to its reputation
for solid learning and useful knowledge.

The effects of this establishment in awakening
the attention of the public to the interests of
learning, and in exciting a taste for literature in
Pennsylvania, were soon visible. The first com-
mencement took place in a short time after the
second charter was obtained, when the honours
of the institution were conferred on six young
gentlemen *, most of whom became afterward
both conspicuous ^nd useful literary charac-
ters, and were honourable pledges of the be-
nign effects which this college w^as destined to
produce on the literature and science, not only of
Pennsylvania, but also of the neighbouring states.

It has already been mentioned, that Dr. Frank-
Im's exertions were eminently usefuj '\\\ promot-
ing the cause of liberal knowledge in Pennsylva-
nia. His experiments on electricity \yere pecu-
liarly fitted to awaken and stimulate the public
mind, and were actually found to produce this
effect, in a very remarkable degree, both in Eu-
rope and America, He was soon joined by Mr.
Thomas Hopkinson, the rev. Ebenezer Kinners-
ley, Mr. Philip Syng, and others, who also be-
came distinguished by their experiments in the
same branch of philosophy. Mr. Kinnersley was ■•

* These were, Jacob Duche, Samuel Magaw, James Latta,

Hugh Williamson, Francis Hopkiiison, and Hall. The

first three became eminent clergymen; and two of the others
have been long celebrated in America, for their literary attain-
jnents, and their useful services in civil life;.

5216 Nations lately become Liter aj-y. [Ch. XXVI,

afterward appointed a professor in the college of
Philadelphia, and was one of the active promoters
of useful knowledge of his day *.

In the province of New York the interests ofli'
terature had been more than commonly neglected
before the middle of the eighteenth century. Few
of the first settlers had any literary taste or ac-
quirements; and though now and then an indi-
vidual came to the province from Europe, who
was learned, and disposed to cultivate letters f,
yet the number of these was so small, and the
great body of the inhabitants so little willing to
second any endeavours which they might make
for the advancement of knowledge, that every
thing relating to education was in the most deplo-
rable state. Some of the more wealthy inhabi-
tants sent their sons to Holland, or to Great Bri-
tain, to be educated; while a few others, to whom
this would have been inconvenient, placed their

* Mr. Kinnersley was bred a baptist, and was for some time a
preacher of that denomination ; but afterward, taking some of-
fence, he left the baptist communion, laid aside his clerical cha-
racter, and joined the episcopal church.

-f- Governor Stuy vesant appears to have been a man of respec-
table attainments in literature. Out of the small number of cler-
gymen who came to the province in early times, a few had made
considerable acquirements in letters. The ancestors of the Rens-
salaer, the Bayard, the Livingston, and the Morris families, and
a few others, who first came to the colony, had also been liberally
fducated. Two or three of the governors, who were sent at dif-
ferent times, were fond of literature, and made some exertions to
promote it. Of this character, especially, was governor Burnet.
To these might be added some other names, did our limits allow
of more minute details. But the influence of these could not be
great, \vhen the mass of the people were regardless of every lite«
rary object.

Sect. III.] United Slates of America. 217

children in Yale college. From these sources
almost all the natives of New York, who, prior to
the middle of the eighteenth century, enjoyed
the advantages of a liberal education, had re-
ceived the elements of knowledge.

In the year 1729 a small lil>rary was sent over
to the city of New York, by the " Society for pro-
pagating the Gospel in foreign parts," for the use
of the clergy, and other gentlemen of this and
the neighbouring governments of Connecticut,
New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. This was the
first public library that was introduced into the
province ; and it doubtless contributed, in some
degree, to awaken and extend a taste for reading.

In 1754 a society was established in the city
of New York, for the purpose of forming a pub-
lic library on a larger scale, and upon a more
liberal plan. This association soon received the
countenance of the public, and immediately be-
gan to collect books. The library, thus begun,
has continued to grow to the present time, and
now holds the third place among the public libra?
ries of the United States*. This establishment
furnished the first opportunity enjoyed by the
citizens of New York, in general, of obtaining
access to a large collection of books.

About this time some of the inhabitants of
New York (the greater part, if not all, belonging
to the episcopal church), began to form the de-
sign of establishing a seminary of learning on a

* The Philadelphia librarj'-, includiiig the Loganian, contains
about fifteen thousand volumes ; the library belonging to Har-
%'ard college about thirteen thousand j and the library of New
"York about seven thousancl.

£18 Nations hteli^ become Literajy. [Ch. XXV^I*

more extensive plan than any which had hitherto
been known in tlie province. Animated by the
exertions made to found a college at Philadel-
phia, they undertook to erect a similar institu-
tion in their ov/n city. At the head of the asso-
ciation formed for this purpose was Mr. James
de Lancey *, lieutenant-governor of the province,
who, beside the aid of the rev. Dr. Barclay f,
and other literary gentlemen of New York, was
also assisted by the counsels and cooperation of
the rev. Dr. Johnson J, of Connecticut, and the

* Mr. James de Lancey was a native of New York. His fa-
ther, Mr. Stephen de Lancey, came from Normandy, in France,
among the protestants who fled from persecution in that country.
The son was sent to England for his education, where, about the
year 1725, he entered the university of Cambridge. Here he
had the honour of having for his tutor Dr. Plerring, afterward
archbishop of Canterbury. Soon after his return home in 1729,
he was appointed a member of the governor's council ; after-
ward filled the office of chief justice ; became lieutenant-gover-
nor in 1753 J and had long an extensive and commanding in»
fluence in the province. He died about the year 1700.

t The rev. Dr. Henry Barclay was a native of xllbany, and
received a liberal education at Yale college, where he graduated
in the year 1734'. Soon after leaving college he went to Great
Britain, where he received orders in the episcopal church, andf
was appointed missionary to the Mohawk Indians. Having
served m this capacity for some years, he was called to the city
of New York, and appointed rector of Trinity church. In this
respectable situation he continued till his death, which took place
hi 1765.

J The rev. Dr. Samuel Johnson was born at Guilford, in Con-
necticut, October 1 4, 1696. He was educated at Yale college,
where he took his first degree in the year 1714-. In 1720 he was
ordained by a council of congregational ministers, and installed
pastor of a church at West Haven, in Connecticut. After re-
maining in this situation a little more than two years, he altered
his views concerning the doctrine, worship, and government of

Sect. III.] United States of Amerkct. 219

rev. Dr. Chandler*, of New Jersey. In the be-
ginning of the year 1 753, an act of assembly was
passed for the establishment of the college, and
making some provision, by a succession of lot-
teries, for its support. In October 1754 a regu-
lar charter of incorporation was obtained, and
the rev. Dr. Johnson named therein as the first

the church with which he was connected, and went to England,
where he took orders in the episcopal church in the month of
March 1723. From this time till the year 1754, Dr. Johnson
resided at Stratford, in Connecticut, where he had the pastoral
care of an episcopal church. In the last mentioned year he re-
moved to New Yorkj and entered on the duties of his office as
president of King's college. In this station he continued till Fe-
bruary 1763, when he resigned, returned to Stratford, and there
again exercised his ministry till his death, which happened in
January 1772. Dr. Johnson Avas a man of distinguished talents
and learning. He was intimately acquainted with dean Berkeley,
during his residence in Rhode island ; long maintained a frieni;lly
correspondence with him ; and became a convert to the pecujiar
metaphysical opinions of that great man. Beside other smaller
work?, he published a Compendium of Logic, and another of
JEthic&, which were printed together in an octavo volume in
1752, by Dr. Franklin, then residing in Philadelphia. He also
published aHcbrezv Gramtnar in 1107, which evinced an accurate
acquaintance with that language. — For this account of Dr. John-
son, as well as for some other facts and names in the history of
American literature, the author is indebted to a manuscript Life
of Dr. Johnson, drawn up by the rev. Dr. Chandler, mentioned
in the following note.

■^' The rev. Dr. Thomas Bradbury Chandler was a native of
Connecticut, and received his education in Yale college, where
he graduated master of arts in the year 1745. He soon after-
ward went to England, took orders in the episcopal church,
and settled in the ministry at Elizabeth Town, New Jersey,
■where lie long maintained a high character both for talents and
erudition. He was honoured with the degree of doctor of divi-
nity by the university of Oxford. His respectable and useful life
terminated in the year 1790.

220 Nations lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

president. He entered on the duties of his office
in the month of July the same year, and held the
first commencement in June 1758, when eight
young gentlemen, alumni of the college, were ad-
mitted to its honours*.

The corporation of Trinity church, in the city
of New York, early countenanced this college,
and made a valuable donation to its funds. The
institution also received important aid from the
honourable Joseph Murray f, one of his majes-
ty's council, and attorney-general for the pro-
vince. He was a great friend to literature, and
left the whole of his estate, consisting of books,
lands, and other property, to the college. The
names of some other benefactors, but less conspi-
cuous than these, are to be found on the records
of the institution.

From this period we may date the rise of a
literary spirit in the province of New York. It
is true, this spirit was possessed for a long time
afterward by comparatively few individuals, and
produced -effects by no means so general or im-
portant as the friends of knowledge could wish \
but from this time the advantages of liberal edu-
cation were more frequently enjoyed in the pro-

* The names of these young gentlemen are, Samuel Ver-
planck, Rudolphiis Ritzema, Philip van Cortlandt, Samuel Pro,-
voost, Joshua Bloomer, Joseph Reed, Josiah Ogden, and Isaac
Ogden.

t Joseph Murray, esq., was a native, it is believed, of Great
Britahi, and received his education there. The \alue of the
estate which he left to the college amounted to ab(?lit ten thour^
sand pounds New York currency, or twenty-five thousand
dollars.

Sect. III.] United States of America. S2I

viiice, and some of those who w^ere destined after-
ward to fdl the most conspicuous stations, began
to receive at home that instruction which before
could only be received in other colonies, or in
European seminaries.

The interests of literature were at this time
going on prosperously in Massachusetts. A ie.\i
years before, Mr. Thomas Hollis*, of London, an.
active friend to literature, as well as to civil and
religious liberty, had made several valuable dona-
tions to the university of Cambridge. He was
followed in this munificence by his nephew, of the
same benevolent disposition. To these generous
benefactors that institution owes much. They esta-
blished two professorships, one of theology, the
other of mathematics and natural philosophy ;
they gave many valuable books to the uni-
versity library f ; and made other presents of
considerable value. One of the college buildings
erected in 1762 was called, in memory of these
benefactors, Hollis Hall.

While the Hollis family exercised this genero-
sity towards the institution, benefactors were not
wanting in America to imitate their laudable mu-

f The library of Harvard college took its rise soon after
that institution was founded. In 17 64- it consisted of about
five thousand volumes. In the winter of that year the greater
part of this library was destroyed by fire, with one of the col-
lege buildings. Since that time it has been gradually growing,
and now consists of about thirteen thousand volumes. The
chief contributors to this library were the Hollis family, Tho-
mas Hancock, esq., governor Bowdoin, Dr. Franklin, and several
6t tiers.

t22 Nations lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVt,

mficence. Thomas Hancock*, esq., of Boston,
founded a professorship of oriental languages, and
continbuted generously to the enlargem<?nt of
the library. Nicholas Boylstone, and Edward
Hopkins, esquires, also deserve to be respectively
mentioned among the benefactors of this im-
portant seminary, and as enlightened friends to
literature and science.

In the former half of the eighteenth century, by
far the greater portion of the book-printing done
in the American colonies was executed in Boston.
No where did so many original American publi-
cations issue from the press ; and no where was
so much enterprise manifested in republishing
European works. These w'orks, it is true, were
chiefly on theological subjects, and comparatively
few of a literary or scientific nature were circu-
lated among the people, by means of American
presses; but still the books which were edited
had a tendency to enlarge the public mind, and
to render a taste for reading more general.

In Connecticut, at this time, literature and
science were on tlie whole gaining ground. The
appointment of the rev. Dr. Cutler f, as presi-

* Thomas Hancock, esq., was uncle to the honourable John
Hancock, president of congress, and afterward governor oi_
Massachusetts. The nephew, as well as the uncle, was also a
benefactor to the college.

f The rev. Dr. Timothy Cutler received his education at Har-
vard college, where he graduated in 1701. In 1710 he was or-
dained and installed minister of a chmxh in Stratford, accor-
ding to the constitution of the churches in Connecticut. In 1719
he was chosen president of Yale college, and entered on the du-
ties of the office the same year. In 1722 he relinquished the '

Sect. III.] United States (^ America. 225

dent of Yale College, was an auspicious event to
that institution. He was a man of profound and
general learning in the various branches of know*
ledge cultivated in his day, particularly in oriental
literature, and presided over the seminary which
he was called to superintend, with dignity, use-
fulness, and general approbation. He was suc-
ceeded by the rev. Elislia Williams *, who was
inaugurated in the year 1 726. Under his admi-
nistration also the college flourished, especially
in the study of classic literature, logic, metaphy-
sics, and moral philosophy. Tiie successor of
president Williams was still more illustrious.
This was tlie rev. Thomas Clap -j-, who was chosen

communion of the congregational church, and soon afterward
went to England, and took orders in the episcopal church.
He received the degree of doctor in diviniiAj from both the uni-
versities of Oxford and Cambridge. He became rector of Christ
Church, in Boston, in the year 1723, where he died in 1765. He
is represented to have been a man of strong natural powers, and
of extensive learning. He was well acquainted with classic lite-
rature, and was one of the best oriental scholars ever educated
in America. The rev. Dr. Stiles says, " he had more know-,
ledge of the Arabic than any man in New England beforb
him, except president Chauncey, and his disciple the first Mr,
Thatcher.** Dr. Cutler was also well skilled in logic, metaphy-
sics, moral philosophy, theology, and ecclesiastical history.

* Mr. Williams was a good classical scholar, and well versed
in logic, metaphysics, and ethics. The rev. Dr. Doddridge, wlio
was acquainted with him in England, gave him this comprehen-
sive character. " I look upon Mr. Williams to be one of the
most valuable men upon earth. He has joined to an ardent
sense of religion, solid learning, consummate prudence, great
candour, and a certain nobleness of soul, capable of contriving
and acting the greatest things, without seeming to be conscious
<^f his having done them."

t The rev. Thomas Clap was bora, at f^iJAuate, in Masiachu«

2^4 Nations latelij become Literary;. [Cii. XXVI.

president in 1739, and formally inducted into
office the next year. He appears to have been
one of the most profound and accurate scholars
ever bred in Connecticut ; and during the course
of his presidency, which continued till 1767, he
succeeded in producing a greater attention than
had been before paid to the abstruse sciences,
particularly to mathematics, astronomy, and the
various branches of natural philosophy. This pe-
riod indeed may be considered as forming an era
in the literary history of Connecticut.

Passing on to Virginia, a few facts and names
appear there about this time which are worthy of
notice*. The first printer introduced in that co-
lony was about the year 1726, when William
Parks settled there in that capacity. The first
work of any conse(juence printed in the colony
was the body of Lazvs, in folio, in 1733, by the
person above mentioned. The foundation of a

setts, in 1703; graduated at Harvard college in 1722; settled in
the ministry Kt Windham, in Connecticut, in 1726 ; became pre-
sident of Yale college in 1739 ; and died in 1767. He was re-
spectably learned in the Greek, Latin, and Hebrew languages ;
but in the higher branches of mathematics, in astronomy, and
in the various departments of natural philosophy, he had proba-
bly no equal at that time in America, excepting professor Win-
throp, of Cambridge. He appears also to have been extensively
and profoundly read in history, theology, moral philosophy,
canon and civil law, and indeed in most of the objects of study
attended to at that time.

* Some .of the names and facts mentioned in this section, re-
lating to the progress of letters and science in Virginia, were
communicated to the author, in a letter from bishop Madison, of
Williamsburah. The services rendered to the cause of liberal
knowledge in America, and particularly in his own state, by this
enlightened philosopher and divine, are well known.

Sect. III.] United States of America. 2'Z5

library in "William and Mary college was early
laid. This was augmented from time to time. by
various means, particularly by private donations
from several friends of literature, until it became
a very respectable collection. The additions to
it within a few years past have been few and
small ; hence it abounds more in anciejit than
modern works.

Nor was Virginia by any means, even at this
early period, without instances of honourable
literary enterprise. The Histories of the co-
lony by Stith and Beverley are generally known.
The former was a respectable clergyman, and
president of the college ; and though he did
not write elegantly, he was a faithful and ju-
dicious historian. ■ The latter wrote with less
prolixity and tediousness, but at the same time
with a less satisfactory fulness of information.
Several other instances of literary exertion at
this period in Virginia might be mentioned,
did our limits admit of going into further par-
ticulars.

Among the promoters of literature in Virginia
at this time, it will be proper to mention colonel
Byrd, a native of that colon}^, who had been li-
berally educated in Great Britain, and possessed
a very ample estate. Few private persons in Ame-
rica ever collected so large or so valuable a li-
brary as he left. He was a very ardent friend to
the diffusion of knowledge, and freely opened his
library for the use ot" all who sought information.
Colonel Byrd died ^bout the middle of the cen-
tury. He wrote a few small tracts, but they

Vol. hi. Q

225 Nations lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

Were not of a nature to command much of the
public attention at this time.

In North Carolina and Georgia nothing worthy
of notice was done for the promotion of literature,
before the middle of the eighteenth century. In
those provinces there was not until this period a
single seminary of learning worthy of the name;
no native citizen had been at all distinguished for
his attainments in knowledge. Of the iew clergy-
men then residing in those provinces, the greater
part were both illiterate and dissipated ; and al-
most all those of the learned professions who
were tolerably well informed, were either fo-
reigners or had received their education abroad »

The literary situation of South Carolina, in the
former part of the century under review, was
much more respectable*. At the commencement
of this period all the literary characters in that
province were Europeans. The clergy were few,
and not more than one of them had been born
in the province. The physicians were also Euro-
peans,, and chiefly persons who had connexions
with the British army or navy. The same may
be affirmed of the lawyers: these all resided m
Charleston, and were from Great Britain or Ire-
land. In 1700 a provincial library was esta-
blished in Charleston, by the munificence of the
lords proprietors, and of the rer. Dr. Thomas
Bray. This introduced a taste for reading among

* For the greater part of what is here stated respecting South
Carolina, the author is indebted to Dr. David Ramsay, of Charles-
ton, who, on application, favoured him with a full a-nd instructive,
communication oa the subject. *

Sect. III.] United States of America, 227

a portion of the inhabitants. In 1712 a free
school was established in that city, for " instruct-
ing the youth of the province in grammar, and
other arts and sciences, and useful learning, and
also in the Christian religion *." In this seminary
the Greek and Latin languages were taught by
a succession of able instructors, and some good
classical scholars were formed. Beside the free
school, several private academies were also form-
ed a iew years afterward, and had a useful in-
fluence. All the teachers in these seminaries were
for a considerable time after their establishment
either from Europe or from the northern colo-
nies. The first printer appears to have settled in
Charleston between the years 1720 and 1730,
and the first newspaper in the colony was printed
in 1730.

Mr, Josiah Smith, who was born in Charleston
in the year 1704, graduated at Cambridge, in
Massachusetts, in 1725, and afterward became a
learned and respectable minister of the presby-
terian church, was the hrst native of South Caro-
lina Avho received a Mterary degree f. The next
instance of a native of South Carolina receiving
academic honours was that of Mr. William Bull,

* In this s,emiiiary there were two instructors : a principal, with
a salary of 400/. sterling ■per annum; and an usher, with a salary
of 200/. ; both paid from the public treasury. These were liberal
salaries considering the time, and the situation of the colonists.

f Mr. Smith published a volume of Ser7no7is in 1752, and se-
veral occasional discourses before and after. He also maintained
a learned disputation, h\ 1739, with the rev. Mr. Fisher, on the
right of private judgment. He closed a useful and honourable
life in 1781, in the city of Philadelphia, whither he had been
induced to flee during the revolutionary war.

Q'2

2^S Nations lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

who received the degree of doctor of medicine at
Leyden in 1735*. He was followed by Mr. John
^Moultrie, who received the same degree from a
university in Europe in 1749t- Both of these
were eminent for literature and medical science.
The literary foreigners who came to South
Carolina at this early period were numerous.
Dr. John Lining, a native of Scotland, and a man
of excellent education, came to that province as
early as 1725 or 1730. He was eminent as a phy-
sician and philosopher J. He corresponded with
Dr. Franklin on the subject of electricity, and
Avas the first person who introduced an electrical
apparatus into Charleston. t)r. Lionel Chalmers,
who came to the colony from Great Britain in
the former part of the century, was also much
distinguished for medical science, and for his va-
rious and extensive knowledge §. Dr. Alexander
Garden, also from Great Britain, about the same
time was deservedly celebrated as a physician

■* The name of Dr. Bull was mentioned in a fomier chapter.
On occasion of his receiving a meijical degree at Leyden, he
■wrote and defended an inaugural dissertation, De Culica Pictonunu
He was afterward lieutenant-governor of South Carolina.

f. l)r. Moultrie wrote and defended a dissertation, De Fehre
Flava. lie was afterward lieutenant-governor of East Florida.

X In 174-0 Dr. Lining prosecuted, and afterward published, a
series .of judicious statical experiments. And in 1753 he pub-
lished a Histoiy of the Yelloio Fever, which was the first account
of that disease that had been printed on the American conti-
nent.

§ Dr. Chalmers published a valuable work on the Weather and
Diseases of South Carolina, London, 177(j. But his most respect-
able and useful work is an Essay on Fevers; published at Charles-
ton in 1707. Beside these, he Avrote several smaller publica-
tions.

Sect. III.] United States of America. oo^

and natural historian. Mr. Mark Catcs])y, an
English naturalist, came to South Carolina in the
year 17!32, and resided four years in the colony,
where he did much for promoting the knowledge
of botany and zoology*. To these may be added
the rev. Isaac Chanler, the rev. Alexander Gar-
den, the rev. Henry Haywood, and the rev. Ri-
chard Clarke, all from England, who settled in
Carolina as clergymen, and became conspicuous
not only by their learning and talents, but also
by means of various publications of more or less
value, M'hich yet remain to attest the reality of
botht-

* Mark Catesby, F. R. S., was born in England in the year
1679. He had an early and strong propensity to the study of
natural history; and having some relations in Virginia, he deter-
mined to gratify his taste for inquiries of this nature, by ex-
ploring a part of the new world. He therefore went to that co-
lony in 1712, where he staid seven years, admiring and collecting
the productions of the country. During this period he made nu-
merous botanical communications to his friends in Great Britain.
He returned to England in 1719; but soon afterward, encou-
raged by sir Hans Sloane, Dr. Sherard, and some other natura-
lists, he determined to make another visit to America, and ac-
cordingly embarked for South Carolina, where he arrived in ^lay
1722. He now remained four years in the country, exploring
Carolina, Georgia, the Floridas, and the Bahama islands. Return-
ing to England in 1726, he employed himself for a number of
years in preparing for publication his great work, entitled The
Natural Histoty of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands.
The firsj: part of this work appeared in 1730, and it was com-
pleted in 17 -IS, in two volumes folio. He died in London in
1749. Gronovius, of Leyden, called a shrub of the tetramlrous
class Catesbea, after him.

t The rev. Isaac Chanler was born at Bristol in 1701, and
emigrated to South Carolina in 1733. He settled, as pastor of
a baptist church, on A-ihly River, in 173u, where he continued

230 N-ations lately become Literary. [Ch, XXVI.

But notwithstanding the literary taste, conver-
sation, and writings, of these individuals, the insti-
tutions formed for the diffusion of knowledge were
iom in number, and by no means of respectable
character. For the first thirty years of the eigh-
teenth century the free school before mentioned
was the only grammar school in South Carolina.
For'' the next forty years there were only three in
the province, and all these were in Charleston or
its vicinity. In 1749 an association was formed
in Charleston, for the establishment of a public
library; but it was not till toward the close of
the century that this institution grew to any high
degree of respectability; so that until the revolu-
tionary war it was customary for the more wealthy
either to employ private tutors of respectable cha-
racter in their families, or to send their sons to
foreign universities. In one or the other of these
Ways a lar^e portion of the best scholars and
most eminent public characters in the state were
formed.

till his death, in 1749. Beside several smaller works, he pub-
lished The Doctrines of Glorious Grace unfolded, defended, and
practicallxf improved, quarto, Boston, 1744. The rev. Alexander
Garden \va£ a different person from the physician and naturalist
of the same name. He wrote several publications on theological
subjects. The rev. Henry Haywood arrived in Charleston, from
England in 1739; from which time till his death, in 1755, he was
minister to the Socinian baptists in that city. He translated into
English Dr. Whitby's Treatise on Original Sin ; and had pre-
pared for the press a large volume in defence of the Apostolical
Constitutions. He published a defence of Dr. Whitby, against
Dr. Gill, and also a Catechism. The rev. Eichard Clarke, from
England, Avas an elegant classical scholar. He published several
pieces on the Prophecies, and on Universal Redemption. He was
for some time rector of St. Philip's church in Charleston,

Sect. III.] United States of AmericcL 231

While Catesby and Garden were cultivating
natural history in Carolina, this noble branch of
science was by no means neglected in some of
the other provinces. Paul Dudley, esquire, of
Massachusetts, at an early period of the century
made some valuable communications to the Royal
Society of London on zoological and botanical
subjects. Lieutenant-governor Colden*, of New

* Cadwallader Colden, esquire, who has been repeatedly
mentioned in former chapters, was born in Scotland, February
17, 1688. He was the son of a clergyman; and after having
received the elements of a liberal education under the care of
his father, he completed his studies at the university of Edin-
burgh, in 17Q5. He afterwards applied himself to the study
of medicine and mathematical science, until the year 1708,
^vhen, allured by the fame of William Penn's colony, and by
the invitation of a relative, he went over to Pennsylvania.
There he engaged in the practice ef physic, until the year 1715,
when he returned to his native country. He staid, however,
but a short time in Scotland ; for the next year, after forming a
matrimonial connexion, he sailed a second time to America,
where he spent the remainder of his days. In 1718 he re-
moved to New York, but soon afterward relinquished the prac-
tice of physic, and became, in succession, surveyor-general of
the province, master in chancery, member of the council, and
lieutenant-governor. In 1755 he retired with his family to
Coldingham, his seat on the Hudson, where he spent the greater
portion of his latter years. Here he particularly devoted himself
to botanical studies, and to a correspondence with learned men in ''
Europe and America. Both he and his daughter (also a great
botanist) corresponded with Linnseus, who, in honour of the latter
called a plant of the teirandrous class Coldenea. This plant misS
Colden had first described. Dr. Colden died in 1776. His principal
publications are, Plantcc Coldinghamaises, in the Acta Upsalensia,
for 1743 and 174-4 ; Principles of Action in Matter, Sec, 4to,
London, Dodsley, 1753 ; The Histori/ of the Five Indian Natioiis,
two vols, 12rao, 1747 ; beside several smaller works on Yellffiv
Fever, On the Cwe of the Cawer, On the Malignant Sore Throat,

232 Nations lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

York, before mentioned, was much devoted to the
study of botany, and made important contribu-
tions toward a knowledge of Am.erican plants ;
especially of that part of America which was in
the vicinity of his residence. !Mr. John Bartram*,
of Pennsylvania, was the first native American
who conceived and carried into etTect the plan
of a botanic garden f for the reception and culti-
vation of indigenous as well as exotic plants, and
of travelling for the purpose of accomplishing
this plan. He did much to explore the natural
history of his native country. Dr. John Mitchell J,

&c. He was undoubtedly a man of various and extensive learn-
ing, of respectable talents, and of great literary industry. Sec
ll.3.YdiiQ'i Biography/, vol. ii, p. 131.

* Mr. John Bartram was born near Darby, in Chester count)',
Pennsylvania, in the year 1701. His grandfather, of the same
name, had come to the colony in 1082, with the celebrated WiU
iiam Penn. This self-taught genius early discovered a great
thirst for the acquishion of knowledge, and especially of botani-
cal knowledge. He travelled in pursuit of it with unwearied di-
ligence, in various parts of his native country, from Canada to
Florida, and made such proficiency ni the study thai Linnaeus is
said to have pronounced him the " greatest natural botanist in
the world." He corresponded with many of the most distin-
guished men of science, both .in America, and in Europe. He
was elected a member of several of the most eminent societies
and academies abroad, and was at length appointed botanist to
his Britannic majesty George HI. He died in 1777, in the seven-
ty-sixth year of his age.

f It cannot be said that Mr. Bartram formed a botanic garden,
in the scientific sense of the expression; but he made a large and
valuable collection of plants on his farm near Philadelphia,
which his sons have kept up to the present day.

t Dr. John Mitchell, who was mentioned in a former chapter
as having gone from England to Virginia early in the last cen-
tury, appears to have been a man of observation, acutenoss, and

Sect. III.] United States of America. 233

who resided some time in Virginia, and Dr. John
Clayton *, a native of that country, both ren-
dered important services in investigating the bo-
tanical treasures of America. To several of these
the lovers of natural history owe a large debt of
gratitude ; nor can any .one take the most super-

enterprise, as well as of Icarninf;^. His residence in Virginia
was chiefly at Urbannn, a small town on the Rappahannock,
about seventy-three miles from Richmond. He was a great bo-
tanist, and seems to have paid particular attention to the Ilijhrid
productions. He wrote a viseful work on the general principles
of botany, containing descriptions of a number of new ge-
nera of plants, which was published in 4to in 1769. He also
wrote, in 1743, an " Essay on the Causes of the different Colours of
People in different Climates,'* which Avas sent over to Mr. Collin-
son, and published in the Philosophical Transactions, vol. xliii,
p. 102 — 150. Beside these, he published an "Essaj/onthe Pre-
parations and Uses of the various Kinds of Pot-Ash," Philosophi-
cal Transactions, vol. xlv, p. ,54-1 — 563 ; and a " Letter concern-
ing the Force of Electrical Cohesion," Philosophical Transaction':,
vol. li, p. 390. See Pultencj/'s Sketches of the Progress of Botaiij/,
Sec, vol. ii, p. 278, Sec. It is believed the same man was the
author of the Map of North America, published in ITS'"), which
he accompanied with a large Pamphlet entitled " The Contest in
America," and soon followed by another Pamphlet^ entitled
" The Present State of Great Britain and North America," 1707.
See American Husbandry, &c., vol. i, p. 285.

* Dr. John Clayton was a native of Virginia, and devoted a
long life to the investigation of its botanical riches. He was a
private country gentlieman, of moderate fortune, and greatly re-
spected by all who knew him. He resided in Gloucester county,
about eighteen or twenty miles from the city of Williamsburgh.
Clayton's work appears to have been iirst printed under the fol-
lowing title: "Flora Virginica: Numeri Plantaruni in Virginia
Observaturum, a Johanne Claytono." 8vo, 1739 — 1743. It was
afterward published under this title : Joh. Fred. Gronovii Flora
Virginica, exhibens Plantas quas J. Claytonus observavit, colle[^it
et obtidlt, ^c. Ludg. But. 4to, 1762.

@54 Nations lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

ficial view of the progress of science in America
without immediately recognising the extent and
the utility of their labours.

The controversy respecting the introduction
and support of bishops of the episcopal church in
the American colonies may be considered as
forming an important epocha in the literary his-
tory of the country. Every inquiry which in-
duces men of learning and talents to write, and
which contributes to form good writers, deserves
to be considered as an era in the progress of lite-
rature. The controversy above mentioned was
certainly useful in both these respects. It called
into action latent talents, and by rousing the pub-
lic attention, and interesting the feelings of some
of the most learned men in the country, it gave
rise to a number of publications, and no doubt
extended the taste for inquiry and reading. In
this controversy, the principal Avriters were Dr.
Jonathan Mayhew *, Dr. Charles Chauncey f ,

* Dr. Mayhew was pastor of the West Church in Boston. H^
was a man of distinguished learning and talents. His principal
work on tliis subject was written in 176 k

■\ Dr. Charles Chauncey was born in Boston in the year 1705 ;
graduated at Harvard college in 1721; was installed pastor of
the first church in Boston in 1727 ; in which station he continued
till 1787 ; when he was removed by death. Dr. Chauncey was
descended from the celebrated man of the same name, who, in
the days of archbishop Laud, came to New England, became
president of Harvard college, and was much celebrated for his
erudition, and especially for his acquaintance with oriental lite-
rature. His descendant, of whom we are speaking, was also a
man of strong mind and extensive learning, and eminently di-
stinguished for his firmness and integrity. Beside several things
"which he wrote on the American episcopate, he published a
treatise on The Benevolence of the Deity, 1784 j Ywq Diaserfa-

SfXT. III.] United States of America. QS5

Mr. East Apthorp^, and Dr. Henry Caner, of
Massachusetts ; Dr. Samuel Johnson, Dr, Sa-
muel Seabury -j-, and Mr. Beach J, of Connecticut;
William Livingston §, esquire, and Dr. Myles

tioiis on the Fall and its Consequences, 1785 ; and a work en-
titled The Salvation of all Men, 1785.

* The rev. East Apthorp was for a considerable time the rec-
tor of an episcopal church in Cambridge, near Boston. He left
America in the course of the revolutionary war. Beside what
he published in his own country, he has written at least one
work since he resided in England, on the deistical controversy,
addressed to Mr. Gibbon, in 1778, which is an honourable testi-
mony both of his learning and talents.

f The rev. Samuel Seabury was rector of an episcopal church
at New London, in Connecticut, where he held a station among
his clerical brethren of high respectability and influence. He
was afterward bishop of the episcopal church in that state ; and
was the first of this order that ever resided in America. Beside
smaller tracts, he published, during his life, two volumes oi Ser-
mons, which show him to have possessed a vigorous and well-in-
formed mind. A supplementary volume of semions, selected
from his manuscripts, was published in 1798, two or three years
after his death. See Additional Notes (M).

X The rev. Mr. Beach was an episcopal clergyman, and was
considered, by those who espoused the cause in support of which
he embarked, as a respectable advocate of his church.

§ William Livingston, LL.D., Avas a member of a family
which emigrated from North Britain, and which has, for more
than a century, held a respectable and important station in
New York. He was born about the year 1723, and graduated
at Yale college in 1741. After filling some important offices
in New York, his native state, he removed into New Jersey,
and was the first governor of that state after the declaration
of independence. He continued to fill this office with great
honour to himself, and with great usefulness to the state, till the
time of his death in 1790. Mr. Livingston wrote a variety of
publications beside those which related to the question of an
American episcopate, all of which indicate genius, taste, and
learning. He was possessed of uncommon strength, discrimi-

2.36 Nations lately becoine Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

Gooper*, of NewYorkj Dr. Chandler of New Jer-
sey; Dr. William Smith of Pennsylvania; and Mr.
Boucher of Maryland f. From the middle of the
century to the commencement of the revolutiona-
ry war this subject engaged much attention and
employed many pens in the American colonies J.
The establishment of the Medical Schoolin Phi-
ladelphia § forms an important era in the progress
of American science. Before this time, there
were no means of completing a regular me-
dical education in the American colonies, and
all who wished to obtain such an education
were under the necessity of going to Europe
for the purpose. Hence, when the plan of a
medical school was formed in Philadelphia, it
became an object of peculiar importance and in-
terest in the view of all who wished well to the
improvement of the country. The plan was
formed by Dr. William Shippen and Dr. John
Morgan, both natives of Pennsylvania, and began
to be executed in the year 1764. In that year
Dr. Shippen gave the first coiu'se of lectures upon

nation, and vivacity of mind. Proposals have been lately made
for publishing his works in several volumes.

* The rev. Myles Cooper was a native of England, and re-
ceived his education at the university of Oxford. He succeeded
Dr. Samuel Johnson as president of King's college, which office
he held a number of years. He maintained a literary character
of considerable eminence.

t See Additional Notes (N).

* The rev. Drs. Rodgers, Mason, Laidlie, and Inglis, all of
New York, also wrote and published on the subject of the Ame-
tican episcopate, but less formally and extensively than the per-
sons mentioned above^

§ See voL ii, p. 18»

Sect. III.] United States of America. 2157

anatomy that was ever delivered in America. In
1765 Dr. Morgan began to give a course of pub-
lic instruction on the institutes of medicine. In
1768 Dr. Adam Kuhn, also a native of Pennsyl-
vania, and a favourite pupil of the celebrated
Linnaeus, commenced a system of lectures on
botany and materia medica j and in 1769 Dr.
Benjamin Rush, who had just returned from the
university of Edinburgh, began to lecture ou
chemistry. These lectures, which were delivered
by the aforesaid gentlemen as professo-rs of the
college of Philadelphia, were all of them the first
attempts of the kind which had been made upon
any regular plan on that side of the Atlantic.
The medical school, thus formed, soon became
an object of public attention; was resorted to
by pupils from diiTerent parts of the colonies ;
has been since gradually increasing ; and at pre-
sent not only holds the first rank among similar
institutions in the United States, but Avill bear a
very honourable comparison v/ith some of the
best medical seminaries in Europe.

In 1767 an attempt was also made to establish
a medical school in King's college, in the city of
New York *. Professors were appointed by the
governors of that institution to teach the various
branches of medical science, and a few courses
of lectures were given ; but the design was not
pursued with so much success as in Pennsylvania:
it was wholly set aside by the revolutionary war,
and did not revive again, to any purpose, until

* See vol. li, p. 19.

238 Naiioits lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

the year 1792, when it was established on a new
, and better foundation (as was stated in another
place), and now holds the second rank among the
medical schools of the United States.

The institution of the Philosophical Society in
Philadelpliia also deserves to be noticed among
the events favourable to the progress of know-
ledge in America which took place about this
time. Dr. Benjamin Franklin was the father of
this institution; but he was ably assisted and
supported in his exertions for its establishment
by the rev. Drs. Ewing and Smith, by the medi-
cal and other professors of the college of Phila-
delphia, and by a number of the friends to lite-
rature and science then residing in that city.
The association was organised in 1769; and
none, who are acquahited with the progress of
science in America, need to be informed that it
has been signally useful in exciting a thirst for
knowledge in that country; in calling into view
scientific acquirements which were before hidden;
and in producing a laudable emulation, not only
among its members, but also among other friends
of learning in the remotest parts of the United
States *.

The Transit of VeniiSy as it happened in the

* This institution in 1771 consisted of about two hundred andi
fifty-five members. Of these, one hundred and fifty-seven were
inhabitants of Pennsylvania; ten of Massachusetts; twoofRhodq
Island; four of Connecticut; eleven of NeAv York; eleven of
New Jersey; three of Delaware; five of Maryland ; fourofVir^
giaia; five of South Carolina; one of Georgia ;^ ten of the West-
I^dia Islands ; and tweuty-five of Europe.

5eCT. hi.] United States ofATnerka. 239

year 1769, gave occasion to the exertion and
developement of a considerable portion of that
mathematical and astronomical skill Avhich existed
in America, but had hitherto been little dis-.
played. This phenomenon attracted much at-
tention in the American colonies; great prepara-
tions were made for observing it; and the observa-
tions published by several philosophers on that
side the Atlantic were considered in Europe as
highly honourable to themselves and useful to the
cause of science. The talents displayed on this
occasion by the rev. Dr. John Ewing*, Dr. David

■* The rev. John Ewing, D.D., was born at East Nottingham,
in Maryland, June 22, 1732. His classical studies were begun
under Dr. Allison, at New London. He afterward went to th&
■college of New Jersey, where he graduated in 1755. In 1759 he
received a call to take the pastoral charge of the 4irst presbyteriau
church in the city of Philadelphia, which he accepted, and conti-
fiued in this station during the remainder of his life. In 1773 he
went to Great Britain and Ireland, on a mission to solicit benefac-
tions for the academy at New Ark, in Delaware, which wasbefora
mentioned. During this visit, he formed an acquaintance with
some of the most distinguished characters in those countries, and
maintained a correspondence with them long afterward. In
1779 he was chosen provost of the university of Pennsylvania,
which office, as well as his pastoral charge, he retained till his
death- In all the branches of science usually taught in semiiva-
ries of learning, more particularly in mathematics, astronomy, and
every branch of natural philosophy ; in the Latin, Greek, and
Hebrew languages; and in logic, metaphysics, and moral philoso-
phy, he was probably one of the most accurate and profound
scholars which his country can boast of having reared. He died
in 1802, in the seventy-first -year of his age, after having held for
near half a century a distinguished place among the literati of
America, Those who wish to receive more particular inf6rm£^-
tion concerning the life, acctomplishments, and publications of
this great man, will be gratified with the perusal of a Discourse
delivered on Occasion of his Death, by the rev. John Blair I iuu.

240 Naliojis lalehj become Literarij. [Cil. XXVI.

Rittenliouse*, the rev. Dr. Smith, Dr. Hugh Wil-
liamson, and several others, of Pennsylvania; by
Mr. Benjamin West, of Rhode Island; by profes-
sor Winthropf, of Massachusetts; and b}^ some

D. D.-; a comprehensive and eloquent eulogium, -which does
honour to the author, as well as to the object of his panegyric.

* David Rittenhouse, LL. D., F. R. S., was born at Germantowu,
near Philadelphia, April 8, 1732. He was not favoured with a
regular academic education, but he was endued with a genius
which rose above all difficulties, and which soon entitled him to a
place among' the most distinguished ornaments of his country.
He early discovered a fondness for mathematical and astrono-
mical inquiries, and, was indulged by his parents in learning the
trade of a clock and mathematical-instrument maker, in which he
was his own instructor. While he resided with his father, in the
country, he made himself master of Ne ivton's Principia, which he
read in the translation of Mr. Mott. Here, likewise, he became
acquainted with the science o^ Jhtxions, of which sublime inven-
tion he believed himself for a time to be the author. The first
occasion on Which his knowledge of mathematics and astronomy
was signally displayed, was in observing the Transit of Venus in
1769, when he discovered a mind familiar with the most abstruse
and complicated investigations. It was in this retirement, also,
that he planned and executed his far-famed Orreri/, in which he
represented the revolutions of the heavenly bodies in a manner
more complete and comprehensive than any former astronomer.
After this, his talents were displayed on various public occasions,
and were admired and celebrated, not only throughout his own
country, but among the philosophers of Europe. Dr. Ritten-
house, on account of that modesty for which he was always re-
jnnarkable, published but little. An Oration delivered before the
Philosophical Society in 1775, and a few Memoirs on Mathema-
tical and Astrortomical subjects, contained in the first three vo-
lumes of the Transactions of that body, form the whole list of his
publications. He was loaded with honours, both by the state
and by literary and scientific institutions. He was chosen pre-
sident oT the Philosophical Society in 1791; and was annually
reelected to this office till his death in 1796. See Dr. Rush's
Eulogiim.
'I JohnWinthrop, LL. D., F. R.S., was bora in Boston, in 17 14*

Sect. III.] United States of America. 241

other American astronomers, are too well known
to render any particular details on the subject
necessary here.

In 1769 a college was founded in the town of
Hanover, in New Hampshire. Of this institution
the rev. Dr. Eleazar Wheelock was the founder j
and the earl of Dartmouth being one of its most
liberal benefactors, it was called after him Dart-
mouth college. Dr. Wheelock had been, for some
years previous to that above mentioned, the con^
ductor of a charity-school, at Lebanon, in Con-
necticut, which M'as principally intended for the
instruction of Indian youth*. About that time,

and educated at Harvard college, where he received his first de-
gree in 1732. In 1738 he was appointed Ilollis professor of
mathematics" and natural philosophy in the college in which h«
was educated. He immediately entered on the duties of this
©ffice, which he executed with great ability and reputation till his
death in 1779. He was a man of general and profound learning;
but particularly so in the branches of science which he under-
took to teach. His work De Cometis does him great honour.
That he was known and respected among the philosophers of
Europe, is evident from his being elected a member of the Royal
Society; an honour which had been conferred on a native of
Massachusetts only in one instance before, viz. in the case of the
celebrated Cotton Mather. — MS. Letter of the Rev. Dr. Eliot to
the author.

* The first charity-school erected in America for the' instruc-
tion of the Indians was at Stockbridge, in Massachusetts, by the
rev. John Sergeant, between the years 1740 and 1750. He had
scarcely gotten his plan into operation, before he was removed by
death. The design was revived by the rev. Eleazar Wheelock,
who solicited and obtained donations for the purpose, both in
f)urope and America; and opened a school at Lebanon, which
was called after the name of Mr. Joshua Moor, who was the
largest benefactor to the institution. When Dartmouth college
was founded at Hanover, this school was removed thither, where
it has ever since continued, coiinected with the' college, but di-

VoL. III. ^ R

242 Nations lately become Literary. [Ch^ XXVL

it being found thai the school', on its original nar-*
row establishment, was not sufficient to answer the
purposes which its friends had in view, a royal
charter was obtained, constituting a college, and
naming Dr. Wheelock as the first president, with
the privilege of nominating his successor in his
last will. The charity-school, together with the
newly-constituted college, was removed to Hano-
ver, in New Hampshire, where both have been
ever since fixed : and though neither of them
flourished during the revolutionary war, which
soon succeeded, yet, since the restoration of peace,
they have grown considerably; the college, m
particular, having become, at the close of the cen-
tury, a large^ respectable, and thriving seminary*.
About this time we may date the establishment
of a college at Providence, in Rhode Island.
This institution was erected by certain persons of
influence of the baptist denomination ; and among
these perhaps no individual so well deserves to be
considered as its founder, as the rev. Dr. Man-
ning f,. the first president. The charter for this

stinct as to its property, design, and government. Dr. E. Whee*
Jock died in 1779, in the sixty seventh year of his age, and was
succeeded by his son, John Wheelock, LL.D., wha has ever
sinc& presided over the institution..

* Among the benefactors to this institution^ beside his majesty
George III, lord Dartmouth, the countess of Huntingdon, and
several other persons of eminence in Europe, we find the names
of Dr. Franklin, John Adams, esq., late president of the United
States, John Jay, esq., late chief justice of the United States, and
governor of the state of New York, and the hon. John, Phillips, of
Exeter, in New Hampshire.

t The rev. Dr. Manning was born in New Jersey in the year
1738. He was educated at Nassau Hall, where he was admitted
to the first honours of the college in 1762. la 1765 he removed.

Sect. III.] United States of America. 245

college was given in 1764. It was open for the
reception of students the next year at Warren.
The first commencement was held in 1769; and
in 1770 it was removed to the town of Provi-
dence, where a spacious building Avas erected for
the reception of the students, and which is consi-
dered as the permanent seat of the institution.
The charter of this college makes it necessary, that
the president should be a baptist ; and indeed the
institution has always been under the immediate
government of this denomination of Christians.

Between the years 1 765 and 1 772 a revolution
took place in the taste of the students in Yale col-
lege. About this time the study of the mathema-
tics and of the ancient languages began to de-
cline, and that of belles lettres to be an object of
more attention than before. This revolution was
chiefly produced by the rev. Dr. Dvvight, who has
since held so conspicuous a place among the poets
and divines of America; by Mr. John Trumbull,
who also stands in the first rank of its native
poets; by the rev. Mr. Howe, afterward a respect-
able clergyman, and by some others, their con-
temporaries. These gentlemen, being instructors
in the college at this time; and having imbibed a
more predominant taste for polite literature than
had been common among their predecessors; en-
couraged among the students, both by precept

to Warren, in Rhode Island, and there took charge of the college,
to the presidency of which he had been elected. In 1770 he
removed, with that institution, to Providence, and was soon
afterward chosen pastor of the baptist church in that town.
In this situation he remained till his death, which took place
in 1791.

R2

244 Nations lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

and example, a new degree of attention to the
fcest writers in their own language, and to the
graces af composition. The change, however,
was carried to a greater length than its enlighten-
ed authors intended or approved. Designing only
to raise the study of polite literature to its proper
station, it soon began to usurp the place of the
more abstruse sciences, and of the ancient lan-
guages; which, though still studied with conside-
rable care, have perhaps never since fully regain-
ed their former station in that seminar}^

The arrival of Dr. Witherspoon * in America,
from North Britain, is entitled to notice among
the events which contributed to the advancement
of literature .ind science in that country. It is not
to be supposed, that a mind so vigorous, enlight-

* Dr. John Witherspoon was born at Yester^ near Edinburgh,
February 5, 1722. After being settled in the Gospel ministry,
for upwards of twenty years, in North Britain, he came to Ameri-
ca in 1768, and continued to preside over the college of New
Jersey from that time till his death in 17&4-. Whether we con-
sider Dr. Witherspoon as a divine, a statesman, or the head of a
literary institution, his talents and usefulness present themselves-
in a very conspicuous light. Scarcely any man of the age had a
nriore vigorous mind, or a more sound practical understanding;
and though many hav£ had more learning, yet a mass of informa-
tion better selected, or more thoroughly digested, than that which
he possessed, is rarely to be found. — See an excellent Sermon
preached on the occasion of hi* death by the rev. Dr. Rodgers,
of New York, ^vhich contains a comprehensive and ably drawn
character of the deceased. — Though the largest and most valua-
ble part of Dr. Witherspoon's writings -was published before he
left Britain, yet he wrote and published much after his removal to-
America. Mr.W. W.Woodward, of Philadelphia, has lately ren-
dered important service to the cause of religion and literature, by
collecting the whole of his works, and presentingtwo editions of
fhem to tber American pubHc.

?ECT. III.] United Slates of Amei'ica. 24^5

ened, and active as his, and placed in a conspi-
cuous station, could fail of contributing to the
literary advancement of any community in which
he resided. Invited to undertake the office of
president of the college of New Jersey, this great
man arrived at Princeton in the year 1768, and
immediately entered on the duties of his new sta-
tion. He produced an important revolution in
the system of education adopted in this seminary.
He extended the study of mathematical science,
and introduced into the course of instruction in
natural philosophy many improvements, which
had been little known in most of the Am,erican
colleges, and particularly in that institution. He
placed the plan of instruction in moral philosophy
on a new and improved basis ; and was, it is be-
lieved, the first man who taught in America the
substance of those doctrines of the philosophy of
the human mind, which Dr.Reid afterward deve-
loped with so much success. And, fmally, under
-his presidency more attention began to be paid
than before to the principles of taste and compo-
sition, and to the study of elegant literature.

About the same time the study of the physical
sciences received, new encouragement in Virginia.
Hitherto comparatively small attention had been
paid to nati^ral philosophy in the college of Wil-
liam and Mary; or not more than reading some
common treatise on this subject, with a very in-
adequate degree of attention or understanding.
In 1768 a valuable, though not very extensive
philosophical apparatus was imported from Lon-
don, for the use of that institution; and in 177-i the
first regular course of lectures on the subject was

246 Nations latelij become Literary. [Ch. XXVI^

delivered by the rev. Dr. Madison, since president
of the college, and bishop of the protestant episco-
pal church in Virginia, whose services in the pro-
motion of literature and science in that state are
generally known. Since that time, natural philo-
sophy has been almost constantly enlarging the
number of its votaries, and has been cultivated
with greater assiduity.

The attention which was paid to this college by-
lord Botetourt, one of the last governors of Vir-
ginia while a British colony, deserves to be no-
ticed here, as honourable to himself, and as useful
to the institution. His exertions to promote its
interests were zealous and unremitted*. Among
other things, he instituted an annual contest
among the students, for two elegant gold medals
of the value of five guineas; one for the best
Latin oration on a given subject; the other for
superiority in mathematical science. And though
the useful effects of his exertions were rendered in
a great measure abortive by the scenes of war and
confusion which soon followed, yet they were by
no means without their value.

About the year 1774 another college was found-
ed in Virginia. It was for some time nothing
more than a respectable academy; but after a few
years assumed the name, and became invested
with the powers of a college. The rev. Samuel

* Lord Botetourt made a point, for a long time, of sanctioning,
by his presence, morning and evening prayers in the college.
No company, no avocation, prevented his attendance on this ser-
vice. This nobleman was extremely fond of literary characters.
No one of this class, who had the least claim to respect, was ever
presented to him whom he did not foster and encourage.

Sect. III.] United Slates of America. 247

S. Smith, now president of the college of New
Jersey, and whose literary eminence is well
known, may be considered as the founder of this
institution. It is called Hampden Sidney college,
and has been useful in training up a number of
, good scholars J but is not now considered as in a
very flourishing situation.

But among the various remarkable periods in
the progress of American literature, there are fe\y
more worthy of notice than the American re-
volution ', a grand struggle, which both awaken-
«ed and produced talents j and which, by giving
birth to many publications, served to impart new
vigour to minds little distinguished before, and to
improve the public taste.. Hence it is a fact, that
the style in which the j^etitions and remonstrances
■of the American congress at that time, and other
political writings of the day, were drawn up, ex-
cited surprise in Europe, and gave new elevation
to the literary character of the country.

Among those who distinguished themselves
at this period by their publications relating to
the great political contest which divided Ame-
rica,, we may enumerate James Otis, Josiah
Quincy, Samuel Adams, John Adams, and
Thomas Hutchinson, of Massachusetts; William
Livingston, and John Witherspoon, of New
Jersey; John Dickinson*, and Joseph Gallo-

* John Dickinson, esq., who is a native of the state of Dela-'
ware, and at present resides in that state, received a considerable
part of his education in Great Britain, from which he had returned
but a few years when the ooiitroversy between the colonies and
the mother country commenced. He wrote and published much
oa this controversy at different periods ; but, p( rhaps, among the

248 Nations lateli^ become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

way*, of Pennsylvania ; Daniel Dulaneyf, of
Maryland; Richard Bland, Arthur Lee, Robert
Carter Nicholas, and Thomas Jefferson, of Vir-
ginia; and William Henry Drayton J, of South

riumerous and respectable publications which appeared at this
time, the Farmer's Letters, for dignity, eloquence, learning, and
permanent reputation, ought to be considered as holding the first
place. The eclat Avith which this work was received, the useful
effects which it produced, and the public acknowledgements and
honours which have been since heaped upon the author, are too
generally known to render it either necessary or proper to dwell
on them here. A handsome edition of the Works of this illus-
trious American, in two volumes octavo, issued in 1801 from the-
press of Messrs. Bonsai and Niles, in Wilmington.

* Joseph Galloway, esq., is a native of the state of Delaware.
He received a liberal education ; and, among other public honours
conferred upon him, was a delegate to the American congress
from Pennsylvania, until the declaration of independence, when
he thought it his duty to oppose the measures adopted by that
body, and to attach himself to the friends of the British govern-
ment. He was a respectable writer in favour of the latter; and,
at an early period of the revolutionary war, went to England,
where he still resides. Mr. Galloway has lately published a
work on the subject of the Prophecies, which is spoken of with
great respect, as indicating talents, learning, and piety. Since
this note was written an account of his death has reached the
United States.

f Daniel Dulaney, esq., was an eminent counsellor, who re-
sided at Annapolis. He was considered as one of the most
learned and accomplished men in his profession, that America
ever produced. He died at an early stage of the revolutionary
war,

X William Henry Drayton, esq., a native of South Carolina^
was a political writer of considerable eminence. In 1774 he
vrrote a pamphlet, addressed to the American congress, under the
signature of A Freeman, in which he stated the grievances of
America, and drew a bill of American rights. Several other pub-
lications appeared from his pen, explaining the injured rights of
his country, and encouraging his fellow citizens to vindicate
them, He also wrote a History of the American Revolution,

Sect. III.] United States of America. 249

Carolina*. Beside these, a number of writers of
smaller name embarked in the same cause, and
contributed to the mass of inquiries and publica-
tions which the period produced. And though
the distresses of the times served to derange and
almost to destroy some important literary institu-
tions j yet, during this period, seeds were sown
which were destined soon afterward to spring up
and to bring forth fruit highly honourable to that
country.

The revolutionary war was no sooner termi-
nated by the peace of 1783, than the friends of
literature began to feel more than ever the im-
portance of encouraging institutions for diftusing
useful knowledge among the people. Indeed,
before the din of arms ceased to be heard, plans
began to be formed, and in some instances to be
executed, for the promotion of this object. The
inhabitants of the American States now not only
felt independent in a political view, but they also
began to cherish the wish for greater literary in-
dependence than they had heretofore enjoyed.
The zeal and enterprise which had been directed

brought down to the year 1779, in three large volumes, which he
intended to correct and publish, but was prevented by death.
He died in Philadelphia in 1779, Avhile attending his duty ii>
congress, in the thirty seventh year of his age.

* The author regrets, that it is not in his power to give a more
complete catalogue of the writers on the American controversy.
Many well written pamphlets on both sides of this question were
published anonymously. This was especially the case with
those who wrote in favour of the British claims; so that out of
the large number who belong to the latter class, only lieutenant-
governor Hutchinson and Mr. Galloway are sufficiently knowi
to be particularly mentioned.

^2o() Nations lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

against the common enemy were now turned to-
wards domestic improvement.

In 1780 an act passed the legislature of Mas-
•sachusetts for establishing the American Academy
<lfArts and Sciences*. Its design was to promote
every species of liberal knowledge that might
tend to " advance the interest, honour, and hap-
piness, of a free, independent, and virtuous, peo-
ple." Tiiis institution soon rose into importance;
and, from the character of its members, and of
the publications which it has made, may be con-
sidered as among the most respectable and useful
associations in the United States.

About this time three gentlemen of the name of
Phillips -j-, one residing at Andover, in Massachu-

* The hon. Jaines Bowdoiii, afterward governor of the com-
monwealth, and a man of taste and science, \vas the first presi-
dent of the American academy. He was also a liberal benefac-
tor to the institution, and continued to preside over it with
honour until his death, in 1790. Another conspicuous benefac-
tor to this association was Josiah Quincy, esq., a learned and
eloquent counsellor, a distinguished patriot, and an able political
writer. To these may be added the hon. John Adams, late pre-
sident of the United States, and now president of the academy,
and Dr. Franklin, who also made important donations to the in-
stitution. But the greater part of the funds of the academy
consist of five thousand dollars, presented tovit by their illustrious
countryman count Rumford, who in 1796 made a donation of the
above sum, the interest of which is to be applied and given once
every second year, as a premium to the author of the most inv-^
portant discovery, or useful improvement, on Light or on Heat,
which shall be made known to the public in any part of the
continent of America, or in any of the American islands, during
the two preceding years.

f The family of Phillips, in Massachusetts and New Hamp-
shire, has been long distinguished for its great wealth, and also
for its love of religion and literature. A complete history ©f the

Sect. III.] United States of America. 251

setts, another at Exeter, in New Hampshire, and
a third in Boston, exercised a degree of munifi-
cence, which is equally rare in America, and
honourable to their generosity and love of litera-
ture. In 1778 the honourable Samuel Phillips,
of Andover, founded and liberally endowed an
academy in the town in which he resided. In this
laudable undertaking he was aided by his bro-
thers, the honourable John Phillips, LL.D,, of
Exeter, and AVilliam Phillips, esq., of Boston.
Not long afterward the former of these brothers
founded and very richly endowed an academy at
Exeter, the place of his residence. Both these
academies are called by the name of the family to
whom they owe their existence ; both continue to
grow in respectability and usefulness, and are
likely long to remain monuments of the noble
and distinguished public spirit which gave them
birth*. ^

Immediately on the return of peace, a college
was established in the town of Carlisle, in Penn-
sylvania, This institution received the name of
Dickinson college, being called after the celebrated
statesman and political writer, John Dickinson,
esq., who was its most liberal benefactor. Doctor
Rush also, and several other gentlemen of distinc-
tion in Pennsylvania, were among the most active
friends and promoters of this establishment. Soon

munificence exercised towards public institutions at different
times by the members of this family would probably furnish au
amount of benefactions seldom equalled in America.

* In furnishing instances of individual liberality to public
institutions, it is believed that Massachusetts exceeds all the other
states.

^52 Natmis latel\) become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

after the charter for this college was obtained,
the rev. Dr. Charles Nisbet, of Montrose, in Scot-
land, was called to be its president. He accepted
the invitation, and in the year 1784 arrived in
America. It is scarcely necessary to say, that
the eminent talents, and profound and general
leai'ning of this gentleman, were considered as an
important acquisition to the literary interests of
that country, and that he soon contributed to
raise the character of the institution. From this
period to the close of the century he continued to
preside over it with usefulness and honour.

Seminaries of learning began now to multiply
rapidly. . From the peace of 1783 to the close of
1800, there were seventeen colleges founded in
the United States, vi%. two in Massachusetts, one
in Vermont, one in New York, two in Pennsyl-
vania, four in Maryland, one in North Carolina,
three in South Carolina, one in Georgia, one \\x
Kentucky, and one in Tennessee. Beside these,
academies during this period were multiplied al-
most without number. Indeed, it may be que-
stioned whether seminaries of the higher order
have not been niade so numerous in many parts
of the country, as to produce effects directly the
reverse of what were intended. It is as possible
to have too many colleges^ as it is to have toa
many lazvsy or too many books.

The institution of these academies was soon
followed by the organisation of a new medical
school attached to the university of Cambridge,
in Massachusetts. This event took place in 1783,
when the first professors were appointed, and the
first system of medical lectures delivered in that

Sect. III.] Unikd States of America. 253

commonwealth. The governors of the university-
were enabled to effect this establishment by means
of several generous donations made for this par-
ticular purpose by Dr. Ezekiel Hersey, an en-
lightened and opulent physician of Hingham ; by
his widow, a few years afterward ; by his brother.
Dr. Abner Hei"sey, of Barnstable ; by Dr. John
Cnmming, of Concord ; and by William Erving,
esq., of Boston *. The several professorships bear
the names of their respective founders; and while
they exhibit monuments of laudable beneficence,
have proved highly useful in the diffusion of
science f.

In 1783 Mr. Noah Webster, of Connecticut^
published the first part of his Gra^nmatical Insti-
tute of the English Language J. This was soon

* Dr. Ezekiel Hersey gave 1000/., IMassaclmsetts currency, to
be applied t© the support of a professor of anatomy and surgery;
his widow a like sum, for the same purpose ; his brother. Dr. A.
Hersey, 500/., for the encouragement and support of medical
instruction; Dr. Gumming, a like sum, to be applied to the same
object; and William Erving, esq., 1000/., to be devoted to the
support of a professorship of chetrdstrj/ and materia medica. These
several sums, amounting to between 13000 and 14000 dollars,
are funded, and the interest devoted to the objects directed by
the donors. •

f The author takes pleasure in acknowledging in this place
his obligation* to his friend the rev. Dr. Eliot, of Boston, for
a large portion of the information he is able to give respecting
the literature of Massachusetts. From a mind so well stored oa
the subject of American antiquities, he might have drawn much
more ample materials, had application been made early enough
to admit of a leisurely attention to the object.

"l This worjc was begun in the autumn of 1782, and published
in the spring of 1783, at Hartford. The success which has at-
tended it, notwithstanding so many other spelling books and
grammars have •elicited public favour since it appeared, at once

2o4 Nations lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

followed by two other parts of the same work ;
by Dissertations on the English Language, and by
several other publications from the same pen.
The influence of this gentleman in promoting a
taste for philological inquiries and good writing
among his countrymen ; the general introduction
of his Institute into the schools of America ; and
the extensive utility of his learned labours, ace
well known, and are worthy of particular notice
in tracing the literary history of that country.

The establishment of the federal government,
in 1789, may be considered as the last grand
epocha in the progress of knowledge in America.
From this period public tranquillity and confi-
dence began to rest on a foundation more solid
than before ; wealth flowed in on every side ; the
extended intercourse with Europe, the great
seat of civilisation, refinement, and literature,
rendered the United States every day more fami-
liar with transatlantic productions and improve-
ments j and a sense of national dignity and inde-
pendence becoming gradually more strong and ge-
neral in them, all conspired to furnish the means,
and to excite an ambition for enriching their own
country with the treasures of knowledge.

From this time till the end of the century, lite-
rary institutions of various kinds were multiplied
with astonishing rapidity in the United States.
Beside colleges, academies, and subordinate
schools, scientific associations were formed ; li-

does honour to the author, and shows that education Is by no
means neglected in America. At the beginning of the year
1801, more than one million and a half of copies of this work
had been sold.

Sect. III.] United States of Amerka. 2.5c5

braries began to be established in the most remote
parts of the country; printing presses and book-
stores appeared in great numbers where they
were never before known ; newspapers became
numerous to a degree beyond all precedent ; and
the rewards of literary labour, though still too
small, were considerably augmented. The esta-
blishment of the Historical Society of Massachu-
setts^ in 1791 ; of the Medical Schools of New
Hampshire and Kentucky, in 1798 ; of the Con-
necticut Academy of Arts and Sciences y in 1799 i
and of the numerous Medical and Agricultural
Societies in almost every part of the United States 3,
within a few years past, deserve particular notice,
and form interesting items in the annals of their
literary progress.

At the beginning of the century there were tica
colleges in the American colonies. At the close
of it there were twenty seven j from which it may
be estimated ihaXfour hundred students are annu-
ally sent forth, with academic honours*. At the
beginning of the century the number of acade-
mies was small ; and even these were on a com-
paratively narrow plan, and were ill attended by
students ; but at the close of it the number of
these institutions had become so great, in almost
every state in the union, especially in the eastern
and middle states, that it would be difficult to
form a tolerably correct estimate of their num-
ber. At the commencement of the century there
were but tzvo public libraries in the American
colonies : these belonged to Harvard college, and

* See Additional Notes (0).

S56 Nations lately} become Literary. [Ch. XXVI,

to the province of South Carolina, and were very
small*. SinCe that period the number has in-
creased to many hundreds, and is every year be-
coming still greater f. Private libraries have also
become numerous and extensive in a still more
remarkable degree.

At the commencement of the period under re-
view, there were but three or four printers in the
American colonies ; and these carried on their
business upon a very small scale, and in a very
coarse, inelegant manner. But at present the
number of printers in the United States may be
-considered as nearly three hundred; and many of
these perform their work with a neatness and ele-
gance which are rarely exceeded in Europe. At
that time the printing an original American w ork,
even a small pamphlet, was a rare occurrence, and
seriously weighed, as an important undertaking ;
while the reprinting of foreign works was seldom
attempted. But now at least one hundred Ameri--
can works, some of which are large and respec-
table, annually issue from their presses; and the
republication of foreign books is carried on in
almost every part of the country, and particu-
larly in the capital towns, with a degree of enter-

* In the seventeenth century, some of the congregational
churches in Massachusetts began to form church libraries. These
were considerably numerous and useful; and some of them re-
main till the present day. The use of these libraries, however,
was chiefly confined to the particular congregations whose pro-
perty they were.

t The number of incorporated libraries in Massachusetts is
said to be about one hundred. The number in the other eastern
states is not known ; but institutions of this kind are far more
numerous in New Eogland than in any other part of America.

Sect. III.] United States of America. 257

prise, and to an extent which would not disgrace
some of the most cultivated parts of the European
world.

Before the revolutionary war the booksellers m
the American colonies were few, and carried on
their business on a contracted plan. Since that
time their number has increased more i\viii\ffty
fold; and the extent of their annual sales, per-
haps, in a still greater proportion*. Thirty years
ago, he who undertook to dispose of a moderately
large edition, even of a spelling-book, considered
himself as engaged in a hazardous enterprise.
Bat in 1790 a single bookseller thought himself
warranted in attempting an American edition of
the Kncyclopcedia Britannic a, in eighte-en quarto
volumes, and completely succeeded in making it
a profitable undertaking f . And since the last-
mentioned year, a number of works extending to
many volumes have been carried through Ame-
rican presses, with great ease and readiness.

The first edition of the Bible ever printed in
America was that by the rev. John Eliot, the ce-

* In 1 802 the German plan of disposing of books by means
«f literary fairs was adopted in the United States. The first
book-fair was held in New York; and it is proposed, in future,
to hold them statedly in that city. It is believed that Mr.
Mathew Carey, a well informed and enterprising bookseller of
Philadelphia, was one of the first who suggested the propriety
and utility of the undertaking, which has so far happily suc-
ceeded, and bids fair to be highly useful, both to the book trade
and to the cause of literature.

f The person here alluded to is Mr. Thomas Dobson of Phi-
ladelphia, an intelligent and respectable bookseller, who has
probably contributed as much as any individual in his profes-
sion to the promotion of American literatur«j.

Vol. III. S

-258 Nations latelij become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

lebrated apostle of the Indians, in the language of
the Naticks. This monument of pious labour
was first printed at Cambridge in Massachusetts,
in 166-4, and a second edition at the same place
sixteen years afterward. From this period till
the beginning of the revolutionary war, at so
low an ebb was the book trade in America, that
we hear of no attempt to print an edition of
the Bible on that side of the Atlantic. In 1776
Christopher Sower, of GermantOwn near Phila-
delphia, printed a quarto edition of the Bible
in the German language. He engaged in this
work at his own risk, executed it with great
elegance, and had the honour of printing
the first quarto Bible that ever issued from an
American press. About the year 1781 Mr. Ro-
bert Aitken, of Philadelphia, undertook to pre-
sent the American public with a duodecimo edi-
tion of the Sacred Scriptures. This laudable
undertaking was executed, but with great diffi-
calty, arising from the peculiar situation of the
country at that time *. But within the last eigh-
teen or twenty years, undertakings of this kind
have become so numerous and so familiar, that
the importation of Bibles for the supply of the
American market, though not entirely, has in a
great measure ceased. The first quarto edition
of the English Bible printed in the United States

■■■ Immediately after the publication of this edition of the
Bible, peace took place; whea it was soon found that Bibles
could be imported from Great Britain cheaper than it was pos-
sible to print them in America. Mr. Aitken^ therefore, not ob-
taininsf a ready sale for his edition, which had been carried oh
•,vith great difficulty, was nearly ruined by the undertaking.

Sect. III.] United States of America. 259

was in the year 1791, by Mr. Isaac Collins, then
residing at Trenton in New Jersey. In a few
montlis afterward another quarto edition was
published by Mr. Isaiah Thomas, of Worcester
in Massachusetts; who, in the same year, laid be-
fore the public the first folio edition of the Holy
Scriptures that was printed in the United States.
Since that time several folio editions of the Bible,
and a number of quarto editions, have been
printed in America, and begin to be considered
by the printers and booksellers of that country
as small and easy undertakings.

Those kinds of literary productions which have
been most common and most successful in the
United States are theological and political works,
and those intended for the use of schools. For
the frst we are indebted to that seriousness and
taste for religious inquiry which prevails in New
England, and in a considerable, though less de-
gree, in the middle and southern states. The
almost universal taste for the second class of books
we owe to the nature of our government, which
is eminently calculated to foster, to bring for-
ward, and to display political talents, and to ex-
cite the attention of every class of citizens to po-
litical inquiries. And the general encourage-
ment given to productions of the last mentioned
kind arises from that disposition to attend to the
education of children, which has long chaiacte-
riscd the eastern states, and which, during the
last ten years of the century under review, rapid-
ly extended itself through every part of the
union.

The School establishments of New England,

■ S2

260 Natioiis lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

especially in the states of Massachusetts and Con-
necticut *, though they took their rise in the
seventeenth century, yet underwent such modi-
fications, and received so many improvements in
the eighteenth, that it would be improper to pass
them without notice in this retrospect f. These
establishments have been carried to such a de-
gree of perfection, that in New England, and
particularly in the two states above mentioned,
scarcely an individual can be found, of either
sex, who has not been instructed in reading,
writing, and arithmetic, and who does not habi-
tually read more or less in newspapers, and a
few of the best books on religion and morality.
Attempts have been made in some of the middle
and southern states to adopt similar plans of ge-
neral education; but though much has been
done, in several of these states, towards render-
ing the elements of English literature a boon
within the reach of all classes in the communit}-,
yet the habits of the people not being so favour-
able to the diffusion of knowledge, and their cha-

■^' The School system of Connecticut is generally considered
the most perfect in the United States. The parish schools in
that state amount to at least twelve hundred, containing on an ave-
rage fortj/ scholars each, or forty-eight thousand in the whole.
Next to that of Connecticut, in point of excellence, we majr
place the school system of Massachusetts. The number of
schools in that state is not known to the author. He presumes,
however, that it cannot be less than in Connecticut.

f The author takes pleasure in acknowledging his obligation
to Noah Webster, jun., esq., for some valuable information re-
specting the literature of Coimecticut during the eighteenth
century; and especially for a more satisfactory account of the
>ohool establishments m that state than he had before received.

Sect. III.] United States of America. 261

racters and manners being less homogeneous,
they have made less progress towards maturuig
and perfecting their school establishments than
the eastern states.

It may not be improper to take notice of some
of those branches of science and literature which
have been most cultivated in the United States ;
and also of the names of those \A\o have been
principally distinguished by their attention to
these objects.

In Mathematics, Astro7wmjij^ and the more ab-
struse departments of Mechanical Philosophy^
America has been distinguished to a degree w hieh,
all things considered, is highly honourable to
its genius and diligence. The names of Green-
wood, AVinthrop, Bowdoin *, Willard, Fobcs,
and others of Massachusetts ; of West of Rhode
Island ; of Clap, and Mansfield, of Connecticut ;
of AVilliam Alexander, commonly called lord
Stirling f, of New Jersey; of Godfrey, Ritten-

* James Bowdoin, LL.D. F. R. S., was born at Boston, INIassa-
chusetts, August 18, 1727. His father was a native of France,
and fled among the persecuted protestants of that country, first
to Ireland, and afterwards to New England, M'here he arrived in
the year 1688. His son James, the object of our present atten-
tion, was educated at Harvard college, where he received his
first degree in 1745. After filling some important stations iu
public life, he v\as chosen governor of Massachusetts in 1785
and 1786. He died in 1790, greatly and generally respected.
Those who have perused the Memoirs of the American Academy
of Arts and Sciences will recollect the several papers contained
in them, which manifest no common taste and talents in astro-
nomical inquiries.

f William Alexander, e!Tq., was a native of the city of New
York, but spent a considerable part of his life in New Jersey.
Ho was con-iJcred, bv nunv, as the righifid ho.ii to the tide and

262 N'ations lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVI-

house, Evving, Williamson, Patterson, and Elli-
cott, of Pennsj'h ania ; and of Madison, Page,
and several more of Virginia, are so well and so
respectably known, that it is unnecessary to en-
large on their merits*. Beside the learning and
talents of these native citizens, lieutenant-gover-
nor Golden, mentioned in several former chapters,
and professor Minto f, both of North Britain, de-

estate of an earldom in Scotland, of which country his father was
a native; and although when he went to North Britain in pur-
suit of this inheritance, he failed of obtaining an acknowledg-
ment of his claim by government; yet, among his friends and
acquaintances, he received, by courtesy, the title of lord Stirling.
He discovered an early fondness for the study of mathematics
and astronomy, and attained great eminence in these sciences.

* The author, in this list, has only introduced the names of
such mathematicians, astronomers, &c., as, by means of some
publication or other display of their learning and talents, ap-
peared to him to have made themselves more than usually
known. He is sensible that a number of the professors of these
branches of knowledge in the colleges, both native citizens and
foreigners, stand high in the estimation of all Avho know them ;
and though not brought so immediately before the public, yet
possess perhaps a degree of erudition and skill little if at all in-
ferior to those possessed by the persons above named.

t Walter Minto, LL. D., was a native of Scotland, and received
a liberal education in that country. Early in life he visited
Italy, and spent a number of years at Pisa, pursuing, with great
diligence, his mathematical and astronomical studies. Soon after
the close of tRe revolutionary war, he came to America, and
about the year 1787 was appointed professor o^ inai'iemaiics and
n<Ltural philosophy in the college of New Jersey. In this situation
he was respected and useful. He was beyond all doubt a great
mathematician and astronomer, as appears from his Researches
into some Parts of the Theoiy of the Planets, &c., 8vo, London,
1783; and also from his Oration on the Progress and Importance
of the mathematical Sciences, &c., 1788. He died about the year
1796.

Sect. III.] United States of America. 263

serve, among many others, to be mentioned witli
honour, as having contributed to the cultivation
of mathematical and astronomical science in Ame-
rica.

Chemical Philosophij has also been cultivated in
the United States with a zeal and success worthy
of respectful notice. The first course of instruc-
tion in chemistry ever attempted in America was
in the year 1769, by Dr. Benjamin Rush, about
that time appointed professor of this branch of
science in the college of Philadelphia, lo Dr.
Samuel L. Mitchill, of New York, the honour is
due of having first publicly taught, in an Ameri-
can seminary, the system of chemistr}^ digested
and published by Lavoisier and his associates. This
was in a course of lectures delivered by him in
Columbia college, in the year 1792, as a profcs-
SOT in that institution : and his various publica-
tions and numerous experiments on the subject,
from that time to the. present, have doubtless con-
ti'ibuted to extend the taste for chemical inquiries.
Dr. Mitchill was soon followed by Dr. Woodhouse
of Philadelphia, Dr. Maclean of Princeton, Dr.
Dexter of Cambridge, and, in a few years after-
ward, by several others, in diifcrent parts of the
continent. This department of physical science
is much more studied in the middle and southern
states than in New England.

The arrival of Dr. Priestley in the United States
gave a spring to the study of -chemistry on that
side of the Atlantic. This celebrated philosopher
possessed an ardour and activity of mind, which
were eminently fitted to influence those with
whom he had any intercourse, and to draw the

264 Nations lately become Literary. [Cii. XXVI.

public attention to the objects which he pursued.
And although to the last he adhered to a system of
doctrines which a great majority of chemists con-
sider as erroneous, yet his numerous experiments
and publications on the subject after he resided
in the United States, have contributed to excite a
spirit of inquiry, and to improve the public taste
for chemical philosophy.

The votaries of Natural History in the United
States, though not numerous, are respectable,
and have rendered important services to this
branch of science. Beside those of this class
whose names were mentioned in preceding pages,
a {^w others are entitled to particular notice..
The rev. Dr. Cutler, Mr. Peck, and Dr. Water-
house, of Massachusetts ; Dr. Mitchill of New
York ; the rev. Dr. Muhlenberg, and Mr. Mar-
shall, of Pennsylvania; and Mr. Walter * of South
Carolina, are all advantageously known by their
publications on different branches of natural his-
tory. But, among the natural historians now
living in the United States, professor Barton of
Philadelphia undoubtedly holds the first rank.
His various works evince a closeness of observa-
tion, an accuracy of inquiry, an extent of learn-
ing, and a vigour and comprehensiveness of

•^ Thomas Walter was a native of England, a man of liberal
education, and much devoted to botany. He settled in South
Carolina, a few miles from the city of Charleston, where he re-
sided a number of years as a planter, and where he died towards
the close of the eighteenth century. He published his Flora
Caroliniana in 1788. He introduced a new species of grass,
from which much was expected j but it did not stand the test of
time.

Sect. III.] United States of America. 265

mind, which are equally honourable to their pos-
sessor, and to his country. Should his life and
health be spared, he bids fair to attain a place
among the most accomplished scientific natura-
lists of the nineteenth century.

In the science of Medicine^ America has pre-
sented specimens of learnii g and talents of the
most honourable kind. It may be questioned
whether this science is cultivated more zealously
or more successfully in any part of the world than
in America; or whether any medical school in
Europe furnishes, on the whole, greater advan-
tages to the student than that of Philadelphia*.
The spring which was given to the study of me-
dicine within the last ten years of the eighteenth
centur}', in the United States, deserves to be no-
ticed as very remarkable. This was effected, not
only by the writings of several distinguished
physicians of America, among whom Dr. Rush
holds the first place, and to whom medical sci-
ence in that country owes a large debt of gra-
titude ; but also, and perhaps more especialh^,
by the unprecedented frequenc}^ with which it
has been visited, during this period, by pestilen-
tial diseases, which have roused tli^ attention
and called forth the talents of its physician?,

* It is not contended, that the advantages to be enjoyed in the
medical school at Philadelphia are equal to those furnished by
the clinical lectures and practice, in the numerous and large
hoi<pitals of London, and the still more numerous courses of lec-
tures, delivered by private instructors in that city. It is onlv
meant to be asserted, that no regular medical school, connected
with any university of Europe, offers to the student better means
of medical instruction than those which may be enjoyed in Phi-
ladelphia.

206 Nations lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

and led to investigations, to an interchange of
opinions, and to a publication of the results of
their inquiries, which were never so general be-
fore.

In the Mechanic Arts, so far as respects the in-
genuit}^ of individuals, and the important service
rendered by numerous inventions and improve-
ments, America jaelds to no nation. Perhaps,
considering the amount of its population, and
the peculiar circumstances of its people, it has
furnished even a greater number of these in-
ventions and improvements than its just pro-
portion. On this subject, as it w^ould be difficult
to enter into details without exceeding all con-
venient limits j so there can be no doubt that a
number of instances, abundantly sufficient to sup-
port the assertion here made, will readily occur
to every reader. The Quadrant, by Godfrey;
the Orrery, by Rittenhouse ; the machinery for
manufacturing Cards, by AVhittemore ; and that for
manufacturing Fire-arms, by Whitney; form but
a very small number of the large list that might
be presented.

Of talents in the Fine Arts, America has been
less productive. But w^e have satisfactory evi-
dence that this arises not so much from the want
of native genius, as from the want of cultivation
and encouragement of the genius it possesses.
The names of West, Trumbull, , Copley, and Stu-
art, are more than suflicient to rescue their coun-
try from any imputations of deficiency on this
head.

When we pass on to Theology, the noblest and
most important of all sciencesj it wall be found, ■

Sect. III.] United States of America. 267

that, on this subject, America may claim high
distinction. To omit many names of less note,
tJie theological writings of president Edwards^
and of the rev. Dr. Hopkins, have excited much
attention in the religious v.orld. The former, in
particular, deserves perhaps to be considered as
one of the greatest divines that ever lived. Beside
many tracts of high reputation, on detached
points of theology, and which have been well re-
ceived, not only in America, but also in Europe ;
a number of volumes of Sermojis have been pro-
duced by their countrymen, which show, that the
eloquence of the pulpit is b}^ no means neglected.
The fu'st volume of sermons ever published in
America, that had any just claim to correctness
and elegance of style, was printed in Boston, in
the 3'car 1727, by Ebenezer Pemberton, pastor
of a church in that town. Since that time, the
collections of sermons, by president Davies *, Dr.

*•■ The rev. Samuel Davies was born in the county of Newcastle,
in the state of Delaware, November 3, 172 k He received the
greater part of his academic and theological education under the
care of the rev. Mr. Samuel Blair, of Fog's Manor, iu Pennsylva-
nia, and was licensed to preach the Gospel, by the presbytery of
Newcastle, about the year 171.5. Soon after this event, he tra-
velled into Virginia, where he settled in the ministry, in Hanover
county, and remained there in an extensive sphere of usefulness,
and highly respected, for a number of years. In 17,33 he was
chosen by the synod of New York, at the solicitation of the trustees
of New Jersey college, to accompany tiie rev. Gilbert Tennent on
a mission to Great Britain and Ireland, to solicit benefactions for
that college. In 1759 he was elected to succeed Mr.Edwards in
the presidency of the institution. In this station he remained
but eighteen months, being removed by death in January 17S1,
iii the thirty-seventh year of his age. The genius, taste, learn-
ing, and eminent piety of president Davies, have been so much

^26S Na/io?2s lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVI..

Lathrop, Dr. Seabuiy, president Smith, Dr. Linn,
Dr. Strong, Dr. Clarke, Dr. Emmons, and several
others, of difTerent kinds and degrees of merit,
have received much public approbation*.

In the Philosophy of the Human Mind the
eighteenth century did not produce a greater
effort of genius, than the Treatise on the JVill, by
president Edwards. A work of his son, the late
Dr. Jonathan Edwards, president of Union col-
lege, on the same subject, is also an honourable
monument of talents and learning. And perhaps
it may be asserted, that within the last thirty
years a fondness for metaphysical subtleties and
refined speculations has remarkably characterised
the theological publications, particularly in the
eastern states of America.

In Classic Literature, the United States have
given birth to little that can be deemed remark-
able. The first translation of a classic author
ever made and published in America was by
James Logan, several times before naentioned,
v/ho, in IT'ii, published a version of Cicero's
treatise De Sencctutey with explanatory notes.
Since that time several works of a similar kind

celebrated, that it is unnecessary to dwell on them here. His
Sermons, in three volumes, were first published in 1765. Their
uncommon merit is>\vell known. They have undergone a num-
ber of impressions.

* Beside the more formal volumes of sermons above mention-
ed, it would be easy to select smaller collections of discourses on
particular subjects, which do honour to the genius, learning, and
taste of their respective authors; and the single sermons of
merit are much more numerous ; but it is obviously impossible
to indulge such minujte details, consistently with the requisite
brevity.

Sect. III.] United States of America, 269

have been executed in the United States. Among
many others who might be mentioned as distin-
guished for their classic learning and taste, it
would be improper to omit the name of Charles
Thomson, esq.*, late secretary of the American
congress. The erudition and skill of this gentle-
man, especially in Greek literature, do honour
to his country. He has completed a translation
of the Septiiagint version of the Old Testament
Scriptures, and of the original of the New Testa-
ment, which the friends of biblical literature in
America hope soon to see published ; and which,
in the opinion of good judges, will be a valuable
acquisition to sacred criticism.

Of Oriental Literature the votaries in America
have been few, and of the fruits of their erudition
little has been laid before the pu])lic. With re-
gard, indeed, both to classic and oriental litera-
ture, the country has rather lost than gained
ground within the last hundred years. For though
a greater number of persons now gain a smatter-
ing of classic literature than at the beginning of
the century ; yet of those who pay attention to
this study, much fewer are deeply and thoroughly
instructed. And with respect to oriental learn-
ing, those who have any tolerable acquaintance
with it in the United States are rare indeed. To
the names of those Americans mentioned in
former parts of this work, who w^ere distinguished
by their knowledge of the Hebrew language,

* This gentleman received the rudiments of his education at
the academy of Dr. Francis Allison, before mentioned, where he
was associated in study with Dr. Ewing, governor M'Kean, and
a number of other Americans of literary distinction.

270 Nations lately become Literary, [Ch. XXVI.

that of the rev. Dr. Stiles, president of Yale col-
lege, may be added. At the time of his death,
he probably left no superior among his country-
men in this branch of literature *.

It has been asserted, and probably with truth,
that in Political science, and in Parliamentary
eloquence, the United States will bear a very ho-
nourable comparison with any nation. Beside
the eminent political writers mentioned in a
former page, the names of Adams, Hamilton,
Madison, Jay, and several other native citizens,
are known and celebrated in Europe. In addi-
tion to these, many counsellors and juridical cha-
racters might be enumerated, who not only hold a
high station in their own country, but who would
also be considered as ornaments of the bar and the
bench, in the most enlightened countries of Europe.

* Ezra Stiles, D. D. and LL. D., was born at North Haven, in
Connecticut, December 10, 1727. He was educated at Yale
college, where he received the degree of A. B. in the year 1746.
He was ordained to the work of the Gospel ministry, and install-
ed pastor of a church at Newport, Rhode Island, in 1755 ; and
was chosen president of the college at which he had received
his education in 1777; in v/hich important office he continued
till his death, in 1795. Dr. Stiles was one of the most learned
men that his country ever produced. He had a great amount
of general knowledge, but he was particularly attached to ori-
ental literature. Beside an acquaintance v.ith the Hebrew lan-
guage more than commonly extensi\'B and profound, very few
on that side of the Atlantic ever made so great progress in the
knowledge of the Arabic, Chaldaic, Syriac, and Samaritan dia-
lects; and on the Persic and Coptic he had bestowed some atten-
tion. He corresponded with learned rabbis in the Hebrew lan-
guage, and revived the study of it in the college over which he
presided. For upwards of thirty years he held a distinguished
place among the active friends and promoters of literature in the
United State!;-.

Sect. III.] United States of America. ^71

The Historians of America were enumerated
in a former chapter, and some references made
to. their respective merits *. None of them, in-
deed, can boast of having attained that elaborate
polish, and that exquisite felicity of manner which
distinguish the first class of English historians.
But most of them are respectable writers ; and
several have acquitted themselves in a manner
which does credit to their taste in composi-
tion as well as to their fidelity in collecting and
communicating information f.

The respectable Poets of America are not nu-
merous. The most conspicuous of these were
noticed in a preceding division of this work J. It
is not necessary here to repeat their names, or to
attempt a comparative estimate of their merits.
Their number is gradually increasing § ; and
when that leisure and encouragement shall be
afforded to men of genius there, which are en-

* See vol. ii.

f Histories of clifTerent American states have been promised
by several writers. The public particularly look forward with
high expectation to the appearance of The History of North Ca-
rolina, which has been for some time prepared by Dr. Hugh
Williamson, whose talents and learning are a pledge that it will
prove an interesting and instructive work.
.X See pages 67 and 68 of this volume.

§ Since the close of the eighteenth century, another writer has
appeared, who, if we may judge by his first production, is de-
stined to hold a high place in the catalogue of native poets of
America. This Avriter is the rev. John B. Linn, D. D., of Phila-
delphia, whose Powers of Genius, a didactic and descriptive
poem, published in ]80i, displays imagination, taste, and read-
ing. This poem was so favourably received, that a second edi-
tion was called for in less than a year, into which the author has
introduced large and valuable improvements.

1272 Nations lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

joyed in many parts of Europe, it may expect
to produce poets, who shall vie with the most
celebrated of the old world.'

But in no respect does the literary enterprise
of America appear more conspicuous than in the
rapid increase of the number and circulation of
Newspapers, within the last thirty years. The
ratio and amount of this increase were stated in
another place*. In this respect it goes beyond
every other nation. It were well if these vehicles
of information had improved as much in purity,
intelligence, and instructiveness, as in other re-
spects ; but the blindest partiality for American
literature must perceive and lament the sad re-
verse !

It may not be improper to attempt, in a.
few sentences, a comparative estimate of the ex-
tent to which different branches of knowledge
are cultivated in different parts of the United
States.

That amount of knowledge which is usually ac-
quired at common schools, viz. reading, writing,
and arithmetic, is more generally diffued among
all classes of the people in New England, and par-
ticularly in Massachusetts and Connecticut, than
in any other portion of the country, and indeed
than in any other part of the globe. This may
\)Q ascribed to the superior excellence of their
school establishments; to the number, piety, and
diligence of the clergy ; to the regular organisa-
tion of their towns and parishes; to the honour-
able point of light in which the instructors of

* See pages 91 and 92 of tlie present volume.

Sect. III.] United States of America. 273

youth are considered * ; and to the p^eiieral spirit
of activity and enterprise which must be admitted
to enter into tlie national character of New En-
gland.

It may also be observed, as another circum-
stance of discrimination, that in the eastern states
a larger portion of the youth pass tin'ough a regu-
lar collegiate course of education, than in any
other part of the country. In New England, the
mass of the people are more generally taught to
respect literature, and to make exertions for con-
ferrincr this advantacrc on their children. In that
part of the union, also, the expense attending an
academic course is rather less than in most of the
other American seminaries. These two circum-
fstances have a natural tendency to fill their col-
leges with a greater number of students than arc
to be found elsewhere.

The Classic Literature of the United States, as
was before remarked, is almost every where super-
ficial. It is believed, however, that the learned
languages, and especially the Greek language,

f This circumstance has a most benign influence in Nev/ En-
gland. In the middle, but more especially in the southern
states, the employment of a schoolmaster is considered by many
as rather degrading, and has sometimes been used as a ground of
reproach. The consequence is, that too many of the instructors
of youth in these states are ignorant and vicious adventurers;
those who are well qualified rather shunning an oflice to which
so little respect is attached. In the New England states it is
otherwise. Some of their greatest divines and statesmen were
schoolmasters in early life. The employment is considered and
treated as an honourable one. The consequence is, that tiie
common parish schools arc generally under the care of well in-
formed and virtuous men.

Vol. III. T

274 Nations lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

are rather less studied in the eastern than in the
middle and southern states. It is true, many
more individuals attend to this branch of learn-
ing in the former than in the latter ; but they
read fewer books, and devote a less portion of
time to the object*. For this fact, many reasons
might be assigned ; but it is not necessary to
mention more than two. The one i?, that, owing
to the superior wealth enjoyed by a number of
individuals in the middle and southern states, it
was more common, during a great part of the
eighteenth century, to send young men to Eu-
rope for their education from those states, than
•from New England. The youth, thus educated,
might be expected of course to bring back with
them, to their native country a larger portion of
classic literature than can be easily acquired in
American seminaries. Another reason is, that,
while almost all the instructors of youth in New
England, and especially the higher classes of them,
during the last hundred years, have been natives ;
a large portion of the superintendents of acade-
mics, and of the presidents and professors of col-
leges, in the middle and southern parts of the
country, during the same period, were Europeans,
and many of them eminently accomplished in
classic literature. If, therefore, the knowledge
in this branch of learning, acquired m the best

* The author is aware, that, in tracing the literary history of
New England, the names of some classical scholars of great emi-
nence are found. He means, however, only to speak of the de-
gree of attention generally paid to classic literature by those
who go through a collegiate course in the eastern stateSjt, and espe-
cially within the last twenty or thirty yeai'*.

Sect. III.] United States of America. 275

seminaries of Europe, were usually more accu-
rate and profound than could ordinarily be ob-
tained from the native citizens, it must follow, of
course, that those who derived their classical
learning from the former of these sources, were
in general more thoroughly instructed them-
selves, and consequently more capable of instruct-
ing others, than those who had access only to the
latter.

In the study of Oriental Literature, it is be-
lieved that New England has generally excelled
the middle and southern states. Certain it is,
that we hear of more eminent orientalists in the
former than in the latter ; if we except a few fo-
reigners occasionally residing in America. This
we may ascribe to the great oriental learning of
several of those distinguished divines who came
with the first settlers to New England, or who
soon afterward followed them thither. The in-
fluence of these men has continued, in some de-
gree, to the present day. To this circumstance it
may be added, that the university of Cambridge,
in Massachusetts, is the only seminary of learning
in the United States in which a professorship for
instruction in the oriental languages has been
steadily maintained through the whole of the
eighteenth century.

In the cultivation of Mathematics and Natural
Philosophy, it is difiicult to say to vv'hat part of
the country the preference ought to be given.
Prol^ably an impartial judge, taking the whole
history of the country together, would give the
palm, in this respect, to Pennsylvania and Massa-

cliusetts.

T2

276 Nations lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

The sciences of Chemistry, Natural History,
and Medicijie, have long been, and continue to
be, more successfully cultivated in the middle and
southern than in the eastern states. The same
reasons apply in this case that were suggested
with respect to classic literature. Comparatively
few young men have been sent, at any period,
from the eastern states to European seminaries to
complete their medical education. Beside this
consideration, foreigners, even of literary and
scientific character, have received less encourage-
ment to settle in those states than in most other
parts of the union. On the other hand, from the
middle and southern states a number of young
men have been sent every year to the medical
schools of Europe, who not only attended the or-
dinary courses of instruction in Medicine, strictly
so called, but also the lectures delivered on Che-
mistry and Natural History, as important auxi-
liary branches of philosophy. It is further to be
observed, that several learned and enterprising
foreigners, who visited and resided for some time
in New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and South
Carolina, devoted much of their time and atten-
tion to natural history*; excited some of the
native citizens, in their respective neighbour-

* There is a particular reference here to Catesby, Garden,
and Walter, who resided in South Carolina ; to Mitchell, who
spent a number of years in Virginia; to professor talm, who
devoted several years to travelling in the middle states; to
Schoepf and Wangenheim, who came to America with the Ger-
man troops during the revolutionary war ; to whom may be
added Dr. Golden and Dr. Muhlenberg, whose talents and zeal
ill the study of botany have been before repeatedly mentioned.

SSCT. III.] United States of America.' 277

hoods, to engage in this study *; and thus intro-
duced that taste for inquiries of this nature which
has ever since existed, in a greater or less degree,
in some individuals in those states.

New England has given birth to the greatest
number, and the most eminent of the native Theo-
logical writers of America. And there is no doubt
that by far the larger portion oi\K\^ Sermons printed
in the United States, whether in volumes or single
discourses, is produced in that part of the coun-
try. It may also be asserted, that almost all the
valuable disquisitions on the Philosophy of the hu-
man mind, Mhich have been published on tlie
other side of the Atlantic, were written in New
England,

In the literature and science of Politics, it is
not easy to say which part of the country is mo^t
entitled to credit. If we pronounce in favour of
those states, which have produced the greatest
number of eminent political writers, we must
give the first honours to Massachusetts, New
York, Pennsjvlvania, and Virginia. But there is
no subject more generally studied in every state
m the union, than political science; none on
Avliich their literary men so frequently MTite ;
and of course none which so constantly calls
iovth the exertion of talents.

Of Plistorical composition, the eastern states
have produced their full proportion, and rather

.-*: It was probably OAving to the conversation and influence of
these, or some other foreigners visiting the country, that Clayton,
Starke, Cary, and Greenway, ot" Virginia; and the Bartraius,
Marshall, and others, of Pennsylvania, were so much devoted to
botanical pursuits.

278 Nations lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVL

more. Of respectable Poets, they have given
birth to a greater number than any other pro-
portional division of the union. And in Belles
Lettres generally, there is, without doubt, more
cultivation in New England than in any other
part of our country ; if v/e except the larger
cities in the middle and southern states.

With respect to the Mechanic Arts, New En-
gland has furnished her full proportion of those
inventions and improvements which do honour to
American genius. And with regard to the Fine
Arts, three out of Jour of our greatest native
painters were born in that division of the country.

It must, however, after all, be acknowledged,
that what is called a liberal education in the United
States is, in common, less accurate and complete;
the erudition of their native citizens, with some
exceptions, less extensive and profound; and the
works published by Americait authors, in general,
less learned, instructive, and elegant*, than are
found in Great Britain, and some of the more en-
lightened nations on the eastern continent. These
facts, it is apprehended, arise neither from any
deficiency of talents in Amerixra, nor from any in-
aptitude in its soil or atmosphere to promote the
grov/th of genius ; but from one or another, and
in some cases from a combination, of the follow-
ins: causes.

* It is not meant to be denied that a few of the works pub-
lished in Avncrica are as profound and instructive as any on
similar subjects published elsewhere. It is simply intended to
give a general character of American publications, liable to such
cxce{*tions as the mind of the well informed reader will readily
supply.

Sect. III.] Unifed States of America. 2/9

1. Defective plans and means of instruction in
the seminaries of learning. The great majority
of the colleges have very inadequate funds. The
consequence is, that in most of them the profes-
sors are few in numl^erj and have assigned to them.
too large a field of instruction, Heiice they can
convey but very superficial knowledge of the va-
rious branches which it is made their duty to teach ;
and if well qualified themselves, which is far from
being always the case, find it impossible to do
justice to the pnpils. In some instances, also, the
trustees or governors of American colleges, either
irom their own ignorance, or in compliance with
popular prejudice, have so contracted the time
requisite for completing a course of instruction,
as to render it necessary wholly to dispense w4th,
or lightly to hurry over, some of the most impor-
tant branches of knowledge. Accordingly, iu
some of these institutions, mathematical science is
unpopular, and the acquisition of as little as pos-
sible, especially of the higher branches of it, .en-
joined on the student. In others, chissic litera-
ture, and especially the Greek language*, is iu
low estimation, and not more studied than is in-
dispensablv necessary to obtaining a diploma. If
well bred scholars ever issue from such semina-
ries, they must be formed by a degree of private
and individual application rarely to be met with
in youth.

* III some American colleges, we are told that no more know-
ledge of Greek is required iu those who graduate bachelor of arts,
than that which maybe derived from the Grammar and the Greek
Testament.

280 Kaiiojis latelij become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

2. Want of leisure. The comparative!}'" equal
distribution of property in America, while it pro-
duces the most benign political and moral effects,
is by no means friendly to great acquisitions in
literature and science. In such a state of society,
there can be few persons of leisure. It is neces-
sary that almost all should be engaged in some
active pursuit. Accordingly, in the United States,
the greater number of those who pass through a
course of what is called liberal education, in the
hurried manner Avhich has been mentioned, en-
gage, immediately after leaving college, in the
study or business to which they propose to devote
themselves. Having run over the preliminary
steps of instruction in this business, probably in
a manner no less hurried and superficial than
their academic studies, they instantly commence
its practical pursuit ; and are perhaps, during
the remainder of life, consigned to a daily toil
for support, which precludes them from reading,
and especially from gaining much knowledge out
of their particular profession. Such is the career
of ninety nine out of a hundred of those in
America who belong to the learned professions.
When the alternative either lies, or is supposed
to lie between erudition and poverty, or com-
fortable affluence and moderate learning, it is not
difficult to conjecture which side will be chosen;
nor is it surprising, that, in such a state of things,
there should be less profound erudition, less ele-
gant accomplishment in literature, than where a
considerabfle number enjoy all the advantages of
exemption from laborious duties, and all the ac-
commodations of opulent leisure.

Sect. III.] United Stutes of America. 281

To this circumstance may be ascribed the su-
perficial and unpolished character of many of
their native publications. All that their authors,
in many cases, want, to render them more replete
with instruction, more attractive in manner, and
of course more worthy of public approbation, is
leisure. But, able only to redeem a few hasty
hours for literary pursuits, from the employments
which give them bread, they must necessarily, if
they i^ublish at all, send forth productions, from
time to time, bearing all the marks of haste and
immature reflection.

3. Want of encouragement to learning. Men
cannot be expected to labour without the hope
of some adequate reward. Genius must be nou-
rished by patronage, as well as strengthened by
culture. AVhere substantial emoluments may be
derived from literary exertion, there, and there
alone, will it be frequently undertaken to any
considerable extent. Hence, in those countries
where genius and learning are best rewarded,
there they are ever found to be most cultivated.
In the United States, the rewards of literature
are small and uncertain. The people cannot af-
ford to remunerate eminent talents or great ac-
quirements. Booksellers, the great patrons of
learning in modern times, are in America too
poor to foster and reward the efforts of genius.
There are no rich felloxvships in their universities
to excite the ambition of students; no large eccle-
siastical benefices to animate the exertions of li-
terary divines*. Academic chairs are usually

* The author would by no means be understood to e\{;rcss an
opinion, tliat such immoderately lucrative places, cither in

2S2 Nations lately become Literary. [Ch. XXVT.

connected with such small salaries, that they pre-
sent little temptation to the scholar: and, finally,
the state offers very inconsiderable motives for
the acquisition of knowledge, and the exertion of
talents. Its rewards are small, and its favour ca-
pricious. Can it be wondered then, that those
who have some acquaintance with books, and hold
important stations, are more anxious to secure
pecuniary advantages, and to place themselves in
a situation independent of popular favour, than
to make advances in literature, or to do honour
to their country by the display of intellectual
preeminence ?

Besides, the spirit of their people is commercial.
It has been said, and perhaps with some justice,
that the love of gain peculiarly characterises the
inhabitants of the United States. The tendency
of this spirit to discourage literature is obvious.
In such a state of society, men will not only be
apt to bend their whole attention to the acquire-
ment of property, and neglect the cultivation of
their minds as an affaif of secondary moment ;
but letters and science will seldom be found in
high estimation ; the amount of wealth will be the
principal test of influence ; the learned will ex-
perience but little reward either of honour or
emolument ; and, of course, superficial education
will be the prevailing charadter.

church or in state, are, on the whole, useful or desirable. He is
persuaded that they are much more productive of mischief than
of advantage. But that they often excite literary ambition, and
afford, in many instances, convenient and useful leisure to literary
characters, will scarcely be questioned by those who have paid
any attention to the subject.

Sect. III.] United States of America. 283

Nor is it of less importance here to recollect,
that the nature of their connexion with Great
Britain has operated, and continues to operate,
unfavourably to the progress of American litera-
ture. Long accustomed to a state of colonial de-
pendence on this enlightened and cultivated na-
tion, they have also been accustomed to derive from
her the supplies for their literary wants. And
still connected with her by the ties of language,
manners, taste, and commercial intercourse, her
literature, science, and arts, may be considered
as theirs. Being able, therefore, with so much
ease, to reap the fruits of her fields, they have not
sufficient inducement to cultivate their own. And
even when an excellent production of the Ame-
rican soil is offered to the public, it is generally
undervalued and neglected. A large portio^n of
^heir citizens seem to entertain the idea, that no*
thing worthy of patronage can be produced on
their side of the Atlantic. Instead of being
prompted to a more liberal encouragement of
genius because it is American, their prejudices,
on this account, are rather excited against it*.

* The writer in the Monthly Magazine, whopc strictures on
American literature were before mentioned, i-epresents the inha-
bitants of the United States as having strong prejudices in favour
of their own productions, and ridicules them for preferring ^\me-
rtcan publications to all others. In this, as well as in most of
his assertions, he discovers profound ignorance of the subject.
The fact is directly the reverse. Americans are too apt to join
with ignorant or fastidious foreigners, in undervaluing and de-
crying their domestic literature ; and this circumstance is one of
the numerous obstacles which have operated to discourage lite-
rary exertions on that side of the Atlantic, and to impede theic
literary progress.

284 Nations latehj become Literary. [Ch. XXVI.

4. Want of books. In the capital cities of Eu-
rope, the votary of Jiterature is surrounded with
immense libraries, to which he may easily obtain
access 3 and even in many of the smaller towns,
books on any subject, and to almost any number,
may be easily obtained. It is otherwise in Ame-
rica. There the student, in addition to all the
other obstacles which lie in his way, has often to
spend as much time and thought to obtain a parti-
cular book, as the reading it ten times would cost.
Its public libraries are few, and, compared witli
those of Europe, small. Nor is this defect sup-
plied by large private collections; these are also
rare. And to render the evil still more grievous,
tjie number of literary and enterprising booksel-
lers is yet smaller. It is only within two or three
years that America has begun to receive, wii^k
any kind of regularity or promptitude, the best
British works as they issue from the press.

Such are some of the causes which have hither-
to impeded the progress of American literature.
Tlieir influence, however, is gradually declining,
and the literary prospects of that country are
brightening every day. Letters and science are
growing more important in the public estima-
tion. The number of learned men is becoming
rapidly greater. The plans and means of instruc-
tion in their' seminaries of learning, though by
no means improving ill all respects, arc, in some,
receiving constant melioration. The emulation
of founding and sustaining a national character
in science and learning begins to be more gene-
rally felt, and, from time to time, will doubtless
be augmented. A larger proportion of the grow-

Sect. III.] United States of America. QS5

ine wealth of their country will hereafter be de-
voted to the improvements of knowledge, and
especially to the furtherance of all the means by
which scientific discoveries arc brought within
popular reach, and rendered subservient to prac-
tical utility. American publications are every
day growing more numerous, and rising in re-
spectability of character. Public and private li-
braries are becoming more numerous and exten-
sive. The taste in composition among their
writers is making very sensible progress in cor-
rectness and refmem.ent. American authors of
merit meet with more liberal encouragement ;
and when the time shall arrive that they can give
to their votaries of literature the same leisure
and the same stimulants to exertion with which
they are favoured in Europe, it may be confi-
dently predicted, that letters will flourish as much
in America as in any part of the world ; and that
they will be able to make some return to their
transatlantic brethren, for the rich stores of use-
ful knowledge which they have been pouring
upon them for nearly two centuries.

Q86

RECAPITULATION.

VV E have now made a hasty tour through one
of the departments of the subject which we un-
dertook to examine. From the foregoing survey,
which, however tedious it may have appeared to
the reader, is in reality a very rapid one, the
eighteenth century appears to bear a singularly
distinct and interesting character. In almost every
department of knowledge we fmd monuments of
enterprise, discover}', and improvement ; and, in
some, these monuments are so numerous, valuable,
and splendid, as to stand without parallel in the
history of the human mind. There have been
periods in which particular studies were more
cultivated; but it may be asserted, with confi-
dence, that in no period of the same extent, since
the creation, has a mass of improvement so large,
diversified, and rich, been presented to view. In
no period have the various branches of science,
arts, and letters, received, at the same time, such
liberal accessions of light and refinement, and
been made so remarkably to illustrate and enlarge
each other. Never did the inquirer stand at the
confluence of so many streams of knowledge as
at the close of the eighteenth century.

But, in order to bring more immediately and
distinctly into view the leading characteristics of
the last age as deducible from the statements
which have been given, an attempt will be made
to sum them up in the few following particulars:

Recapitulation. 287

1. The last century was preeminently an AGE
OF FREE INQUIRY. No period in the history of
man is so well entitled to this character. Two
centuries have not rolled away, since the belief
that the earth is globular in its form was punished
as a damnable heresy j since men were afraid to
avow the plainest and most fundamental principles
of philosophy, government, and religion; and
since the spirit of liberal inquiry was almost un-
known. In the seventeeth century this spirit
began to show itself; but it was reserved for the
eighteenth to witness an indulgence and exten-
sion of it truly wonderful. Never, probably,
was the human mind, all things considered, so
much unshackled in its inquiries. Men have
learned, in a greater degree than ever before, to
make light of precedent, and to throw ofl* the
authority of distinguished names. They have
learned, with a readiness altogether new, to dis*
card old opinions, to overturn systems which werv^
supposed to rest on everlasting foundations, and
to push their inquiries to the utnjost extent,
awed by no sanctions, restrained by no prescrip-
tions.

This revolution- in the human mind has been
attended with many advantages and with many
evils. It has led to the development of much
truth, and has contributed greatly to enlai'ge the
bounds of literatui'C, science, and general im-
provement. It has opened the way to a free
communication of all discoveries, real or sup-
posed, and removed various obstacles which long
retarded the progress of knowledge. But thig
spirit of inquiry, like every thing else in the

288 Recapitulation.

hands of man, has been perverted and abused.
It has been carried to the extreme of licentious-
ness. In too many instances the love of iiovelty,
and the impatience of all restraint founded on
prescription or antiquity, have triumphed over
truth and wisdom j and, in the midst of zeal for
demolishing old errours, the most sacred princi-
ples of virtue and happiness have been rejected
or forgotten.

2. The last century may be emphatically called
the AGE OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE. It was not till
the seventeenth century that the physical sciences
began to assume a conspicuous place among the.
objects of study. Before that period, the learned
languages, ancient history, and the metaphysical
jargon of the schoolmen, had chiefly engrossed
the attention of literary and scientific men. From
the time of Bacon and Kepler a taste for natural
philosophy began to extend itself This taste
was cherished and improved by the scientific as-
sociations which began to be formed in different
parts of Europe about the middle of the seven-
teenth century : but in the eighteenth it became
far more predominant than at any former period,,
and may be said to form a prominent feature of
the age.

It has been seen, that several branches of Me-
chanical Philcsophy, wholly new, were introduced
into the popular systems in the course of this pe-
riod ; and that in almost all the branches formerly
studied, there were made immense discoveries
and improvements. Chemistry has been so much
improved and extended, both in its principles
and application, that it may be pronounced a

Recapitulation. 289

new science. In Natural History^ the progress
of philosophers, within the last hundred years,
has been no less signal and honourable. The
amount of what has been aceomplished in various
plans of classification, in the corrections of no-
menclature, and in additions to the former lists of
specimens in natural history, more particularly in
zoology, botany, mineralogy, is too great to be
<jollected or exhibited by any individual. A si-
milar extension of our knowledge has taken place
in Medicine, in Agriculture, in Geography, and in
the principles as well as practice of Mechanic
Arts. All these come under the general denomi-
nation of Physical Scieivce. It is too evident to
admit of a doubt, that there never was a period in
which so much enlightened attention was paid to
objects of this kind, or any thing like such a sum
of improvement introduced as in the eighteenth
century.

Some observers of the revolutions and progress
of science have divided the century under review
into three parts, and considered each part as par-
ticularly distinguished by the cultivation of one
of the principal physical sciences. From 1700
till 1735, the Newtonian Philosophy engaged the
largest share of the attention of the learned.
How great a portion of the publications and con-
troversies of that day had a respect to this philo-
sophy, the well informed reader will not be at any
loss to recollect. From 1735 till about the year
1760 or 1770, may be called the period o^ Natural
History; as the various branches of study in-
cluded in this general denomination, more espe-
cially zoology and botany, were never before, in

Vol. Ill, " U

^90 Uecapittdation.

any comparable degree, so much cultivated. F(A'
this prevalence of the study of natural history we
are perhaps indebted to the genius, labours, and
influence of no two individuals so much as to
those of Linnaeus, and the count de Buffon. From
1770 till 1801 may be styled the period of Che-
mistry; that science having given rise to more
iiumerons' experiments and publications during
this period than any other. Those who had most
influence in brinc;in2: into vosrue this branch of
physical science, and conferring upon it that im-
portance and extent which it has gained, are
Scheele, Klaproth, Lavoisier, and Priestley.

Upon a review of the foregoing sheets, it may
also be remarked, that the physical sciences, dur-
ing the period in question, appear to have been
cultivated with unusual ardour in particular
countries. In Mechanical and Mathematical Phi-
losophy^ it is not easy to say to which of the scien-
tific nations of Europe the palm of superiority
ought to be awarded. In Chemistry, France is
doubtless entitled to the first place. After her^
Germany, Great Britain, &c., follow in compara-
tive merit. In Natural History, the different na-
tions may be represented as standing in the fol-
lowing rank. First, France; second, Germany;
third, Sweden ; fourth, Great Britain ; fifth, Swit-
zerland, Italy, &c. In Medicine, Great Britain,
beyond all doubt, has long held the first place ;
though it must be acknowledged, that the pro-
gress of medical science in France, Germany, and
the United States, towards the close of the cen-
tury, deserves to be noticed as very remarkablt^
and promising. In Geography, Great Bi-itam_an?d

Recapitulation. 291

France^must divide the larger portion of the mass
of honours between them. In Agriculture, the
highest praise is unquestionably due to Great
Britain. And in all those scientific researches
which bear upon arts, manufactures, and econo-
my, the last mentioned country must also be pro-
nounced to stand first in order.

3. The eighteenth century may with propriety
be styled the AGE OF ECONOMICAL science. In
all preceding ages science and the economical
arts were too generally yiewed as unconnected.
The philosopher thought it beneath his dignity
to direct his inquiries to the aid of the mechanic
and to the various details of public and domestic
economy; and the mechanic and economist had
been taught to consider the inquiries of the phi-
losopher as mere curious speculations, with which
the practical concerns of life had little to do.
The eighteenth century has produced a signal
revolution, both jn the aspect of scientific inves-
tigations and in the state of public opinion on
this subject. Philosophy has assumed a more
practical and useful form: the artist and the phi-
losopher have learned to go hand in hand.
Many modern discoveries, in different branches
of science, and especially in Natural Philosophy
and Chemistry, while they gratify liberal curio-
sity and give pleasure to the man of speculation,
have also rendered essential service to the Me-
chanic Arts, to Agriculture, to Medicine, to
Domestic Economy, and, in general, to the
abridgement of labour and to the more easy and
cheap preparation of the various comforts and
elegancies of Ii&\ It would be easy to give a

U2

2!92f Recapitulation.

catalogue of economical philosophers of the eigh-
teenth century who were never equalled hj any
of preceding times. To mention no more, the
illustrious American, count Rumford, at the close
ef this period, presented to the world an example
of practical science of which we shall perhaps
seardi irt vain for a parallel in the history of
man.

4. The last century may also, in a peculiar
and distinguishing sense, be called THE AGE OF
EXPERIMENT. The mode of pursuing knowledge
hj observation, experiment, analysis, and an in-
duction of facts, though not absolutely begun by
lord Bacon, was for the first time employed to
any considerable extent by that enlightened phi-
losopher. The influence of his example in this
respect in the sixteenth century (in which he
lived) was comparatively small. In the seven-
teenth, his plan of philosophising was more fre-
quently adopted. But in the* eighteenth it ob-
tained an ascendancy and prevalence never be-
fore known in the history of science. Never
were there so many heads and hands at work to
develope the arcana of nature, to investigate her*
laws, and to bring former principles, as far as
possible, to the test of weight, measurement, and
vision. The amount of experiments of different
kinds, and instituted for different purposes, laid
before the public, within this period, by indivi-
duals, and by learned societies, forms a mass of
stupendous extent, and presents: one of the most
prominent features of the age.

These remarks apply ahnost exclusively to the
physical sciences j for there is too much reason to

Recapitulation. 293

:suppose, as will be afterward shown, that, in the
pliilosophy of the human mind, and especially of
human duty, the prevailing character of the age,
and particularly of the latter part of it, has been
that oi. vain speculation mid fantastic theoiy, rather
than of princif)les dictated by sober and enlight-
<?ned experience. But in the physical sciences,
amid much false theory, such an immense variety
and amount of facts and experiments have been
laid before the public, as eminently to distinguish
the eighteenth from all preceding centuries.

5. The last age wa.s remarkably distinguished
by REVOLUTIONS IN SCIENCE. Theorists v^ere
more numerous than in an}^ former period, their
i^ystems more diversified, and revolutions followed
each other in more rapid succession. In almost
every department of science, changes of fashion,
of doctrine, and of authority, have trodden so
closely on the heels of each other, that merely
to remember and enumerate them would be an
arduous task.

The frequency and rapidity of scientific revo-
lutions may be accounted for in various ways.
The extraordinary diffusion of knowledge ; the
swarms of inquirers and experimenters every
where abounding J the unprecedented degree of
intercourse wliich men of science enjoyed ; and,
■of consequence, the thorough and speedy investi-
gation which every new theory was accustomed
to receive, all led to the successive erection and
demolition of more ingenious and splendid fabrics
than ever previously, within the same compass of
time, passed before the view of man.

The rapid succession of discoveries, hypotheses.

294 Recapitulation.

theories/and systems, while it has served to keep
the scientific world more than ever awake and
busy, has done mischief by perplexing the mind
Avith too many objects of attention, and by ren-
dering the labour of the student more extensive,
difficult, and tedious. If, in the seventeenth cen-
tury, the inquirer had reason to complain, that
the shifting aspect of science rendered necessary
the most unremitting vigilance, and an endless
repetition of his toil, this complaint might have
been urged with a hundred fold more reason in
the eighteenth. The advantages, however, of this
state of things may be considered, on the whole,
as predominant. The ardour, the competition,
and the diligence in the pursuit of knowledge
which it has inspired, deserve at once to be re-
cognised as beneficial, and to be noticed as dis-
tinguishing characteristics of the age.

6. The last century is preeminently entitled to
the character of THE AGE OF PRINTING. It is ge-
nerally known, that this art is but little more than
three centuries old. Among the ancients, the
difficulty and expense of multiplying copies of
works of reputation were so great, that few made
the attemi:>t ; and the author who wished to sub-
mit his compositions to the public was under the
necessity of reciting them at some favourable
meeting of the people *. The disadvantages at-
tending this state of things were many and great.
It repressed and discouraged talents, and rendered
the number of readers extremely small. The in-
vention of printing gave a new aspect to litera^

* See Additional Notes (P).

Recapitulation. 9,^5

lure, and formed one of the mo^t imi^ortant a3i;as
ill the history of human afra,ii^s. It not only in-
creased the number and reduced the price of
Looks, but it also furnished authors M'ith the
means of laying the fruits of their labours before
the public, in the most prompt and extensive
manner. Considering this art, moreover, as a
^reat moral and political engine, by which an
impression may be made on a large portion of a
community at the same time, it assumes a degree
of importaiice highly interesting to the philaii-
thropist, as well as to the scholar *.

The extension of this art in the eighteenth cen-
jtury forms one of the leading features of the age.
Jn the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, e^pe-
pially in tlie former, printing presses were iew,
and of course publication was by no means easy.
The century nnder review exhibited an immense
extension of the art. This extension was not
only general, but so great, that the most mode-
rate estimate presents a result truly stupendous.
There was probably a thousand fold more print-
ing executed in the course of this^ century, than
^n the whole period that had before elapsed since
.the invention of the art ■\. The influence of this

■^■.See Additional Notes (^t).

t Tliis will appear a moderate calculation, when it is consi-
dered that there is a prodigious increase, not only in the number
of new works annually issued from the press, but also in the ex-
tent aad number of ed^Vzo^w constautlyilemanded by tl\e piiblir.
And M hen to this is added the amount of printing which h:is
,heen continually going foruard, particularly within the lastiiily
years, in furnishing the whole literary woild with such a nunj-
ber ajid variety of periodical publicaiion.s, as Reviews, Maja-

296 Recapitulation.

fact, in increasing the sum of public intelligence,
arid in keeping the minds of men awake and ac-
tive, fcannot but be noticed by the most superii-
cial dbserver of the character of the period under
consideration. Printing presses have not onl}'-
become numerous in the populous cities, in every
literary portion of the world ; but also in remote
parts of the country these engines for the diftu-
sion of information are found : thus furnishing the
good with the means of sowing the seeds of truth
and virtue, and the wicked with the means of
scattering poison to an extent never before wit-
nessed in human society.

7. The last century is entitled to distinction
above all others, as the age OF BOOKS ; an age
in which the spirit of ruriti?ig, as well as of publi-
cation, exceeded all former precedent. Though
this is closely connected with the foregoing par-
ticular, it deserves a more distinct and pointed
notice. Never assuredly did the world abound
with such a profusion of various works, or pro-
duce such an immense harvest of literary fruits.
The publication of books in all former periods
of the history of learning laboured under many
difficulties. Readers were comparatively few * ;

zincs. Newspapers, &c., the estimate above stated will probably
be thought rather to fall below than to exceed the truth.

* " To prove the paucity of readers," in the seventeenth cen-
tury, " it may be sufficient to remark, that the British nation
had been satisfied from 1623 to 1664, that is, a period of forty-
one years, with only txvo editions of the works of Shakspeare,
which probably did not together make one thousand copies."
Life of Miltoti, 1)1/ Johnson.

Whereas, in the eighteenth century, from 1733 to 1778, that

Recctpitutation. 297

of course writers met with small encouragement
of a pecuniary kind to labour for the instruction
of the public *. Hence, none in preceding cen-
turies became authors, but such as were prompted
by bencTolence, by literary ambition, or by an
enthusiastic love of literature. But the eigh-
teenth centtiry exhibited the business of publi-
cJltion under an aspect entirely new. It pre-
sented an increase in the number, both of writers
and readers, almost incredible. In this century,
for the first time, authorship became a trade.
Multitudes of writers toiled, not for the promo-
is, in forty-five years, ten large and splendid editions of the same
author were given to the public, and, probably, at least ten more,
lOf a less magnificent kind>- in various parts of the British do-
minions. Allowing each of these editions to have consisted of
two thousand copies, which, on an average, may be supposed a
moderate allowance, the number of copies of one publication
called for by the English literary public, fn a given period of ths
eighteenth century, will be iound forlj/ times greater than the num-
bef called for during a period nearly equal in the seventeenth.

" Ths advantage now enjoyed b};^ authors, of deriving large
profits from the sale of copy-rights, is wholly modern. Mr. Ba-
tetti, a frjend of Dr. Johnson, who resided for some time in En-
gland, about half a century ago, told the doctor, that he wrts the
first man in Italy who receixed money for the copy-right of A
book. BosweU's Life of Johnson, vol. ii, p. 503. Though this
practice had been established long before in Great Britain, yet
evert there the instances of literary profit were rare, and the
amount in general extremely small, until the middle, and to-
ward the close of the eighteenth century. Milton sold his Parct-
di&e Lost for Jlve pounds, on condition of receiving some small
Subsfitluettt emolument, if the sale should prove ready and exten-
sive. Forty six years afterward, Mr. Pope received tivo hundred
pounds for each volume of his translation of the Iliad, or twelve
hundred pounds for the whole Work. And towards the close of
the tentury, the fevs^ards of literary labour were, in many in--
stances, augmented four, six, and oven ten fold.

298 ■ Recapitulation.

tion of science, nor even with a leading view
to^dvaace th^ir own repiAation, but for the mar-
ket. Swarms of book-makers by profession arose,
who inquired, not whether the subjects which
theyiundertook to discuss stood in need of further
invcistigation ; or whether, they were able to do
them more ample justice than their predecessors;
but whether more books might not.be palmed up-
on the public, and made a source of emolument
to the authors. Hence, there were probably more
books published in the eighteenth century, than
in the whole time that had before elapsed since
the art of printing was discovered ; perhaps more
than were ever presented to the public, either in
manuscript, or from the press, since the creation.
This unprecedented and wonderful multiplica-
tion of books, while it has rendered the means of
information more easy of access, and more popu-
lar, has also served to perplex the mind of the
student, to divide his attention, and to distract
his powers. Where there are so many books,
there will be less deep, original, and patient
.thinking; and each work will be studied with
Jess attention and care. It may further be ob-
served, that the abridgements*, compilations, epi-

* Never v\as there an age in which the abridgement of volu-
juinous works was carried to so great and mischievous a length
a? in .the eighteenth century. This mode of treating a prolix
WTiter may, in some cases, be justified ; but, in general, it de-
serves to be reprobated as a practice both presumptuous and un-
fair. Dr. Johnson often spoke of this practice in terms of warrai
and just indignation. Once, in particular, hearing a friend ob-
serve, tliat " abridging a good book was like presenting a cow
.with jbier head and tail cut off," he replied, with equal wit an<i

severity, *' No, sir, it is making a cow to have a calf.'*

• ",.- •. ^ ^■■^'<=.jnm, [f.Mjijno fodjs.bjj t;.

Recapitulation. 299

tomes ^, synopses, and selections, which are daily
pouring from the press in countless numbers, and
which make so large a part of modern publica-
tions, have a tendency to divert the mind from
the treasures of ancient knowledge, and from the
volumes of original authors f. Tluis the multi-
plicity of new publications, v/hile they would
seem at first view highly favourable to the acqui-
sition of learning, are found, as w ill be afterward
more fully shown, hostile to deep and sound eru-
dition.

The allurements to authorship which the mo-
dern state of literature holds out also lead to ano-
ther evil, viz. the hasty production of books. The
nonum prematur in annum of former times has
been too generally disregarded or forgotten by
late writers. Authors, instead of holding their
^vorks under the polishing hand of criticism for
many years, are now tempted prematurely to
hasten before the pul)lic. AVe have lately heard
of an epic poem, nearly as long as the Paradise
'J.osf. composed in six weeks ! and of writers on
the most important and difficult subjects running
a race Avith the press. The mischiefs arising from
isuch rapidity of composition are many and great.
Writers of the most exalted genius and extensive

* " Epitomes are the moths and corruptions of historj"-, that
have fretted and corroded the sound bodies of many excellent hif-
tflries, and wrought them into base and unprofitable dregs.''::—.
Bacon.

, f " It is observed," says Dr. Johnson, " thit a corrupt societi/
,^has many laws ; I know not whether it Is not equally true, that
, an ignorant age lias manj/ books. When compilers and plagiaries
arc encouraged, the treasures of ancient knowledge will lie un-
examined, aud original authors will be neglected and forgotten."

300 RecapilidatiojT.

learning, when they proceed in this manner, must-
throw into their volumes much crude and indi-
gested matter; and when those of ordinary capa-
city presume to indulge in the same haste, no-
thing can be expected from them but half-formed
conceptions, and useless, if not mischievous pro-
ductions. Hence, the last age is distinguished
above all others, by producing thousands of
worthless volumes, which encumber the shelves
of libraries, and consume, without profit, the time
of unwary readers.

The spirit of trade, by which the authors and
publishers of books first began, in the eighteenth
century, to be actuated in any considerable de-
gree, has produced, and still continues to pro-
duce another serious evil. It too often leads
men to write, not upon a sober conviction of
truth, utility, and duty, but in accommodation to
the public taste^ however depraved, and with a
view to the most advantageous sale. When pecu-
niary emolument is the leading motive to publi-
cation, books will not only be injuriously mul-
tiplied, but they will also be composed on the
sordid calculation of obtaining the greatest num-
ber of purchasers. Hence the temptation to sa-
crifice virtue at the shrine of avarice. Hence
the licentious and seductive character of many
of those works which have had the greatest circu-
lation in modern times, and which have produced
the greatest emolument to their authors.

From the unprecedented spirit of publicatiofrt
which the eighteenth century exhibited, it has
happened, as a natural consequence, that the cha-
racter of an mithor has become lower in the pub-

Recapitulation. i^OI

\\c esthnation, than it generally stood in preced-
ing ages. Every object loses something of its
value in the public esteem, in consequence of
being cheap and common. Thus it has fared
with the dignity of authorship. Persons of this
profession h-ave become so numerous in society,
many of those who engage in it discover such a
selfish and mercenary spirit, and it is found so
easy a task to compile a book, that their im-
portance has suffered a diminution in some de-
gree corresponding with the number and worth*
lessness of their literary labours.

Another signal revolution in the literary cha-
racter of the eighteenth century, and closely con-
nected with the multiplication of books, is, that
Booksellers h^LYe become the great patrons of lite-
rature. In ancient times, authors having no hope
of finding a remuneration for their labour in the
general sale of their works, were under the ne-
cessity of attaching themselves to some private
patron, Avho, to great wealth, united a fondness
for literature and literary men. Some of the most
accomplished writers of antiquity would have
been unable to pursue their studies, or to com-
plete those works which have so long instructed
and delighted the world, had they not enjoyed the
smiles of certain individuals of opulence and taste,
who made it their pride and pleasure to foster
literary merit. The same state of things existed,
in a certain degree, for nearly two centuries after
the art of printing was discovered. The number ot'
publications and of readers was comparatively so
small, that booksellers were few ; and those who
engaged in this employment had little business,

302 Recapitulation.

and of course occupied a humble station in so-
ciety. The eighteenth century exhibited this
class of tradesmen under an aspect entirely new.
The great increase in the number of readers and
purchasers of books, and the corresponding in-
crease in the number of publications, and in the
extent of the editions, both of old and new works,
have raised the booksciiling business to a very
important and lucrative employment. The num-
ber of those who engage in this business is pro-
bably increased, taking the literary world at
large, more than a liundred fold*. The extent
and profits of their trade have grown in a still
greater proportion. These circumstances have
enabled them to become the patrons of learnings
to pay generously for literary labours ; and to
put it in the power of authors to appear more
speedily and advantageously at the bar of the
public. Hence the ease of publication. And
hence the countless number of volumes, which
could never have found their way to the press in
a different state of society.

8. The eighteenth century is distinguished for
the UNPRECEDENTED DIFFUSION OF KNOWLEDGE.
Not only has a greater number of books issued

* The increase in the number of Printers and 'Booksellers rn
America, during the period in question, was at least in this pro-
portion. And there can be no doubt, that a similar increase has
taken place in most other parts of the literary world. In the
city of Paris, there are said to be four hundred and fifty-five
'Booksellers, and three hundred and forty Printers. In London,
the number, though not so large, is very great. In Ger?nany
the tradesmen of these classes are probably more numerous, but
more scattered through the empire. . .;

Recapitulalion. 303

from the press, during this period, than the accu-
mulated product of all preceding ages can dis-
play ; but these books have had a more general
circulation than in any former period. To read,
a little more than a century ago, was by no means
a general object of attention. At that time,
neither the middle classes of society, nor often-
times persons of high rank, thought ignorance
a disgrace. The female sex seldom resorted to
?>ooks, either for amusement or instruction ; and
many respectable habitations scarcely contained
a volume excepting the Bible, and one or two
devotional books of standard value. In fact, as
books of science then rarely appeared, so " those
which did appear, containing the accumulateil
stores of profound research, and extensive read-
ing, were neither accessible nor intelligible, but
by a few who had leisure, much previous infor-
mation, and perseverance." It is true, as will be
presently acknowledged, that such as, at that
time, professed to devote themselves to study,
were, in general, at least equally, if not more
learned, than those who profess to belong to the
same class at the present day. But the number
of those at the end of the eighteenth century,
who were in the habit of reading a few books,
and who possessed a moderate and respectable
share of information, was certainly far greater
than in former periods of the history of man. ■.,..
-" Some modern zealots, indeed, have gone be-
'^Ond all just bounds, in describing the illumina-
uon and refniement of this period. We are not
^Q ijiuch .wiser than our forefathers, as the sa.n-
guiue and ignorant would sometimes represent

S04 Recapitulation.

us. But there is surely no extravagance in say-
ing, that there never was an age in which know-
ledge of various kinds was so popular and so ge-
nerally diffused, or in which so many publications
were circulated and read. The elements of li-
terature and science have descended from the
higher classes of society, and from universities,
to the middle, and in some instances to the lower
orders of men. Speculations which were once,
in a great measure, conhned to the closets of the
curious, have gradually miD2;led themselves with
the most prevailing and familiar doctrines of the
day. Many modern females arc well informed,
and a few extensively learned. The common
people read and inquire to a degree that would
pnce have been thought incredible. Seminaries
of learning are multiplied beyond all precedent.
The numbfcr of students which they contain is, in
general, much greater than formerly. Modern
books, even those on subjects of science, are now
divested of their former envelopment of dead
languages, and presented in a plain and popular
dress. Booksellers, more rich, active, and enter-
prising, than they were a century ago, now find
it tlieir interest to scatter books in every direction,
and to convey some knowledge of them to every
door. Libraries have become far more numerous,
and are placed on a more popular footing than
formerly. Circulating libraries* have been in-

* Circulati7ig Libraries, it is believed, were first instituted in. the
eighteenth century. The first establishment of this kind in Lon-
(Jon was commenced by one Wright, a bookseller, about the
year 1740. In 1800 the number of these libraries in Gr-eat Bri-
tain was not less than one thousand.

Rec.apitulaiion\ 305

troduced during this period, and have contributed
greatly to extend the taste and the means of read*
-ing; and, finally, periodical publications, and a
variety of other small works, which might be pro-
cured at a trifling expense, and understood by
moderate capacities, or with little previous infor-
mation, broke down the large masses of science
and learning, presented their component materials
in small and convenient portions, and thus fitted
them to be received by every mind.

9. But, notwithstanding the wonderful multi-
plication of books, the last century may with pro-
priety be styled THE AGE OF SUPERFICIAL LEARN-
ING. Emiditioiiy strictly so called, has been evi-
dently on the decline, from the commencement
of this period to its termination. The number of
readers, indeed, and of those who assume to them-
gelves the title of literary men, was doubtless far
greater at the close of the century than ever be-
fore, since reading was known : but the number
of the truly and profoundly learned was perhaps
never so small, in proportion to the whole number
who rank with men of letters and science. This
is probably owing, in a great measure, to the fol-
lowing circumstances.

The artificial, luxurious, and dissolute character
of the age was not favourable to laborious and
patient study. Few can be expected to devote
themselves habitually to that kind of reading
which requires deep reflexion, and long-conti-
nued attention, amid the solicitations of com-
pany and pleasure, and the thousand dissipating
attractions which an age of refinement and of
greatly extended intercourse presents.

Vol. in. X

30& ^ Recapitulation.

Another circumstance, which has contributed to
characterise the eighteenth century as an age of
superficial learning, is the unprecedented circula-
tion of Magazines, literary Journals, Abridge-
ments, Epitomes, &c., with which the republic of
letters has been deluged, particularly within the
last forty years. These have distracted the attention
of the student, have seduced him fro-m sources
of more systematic and comprehensive instruction,
and have puffed up multitudes with false ideas of
their own acquirements. The mass of new, hastily
composed, and superficial works, has engrossed
the minds of b}'^ far the greater number of readers,
crowded out of view the stores of ancient learning,
and even many of the best works of the preceding
century, and taught too many to be satisfied with
the meagreness of modern comp'ends and compi-
lations. It may be safely pronounced, that the
eighteenth century, not only with regard to the
treasures of classic literature, but also with respect
to a knowledge of the best writers of all the pre-
ceding seventeen centuries, was retrograde rather
than progressive throughout the whole of it&
course.

An additional cause, unfavourable to deep and,
sound erudttion, is the nature of those employ-
ments which in modern times solicit the atten-
tion of mankind. In every age, a great majority
of men are destined to a laborious and active life.
But in the eighteenth century, the wonderful ex-
tension of the commercial spirit, the unprecedented
multiplication of the objects and means of mer-
cantile speculation, and the numerous tempta-
tions to a life of action rather than of study, hare

Recapitulation. 307

brought more into vogue than formerly that
light, superfieial, and miscellaneous reading,
which fits men for the counting house, and the
scene of enterprise and emolument, rather than
•the recondite investigations of the closet.

There is also another cause which prevents in-
dividuals from acquiring the same depth of learn-
ing which was formerly attained. " The circle
of human intelligence, within a hundred years,
has been greatly extended : the objects of curious
speculation, and of useful pursuit, have multi-
plied : many new branches of abstract science
have been invented : many theories in physical
philosophy have been established : the mechani-
cal arts have received great enlargement and im-
provement : criticism has had its principles ren-
dered more evident, and its application more ex-
act: the analysis of the human mind is now ge-
nerally an object of inquiry; and modern authors,
in voluminous metaphysical treatises, in histories,
in poems, and in novels, unfold the seminal prin-
ciples of virtue and vice, and sound the depths of
the heart for the motives of human action. Of
these objects of mental occupation every man,
who is elevated above the lower orders of sooiet} ,
is obliged to know something, eitlier by the lo\'e
of novelty, or by the shame of ignorance. But
if the objects of inquiry be numerous, each can-
hot be investigated profoundly; the powers of
the hiiman mind are finite, and the union of ac-
curacy and universality of knowledge is a chimera.
In this case, therefore, the search will not be for
complete and systematic treatises, which examine
♦I subject on all sides, and in its minutest parts,

X2

308 Recapiiidation.

detect it in its most obscure beginnings, and
trace its influence in the remotest consequences;,
but for books of less tremendous bulk, which
exhibit the subject in its most material points,
preserving general outlines^ and principal fea-
tures *."

To the causes above mentioned may be added
one other, derived from the more frequent inter-
course of men in advanced civilisation. " In this
intercourse, a taste for learned and ingenious con-
versation has arisen, and the natural desire of su-
periority impels men to excel in it. But in col-
lecting means for acquiring this excellence, the
specious rather than the useful are sought. Facts
are stored, not for the exercise of rational criti-
cism, nor for the deduction of important truth,
but that they may be again distributed f ." Hence
the temptation to study many subjects superfici-
ally, but to gain the complete mastery of none.
Hence those scraps and shreds of knowledge which
are daily served up in periodical publications,
and scattered through all ranks of society, ex-
cepting the very lowest, in popular manuals, form
a large part of that learning which is daily sported
in the social circle, and in the conflicts of dispu-
tation.

10. From the details which have been givennn
the foregoing chapters, it appears that the last
century may, with peculiar propriety, be styled
THE AGE OF TASTE AND REFINEMENT. In the
productions of bold and original genius, though

* Monthly Reviezv, vol. xxix, p. 302, N. S.
t Ibid.

Be capitulation. 309

greatly fruitful, it has perhaps been exceeded by
some former ages*^ but in the general prevalence
of taste and refinement, it may be confidently
asserted that no age ever equalled the last. This
remark might be illustrated at great length, by
recurring to the state of the various branches of
human knowledge and art during the period in
question.

In the Physical Sciences it might be shown, that,
though great and splendid discoveries have l^een
made in this period, much more has been done
in pursuing former discoveries, in extending the
limits of principles before established, in forming
systems of classification, arrangement, and nomen-
clature, and in conferring beauty and elegance on
every part. In the Mechanic Arts, also, inventions
have been made highly honourable to the genius
of the age; but the improvements in simplicity,
convenience, accuracy, and exquisite nicety of
workmanship, are far more numerous and more
strikingly characteristic of the age f. But, per-
haps, to Polite Literature this general remark may
be applied with still more confidence, and to a
greater extent. The poets and historians of the
eighteenth century have the advantage of all their

* " Much has been ZLritten ia this age," says Voltaire, " but
genius belonged to the last."

f It cannot be denied, that some articles of ancient manufac-
ture which have come down to our times discover an exquisite
polish and elegance of workmanship, which we seldom find ex-
ceeded, perhaps not equalled, at the present day. But that the
mechanic arts, //i general, reached a degree of improvem,ent in
the eighteenth century which they could never before boast,
particularly in simplicity, convenieace, and beauty, it is pre-
sumed none will hesitate to admit.

310 Recapitulation,

predecessors in no respect so decidec^ly as in uni-
form correctness, polish, and taste. In a word,
the Master Builders in the temple of knowledge,
during this period, have been perhaps fewer in
number than in several preceding centuries ;
but neither the number nor the success of those
who busied themselves in extending, polishing,
and adorning the fabric, was ever so great.

This feature of the last age remarkably appears
in the state of what may be called the mechanical
part of literature. The refined, elegant, and ex-
pensive manner in which books have been for
some time printed and decorated, more especially
within the last ten or fifteen years of the century,
as it marks a period of luxury and taste, so we
may question whether it has not been carried to
an injurious length. If this system of sacrificing
the useful to the ornamental be pursued much
further, it must contract the circulation of books,
and of course diminish the number both of au-
thors and of readers. Some have even pronounced,
that it must operate to produce a " counterrevo-
lution in the republic of letters, and introduce all
the misfortunes of a manuscript age."

11. The century under consideration maybe
denominated THE AGE OF INFIDEL philosophy.
There have been in every age " profane and vain
babblings, and oppositions of science falsely so
called." But it may be confidently pronounced,
that there never was an age in which so many Ae-
liberate and systematic attacks were made on Re-
vealed Religion, through the medium of pretend-
ed science, as in the last. A few truly learned
and ingenious men made such attacks the main

Recapitulation. S\\

'business of their lives; and many others, of
humbler note, who vainly aspired to the name
oi philosophers, have directed their puny efforts
toward the same object.

Tile doctrine of Materialism probably had a
greater currency among certain classes of the
learned, during this period, than in any former
age enlightened by Christian knowledge. It
was, indeed, pushed to an atheistical length by
some who assumed the name and gloried in the
character of philosophers. Astronomical records
have been fabricated or misinterpreted for the
purpose of discrediting the sacred chronology.
The natural history of the Earth, of Man, and of
other animals, has been pursued with unwearied
diligence, to find evidence which should militate
against the inform.ation conveyed in the Scrip-
tures. The discoveries in Chemistry have been
tortured to furnish a physical solution of all those
phenomena of motion, life, and mind, which are
unanimously c-onsidered, by more sober inquirers,
as teaching the immateriality of the soul, and as
proclaiming the existence of a supreme intelli-
gent First Cause. Systems of Moral and Poli-
tical philosophy have been formed, by which their
authors meant to strike at the root of evangelic
truth. And all the stores of ancient and modern
literature have been ransacked to obtain some
pretext for disbelieving the precious Records
which God condescended to bestow on our fallen
race.

This rage for impious theory, though it had
1-ong before existed, began more boldly and ex- ,

312 Recapitulation.

tensively to proclaim its views about twenty years'
before the close of the period under considera-
tion. Tliere is scarcely a single branch of human
knowledge to which this scientific and literary
perversion has not reached ; and scarcely a ridi-
culous or odious form of errour to which it has not
given rise. Were these motley and grotesque
figures, formed by perverted genius, only intend-
ed to traverse the stage, for the temporary pur-
pose of amusement, they might excite less of our
attention ; but, considering them, as their framers
have anxiously desired to make them be consi-
dered, as guides to knowledge, and as rules of
action, every lover of human happiness will re-
gard them with more serious and indignant feel-
ings. And although their influence has been
counteracted by means which will be presently
mentioned, they have yet poisoned the principles
and completed the ruin of millions.

Almost every successive age has some peculia-
rity in the style and manner of its philosophers
and writers ; some particular livery, which serves
to distinguish it from other times. The scientific
livery of the last age is, as we have seen, a fan-
tastic patch-work, enriched with many beautiful
and precious materials, but deformed by the mix-
ture of many gaudy colours and false ornaments.
Among the latter we may reckon that continual
prating about the " energies and progress of
Mind,** the " triumph of Reason," the " omnipo-
tence of Philosophy," the " perfectibility of M^n,"
&c., which was never before so loud and frequent;
which has been employed, with particular volu-

Recapitulation. 313

bility and success, by infidel philosophers; and
which, amid continual and abundant refutations,
is yet clamorous and obtrusive.

12. The period under review may be pro-
nounced THE AGE OF CHRISTIAN SCIENCE. This
is by no means inconsistent with the statement
in the last particular ; for, after all the attacks of
infidelity, and of theoretical philosophy, the Re-
ligion of Christ, wlien contemplated through the
medium of science, has had a complete and un-
precedented triumph during this period. It has
been often objected to Christianity, that it is un-
favourable to the progress of knowledge ; that it
discourages scientific enterprise j that it is inimi-
cal to free inquiry, and has a tendency to keep
the minds of men in blindness and thraldom. The
history of the last concurs with that of many pre-
ceding centuries, in demonstrating that the very
reverse of what the objection states is the truth.
C/i7'istia?i natio?is, during the period in question,
have been, of all others, most remarkable for fa-
vouring the advancement of liberal knowledge.
In those countries in which religion has existed
in its greatest pz^riVj/, and has enjoyed the most
general prevalence, literature and science have
been most extensively and successfully cultivated.
It is also worthy of remark> that, among all the
professions denominated learned, the clerical pro-
fession!! may be considered as having furnished as
many, if not more, authors of distinction than any
other. And if we join to tJie clergy those lay-
authors w\xo have been no less eminent as Chris-
tians than cw scholars, the predominance of learn-

Sli Recapitulation.

ing and talents on the side of Religion will ap-
pear too great to admit of comparison.

But this is not all : — as the last centXiry is re-
markable for having furnished an unprecedented
number of attacks on Revealed Religion, through
the medium of science ; so it is also no less re-
markable for having derived much support to
Revelation, and much valuable illustration of the
Sacred Writings, from the inquiries of philosophers
and the observations of travellers. Many of the
discoveries made in mechanical and chemical
philosophy, during this period, have served to elu-
cidate and confirm various parts of the Christian
Scriptures. Every sober and well directed in-
quiry into the natural history of man, and of the
globe we inhabit, has been found to corroborate
the Mosaic account of the creation, the fall, the
deluge, the dispersion, and other important events
recorded in the sacred volume. To which we
may add, that the reports of voyagers and travel-
lers, within this period, have no less remarkably
served to illustrate the sacred records, and to con-
firm the faith of Christians. Never was there a
period of the same extent in which so much light
and evidence in favour of revelation were drawn
from the inquiries of philosophy as in that which
is under review : nor was it ever rendered so ap-
parent, that the information and the doctrines
contained in the sacred volume perfectly harmo-
nise with the most authentic discoveries, and the.
soundest principles of science.

13. The last century may be emphatically
called THE AGE OF TRANSLATION.—^'* Of almost

Recapitulation. 315

every other kind of writing tlie ancients have left
us models which all succeeding ages have labour-
ed to imitate; but transkition may justly be
claimed by the moderns as their own." — The
Greeks, so far as we know, achieved nothing
worthy of notice in this department of literary
labour. The Romans, who confessed themselves
the scholars of the Greeks, made a few versions
of those writings which they followed as mo-
dels * ; but it does not appear that any of their
writers grew eminent by transkition; and, indeed,
it was probably more frequent to ti'anslate for
private exercise or amusement than for fame.

For three centuries past the art of translation
has been gradually gaining ground throughout
the literary world, both in frequency and ele-
gance f . But the extension of this art, in both

'■'' Every man in Rome who aspired to the praise of literature
thought it necessary to learn Greek; and therefore stood in little
need of translations. Translation, however, was not wholly
neglected. Dramatic poems could be understood by the people
in no languace but their own : and the Romans were sometimes'
entertained with the tragedies of Euripides, and the comedies of
Menander. Other works were sometimes atteaipted : in an old
scholiast there is mention of a Latin Iliad, and we have not
wholly lost Cicero's version of the poem of Aratus. — Idler, ii.
No. 68J- -Kiiinpm 5^1^ 'i^ '

f Chaucer, the father of English poetry, was^'aHiong thtf first
translators into our language. He left a version of .Boethius On
the Cqniforts qf Philosophy, which, though dull, prosaic, and in-
elegant, held, at that early period, a conspicuous place. Some
improvement in the art of translation was made in the reign of
queen Elizabeth ; but still any thing like freedom and ekgance
was seldom asttftined. It waa not till towards the close of the
seventeetith "qentury that<thi§ .artbagan to be geuerally under-
stood, and its proper principles reduced to practice. It is un-

316 Recapitulation.

these respects, during the period under review,
was so great and signal, that it must be consider-
ed as forming a remarkable feature of the age. — •
Translations, from every polished language, into
every other of this character, have not only be-
come numerous, but have also attained, particu-
larly within the last fifty years, a degree of re-
finement and excellence never before known.
Versions of the Greek and Roman Classics have
especially abounded during the period in que-
stion. And though this circumstance has con-
tributed to render some knowledge of those great
works of antiquity more popular, it has also been
connected with the decline of classic literature,
which was before mentioned. As elegant ver-
sions increased in number and circulation, it was
natural that the originals should become gradu-
ally more neglected.

The number and excellence of modern trans-
lations may be considered as removing one of the
impediments which bar the way to science, and
as diminishing the inconvenience arising from the
multiplicity of languages. But the length to
which this practice is now carried will probably
be found to discourage the study of languages,
to diminish literary industry, and of course to
render knowledge still more superficial.

14. The last century may further be denomi-
nated THE AGE OF LITERARY HONOURS. The
practice of conferring the honours of literary in-
necessary to add, that since that time many specimens of trans*
lation have been presented to the world which are altogether
unequalled in the history of preceding ages.

Recapitu la t ion . 31'^

stitutions on individuals of distinguished erudi-
tion commenced in the twelfth century; when
the emperor Lotharius, having found in Italy a
copy of the Roman civil law, ordained that it
should be publicly expounded in the schools: and
that he might give encouragement to the study,
he further ordered, that the public professors of
this law should be dignified with the title of doc-
tors*. Not long afterward the practice of creat-
ing doctors was borrowed from the lazvijers by
divines, who, in their schools, publicly taught di-
vinity, and conferred degrees on tht)se who had
made great proficiency in this science f.

From this period till the beginning of the eigh-
teenth century the conferring of literary honours
was generally conducted, by the respectable uni-
-versities of Europe, in a cautious, discriminating,
and judicious manner. And even in the former
half of the century under review, these honours
were bestowed with much comparative reserve
and deliberation J. But in the latter half of this
period, the practice of literary institutions in

* The first person created a doctor, after this ordinance of the
emperor, was Bulgarus Hugolinus, who was greatly distinguished
for his learning and literary labour.

f This practice of conferring degrees in divinity was first
adopted in the universities of Bologna, Paris, and Oxford.— r-
See Mather's Magnalia Christi Americana, b. iv, p. 134.

X It is remarkable that th^ celebrated Dr. Sanauel Johnson,
when he had made great proficiency in literature, could not ob-
tain the degree of master of arts from Trinity college, Dublin,
though powerful interest wa^ made in his behalf for this purpose-
Instances of the failure of applications of a similar kind, made
in favour of characters st!?"' mo-e distinguished than Johnson was
at that period, are also on record. •

318 Recapitulation.

this respect was materially different. As the stu-
dents in these institutions became more nume-
rous, and literary characters in general more com-
mon, universities began to bestow their laurels
with a more free and incautious hand. Genuine
erudition and talents began to be less considered
as qualifications, than station, popularity, or
wealth. By these means, collegiate honours have
become by far more cheap and common, during
the jDcriod under review, than in any former age^
but, as the natural consequence of this, they have
also becom€?'less valuable and less esteemed.

The same remarks, in substance, apply to mem-
bership in literary and scientific societies. Before
the eighteenth century, honours of this kind were
conferred on few or none but those who were
eminent for learning or talents. But the popular
diffusion of knowledge, and the artificial state of
society which distinguish the last age, led to a
more unsparing distribution of honours of this
kind ; so that literary and scientific associations,
at the close of the period which is the subject of
this retrospect, consisted of a larger number of
members than ever before, and more particularly
of members of an unqualified and inefficient cha-
racter.

15. The eighteenth century was preeminently
THE AGE OF LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC INTER-
COURSE. It has been repeatedly remarked in the
foregoing sheets, that the extension of commerce,
the discoveries in geography, and the improve-
ments in navigation^ in the mechanic arts, and in
the modes of travelling, have led to a more ge-
neral intercourse among mankind than in any

Recapitulation. 3\9^

former period. This remark may be extended to
the republic of letters. In all preceding ages,
learned men were in a great measure insulated.
Those of one country knew little of those of an-
other ; and if any one wished to obtain more par-
ticular information concerning the treasures of
knowledge possessed by an individual, or a na-
tion, he was under the necessity of travelling into
the country with which he sought to be acquaint-
ed, and of making personal inquiry for this p'ar-
pose. And even after the art of printing was dis-
covered, the intercourse between different parts
of the learned world was so small, for more tlian
two centuries, that some of the greatest benefac-
tors to the cause of knowledge were little known
out of their own country, and some but imper-
fectly even within these limits.

In the eighteenth century it was remarkably
otherwise. The great extension of the art of
printing in this period, joined with the circum-
stances above stated, have brought all classes of
men in the literary world better acquainted with
each other, and especially those who are devoted
to the improvement of letters and science. The
number of literary journals in every part of Eu-
rope has greatly increased within the last fifty
years, their plans have been much improved, and
their circulation prodigiously extended j learned
individuals and societies now maintain a more free
and friendly correspondence than formerly; the
great improvements in post-office establishments,
within this period, have facilitated, to an unparal-
leled degree, the intercourse between distant pact?

320 Recapitulation.

of the Earth*; foreigners of distinction are more
frequently elected members of academies and
other associations of a similar kind ; commerce,
£is its channels became multiplied and enlarged,
furnished at once a convenient medium and
strong incentives to literary intercourse ; the great
increase in the practice of translating respectable
works into all polished languages has also served
to render books of value, and their authors, more
generally known : — to all which may be added,
that the increased frequency and extent of mo-
dern travels have been decidedly favourable to
the correspondence of learned men, and to a
knowledge of the works and characters of one
another.

Such is an imperfect outline of the literary and
scientific character of the century to which we
have just bidden adieu. The picture is necessa-
rily extensive and various ; and the features, how-

* To illustrate this remark, two or three facts shall be stated
with regard to a single post-office establishment. In 1728 the
London post arrived one day at Edinburgh with only one six-
penny Loudon letter, and that was addressed to the post-master-'
general on office business. The arrival of the post was then
only once a fortnight ; now it is six times a week. The post
then employed ten days in travelling from London to Edinburgh; ■
now it employs only three. Then the mail produced no revenue
or nett profit to governmentj but was rather a continual charge;
but the revenue of the post-office in Scotland, for the year end-
ing in April 1802, was 85791/. \\s. 3d. A corresponding
increase in commercial and literary intercourse has taken
place in the same period in almost every cultivated part of the
world.

Recapitulation. 321

ever unskilfully sketched, are presented with suf-
ficient-accuracy to show that they are striking,
and worthy of more minute examination. They
are not, indeed, all calculated to give pleasure to
the benevolent mind : some are distorted and dis-
gusting, and a few heavy and uninteresting; but a
much greater number are at once strong, highly
illuminated, and preeminently engaging. If these
be mingled, as in most pictures that are drawn
true to nature, it is presumed that, in the present
instance, the agreeable features predominate in a
greater degree than in any delineation of a former
period of similar extent.

Those, therefore, who have witnessed the close
of the century under review, have indeed reason
to congratulate themselves as a highly favoured
generation. Though they have been pained
with the sight of some degrading retrocessions in
human knowledge, and almost stunned with the
noisy pretensions of false philosophy, they have
seen, at the same time, improvements in science
which their fathers a century ago would have an-
ticipated with astonishment or pronounced alto-
gether impossible. They have seen a larger por-
tion of human society enlightened, polished, and
comfortable, than ever before greeted the eye of
benevolence. They have, in a word, witnessed,
on the one hand, the accession of honours to
science, which it could boast in no lormer pe-
riod ; and, on the other, a degree of usefulness re-
flected from science to economy and art, no less
conspicuous and unrivalled. The lapse of iiu-
other century such as the eighteenth — a century

Vol. III. Y

322 Recapitulation.

that should bring with it an equal amount of
discoveries and improvements, and present an
equally rapid increase in the means and in the
diilusion of knowledge, would confer an aspect
on systems of science of which we at present are
little qualified to judge. Such a century the
nineteenth is likely to prove.

But let none indulge the vain dream that all
darkness is about to be banished from the Earth,
and that human nature is rapidly hastening to
perfection. " When the philosophers of the se-
i^enteenth century were first congregated into the
Koyal Society, we are told that great expecta-
tions Avere raised of the sudden progress of useful
arts. The time was supposed to be near when
engines should turn by a perpetual motion, and
health be secured by the universal medicine ;
when learning should be facilitated by a real cha-
racter, and commerce extended by ships which
could reach their ports in defiance of the tempest.
But that time never came. The society met and
parted without any visible diminution of the mi-
series of life. The gout and stone w^ere still
painful ; the ground that was not ploughed
brought forth no harvest ; and neither oranges nor
grapes could grow upon the hawthorn*." The
same result, it may be confidently predicted, will
appear at the close of the century on which we
have now entered. The advocates of the supre-
7nacy of reason and the perfectibility of man, at
every successive retrospect of human affairs will

* Ukr, vol. ii. No. 83.

Recapitulation. 323

find themselves refuted and confounded. And
though science, slowly advancing amidst the op-
posing hosts of prejudice, mistaken facts, and false
theories, will reach far beyond its present limits,
it must ever fall short of those extravagant expec-
tations, which, founded in ignorance of human
nature, and discarding the dictates of experience,
cannot avoid proceeding in errour, and ending in
disappointment.

Philosojihers of the nineteenth century ! your
predecessors of the past age have bequeathed to
you an immeasurable mass both of good and evil.
Contemplate the labours aud the progress of your
fathers, and be animated in your course! Alark
the mistakes of those deluded and presumptuous
spirits wdio have misled and corrupted their spe-
cies, and learn caution and wisdom from their
errours ! Behold how much has been done by pa-
tient inquiry, by faithful observation, by accurate
experiment, and l)y careful analysis and induc-
tion J but how little by fanciful speculation, by
the dreams of hypothesis, by vain boasting, or by
waging war against Nature's God ! Learn to
distinguish that philosophy which is the friend of
truth, the handmaid of virtue, the humble inter-
preter of Jehovah's works, and the ornament of
rational minds, from that ignis fatuiis which shines
but to deceive, and allures but to destroy. Re-
member that by giving yourselves up to the
guidance of the latter you can gain nothing but
disappointment and sliame ; but that the sober,
diligent, and persevering pursuit of the former is
the plain and only road to those discoveries, which

Y2

324- Recapitulation.

will yet further enrich the sciences; to tliose im-
provements, which will adorn life ; to those prac-
tical arts, which will add utility to ornament ;
and to that substantial advancement in know-
ledo-e, which the enlightened and benevolent mind
anticipates with a glow of delight.

ADDITIONAL NOTES.

Note (II), page 93. — AFTER taking much pains to ascer-
tain the nunnber of newspapers printed in the United States,
the author is enabled to present the following list. He dares
not assert that it is accurate or complete ; but it is as nearly
so as he could make it. It is proper to observe, however,
that, as the materials which form it were collected at diiFe-
rent times in the years 1801 and 1802, it is not improbable
that some of the papers mentioned have been since discon-
tinued, and others established. The real number may cer-
tainly, however, be considered, in the gross, as rather greater
than that which is here presented.

In New Hampshire there are ten newspapers ; viz. three at
Portsmouth; one at Concord; one at Dover; one at Gilman-
town ; one at Amherst ; oneatKeene; one at Walpole ; and
one at Dartmoutli. They are all published once a w eek.

In Massachusetts there are twenty -six newspapers ; viz.
five at Boston, each published twice a week ; two at Salem ;
two at Newburyport ; two at Worcester ; one at Brookfield ;
one at Springfield ; one at Northampton; one at Pittsfiold ;
one at Dedham ; one at Stockbridge ; one at New Bedford ;
one at Haverhill; one at Leominster; three at Portland;
one at Augusta; one at Castine; and one at Greenfield; —
all published weekly. The four last-mentioned towns are in
the province of Maine.

In Rhode Island the number of gazettes has not been as-
certained. It is believed there are four ; viz. two at Provi-
dence, and two at Newport, each published twice a week.

326 Additional Notes.

In Connecticut there are seventeen newspapers; viz. two at
Hartford; two at New Haven; three at New London; two
at Norwich ; one at Wyndham ; one at Stonington ; one at
■ Litchfield; one at Sharon; one at Danbury; one at Nor-
walk ; one at Middletown ; and one at Newfield. All these
are published once a week.

In Vermont there are eight newspapers ; viz. one at Ben-
nington ; one at Rutland ; one at Vergennes ; one at Brattle-
borough ; two at Windsor ; one at Peacham ; and one at
Randolph; — all published weekl5\ At the time when this list
was communicated to the author (February 1801), three ncAV
gazettes were talked of; viz. one each at Bennington, Bur-
lington, and St. Albans.

In New York there are thirty-eight newspapers ; viz. in
the city of New York thirteen, seven published daily, four
twice a week, and two weekly; three in Albany, each pub-
lished twice a week; one at Brooklyn; two at Newburgh ;
two at Poughkeepsie ; two at Kingston ; one at Kaatskill ;
three at Hudson ; one at Troy ; one at Lansingburgh; one at
Salem ; one at Waterford ; one at Johnstown ; one at Herke-
mer ; one at Cooperstown ; one at Whitestown ; one at Rome ;
one at Oswego; and one at Canandarqua; — all printed
weekly.

In New Jersey there are eight newspapers ; viz. two at
Trenton; two at Newark; one at Elizabethtown; one at
Brunswick ; one at Morristown ; and one at Burlington.
These are all printed weekly.

In Pennsylvania the number has not been accurately as-
certained. It is believed, however, to be about twenty-eight.
Of these five or six are published daily ; about the same num-
ber twice a week ; and the remainder weekly. At least five
of the newspapers in Pennsylvania are in the German lan-
guage.

In Delaware there are three newspapers ; viz. two at Wil-
mington, published twice a week ; and one at Dover, pub-
lished weekly.

Additional Notes. 327

la Maryland there are fourteen newspapers; three at Bal-
timore, published daily; three at Washington, of which two
are published three times a week, and one weekly ; two at
Cfeorgetown, each printed three times a week ; and one at
Annapolis ; one at Easton ; two at Ilagarstown ; and two at
Fredericktown ; — all v. etikly papers.

In Virginia there are seventeen newspapers; viz. two at
Alexandria, published daily; three at Richmond, each three
<imes a week; two at Norfolk, twice a week; two at Peters-
burgh, twice a week ; and one at Freder icksburgh, also twice
a week. Beside these, there are, one at Fincastle; one at
Leesburg; one at Lynchburg; one at Staunton; one at
JVIartinsburg ; and two at Winchester; — all weekly papers.

In North Carolina there are eight newspapers; viz. two
at Raleigh, the scat of government; one at Edenton ; one at
Newbern ; one at Wilmington ; one at Halifax ; one at Salis-
bury; and one at Lincolnberg ; — all weekly papers.

In South Carolina the number of newspapers could not be
ascertained at the time when inquiry was made. There
are probably at least six or eight; perhaps a greater num-
ber.

In Georgia there are six new^spapers; viz. two at Savannali,
one of which is published twice a week, and the other weekly ;
two at Augusta, each weekly; and one weekly paper each
at Louisville and at Washington.

In Kentucky there are fouj* newspapers; viz. two at Lex-
ington ; one at Frankfort; and one at Louisville ; — all weekly
papers.

In Tennessee there are two newspapers; viz. one at Knox-
ville, and one at Nashville; — both published weekly.

In the state of Ohio there is at least one newspaper, printed
at Chillicothe ; and probablj' one or two more.

In the Missisippi territory there is one newspaper, printed
weekly at the city of Natchez,

There are, then, in the United States, about 200 news-
paper.s. Of these at least seventeea are printed daily, seven

328 Additional Notes.

three times a week, thirty twice a week, and one hundred and
forty-&ix weekly.

The statement in p. 92 differs, in some respects, from that
which is here given. It is beheved that the latter is the more
correct.

Note (Ijfpage 103. — The following brief notices respecting
the rise and progress of this institution, and its situation in
1803, are extracted from a private letter, addressed to the au-
thor by a member of the association.

" In the year 1743 a society was formed in Philadelphia,
taking the name of T/ie American Philosophical Socieij/. Its
most early and active members were, Benjamin Franklin,
Dr. Thomas Bond, the rev. Dr. Francis Allison, the rev. John
Ewing, the rev. Dr. William Smith, and Mr. David Rittenhouse.
" In the year 1766 another society was formed, under the
name of The American Society for promoting and propagating
useful Knoxdedge in Philadelphia. Among its most active
members appear to have been Messrs. Charles Thompson,
Edmund Physick, Isaac Paschall, Owen Biddle, Moses Bar-
tram, and Isaac Bartram.

" The chief business of the former of these soci'eties seems
to have been the making and receiving of communicatioyis
on various philosophical subjects ; and of the latter, the pro-
posing and discussing of questions on a great variety of sub-
jects, chiefly philosophical and political : and among these it
is impossible not to discern strong symptoms of that spirit of
freedom which was soon to discover itself in the American
revolution.

" In the beginning of the year 1769 these two societies
united, under the name of The American Philosophical Society,
held at Philadelphia, for promoting useful Knowledge. The
elder branch, at the time of the union, contained 144 mem-
bers, including 80 corresponding members; and the younger
branch contained 128 members. Several gentlemen, hoAv-
ever, were at this time members of both.

Additional Notes. 329

" The society was incorporated, by an act of tlie legislature
of Pennsylvania, in the year 1780. Aided by the munifi-
cence of the state, and liberal donations of individuals, it has
now erected, on a lot of ground in the State House square, a
commodious and not inelegant building, where its museum
and library are kept, and its meetings held.

" The society has published five quarto volumes of its
Transactions. Its library, chiefly formed by the benevo-
lent donations of similar societies both in Europe and Ame-
rica, and of individuals, now contains upwards of 1300 vo-
lumes. Its museum of natural history is not yet very ex-
tensive; but, however, contains a number of rare and valu-
able specimens, chiefly of the fossil or mineral kind. Its
philosophical apparatus is still in an infant state, but pro-
gressive.

" In the year 1786 Mr. John Hyacinth de Magellan, of
London, made a donation to the society of 200 guineas, to
be vested in a permanent fund, to the end that the interest
arising therefrom should be annually disposed of in premiums,
to be adjudged by the society ' to tlie author of the best dis-
covery, or most useful invention, relating to navigation, astro-
nomy, or natural philosophy (mere natural history only ex-
cepted).' A few only of these premiums having been
yet awarded, this fiuid is now considerably accumulated.
The society have, from their own proper funds-, ofTcrcd
premiums, and invited candidates to make communications
of inventions or improvements relative to certain specified
objects.

" With respect to the number of the present members of
the society I cannot speak with any degree of certainty. It
may, perhaps, be about two hundred, of whom about one half
may be foreigners, about forty in Philadelphia and its vici-
nity, and the rest in all parts of the United States.

" The society, I may say with truth, is at present in a
pretty flourishing condition. Its meetings are well attended,
and every part of its business conducted with regularity.

530 Additional Notes,

This, in justice, however, is to be ascribed to the zeal and
activity of a very few of its members.

" The society has no other funds than those which arise
from the anmial contribution of two dollars from each of its
resident members, and the occasional donations of liberal in-
dividuals."

Note (K),page 104. — The following extract of a letter from
a member of the academy, written in September 1801, will
give the reader a comprehensive view of the history of this
institution, and of its state at that time.

" The American Academy of Arts and Sciences was incor-
porated I\Iay 3, 1780. The first meeting Avas on the 30th of
the same month. The late governor Bowdoin was elected
president; and was annually reelected until his death, which
happened Novembers, 1790. In May 1791, the hon. John
Adams, LL. D., was elected president, and has been annually
reelected since. In the year 1785 the academy published a
volume of its transactions in quarto. The preface to this
volume, the incorporating act, and statutes of the academy,
together with Mr. Bowdoin's inaugural address, which it con-
tains, will give full information of the nature and objects of
the society, and of its situation at that time. Though the vo-
lume is intrinsically valuable and well executed, and was
offered'for sale at the moderate price of sixteen shillings, j^et
it had a very limited sale, and the publication involved the
academy in a debt which occasioned no small embarrass-
ment. The first part of a second volume was, however, pub-
lished in 1793, and a sufficient number of papers has been
some time selected to complete the volume. It will soon be
published.

" The present funds amount to about 7300 dollars, vested
in stocks of different descriptions. Five thousand dollars of
this sum arises from a donation made by count Rumford in
1796: the interest of which is, by the ter-ms of the donation,
to be ' applied and given, once every second year, as a pre-

Additional Xofes. 331

Hiluni to the author of the most important discovery or useful
improvement which shall be made known to the pubUc in
any part of the continent of America, or in any of the Ame-
rican islands, during the preceding two years, on heat or on
light.' The academy has voted, that at its meeting in
]Mav next, and afterwards at its meeting in May bi-
enniallv, it will decide on the discovery or improvement
which shall appear to be entitled to. the premium. Notice
will soon be published of this vote. Count Rumford's dona-
tion is in three per cent stock. The residue of the fund
arises from a donation of 100/. given by Mr. Bowdoin in his
will ; the like sum given by Josiah Quincy, esq. ; 44-0 dollars
given by the general court in 1787; and an annual assess-
ment of two dollars on each member. The sum of five dollars
is also paid by each member on his admission. In addition
to the pecuniary legacy, governor Bowdoin gave to the aca-
demy his library, consisting of about twelve hundred vo-
lumes, with liberty to sell any part of it, the proceeds to be
vested in books. About six hundred volumes were sold under
this permission. The library of the academy now contains
about thirteen hundred volumes, among Avhich are many rare
and valuable books. Beside Mr. Bowdoin, the principal do-
nors are, the present president of the academy. Dr. Franklin,
and M. Veron, who was a surgeon in the squadron of M. dc
Ternay. The number of the original or statute members was
sixty-two. One hundred and sixty-one members have been
elected since the commencement of the institution. There
are now living, of the whole corps, 170; viz.

Resident members, by Avhich is meant those

who belong to the commonwealth 95

Resident in other states in the union 30

Foreign members 45

Making in the whole 170

" The members meet four times annually ; in January
and May at Boston — in August and September at Cambridge.

332 Additional Notes.

Their meetings at Boston are held in an apartment lately-
assigned for their accommodation in the new State House,
where also their library and museum are deposited. A cata-
logue of the books in the library is in preparation, and will
soon be published. It has been sometimes remarked that
this society has been in some degree languid in its operation,
and has not fully satisfied the public expectations. Whatever
justice there may be in such a remark, I shall not now at-
tempt to trace the source. There is evidently a want of ex-
citement; and the public ought to have candour enough to
take part of the blame to itself. I have the satisfaction, how-
ever, to observe, that there appears, of late, a renewed and
more lively attention among its members to the concerns of
the institution. I ought to have mentioned, among the libe-
ralities of the general court, the plates of the map of the com-
monwealth, which were given to the academy and to the his-
torical society. The donation has been accepted, and a
joint committee of the societies have lately sold the right of
impression for seven years for 600 dollars, to be paid to the
societies without any deduction.

Note (L),page 1 85. — The pernicious tendency of many mo-
dern German publications has been often the subject of re-
mark within a few years past. That works of solid merit, which
cannot be too generally known and read, are every year pub-
lished in that country, is not denied ; but that a considerable
nufnber daily issues from the German presses, of a very dif-
ferent and most pestiferous character, can as little be doubted.
A late writer, in a memoir on this subject, makes the follow-
ing striking remarks. How far they are just or otherwise is
left to be determined by every reader.

" After all, it may not be chimerical to suppose that the
general reception of the German writings, the universal pre-
valence of the German taste, and the love of the wild and
gloomy, are not to be accounted for from ordinary causes,
and have in them more weight and importance than are

Additional Istoies. S3S

usually attached to mere matters of taste and criticism. May
not these be among the elements of feverish agitation and
mighty change, afloat, by the permission of Providence, for
purposes, to us inscrutable, in the moral system ? May not
this revolution in taste be a prelude to other revolutions — a
small skirt of the cloud, like a man's hand, ushering in the
blackening tempest ? Are not the German writings calcu-
lated to generate in both sexes a ferocious hardihood and in-
dependence of mind ; a dangerous contempt of established
forms; a promptitude to suffer and to dare; an enthusiasm,
of character, fitting them for seasons of energy, of exertions,
of privations, dangers, and calamities ? It is natural for hu-
man blindness and Inattention to overlook the instruments
and operations by Avhich Providence prepares and fashions
great and surprising events. It is the folly of man to ascribe
too little weight and importance to moral causes ; while it is
the course of Providence (as it were on purpose to humble
human pride) to act by seemingly minute and inefficient
causes. Who knows, then, but this preternatural appetite for
the irregular, the indecorous, the boisterous, the sanguinary,
and the terrific, may be the precursor of some strange moral
or political convulsion?" — Transactions of the Royal Irish
Academy, vol. viii ; Reflections on the Style and Manner of some
late German Writers, and on the Tendency of their Productions.
By William Preston, esq., M. R. I. A.

Note (M),page 235. — xVs Dr. Samuel Seabury was the first
episcopal bishop that ever resided in the United States, it is
thought proper to present the following additional informa-
tion respecting him, which has been communicated to the
author since the account in the above mentioned page was
printed.

He was born in 1728, and passed through the regukvr
course of education in Yale college, where he graduated in
175 1. In 1752 he went to Scotland for the purpose of study-
ing medicine; but soon afterwards turning his attention to

334 Additional Notes.

divinity, he went to London, where he was ordained a dea-
con, Dec. 21, 1753, by the bishop of Lincoln, at the request
of Dr. Thomas Sherlock, bishop of London ; and a few days
afterward, priest, by the bishop of Carlisle. Beside remaining
in Scotland about one year, he spent two or three months at
the university of Oxford.

He Avas first settled in the ministry at BrunsAvick, in New
Jersey. Here he remained about three years. From Bruns-
wick, in the beginning of the year 1757, he removed to Ja-
irs^ca, on Long Island, where he resided until December
1766 ; thence he removed to Westchester, in the state of New
York. In this place he remained until the commencement
of the revolutionary war, when he went into the city of New
York, and after the termination of this controversy settled in
Connecticut. In 1777 he received the degree of doctor of
divinity from the university of Oxford.

Dr. Seabury went to England in I784-, to obtain conse-
cration as bishop of the episcopal church in Connecticut.
Meeting, in South Britain, with some obstruction to the ac-
complishment of his wishes (an obstruction, however, en-
tirely unconnected with personal considerations), he went to
Scotland, where, in the month of November in that year,
he was consecrated bishop, by Messrs, Robert Kilgour, Ar-
thur Petrie, and John Skinner, nonjuring bishops of Scotland.

He continued for a number of years after this period to re-
side at New London, and to discharge, in an exemplary man-
ner, the duties of his office. He was warmly attached to the
episcopal church, and generally esteemed one of her most
zealous and able defenders in America. — He died In 1796.

Note (N),page 236. — Among those who signalised them-
selves as writers in favour of the introduction and support of
an American episcopate, the name of Mr. John Vardill ought
not to have been omitted. Mr. Vardill was born and edu-
cated in the city of New York. In the year 1762 he was ad-
mitted into King's college, as it was then called ; and having

Additional Notes. S35

passed, with high reputation, through the usual course of aca-
demic instruction, he received the degrees of bachelor and
master of arts, and remained in the college for the purpose of
prosecuting his studies preparatory to his application for or-
ders in the episcopal church.

In the year 1773 he was elected fellow of the college and
professor of natural law ; and, toward the conclusion of that
year, went to England for ordination, where he has since re-
mained. In early youth he discovered a very considerable
poetical genius ; and several of his publications in this way,
at different periods of his life, have been received with much
applause. He bore a conspicuous part as a writer at the com-
mencement of the contest between the United States and
Great Britain, and in the dispute relative to the introduc-
tion and establishment of bishops of the episcopal church.

Note (0),p. 255. — The following list of American colleges
has been made out with considerable care. It may perhaps
be regarded as a record of some value, not only for gi-^tifying
present curiosity, but also for future reference.

In Massachusetts there are three colleges, viz.

I. Harvard college, or the university of Cambridge. This is
the oldest institution of the kind in North America. It wa?
founded in 1638.

In 1636 the general court of Massachusetts gave 400/. to-
ward the support of a public school at Cambridge, then
called Newtown. Mr. John Harvard, an eminent clergy-
man, dying in 1638, left near 800/., being the greater part of
his estate, to the same object. In consequence of this dona-
tion, the general court the same year enlarge ^ the plan, and
extended the powers of the institution, and gave it the name
of Harvard college. Degrees were first conferred in the year
164-2.

This institution has to acknowledge the munificence of
many liberal individuals. In 169P the hon. William Stough-
ton, lieutenant-governor of the province, erected a hall for

336 Additional Notes. " ^

the accOmniodation of students, which was called by his name.
Holden chapel },vas erected in 1745, at the expense of the
widow and daughters of Samuel Holden, one of the directors
of the bank of England. Hollis hall, erected in 1762, was so
called in honour of Thomas Hollis, of London, who made
numerous and large benefactions to the college. Beside
these, the donations of Thomas Hancock, Drs. Ezekiel and
Abner Hersey, William Erving, esq., and several others, were
libei-al, and have contributed to extend the plan and Useful-* *
ness of the college^ All professorships bear the names of the'
gentlemen who either gave a fund for their support or con-
tributed towards this object.

The immediate officers of this college are, a president
(who is at present the rev. Dr. Joseph Willard) ; Hollis pro-
fessor of divinity ; Hancock professor of the Hebrew and
orieutal languages ; Hollis professor of mathematics and
natural philosophy ; Hersey professor of anatomy and sur-
gery; Hersey professor of the theory and practice of phy- '
sic; Erving professor of chemistry and materia raedicaj'-'
and four tutors.

The board of overseers consists of the governor, lieutMiant-
governor, the members of the council and senate, and the'
ministers of the congregational churches in Boston, Canii*'^
bridge, Watertown, Charlestown, Roxbury, and Dorchester.' *V'1

Thejiumber of students in this college may be estimated
on an average from 1 80 to 200. The greater part of these
board in the college. The expenses necessarily arising to
each student within the walls, i. c, boarding, tuition, room-
reat, &c., may be estimated at about 120 dollars per annum.

The course of instruction in this college is as follows:
First .year, the students read Sallust, Livy, Horace, Terence,
Homer, Xenophon; beside these, they attend to rhetoric.
Millet's Elements of Universal History, Pike's Arithmetic,
Lowth's Grammar, French aud Hebrew languages, Watts's
Logic, Morse's Geography, and the use of the globe?; Se-
cond,year, classics, as before; French and Hebrew languages.

Additional Notes. 337

logic, geography, arithmetic, and history continued; Locke
on the UiideritaiKliiig, Blair's Lectures, meiisuiution, aud al-
gebra. Third year, the classics before enuiiieraled; French,
Hebrew, history, and Locke continued ; with the addition of
Euclid's Llenients, Enfield's Philosophy, trigonometry, conic
sections, mensuration of heights and distances, navigation,
English composition, and forensic disputations. Fourth year,
Eurlamaqul's Elements of Natural and Political Law, Paley's
Philosophy, dialling, spheric geometry and trigonometry,
Ferguson's Astronomy, Doddridge's Theological Lectures,
English composition, &:c.

The library is the largest, excepting one, in the United
States. It consists of between 13000 and 14000 volumes.
The philosophical apparatus is ample, and generally said to
be the best in America. The funds are large, but their pre-
cise amount is not known. The annual commencement is ou
the hist Wednesday in August. At the end of the year 1800
more tiian 3oOO students had received tke honours of the
institution.

2. Williams' college. Tliis institution was Incorporated a»
a college in 1793, and is situate in WlUlamstown, in the
county of Berkshire. It is named In honour of colonel
Ephraim Williams, who died in 1755, and who left a large
portion of his estate for the establishment and support of
a seminary of learning. This seminary was fir.st incorpo-
rated as an academy in 1785. Its plan was extend^jd, and a
charter, constituting it a college, given in the year before-
nientioned.

The college buildings are two large edifices of brick; one
82 feet long, •1-2 feet wide, and four stories high; containing
28 room.s for the accommodation of students, and a chajx'l ;
the other 104 feet long, 3S feet -wide, and also four stories
high; containing 32 rooms, -with a bed-room and study ad-
joining to each. The former of these buildings was erected
in 1788, at the expense of 1 1700 dollars; the latter, in 1798,
at the expense of 12400 doUaii. Beside tliese, there are a

Vol. IJI. Z

-3$8 Additional -Notes,

gd^xpllJng-liouse for the president, - and a lar^e and elegant

^^hjt«-4ih«-'U):thq erection of whicii the tru^esRCOutrlbuted, on
condition that the -officers and students of the college should

.iS^l}yays be. accommodated therein oa; tJjjB LoiCci'^i^X?? ^and
have the use of it on public occasions. ' t- u,^j; .-.a^j,<To?q'>^-
The funds of this college are small, consisting of money on
intierest, amounting to about 3500 dollars, and a township of

fjapd in the province of Maine, worth, perhaps, from 7000 to
10000 dollars. The income, from tuition, room-rent, &.C., is

, about 2000 dollars annually. The institution has been
hitherto supported by colonel Williams's donation, by sub-

.jscriptions among the inhabitants of Williamstown and its. vi-
cinity, by the product of a lottery, and by a grant of two
townships of land in the province of Maine by the legislature

The officers of this college are, a president (who is at pre-
gent the r«v. Dr. Ebenezer Fitch) and four tutors. The in-
stitution is governed by sixteen gentlemen, of whom the pre-
sident for the time being is one, and always presides at their
ineetings.

.,+• TJie number of students at the close of the year 1800>>^:^
.93. - They are boarded in the college, and in private houses
in, the vicinity. The price of board, tuition, washing,,, )i'Qo4»
J&c, amounts annually to about 100 dollars. ^,jof;.<-

The library consists of about 600 volumes. Two literary
societies belonging to the college have a library in common,
.consisting of 300 volmnes xiiore. The philosophical appara-
tus is small ; but well selected and good, so far as it goes.
A good telescope and some other articles are mucjijv^pted
ta render the collection tolerably complete. - ^, |t

Y Tfhe, course of instruction is nearly similar to that which
>vas detailed .as taking place in Harvard College, The prin-
cipal points.of diiierence are the following: — ^There .appears, to
t»e rather less attention paid to classic literature hQrethajn at
Harvard. ,PfiesAey's Lectures on History are studied, by the
juaier cjassj instead ol MiUoJL'a. J[^Qmentsj..Ed>>ar45,.Qii^-Ui$

Additional Notes. 339

' Will, by the senior class, in addition to Locke; and in some
* instances the senior class has recited Dr. Hopkins's System of
^^Theology ; in others Doddridge's Lectures. r.oiiibnv

-' The annual commencement is on the first Wednesday of
September J and at the close of the year 1800 about 80stu-
dcnts had received the honours of the college.
^ iii Boi'jdoin college. This college was instituted in 1794-.
'It' is situate at Brunswick, in the province of Maine; and
was so called in honour of the late governor Bowdoin.
' This institution is yet in its infancy. There are a presi-
dent (who is the rev. Joseph M'Kean), lately appointed, and
a professor of languages. With respect to the state of the
funds, the number of the students, the course of instruction,
&c., no information has been obtained. But as the college
has not been organised njore than three or four years, its con-
stitution cannot yet be very complete or mature.

"^■In New Hampshire there is one college, viz.

Dartmouth college, which was incorporated in 1769. This
seminary is situate in Hanover, in the county of Grafton,
and derives its name from the earl of Dartmouth, one of its
principal benefactors. The rev. Dr. Eleazar Wheelock was
the founder, and the first president. (See p. 2il.) The first
college buildings were erected in 1770, and a large addition
made to them in 1786.

The government of the college is in the hands of twelve
trustees, seven of whom make a quorum. By them all laws
and appointments are made, and to them the officers are re-
sponsible. ' ' ■ "^ '

The officers are, a president (who is at present jTohh Wh^^
lock, LL. D., the son of the first president) ; a professor of
ttiathematics and natural philosophy ; a professor of the Latiji
and Greek languages; a professor of chemistry and medi-
cine ; and two tutors.

The course of instruction. Students must be qualified for
Amission by a knowledge of the Greek Testament, of Virgi^

Z2

jj:

WSb AMitidnat "T^otes.

•an(5 Cicero's Orations, and of the principles of arithmetic;
and when admitted, usually continue four years before they
receive decrees. The freshman class attend to the Greek and
'taifn aut'hbrs, the principles of composition, criticism, rhe-
'fenc, &r. The sophomore class to geography, logic, and f^'e
mathematics. The junior class to natural philosophy, 'ff«>ral
'philoso'phy, and the higher branches of the mathematics :^ the
'sophomores and jimiors both continuing to devote a pottioh
of their time to the classics. The senior class attend to meta-
"^hysics, the principles of civil lavi-, divinity, chertii^fy', and
itatural history. -'• ''''^?

^ The funds of this college consist chiefly of lands g^Mitcd
^ft^'NeW Hampshire and Vermont, most of which' are istltl'iiA-
productive. Of these lands there are about 4-000() acres; ^'
■ The college library consists of about 3000 volumes. Thd
philosophical apparatus is sufficient for a common course of
experimental philosophy.

- The number of students in 1801 was 140. The greater

" 'part of these are accommodated in the college. The anntiaf

expense of each individual, including boarding, tuition, &c.<

«xcept clothing and other contingencies, is about 100 tjbl-

%2^y-- ■■■ .>?iTto?wlT V,

*- 'in 1801 eight hundred stiidtfnts had graduated at this"Coll6^6

'srftce its establishment. !"<'."/'.

'^ Tn Rhode Island there is one college, viz. '''"'"* ^"*
' 'Rhode Lshoid college. The charter for this sfeilitnait^^^'^V'ks
obtained in 1761-. The rev. James Manning, of New Jersey,

'had the principal agency in founding it, and was chostehthe
first president.- The college edifice was erected i^i 1770. ~ Ik
is a spacious building, 150 feet long, 46 feet wide, and four
istdries high, and contains 56 apartments. .:'Ho'-> diii

*' The government of the college is vested iii a' b62?r*d "of
'trilstees. The immediate officers are, a president, proftessdr of

-'ihathematics and natural philosophy, professor'df 'law', *ahd
three tutors. .:.)Hif^. a^u oj,.o//ou,^' .

AMitional Notes. -341

■The^ funds of this institution are small, amounting to little
jjaore than 8000 dollars, chiefly raised by subscription. . , ,.
f.^rThe philosophical apparatus is tolerably complete. It h^s
lately received considerable accessions by the liberality of
JSamuelElam, esq., of New Port. The libr^ry^eontajifts ahpiit
_ 3000 volumes. ..;''' r .JiiiTnritf-^

-3,-{tThe number of students in 1801 was 107. They.,^re
chiefly boarded in the college; and the necessary aai^jial^^-
^peijise of each is about 100 dollars. , ,« ^' ■'.,

|)-jeThejri^ ,i^ by no means a general taste for literature in this
state. Of the 107 students above mentioned only 12 belonged
^o the state. The greater part of the rest were from Massa-
chusetts, and a number from the southward, especially from
South Carolina.

*-•■'■' r

'\,. ,Jft Connecticut there is one college, viz.

Yale college, at New Haven. Tliis institution was incor-

..porated in I70I, and was the third college established in the
Jun^rican colonies. It received this name in honour of Tho-
mas Yale, esq., who had been governor of Fort St. George, in
jindia, and who was one of its liberal benefactors. . ^

The oflicers of this college are, a president (now the rey.
Dr. Timothy Dwight) ; a professor of divinity j professor of
mathematics and natural philosophy; professor of Oriental
languages ; and three tutors.

The number of students ia this college is believed to be
greater than in any other in the United States. In IS'Jl they
a^nountcd to 217; and the number since that time has pro-

^>ba^ly increased. The students are chiefly boarded in the
college, and the annual expense attending the accommodation

- of each is from 120 to 150 dollars.

The college buildings ar^ spacious and elegajit. The. li-

• ,brary consists of between 3000 and 4000 volumes. The phi-

. losopl^ical apparatus is considered an^ong the best in Ame-

j, j^ca^,£|The iivnd^ ,are large, but the aniouat of them is not
known to the writer.

343 Additioyial Notes.

'The annual commencement* is bh the second AVedncs^ay-'
or September ; and the number of students who had graduated^
at this college, at the end of the year 1800, was about 26OO.

The state of Vermont has one college, viz. ' " •^^JP o ''

'Middlebury college, situate in the town of Middleljilry/ 113
A^disori county. This seminary was founded in iiSOd/ tind'"*
is yet in an inl'ant state. '' -i" '=''f '^i

The government of this college is vested 'jVi a^ ob^Sf ^
trustees, consisting of sixteen gentlemen. The bflficcrs'^Sr
1^1 were, a president (the rev. Mr. J. Atwater) ; and a tutor. "
One or more piK)fsssors have probably been elected since. '

The funds consist chiefly of lands, Avhich, though little
productive at present, promise hereafter to afford an aiftlple
support to the institution. "" '

The number of students in the college, and grammar-schbiol'
annexed to it, was, in 1801, about 30. Since that time ft 1^
believed they have increased. They are all boarded in pfli3
vate houses. The annual expense of each, including board-
ing, washing, tuition, &c., is from 80 to 90 dollars. '^^ ""^

The library is small, but increasing. The philosopfiical '
apparatus is incomplete ; but measures have been adopted to
render it less so ; and, on the whole, the institution has a'
prospect of becoming, at no great distance of time, ekteit-
sively useful. i .<' i

' Kev.' York has two colleges, viz- ' '^^

1. Co^Mwim co//t;g^f, in the city of New York. This ftl^i-"'
tution was founded in 1754, under the title oi King's colte^',
which name, after the revolution, was exchanged for theione
which it now bears. (See p. 218 of this volume.) ':' ''

This college is under the direction of a board of trustfee's;
The immediate officers are, a president (at present the i^eV.''
Dr. Benjamin Moore, bishop of the protestant episcopal
church in the state of New York) ; a professor of moral pM-'-
losbpliy, ibrf^ie, ftietbrie, and belles lettres; a professor b-f tfefe'

~ Addiimial Noles^^ S4S

■ ■ ■•• i^- .i>i'v'

Greek, and Latin languages, and of Grecian and Roman anti-
quities ; a professor of mathematics, natural phllosopEy,
chronology, and geography ; and a professor of chemistry.
Beside these, there are in the medical school attached to the
college, a dean of faculty ; a professor of anatomy and sur-
gery;, a professor of the institutes of medicine; a professor
of obstetrics ; and a professor of materia medica and botany,

To qualify students for admission into this college, it is ne-_
cessary .that they should be able to read the four Gospels jn
Greek, together with four books of Virgil's iEneid, four books
of Cassar's Commentaries, and four orations of Cicero against
Catiline.
. The^course of instruction in this college is as follows : "
, The first year, Sallust, Livy, two books of Virgil's Geor-
gics, part of the New Testament in Greek, from twenty to"
thirty dialogues of Luc i an, and two books (generally) .br
Xenophon. To these are added arithmetic, algebra, a small
portion of Euclid, and Latin composition, . •

The second year, Virgil's Georgics finished, Horace's Odes,
and part of his Satires, the Orations of Demosthenes, an ad-
ditional portion of Xenophon, and two books of Homer. WitK
these are mingled, English grammar, six books of Euclid,
modern geography, trigonometry, with its various applica'-
tions to surveying, navigation, &c., Latin and English coin-
position.

The third year, Horace's Epistles, and Art of Poetry, six
books of Homer, conic sections, spheric trigonometry, with
its application to astrononiical problems, ancient geography,
rhetoric, and English composition. , .. .

The fourth year, natural philosophy, logic, and moral phi-
losophy, Terence, Longinus, chemistry, and English compo^
siti9!^., .J public speaking once a week through the wli^Ie

course.;, : ... , --. , -r

' / ■■^jyj.-j : , - i:-nl- jJS!03niin; '•>nT

I^,is,;^)(?lieved that there is no other college in the United^
States, ija which the Greek and Latin languages are studied,
•with fo much, care, aad, to pch an extent,, as in tjiis. insti-.
tvjtion. ■

944 Additional Sotes.

*: This" CdHe'gc has a library, consisting of about 300(5 to-
luiniBS. Its philoHOjihical apparatus is among the best in the
•United States. The number of matficuiated students is about
'125. Besiile these, there are the students in the medical
'school, and Some others, who sustain a less formal connexiou
'\vi'th the institution. ,^^Hi <ii3i^4»in'9«Jt«frj /i(>c^

2. Union College, at Schenectady. This college Avias
foii'dsd in 179.5, and though its growth has not beeiv very-
rapid, it bids fair to be a useful institution. ~m% >

The college officers are, a president (now the rev. Dr.
Ma.^cey); a professor of mathematics and natural philosophy;
and tv.-o tutors. ,b.3;-fQ3jr|nu j

The number of students in ISOI was about 43. They
\vere at that time boarded in private families; but are timv
accommodated in the college edifice, which is spacious and
convenient. -.^

The library consists of 800 volumes. The philosophical
apparatus is a respectably large and good one. The funds of
the institution are small.

The state of New Jersey has one college, viz.

Nassau Hall, or the college of New Jersey, at Princeton.
This college was founded in 1746, at Elizabethtown, from
"which place it was removed in 1747 to New Ark, and in
1757 to Princeton, where it has since continued. About this
time the large college edifice was erected, 180 feet long j 54-
feet Avide, and four stories high ; capable of accommodating
a large number of students. (See chapter xxvi, p. 204, of
this work.)

This building, together with tlie library, much of the
philosophical apparatus, &c., was destroyed by fire in the be-
ginning of the year 1802. Since that time, however, by the
iaid of liberal benefactions from everjf^ part of the United,
States,^ ii has-been rebuilt, and the whole iustitutron-pjaced
under new advantages and regulations, which promise a de-
.^riiC of respectability and usefulness greater thaii- it h^d ever
before attained.

Additional Notes. 345 •

^ -Tke" governnient of this college is vested in twenty ^u^
-trustee?;, iaclnding the prcsitlent of the cQllege, and thegor
vernor of the ' state, for tlje time beiag. The ofiieers of the
college are, a president (the rev. Dr. Samuel S.Smith); a
professor of languages; a professor of divinity j a ,profe.«sor;
of mathematics, natural philosophy, aitd chemistiy; .^iji*i
three tutors. !:3n--s ^f . ,T/"a\W.) i^C'SvJ .It' "

The library is now small ; bufr wieaSiiH?es have .^en {lateljr
taken, which will probably soon reader it one of the laigest
and best college libraries in the United J^tates.^ The philo-
i^ophical apparatus is a respectable one, and alsotli^el^Jt^t^
improved, ,.-.,a - ,r- .':;.f •

The course of instruction i\\ tl^is seminary is not, accurately
known to the writer. It is believed, however, that this is
one of the institutions in the United States in which classical
learning receives more than usual attention ; and7,iiv vvhicb,
beside an advantageous mode of pursuing most of the objects
of study, polite literature is cultivated with great success*' ;

The number of students in this college, at the close of the

year 1803, amounted to about 150; a greater number than

ever before belonged to the institution. They are chiefly

boarded in the college edifice. The annual expense of each.

is not certainly known, but is believed to be fro.m, 150 tft.no

..dollars. . ,. ri-

.siiii'The annual commencement in this college is oiv>;tlTQ/,last

• iW^ednesday of September. ci arii^amit •

■ ' ■ .£. iOh'vff iyi^

In Pennsylvania there are three colleges, viaii-rt sn^tl f

1. The University of Pennsylvania, in Philadelpliia. This

institution was formed in 1791, l)y the union of the Cctllege of

Philadelphia, founded in 175% (sec page 213) and anotiier

institution, formed immediately after the revolutionary war,

■ wider the same title which the xmited seminaries now bear.
iv^.The olhcers of this institution are, a provost (this place is

■ "3fiacw -vacant), who is also prpfessor of naturall . philosophy j a
r- viccpa^ovost, who is also professor of logic and moral philo-

d^ Additional NdteA

sophy ; a professor of Greek and Latin, languages.; a professor
of mathematics ; a professor of English and belles lettres ;
and ^ professor of Oriental literature. Beside these,, the, in-
structors in the medical school are, a professor of anatomyj.
a professor of the institutes and practice of medicine ; a proK
fessor of materia medica, natural history, and botany ; and a
professor of chemistry. This medical school is much more-
frequented by students than any other in the United,-^?^^,.,
(See Vol. ii, p. 18, and vol. iii, p. 265.) n'tfi\ h^-^^f

The library of this seminary consists of about 1000 vo-
lumes. The philosophical apparatus is tolerably good. The
whole number of students belonging to the institution, at the
close of the year 1803, was about 160; but of these only, a
small portion actually belonged to the classes in college.

2. Dickinson college, in Carlisle. This college was founded
in the year 1783, and received the name which it bears in
honour of John Dickinson, esquire, the celebrated political,,
writer, and its most liberal benefactor. (See page 251). „

The government of this college i» in the hands of a boar4-,
df trqstees. The officers are, a president (now the rev. Dr.
Nisbet) ; vicepresident ; and two professors. The library
consists of about 3000 volumes. The philosophical appa-
ratus is small. The amount of the funds is not known to the^

^"^'^^^ ...zoiJ

The number of students in this college is believed to^.bfj,,

about 45 or 50. They are boarded in private families in the, .

tovirn,

Sf/ -Franklin college, in Lancaster. This institution was-

founded in 1787, for the particular accommodation of the.^.

German inhabitants of Pennsylvania, to enable them to edu---^

cate their youth in their own language, and in conformity^*

with their own habits. The principal is a German Lutheran^ ,

and the vicepresident a Caivinist. Its present state is not.

known to the writer ; but it is believed not to be in a very

flourishing condition.

Additional Notes. 3^

-Ih Maryland there are four colleges, viz. * -'r-in 5 < vnac^

1. St, John's college, at Annapolis. This coHege wsA^
founded in the year 1784; and, together with the seminary
which tvill be next mentioned, forms the " university of '.
Maryland." ' '< -'

This college is governed by twenty four trustees. lit^fCi^-
cers are, a president (now John M'Dowell, esq.)? SP'^i^e-'i
president; and three pr6fessors. Its funds ar6 chiefly de-'
rived from voluntary subscription, and an annual grant of'
1750/. from the state, aided by the incoine from the i^tudehts
for tuition. Its library is moderately large ; and its philo^
sophical apparatus only tolerably good. ' '■'■'

In 1801 the number of students in this institution was'
about 100. -^-

2. Washington college, in Chestertown, instituted in 17^,
and, like the preceding, placed under the direction of twenty
four visitors or trustees. In 1787 a permanent fund wais
granted to this institution, by a law of the state, of 1 250?. a
year; which has been since continued. No other particulars
concerning this college are known.

3. The Catholic college, at Georgetown, on the Potowmac.
This institution is under the particular direction of the Ro-
man catholics, who form a considerable part of the popnla^
lion of Maryland. The writer lias not been so happy as to"
succeed in his attempts to obtain particular information con-
cerning this seminary. ?,TO tP'ieoa.i

4. Cokesbury college, at Abingdon, in Harford counTy."
This college was founded by the methodist church in f785,
and intended for the education of youth belonging td'tKat -
communion. It is so called in honour of the rev. Thomas
Coke, and the rev. Francis Asbury, bishops of the methodist
episcopal church. No particulars are known to the writer
respecting the officers, funds, number of students^ &c.

In Virginia there are two colleges, viz.

1. William and Mary College, at Williamsburgh. This in.

'S^S Additional Notes..

stitution Avasincoqiorated in . 1j693, by king William and
queen Mary, whose names it bears. Tlae credit of obtaining
the charter, and of organising the establishment, is due to the
rev.. James Blair (See p. 192). This was the second c^Uegg
fonnded in the American colonies. :;i.'oy

-♦i; "J^hegoveriving powers in this college are vested in a board
of visitors, not exceeding twenty. The officers are, a presi-
dent (now the rev. Dr. Madison, bishop of the protestant episr
copal church in the state of Virginia), v.- ho is also professori,-^
moral and natural philosophy ; a professor of mathematics ;
a professor of ancient languages; a professor of modern laoT
guages; a professor of law ; and a professor of chemistry.; , ;
^ In the moral school, in this college, the course consists, of,
I. Logic and the philosophy of the human mind. On these
sjabjectp, the works of Duncan, Reid, and professor Stewart
are studied. 2. lihctoric and belles lettres. Here Dr. Blair^s
lecture? are chiefly used. 3. Moral philosophy. In this. de-
partment the author studied is Paley. 4. Natural law. Ruther^
forth and Burlamaqui, Sec. 5. Law of nations. Vattel and
iMartens. 6. Politics. Locke, Montesquieu, Rousseau, &c.
7, Political economy. Smith's Wealth of Nations. In aa^
tural philosophy there is a regular course of lectures, attended
with every necessary experiment. In this course, the works
generally referred to, and recommended, are those of Rovvnr
iDg, Helsham, jMartin, Desaguliers, Muschenbroeck, Cavallo,
Adams, Lavoisier, Chaptal, &c. ,. -.rj

In the department of law, the professor takes an extensive
view of the general principles of government ; comments; on
the-great work of judge Blackstone ; explains the structure
and principles of the American governments, and particulai'ly
of ihe. government of Virginia. In teaching the ancient an4
modern languages, the usual course is pursued. ThoughaU
the students ai-e not compelled to attend to the former, yfeli a
tjpmp'etent. knowledge of them is necessary in order Id ithe
taking. ofa regular degree. •..?:.•.,>,/.- ;^i!lX

No particular period of residence at this college is requiredfc

Addiiioyinl Noles. S4p

AH students who are prepared to go throitgh : the prescribed
examination may receive its honours. rr"'^. '.-a

"^ ''The'nDiwber of students in' this caHege, in the beginning
t)f the year 1801, was 53. The library contains about 300D
volumes. The philosophical apparatus, when prDCufed in
1768, was well chosen, and tolerably complete. It cost, at
that time, between 2000 and 3000 dollars. Having been in
constant use for more than 30 year^, it stands ia need of JPii'
pairs, and is less complete than at first-r^J?- ndi ai doirurf-j ir.qoit
'' The funds of this college were lYiuch diminished by the
revolution. They now amount to about 4500 dollars per cnv-
man — derived from the rents of certain lands j a certain
jtroportion of surveyor's fees; and the interest :of rtioiiev
lent. ■ : - ■ "^

* ' Thfere is probably no college in the United States in \t4if ch
"political science is studied with so much ardour, and irt'^viii'Cfll,
it is considered so preeminently a favourite object, '"JKf'fli
this. ^ V'^.v-vir'T

^i!Q.' Hunipden Sidney college, in Prince Edward county. Thf*
'Seminary was founded about the year 1774, chiefly by the
exertions of the rev. Samuel S. Smith, now president of -the
college of New Jersey. - it^ lM^uf

This college has scarcely any funds. The philosophical
apparatus is small. Its library consists of about 500 volumes;
Tlie number of students maybe estimated in general at about
60 or 70. A

"^Vi?.r, ■>':•.- ■ ... ^;,^. ^,l ; :

- 'Nbrth Carolina has one college, viz. a*ii lo wsi*

^■-The University of North Carolina, at Chapel Hill, Ofang^
tbanty. " This institution was incorporated in 1789; and th6
legislature of the state, by subsequent acts, made large grants
for its support. The college buildings were erected in 1794}
and tuition, it is believed, was commenced in 1795. " *•" '* ' '
' The funds of the university of Norlli Carolina 'jWe» hl^*'.
They consist of 14777/. in cash, public JlO^artd bohdgi^Mjf

^350 Additional Notes.

-all the property in the state which is or shall hereafter be
"eseheatedj of 94000 acres of land, indifferent parts of the

state ; and of other real property to a considerable amount.
No other particulars concerning this institution are known

to the writer. .:l:y?^.r?5I

ai ^outh Carolina has four colleges, viz.

-i{;i; Winnesborough college, at Winnesborough, in Fairfield
county. This institution was founded about the year 1795^
It is yet in an infant state ; the funds, number of students,
&c., being small.

2. A college in the city of Charleston. This was instituted
about the same time with the preceding ; but has not yet
attained any great degree of respectability. The trustees
have, in a few instances, conferred the degree of bachelor of
arts; but have not, it is believed, attempted to bestow literary
honours of a higher rank.

3. A college at Cambridge, in the district of Ninety-six.
This was incorporated at the same time with the two last men-
tioned seminaries ; but it has dwindled into an unimportant

• school.

4. A college at Beaufort, also incorporated about the ye'i^
1795. This institution has yet been scarcely organised j but
agreeable anticipations are formed of its respectability arid
usefulness. ^"^^

The reason why no college in this state has risen to rtTucH
respectability is, that the legislature, instead of directing their
aid and patronage to one, which, under these circumstances,
inight have flourished, have divided their attentions and grants
among several. The cousecjuences have been very unfriend-
ly to the progress of literature. '"'^ '^

tc- no

''^ Georgia has one college, viz.

The XJniversiti/ of Georgia, founded in 1785. This institil-
tion is not yet fully organised. Liberal provision has been

A^dilmial Notes: 35 1

rjwade by the state for its support; and when the buildings
and other arrangemients shall be completed, it bids fair to be
an extensively uaefiil seminary. Moiobi^-

•:.;V"v. ; ■ /• /I, , ■ . .^~.-...

Kentucky has one college, viz.

The Transylvania college, or university, at Lexington.
This seminary was founded by the union of two academics in
December 1798, and styled by the act of union the Transyl-
vania university. ;t,.h^br.iy(yt vBv)' rtot*uitt?.(fr aidT ,Yfnr;07

The government of this institution is vested in a board Of
trustees. The officers are, a president (at present the rev. Mr.
jMppre), who is also professor of logic, metaphysics, moral
philosophy, and belles lettres ; a professor of mathematics,
natural philosophy, astronomy, and geography; a professor
of the Greek and Latin languages ; a professor of law ; a pro-
iessor of medicine and surgery ; and a professor of chemistry.

The funds of this university consist chiefly of lands, and
may be considered as amounting to 179000 dollars. The li-
brary consists of more than 1300 volumes; beside a law li-
brary, and a medical library, for the students of law and me-
dicine. The philosophical apparatus is respectable, and mea-
sures have been taken to render it still more so.

The number of students at this seminary, in 1801, was
about 70. Of these 19 were students of law, and six of medi-
cine. The annual expense of boarding, tuition, &c,, is bom
§9j^i^4004QUars.

lf-nb ■'■:: ■■■" .j-:

...Tennessee has one college, viz. ^^^,^. ^^^ j^jj.

. Greenville college, founded in the year 1794. Tne funds
of this institution are very small. It has a library, consisting
of 2000 volumes; a good philosophical apparatus, and about
20 students.

The officers of the college are, a president (at present- th»
re;^jjilezekiah Balch), and one other professor.

Note (P)t page 294.— It is v.*ell knWn, that the ancientJ,

352 Additional Notes.

being ignorant of the art of printing, were obliged to employ
. public rehearsals as the best means of making known new com-
positions. In early times this was the case with writers of the
first class, llerodotus recited his history, in dirterent portions,
at the Olympic games ; and other writers of great reputation
did the same.

Tacitus speaks in the foUoAvlng language of the author,
who is obliged to employ this method of publishing his works.

" Ciim toto anno, per omnes dies, magna noctium

parte, unum lihrum extudit et clucubravit, rogare ultroetam-
bire cogatur, ut sint, qui dignentur audire: et ne id quidem
.gratis : nam et domum mutuatur, et auditorium extruit, et
subsellia conducit, et libellos dispergit : et ut bcatissimus re-
eitationem ejus eventus prosequatur, omnis ilia laus intra unum
aut alteram diem, velut in herba vcl flore praecepta, ad nuUam
certam et solidam pcrvcnit frugem : nee aut amicitiam inde
refert, aut clieutelam aut mansurum in animo cujusquam bcne-
ficium, sed clamorem vagum, et voces inanes, ct gaudium vo-
lucre." — C. Cornelii Taciti Dial, dc Oratorihiis, ix.

Pliny, in one of his Letters, gives a lively description of
the disadvantages which authors had to encounter in this
mode of publishing their compositions.

" Magnum proventum poctarum annus hie attulit. Toto
mense Aprili nuUusfere dies, quo non recitaret aliquis. Ta-
metsi ad audiendum pigre coitur. Plerique in stationibus se-
dent, tempusque audiendi fabulis eonterunt, ac subinde sibi
jiunciari jubent, an jam recitaior intravcrit, an dixerit pra;fa-
tionem, an ex magna, parte evolvent librum? Turn demum,
ac tuno quoque lente, cunctanterque veniunt, uec tanien re-
manent, sed ante fmem recedunt; alii dissimulanter, ac fur-
tim; alii simpliciter, ac hbere. Sed tanto magis laudandi
probandique sunt, quos a scribendi rccitandique studio haec
auditorum vel desidia, vel superbia non retardat. Equidem
prope neniini defui: his ex causis longiiis, quamdestinaveranr»,
tempus in urbe consumpsi. Possum jam repetere secessum,
et scribere aliquid, quod non recitem ; ne ridear, quorum re-

Additional Notes. 353

citationibus afTui, non auditor fuisse, sed creditor. Nam, ut
in cateris rebus, ita in audiendi officio, perit gratia, si repos-
catur." — PUn. lib. i, Ep. 13.

The poets who could not obtain an audience otherwise,
frequented the baths, and other public places, in order to
fasten on their friends, and procure an opportunity of reciting
their compositions. Juvenal tells us, that the groves and
marble columns of Julius Fronto resounded with the vocife-
rations of the reciting poets.

Frontonis platani, convulsaque marmora clamant
Semper, et assiduo rupta; lectore columnae.
Expectes eadem a summo, minimoque poeta.

Sat, i, ver. 12.

The same satirist suggests, that the poet who wished his
works to become known, might borrow a house for the pur-
pose of public reading ; and that the person who atcoinino-
dated the writer, might place his friends and freedmen on i.\v-
back seats, with directions to be liberal in their applause.

Et si dulcedine famse

Succensus recites, Maculonus commodat aedes.
Scit dare libertos extrema in parte sedentes
Ordinis, et magnas comitum disponere voces.
Nemo dabit regum, quanti subsellia constent.

Sat. vii, v^r. 5 P.

In another place, speaking of Statius, a popular poet, he
says :

Curritur ad vocem jucundam, et carmen amicse
Thebaidos, laetam fecit cum Statius urbem,
Promisitque diem; tanta dulcedine captos
Aflicit ille animos, tantaque libidine vulgi ,.,

'Vol. Ill: 2 A

354 Additional Notes.

Auditur ; sed cum fregit subsellla versu,
Esurit, intactam Paridi nisi vendat Agaven.

Sat. vii, ver. 82.

From a passage in Horace it would seem that in his day
writers of the first class disdained tb employ this method of
obtaining literary fame.

Non recito cuiquam, nisiamicis, idque coactus ;
Koii ubivis, coramve quibuslibet. In medio qui
Scripta foro recitent, sunt multi ; quique lavantes ;
Suave locus voci resonat conclusus. Inanes
Hoc juvatj haud illud quaerentes, num sine sensu.
Tempore num faciant alieno.

Sat. lib. i. Sat. iv, ver. 73.

Note (3,), page 295. — The following remarks of professor
Stewart, on the probable influence of printing upon the future
interests of society, are worthy of attention. Whatever may
be thought of the truth or falsehood of the opinions which
they express, they afford to the contemplative mind materials
for very interesting reflections.

" The influence which printing is likely to have on the fu-
ture history of the world has not, I think, been hitherto ex-
amined, by philosophers, with the attention which the im-
portance of the subject deserves. One reason for this may
probably have been, that, as the invention has never been
made but once, it has been considered rather as the effect of a
fortunate accident, than as the result of those general causes
on which tl?e progress of society seems to depend. But it
may be reasonably questioned} how far this idea be just: for,
although it should be allowed that the invention of printing
was accidental, with respect to the individual who made it, it
may with truth be considered as the natural result of a state
of the world, when a number of great and contiguous nations

Additional Notes. 355

are all engaged in the study of literature, in the pursuit of
science, and in the practice of the arts : insomuch, that I do
not think it extravagant to affirm, that, if this invention had
not been made by the particular person to Avhom it is ascribed,
the same art or some analogous art, answering a similar pur-
pose, would have infallibly been invented by some other per-
son, and at no very distant period. The art of printing,
therefore, is entitled to be considered as a step in the natural
history of man, no less than the art of writing ; and they who
are sceptical about the future progress of the race, merely in
consequence of its past history, reason as unphilosophically as
the member of a savage tribe, who, deriving his own ac-
quaintance with former times from oral tradition only, should
affect to call in question the efficacy of written records, in ac-
celerating the progress of knowledge and of civilisation.

" What will be the particular effects of this invention
(which has been, hitherto, much checked in its operation, by
the restraints on the liberty of the press in the greater part of
Europe) it is beyond the reach of human sagacity to conjec-
ture; but, in general, we may venture to predict with confi-
dence, that, in every country, it will gradually operate to
widen the circle of science and civilisation ; to distribute more
equally, among all the members of the community, the ad-
yaatages of the political union, and to enlarge the basis of
equitable governments, by increasingthe number of those who
understand their value, and are interested to defend them.
The science of legislation, too, with all the other branches
of knowledge which are connected with human improve-
ment, may be expected to advance with rapidity ; and, in
proportion as the opinions and institutions of men approach to
truth and to justice, they will be secured against those revo-
lutions to which human affairs have always been hitherto sub-
ject. * Opinionum enim commentu dtltt dies, naturce judicia con-
firmat.'

" Nor must we omit to mention the value which the art of
printing communicates to the most limited exertions of literary
2 A2

356 Additional Notes.

industry, by treasuring them up as materials for the future
examination of more enlightened inquirers. In this respect
the press bestows upon the sciences an advantage somewhat
analogous to that which the mechanical arts derive from the
division of labour. As in these arts the exertions of an un-
informed multitude are united by the comprehensive skill of
the artist, in the accomplishment of effects astonishing by
their magnitude, and by the complicated ingenuity they dis-
play; so, in the sciences, the observations and conjectures of
obscure individuals on those subjects which are level to their
capacities, and which fall under their own immediate notice,
accumulate for a course of years; till at last some philosopher
arises, who combines these scattered materials, and exhibits,
in his sj^stem, not merely the force of a single mind, but the
intellectual power of the age in which he lives." — Elements
ttf the Philosophy of the Human Mind, chap, iv, sect. 8.

I agree with the professor in thinking, tnat "the influence
which printing is likely to have on the future history of the
world has not been examined, by philosophers, with that at-
tention which the importance of the subject deserves." But
he has only presented the fair side of the picture. Experience
proves, that this precious art is not devoted to laudable pur-
poses alone ; and that in estimating its future influence on hu-
man happiness, we must take into the account the abuses to
which it is liable, as well as the advantages which it tends t»
produce.

INDEX OF NAMES.

Abbot, i 181

Abel, J., ii 151

Abelard, P., ii 420

Abernethy, i 374-

Abul Fazel, ii 27 1 note

Acerbi, iii 6 note

Achard, i 134., 421; ii 100

Acharius, i 180

Achenwall, professor, ii 356 ;

iii 175
Acosta, d', i 198
Acquaviva, duke of Alti, iii

109, 110
Adair, James, ii 56, 325
Adams, ii 66, 67

Alex., ii 404

G., i 31, 385 ; iii 348

J., iii 104, 242 note,

247, 250 note, 270, 330
S., iii 247

Adanson, i 160, 179, 182, 270

note ; ii 51
Addison, Joseph, ii 295, ib.

note, 296, 297, 298, 303, 306 ;

iii 21, 41, 47, 60, 61, 84, ib.

note, 85, ib. note, 86, 89

note, 170, 207 note

Adelung, J. C, ii 195 note, 202,

317, 318; iii 169
Adet, i 112, 134
Adler, i 25 1
iEpinus, i 29, 30 note, 31, 37,

253, 388; ii 76; iii 161
^schylus, ii 236, 239
Agrell, ii 48
Aikin, Dr. J., i 318 note; ii 5,

8, 363 ; iii 124
Aitken, Rob., iii 258, ib. note
Akber, ii 27 1 note
Akenside, Dr. Mark, iii 15
Alanson, i 375
Albinus, i 147, 265, 271, 272,

273
Aldini, prof., i 394
Alembert, d', i 41, 47, 51, 64,

73, 74, 200; ii 73,74, 147

note, 148, 363; iii 111
Alessandri, ii 151
Alexander, W., iii 261, ib.note
Alfieri, ii 314; iii 53
Algardi, ii 140, ib.note
Allamand, i 25
Allen, jus., iii 214 note
AUioni, i 182
Allison, ii 215

INDEX OF NAMES.

Allison, Dr. Francis, iii 201, ib.

note, 203, 204 note, 21 4-, 239

note, 269 note, 328
Alstedius, iii 110
Alston, i .170, 172, 179, 181 ;

ii 3, 5
Anibodick, iii 162
Amiot, ii 240, 284
Amman, i 365
Amontons, i 45, 67
Araory, T., ii 383 note
Anacreon, ii 236, 239
Anitschkof, iii 162
Anderson, i 53, 197
Dr. (of New York),

ii 146

Jas., ii 103, 105

— (engraver), ii 145

Andrews, J., ii 347

Annan, iii 200

Anne, empress of Russia, ii 157

Anquetil, see Perron

Anson, lord, i 359 ; ii 32, ib.

note
Anspach, marg. of, see Craven,

lady
Antheaume, i 397
Anthony, Jos., ii 134 note
Antoni, d', i 43
Anville, J. B. d', ii 60, ib. note,

61,277
Apligny, d', ii 121
Apollonius of Alexandria, ii 33 1
Apihorp, East, Vn 235, ib. note
Aquapendente, see Fabricius
Aratus, iii 315 note
Arblay, Mrs. d^ ii 381, 382;

iii 132
Arbogast, ii 73

Arcy, d', i 44
Arduino, i 236
Argand, ii 123
Argenville, d', i 197
Aristophanes, ii 236
Aristotle, i 168, 188; ii 157,

180, 195, 236, 238, 240, 334,

335, 371 note
Arkwright, sir R., Ii 111, ib.

note
Arraateur, ii 59
Armstrong, Dr. J., iii 15
Arne, f>r. S. A., ii 151 ; iii 47
Arnold, i 83; ii 123 note

Dr., ii 151

Ariiould, An., ii 171
Arquier, d', i 405
Arrowsmith, ii 61, 62
Artedi, i 155, ib. note, 276

note
Asbury, Fran., iii 347
Aschani, Rog., iii 129 note
Asellius, i 263
Ash, Dr., i 339

J., ii 306, .309

Atwatcr, J., iii 312

Aublet, i 184

Audraii, ii 146

Auger, ii 236

Aulus Gellius, ii 237, 239

Austin, i 124

Auteroche, d', ii 45, 56, ib.

note
Aviceana, ii 109
Avison, C, ii 151
Ayala, don Juan d', ii 33
Ayscough, ii 403
Azyr, Vicq-d', i 273, 276, 30(>

INDEX OF NAMES.

B.

Babo, Hi 55, 178

Bach, ii 151

Bachelier, ii 136

Bacherach, iii 103

Bacon, ii 140

lord, i 118, 259, 312;

ii 176, 182, 365; iii 99, 121,

288, 292, 299 note
Baczko, ii 350
Baglivi, i 329, 350
Bailey, Nath., ii 307
Baillie, Dr., i 27-1-

raiss Jo., iii 43

Bailly, i 89, 216, 235, 2-1-0

note ; ii 358
Baker, G., ii 239
H., i 67, 276 note,

366
Balch, Hezekiah, iii 351
Bancroft, Dr. E., i 63, ib. note,

121 ; ii 59, 121, ib. note
Banister, J., i 182, ib. note
Banks, ii 140
sir Jos., i 160, 186; ii

33, 36 note
Barbauld, Mrs., iii 35, 124, 131
Barbinais, ii 30
Barclay, Dr. H., iii 218, ib.

note
Bard, Dr. S., ii 19, 20, 21
Baretti, iii 297 note
Barker, ii 62

Chr., iii 88

Dr., i 50; ii ll-t

Barlow, Joel, iii 68

Barnes, Josh., ii 236, 237 note

Barres, du, ii 62

Barrow, ii 48, 176

]Paruel, abbe, ii 358

Barry, Dr., i 358 note

J., ii 134

Barthelemi, J. J., ii 357 note,
358, ib. note

Barthez, P. J., i 324 note

Bartholin, iii 74

Bartholine, Tho., i 263, 265

Bartholonieo, ii 44

Bartholon, i 384 ; ii 97

Bartolozzi, ii 144, 146

Barton, professor, i 143 note,

1-49, 154, 161, 170 note, 177,

1 84, ib. note, 425, 426, 427 ;

ii 5, ib. note, 24, 326, 327

•note, 403 : iii 188 note, 26-1.

Bartram, I., iii 328

J., i 184, 426, 429;

iii 232, lb, note, 277 note

Moses, iii 328

W., i 161, 18-1-, 426;

ii 50; iii 277 note
Basedow, iii 118, ib. note, 12-1'
Basnage, iii 74
Bastaniente, don, ii 40
Baster, i 276 note
Bate, Jul., ii 245, 250
Bat hurst, lord, iii 14 note
Batsch, professor, i 179
Baltic, ii 236,
Battoni, ii 1.10
Baudolocque, i 377
Bauman, iii 175
Baxter, And., ii 212

W., ii236

Bay en, i 109

Bayer, Theoph. S., ii 269, 282,

ib. note
Bayle, P., ii 362, 367, 371 ; iii

74, 110
Bay ley. Dr. R., ii 21

INDEX OF NAMES.

Bayly, ii 249, 276
Baynton, i 374-
Beach, iii 235, ib. note
Beattie, Dr. James, ii 175, 183

note, 184, 195, 205, 301, 330,

337, 370 note, 374, 404; iii

17, 24 note, 34
Beaumarchais, iii 51, ib. note
Beaume, i 134; ii 120
Beaumont, de, iii 124
Beausobre, ii 215
Beauvarlet, ii 146
Beauvois, de, i 179
Beauzee, ii 337
Beccaria, marq. Caes., ii 314
prof. J. B., i 28, 121,

246, 253, 384; ii 150 note
Becher, i 95, ib. note, 105, 188,
Beck, CD., ii 350; iii 175

prof., ii 202

Beddoes, Dr. T., i 286, ib. note,

290, 350, 865; ii 8, 333

note, 336 note
Bedford, duke of, ii 105
Beechy, ii 134
Beeckman, ii 46
Behring, capt., ii 28, 29, ib.

note 66
Beighton, i 51, 56; ii 113
Belidor, i 49, 50, 51; ii 114
Belknap, rev. Dr., i 162 note;

ii 58, 352, 353 note, 363, ib.

note ; iii 104, ib. note
Bell, A., i273
— -B., i 371, 373, 374

C, i 271

J., i 271, 374

— of Auchterlony, ii43,45

Bellin, ii 62

Bellini, i 279, 315, 318

Belloy, du, iii 43 note
Beloe, W., ii 258, 240
Belsham, T., ii 192 note, 205,

213 note

W., ii 347

Bembo, card. P., ii 314
Bendi, ii 240, iii 13
Bennet, rev. A., i 30
Bennett, rev. J., iii 132
Bentley, Dr. R., ii 236, 237, ib.

note ; iii 196 note

J., ii276

(potter), ii 141

Benzelius, ii 350
Beresford, Jas., ii 239
Bergius, ii 3
Bergman, Torbern, i 98, ib.

note, 99, 102, 103, 105, 109,

112, 118, 124, 126, 191, 192,

196, 197, 198, 201, 234, 254,

256 ; ii 3, 95
Berkeley, bishop, i61,62; ii

172, 173, 174,176, 177,180,

185 note, 200, 214, 215 ; iii

209, ib. note
Berkenhout, i 181, 186 note,

198
Berkley, Dr., iii 85
Bernier, i 89
Bernouilli, D., i 41, 43, 47, 48,

51 ; ii 74; iii 155 ^**
J., i 44, 50, 51 ; ii

74, 114

N., iii 154

Berquin, iii 124

Berthollet, i 63, 111, 121, 124,

134,421 ; ii 120, 121
Berthoud, i 83; ii 32
Bertier, ii 151
Bertrand, L., i 231, ib. Bote

INDEX OF NAMES.

Bertrand, P., i 228, ib. note

Bettinelli, ili 53

Beverley, ii 352; iii 225

Bewick, T., ii 145

Bewley, i 103

Bezout, ii 74

Bianchini, i 89

Biddle, Owen, iii 328

Bidlake, J., iii 32

BIdloo, i 264

Bielfield, baroo, iii 112

Biester, Dr., i 407

Billings, commodore, ii 41

Bion, ii 239

Bird, i 86

Bisset, Dr., ii 388

Black, Dr., i 53, 97, 98, 102,
110, 115, 118,124,133, 198,
199, 245, 255, 256, 267 note,
295, 296, 401, 419; ii 120

Blacklock, Dr., iii 21

Blackmore, sir R., iii 196 note

Blackstone (botan.), i 181

. sir W., iii 34S

Blackwell, Elizabeth, i 427

Bladen, Mar., ii 239

Bladh, i 25 t

Blagden, Dr., i 253

Blair, i 170

Dr. J., iii 14 note

prof. H., ii 283 note, 301,

330 ; iii 14 note, 59 note, 63
note, 337, 348

Rob., i 65

rev. Jas., iii 192, ib. note,

193 note, 348

Rob., iii 16

S., iii 201, 202, ib. note.

203, 267 note
Blakewell, ii 105
Vol. til

Bland, R., ili 243

Blane, Dr., i 363

Blaney, Dr., ii 257 note

Blasius, i 276 note

Bletterie, ii 240, 244

Bloch, Mark Eleazer, i 156,

159; ill 173
Blodget, ii 62
Bloomer, Josh., iii 22 note
Bloomfield, Rob., iii 32
Blumenbach, prof., i 146, 148,

154, 307 ; iii 173
Boccalini, i 26 note
Bochart, ii 242
Bode, ii 251, 261

prof,, i 79, 404

Bodini, ii 236
Bodmer, iii 168, 170 .
Boerhaave, i 94, 118, 141, 165,

182,280,299,316,317, 318^

319, 320, 327, 352; ii 15

note, 358
Boethius, iii 315 note
Bogdanovitch, iii 163
Bohadsch, i 28, 158, 276 note
Boileau, iii 22, 8 t
Bois, Fran, du, see Sylvius
Boissy, iii 51
Boizot, ii 140
Bollngbroke, lord, ii 297 ; iii

14 note
Bolton, i 180
Bom are, i 197

Bond, Dr. Phin., ili 214 note
Thos., ii 10, 19; iii

328
Bondt, i 124
'Bonet, i ?j>r)5
Bonetur-, The., i 274
Bonnctt, Charles, i 157, ib.
2 B

INDEX OF NAMES.

note, 159, 176, 276 note, 308 ;

ii 94, 216
Bonnycastle, J., ii 74
Bononcini, ii 151
Boon, ii 56

Borch, count, i 240 note
Borda, chev. de la, i 44, 51,

86; ii32
Bordley, ii 100 note, 107
Borelli, prof., i 279, 286, 315,

ib. note, 316
Born, bar., i 197, 236

. prof. F. G., ii 202

Bos, Lamb., ii 230
BoscaM-en, W., ii 239
Boscovich, R.J., i 20, ib. note,

21, 22 note, 78, ib. note, 382,

383; ii 54,209; iii 18
Bossu, ii 56
Bossuet, ii 235
Bossut, ab., i 44, 47, 51,
Eostock, Dr. J., i 392,393
Boston, rev. T., ii 255
Boswell, Jas., ii 365, 367 note,

387 note; iii 15 note, 297

note
Botin, ii 320, 350
Boucher, ii 131
Bouchet, ii 242
Boettiger, C. A., iii 178
Botetourt, lord, iii 246, ib. note
Bottger, J. F., ii 121
Boucher, iii 236
Bougainville, i 185; ii 36,37
Bouguer, i 44, 60, 62, 72, 243,

251; ii 59
Boiiilly, iii 52
Boulduc, i 255
Boulton, i 402; ii 115
Bourgelat, i 148

Bouvard, i 73, 80

Bowdoin, Jas., i 89; iii 104,

221 note, 250 note, 261, ib.

note, 330, 331, 339
Bo wen, ii 60
Bowles, W. L., iii 37
Boyce, ii 151
Boyle, C. & J., see Orrerj^ eari

of,
R., i 23, 67 note, 93, 94,

102, 1 1 8, 255, 288, 327 note ;

iii 100
Boylston, Dr., i 355, ib. note,

356

N., ill 222

Boze, prof., i 25, 26 ; ii 96 ; iii

173
Braam, van, ii 44
Erachmel, i 189, 190
Bradford, And., iii 91, 92 note

W., iii 92, ib. note

Bradley, Dr., i 60, 71, ib. note,

74, 75, 79, 80, 83, 404
Richard, i 170; ii

102
Bradshaw, pres., ii 334 note
Brady, Nic, iii 21
Braidwood, Thos., i 365, 366
Brailsford, Dr., i 1 8 1
Brnmah, i 46
Brandt, i 199
Braun, iii 172
Bray, Dr. T., iii 226
Breitinger, iii 168, 170
Brewster, ii 239
Breyne,Dr., i 150
Breze, i 256

Bridel, S. E., i 180; iii 173
Bridgwater, duke of, ii 88
Erindley, Jas., ii 88^ 89, ib. note

\

INDEX OF NAMES.

Brisson, i 58, U1-, 145, 153, ib.

note, 195
Brocklesby, Dr., i 363
Bromfield, i 372, 373
Brooke, i 385

iii 12

Mrs., ii 389; iii 132

note
Erosses, pres. de, ii 233, 337

des, ii 63

Brotier, ii 236, 237

Brougham, i 61

Broussonet, i 155, 276 note,

309 ; ii 94, 104
Browal, bish., i 189
Brown, C. B., ii 390

Dr. John, i 284, 309,

334, ib. note, 336, 337, ib.
note, 345, ib. note

SaiH., ii 23

T., ii 419

Browne, ii 44, 49

Dr. Pat., i 182

Bruce, ii 48, 50 note

Brucker, ii 358

Brunck, R. F. P., ii 236

Bruns, prof., ii 60, 256 note

Bruyere, la, iii 84, ib. note, 85

Bryant, Jacob, i 148; ii 61,
323 ; iii 65 note

Buat, chev, de, i 44, 47, 51

Buchan, ii 13

Buchholz, ii 350

Bufjier, pere, ii 182, 183, ib.
note, 404

BufTon, count de, i 145, ib.
note, 146, 148,150,153, 163,
213,214,215,210,223, 234,
240 note, 308, 309; ii 158,
311; iii 290

Bugge, i 89

Buhle, ii 236

Bulfinger, iii 155

Bulgarus Hugolinus, iii 317

note
Bull, Dr. W., ii 15 note; iii

227, 223 note
Bulliard, i 179, 182
Bullet, ii 325
Bulwer, i 365
Bunbury, H., ii 133
Burckhardt, i 78, 80; iii 173
Eurdon, Row., ii 1 14
Burg, i 73, 80
Burgoyne, gen., iii 45
Burigni, ii 367
Burke, Edm., ii 64 note, 134

note, 300, 301 note
Burkhard, J. IL, i 169, ib. note,

]70 note
Burlamaqui, iii 337, 348
Eurmann, prof., i 180, 182;

ii 136, 237
Burnet, bp., ii 340 note, 343 j

iii 192 note

gov., iii 216 note

Jas.,seeMonboddo, lord

rev. Dr. T., i 204, 206 ;

ii 151 ; iii 196 note
Burney, ii 237 note
Dr.C, ii 148 note, 149

note, 358, 365

miss, see d'Arblay

Burns, i 50 ; ii 114

Rob., iii 31, ib. note 35

Burr, Aar., ii 155 note; iii 204

note

rev. Aar., iii 204 note, 205

Burrow, Reub., ii 278
Busching, ii 60
2B2

INDEX OF NAMES.

Butler, bp., ii 176,205, 215

• Nat., iii 89

S., iii 27

Buxtorf, J,, sen., ii 2-t4', 248,
255

' jun., ii 244, 255

B3Td, col., iii 225
Byron, capt,, ii 32

C.

Cadet, i 134
Cadwallader, Dr., ii 15
Caesar, ii 237, 239 ; iii 343
Ceesarotti, ii 240, ib. note, 314;

iii 10 note, 13, 53
Cagliostro, count, ii 13
Cagnoli, i 89
Caille, de la, i 79, 80, 251, 404,

405 ; ii 48, 84
Calamy, Dr. Edm,, jun., iii 196

note
Caldani, i 284
Caldwell, Dr., ii 24
Callet, ii 80

Callimachus, ii 236, 239
Camera, i 198
Camerarius, i 169
Camoens, iii 12, 13 note
Campbell, Dr. G., ii 214, 215,

337

■- J., ii 363

(geog.), ii 63

(poet), iii 32

Campe, iii 124
Camper, i 148, 272, 276
Camus, i 72
Caner, Dr. H., iii 235
Canitz, iii 178
Canova, ii 140, ib. note
Cant, i 273

Cantemir,- iii 6

Canton, i 28, 39, 121, 247,

253, 384, 397,
Capellus, Lew., ii 244, 249
Capperonier, ii 236
Carestini, ii 152
Carey, Mat., iii 257 note

W. ii 279

Carl, i 324

Carla, du, i 25 1

Carlini, ii 140

Carlisle, i 34, 390

Carmoy, i 30, 383 ; ii 97

Caroline, queen, i 20

Carr, ii 238

Carradori, i 254, 289 note

Carter, Mrs. E., ii 239, ib. note;

iii 130 note, 131, ib. note
Carteret, capt., ii 32
Cartes, Rene, des, ii 68, 165

note, 167, ib. note, 168, 183,

185, ib. note, 192
Cartheuser, i 197; ii 5; iii 174
Cartvvright, ii 57
Carver, J., ii 56, 325
Cary, iii 277 note
Casa, ii 314; iii 84, ib. note,

85
Cassan, i 243 i

Cassas, ii 44
Cassini, D., i 72, 73 note, SO

J., i 83

de Thury, ii 6 1, ib. note

Castiglione, iii 84, ib. note

Caswell, i 52

Cat, le, i 62, 211, 212

Catcot, i 209 note

Catesby, Mark, i 153, ib. note,

161, 183, ib. note; iii 229,

ib. note, 231, 276 note

LNDEX OF NAMES.

Catharine I, of Russia, iii 155,

156
II, of Russia, ii 52,

322, 321-; iii 154- note, 158,

159, 160, 161 note
Catt, le, ii 158
Cattaneo, ii 59
Catteau, ii 320 note, 350 note ;

iii 6 note
Catton, C, ii 135
Catullus, ii 239
Cavallo, i 31, ib. note, 33, 39,

54,384; iii 348
Cavanilles, ab., i ISO, 182
Cave, E., iii 80, 81
Cavendish, hon. H., i 30, 31,

53, 54, 103, 104, 107, 110,

112, 132, 134,245,248, 388,

419, 421
Cavi^lej'-, i 400
Caylus, count, ii 136
Celsius, bish. O. O., ii 350
prof., i39,72, 132, IS2,

420 .
Celsus, i 352
Cepcde, la, i 153, 15 1, 15 Q, 160

note
Ceruti, ii 240
Cervantes, Miguel de, ii 372,

377
Chabart, ii 42
Chalmers, Dr. Lionel, ii 17;

iii 228, ib. note
Chambers, Eph., iii 110, 111
Champagne, ii 240
Chandler, Dr. T. B., iii 219, ib.

note, 236 1-

R., ii 54

Chanler, I., iii 229, ib. note
Chapone, Mrs., iii 131

Chappe, i 67, 68

see Auteroche, d'

Cliaptal, i 121, 134, 178, 197;

ii 120; iii 343
Charas, i 276 note
Charles, i 55
Charleton, i 183
Charlevoix, ii 56, 57, 325
Charmes, Fajot de, ii 120
Clirrpcnticr, i 236
Chateauvicux, ii 104
Chatelet, mad., iii 132, ib. note
Chatt^ton, T., iii 62, 64, ib.
note, 65, 66, ib. note, 67
note
Chaucer, ii 66 note, 315 note
Chaudet, ii 140
Chauncey, iii 183, 223 note

Dr. C, iii 23 t, ib.

note
Chau5see, iii 51
Chenier, ii 48
Cherachi, ii 140

Choselden, i 265, 272, 500, 370,

373
Chesterfield, lord, iii 24 note

Chiabrera, ii 313

Chisholm, Dr., i 362, 368; ii 8

Chladni, Dr., i5l); ii 150

Chomel, ii 3

Churchill, ii 63

C, iii 25

Churchman, i 38, 39, ib. note

Cibber, Col., iii 44

Cibot, ii 284

Cicero, ii 236, 239, 365, 403;
iii 199 note, 268, 315 note,
340, 343

Cigna, i 289, 290, 335

Cignani, ii 123, 130

INDEX OF NAMES.

Circaud, i 394

Clairaut, i 64, 72, 75, 80; ii

73, 74, 75
Clap, T., iii 223, ib. note, 261
Clarendon, lord, ii 295, 301,

340 note, 343
Clarke, Dr., iii 268

J., i 363

• S., i 20, 382; ii

180, 205, 212, 213, 236, 237,

ib. note

J., ii239

R., iii 229, 230 note

Claudian, ii 237,
Clavigero, ii 56, 325, 350
Gayton, Dr. J., i 184, ib, note;

iii 233, ib. note, 277 note

~ sir R., iii 17 note

Cleghorn, i 352, 338
Clerc, !e, ii 54

Dan. le, ii 358

J. le, 11216; iii 74

Clesmur, du, ii 37

Clipperton, ii 30

Clos, du, i 255

Clossey, Dr. Sam., ii 19,20

Cockburn, Mrs. C, iii 131

Coke, ii 103

— -T., iii 34-7

Colbert, J. B., iii 100

Colden, Cadw., i 89, ib. note,

184, ib. note; ii 352; iii

231, ib. note, 262, 276 note
Dr., i 355 note; ii 17,

ib. note
— -r miss, i 184 note; iii

23 1 note
Colebrook, Josh., ii 136
Colebrooke, ii 278, ib. note
Coleman, i 276 note

Coleridge, S.T., iii 9 note, 35
Collier, Arth., ii 173
Collins, i 276 note
And., ii 205, 207, 212

note

Dav., ii 39

I., iii 259

W., iii 33, ib. note, 34

CoUinson, Peter, i 170 note,

426; ii 16 note; iii 213, ib.

note, 233 note
Collyer, ii 60
Colman, G., ii 239 ; iii 45

jun., iii 46

Columbus, i 262 ; ii 35
Combruue, ii 120
Coraaielin, i 182
Commerson, i 185
Comolli, ii 140
Condamine, i 72; ii 59
Condillac, ii 215, 330, 337
Condorcet, i 41 note, 44, 104,

186 note; ii 73, 203, 368,

383 note; iii 144, 149
Confucius, ii 281
Congreve, W., ii 132; iii 41^

59
Cook, captain Jas., i 359, 360

note ; ii 29 note, 34, ib. note,

55 note, 36, 37, 39, 40, 49

note, 51, 66
Cooke, ii 239
Cooper, Dr., i 181
Myles, iii 236, ib.

note
Coote, ii 347
Copley, J. S., ii 130, ib. note,

155; iii 266
Corelli, prof., ii 147
Cornette, i 256

INDEX OF NAMES.

Cortlandt, Phil, van, iii 220

note
Cosmo III of Tuscany, i 122
Costard, G., ii 261
Cotte, de la, i 243, 25 1
Cotton, iii 188
Cotunnjus, i 272
Coulomb, i 33
Couplet, ii 280
Courtanveaux, ii 42
Coventry, i 252
Coward, Dr. W., ii211
Cowley, Abr., iii 3, ib note

Mrs., iii 46, 132 note

Cowper, W. (poet), ii 238, 367

note; iii 13, ib. note, 20, ib.

note, 21,25, 35, 71
(surg.), i 264, 265,

273
Coxe, W., ii 53, ib. note, 321

note, 322 note, 365 ; iii 154

note
Craig, J., ii 73
Cramer (math.), ii 74, 75
(poet), iii 22, 170, 172,

177
Crantz, i 182

Dav., ii 57 note

Craven, lady, ii 54; iii 132

note
Craufurd, G., ii 278
Crawford, i 1 18, 124, 133, 291,

2P6, 2!)7
Crebillon, sen., iii 49

jun., ii 379; iii 50

Creech, T., ii 239
Crell, i 117, 135; iii 174
Crenne, de Verdun de la, ii 32
Creutz, count de, ii 320; iii 5
Creve, i 389

Crevier, li 236

Croft, Herb., ii 303 note ; iii

66 note, 67 note
Croix, de la (poet), i 170 note ;
iii 16 note, 18 note

: — (math.) ii 73

Croker, H.T., iii 112
Cronstedt, F., i 124, 189 note,

190, 198, 199, 236
Crousaz, ii 216
Crozat, ii 56
Croze, la, ii 251
Cruger, iii 55, 178
Cruickshank, i 34, 134, 270,

275, 390
Crutwell, ii 63
Cruz, don J. de la, ii 59, ib.

note
Cuff, i 67

Cullen, Dr. E., ii 150
W., i 1 12, 306, 330,

ib. note, 331, 332, 333, 336,

350, 352; ii 5,'l7
Culpepper, i 67
Cumberland, ii 237

— ' , R., iii 8, 45

Cumming, Dr. J., ii22; iii 253,

ib. note
Cummings, Alex., iii 202 nole
Cun3eus, i 25
Currie, Dr., i 352, ib. note ; ii

7, 24; iii 31 note
Currj'^, ii 57
Curtis, i 180, 131
Cuthbertson, i 52, 385
Cutler, Dr. Manas., i 184, ib.

note, 251 ; iii 264

Tijn., iii 222, ib. note

Cuvier, i 151, 15S, 276, 307,

422, 423, 424

INDEX OF NAMES.

D.

Dacier, mad., ii 210; iii 130
note, 132, ib. note

Dahl, ii 128

Dahlberg, i 186

Dahlin, ii 320,-350; iii 5, 11,
36, 56

Dalgarno, i 365

Dalibard, i 27

Dallaway, ii 54-

Dalrymple, Al., ii 62, 63

Dalton, i 58, 251,253

Damer, hon. Mrs., ii 140, ib.
note ; iii 132 note

Dante, ii 36

Dantz, prof., ii 2^9

Darcet, i 123

Darcu, ii 240

Darley, A., ii 114

Dartmouth, lord, iii 242 note

Darwin, Dr. Er., i 134, 177,
179, 188 note,' 235, 309, 338,
ib. note, 339, 340, 341, 344,
345, ib. note, 346 note, 350,
385, 397 ; ii 5, 46 note, 94,
96, 97, 104, 200, 21 1, 408,
410,411,412,413, 414,415,
416, 417, 418, 419; iii 16,
17 note, 67 note, 132

Daubcnton, i 148, 150, 194,
276

Davenport, J., iii 183, 189 note

David, ii 131 '

Davidson, Jos., ii 239

Davies, S., iii 202 note, 267, ib. -
note

Davis, i 407 note, 413, 414

S., ii 276

292, 293, ib. note, 297, 350

390, 391, 392, 393, 422
Davy, major, ii 268
Dawes, i 80
Day, S., iii 124
Debevn, i 197
Degen, ii 236
Degrandprc, ii 50
Dehl, ii 141

Dclambre, see Lambre, de
Delametherie, i 134, 197, 225,

225^ 234
Delany, Mrs., i 428
Delaval, i 63 ; ii 121, 150
Delisle, ab., iii 18, 19 note, 30

see Isle, de 1'

Delor, i 27
Democritus, i 76 note
Demosthenes, ii 236, 238, 240 ;

iii 343
Denham, sir J., iii 3
Denman, Dr., i 377
Dennis, iii 74
Deparcieux, Ant., ii 72
Derschaven, iii 163
Desaguliers, Dr., i 24, 49, 50,

51, 53, 243; ii 114; iii 348
Desfontaines, i 160, 177, 185,

308 ; ii 94
Desmond, W., ii 120, ib. note
Destouches, Phil., iii 50
Dexter, Dr. Aar., ii 22; iii 263
Dlbdin, iii 46
Dickinson, J., iii 247, ib. note,

251, 346

'- Jon., iii 198, 204

note, 205
Dickson, Dr., Steph., i 126, 127
Jas.>. i 179

Davy, i 34, 103, 118, 134,289, Dicquemare, i 276 note

INDEX OF NAMES.

Diderot, ii 378, 379, 388; iij

50, 111
Didot, ii 117, ib. note
Dieman, i 124-
Biemerbroeck, prof., i 363f
Dietricli, ii 130
Dillenius, prof. J. J., i 172,

ISO, ib. note, 181
Diodorus Sic, ii 230
Dion Casslus, ii 230
Dixon, capt., ii 29 note, 39
Dobritzhofter, |i 59
Dobson, Mr?., ii Si65i iii ^33

note
— - T.^ iii 143, ib. riote,

257 note
Doddridge, Dr. Phil., iii 21, 193

note, 223 note, 337, ^39
Dodson, Jas., ii 72, 74f
Dodwell, H., ii 211, 212, ib.

note
Doederlein, Dr. J. C, ii 254,

255 note
Dollond, i 64, 402
Dolomieu, i 197, 237, 240 note
Dombey, i 160, 185, 237
Donati, i 158, 159, 276 note
Donovan, i 157
Dorat, iii 52
Dorthes, i 121
Dotterville, ii 240
Douglas, Dr. W., i 355, ib.

note, 356 qote

r Jas., i 265

Dow, Alex., ii270, 275
Downey, W., i 425
Downman, Dr. Hugh, iii 17
Drake, Dr. N., i 6 note ; iii 11

note, 37
Drakenborch, ii 236, 237

Vol. III.

Dran, le, i 372

Praytoii^ W. H., iii 248^ ib.

note
Driessen, ii 261 note
DrumniQnd, W., ii 239; ii^

36
Drury, i 157
Dryden, J., ii 295 ; iii 2, ib.

note, 4, 13, 22, 44, 51, 59
Dubelloy, iii 50
Duclie, Jac, iii 215 note
Dudley, Paul, iii 231
Dufay, i 63; ii 121
Duhamel, i 176, 30S!
Duker, ii 236, 237
Dulaney, D., iii 248, ib. note
Dummer, Jer., iii 196
Duncan, ii 239

Dr., ii 1 1

■ J., iii 343

Dnndonald, lord, i 134; ii 94,

96, 97
Dunkelberg, K., iii 168
Dunning, ii 334 not^
Dunster, iii 188
Dunthorne, i 80
Dupuis, ii 245
Durell, ii 25 1
Dusch, J., iii 19< 178
Dutens, i 6 ^ote, 26 note, 169

note; ii 173 note
Duval, Grafton', i 425
Duvaucel, i 89
D>yight, Dr. Tim., ii 25 note ;

iii 67, 104, 243, 341
Dyer, J., iii 15

E.
Earle, sir Jas., i 373
Eaton, iii 188
2C

INDEX OF NAMES.

Ebeling, prof., ii 60, lb. note ; Emmons, Dr., iii 268

iii 175 Empedocles, i ltj8

Eberhard, ii 202 Enfield, Dr. W., ii 35S, 363 ;

Edgeworth, Maria, iii 1 19, 121-, iii 337

132 Engel, J. PI., 1 235; ill 171

R. L., iii 119 J. J., iii 55, 178

Edwards, Bryan, ii 50 note, Englefiekl, sir H., i 78, lb.

349 note note
Dr. Jon., 11 325, 326 Entrecasteaux, ii t2

note, 407 Epee, abbe de T, 1 366, ib.
T., ii 2 17 ; 111196 note

note Epictetus, 11 236, 238; iii 131

G., 1 152, lb. note note

J., 1 66 Epicurus, ii 208, 235 note

Jon., 11 205, 206, lb. Erasmus, 11 365, 367

note ; iii 208, ib. note, 267, Ernest, J. C. G., 11 236, 237 ;

ib. note, 268, 338 Hi 178

Eeles, 1 385 Erpenius, ii 24-2, 260

Egede, Hans, 11 57 note Erskine, T., 11 376 note

Eichhorn, prof., ii 251, 256; Erving, W., ii 22, ib. note;

ill 179 ill 253, lb. note, 336

Elani, Sam., ill 341 Estala, 11 63

Elhuyart, de, 1 199 Estrange, sir Rog. V, ill 90

Eliot, rev. Dr., i 356 note, 418 ; Etches, capt,, ii 39

ill 104, 105 note, 188, 241 Eton, ii 54

note, 253 note, 257 Euclid, ill 337, 343
Ellcr, 11 96 Eugenlus, abp. of Slavensk, ii
EUicott, 1 90; ill 262 240; Hi 164 note
Ellis, 1 67 Euler, L., i 38, 39, 44, 45, 48,
J., 1 159, 161, ISO, 276 64, 73, 75, 80; ii 72, ib

note note, 74, 75, 76, 84; Hi 154

W., 11 103 Euripides, 11 236, 239 ; Hi 315

ii 238 note

Elizabeth, emp\, iii 158 Eustachius, 1 262

queen. Hi 129 note Eustathius, 11 233

Elllven, iii 163 Eutroplus, 11 237

Elphinstone, Jas., 11 304, 305 Evans, Lew., 11 58

Elvius, i 50; ii 115 Evelyn, J., 11 92

Emerson, 1 45, 50; H 70, 73, sir G. S., i 52, "243 ; ii

75, 114 .78 note

INDEX OF KAIMES.

Ewing, Dr. J., i 85, 89; iii
238, 239, ib. note, 262, 269
note, 328

Fabricius, ii 236

ab. Aquapendente, 1

262

J. C, i 157, ib. note,

158, ib. note
Fabroni, i 35, 198, 389, 392
Fabrouius, ii 364
Faden, Wm., ii 59 note
Fahrenheit, i 120, 121, 131,

133, 420
Fairchild, i 170
Falk, J. P., iii 161
Falconer, Dr. W., i 26 note 421

W., iii 31, ib. note

Falkener, father, ii 59, ib. note

Fallopius, i 262

FarincUi, ii 152

Farquhar, G., iii 44, ib. note

Fasch, ii 151

Faujas, i 197

Fawkes, Fran., ii 239

Fay, ii 120

du, i 24, 27, 28, 29

Fazcl, Abul, ii 27 1 note

Feder, ii 202, 216; iii 118, ib.
note

Fenelon, abp., ii 385 ; iii 132

Feraud, abbe, ii 31 1

Fcrbcr, i 198, 236, 240 note

Ferguson, ad., ii 347

Jas., i 84, 89 ; iii

337

Fcrislita, ii 270 note

Ferrein, ii 5

Fcrriar, Dr., i 329 note

Feuillie, ii 30

Fielding, H., ii 298, 374, ib.
note, 375, 376, ib. note, 377,
380, 382, 397 note
Finley, Dr. Sam., iii 202, ib. note

Jas., iii 202 note

Fiamingo, ii 140
Fischer, F. F., ii 237

(mu3.), ii 151

Fisher, iii 227 note
Fitzgerald, Dr., ii 249, ib. note

250
Fitch, Dr. Ebe., iii 338
Flanistcad, rev. J., i 70, ib.

note, 405, 412
Flatt, prof., ii 202
Flaxman, ii 140
Florian, ii 389
Florinsky, iii 161
Floras, ii 237
Fobes, iii 261
Focrsch, ii 46, ib. note
Fontaines, des, see Desfon-

taines
Fontana, abbe, i 102, 103, 134,

154, 276 note, 307, 309
Fontenelle, ii 311, 363; iii 34,

47
Foote, Sam., iii 46
Ford, sir Fran., ii 97
Fordyce, Dr. G., i 368

Jas,, iii 1 32

Forrest, ii 42, 46, 47
Forskaol, i 276 note
Forster, Dr. G., i 185

^J.R., i 147,ib. note,

184, 186, 234, 253 ; ii 36
note, 44, 278, 323; iii 173
Forsyth, W., ii 103
Fortis, abbe, i 150

2 C 2 ■

INDEX OF NAMES.

Foster, ii 112 hote

j'othergill. Dr., i 170 note, 368,
ib. note; ii 9 ; iii 199 note

Poulis, And., ii 117

Fourcroy, i 33, 34, 103, 110
note. 111, 124, 178> 197,
256, 290, 3i9, 391

i^ourmont, ii 282

Fowle, Dan.i iii 92

Vovvler, Dr., i 33

Francis, Mrs., iii 132 note

I of Germany, i 123

Ph., ii 239

Tench, iii 214 note

Franckling, T., ii 238, 239

Franklin, Dp. B.j i 26, ib. note,
27i ib. note, 28, 53, 121,
1^35, 244, 246, 251, ib. note;,
253, 356 note, 386, 388 ; ii
16 note, 44, 123, 149, 150,
lb. note, 268, 304 ; iii 76, 81,
fel note, 103, 199 note, 206,
ib. note, 207 note, 209,212,
213, ib. note, 214 note, 215,
219 note, 221 note, 238, 242
note, 250 note, 328, 331

i. Jas., i 356 not6 ; iii

91, ib. not'e, 92

i^rederic II of Prussia> iii 1 85,
ib. note

Frediatofsky, iii 6

Freeman, rev. Dr., iii 10^ note

Freneavi, iii 68

Fresnoy, Langlet du, ii 359
note

Frezier, ii 30

Frisch, i 150, 153; iii 168,
173

Frisi, i 89

Fronfo, Julius, iii 353

Fry, ii 62

Fryanfynofsky, iii 159 notii
Fuchs, ii 1 5 1
Fulda, iii 169
Fulhame, Mrs., i 127
Furneaux, capt., ii 39
Fuseli, ii 130, 135
Fyfe> i 270i271, 273

G.

Gabriel, don, ii 237, ib. notd
Gabrielli, ii i52
Gsertner, Jos., i 177 ; iii 17$
G&hn, i 122, 124, 196, 199
Gail, prof, ii 236, 240
Gainsborough, ii 134, 135
Gale, Dr. Ben., ii 8 note, 16
Galen> i 299i 311, 312, 317j

35^
Galileo, i i3]2
Galletti, J. G; J.> ii 349; iii

175
Gallissdiiierre, niarq. de la, i

183, ib. note
Gallowdy, Jos., iii 247, 24S

note, 249 note
Galvani, Dr., i 31, 32, 3^
Garden> Dr. Alex., i 153, 154-

note, 16i, 183; ii 9, 17 ; iii

228, 229, 230 note, 231, 270

note
Gardeyef, iii 163
Gardner, ii 80
Garnett, Dr, T., i 34 note, 36

note, 156 note, 197, 256 ; i|

141 note
Garrick, Dav., iii 45
Garth, Dr. S., ii 239
Garve, Christ., i394; iii 171
Gassendi, i 253

INDEX OF NAMES.

Catterer, iii 1^5

"Gaubius, i S24, ib. note, 325

Gaultier, abbe, iii 124-

Gay, J., iii 33, 47

"Gebauer, iii 175

Gebelin, Court de, i 148; ii

311, 323, 337
Ged, W., ii H6, ib. note, 117,

ib. note
tleer, de, i 157
Gellert, i 197 ; iii 174
C, F., ii 316 J iii 5> 22,

170, 176, 177
Cengembre, i 103
Genlis, mad. de, ii 389 ; iii ll9,

124
Gentil, le, ii 276, ib. note, 284
Geoffrey, i 157
Geoffroy, i 94, 112, 170, 276

note ; ii 3
George the First, ii 31

the Third, iii 242 note

<Jeorgi, Dr. J. G., ii 54 ; iii

161
^Gerard, i 173, 182

ii 131

Gerstenberg, iii 55
Gesner, J. A., ii 236, 2??

J. M., ii 236

— — Sol., ii 316; iii 4<, 5,

33, ib. note, 34, 71,176, 177^

178
Gezelius, ii 363
Giannoni, ii 350
Giftrdini, ii 152
GiarnovicUi, ii 151
Xiibbes, Dr., i 387
)Gibbon, E., ii 301, 303, 346,

ib. note; iii 175, 235 note
jGieseke, iii 19

Gifford, iii 25, 23
Gilbert, Dr., i 23, 36
Gill> Dr., iii 230 note
Gillies, Dr. J., ii 238, 239, 34t
Gilpin, ii 135
Gioannetti, i 259
Giobert, i 178; ii 95
Gioenni, chev., i 198, 241 note
Giordano, ii 128, 130
Girard, ab., ii 337
Giraudet, ii 131
Girtanner, Dr., i 117, 125,291,

349
Gisborn6i T., iii 32
Gladwin> Fran., ii 268
Gleditsch> prof., i 175
Gleigj Dr., i 22 note, 30 note
Gleim-, F. W., iii 5, 177
Glenie, Jas., ii 7 1
Glisson, Dr., i 266
Glover (of Virginia), i 161, ib.

note

— R., iii 8, ib. note

Gluck, ii 151

<Gmelin, i llTj 150, 178, 182>

236, 253, 308 j ii 5 note, 44,

45, 53; iii 161, 173
Gobien, C.> ii 44 note, 269

note
Godfrey, Thds., i 85, 406,407,

ib. note, 408, 415, ib. note,

416, 417 ; ii 84; iii 261*

!&66

; ' jun., i 417

Godin, i 72; ii 59

Godwin, Mrs. M. W., ii 383 ;

iii 133
W., ii 203, 302 notey

388; iii 144, 149
Goethe, J.W. von, ii 316, 389;

INDEX OF NAMES.

iii 25, 30, 5i, 55 note, 176,

178
Goeze, i 139

Goldoni, C, iii 54, ib. note
Goldsmith, 01., ii 298, 34-7,

355, ib. note 381, ib. note,

397 note ; iii 31, 45, 56 note,

71
Golius, ii 242, 260
Gollikof, iii 163
Golovin, iii 162
Gomarus, ii 246 note
Gooch, i 373
Goodwin, Dr., i 294
Gordon, ii 60

T., ii 259

Gosec, ii 151

Gosselin, ii 61

Gossett, ii 140

Gottsched, J. C, iii 4, 168,

169
Gouan, i 155, 173, 182, 276

note
Goudin, i 81

Gough, Dr. J. P., ii 101 note
Goulard, ii 8
Gousset, ii 261 note
Gi-aaf, de, i 263
Graevius, ii 235
Graham, Geo., i 44, 84, ib.

note, 85, 86
Mrs. C. M., ii 347,

355, ib. note; iii 131
Grainger, Jas., ii 239
Gralath, i 25
Granelli, iii 53
Grange, de la, i 51, 78, 75,

291; ii73, ib. note, 74
Granger, Jas., ii 362
Grant, ii 51

Graun, ii 151
Graviua, ii 313
Gravesaude, i 44, 52
Gray, ii 249

lady Jane, iii 129 note

T., ii 365 ; iii 35, 38, ib.

note, 66 note
Green, B., iii 91

S., iii 188 note

W., ii 246, ib. note

Greene, ii 151
Greenland, miss, ii 136
Green\A'ay, iii 277 note
Greenwood, iii 261
Gregory, Dr. G., i 55 note

J., iii 132

■ Jas., ii 205

Jas., i 65 ; ii 68

rev. G., ii 246 note

XIII, pope, i 88 ; ii

88 note
Gren, i 124,257, 291
Gresset, iii 28, 36, 51
Gretry, ii 151
Greuze, ii 134
Grew, Dr., i 169, 170, 175, SOS

Theoph., iii 200, ib. note

Grey, Steph., i 24, 66
Grierson, Mrs. Con., ii 236, ib.

note, 237 ; iii 130 note, 132,.

ib. note
Griesbach, ii 252 note
Griffiths, ii 62
Grischow, i 89
Gronovius, i 156, 162

J., ii 236, 237

J. F., ii 235, 229

note, 233 note
Grosier, ab., ii 44, 281, 284
Grosser, de, i 121

INDEX OF NAMES.

Grossman, iii 55, 178
Grout, Jon., i 03 note
Grove, ii 215
Guarinus, ii 2 t-t
Guerrin, ii 210

(paint.), ii 131

Guettard, J. S., i 176
GuirhartI, ii 1 tl
Guglielmini, i 4G, t?
Guido, ii 128
Guignes, ii 282
Guillot, Merin, i 125
Guldenstttdt, ii .53 ; iii IGI
Gusman, Bar., : 53
Guthrie, W., ii 00, ib. note,

63, 239
Guys, ii 54-
Guyton-Morveau, i 110, ib.

note. 111, 113, 122, 123,

134, 254, 421
Gwither, Dr., ii 158
Gyllenborg, ii 90
count dc, ii 320;

iii 5, 12, 30, 50

H.

Haberlin, ii 349; iii 175

Hackman, iii 102

Hadley, i 51, 05, 85, 400, 407,

417; ii 84
Haen, von, i 308; iii 174
riagar. Dr. Jos., ii 284, 285

note
Ilagedorn, iii 19, 177
Hagen, i 180
Ilaiter, ii 234 note
Ilaldane, Col., i 390
Halde, J. B. du, ii 44, ib, note,

209 note, 281
Ilales, rev. Dr., i 97, ib. note,

102, 103, 110, 125, 166, 170,
251, 288, 308, 363; ii 94,
96, 97

Halhed, N. B., ii 27 1, 272, 273,
ib. note, 278

Hall, iii 215 note

Chester More, i 402, 403

Hallenberg, ii 350

Haller, baron A., i 174, 175,
182, 208, 272, 273, 274, 275,
280, 281, ib. note, 282, 283,
284, 285, 287, 307, 309, 318
note, 324 note, 330; ii 158,
310; iii 4, 5, 19, 30, 177

Halley, Dr. Edm., i 38, 52, 58,
70, ib. note, 71 note, 77, 80,
82, 231, 243, 248, 251, 253,
407, 415, 410; ii 71; iii
190 note

Harnel, du, i 124; ii 04, 102,
104

Hamersley, Dr. W., ii 21

Hamilton, iii 270

— ^ Dr. Hugh, i 243, 244,^

ib. note, 377 ; ii 75

(of Dublin), i253

miss, ii 388 ; iii 11.9,

132
sir W., i 240 note,

248
Hammond, Jas., iii 38
Hampton, ii 239
Hancock, J., iii 222 note
T., iii 221 note, 222,

ib. note, 330
Handel, G. F., ii 14P, 152
Hanmer, sir T., Iii 48
Hanway, ii 41'
Hardie, iii 232 note
Hardouin, ii 237

INDEX OF NAMES.

Hare, bish. F., ii 2 15, 246 note Haynes, iii 188

Hargrave, Jas,, ii 110 HaySj Mary, ii 388; \\\ 135

Harmer, rev. T., ii 288 Haywood, H., iii 229, 230 note

Harpe, la, iii 49 note Hazard, Eb., i 417 ; ii 3.59, ib.

Harris, ii 62, 63 note

Dr. J,, i 62; iii 1 10, Hearne, Sam., ii 54

ib. note Heatji, ii 146
Jas., ii 191, 213, 331, Heberden, 1368

ib. note, 332, 335 Heckewalder, i 162 note; ii
W., ii 367 326 note

Harrison, J., i 83 ; ii 123 note Hedouville, iii 74 note

Hartley, Dr. Dav., i 149; ii Hedwig, i 179; iii 173

189, ib. note, 191, 192 note, Heeren, iii 178

193, 205, 209, 331, 406, 407 Hehl, i 40

Hartlib, ii91 Heinecke, i 366

Harvard, J., iii 335 Heinrjch, ii 349; iii 175

Harvey, Dr., i 143, 262, 263, Heister, L., i 270, 273, 369;

305 iii 174

Harwood, ii 236 note prof., i 169 note, ^79

Haskins, i 51 Heliodorus, bish. of Tricca, ii

Hasse, prof., ii 256; iii 179 370, ib. note, 371

Hasselquist, i 182 Hellot, i 63 ; ii 121

Hassenfratz, i 112, 178, 197, Helmont, van, i 102,314,3^9

254, 256, 290, 292; ii 94, Helms, ii 59

95, 97 Helsham, iii 348

Hastings, War., ii 265, 270, Helvetius, CI. A., i 489 ; ii 202,

271 note ib. note, 388 note; iii 144|,

Hatchett, i 125, 126 149

Hatton, T., ii 77, 78 note Hemsterhuisi, Tib., ii 229, ib.

Hauy, i 197 ; ii 76 note, 230 note, 236, 332, ib.

Havercamp, ii 237 note

Havves, Dr., i 367 Henkel, i 135; iii 174

Hawkesworth, Dr. J., ii63, 298 Henley, i 384

Hawkins, i 373 Henry, ii 57

sir J., ii 358 Dr., iii 63 note

Hawksbee, i 24, 52, 58 Rob., ii 347, '^55^

Haydn, ii 148, 151 ib. note

Haye, ii 239 Hugh, iii 202 note

Hayley, W., ii 367 note; iii Math., iii 196 note

17, 20 note, 27 W., i 134, 390; ii 121

INDEX OF NAMES.

Herbelot, d*, ii 242, 260
Herder, J. G., i 14.9; ii 202,

248, 316,330, ib. note, 389;

iii 10 note, II note, 22, 171,

ib. note, 176, 178
Heretier, 1', i 180
Herlet,J., i 158
Hermann, Dr. Paul, i 165, ib.

note, 234, 327 note
Hermbstadt, i 135
Hermes, F. J., ii 389
Hero, i 399
Herodotus, ii 236, 238, 240;

iii 352
Herring, abp., iii 218 note
Herschel, Dr., i 66, ib. note,

68,74, 75, 76, 79, 86, 118,

120,121,4O4,405,42O;iiil73
Hersey, Dr. Abn., ii 22; iii

253, ib. note, 336
Ezek., ii 21 ; iii

253, ib. note, 336
Hervas, J. L., ii 324
Hesiod, ii 236, 239, 240; iii

159 note
Heusinger, iii 178
Hevelius, i 405
Hewson, i 269, 270, 275
Heyne,C.Q., ii236; iii 178
Hezel, prof. W. F., ii 256, 261 ;

iii 179
Hielm, i 199
Hierne, i 188, 190, 255
Higgins, Dr. W., i 134; ii 123
Hill, sirJ., i 177, 181, 189; ii

5,94
Hillary, i 368
Hillegas, aldn., i 417
Hindenbourg, ii 73
Hipparchus, i 405

Vol. hi.

Hippocrates, i 318, 352

Hire, de la, i 62, 80

Hirt, prof., ii 256 ; iii 179

Hitt, ii 102

Hoadley, Dr. Ben., iii 45, ib.

note
Hobbes, ii 176, 207, 208
Hodges, ii 44
Hodgson, Dr., ii 257 note
Hoest, ii 48
Hoffman, Dr. F., i 199, 266,

306, 326,-327, ib. note, 328,

329, 330, 332; ii 17; iii

17,4

G. F., i 180

Hogarth^ W., ii 131, 132
Holberg, baron, iii 56, ib. note
Holcroft, T., ii 388 ; iii 30 note.

45
Holden, S., iii 336
Holder, i 365

Hole, R., ii 232 note ; iii 9
Holland, ii 62

Hollis, T., iii 221, ib. note, 336
Hollmann, i 216; ii 216
Holme, iii 196 note
Holmes, R., i 425
Holwell, J. Z., ii 270, ib. note,

275
Homberg, van, i 134
Home, Dr. F., i 276 note; ii

120

E., i 374

J., iii 42, ib. note, 53

note, 61
Homer, ii 231, 232, ib. note,

233, 235, 237, 238, 240, 374

note, 417 ; iii 13 note, 63,

159 note, 336. 3J3

H., ii 236

2D

tSDEX OF NAMES.

Hoogeveen, H., ii 230, ib.

note
Hook, Dr., i 286, 288
Hooke, R., i 67 note ; ili 100
Hooker, ii 295; iii 183
Hoole, J., iii 12
Hope, prof., i 124-, 172, 180,

199
Hopkins, iii 188

Dr., iii 267, 33^

Hopkinson, Fran., iii 215 note
T., i 27; iii 214-

note, 215
Horace, ii 236, 239, 240; ili

28, 159 note, 336, 343, 354
Horn, van, i 265
Home, bish., i 18, 381
Horneman, ii 50, ib. note
Horsefield, Dr., i 181
Horsley, bish., ii 205
Hosack, Dr. D., i 187 note,

429
Hospital, r, ii 75
Houbigant, C. Fran., ii 241-
Houdon, ii 140
Houghton, ii 49
Houstoun, i 182
Howard, J., i 364, ib. note
Ph., i 223, 226, 227

note, 228, 2 tO note
Howe, iii 243
Howell, ii 62
Huddart, ii 62
Hudson, i 172, J81

J., ii 261,277

Huet, ii 235

Hufeland, i 348 ; iii 174

Hugolinus, B., iii 317 note

Hulme, Dr., i 377

Humboldt, von, i 33, 125, 178,

421 ; ii 94, 97 ; iii 173,.
174
plume, Dav., i 9 note; ii 174»
ib. note, 175, 176, 177, 180,
185 note, 195, 200,201, 205,
214, 215, 297,301, 303,344,
3t5; iii 129 note, 175

Humpage, i 268

Humphreys, iii 68

Hunt, Dr., ii 256

Huntingdon, countess of, iii 242
note

Hunter, ii 278

capt., ii 39

Dr. And., i 309

W., i 148, 150,266,

ib. note, 268, 271, 275, 287,
306, 363, 570,373, 377

J., i 148, 266 note, 275,

304, 305, 306, 370, 373, 375,

389
Hutcheson, Dr. Fran., ii2I5
Hutchins, ii 56, 62
Hutchinson, gov., ii 352; iii

249 note
J., i 15, 16, 18, ib.

note, 209, ib. note, 556 note,

379, 381, 382; ii 244, 248
T., iii 247

Hutton, Dr. C, i 42, 44 note,

244; iii 115
■ J., i 222, ib. note,

223, 248
Huxham, Dr., i 368 ; ii 8 nott
Huygens, i 64; ii 6S, 77
Huysum, ii 1 35
Hyde, Dr. T., ii 242, 264

I.

Iffland, iii 55, 178

INDEX OF NAMES.

2hre, prof. J., ii 319, 320, 325
Ilinski, iii 6
linlay, G., ii 58, 62
Inchbald, Mrs., ii 389 j iii 40,

.1 32 note
Ingenhousz, i 30, 121, 125, 178,

308, 383, 384, 418; ii 94,

96 ; iii 174
Inglis, Dr., iii 236 note
Inokhodzof, iii 162
Irodionof, iii 162
Irvine, Dr., i 118, 133
Isle, del", i 132, 420; iii 155
Rome de 1', i 195, 196 ; ii

76; iii 155

Wm. de 1*, ii 61, ib. note

Isocrates, ii 236, 239
Isoeus, ii 239

Israeli, d', ii 371 note, 388
Jvanof, iii 163

Jackson, Dr., i 362, 3S8
jiacob, Giles, iii 1 15
Jacquin, prof., i 59, 135, 182;

ii 94,97; iii 173, 174
Jakob, prof., ii 202
Jallabert, i 26, 28 ; ii 96
Jamison, i 197
JaufFret, i 147
Jauvenet, ii 128, 130
Jay, J., iii 242 note, 270
Jefferson, T., i 162 note; ii5S,

62, 78, ib. note, 326 ; iii 103,

248
Jenisch, D.^ ii 324
Jenncr, Dr., i 357, 358 note
Jenty, i 27 1

Jervas, ii 128, 137, ib. note
Jones, Dr. J., ii 17, 19, 20

Jones, rev. W., i 18, 381

sirW., il79; ii 45,^1,

ib. note, 239, 260, 261, 265
note, 266, ib. note, 207 note,
272, 273, ib. note, 274, 275,
ib. note, 276, 277, 278 note,
284, 283

Wm., i 52, 84

--(F.R.S.), ii74

Johnson, Dr. S., ii 238 note,
239 note, 294,296 note, 297
note, 298, ib. note, 299, 307,
308, ib. note, 309, 364, 365,
ib. note, 366, 367 note, 376
note, 387, ib. note, 396 note;
iii 3 note, 14 note, 15 note,
20, 25, 28, 30 note, 39 note,
42, 49, 03 note, 71, 84 note,
85, 86, 89 note, 29S note,
297 note, 298 note, 299 note,
317 note

H., ii 17

rev. Dr. S., ii 259; iii

218, ib. note, 219, 235

Jomelli, i 151

Jortin, Dr,J., ii 365

Juan, don, i 72 ; ii 31

Jukes, ii 144

Juncker, i 134, 324; iii 174

iii, 74

Junius, ii 300, ib. note

Jurin, i 62

Jussieu, B. de, i 159, 175, 1S2

Justin, ii 237

Juvenal, ii 239 ; iii 20, 25, 28,
353

Kalm, prof., i 103, 183, ib.
note; iii 276 note
2 D 2

INDEX OF NAMES.

Kals, rev. J. G., ii 258 note
Kames, lord, ii 185; iii 63

note
Kang-Hi, ii 284
Kant, Im., ii 195, ib. note, 197,

198, 199, 200, 201
Karamsin, iii 6, 7, 163
Karsten, i 200
Karstner, prof., 150; ii 1]5
Kastner, A. G., iii 19, 173,

177
KaufTmann, Ang., ii 135, ib.

note
Keefe, J. O', iii 46
Keill, Dr. J., i 238, ib. note ; ii

69 note, 74

Jas., i 265, 315

Keir, i 102, 103, 115, 117,

124
Keith, i 132

G.; iii 197, ib. note

Kellgren, iii 6, 56

Kelly, Hugh, iii 46

Kempis, Thomas a, iii 193

note
Kendal, i 83 ; ii 123 note
Ken net, Dr., iii 196 note
Kennicot, Dr. Ben., ii 252, ib.

note, 253, ib. note, 254, ib.

note, 255 note
Kenrick, Dr. W., ii 305, 309 ;

iii 76
Keogh, i 182

Kepler, i 69 ; il 68 ; iii 288
Ker, ii 120
Keralio, mile., ii 349
Kerguelen, ii 37, 42
Khailof, iii 163
Kheraskof, ii 322; iii 6, 12,

163

Kilgour, Rob., iii 334

Kinderslcy, N. E., ii 278

King, E., i 219 note

Kinnersley, Ebe., i27 ; iii 215,
216 note

Kinsley, Apollos, ii 219

Kipling, Dr. T., ii 118

Kippis, Dr. And., ii 362

Kirwan,R., i58, 103, 104, 115,
118, 124, 129, 194, ib. note,
199, 200, ib. note, 232, ib.
note, 233, 234, 236, 238
note, 239 note, 241 note,
243, 249, ib. note, 251,254,
257, ib. note ; ii 95, 96

Kissam, Dr. R., ii 21

Klaproth, i 124, 126, 192, 199,
201, 256; ii 3; iii 174, 290

Kleeman, i 158

Klein, ii 363

J. T., i 144, 146, 156,

159 ; iii 173

Kleist, von, i 1 25 ; iii 4, 22,
30, 178

Klewberg, i 320

Klingenstierna, i 89

Klinger, iii 55, 176

Klopstock, ii 316; iii 4, 5, 10,
11 note, 22,36,55,71, 171,
ib. note, 177, ib. note, 178

Klugel, i 89

Knaut, Christopher, i 1 66 ; iii
173

Kneeland, Sam., iii 91

Kneller, ii 128

Kniaeshnin, iii 163

Knight, Dr. G., i 37, 39, 896,
397 ; ii 83

R. P., ii 102

Knox, Dr. Vic, iii 1 X8

INDEX OF NAMES.

Kocmpfer, i 182; ii 46, ib.

note
Kofitsky, iii 159 note
Kolben, ii 4-7
Korf> baron, iii 158
Koselsky, iii 162
Koslof, iii 163
Kotelnikof, iii \62
Kotoftzof, iii 162
Kotzebue, iii 55, ib. note, 178
Krat25enstein, i 28 ; ii 6
Krebsius, ii 236
Kreig, Dav., i 182, ib. note
Kniger, ii 216

Kuhn, Dr. Ad., ii 18; iii 237
Kunze, rev. Dr., ii 243 note,

258, ib. note, 259 note
Kuster, ii 236, 252 note; iii

178

L.
Ladd, Dr., iii 68
Lagerbring, ii 350
Lagerstroem, i 185
Lagny, ii 70, 74
Laidlie, Dr., iii 236 note
Lalande, de, i 3 note, 77 note,

78, 79, ib. note, 80, 404,

405 ; ii 80

le Fran^ais, i 79

Lallemand, ii 236, 237

Lambe, i 134, 256

Lambert, i 39, ib. note, 50, 89,

120; ii 115; iii 173
Lambre, de, i 80, 83, 404 ; ii

79 note
Lametherie, de, see Delame-

therie.
Lancey, .las. de, iii 218, ib. note
Lancisiu"!, ii 258

Landen J., ii 71, 7S

Langhorne, Dr. J., ii 239

Wm., ii 23d

Langle, de, ii 38

Langles, ii 284

Lantier, ii 358

I^ptief, ii 29

Larcher, ii 240

Latham, i 152

Lathrop, Dr., iii 268

Latrobe, ii 57 note

Latta, Jas., iii 215 note

Lavater, rev.J. C, ii 159, 160;
iii 171

Lavoisier, i 52, 103, 104, 106,
107, 108, 109, 110 note. 111,
112 note, 118, 122, 123, 124.
1 33, 245, 248, 288, 289, 290,
291, 292, 295, 349, 418, 419,
421 ; iii 263, 290, 343

Lawrence, ii 134

Lawson, i 197

Dr. L, ii 56, ib. note

Lax, i 89

Lazzarini, ii 314

Leak, Dr., i 365

Leber, i 27 I

Ledyard, J., ii 49, ib. note

Lee, Arthur, iii 248

miss, iii 46, 132 note

Leeuwenhoeck, i 263, 309, 319,
320

Leiberkuhn, i 66

Leibnitz, i 19, 20, 169, 383;
ii 68, 69 note, 73 note, 74,
185, ib. note, 188, 192, 205,
212 note, 214, 330; iii 155,
168, 173

Leigh, E., ii 255

Leisewitz, iii 55, 178

IXDEX OF NAMES.

Lcland, ii 238
Lempriere, J., ii 238

W., ii 48

Lennox, Mrs. Char., iii 131
Lenoir, i 86

Alex., ii 142 note

Lennep, J. D., ii 229, ib. note,

333
Lcontief, iii 164
Leopold, ii 320; iii 6
Lepechen, ii 53 ; iii 161
Leske, N. G., i 159, 200; iii

173
Leslie, Rob., ii 78 note
Less, iii 172
Lesseps, ii 45
Lessing, G. E., ii 310, 389 note;

iii 5, 55, 170, 171, ib. note

178
Lettsom, Dr., i 181, 367
Levesque, ii 240

mile., iii 34

Levita, Elias, ii 244
Levitsky, iii 163
Lewis, ii 62

Dr.W., i 197; ii 5

E., iii 28

N. G., ii 385

. XrV, ii 235; iii 100

XV, i 72

Lichtwehr, iii 178

Lidner, ii 320; iii 6

Lieutaud, i 274, 346, 368 ; ii 5

Lightfoot, i 181

Lind, Dr., i 33

J. H., i 352, 359, 363,

368; ii 33
Lining Dr. J., ii 16; iii 228,

ib. note
Linn, Dr., i 58, 252

Linn, J. Blair, iii 239 note,
268, 271 note

Linnaeus, i 141, 143, 144,
145, 146, 152, 153, 154, ib.
note, 155, ib. note, 156 note,
157 note, 158, 160, 161, 167,
169 note, 170, 171, ib. note,
172, 173, 174, 175/178, 179,
ib. note, 182, 184, note, 185,
186 note, 189, 194, 198,350,
428; ii 3, 105, 123 note;
iii 231 note, 232 note, 290

Linwood, miss, ii 139

Lisle, de, see Isle, de 1'

Littlebury, ii 238

Livingston, P. V., iii 205 note

Rob. R., ii 107,

123 note

Dr.W., iii 235, ib.

note, 247

Livy, ii 236, 239 ; iii 336, 343

Lobo, ii 48

Locke, J., i 11, 13 ; ii 166, ib.
note, 167, 168, 169, 170,
172, 174, 175, 178, ib. note,
180, 183, 190, 192, 200, 214,
295, 330; iii 197, 208 note,
337, 339, 348

Loesner, ii 236

Logan, iii 21

Dr., ii 107

Jas., i 170 Aote, 406,

412, 415, 416 note; iii 198,
ib. note, 268

Lomonozof, ii 321 ; iii 6, 157,
ib. note, 158, 163

Long, ii 120

Dr., i 84

J., ii 57, 325

Longalius, ii 257

INDEX OF NAMES.

I/Dnglnus, ii 236, 239 ; iii 343
XiOowenoern, i 89
Loskiel, G. H., ii 57 note
LossiuSj ii 216
Ix)tharius, emp., iii 317
Loureiro, i 182
Low, X, iii 114 note
Lowitz, prof., i 120, 121, 122
Lowth, bish., ii 24'6, ib. note,

256, 257 note, 306 ; iii 336
' Loyart, ii 50
Lubbock, Dr., i 127
Luc, J. A. de, i 52, 58, 132, ib.

note, 219, ib. note, 221, 222,

237, 24-4, ib. note, 245, 248,

251,252, 420; ii 205
Lucan, ii 237, 239, ib. note ;

iii 13
Lucas, ii 49

Lucian, ii 236, 233 ; iii 343
Lucretius, i 6; ii 235 note,

237
Ludolf, Dr., i25; iii 173, 179
Ludwig, C. G., i 148, 174, ib,

note, 197, 370; iii 173
LulolfF, i 235
Luther, iii 167 note
Lye, ii 325

Lyonet, i 67, 157, 276 note
Lysias, ii 236
Lyttleton, lord G., ii 347, 355

note, 374 note ; iii 35

M.
Maas, prof., ii 202
Macartney, lord, ii 44
Macauley, Mrs,, see Graham,

Mrs. C. M,
Macbride, Dr. David, i 350,

363; ii 120

M'Clinch, ii 112 note
M'CuUoch, i 37 ; ii 84
M'Dowell, J., iii 204 note, 34J
Macfarquhar, Col., iii 112
M'Kean, gov. Jos., iii 269, 889
Mackenzie, ii 381
sir Alex., ii 57, ib.

note
Macklin, C, iii 46
Maclaurin, Col., i 48 ; ii 73, 74,

75
Maclean, Dr., iii 263
Maclurg, Dr., ii 24
Macpherson, Jas., iii 10, 62,

63, ib. note
Macquart, i 197
Macquer, i 63, 101, 105, 109,

118, 123; ii 121; iii 115
Madan, M., ii 239
Madison, Dr., i 90, 251; iii

224, 246, 262, 270, 348
Maffei, ii 314; iii 53, ib. note
Magaw, Sam., iii 215 note
Magellan, J. H. de, i 85, 189

note ; *tii 329
Magnol, i 166, 182
Mahon, lord, i 3 1
Mailla, J. M. de, ii 284
Maillet, i 212, 213
Maimbray, i 26, 384; ii 96
Mairan, de, i 248, 249, 253
Makin, T., iii 193
Malebranche, ii 170, 171, 173,

176, 183, 185 note, 192
Malespina, don, ii 40, 59, 62
Malgyn, ii 29
Mallet, i 89
Dav., ii 325, 365 ; iii

15 note
Malmesbury, lord, ii 331 note

INDEX OF NAMES.

Malo, don G., H 240; iii 13
Malone, E., ii IS* note; iii

49, 06 note, 67 note
Malpighi, i l4eS, H7 note, 175,

263
Malthus, iii 148 note
Manfredi, i 89; ii 73
Mannevillette, d'Apres de, i

418; ii 62
Manning, Dr., i 377
rev. Dr. Jas., iii 242,

ib. note, 340
Mansfield, Jared, ii 81 note; iii

261

lord, i 403

Maratti, i 180

C, ii 123, 130

Marchand, capt^Steph., ii 41
Marchesi, ii 152; iii 53
Marck, la, i 175,182
Maresch, J. A., ii 151
Margraaf, i 122, 124, 126, 190,

191, 199, ib. note, 201; ii

143; iii 174
Marigni, abbe, ii 261
Marini, ii 313
Marion, ii 37, 51'
Mariotte, i 120, 251
Mariti, abbe, ii 43
Marivaux, ii 378, ib. note; iii

52
Marmontel, ii 379 ; iii 52
Marsden, W., ii 46, 276, 323
Marshall, i 184; iii 264, 277

note

capt., ii 39

W., ii 103

Marpurg, ii 148

Marsh, Eb.G., ii 257 note

Marsigli, Lew., i 155

Martelli, P. J., rt 514; iii 52:
Martens, iii 348
Marti, de, i 134, 421
Martin, B., i 67 ; iii 348
Martine, Dr. G., i 1 32 note
Martini (musician), ii 151

(painter), ii 130

Martyn, J., ii 239

prof. T., i 172, 181 ;

iii 115
Marum, Dr. van, i 34, 391^

394
Mary, queen, iii 348
Mascagni, i 270, ib. not«
Maschalof, iii 163
Masclef, ii 244, 249
Maseres, Era., ii 72, 74
Maskelyne, Dr., i 79, 82, 404;

ii 84
Mason, C, i 80, 82

Dr., iii 236 note

W., ii 365, 366 ; iii 16.

55, 42, ib. note, 66 note
Massie, T., i 426
Masson, i 179
Matthasi, C. F., ii 231, 252

note; iii 178
Mather, Dr. Cotton, i 355 ; in

188, 189 note, 241 note, 317

note
Mattaire, ii 236
Mauduit, i 160
Maupertuis, i 72
Maurice, rev. T., ii 278, 286

note, 288 ; iii 32
Mawe, T., iii 115
Maxcey, Dr., iii 344
Mayer, prof. Tob., i 73, 79, 80,

82, ib. note, 1 17, 249, 404,

405 ; ii 95 ; iii 173

INDEX OF NAIMES.

Mayhew, Dr. Jon., iii 23+, ib.

note
Mayow, Dr., 1 93, 97, 103,

286, ib. note, 288
Mead, i 324
Meares, ii 29 note, 39
Mechain, i 78, ii 79 note
Meckel, J. F., i 268, 271 ; iii

174.

jon., i 272

Medici, Lorenzo de, ii 365

Mcdicus, i 179

Meiner?, prof., i 149 ; ii 350,

364; iii 169
Meissner, Dr. J. II., ii 254
Melanderhielm, i 89
Mellin, ii 202
Melmoth, W., ii 239, 298
Melville, i 62
Menander, iii 315 note
Mendelssohn, Moses, ii 216 j

iii 170
Mengs, ii 130
Men in, ii 29
Menzies, i 289
Menzini, Bencd., ii 313
Merian, M. S., i 156, ib. note,

184; iii 173
Merkenius, iii 74
Merrick, Jas., iii 21
Mesmer, i 40, ib. note; ii 14
Messier, i 78, 405
Metastatio, ii 149, 151, 314,

365 ; iii 36, ib. note, 47, 53
Metherie, de la, see Delame-

therie.
Meusel, iii 175

Meyer, i 105, 124, 135; iii 174
Michaelis, Dr. C. B., ii 250,

255,201; iii 179
Vol. III.

Michaelis, J. II., ii 250, 255,

256, 261 ; iii 179
-, — . prof. J. D., ii 245,

ib. note, 250, ib. note, 255,

261 ; iii 179
Michaux, A., i 180, 185,428
Michel, rev. Mr., i 396, 397
MIchcli, i 166, 179, 182
Michclotti, i 47
Mickle, W. J., iii 12, 13 note
Middleton, ii 60

-, — : ii 96

capt., ii 31

■■ Dr. Conyers, ii 298,

365

Peter, ii 19, 20

Mill, Dr. .]., ii 251, 252 note

Miller, Dr., ii 25

Ph., i 170, 181 ; ii 102

note, 103, ib. note; iii 115
Mille-s, dean, iii 05 note
Millot, C. F. X., ii 348, ib,

note
Milne, Rob,, i 221, ib. note,

222
Milton, ii 295, 367 note, 417;

iii 1, 3, 8, 9, 10 note, 11

note, 29, 36, 70, 72, 170, 296

note, 297 note
Minot, G, R., ii 354, ib,

note

judge, iii 105 note

Minto, Dr. Walt., iii 262, ib.

note
Mirabaud, iii 144
Mirkhond, ii 208
Mitchel, i 39, 61, 382, 396,

397
Mitchell, Dr. J., i 147, 183,

ib. note j ii 10, ib. note,
2E

INDiiX OF NAMES.

58 ; iii 252, ib. note, 27(5
note
Mitchell, J. S., i 423
Mitchill, Dr. S. L., iii 2(53,
231-

. prof., i 128, 129, 130

note, 1(52 note, 202; ii 21,
25, 107, 403
Mitfor(3, W., ii 347
Moehring, P. H. G., i 153 note
IMohreiiheim, iii 103
Moitt, la, ii 140
Moivre, de, ii 71
Moliere, ii 132 ; iii 52, 54

note
Molini, don, ii 59
Molyneux, i 60
Monboddo, lord, ii 193, 194,
214, 230, ib. note, 329, ib.
note, 334, 335, 342 note; iii
10 note
Monet, ii 146
Monge, i 134, 194-
Monis, Jud,, ii 259
Monnet, i 134, 197, 253
Monnier, le, i 72, 80, 86, 173,

405
Monro, 1st Dr. A., i 148,265,
ib. note, 275, 306, 370 ; ii
10

2d Dr. A., i 148, I5C,

265 note, 271, 272, 275,
306
5d Dr. A., i 148, 265

note, 266, ib. note, 268,270,
272, 273, 283, 306, 371
Dr. Don., i 363

M.ons, van, i 117
Montague, lady M, W., i 354;
ii 54

Montague, Mrs., iii 131
Mont ail sier, ii 235
!^Iontesquieu, iii 348
Montgolfier, J., i 54, 55

Steph., i 54, 55

Monti, iii 53
Monval, iii 52
Moor, Josh., iii 241 note
Moore, ii 140

ii 239

capt., ii 31

Dr. Ben., iii 342

-^ J., ii 381, 382

E., iii 42

J., i 425

prof., iii 351

More, miss H.,, iii 43, 119, 124,
132, 139 note

Moreri, iii II 0

Morgagni, i 273, 274
Morgan, Dr. J., ii 18; iii 236,
237

W., i 384 J ii 72

Morghen, ii 146

Moritz, iii 169

Morland, G., ii 135

Moro, abbe, i 210, 216

!Morone, ii 313

Morovief, ii 29

Morrell, ii 239

Morris, Ant., iii 108

C, i 425

Morse, Dr. Jed., ii 5S, 63, 336

Morton, Mrs., iii 68

.^- T., iii 46

]Morveau, see Guyton-Morveau,

Moschus, ii 239

Mosheim, ii 263 note, 354 n«t«;
iii 167, 171

Moss, i 377

INDEX OF NAMES.

Mott, iii 240 note

Motte* de la, iii 34, 50, 52

Moultrie, Dr. J., iii 228, lU note

Mouzon, ii 02

Mozart, ii 148, 151

Mudge, i 65, Gd

Mueller, J. G., ii 349 ; iii 175

O. F., i 160, 161, 182,

276 note ; iii 173
Muhlenberg, Dr., i 184; iii

204, 276 note
Muirison, Dr., ii 8 note
Mulgravc, lord, i 243, 254 ; ii 34
MuUer, see Mueller.
Muratori, ii 314
Munoz, ii 351
Munro, Dr., i 33
Muntz, ii 136
Murphy, Ar., ii 239 ; iii 43
Murray, Jos., iii 220, ib. note
J. R., ii 127 note, 138

note, 140 note
Lind., ii 306, ib. note ;

iii 124
prof. J. A., i 159 ; ii 5,

ib. note ; iii 174
sir Rob., ii 120

Musa?us, iii 176
Muschenbroeck, i 39, 244 ; iii

348
Miisgrave, S., ii 236
Mutis, don, i 185

N.
Nalrnc, i 52
Napier, ii 68
Nares, ii 305
Naylcr, i 374

Keeker, de, i 179, ib. note
Ncedhani, i 160

Nesbit, ii 145

Neumann, i 126, 190, 201 ; iii
174

NevodtsikofF, ii 30

Newcome, Dr., ii 257 note

Newcomen, i 56, 400, 402 ; Ii
113

Newsham, ii 1 15

NcAvton, sir I., i 6, 1 1, 12, 15,
18, ib. note, 19, 20, 24, 41,
46, 43, 58, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64,
65, 69, ib. note, 72, 74, 93,
94, 118, 122, 131, 195, 316,
380, 382, 408; ii 68, 69
note, 70, 73, ib. note, 147,
180, 185, ib. note, 190, 192,
200, 406, 407 ; iii 132 note,
196 note, 197, 240 note

Nicholai, ii 389 ; iii 176

Nicholas, Rob., iii 248

Nicholl, Dr., ii 21

NichoUs, Dr. Fra., i 274, 324,
325, ib, note

Nicholson, W., i 34, 35 note,
134, 197, 390, 392, 395; iii
115

Nicolini, ii 152

Niebuhr, ii 44, 47, 262, 26S

Nieuentyt, i 243

Nieuhoft^ ii 42

Nisbet, Dr. C, i 26 note ; iii
252, 345

Noble, ii 99

Noldechen, ii 100

Nollekens, J., ii 140

NoUet, abbe, i 24, 26, 28, 52,
384; ii 6, 96

Nooth, Dr., i 134

Norden, Fred., ii 47

Nordenflycht, mad. de, iii 6
2 E2

INDEX OF NAMES.

NoiTis, il 171, 212

J., iii 198

North, Mrs., i 428
Northcote, ii ISt
Nuck, i 2(34-

O.

Oddi, i 89
Oedcr, i 182
Ogden, Dr. Jac, ii 1 7

J., iii 220 note

• Josiah, iii 220 note

Ohssohn, d', ii 54

Gibers, Dr., i 89, .403

Olivet, ii 23ti

Olivier, i 157, ib. note; ii 54

Ommagank, ii 135

Opie, ii 134

Orford, lord, ii 132 note, 383

note, 384 ; iii 43, ib. note,

66 note
Oriani, i 80, 89
Orme, ii 277
Ormoy, d', i 30, 383, 334 ; ii

07
Orrery, C. earl of, i 84 note
J. earl of, ii 239, 355

note
Osbeck, i 185; ii 42
Osborn, Dr., i 377
Ossian, iii 10 note, 62, 63, ib.

note
Oswald, Dr., ii 183 note, 185,

195, 404
Otis, Jds., iii 247
Otway, T., iii 41, 59
Oudenorp, ii 237
Ouseley, sir W., ii 268, 278
Outhier, i 72
Ovid, ii 237,239; iii 159 note

Owen, iii 112
Oxenstierna, count, iii 6
Ozeretzkofskv, iii 161

Page, i 90 ; iii 262
Pages, i 254 ; ii 37
PaikofT, ii 30
Pakhomof, iii 159 note
Paley, Dr.W., 0 215 note; ill

337, 348
Pallas, f)rof., i 146, 148, 150,

ib. note, 158, 159, 16J, 182,

198, 234, 236, 276 note; ii

43, 44,45,53, 324; iii 16 J,

ib. note, 164
Paoletti, ii 313
Paolino, ii 273
Papin, i 400

Paracelsus, i 102, 105, 311
Parceval, de, i 89
Parker, Jas., iii 92
Parnell, Dr. T., iii 29
Parcieux, de, i 49, 50; ii 114
Parey, Amb., i 372
Park, Mungo, ii 50, ib. note
Parkhurst, i 18," 381; ii 229,

245, 249, 250
Parkinson, ii 13
Parks, W., iii 224
Parkyns, ii 144
Parmenticr, i 178; ii 95, 96,

104
Parr, ii 237 note
Parsons, Di'., ii 158
Paschall, I., iii 328
Pasquin, Ant., ii 134 note
Paterson, ii 276
lieut. W., i 32 note,

389; ii 48

INDEX OF NAMES.

f

Patiin, 1 194

Patterson, prof., i 85, 90; iii

2ti2
Paulus, ii 2G1 ; iii 179
Pauw, iii 236, 282
Pavon, don, i 184
Payne, ii 60

Perron, A. du, ii 265, ib.

note
Perronet, i 49
Persius, ii ^37, 239 ; iii 28
Peter I of Russia, ii 28, 43, 52,

87, 321; iii 153, 154, 156
II of Russia, iii 157, 15S

Pealc, C. W., i 152 note; ii Peters, judge, ii 107

123
Pearce, ii 236
Pearson, Dr., i 128, 256, 358,

ib. note
Pechlin, J. N., i 147 aote
Peck, iii 264
Pecquet, i 263
Peithner, i 194
Pekin, iii 163
Pelletan, i 33
Pelletier, i 122
Pelloutier, ii 325
Pemberton, Ebe., iii 204 note,

267
Penn, Wm., iii 187, 197, 198

note, 231 note, 232 note

^ R., iii 213

T., iii 213

R., iii 214 note

Petit, i 372
Petrarch, ii 365> 367
Petrie, Arth., iii 334
Petrof, iii 159 note, 165
Petronius Arbiter, ii 237
Peysonnel, i 159; ii 54
Pfaff, Dr., i 33, 391
Phpedrus, ii 237
Philips, Amb., iii 33
Phillip, gov., ii 39 note
Phillips, hon. J., iii 242 note,
250, ib. note, 251

J., ii 88 note

Sam., iii 250, ib. note.

251

— W., iii 250, ib. note,

251

Pennant, T., i 145, ib. note, Phipps, capt., see Mulgrave,

146
Penzel, ii 240
Pepys, W. H. junr., i 120
Percival, l)r., iii 124
Percy, Dr. T., ii 283
Pericles, ii 357
Perizonius, Jas., ii 33 1
Perkins, Dr., ii 14
Pernetty, ii 158
Pcrolle, prof., i 59
PtM-ouso, la, ii 29 note, 33, ib.

note, 42
Perriere, i 366

lord.
Phj^sick, Edm., iii 323
Piazzi, i 403
Piccini, ii 151
Pickbourn, Jas., i; 306
Pickering, i 58, 252
Pictet, i 118, 120, 121
Piens, Dr.,
Pierce, iii 188 note
Pike, iii 336
Pindar, ii 236, 239

Peter, see V/olcot, Dr.

Pingre, i 78, ib. note; ii 32

INDEX OF NAMES,

Pinkerton, J., ii 39 note, 47

note
Piron, iii 50

Pitcairn, Dr.> i 279, 3l5i 318
Pitlscus, li 237
Pitot, i 51

Pitt, (?hr., ii 239; iii- 13, 21
Place, de la, i 73, 75, 78, ib.

note, 118, 133, 238 note,

€0] ; ii 74.
Platner, prof. J. Z., i 370
Plato, i 279; ii 156, 330, 334,

335^ 357 ; iii 159 note
-i abp. of Moscow, iii 164

note
Piatt, sir Hugh, ii 91
Plattner, prof. E., ii 202
Plautus, ii 240
Plaj^fair, prof. J., ii 276
Plenck, i .177, 271
Plenisner, ii 45
Pleschtscheyef, iii 162
Plej^el, ii 148, 151
Pliny, i 168, 237
the younger, ii 237,

239; iii 352
Pluche, i 235
Plumier, i 180, ib. note, 132,

184
Plutarch, ii 236, 239, 240
Pococke, Dr. R., ii 47, 242,

262
Poiret, ii 48
Poivre, Ic, ii 47 '
Poller, col., ii 275 note
Polltian, ii 149
Polotsky, iii 157 note
Pohvhclc, R., ii 239; iii 18,

130 note
Polybius, ii 236, 259

Pond, ii 57

Pontedera, Julius, i 166, 177

Pope, Alex., ii 238, ib. note,
297, ib. note, 306, 3 '9, 374
note, 406 ; iii 2, ib. note, 3,
ib. note, 10, 13, 14, ib. note,
20, 22, 23 note, 27, 28, 29,
33, 3S, 48, 70,71, 85, 170,
297 note

Popotsky, iii 159 note

Popowitsch, iii 169

Porporerti, ii 146

Porson, R., ii 236, 237 note

Porta, Bapt., ii 160

Porterfield, i 62, 272, 324

Portlock, capt., ii 39

Post, Dr. Wright, ii 21

Postlethwaite, Mat., iii 115

Potemkin, prince, ii 241 ; ni
164 note

Pott, Dr. J. H., i 126, 190, 191,
199, ib. note; iii 174

Pcrcival, i 371, 372, 373,

374

Potter, J., ii 239

Pound, Dr., i 83

Pratz, du, ii 56

Preston, W., iii 333

Prevost, i 40, 58, 251

Pxice, Dr. R., ii 72, 207 note,
212, ib. note, 213, ib note,
214

— ^ — T. D., i 425

Priestley, Dr., i 29, 31, 59, 60
note, 100, 102, 104, 106,
107, 115,116, 117, 118,121,
124, 125, 133, 178,251,288,
289,290, 291, 293, 382,384,
.387, 418, 419, 421 ; ii 96,
97, 195, 206, 207, ib. note.

LNDEX OF NAMES.

208, 209, 212, lb. note, 213
note, 306, 358, 359 note,
360, 369, Wa ; iii 263, 290,
333
Priiice, rev. Dr., i 52

Pringle, sir J., i 34-7, 352, 563 ;
ii 103

Prokopovitch, Theophanes, ii
321 ; iii 156, ib. note, 157

Prony, ii 74

Propertius, ii 237

Prosper in, i 89

Proud, Hob., ii 353; ill 199
note

Proust, i 124

Provoost, Sam., iii 220 note

Prior, Mat., iii 28, 70

Ptolemy, ii 403

Puckeridge, ii 150

Pultene\-, i 169 note, 170 note,
173 note, 184 note, 186 note,
427 ; iii 233 note

Purcell, ii 62

Pye, Dr. S., i 235, ib. note

H.J„ ii 238,

Pyrlaeus, ii 326 note

Pythagoras, ii 156, 177

Q.

Quincy, Josiah, iii 217, 250

note, 331
Quintilian, ii 237
Quiutius'Curtius, ii 237

R.
Rabbus, Pet., iii 74
Rabener, G. W., iii 170, 177
Radcliffe, Mrs. E., ii 381, 382,

384; iii 132
Raiinonde, ii 151

Rameau, ii 147, ib. note, 148.

151
Ramler, iii 17 3
Ramsay, ii 134

Allan, iii 33, ib. note

Dr. Dav., i 360 note,

376 note; ii 12 note, 15
note, 24, 99 note, 103 note,
352; iii 226 note
Ramsden, i 86
Rapin, ii 301, 343, 344, ib^

note
Raspe, R. E., i 197, 216, ib.

note ; iii 174
Ray, i 143, 146, 163, 164, 165,

172, 210
Raynal, ii 101 note, 349, ib.

note
Reaumur, i 131, 132, 157, ib.
note, 158, ib. note, 276 note,
300, 420
Reboul, i 421
Redi, i 143

Redwood, Abrah., iii 212
Reed, Jos., iii 220 note
Rees, Dr., iii 111
Reeves, T., ii 137
Regnard, iii 52
Regnault, ii 131
Reisch,Dr., i 349; iii 174
Reichel, i 177
Reid, iii 75

, r. Dr. T., i 62; ii 74, 168

note, 175 note, 176 note, 178,
ib. note, 179, ISO, ib. note,
182, ib. note, 183, ib. note,
184, ib. note, 185 ngte, 138
note, 195, 205, 214, 404,
106; iii 245, 348
Rcil, i 348; iii 174

INDEX OF NAMES.

Reimarus, ii 236

H. S., ii 202

Reinhartl, iii 172

J. P., iii 175

Reinhold, prof. C. L., ii 202

Reischius, iii 109

Reiske, J. J., ii 236, 262; iii

178, 179
Reitzenstein, iii 55
Reitzius, ii 236
Relhan, i 181
Reland, Adr., ii 250, 26 1,

262
Remer, iii 175
Renaudot, ii 261, 269, 281
Rennel, major Jas., ii 44, 61,

277
Renovantz, iii 161
Ressons, i 41
-Rcycr, i 251
Reynolds, F., iii 46
sir Josh., ii 129, 130,

132 note, 133, 134, ib. note,

138 note, 300, 301, ib. note
Riccard, ii 240
Riccoboni, mad., ii 379
Richardson, ii 120

J., ii268

T Jon., ii 128

^ Sam., ii 374, ib,

note, 375, 376, ib. note, 377,

382, 397 note
Richelet, ii 311
Richter, ii 151

• ii389; iii 176

N.G,, iii 173

Ridgely, Dr. F., ii 23
Ridley, ii 251, 387
Ring, i 358
Rinman, i 198 ; iii 115

Rittenhouse, Dr. Dav., i 60; 85,
ib. note; ii 69 note, 74, 123;
iii 103, 240, ib. note, 261,
266, 328

Ritzema, Rud., iii 220 note

Rivinus, i 163, 164, 166

Roan, iii 200

Robert, ii 61

Roberts, i 55

Robertson, Abram, ii 75

Archib., ii 144 note

Dr. W., ii 44 note,

64 note, 271 note, 301, 345,
ib. note, 346 ; iii 175

prof. J,, ii 245, ib.

note, 249
Robins, Ben., i 42, 43, 35ft

note ; ii 32 note
Robson, i 181
Roche, de la, iii 75
Rochefort, ii 240
Rochette, ii 61
Rochon, ii 51
Rochow, iii 124
Rodgers, Dr., iii 236 note, 244

note

.-- J. R. B., ii 21

Roederer, i 271

Rocmer, i 89

Roesel, i 154, 158,276 note;

iii 173
Rogers, capt. Woodes, ii 30

-, Dr., iii 202 note

Pat., i 425

Sam., iii 32

Roggewein, com., ii 31
Rohr, van, i 180
Roi, du, i 180

RoUin, ii 347, ib. note; iii
US

INDEX OF NAMES.

Rolt, iii 115
Romain, i 55 note
Romney, ii IS^
Romofsky, iii 158
Roque, le, ii 261
Rosa, Sal vator, ii 313
Roscelinus, ii 420
Roschlaub, i 348 ; iii 174
Roscoe, W., ii 365, ib. note
Rosenhof, i 158
Rosenmuller, E. C, ii 262
Ross, Alex,, ii 263
Rossi, J. B. de, ii 251, 253, 254

note, 255 note
Roubilliat, ii 140
Rouelle, i 123
Rouland, i 30, 383
Rousseau, J. B., iii 36
J. J., ii 31 1, 379, 380

note ; iii 117, 348
Roussier, ab., ii 148
Rowe, Nic, ii 239; iii 13, 14

note, 33, 41, ib. note, 48, 60
Rowley, i 84 note
T., iii 64, 65, ib. note,

66, 67
Rowning, J., i52; iii 348
Roxburgh, i 182
Roy, gen. W., i 52
le, i 44, 83, 244, 384 ; ii

32
Royen, van, i 174
Rozier, abbe, i 383, 384; ii 97,

104

P. de, i 54, 55 note, 383

Ruaeus, ii 235
Rubens, ii 128
Rubinelli, ii 152
Ruckert, ii 96
Rudbec, i 263, 205

Vol. III.

Ruddiman, ii 236
Ruhnkenius, D., ii 229, 232, ib.

note, 236 ; iii 178
Ruiz, don, i 184
Rumford, count, i 43, ib. note,
53, 118, 119, ib. note, 120,
121, 398, 399; ii 98; iii
250 note, 292, 330, 331
Rumof:iky, iii 161, 162
Rumphius, i 182; ii 46 note
Rush, Dr., i 85 note, 330 note,
347,362, ib. note, 365; ii 8,
16 note, 19, 24, 69 note, 99,
403; iii 237, 240 note, 251,
263, 265
Russell, i 52

Dr: Pat,, i 154, ib. note

W., ii 347, 355

Rutherford, Dr., i 104, 132
Rutherforth, Dr. T., iii 348
Ruysch, i 264, 265, 273
Ryer, du, ii 263, 264
Ryland, ii 144, 146
Rysbrach, ii 140

S.
Sabbatier, i 33, 271
Sack, iii 172
Sacy, de, ii 261
Sade, ab. de la, ii 367
Sagar, J. B., i 350; iii 174
Sage, i 105, 117, 124, 120,

195
Alain Rene le, ii 378, ib.

note ; iii 50
St. Andre, i 264
St. Foix, iii 52

St. John, Dr., i 110 note, 134
St, Pierre, E. de, i 49,73 note;

li 51, 33S>

2F

INDEX OF NA]\TES.

Salamon, ii 151

Sale, G„ ii 264

Sallo, Den. de, iii 74, lb. note

Sallust, ii 233, 234, 237, 239,

240 ; iii 336, 343
Salmon, ii 60, ib. note, 63

Rob., ii 138

Salzmann, C. G., iii 124>

Samoilovitch, iii 162

Sanadon, ii 240

Sanctorini, i 273

Sandby, ii 144

Sargent, iii 18

Sarragin, i 162, ib. note

Sauer, Mart., ii 41 note

Saurin, iii 50, 51

Saussure, de, sen., i 120, 125,

177, 231, ib. note, 237, 245,

246, 248, 252

' jun., i 177, 198

Sauvages, F.B., i 28, 173, 175,

350
Sauveboeuf, ii 44
Savage, R., iii 31
Savary, capt., i 56, 396, 401

Jas., iii 115

. ■ mons., ii 47, 264
Scaliger, ii 366 note
Scarpa, prof., i 27 1, 272
Schaddau, ii 140
SchsefTer, i 190
Schafer, i 158
Scheele, C. W., i 99, ib. note,

103, 104, 105, 107, 118, 120,

124,126,134, 191, 192, 199,

201,254,238,349,419,421 ;

ii 3, 143 ; iii 290
Scheid, Ev., ii 229, 230
Scheuchzer, i 180, 235 ; ii 46

note

Schiller, ii 316, 349, 350, 563 ;

iii 55, ib. note, 175, 176,178
Schilter, ii 325; iii 168
Schlegel, J. E., iii 22,55, 167,

178
Schlepper, iii 163
Schluter, ii 240
Schmid, prof., C. C. E., ii 202
Schmidt, ii 349; iii 175
Schneider, i 154; iii 178
Schcepf, i 154, 163, 183, ib.

note ; iii 276 note
Schoonaik, iii 4
Schranck, i 159

F. von P., ii 363

Schreber, i 179, 180; iii 17S
Schrevelius, ii 235
Schrceder (chem.), i 134

(dramat.) iii 55, 178

(orient.) i 1255; iii 179

Schroeter, J. J., i 73, ib. note ;

iii 173
Schubert, i 80
Schubin, iii 163
Schultens, Alb., ii 229, 245, ib.

note, 250, 261, ib. note, 262,

332
Schultz, Dr., i 181
Schumliansky, iii 162
Schutze, ii 240
Scopoli, i 156
Scott, ii 63
Scrofani, ii 54
Scudery, mad., ii 372
Scull, ii 62
Seabury, Dr. Sam., iii 235, ib.

note, 268, 333, 334
Search, E., ii215 note
Seba, Albt., i 141
Sedaine, iii 52

INDEX OF NAMES.

Seguin, i 134,280, 421 ; ii 120,

ib. note
Seller, Dr. G. F., iii 172
Sejour, i 89
Selle, prof., ii 202
Senac, i 363
Seneca, ii 239
Senger, ii 123 note
Sennebier, i 125,177,384,418;

ii 94, 96

ii 363

Sergeant, J., iii 21-1 note
Sergei, ii 140
Sestini, ii 54
Sevvall, Steph., ii 259
Seward, miss A., ii 389 ; iii 37,

39, 132
Shakspeare, ii 295; iii 8, 41,

44, 47, 48, 49, 57, 58, 67

note, 70, 71, 296 note
Shaftesbury, ii 297
Sharp, Abr., ii 74, 80

S., i 370

T., ii 245, 256

Wm., ii 146

Shaw, Dr. T., ii 43. 47

W., ii 325

Sheldon, i 270
Shelvocke, ii 30
Shenstone,W., iii 38, 39, ib. note
Shepherd, i 80
Sherard, Dr., iii 229 note
Sheridan, Mrs., ii 389; iii 132

R. B., iii 45, 46

T., ii 305, 306, 309,

365
Sherlock, Dr. T., ii 298; iii 334
Sherwin, ji 80
Shippen, Dr.W,, ii 18, 19; iii

236

Shippen, E., iii 198, ib. note
Shore, sir J., see Teignraouth,

lord
Short, i 65, 86
Shortland, capt., ii 39
Shuckburgh, sir G., i 52, 243 ;

ii 7 8 note
Sibthorp, Dr., i 185
Sicard, i 366
Siderofsky, iii 159 note
Sidney, sir Phil., ii 294
Silius Italicus, ii 237
Simmons, Dr., i 270
Simon, ii 146

fath., ii 330

Simpson, T., i 44, 73 ; ii 72,

73, 74
Simson, i 324

Sol., ii 252 note

Sinclair, sir J., ii 104,355, 356
Siretuschkin, iii 162
Sisson, i 86
Six, i 132
Skinner, J., iii 334
Skorodumof, iii 163
SkurahofF, ii 29
Sloane, sir Hans, i 150, 172,

182, 185, ib. note, 186 note;

ii 7, 46 note ; iii 229 note
Smart, Christopher, ii 239
Smeaton, J., i 37, 46, 50, 52,

252; ii 84, 89, 114
Smell ie. Dr., i 376, ib. note,

377.
Smith, Dr., i 61, 62, 66

• — Ad., 11215; 111348

, Elihu H., ii 25, ib.

note

— Jas., ii 19, 20

— J. E., i 143 note,
2F2

INDEX OF NAJVIES.

168, 167 note, 175 note, 181,

182,427
Smith, Dr. Nath., ii 23
S. S., iii 2t7, 268,

345, 349

(engraver), ii 144

Josiah, iii 227, ib. note

Mrs. Char., ii 381; iii

37, 124, 132
rev. Dr., i 147, 148

note ; iii 238, 240
W., iii 214-, ib.

note, 236, 328

Mr., i 403

W.,ii 35 1,352; iii 225

S., ii 352

T., ii 135

W., ii 238, 239

— (of Connecticut), iii

205 note

— . (of New York), ii 352

Pcartree, iii 205 note

Smollet, Dr. Tob., ii 298, 344,

ib. note, 345, 377, ib. note,

382
Smyth, capt., ii 31
Snakenburg, ii 237
Socrates, ii 156, ib. note, 357
Soemmering, i 148, 272, ib.

note, iii 173
Solander, Dr., i 186; ii 33, 36

note
Solokof, iii 161
Somerville, lotd, ii 105

W., iii 17

Sonnerat, ii 46, 284, 323
Sonnini, ii 47
Sophocles, ii 236, 239
Sotheby, Wm., iii 1 1 note, 32
^ottzman, ii 61

Soulavie, ab., i 197,235
Southern, T., iii 44, 51
Southey, Rob., iii 9_, ib. note,

34
Sower, Christopher, iii 25S
Sowerby, i 181
Spalding, Dr. Lyman, ii 23

J. J., iii 171

Spaletti, ii 236

Spallanzani, i 159, 160, 177,

198, 276, 300, ib. note, 302,

SOS, 310
Spandonck, ii 135
Sparrmann, Dr., i 153, 186,

254; ii 48, ib. note
Speechly, ii 102
Spencer, Edm., iii 70
Spielmann, ii 5
Spinoza, ii 207, 208
Spitzenbergen, ii 240
Sprat, bish., ii 295
Sprengel,M. C, iii 175
prof. K., ii 358 ; iii

173
Stade, von., iii 163
Stahl, G. E., i do, ib. note, 96,

97, 105, 108, 109, 113, 118,

316, 322, ib. note, 324, ib.

note, 325, 326,327 ; ii 189;

iii 174
•Stamitz, ii 151
Starke, iii 277 note
Statius, iii 353
Staunton, sir G., ii 44, 284
Stavorinus ii 44, 46
Stedman, ii 59
Steele, sir R., i84; ii319; iii

44, ib. note, 60, 84, 196 not§
Steinbach, iii 168
Steno, i 263

INDEX OF NAMES.

Stephenopoli, ii 5 1

Sterne, ii 382, ib. note, 363

note
Steveas, Dr. E., i 303
Stevenson, iii 200
Stewart, Dr. INIath., ii 70
prof. Dug., ii 64 note,

180 note, 182 note, 184-, ib.

note, 214, 345 note, 406; iii

19 note, 348, 354
Stiles, Dr. Ezra, iii 223 note,
■ 270, ib. note
Stirling, ii 70, 74

lord, see Alexander, W.

Stock, Chris., ii 251, 255
Stoevcr, i 170 note, 172 note,

184 note, 187 note
Stolberg, iii 178
Stone, iii 188
Storch, H., iii 165 note
Storck, i 368 ; iii 174
Storr, ii 251, 261
Btoughton, hon. W., iii 335
Strange, ii 146
Stralenberg, ii 43, 323
Street, Wm., i 203 note
Strong, Dr., iii 268
Stuart, Gilb., ii 134, ib. note,

155, 347; iii 266
Stubbs, i 276 note

. ii 135

Sturm, iii 172

Stuyvesant, gov., iii 216 note

Sue, i 272

Suetonius, ii 237

Suhm, P. R, ii 350

Sulivan, R. J., i 205 note

Sullivan, Jas., ii 58, 353

judge, iii 105 note

, Sully, H.,i83

Sulzer, i 153

J. G., i 32

Sumorokof, ii 321 ; iii 6, 56,

163
Surville, ii 37
Sussmilch, J. P., ii 330
Suyef, iii 161, 162
Swab, van, i 191, 198
Swamnierdani, i 156, 263, 264-
Swankhardt, i 384
Swartz, i 178, 182, 185
Swieten, van, i 352, 376 note;

ii 15 note ; iii 174
Swift, Dr. Jon,, ii 296, ib. note,
297, 306, 365, 374 note, 386;
iii 23 'note, 24, ib. note, 25
note, 170
Svvltiden, van, i 39, 132 note
Sydenham, i 313, 318, 350,

351
Sylvius, i262, 313
Symmer, i 28, 385
Synimes, ii 45
Synd, lieut., ii 30
Syng, Phil., iii 215

T.

Tacitus, ii 236, 239, 240,338;

iii 132 note, 352
Tagliazucchi, ii 314'
Tartini, ii 148
Tassle, Jas., ii 141
Tasso, ii 313; iii 12
Tate, Nahum, iii 21
Tat ham, i 181
Tavernier, ii 268
Taylor, Dr. Brooke, ii 70, 75,

. 74, 80

J., ii 236

Teignmouth, lord, ii 267, 278

INDEX OF NAMES.

Temple, sir W., ii 295
Tenevelli, ii 361-
Teniiant, Dr., ii 9, 15
Smithson, i 122, 123;

ii 96
W„ iii 199, 200 note,

202 note
Tennent, Dr. J. V. B., ii 19,

20

Gilb., iii 267 note

Terekhofsky, iii 162
Terence, ii 237, 239; iii 132

note, 336, 34-3
Ternay, de, iii 331
Tessier, abbe, i 121 ; ii 96,

104-, 105
Testa, prof., i 405
Testolini, ii 146
Tetens, ii 216
Thatcher, rev. Dr., iii 105 note,

223 note
Thelford, ii 114
Thenard, i 34
Theobald, Lew., iii 48
Theocritus, ii 236, 239, 240;

iii 34
Theophrastus, ii 157
Thomas, Dr., ii 8 note

G., i 425

Isaiah, iii 259

Mrs., iii 132 note

Thomasius, Chr., ii 315; iii

167
Thompson, Ben., sie count Rum-
ford.

Hedge, i 425

■ Jas., iii 29, ib. note

30, ib. note, 35,42,71,72
Thomson, C, iii 269, 328

Dr. T., i 103, note.

106 note, 134, 201 note, 247

note, 288 note, 420, 422
Thomson, miss, ii 139
Thornhill, sir Jas., ii 123
Thornton, Bon., ii 240

— Dr., i 187, 350

Thouvenel, i 134
Threlkeld, i 182
Thucydides, ii 236, 238, 240,

357 note
Thunberg, prof., i 178, 182,

185, 427; ii 46, 47,48,323
Thury de, see Cassini.
TibuUus, ii 237, 239
Tichorsky, iii 162
Tickell, T., iii 84
Tiedemann, prof., ii 202
Tilas, i 234, 236
Tillet, i 177 ; ii 104
Tilloch, Alex., i 197 note, 395;

ii 117,. 151
Tillotson, abp., ii 295
Tindal, Dr. Matt., ii 344 note

Nic, ii 344, ib. nc^e

Tissot, ii 13

Toaldo, i25I

Tode, i 179

Toderini, ii 54

Tofino, ii 62

Tolstyke, ii 30

Tooke, ii 53 note, 54, 321 note;

iii 154 note
J. Home, ii 306, 334,

ib. note, 335, 336, ib. not*
Toplady, ii 215
Toren, i 186
Torild, iii 6
Tott, baron de, ii 54-
Toup, ii 236
Tourbilly, ii 104.

INDEX OF NAMES.

Tournefort, i 164, 165, 166,

173
Tourreil, ii 240
Townshend, i 350
Townson, Dr. R., i 155, 197
Toze, iii 175
Trapp, i 170 note
Trembly, i 159
Triesnecker, i 81
Trew, i 272
Trimmer, Mrs., iii 124, 132

note
Troil, rev. Dr. von, ii 33
TromsdorfF, i 391
Troostwyck, van, i 124-
Trotter, Dr., i 363
Troughton, i 86
Trumbull, J,, ii 130, ib. note,

131 note, 155; iii 28, 68,

243, 266
■ Jon,, ii 130 note
rev. Dr. Benjamin,

ii 353
Tschirikow, capt., ii 28
Tschulkof, iii 163
Tucker, Abraham, ii 215, ib.

note
Tudor, judge, iii 104
Tull, Jethro, ii 93
Tumansky, iii 163
Turdot, ii 368
Turner, (geogr.) ii 57

• (paint.) ii 135

Sam., ii 45

Twining, ii 233

Tychsen, prof. O. G., ii 245,

256 note; iii 179
Tyrwhitt, iii 66 note
Tytler, ii 239

U.

Uhden, iii 163

Ulloa, don, i 72; ii 31, 40,
58

Ulrica Eleonora, queen o£ Swe-
den, ii 319

Unzer, iii 171

Upton, ii 236

Urfe, d', ii 372

Uslar, von, ii 96, 97

Uz, iii 19, 177

V.

Vagonof, iii 163

Vaillant, i 153, 160, 170, 17»;

ii 48, ib. note
Valckenaer, L. C, ii 229, ib.

note, 232 note, 333
Valenciens, ii 135
Valentin i, i 276 note
Valli, Euseb., i 33
Valsalva, i 273
Vanbrugh, sir J., iii 59
Vancouver, ii 29 note, 40
Vanderlyn, ii 155 note
Vandermonde, ii 74
Vandyke, ii 128
Vanhall, ii 148
Vanier, i 366; iii lA
Vardill, J., iii 334
Varrentrapp, iii 114
Vassant, ii 366 note
Vater, i 273

prof. J. S., ii 25a

Vattel, iii 348
Vaugel, i 189
Vauquelin, i 34, 10^,124, 126,

177, 192, 199,201 ; ii 3
Vega, ii 80
Venel, ii 5

INDEX OF NAMES.

Verbergins, ii 236

Verey, i 148

Verheyen, i 286

Vernet, ii 135,

Verney, du, i 276 note

Vernon, W., i 182, ib. note

Veron, iii 331

Verplanck, Sam., iii 220 note

Vertot, de, ii 348, ib. note

Vertunian, ii 366 note

Vesalius, i 262

Vicq-d' Azy r, see Azyr

Vidal, i 80

Vien, iii 163

"Vieussens, i 306

Villoison, ii 232, 233, ib. note

Vince, i 89

Vincent, ii 131, 137

Vinci, L. da, i 261

Virgil, ii 236, 239, 240; iii

63, 159 note, 164 note, 339,

343
Vogel, R. A., i 350; ii 3; iii

174
Voigt, i 197 ; iii 174
Voigtel, T. G., iii 169
Volney, ii 44, 47
Volta, i 30, 33, ib. note, 35,

103, 134, 389, 390, 391,

392, 394, 395, 421
Voltaire, ii 311, 330, 341, 348,

ib. note, 349, 351, 368, 378,

387; iii 7, ib. note, IS note,

24 note, 49, 53 note, 54

note, 61, 309 note
Voss, J. H., ii 240, ib. note,

316; iii 13,30, 177
Vossius, iii 88 note
Vulpius, ii 237

W.

Wachter, ii 325; iii 168

Wagner, ii 349

Wahl, von, i 89 ; ii 261; iii

179
Waitz, i 25 •
Wakefield, Gilb., ii 236, 237,

ib. note; iii 13 note

Mrs., iii 124, 132

Walch, iii 175
Walker, Dr., i 194

G., ii 75

Jas,, iii 305, 306, 309

.- J. C„ iii 52 note

J. M., i 426

prof., i 177; ii 94, 102

R., i 120, 121

Waller, Edm., iii 3
Wallerius, i 105, 189, ib. note,

190 note, 191 note, 235; ii

96
Wallis, capt., ii 32

Dr. J., i 365

Walmsly, i 73
Wain, Nic, iii 198
Walpole, Horace, see Orford,

lord

sir Rob., ii 365

Walsh, i 389

Walter, J. G., i 272, 273

T., i 183, ib. note; iii

264, ib. note, 276 note
Walters, Dr., ii 32 note
Walton, bish., ii 244
Wangenheim, i 183, ib. note;

iii 276 note
Warburton, bish., iii 48
Ward, ii 358
Wargentin, i80, 83, 251
Warham, J., iii 188, ib. note

INDEX OF NAMES.

Waring, Ed., i 50, 5 1 note ; ii

73,74
Warner, R., ii 240
Warren, Dr. J., ii 22
Warton, Dr. Jos., ii 239 ; iii

35, 66 note, 67 note

T., ii 358

Waterhouse, Dr. Benjamin, i

358 note, 429 ; ii 22 ; iii

264
Watson, bish., i 25, 27, 2S, 91,

134, 244 note, 254; ii 300,

301

Dr. R., ii 347

(optician), i 66

. (teacher of deaf and

dumb), i 366
Watt, ii 5 1
Jas., i 57, 290, 401,402;

ii 89, 113, ib. note, 120
Watts, Dr. Isaac, ii 213, ib.

note; iii 21, 35, 336
Webster, N., i 362; ii 304,

306; iii 124, 253

~ jun., iii 260 note

Wedgewood, i 121, 124, 132;

ii 122, 141
Weiglib, i 128
Weisse, iii 36, 55, 178
Weitbrecht, i 271; iii 174
Wells, ii 61

. Dr. W. C, i 62

Wenix, ii 135

Wenner, iii 114

Wenzel, i 135

Werner, Abr. G„ i 193, 194,

200, 236; ii 174
Wesseling, ii 236
West, Ben. (math.), iii 240,

261
Vol. IIL

West, Ben. (paint.), ii 130, ib,

note, 131 note, 134 note,

137 note, 138 note, 155; iii

266

Gilb., ii 239

Mrs., ii 389; iii 132 note

Westall, ii 145
Westerhovius, ii 237
Westrumb, i 1 17, 257
Wetstein, ii 251, 252 note
Wetzel, iii 55
Wharton, T., ii 236
Whately, T., i 374
Wheelock, Dr. Eleazar, iii 241,

ib. note, 242, 339
J., iii 242 note,

339
Whiston, W., i 39, 206, 207 ;

iii 196 note
Whitaker, J., ii 346 note; iii

63 note
Whitby, Dr., iii 230 note
White, C, i 377
. Dr. Jos., ii 251, 261,

262, 263
Whitehurst, J., i 197, 218, ib.

note, 219, 222; ii 77, 78

notp
Whitelaw, ii 62
Whitney, iii 266
Whittem ore, Amos, ii 112; iii

266

Wm., ii 112 note

Whit worth, ii 89

Whytt, Dr., i 282, 324, 368

Wieglib, ii 358

Wieland, ii 210, 316, 350,

389; iii 4, 5, 1 1, ib. note,

19, 36, 171, ib. note, 17Q,

111

2 Q

INDEX OF NAMES.

Wilcke, i 28

prof.i i 133

Wilde, ii 350
V/ildenow, iii 173
Wilford, col. Fr., ii 277
Wilkie, Dr. W., iii 9, ib. note
Wilkins, bish., ii 304<
C, ii 271 note, 272,

273
Wilkinson, Jas., ii 283

J., ii 114.

WiW, ii 202; iii 118 note, 167

note
Willard, i 90; iii 261, 336
Willemet, i 182
W^illiam, king, iii 348
Williams, col. Ephr., iii 337,

:J38

David, iii 119

Eli&ha, iii 211, 223,

ib. note

J., i 223, ib. note,

224.

miss H. M., ii 389;

iii 132 note
rev. Dr. Sam., i 162

note; ii 58, 353
Williamson, ii 62
■ Dr. Hugh, iii 202

note, 215 note, 240, 262, 27 1

note
Willich, Dr., i^40; ii 13, 195

note
Willis, Dr., i 306, 329
Willoughby, i 143
Wilson, i 66, 121, 181

ii 135

capt., ii 39

prof. C, ii 245, 249,

250

Wilson, rev. Dr., ii 355 note
Wilton, J., ii 140
Winckelmann, J., ii 359
Winckler, prof., i 25 ; iii 173
Winslow, prof., i 265, 270
Winterbotham, ii 5 1
Winthrop, i 89, 398; iii 105

note, 188, 224 note, 240, ib,

note, 261
Wintle, Dr., ii 257 note
Wintringham, i 368
Wirtz, i 5 1
Wisin, van, iii 163
Withering, Dr., i 67, 178, 181,

197; ii 3, 8
Witherspoon, Dr. J., ii 184

note ; iii 244, ib. note, 247
Witt, Sim. de, ii 62 note
Woide, Dr. C. G., ii 118, 251
Wolcot, Dr., iii 27, ib. note,

188
Wolfe, Christ., i 20; ii74, 188,

ib. note, 189, 195 note, 315,

366 note; iii 155, 167, 173

F. A., ii236; iii 178

Wollaston, Dr., i 3,90, 392-,

394.
WoUstonecraft, M.,see Godvjrin,

Mrs.
Woltersdorff, i 197 ; iii 174'
Woltman, iii 173
Woodhouse, Dr., i 181, 387,

418; iii 263
Woodhull, ii 239
Woodville, Dr., i 353 not^,

358 ; ii 3
Woodward, Dr. J., i 188, ib.

note, 206; iii 196 note
W. W., iii 20

note

INDEX OF NAMES.

Woollet, ii 146 Young, Dr. E., iii 20, ib. note,
Worcester, marquis of, i 56, 24,42,70,71

400 Dr.T., i 58

Worthington, Dr.W., i 217 sir Wm., ii 50 note

Wright, iii 304 note Z.

Mrs., ii 140 Zach, Dr. von, i 79, 80, 405 ;

Wrisberg, i 272 iii 173

Wurbierg, i 89 Zanotti, i 89

Wurm, i 89 Zaratusht, *ee Zoroaster.

Wurz, iii 172 Zeder, i 159

Wyllys, iii 188 Zeiher, i 64

Zeisberger, ii 325, ib. note

X. Zeno, Apostolo, ii 313

Xenophon, ii 236, 238, 240, the stoic, ii 420

366 note ; iii 336, 343 Zeunius, J. C, ii 236, 237

Zimmermann, Dr. J. G., iii
Y. 171

Yaerig, iii 164 prof. E., i 146,

Yale, gov. T., iii 196, ib. note, 148, 273, 284, 323 note ; iii

341 173

Yearsley, Mrs., ii 389 ; iii 132 Zinn, i 272, 284

note Zoega, i 180

Yekimof, iii 159 note ZoUikofer, G. J., iii 171

Yelaghen, iii 163 Zopyrus, ii 156 note

Young, Ar., ii 103 " Zoroaster, ii 265, ib. note

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